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OR,
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CHR OOWOSEE La: R.
HRONOMETER, from yes, temporis, and piteov,
menfura, is aterm in Horology, which, in its compre-
hentive fignification, may mean any machine which mea-
Jures time, of which there have been various kinds, fuch as
Clepfydre, clocks, watches, regulators, and time-keepors, ov time-
pieces, but the application of this term has been more par-
ticularly confined by mechanicians to two kinds of ma-
chines ; firlt to fuch as meafure very {mall portions of time
only, by fubdividing the {econd: and, fecondly, to fuch as
continue to meafure long periods, with great accuracy under
all the variations of temperature that arife out of the
changes of feafon and climate.
The former of thefe two kinds of machines was origin-
ally conftruéted for philofophical purpofes, fnch as meafur-
ing the time of the defcent of a faling body through a
given fpace, of the efflux of a fluid out of a given aperture
under certain circumitances, of the paflage of a heavenly
body along the cye-piece of a telefcope, of the velocity
of found compared with that of light, &c.
The defeription of a machine of this kind is given in
Dr. Defagulier’s Expzrimental Philofophy, and Dr. Hut-
ton fays he has feen one, that profciles to meafure fo
{mall a portion as the furvieth part of a fecond, but that it
cannot be {topped with certainty within the tenth part of the
propofed degrce of accuracy. Mr. W. Nicholfon, how-
ever, fays, (vol. m1. p. 50, in a note of his Philofophical
Journal, 4to ferics.) ‘ that there have been inilruments
made to divide the fecond into a hundred parts; one of
thefe, fays he, made by Whitehurlt, and regulated by a fly,
repeatedly meafured the time of the fall of a leaden bullet,
in fome experiments which I faw, with no greater variation
than one-hundredth part of the fecond.”? The adoption of
Mr. Atwood’s machine has now fuperfeded the ufe of fuch
a nice meafure of time in the above experiment, and for all
Vow. VILI.
Strahan and Prefion,
New-Street Square, London.
the other purpofes, the deat of a watch, counted by the ear
while the eye obferves the objeét of experiment, feems to
be not only the moft convenient chronometer of any, but is
{ufficiently accurate for any purpofe when the beats are
quick, and when their value is known. See our article
Bears, in Horology.
The fecond kind of horological machines known by the
appellation of chronometers, fince Mr. Arnold the elder
gave this name to his time-keepers, differs from an ordinary
watch principally in the efcapement and balance,and deferves
our more particular notice, inafmuch as the a& of navigat-
ing veffels over the extenfive oceans of the univerfe, is
greatly indebted to their accurate meafurement of time, in
ail the variations of heat and cold, from the higheft naviga-
ble latitudes to the equinoétial line. In iteering a veffel over
the tracklefs deep, the great defideratum is, to know at any
given inftant the relative longitude, or diftance from the firft
“meridian, and the latitude, or diftance from the equinoctial
line; a knowledge of thefe two guides will always fuffice to
direct on what point of the compafs, where the variation is
known, a veflel 1s to be fteered, if no current interfere, in
order to gain a given harbour. The latter of thefe two
guides, viz. the prefent latitude, can always be obtained,
independently of the fhip’s reckoning by the log line, by an
obfervation of any of the heavenly bodies when at its great-
elt altitude, or even with fufficient accuracy by two fuccef-
five altitudes taken at a diftance from the meridian, provided
the intermediate lapfe of time be accurately noted. The
other requifite, the prefent longitude, however, is not fo
readily obtained, the lunar method requiring tedious calcu-
lations not generally underftood, and the occultations of the
{lars by the moon, and eclipfes of the fun, moon, and Ju«
piter’s fatellites, not occurring with fufficient frequency to
be of much benefit, even if they could be obferved with ac-
B curacy
CHRONOMETER.,
curacy and convenience on board a fhip. The method by a
good chronometer is, however, not only fimple in its applica-
ton, but at all times readily attainable, and therefore is
coming into generalufe. We will premife a few obferva-
tions refpeéting the utility of a chronometer at fea, and the
improvements it has fucceflively experienced, before we pro-
ceed to deferibe the machine itfelf according to fome of its
more perfect conftrudtions.
The earth, it is now generally believed, revolves on its
axis, in every part of its anntial orbit, in an uniform and
equable manner, and, on this account, the period of its
rotation has been fixed upon as the mo! proper flandard of
our meafure of time, and, indeed, is the only invariable
ftandard with which we are acquainted : this period, accord-
ing to our mode of reckoning, is divided into 24 equal
parts, as the rotation has a reference to the fun; and each
of thofe 24 parts is called an hour, or a /olar hour fome-
times, by way of diftinétion from the /idereal hour, which
is a 24th part of a rotation, as it regards a fixed ftar; hence
an hour, or folar hour, means one 24th part of the time
elapfed fince any fpot on the globe paffed the fun on the
meridian, or fouth point, in regard to that {pot : two hours
mean twice that fpace of time; and 24 hours the whole
time of a folar rotation, which is longer than a fidereal rota-
tion by 3” 55° 54° of folar time, by reafon of the fun having
advanced apparently 59’ 8” 10” inthe ecliptic during a rota-
tion; {fo that a folar, being only a relative rotation, is more
than 2 fidereal or abfolute rotation, by as much as, taken
collectively, amounts to an entire rotation in each annual
revolution of the earth, to which caufe the apparent motion
of the fun in the ecliptic.is owing : and, to this caufe, is to
be attributed the reafon why there is a fidereal more than a
folar day in each year. But the period of a folar rotation
of the earth, or any portion of it, may be, and frequently
is, reckoned in other terms, implying {pace paffied through
in a rotation, inftead of the time occupied by the motion
through that {pace: mathematicians have long been in the
habit of dividing a circle into 36a equal parts, one of which is
ealled a degree, or 1°; and, as an equatorial feGtion of the
earth would be acircle, geographers and aftronomers have
fuppofed the equinoGtial line divided into 360°, and each
degree divided into 60’, (60 minutes) or geographical miles,
which minutes are again fubdivided into 60” (60 feconds), as
we divide an hour into 60", and each of thofe again into
60°: hence, as the whole 360° of the eartli’s circumference
pafs the fun’s meridian ray in 24", we know that 15° mult
pafs the fame in one hour, or 1° in four minutes of time,
as alfo 1’ in 4°; confequently, when we know the time that
has clapfed fince any given {pot on the globe has paffed the
meridian fun, we know alfo, by allowing 1° to 4" of time,
how many degrees of the equinoétial have paffed in the fame
time; hours, with their divifions and fubdivifions, and de-
_ grees, with their divifions and fubdivifions, being mutually
convertible one into the other by dire& proportion, or mor
readily by tables conftruéted on purpofe. I[t is neceffary,
however, that we fhould notice, that there is a difference
between a real and an apparent rotation of the earth as it
relates to the fun, partly by reafon of the earth’s axis being
inclined in an angle of nearly 234° to its annual orbit, cauf-
ing thereby a neceffary reduétion of apparent motion in the
ecliptic, or earth’s path, to.real equable motion in the
equator, and partly by the alternate acceleration and re-
tardation of the earth’s motion in her orbit at different
times of the year, which irregularity requires a corre&tion
called the ** Equation of the Center :”? thefe two caufes of
apparent irregularity in the earth’s rotations have their joint
efeCts allowed for, by what is‘called “ Equation of Time,”
' I
nfually inferted in a table with this title, and alfo placed
in the column of ‘ clock fatt,”? or * clock flow,’? in the
almanacs; the quantity, therefore, corre{ponding: to any
given Cay in the year, in the equation table or almanac,
mult always be added to or fubtraGted from the time fhown
by an accurate chronometer, to make it agree with apparent,
or what the French (and lately fome of our Englifh authors)
improperly call fre time; that time in our opinion being
irue, which is mean, and which correfponds to the real ro-
tations of the earth ; for thefe rotations, confidered by them=-
felves, are equable, and not affeGted by the caufes of thofe
two apparent irregularities we have noticed, as arifing folely
out of the relative pofitions and fituations of the earth and -
fun. ;
But we have not to regard only the period of the earth’s
folar rotation ; its dire¢tion, alfo, mult be confidered, which
is from that point of the horizon, which we call weit, to
that which is denominated ealt; thereby caufing the fun,
which is really a flationary body, or nearly fo, to appear to
‘move on the contrary from eaft to welt every folar day, an
the ftars likewife, in the fame direGtion, once in every fide-
real day ; but thefe latter bodies, being placed at an immenfe
diftance beyond the earth’s orbit, have no apparent change
of place, and, therefore, require no correGtion ; confequently,
there is no difference at any part of the year between a mean
or frue, and an apparent, fidereal day, which muft have
been the cafe, notwithitanding the immenfe diftance of the
ftars, if the rotations of the earth had not been uniformly
equable. It is on account of this equality among the
fidereal days that aftronomers have proportioned the pen-
dulums of their regulators to vibrate fidereal feconds, that
the right afcenfion of the heavenly bodies 1s given in fidereal
time, and that the late Margetts made his chronometers,
with great ingenuity, to fhow at the fame time both folar
and fidereal time, and, confequently, the fun’s mean right
afcenfion at any time, which is always equal to their differ-.
ence: and we may add here, that the conftant variation
that is'taking place between mean and apparent folar time,
was the reafon why a clockmaker in London, whofe name
is unknown, and after him on the continent, H. Sully,
Alexander le Bon, Julien le Roy, Enderlin, ?Admiraud
Paffemant, Rivaz, Berthoud, and others, have made equa-
tion clocks on different conftruétions, to indicate both mean
and equated, or apparent time. ;
From thefe introdu&tory remarks on time, and its con-
nection with, or rather dependence on, the earth’s rotation
on its axis, it is eafy to conceive, that all places on the globe
which pafs the fun’s meridian ray fooneft, count their
12 o’clock, or noon, earlier than thofe which follow in fuc-
ceflion; but the eaftern parts pafs firft, and thence have
their time more advanced, or earlier than the ee more
weftern parts have ; and the difference is, as we have faid, at
the rate of 4" for every degree of diftance. This diftance:
is called /ongitude, by reafon of the equatorial diameter of
the earth being /onger than the polar diameter, in the direc-
tion of which latter, the breadth or Jetitude of the earth is
counted both ways from the middle. The longitude may
have its reckoning to commence at any eflignable point on
the globe, and all the other parts will be called eaft or welt
of that point, which is called the firlt meyidian, accordingly
as they precede or follow it in each rotation /of the h,
and the quantity will be either fo many hours, minutes, and
feconds of time, or fo many degrees, minutes, and feconds -
of fpace, as correfpond to that time. Now, itis very ob-
vious, that, if we could at the fame inftant know the time
accurately, as counted at each of two different places, fitu-
ated re{pectively eait and weft of one another, the si
to)
CHRONOMETER.
af thofe two times fo indicated, would be their difference
of longitude in time, which, converted into degrees, minutes,
and feconds, would be their difference of longitude in this
denomination, from which, in a known latitude, the a@ual
diftance of the two refpetive places may, by calculation,
be afcertained. What, therefore, a chronometer has to do,
is, to tell at all times the hour, minute, and Jecond, as counted at
the firf? meridian, whether London, Paris, or any other place,
to the time of which it was:accurately put previonfly to the
commencement of a voyage; for, as the time at any ifland,
or place of a fhip, can be had by means of Hadley’s quad-
rant, or fextant, or more accurately by means of Troughton’s
reflecting circle, froma cideftial obfervation; the quantity that
this time exceeds or falls fhort of the time indicated by the
machine, as being the time at that moment at the firlt me-
ridian, will be the ifland’s or fhip’s comparative longitude
in time, eait, if the chronometer is behind, but welt, if
before the time by a céleftial obfervation. In our Englifh
fhips, the chronometer is a kind of travelling companion
which tells, whenever confulted, what the exa& time is at
Greenwich ; nor is it indifpenfably neceffary that it fhou!d
keep time exaGly with the clock at Greenwich obfervatory,
provided the daily gain orlofs, called the rate, be afcertained
and applied as a corre€tion accordingly as it accumulates.
It is, however, an indifpenfable requifite, that the daily
gain or lofs fhould not differ materially from itfelf at different
periods, or under the changes of temperature experienced in
different climates ; and the fulfilment of this condition contti-
tutes any portable horological machine, a marine chronometer,
or time-keeper, whatever may be its conftruétion or price.
Any of the other methods of afcertaining the longitude may
be occafipnally put in praétice with advantage, as a check
upon the fimple determination by the chronometer ; for their
Operations will deteét its daily errors, and afcertain nearly
their amount at the time.
The firlt perfon who propofed to afcertain the relative
longitude of any place or fhip at fea, by means of an horo-
logical machine for indicating the time of the firft meridian,
was, as hae been afferted, Gemma Frifius, about the year
3530 ; (vide ** De Principiis Aftronomiz et Cefmographix.’’)
‘This method was defcribed and recommended in Carpenter’s
Geography fo early as the year 1635; but the flate in which
horological machines was, at that time, prevented his accom-
plifhing the defign: the idea, however, once fuggefted, was
valuable; and ftimulated ingenious mechanilts. iu times fue-
ceeding, to attempt the accompli{hment of an object of fuch
national importance. The difcovery of the ifochronifm of
the pendulum turned the minds of ingenious men to the
improvement of clocks; and we find that lord Kincardine
tried a marine pendulum clock by Dr. Hooke in the year
1662; and that Chriftian Huygens, the celebrated Dutch
mathematician and mechanician, contrived a time-keeper,
aCtuated by a {pring, and regulated by a pendulum, waich
was tried at fea by major Holmes in the year 1664, and
fpoken of by him in favourable terms. The efcapement was
of the crown-wheel kind, which, from its nature, is almoit
conitantly under the influence of the maintaining power;
but a fmall weight conneéted with the crown-wheel, was
yaifed every balf-fecond by the maintaining power, and gave
an impulfe to the pendulum, which, therefore, was not af-
feGed by the irregular tran{miffion of the maimtaining power
: through the train of wheel-woik: this contrivance was in-
genious, and obtained the name of remontoir. ‘The pendu-
lum, however, was not only unfteady in its acton during
the toffing of a fhip, but was fubje&t to a variation in its
Jength by change of temperature, as well as to a change of
weight depending on the parallel of latitude; the latter of
which changes, indeed, was afterwards difcovered. ‘here
was, Moreover, a pair of cycloidal cheeks of brafs fo fixed,
as that the thread of {ufpenfion, by being evolved from them
alternately at each fucceflive vibration, might make the bob
of the pendulum deferibe the involute of a cycloid, which
this author firft proved, was itfelf a cycloid, poflefled of the
peculiar property of rendering the vibrations in long and
fhort arcs of equal duration; this cycloidal doétrine was
plaufible in theory, but could not be reduced to practice,
becaufe it fuppofed ; 1ft, the pendulum invariable in length ;
adly, the collection of all the weight to be into one point ;
and 3dly, the abfence of frition and other kinds of refili-
ance, to which mechanif{m is fubjcét. NHuygens’s contri-
vances, notwithftarding, together with the doGirines cor-
tained in his Horologium Ofcillatorium,’’ may be confi-
dered as having laid the foundation of horological {cience.
The balance, which had preceded the pendulum, was
again reforted to as a regulator of portable time-keepers ;
and though it was found incompetent to its office in a de-
tached ftate, yet, by the aid of a flender {pring to quicken
and regulate its flugeifh vibrations, it has ultimately turned
out to be of eminent utility. It has been contefted by
Huygens and Dr. Hooke, which of thefe two fkilful mecha-
nicians firft introduced the fpring, called ufnally the pendu-
lum fpring, from the ifochronal property which it poffetfes,
like the pendulum, when of a proper ftrength, fhape, and
length; and F. Berthoud afferts, that though Hooke ap-
plied it firft in a ftraight form, yet Huygens firlt adopted
the {piral fhape, as being more favourable to ifochronifm ;
while others are of opinion, with more probability, that
Hooke atually applied it in a {piral form among the twenty
{everal methods that he faid, in his leQures at Grefham col-
lege, in the year 1664, might be ufed to anfwer the fame
purpofe (vide “ Lettiones Cutleriane,”’ 1673.) Indeed the
account of the fpiral fpring, adopted by Huygens, was not
publifhed inthe Philofophical Tranfaétions, until the year
1675, N° 112, whereas Hooke had difcovered the ifoch-
ronifm of fprings, and regiflered his diftovery by an ana-
gram compofed of the Latin fentence ** Ut tenfio fie vis,”
in the year 1658.
But whoever was the inventor of the fpiral form of the
fpring attached to the balance, and making with it a regu-
lator for portabig machittes, they both {hill remained fubject
to alterations in their dimenfious by the fuccefiive changes
of heat ard cold; for, by the former of thefe oppolite tem-
peratures, the fpring became weaker, and the fize and con-
fequent momentum of the balance greater, in confequence of
their emiargement, fo as to produce a very fentiblelofs in the
daily rate of going of a watch with fuch a regulator; alfo
an acceleration beyond a mean rate was toon obferved to be
the confequence of increaled cold, which, ov the centrary,
diminifhed the-dimenfions of the metallic parts, and thereby,
at the fame time gave additional (lrength to the {pring, and
likewife reduced the fize and momentum of the balance.
About the fame period Leibmitz attempted to confine the
vibrations of the balance with a {pival fpring, to be of equal
extent, by means of an additional fpring to be epplicd to the
balance wheel, and to be, like Huygens’ remontoir, wound
up by the maintaining power; but his endcayours, whatever
idcas they may have fuggelted to Harrifon, Mudge, or
Haley, for their auxiliary !prings, were not crowned with
complete fuccefs. Hautefeuille alfo, in the year’1674, pre-
fented to the Avademy of Sciences, at Paris, a balance with
a ftraight fpring, acting fomchow inftcad of an cicapemcnt,
but how far it refembled the fpring detent of Arnold we
know not, nor do we find that it was adepted in praétice.
This fociety, notwithitanding, thought the fubjeét of foch
B 2 Impc rans
CHRONOMETER.
_ importance, that, in the year 1720, they propofed the fol-
lowing queltion to be determined for a public reward: viz.
«© What is the moft perfect method of preferving on the fea
the equable motion of a pendulum, either by the con{truc.
tion of the machine, or by the fufpenfion?? A memoir
written by Mafly, a Dutch clock-maker, obtained the prize,
but he had not the fatisfaG&tion of feeing his plan executed.
About a year afterwards (1724) Henry Sully, an Englifh
clock-maker, who had fettled at Paris about eight years
previoufly, prefented the fame academy with a marine time-
keeper, made in 1721, and publifhed a defcription of it in
French, by the title of «* Defeription abrégée d’une horloge
de nouvelle invention pour la jute mefure du temps en mer.””
Befides the above, Sully made a fecond marine time-keeper,
which was tried at fea in 1726, but the investor died two
years afterwards, a martyr to his horological ttudies, before
he had brought his machines to that itate of perfection
which their obje& demanded. His pieces had vertical ba-
lances carrying cycioidal metallic pieces, round which a
thread, or flender wire, was wound at the upper end, while
the lower end was attached to a lever with an adjuttable
weight to effe& the ifochronifin of the balance, inftead ofa
fpiral {pring: the horizontal pivots of the balance alfo
moved on the angular point included between two large
rollers, which method of leffening friction, we believe, was
the invention of this author. He alfo made a marine watch
with a fpiral pendulum fpring, into which friétion rollers,
like Mudge’s, were introduced, and had he lived longer,
chronometry would no doubt have been greatly promoted
by his labours.
It was about this period, that jeweliing, another effential
improvement in time-pieces, was introduced, according to
Berthoud, by Mr. Fatio, a native of Geneva, who, not
meeting with encouragement in France, came over into
England, and brought his invention into notice.
The Academy of Sciences at Paris again propofed a reward
for the year 1747 : the fubjeét was *¢ The beft method of find-
ing the hour at fea, whether by day, by twilight, or at night,
when the horizon cannot be diftinguifhed.”? The reward
was obtained by Daniel Bernouilly’s memoir, intitled, ‘* Re-
cherches mechaniques, et aftronomiques,”’ in which was dif-
played much feience, but the author’s want of flaill in mecha-
nical operations prevented his labours being attended with
complete fuccefs.
In the mean time, the changes in the length of the pen-
dulum began to be compenfated, firlt by means of quick-
filver contained in a tubular rod, by Graham, and foon after
by the oppolite expanfions of different metals, by Harrifon,
who, ftimulated by the Britifh parliamentary reward that
had been previoufly offered to the public for marine time-
keepers, applied the fame principle to a watch to effect a
felf-regulaiing kirb (or curb), for limiting the eifedtive
length of the fpiral pendulum-{pring to correfpond to the
fucceffive changes of heat and cold, which changes were
now known to alter the force of this fpring, aud the mo-
mentum of the balance. [rom this origin we may date
the beginning of all the different kinds of compenfation-me-
chanifm that have proved permanently ufeful in time-keep-
ing ; and if we add to Harrifon’s invention of the metailic
compentation, his remontoir, and his addition of a fecondary
{pring as an equivalent fubititute for the maintaining power
during the time of winding up, which is an effential requifite
in producing permanent motion, he may be fairly con-
fidered as the parent of modern chronomeiry.
The Britith parliament had, indeed, before the French aca-
demy, offered, fo early as the year 1714, in the reign of queen
Anne, areward of 10,0001, forany method of determining the
longitude within the accuracy of one degree of a great cir-
cle; of 15.000]. within the limit of 40 geographical miles,
and of 20,0001. within the limit of 30 fuch miles, or half of
a degree, provided {uch method fhould extend more than
So miles from the coalt: and after this act, two others
paffed in the reign of George II. ftat. 14 and 26, to pro-
mote the fame purpofe; but an aét paffed in the prefent
reign, in the year 1774, repealing all the former ones, and
offering feparate rewards to any perion who fhould invent
a practical method of determining, within certain circum-
{cribed limits, the longitude of a fhip at fea: for a time-
keeper, the reward held forth to the public is, 50001. for
determining the longitude to or within one degree ; 75001.
for determining the fame to 4c geographical miles, and
10,0001, for a determination at or within half of a degree.
This a&, notwithitanding its abridged limits and diminithed
rewards, has produced feveral candidates fince Harrifon,
who received the whole reward of the firlt aG, for parlia-
mentary remuneration, of whom Mudge, the two Arnolds,
and Earnfhaw, have had their labours, as will be feen here-
after, crowned with partial fuccefs. LDefides thefe, there
have been various other chronometer-makers, whofe pieces
have performed with great accuracy, but whofe names we
omit to introduce here, left we fhould feem partial to fome —
at the expence of the reputation of others. Indeed, the
art of conitructing chronometers is lately become fo general,
that it is difficult to decide whofe name ought to ftand firft
on the lift of excellent makers, and we hope that the fpirit of
competition for public fame will continue to entitle our
Englifh manufaéturers to that preference among naval
officers, which the excellence of their workmanthip entitles
them to expe@t. For, even in a commercial point of view,
it was proved-to the late Mr. Pitt, when he laid a tax on
watches, by the committee of watch-makers convened in
the parifh of Clerkenwell, that a piece of the value of 5col.
had been manufa@tured out of materials which did not, in
their native original ftate, coft more than /ixpence! This
reprefentation, we are credibiy informed, induced the noble
{tatefman to abandon his plan of taxing an article, the value
of which depended fo much upon ingenuity and labour, and
by the manufaGture of which thoufands of fubje€ts are en-
tirely fupported: nay, further, on learning that the French
and Swifs could afford to fell three gold watches for the
price of one Englifh one, the fame minitter took off the duty
of fixteen fhillings per oz. from watch-cafes of this metal,
and fubftituted only one fhilling, the price of the trial at
Goldfmiths?-hall. We have juft faid that Harrifon obtained
the firft and moft ample reward for his inventions, but we
are not to conclude from thence, that his pieces excelled all
others ; they were {pecimens of great ingenuity and proofs
of unwearied indultry, which certainly were not overpaid ;
but the inventor himfelf was candid enough to confefs that
the balance, balance-fpring, and compenfation-curb, were
not contemporaneoufly affcGed by heat and cold, but that
{mall pieces of metal were fooner affected than large ones,
aud alfo pieces in motion before pieccs*at reft; whence he
was Jed to conclude, that if the provifion for heat ard cold
could properly be in the balance itfelf, as was the cafe with
his gridiron pendulum in clocks, the time-piece might be
made much more perfeat.
Harrifon’s fuggeftion of a compenfation-balance, in place
of a compenfating curb for the balance-fpring, found its
way into France, and roufed the attention of the watch-
makers of that nation ; and, to do them juftice, we mutt al-
low that Peter, the eldeit fon of Julien le Roy, who was
himfelf an eminent watch-maker, had the honour to be the
firlt who accomplifhed the fuggefted defideratum, by means
of
:
¢
aly
\
CHRONOMETER.
of two thermometers, one of mercury, and the other of al-
cohol, attached to and carried by the balance itfelf, which
contrivance effe&ed the compenfation, by bringing a portion
of the mercury nearer to, or by removing it farther from the
centre of the balance, according to the different ftates of the
atmofphere. (Sce the Defcriptiou under CompensaTION-
balance.) A chronometer on this conftruction was pre-
fented by Peter le Roy tothe king of France, on Aug. 5th,
1766, for which the prize of the Academy of Sciences was
awarded him on the laft day of the fame month: he alfo
publithed an account to accompany the piece, entitled,
«* Memoire fur la meillure maniere de mefurer Je temps en
mer, &c.’? in which memoir he afferts, a circumitance very
worthy of notice, that he made another compenfation-ba-
lance entirely of pieces of different metals; viz. of brafs and
fleel riveted together, like Harrifon’s compenfation-curb,
but bent into two feparate femi-circles in fuch a way, that
each, carrying a metallic weight near its extremity, brought
it alternately nearer to, or removed it farther from the centre
of the balance thus formed, agreeably to the variations of
the atmofpheric temperature ; and though tie inventor pre-
ferred at the time the thermometrical compenfation, yet the
metallic one, fpoken of in the memoir in queltiog, was, no
doubt, the archetype of all our prefent compenfation-ba-
lances. It might now have been expected that a time-piece,
with a movement aided by fri€tion-rollers, or by jewels in
the pivot-holes, and with a compenfation-balance regulated
by a fpiral-fpring, would have performed alike under all
circumttances, but ftill it was found that, however well the
fufee was fhapen, and adjutted to the different intenfities of
the main-fpring, yet fuch an unequal tranfmiflion of that
power took place, even in the bet movements, in confe-
quence of there being alternately favourable and unfavour-
able pofitions of the ating teeth of the wheels and pinions,
and in confequence of the impediments to free motion oc-
cafioned by the variable denfity of the oil ufed, and by the
acceflion of particles of extraneous matter, that the action of
the pallet-wheel upon the pallets then in ufe was found fuf-
ficiently irregular to occafion an inequality in the impulfes
given to the balance, and a confequent inequality in the
magnitude of the arcs of vibration. ‘This inequality in the
magnitude of the arcs of vibration would not, indeed, have
affeGted the rate of the going of the chronometer, if all
lengths of the regulating-fpring had been found on trial to
be equally ifochronal, but the fame Peter le Roy difcovered
what Dr. Hooke knew long before, (vide his Poftfcript to
“a Defcription of Heliofcopes, &c.’’) that there is a certain
length in each good uniform fpring which only is ifochroxal,
or, in other words, which has the property of regulating
the balance fo, that all arcs of vibration, long or fhort,
fhall be performed in the fame time. his difcovery, or
rather re-dilcovery, of Peter !e Roy, at a time when chrono-
metry had made confiderable advances towards perfection, was
calculated to doaway the fanguine hopes that had been enter-
tained of the good performance of time-pieces on Harrifon’s
conftruétion, in which the effective length of the regulating-
{pring was conftantly altering with the variations of tem-
perature ; and to this circumftance principally may be im-
puted, perhaps, the {mall number of time-pieces that were
manufactured after Harrifon’s model, notwith{tanding the
large premium which was awarded him. A remedy for the
unequal tran{miffion of the maintaining power had been,
however, adopted by Harrifon, when he introduced the re-
montoir to produce equable ation at the contrate-wheel of
his pieces, a contrivance worthy of his genius, whether the
idea was original, or borrowed by him from Huygens ;
but this was a remedy for.only one of the two caufes of ir-
regularity in the momentum of his balance; it might, and
probably did, equalize the maintaining power nearly, but
would not counteract the ifochronal defe€t produced in the
regulating-fpring by the compenfation-curb, in all the va-
rious arcs of vibration which every piece is liable to expe-
rience in their different ftates of fonlnefs.
The obftacles to equal tranfmiffion of force in a chrono-
meter, led to the invention of various ef{capements, both on
the continent andin England ; foie of which were intended
to a& ifochronally in concert. with the regulating {pring, and
others were fo conttrusted as to give the impulfe almoft in-
ftantaneoufly, and at the mo‘t favourable inftant of the vibra-
tion of the balance, fo that the force derived from the main-
taining power, to perpetuate the vibrations, might derange
the natural ifochronal property of the balance, and its regu-
lating {pring as little as poffible.
On confidering this fubjeét, it occurred to the moft fcien-
tific artilts, that the regulating power of the balance and
balance-{pring, which was found to be too much under the
dominion of the maintaining power with the common efcape-
ments, would be the lealt deranged if the impulfe derived
from the maintaining power were momentary, particularly if
it were applied at that point of the vibration where the mo-
mentum of the balance is amaximum ; it alfo occurred, that
the momentum of the balance itfelf ought to be as great as
practicable, compared with the impulfe given to the pallet-
wheel, and likewife that a momentum coinpofed more of ve-
locity than of weight would be mott favourable fora balance
with flender pivots. Thefe, and fimilar confiderations, the
refult of much thought and reafoning, fuggelted a great va-
riety of defigns for new efcapements, many of which have
been brought into pra&tice with an advantage correfponding
to the importance of the objcé&t; the moit recent of which
promifes to be of permanent utility in chronometry. Thefe
efcapements have obtained the appellation of free or detached,
from the circumftance of their being detached from the ba-
lance during the greateft part of its vibration. It has been
matter of contention among horological writers, who was
really the firft inventor of a detached efcapement, but it feems
now to be pretty generally admitted, that Peter le Roy,
whom we have mentioned asthe inventor of the firit compen-
fation balance, was alfo the inventor of the firft detached
efcapement. It would lead us far beyond the limits of our
prefent article minutely to defcribe here all the variations in
the thape and mode of a¢tion of the different efeapements, by
Jnlien and Peter le Roy, Berthoud, and others, that have
been made on the continent, as well asof thofe made in Bri-
tain ; on which account we fhall refume the fubjeCt under
the article Escapemenr, and there give a detailed account
of the fucceflive efcapements, as nearly in their order of time
ascan be alcertained. In the meantime, the reader will ob-
tain, we prefume, a fufficient knowledge of the efcapements
at prefent in ufe, from the defcriptions that are {ubjoined to
this article, of fome of the belt chronometers of modern
makers, where we have given drawings and an account of an
entire piece by Brockbank, and of {uch parts of the pieces
of other modern makers as differ from it in conitruction.
We with it, however, to be diltinétly underftood, that we
difclaim all partiality to individuals, and give a drawing of
Brockbank’s chronometer in an entire ftate, for no other
reafon but becaufe we are unwilling to diminifh the fale of
the pamphlet containing the drawings and defcriptions of
thofe by Arnold and Earnfhaw, lately publifhed by order of
the commiffioners of longitude ; and alfo becaufe Mef_rs. J.
Brockbank and Co. have been fo obliging as to allow us to
take fuch original drawings as it is prefumed will fhew the
relative fituations of the different parts in.a favourable point
ot
CHRONOMETER,
OF view, for giving a clear idea of their relative offices and
modes of aCtion.
A method having been devifed of limiting the quantity of
impolfe given to the balance, fo as to be juft fufficient to
keep it vibrating when put in motion, but not fufficient to
produce motion frem a {tate of quiefcence, as will be feen
tiereafter, and a felf-compenfating mechanifm having been
adapted to the balance itfelf, it may now be fairly inferred,
that chronometers have arrived nearly at their ne plus ultra of
perfection, and that they may fhortly be expected to find
the permanent level of their price, uninfluenced by the re-
commendation of a fuppofed fuperiority arifing out of the
name of the maker, or rather, as we might fay, of the vender;
for it is a faét not to be controverted, that more chronome-
ters have been fold by one individual than have been or couid
be made in the fame time under his own roof. Still, how-
jzffment of a chronometer for rate, temperature,
beat. and polition, is an obje& of the utmoft importance to
the dus performance of even the beft machine of this kind
that ever was made; and if improvements are yet neceflary
in this delicate but important branch of our manvfactures,
they are fuch as ought, and may reafonably be expected, to
conduce to accuracy and expedition in completing thofe
four kinds of operations ; operations which have been found
to be very troublcfome in fome of the conftruCtions, inafmuch
as one of the adjultments, however delicately made, may not
only be over or under-done, but may and frequently does
derange another adjultment previonfly made. Indeed, in the
prefent advanced {tate of chronometry, one maker’s excel-
lence is often diltingvifhed from that of another by fome
flight deviation from his contemporaries’ method of fhaping
certain parts, or of adjulting the balance accerding to fome
fecret method peculiar to himfelf, which he does not choofe
to difclofe, and for which, perhaps, he cannot give a good
reafon; hence, an important trifle, no way dependent on or
conneéted with {cientific principles, has been found, in cer-
tain inftances, to lay the foundation for pretentions to exclu-
five merit.
We will conclude our narrative of the improvements in
chronometry, by pointing out briefly fome of the diftinguifh-
ing features of the different conftruétions cf our contempo-
raries; and leave to the public the exercife of their own
choice in the feleétion of a particular maker. Without
entering more minutely into a detail of the French chrono-
meters in this place, it may be fufficient to ttate here gene-
rally, that their detached efcapements have detents, or pieces
to fufpend the maintaining power for a certain time, move-
able on a arbor with pivots, as will be feen under tke article
EscapemMent; whereas the Englifh detents aét by means
of forings without pivots, which confequently require no oil,
and are alfo of a more timple conftrution, -
The late Mr. Arnold took out two patents for improve-
ments in his chronometers, the one in April 1776, and the
other in 1782. The former of thefe patents was for the
invention and application of compenfation bars in the con-
itruction of his balance, together with the invention and ap-
plication of what he calls the helical, but. which is properly
the cylindrical balance-fpring. The fecond patent was for
three different ways of applying the compenfation-bars, for
yn improvement in the balance-fpring, particularly in the
bending of the laft coil at the end of it, for hisinvention and
application of the fpring-detent, and alfo for the cycloidal,
.or more properly epicycloidal fhape of the tooth of the
balancewwheel. It has been already faid, that Peter le Roy
was the firft who applied a metallic compenfation to the
‘balance itfelf, but it does not neceffarily follow from thence,
that Arnold did not alfo invent the one he adopted. We
fat
are perfuaded that a man of Mr. Arnold’s known integrity
and veracity would not make oath, in taking out a patent,
of an invention which he did not at lealt confider as his own ;
and we {hall have occafion to fhew, under our article Com-
pensaTioN-dalance, a variety of different fhapes given by
Arnold to his balances, and aétually tried in_pra@tice Jefore
he adopted the one in prefent ufe ; fome of which balances
are yet in exiltence. At all events, Mr. Arnold mutt be al-
lowed the merit of having intreduced the compenfation-
balance into general ufe, when Peter le Roy preferred the
thermometrical tube. The late Mr. Brockbank was the
firft perfon who united the two metals by fuiion, which le
Roy had united by pins, that mut have interfered with the
regularity of the flexure by different temperatures. Mr.
Brockbank was alfo the fir who ufed the method of turn-
ing an expanfion-rim out of a folid compound plate, made
by covering the {teel plate in a crucible of fufed brafs, and
of cutting it into portions afterwards, thereby enfuring the
uniformity both of figure and weight, which two properties
are equally effential in any balance, as the name imports; fo
that if it fhould be contended that the conftruGtion of the
compenfation-balance was not invented in this country, at
leatt the pratical application of the principle is our own ;
to which confideration we may add, tnat Arnold fenior in-
vented and introduced the ufe of the fpring detent, which
requires no oil. Mr. Arnold was likew:fe the firft watch-
maker in England who laid much ftrefs not only on the
fhape, but alfo on the particular length of the balance-fpring
in practice, which Dr. Hooke and Peter Je Roy had both
fhewn was neceflary to be attended to in order to render the
{pring ifechronal under all arcs of vibration, which is an
effential obje& of adjuftment, and which no doubt influenced
les choice of the fhape of the {pring ; and we are informed
that he was fo far fuccefsful in his attempt to afcertain the
precife point for limiting the belt practical length of fome of
his balauce-fprings, that, after the examplesof Peter le Roy,
to whoie contrivances, it mutt be confetled, he feems to have
paid great deference, he fuccecded in making a movement go
accurately without a fufee, by the mere regulation of an ifo-
chronal {pring, which is an indubirable proof that the irre-
gularities of the maintaining power can have but little influ-
ence on the rate of a chronometer with an ifochronal balance-
{fpring, efpecially when it has, moreover, a detached efcape-
ment. Mr. Penningten affirms that there are many ifochronal
points in every fpring, which difcovery accounts for the
diffdrent lengths of the various balance-{prings that are made
of the fame clue.
The late Mr. Mudge laboured to effect an equalization in
the impulfe given to the balance by remontoirs of fpiral
{prings, acting fo con{tantly at each vibration, that the efcape-
ment of his time-keepers could not properly be called a de=
tached one; though the one introduced into her majefty’s
watch cé his coutrivance, and copied by the late Margetts,
and by Emery, which gives an impulfe at every vibration,
fufficiently great to produce motion from a itate of relt, may
be clafled among the detached kind.
Emery’s balance had weights fliding on its crofles, and
having their pofitions regulated under different degrees of
heat by the variable flexure of compenfating bars-compofed
of two different metzis, in the fhape of an S, as explained
under our article Compensation dalance, where it will ap-
pear that this was one of the varictics invented by Arnold,
whofe workman afterwards wentto Emery. The Brockbanks
have their chronometers diftinguifhed by the pofition of their
locking and unlocking fprings, and alfo by a peculiar me-
thod of banking by means of the protrufion of the coils of
the balance-{pring, as will be hereaiter explained. ya
Earnfhaw’s
.
CHRONOMETER,
Earnfhaw’s chronometers differ from Arnold’s in the
fhape and pofition of the detent and fprings, in the fhape of
the balance wheel, and ftruéture of the balance {pring and
balance, all which will prefently be explained,
Recordon, fucceflor to Emery, at Chariag Crofs, has a
compenfation-balance perforated at the circumference with
various tapped holes, into which the ferews of adjuftment
for temperature and pofition may be fucceffively removed,
according to circumftances: this mode of adjuftment is
pradtifed by Pennington, and was, we under{tand, originally
his contrivance.
Haley, a watch-maker at the corner of Wigmore-ftreet,
Cavendifh-{quare, took out a patent on the 17th of Augutt,
1796, the particulars of which are given in the fixth volume
of the * Repertory of Arts”? The principle on which the
patent was granted, confifted chiefly of a fecond cylindrical
{pring and {pring-arbor with pallets, &c. interpofed between
the efcapement-wheel and the balance to give an impulfe to
“the balance at each vibration, inflead of the impulfe ufually
given by the force tranfmitted through the train. See
Escarements for Watches.
Grimalde, in the Strand, who now makes a confiderable
number of chrorometers, fome of which, we learn, have the
teltimony of naval officers in their favour, has informed us,
that he places the cock fo conveniently, and adjults for po-
fition fo readily, by a particular contrivance, which does not
require the cock to be taken off, that it would, we think,
contribute to the ltock cf improvements already known, if
he would make his method public.
Mr. Hardy has lately introduced a new mode of banking,
by a lever attached to the exterior coil of an heliacal {pring,
which is thrown out to catch a pin in the balance; and has
propofed a new mode of making the fpring ifochronal, by
making the ftud moveable ona fecond {pring; but experience
mutt prove their utility.
We might add a long lift of the other perfons who
make chronometers, not in Londen only, but at Edinburgh
and Liverpool, were we aware that there is any material dif-
ference in the con!truction of their mechanif{m, or methods of
sere, from thofe, or fome of thofe, which we have no-
ticed.
To aid the refearches of thofe readers who wifh to trace
more minutcly the rife and progrefs of the art of meafuring
time by mechanical inventions, we fubjoin a lift of the prin-
cipal authors who have, from time to time, written on this
interefting fubject. viz. Hieronomi Cardani de Varietate
rerum; 1557, fol. Bafilee. Conrandt Dafypodu Defcriptio
Horologii Aftronomici Argentinenfis; 1578, 4to. Argen-
torati. Guidonis Pancirolli Antiqua deperdit a & Nova
reperta; 1607, 8vo. Amberge. L’ufage du Cadran ou
de VHorloge phyfique univerfel par Galilée; 1639, Svo.
Paris. BencdiGii Haefteri Monaftice Difquifitiones; 1644,
fol. Antwerpie. Horloge magnetique, elliptique ou ovale
Nouveau, pour trouver les Heures du Jour & de la Nutt,
par Pierre Georges; 1660, 8vo. Toul. PP. Gafparis
Schott! Soc. fefu, Technica Curiofa, feu Mirabilia Artis ;
£664; 4to. Herbipoli. Chriftiani Hugenii Zulichemii Ho-
rologium ofcillatorium; 1673. Parifiis, Leétiones Cutle-
riane, by R. Hooke; 1673. London. Gulielmi Ough-
tred Etouenfis Opufcula Mathematica hactenus inedita ;
1677, 8vo. Oxonii. Matth. Campani de Alimentis Horo-
Jogium, folo nature motu atque ingenio, dimetiens et
numerans momenta temporis. conttantiflime «qualia ;
1677, 4to. Rome. Pendule perpetuelle, par l’Abbe de
Hautefeuille ; 1678, 4to. J. J. Becheri Theoria et Expe-
rientia de nova Temporis: dimentiendi ratione & Horologi-
serum Conftructione ; 1680, 8yo. Londini, Gilberti Clark
Onoghtredus explicatus, de Conftrufione Horologiorum ,
1682, 8vo. Londini. Horological Difquilitions by Smith ;
1698, London. Memoirs by De la Hire, Leibnitz, Sau-
rin, Mafly, D. Bernoully, Romilly, J. and P. Le Roy,
&c. &c., contained in the ‘* Memoirs de ]’Academie des ,
Sciences 2 Paris,’? and in ‘‘ Machines Approuves,”’ in va-
rious volumes. Artificial Clock-maker, by Derham; 1714.
London. Defcription d’une Montre de nouvelle Conftruc-
tion, par H. Sully ; 1716. Regle artificielle du Temps,
par H. Sully; 1717, (& 1737, a Paris, par Jul. Le Roy).
Traité des Forces mouvantes, par Camus; 1722. De-
feription abregée dune Horloge d’une nouvelle Conftruc-
tion pour la julte Mefure du ‘Temps fur Mer, par H. Sully ;
1726. a Bordeaux. Traité general des Horloges, par Alex-
andre; 1734. ‘Traité d’Horlogerie pratique, par Thiour
& Enderlin ; 1741, 2 vols. 4to. a Paris. ‘lraite des Echap-
pemens, par Jodin; 1754, 12mo. a Paris. “Vraite d’Hor-
logerie, par Le Poute; 1755, 4to. a Paris. L’Art de
conduire & deregler les Pendules & les Montres, &c. par
Ferd. Berthoud, 1759, 12mo. a Paris. Etrennes Chrono-
metriques, par Pierre Le Roy, 1759. Effai fur ’ Horlo-
gerie, par Ferd. Berthoud ; 17,635 »2 vols. Ato.) 2d ed.
1786, a Paris. Inftitutiones Horologice, in vol. i. of
Mathem. Intt. by Ben. Martin; 1764. The Elcments of
Clock and Watch-work adapted to Pra@tice, by Alexander
Cumming; 1766, 4to. London. ‘Phe Principles of Mr.
Harrifou’s Time-keeper, with Plates of the fame; 1767,
ato. London. Dr. Maflcelyne’s Obfervations and Calcula-
tions on ditto; 1766 and 1767, London. Journal du
Voyage de M. le Marquis De Courtenvaux; 3768, gto. a
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clopedie, Arts & Metiers. Voyage par M. d’ Evenx-de- Fleu-
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mens {ur l’Invention, la Theorie, &c. par Ferd. Berthoud 5.
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Part of Clock and Watch-work, by Thomas~ Hatton ;
1773, 8vo. London. Precis des Recherches faites en
France, &c. par M. Le Roy (fils de Julien); 1773, 4to. a
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ford a nice and true Menfuration of Time, by James Har-
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par Ferd. Berthoud; 1775, 4to. a Paris. Voyage par
Verdun, Borda, & Pingré; 1778, 2vols. 4to. a Paris.
De la Mefure du Temps, par Ferd. Berthoud; 1757, 4to.
a Paris. Horlogerie Pratique, par M. Vigniaux; 1788,
Svo. a Paris. Traité des Montres & Longitudes, par Ferd.
Berthoud ; 1792, 4to. a Paris, Dr. Mafkelyne’s Anfwer
to Mudge’s Narrative; 8vo. 1792. sAatwood’s Inveftiga-
tions for determining the Times of Vibration of Watch-
balances, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions of London;
1794. Mr. Mudge’s Reply to Dr. Mafkelyne’s Anfwer 5.
8vo. 1792. Suite du Traite des Montres «a Longitudes,
par Ferd. Berthoud ; 1797, 4to. a Paris. Voyage de La
Peroufe; 4 vols. 4to. a Paris, 1797. A. Delcription,
with Plates, of Mudge’s Time-keeper; 1799, 4to. Lon-
don. Ausfvhricke Gefchichte, &c. by John Henry Mav-
rice Poppe; 1801, Svo. Leipfic.» Vhe article WatTcu-
Work in the 2d volume of the Suppl:ment to the Encyclop.
Britannica. Hiltoire de la Mefure du Temps, par les Hor-
loges, par Fred. Berthoud; 1802, 2 vols. 4to. a Paris. A
Journal of Natural Philofophy, Chemiftry, and the Arts,
by W. Nicholfon; gto. feries, and Svo. feries; fee va-
rious volumes. Effai fur les Montres a Repetition, par
Frangois Créfpe; a Genéve, 1804, Svo. p. 284. Expla-
nations of Time-keepers con{truéted by Mr, Thomas Earn-
fhaw, and Mr. John Arnold, publifhed by order of the
Commiffioners,
CHRONOMETER.
Commiffioners of Longitude ; 1896, 4to. with plates.
London. Mr, Dalrymple’s pamphlet ; 1806. Appeal by
Sir Jofeph Banks; 1806. Dr. Mafkelyne’s Anfwer ;
1806.
Curonomerer, or Zime-keeper, by Harrifon. It was our
intention to have given a perfpective drawing of one of Mr.
James Hiarrifon’s chronometers, or time-keepers, with a
correfponding defcription, but on an application by our
draftf{man to the aftronomer royal to infoe the interior
parts of one of the machines, by the maker in queftion,
placed at the Obtervatory, he was informed that permiffion
to undo any of the covers or other parts of the mechanifm
could not be granted; we muft therefore fatisfy ourfclves
with a verbal defcription of the con{iruétion, which, indeed,
it is prefumed, will be deemed fufficient, now that preferable
con{truétions have been more recently adopted. We might,
it is true, have copied the plans given in the ten plates of the
pamphlet entitled the ‘* Principles of Mr. Harrifon’s Time-
keeper,’ but fome of them are fo imperfeétly explained, as
to be unintelligible to any reader, except perhaps to fuch as
may have had occafion to examine the eriginal mechanifm,
and therefore would not be fatisfa@tory to the public. "Lhe
following particulars, relating tothe dimenfions and other
properties of the mechanifm, apply more particularly to the
yourth piece made by the inventor, and are extraéted chiefly
from the pamphlet juft mentioned. The firft obfervable dil-
tinétion between Harrifon’s train of wheel-work and that of
an ordinary watch, is, that the numbers of his wheels and
pinions are higher than had been ufual, as will appear from
the fubjoined arrangement, viz.
Firft or great wheel 96
Center pinion aGing
withit - += - 21—120 fecond wheel, which is concave
Its pinion -18—144 third wheel,
Its pinion 16—x20 contrate wheel,
Bal. wheel pinion 12—15 bal. wheel,
2 pallets
If thefe numbers be examined according to our mode of
notation under the article CLocx-Making, the value of the
: in >
SES Da 5 a oe EASE ENS er ed we
12
tions in an hour, or juft five vibrations in each fecond. The
firft or great wheel will revolve in 2$ of an hour, or make
one revolution, along with the fufee, in 44 hours, fo that
5% turns or fpirals on the fufee will maintain a motion of
24 hours, 6£ will actuate the works 284, and 6,% jult 30
hours.
The balance-wheel does not differ effentially from that
in a common watch, but peculiar care is neceffary in fhaping
the pallets, as will be feen more particularly under the article
EScAPEMENT.
The bad effect produced in ordinary watches by an irre-
gular tranfmiffion of the maintaining power through the
train, is here guarded againft by the introdudtion of a flender
{pring, or remontoir, which is wound up eight times every
minute by the maintaining power, or main-fp-ing, and which
actuates the contrate and balance-wheels, and confequently
impels the pallets with a conltant impulfe, independently of
the maintaining power, the latter being employed for no
other purpofe but for winding up the tormer as before {pe-
cified.
though it weighs only 34 grains, is coiled in a {pring barrel,
apparently concentric with the contrate-wheel, and has its
outer end attached to a hook in the barrel, with its inner
end attached to another hook on the coutrate-wheel. In
order to make this delicate {pring anfwer its purpofe perpe-
3
train will be
This flender f{pring, which is ten inches long, °
tually, two wheels, and as many pinions, in addition to the
foregoing train, called the fourth and fifth wheel, and fourth
and tifth pinion, are introduced in connc@ion with a fly; as
is likewife a detent with five arms, refembling a flar, turning
on the pivots of a common arbor. The ation of thefe parts
is not eafily underltood, even from a reference to the original
drawings, much lefs from a verbal defcription; but the in-
telligent reader will form a general idea from being told,
that there are eight pins placed equidiftantly on the plane of
the contrate-wheel in a {mall circle round the arbor; that
one of the five arms of the detent a&s with thefefucceffively
as the wheel itfelf revolves ; that a fecond arm carries a {mall
rolier aéting againft a piece of brafs on the fifth wheel;
that a third is bent at the end fo as to catch a pinin the
rim of the fifth wheel; and that the fourth and fifth arms
are mere counterpoifes to the other three, to preferve an
equilibrium. The numbers of thefe wheels and pinions ap-
pear to be as follow: of the fourth wheel 112, which ftands
concentrically over the contrate-wheel and fpring-barrel, of
its pinion 14, of the fifth wheel 104, and of its pinion 12 ;
and it is to the arbor of this laft pinion, we prefume, that
the fly is attached, though it does not appear evident either
from the drawings or defcription, at leait to our apprehen-
fion. The mode of applying the three efletive arms of the
detent bears fome refemblance to the aGiion of the detents
in the ftriking part of a clock, in which the count-wheel is
ufed inftead of a fnail, and where the locking and unlocking
are alternately effe€ted at meafured intervals of time. The
detached efcapements, however, have now rendered this
complex mechani{m fuperfluous, and, indeed, it is manifeft
that the propofed object, of having a completely detached
power to act alike at all times on the pallets, is not thus
perfectly effected; for the locking and unlocking eight
times in every minute, to be produced by the flender {pring
in queition, mutt be fuppofed to interfere in a certain degree
with its regularity of aGtion on the pallets; andif it fhould
be contended, that the eight deduGtions from the force of
the {pring are regular and periodical in every minute, and
that therefore they produce an equable effect, yet the fame
argument may be ufed in favour of a well made train, in
which the irregularities in the tranfmiffion of force from
the main-fpring may likewife be periodical, the wheels and
pinions not being compofed of prime numbers.
But it was not enough for Harrifon, that nearly an equa-
ble force was applied to maintain the motion of the balance,
while the balance itfelf and alfo the balance {pring were
fubje& to alterations in their dimenfions by changes of tem-
perature; he well knew that the fpiral {pring ufed in
watches, had more power when contraéted, and lefs when
elongated, than a mean power, and alfo that an enlarged
balance has a greater momentum than a diminifhed one, and
vice verfa; the mode alfo of effecting an adjultment to
counteract the confequent lofs or gain in the rate of going,
was well known not only to him, but to all watch-makers,
and mechanically applied with fuccefs, as at the prefent
day, by a moveable ftud to lim't the effe€tive length of the
fpring; but this adjuftment was not a Jelif-adiing one, an
index was required to be moved by a manual operation,
which index was conneéted with the moveable ftud, and
pointed out the quantity of the adjuftment ; it remained for
Harrifon to devile a mode of aétion, entirely dependent on
the ftate of the atmofphere at any moment, which of itfelf,
would produce the requifite adjultment; this he did, as we
have already faid, by riveting together a flip of brafs and a
{ip of iteel, which two metals are of unequal expanfibili-
ties, to the remote end of which compound bar he attached
his clip to hold the exterior thread of his fpring, after the
outer
oe
CHRONOMETER.
outer end of it had-paffed through and been pinned toa ftud
of brafs attached to the upper plate of the frame; the confe-
quence proved, what none but a real genius would have
forefeen, that the brafs elongating and contracting alter-
nately in oppofite temperatures more than the fteel, produced
a curvature in the compound piece, the concave fide of
which was always occupied by the metal leatt elongated,
‘that is, by the fteel in hot, and by the brafs in cold wea-
‘ther; hence the compound piece, which carried the itud
backwards and forwards, was called a 4irb, a Lincclnshire
word for curd, which contrivance is deftined to curb or com-
mand the effeGtive length of theregulating {pring. The only
material objeélion that experience has pointed out againft this
{.]f-compentating mechanifm, ts, as we have before obferved,
that {mall pieces of metal and pieces in motion do not alter
their temperature at the fame time with large pieces and
pieces in motion; nor yet fteel fo foon as brats, even in
fimilar circumitances ; which confideration conttitutes an ob-
jection to the ufe of the thermometrical curb; an objection
firft raifed by Harrifon himfelf, when it was greatly his in-
tereft to have fuppreffed fuch a fuggeftion, as he wasa can-
didate for the parliamentary reward. Vide Comrensarion-
balance.
Harrifon had befides remarked that in an ordinary watch
the power which the main {pring has over the balance,
through the medium of the train, compared with the power
that the regulating {pring has over the fame, is as one to
three generaily ; this power from the main {pring, he ob-
ferved, being fufficient to put the watch in motion from a
ftate of quiefcence, mult be too imperious for the balance,
{mall and light as it was, to control 17; accordingly he pro-
pofed, reafoning thus a@ priori, to give an additional mo-
mentum to his balance, compared with his maintaining
power: but momentum was to be attaimed in three different
ways,namely, by additional weight given toa balance of the
ufual diameter, by enlarging the diameter without increafing
the weight, or laftly, by increafing both in a certain de-
greez the firll mode was objeCtionable on account of the
friction likely to be produced on the balance-pivots by a
heavy balance ; the fecond was alfo objeGionable on account
of the refiftance of the air it was | kely to experience ; and
therefore he fixed upon the laft mode of gaining momentum,
by partly enlarging the diameter, and partly imcreating the
weight of the balance in ufe ; by which means he conitructed
a balance over which the force from the maintaining power
of the remontoir has not more than one-cightieth part of the
dominion that the balance-{pring has. Hence in the time-
Keeper there is not force enough in the maintaining power to
cxcice motion from a quiefcent flate, though there is power
enough to overcome all the obitacles to continued motion,
and to keep the piece going, when put in motion.
The balance of the time-keeper before us is defcribed to
be of more than three times the weight of that of a large
ordinary watch, and of three times its diameter; for, ac-
cording to the notes taken by Dr. Mafkelyne, at the time
of its examination, its diameter was 24 inches, and that of
the plate 35%; hence a point in its circumference will pafs
through 24 inches, or about four times the fpace of an or-
dinary watch, in each fecond, ,as Harrifon calculates from
the are of its vibration; an advantage which has not been
loft fight of by fome of the modern makers of chronome-
ters; and it may be confidered as an axiom in chronometry,
that the perfection of a balance, confidered fimply as a re-
gulator, independently of its dompenfation-mechanifm,
con{ifts in its having the greateft poflible quantum of mo-
mentum with the leait force from the train, and {mallelt
quantity of frétion and refittance from the air.
Vor. VIII.
Notwithftanding, however, the above-mentioned contriy-
ances in the conftruétion of the balance, others were {till
wanting. Harrifon inferred that large arcs were deferibed in
lefs time than fmall ones, from the circumftance of the
piece going flower in a vertical pofition than in a horizontal
one, where the vibrations were obferved to be vilibly longer,
before’ any correétion was applied; he therefore wanted,
moreover, a compenfation for the errors of pofition. . The
time-piece, he obferved, did not go alike when in a ver-
tical pofition, the hours IIT, VI, IX, and XIII, were
fucceffively uppermott, which defeét he remedied by making:
the relative weights or dimenfions different, at diflerent fides
of the balance, thereby equalizing the arcs of vibration in
each vertical pofition, Again, to render the time of an ho-
rizontal vibration equal to that of a vertical one, he intro-
duced a contrivance which he calls a cycloid-pin, which,
when in contact with the regulating {pring, quickens its
vibrations ; but as the longett vibrations feemed to require
fuch fecondary affiltance the leaft, in thofe the {pring left
the pin for a longer time than in the {maller arcs of vibra-
tion, and therefore they were lefs affected by it. This cy-
cloid-pin is very imperfectly deferibed in the account of the
pla‘es, and, it appears, was added to the piece fent on trial
to Jamaica, after its return; and it appears by no means
certain, that any good end was obtained by its adoption.
The idea of ufing adjullments for pofition, however, has
proved of permanent utility. It may be neceflary to add
here, what will appear extraordinary, that there was no ad-
juitment for mean time in Harvifon’s time-keeper, the com-
penfation curb having ufurped its place; but he profeffed to
be able in general to afcertain its comparative rate of going
by his regulator, or gridiron pendulum clock, near enoaph
in three hours ; and to apply the daily error in feconds to the
time indicated, plus or minus, as the cafe might be; of courfe
a longer trial was neceffary for a very nice rate,beforea voy -
age was commenced. Still it was neceffary in a machine profef{-
ing to meafure the conftant lapfe of time perfe@ly, thatit fhould
not ceafe to go while the main-{pring was in the a&t of being
wound up; here was another field for our artifan’s inge-
nu:ty ; but with a great genius, as with a great warrior, or
ftatefman, difficulties thrown in the way only tend to call
forth the refources of an ative and inventive mind; the
auxiliary {pring was the refult of our inventor’s fagacity, and
the fufee itfelf, which before had been fhapen to equalize
the varying force of the main {pring in its different ftates of
tenfion, was now made to contain moreover within it a fe-
cond {pring, fo bent ina contrary direction, that the force
exerted by the firft or main-{pring wound it up to a refifting
force exactly equal to the power neceflary to be exerted on
the train, before this power began to be tran{mitted further
along the train. The contrivance will not be eafily under-
ftood by a verbal defcription, except by men converfant in
watch-work ; itis thus; a concave ratchet with 55 teeth, is
fixed to the infide of the large end of the fufee, the con=
cavity of which is fufficiently large in diameter to admit the
fecondary fpring-barrel within it, into the cavity of the fu-
fee; a fecond ratchet of 75 teeth, at the outer edge, in-
clined in an oppofite direGiion to thofe of the ratchet 55%
and having the fecondary {pring-barrel attached to it, is
placed contiguous to the great wheel of 96, plane to plane,
and revolves on a tubular piece projecting from the plane of
the great wheel; it does not appear how the click of the
concave ratchet is placed to aét with its teeth at the inner
edge, but this click is no doubt placed on the plane of the
large ratchet of 75, or on the barrel; theinnerend of the
fecondary {pring is hooked to the tubular piece on which the
barrel and large ratchet attached to it revolve, and the outer
end,
CURONOMETER. e
end, as ufual we prefume, to the fide-of the barrel within.
There are two clicks to the large ratchet, one on each of its
circumferences, which clicks are faft to the plane of the
frame-plate, together with their ref{pective {prings. The
parts being thus conneéted, and the barre! ivferted into the
cavity of the fufee, the cffe&t produced is this ; {uppofe the
key applied to the fquare of the fufee arbor to wind the
piece up, the inclined teeth of the ratchet flide along the
end of the click in this retrograde motion of the fulee, dur-
ing the a& of winding. and no impediment occurs to free
motion of the fufee until the garde (or guard.) gives notice
of the conclufion of winding ; but let the key with-
drawn, and it will be obferved, that the main-{pring by its
effort to relax, will urge the fufee, in a dire&tion contrary to
the motion of winding, till fome obftacle oppofe its motion;
that obftacle is the click of the concave ratchet, which if
fixed in a fationary fituation, would inflantly arreft the faid
returning motion of the fufee; but we have faid the click
is fixed to the large ratchet or attached barrel, which con-
tains, we will fuppofe, a relaxed {pring ; the returning mo-
tion of the fufee, therefore, goes on, after the ratchet of
55 has caught its click, until the fecondary relaxed {pring
in the little barrel is wound up as far as the flrength of the
main-{pring will wind it; the inner end of the fecondary
fpring at that initant begins to act on the tubular projection
of the great wheel, which may be called the barrel arbor,
and urges it on as though the click had been fixed to the
great w heel, and as though there had been no large ratchet,
which Harrifon calls the perpetual ratchet, nor any fecond-
ary {pring interpofed between the firft ratchet and the great
wheel; aud thus it is that the power is continually tranf-
mitted through the medium of an iaten/e {pring, after it has
been firft wound up from a ftate of relaxation. Concxive
again the key applied for the fecond winding as before ; the
returning motion of the fufce will now be but little, becaufe
the fecondary fpring has been already wound up; but the
effect of the contrivance here becomes evident; the fe-
condary {pring being previoufly wound up, the two clicks
of the large ratchet of 75, to which the fecondary fpring-
barrel is attached, keep it from relaxing, while the preflure
of the main-{pring is taken off by the a&t of winding ; the
force of this fecondary fpring, however, will exert itfelf
femewhere to return to its natural ftate, and becaufe the
motion of the fpring is ftopped at the outer end, by the
juft mentioned clicks preventing the returning motion of the
large or perpetual ratchet, the inner end of it will exert its
whole force on the pin of the tubular part of the great
wheel, confidered as the barrel’s arbor, and will thus impel
the great wheel for a limited time with the fame force with
which it was ated upon itfelf, when wound up to the ex-
treme, that is, with the whole force of the maintaining
power to which it becomes a temporary equivalent. ‘Thus
we fee four f{prings were ufed by Harrifon, which we are
told were all made by Maberley, except the balance-fpring
that required rubbing away till it was found of a proper
ftrength to regulate for mean time nearly ; the temper was
given to this {pring and the feel pinions by a melted mixture
of one pewter and fixteen lead ; and to the balance {pindle
“by a mixture of one pewter and twelve lead, the lat-
ter of which mixtures, ina ftate of fufion, the author fays,
is equal to 567° of Fahrenheit.
The effect of the thermometrical-curd was increafed by
rubbitg the fides thinner, and decreafed by thickening the
edge with a burnifher.
The fufee has 6% turns; the pivat-holes are all bufhed
with rubies containing pieces of diamond at the bottom of
cach 5 and the.pallets are of diamond. The fly at the fifth
pinion is ufed to regulate the veldcity with which the fpring
at the conirate-wheel is wound up every eighth part of a
minute by the main-fpring when unlocked. The dial-work is
112, 99
23” 32
of a wheel of ro4 attached to the contrate-wheel driving
another of the fame number round an outer cannon in the
centre.
The firil time keeper which Harrifon made was in 1726,
which Dr. Hutton afferts, did not err a fecond in a month
for ten years together; but the firft time that one was pub-
licly tried, was in a voyage to Lifbon, in the year 1736,
which, being placed in a box, hung in gimbols, aniwered
his expectation, and corrected the dead reckoning about a
degree and a half; in confequence of which, according to
Dr. Mackay, the board of longitude granted him a gratuity,
and defired him to profecute his labours.
In 1739, he finifhed a fecond piece more perfect than the
firft,and in1749, according to Dr. Mackay, (but according to
Dr. Hutton, in 1755,) a third, which was pronounced more
fimple in its confiruétion than either of the former; but his
labours did not flop here; in 1761, his fourth piece, of
which we have given a defcription as nearly as we could
without perfpeélive drawings, was produced for trial, and
Mr. William Harrifon, the fon, offered to take charge, of ity
in a voyage to and from Jamaica, which was accordingly
performed in this and the following years. Mr. Robertfon,
matter of the Academy at Portfmouth, was fixed upon to
take the rate of this piece, which he did, and reported that,
on the 6th of November, 1761, at noon, it was 3° flow after
having loft 24° in nine days on mean folar time. ‘The
Deptford, in which fhip the voyage was made, left Portf-
mouth on the 15th of the fame month, and arrived at Ma-
deira on the gth of December following, when it was
found that the reckoning was correéted by the time of the
piece about a degree and a half. In the run from Madeira
to Jamaica the reckoning was correéted 3°: and at the fe-
veral iflands, where the hip touched, the known longitudes
agreed very nearly with thofe given by the time-keeper. On
Jan. roth, 1762, the fhip arrived at Jamaica; the time of
mean noon was obferved, by equal altitudes, at Port Royal,
on the 26th of the fame month, which, according to the
piece, was 4" 59” 7°.5 ; but the original error on the 6th of
November, 81 days, 5 hours before, was 3° flow, this quan-
tity, therefore, was to be applied as a correCtion, together with
= 12, and the feconds are concentric by means
\
the accumulation of the daily error of 74 in S14 5 ase
36'.5; this fum of 3™ 39°.3 added to the time indicated, which .
it has been faid, was 4" 59™ 7°.5, make 5° 2” 47° for the
difference of longitude between Portfmouth and Port
Royal ; which determination was only 4° of time lefs than the
determination at Kingfton of the fame, from the tranfit of
Mercury over the fun’s difc. This {mall error in time cor-
refponds to lefs than one nautical mile in the parallel of
Jamaica. 5 os
The Merlin, on beard of which the piece was now put,
fet fail from Jamaica on the 25th of January, 1762, and ex-
perienced fuch a violent ftorm in the paflage, as obliged
young Harrifon to remove his piece into an expofed fituation;
however, the fhip arrived at Portfmouth on the 26th of
March, and on the 2d of April the time of mean noon was
found, from equal altitudes, to be 11" 51™ 31°.5, to which
its former error of 3°, together with the accumuiation of the
s od
daily error, viz. Ga EAT. Gaygat being added, make
the time of mean noon by the time-keeper 11° 58™ 6'.5.
Fron:
a
CHRONOMETER.
From this report it appears, that from Noy. 6th, 1761, to
April 2d, 1762, though the piece had experienced many vio-
lent agitations at fea, and had been expofed to great changes
of temperature, the whole error amounted to only 1™ 53°.55
or 284 of longitude on the equator, which quantity, (one
feeond lefs than Dr. Hutton has ftated), is not quite 18
nautical miles in the parallel of Portfmouth.
Though various objections were made to this-trial, prin-
Cipally arifing from the obfervations by which the longitude
of Portfmouth and Jamaica had been afcertained, yet Har-
rifon, we are informed, obtained a reward upon it from
parliament of 5oool., and was ordered to make a fecond
trial to Barbadoes. But previoufly to the fecond trial to
the Welt Indies, the Board of Longitude, on the 17th of
Augutt, 1762, wifhed to place Harrifon’s piece in the
hands of the altronomer royal, at that time Mr. Blifs, for
trial at the Obfervatory, which wifh was not complied with,
by reafon of fome alteration to be made, probably by add-
ing the cycloid-pin to aid the regulating {pring ; the fame
with was repeated by the Board at their fitting on the 4th
of Auguft of the year 1763, which was again not complied
with by the jun. Harrifon, by reafon of his not being yet
fufficiently rewarded; however, on being defired to fend
the rate of going of his time-keeper, fealed up, to the fecre-
tary of the Admiralty, previoufly to his failing, he con-
fented to this requeft, and propofed to abide by the fealed
rate on the trial to Barbadoes, which had been propofed.
The annexed is a verbal copy of Mr. W. Harrifon’s decla-
ration of the rate of going, or, more properly {peaking, of
the daily error of the time-keeper, to the Board of Longi-
tude, dated Portfmouth, March 26th, 1764. +
“ My Lords and Gentlemen,
Tn obedience to your inftructions,, dated the gth of Aug.
+763, I humbly certify that I do expeét the rate of the
going of the time-keeper will be as followeth ; viz.
When the thermometer (Fahrenheit’s, no doubt,) is at
42° it will gain 3 feconds in every 24 hours.
When the thermometer is at 52°, it will gain 2 feconds
in every 24 hours.
When the thermometer is at 62°, it will gain 1 fecond in
every 24 hours.
When the thermometer is at 72°, it will neither gain nor
lofe.
When the thermometer is at 82°, it will lofe 1 fecond in
every 24 hours. ‘
Since my laft voyage we have made fome improvement in
the time-keeper ; in confequence of which, the provifion to
counterbalance the effects of heat and cold, has been made
anew ; and for the want of a little more time, we could not
get it quite adjufted ; for which reafon the above allowances
areneceflary. his is its prefent ftate; and as the inequal-
ities are fo {mall, I will abide by the rate of its gaining, on
a mean, one fecond a day for the voyage. I would not be
underftood, that it will always require fo long time to bring
thofe machines to perfeétion ; for itis well known to be much
harder to beat out a new road, than it is to follow that road
when made. During the time of this experiment, the mean
height of the thermometer fhall be each day carefully noted
down, and certified, which I will lay before the Board at
my return. Iam, &c.
WILLIAM HARRISON.”
After having compared the time-piece with Mr, Short’s
regulator, in Surry-{treet, London, which had its error new-
ly afcertained by an excellent tranfit inftrument, Mr. Har-
rifon junior went on board the Tartar on the 13th of Te-
bruary 1764, and proceeded to Portf{mouth, where he again
compared it with an aftronomical clock in Mr. James Brad-
ley’s temporary obfervatory. It may not be foreign to our
purpofe to mention here, that the obfervatory juit {poken of,
was fitted up for the exprefs purpofe of obferving the eclip-
fes of Jupiter’s fatellites, as well as of keeping the clock in
juft time, in order,that, to avoid future objections, the obfer-
vations to be made by Mefirs. Mafkelyne and Green, at Bar-
badoes, on the fame fatellites, particularly the firft, when
compared with Bradley’s, might afcertain the comparative
longitudes of thefe two places, which was accordingly deter-
termined to be 3° 54™ 20%. :
Before leaving Portfmouth, which took place on the 28th
of March 1764, Mr. Harrifon took the rate of his time-
keeper by equal alutudes, employed between the 29th of
February and the 26th of March; and on Apmil the 18th
found, from comparing his obfervations of the fun at 4
P. M. at the fhip, with the correéted time given by it, that
the fhip was at that inftant only 43 miles eattward of Porto
Santo, in confequence of which determination, fir John
Lindfay, the mafter, fteered accordingly, and faw the
land in queftion before him at one o’clock the next
morning, agreeably to expeétation. On the 13th of May,
the veffel arrived at Barbadoes, and on the four following
days its error was afcertained by Meffrs. Mafkelyne and
Green by equal altitudes of the fun, and alfo by a compa-
rifon with the aftronomical clock at the obfervatory near
Bridgetown; and it was found that the amount of the daily
deviations from mean time was only 43° in excefs, or oY of
a degree in longitude. Mr. Harrifon fet out on his return
from Barbadoes in the New Elizabeth on the 4th of June;
and, arriving at Surry ftairs on the Thames, on July the
18th, found, from a comparifon with Mr. Short’s clock,
the error of which had been afcertained on the very day,
that the whole gain in the 156 days was only 54°, allowing
the fealed rate, of one fecond gain per day, as a correction :
and it has been obferved, that, if the allowances had been
moreover made for the ftate of the thermometer, as ftated
in the declaration, the piece in that cafe would have been
found to have been about 15° only at variance with mean
time, and this in the oppofite extreme. Soon after this very
fatisfactory trial, a committee of feven {cientific gentlemen
and mechanicians were appointed by the Board of Longi-
tune for examining the principles of Mr. Harrifon’s time-
keeper, whofe report was as follows: viz. ** That Mr. Har-
rifon has taken his time-keeper to pieces, in prefence of us,
andexplainedthe principles aud conftrudtion thereof, andevery
thing relative thereto, to our entire fatisfation ; and that he
alfo did, to our fatisfa€tion, anfwer every quettion propofed by
us, or any of us, relative thereto ; and that we have compar-
ed the drawings of the {ame with the parts, and do find that
they perfectly correfpond.” The committee were the Rev.
N. Mafkelyne, Rev. John Mitchell, Rey. William Ludlam,
Mr. John Bird, Mr. Thomas Mudge, Mr. Larcum Kendal,
and Mr. William Matthews. Mr. Harrifon had then ano-
ther 500ol. ordered him, with a promife that the refidue of
the whole parlimentary reward ; which, by the act of queen
Anne, was 20,000l., fhould be given him when a. proper
perfon could be found to execute his plan with equal fuc-
cefs, Mr. Larcum Kendal, one of the committee already
alluded to, undertook the tafk, and finifhed a time-
piece on the fame con{truétion, or at leaft on the fame prin-
ciples, which was approved by Mr. Wales, in his voyage in
company with captain Cook in the years 1772, 1773, &c.
and which Dr. Hutton fays performed even better than Har-
rifon’s, allowing for an acceleration in-its rate. In confe-°
quence of this fuccefs, the parliament, to which an ap~
peal was made, ordered the a of the propofed reward
2 i ‘ta*
CHRONOMETER,
to be paid; in addition to which, the gratuities of the Board
of Longitude, of the Eaft India company, and of others,
contributed to augment the whole fum to about 24,000l.
It fhould feem from Dr. Hutton’s account, under the
article Longitude of his Mathematical Ditionary, contrary to
Dr. Mackay’s authority in his book on the longitude, that
the parliamentary rewards were made to the Harrifons by
two equal payments of 10,0001. each; to reconcile which
accounts, we applied to Dr. Mafkelyne for authentic infor-
mation, but, with his ufual referve, the Door declined
giving us any information on the fubje&. The difcrepancy
in the dates of our two authorities, which agree in the whole
amount, is not, however, of much importance. The com-
pliment of the 20,0001. was granted by parliament in the
year 1774, and at the fame time the new aét paffed for re-
gulating the future rewards. For the credit of our ingeni-
ous countryman, we fhould have been happy to clofe our
narrative of Mr. Harrifon’s fourth time-piece here, but, as
we profefs to give an impartial detail of all the fatts that have
come to our knowledge, relative to the different trials made
of it, we are under the neceffity of adding a further notice,
which is calculated to detra& confiderably from its merit,
that might feem to have been already indubitably efta-
blithed. Though the piece had agreed with the longitudes
of Portfmouth, Jamaica, and Barbadoes, to a great nicety,
and had alfo accorded very well with the known longitudes of
fome intermediate iflands, yet it was by no means certain
that the refults would have been fo exa& if taken on in-
termediate days; or, in other words, a coincidence of the
rate with mean time at the end of the voyage, was no proof
that there muit have been the fame coincidence in every part
of it: to put the piece, therefore, to a more rigorous teft,
the Board of Longitude, held April 26, 1766, came to a
refolution to have it examined at the Royal Obfervatory from
nearly the beginning of May of that year, to the end of Fe-
bruary of the year following ; accordingly, Dr. Mafkelyne
received the piece from the hands of Philip Stephens, Efq.
now Sir Philip Stephens, who was at thet time fecretary to
the Admiralty, on the 5th of May, and, in the prefence of
Captain Thomas Baillie, of the Royal Hofpital, Green-
wich; of Mr. John Ibbetfon, fecretary to the Board of
Longitude ; and of Mr. Larcum Kendal already mentioned,
it was depofited in a deal box made purpofely to contain it,
with a glafs cover made fecure with putty. The box had
two locks of different wards, and two keys to each lock ;
alfo a pane of glafs in the fide fecured with putty; and
whenever the piece was afterwards wound up, one of the
keys was ufed by Dr. Mafkelyne, or one of his affiftants,
Jofeph Dymond and William Bayly, and the other by Cap-
tain Baillie, or one of the officers at Greenwich Hofpital ;
and the conftant formality of a written teftimony was ufed,
we are told, not only when the piece was wound up, but
alfo when a comparifon of the rates of it and the obferva-
tory regulator was taken and regiftered. Dr. Mafkelyne
afterwards publifhed the refults, under the title of ‘* The
original Obfervations of the going of the Watch from Day
to Day,’ in a quarto pamphlet, from which we have ex-
tracted, or rather deduced, the fubjoined notices. The trial
commenced on the 6th of May, 1766, and ended on the
ift of March, 1767, including a {pace of 298 days, in which
period the piece gained on mean folar time 1° 10" 27°.5 ;
this accumulated error, divided by 298, gives 14°.2 very
nearly, for the rate, or mean daily gain. Onexamining the
different columns of the pamphlet, and the calculations
grounded thereon, to afcertain the daily errors, both of the
regulator and time-piece, as compared with'the folar tranfits
properly equated, we find a daily gain of the piece on mean
time, on June Sth, amounting to 30.2, or more than half
a minute; which greatcit deviation was when it was in a
vertical pofition with XII. higheft, and the thermometer at
60° ; the barometer being at the fame time at 29.9; but on
fome other days the piece was, on the contrary, lofing, par-
ticularly in January 1767, when the thermometer was down
at the freezing point; on one day in particular, the 4th,
the daily lofs was as much as 6°.5, when the pofition was hori-
zontal with the face upwards. Dr. Hutton, fpeaking of
this trial, has faid in his DiGtionury, that ** the watch was
now found to go faiter than during the voyage to and from
Barbadoes, by 18 or 19 feconds in 24 hours ;”’ this obfer-
vation, however, is only accurate for the months of May,
July, and about the end of OGober and beginning of No-
vember, and that when the pofition was horizontal and face
upwards; but, even in this pofition, the temperature, in
other months, produced confiderable irregularity in the daily
rate. Whenever the pofition was vertical, or inclined 20°
from a horizontal line, the rate depended greatly on the
hour of the dial plate that was uppermoft, independently
of temperature: from all which deduétions, it is evident,
that the time-piece wanted three adjuftments to be made at
the time of its trial at the obfervatory ; viz. firft an adjuft-
ment for an error of 14*.2 in the mean rate, fuppofing the
gains to have been equable at equal intervals of time; fe-
condly, an adjuftment for pofition ; and, thirdly, an adjuit-
ment for temperature ; and, indeed, we find, according to
Dr. Hutton, that Harrifon ‘* had altered the rate of its
going, by trying fome experiments, which he had not time
to finifh before he was ordered to deliver up the watch to the
Board.” ‘Thus this trial, with all its precautions and for-
malities, was more calculated, perhaps, to prejudice the
public opinion refpe&ting the future dependence to be placed
in a time-keeper, than to appreciate the intrinfic value of a
well regulated and well adjufted machine; and we cannot
forbear adding, as our concluding remark, that Kendal’s
time-piece, tried and approved by Mr. Wales, was made
after Harrifon’s model during or after this trial; and that
the inventor’s fubfequent appeal to parliament was attended
ultimately with the defired fuccefs.
CHRONOMETER, or Time-keeper, by Mudge. Plate XIII.
of Horology, contains fo much of the effential parts
of Mr. Thomas Mudge’s time-keeper, as will enable the
reader to form a competent idea of its conitruétion and man-
ner of performance. In the “ Defcription of the Time-
keeper,”’ publifhed in 1799, by Mr. Thomas Mudge, Jun.
there are nine plates, eight of which are taken up in exhibiting
the different plans and feétions of the various parts feen in
different points of view; they were drawn by Mr. Penning-
ton, the original workman employed by the two Mudges,
father and fon; but inftead of copying any of the plates,
except our figures 6 and 7, which are from his Plate II., we
have judged it to be more defirable to procure original draw-
ings of atime-keeper, from one in the poffeffion of the faid
Mr. Pennington, who now lives at the corner of Orchard
Row, Camberwell, and who has obligingly given us his aflift-
ance as well as permiffion to analyfe the piece. It is not ne-
ceflary to give a particular account of the calliper of Mudge’s
time-keeper, as it does not differ in any material particular
from that of the chronometers by other makers; nor is there
any thing worthy of particular notice in the fufee, different
from that of an ordinary watch, except that there is the
auxiliary fpring making with it a going fu/ee of the ordinary
conttruétion. (See the defcription of Brockbank’s Chronome-
ter.) The barrel however, which contains the main {pring,
is very fimilar to Harrifon’s, and differs from ordinary bar-
rels. Fig. 6, reprefents this barrel with the chain ¢oiled
round,
CHRONOMETER.
round, as it appears before it is wound up. A is the edge
of the upper plate, and B of the pillar plate of the frame;
the barrel is compofed of two diltinét parts, C and D,
which together may be denominated an entire box, of
which D is the body or box portion, and C the cover or lid ;
this lid C, which is attached to the arbor EF’, is of itfelf,
by Mr. Mudge, called the chain barrel, becaufe the chain
is wound round it; wd the box part, D, is alfo of itfelf
called the {pring barrel, becaufe it contains within it the
main fpring. A feétion of this jig. 6. is feen parallel to
it in fg. 7, where the fame letters imply the fame parts;
from the latter of which it appears clearly that the portion
C of the greater diameter may revolye with its arbor EF, fe-
parately from the other portion D. Gin both jigs. 6 and
7, denotes a ratchet-wheel made in form of a rim or broad
ring, with its inclined teeth on the outer or convex circum-
ference, and is foldered, or fcrewed, to the lower end of
the rim of the box D, in fuch a way, that a very
{mall portion of the interior, or concave part, projects in-
wards into the box: this projecting part has a fhoulder-
turned away in the lathe from its upper plane, which makes
the part within the box thinner than the part without, as
may be feen in fig. 7; the bottom of the box aa is de-
tached, and is of a diameter juft fufficient to allow it to en-
terthe infide of the box; it has a correfponding fhoulder
turned in the lathe at the’ circumference on its lower plane,
which fhoulder refts on the above defcribed fhouider in the
concave projecting part of the ratchet; the ufe of this
eontrivance is this; the box, with its loofe bottom in it, is
placed on the plane of the plate A, andthe bottom aa,
perforated in the centre for the revolving arbor, is fecured
to it by two {crews or more, entering from the plate, fo
that though the box may be faid to be atiached to the plate
by its bottom, yet its rim is at liberty to turn along with
the ratchet firmly fattened to it, while the bottom is at relt
{crewed to the plate, and the motion of the ratchet will be
free or impeded in proportion to the quantity of preflure
which the fixing ferews occafion on the two fhoulders al-
réady deferibed. The parts being thus arranged, it is eafy
to conceive that aclick, {crewed to the plate A at any con-
venient part of it, and taking into the teeth of the
ratchet G, will hold the box, or fpring-barrel, from going
ina retrograde direétion, as well as if the box itfelt had
been {crewed to the plate A, but it will {till be at liberty to
revolve in the contrary dire&tion on the application of any
external force to it. Suppofe now the outer end of the
fpring, hooked as ufual, to the interior fide of the barrel or
box oppofite D, while the inner end is hooked on a pin in
the arbor within the box alfo; the confequence will be,
that the chain, which is eoiled round its barrel or lid C,
being wound away by the fufee, in the a& of winding, will
pull the arbor round, and its force will apply direlly to the
interior end of the main fpring firft, becaufe this is hooked
to the arbor, and the coils of the fpring will follow one
another fucceffively up to the centre, as the intenfity of the
{pring is increaled by winding; whereas, in ordinary watches,
where the {pring-barrel itfelf revolves without the arbor,
the outer end of the {pring is firft aéted upon in winding up,
and the coils near the centre are laft affeéted by the force
that winds, When the {pring requires to be fet up or down,
it is done by turning the {pring-barrel and ratchet together
with the contained fpring, while the click is raifed from the
teeth of the ratchet, the arbor of the chain-barrel then
being ftationary, or revolving no otherwife than according
to the flow motion which the train regulates. The chain is
wound round the fufee in a dire&tion which a&tuates the
wheels of the train in a backward manner, compared with
the motion of an ordinary train, which dire&ion of motion
requires an additiona] wheelin the dialwork ; for a fmall
wheel of 45 fixed to the arbor of the contrate wheel drives
another of the fame number of teeth in a proper direétion
for indicating feconds, on a feparate graduated circle, at a
diftance from the centre of the face; nor is the fecond,
ufually called the centre wheel, placed in the centre of the
hour and minute circles, as is common in watches ; though
oppolite the centre of the face; but fits prolonged pivot
bears a minute wheel of 52, driving a fimilar detached mi-
nute wheel, and alfo an attached pinion of 8 driving an
hour wheel of g6, both which driven wheels have cannons
to carry their refpective hands round two concentric circles,
placed at the other fide of the centre of the dial. This
method of placing the hands allows the contrate and ceutre
wheels to have {mall pivots. The numbers of the move~
ment publifhed by Mudge are as follow: viz. the great
wheel has 109 teeth, the pinion ating with it 20, the cen-
tre wheel or fecond whee] 120, the next pinion 16, the
third wheel 120, the pinion driven by it 15, the contrate
wheel 120, the pinion driven by it 12, balance wheel 15,
fo}
pallets 2; whence it feems that the fufee revolves in — or
BIN) x40) 12 60
5 hours, and the contrate wheel in —- x —=>=—
16 15 1?
or 60 times in the hour, and the value of the train is?
according to our method of eftimating Harrifon’s train,
ZO) NTO TON nex 2
LO) B5)'< 82
hour, or five in each fecond. With this movement a
fufee with 74 turns or fpirals in the groove, aétuates the
piece 36 hours ; but there is a face laid down in Mudge’s
book fora continuance of eight days, the circles for the
hours and minutes in which are at oppofite fides of the
prolonged pivot of the centre wheel arbor, and the hour
circle counts up to 24, which is certainly more convenient
for aitronomical calculations, than one with only 12 hours.
On fearching for an account of the train of this con{truc-
tion, we are only informed, by Mr. Mudge, jun. that fuch
of the time-keepers as went eight days, were charged higher
than thofe which continued at one winding only 36 hours;
but the numbers of the movement are not given by him; on
application to Mr. Pennington, however, we have been fa-
voured with them, which are as follow, viz. great wheel
108, pinion on the centre wheel 12, centre wheel 128,
pinion following 12, fecond wheel of the train, or
third of the whele movement 120, pinion driven by it
on the next arbor 12, contrate wheel 120, pinion
following on the balance wheel arbor 12, crown
wheel .15, pallets 2; fo that the value of the train ie
128 X 120 X 120 X 15 X 2 =55296000
= 15000 vibrations in each
= 32000, on
Tx 2) y2.1728 3 ;
a fuppofition that the certre wheel revolves inan hour; but
we find from the dial-work, which has what is called dor.
rowed minutes, that this wheel revolves in 12 of an houror
in 1.7 hours, therefore =°3, of 32000 = 18e00 is the true
train by the wheels and pinions before us; the hour hand
revolves in 435 of 1".7 = 24; and the fufee revolves in
11? x 722 of an hour, whichis = 16 hours; therefore a
fufee with juft 12 turns will continue to go eight days, as.
was intended.
Fig. 1. of Plate XIII. is a perfpeétive view of the cock
of Mudge’s time-piece, fuppofed to be detached from the
upper plate of the frame: the dotted f{piral round the centre
is the balance regulating-fpring, to which there is a corre-
{ponding one underneath, called the compenfation-{pring.
8 Direétly
CHRONOMETER.
PireAly over thefe {prings is placed a {maller concentric
frame fupported by three pillars, a, 2, a, on the principal cock,
and bearing four fri€tion-rollers, of which the centres are
marked by four points at the extremities of the dotted f{piral ;
thefe points are here f{uppofed to be demitted from the fame
plate to the large cock, as the former is taken off to fhow
the {piral-{pring ;’ the pivot of the balance-arbor runs in the
central point where the four rollers nearly meet, and touches
the circumference of each, fo as to produce arotatory motion
in each that leflens the friétion at the pivot; 44 is a metallic
fliding-piece filed away on the fide next the centre, to avoid
the regulating-fpring, and placed on the plane of the cock,
to adjutt one of the curb-pins for regulating the piece, which
it carries underneath it ; the cock has an oblong flit in it
near the {crew at 4, for the pin to move backwards and for-
wards during the aét of adjultment, and the flider itfelf has
two oblong flits, one at the faid ferew, and the other at one
of the little frame pillars, which flits not only admit ef a
longitudinal motion of the flider, but alfo keep it in its due
line of pofition during ‘the motion of adjyftment: at ¢ is an
arbour, {quare at the end to admit a key, but round below,
znd has a fine {crew at the remote end, which preffes
againtt a ftud-din the cock, where is a third opening for the
iiud, thereby moving the flider in confequence of the part ¢,
which is turned up at its end, being tapped to fuit the ferew
of the arbor of adjultment : on the middle of the faid arbor
is a nut between ¢ and <, divided into 30 on its edge, which
is pointed to by a fixed line on a ttationary piece adjoining,
through which ‘the arber pafles. There is, moreover, a
fcale, f, attached to the large cock, to which a line on the
‘lider near e points as an index of adjultment, and moves one
fpace for every entire turn of the fcrew, which is an addi-
won of Pennington’s to the original conftrution. g is an
horle-fhoe-fpring placed on the cock to force back the
flider, when the icrew has a retrograde motion. Thefe parts
and their ufes, it is prefumed, will be eafily apprehended
from our drawing, without the variety of views which Mr.
Madge has given in his plates. The flider is held down to
the plane of the cock by thedferew near 4 at the curb-pin,
and alfo by a collet going over the ftud d, and pinned on.
‘There is a fecond curb-pin fixed ona detent, or ftraight
picce of fteel, riveted to the under fide of the piece 4, and
croffing the flider at right angles; this curb-pin is borne by
the interior extremity of the detent, and the adju{tment is
nade by the ferew and ftuds i ferewed into the cock, and
fitted fideways into two notches in the piece 4; the {crew on
4, which holds the whole down, paffes through an oblong
hole, covered by its head, to admit of the adjuftment of
diftance. ‘The mechanifm of this fecond curb-pin, we fear,
will not be very intelligible, as fome of the parts are necef-
farily out of fight: & is the ftud of ‘the regulating fpring,
and / a piece made purpofely to cover the fecond ferew of
the large cock, which ferew, therefore, cannot be taken out
for difmounting the cock until this cover is taken off, and
the cover itfelf cannot be removed till the regulating fpring-
{tud is previoufly taken off: this precaution was neceflary
to prevent thé derangement or breaking of the balance re-
gulating-fpring, one of which would follow, if the cock
were difmounted without the ftud being firlt unf{crewed ; the
nature of the precaution is this; the cover / moves on its
centre, below J, as on a pivot, and the round part at the
upper end covers one of the two fcrews of the cock, until the
ftud, embraced by the femi-circular fork of the other end, is
removed, when the cover / then is at liberty: the other
correfponding ferew for fixing the cock is vilible at the op-
pofite projection above c. ig. 2, reprefents the fecond
balance-fpring and mechanifm of compenfation for the
I
effeéts of heat and eold, as they appear when the cock i
Jig. 1. is removed from the upper plate of the frame; aa is
a piece of brafs {crewed to the plate by the three {crews
d,d,d 3 e and f are two fimilar compenfation-bars, compofed
of brafs and fteel foldered together, with their pofitions re-
verfed ; that is, the piece e has the brafs fide next to ¢, and
the piece f has the fteel fide next to f; thefe compound
pieces, feen in a detached ftate in fy. 3, with their interior
curved ends paffing each other, are -ferewed, each by two
{crews, at their outer ends, to the fimilar pieces g and ¢,
which are themfelves {crewed to the long piece aa, but in
fuch a way that they are adjuitable, when their fixing
{crews are not home; the adjuttment is made by the two
fimilar horizontal {crews at 4 and 4, which fit the fluds that
appear at 7 and z in the oblong apertures of the pieces ¢ and
g left for the ftuds; and by thefe, together with the narrow
apertures, and two other fmaller ftuds £ and £, one at each in-
terior end of the faid pieces g and g,is preferved the parallelifim
of the motion of adjultment : // 1s a lever or detent, carrying
a curb, or piece with two pins at the upper end, a little di-
ftance from the ftud m ofthe regulating {pring, and having a
little curve to avoid the balance-verge, together with two
fort levers or tails, near the rounded projeétion of the
cocks band ¢; this detent is fixed on an arbor, which is
pivoted above into the cock 4, and below into the foot x
of the cock ¢, which is let down, out of fight, through an
aperture in the plate; the lever of the detent, however, is
prolonged back to a confiderable diftance behind the cock
to the end g of the crofs-piece of aa, on which is deferibed
a portion of a circle divided into 20 equal fpaces, to indicate,
as a thermometer, the fituation of the curb at any particular
time; which is another addition contrived by Pennington,
Now the a¢tion of the compenfation-bars in the time-keeper,
denominated d/ue, is this; becaufe brafs is more elongated
by heat, and alfo more contracted by cold than fteel, the
former will be longer in fummer and fhorter in winter than
the latter; the confequence of which will be, (as we have
already faid, when {peaking of Harrifon’s compenfation
mechanifm, from which it fhould feem the principle of this
is borrowed,) that the metal moft elongated will become
convex in hot, and concave in cold weather; for inftance,
the compound bar e, with»the brafs fide next to e, will be-
come concave in cold weather on the brafs fide, and, its re-
mote end being fait by the {crews to the fixed piece g, the
interior end will move forward to form the curve and prefs
below the remote tail-piece of the detent, which detent will
therefore move and bring the curb towards 0, the other
compound bar f in the mean time becommg convex on
the fide f, will make way for the motion of the other tail+
piece that points to e, by falling back at the fame rate with
which the other bar moves forward ; but in hot weather the
contrary will take place, i. e. the interior end of the piece f will
come forwards and prefs on the other remote tail-piece, and
the end of the piece e will give way for the backward motion
of the tail-piece pointing to /, the curb in the mean ume hav-
ing its motion in a direction towards p: the former of thefe
two contrary motions of the curb will fhorten the fpiral-
{pring, or, at leaft, the effective portion of it, as the curb
limits its aétion, and the latter will lengthen the fame: but
it is well known, that a fhort {pring has greater force than
a long one, celeris paribus ; likewile, that the altered mo-
mentum of the balance retards the rate in hot weather,
and vice veri; hence, the increafed force of the {pring in
cold weather thus becomys a compenfation for the fluggifh
motion of the balance occafioned by the fame natural caufe}
and the contrary in the oppofite extreme of temperature.
Mr. Mudge junior might feem to have been guilty of an
error
a
——
CHRONOMETER.
error in his “ Defeription, &c.’?- page 169, of this part of
his mechanifm, but he is there defcribing the time keeper
green; the compenfation-bars in which were made ‘to act
with the tail-pieces of the detent, which point refpectively
dowards them inftead of thofe which point from them > the
nature of the aétion of the tail-pieces in d/ve, is, on the con-
trary, as we have deferibed, and as is clearly feen by the
view we have given of the pofition of thefe bars in jig. 3.
There is an error in the account by Mudge of this part of
his mechanifm, where he afferts, that ** the natural effe& of
heat is to leflen the momentum of the balance: and of cold
to increafe it.” We beg leave to obferve on this, perhaps
unguarded, affertion, that whatever caufe enlarges the dimen-
fions of the balance muft undoubtedly increale its momen-
tum ; and that heat has this effect is evident from the curve
formed by the fuperior elongation of brafs compared with
the lefs expanfible metal, fteel. Hence, the fpiral is fhort-
ened by the curb-in fummer and lengthened in winter.
In Fig. 4 (Plate XIIL.) ais a cock in which the upper
pivot of the upper pallet runs; the cock 4 is that in which
the lower pivot of the lower pallet runs; c is the cock, on
the nofe of the potence, on which both thofe pivots run that
are near the axis of the balance-wheel; dis the cock in
which one of the balance-pivots runs; ¢ the cock for the
other pivot of the balance-wheel ; and f the potence fcrew-
ed to the under fide of the upper plate, and bearing the
{mall cocks, nearly in the relative pofitions in which they
ftand in the figure ; it may be proper to add, that the femi-
circular vertical excavation in eis to admit the arbors of the
pallets within it, and that the pivot holes on thefe cocks are
all jewelled.
fig. 5 (Plate XIII.) exhibits a perfpeGive view of the
balance, on an enlarged fcale, which is in the original of
half an inch diameter, together with the auxiliary {prings
which are fubftituted for the maintaining power, the ba-
Yance-wheel, and the pallets. A B is the balance,and EF
its verge, fhaped like acrank, of which the pivots I and K
run in two fyftems of rollers, that have each:a little frame,
one of which has already been deferibed under our defcrip-
tion of fig. 1, to which the lower one, placed at K, and fup-
ported by apillar fixed to the upper plate, is fimilar: one of
the crofles of the balance bears a piece, M, to counterpoife
the crank of the verge, and to keep the balance in equili-
brio. C is the ftud of the regulating fpring, placed, as we
have already feen, on the cock of the balance ; and D is the
ftud of the compenfation-fpring, ferewed to the upper plate
of the frame; thefe two {prings are both attached by their
interior ends to the upper part of the verge above the crank,
and have thin helices wound in the fame direction. ‘The
reafon why the verge has the fhape of a crank, is,, that the
little cocks or bearing pieces, reprefented in fig. 4, may have
room for being fixed in their refpeCtive fituations to catch the
pivots of the balance-wheel arbor, and of the two pallet ar-
bors, cd and gh, which arbors are exhibited in fig. 5, with-
out their cocks, in order that the atting parts of the ef-
capement may be prefented to view ; a is.a pin, projecting
from the upper bend of the crank verge, which in its motion
meets with another longer pin, 2, made fa{t to the arbor of
the upper pallet, which pallet is feen a little curved with a
{mall bend or hook at the outer end, between the letters c and
d: this pallet-arbor has the. upper auxiliary {pring fixed to
it by its interior end, the outer end being pinned to the ftud
at H; G isthe pallet-wheel with its arbor difcontinued near
the place where the contrate-wheel pinion is fixed. Mr.
Nicholfon has given a very good account of the action of
Mudge’s efcapement in the 2d volume of his Journal, 4to
Series, page 57, but has reprefented the fhape of the tooth
in this balance-wheel fimilar to that in an ordinary watch,
which, indeed, Mr. Atwood had done before him in the
Philofophical Tranfaétions of 1794; thefe authors have alfo
omitted to mention the {pring of compenfation, which we
here notice, becaufe their readers would otherwife be at a ies,
from the view of the figure, to know how the compenfation
for temperature is effected, or, indeed, whether there is any
at all; their obje& being only the account of the fprings as
they related to the balance and efcapement. Pennington,
who made the drawing for Mr. Atwood’s paper, tells us,
however, that the fhape given to the tecth is not of much im-
portance. There is another pin, e, at the bottom of the
crank, fimilar to 2 above, and alfo a fecond pallet-arbor, ¢4,
carrying another pin, f; and a fecond auxihary fpring, the
outer end of which is pinned into the ftud I: the helix of
this {pring is wound in a direction contrary to that of the
upper auxiliary {pring. We have endeavoured to give fuch
a perfpective reprefentation of the mechanifm of efcapement,
together with the balance and compenfation, in one figure,
as might exhibit to view al the parts of aétion; and the ef-
fe& produced when the time-keeper goes, may be thus de-
{cribed.
There are fix fprings employed in the time-keeper: the
main fpring, the {pring of the going-fufee, the regulating or
pendulum-fpring pinned at C, the {pring of compenfation
pinned at D, and the two auxiliary {prings on the two pal-
let-arbors ; let us fuppofe all thefe {prings exaétly in their
natural ftate of qniefcence, and that the crank verge, and
pins on the two bends of it, are fo adjuited as to reft qui-
etly againit the pins 2 and f of the pallet-arbors : alfo let
the two pallets be at liberty, one remaining in the {pace dia-
metrically oppofite the ating tooth which refts again{t the
other, which will be the cafe as the number of teeth is an
odd number (15); in ‘this fituation all the arbors wili re-
main at reit till fome force isimpreffed on the balance-wheel,
provided the piece be fuffered to lie ona table; now wind
up the main-fpring, and the {pring of the going-fufee will
be firft put into a ftate of intenfity, and then the power will
be tranfmitted through the train, with fome occafional varia-
tions of intenfity, ariling from the unavoidable friction of the
teeth of the train, up to the balance-wheel, which will be im-
pelled forward, till, pufhing againit one ofthe pallets, fay the
upper one, it meets with fome refiltance from the auxiliary
{pring on the pailet-arbor ; however, the power of the mein-
{pring is fufficient to wind this auxiliary {pring up till the
tooth of the balance-wheel, fliding on the concave fide of
the pallet, is topped by the little hook at its extremity,
which hook of the pallet now acts as a detent, and arreils
the further motion of the pallet-whgel as urged by the main-
fpring ; the quantity that the pallet-arbor revolves during
this fhort action of the pallet-wheel, we are told, is about
27°. ‘Now all is at reft again, and would continue fo, if no
external force were’to put the balance in motion: let there-
fore an impulfe be given to the balance fufficient to make it
move through a femi-vibration, which in one of the original
machines was 133° with one of its balances, and 119 with
another ; during this femi-vibration, the pin a of the crank
catches the pin 4 of the pallet-arbor at the 27th degree from
the ftate of quiefcence, and canfequently difengages the
pallet, and goes on winding up the auxiliary {pring the re-
mainmg 106°, the balanceywheel in the mean time running
on, on being difengaged from the detaining pallet, by the
tmpulfe of the main-{pring, till it arrives at the hook of the
lower pallet ; but during this unrettrained motion, it has no
connection whatever with the balance; on which account it
is that the efcapementis called a detached one; detached, as;
it.relates to the main-fpsing, except for the moment of un-
: locking,
CHRONOMETER.
locking, which is not more than .?-th part of the time of a
vibration, but not detached, as it relates to the auxiliary
{pring, which is ufed as a fub{titute for the maintaining
power; for we -have feen that the pin in the crank of
the balance verge impels the pin in the pallet-arbor all the
time that the auxiliary {pring is wound through a fpace of
106°, ‘The balance wheel by the impulfe of the main-
{pring having now urged the lower pallet iil it is detained
by the bend in its extremity, the pin f in the lower pallet-
arbor has alfo in its turn been moved 27° from the place
of reit, in which fituation it is now ready to be caught by
the pin ¢ in the lower bend of the crank verge; at length
the balance begins to return from the point at 133°, the ex-
tremity of its vibration, and in its turn is impelled by the pin
6, acting againft the pin a of the crank, during the whole
femi-vibration of 133°, fo that it is itfelf impelled 27° more
than itimpels the pin, and the difference of the continuation
of the two-alternate impulfes conftitutes the quantum of
maintaining impulfe, that keeps the piece in continual mo-
tion; which quantum, in faét, is a deduétion from the re-
tarding force in the latter femi-arc of vibration, rather than
an addition to the impulfive force in the firft femi-arc.
The balance-crank in its return on paffing the point of ori-
ginal quiefcence, has done with the fpring of the upper
pallet, which now remains in the pofition we at firft found
it; but when the crank has paffed the point of original qui-
efcence the {pace of 27°, its pine meets with the pin fof
the lower pallet-arbor, which is in its turn impelled by the
{aid pin e, the {pace of 106°, exactly as the former one was ;
the former, or upper pallet, in the mean time being again
carried forward 27° by the next following tooth of the
wheel; at length this femi-vibration is complete, and the ba-
Jance-crank returns, driven by the pin f through the whole
133° to the point of its {pring’s quiefcence as it was before
‘by the pin 4, and thus the procefs is finifaed through
two fucceffive excurfions ; which procefs may be conceived
to continue for months, or even years, without interruption.
Some of the balance-wheels were made of tempered itecl
and fome of ‘brafs, and the ating portions of the pallets of
flint, agate, ruby, or fapphire. The two flender fprings
within the crank, which have been jult defcribed, are
denominated auxiliary {prings, becaufe they aid the two
other {prings in the refpeétive returning parts of each vibra-
tion, and in this point of view may be confidered alfo as re-
gulating fprings, but, being only 4th of the ftrength of
each of the others, are too weak of themfelves to perform
this office without the addition of the other more powerful
ones, one of which has its effeGtive length conftantly, though
very flowly, changing by the fucceffive changes of atmo-
{pheric temperature, which is the reafon why we called it the
compenfation-fpring.
It is of the utmolt importance that all the four fprings of
the balance fhould be at their refpective points of quiefcence
when the balance is at reft, otherwife the law of their forces,
which is aflumed to be direGly as their tenfions, will not be
the fame in all, and fome may be accelerating while others
are retarding, whereas they ought all, like one {pring, to ac-
celerate and retard the balance conjointly in every part of the
vibration, unlefs, indeed, the large {prings are found not to be
ifochronal, and the fmall ones have their points of qniefcence
fo placed as to effet a compenfation, which Mr. Atwood,
in his ingenious paper of Feb, 27, 1794, in the Philofophical
Tranfactions, has fhewn to be a fcafible adjultment. For
inftance, if the point of quiefcence of each of the auxiliary
{prings, orevenof oneof them, beplaced fomewhere in the firlt
femi-arc of vibration of the balance, the acceleration effected
thereby will be lefs in this than the retardation will be in the
following femi-are ; in confeqnence of which the time-keeper
will go flower; but if the point of quiefcence of the auxiliary
fpring be in the latter femi-arc of vibration, the contrary will
be the cafe, that is, the time-keeper will accelerate its rate ;
nay, if the quantity of deviation from the exa& point of qui-
efcence be only cne degree of a circle, the fame author has
calculated that where the balance is of one inch radius, and
of a correfponding given weight, the daily gain or lofs will
be about 193%, and the quantity increafes with the diminution
of the arc of vibration; fo that if the arc of vibration were
to become 60°, in one cafe the daily lofs would be 44° 33,
and in the other the daily gain would be 43°.6; which con-
fideration fhews the imperious neceflity of having the points
of -quiefcence of all the fprings exaétly adjufted ; and alfo
that the pins inthe pallet-arbors be fteadily fixed ; for an al-
teration in their pofitions is in faét an alteration in the qui-
efcent points of the auxiliary fprings.
Tf we were to reafon from theory, we fhould be difpofed,
from the confideration we have given this mechanjf{m, to fay,
that the principle upon which it is conftruéted is excellent,
inafmuch as the impulfes given to the balance, and the oppo-
fitions made to it during its vibrations, are in proportion to
the dittance from the point of relt at all times, agreeably to
the laws of gravity in a pendulum; the difcontinuance of
the retarding force for a {pace of 27° in each excurfion, de-
ranges as little as may be the feale of varying forces by which
the regulation is effected ; whereas in the other detached
efcapements, where the impulfe from the train is momentary,
fuch impulfe, to be powerful enough to maintain the con-
tinual motion of the balance, may be fuppofed to partake of
the nature of a jeré, and to derange the regularity of the
fcale of forces, according to which, the balance-{pring ought
naturally to aét ; however, in praétice it has not been proved
that this conftruction exceeds fome of the more fimple ones ;
but we will not undertake to affirm, that the affertion is
quite accurate which fays, that the great number of pivots
requiring oil, and the various {prings that require adjuftments
for time, temperature, power, and pofition render it ex-
tremely difficult to obtain a permanent rate. It is faid by
the younger Mr. Mudge, that his father conceived the idea
of making a time-keeper, and had organized his notions re-
fpeéting its conftruGion, fo early as Auguft 1771, before he
knew the conftrudtion of Harrifon’s ; which feems probable,
from various obfervations made in his ** Thoughts on the
Means of improving Watches,” publifhed in 1763, and
written fome time before; but were we difpofed to judge
alone from a comparifon of the principles of his and Harrifon’s
time-keepers, we fhould at lealt fay, that there is a remarkable
refemblance, almoit too great for accidental coincidence ; the
principle of the compenfation mechanifm is precifely the
fame, and the auxiliary {prings, though greatly different in
their mode of a&ing. the one being before and the other be-
hind the balance-wheel, the one wound up eight times in a
minute, and the other once at each vibration, yet the objec is
the fame in both, namely, to give a regularly modified impulfe
to the balance, which balance again has a great momentum
in both conftruétions, in confequence of its enlarged dimen-
fions. Mr. Mudge, in a letter dated Plymouth, Oct. 5, 17755
and addreffed to his excellency count Bruhl, his friend,
-fays, “ I do not think it difficult to deduce from reafons, a
priori, that there is one diameter (of a balance), with a pro-
portionable weight, by which a greater momentum will be
procured than by any other; and that you will lofe momen-
tum either by increafing or diminifhing that diameter ;”” he
does not, however, give thofe reafons, but has recourfe to ex-
periment. ‘The original balance was fuppofed to be too
heavy in proportion to its diameter, a larger but lighter one
was
CHRONOMETER.
was therefore made and tried, but the alterations neceflary
to be made in the cock rendered the trial doubtful, though
the opinion entertained was in favour of a diminifhed momen-
tum being occafioned by the alteration; a third was then
made, one-tenth of an inch bigger than the firft, and nearly
four-tenths lefs than the laft, ‘* and I find (fays our author)
upon comparing the diameters, vibrations, and weights of
_ the two (laft made) that the momentum of the leaft is to
the momentum of the biggeft as g to 7£ nearly.”?’ The fub~
joined are the data and calculations on which the above con-
clufion was founded ; viz.
Inches
f Diameter 2.15 x 266° = 571.9 = the velocity
Vibration 266°
Weight 56.5 grains
Then 571-9 X 571-9 = 327069.61 x 568.5 =
18479433 = momentum.
Inches
Diameter 2.47 x 238° = 587.86 = the velocity
Vibration 238°
Weight 45.5 graitis
Then $87.86 x 517.86 = 345579.3796 X 45*.5 =
15723862 = momentum.
Let it be remarked here, that Mr. Mudge has fuppofed all
the weight at the circumference of the balance, and has af-
certained the velocity from the diameter, which we apprehend
fhould have been from the radius or diftance from the centre
of motion, which mode would not indeed affect the relative,
but would double the real velocities ; alfo the {quare of the
velocity is multiplied by the weight, contrary to the opinion
of thofe who affert that the fimple velocity fhould be ufed as
a multiplicand for the weight ufed as a multiplier, in order to
effect a produ& equal to the momentum. According to this
latter rule, if we take the double velocity as before, the refpec-
tive momenta willbe 371.9 x 56.5 = 32312.35 and 587.86
x 45.5 = 26747.33, which refults are very nearly as 6
to 5.
i does not appear, notwithftanding the above calculation,
what was the relative power derived from the auxiliary
{prings, confidered as a maintaining power, compared with
the regulating power, which we have feen was 1 : Soin Har-
rifon’s time-keeper; nor is it quite certain, though very
probable from the account, that the balance, with the great-
eft momentum, was ufed in the trials of the going of the firft
time-keeper, on which an application was made for the par-
liamentary remuneration. Pennington found, from fome ex-
perimenis on a time-keeper that ftopped‘in a voyage, that
the neccflary force of a main-{pring fhould be to the force
juft fufficient to keep the piece in motidn at firlt, as 174 to
fod: i. e. when 104 02. will produce a continuance of mo-
tion at firll, 7 oz. more mutt be added for foulnefs in wear.
Thefe were the exaét proportions in green, though in d/ue
they were found fomewhat different.
Though Mr. Mudge had made and approved his firft
time-keeper, previoufly to Harrifon’s having obtained his
laft 10,000!., the complement of his rewards, which fum
was granted by parliament in 1774, yet he was unfartunate
enough to omit making application for the trial of his time-
keeper till the a& had paifed, which limited the whole re-
ward to 10,000l., or one half of that propofed by the aét
of queen Anne, and alfo rendered the limits of trial more
eircum{cribed ; the latter of which circumttances rendered
the attainment of even a portion of the diminifhed reward
more difficult, than the attainment of the whole great re-
ward which Harvifon was fortunate enough to obtain by his
indefatigable perfeverance. The aét of queen Anne al-
lowed to Harrifon’s trial’a voyage ef only ix weeks, at the
Vat. VIL.
leaft balance
end of which, if his time-keeper was found to have kept
time within four minutes of error, or ore degree of longi-
tude, he might claim a portion of the reward thereon; but
the time fpecified in the a& of 1774 was Gx months, during
which, the error was not to exceed four minutes, for the
fmalleft portion of. the reward. In the four trials made of
the time-keepers of Mr. Mudge by Dr. Mafkelyne, from
the years 1776 to 1790, the firlt of which trials was of N" 5,
in 1776, 1977, and 1778, and the fecond, third, and fourth
of the pieces denominated A/ue and green in 1779 and 1759,
again in 1783 and 1784, andagain in17&g and 1790, it ap-
peared from the Doétor’s reports to the Board of Longitude,
that none of the time-keepers had kept time within the
limits prefcribed by the a&t of Geo. III. On the rift of
arch, 1774, however, the aftronomer royal repctted to
the Board, that the (ift) wateh made by Mr. Mudge had
gained only 1™ 19° in rog days, in confequence of which, it
was refolved, that a letter be written tothe Navy Board
to pay Mr. Mudge jool. to enable him to finifh two more
watches on a fimilar conftruction, which was deemed pre+
ferable to any other that had been previoufly tried; but
after this, the main-{pring of this piece broke, and on being
replaced, the piece was found, on a trial of 15 months, com-
thencing on Nov. 11, 1776, to have gained daily 8°.6 at the
end, more than at the beginning of this fecond portion of
the trial. With refpeét to the three trials of the time-
keepers, b/ue and green, we fhall have occalion to {peak of
them hereafter. Since the publication of the “ Narrative’?
by Mr. Thomas Mudge junior, it is well known what the
difficulties were that Mr. Mudge encountered from the op-
pofition which the Board of Longitude raifed againft him
in his appeal to the Houfe of Commons, after his memo-
rial to the Board had been unfuccefsful on the 11th of June,
17gt. ‘To inquire into and afcertain the comparative
merits of Mr. Mudge’s time-keeper, however, a committee
was appointed by the houfe in confequence of the appeal
confifting of the following honourable members: viz, Mr.
Pitt, Mr. Fox, Mr. Ryder, Mr. Bragge, Sir Gilbert Elliot,
Mr. Gregor, Sir George Shuckburgh, and Mr. Windham,
of whom Sir George Shuckburgh was conlidered as the
friend of the Board of Longitude, and was therefore can-
didly propofed by Mr. Windham to witnefs all the mea-
fures about to be taken. ‘The committee very properly di-
rected their attention, in the firft inftance, to two material
objects; 1ft, to appoint a fub-committee of f{cientific gen-
tlemen, and men of praétical fill in mechanics, to examine
and report their opinion of the principles upon which the
conttru€tion was founded ; and {econdly, to afcertain by a
comparifon with other chronometers the accuracy which Mrs
Mudge’s time-keeper had given proof of in its aétual mea-
furement of time. The fub-committee nominated was
compofed of the following lift: viz.
The Bifhop of St. David’s, ) &
Mr. Atwood, > Scientific Gentlemen,
Mr. De Luc.
Mr. Ramfden,
Mr. Ed. Troughton.
Mr. Holmes,
Mr. Haley,
Mr. Howells.
This fub-committee after due examination made the fuls
joined report to the feleét committee, viz.
“© We whofe names are underwritten, to whom it hath
been referred, by a Select Cammittee of the Honourable
Houfe of Commons, to receive confidentially from Mr.
Mudge, a communication of the principles of his times
keeper, and te report ee being aflembled at the
Mathematical Inftru«
ment Matters.
> Watch Makers.
Seay
houle
CHRONOMETER.
houfeaf his Excellency Cont Bruhl, in Dover Street, on
Tuefday the 14th inflant, did canfe a time-keeper, which
was produced to us as one of the two made by Mr. Mudge,
and fubmitted to trial at the Royal Obfervatory at Green-
wich, for twelve months, from June 1789 to June 1790,
to be takén to pieces in our prefence, by Mr. Matthew
Dutton ;.and having carefully examined the parts of the
fame, we find a contrivance in it for deftroying the inequali-
tics of the maintaining power derived from the main f{pring,
which as far as we know and are informed is altogether
new ; and having confidered the fame, and put many quel-
tions concerning it to Mr. Mudge, jun. and Mr. Matthew
Dutton, we are of opinion, that the {aid contrivance is well
calculated for producing the defired effe€t, and that a dif-
clofure of it may conduce to confiderable improvements in
the art of making time-keepers. We moreover declare
that we find great {kill and ability difplayed in every part
of the workmanfhip, as well as much ingenuity in this
particular invention, At the fame time it is our opinion,
and we think it our duty to declare it fo to be, that no
judgment oan be formed of the exactnefs of any time-
keeper by theoretical’ reafoning upon the principles of its
con{truétion, with fuch certainty as with fafety to be relied
upon, except it be confirmed by experiments of the actual
performance of the machine.
SamueEv St. Davin’s,
Georce Atwoop,
Jesse RamspeEn,
Epwarp TrouGHTOoN,
Joun Homes,
Cuarves Hatey,
Dover Street, Wiriram Howe ts,
the zoth of May, 1793. }. A.ve, Ler?
Notwith{tanding this report and the teftimonies produced
by Mr. Mudge in favour of his three time-keepers, one
made in 1774, and the other two in 1777, from regilters kept
by Door Mafkelyne, Doétor Hornfby, Count Bruhl,
Doctor (now Baron) Zach, of Saxe Gotha, and Mr.
Dutton, who had been partner with Mr. Mudge, yet the
committee, at a lofs for an unerring rule by which to afcertain
at all times an exact rate to be depended upon in future
trials, declared it as their opinion that fome of Mr. Ar-
nold’s chronometers, particularly No. 36 and No. 68,
«« had gone with a degree of accuracy greater than could
be fhown on any correfponding trial of Mr. Mudge’s;”’ but
in another part of the report of the feleét committee, which
is too long to be copied at fulllength, it is faid, alluding to
the foregoing report of the fub-committee that ‘ in virtue
of this report, and of fuch other evidence as the inquiry
has furnifhed, your committee have no difficulty in declaring,
that they confider the improvement in queftion fufficiently
afcertained, and as likely to conduce to advantages fufh-
ciently important to attraét the notice of Parliament ;”?
then, after the attention of parliament had been directed to
the circumftances of a life, fpent in hope of benefiting the
public, more than of enriching the individual, the report
concludes with thefe words; viz. ‘* For thefe confidera-
tions, joined to thofe above fet forth, your committee think
themfelves authorized to recommend the petitioner to the
attention of the Houfe, conceiving that the circumftances
attending his cafe give him a {trong plea to favour; and
that the invention of which he is the author, contains an
important improvement in the art of conftru€ting time-
keepers, fuch as the Houfe might well wih to fecure to the
public, as well as to reward the perfon by whom it was pro-
duced.” Accordingly, in the year 1793, the Houfe of
Commons, after the examination of various witnefles, not-
withitanding the oppofition of the Board of Longitude,
granted to Mr, Mudge, in addition to the Sool. previoufly
received by way of encouragement, the further fum of
25001. under the aét of 1774.
We have faid that the fele€&t committee were without a
certain rule that would apply in all cafes to afcertain the
true rate of a time-keeper at each fucceffive period of triat,
a ftandard rate previoufly obtained being in point of accu-
racy no longer applicable than while the piece conforms to
that rate in going. The rule called ** Dr. Mafkelyne’s
method” is this; when the period of obfervation, or trial,
continues many months, he takes a mean rate from the
going in the fifi month, and applies it as the ftandard to
any fix fucceflive months after, mediate or immediate, which
method allows of fix periods in a year of fix months
each, or twelve in a year and half; and when a mean rate
taken from the firfl month was thus applied, whether it was
additive or fubtractive, the aggregate amount of the daily
errors thus equated, taken on any day of a period, is called
the error of that day, and the evidences brought againft the
going of Mudge’s watches were the greateff error, and alfo
the mean error, on an average of the whole period. Mr.
Mudge, on the contrary, wifhed the mean rate to be taken
on a period of at leait fix months, as Harrifon’s had been
on fix weeks, or whole time of trial, and produced as evi-
dence in favour of the going of his watch, the rate taken
from a mean of the daily errors during fix months of the
trial, and alfo the greateit deviation from that rate on any
two fucceflive or remote days, without regarding the aggre«
gate of the daily errors, or what is called she error at any
particular part of the trial,‘it being contended that the error
would never be very great if the rate were properly taken.
In confequence of thefe different opinions in reipeét to the
mode of judging of the performance of a time-keeper,
fome of the members put queftions to the witneffes, parti-
cularly to Dr. Mafkelyne, tending to afcertain, whether or
not a rate could be taken at fea as well as by land? and).
on being anfwered in the negative, in what time, on touch-
ing at any known point of land, the longitude of which is
known, a rate could be obtained ? to which the Doctor’s re-
ply was “a month:” and his reafon for requiring fo long
a time to get a rate, was, that in a voyage only the rates on
the firft and laft days can, he fays, be afcertained accurately,
but by land the fucceffive daily errors can be compared to-
gether, fo that if a fudden change takes place in the rate,
the date of that change can thus be afcertained, which he
contends is not the cafe ona trial at fea. It would fwell.
our prefent articletoo much were we to infert here all the
trials in favour of and againft Mudge’s time-keepers, and
alfo of thofe with which they were contralted; fuffice it
therefore that we refer the reader, who wifhea to know all
the particulars, to the ‘ Narrative’? publifhed by Mr.
Mudge, to Dr. Mafkelyne’s ‘* Anfwer to the Narrative,’””
and Mudge’s “ Reply to the Anfwer.? It will fatisfy the:
ordinary reader, we prefume, to know the annexed particu.
lars refpeGing the moft and leaft favourable trials. In the
firit trial by Dr. Mafkelyne, made during 15 months; from.
April 20, 1779, to July 17, 1780, the errors obtained. by
Dr. Maskelyne’s method of the time-keepers denominated
green and blue, eftimated from eight periods of fix months.
each, were thefe; viz.
OF green the mean error of eight periods was. 11’ 1”
The greateit - - - 16 25:
The leaft - . - 7. 20
OF dive, the mean error of the fame periods 22 go.
The greateft - - 36 26
The leatt. ° - =). bs 63
CHRONOMETER.,
In green, the daily error, or rate, was altered at the end
of the trial r1°.3 which was in excefs.
In S/ue the fame was more in excefs, viz. 18°.
This trial was the leaft favourable to both time-keepers.
The moft favourable trial of Green feems to have been
from 21ft July 1783, to 12th Sept. 1784, by Dr. Mafkelyne,
in which its mean error on feven periods was 3" 8*, the
greateft 7™ 10°, and the leaft 1™ 25*, the rate at the end
having become fafter by 3°.
But the moft favourable trial of Blue, feems to have
been its laft under Dr. Mafkelyne in the years 1789 and
1790, in which the leaft error, eftimated on fix periods of
fix months cach, was 3™ 5°, and the greateft 6™ o*, the acce-
leration of the rate being at the end 2°.5 per day. ‘lhe
proof in favour of Arnold’s No. 36 was, that the greateft
variation in its daily rate on a trial of 15 months by Dr.
Mafkelyne was 7°; that its greateft error on eleven periods
of fix months each, was 2™ 31°, and its mean error only
54°. The proof of Mr. Arnold’s No. 65 was froma trial
of Mr. Everard, of Lynn, in Norfolk, from which it ap-
peared, from 46 periods of fix months each, that the mean
error was, according to Dr. Mafkelyne’s method, only
2™ 33°, in only eight of which periods the error exceeded
4™, and that the greateft variation in its daily rate was 5°
taken on any two parts of its trial To thefe and other
comparative proofs againft Mr. Mudge’s time-keepers, the
inventor oppofed various trials, as we have before faid, under
Doétor Horniby, Count Bruhl, Admiral Campbell, and
Baron (then Do€or) Zach, as well as fome under Mr,
Dutton, but as the difference in the daily rates, and not the
aggregate, or what is called the error is chiefly given as the
refult of each trial, we cannot wel! make a comparifon of
refults comprifed in terms of different denominations.
Mr. Mudge junior, previoufly to his father’s death,
eftablifhed a manufattory for time-keepers, and employed
Meffrs. Howells, Pennington, Pendleton, and Colman, to
make them fer him; fome few of which performed ina
way that merited the approbation of certain naval officers of
great refpectability, particularly lord Keith Elphinftone,
and lord Hugh Seymour, but the difficulty of making the
adjultments fo accurately as Mr. Mudge fen. had done,
and the high price put upon them, about 150 guineas each,
(which indeed was too {mall, as the younger Mudge was a
great lofer by the manufactory) induced the Admiralty to
decline giving any other than occafional orders for his ma-
jelty’s navy; the chronometers of Arnold and Earnfhaw,
whieh were deemed egually good by the Board of Longi-
tude, bring foid at an inferior price; though Kendal’s price
for making a time-keeper after Harrifon’s model was 4ool.
We decline accompanying Mr. Mudge through his com-
plaints againit his opponents, particularly againft Dr. Maf-
kelyne, whom he has accufed of being too partial to his own
darling child, the /unar method, to do jultice to any method
purely mechanical for anfwering the fame important purpofe ;
a ferious complaint this, which is corroborated by an afler-
tion, that hiedlrs. Harrifon and Arnold fenior, made fimilar
complaints: but be this as it may, it is a fa& that the
younger Mudge haa only fold ekacn time-keepers of his
father’s conitruction at the time his book was publifhed in
1799, though he had others finifhed, or nearly fo, and that
Barraud and Jamefon, as we are informed, made propofals to
the Admiralty for finifhing Mudge’s time-keepers at the
reduced pricvs of ninety guineas cach, though it is well
krown that they cannot be «iforded for this fum. In jufti-
fication of the Aftronomer Royal, we will conclude our
account of Mudge’s time-keeper with the concluding paf-
fages of hisowa * Anfwer’? to the “ Narrative ;”? © the
6
ufefulnefs of the Board of Longitude is too well known to
the public, and acknowledged by ali but a difappointed
artilt, to require my pointing out inftances in which they
have: materially ferved the public and done honour to the
nation. Doubtlefs they deferve commendation in another
refpeét for having been careful concerning the diftribution of
the public money. They might indeed have been properly
cenfured, if they had given it away to a perfon not legally
entitled to it by the aét of parliament, or by a partial pre-
ference of the lefs deferving perfonto the, more deferving
ones.””
Curonometer by Mefrs. Fohn Brockbank and Co.
Among other chronometer makers of reputation we have
already had occafion to mention the Brockbanks, of No. 6,
Cowper’s Court, Cornhill, London, fome of whofe chro-
nometers have performed with a degree of accuracy equal to
that of perhaps any other maker, though they never applied
for any parliamentary remuneration ; the original firm of
the houfe was Meffrs. John and Miles Brockbank, the for-
mer of whom lately died, and the latter is juft gone out of
the bufinefs, and is fucceeded by his nephews, Meffrs. John
and William Brockbank, fo that the frm is now Mefirs.
John Brockbank and Co. On our applying for permiffion
to take one of their chronometers to pieces, in order to give
a full defcription of all its parts, the requeft was politely
and readily granted. Plate XV. contains perfpeétive views
of the different portions of the Brockbanks’ chronometer,
with the exception of the cafe or box, dial-work, face and
hands, guard, fpring-ratchet, and fuch, other fubordinate
parts as are common to an ordinary watch, which may be
feen more particularly under the article WarcH-work.
Jig. 1, exhibits the upper plate of the frame, feen a little
obliquely, together with the balance, regulating cylindrical
{pring, and the three different cocks for holding refpectively
the balance verge, upper pivot, the ftud for the outer end of
the balance-{pring and the mechanifm for banking. A, B, C,
and D, are four circular holes perforated through the plate,
juft large enough to receive the ends of the four pillars, de-
noted by the fame letters in fig. 2; Eisa hole fomewhat lefs,
to receive the end of the {pring-barrel arbor, and is at the
place where the ratchet and click are placed to regulate the
main-{pring, and preferve its intenfity when regulated: a is
the compeniation balance, at prefent feen in the form of ar
ellipfe, as placed on its verge; but in fir. 3 is feen in its
true fhape of a circle, where the eye 1s fuppofed to be per-
pendicularly over it ; 4 is the cylindrica] balance fpring, with
its coils equal in diameter to the radius of the balance, hav-
ing ufually from four to nine folds, attached at its lower ex-
tremity to the balance verge, by means of a collet and pin,
and at its upper extremity to a ftud at the extreme end of
cock d, which is compofed of two parts, {crewed together by
two {crews, the heads of which appear near d; this cock is
then {crewed to the plane of the upper plate by a fingle
ferew, which fcrew, by the aid of two little fteady. pins, fait
in the cock near the {crew hole, one 9f which is reprefented
by a diminutive circle, and inferted into fmall holes in the
plate, holds the cock firm in its proper fituation ; ¢ is the
principal cock, the end of which has a jewelled hale that re-
ceives the upper pivot of the balance, the correfponding pi-
vot is hid, being {upported by the crank part of the potence,
which is reprefented by D E F in jig. 6, and is {crewed to the
under fide of the upper plate by a tcrew at E, aided by three
fteady pins; the pivot hole in this potence is alfo jewelled.
The third cock, ¢, is feen on an enlarged {cale in fg. a,
where it will be defcribed by and by. The cock, c, allo
appears to be compofed of two pieces joined together by
two {crews above the bend, the heads of which appear near
D2 c, but
CHRONOMETER.
c but it is in ene piece, and thefe {crews fix it more firmly
to the plate. The fufee guard, as in common watches, is
placed under this upper plate, and is therefore out of fight.
Take the upper plate from the frame now, by unfcrew-
ing the four ferews that go into the ends of the pillars, a
contrivance of Meflrs. Brockbank’s, and fig. ¢ will be pre-
fented to view, in which are contained the main-fpring, fufee,
and chain, with the mechanifm of the perpetual ratchet,
feen feparately in figs. 7 and 8, the movement of the piece,
and the lower or pillar plate with the four pillars, one of
which has indeed been purpofely left out in the drawing,
that it might not intercept the view of the movement.
A, C, and D, are the three pillars alluded to in our defcrip-
tion of fig. 1, and B the place in the lower plate, where the
fourth pillar ought to be ferewed. or riveted, which we have
faid is left out of the drawing; E is the {pring barrel, con-
taining a well tempered main-fpring, ftronger than the {pring
of an ordinary watch, becaufe the efcapement is a detached
one, requiring the momentary impulfe given to it to be pretty
ftrong; there is nothing particular in the conftruéticn of
this barrel, except its fize, which is proportioned to the
{pring it contains; one of which, for a large box chrono-
meter, has been found equal to fupport a weight of 11 lbs.
or upwards ; the chain is alfo of the ufual conftreétion, ex-
cept that itis {tronger than is neceflary in a common watch ;
it is reprefented as partly wound on the fufee, and partly on
the barrel, which is generally the cafe when a watch or
chronometer is going, fo that, in this fituation, if fome ob-
ftacle to motion were not prefented to fome one of the
wheels of the train, before the balance is taken out, the
piece would run rapidly down, and be in danger of break-
ing fome of the pivots or other delicate parts, on which
account a briltle is ufually put through the croffes of the
third or fourth wheel to prevent fuch accident, while the
balance is taken out, a {mall obftacle being fufficient to ar-
reit the motion when applied near the top of the train,
where the maintaining power is diminifhed in proportion to
the nember of wheels and pinionsin the train that it has pafled
through; the reafon of which Is more particularly explain-
ed under our article Clock Movement, where the obferva-
vations we have made are equally applicable to the move-
ment of a clock, chronometer, or ordinary watch. F is
the fufee grooved in fuch a way, after being made of the
thape of the fruftum of a paraboloid, that the decreafe of the
acung radius is always inverf:ly proportional to the inten-
tity of the main-fpring ; by which admirable contrivance
the efiective power of this {pring 1s at a!l times very nearly
alike; the adjuftment of the varying levers, or points of
action, of the fufee, is made very conveniently by a long
lever with a moveable weight, like a fteel-yard, being in-
ferted on the {quare of the fufee arbor made for the key,
as will be explained more particularly in its proper place.
(See Fusee and Crock-roots.) The number of turns of
the fufce, it has been already faid, depends on the number
of hoars it is intended to be aétuated by the {pring at one
winding up, avd this number again depends on the Tatio
between the great wheel and the centre pinion, as has been
mentioned in our defcriptions of Harrifon’s and Mudge’s
time-keepers. The angular point of the cap, at the fmaller
end of the fufee, near F, is to catch the fhoulder of the
guard, when the chain has filled all the turns of the fpiral
groove; otherwife the chain would wind back again a little
way, and the power of the main-{pring would become too
great, or perhaps the {pring might even break by being
over ftrained. Concentric with the fufee at the large end,
contiguous to the pillar plate, are the great wheel, two rat-
chets, and a fecondary {pring to keep the chronometer going
while it is wound up; this idea, and alfo the mechanifm
proper for effecting fuch purpofe, originated, as we have
feen, with James Harrifon; but the prefent application of
his principle is much more fimple than his was, inafmuch as
the {pring is fo conftruéted, as not to require a barrel or box
to contain it. The particulars will be more minutely de-
tailed when we come to fgs. 7 and 8. In the pocket chro-
nometer before us, the great wheel, which is moveable
round the fufee arbor in one dire€tion only, like that of a
common watch, has 60 teeth: a is the centre wheel arbor,’
on which is a pinion of 12 leaves revolving in an hour ; this
arbor is ftronger than any other arbor in the train above,
not only becaufe more power is impreffed on its pinion than
on any other piuion higher in the train, but alfo becaufe the
minute hand is borne by it, and alfo motion given to the
hour hand from it; the centre wheel fixed on this arbor
has 64 teeth, which impel the pinion of eight leaves on the
fecond arbor 4; the fecond wheel of 6o teeth is faft alfo ta
this arbor, and impels the third pinion of eight leaves faft on
the third arbor, c, which is the arbor for the feconds hand,
which hand moves in a circle of 60 out of the centre of the
face, therefore cannot be miftaken for the minute hand,
which is a matter of fome importance in a chronometer: on
this arbor of the feconds hand, a contrate wheel is ufually
placed in a common watch, for the fole purpofe of altering
the direétion of motion, that the balance or crown wheel~
may have an horizontal arbor, but here the cafe is different,
the balance wheel, or more properly fpeaking the efcape-
ment wheel, has a vertical arbor like the reft of the train;
the third wheel therefore is here like the relt in pofition,
and has So teeth driving its pinion of eight on the fourth
arbor, d, which alfo carries the efcapement wheel with 15
teeth. From this account of the movement, we now know.
that the fufee revolves in $9 ofan hour, or in five hours, and
alfo that, as there are 64 turns in it, the whole period of con-
tinued motion, at one winding up, will be 32 hours; alfo by
our former method of eftimating the value of a train exem-
plified in Harrifon’s and Mudge’s trains; we know that
64; Golx. Solx BRK 2 921600
Se ere
isiiipedire) 4 ae) 512 :
number of vibrations in an hour, or five in 2 fecond; but a
it will be feen prefently that there are only half as many
audible beats as vibrations in this detached efcapement in a
fecond, this circumftance would induce any perfon, not pre-
vioufly acquainted with it, to conclude that the train is a
lower or flower one than is ufed in an ordinary watch,
though the reverfe, in point of fa&, is the truth. In
fome of the beft box chronometers, the pinions are 10, and.
the train = 14400, owing to the large fize of the balance.
At eis a flender {pring {crewed to the pillar plate, and prefl-
ing againft the tail of a lever or detent, fixed to the arbor, f,
and refting like a click in the inclined teeth of the large or
perpetual ratchet, the edge of which ratchet wheel is juft
vifible above the large wheel under the fufee, but is feen
better in fig. 7; the little ratchet and its click are not feen
in this 2d figure, but is feen alfo within the perpetual one in
ge Je
- Fig. 3 reprefents the balance detached from its verge and
regulating-{pring after being taken from its collet on the
verge; there are three radial arms meeting and uniting at
the centre, which carry each a third part of a circle; this
circle is at firft turned in a lathe out of a folid compound
plate of fteel and brafs, acircular plate of fteel of the requir-
ed diameter being covered with brafs by immerfion in acru-
cible of this metal melted previoufly by heat, after which it
is divided into three equal portions, which will, by thefe
operations, be of fimilar dimenfions and weight when nicely ~
divided ;
CHRONOMETER.
divided; this method of uniting the metals, and of formmng
the balance in a lathe, was the invention of Mr, J. Brock-
bank fenior, though never before publicly known; at the
outer end of each of the three radial bars, which are of fteel,
are three {crews of adjuftment for time, and alfo for pofition,
at a, a, and a, where the three portions of the compound
circle are f{upported by their refpeétive radial bars, or fome-
times a little at one fide, When the chronometer gains con-
fiderably, each of thefe three {crews are fcrewed back or out-
wards, to increafe the momentum of the balance by enlarg-
ing its effective dimenfions, but the quantity of adjultment
mutt be precifely the fame in each of the three fcrews, fup-
pofing the balance previoufly in equilibrio in all pofitions.
On the contrary, when there 1s a confiderable lofs in the rate,
the three ferews mult be alike fcrewed in a certain quantity,
depending on the quantity of the daily error, which a
little praGtice only will determine; but when one of
the three fcrews is fcrewed in for pofition, each of the
other two mutt be fcrewed half the fame quantity out, and
vice verfz, the taps being the fame in all. ‘he convex fide
of the rim of the balance is brafs, and the concave fide
fteel; the fuperior expanfibility of the former, therefore,
will occalion the remote ends of each of the three expanfion
pieces, forming the circle, to approach the centre of the ba-
lance in high temperatures, by reafon of thofe ends being
at liberty, and the oppofite ends being fixed to the radial
bars; but in cold weather the contrary will be the cafe; the
brafs, being more liable to contract with cold, as well as more
liable to elongate with heat, than fteel, exerts a natural ef-
fort, in low temperatures, to ftraighten the expanfion bar,
and therefore makes the remote end, in each of the three,
recede fromthe centre of the balance ; again, the fame heat
that makes the remote end of each expanfion piece ap-
proach the centre af the balance, makes, at the fame time,
the radial levers elongate, and confequently removes the fixed
end of the fame expanfion pieces from the centre a certain
quantity, and ‘he compen/ation confitts in a due balance of the
two oppofite and contemporary motions of the oppofite
ends of each of the three expantion bars. It is found from
experience that the momentum of the balance is bett pre-
ferved in an equable itate by loading each expanfion piece
with a metallic weight of fimilar dimenfions, and fo contrived
that they may flide along the expantion pieces, by adjuftment,
till the exa&t point is found fuch in each, that the equipoife
of the whole is not deftroyed, and yet that the momentum
will remain the fame in the oppofite extremes of tempera-
ture, as well as ata medium. The additional weights are de-
noted by the letters 4, 4, and 4, which have a groove and a
{crew each, to fix them to the expanfion rims. If the addi-
tional weights of compenfation, 4, 4, J, were fcrewed clofe
to the {crews of adjultment for rate and pofition at a, a, and
a, itis evident that, as the radial bars are there elongated by
heat, thefe loads would thereby be carried outwards fo as
to increafe the momentum of the balance fufficiently to make
the chronometer retard, being an effect fimilar to that pro-
duced by turning the {crews a, a, and a, back from the cen-
tre ; alfo if the faid weights were fixed at the remote ends of
the expanfion rims, which ends move inwards with the
greatelt velocity, while their fixed ends are moving but
flowly outwards, it is equally evident that, if the weights
are too large, which are thus made to approach the centre
with the greateft poffible velocity, the momentum of the ba-
lance will thereby be diminifhed too much, and the chrono-
meter will have an accelerated rate; there is, confequently,.a
certain load, which, being fixed ina certain point between the
oppofite ends of each of the three expantion rims, will ren-
der the momentum of the balance leaft liable to vary in the
different degrees of temperature ; for if the weight is compara-
tively fmall, it mult neceffarily be fixed near the end at Ji-
berty, but if comparatively large, it mult neceflarily be fixed
at fome diftance from the faid end; but until it has been de-
termined in practice, or by experiment, what diameter is beft
for a given weight of a compenfation-balance, with a given
efcapement and maintaining power, it is not eafy to affign
the precife quantity of each weight, and the correfponding
point in its expanfion piece where it ought to be fixed, in
order to produce the bet practical effeét, i. e. the greateft
quantum of invariable momentum with the Jeaft poffible fric-
tion and refiftance from the air. Various experim-nts, no
doubt, have been tried in the adjuftments of the balance, to
effet this purpofe in the beit manner, taking into confidera-
tion, moreover, the relative thicknefs of the brafs and fteel
of the expanfion rims; though {carcely any thing has yet
been publithed on the fubjeét ; to aid the views of thofe who
are thus laudably employed, we prefume to fuggett, that the
Jhapes of the loading pieces, and of the adjuitment {crews at
prefent in ufe, are calculated to meet with too much refift-
ance from the air; and if clock-makers wifh to avoid fuch
refiftance, by a proper fhape given to their balls or bobs in a
pendulum, where the momentum is very great, furely the
fame object is worthy of the notice of the makers of chro-
nometers. Mr. Brockbank once ufed weights fhaped like a
double cone, but laid them alide again, fuppofing it to be a
matter of indifference. How far our fuggettion may prove
ufeful may be proved experimentally by trying the variation
of rate of any machine, {mall enough to admit of being put
under the receiver of an air-pump, whilft it is kept in a
complete vacuum, or nearly fo; this experiment, however,
fhould not be attempted where there is not a fyphca or
other gage, to indicate to the eye the ftate of exhauilion
during the trial. A gentleman who tried this experiment,
informs us, that the variation inthe rate of one of Brockbank’s
chronometers, was only about one fecond per day minus.
In the balance before us there is a pin {crewed into the
remote end of each expanfion-piece, exactly oppofite to as
many projeCling picces of metal borne by the radial arms :¢
c, ¢, and c, which additions might appear to have fomething
to do with the compenfation, but they are only precau-
tionary contrivances, called guard-pieces, to prevent the
bending of the expanfion-rims too much inward or outward
by any jerk or other accidental caufe. In-the moft modern
of Mefirs. Brockbanks’ chronometers,. the load of the ex-
panfion-pieces is fhaped as at d, in fg. 3, where a third addi-
tional fcrew is put in the direétion of a tangent, to adjuft
for {mall errors.in temperature, where the fcrews only are
moved without the loads, which otherwife might be moved
too much, fo as to effet more than the defired quantity.
Fig. 4, is the cock of the banking, marked e, in fig. 1, but
on an enlarged f{cale ; it is {crewed down to the plane of
the upper plate by the fcrew A, and kept immoveable by
the fteady-pin, denoted by a diminutive circle near the
{crew: B is a {mall piece of metal borne by a light arm
that has a joint, the centre pin of which is feen reprefented
by adot on the end of the cock near the fcrew C; this
{crew is fo placed on a fide-piece faitened to the cock, that
the end of it bears again{t the fide of the joint-piece, and
acts.as a reft to prevent the joint from opening further than
the adjuftment requires: D is.a very flender itraight piece
of balance-{pring, not blued, with one end in the piece B,
and the other in the cock, fo that if any flight force is ap-
plied on the fide of piece B, this piece will have a motion
on its centre towards D, but will return to its original
pofition by the force of the flat {pring D. E is an ereét
pin attached tothe radial arm, marked / in the balance,
aa
CHRONOMETER.
as exhibited in fg. ¥, which pin has a triangular head that
remains contiguous to the proje€ting pin in the piece B,
and very nearly touches it in the prefent pofition in both
figures: now the cylindrical {pring of the balance may be
fo adjutted, that the pin E fhall be a quarter of a circle, or
any given number of degrees, from the piece B, when this
{pring is in its quiefcent ftate. Suppofe it to be a quarter of
a circle ; and fuppofe the balance put into a forward motion
by any accidental external force; if this force fhould be
great, the balance would revolve, perhaps, two whole re-
volutions in its circle without any obitacle to ftop it, which
would cverfet it, and endanger the teeth of the efeapement
wheel, which would hobble on irregularly ; to avoid fuch
effect, Mr. J. Brockbank fen., having obferved that the coils
of his {pring enlarge their diameters, particularly} near the
upper end, when wound up by one entire revolution of the
balance, ingenioufly hit upon the idea of making this pro-
trufion of the coils of his {pring fubfervient to the purpofe
of limiting the extent of the vibration of his balance, or of
conftituting the contrivance called the detached banking. In
an ordinary watch a pin is put into the rim of the balance,
which projeéts fufficiently to prevent its pafling two little
ftuds, placed at equal dittances from the point of quiefcence
of the faid pin, which ftuds, therefore, limit the quantity of
the whole arc of vibration: this quantity, confequently,
when two ftuds are ufed, muft neceflarily be lefs than a cir-
cle, even if the common efcapement would admit of fuch a
long vibration ; and if one ftud only were placed juft a femi-
circle each way from the pin’s quiefcent point, the limit
would then be an exaét circle, after deduting the thicknefs of
the ftud; but in a chronometer one entire vibration gene-
rally exceeds a circle, when the piece is clean ; a circumitance
which conititutes one of its excellencies, by augmenting
its momentum; hence the contrivance wanted was to allow
the balance to vibrate more than an entire circle, and then
to ftop it at a given part of the fecond revolution : to effeét
this purpofe, the late Mr. J. Brockbank invented the me-
chgnifm already defcribed in fig. 4, which a@ts thus; when
the balance firit begins to vibrate, the coils of the {pring
do not alter their fhape, and the pin E of the balance pafles
the piece B attached to the cock untouched, the polition
of B not having been altered by any external force ; but
when the balance comes rownd a fecond time, the protru-
fion of the coils becomes great enough to ftrike againit
the piece B, placed near the fpring; it now yields to the
impulfe of the protruding part of the fpring, and moves
towards D, taking its pin along with it ; and in this new
fituation it is that the pin of B is prefented to the head of
the pin E, carried by the balance, and aéts as a banking-
ftud to prevent the further vibration, or, perhaps, we fhould
fay rotation, of the balance ; im the contrary motion of the
balance it cannot be overturned, by reafon of the locking-
{pring not being moved by the backward motion of the
lifting pallet. The contrivance before us is certainly an inge-
nious one, and, we underftand, anfwers its intended purpofe
very well. The weight of the pin E is, of courfe, coun-
terpoifed in the adjultment for pofition.
Figs. 5 and 6 reprefent the efcapement-wheel, pallets,
and {prings ufed in the bufinefs of alternately locking and
unlocking the teeth of the pallet wheel, on an enlarged
fcale, and as they would be feen by an eye placed over the
principal cock, if the upper plate were tranfparent; but
they are hid by this plate in fg. 1; the wheel, however,
may be feen on its arbor projected on the fufee in fg. 2,
and the pallets may eafily be conceived to be put under the
upper plate, through an aperture in the plate, and to be at-
tached to the lower part of the balance-verge above the
lower pivot, which pivot, we have faid, refts on the crank
part of the potence DEF, beneath the faid plate, which
potence is alfo fuppofed tranfparent. The thorter, or inner
flope of the tooth is direfed, not to the centre of the wheel,
but to a point in the radius, about 5 from the centre, which
mode of fhaping is called under-cutting. The fame letters
of reference apply to both the figs. 5 and 6, in which A
is the efcapement-wheel of 15 teeth, (but of 13 ina box-
chronometer,) and B the large pallet of polifhed fteel, firtt
made circular, but afterwards notched, to make way for the
teeth in paffing, and to receive a piece of finely polifhed
diamond, ¢, at that part of the notch where the end of tooth
nearly touches it in fir. 5; the little dotted piece d, like
a bird’s head, placed on the balance-verge, concentric with
the large pallet, but below it, fo as to be covered by it, is
the lifting or unlocking-pallet made of fteel, fet with fap-
phire: C is a long flender fpring, fcrewed to the under fide
of the upper plate, carrying a protuberance, a, called the
locking-pallet, and embracing at its loofe end, by a femi-
circular bend, the verge of the balance, the bent part of
which, being hid under the large pallet B, is reprefented
by acurve line of double dots: D is another very flender
{pring fixed by a pin-at c into a hole in the end of the bar
cd, which is elaftic, and {crewed to the potence at d; the
{crew ¢ is tapped into a ftud in the potence, and bears
againft the bar cd, and adjufts the length of D, which
reaches a little beyond the curved end of the locking-fpring,
called alfo fometimes the detent-fpring ; this flender {pring
D is denominated the unlocking-{pring, becaufe the lifting
or unlocking-pallet, hitting it on the end, drives it againit
the crooked end of the locking-{pring, and thereby forcing
the pallet a from a tooth of the wheel, unlocks the wheel
and leaves it under the controul of the maintaining power ;
laftly, & is a fcrew, which, fupported by a little tapped
cock, conftitutes a reft for the detent-{prmg, when it has
returned, in confequence of its elafticity, from the fituation
it was driven to by the lifting pallet. The two flender
fprings C and D point in the fame ftraight line through
the centre of the balance-verge ; and the action of the ef-
capement-mechanifm is this: fuppofe the balance to be at
reft in the firft place, and the refpe&ive pofitions of the
parts as in fig. 6, the circular fide of the large pallet nearly
in conta@ with tooth 1, and the tooth preceding -it; the
lifting pallet muft be as in jig. 5, a little thort of the end of
the unlocking-fpring D, and tooth 2 refling on the lock-
ing pallet a; while every thing remains in this ftate, the
maintaining power is fulperided by the tooth 2 being de-
tained by the locking-pallet a, and the machine will not
have power to put itfelf into motion ; but let fome external
force be applied to put the balance in motion, by turning
the chronometer fuddenly round horizontally, or otherwife,
and, fuppofing the motion impreffed to be in a direétion
from B towards the lifting-fpring D, the angular point of
the lifting-pallet, moving aiong with the balance and large
pallet B, trikes the extreme end of the locking-fpring D,
and drives it, and alfo the bent end of the locking-{fpring C,
again{t which the other refts, far enough to ditengage the
locking-pallet a from tooth 2 of the efcapement-wheel ;
which wheel, therefore, inftantly runs on by the impulfe
through the train, in a direétion towards 6; but in the
mean time the fapphire face of the pallet, moving with the
balance, has got before tooth 1; this tooth, therefore, now
{trikes the faid face of the large pallet and urges it on, we
will fuppofe, till it arrives at the line joining the centre of
the wheel and great pallet, as is reprefented in jig. 5; in
this fituation, it will be feen, the lifting-pallet has quit-
ted the end of the lifting or unlocking-{pring, ms
the
——
CHRON
the locking-pallet a is about the mid-way between
tooth 2 and tooth3: during the continuance of this
portion of the wheel’s impulfe on the face of the large
pallet, the extreme end of tooth 1 has flided forwards along
the plane of the pallet’s face, which we have faid is fap-
phire, and, therefore, produces but little friGion ; but now,
as the tooth 1 advances in its revolution beyond the line join-
ing the centres of the wheel and la:e pallet, it proportionably
returns along the face of the fapphire, till, at length, it com-
pletely efcapes the pallet, in which fituation it would run on
violently, but by this time the locking-{pring has returned to
the end of {crew 4, and has prefented its locking-pallet to re-
ceive tooth 3, which has juft arrived at this pallet, when
tooth 1 drops from the large pallet ; the train, confequently,
is again detained, and the balance proceeds in its vibration,
together with the large and lifting pallets, in a ftate com-
pletely detached from every obllacle, except the balance-
fpring, which fpring, by being wound up, oppofes its
free motion, and, at length flops it; the ftation, how-
ever, is but of fhort duration, as the balance-{pring
conttantly exerts its power to bring back again the
balance ; it returns; the back or curved part of the lifting-
pallet {trikes the end of the lifting {pring Dvat the inner fide,
which being very flender gives way, and the locking f{pring,
not being difturbed, remains in flatu quo. The returning
force of the flight {pring, D, is exhaufted at the inftant of its
arrival at its point of former quiefcence, and the balance pro-
eecds in its retrograde vibration, by the accelerated force it
has acquired on its arrival at this quiefcent point, until the
oppofition of its {pring renders it again {tationary for an 1m-
perceptible moment, after which the original procefs, which
has been defcribed, is refumed, and an alternation of backward
and forward vibrations is perpetuated by means of one
little impulfe, given by each fucceffive tooth of the wheel,
as long asthe maintaining power continues in a ltate of
fufficient intenfity. With a given maintaining power and a
given efcapement-wheel, the momentary impulfe given to the
balance, in any chronometer of this conftru€tion, has its in-
tenfity meafured directly by the effective length of the large
pallet, in any fituation of the a&ting tooth; whence the in-
tenfity of the impulfe would be a minimum in the fituation
exhibited in fig. 5, in a point lying in the line of the centres,
if this fituation were not the moit favourable to the tranf-
miffion of the impulfe; but as the wheel here impels the pal-
let in the dire&tion of a tangent from its point of action, and
as this tangent is alfo perpendicular to the face of the pallet,
the effeét on the balance is here the greateft, independently of
the force from the accelerated velocity. The lifting-pallet
makes its ftroke at that part of the balance’s vibration,
when it has come within 20° of its original point of qui-
efcence, and as the fcale of forces may be confidered as
changing foon after this point from an increafing to a de-—
ereafing one, there will here be very little difturbance pro-
duced in that feale; befides, the continuance of the faid
ftroke will be fmall as well as its force great by being near
the point where the velocity 1s a maximum.
Again, in any chronometer of this conftruétion, the are of
continuance of the wheel’s action on the great pallet is in-
verfely proportional to the diameter of it, compared with
that of the efcapement-wheel; therefore the larger the pal-
let the fmaller 1s the arc of action, and vice verfa; but
then, we have faid, that the impulfe is proportionably larger
or more intenfe ; it is probable, therefore, that there is a
medium between a large impulfe given in a {mall are of ac-
tion and a {mall impulfe continuing during a larger are of
action, which medium may produce an effect moit fteady and
moft in concert with the varying fcale of momentum in the
different parts of the total vibration. Mr. Eaynfhaw has laid
OMETER.
much ftrefs on the circumftance of his large pallet being of
half the diameter of the efcapement-wheel ; but the inference
does not appear to have been the refult of any nice calcula-
tions or varied experiments of his; for before him his matter,
the fenior Mr. Brockbank, ufed a pallet in his pocket chro-
nometer, exaétly fimilar, though it wasa trifle lefsin his box
one: but Mr. Arnold’s large pallet, in general, is much
{maller, though fome of his chronometers have had as large
pailcts as thofe of either of the other two, Mr. Miles Brock-
bank informs us, that his brother and he found from e»pe-
rience, that a {mall pallet does not produce fo large a vibra-
tion asa large one with the fame maintaining power.
frig. 7 exhibits a view of the great wheel, and two ratchets
with their clicks fitted to the large end of the fufee, and
conitituting, with it, what is called the going fufee ; the con-
ftru€tion is more fimple tnan that of Harrijon’s, which we
endeavoured to defcribe without a drawing, and anf{wers its
purpofe equally well. The ratchet, a, or fmall ratchet, is
fixed by two {crews or pins to an excavation in the large end
of the fufee, thecentral part being left perforated for the fufce-
arbor to pafs through, and its plane lying in the plane of the
endof the fufee; itsclick and {pring, 4, aref{crewed to the plane
of the large or perpetual ratchet, c, which has its teeth in-
clined in a dire€tion contrary to thofe of the {mall ratchet, a,
and are bedded in a groove turned in the end of the fufee,
between the fmall ratchet and great wheel; we have fhewn
but one click for the {mall ratchet, but generally there are
two, one at each fide of it ; the click-{pring of the perpetual
ratchet is {crewed to the upper plane of the pillar plate, as
feen at ein fig. 2, where it will be feen that the click turns
on an arbor, and aéts as a detent; ¢ (fir. 7.) is the great
wheel, and fy. 8 is a horfe-fhoe fpring, bedded between the
perpetual ratchet and the great wheel, a circular groove be-
ing turned in the plane of the large wheel, or it might be in
that of the large ratchet, or partially in both, to form a bed
for this fecondary {pring ; the pin, a, at one end of the
fpring, is inferted into a correfponding hole in the bed of the
wheel, and the other pin, 4, into a fimilar hole perforated
through the perpetual ratchet at f; this fpring, thus con-
neéted with both the great wheel and perpetual ratchet, would
produce no other effe( than to attach them together, and
make them like one wheel, if the horfe-fhoe piece were not
elaftic, in which cafe the large ratchet would be fuperfluous,
and the effe&t produced would be that of an ordinary fimple
ratchet ; but the piece in fig. § is of a {pring temper, and its
elafticity {mall enough to be aéted upon by the main-{pring,
fo as to make the two pins, a and 4, at the ends approach
each others and in this fituation it is that the fecondary
{pring is faid to be wound up, and in which it continues
whenever the chronometer is going. When the key is ap-
plied to the fufee-arbor to wind up the piece, the click, 4,
will flide over the ferrated teeth of the {mall ratchet, a,
which revolves with the fufee, and the large ratchet, c, would
alfo revolve a little way with it, to let down the intenfity of
the fecondary-{pring, which now exerts its force to remove its
ends apart from each other to their natural itate as they are
feen in fig. 8.; but the click or detent, held to its teeth by the
{pring d, prevents this little motion from 4 towards a, which
otherwile would have taken place from the pulling of the pin
d inferted into its little hole ; in confequence of this oppo-
fition to the great ratchet’s temporary motion by the action
of its detent, the pin, a, at the other end of the fceondary-
{pring pulls at its hole in the great wheel, and draws it to-
wards 4, or, in other words, draws the great wheel round in
a contrary direGtion, and with a force equal fora time to that
of the original maintaining power by which the two pins were
made to approach each other. The reafon of pin 4, in fig. 8,
being made to project both ways acrofs the end of the fe-
condary
CHRONOMETER.
condary {pring, is, that the remote end beyond 6 may move
in a circular little aperture made through the plane of the
great wheel behind fin fiz. 7, which aperture allows the
two ends of the {pring to approach and recede fteadily, and
the length of the aperture is determined by the quantity that
pin é is drawn by the main-fpring towards pin a before there
is an equipoife in their intenfities.
Some years ago Mr. Ed. Troughton contrived a jambol or
gimbol for preferving the horizontal pofition of a pocket
chronometer at fea, which is loaded with a weight, turning
on the point of a pin, like the card of a compafe, and con-
tinues to be made by Mefirs. Brockbank and Co. with con-
fiderable advantage to the going of the chronometer. The
order of the adjuitments is this: firft the adjuftment for tem-
perature is made in heat of from 90° to 120° of Fahrenheit,
and alfo in as great a degree of coldas can be obtained ; fe-
condly, the chronometer is cleaned anew, and has frefh oil put
on; thirdly, the adjuflment for rate and pofitionsis made; and,
laftly, the rateis taken. There are, befides the three pallet-
faces of fapphire, eight jewelled holes in the beft chronome-
ters; viz. two at the balance verge pivots in the cock and
potence, two at the pivots of the efcapement-wheel, and two
for each of the two next wheel pivots, called the fourth and
third wheels of the movement, beginning with the great
wheel as firft, but the third and fecond of the train, if we
count from the centre or hour-wheel. The pivots are taper-
ing, in the form of a cone, and bear on their ends in ation,
which fhape gives flrength, without adding to the friction.
It camnot be expected that the beft chronometers will ever
be manufactured at fo low a price as watches without the
compenfation and detached efcapement; but when, as many
different hands are employed in making their feveral parts, as
are employed in the making and finifhing of an ordinary
watch, we may expect that the price will be proportionably
reduced ; the lowe{t price that we have been informed of, as
the price of any good maker for a pocket chronometer, is
forty guineas, but in general they cannot be afforded for fo
little when all the adjuitments are well made, whieh take up
much time as well as patience. At prefent the movement,
that is, the frame containing.the barrel, fufee, wheels, and
pinions, all but the efcapement-wheel, is made, like the
movement of a watch, by the different workmen employed
for this purpofe in Lancathire; the motion or dial-work is
next added by a workman in London, who has the main-
{pring, chain, face, and hands, from the refpeétive makers
in town; then the efcapement-maker and the jeweller are
employed to finifh their departments ; and, laftly, the maker,
as he is called, finifhes the adjuftments, and puts the works
into the box, or cafe, or both, as may be required. In the
progrefs of thefe different ftages, or even after the adjutt-
ments are begun, it is frequently neceflary to alter, and many
times to change certain parts, as the {prings, compenfation-
rims, adjuttable weights, &c. which neceffarily enhance the
price the chronometer might otherwife be afforded for.
The teltimonies, both public and private, of the accu-
racy of fome of Meflrs. Brockbanks’ chronometers in mea-
furing time, are fufficiently numerous to eftablifh their cre-
dit. Several letters from naval officers and rates were deli-
vered to the Board of Longitude during the time of Mr.
Earnfhaw’s application for remuneration, which cannot be
reftored witheut an order from the Board; otherwife it
would have been in our power to have laid fome of them be-
fore the public. Governor Hunter, in his publication, has
given a teltimony fo extraordinary, that we cannot, in
juttice, with-hold it; he has afferted, that, from the time
of his fetting out from Port Jackfon in New Holland, on a
twelve months voyage round a great part of the globe,
in the courfe of which he remained fome time at the Cape
of Good Hope, to the time of his return to the fame port,
a time-keeper or chronometer by the Brockbanks was found
to have gone fo weil, that the error, at the end of the voyage,
did not exceed one fecond of time. This, however, will be
confidered rather as an extraordinary coincidence of the ftate of
the watch at the beginning and end of the voyage, than as a
proof that itsaccuracy was thus great at all the intermediate
parts of the voyage. Mr. Gavin Lowe, of Iflington, has a
pocket chronometer, the rate of which was given -to Sir
Jofeph Banks to be laid before the Board of Longitude,
which, we have heard, exceeds, in accuracy, the rate of any
other pocket chronometer that has been made, inafmuch as
that the rate in it is not fenfibly affected by cleaning in the
courfe of many years wear. But, as we have faid, it is not
our intention to prefs upon the public attention the merits of
any individual maker exclufively, we fhall fatisfy ourfelves
with copying only one additional teftimony in favour of our
prefent maker, from the report of lord Hugh Seymour, whe
tried three of Mr. Mudge’s time-keepers againit one of Mr.
Earnfhaw’s and one of Meflrs. Brockbanks’ chronometerss
in accruife from the 18th of May, 1796, to the roth of
Augutt following. —The report was this: viz.
‘© At noon, May 31ft, the town of St. Mary, on the
ifland of that name, bore N. 10° W. diltance 30 miles.
The longitude of the fhip, at that time, taken from the re-
quifite tables and corrected by the above bearings, gave 25°
3/15" W. Mr. Mudge’s watch, called No. 4, gave 1/ 45”
W. Mr. Mudge’s watch, called green, gave 1/45" E.
Mr. Mudge’s watch, called d/we, gave g' 15” E. ‘Thefe
watches were taken from the academy at Portfmouth, May
10, A watch made by Mr. Earnfhaw gave 3’ 45” W. and
one made by Mr. Brockbank gave 15’ 45” E. of the fhip’s
place. The mean of all gave 4/18” E. Thefe two laft
watches were too fhort atime on board at Spithead to obtain
their rateexaQly, but were given a new rate this day.
« At noon, June 4th, the town of Delgada, on the ifland
of St. Michael’s, bore N. 5 miles. The fhip in the longi-
tude of 25° 42’ W. No. 4 at that time gave 11’ 15” W.;
green, 5’ W. ; blue, 5’ E.; Earnfhaw, 2/15” 1.3 and Brock-
bank, 1°45” E. The mean of all 1’ 30” W. of the fhip’s
lace. :
ee At noon, July 16th, Cape St. Vincent bore N. 81° E.
4 miles. ‘The fhip in the longitude of 9° 7/W. No. 4 at
that time gave 3! 15” E.; green, 10° 30” W.; blue, 13’ 30”
E.; Earnfhaw, 16’ 30” W.; and Brockbank, 2’ E. The
mean of all 1’ 39” W. of the thip’s place. :
‘ At four in the afternoon, Auguft 12th, the light-houfe
of St. Agnes was feen bearing N. diltance 19 miles. The
longitude of the fhip at that time was 6° 23’ W. and fup-
poling Scilly to be in ¢hat longitude. No. 4 gave 27’ 30%
E.; green, 8 30” W.; blue, 18! 15" E.; Earnfhaw, 56
30" W.; and Brockbank, 6°15” E. The mean of all 2’
30” W. of the fhip’s place.
« At noon, Auguit 13th, the Start bearing N. 28° Ey
diftance 19 miles: the longitude of the fhip was 4°54 15”
W. No. 4 at that time gave 28’ 15” E.; green og 15’ W.;
blue 17' 15" E.; Earnfhaw 59/15” W.and Brockbank 6! 45”
E. The mean of all 3’9” W. of the fhip’s place.
«At Spithead, Auguit 18th, the fhip in the longitude
of 1°.7'20" W. No. 4 gave 30’ 20” E.; green, 12' 10"
W.; blue, 15! 50" E.; Earnfhaw, 1° 11’ 10” W.; and
Brockbank, 7’ 20” E. The mean of all, 5'55” W. of the
truth.”
From this report it is evident, that, after a proper rate
was aflicned, Mefirs. Brockbanks’ chronometer performed
with a degree of accuracy which far exceeded any one of the
other four, indeed, we may fay, which has feldom been
equalled by any other chronometer.
5 After
CHRONOMETER.!
After being apprifed of thefe and other teftimonies, we
Ynquired why the Brockbanks never applied to parliament
for a public trial of any of their chronometers, with a view
of obtaining the premium under the aét of Geo, ITI.,andre-
ceived for information, that, after having been refufed a pri-
vate trial at the Royal Obfervatory, and on finding that
much trouble was likely to attend the application to the
Board and fubfequent public trials, the idea at one time en-
tertained was given up; which circumftance is our reafon for
having troubled the reader with lord Hugh Seymour’s re-
port at full length.
Curonometer by Mr. Arnold. After the minute de-
{cription of all the parts of Meflrs. Brockbanks’ chrono-
meter, it would be fuperfluous to repeat here an account of
fuch parts as are common in all the modern chronometers ;
we therefore propofe to omit the drawings of the movement
and other portions of the mechan:fm contained within the
frame of both Mr. Arnold’s and Mr. Earnthaw’s chrono-
meters, and beg leave to refer thofe readers who with to fee
all the individual portions of each of thefe two, to a pam-
phlet lately publifhed by the Hon. Commiffioners of Lon-
gitude, which is charged five fhillings, and in which are
contained three plates of each author, together with the
defcriptions of the plates, and the queftions put by the
Board of Longitude relative to each conf{truétion, together
with the anfwers. This pamphlet is entitled, ‘ Expla-
nations of Time-keepers conftrufed by Mr. Thomas
Varnfhaw, and the late Mr. Jolin Arnold,’? Payne and
Mackinlay, Strand, 1806. The movements are made with
pinions of 8 or 10, according as they are intended for
yocket or box-chronometers, to which the correfponding
wheels for trains of 14,400 or 18,000, may be had by in-
fpeCion in our tables under our article CLock-moVEMENT,
calculated on purpofe for the workmen who are movements
makers, and who chiefly refide in Lancafhive. It may be
neceflary to mention, that Mr. Arnold’s box-chronometers
have very {trong main-{prings requiring a deeper barrel than
is neceflary for the length of the frame pillars, on which
account there is a cap fixed on the plane of the upper
plate, to receive the lower pivot of the barrel arbor, and
to hold the click and click-fpring of the ftrong ratchet, as
placed on the fquare of this projecting arbor ; but there is
no occaficn for fuch addition in the pocket-chronometer.
The efcapement-wheel A, fhown in fg. 1, of Plate XIV.
of FHorology, is Mr. Arnold’s, on an enlarged feale, and,
hike Meflrs. Brockbanks’, is placed near the lower end of its
arbor, within the frame, fo as to have only a {mall portion of
it feen by ap eye placed over the cock, when the piece has
its natural pofition reverfed: this wheel is what is called a
funk one ; that is, it has its teeth, like thofe of a cylinder-
eicapement-wheel in this refpe€&t, projecting from the plane
of the wheel, as feen in fig. 2, which reprefents a fide-view
of the fame wheel. ‘The fhape alfo of the teeth of the wheel
before us differs from that of Meffrs. Brockbanks’ and Mr.
Earnfhaw’s in another refpect: the triangular acting part
of each tooth, which is raifed from the plane of the wheel,
it bounded by two flraight lines and a curve; the curved
portion, which a¢is with the jewelled face of the large pal-
let B, and which Mr. Arnold jun. in his cefcription calls a
eycloidal curve,is defcribed as being generated by the revolution
of a {mall circular piece of metal with a tracing-pin in its cir-
cumference, while it rolls on the circumference of a larger
metallic circle, asa bafe, and is, therefore, properly fpeaking,
épicycloidal ; a cycloid being generated by a circle rolling
on a flraight line: the proportions of the generating circle,
and its bafe are ftated to be as the diameter of the large
pallet to that of the efeapement-wheel; but, by @onfulting
Vou. VILL.
what we have faid on the proper fhape of adting teeth in an
impelling-wheel in our article Crocx-Movement, the
reader, we prefume, will agree with us, that, t> have as little
friction as poffible, the {mall circle with thé tracing-point,
called the generating circle, ought to be equal to the radius,
not the diameter, of the large pallet; which pallet may
properly be confidered as a pinion for the fhort time it is
impelled by a tooth of the efcapement-wheel; in the fame
place, above referred to, it will be feen, indeed, that the
difference of the curves, generated by a tracing-piece equal
to the diameter, and by a tracing-piece equal to the radius
of the fame wheel or pinion, will f{carcely be fenfible till the
two curves have been carried on farther than is neceflary for
forming a fmall tooth; fo that the diitin€tion in theory
makes no confiderable difference in practice, which we here
mention, left an unfavourable opinion fhould be entertained
of the teeth in queftion: but, what may feem to fome of
our readers a curious circumftance, when the epicycloidal
tooth in any wheel is formed by a generating circle of
double the fize it ought to be from theory, the fri€tion of
the parts in wear will ultimately produce the curve that
ought to have been originally formed by a generating circle
of a due fize, provided the tooth of the wheel aG@ing with
it 1s of a proper fhape, and of a more durable metal ; be-
caufe, when the teeth of any two wheels that act together
are both formed truly from proper generating circles rolling
on proper bafes, thefe teeth will roll over one another with-
out, or nearly without fri€tion, and preferve their original
figure unimpaired ; but if one of the two fhall happen not
to have the exact curve, the fri¢tion in the ation will wear
away the fuperfluity of fubftance beyond what ought to
have been there to conttitute the true curve; and as a large
generating circle gives a fuller tooth than a {mall one, there
will neceflarily be that fuperfluity im its fize which we have
fuppofed to exilt, when the diameter is ufed for radius in
the generating circle. Thus a flight deviation from the
true epicycloidal fhape of the tooth of any wheel will be
rectified by its aétion with a lefs deftru€tible body of an
exact fhape for true aétion, and it will be feen, under the
article to which we have already referred, that a ffraight line,
the particular fhape of the jewelled face of the large pallet,
is one of the varieties of an interior epicycloid ge-
nerated by any generating circle revolving on the concave
lide of a circle of ¢evice its diameter ufed as a bafe of gene-
ration.
We made thefe obfervations under an impreffion that
Mr. Arnold’s tooth rol/s over the furface of the face of
the pallet during the time of its impulfion, in which
cafe the friction and deltruétionvof the parts of conta&
would have been the /ea/? poffid/e} buit on examining his draw-
ing more minutely, and on adverting to the quellions put to
Mr. Arnold, junior, by the Board of Longitude, we find
that the tooth of the wheel always continues to ad at the
extreme point of the pallet’s face, over which angular poirt,
probably rounded a little, the curved part of the tooth
Slides inttead of rolling, by reafon of evcry aGiing part of
the tooth coming in fucceffion to the fame point ot the pal-
let. This mode of a€tion does certainly require that the -
ratio between the generating circle and its bafe fhould be ex-
a@ly as ftated by Mr. Arnold; it being that particular cafe
where a wheel drives a lantern pinion with {mall {pindles, as
may be feen by the reference we have more than once given
to Clock-moveMENT. However, we are itll perfuaded,
that to give an impulfe to the large pallet without friction,
would be more defirable than the methed before us, if it is
equally practicable, An adoption of the mode we have
propofed would, we think, on mature confideration, require
es either
CHRONOMETER.
either the wheelto have more teeth than has been ufual, or
the pallet to be larger, to which we fee no objeGtion, as the
arc of action would in either cafe be diminifhed.
“©The fize of the pallet depends upon the number of
teeth in the efcapement wheel, fays Mr. Arnold, in his De-
{cription of his father’s efcapement. The radius of the
pallet fhould be equal to the diltance between any two teeth
of the wheel, and then their relative motions will be equal.
If the wheel has twelve teeth, the radius of the pallet wil
be thirty degrees, meafured on the circumference of the
wheel, and its diameter fixty degrees (nearly), meafured in
the fame manner, which will make it half the fize of the
wheel. IF it has thirteen teeth, the pallet will, in diameter,
meafure fifty-five degrees and a half; if fourteen teeth,
fifty-one degrees and a half; and if fifteen teeth, which is
the number generally applied to pocket time-keepers, it will
be forty-eight degrees. The marine (or box) time-keeper
is made to beat half-feconds, the balance making 240 vibra-
tions both ways in a minute; for if the balance-wheel has
15 teeth, the fourth wheel 80 teeth, and the balance pinion
10 teeth, there will be 120 beats, or half feconds, in one
minute. It is alfo made with the efcapement wheel of 12
teeth, the balance pinion having 7, and the fourth wheel
70 (counting from the great wheel); confequently there
will be 120 beats or half feconds in one minute, as before.
It has been already remarked that the pallet for 12 teeth
mutt be half the diameter of the wheel, and for 15 teeth
five-twelfths, or fifty degrees.
«‘ The pocket time-kcepers, that they may not bedifturbed
by motion, have what js called a quicker train, the feconds
hand making 150 beats upon the dial, or 5 beats in two
feconds. The elcapement wheel has 15 teeth, the balance
pinion 8 teeth, and the fourth wheel 80; confequently
there wijl be 150 beats in one minute, the pallet being 50
degrees in diameter, meafured upon the diameter [ought to
be circumference] of the balance-wheel. No mention has
been made of the numbers of the teeth in the other
wheels and pinions, as they are of little or no importance,
and may be varied confiderably.””
We beg leave to differ here from Mr. Arnold, being de-
cidedly of opinion that pinions of 6, 7, and even 8, are by
no means fo well calculated to tranfmit the maintaining
power equally, as pinions of 10 and upwards; indeed Ca-
mus has demonttrated in his chapter on the proper fhape of
teeth of * Cours de Mathematique,” lately tranflated into
Englifh, that no {trong pinion with a number of teeth under
zo will a& with a wheel of ordinary fize, entirely on one
fide of the line joining the centres of the acting wheel and
pinion; therefore will not a& without much friction; be-
fides, the more numerous the teeth are in a given wheel,
provided the ftrength of the tooth be fufficient for its pur-
pofe, the lefs the teeth take into thofe of the pinion, and
confequently the Jefs the friGtion, in this fecond point of
view ; if panions of 12 or upwards were to be adopted in
watch-movements and clock-movements, the advantage ac-
cruing from the adoption would be confiderable, provided
the weight of the wheels, towards the third and fourth
wheels, were as little as their requifite flrength will admit.
Mr. Arnold has given four potitions of his efcapement
wheel in Plate I1l. of his defcription, delivered to the
Board of Longitude; figure one fhows the wheel locked,
and the balance returning in a detached ftate from its fecond
excurfion; the fecond figure fhows the fituation of the
three pallets at the inttant of unlocking; the third, which
is our fig. 1, of Plate XLV., thows the fituation of the dif-
ferent parts when the impulfe is half given, the jewelled face
of the large pallet being in the line that joins the centres of
the efcanement wheel and pallet ¢ and his figure four ex-
hibits the parts at the moment when the impulfe ceafes to
be given by the aéting tooth of the wheel. After what we
have faid of the mode of a&ting in Meflrs. Brockbanks? ef-
capement, it will eafily be apprehended what thofe relative
pofitions are from a verbal defeription ; particularly as we
have put the fame letters to the corre{ponding parts of both
efcapements, to affift the reader in comparing what we have
before faid with our prefent defcription. A is the efcape-
ment-wheel of Mr. Arnold’s marine or box chronometer,
made of brafs, and having 12 teeth, with their triangular
ends projecting upwards, or rather downwards, when the
face is up, from the plane of the wheel; B is the large im-
pelling pallet of fteel, at firft made circular, like Mefits,
Brockbanks’, but having its notch terminated by two
ftraight lines pointing to its arbor, in one of which its jewel
c is fixed; C is the locking fpring, fcrewed a: its remote end
to the under furface of the upper plate, and playing in a
notch, or flraight groove made in the plane of the plate to
receive it; its weakelt part is about C, or between C and
the fixing fcrew, about which point it may be faid to tura
as on a centre, but having no pivot, it requires no oil;
,
about the middle of this fpring, C, is a fecond weaker -
fpring, D, attached to it, which, in Meffrs. Brockbanks’,
is a detached {pring lying at the oppofite fide of the great
pallet, and pointing to its centre; the end of this flender
fpring, which is called the unlocking fpring, comes nearer
towards the centre of the large pallet than the fame end of
the fpring C; the faid two fprings, thus attached together,
have a great refemblance, as they are feen in the figure, to
a metallic pen in a pocket cafe of inftruments, when one of
the nibs is lonzer than the other; nearly at one third of the
{pring C, from this interior end, and on the fide next to the
wheel at a, is the locking pallet, the ating portion of which
is a jewel; this jewelled pallet refts againft the heel of the
tooth, or neareit angular point towards the centre of the
wheel, and in the aé&t of unlocking is driven inwards, to al-
low the proje&ting portion to move behind it, when the
wheel is uslocked; but, left the locking {pring fhould
yield to the preflure of the wheel when locked at any time,
a {crew 5, tapped into a ftud in the upper plate oppofite
the pallet, a, bears again{t the exterior fide of the locking
fpring, to prevent its falling back beyond a certain limit.
In the drawing, the pallet appears to be a continuation of
the fcrew through the fpring, on account of being placed
over, or very nearly over it: the centre of motion of the un-
locking fpring, D, is near the ferew we have juft deferibed,
from which it is free, by being narrower than the locking
Spring, C, and confequently alfo weaker, when equally thin ;
the unlocking fpring, D, therefore, is at liberty to move
back towards the fcrew-head without affeGling the pofition
of the locking Spring, C, but when, by an impulfe received,
it moves in a contrary direCtion, it muft neceflarily take the
locking {pring along with it, and confequently the pallet, a,
attached to this locking {pring allo. T'be lifting, or un-
locking pallet in Mr. Arnold’s conftru@ion, is a ttraight
piece of {tcel, ¢, carrying a jewel, pointing not ina direction
nearly oppolite to the face of the large pallet, as is the cafe
in Mefirs. Brockbanks’, but in one vibration follows the
face of the large pallet avery little, and in the other pre- ~
cedes it as much: if two lines were drawn along the acting
faces of thefe two pallets, which are fixed by fri€iion on the
verge of the balance, the angle contained would be
very {mall in the figures given by Mr. Arnold, in confe~
quence of his locking on the fecond tooth, but we have not
exa&t data whereby to calculate it, as will be fren more par-
ticularly in our account of Mr, Earnfhaw’s chronometer,
which
CHRONOMETER.
which follows, becaufe we are not informed by Mr. Arnold
where the unlocking pallet refts when the regulating {pring
of his balance remains quiefcent. Meffrs. Brockbanks’ ef-
capement wheel, like Mr. Arnold’s, locks, as we have feen,
at the neareft tooth bekind the face of the large pallet,
whereas Mr. Earnfhaw locks at the third, counting the
tooth of action one, as will be feen by and by; but, unlike
all the others that we have feen, Mr. Arnold’s locking
{pring receives an impulfe inwards, to ftrike the locking
pallet from the tooth of its wheel: we pretend not to affert,
from theory, that this kind of aétion is either more or lefs
favourable to the efeapement than when the locking pallet
is driven outcwards; in either cafe, if the face of the tooth
is fuch, that the efcapement wheel has no recoil during the
difengagement, the total refiltance will be nearly fimilar ; for
though that part of the tooth, which is nearett the arbor of
the wheel, preffes on the pallet more than the extreme points
would do of the fame wheel, under the fame circumflances,
in confequence ot which, the preffure is here greater near the
termination of the impulfe given to the locking pallet than
at its beginning, yet we do not conceive this to be any dif-
advantage, becaufe the locking pallet may thus be fuppofed
to be unlocked gradually, rather than by a fudden jerk,
which muft be partly the cafe, when the preffure of the
wheel’s tooth again{t the pallet is a maximum at the com-
mencement of the impulfe that detaches the locking pallet.
When, however, a comparifon of this kind is made between
two efcapement wheels, we ought to take into the account
their relative diameters, the relative maintaining powers as
exerted at thefe wheels, the relative ftrengths of the regu-
lating {prings, as well as of the locking {prings, and alfo
the relative points in the ares of vibration where the unlock-
ing pallets ftrike, compared with the relative points of qui-
efcence of the balance {prings ; all of which are data, involv-
ing a complexity of calculations not entered into, we pre-
fume, by the chronometer maker, when he feels difp>fed to
aati one conftruétien to another, on views more fuper-
ficial.
We have already faid, that in our fig. 1., the wheel is at
the middle point of its arc of aétion, confeqnently, the iift-
ing pallet d has let go the contiguous end of the unlocking
{pring D, and the pallet @ has returned to the ferew point,
to be ready to receive the next following tooth 3.; the di-
re&tion of motion being fuch, that the teeth, 1, 2, 3, &e.
follow one another in fucceffion. In this fituation, it ap-
pears to us, that the heel of tooth 2, which is now moving,
1s too near the pallet ain the figure; for, when the other
half of the impulfe has been given, and the tooth r has
efcaped the pallet, the tooth 3, which is now nearly two-
thirds of a {pace from the pallet a, will have one-third drop
before it arrives at it, which mutt be prejudicial to the fteady
motion of the balance. It is eafy to fee, that, during this
vibration of the balance from D towards c, the unlocking
pallet d@ mult have hit the proje&ting end of D before it
pafled it, and alfo mutt have carried it and the {pring C,
together with the pallet 2, towards the wheel, until the
pallet d cleared the extreme end of 1); alfo that the impulfe
given in pafling mult have been of a continuance depending
on the quantity that the end of the {pring D prefents of its
length to the pafling pallet ¢; in the returning vibration,
there will be the fame continuance of the impulfe given by
the pallet d to the fame {pring D in.a contrary direction,
but then the flender {pring is the only one to be moved,
and it yields to the flighteft impulfe, thereby occafioning
no fenlible derangement in the feale of forces by which the
regulating {pring controuls the balance: hence one impulfe
received from the maintaining power through the medium of
the train, by the face of the great pallet during the angle
of its action, or rather of the efcapement wheel’s aétion on
it, is fufficient to overcome all the fri€tion and refiftance the
balance meets with, from whatever fource, and to perpetu-
ate its vibrations. From the prefent polition of the refpec-
tive parts of attion, itis alfo eafy to fee, that the impulfe
given to the end of fpring D muit have taken place a very
fhort time before the tooth 1 caught the face ¢ of the large
pallet, on which time depends the quantity of drop of tooth
1, before it comes into aétion ; which drop ought to be very
fmall, left an accelerated force fhould impel the large
pallet with a jerk, and endanger fome of the finer pivots.
Mr. Pennington tells us, that the prefent pofition of pallet
d is very nearly that in which the balance {pring ought to be
quiefcent, in order that the chronometer may be well in
beat, acircumftance not noticed in Mr. Arnold’s account,
but a very effential circumftance to be known, when we judge
of the fitnefs of the efeapement for anfwering its purpole
for a long continuance; for, as the momentum of the ba-
Jance is always a maximum when it paffes the quiefcent point
of its regulating f{pring, or, in other words, when the force
of this {pring ceafes to be accelerated, and begins to be re-
tarded, it is acknowledged, we believe, uriverfally, that the
nearer this point of greateft momentum the balance is, when
the unlocking pallet makes its {troke, the lefsis the derange-
ment in the uniformity of the balance’s motion, which its
regulating {pring is intended to produce: but, it has been
faid, that the prefent pofition is that of original quiefcence
of the regulating {pring ; and it will be obferved, that there
is an arc of feyeral degrees contained between the extreme
ends of pallet d, and {pring D, if a circle were defcribed to
touch them both; whence, it might be concluded, that the
pallet d ought to touch the end of {pring D, when the
regulating (pring is at its quiefcent point, for then the ftroke
would be made exaétly at the moment of its having the
greateft momentum: fuch conclufion might be good in
theory, and, indeed, this is the pofition which Mr. Earn-
fhaw has given in his drawings, when he defcribes his -ba-
lance as being in a ftate of quiefeence ; but we fhall referve
what we have to fay further on this important point, till we
come to {peak more particularly of Mr. Earnfhaw’s efcape-
ment in our following fection. In the mean time, we will
only generally obferve, that, to put a chronometer, with a
detached efcapement, into true beat, the pallet d mutt be in
the middle of the are of efcapement, which we fuppofe to
be nearly in the pofition of our figure, when the balance-
{pring is quiefcent. Any further notice here on the mode
of acting in this efeapement, we think unneceflary. Figs:
3 and 4, exhibit Mr. Arnold’s balance; the former fup-
pofes the eye placed over the centre, and the latter at one
fide in a line pafiing through its plane. The circular bar of
metal a, }, carrying three weights of adjuftment for pofition,
within the expantion pieces c, d, in fiz. 3, we underttand,
were added to the original balance by Mr. Arnold junior ;
but the generality of his chronometers have not had fuch
addition, being capable of the neceffary adjuftment without.
The expanfion rims, which are about the third portion of
a circle each, were originally foldered together by an inter=
mediate mixture, and bent into the requilite fhape by a pair
of pliers fhaped on purpofe to give the defired curve regu-
Jarly ; and, in fome of the éc/f chronometers, Mr. Arnold
inforrs us himfelf, that ne {till continues this practice,
which is greatly reprobated by Mr. Earnfhaw ; we will not
undertake to decide the practical queltion, which, in theory,
we fhould have lefs difficulty to decide; the regularity of
weight and fhape enfured by turning in the lathe, which was
at firlt the fenior Brockbank’s praétice, and is fince that of
2 Mr.
2 CHRONOMETER.
Mr. Earafhaw, who formerly worked under “him, feems to
promife fairly for anfwering the purpofe belt, particularly
when two metals only are united by fufion ; but, it is con-
tended by Mr. Arnold, that the true figure given in the
lathe no longer remains when the ring is cut into portions,
fuch as halves or thirds; for he fays, the feparate parts
affume, by their elafticity, an inftantaneous alteration in their
figure, generally becoming portions of a circle of {maller
radius than that of the original ring, and the feparate por-
tions do not always undergo a change exaily fimilar, owing
to circumftances which cannot be ealily detefied. To fatisfy
our doubts refpecting this objeGtion to turning an expanfion
ring in a lathe, we applied to Mr. Pennington, who is al-
lowed to be inferior to none of his contemporaries in prac-
tical fkill, in all the different conitructions of modern date,
and we find it to be his practice, like Mr. Arnold’s, not
only to bend his expanfion pieces with pliers, but alfo, to
folder them previoufly, as he formerly did thofe of Mr.
Mudge’s; and he is convinced that his balances, though
perforated in many places to receive various {crews of adjutt-
ment, are as fenfibly and regularly obedient to the changes
of temperature as thofe of any other maker; it may be pro-
per to add here, that Mr. Pennington has an excellent regu-
lator, with a compenfation pendulum of a peculiar con{truc-
tion; and that he has lately fitted up a little room with an
infulated brick and ftone pillar for his tranfit inftrument ;
of which he is fully acquainted with the ufe and neceffary
adjultments.
The ferews d, d, in figs. 3 and 4, are for rate; the cy-
lindrical pieces, c and c, tapped for the ferews at the ends
of the expanfion pieces, and having little holes at their ex-
terior ends for a fork {crew-driver, are for the adjuftment
for temperature ; and the two additional {crews, e and e, are
for the adjuftments for pofition, particularly when the inte-
vior ring ad is not introduced : thefe lait ferews, e, and e,
when ufed for pofition, will alter the momentum of the
balance, and confequently the rate of going, if one of the
two is not juft as much {crewed in as the other is ferewed out,
when the rate is previoufly adjufted, unlefs, indeed, there is
a difference in their relative dimenfions and weights, which,
in this cafe, would interfere with the adjuftment for tempe-
rature.
Mr. Arnold ufes a cylindrical {pring with his balance, and
is very particular in afcertaining the exat effective length
that fhall produce the fame rate, whether the arc of vibration
be long or fhort ; the trial of this adjuftment is made by
ufing the main-{pring greatly relaxed, or let down by its
ratchet, and again when itis fet high, or has its intenfity
increafed ; which alteration is equivalent to an addition or
fubtraction of weight in the maintaining power of a clock
in order to increafe or diminifh the arc of vibration in a pen-
dulum. When the chronometer is new, or clean if ufed
fome time, the femi-arc of vibration varies according to cir-
cumftances from 180° to 230°, making in the whole vibra-
tion from a circle to 460° ; but, when the oil grows thick,
or when dirt has obtained admiffion into the upper part of
the train, the arc will fometimes be reduced to 240° 3 fo
that, if the long and fhort arcs were not performed in the
fame time precifely, an alteration would take place in the
rate, which might be confiderable enough to do away all
dependence on an accurate meafurement of time. The ba-
lance-fpring is ufually made by Mr. Arnold of fteel wire
hardened and tempered, though he fays that wire hard
rolled, or wire made of gold with a mixture of from one-
‘eighth to one quarter of copper, will do ; but the two latter
are lefs permanently elaftic, and the hard rolled wire will
fomctimes require to be tapered, at that end which is next
.
the balance ftud: the beft length of a balance-fpring, whict:
is longer in box than in pocket chronometers, lies between
5 and 20 inches to become ifochronal ; but Mr, Arnold does.
not feem to apprehend, that there are various intermediate
Jengths, as Mr. Pennington afferts, which are equally ifo-
chronal. Inthe box chronometer, which has a heavier ba-
lance than the pocket one, and a flower train, the weight
is taken from the fupporting pivot of the verge, by an in-
genious application of the cylindrical regulating {pring
thus; when the fpring is wound round a cylinder, to be
blued, the coils are put contiguous, which fhape would be
afterwards preferved from the elaftic temper then given to
it, if no force were to feparate them ; but when one end of
the {pring is attached to the verge collet, and the other to
the ftud, thefe oppofite ends are forcibly removed from each
_other to fuch a diltance, that the coils are feparated from
contaét, and the effort, exerted to bring them again into
contaét by their elafticity, lifts nearly the whole weight of
the balance. Formerly, there was a contrivance for bank-
ing in Mr. Arnold’s chronometers, but the banking pin on
lever rubbing between two coils of the fpring, was found to
be injurious, and was therefore laid afide; and we do not
learn that any other banking has been fubftituted. Mr.
Arnoid lays great ftrefs on his ftud being placed fo as to fix
the end of his balance-fpring at half the diftance between
the centre and circumference of the coils, fo that the laft
coil, at each end, is made fo much fmaller than the reft, as
prevents any protrufion of the large coils, and preferves the
cylindrical fhape apparently unaltered by the aétion.
We underlftand, that neither of the two Arnolds ever
placed a chronometer for trial at the Royal Obfervatory, for
the exprefs purpofe of applying for parliamentary remune-
ration; but we have feen, under our account of Mr.
Mudge’s time-keeper, that Nos. 36 and 68 were tried
again{t his, and pronounced to be fuperior, both with refpe@&
to their accurate going, and alfo im regard to the fimplicity
and praéticability of their conftruétion ; fo that 13221. were
given to Mr. Arnold fenior by the Board of Longitude at
different times by way of encouragement, and 1678 ]., its
complement to 30001., were given in December 1805 to Mr..
Arnold junior, being at the fame time that 2500]. were
given to Mr. Earnfhaw, in addition to the 5001. which he
had previoufly received. When the queition was difficult te
decide, whether Mr. Arnold’s or Mr. Earnfhaw’s chrono-
meters were molt worthy of public reward; the Board of
Longitude very properly rewarded the labours of both thefe
makers.
Mr. Arnold, like Meffrs. Brockbanks, was defired to lay.
before the Board of Longitude fome of the rates of chro-
nometers made by his father and himfelf, which have not.
been returned to him, but the public are in poffeffion of the
certificates of feveral rates which Mr..Arnold publifhed in
the year 1791; which rates are copied into Mr. Dalrymple’s.
publication, together with fome additional teftimonies,
which are too long for us to introduce here, and which,
therefore, we muit requeft thofe readers to refer to, wha
with to be informed of all the particulars ftated in the certi-
ficates ; it is fufficient, for the purpofes of the general rea-
der, that we have given him the peculiaritics of the con-
ftruction of the chronometer itfelf, together with an hiflo-
rical notice of Mr. Arnold’s inventions, and an account of
the mode of aétion of the efcapement; the general merit of
chronometers of this conitru€tion no difinterefted perfon,
that we know of, has yet denied. ‘
Curonomerer by Mr. Larnfhaw.— For the fame reafon
that we have not given the movement and parts of the chro-
nometer eontained in the frame of Mr. Arnold, we think it
i) hot
’
CHRONOMETER.
not neceflary particularly to defcribe all the parts of Mr.
Earnfhaw’s that are common to the other modern chrono-
meters. he peculiarities of the conftruétion are confined
to the balance, the balance-fpring, the efeapement-wheel,
and® the acting parts of the efcapement. To thefe parts,
therefore, we propofe to confine our account, Mr. Earn-
fhaw fays, that his train is the beft poffible, viz. 1800 vi-
brations of the balance in an hour, which, we have feen,
has always been the train of the other chronometer-makers,
particularly for the pocket ones; his box pieces have 13
teeth each in the efcapement-wheel, and his pocket ones
15, like thofe of Meffrs. Brockbanks’; we are not told
what pinions are ufed in the movements; nor is it faid, in
Mr. Earafhaw’s account delivered to the Board of Longi-
tude, that this is a confideration of any moment. Jig.
5 of Plate XIV. is an exact copy of Mr. Earnfhaw’s fig. 1
of his Plate 111., which was taken from his model laid before
the Board of Longitude on June 7th, 1804, at the fame
time that Mr. Arnold’s model was produced ; the plate and
cocks, being not nec: ffary for explaining the mode of action,
are in our figute omitted. Mr. Earnfhaw has given fo mi-
mute an account of his efcapement accompanying the mo-
del, that we cannot defcribg it better than by copying his
own words, which are nearly thefe: viz.
“ The {mall wheel MS K is called the large pallet ; it is
a cylindrical piece of fleel, having a notch or pieee cut out
of it at //r; againft the fide of this notch is a fquare flat
piece of ‘ruby, or any hard ftone, 4/, ground and polifhed
very {mooth, and fixed faft into the pallet. The cylinder is
fo placed, with refpeét to the balance-wheel, that it may
‘not be more than juit clear of two adjoining teeth. E Fis
a long thin fpring, which is made falt at one end, by being
pinned into a ftud, G, and made to bear gently again{t the
head of an adjulting fcrew, m: the other end is bent alittle
into the form of ahook ; to this {pring there 1s fixed another
very flender {pring at y, which projects to a {mall diftance
beyond it. ‘This fmail fpring lies on the fide of the thick
{pring neareft to the balance-wheel. he adjuiting fcrew,
m, takes into a {mail brafs cock, at af, which is ferewed
faft to the upper plate by a ftrong ferew. Upon the
{pring E F there is fixed a femi-cylindrical pin, which ftands
up perpendicular upon it, and of a fufficient length to fall
between the teeth of the balance-wheel ABCD. This
pin is called the lecking-pallet, and is placed on the oppo-
tite fide of the {pring reprefented to view. Through the
centre of the cyliudrical pallet MS K, a ftrong fteel axie
affes, called the verge; the pallet is made faft to this axis,
which alfo paffes through the centre of the balance, and is
mace faft to it; it has two fine pivots at its extremities, up-
on which it turns very freely, between two firm fupporting
ieces of brafs, {crewed firmly, and made as permanent as
potlible, by Yteady pins, to the principal plate. A little
above the cylindrical pallet M S K is fixed a {mall cylindrical
piece of fleel, in, having a {mall part projecting out at j,
through which the verge alfo pafles ; thisis called the lifting
pallet, (and is from 4 to 4 the diameter of the large pallet) ;
it fixes upon the verge like a collar, and is made falt by a
twilt, fo as to be fet in any pofition with refpe&t to the
large pallet MS K. The end E G of the long {pring E F
being made very flender, if a {mall force be applied at the
point o to prefs that end out from the wheel ABCD, it
eafily yields in that dire€tion, turning, as it were, upon a
centre at G; it is alfo made to flide in a groove made in this
ftud, in fuch a manner that the end o may be placed at any
required diflance from the centre of the verge. Having
deicribed tie feveral parts as they appear in the figure, we
next come to their connection or fituation. with refpect to
each other. Let tlielong {pring EF be fuppofed to be fo
placed, that the end of the flender {pring y7 may project a
little way over the point of the lifting-pallet 7m, but not fo
clofe but that the point of the pallet may pafs by the hook- .
ed end of the fpring E F withont touching it; the head of
the adjuiting-fcrew m is alfo fuppofed to bear gently on the
inner fide of the faid {pring E F, or that neareft to the
wheel, and at the fame time the locking-pallet is fo placed,
that one of the teeth, D, of the balance-wheel may jut take
hold of it. This pallet is not vifible in its proper place in
the figure, being covered from fight by the fcrew m, and
part of the fpring E F ; its pofition is therefore reprefented
by the dot 4, on the oppofite fide of the wheel, having the
tooth A jut bearing up againft it. From the above de-
{cription of the feveral parts of the efcapement, and their
connection with each other, it will be eafy to fee the mode
of its ation, which is as follows:
‘© A force being fuppofed to be applied to the balance-
wheel, fo as to caufe it to move round in the direction of
the letters ABCD, one of the teeth, as D, will come
againft the locking-pallet (as reprefented at A, and the lock-
ing-pallet by £). ‘The wheel is then faid to be locked,
being prevented from moving forward by this pin. Let the
balance be now fuppofed to reft in its quiefcent pofition,
and it will have the fituation reprefented in the figure; the
lifting-point 7 of the pallet im will be juft clear of the pro-
jeGting end of the flender fpring, the face 4/ of the large
pallet MS K will fall a little below the point of the tooth:
B, and the balance having its fpiral or helical (meaning cy-
lindrical) {pring applied to it remains perfe@tly at reft in this
pofition. Now, as the balance and the two pallets MS K
and zz are fixed faft to the verge, it is plain they mutt all
move topether; let, therefore, the balance be carried alittle
way round in the direétion of the letters MS K; by this
motion the end 7 of the lifting-palletin will be brought to
prefs up againit the projeCting end of the flender fpring, and
as this {pring is fixed on the fide of the fpring E F, nearett
to the balance-wheel, the point 7 will prefs the two {prings:
together out from the balance-wheel; then, as only the
point of the tooth D (fee its pofition at #) touches the
locking-pallet, when the fpring E F was at relt againft the
head of the fcrew m, it will, by the {pring being prefled out:
from the tooth, have flipt off (fer the locking-pallet which
was before fuppofed at 4, will now be at a, clear of the
tooth A of the balance-wheel) ; the wheel being now at li-
berty will move round by the force fuppofed to be applied
to it ; but as the point ¢ of the lifting-pallet moves on and
preffes out the {pring, the point / of the large pallet ap-
proaches towards the point of the tooth B of the balance-
wheel, fo that when the fpring EF is fufficiently pufhed
out to unlock the wheel, the point / of the large pallet will
be got to d, and in this pofition the point of the tooth Bi
of the balance-wheel will fall upon it, at the fame time the
point of the tooth D has juft dropped off from the locking-
pallet m; the force of the wheel being by this means applied
to the top of the pallet 4/, gives an increafed momentum
to the balance, and aflitts it in its motion in the fame direc-
tion, and by the continued motion of the large pallet in the
direétion MS IX; the point of the tooth B, which keeps
prefling and urging it forward, moves up towards the bot-
tom of the face of the pallet towards 4, until the plain flat
furfaces of the tooth and pallet come into cbntact, by this
time the end, 0, of the {lender {pring has dropt off from the
point, z, of the lifting-pallet, and the two fprings have re-
turned again into their quiefcent pofition, the fpring, E F,
gently bearing again{t the head of the adjufting ferew, m,
and the locking-pallet in a pofition to receive the next tooth,
c,.
CHRONOMETER.
C, of the balance-wheel. When the two furfaces of the
tooth and pallet are thus in contaét, the greateft force of
the wheel is exerted upon the pallet, and of courfe upon the
balance moving with it. The tooth ftill prefling egainit the
face of the pallet, and the pallet moving: in the direGtion
MSK, it at laft drops off, leaving the balance at perfe& li-
berty to move on in the fame direGtion in which it was
going. Juft as the point of the tooth B, which has been
prefling the large pallet round, is ready to leave it, the next
tooth, C, of the wheel is almoft in conta& with the locking
pallet m, fo that the inftant the tooth B drops off, the wheel
1s again locked, and the a¢tion of that tooth upon the ba-
Jance is finifhed. As the balance moves with the greateft
freedom upon its pivots, the force of the tooth has given it
a confiderable velocity, fo that the balance ftill keeps moving
on in the fame dire@tion, after the preffure of the tooth is
removed by flipping off from the pallet, until the force of
the pendulum-f{pring (which is not reprefented in the figure)
being continually increafed by being wound up, overcomes
the momentum of the balance, which, for an in{tant of
time is then ftationary, but immediately returns by the-ac-
tion of the pendulum-fpring, which exerts a confiderable
force upon it in unwinding itfelf. As the balance returns,
the point iof the lifting pallet in paffes by the ends of two
fprings, EF, y 0, and, in pafling by, pufhes the projeé-
ing end, 0, of the flender {pring in towards the balance-wheel,
until it has paffed it ; after this, the projecting end o again re-
turns and applies itfelf clofe to the hooked end of the
{pring EF, as before. The fpring yo 1s made fo flender,
that it gives but little refiflance to the balance, during the
time the point 7 of the lifting pallet is pafling it, and of
courfe caufes but little (if any) decreafe in its momentum.
During the time the point # of the lifting pallet is pafling in
the fmall {pring y 0, the long fpring EF remains fteadily
bearing again{t the head of the adjufting {crew m, as the
hooked end at o juft lets the end of the lifting pallet pafs
by without touching of it. As the {pring has now been
continually ating upon the balance, from the extremity of
its vibration in the dire€tion MSK, it has given it the
greatelt velocity, when the point é of the lifting pallet is
pafling the end o of the flender fpring ; for at this inftant
the fpring which was wound up by the contrary direGion
of the balance, is now unwound again, or in the fame ftate
as it was in its quiefcent pofition at firft, and of courfe has
no effect upon the balance at all in either direction; but the ba-
lance, having now all the velocity it would acquire from the un-
winding of the {pring, goes on in the direction SMK, until the
force of this {pring again ftops it and brings it back again, mov-
ingin the fame direétionas at firft, with a confiderablevelocity.
By this return of the balance, the point z of the lifting
pallet comes up again to the projecting end o of the flender
f{pring, pufhes back the long {pring EF, and unlocks the
wheel ; and another tooth falling upon the face of the pallet
41 gives freth energy to the balance; and thus the a¢tion
is carried on as before.”
In this quotation we have given the original letters of re-
ference, but as the balance’ and cocks are left out in our
Jig. 5; the direction of the balance has been indicated by
the letters referring to the large pallet, which, being placed
on the fame verge, has the fame motion. We have added
two dotted lines in the large pallet to fhew that the direCtion
of the lines, bounding the notch in the circumference, is
towards a point inthe radius of it, equally diftant from its
centre and circumference; alfo we have added two fimilar
dotted lines from two feparate teeth, to fhew that the under-
cutting or floping of the interior fide of the tooth is like-
wife directed to a point equally dittant from the centre and
3
circumference of the wheel, which point is at double the
diftance from the centre compared with the point guiding
the undercutting flope i» Mefirs. Brockbanks’ chronometers;
for the interfeGing dotted lines orm tangents to the dotted
circle defcribed with half the radius of the wheel. The
locking {pring points dire@tly to the balance arbor, but is
laid in fuch a way as not to be an exa¢t tangent to a radial -
line drawn from the centre of the wheel to the locking pal-
let, the angle formed at the pallet being fomewhat lefs thaa
aright angle, in order, as Mr. Earnfhaw fays, ‘that the
wheel may have a tendency to draw the [pring into it,” for
fafe locking. ‘The efcapement wheel, balance, balance-
fpring, pallets and {prings for locking and unlocking are at
the outlide of the upper plate, and are prefented to view
when the cock is taken off. We hardly underftand Mr.
Earnfhaw’s reafoning, when he fays that his {cape wheel
«unlocks in a fimilar circle which the wheel makes, which
renders it a perfe&t dead fcape,’”? andthat ‘* Mr. Arnold’s
is locked on the other fide of the wheel, and in the a& of
unlocking the {pring moves in towards the certre of the
wheel, which isa different direétion to that which the wheel
takes, and produces a recoil.’’ In the firft place we are at
a lofs to conceive how the pallet on the detent-fpring and
the point of a toothin the wheel can move ina /imilar circle,
to fize, or dire&tion of motion, unlefs the radii are alike,
and the centres of motion coincident; and in the next place,
we fee no reafon to conclude that a pallet carried di-
reGly from the centre of che whecl’s motion fhould be confi-
dered in the fame direction as that of a tocth in the wheel,
any more than a pallet carried dire@ly towards the centre of
the fame, in the act of unlocking; in both cafes, if the
detent {pring is a tangent to the tooth of the wheel that
holds the pallet, the motion ia or out willbe at right angles
to the circumference of the wheel, and if the tooth is con-
fiderably undercut there muft neceffarily be a recoil in both
cafes. The only correction for this is, to make the angle
formed by the detent {pring and radial line of the wheel at
the refting pallet, to be as much lefs than a right angle,
as the angle of undercutting is; accordingly Mr. Earnfhaw
fays he has made this angle a lictle lefs than a right angle,
but then he has undercut his tooth much more than the
difference, and therefore, as appears to us, there mult be re-
coil, or a little backward motion in the fcape wheel, in the
act of the detent pallet’s efcaping; whereas Mr. Arnold’s
locking pallet refts againft a ftraight line direéted towards
the centre, which is alfo the direction of the pallet’s motion
in unlocking, confequently there can be no fenfible recoil in
his e{capement. In ourdefcription of Mr. Arnold’s efcape-
ment the reader may recollect that he was referred to this
place for fome further account of the proper adju/lment for
deat in a chronometer of the modern inftruction, we here
refune the fubje&t with an obfervation of Mr. Earnfhaw
himfelf which we have already quoted; ‘let the balance,
{ays he, be now fuppofed to relt in its quiefcent pofition,
and it will have the fituation reprefented in the figure,” al-
luding to the figure which we have copied: we prefume
not, merely upon the ftrength of our theoretical reafoning,
to affert, that the adjuftment for beat is improper, if the
balance fpring is quiclcent when the face of the lifting pal-
let 7 is in contaét, or nearly in conta& with the end of the
unlocking {pring i y, but we are affured by workmen well
qualitied to judge, and who give fcientific reafons for the
affertion, that the lifting pallet is not only about 24° on one
fide of the requifite point of pofition, but is actually at the
wrong fide of the unlocking {pring ; the reafon given us is
this, whenever a chronometer is in frue beat, the quiefcent
point from which the excuriions of the balance commence
. Is
CHRONOMETER.
is in the ger a of the angle of efcapement; this is ob-
vioufly the cafe in the anchor efcapement of a pendulum
clock, and requires a neceflary adjuftment when the clock
is at firft fixed up; and a little contideration will prove that
an attention to this adjuftment, though not equally obvious,
is equally defirable in a chronometer. What is called the
angle-of efcapement differs from what is called the angle of
a&tion, or angle of impulfe, in a chronometer; the former
is included in the arc comprehended between the point where
the unlocking {pring lets go or efcapes the face of the
lifting pallet, and the point where the impelling tooth of
the wheel drops off or efcapes from the face of the large
pallet; but the fecond, or arc of impulfive aétion, is com-
prehended, between the point where the impelling tooth
commences, and the point where it terminates its action ;
this fecond arc is {maller than the former, and is always con-
tained in it; the two have indeed one common termi-
nation, but each has a feparate commencement ; for
the wheel mutt neceflarily be unlocked before its ac-
tion on the large pallet can begin, and the unlocking
takes place previoufly to the unlocking or lifting pallet’s
quitting the end of the unlocking-{pring: if we fuppofe
that the flender {pring ig bends back, the {pace of4°, more
or lefs, before the unlocking-pallet i quits it, after the
wheel is unlocked, this quantity will conflitute the difference
between the arc of efcapement and the are of the wheel’s
action, provided there be no drop of the impelling-tooth on
the heel of the large pallet after the wheel is unlocked, and
before the ation commences ; but if we {uppofe the faid
drop to be alfo 4°, then will the whole are of efcapement
exceed the whole arc of ation on the pallet by 8°. Admit
now that the efcapement-wheel and large pallet have their
diameters to each other as 2: 1, which is the ratio Mr.
Earnfhaw in general adopts, and that this wheel have 13
teeth, which is the number in his box-chronometer ; then
360
— = 27°.7 nearly, is the diftance between the points of
two fucceffive teeth; admit alfo that there be a fecond
drop of 2° from the tooth to be locked to the locking-
pallet after the arc of a¢tion is finifhed; then the fum of
the two drops, 4 + 2 = 6°, that precede and follow the
arc of action, being fubtraéted from 27°.7, or whole diftance
between the two neareft teeth, leaves 21°.7 meafured on
the circumference of the wheel for the total arc of attion on
the pallet ; but the whcel is double the diameter of the
pallet, therefore, the fame quantity is 21°.7 x 2 =
43°.4 meafured on the circumference of the large pallet,
and the arc of efcapement exceeds the arc of a€tion, on our
fuppofition, by 8°, confequently, 43°.4 + 8° = 51°.4 will
be the arc of efcapement: now it will be feen, on referring
to the plate, that Mr. Earnfhaw has placed his lifting-
pallet in the figure within lefs than 4° of one of the two ex-
tremities of the arc of efcapament, and on that fide of the
unlocking-{pring iy, towards which this {pring bends at the
inftant of the lifting-pallet’s final efcape ; and yet he fays that
this is its fituation when the balance-fpring is in a tlate of
quiefcence ; let us try what will be the confequence of fuch
a pofition; the chronometer will meafure time very well,
and the impulfe of the lifting-pallet, we allow, will be given
at the molt favourable inftant, namely, at the inflant of the
{pring’s quicfeence, or point of the balance’s greate(t mo-
mentum, which, it is evident, was Mr. Earnfhaw’s reafon
for fixing his lifting-pallet fo; but then, which is our ob-
jection, as one excurfion of the balance from ‘the point of
reft muft neceffarily be 47°.7 (51°.4 — 4°) before it clears
the arc of efcapement, and as the excurfions mult be fimilar
to the right and left, when the balance vibrates freely, the
whole are of vibration can never be diminifhed to lefs than
95°.4, in this cafe, without the chronometer’s ftopping,
which, as the chronometer has not the power of commenc-
ing motion of itfelf, is a very ferious cbje€tion to the pre-
fent pofition of the lifting-pallet ; it may, indeed, be laid,
in reply, that the chronometer muft be very dirty before its
arc of total vibration becomes fo much diminifhed as to be
little more than a quarter of a circle, but this is not the
only predicament in which the ftoppage will take place;
any fudden check, or quick horizontal motion given to the
vibrating balance, that makes it return even once before it
has exceeded this limit, will bring it to reft; that is, nearly
the fame effcét will be liable to be produced as if the are of the
efcapement had been almoft double the prefent quantity with
a pallet of } the diameter of the wheel, which is Mr. Earn-
fhaw’s cogent objection to Mr. Arnold’s contruction. In
making this comparifon with a double are of efcapement,
we, of courfe, fuppofe the point of the lifting-pallet’s quie{-
cence to be in the middle point of the arc of elcapement, as
Mr. Arnold’s appears to be in his figure, which we have
copied, and which fituation we now proceed to fhow, is
moft favourable to the continuance of the chronometer’s
going without interruption with any given pallet. We
propofe to place the lifting-pallet’s face exadtly in the mid-
dle point of the are of efcapement, which is nota theoretical
propofition of ours, but we have examined chronometers
adjufted fo for beat, and have found that, when the balance
is drawn round a trifle beyond cither extremity of the ef-
capement-angle, they have the power of commencing mo&
tion within a limit very little exceeding the efcapement~
angle, which, in Mr. Earnfhaw’s box-chronometer, we have
fhown, may be about 51°.4. Hence the chance 1s almolt two
to one in favour of that chronometer’s avoiding ftoppage by
dirt or accident, which has its quiefcent lifting-pallet in the
middle of the are of efcapement, compared with that which
has the fame pallet at one end of the fame arc.
The only objeétion which carries the femblance of argue
ment again{t our mode of adjuftment for beat, an adjuftment
we believe too generally overlooked, is, that the impulfe of
the lifting-pallet is not at the moment of the balance’s greateft
momentum, but about 24° before the momentum Is a maxi-
mum, allowing the pallet to be quiefcent at the middle of the
arc of efcapement, which we contend for; our reply is, that
the momentum is fo nearly a maximum at 24° from it that
the difference produces no fenlible bad effeét on the balance,
compared with the probable effect from ftoppage when the
adjuftment for beat is nearly as bad as poflible. Indeed,
Mr. Atwood has calculated, and his calculations feem to
have been verified by practice, that when, in the cafe of
Mr. Mudge’s time-keeper, the quiefcent point of his auxiliary
{pring is at one fide of the quiefcent point of his ftronger
{pring, the cffe&t produced is a daily gain or daily lofsin the
rate, accordingly as the diftance from coincidence of the re-
{peGtive points of reft fell on the right or left hand fide of
the quiefcent point of the ftrong regulating fpring, and the
daily gain or lofs thus to be effected is ingenioufly propofed,
in our author’s excellent paper in the Pnilofophical ‘Tran{-
ations of 1794, to be ufedas an adjuftment for rate, or even
as a compentation for want of ifochronifm in the balance-
(pring. The deduétion from the momentum of the balance,
occafioned by the impulfe of the lifting-pallet, being fome«
what analogous to the want of adjuftment in the quiefcent
point of Mr. Mudge’s auxiliary {pring, might indeed produce
a flight lofs in the daily rate, if the fcrews of adjuttment for
rate did not compenfate fuch lofs; but when it is contidered
that the impulfe from the wheel fucceeds the deduction from
the momentum almoft inftantancoufly, and thas the dedudtion
we
CHRONOMETER.
we fpeak of is precifely the fame in cach vibration, the uni-
formity of the going of the chronometer will not be fenlibly
altered thereby.
Let us fee, in the next place, what will be the arcs of
ation and of efcapement in Mr. Earnfhaw’s pocket chrono-
Pp Pp 43
meters, in which the efcapement-whecl has 15 teeth ;
= 24° is the difkance between two contiguous teeth, from
which fubtra@, on our former fuppolition, 6° as the fum of
the preceding and foflowing drops, and the angle of a@ion
will be 15°, or 36° meafured on the circumference of the
large pallet, if it be half the fize of the wheel; but the
angle of efcapement will be greater than the angle of a&tion
by 8°, therefore 36 + 8 = 44° is the whcle arc of efcape-
ment, fuppofing, as before, the data for the drops to be ac-
curate. This angle of efcapcment turns out to be lefs, on
our fuppofition, than that with only 13 teeth in the efcape-
ment by 7°.4, and therefore will admit a lifting-pallet {maller
than the box chronometer has, in order to have the fame angle
of efcapement, or the fame liability to ftop by dirt or acci-
dent ; it being felf-evident that the fame fubtending line,
confidered asa chord, will meafure more degrees on the peri-
phery ofa {mall circle than on the periphery of a larger. ‘This
comparifon of the two arcs of efcapement fhews, that the
arc in que(tion depends not entirely on the relative diameters
of the efcapement and large pallet, as Mr. Earnfhaw fup-
pofed, when he objected to Mr. Arnold’s proportions, but
on their relative diameters conjointly with the number of
teeth in the wheel, the latter of which has been overlooked
by Mr. Earnfhaw, but particularly infifted on by Mr. Ar-
nold. However, we agree perfeQly with Mr. Earnfhaw,
that in any wheel with a given number of teeth, a larze
pallet for receiving the impulfe of the wheel will require a
{maller arc of action as well as a fmaller are of efeapement,
than a pallet that has a fmaller diameter, under any given ad-
juftment for beat, which is a confideration worthy of general
notice.
On counting the teeth in Mr. Earnfhaw’s efcapement-
wheel, which we have copied, we were furprifed to find only
r2 teeth init, particularly as we are informed, in his deferip-
tion, that his numbers are 13 and 25 refpedtively ; we can
only account for this circumtlance by fuppofing that the
draftfman miftook the number; which we here notice, left
the reader fhould fuppofe the fault to lie in our figure ex-
clufively.
Fiz.6 of Plate XIV. reprefents Mr. Earnfhaw’s balance,
which, like Mr. Arnold’s, has only two compenfation
pieces, and thofe much fhorter than his, being little more
than a quadrant each: a and a@ are the {crews of adjuflment
for rate, {crewed in to make the chronometer go fatter, and
out to make it go flower. The fliding pieces 6 and 6 have
each a circular groove, turned in a lathe or turning-frame,
deep enough to form a bed for the expanfion bars, in order
that the interior fide ferews cand may prefs avaintt the
edges of the expanfion pieces, and retain the fliding pieces
in azy given fituation. Fig. 7 isa lateral view of this ba-
lance and verge without the pivots, which Mr. E. fays fhould
be conical except very near the ends, which fhoeld be cylin-
drical; and fhould run in a ‘“ jewel hole as hallow as poffi-
ble, fo as not to endanger cutting the pivot; and the part
of aétion of the hole fhould be made quite back, with only
a very fhallow chamfer behind to retain the oil.”? The flid-
ing pieces 4 and J arethe weichts of adjuftment for tempe-
rature; in making thefe weights, a bra{s ring is firlt made in
the lathe, and is then cut through into fourteen equal parts
in a clock-engine, by an operation fimilar to that of cutting
a wheel into fourteen teeth, fo that each piece is the four-
teenth part of a circle, after dedv@ing the thicknefs of the
cutter, which is not mentioned. One of the weights in a
box chronometer, is about twenty grains generally. ‘The
expanfion rims are turned out into a ring from a circular com-
pound plate, which is made after the method of Mefirs.
Brockbanks, by fuling the brafs in a crucible, containing
the fteel circle, held in a horizontal pofition dnring the time
of fafion. The conftru&tion is very fimple, but, as it ap-
pears to us, if the adjuitments for pofition were made by
means of the fcrews of rate, and weights for temperature
only, one adjuftment would derange another, and that for
polition would be very difficuk to make nicely, as there is
no tangent icrew, or other contrivance, to move the weights
5 and é by gradual flow motions. As though to get rid of
this objeGtion, which was too obvious to be overlooked,
Mr. E. conceives that the caufes of a difference in the rate
in different pofitioas, are large balance pivots in part, but
principally the badnefs of the balance-fpring; his words
refpecting the latter caufe, are thefe; ‘much difficulty
has fallen to the lot of watch-makers in the endeavour to
make time-keepers go nearly the fame in the differest pofi-
tions: Ihave had my fhare of this, but it is now over; by far
the rreateft part of this difficulty arifes from the balance-{pring
not being properly made. But ifthe {pring is made as I fhall
deferibe hereafter, you have only to make the balance of
equal weight, and it will go within a few feconds per day
in all pofitions alike ; and if it vibrates not more than one
circle and a quarter, by applying a {mall matter of weight to
that part of the balance, which is downward, when in the
pofition that it lofes molt, (it) will correct it with great
accuracy.” ;
The Board of Longitude not knowing what this * {mall
matter of weight’? implied, nor how it 1s to be attached to
the balance, were induced to put the following queftion, viz.
“© When the weight is wanted to adjuft the watch in the po-
fitions of 3 and g, by what means do you obtain that
weight, in the manner your balance appears to be made; if
you know any thing more that is material concermng the
making time-keepers go nearly the fame in different pofi-
tions, communicate it.”
Anf-—* To adjuft the watch in the pofitions of 3 and 9,
(fays Mr. E.) I hx on to one of the compenfation-weights
that is downwards, when in that pofition that it lofes molt,
a {mall piece of brafs, not larger in diameter than a commoa
pin-head, and nearly as thin as foolfeap paper. I fx ito
with a very {mall particie of dees wax, not larger than the
common dot of an/: that is, f the watch is gaining on
mean time. But if the watch is loling, I then take out the
balance, and with 2 drill drill out a imail matter from that
compenfation-weight, that is uppermoft when in the pofition
that the watch lofes molt; this I have found to correét it
without fo many {crews and fans as I have feen in fome time-
keepers.’? After having read the above an{wer, we were almot
induced to examine whether the balance itfelf micht not alfo
be fixed-to the verge-collet by bees wax inltcad of fcrews, but
we recolleG@ted that in the drawing there isa little ferew-head
at each fide of the centre of the balance, which appear to
be ufed for this purpofe. Mr. E, we truit, will pardon the
obfervation.
The.srule for adjufting the balance for temperature ia this ;
put the watch into about 85 or go degrecs of heat by the
common thermometer, mark down exaGly how much it
gains or lofes in 12 hours, then put it into as fevere a cold
as you can get, for 12 hours, and if it gains one minute
more in12 lioursin cold than in heat, move the compeniation
weights farther from the arm of the balance about ¢ of an
inch; and if it gains one minute more in 12 hours in heat
than
CHRONOMETER.
than in cold, move the weights $ of an inch nearer to the
arm of the balance, and fo on in the like proportion, trying
it again and again, till you find the watch go the fame in
whatever change of heat and cold you put it. Of courfe
this adjuftment precedes the adjuftment for pofition, fo that
moft probably the pofition, whatever it is, during thefe
trials, is always the fame, a circumftance not {pecified.
The total vibration at firft is confined toa circle and a
quarter, which quantity, it is faid, will produce the mott
fteady performance; but we are not informed what the
banking is that limits the greateft vibration, nor indeed
whether there isany banking at all, which we have been in-
formed there is not in general. ;
Mr. Earnfhaw’s create(t difficulty in the progrefs of his
labours feems to have been to find out what he calls the i-
vifible properties of the balance-{pring, and to render it not
exactly ifochronal, but fo nearly fo, that its deviation from
ifochronifm may compenfate for a relaxation in the f{pring,
real or imaginary, arifing from conflant ufe, which is /uppofed
to affeé&t the permanency of the rate. After complaining
bitterly of much difappointment in his firft labours, our au-
thor fays, “* I found, in the courfe of reafoning on bodies,
that watch-fprings re/ax and fire like the human frame, when
kept conftantly in motion; and this may be proved by the
following experiment: let a watch, that has been going a
few months, go down, let it be down for a week or two, or
more, then fet it going, and if it be a good time-keeper, fo
as not to be affeéted by the weather, it will go fome feconds
per day fafter than it did when it was let down, but it will
again lofe its quicknefs ina gradual manner, gaining lefs and
lefs, till it comes to its former rate. Therefore, finding that
ifochronal fprings would not do, and likewife having made
fprings of fuch fhape as would render long and fhort vibra-
tions equal in time, (which) conftantly lofe (loft) the longer
the watch went ; I then madethem of fuch fhape as to gain
in the fhort vibrations about five or fix feconds per day more
than the long ones, this quantity could only be found by
long experience ; and the way I proved this, was to try the
rate of the watch with the balance vibrating about 4 of a
circle, then tried its rate when vibrating a circle and a
quarter, and if the fhort vibrations go flower than the long
ones, that watch will Jofe on its rate, and if they are equal, it
will likewife lofe, but that only from relaxution ; and if it
gains in the fhort vibrations more than five or fix feconds in
24 hours, it will in the long run gain on its rate, butif not
more than that quantity, and if the time-keeper is perfe in
heat and cold, and every other part, the above properties will
render it deferving of the name of a perfect time-keeper :
and this is a principal caufe of my time-keepers excelling
all others ; and this is the principal caufe of fome of my time-
keepers going better than others ; though by me, the {prings
of them being made to accord more exactly to the above pro-
portions ; and this is the caufe which has enabled me to foretel
what my time-keepers would do, which Dr. Mafkelyne, Mr.
Crofley, and others can teftify. The above effeét is produced
as follows: I tind the common re/axation of balance-{prings to
be about five or fix feconds per day on their rates in the
courfe of a year; therefore if the fhort vibrations are made,
by the fhape of the fpring, to go about that quantity fafter
than the long ones, and as the {pring relaxes in going by
time, fo the watch accumulates-in dirt (dirt accumulates in
the watch more properly), and thickening of the oil (takes
place), which fhortens the vibrations, the fhort ones then be-
‘ing quicker compenfated (compenfates) for the evil of relax-
ation of the balance-[pring.’”? (See Mr. Earnfhaw’s “ Ex-
planation,” pages 8 and 9.)
Vor. VIII.
The Board of Longitude having, put the following quel-
tions on this fubject, “ Explain what you mean by this ¢
and how it is performed ?”? Mr. E. replied: ‘* Ail watch-
makers know how to draw and taper bulance-{prings, though
they did not know how much they were to be tepered to
that certain degree which could only anfwer the purpofe of
a complete time-keeper. I perform it in the following man-
ner: take a length of balance-(pring-wire, fay about twelve
inches for box time-keepers, and draw it between two fmooth
potence files, beginning from the end about 4 of its length,
make one draw, the next about 3, and fo on, advancing %
every draw till you come to the top, prefling the files juft fo
hard together as will make them bite or take hold of the
fpring ; do the fame with two oil-ftones, only give 12 ftrokes
inftead of 6, which will take off all burrs which the file left
on.” (* Explanation,” p. 29 and 30.) Weare further told,
that when the [pring is “red with long continuance of work,
its vigour may be reftored by re/.
Thefe fprings, that have the mvifible properties defcribed,
“are made of foft {teel, rolled hard, and not hardened and
tempered with heat and cold, that procefs not being at all
neceflary.”? Their length varies in box chronometers from
12 to 20 inches, and in pocket ones from 5 to 7, hike Mr.
Avno!d’s, and the fhape is cylindrical, with the two extreme
coils, each about half the diameter of the other coils, agree-
ably to the {pecitication in one of Mr. Arnold’s patents.
The thicknefs of the fteel in the expanfion-pieces of the
balance is ebout ;.8,,, of an inch, and that of the brafs twice,
or nearly three times as thick; the diameter of the balance
without the weights and ferews 14, and with them 12 inch ;
the total weight of it with weights and fcrews 3 dwts. rogr.
The mainfpring barrel is 1,3, inch, and the depth 4 inch, and
the {pring in it has from 42 to 5 turns. ‘The weight of
each of the two balance ferews is from § to 6 grains; and
the figure which the expanfion pieces aflume when cut from
the original compound ring is {uffered to remain unaltered,
on a fuppofition that bending by any mechanical means will
injure the regularity of their obedience to the changes of
temperature ; the locking and unlocking fprings are made as
weak at the bending parts as are practicable to afford the ne-
ceflary refiftance, as a detent, to the efcapement-wheel ;
they are brought to fhape by filing, then fmoothed with a
piece of fteel and oi!-{tone powder, and Jaftly hardened and
tempered. The pallets, which are of fteel, have each a
jewel fet in them, and thofe on the verge of the balance are
twifted round and fet to their fituations refpectively by the
friction of their central holes. In nis laft anfwer to the
queftions of the Commiffigners of Longitude, when afked,
« How fhould the lifting and large pallet be placed with
refpect to each other??? Mr Earnthaw’s words were, ‘ the
{mall lifting-pallet muft be moved round to fuch pofition
that when the wheel is unlocked the face of the large pallet
fhould be juft within the compafs of the wheel-tooth which
is to act on It 3’? but, what appears to us remarkable, no
queftion was aflked by the Board, nor any particular notice
taken, that we can find, either by Mr. Arnold or Mr. Earn-
fhaw, ref{peéting the relative pofitions of the lifting-pallet and
the quiefcent point of the regulating fpring, excepting in the
inftance of Mr. Earnfhaw, that we have had eccafion to
notice ; which notice, we truft, will benefit not only him,
but moft of the other makers of chronometers, with the de-
tached {pring-detent efcapement.
The mention of this efcapement brings to our recollec-
tion a patent which was faid to have been taken out for the
invention of adetent-{pring in the name of Wright, a Quaker
in the Poultry, aod which was, till lately, confidered to be
" Mr.
CHRONOMETER.
Mr. Earnthaw’s patent, but which was aever adtually taken
out, as we have been Jately informed from good authority 5
what part of the fpring conttituted the pretended invention,
and how it differed from Mr. Arnold’s {pecitication, we are
not informed ; the only difference that we are aware of is,
that one {pring-detent unlocks inwards, and the other out-
wards; but Meffrs. Brockbanks’ have always unlocked out-
wards, though they have not the two fprings inferted into
one another, as Meffrs. Arnold and Earnfhaw have: neither
do we fee any good reafon for preferring one of the three
eonttruétions to either of the other. They have all been
found to anfwer the defired purpofe; and the three makers,
who have feparately fold each a thoufand chronometers or
thereabouts, have turned out of their hands fome machines
that have performed but indifferently, as well as others, that
have done them great credit, as well as the navy great fervice,
« Two time-keepers, fays Dr. Mafkelyne, in his preface
to the “ Explanations,” publifhed by order of the Com-
miffioners of Longitude, conttructed by Mr. Thomas Earn-
fhaw, were tried three feveral times at the Royal Obferva-
tory, by order of the Commiffioners of Longitude, for a
twelvemonth or more at a time between 1798 and 1992, as
candidates for fome of the great rewards held out by the
aét of parliament of the r4th of his prefent Majefty ; but
were adjudged not to have gone within any of the limits
prefcribed by the aé, and, therefore, not thought proper
to be fent to fea, to undergo the fubfequent trial required
by the a&. However, as they appeared to have gone with
fufficient exaéinels, in the two laft trials, to be of confider-
able ufe in navigation, the commiffioners, on the 3d and
17th of March 1803. refolved unanimoufly to grant to Mr.
Earnfhaw the fum of 25001. inaddition to 5001, which they
had given him before.” Sir J. feph Banks baronet, how-
ever, entered a protef again{t this unanimous refolution, to
which Dr. Mafkelyne has replied in a private pamphlet ;
which, therefore, we cannot further notice ; bet Mr. Earn-
fhaw, clated, probably, with his fuccefs, publifhed an ad-
vertifement in the public papers by no means calculated to
conciliate his very refpe€table opponent ; in reply to which,
Mr. Dalrymple, a gentleman well known to the world as a
geographer, has recently written a pamphlet for public cir-
culation, which we here notice, as impartial by-flanders,
that we may fet the author right in fome of his obfervations,
which we confider as the produce of his zeal for his friend’s
caufe, rather than of his mature judgment. The pamphlet
we allude to, is intituled ‘ Longitude ;” the author of
which, fpeaking of the effects of heat and cold on the
balance-fpring, and the mechanical means ufed by Harrifon
and others, fays thus: ‘¢ Various modes of correction were
praGtifed ; but, as all thefe were by confiraint, checking the
natural effeéts of heat and cold on the fpring, they were
found ineffectual. Mr. Arnold, imitating the fimplicity of
nature in her operations, fo conftruéted his balance, that peat
and cold fhould enlarge or dimini/b it, in the fame degree as they
operate on the /pring of a watch, {> that the effec? mutt be
uniform; the balance, by becoming larger or lefs, exa&ly
counteraéting the effect of heat and cold on the {pring.””
(page 13 and feq.). What Mr. Dalrymple’s term con/traint
here means, we do not exa@tly conceive ; our opinion of Mr.
Harrifon’s curb, or kirb, is, that its inward and outward mo-
tion alternately affeted by changes of temperature, limited
the effective portion of the {pring to the fame dimenfions, In
point of length, under all circumftances ; which limit in the
length of the {pring conflrained it, to be fure, to become an
uniform regulator, or very nearly fo: but that the enlarge-
meni of the balance fhould counteraét the effeGis of Acat, cr
the /efening of it fhould countera& the effeéts of cold, is to
us a new doétrine, juft the reverfe of what we have been in
the habit of propagating ; we beg leave to repeat, on this
occafion, that the expanfion pieces of the balance are in-
tended to preferve the effective diameter of it unchanged by
heat or cold; the fame heat which elongates the radial arms
brings the expanfion weights nearer to the centre, and pré-
ferves the momentum unaltered ; which e¢ffe& produced on
the diameter of the balance is a conffraint, as much as the
alternate lengthening and fhortening of the balance-{pring is,
by artificial means, fimilar in principle, and alike in oppofi
tion to the direét effe&t of natural caufes. OF the fame na-
ture is the following opinion, in p. 80: ‘* Before I quit the
fubject, I muft obferve, that the confidential committee, to
whom Mr. Mudge’s time-piece was explained, reprefented
the ¢/pecial merit ef itto be in ‘ a contrivance for deftroying
the inequalities of the maintaining power derived trom the
mdin-fpring.” Before that time, the late Mr. Arnold had
entirely deltroyed the inegualities proceeding from the maine
Jpring 3 this was demonttrated by an experiment, in prefence.
of {cveral perfons, at Mr. Aubert’s houfe in Auttin Pri-
ars,’ &c, The experiment here alluded tc, was that of the
ifochronal length of the balance-fpring, which made the
long and fhort ares of vibration to be performed in the fame
times, or, in other words, which compenfated the great in-
equalities of the maintaining power where no fufee was ufed ;
fo that the contrivance did not * entirely de&roy the ine-
qualities”? proceeding from the main-{pring, but allowed
them to be as great as poffible, and then compenfated thofe
increafed inequalities by the ifochronifm of the regulating-
fpring, as we have before ftated. It appears to us, that the
author in queftion, at the time he made thofe feveral obfer-
vations on chronometry, had not given himfelf time to form
a dillin@ apprehenfion of the difference between caufe and
confequence.
Nearly of a fimilar kind does Mr. Earnfhaw’s reafoning
appear on the tapering of the balance-fpring, where he fays,
‘¢ if a man is to go four miles in the fame time as he has
gone one mile, he cannot do it with the fame power; no,
he muft have impelling force to quicken his motion, or he
will be four times as long in doing it. Therefore, inttead
of the {pring being equal in all its parts, it muit be made to
increafe in thicknefs to the outer end,” &c. (Page 8, of the
« Explanations.”?) Mr. Earnfhaw feems here to have for-
gotten, that in every uniform fpring, of whatever fhape,
the law of its action, as afcertained long ago by Dr. Hoe
is * ut tenfio fic vis,” i.e. the impelling force is direétly as
the tenfion, or diftance from the point of reft; and it he
knows any thing of the law of accelerated forces, he will
find, on-confideration, that there is no occafion to ap
two {feparate caufes to produce an exaét effe&, when one of ©
them, fingly, is competent to the purpofe; if, indeed, more
than a due effect is to be produced, then an auxiliary caufe
may be had recourfe to, but iti] we muft look to the prima-
ry caufe, for regularity as well as for the continuance of the
effect, particularly as, ia the cafe before us, the primary caufe
is the natural ene, and the auxiliary one only artificial, The
{pring of uniform thicknefs wiil produce a {cale of accelerated
velocities fimilar to that produced by the uniform ation of
gravity alone. Another of Mr. Dalrymple’s remarks is this ;
“ The /piral /pring was found ro be another fource of irre-
gularity ; as, by action, it changed its elafticity, and its
power was not the fame in all parts of the volute ;” (p. 14,
‘* “Longitude’’) : and he ftrengthens the force of this ob-
fervation by adding Mr. Arnold’s weil known reply to the
committee of the Houle of Commons, when they afked him,
8 What
CHRONOMETER,
What objections are there to the common fpiral-{pring ?
which reply was, ‘ that it is never a {piral but when it is
at reft.”? Our reply to thefe remarks is this, that no {pring
can aé at all without motion, and, confequently, without
change of figure; nor would any {pring an{wer the purpofe
of a regulating-{pring, if its power or elaltic force were the
fame at every degree of tenfion, as both Mr. Earnfhaw and
Mr. Dalrymple feem to have perfuaded themfelves is ufually
the cafe. The beauty of the law of a fpring’s tenfion is,
that it does not depend on the fhape, provided its dimenfions
be uniform: indeed Mr. Earnfhaw himfelf has found out
from practice, that “ the only advantage attending the cy-
lindrical shape is, that it is rather eafier (more eafily ) made ;
a faving of about one hour of time.” Mr. Earnfhaw has
particalarized fix advantages which his efcapement has over
Mr. Arnold’s, in p, 12 of his ‘* Explanations ;’’ but, as the
reader will probably think we have detained him too long,
we refer him to the original information, in reading which,
he will now be able to ferm an opinion for himfelf as to the
real exiftence of thofe advantages; indeed, when all rea-
foning on the fubje@ is at an end, that particular conftruc-
tion of a chronometer wiil no doubt ultimately prevail in
praGtice, which thall be found to perform the belt, and at the
{mallett.expence.
We might have added to our article an account of dffer-
ent chrouometers by French makers, but, as a chronometer
differs from an ordinary watch principally in the compen/ation-
balance and efcapement, their properties and peculiarities of
conftruGtion defcribed under thefe two heads will be amply
fufficient, after what we have here faid on the fubje@: and,
with refpe& to our prefent article, which has grown upon
our hands toa greater length than we intended it fhould,
the reader, however he may differ from us in fome particu-
Jars, will at leafl acknowledze, that we have, in general,
taken the liberty of thinking for ourfelves, and have, more-
over, freely expreffed thofe thoughts, uninfluenced by the
authority of names, even of thofe to whofe affiltance we are
indebted ; which we conceive to be the only way of doing
jultice to an interefting fubj-ét, that has never before gained
general circulation in the Englifh language,
Curonomerer.-—Exemplification of its ufe in determining
the longitude of a fhip or place. he reader, it is prefumed,
has already obtained a general idea of the utility of a chro-
nometer in afcertaining the relative longitudes of any two
places, from what we faid on this {ubjeé in our hiltory of
the improvements in chronometers ; butif he is in poffeffion
of one of thofe delicate and valuable machines, and wifhes
to avail himfelf of its ufe, either at fea or on fhore, in detere
mining practically the longitude of the place he 1s at, com-
pared with his fir meridian, he will ttand in need of fure
ther and more particular dire&tions, than we have before
given, to enable him to effe€t the requifite determination
with accuracy. The two molt effential things in ufing
a chronometer, are, firft, to be able to afcertain its mean
daily rate of going, and to apply it to the time indicated at
any place and in{tant afterwards ; and, fecondly, to be able
to determine by obfervations on fomeof the heavenly bodies
the exa& hour, minute, and fecond, at the faid place and in-
{tant of ebfervation, becaule the difference between the cor-
rected time indicated by the chronometer, as the time at the
firft meridian, and the equated time obtained by calculation
from the obfervations, will be the exaét difference of longi-
tude in time, between the place of obfervation and the firlt
meridian, to the time of which the chronometer isfuppofed to
have been previoufly put. Lut each of thefe two requilites
may be obtained by various means; and as fome of thole
means may be in the poffeffion of one reader, and fome of
another, we cannot better acquit ourfelves, than by giving
in fucceffion fome of the principal methods, ufed by different
eminent men, of effecting the fame purpofe, each of which
methods may have fome advantage peculiar to itfelf, which
under certain circumftances may render it mott defirable, or,
at leaft, moft practicable. ‘There are, however, certain pre-
paratory operations which are alike neceflary to affilt the
reader, whom we fuppofe to be previoufly unacquainted with
them, to perform the calculations he will have to go through,
We propofe, therefore, to feleét from the various authors,
who have recently written on this fubjeét, and to arrange
in fucceffive order, thofe problems in nautical aftronomy,
which we deem neceffary in order to render our propofed ex-
empl fication, not only eafy by the gradation we adopt, but
alfo fufficienrly comprehenfive, by including the different
methods, to anfwer the defired purpofe of praétical appli-
cation, It would lead us beyond our bounds to enter here
into an account of the different inftruments made ufe of in
ccleftial obfervations, together with their various adjuftments
and modes of ufing, which are explained under their re-
{pective heads in the different parts of this work; we mutt,
therefore, beg leave to refer the reader to thofe heads, ac-
cordingly as he finds himfelf at a lofs for the requifite ex-
planations and direGtions. There are, however, a few {mall
tables not generally met with in books of navigation, which
are neceflary companions for a tranfit-inftrument, when the
ftars are obferved, and which the obferver, who takes a rate
by his tranfit-inftrument, fhould always have at hand: we
therefore think it defirable to prefix them here, that the
reader may not only apply them in perufing for his amufe-
ment the fubfequent problems, but may always have them
under his eye whenever he may have occafion hereafter to
confult our directions in practice.
F2 TABLE
CHRONOMETER,
a
TART Ta. FABLE. IT, -
(From Profeffor Vince.) ; (From Profeffer Vince.)
For converting Sidereal into Mean Solar Time. For converting Mean Solar into Sidereal Time. — |
Hours.} Min. Sec. | Minutes.| Sec. |Seconds.} Sec. Hours | Min. Sec. | Minutes. Sec. | Seconds.| Sec.
aa ope Lee CT re enone ey
I o 9.83 | 0.16 I 0.00 I | o 9.86 I
2 © 19.65 } 2 | 0.33 2 0.01 2 | 019.71 | 2
5 © 29.49 | 3 0.49 3 ©.01 3 | 0 29.57 | 3
Ease as es SET bas ay eS ee
4 © 39-32 4 0.66 4 0.01 4 © 39.43 4
5 © 49.15 5 0.82 5 0.0F 5} 0.49.28 5 |
6 © 58.98 6 0.98 6 0.02 | 6 |} © 59.14 6
pose ses see |
) r 8.81 4 Lots 7 0.02 7 8.99 4
8 1 18.64 8 1.31 8 0.02 8 1 18.85 8
9 I 28.47 9 ~| 147 9 0.02 9 | 28.71 9.
10 1 38.30 10 1.64 10 0.03 Io 1 38.56 Io
II I 48.13 If 1.80 It 0.03 II 48.42 It
12 157296) |lnowae 1:97 | 12 0.03 12 I 58.28 12
eit Ke | ci as 138
13 emir ers) 13 2.13 13 0.04 13 2) \Sam8 13 .
14 2 17.601 14 2.29 I4 0.04 14 2 17-99 14 1
15 2 2744 15 2.46 15 0.04 15 227.85 rg |
'
I 2 37.24 |) 36 2.62 16 0.04 | 16 2 37.40. | 6 |
17 2 47.10 17 2.78 17 0.05 17 247.56 | 17
18 2 56.93 18 2.95 18 0.05 i8 2 57-42 8
i '
| 4" | | |
19 3 6.76 19 3.11 19 0.05 19 | he | 19
20 SMEOIROS b|/dig20 3.28 20 0.05 20 || 3.1713) | Zo
21 3 26.42 30 4.91 30 0.08 | 21 | 3 26. | 30
}
a pn ad | |
22 3 30.25 | 40 6.55 40 O.1I f) \:22),) |B 3 BORSA: \4go
23 3 46.08 50 8.19 5° 0.14 23. | 3.46.70 | 50
24 3 55-91 | 6o 9-83 | 60 0.16 | 24 | 3 50.55 | 60
TABLE
1806. Mag.
y Pegafi 2
| @ Arietis * 213
a Ceti 2
Aldebaran * J
Capella. I
| Rigel I
; @ Tauri 2
' « Orionis I
Sirius 4
Cattor 2
| Procyou I 2
Pollux * 2
a Hydre 2
Regulus * I
8 Leonis 1.2
8 Virginis 3
a Virginis * I
Arcturus I
1 a Libre 6
2 ~ Libre 2
a Corone 243
# Serpentis 2
Antares * I
z Herculis 23
# Ophiuchi 2
« Lyre
precedens
2 Aquila * 3
« Aquilz * 12
B Aquilz 3.4
1 « Capricorni 4
2 « Capricorni| 3
ze Cygnl 1 2
} « Aquaril 3
Fomalhaut * T 2
« Pegafi * 2
« Andromede 2
CHRONOMETER.
TABLE III.
Dr. Maflelyne’s Thirty-fix Stars.
Mean R. A. | Annual ! Mean Annual Mean
in Sidereal Time. |Variation., Declination. Variation. | Refraction.
h m 5 s +- ° r uw s fin r “" iy
@ 3 1540 | 3-069 | 14 6 24.90 + 20.20 © 44
T 56 ¥5.66 | 3.347 1.22 32 24.98 + 17-47 O 32
252 8.88 3.115 3 19 22.40 + 14.75 Ted!
4 24 48.00 3-426 | 16 6 31.40 + 8.00 © 40
5 2 22.62 4-415 | 45 47 5-88 St mae oi /| OpNG
TOU ac 3c 2.876 8 25 59:325.| — 4-92 I 38
Bong) 2.07 0 3r7 80 a 28125) 52650 3.91 © 24
5 44 40-23 3-243 7 21 38.16 + 1.49 © 55
6 36 30.06 | 2.653 | 16 27 21.545.| + 4.21 2 20
F294 Ti. O21) y34853' 9\|\932\48- °3-76 — 7.06 o 20
AV2Q. Oat 3.142 5 42 51.48 — 8.53 °o 58
7 33 25-43 | 3-688 | 28 29 2.58 | — 7-93 | © 240
9 18 3.08 2.946 7 49 19.705.| + 15.10 I 36
9 58 9:65 | 3.212 || 12 54:-40.74 — 17.19 © 45
TI 39 9:14 | 3-067 | 15 39 25.24 — 20.04 oO 4!
THO 435.27) ||| 3-12’ 2 SL 32.42 — 20.22 any
13 14 59-29 | 3.147 | 10 8 29.808.) + 18.80 D Adah. |
74 6 48.83 2.428 | 20 Il 59.41 — 18.79 Oo 35 |
14 39 53.66 | 3.296 15 10 42.668,} + 15.19 Qi Ul
14 40 9.99 | 3-297 | 15 12.20.845.| + 15.21 Pitty
1% 26 28.63 | 2545 | 27 22-34-54 | — 12-49 O25]
ich seh eae OAR eh 1 tates ie
15 34 43-17 2.945 7 2 48.60 — 11.70 ° 56 i
16 17 32.06 | 3.658 | 25 59 4.925.) + 8.43 4 11
17 5 48.33 | 2-731 | 14 27 26-48 |.— 4.48 |: © 43
17.25 55-91 2.776 | 12 42 47.88 — 3.03 o 46
18 30 22.08 2.027 | 38 36 36.34 + 2.91 Ovn2
= ‘i
LOWS Leo 3.846 | 10 9 6.72 + 8.38 © 50
19 4t 18.83 2.925 8 22, 2.64. 1Q.13 © 53
19 45 40.85 2.944 Gi 56, 5.20 + 8.57 o 58 |
20 6 53.03 3-336 |. 13 | 5)39-708-} — FO.S0 2EN10)
ZO 120.93 3.339 113 7 §98.308.| — 10.81 210
20 34 49.06 2.035 | 44 35 33-S4 | + 12-56 Onn 7
21 55 148-75.) 3.002 I 15 15.66S8.| — 17.36 nae
22 46 54.18 | 3.343 | 30 38 26.308.| — 19.10 6 38
22 55 6.12 | 2.973 | 14 9 59.32 | + 19-43 o 43
23 58 22.89 3.070 | 27 58 34.24 + 19.99 0 25
. r 3 -* -
Note. In the column-of declination, S. means fouth, and where there is no S. the declina-
tions are all north; alfo, that the ftars marked with alteriiks are thofe from which the lunar
diftances are computed in the Nautical Almanac.
TABLE
CHRONOMETER.
TABLE IV.
For reducing the Sun’s Longitude, as given in the Nautical Almanac for Noon at Greenwich, to any other
Time, or to Noon under any other Meridian—Taken from W, Wales, F.R.S.
ee a ee ee ey EEE
2d Arg. | xft Arg. Hourly Motion of the San, 2d Arg.
Time from , uu" 4 “ , u , u" , ” / u 7 ” ' ” , nu” , ” , “ righ
Noon. | 2 23 | 2-24 |-2 25 | 226 | 2 27 | 2 28 | 2 29 | 2 36 | 2 31 | 2 32 | 2 33 | Long.
Pe ee ee ee a ae ay PS WPT EAE eR, Be || pid bie
o 20] 0.8 0.8 o.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 5
°o 40 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 17 ne | 1.7 1a 10
tT oo 2.4 2.4 2.4 2. 2.5 265 2.5 2.5 2-5 | 2.5 2.5 15
qr } 20)j| 73.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 363 3.3 Beg 33 3-4 3.4 3.4 20
YT §4Or|o-4.0) =O bA:0" |) “40 4.0 4.I 4.1 4.2 43 4.2 4.2 25
2 Ooi 4.8) |) 04.8 4.8 4.8 4-9 4-9 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.1 30
2 20) 56 | 56 | 56-15-61 5.7 To 5-7 | o:8h} 5.8 | 5 |) 59 | 5-0 35
2 40} 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.7 6.7 6 40
| 3 O00} 72 7.2 7.2 7.3 74 14. aah VS 7.6 7.6 6 45
(3 2a} BSto 5.0 8.4 3.1 $8.2 8.2 8.3 8.3 3.4 Bug 5.5 45°
20) Agi 28.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.0 get 9.2 9.2 9-3 93 55
4 oo| 9.6 9.6 9-7 9:7 9.8 9-9 99 | to.0 | to.L | Ior | 10.2 60
4 20] To.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | ro 10.8 | 10.8 | 10 11.0 | 116 65
Ao PACU LT-2p [GPM OTT.3 fears) Ara eS tras: [ar i rey lerore ete 70
| 8 oon P20 er2so- 12.1 rer |n2s2 ore. 3" | rare sera OM eno mle 75
| 5 | 20-1 12.8) |=r2.8 f12.9 | '2-9 | 13.4. | 73.2 || 13:2] 13-3 | 13-4 | 13,5) | 19:6 So
I) 5. 4 a3 6) 1Snge60 13.7) IRS | Telo)"fn4.o sleraetie |) Tce nd 2 |Naaaay yer 85
6 oo} 14.3 | 14.4 [914.5 §| 14.6 | 74.7 | 124.8 |\ 14.97} 15.0 | 15.1 | 15.2 | 15.3 go
6 2Ou OS TONGS fe gg oh ge ay 5 Bir sO Tose 1 2G. Se Mae rotor) TO. 1 95
6) 40M 15:9 |1FOIS fer. Fe rh2e)) T6239. r6ig, |) Gh | xO. 76.86.09 Jira 100
% | OOF | £6.77 | GROES 1905.9.) |) AOR) O72”) [ems a geal sO aon 105
Lo7. toa7.g-} 196 | 2909 | 17:8 fp 18.07 fer8rr” jatbez™ | rOegep TSR 18.6 |) Be I10
| 7 40} 18.3 | 18.4 gb18.5 | 18.6 | 18.8 | 18.9 | 19.0 | 19.2 | 19.3 | 19.4 | 16.5 115
8 oo | r9.1 | 19.2 | 19.3 | 19-4. | 19.6 } 19.7 | 19.8 | 20.0 | 20.1 | 20.3 | 20.4 120
8) Zon 79:9) |*zo-0F Paes i201 zotge 0.5) 920.7) Zon | eeieOr | saver eo nem 125
8.40% 20.7 | 2088) 20.94) *2hoby) 2.25 | ora || 2050) anal 20:8 scar.) laze 130
9 ootliiars | a6 |rotpiWem.8ei zest 222 | 22.98) sere 26 ize.8 ja 135
9 P20) 22.4) 20.40 |-2255 20.9) || 22 .o;Nas-O agar onal PR Regs On laa 140
G40. |. 23-4) | 23.2) | 2963 | 2305 | 2907 |23.8. | 24.0 || omgi2 “Pewee a4 Ane T45
IO OO}} 23.9 | "24.0 | 24.1. | 24.3 | 24.5 | 24.7 | 24.8 | 25:0 | 25.2 | 25.3 | 25.5 150
IO | 20 |) 24.7 | 24:8 24.9 | 25.1 | 25.3 | 25.5 | 25-7 >| 26-5 5! 26:0 | 26:2) 26g 155
TO 40'| 25.5 125.6 | 25.8 | 25-9 | 26.1 | 26.3 | 2655 | 26.7 | 26.8 | 270 Iaz2 160
If (007|°26.3 ) 26.4 (| 26.67 26 eno arr W273 |l27.5 | 27-7) ||) eaeo queue 165
Tf. § oil] Spe |lawie W247 ae ae.g” | 27.8) 27.0) al. Dhar | Ges) | 8.5 eos eee 170
II 40 | 27-9 | 28.0 | 28.2 | 28.3 | 28.6 | 28.6 | 29.0 | 29.2 | 29.4 | 29.6 | 29.7 175
|
We have not met with this ufeful little Table in any other Book but in Mr. Wales’s Pamphlet, entitled,
«The Method of finding the Longitude at Sea by Time-keepers.” . London, 1800.
Propuem
CHRONOMETER,
Prosrem I,
To reduce apparent to mean time.
Rule, (from W. Wales, F.R.S.) If the time at Green-
wich be not given, turn the longitude of the place into time;
and add it to the time at the given place, if the longitude be
weft, but fubtract from that time, if the longitude be ealt,
and it will give the time at Greenwich. :
Take the equation of time from page IJ. of the Nautical
Almanac, for the noon preceding tke time when it is want-
ed, and alfo the difference between it and the equation for
the day foliowing ; and fay, as 24" is to this difference, fo is
the time at Greenwich to a fourth number; which mutt be
added to, or fubtracted from, the equation for the preceding
noon, accordingly as the equation is increafing or decreafing.
Note. In every operation, where one time is to be taken
from another, add 24 hours to the time you fubtract from,
if the time which fs to be taken from it be the greater, and
the remainder muit be reckoned from the noon of the pre-
ceding day. When one time is added to another, if the
fum exceed 24 hours, take 24 hours from it, and the re-
mainder muit be reckoned from the noon of the following
day.
Example 1, (from Mr. Kelly.) What is the equation of
time at noon at Bombay, on the 16th Nov. 1805, the lon-
gitude of Bombay in time being 4" 50” 32°?
Equation of time for noon, at Greenwich fub. 15™ 1°.
24" is to 4" 50" 32° as 10°8 (daily diff.) isto + 2.
RO
Equation of tinge for noon, at Bombay 15™ 4.1
Example 2, (from Mr. Kelly.) What is the equation of
time at Port Royal, on July 11, 1805, at 20" 23"?
Time at Port Royal-' - - Doh ison oF
Longitude of Port Royal in time ees Wea
Time at Greenwich; July 12th ~ 1 3012
Equation of time, July rath, at noon add Folate)
24" tsto 7°.5 (daily diff.) as 15 30™ 2° is to + 0.5
The equation of time fought 5. “6.1
If it be required to convert mean time to apparent, a con-
trary procefs muit be ufed; that is, the equation of time
mult be applied with a contrary fign: but in order to per-
form this problem with perfe& accuracy, an allowance mutt
be made forthe proportion of the equation itfelf, as the table
iscomputed for apparent noon.
Prosiem II.
To find the fun’s longitude for any given time and place from the
Nautical Almanac.
Rule, (from W. Wales, F.R.S.) Take the fun’s longi-
tude for noon at Greenwich from page IT, of the Nautical
Almanac for the given day, and its hourly motion from
page III.
Enter Table IV. with the fun’s hourly motion at the
top, and the longitude of the given place in time in the left-
hand-fide column, or in the right-hand column if given in
degrees, and take out the correétion which ftands under the
former and oppofite the latter: this correction being added
to the fun’s longitude for noon at Greenwich, if the longi-
tude of the place be weft, or fubtraéted from it, if the longi-
tude be ealt, will give the fun’s longitude for noon at the
given place,
Example 1. What was the fun’s longitude at noon on
the 15th of Of&ober, 1793, at Lima in Peru?
Sun’s longitude for noon at Greenwich 6° 22° 343
Hourly mot. 2’ 29” and long. 77° W. give + 12.7
Sun’s long. for noon at Lima 6 22 47.5
Example 2. What wasthe fun’s longitude at noon on the
27th ot November, 1793, at Calcutta?
Sun’s longitude for noon at Greenwich 8° 5° 46'6
Hourly motion 2’ 32” and long. 88° E. give — 1420
Sun’s longitude fornoon at Calcutta 8 5 31.7
When the time is for any hour before or after noon, a fe-
cond fimilar reduGtion will be neceffary in addition to the re-
duétion for longitude, which will be additive if the time be
aftcr noon, but fubtrative if it be before.
Example 3. What was the fun’s longitude at Port Royal
on May 4th, 1794, at 5° 30™ ?
Sun’s long. fornoon at Greenwich — - T* T4°.9/9
Bourly mot..2™ 25°.1 & Jong.W.5"7™ 2° + 12.4
Hourly mot. 2™ 25°.1 and g"30" P.M. + 13.3
Sun’s long. at Port Royal at 5" 30" 4 14 35.6
Prosiem III.
To find the fun’s declination for any siven time and place from
for any g
the Nautical Almanac.
Rule, (from W. Wales, F.R.S.) "Take the fun’s de-
clination out of the Nautical Almanac for noon at Green-
wich on the given day, if the given time be lefs than twelve
hours, but for the day following if it be more. é
Enter TableVI. of the Regui/ite Tables with the time from
the neareft noon at the top, and the day of the month in
one of the fide columns : under the former, and eppofite to
the latter fands the correétion of the fun’s declination on
account of the time.
If the fun’s declination be wanted for noon at any other
placethan Greenwich, enterthe table with the longitude of the
given place at the top, and the day of the month in ove of
the fide columns, againft which, and under the longitude,
ftands the cotreGion of the fun’s declination on that ac-
count,
If the declination be wanted at any other place than
Greenwich, and at any other time but noon, both correc-
tions mutt be applied ; and they muft be added to, or fub-
traéted from, the declination for noon at Greenwich, accord-
ing to the direétions which ftand at the top of the column,
where the day of the month is found.
Example 1. Find the fun’s declination for 21" 17™ ap-
parent time at Greenwich, May 4, 1793 ?
May 4th at 21” 17™ is 2" 43™ before noon on the sth.
Sun’s declination for noon, May 5th 16° 27/34” N.
2" 43™ before noon gives + - — I 59
Sun’s declination, May ath, at 21°17" = 16 25 35 N.
“Example 2. What was the fun’s declination on tue 14th of
October, 1793, at 7".43™ in longitude 83° eatt?”
Sun’s declination, October 14th, at noon 8° 25! 26S.
7" 34” after noon in Table VI. give + 6 54
$3° Eaft longitude in Table V1. give ~— 5 3
Sun’s declinationat 57> 34™inlong.§3° cat 8 27 17S.
PROBLEM
CHRONOMETER.
Proniem IV.
To convert fidereal into mean folar time, and the contrary.
Rule. Colle& the numbers expreffing the acceleration of
fidereal on mean folar time ‘out of our Table I. when fide-
real time is given to be changed, but the numbers out of
Table IJ when mean folar time is given; then in the former
eafe {ubtra& the amount from the time given, but in the latter
add the faid amount, and the difference or fum, as the
cafe may be, will be the time converted into that of a dif-
ferent name.
Example 1. Let it be required to convert 16 16™ 30° of
fidereal timie iato a correfponding quantity of mean folar
time?
The work is this :
From Tab. I. 10° -1™ 38'30 [ acceleration of
16™ o 2.62 2 fiderealon mean
30° -o 0.08 | folar time.
Amount [ 41.00
then 10° 16" 30° — 1™ 41°= 10" 14™ 49% the correfpond-
ing quantity of mean folar time,
Example 2, Let it again be required to convert ro" 14"
49% of mean folar time into a corre{ponding quantity of
fidereal time?
The operation is thus :
From Tab. Li, 10*—-—-1™ 28°56 (retardation of folar
14"——o 2.304 compared with fi-
49°- Oo 0.14 Ldereal time.
Amount I 41.0
Then, 10° 14" 49° + 4" 41° = 10" 16™ 30° which is the
correfponding quantity of fidereal time agreeably to Exam-
ple 1, to which this is the converfe.
Prosrem V.
To compute the fun’s right afcenfion for a, given hour at any
es given place.
Rule, (according to the Requifite Tables.) ‘Take the
fun’s right afcenfion in time from page LL. of the Nautical
Almanac for the given day, and fee how much it differs
from that of either the preceding of following day, which
call the daily variation in right afcenfion in time ; with this
as an argument, enter Table. XXIII. at thetop, and with
the time from noon, or the difference of longitude, or both fe-
parately and fucceflively, as a fecond argument for the fide
of the page, enter'the fame Table, and the interfection or
interte€tions will give the quantity or quantities to be added
to the right afcenfion for noon at Greenwich, if the time be
after noon, or the longitude of the place well, but to be
{ubtraéted if the time be before noon, or the longitude eal.
Example t. Required the right afcenfion of the fun at
Sombay, on the iftof January 1794, at 3" 36"?
Sun’s Richt Afc. Jan. 1, 1794, at Green-
wich, per Nautical Almanac - .18'-49™ 38?
Ditto, on fan. 2 - - 18 54. 2.8
Daily variation. - 4 24.8
Then ©’s R. Af. at noon at Greenwich
being - - ° 18 49 38
Reduction for 3* 36™ with 4™ 24°.3 + o 40 -
Redugtion for long.
of Bombay
4" 30 32° E, | - -
— o 6§90
Right Afe, required - ae 138 49 28
Example 2. Let, it be required to afcertain the fun’s
right afcenfion at 7 o’clock, civil time, in a fhip, the
longitude of which is 8° 30! or 34" E., on April the 20th,
1794?
©’s R. Ale. on April 19, 1794 = Pico "ieee
Ditto, — on Do. 20, 1744 - I 53 49.6
Daily variation - - 3 Aga
Then R, Afe. on April 20, 1794 sabe dca o ri
Reduétion for 5 hours before noon — o 46.5
Reduction for 34™ E. - = FCO) Som
Right Afcenfion required - Ter 52 wae
Inftead of Table XXIII. of the Requifite Tables, pub-
lifhed by the Board of Longitude, Table XVIII. of Dr.
Mackay may be ufed in the folution of this problem.
Piomiew VI.
To afcertain mean folar time by a fidereal clock or watch :
and alfo fidereal time, from a folar clock or chronometer,
on any given day in the year. : ;
Prefatory Remark, A fidereal clock or watch goes fafter
than a folar one by 3™ 55'.91 of folar time, and confe-
quently fhows one day in the year more than a folar clock
or chronometer does, the fidereal day being meafured by
the earth’s abfolute rotation as it is referred to a fixed ftar,
and the folar by the earth’s fynodic rotation, as it relates to
the fun in motion. But the right afcenfions, or angular
diftanees from the firft point of Aries, of all the heavenly
bodies, when they are given in time inftead of degrees, are
given in fidereal time; therefore a clock fo regulated as to
gain 3" 55°91 per day, if it does not vary in its rate, will
always fhow the right afcenfion of any ftar, as it paffes the
middle wire or hair of a tranfit inftrument, well fixed in the
meridian, and levelled, provided the hands of the clock be
put to 24" o™ o° at the inflant that the point 12° 0° of o” of
the equator, or firft point of Aries, is pafling the faid wiré
or bair. Hence a fidereal clock, as Mr. Kelly has obferved
in his Appendix to his ‘* Nautical Aitronomy,”? may with
propriety be called a right afcenfion clock, and is that which
is ulually fixed in obfervatories, and known by the appella-
tion of an aflronomical clock.. The writer of the prefent
article is in pofleffion of a chronometer, by the late Mr.
Margetts, which indicates both mean folar and fidereal
time, and confequently the fun’s mean right afcenfion,
which is their difference on any day; the manner in which
both thefe kinds of times are indicated by the fame machine
will be explained under the article Drau-qwork. ;
Rule. When fidereal time is given on any day to find
the correfponding folar, take the fun’s right afcenfion for
the noon of that day and place, by the lalt problem, and
fubtraG it from the fidereal time given, after borrowing 24" if
neceflary, and the remainder will be the fidereal time elapfed
fince the laft apparent noon; to this remainder apply the
acceleration of fidereal on mean folar time, from Table I. as
already directed in Problem IV., and then the fidereal time
will be converted into mean folar time that has paffed fince
apparent noon, to which apply the equation of time at noon,
and then there will be the mean time elapfed fince mean wine
| ae
7
CHRONOMETER.
that is, there will be the mean folartime. On the contrary,
when mean folar time is given, the correfponding fidereal
time 1s found by reverfing this operation.
Example 1, (from Mr. Kelly.) Required the mean time
on the Sth of September, 1805, when the fidereal clock
was at 15" 207 7°?
Time per fid. clock - - Tee o/s
®’s R. Afe. at noon Tig iol SFauits.0 846)
Sid. time elapfed fince ap. noon 414 :
Accel. of fid. on fol. time from Tab. I. — 0 41.63
Mean time elap. fince ap. noon Ayers 2he79
Equation of time at noon - — 2 24.0
Mean folar time - jie ees ey
Operation reverfed. Example 2, (from Mr. Kelly.) Re-
quired the time by-a fidereal clock at 4" 11" i°.77 of mean
folar time, on the 8th of September, 1505?
Mean folar time given - Me
Equation of time at noon, addhere + 2 22
Mean folar time fince appar. noon Ao he Dh
Retardation of folar compared with
fidereal time from "Table IT. - + 41.63
Siderea! time fince apparent noon Be TAs had
Sun’s right afc. at apparent noon TRE? Ee ONG
Time by fidereal clock - Thon ney
Thefe examples fuppofe the clock to be at Greenwich,
but if the fidereal time or folar time given is for any other
meridian, the fun’s right afcenfion, and alfo the equation of
time, as given in the Nautical Almanac, mutt be previoully
reduced to the noon of that meridian, by the refpeCctive
foregoing problems.
Proziem VII.
To take the tranfit of a celeftial objed.
Rule. Place the tranfit inftrument in the meridian, and
fee that all the adjuftments are properly made, then when
the objeé&t to be obferved approaches the meridian, elevate
the telefcope to the required altitude by means of the gra-
duated circle and fpirit level at the end of the axis. The
fun or ftar will foon appear in the field of view, apparently”
moving from the weft to the eaft, when the telefcope inverts
the objet. If there are five wires, or cobweb hairs, which
are better, in the focus of the eye-glafs, which is ufual,
mark the time of the tranfit over each feparate wire or hair,
as in the fubjoined examples, and ufe a coloured glafs over
or under the eye-glafs if the fun be the objeé&, and the
day clear; but if there is but one wire or hair, a fimple
tranfit can only be obtained.
Example 1, (from Mr. Kelly’s Appendix to his ** Nau-
tical Aitronomy.”’) On the 8th of September, 1805, the
following tranfit of the fun was taken at the obfervatory in
Finfbury Square, with a tranfit inftrument of five wires, and
a fidereal clock ; to find the error of the clock.
~ Vou, VIII.
1 Wire.| 2 Wire.| Mer. Wire. |4 Wire.|5 Wir.
ms,+§.:,| Mm. Saud he om.) Ss m. 8. |. ™m. 8. j
BBB. | #2%GieL | 4052) | 5. 20-51.5 0}@’srftlimb.
7 58.5| 7 30 |rr 7 00 | 631.5) 6 2)@’s2dlimb.
= *
TL HLS IIT 52.5 (22 EL 52 jl 52 (rr 52
he ty nee
* The order of 525 se 3
thisrow of figures i + The hours are inferted
is reverfed, by 52 jin the middie column only,
and the other columns mayj
which the mean
lof each colump 5 |260.0}se fuppofed to contain
is moft readily ——|them.
obtained. 22 2..00 52
Tr 5 56 meanof the whole.
Hence the ©’s centre pafled ‘
56° per clock.
the meridian at = re) aye
And per Naut. Alm, ©’s Reda. iat Sig S56 9-0 ©:
Clock flow 0 o 3.6
The obfervation might have been made with the middle
wire only, by adding the time of the fun’s femi-diameter
paling the meridian (p. 3, Naut. Alm.) to the time when the
©’s firft limb paffed the third wire; or, by fubtrating it
from the time of the ©’s fecond limb paffing it ; thus,
©’s rift limb paffed mer. wire 11” 4" 52° per obfervation
Times of @’s femi-diame-
ter pafling mer. = rt 4per Naut. Alm.
56
rd sl:
Or, if 1" 4° be taken from 11" 7", the time of the fe.
cond limb’s paffing the meridian wire, the refult will be as
before. ;
Example 2. On the evening of the fame day, the tranfit
of o Lyre was thus obferved :
Firtt wire 18& 29™ 7° per fidereal clock.
2d ditto 29 43
‘Mer. ditto 30. «19
ath ditto BolomsS
5th ditto Bvt 3x
Sider hie,
Star paffed ‘
a oF wire 12 3° 19 App. R. A. per clock.
R.A.
ser ieee 18 30 20.05 per Table III.
Corr. for pre- } 5}
ceffion and + 2.04 | per Tables in the
aberra. Greenwich ob-
Ditto for nu-?
fervations.
tation, &c. § 7 0.6 |
18 go 22.75 App. R. A. per Tables.
nd
Clock ow o
Pros_em
CHRONOMETER.
Prosrem VIII.
To find the rate which a watch goes at by obfervations of
the fan's, or of a flar’s tranfit over the meridian.
Rule, (by W. Wales, F.R.S.) for the fun. Obferve,
with a tranfit-inftrument, properly adjufted, the time
when the fun pafles the meridian of the place every
day at noon, (as in the laft problem) or as often as oppor-
tunizies offer. The equation of time muft then be taken
from the Nautical Almanac, (as in Prob. I.) and, if it be
marked additive, it will be the fame as the time by the
watch when the fun’s centre was obferved to pafs the meri-
dian, if the watch be right. If they differ, that difference
% what the watch is too faft, or too flow for mean time:
and it is too faft, if the time by the watch be greater than
the equation of time; and too flow, if the time by the
watch be lefs. If the equation of time be fubtradtive,
take it from twenty-four hours, compare the obferved time
when the fun’s centre was on the meridian with the re-
mainder, and the difference between them will be what the
watch is too fat, or too flow; accordingly, as the time by
the watch is the greater or the lefs. Thefe obfervations, whea
the voyage is expected to be of a confiderable length, ought
to be continued for a month at leaft: indeed, the longer
they are continued, in all cafes, the better; but in this the
obferver muft be governed by circumftances. They mutt
always, however, be continued as near as poffible to the
time when the fhip is expeGed to fail, that there may be as
little chance as poffible left for the watch to alter its rate of
going after the obfervations are clofed.
The times by the watch, when the fun’s centre was ob-
ferved on the meridian, muft be written one under another,
in column two, again{ft the days of the month when they
were obferved in column one; and it is the day that
began at the inftant when the fun’s centre was on the meri-
dian, which is to be fet before the obferved time, and not
the day which ended then, as is thé cuftom with feamen.
The equation of time, or its fupplement to 24 hours, ac-
cording as it is additive or fubtraétive, muft be fet in a
third column, againft the obferved times of noon, and the
difference between them in a fourth, with the lign + or —,
according as the watch is too faft or-too flow for mean time ;
‘which difference is had by taking the third column from the
fecond, after borrowing 24, if neceflary. This is all that is
neceflary to be done till all the obfervations are made.
When the fhip is ready to fail, add a fifth column to your
paper, take the difference between what the watch was too
fatt or too flow on the firft day of obfervation, and what it
was too faft or too flow on the fecond, and put it in the fifth
column, oppofite the {pace which is between the two. num-
bers of which it is the difference. Take alfo the difference
between what the watch was too fait or too flow on the
fecond day, and what it was too fat or too flow on the third ;
between what it was too faft or too flow on the third, and
what it was too faft or too flow on the fourth, and fo on.
Place thefe differences alfo in the fifth column, oppofite
the {paces which are between the two numbers of which
they are, refpeCtively, the difference. Thefe differences
will be the gain or lofs of the watch in thr 24 hours, which
they refpeGtively ftand againft. And it muft be obferved,
that the watch is gaining if it be too falt for mean time,
and the numbers in the third column increafe; or, if it be
too flow, and the numbers in the third column decreafe ; but
the watch is lofing if it be too faft for mean time, and the
numbers in the third column decreafe ; or if it be too flow,
aud the numbers in the third column increafe.
Remark. By making daily obfervations in the manner
here recommended, it will be feen whether,the watch alters -
its rate of going while it is under trial, which is abfolutely.
neceflary to be known ; becaufe, if it does, all thofe obfer-
vations muft be rejected which were made before the alter~
ation happened, and thofe only retained which were made
afterwards. E
If no material alteration happened in the rate of the
watch’s going, during the time of trial, take the differegce
between what the watch was too faft or too flow ee
firft day of obfervation, and what it was too faft or too flow
on the laft, if they be of the fame kind, that is, both too
faft, or both too flow ; but add them together, if the watch
was too faft in one in{tance, and too flow in the other ; this
difference, or fum, muft be divided by the number of days
which elapfed between the firft and laft day’s obfervations,
and the quotient will be the number of feconds and decimal
parts that the watch gains or lofes in a day. And it is
manifeft, that if the watch be falter at the end of the trial,
than it was at the beginning, it is gaining, and if it be
flower, it is lofing.
If any confiderable alteration happened in the rate which
the watch went at, inftead of taking the difference between
what the watch was too faft or too flow, on the firft and
laft days, take the difference between what the watch was
too faft or too flow on the day after that, when the altera-
tion in its rate happened, and what it was too faft or too
flow on the day when the laft obfervation was made, and.
divide by the number of days which elapfed between them.
The following examples will make this very plain.
Example 1.
centre paffed the meridian of Barbadoes, in the month of
December, 1793, were as follow; what was the lofs or
gain of the watch on mean time?
Note.
Suppofe the obferved times when the foo’s
CHRONOMETER.
|
Note. The days of the week are here denoted, as in the
original, by the planetary characters, where © is Sunday,
) Monday, # Tuefday, and fo on,
4
Obf. Times |Mean Time] Watch too | Daily
1793+ of @’s Tranf. ofapp.noon| ~ fait, gain.
h. a Say) || bis oe 8. hem. s 8
© Dec. *1} 3° 50 34-0 |23 49 4-7I+ 4.6 52.3 ie
dD — 2) 3 54 2-1 |23 50 Sralits 40 "50r7) yo
o — 3/3 St 30.6 123 50 29.7/+ 4 1 ON a
Sit 3Y 550-2123) FO. HOW aT On .0 i 15
2 5) 3.52 26.2 123 51 20.1)-+ ant 6.1 ang
2 — 6) 3 52 54.0 |23 5t 46.1/+ 41 TOV ny
Bp 7 B58 B19 123 52 12.6)-+).4 1 0.3 Ser he
YO — 8) 3 53 50.3 |23 52 39-5]+ 4 1 10.8 43,2
y=. 9} 3) 54 18.9 123 53 O.g}t 4112.0), 57
S — 10 3 54 47-7 |23 53 34-6/+ HES 04
Yoo —— 11] 3°55 16.4 |23 54 A Gita i 3 Vi),
Ye — 12) 3 55 46.7 [23 54 g1olt 40 357) 02
Hees 24 BN 50 AS72305 O8.6l4-, 41 20.1 ie 6
PO B57 119.8) 1239 55. 57e71 4 Li 2200 i a
DON S750. 2 23eRO 2iolqq|4. 0 24.3
3 io ‘ amie.
See ange Fo) 22.2! (23)56,05O.5 ltd, X 125.9 +41
¥ — IW) 3 58 53-4 [23 57 26.2)/+ 4 1 27.2) 2 13
2 —= 19] 3°59 24.6 |23 57 56.17+ 4 1 28.5), 78
2 = 20] 3 59 56.3 423 58 26.0/+ 4 1 30.3) 1 1'g
Dat 01 40) 27.9))123 58 56.01+ 4 1 31-9) 4 3g
Sh iM ea eel ee NR eh as
3 — 25/'4 2 33.6]0 0 56.0/+ 4 I 37.6 ae
4% — 2614 3 5.0 o 1 25.8/+ 4 1 39.2/ PF
2 — 274 3 36.1} 0 1 55.4/> 4 1 49.7 15
bh — 28] 4 4 08.0 0 2 24git 4 ¥ 43.117 ot
© — 29/4 4 40.2 ONE GAA Ee AO Ny
Dee Ol h Er. Sa eek ted lure aes hee
Seng Ue 4) 5) ah leO) |) Ol 30h 272) a TAQ. 7
Here it appears that the watch went confiderably fafter
the firit three days than it did afterwards; 1 therefore
reject thefe three days, fays Mr. Wales, and take the dif-
ference between 4" 1™ 4°.6, what the watch was too faft on
the fourth, and 4" 1™ 49*.7 what it was too faft onthe 3r{t,
and find it 45°.1, which I divide by 27, the number of days
elapfed, and the quotieut, 1°.6704, is the daily rate, or quan-
tity which the watch gained on mean time in one day. If
the inftrument be not pretty exactly in the meridian, the
obferver will, however, by this method, not only get the
abfolute quantity of time, which the watch is too faft, or
too flow, wrong; but will, if there be any confiderable
change in the fun’s declination, while the watch is under
trial, determine the rate of its going erroneoufly alfo. On
this account it will be better to find the rate of the watch
by obferving the tranfits of a fixed ftar; the computations
being {till more fimple than they are when the fun is made
ufe of, as will be feen in the annexed example.
Example 2. Suppofe the times by a chronometer when
the flar Aldebaran paffed a tranfit-inftrument placed nearly
in the meridian of Madras, were as follow : it is required to
find how much the watch gained or loft on mean time?
Rule for a flar. In column one pnt down the days of
obfervation; in column two the obferved times of the
tranfit ; in column three the differences of each pair of fuc-
ceeding times contained ¢n column two; in column four
3” 55°91, the difference ‘between.a mean folar and fidereal
day ;“and in column five the differences between the num-
bers contained in column three and column four with the
proper figns, which will be the daily crrors in folar time ;
and laftly, the amount of thefe errors divided by the nume
ber of days elapfed will give the mean rate.
The operation according to the Rule.
Watch
Obf. Times ; Diff. bet. |gainsor
1794. | of the 3%’s Differ- m.fol.and tea a
Tranf. ences | fid. day. | mean Beas
y
Time.
isisp enya UA Maat yep Ss
an. 319 22 17.42
poet a a 2 Hl 3 56.60) 3 35-01-0178
© — slo 14 24.36 3 5537| 3 55-91]—-0-46
D — Glo 10 28.05] 3 531) 3 55-91)—0.40
#— yo 6 31.48| 3 5557| 3 55-91|—-0.06
Bt Blo a 33.89 3 57-01| 3 55-91|—1-70
4% — gI/8 58 36.53 3 57-34! 3 55-91 — 1.43
ie ale panacror 7 51-46) 7 51.82|-+0.36|In2days
© — 12|8 46 49.46 3 55-08) 3 55-91|+0.30
$ — 45/8 36 o.rg|!2 49-2911! 47-73 — 1.56)In3 days
MH 16/8 31 4.62] 3 59°55] 3 55-91 +0-36 :
g i 1A1B zy) Gine 3 56.41] 3 °55.91|—0.50
Here it may be obferved, that the {um of all the chrono-
meter’s gainings is 4°.50, and the fum of allits lofings is
2'.o1; the difference between them is 2*.49, which being
divided by 14, the number of days the chronometer was
under trial, will give 0.178 for the rate or daily gain of the
watch.
The rate which a watch goesat is obtained this way with
much lefs trouble than by any other; but the ab/olute time
is not given by it, nor, of courfe, how much the watch is
too faft or too flow, for mean time, at the meridian it is
tried under, which may be found by fome of the follow-
ing problems.
Prosrem IX.
To find the rate of a chronometer by comparifon with a good
Solar or fidereal clock, the rate of which is known, and occa-
Jfionally corrected. :
Prefatory Remark, Though the rate of a chronometer, as
afcertained from a fucceffion of tranfits of a heavenly body,
be moft to be depended upon, yet it will not always happen
particularly in a changeable climate, that a fufficient number
of obfervations can be gotten within the limited time allowed
for fixing a rate ; it will, therefore, be very convenient to
compare the going of the chronometer with that of either a
folar or fidereal clock, that has a compenfation pendulum and
good efcapement, and to afcertain in the mean time the rate
of the clock itfelf by occafional obfervations of the fun or
{tar, it being generally allowed that a good clock is more
fteady in its_rate than any chronometer which has yet been
made, provided its adjuftments be perfe&t. It may be advife-
able to try the chronometer, in the firft place, in different
pofitions, by fhort comparifons of 12 hours each with the
clock ; and if any confiderable change of rate takes place
during fuch fhort comparifons, it muft neceflarily be put into
gimbols, or otherwife be fent back again to the maker for
new adjuftment for the different pofitions.
Gz
Rule
\ CHRONOMETER.
Rule for a folar clock.—Place the chronometer in the po-
fition it is likely to preferve in a voyage, and put its hands
with thofe of the clock, and have a fheet of paper ruled into
as many columns as the comparifon will require ; for a folar
clock feven columns will anfwer the purpole, but for a fide-
real clock there'will be more required. Put titles to the dif-
ferent columns, and, after an interval of each 24 hours, make
the requifite comparifons, and enter them as they ftand in the
fubjoined example, referving columns four and five to be
filled up afterwards ; then after as many days’ comparifon as
the time will allow, complete the calculations in thefe two
referved columns thus; take a mean of the obferved differ-
ences between the time of the clock and mean time deter-
mined occafionally by a tranfit inftrument, which will be the
clock’s mean daily rate, particularly if the obfervations are
taken after equal intervals ; then add or fubtra@, as the cafe
may be, the clock’s daily rate to or from the refpective num-
bers in column three, and fill up column four with the fum
or differences, or both, if the cafe fhould fo be; in the next
place, take the differences between each couple of the fuc-
ceeding lines of column four, and fli up therewith column
five, annexing — or +, as the difference may be; laftly,
take the difference between the plus and minus amounts, or
the fum, if there is but one kind, and divide it by the number
of days elapfed on trial, and th@ quotient will be the daily
error, — or +, whicherror is denominated the rate.
Example. Let it be required to affign arate to a chrono-
meter from the comparifons made in the columns I, 2, and
3, of the annexed table?
Mean | Mean
Clock af-| Chrono. |Do. from d
Daily | State of | State of
Days of | terme an |diffefrom| mean
Trial. | Time, | Clock |Time in| ®2t¢ Of | Thermo-| Berome-
inagh.| 2¢h. | Chrons| meter. | ter.
s s s °
1 |—6.5/+ 8.5] + 2.2 54 «| 29.8
2 + 8.8) + 2.5}/+4-0.3] 55 | 30.0
3 + 9-4] + Fm ]+ 0.6] 57 30.2
4 + 7-5) + 1.2}— 1.9] 56 30.4
5 + 90) +27/-+-1.5] 53 29.6
6 +10.4/-+4.1]}4+ 1.4] 53 20.4
7 +10.5/+ 4.2} +01] 54 29.0
8 | — 8.0}+11.3}-+4+ 50/408] 55 29.7
a FII-5| + 5.2})+0.2| 54 | 29.8
10 +lo.4]+41f—1.1] 56. | 30.0
he F100} -- 3.7}— 0.4] 57 | 304
Iz + 84)4+2.1}/— 1.6] 58 | 30.4
13 + 7.6) +1.3}/—0.8] 57 30.6
14 + 74]+ t.1]/—0.2] 56 | 30.5
15 (= 45+ 7.2|+0.9]—0.2| 57 | 30-4
¥, 3ir0° — 6.2 Total lofs.
Rate of 2 _ 64a | + 4.9 Total gains.
clock ‘de Pe ———
en an average of | — 1.3 Diff. in 15 days.
15 days. J
Then ——3 = 0.087 minus is the daily rate of the
1 «
chronometer taken from a comparifon with the clock for 15
fucceffive days, which rate muft be added to the time fhowy
by the chronometer on any fucceeding day, after it has
cen multiplied by the number of days elapfed fince the
laft day of the comparifon, This rate might fuffice for a
fhort voyage, immediately undertaken, if the chronometer
had been tried and approved previoufly ; but if not previoufly
approved on a voyage, it ought to have a longer trial. If
a chronometer could be made fo perfeétly as to meafure time
precifely alike under all circumftances, a very few days
would at any time fuffice for affigning toit itsrate. Had not
the rate of the clock in this example been taken at equal
intervals, it would have been more accurate to have taken a
mean between — 6°.5 and — 8* for the mean rate to be ap-
plied for the firft portion, and a mean between 8* and 4°.5
to be applied to the fecond portion of the trial; particularly
as there is a confiderable variation in the rate of the clock.
The fame refult might otherwife have been obtained by af-
figning a daily rate to the clock by interpolation for each
feparate day firft, and then by applying each feparate day’s
rate to each feparate comparifon in column three, to obtain
column four, and from that the daily rates of the chronome-
ter in column five; but this method is attended with more
trouble, and is only neceffary when the clock’s rate is taken
at unequal intervals, and is found to vary confiderably.
Whenever it happens that the comparifon is not made ex-
aGtly at the inftant of the 24" being elapfed, the interval,
whatever it is, muft be reduced to 24" by proportioning the
difference in the going of the two machines correfponding to
the faid interval. By the prefent rule alfothe going of one
clock may have its rate affizned by a comparifon with that
of another.
Rule for a fidereal clock.k— When the clock-fhows fidereal-
time, and the chronometer folar, their difference in 24" of
folar time ought to be 3™ 55.91 of folartime, but in 24" of
fidereal time, 3" 56°.55, provided the machines performed
with perfect truth; one or other of thefe two ftandard.
numbers, therefore, muft be ufed as the meafure of the daily
error, accordingly as the interval is a folar ora fidereal day.
In making the comparifons previoufly to the calcvlations
being entered upon, it isnot neceflary to have more than five
columns; one for the day of ihe month, a fecond for time per
watch, a third for the time per clock, a fourth for the dara-
meter, and a fifth for the thermometer; which form being fo
fimple requires no fac fimile. But the calculations, grounds
ed on the data in the faid five columns, require many more
‘columns, for which we fhall not give any previous direGlions,
but infert Dr. Mafkelyne’s two methods of arrangement,
extracted from ‘ The original Obfervations of the Going of
Mr. Harrifon’sWatch from day to day,” as publifhed by the -
Board of Longitude; which methods will be better under-
ftood from the forms of his tables, than from any verbal
rules of ours, which muft neceflarily be complex,
Example, (from ‘ The original Obfervations”). Let it
be required, from the data contained in columns 1, 2, and 3,
of the fubjoined tables, to determine the rate of Mr. Har-
rifon’s time-keeper, taken on an average of the 11 days trial
contained in the table?
Fist
|
CHRONOMETER.
v
Firft Method.—Calculations of the going of Mr. Harrifon’s Watch from Day to Day.
Watch lofes |Clock varies) Watch lofes| Mean Mean 1
Interval of Watch of Clock, in|from fidereal) of fidereal A it on! ftate of | ftate of
Compari- | lofes of 24" of Time per |Time of 24". saa eS Per | -Thermo- |B arome- |
fons. Clock. Watch. Day. of Watch. le meter. ter. |
~ The watch in a horizontal pofition, with the face upwards. |
1766. h. m. m. Ss. Me f Ss se Mi.) Ge 5. Deg. Inch.
May 6to7 | 2330 | 333 | 3 37-53 | +134 | 3 38-9 TsO i 54 29.9
geo lrg24an 4c \') Ses gain By GO s4 +1.22 | 3 37-6 18.9 57 29-7
8 9 23 52 3-34 es ee) Seiya) 3 30.4 20). 55 29.5
9 Io 24 4 3 36 QU Biel oe. +1.13 3 36.5 20.0 5 20.3
utah 23 57 336 | 3 36 4 +116 | 3 37-6 18.9 49 29.5
Ir 12 24 3 30 LHRH IMO) 1.12 Bea 7 aO7 hie ivo}any A 50 29.6
Tz 13 24 9 Buey Bia iG <0 + 1.05 3 36.6 IO} 9 ice} Anil 29.0 |
13° 14 23 49 Buia3 334.76 + 1.02 3 35.9 Domed 52 29.8
Iq 15 24 8 B37 3 35.79 + 1.02 3 36.8 LOM 27 52 30.1
ny. 10 24 2 236 3 35.70 +0.80 3, 36.5 2OunO 4. 30.2
16 17 24. 9 3 38 3 30.04 +0.58 3 37-2 TOM 50 30°!
11)209 .56
19.509
By a mean of 11 days’ comparifons, from May 6th to
May 17th, the watch being in a horizontal pofition with the
face upwards, gets at the rate of 19°.509 per day upon
mean time.
Dr. Mafeelyne’s explanation. * The firlt column fhews the
days of the month; the fecord, the interval of time, accord-
ing to the watch, between the attefted comparifons of the
watch each day with the tranfit clock; the third column
contains the quantity of minutes and feconds which the
watch lofes of the clock in the faid interval; the fourth co-
lumn fhews how much the watch fhou!d lofe of the clock in
24 hours of the watch, according to the proportion exprefled
fn the fecond and third columns; the fifth column gives the ”
daily gaining or lofing of the tranfit clock with refpe& to
fidereal time, as deduced from the obferved tranfits of the
Second Method.—Comparifons of Mr.
fixed ftars over the meridian, the fign + being fet down in
cafe of the clock’s lofing, and — in the cafe of its getting.
This correGtion, applied to the numbers of the fourth co-
lumn, produces the fixth column, or the lofing of the watch
from day to day; with refpeé& to fiderzal time, in 24 hours
of the watch. The feventh column gives the daily gaining
of the watch upon mean time, and is found by taking the
difference of the preceding column and 3™ 56°.5 fidereal time,
gaining fo much upon mean folar time in 24 hours of mean
time; or rather more exactly, in 24 hours of the watch,
which generally correfponds to lefs than 24 hours of mean
time by near 20 feconds. The eighth column contains
the mean ftate of the thermometer for the day ; and the ninth
and Jaft column fhews the mean {late of the barometer.’
(“ The Original Obfervations,” p. xxvil. and xxvui.)
Harrifon’s Watch with Mean Time.
Time per
ObfervedTran-] Clock at A
fit of Sun per |comparifon a
Clock, with oa
Watch..
1766. h.m. s. ease aetna 8
& May 6 | 2 53 30.27 | 3 39 1 | © 45 23-60
8 7 | 2 57 20.50 | 3 12 34 | O 15 11.10
») T2300 43.40 3.28) 33 No wt 47.38
v1 15 | 3 28 28.77-| 3 45 20 | 0 16 48.47
bw 17 | 3 36 21.83 | 4 3 34 | 0 27 7-68
If we include here both the 6th and 17th, there will-be
22 daysin this calculation, during which the watch gained
in the whole 3™ 51°.8 or 231°.8, therefore Bus
— 5 {
cag 28
the rate on this mode of comparifon, which agrees very
well with the preceding one calculated on the fame period.
Explanation, by Dr. Mafkelyne. According to the ars
Time per
; Harrifon’s Harrifon’s
Bee .Mean Time. | Watch at pee ceen:
Fi comparifon me
with Clock. t
Iss h. ms. ielinis Sean | me Se
Bylecane asp pile aval leas) 0 420 | O, 16.2
Bra 0 OF at 20.1 012 0 | 0 33.9
BG Ons 2a OM i Oo © 100 | 2 I2.0
4 I-10 | 0 12 47.4 0° 160 3.12.6
3 50.47 |.0 23 8:2 0270 3 51.8
rangement in this laft Table “ the firlt column contains the
day of the month; the fecond, the obferved tranfit of the
fun’s centre over the meridian, according to the time of the
tranfit clock; the third column fhews the time by the clock,
when compared with Mr. Harrifon’s watch; the fourth, the
apparent time at the fame comparifon; the fifth, the equation
of time, which, applied to the numbers in the preceding co-~
; umn,
CHRONOMETER.
Jumn, gives the mean time contained in the fixth column ;
the feventh column gives the time fhewn by Mr, Harrifon’s
watch, when compared with the clock; laftly, the eighth
eolumn fhews how much the watch is too faft for mean time
each day.’? - («* The Original Obfervations,” p, xxxix.)
Prosiem X.
To find the equation of equal altitudes.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) Ene
ter Table XXIII. (contained in his ‘ Theory and Praétice
of finding the Longitude,” vol. ii.) with the interval of time
between the obfervations at the op, and the Jatitude of the
place of obfervation in the fide column, and take out the-cor-
refpondent number; take out the number from Table
XXIV. anfwering to the interval of time and the fun's decli-
nation ; fubtraét it from the former, if the latitude and de-
clination are of the fame name, otherwife add them, and find
the log. correfponding to the remainder-or fum, which fub-
traGted from the pro. log. of the daily variation of the fun’s
declination, increafed by 5, the remainder will be the pro.
log. of the equation of equal altitudes.
Example. Let the latitude of the place of obfervation be
57° 9’ N.; the interval of time between the obfervations 5"
17"; fun’s declination 17° 48’ S., and change of declina-
tion 16! 193.
Required the equation of correfponding altitude?
No. from Table XXIIT.
to interval and lat. =1782
No. from Table XXIV. 2 __ 38
to inter. and declin. Se Ao
Sum - - - 2066 log. fub. 3.315%
Daily Nanation of de-} 167 197.5 p. log. +5 = 6.0424
Equation of equal ee
pe = 20°2 p.log. -
2.7273
In the Tables I. and II. of Mr. Wales, and in Tab.
XLIII. of Mr. Vince, the arguments at top and fide are
“‘half the interval between the obfervations,’’ and ‘* ©’s
longitude.”’
Prosiem XI.
To find the errors and rate of a chronometer by equal altitudes of
the fun.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) In
the morning, when the fun is more than two hours diftant
from the meridian, in thefe latitudes, let a fet of obfervations
be taken, confifting, for the fake of greater accuracy, of at
leaft three altitudes ; which, together with the correfponding
times per watch, are to be written down regularly, the time
of each obfervation being previoufly increafed by 12 hours.
In the afternoon obferve the inftants when the fun comes to
the fame altitudes, and write down each oppofite to its re-
f{pedtive altitude. Now, half the fum of any two times, an-
{wering to the fame altitude, will be the time of noon per
watch uncorrected ; find the mean of all the times of noon,
thus deduced from each correfponding pair of obfervations,
to which the equation of equal altitudes is to be applied,
by addition or fubtra€tion, according as the fun is receding
from, or approaching te, the elevated pole; the fum or dif-
ference will be the time per watch of apparent noon, or the
jnftant when the fun’s centre was on the meridian, the dif-
ference between which and noon is the error of the watch
for apparent time, and the watch will be fait or flow, accord-
ingly as the time of noon thereby is more or Jefs than 12
hours,
If the watch be regulated to mean folar time, it is obvious,
that the time of noon found as above, fhould agree with
that found by applying the equation of time to noon, ac-
cording to its fign in the Nautical Almanac. If thefe times
do not agree, their difference will be the error of the watch
for mean folar time. Inflead of applying the equation of
time to twelve hours, it perhaps will be found more conve=
nient to apply it with a contrary fign to the time per watch
of apparent noon; and the difference between this time and
12 hours will be the error of the watch.
Example 1. January 29, 1786, in lat. 57° g’ N. the
following equal altitudes of the fun were obferved. Re-
quired the error of the chronometer?
Time. A.M. P.M.
le = Oe ye zich 35" 8s 25 55™ 43s
Siti) S36) Se~) Ma ee i
Cr2Op 9) ORrL Olea . . 52 41.2
8:25 7990.85 (> = |
21°95" 8° git 36 “8 “Sea .38™ of eas soup
2 55 43 2 54 42 2 S241-2 2 51 38
Sum 24 30 51 2430 50 24 30 50.2 24 30 50.5-
M. (12 15 25-6 1/3215 25 1205) Shale wees
2501
25.0
25°5
Sum - - - : meh 3 - - 8
Time of noon per chronometer uncorrected 12 Uy. sn2
Equation of equal altitudes, by Prob. X. 20.2
Time per chronometer of apparent noon 1215 5.0
Chronometer faft for apparent time - ee
Time per watch of apparent noon - 12 05. 15.0
Equation of time - - - - 13 29.8
Time per chronometer of mean noon == I2 1 35.3
Chronometer faft formean time - = T3G.2
In obferving equal altitudes, it will be found convenient to
put the index of the inftrument toa certain divifion, and to
wait till either limb of the fun attains that altitude. If the
fucceffive altitudes of the fame fet are equidiftant from each
other, the mean of the morning obfervations may bé com-
pared with the mean of thofe obferved in the afternoon, in
order to find the time of noon.
Example 2. April 20th, 1786, in latitude 57° 9’ N. the
following obfervations were made, in order to afcertain the
error of the chronometer.
AM. P.M.
Alt.=35° 40! time p.chr. 2th 207 27s «5 zh 37™ 208 .5
35 45 Sr 21 16.0 36 41 .o
Bh, FO th fe rea Aeee 35 5?) 5
35 55 = = 82 $3 0 35 4-0
36 0. = = (23:45 3 @ Satie
FON2Z 9.8 29 22.6
Mean - - 21 22 4.46 2 35. $2.52
2 35 52:52
Chronometer - 23 57 56.08
Carried over 11 58 58.49 :
6 Time
=
CHRONOMETER.
Time per chron, of
noon uncorrected } 11 58 58.49
Equation of equal alt, — 19.53
Time p. chr.of app. noon 11 58 38.96
——
1r 58 35,96
Chron. flow for app. time I 21.04 eqti.+ 1 16.20
Time per chron. of mean noon . Il 59 55.16
Chron. flow formean time ~ - - 4.84.
Hence, the obfervations of the two preceding examples
being fuppofed to be made at the times fpecified, by the
fame chronometer, its daily rate may be eftablifhed upon the:
fuppofition of an uniform motion, as follows:
Janvary 29th, clock faft at noon eae IA)
April 2oth, clock flow at noon - 4.8
Interval, 81 days. Difference = 1 AOR T
Now 1™ 4o/.1, div. by 81, gives 1/.236 for the daily ers
ror or rate of the chronometer.
Second method of operation.
Example 3, (extracted from W. Wales, F.R.S.) Ad-
mit that on the 25th of Augutt, 1793, the following obfer-
vations of equal altitudes were made at Quebec, as in the
annexed {cheme.
Obfervation.
See Morning. | Afternoon.} Dou. Alt. Hes
meter. meter.
2 hela ria pride ig anile ° \
1Q 26 53.9 | 4 35 43-3 Upper Limb.
5¢ f 19 30 2B 4 a si A509 67 iki ie
20) it 25.00) 3) 5or 4. pper Limb.
58 j ZO 3 O:On Bg at 57 3° 68 Lower Limb.
|
Upper Limbs.| Lower Limbs.| Upper Limbs. Lower Limbs.
h. m. Ss.
27 58 14.6
20, 4 25.6
9 2 33-4
4 34 24.7
Foy Mb dohsy 10. oO I 20
+ 18.3 18. + 17.
a0 igti 1.2 — I.
o I 35.8
Time of noon by the chronometer
Mean time of apparent noon (Naut. Alm, p. II.) = OVE
Chronometer too fait for mean time
In any cafe of geceflity, the obfervations of the equal alti-
tudes may be taken in the forenoon of any day, andin the af-
ternoon of the following day, and then the error of the chro-
nometer may be afcertained by afimilar procefs, as it was at
the inftant of the intermediate midnight. In this example
7 53 49:0
356 54-5
guinea ec
27 55 5.0
20 7 36.0
Afternoon obfery.
Morning obferv.
7 47 29.0 | Interval.
3 53 44.5 | Half interval.
° -5 | Noon nearly.
.o | Equa. Tab. I.
-5 | Equa. ‘fab. IT,
(by Wales).
2
1
I
+
I True time of noon
6.0
5:7 by the watch.
fe)
8
3
3
3
3
6.
5
4)143-5
bu ie o* aad 35°.6
35 +3
= = 00 .6
Mr. Wales has added 24 hours to the time of the afternoon
obfervation, and fubtraéted therefrom the time of the morn-
ing obfervation, the difference being the interval between the
oblervations. We thought it not neceffary to give Mr. Wales’s
rule, as. it is very fimilar to Dr. Mackay’s, and as the ope~
ration
,
4
CHRONOMETER.
ration will be fufficiently underftood from the arrangement
of the figures in the table.
Third Method.
Rule, (by Jofeph de Mendoza Rios, Efq. F.R.S.) The
equation (in Table XX XIII. of Mr. Mendoza’s “ Col-
leGtion of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Attro-
nomy,”’) is divided into two parts, and both have for argu-
ments the fun’s longitude, (which mult be previoufly found
by Problem II.) and the interval, or time elapfed, between
the obfervations; the firft part is, befides, to be multiplied
by the tangent of the latitude, or, which comes to the fame,
by the fine and fecant, of the place of obfervation. The
figns at the top of each feétion mark whether fuch a part
mult be added to, or fubtragted from the middle-time, in
order to have the time of true noon; but the figns of the
firft’part muft be changed, if the place of obfervation is in
the fouthern hemifphere.
Example 4. September 17th, 1789, (civil time) the
following obfervations were made by - Count de
Bruhl, at his obfervatory at Hareficld, fituated in lat.
Hi 30 (G%
Firfl Part.
250 4 o" + 15-53. -
For 5 figns 25°, and Weet tk some
Differences - - - °13
u 2
20": 0.93 2 4™ ax iS << — = 0.05 )
: ° U4" oF =p 15.63 -
For fix figns 0°, and $4 20h eso T
Difference - > - 0.13
207 5 0.99 2: Amie (= = 00)
2 2 0.13 2: 4™ ix a a = O- 3}
Therefore,
arr 2.26 iz
Bore | 72 t and ee f T0555
6 0 ret ee Oba
Differences - - - 0.10
oe sO TOR tan Tewmeieean (—5,02)))
Thus, for five figns 26°, and 4" 4™
- Log. firft part
Log. fine latitude
Log. fecant latitude
Log. firft part corre&ted (fum)
, Equation
Middle time
‘Time of true noon
To the time of true noon by the chronometer, thus ob-
tained, it is only neceflary to apply the equation of time,
in order to compare the chronometer with equated, or mean
time. ‘The equation of time, in the prefent example, is
5" 49°.5, fo that at true noon the mean time is 23" 54™ 10°.5 ;
and rom hence it refuits, that the chronometer deviated
— 2™ 38°.61 from mean time.
Altitude {Times by the]Times by the
of @’s up-|Chronometer.|Chronometer.
per limb.| Morning. | Afternoon.
67° 40'| 21 4272 TA) 2h O™ 3.0 |
68 O/| 21 44 5.0] 5 58 22.0
68 20 | 21 45 45.5) 1 56 39-0
68 40 | 20 47729.c) 5 54 55.4
69... © | 21.49 12dleta53 1-0
69 20} 21 52 46.4] I 49 41.0
69 40 21 54 31.6] & 47 52.0 -
70 a | 28 FO 05 0) teAqu tree
|
Sums - - [74 34 26.6]15 4 54.6
Means (div. by 8) 21 49 18-4] 1 53 6.8 "a
25 53 6.8 Interv. (d:ffer.)4" 3" 43%
Sum 17 Am 252 eh
Middle time (half) 23 51 12.6
The fun’s longitude was then § figns 25°: confequently
Seccnd Part.
—0.46
—2.45
o.Or
20 nO Ol ce
0.00
0.00
2 0.46 +
Firft Part.
+ 155.58
Second Part.
—= O's,
ae y
9.89417
0.20684
+ 19.66
+ 19.29
23% s1™ 12.60
23° BI 31.89
In thefe four examples, the obferver is fuppofed to be in
a ftationary fituation. -
Prosiem XII.
To jind the error of the chronometer by equal altitudes of the
Jun, the foip being under way.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) Let
feveral —
CHRONOMETER.
‘feveral fets of equal altitudes be obferved ‘in the morning and
afternoon, and from thence find the correéted time of noon,
as before, in Prob. XI.; alfo, let the fun’s azimuth ‘be ob-
ferved, by which, the variation of the compafs being ap-
plied, the true azimuth at the time of obfervation will be
obtained.
Now, to the conftant log.9.2219 add the proportional
log. of the interval-of-time between the equal altitudes, the
hours and minutes being confidered as minutes and feconds ;
the prop. log. of the hourly rate of failing, the log. co-fine
of the fhip’s latitude, the log. fecant of the courfe, and the
log. tangent of the fun’s azimuth ; the fum, reje&ting tens in
the index, will bethe prop. log. of the correction an{wering to
the change of latitude ; and to the fum of the firft four logs.
add the log. co-fecant of the courfe ; the fum, rejeGing tens
in the index, will be the prop. log. of the change of longitude.
The firft.correGion is to be added to, or fubltra&ted from,
the time of noon before found, accordingly as the fhip’s la-
titude is increafing or diminifhing ; and the fecond correc-
tion is additive or fubftra&tive, accordingly as the fhip’s
courfe has been in the eaftern or weftern hemifphere. The
refult thus deduced will be the time per watch of apparent
noon, under the meridian of the firft place of obfervation.
If the two lat corrections be* applied with a contrary
fion, th® time of apparent noon, under the meridian of the
fecond place of obiervation, will be obtained.
The firlt correction vanifhes, if ‘the courfe made good
between the obfervations is either due eaft or weft ; and the
fecond, if the fhip fai's on a meridian.
Example. Auguft 7th, 1804, equal altitudes of the fun’s
lower limb were obferved, whereof the means were g" 14™
52° A.M., and 2" 48" 18° P.M. refpectively, the correéted
azimuth of the fun from the fouth was 693°, the fhip’s courfe
during the elapfed time S.W. by W. at the rate of 8.6 knots
per hour, and the fhip’s latitude. and longitude at noon were
39° 18’ N. and 31°24’ W. refpectively. Required the error
of the watch for apparent noon, under the meridian of the
place where the firlt fet of obfervations was made ?
Conftant logarithm g.2219
Inormes— sh aghyy stl
or5™33° p.log. = eee
Hourly:rate of fail-
ing 8° 6™ or 5 ee
30° p. log. J
Latitude 39° 18’,
co-fine oy 59-8886
ee fl 1.9423 . - £.9423
pan 3 aa 0.0801 co-fecant = O2559
: ARI we eos
Weskien & 459 bo.gss1 fec. cor. 179° PL. "2.1976
Firft — corre€tion 3
o™ 38° p. log. 6 204555
Mean of morning fet - 2 gh 147 50°
afternoon fet - - 2 49 18
Uncorreét time of noon - - Tp TUNERS
: Equation of equal altitudes +-+ -' 7
Equation of latitude —- -_ = 38
Equation of longitude - SA NS
Time p. watch of apparent noon, )
under meridian of firft place p11 59 55
of obfervation -
Watch flow for apparent time 5
Equation of time _ - : Bil og
Watch flow for mean time : 5 28
Vat. VIII. TR
The problem may otherwife be performed, ‘by eflimating
how many minutes the fun is higher or lower, in confequence
of the change of latitude in the elapfed time, at the inftant
it will attain the correfponding altitude in the afternoon,
and fetting the index of the quadrant accordingly. This
quantity may be found with sufficient accuracy from a tra-
verfe table.
Prosrem XIII.
To find the error of a chronometer, by equal altitudes of a
: fixed far.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) Let
feveral altitudes, and the correfponding times per watch, of
a known ftar, be obferved when in the ealtern hemifphere ;
and when the ftar is in the weltern hemilphere, obferve the
inftants when it comes to each of the former altitudes.
Take the mean of each correfponding pair of times, and
the mean of thefe will be the apparent time per watch of the
ftar’s tranfit over the meridian.
From the apparent right afcenfion of the ftar, taken from
the table, fubtra€& the fun’s right afcenfion, and the re-
mainder will be the approximate time of the ftar’s tranfit ;
from which fubtraét the equation correfponding thereto,
and the fun’s right afcenfion obtained by. Prob. V., or from
Table XVIII. (of Dr. Mackay), and from the fame table
take the equation an{wering to the fhip’s longitude, which
mult be added, if the longitude is ealt, bat fubtraGted, if
weft. Hence the apparent time of the paflage of the far
over the meridian will be obtained.
Now, the difference between the obferved and computed
times of the ftar’s tranfit, will be the error of the watch for
apparent time, and which is fait or flow, accordingly as the
time by obfervation is later or earlier than the computed
time of the ftar’s tranfit. t
Example. July 4th, 1804, in latitude 35° 48’ S. and
longitude 23° 26’ E. the following equal altitudes of Atair
were obferved. Required the error of the chronometer for
apparent time ?
Time per Chronometer. Altitude. Time per Chronometer.
gh Nfs fon ks gh 28! r4" 35™ aye
19 16 = 427 .40 33 42
On 12/ = 27NGiG 2, 44
2I 54. = Zon ae SO
Dar aTOV jm 28. 30 29 41
Sea bse a 28 52 Dae 2 i ar
Sum Te WEG . - - 10 10
Mean 6 21 15.5 - - 14 31 41.6
3 20 15.5
are uony at
Obferved time of tranfit - - Ir 26 28.6
Atair’s right afcenfion - ~ 19 41_ 18
: 9
Sun’s right afcenfion at noon, p.N. Al 8 14° 5
Approximate time of Atair’s tranfit Tis 2 eTe
Equationto S'14™and11"27™Tab.XVIJI.— 1 53
Equationto8"14" and23° 26" ab. XVIII. +- 10
Apparent time of far’s tranfit - Tih 25,436
Apparent time of tranfit per watch + 11 26 29
Watch faft - - - OMon 53
In this problem, the obferver is {uppofed to continue ix
the place during the interval betiveen the correfponding ob-
fervations, but it the obfervations are taken on board of a fhip .
under
CHRONOMETER.
under way, the equations muft be applied arifing from the
fhip’s run, according to the directions given and exemplified
in the lait problem, to reduce the time of the tranfit to
. either of the two places of obfervation ; then the difference
between this time and the time indicated by the chronometer,
when-all allowances are made for rate, &c. will be the longi-
tade of the faid place. It may be proper to add here, that
when the courfe and diftance made good between the ob-
fervations are given, inftead of the obferved interval. of
time and hourly rate of failing, the conftant log. 1.47714
(= 9.2219 + pr.log. of one minute) is to be ufed inftead
of 9.2219 which is ufed in Prob. XII.
Prostem XIV.
To find the apparent time on any given day in a known latitude
by one objerved altitude of the fun.
Rule, (according to the Requilite Tables.) From the
oblerved altitude fubtra& the dip of the horizon, and the
refraction ; and to the remainder add the fun’s femi-diame-
ter; the fum will be the true altitude of the fun’s centre.
Subtra& the natural fine of the altitude thus correAed,
from the natural fine of the calculated meridional altitude,
and to the logarithm of the remainder add the log. fecant of
the fhip’s latitude, and the log. fecant of the fun’s declina-
tion ; their fum, rejecting 20 from the index, mult be fought
for in Tab. XVI. under log. rifing, and the time corre-
{ponding to it is. the apparent time from the nearett noon,
when the fun’s altitude was obferved. Confequently, if
the obfervation be made in the forenoon, the time, thus
found mutt be taken from 24 hours, and the remainder will
be the apparent time from noon of the preceding day. The
parallax in altitude is here difregarded, as being too trifling
to deferve notice.
Example. July goth, 1775, about 8 A.M. in latitude
34° 55’ N. longitude 40° W. the altitude of the fun’s lower
limb was obferved to be 36° 49'4; the obferver’s eye
being 21 feet above the furface of the fea; what was the
apparent time when this obfervation was made?
Refr. (Tab. 1.) a’ 16” { Sun’s declin. Naut. Al. 22° 23/15” N
Dip. (Tab. II.) 4. 22 | Ship’s long. gives - — 52 } Tab. VI. of Req. Tab.
Time for noon gives + 1 18
Sum - - 5 38 a
Sun’s femi-dia. 15 47 | Sun’sdeclination - 22 23 41 N. log. fec. - - 10.0340
j - Co. latitude - 55 5 © N. log: co-fec. - - 10,08619
Cor. ©’s alt. Io 9 er F
Alt. @’s 1.1. 36 49 30 | Meridional alt. - 77 28 41 Nat. fine - 97623
©’struealt. 3659 39 = 4 - - - Nat. fine - GorSr
Time from noonon the gth « 3" 58™ 22: -
247.0. 0
Apparent time on the 8th -
Second Method.
Rule, (by Jofeph de Mendoza Rios, Efq. F.R.S.} With
the fhip’s longitude and the eftimated apparent time, find.
’ by the Nautical Almanac, the fun’s declination for the
moment of the obfervation. (Problem III.)
From the obferved altitude of the limb, deduce the true
altitude of the centre.
From the fun’s declination, conclude the polar diftance,
and add it together with the fhip’s latitude and the altitude ;
take half the fum, and the difference becween the half fum
and the altitude.
Take the logarithmic 'co-fecant of the polar diftance, the
logarithmic fecant, of the latitude, the logarithmic co-fine of
the half fum, and the logarithmic fine of the difference.
The fum (with the index reduced to the units) will be the
logarithrnic verfed fine of the time from noon (or the fun’s
horary angie), when the altitude was obferved.
The time from noon is itlelf the apparent time, if the
altitude was obferved to the weft, or in the afternoon; buat,
if it was obferved to the eaft, or in the forenoon, the time
from noon muit be taken from 24", in order to have the
apparent time of the preceding day.
Example. February rith, 1792, in latitude 23° 20’ S.
and longitude 27° 27’ W., the altitude of the fun’s lower
limb was obferved (to the eaft) to be 45° 10’ 10”, the ob-
ferver’s eye being 14 feet above the furface of the fea. The
eltimated time was then 20" 57™ go° (S® 57™ gjo* ia the
morning by the watch)... What is the apparent time at the
Mip, at the moment of the obfervation?
20
37442 Log. 4.57336
Leg. rifing a - - 4.69362
1 38 which was required.
Eftimated time at the fhip, Feb. 11th - © 20% 57™ 30°
Longitude W. 27° 277= - - - + ¥ 49 48
Time at Greenwich - - . 2). 20 47ers
The true altitude will be found to b ag? 20) 58"
©’s declin. (by Naut.
Almanac)S - 13° 41! 36”
Polar diftance - 76 18 24 L.co-fec. 0.01252
Latitude - 23 20 oli. fec.-” - \ e.og7ou
Altitude - ASe ZTE
Sum - - Thy Posty
Half-fum - 72 30 8 L. co-fine 9-47804, |
Half-fum-alt - 27 8S x15 Lifine - 965609
Time from noon 3" 4™4o°L. verf. (fum) 9.18672.
Apparent time re-
quired = - 20 55 20
Third Method.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c. and”
others.) Correét the obferved attitude of the fun’s limb,
and reduce the declination to the time and place of obfer-
vation, which, fubtraéted from, or added to go°, according
as the declination and latitude are of the fame or of con-
trary names, the remainder or fum will be the fun’s polar
diftance. PY ihaete
yk Now,
CHRONOMETER.
~ Now, add together the fun’s correted altitude and polar
diftance, and the latitude of the place of obfervation, and
eall the difference between half the fum of thefe and the
altitude, the remainder.
Then, to the log. co-fecant of the polar diftance, add the
low. fecant of the latitude, the log, co-fine of the half fum,
and the log. fine of the remainder; half the fum of thefe
will be the log. fine of an arch ; which, being multiplied by
8, will be fun’s diftance from the meridian in apparent time.
Hence, the apparent time of obfervation, and the error of
the chronometer will be known.
Example. March 4th, 1804, in latitude 45° 37’ N. and
longitude 19° 19’ W. the following altitudes of the fun’s
lower limb were obferved, the height of the eye being 16
feet above the furface of the fea. Required the apparent
time of obfervation, and the error of the watch ?
Time per watch. | Alte ©'s I limb.
o / ; d a t , °
Be Ss s2") |, 245-59 a NAL He ee cal
Eq. tab. XIII.
5+ 5?! to dec. and 2" $= — 2.8
59 3 54 55" P.M,
Do. to dec. and
56 47 851i ‘ree ag) Wet = eee?
20 25 190 —- Reduced declin. 6 19.4
Mean2 55 0 24 47.5 Pelardiftanee 96 19.4
Semi-diameter - + 16.2
Dip. - - — 3.8
Corre@tion - - — 1.9
Cor.alt. ©’scentre= 24 58.0
Sun’s polar dift. = 96 19.4 Co-fecant - 0.00265
Ship’s latitude = 45 37.0 Secant. = 0.15524
Sum - -. 166 54.4
Half - - 83 27.2 Co-fine - 9.05695
Remainder - - 55 29.2 Sine - = 9.93071
; 19-14555
Aire - Asie Weebl mien oe MoBit ops!
$ pan Aa
Apparent time - 2 55 39
‘Timeperchronom. 2 55 6
Chronometer flow - 33°
Fourth Method.
Rule, (from A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.)
Enter Tab. XXVII. (of Dr. Mackay) with the declina-
tion of the object at the top, and the latitude of the place
_ of obfervation in the fide column ; take out the correfpond-
ang number, to which prefix the index 4, and add to it the
Jog. fine or the corrected altitude ; find the natural number
aniwering thereto, to which apply the number from Tab.
XXVILL. by fubtra&tion or addition, according as the lati- .
tude and declination are of the fame or of contrary names.
Now, find the above difference or fum in Table XXIX.
and the correfponding time will be the diftance of the ob-
ject fron? the meridian. ,
Example. May 7th, 1803, in latitude 56° 4’ N. and
lonyitude 7° 30’ W. at 4" 37" 4° P.M. per chronometer,
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 25° 6! 1", and
heizht of the eye 18 feet. Required the error of the
chronometer for apparent time ?
Alt. ©’sl. J. 25° 6.1 ©’s dec, p.N. Al, = 16° 37.5' N.
Semitdiam. + 15.9 Eq.to4"37" P.M. + 3.2
Dip. aiih tamu) dad dO. \€0. 7° 201. \WWic + 3
CorreGtion — 1.9 SSS
—— Reduced declination 16 41.0 N.
Corvalt.©’sc.25 16.0
To latitude 56° 4’, and declination 16° 41’, the number from
Table XXVIII. = 4.2719 Table XXVIII. = 4455
Alt. 25° 16’ fine ~ 9.6303
Sum - - 3-9022 Naturalnumber - 7984
Apparent time - 4" 37™ 20° per Table XXIX. 3529
Time perchron. 4 37 4
Chronom. flow - 16
Fifth Method. By Spherical Trigonometry.
If in any {pherical triangle, P @ Z, P reprefent the polo,
© the fun, and Z the zenith of the place, then we fhall have
that cafe in f{pherical trigonometry, in which the three
fides of the triangle are given to find the horary angle
ate.
Example. Suppofe the co-latitude, Z P, of London to be
38° 28’, the co-alt. or zen. diftance Z @ corrected 43° 40’,
and the co-declination or polar diftance, © P, reduced to be
66° 52’ 9", on June 21,1795, required the horaryangle OPZ,
and the mean time correfponding ?
The work is thus; viz.
Co. lat. ae Sz BOS
Zenith diftance 43 40
Polar diftance 66 32 9?”
z)148 40 9g
Zfum 74 20 4%
ifum—ZP= 35 52 44 fine - 9.7678374
gfum—QP= 7 47 559 fine > 9-1325553
Co-ar. s. 38° 3
€o-ar. s. 66- 32 9” 0.0374842
C3 ° ’ cen 5
Sine 21° 955’ 5” == 9.5 720226
2
43 50 10 = the angie
from noon, which converted to time is 2" 55™ 20° of apparent
time from noon; to which add the equation at the time, which
is 1™ 25°.6, and the fum 2" 56™ 45°.6 will be the mean time
from noon; which may be either before or after it.
Prosiem XV.
To find the apparent time at a given place, on any night, by an
obferved altitude of a flar.
Rule, (according to the Requifite Tables.) Subtra& the dip
of the horizon and the refraétion from the obferved altitude
of the ftar, and let its right afcenfion and declination for the
given year be taken out of the tables; compute its meridian
altitude, from the natural fine of which take the natural fine
of its corrected altitude, and find the logarithm of the re-
mainder. ‘T’o this logarithm add the logarithmic fecant of
H2 whe
CHRONOMETER.
the latitude of the fhip or place, and the logarithmic fecant of
the flar’s declination ; their fum, rejeGting 20 from the in-
dex, mutt be fought for in Table XVI. under dog. rifing, and
the time correfponding to it will be the diftance of the ftar
from the meridian ; which being added to the ftar’s right af-
cenfion in time, if the flar was weft of the meridian at the
time of obfervation, or fubtra&ted from it, if the ftar was
then eaft of the meridian, will give the right afcenfion of
the mid-heaven. Find the fun’s right afcenfion in time by
Prob. V. for noon at the given place, and fubtraét it from the
right afcenfion of the mid-heaven ; the remainder is the elti-
mate time.
Enter Table XXIIT. again, as in Prob. V. with the efti-
mate time and daily variation of the fun’s right afcenfion, and
fubtra&t the minutes and feconds, thus found, from the eiti-
mate time; the rcmainder is the apparent time when the al-
titude of the ftar was obferved.
Exemple. April 14th, 1780, latitude 48° 56’, N. longi-
tude 66°, W. the obferved altitude of Aldebaran, welt of
the meridian, was 22° 243’; the height of the obferver’s
eye, above the furface of the fea, 21 feet; what was the ap-
parent time when that obfervation was made ?
yn? }
am eee 1 3x™ a |Refract. Tab. L 2) 13°
Long. 66°, W.
Tab. XXIII. > + 41 |Dip, Table IT._ £. 22
gi Oa |
ee I 31 42 \Correétion 6 4°
——|Obf. alt. flar 22° 24 30
Sea Tab, {rene
Co-latitude 4r 4N. |Truealt. far 22 17 50
7 Nat. fine 83978
18 Nat. fine 37946
Star’s merid. alt. 57
True alt. itar 22
Difference of the nat. fines
Latitude of the fhip
46032 log. 4.66306
48° 56’ o” log. fecant 10.18248,
Star’s declination 16 3 © log. fecant 10.01727
Star weft of the meridian 4° 57 8 log. rifing 4.8628:
Star’srightaf.Tab.VII. 4 23,20
Right afcen. mid heaven g 20 28
Sun’srightafcen.atnoon 1 31 42
Eftimate time - 7 48. 46
Num. from Tab. XXIII. fo ae
fubt. - - y
Apparent time - 7 47 34
Second Method.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) Cor-
re& the obferved altitude of the ftar, and let its declination
and right afcenfion be reduced to the time of obfervation.
With the latitude of the place, the true altitude, and ap-
parent declination of the ftar, compute its horary diftance
from the meridian, by any of the methods given in the Jaft
problem ; which being added to or fubtraéted from its right
afcenfion, according as it was obferved in the weltern or eaft-
ern hemifphere ; the fum or remainder will be the right afcen-
fion of the meridian. ‘
From the right afcenfion of the meridian, increafed by
24 hours if neceffary, fubtraé& the fun’s right afcenfion, as
given in the Nautical Almanac for the noon of the propofed.
day ; the remainder will be the approximate time of obferva-
tion; from which fubtra& the equation anfwering thereto,
and the fun’s right afcenfion, from Table XVIII. and let
the equation from the fame table, correfponding to the
longitude, be added or fubtraéted, accordingly as the fhip.
is to the eaft or weit of Greenwich, and the refult will be.
the apparent time of obfervation. Hence the error of the
watch will be known.
Example. December 13, 1804, in latitude 37° 46’ Nx
longitude 21° 15! E. a certain phenomenon was obferved,
and at the fame inftant the altitude of Ar&turus, ealt of the’
meridian, was obferved to be 34° 6’.43; the height of the
eye 10 feet. Required the apparent time of obfervation ?
Obf. alt. of Ar&urus = 34° 6.4
Dip - =
_ = 3.0
Refraction - — I-4
True alt. of Ar@urus = 34 2.0
Polar diftance - 69 47.8 co-fecant; 0.02758.
Latitude - - 37 46.0 fecant 0.10209
Sum - I4I 35.8
Half - 70 47.9 co-fine - 9.51706.
Remainder ~ 3645.9 fine - 9.77709.
19.42382.
Arch - =~) her Ous
8
AyGurus E. of mer. = 4" 87 2°
ArGiurus right afcen. = 14 6 46
Right afc. of mer. = 9 58 44
Sun’s right afcenfion 17 22 24
Approximate time 16 36 20-
Eq.to long. Tab. XVIII. + 16
Eg. to approx. time — 3 2
App. time of ebf. 16 33 34.
In order to attain the greateft accuracy from obfervations:
ef this kind, feveral ftars fhould be obferved, and the error
of the watch deduced from each ftar feparately. If an equab
number of flars be obferved on each fide of the meridian,
and neatly equidiftant therefrom, thofe errors which arife
from the inftrument, the fpheroidal figure of the earth,
&c. wili by this means be rendered almoft infenfible. 1f the
fhip is under way, during the interval between the obferva=
tions of the different ftars, and if that interval is confider-
able, it will be neceffary to reduce the error to the fame me-
ridian, by allowing for the difference of longitude made.
good between the obfervations, as in Prob. XII.
Third Method.
Rule, (from Mr. Mendoza’s Tables.) Find the right:
afcenfion and declination of the ftar for the given time by:
the catalogue.
Reduce the obferved altitude to the true.
With the ftar’s declination and true altitude, and the
fhip’s latitude, compute the ftar’s horary angle (or diftance
from the meridian,) when the altitude was obferved to the
weit, take the fum of the horary angle and the ftar’s right
afcenfion ; when it was obferved to the eaft, fubtra& the
horary
—_——- ~
CHRONOMETER.
Worary angle from the right afcenfion, increafing this by
24", if neceflary; the fum (deducting 24" if greater than
this quantity) or remainder, wili be the right afcenfon of
mid-heaven. .
Take out of the Nautical Almanac, the right afcenfion
for noon of the given-day ; and its variation during the 24
hours which comprehend the time.of obfervation.
If the apparent time at Greenwich, at the moment of the
obfervation is accurately known, find the fun’s right af-
cenfion for that moment; and fubtra@ it from the nght af-
cenfion of mid-heaven (increafed by 24", if necefflary) and
the remainder will be the apparent time at the {hip required,
If the apparent time at the fhip is not well known, it
will be neceffary to. proceed according to the following
rules:
Subtraét: the fun’s right afcenfion for noon, from the
right afcenfion of mid-heaven (increafed by 24 hours if ne-
ceffary ) ;.and the remainder will be the approximated ap-
parent time at the fhip.
Withthedifference of longitude, find the correfponding
time at Greenwich ;.and take the interval between it and
the noon before. Find the proportional part of the varia-
tion of the right afcenfion to this interval; and add it to, or
fubtraét it from the approximated time at the fhip, accord-
ingly as the correfponding time at Greenwich is before or
after the faid noon; the fum, or difference will be the time
required.
Example. March 3, 1792, at gb 329°, time eftimated
by: means of the watch, latitude 28° 7’ north, and longitude
36° 6! welt, the altitude of Aldebaran was obferved (to the
weft) to be 32° 11/45”, the obferver’s eye being 16 feet
above the furface of the fea : What is the apparent time at
the fhip when the obfervation was made?
The right afcenfion of Aldebaran for To On
March 1, is (by Table XXV.) Blea Pe
The declination of the fame - . 16° 4’ 40” N.
The true altitude will be foundto be - 32 6 18
*s Polar dift. 73° 55/20" L. co-fec.0.017 33
Ship’slat. 28 7 o Lifec. 0.05454
Altitude 32 618
Sum -
134 8 38
Half-fum
67 4 9g L.co-fine 9.5906t-
Half-fum alt. 34 58 1 L.fine 9.75823
*ghoraryang.W. LL. verf.(fum)y.42071 4 7 4
#’s right afcenfion - - =) 4224 0.6
Right afcesfion of mid heaven - (fum) 8 3x 4.6
©’sright afcen. March 1, at noon, atGreenw. 22 52 25.0
(Variation of R. A, in 24" following 3" 43°.8)
Approximated app. time at the fhip (diff.)
9 38 39.6
Longitude W. 36° 6’ = : 2
2 24 24
Approximated apparent time at Greenwich 12 3 3.6
Prepor’. part of 3™ 44° to 12> 3™ —
Te aio ey hte : VTi, POMBE
Approximated apparent time at the ship 9 38 39.6
Apparent time at the fhip required - 9 36 47.1
Prosrem XVI.
To find the longitude at fea by a chronometer.
Rule, (by W. Wales. E.R.S., &c.) Obferve the altitude
of the fun’s limb, either in the morning or evening, when it
is, at leaft, three points of the compafs from the meridian,
and note the time when it was obferved by the time-keeper.
Multiply the daily rate of the watch by the number of
days which have elapfed fince that on which the laft obfer-
vation was made for finding it, and add the produé to the
time fhewn by the watch when the fun’s altitude was ob-
ferved, if the watch be lofing, but {ubtraé it from that time
if the watch be gaining. ‘To the fum, or remainder, add
what the watch was toc flow, or fubtraét from it what the
watch was too falt for mean time at the place where its rate
was found, on the day when the lat obfervation was made
for finding it, and the refult will be the mean time at the
place when the fun’s altitude was obferved. To this time
add the longitude of the place in time, where the rate of the
watch was found, if it be weft; or fubtra&t the longitude
in time fromit,if it be eaft, and the fum or remainder will be
the mean time at Greenwich.
To this time find the fun’s declination by Problem ITI.
and correé& the obferved altitude of the fun’s limb for the dip
of the horizon, refraGtion, parallax, and femi-diameter, with
which, the latitude of the fhip, and the fun’s declination,
find the mean time at the fhip, (by Problem XIV.)
Take the difference between the mean time at the fhip,
and the mean time at Greenwich, and it will be the longitude
of the fhip in time; eaft, if the time at the fhip be greater
than the time at Greenwich, but weltif it be lefs.
Example 1. After having found the rate of a chronome-
ter to be gaining 1°.67, (as in Example 1 of Prob. VII.)
and that it was too faft for mean time at Barbadoes, on the
gift of December, 1793, by 4" 1™ 49°.7, let us fuppofe that
on the 4th of February, 1794, in the afternoon, latitude 44°
26' N. the following obfervations were taken: what was the
longitude of the fhip; the height of the obferver’s eye above
the furface of the fea being 24 feet?
Times by|Alt. of the
the watch|@’s L.L.
Chr. too faft, Dec. 31,1793, 4” 1™49°-7
Gain to Feb. 4, 1794, =
1°.67 X 3 int + 58-5
Time-keep. too fafl,Peb.4, 4 2 48.2
5h amp r') 9° 77! 15"
3 44/9 8 45 | Sun’s femi-diameter - 16/16"
4 40 8 59 3° | Sun’s horizontal parallax - 9
5 49} 8 50 00 7 ee
see ee 16 25
26 12 30 | Dip of the horizon 4’ 22”
4)17 4}30 15 30 Reheaion - ae IO 10
5 416)9 3 52
4 2 48] + 6 15 Correétion of the fun’s alt. 6 15
1 1 28/9 10 7 Truealtitude
Longitude of Barbadoes, W.
Mean time at Greenwich
Sun’s declination for noon at Greenwich 16° 3! 24”S.
Correétion for time at Greenwich . — 3 31
Sun’s correé& declination - ° Tie RON GS Se
0° oo”
Ship’statitude 44 26 N. fecant > 10.14626
Co-latitude 45 34
Sun’s declin. 16°00 §, fecant e 40,01715
Merid,
CHRONOMETER.
Wferid. altitude
29 34 N.S. 4
Suu’s obf, alt. hae
9 10 N.S. 15931 basang log. 4.52393
Apparent time at the fhip 3% 56™ 29° Log rifing 4.68734
J.quation of time, add 14 26
Meantime at the fhip 4 10 58
Mean time at Green, 5 0 13
Lengitude in time © 49 18=12° 19’2 W.
Example 2. March 29th, 1794, latitude 65° gt N.
the following obfervations were made to determine the lon-
gitude by the fame chronometer :
meet teks eae
18" ae 11°27/15"|Chr. too faft March29, 4 4 17-5
9 2 3445 a
I> 26 42 co|Sun’s femi-diameter =) sv TOK A Be
Tia
12 32
49 3°! Sun’s parallax in altitude 9
58 00 =n
2
2
Dip of the horizon 4’ ane 8 5
5)52 23 |5)210 39/ Refraction — - 4 31
18 10 28.6/r1 42 18
4 417-5/+ 7 19| Correction of the fun’salt. 7 19
14 6 It [11 49 37 True altitude.
3 58 45 - Longitude of Barbadoes, W.
Mean time at Greenwich.
3° 58! oo” N.
B54 56) -
Sun’s declination for noon at Greenwich
Correction for time at Greenwich - — 5 49
Sun’s corre& declination oY hit B52 1x Ni
, go° oo’
Ship’s lat. 55 9% N.fecant 10.24313
Co lat. 34 50%
Sun’s dechin. 3 521 .N. fecant 10.00099
Merid. alt. 38 422 Nat.S. 62539
Sun’s obf. alt. 11 49% Nat. S. et 42043 log. 4-62369
Log rifing 4.86781
4" 59" 9°
24
Appar. time at the fhip 19 0 51
Equation of time + 4 32
Mean time at the fhip 19 5 23
Mean time at Greenw. 18 4 56
Longitude in time 1-0 27 = 15° 6/3 eak.
Same Pao@stem.
Rule, (by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S. Edin. &c.) Let
feveral altitudes of the fun, or of any fixed ftars to be ob-
ferved ; and corre& the mean altitude as ufual; with which,
the fhip’s latitude, and heavenly objeét’s declination, com-
pute the gc time of obfervation, to which apply the
equation of time, reduced to the time and place of obferva-
tion, according to its title in the Nautical Almanac, and
hence the mean time of obfervation will be knowis
’ 'To the mean of the times of obfervation, as fhewn by the
chronometer, apply its error and accumulated rate. Hence;
the mean time, under the meridian of the place where the
error and rate were eftablifhed, will be known: to which ap-
ply the difference of longitude in time between the given
piace and Greenwich, and the mean time of obfervation un-
dir the meridian of Greenwich will be obtained. Now, the
difference between the time at the place of obfervation and
that of Greenwich will be the longitude of the place in
time ; and which is ealt or welt, accordingly as the time by
obfervation is later or earlier than the Greenwich time.
Example 3. Yebruary 3, 1804, being in latitude 15° 48°
N. the mean of feveral altitudes of Spica Virginis, ealt of
the meridian was 53° 24’, and that of the correfponding
times, r5" 15" 22° per chronometer, which had been fet to
mean folar time at Rio Janeiro, December 5th, r803, and
was then gaining 23°.8 daily, on meantime. ‘The height of
the eye was 16 feet. Required the longitude of the fhip?
Daily rate - - - - 53°.8
No. of Days between Dec. 5, 1803, & Feb.3, 1804, 60
Gain in 60 days - - - 537 48°
Now, 15" 18°—54"==14" 24”, in which time it gains 32
Accumulated rate - - . 54 20
Time per watch of obfervation - 15% 18 22
Mean time of obfervation at Rio Janeiro 14 24 2
Longitude of Rio Janciro in me Z; S0u 5S Wo
Mean time at Greenwich - - 17 \14dy $7
Equation of time - - — 14 12
Apparent time at Greenwich - 17» Oak
Mean of ob. alt.=53°24’.0 | Sun’s R.A.atnoon 21" 4™ 33
Dip and refraGtion — 4.5 | Equa. tab.X VIII. i
a of Dr. Mackay pith 53.
Alt. corre&ed 53 19-5 | Reduced R. afcen. 21 6 56
To Jat. 15° 48’ N. and reduced declin. ro° 8’ S. the num-
ber from
Dr. Mackay’s
Dr. Mackay’s Ni 2h,
Table XXVIL§ = 4°35 "Ta XXKVILL§ 9
Alt. 53° 193 fine 9.9042
3-9278- Natural number 8468
Dr. Mackay’s}? 9,
Tab. eIx ¢ 8974
Mer. dift. Spica Virg. 1°44743°
Right afc. SpicaVirg.13 14 53
Rightafcen. merid. 31 30 10
Sun’srightafcenfion 21 6 56 .
Apparent time 14 23 14
App. ti. at Greenw. 17 0 45
Longitude in time 2.37 31 = 30° 203" W.
Example 4. Augult 16, 1804, in latitude 38° 19’ S. the
mean of feveral altitudes of Antares, weft of the meridian,
was 14° 28'.9, the height of the eye being 12 feet, and the
mean of the times per watch a1" 41™ 38° P. M. which had
been compared with mean time at the €ape of Good Hope,
Jane z2d, and was found to be 1» 10™ 28° flow, and gained
3°.54 daily ; required the fhip’s longitude ?
o Daily
CHRONOMETER.
Daily gain . : - 354
Number of days between 22d June and 16th Augutt 55
Gain in 55 days - ~ _ ENN ay
TheGreen.timeofobf.isabout 11535",andcor.gain. 1.7
Accumulated rate - = 3 10
Error, 22d June - - I 10 (28
Watch flow at time of obfervation - pT f= 3
‘Time per watch of obfervation fk oi Tul) CARTES
Mean time of obf. at Cape of Good Hope 12 48 50
Longitude of Cape of Good Hope - Biggs.
Mean time at Greenwich - - UE Ly]
Equation of time - . — 3 52
Apparent time at Greenwich - PIT at
Obf.alt. of Antares=14° 28’.g Sun’s R.A. atnoon 9 42 40
Dip and refration — 6.9 Equa.Tab. XVIII. + 1 44
Correfted altitude 14 22 Red. right afcen. 9 44 24
Polar diftance 64 £ Co-fecant == 0.04628
Latitude = + 38 19 © Secant - 0.10535
Sum - 116 42
Higley 4s = 58 2x Co-fine - 9.71993
Dikerence - 43 59 ‘Sine - 9.84164.
19.71320
PATCH \eiut tin) 4g 572) Cine - 9.85660
8
Mer.dift.of Ant. 6" 7° 38°
R.A. of Antares 16 17 27
R.A. meridian 22 25 5
Sun’srightafcen. 9 44 24
Apparenttime 12 40 41
fcp.timeatGreen.1f 31 25
Long. in time 14) ONO cater ey Pa Cops Oe
In pradtice, it will be found very convenient to have a
table conftructed, fhewing the error of the chronometer at
the noon of every day for feveral weeks, or during the efti-
mated time of the run toa place where Its error and rate can
be again fettled. To this table a column fhould be added,
containing its hourly rate continued up to 24 hours.
Thus, fuppofing the daily rate of a chronometer, deduced
from a ferics of obfervations, was — 4%.72, and its error for
mean time, May g, 1820; at noon was 3™ 58°.6 flow; then
we fhall have the fubjoined table; viz.
Frror of Chronometer at Mean Noon- Bourly Rate.
d May g Error = 3” 58'.6 1 hour= 0%.2
ees) LON fl 2 — =0.4
OER eas 0 Sa er NR Nao) 3— =0 6
OQ ey ne SS eyes) 4 — =0.8
by —— 13 eG § — =1.0
© — 14 — =4 22.2 Oo — =1.2
>) — 15 — =4 26.9 7— =1.4
So, 16 — = 4 31.6 8 — =1.6
Bi aT) ie HOA Ofer Neil tres
2 o— 18 —w =4 4.1 Io — =2.0
@ — 19 — =4 45:8 Tl)
bo o— 20 — = 4 59-5 1Z — 2 of
In the laft three problem, and indeed im all calculationss:
where the time is afcertained from an obfervation of the
fun’s, or of a ftar’s altitude taken at a diftance from the
meridian, the accuracy of the refult will entirely depend on
the acctracy of the obfervation which furnifhed the data;
it is, therefore, of the utmoft importance, that the heaven-
ly body fhould be in a fituation, or azimuth line, in which
» s change of altitude is the greateft poffible in a given time;
this precife fituation in the diurnal or no@urnal are of any
body, depends partly on the latitude of the place of obfer-
vation, and partly on the objeét’s declination ; but, in all the
heavenly objeéts, the fituation alluded to, is when they are
in the prime vertical; i. e. when they are either due eaft or due
welt of the obferver ; therefore, the nearer the obferved ob-
ject is to the prime vertical, provided it be not too near the
horizon, fo as to be too much affected by refraGtion, the
more likely will the determined time be to be accurate.
Dr. Mackay, in Table XXV. of his « Theory and Prac-
tice of finding the Longitude,” p. 56, vol. ii., has given us
“the altitude to be obferved, in order to afcertain the ap-
parent time with the greatelt accuracy,” which table is very
convenient for determining very nearly when any heavenly
obje& is due eaft or weft: his arguments are, at the top
“ Declination of the fun or ftar,”? and at the fide «* Lati-
tude :”’—and fince him, Jofeph de Mendoza Rios, Efg. has
given not only the requifite altitudes, but alfo the corre-
{ponding diftances from noon in time in a parallel column,
with the fame arguments and mode of arrangement, in:
Table XXVIII. of his valuable and very cheap volume.
This volume contains a complete colleAion of tables for
navigation and nautical aftronomy, that no navigator fhould
be without. Indeed the commiffioners of the Board: of
Longitude, and the court of direGiors of the Eaft India
company, with a liberality charaéteriltic of the Englith
nation, have enabled the author (who as liberally gives up
his right to the benefits of his labours) to give, for we can
hardly fay fell, to the world the work in queftion for one
third of its real value, as an encouragement to- nautical
fcience.
In the fixteen problems, which we have here exemplified,
we have confined ourfelves to obfervations of the fun and
ftars, though we might have extended our examples to the
moon and planets alfo, if we had deemed it neceflary ;
but the refults derived from obfervations of thefe bodies,
moving as they do in eccentric orbits, would have been lefs
certain, as well as the calculations more complex than thofe
we have given, which are our reafons for having. omitted
them.
Curonomerer. A generical term for an inftrument to
meafuretime in Mufic. Accordingly aclock, a watch, or
a fun-dial, is a Chronometer. See the preceding article.
There are, however, chronometers conftru@ted purpofely to
regulate the bars and meafures of mufic; one in particular
invented. by M. Sauveur, defcribed in his * Principles-of
Acoutties.”” It was a pendulum of a particular kind, which
he exclutively applied to afcertain the time in the perform-
ance of mufical compoiitions. L’Afflard, in his ‘ Princi-
ples dedicated to Religious Ladies,’’ placed at the head of
all his airs, figures which expreffed the number of vibrations
of the pendulum, during the performance of each bar.
Roufleau faid in his di€tionary, 3.4 yearsago, that it was
then go years fince a fimilar inttrument appeared under the
title of chronometer, which beat the time itfelf; but neither
the one nor the other has fucceeded. Many, however, con-
tinves Roufleau, have pretended that it is very much to be
wifhed that fuch an in{trumient was completed in order to
fix with precifion the time-of each bar in 2 piece of mnfic ;
as,
CHR
as, by that means, the true original meafure of each compo-
fition would be recorded, without which expedient, it lofes
its character; and after the death of the aurhor, it is only
by a kind of tradition, very likelyto vary and be loft, that
the time is known. Old people already complain that
the time of many airs is loft; and it is believed that they are
performed too flow. ‘This may have come on by degrees,
trom the charaéters in prefent ule, which look much quickce
than thofe of a-hundred, or indeed of fifty years ago, when
demi-femiquavers were feldom ufed, and where there are
now only minims, there ufed to be femi-breves, as in alla
breve time. We are certain from our own memory, that
the time of Handel’s mufic is often miftaken, and per-
formed fometimes quicker and-fometimes flower than under
his own direGtion.
The Encyclopedifts of the prefent time difpute Ronf-
feau’s opinions about fuch an inftrument to regulate the
meafure of each bar throughout a piece, which would be
too mechanical, and trench on the authority of the leader.
It has long been obferved that mufic on a barrel is fliff, and
without that flexibility, feeling, and expreffion, that are
given to it by the human hand or voice, though the accuracy
of clock-work is proverbial. But though we are equaliy
diflurbed by the abufe and bungling ufe of rallentando ; yet
there is a retard-Jion as well as acceleration of time, whick
is almolt imperceptible, in the execution of particular paf-
fages of pathor and of /pirit bya great mufician, which fen-
fibility alone can preduce or underftand.
If a chronometer were to beat the time aloud, it would
carry us back to mufical infancy; or if the pendulum were
to be watched in its ofcillations,it would take the performer’s
eye from the book, and too much divide his attention.
We ean therefore only recommend with fincerity, the con-
ftruGtion of a {mall machine, which might be an appendage
to a piano-forte, to afcertain by the vibration of a pendu-
lum the original time in which every movement of a com-
polition was conceived, as indicated by numerical figns at
the beginning of each ftrain, by the compofer himfelf.
CHRONOSCOPE, formed of xpov0s, time, and CRKERTOMy
I confider, a word fometimes ufedtor a pendulum, or ma-
chine to meafure time. See Penputum and Cxronome-
TER.
CERONUS, or Curonos, in Ancient Geography, ari-
yer placed by Ptolemy in European Sarmatia,
CHROSTASIMA, in Natural Hiftory, a name ufed
by Dr. Hill for all pellucid gems, which have one fimple
and permanent appearance in all lights.
Of this kind are the diamond, the carbuncle, the ame-
thy{t, the fapphire, the beryl], the emerald, and the topaz.
CHROUET, Warner, in Biography, a phyfician of
eminence, in Brabant in Flanders, flourifhed towards the
end of the r7th and beginning of the 1Sth centuries. The
work by which he principally diftinguifhed himfelf is his
differtation ‘ De trium Oculi Humorum, aliarumque ejus
Partinm Origine, et Formatione explicata, Leodii, 1688,
8vo.”’ He fhews that the veflels which Nuck fuppofed he
had difcovered, and which he called ducts, for conveying
the aqueous humour, were branches of the carotid arteries.
His experiments, Haller-obferves, were made on the eyes of
brutes, but the human eye is found to be fimilarly con-
‘ftructed. He fpeaks but obfcurely of the membrana pupillaris,
which he fays is wanting in the dog. He deferibes, very
well, the cellular ftruéture of the vitreous humour, and gives
chymical analyfes of the cryltalline and other humours.
The -work was reprinted in 1691, with ftri€tures on the
anfwer to it by Nuck. We have alfo by him, ‘* La Connoif-
fauce des Eaux Minérales d’Aix-la-Chapelle, de Chaud
I
CHR
Fontaine, et de Spa, par leurs véritables Principes,”” Leyde,
1714, 12mo. He fhews himflf, by the analyfes of thefe
waters, to have been well fkilled in pra€tical chymiftry.
Haller, Eloy. Di&t. Hitt.
CHRUDIM, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, and ca-
pital of a circle of the fame name, fituated on a river called
‘© Chrudimka ;?? which circle contains 33 towns. It is
chiefly remarkable for a great number of “fifh-ponds, and
an excellent breed of horfes; 100 miles S.E. of Drefden,
and so E. of Pragne.
CHRUTUNGI, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
people which formed a part of the Scythians. $3 f
CHRYSIJI, a town of Afia Minor, in the olide. Pliny.
—A\fo, the name of a {mall ifland, near that of Crete, on
the coaft of the Peloponnefus. Pliny.—Alfo, a place in the
Troade, called Sminthium.
CHRYSZE-Fanum, a place of Sicily, near the road that
paffed from Afforus to Enna. ,
CHRYSALIS, in Lxtomology, a technical expreffion
among the writers on infects during the laft century that
has the fame meaning as the more obfolete word aurelia, and
is intended to imply what the Linnzan phrafeology deno-
minates the pupa, or middle ftate in which all lepidopte-
rous and moft other infeéts remain for fome time between
the larva er caterpillar form, and the period of their appear-
ance as perfect infects. The word chryfalis is employed by
the beft writers, with the exception of Linnzus. Like
the term aurelia, it aliudes.however te the metallic or golden
folendour of the cafe in which the creature is contained
while in the pupa ftate, and is confequently applicable only
tothe pupe of certain {pecies of the papilio or butterfly
tribe, which in this ftate exhibits fuch a fplendid afpeé.
The term pupa adopted by Linnzus is more generally ex-
preflive, as it implies that the infe& like an ‘otadt yet re-
mains etveloped in its fwaddling clothes. See AugELia,
Entomotocy, and Pupa.
CHRYSANTHEMOIDES, in Botany, Ofeofpermum,
Comm. Hort. See Osreospermum-Spino/um, Linn.
Spinefcens, Willd.
CurysANTHEMOIDES-4frum, Dill. Elth. See Osteos-
PERMUM moniliferum. :
CHRYSANTHEMUM, (Xjuce$euer, Diofcor.) from
xpuzes, gold, and alos, aflower.) Linn. Gen. 66. Schreb.
1307. Juff. 183. Vent. 2.546. Gert. yoo. (Leucan-
themum and chryfanthemum, Tourn.) Clafs and order,
Syngenefia polygamia fuperfiua. Nat. ord. Compofite difcoidee,
Linn. Corymbifera, Jull.
Gen. Ch. Calyx common, hemifpherical, imbricated ; in-
terior fcales larger by degrees; innermo{t membranous.
Corol. compound, radiated; florets of the ray female, ftrap-
fhaped ; of the difc hermaphrodite, funnel-fhaped, {preading,
the length of the calyx. Stam. five, capillary very fhort ;
anthers forming a hollow cylinder. Pif. germ egg-fhaped 5
ftyle filiform, longer than the ftamens; ftigmas two, obtufe,
revolute. Seed one to each floret, oblong, not crowned
with a marginal rim. Recep. naked, dotted, convex.
Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Se$d without a marginal
ring. Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated; fcales dilated at
the margin, membranous.
* Ray white.
Leucanthema of Tournefort.
Sp. 1. C. pinnatifidum, Linn. jun. Sup. 377. Willd. 1.
Ait. Kew. iti. 231. (Matricaria pinnatifida, Lam. Def-
rouffeaux in Encyc. 7.) * Stem fhrubby ; leaves {mooth,
attenuated at the bale, pinnatifid; fegments gafhed.”? A
fhrub, two feet high. Root perennial. Svem fhort, rather
thick, woody, naked; branches numerous, cylindrical, with
athick -
ee
eee oe.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, .
a thick foliage above, naked near the bottom, but marked
with the fears of fallen weaves, Zvaves about fcven inches
long, and three broad, thickly and irregularly fet, oval-ob-
Yong, narrowing into a petiole at their bafe, green, {mooth,
and glofly on both fides. F/oaers in a loofe corym, fur
nifhed at its divifions with {lender brates, fthaller than thofe
ef C. feucanthemum. A native of the ifland of Madeira.
Defrouffeaux mentions a variety, C. /ecerum of {ome authors,
which he thinks may be a diftinét fpecies. It is two or
three feet high, and forms a lefs buthy hea’ than the pre-
ceding. Its leaves are lefs, more deeply pinnatifid,, with’
the fegments rtore deeply but lets frequently gafhed.
Flowers on long petioles, lefs numerous on eaeh branch.
2.C. paludofum, Wilid..2. Desf, Ati. tab. 238. Poiret.
Itin. 1. 247. “* Leaves all oblong-wedgcfhuped, obtulely
ferrated; item diftufely branched.’?? cot annual. Leaves
{mooth, deeply ferrated ; upper ones only three-toothed at
the tip. Flowers refembling thofe of C.. deucantAemum, foli»
tary, terminating the branches, A native of moilt places in
the kingdom of Tunis. 3. C. atratum, Linn. Sp. 5, ex-
cluding Var. 8. Mart..3. Willd. 3. (Bellis alpina ma-
jor foho rigido, Bauh. Pin.) ‘ Leaves all oblong-wedge-
fhaped, acutely ferrated ; {tem fimple, one-flowered, erect.”
Willd. Root perennial. Root-leaver lobed at the tip.
Calyx with a black margin. Haller judges ++ not {pecifi-
cally different from C. feicanthemum. 4. Ci het rophyllum,
Willd. <* Leaves feffile; lower ones linear-lanceolate, fer-
rated ; upper ones (patula-fhaped.”? Stem afcending, a foot
highs erect, fimple. one-floweted. F/pwers refembling those
of C. leucanthemum, from which, according to Willdenow,
who deferibed it from a dried fpecimen, it differs in the
fhape of its leaves, and efpecially in the extreme minutene{s
of its upper ones. A native of Piedmont. 5. C. fewcan-
themum, great white ox-eye, or ox-eye daily, Linn. Sp. Pl.
4. Mart. 5.° Willd. 5. Eng. Bot. 601. (Matricaria,
Lam.) <* Leaves embracing the ftem, lanceolate, ferrated,
frath-toothed at the bafes {tem erect, branched.’? Willd,
« Leaves embracing the ftem, oblong, obtufe, gafhed, pin-
natifd at the bafe} root-ones inverfely egg-{Haped, pe-
tioled.” Dr. Smith. Roct perennial, fomewhat woody,
fibrous. «Stems two feet high, furrowed with red angles,
fomewhat hairy. Leaves deep green, gloffy, fmooth; upper
ones alternate. #Yowers fhewy, large, folitary, terminal 5
calyx hemifpherico- depreffed, {mooth; feales numetous,
imbricated, {carous at theedges; inner ones dilated into a
membrane at the tip; florets of the ray three times the
length of the calyx, mtimerous, fpreading, elliptic oblong,
bitten at the tip, toothed. Seeds cylindrical, entirely detti-
tute of a marginal rim, furrowed, black, with white ribs.
Receptacle convex. “A native of dry paltures and meadows
in mott parts of Europe. It varies much in different
fituations; hence the dif{cordance of authors with refpect to
its varieties and kindred fpecies, 6. C. montanum, Linn.
Sp. Pl 6. 2Mart. 6. Willd. 6. (Matricaria montana,
diam. Leacanthe:num montanum minus, Torrn. — Bellis
montana minor, Bauh, Hitt.) * Lower leaves petioled,
fpatula-fhaped, ferrated $ upper ones linear-lanceolate, fers
vated; them géicrally one-flowered.”? Root perennial.
Probat lysonly a variety of the preceding, A native of the
fouth of France, Silelia; and other parts of Europe. 7. C.
wolundefolium, WNalld. 4, -Waldit. and Kitalb.- Pl. Rar.
Hung. ‘ Leaves petioled, ferrated ; lower ones roundifh ;
Upper ones egg-fhaped ; {tem one-flowered.”? A native of
theCarpathian mountains. 8. C.. ceralophylloides, Willd. 8.
Allion. Ped. 686. tab. 37. fig. r. “ Leaves pinnatid ;
pitine linear, acute: ftem cre&, one-flowered.” Root pe-
vennial. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnated ; pina quite
*) Vox, VIII. ¥
¥
entire. Jowers refembling thofe of C. lewcanthemim, {cales
{phacelated. A native of the mountains of Piedmont.
Q. C. graminifolium, Lion. Sp. Plant. 7. Mart. 7. Willd.
g. Jacq. Obf. 4. tab. 92. (Matricaria graminifolia,
Lam. *‘* Leucanthemum gramineo folio, Tourn. Inft. 493.
Bellis montana gramineis foliis, Mag. Monfp. 291. Hort..
gr. tab. 41.) *‘ Leaves linear, genetally quite entire;
item quite fimple.’? foe perennial. Stems from fix to
eight inches high, nearly eredt, flender, ftriated, fmooth,
deftitute of leaves near the top.’ Leaves fliohtly villous;
root-ones often a little toothed near the fummit. | f/oqwers
terminal, rather large, folitary ; fcales of the calyx eggs
fhaped. elongatec, {carious, and blackifh at the edges. A.
native of mountains in the fouth of France. 10. C. tanace=
tifolum, Willd. x1. (Matricaria tanacetifolia. Lam. Bnph-
thalmum orientale tanaceti minoris folio, Tourn. Cor. 37.)
“ Leaves pinnated, hairy 5 pinn pedtinate-ferrated; calyx
tomentous. Root perennial. Stem about two feet high,
furrowed, pubefcent, efpecially toward the bafe. Leaves
{cffile. Voters {mall ; calyx white, with down. A native
of the Levant. 11. C. mon/pelienfe, Linn. Sp. Pl. 9. Mart.
8. Willd. 12. (Matricaria mov{pelienfis, Lam. Leu-
canthemum montanum foliis chryfant'emi, Tourn. Lnft. 492.)
«© Lower leaves palmated; leaflets linear, pinnatifid.””
Root perennial. Stents about a foot high, cylindrical, weak,
nearly upright, fuperficially {triated, branched; almoft {mooth.
Leaves alternate, feffile, green. lowers large, folitarys
terminal; florets of the ray white, or flightly tinged
with purple; calyx-leaves elongated, divided by a
green line, and ending in a dry brown membrane.
A native of the fonth of France. 12. C. achillez; Linn.
Syft. Nat. Mart.’ 11. Willd. +3. (C. italicum, Linn,
Parthenium foliis tenuiffimis, achillee cvfuris, Mich. gers
34; tab. 29.) ‘+ Leaves twice pinnated; pinne oblong,
ferrated ; flowers in corymbs.’? Willd. Roof perennials
Stem ereét, a foot high, fomewhat angular, many-flawered.
Leaves \ike thofe of Millefoil, but eight times as large; be=
fprinkled with fcareely confpicuous, prominent dots; with:
a few white hairs underneath, and ending in a white itiff
point. A native or Italy. “As the fame fynonym from Mi-
cheli is referred to by Linnzus under both C, achillez and C,
italicum, and as no other fynonym is quoted under either, it
feems almoft certain that he has, inadvertently, inferted the
fame plant twice ; and was, perhaps, lefs likely to dete& the
error, a3, notwith{tanding the white ray of C. italicum, he
was induced to place it among the chryfanthema, on account
of the refemblance of its foliage to {ome cf the {peci¢s of that
divifon. “Defrouffeaux maintasns, that C. achillex id nothing
more than a variety of C. corymbofum, which is unquettion-
ably a pyrethrum; but as its feeds are not defcribed, we
have left it for the prefent where Linnwus placed it. 13,
C. argenteum, Willd: 14. (Matricaria argentea, Linn. Spece
Pi. Encyc. Meth. Mart, Chameemelum. orientale inca-
num, miliefolii folio, Tourn. ¢or. 37.) ** Leaves twice pin-
nated, hoary ;\pinne acute, generally quite entire; ftem
one-flowered, fimple.”? Willd. eof perennial. Stems
fearecly a foot high, ereét, cylindrical, downy, often fimple,
elmolt deftitute of leaves near the top, and furrounded at the
bafe with dry feales, which are the remains of the petioles of
the fallen leaves. eaves alternate, oval-oblong, rather ob-
tufes root ones petioled. #Yetvier's rather large, terminal ;
florets of the dilk yellow, of the ray white, lineat; feales
of the calyx egg-fhaped, acute, numerous, clofely imbri-
cated, blackith at the edges. A native of the Levant.
The whole plant is fweet-fcented. 14. Cs tricolor, Willd.
16. Bot. Mag. 505. Andrews Repof. tab. 109. C. cari-
natum, Schoafb, Pl. Myrac. tab. 6.) * Leaves twice pinnas
I tifid ;
CHRYSANTHEMUM.
tihd; pinnulz linear, diflant, recurved; flem erect, branch-
ed.” Root annual. Ffowers bighly beautiful; florets of
the difk dark crimfon; of the ray, white with a yellow bafe ;
outer fcales of the calyx kecled; inner ones flat, membranous.
There is a variety with perfe@tly yellow flowers. 15. C. in-
dicum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 12. Mart. 13. Willd. 17. Bot. Mag.
327. (Matricaria indica, Encyc. Meth. 23. M. finenfis,
Pluk. Amel. tab. 430, fig. 2. Rumph. Amb. 5, tab. or,
fig. 1. Tfietti-gu, Rheed. Mal. 10, tab. 44.) ‘ Leaves
egg-fhaped, attenuated at the bafe, three-lobed, toothed;
fem branched,.’? Stem fomewhat woody, two or three feet
high, upright, cylindrical, much branched. Leaves refem-
bling thofe of mugwort, alternate, petioled, ferrated, upper
furface deep green, lower furface foft to the touch, and
clothed with a flight down; lobes a little gafhed and tooth-
ed; teeth unequal, peduncled, large, mucronate. lowers
large, folitary, terminating the branches; florets of the difk
yeliow: of the ray whitifh with a tinge of purple; [cales of
the calyx few, concave, rounded, terminated by a {carious
filvery membrane. A native of China, where, and in other
parts of the Eat, it has been long cultivated, and highly ef-
teemed for its beauty. A great number of varieties have,
in confequence, been produced, fingle, femi-double, and dou-
ble, fometimes the fize of the palm of the human hand,
reddifh, quite white, yellowith, flefh-coloured, purple, and
of every intermediate colour, Though this magnificent
plant has been fo long cultivated in the Eatt, it does not ap-
pear to have found its way to Europe till 1795, when it
flowered for the firft time in Great Britain, in the colle&ion
of Mr. Colville, nurfery-man at Chelfea. It appears to be a
hardy green-houfe plant, and as the moft fpecious varieties
have been feleéted, it promifes to be a la{ting ornament to
our confervatories. ‘The Chinefe employ it to decorate their
houfes and tables on tellive occafions, and are faid to prefer
thofe pieces of porcelain on which it is painted. 16. C. coc-
sineum, Willd. 10. (Buphthalmum tanaceti folio ampliore,
flore magno coccineo, ‘Tourn. Cor. 37.) ‘ Leaves pinnat-
ed, {mooth ; pinne pinnatifid, acute; peduncle thickened.”
Root perennial, Stem furrowed, {mooth. Leaves {mooth ;
fegments of the pinnz lincar, acute. F/owers with a large
fcarlet or purple ray ; fcales of the calyx fomewhat fphace-
lated. A native of Iberia.
** Florets of the ray yellow.
Chryfanthema, Tourn,
17. C. pedinatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Mart. 16. Willd.
18. (C. pallidum, Bar. Ic. 421. Matricaria pe¢tinata, En-
cyc. Meth.) ‘¢ Leaves pinnated, linear, parallel. acute, quite
entire; peduncles folitary, one-flowered.”’
Stems very fhort, thickifh, proftrate, creeping. Leaves
fmall, pubefcent. Flower on a longifh peduncle, with an
awl-fhaped leaf or two at the bafe. A native of Spain and
Sealy. 18. C. fegetum, yellow ox-eye; or corn marigold,
Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Mart.17. Willd. 19. Curt. Flor. Lond.
fafc. 6, tab. 60. Eng. Bot. 949. (Bellis lutca, foliis pro-
funde incifis, major, Bauh. Pin. 262.) _ ‘* Leaves embracing
the ftem, glancous, Jaciniated near the fummit, toothed at
the bale.” Root annual, {pindle-fhaped, fmall. ‘Stem one or
two feet high, branched, angular. Leaves oblong, varioufly
toothed or pinnatifid-laciniated, rarely entire. Flowers
large, terminal ; {cales of the calyx with a broad membranous
edge; florets of the ray inverfely heart-fhaped, {preading.
Seeds furrowed. A commen weed in corn-fields, efpecially
on a gravelly foil, in varions parts of Europe, flowering from
June to Augoft. 19. C. umbrofum, Willd.22. ‘ Leaves
feflile, oblong-lanceolate, attenuared at the bafe, pinnatifid,
ferrated ; ftem ereét, branched at the bafe.?? Svema foot
high; branches one-flowercd. Leaves about three inches
Root perennial.
long; upper ones linear-lanceolate. A native of mount
Athos, deferibed by Willdenow from adried {pecimen. 20.
C. coronarium, garden chryfanthemum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 16.
Mart 22. Walld. 23. Gert. tab. 168. (C. foliis matrica-
riz, Bauh. Pin. 134. C. ereticum, Cluf. Hitt. 1. 334.
Morif. Hift. 3. tab. 4. fig.2, 3. Matricaria coronaria, En-
cyc. Meth.) ‘* Leaves twice pipnatifid, acute, broader near
the fummit; ftem branched.”? Root annual. Stem two feet
high or more, herbaceous, cylindrical, flriated, {mooth, eres
branches forming loofe tufts. Leaves alternate, embracing
the ftem. #/owers large, terminal, folitary; feales of the ca-
lyx imbricated, oblong, obtufe, very fearious at the edges and
fummit. A native of Candia, Sicily, and Switzerland. There
is a variety with double flowers, commonly cultivated as a
hardy annualintheEnglifhgardens. 21. C.flofeulofum, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 19. Mart. 23. (Matricaria rigida, excluding var.
8. M. grandis. var. 6 Encyc. Meth. Balfamita ageratifolia
B virgata. C. flofc. @ Willd. Tanacetum chryfanthemoides,
Gert. tab. 165. ‘* Florets all uniform, hermaphrodite.??
Defrouffcaux (Encyc. Meth.) afferts that var. @. is a diin&
fpecies, and even fufpe&ts that two fpecies are confounded
under the original C. flofenlofum. He thus diftinguifhes
then: 1. Matricariarigida(Chryfanthemum flofculofum, Linn,
excluding var.@. Bellis fpinofa, foliis aggerati, Bauh. Pin.
262. Alp. Exot. tab. 326. Morif. Hilt. 3. tab. 9. tig. 16.
Balfamita foliis aggerati, Vail. AG. 339. Tanacetum foliis
integris rigidis, Hal. Helv.). ‘* Stem thrubby ; leaves obo-
vate-wedge- fhaped, toothed ; teeth tran{verfe, rigid.” Root
perennial. Stem a foot and half high, fhrubby, branched ;
branches cylindrical, {triated, nearly {mooth, leafy almolt to
the fummit. Leaves feffile, a little embracing the ftem, ever-
green, egg-fhaped, narrowed towards the top, edged with
fuff, fharpifh teeth. FYoqwers fix or feven lines in diameter,
yellow, terminal ; fcales of the calyx numcrous, imbricated,
reflexed at the fummit, fearious, and flightly torn, Lam.
Eacye. Seeds crowned on the outer fide with an ereé, con-
cave, toothed, rim. A native of Africa, and the ifle of
Candia. 2. M. virgata (Cotula grandis, Jacq. Obf. 4. p. 4.
tab. Sr. Chryfanthemum difeoideum, Allion. Flor. Ped.
tab. 11. fig. 1.) Leaves ferrated ; lower ones fpatula-
fhaped ; upper ones linear-Janceolate ; branches rod-like.’”
Root annual. Stems about a foot and half high, herbaceous,
flender, elongated, cylindrical, furrowed, almoft deftitute of
leaves towards their fummits; branches few, upright, one-
flowered. eaves {cattered, tooth-ferrated, fmooth; lower
ones narrowed into a petiole; upper ones feffile, narrow.
Flowers terminal ; feales of the calyx numerous, imbricated’
in three or four ranks, lanceolate, fearcely fearious at the
edges. A native of the county of Nice. 3. M. grandis
(Cotula grandis, Linn. Sp. Pl. Chryfanthemum flofeulofum,
8, Linn. Mant. 2. 473.). ‘ Stem generally fimple, thick,,
very lofty, hairy toward the bottom, with a large flower.”
Root biennial. Stem three or four feet high, ftriated, villous,
rough, with ftrong hairs near the bottom. Leaves flefhys
foft to the touch. FYowers near three inches in diameter,
yellow, terminal. flat. A native of the coaft of Barbary,
All thefe fuppofed fpecies are deferibed from living {peci-
mens. 04/. The want of a ray inconteflibly excludes them
altogether from the Chryfanthemum and the Matricaria of
Linnens, but we have placed them here, partly that they
may not be entirely omitted, the Balfamita of Desfontaines
and Willdenow not having been admitted into the fyitem,
with a difliné& generic character, when that part of our al-
phabet went to the prefs; partly becaufe we wifhed to lay
before our readers at one view the original defcriptions of
Defroufleaux ; but chiefly becaufe we are by no means fatis-
fied with the manner in which thefe plants are difpofed of
8 by
CHRYSANTHEMUM.
by Willdenow. His Balfamita ageratifolia is doubrtlefs the
original Chryfanthemum flofculofum of Linazus, the Matri-
caria rigida of the Encyclopedic Methodique ; and this ap-
pears to be the only one of the three which had fallen under
his notice; but from the toothed rim of the germ it is cer-
tainly a Tanacetum, as Gertner has made it, and not a Bal-
famita. The other two may polfibly belong to Balfamita,
fhould that new genus finally prove a legitimate one. We
have to lament that, with refpect to this branch of the fub-
ject, we derive no information whatever from the labours
‘of the French botani!.
xae® Dulious fpecies.
22. C. japonicum, Mart. 24. Willd. 24. Thunb. Jap. 321.
© Leaves petioled, gafhed at the tip, toothed.’”? Stem iim-
ple, erect, ftriated, viilous. Leaves alternate, oblong, {mooth,
green above, pale underneath. A native of Japan. Though
Thunberg’s fpecimen was without flower, he pronounces it
of this genus; but it was furely a wild, rap-at-a-venture
uefs. 23. C. incanum, Willd. 25. Thunb. Prod. 161.
* Stem fhrubby; leaves trifid, tomentous.” 24. C. vlabratum,
Willd. 26. Thunb. Prod. 161. ‘* Stem herbaceous ; leaves
pinnated, fmooth ; pinne linear.” 25. C. hirtum, Willd. 27.
Thunb. Prod. 161. ‘* Stem herbaceous ; leaves twice pin-
natifid, hairy ; tlem zig zag.” The lalt three are natives of
the Cape of Good Hope. 26. C. procumbens, Mart.27.
Lour. Cochin. 499. (Matricaria tinenfis, Piuk. Amalth. tab.
430. fig. 3.) ‘¢ Leaves finuate-gafhed, blunt; {tem pro-
cumbent.’’ Roof perennial. Stem three feet high, frequently
creeping, flender, much branched. Leaves egg-thaped,
fomewhat downy, petioled. /owers {mall; peduncles
many flowered, terminal. A native of Cochinchina and
China, where it is alfo cultivated in gardens, and has pro-
duced many varieties.
Obf. La Marck, and Defrouffeaux, one of his fucceffors
in the botanical department of Encyclopedic Methodique,
have entirely difcarded the genus Chryfanthemum, and in-
terfperfed its {pecies among thofe of Matricaria ; obferving,
not without much fhew of reafon, that the membranous ter-
mination of a calyx-fcale is a circumftauce too minute and
too equivocal to be admitted as an effential part of a generic
character. We ourfelves, however, have for the prefent re-
tained the Linnzan divifions. It is rather furprifing that
thefe excellent naturalifts fhould have paid no attention to the
prefence or abfence of a marginal rim at the top of the feed,
a difference which has been received by Gertner as a fuffi-
cient generic diltingtion, The genus Pyrethrum, whofe
feeds have a marginal rim, has accordingly been adopted by
Dr. Smith, with his ufual judgment, and has been avowedly
taken up from him by Wiildenow.
CurysanTHEmum corymbiferum, frutefcens, inodorum, al-
pinum, atratum 8, ferotinum, aréticum, myconis, bipinnatum, bal-
famita, Lion, See Pyretarum.
CurysanTHEMuM Aalleri, Suter. Helv. macrophyl-
dum, Waldf. and Kitaib. caucafficum, Sufcatum,
orientale. See Pyre-
multicaule, trifurcatum, Desf.
THRUM.
CHRYSANTHEMUM maderafpatanum, [cabiofe capitulis par-
vis, Pluk, Alm. See Sprranrues pfeudo-acmella,
CurysantuEmum Jdidens Acmella difa, Rai.Supp. See
Spinantus acmella.
CurysanTHEMuUM aguaticum foliis multifidis, Herm. Engl.
cannabinum coridis indi fol. Herm. Par. cannabinum
cicutarie folits, Mornf. Hitt. See Bivens bipinnata.
CHRYSANTHEM OM conyzoides athiopicum capitulo aphyllo,
Pluk. Mant. See Protea /evi/anus.
CurysaNnTHEMUM ericoidescoronatum, Breyn.Cent. Pluk,
Mant. Morif, Hik. See Staavia.
CurySANTHEMUM americanum frutefcens ba Yamine foitis
nigris, Pluk. Alm. See Kreinia porophyllum.
CurysAnTHEMUM bengalenfe anguftifolium, Pluk, Alm.
See Hruvutia diwaricata.
CurysANTHEMUM conyzoides cernuum, Mor. Hif. See
CarPesium cernuum.
CurysanTHEMUM alpinum incanum foliis laciniatis,
Bauh. Pin. See Senecio incanus.
CHRYSANTHEMUM alpinum, foliis abrotani multifidis,
Bauh. Pin. See SENEcrO
abrotanifolius.
CHRYSANTHEMUM americanum perenne, caule
Monf. Hitt. See Herenium autumaie.
CurysanrHEeMum exoticum ferpufillum, foliis coronopi,
Pluk. Alm. See Cotura anthemoides.
CHRYSANTHEMUM exoticum ininus, chamemeli nudi facie.
Breyn. Cent. See Conyza coronopifolia.
CHRYSANTHEMUM valentinum, Cluf, Hitt.
cCYCLus valentinus.
CurysanTHEMuM Jufitanicum, agerati folio, Tourn. Intt.
—— parvum five bellis lutea, Bauh. Hitt. See Anruemis
repanda.
CurysanTHEmMumM foliis tanaceti, Lef. Pruf. Barr. Ic.
See ANTHEMISs findoria.
CurysanTHemum africanum, leucoii foliis, Breyn. Prod.
See AmELtus lychuitis.
CurysanTHEemum maderafpatanum, menthe arvenfis folio,
Pluk. Alm. See Ecuipra profrata.
CHRYSANTHEMUM cannabinum americanum alatum, Sloan.
Hitt. curaffavicum, Herm. Par. americanum foliis
baccharidis. —— americanum bidens, Pluk. Alm. —— cony-
zoides curaffavicum, Volk. Norib. See VeRBESINA alata.
CurysantuEmum palufre minimum repens, Sloan. ——
humile ranunculi folio, Plum. See VERBESINA mutica,
CuRysanTHEMUM conysides nodifiorum, Sloan. See
VERBESINA nodiflora.
CurysanTHEMUM ex infulis caribets, Pluk. Alm., Morif.
Hit. —— fruticofum maritimum, Stoan. Jam., Catefo. Car.
See BuputHAtmum frutefcens.
CurysantTHEemum Jbermudiana, Morif. Hit.
Alm. See Bupyruatmum arborefcens.
CurysanTHEMUM conyzoides lufitanicum, Breyn. Cent.
See BupHTHALMUM aquaticum.
alpinum II, Cluf. Hitt.
alatn,
See Ana-
Pluk.
CurysANTHEMUM perenne minus, Morif. Hift. See
Burxruaimum grandifiorum.
CurysantHemumM /cropularie folio, Pluk. Alm. Mo-
rif, Hift, See Bupuryatmum helienthoides.
CuRYSANTHEMUM americanum majus perenne, Morif, Hitt.
Pluk. Phyt. See Heniantuus gultifiorus.
CurysantTHemumM /etifolium brafilianum, Bauh. Pin.
See Hexiantruus tuberofus.
CurysanTHemum canadenfe latifolium altifimum, Morif.
Blef. Bocce. Sic. canadenfe firumofum, Herm. Lugb.
Morif. Hilt. See Heriantuus /rumofus.
CHRYSANTHEMUM virginianum elatius angufifolium, Mor.
Hit. Pluk. Alm. Sce Hevianruus giganteus.
CHRYSANTHEMUM virginianum altiffimum, Morif. Hitt
See Heriantuus altiffimus.
CHRYSANTHEMUM wirginianum repens, Morif. Hitt, See
Heiantuus divaricatus.
CHRYSANTHEMUM americanum perenne, foliis divifis, .ma-
gus, Morif. Hitt. See'Rupsecxia /aciniata.
CuRYSANTHEMUM americanum majus, foliis magis divifis,
Morif. Hilt. See Ruppeckta digitata.
CHRYSANTHEMUM cannabinum virginianum, Pluk. Alm.
annuum majus virgintanum, umbone nigricante, Mor. Hitt.
See Ruppecnia triloda,
I2 Curysan-
CHRYSANTHEMUM.
Curysanrremum felenti folio, Pluk. Alm. Morif.
Hilt. See Rupseckta hirta.
Cury¥SANTHEMUM americanum doronici folio, Pluk. Alm.
Catef. Car. See Rupseckia purpurea.
CuRYSANTHEMUM americanum, fcabiofe tenuiffime divifis
foliis ad intervalla confertis, Pluk. Mant. See Corzoprsis
tenuifolia (verlicillata, Lam.)
CHRYSANTHEMUM Wirginianum anagyridis folio,
Hift. See Coreopsis ¢ripteris.
CurysANTHEMUM americanum, ciceris folio glabro, Herm.
Par. Vik. Alm. Seeforeopsis alba.
CurysantTHEmuM f@rifoliatum Jcandens, Sioan.
See Coreopsis reptans. ’
CuaysanTHEMum Airfutum virginianum, auriculato dulca-
mare folio, Pluk. Alm. virginianum trifoliatum humilius,
Mori. Hilt. See Coreopsis auriculata.
CurysantTHemum canadenfe bidens, alato caule, Morif.
Blef. virginianum, alato caule, Morif. Hitt. Pluk.
Alm. See Coreopsis alternifolia.
CurysanTHEMUM americanum, caule alato, amplioribus
foliis binatis, Pluk. Alm. See Bartimora rea.
~ CurysaNTHEMUM wirginianum, foliis afperis tribus /f.
quaternis ad genicula fitis, Morif. Hitt. See SirpaiuM irifo-
liatum.
CurysanTHemuM angulofis platanit foliis, Pluk. Alm.
perenne virginianum majus, Morif. Hilt. Seé Porymnia
uvedalia. I:
CHRYSANTHEMUM wirginianum villofum, difco luteo, Pluk.
Alm. SeeCurysoGonum virginianum.
CurysantHemum ethiopicum, Piuk. Alm. folio-
rum pinnis brevifimis dentatis, Burm. Afric. See Arcto-
TIs dentata.
CHRYSANTHEMUM africanum frutefcens /pinofum, Volk.
Nor. See Osteosrermum /pinefcens. ;
CurysanTHEMUM africanum frutcfccns telephii fere foliis
craffis ; arborefcens ethiopicum foliis populi albe, Breyn.
Cent. See OsreospeRMuM moniliferum.
CurysantHEemum fruticofum, polygali foliis africanum,
Piuk. Mant. See Osreospermum folygaloides. -
CHRYSANTHEMUM africanum pumilum ramofum, foliis tenu-
ifimis, Rai. Sup. See OrHonna tagetes.
CurysanTHEMUM africanum frutefcens, telephii foliis
sraffis, Pluk. Alm. See Oruonna /frutefcens.
CurysANTHEMUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the
flowering herbaccous annual, perennial, and fhrubby kinds, of
Morif,
Jam.
which the f{pecies cultivated for ornamental purpofes are’
chiefly the annual garden chryfanthemum, (C. coronarium) ;
the late-flowering creeping chryfanthemum, (C. /erotinum);
the Montpelier chryfanthemum, or ox-eye, (C. Mon/pelicn/e)
the’corymbed chryfanthemum (C. coryribofum) ; the fhrubby
Canary chryfanthemum, or ox-eye, (C. frutefcens) ; and the
baftard fhrubby chryfanthemum, (C. flo/culo/ium). Of which
the firft has a furrowed, leafy, branching ftem, three feet
high, with {mooth ftem clafping leaves ; pinnas either pin-
nate or pinnatifid, the end one very large, bifid, with the
pinnules fharply gafhed ; the peduncles terminating, one-
flowered; the flowers of different colours. It is a native of
Sicily, &c. :
The fecond has a perennial creeping root; the ftem ftrong,
branched, ere&, fomewhat villofe, three or four feet high ;
the leaves are feffile, fmcoth ; om fome plants with many
acuminate ferratures beyond the middle; on others very few
towards the end only; others, again, quite entire; the
flowers on the ends of the branches of a white colour, ap-
pearing in September.
The third is an elegant perennial plant, without feent,
very {mooth, and lightly villofe, with ere& branching flems,
three or four feet in neight; the lower leaves bipinnatifid ;
upper pinnatifid, one or two at top, quite entire; the
Abide large, white, and radiated, like thofe of the fecond
ort.
The fourth is perennial, having an ere& ftem, from
eighteen inches to two or three feet high or more; the
leaves alternate ; pinnas pinnate to the middle; the fegments
fharply toothed; the {talks are terminated. by corymbs of
large white flowers, ‘The whole plant is without fmell or
talte, flowering in July and Auenft, and a native of the
fouth of France, &c. :
The fifth has a fhrubby flem, near two feet high, divid-y
ing into many branches; the leaves are of a greyith colour,
cut into many narrow feyments ; the flowers axillary, ftand-
ing upon naked peduncles fingly, and greatly refembling
thofe of common chamomile. There is afucceffion of thefe
for a great part of the year, for which it is chiefly efleemed.
It is found in the Canary iflands.
The latt is a procumbent ever-green under-fhrub, two feet
in height; the leaves obovate, gradually narrowing into the
petiole, finuate, toothed, and {iiflith; the flowers f{mall,
terminating, foiitary, and of a deep yellow colour. It is
found at the Cape of Good Hope.
OF this there are varieties with fingle and double flowers,
both white and yellow ; with fiftular florets, which has the
namie of quill-leaved chryfanthemum. /
Method of Culture. Jn the firft, or annual kind, the cul-
ture may be effvced either by feeds or cuttings, but the
latter method is the more expeditious, and, of courfe, more
commonly practifed. :
In the former of thefe modes, the feed fhould be fown in:
the early {pring months, ona very moderate hot bed, or under=.
hand-glaffes, and continued fo late as the latter end of April,
in a funny fituation in the open ground.. It may be put
in {mall drills, or on the furface, the mould being previoufly:
made fine and even, and the feed fown thin, and evenly
covered in to the depth of nearly half an inch. When the
plants are of fuffictent growth, as in May, or the following:
month, they may be planted out fingly in the fituations
where they are to flower. A little water fhould be occa—
fionally given, both while in the beds and when planted ont,.
efpecially when the weather is dry in the latter cafe. And,
in order to have fine double forts, care {tqnld be had to re
move a]l the bad flowers from about them as foon as they
can be afcertained, leaving only one or two good ones in a
place; and to have them fine in pots, they fhould be ree
moved into them as foon as they can be known, with large-
balls of earth about their roots, a little water being given at.
the time to prevent their growth being checked.
The latter method is conttantly employed for- continuing.
the double forts, fo that they may blow early in the fuc-
ceeding fummer, in which the cuttings of the itrong fide-.
fhoots, about three inches long, which have not flowered,
fhould be planted in large pots near the tops, not too nearly
together, in the early autumnzl months, as the latter end of
September, a little water being given at tie time, the pois.
being removed into a frame or a green-houle for protection
during the winter, and air freely admitted im proper weather?
About the beginning of April they fhould be removed from
the pots into the fitueticas where they are to flower, being
planted out fingly. In this culture they-flower much earlier
than when raifed from feed. But fome fhould: always be
raifed from feed, in order to afford cuttings to increafe the
double forts from, and thereby avoid their degenerating. The
feed made ufe of fhouldconitantly be collekted from the belt
and mott full double-flowered plants. ’
The {econd, third, and fourth {pecies are capable of being
increaled
CHR
iereafed by fowing the feeds in March in beds of fine
mould, in warm funny fituations, or by dividing the soots
and planting them out in the autumnal months, when the
feafon is open and rather moift. The plants in the former
of thefe modes fhould be tran{fplanted into other beds in the
Jatter end of fummer, and fet out to the diltance of ten or
twelve inches, in order to be removed in the autumn follow-
ing into the places where they are to flower and remain.
- The fifth and fixth fpecies are eafily.increafed by planting
cuttings of the young branches in pots filled with gocd rich
earth any time during the {pring or early fummer months,
proper fhade and water being given. When the plants are
well-rooted in the beginning of the autumn, they thould be
removed, and planted in feparate pots, and during the winter
placed under the proteCtion of a deep garden-frame or green-
houfe.
The plants of the firft fort are well fuited for ornament
in tlre beds or borders of pleafure-grounds and other places,
as they produce many flowers and continue late in the
autumn ; and though they are annual, when produced from
feeds, the cuttings, as has been feen, when planted out in
the autumn continue the winter, and flower earlier in the
enfuing fummer than the plants raifed by feed.
The next three forts are proper for the borders of ex-
tenfive ornamented grounds, as they produce an agreeable
variety a confiderable length of time in autumn, and are of
a large as well as hardy growth. And the two lait are
adapted for green-houfe colle€tions, where they afford variety
among other potted plants of fimilar growth.
CHRYSANTHERINUS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory,
a name given by old writers to a {tone famous for its imagi-
nary virtues of preventing children from ficknefles dunng
the time of dentition, by being worn round the neck by
way of necklace ; we have no farther account given us of it
by authors, than that it was a very brittle ftone, and not
eafily worked into form.
CHRYSAORIS, in Ancient Geography, a. town of
Caria, which afterwards aflumed the name of Adrias, or
rather Ideias.
CHRYSAORUS, a river of Afia Minor, in Lydia.
CHRYSARGYRUM, a tribute formerly levied on
courtefans, and perfons of ill fame.
Hoffman fays, it was paid in gold and filver; whence
its name, xpuoos, gold, and apyugos, filver.
Zofimus fays, that Conitantine firlt fet it on foot ; though
there appear fome traces of it in the life of Caligula by
Suetonius; and that of Alexander by Lampridius. Eva-
grius fays, Conftantine found it eftablifhed, and had fome
thoughts of abolifhing it. It was paid every four years :
fome fay, all petty traders were liable to it. It was abo-
lithed by Anattafius.
M. Godeaw thinks the chryfargyrum was a general tri-
bute, levied every four years, on perfons of all condi-
tions, rich and poor, flaves and freemen; nay, even on all
eee: as low as dogs; for each whereof they paid fix
obolt.
CHRYSAS, in Ancient Geography, a ftream of Sicily,
which traverfed the country of the Afforins, according to
Cicero.
CHRYSE, a promontory near the river Lanos, in the
country of the Serres. Pliny.—Alfo, an ifland placed by
. Pliny near and on the other fide of the river Indus.—Alfo,
a town near Lemnos, confecrated to Apollo. Steph. Byz.
—Alfo, a town of Afia Mimor, in Caria.—Allo, a promon-~
tory of the ifland of Lemnos, near Epheftias, and oppofite
to the ifland of Teredos. Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a town of
Portus, mentioned by Sophocles in h's tragedy of. Philoc-
CHR
tetes.—Alfo, the name given by Ptolemy to: the country,
called Jurea CHERSONESUS. :
CHRYSEL, a people of India, who inhabited the moun-
tains, between the rivers omanes and Indus.
CHRYSIPPA, atown of Afia Minor, in Cilicia. Steph.
Byz. ;
CHRYSIPPUS, in Biography, celebrated as a philofo-
pher among the Stoics. Je was a native of Solis, a town
of Cilicia. He is reported to have {pent his paternal for-
tune in the public fervice, and then to have devoted bim-
felf to philofophy. He fixed his refidence at Athens, the
great feat of learning and fcience, and became a difciple of
Cleanthes, the tucceflor of Zeno. The fcholar did nor,
however, follow implicitly uhe do€trines of his mafler, and
the natural powers of his mind enabled him to diltinguifh
himfelt above his contemporaries. Chryfippus poffefled a
large fhare of penetration and acutenefs ; while, at the fame
time, he was fo induftrious, that he rarely fuffered a day ta
elapfe without writing 500 lines. He had a great talent
for difputation, and difcovered fo much promptitude and
confidence in his mode of arguing, as to be charged with a
boldnefs approaching to audacity. He was accuitomed to
fay, «* Give me doéirines, and I will find arguments to fup-
port them ;?? and fo highly did he think of himfelf, and of
his own talents, that when he was afked by a friend to potntout
a proper perfon as preceptor to his fon, he mentioned him-
felt, ‘*-for,”? fays he, ‘¢if I thought any philofopher ex-
celled me, I would myfelf become his pupil.’? He never
paid any fort of deference to perfons of mere rank, and re-
fufed-to dedicate to great men or princes any of his works.‘
The violence of his temper in vindicating his own opinions,
created him many adverlaries, particularly among the Epi-
cureans and followers of the fect of Academics. His own
friends could not always jultify the courfe which he took, it
being fo much his prattice to take oppofite fides of a quef-
tion, that he not unfrequently raifed obje€tions which he
knew not how to anfwer, and thus furnifhed his antagonifts
with weapons againft himfelf. Among his moft able adver-
faries was Carneades, who often availed himielf of this cir-
cumftance, and refuted Chryfippus by conviéting him of in-
confiftency. Plutarch, in his piece ** On Stoic Contradice
tions,”’ has, it is believed, collected molt of his examples
from the writings of Chryfippus. His flill in fophittry,
and particularly the frequent ule which he makes of the
figure /orites is noticed by Perfius, who calls it the heap of-
Chryfippus:
«© Tnventus, Chryfippe, tui finitor acervi,’?”
It is generally allowed that this philofopher poffefled’
great learning and ingenuity, fo much fo, as to rank the
next to Zeno, yet, from the fragments of his works that
have come down to us, it fhould feem that his difcourfes
abounded more in curious fubtleties, and nice diftinétions,
than in folid arguments and found reafoning ; and it was the
prejudice of the party that diétated the encomium, ** that if
the gods themf{eives were to hold difputations, they would
adopt the manner of Chrytippus.’”? ‘his philofopher has
been charged with maintaining dodtrines fubverfive of reli-
gion and the interetts of morality ; there feems, however, to
have been little reafon for fuch an accufation, fince his mode
of life was not only decent but philofophically frugal and
temperate. Plutarch affirms, concerning Chrylippus and
his matter Cleanthes, that when they had filled heaven, earth,
the air, and the fea, with divinities, they allowed none of
them to be exempt from death, except Jupiter alone, into
whom they imagined that all the other deittes would at lait
be refolved. Hence the Stoics have been charged with main-
taining
Cc HR
rearing that the divine nature is mutable and corruptible,
but the inference is not fairly drawn. According to the
foical fyftem, the inferior deities, which are portions of
that ‘divine fire by which ell nature is animated, will, m the
general conflagration of the univerfe, return to the fource
from which they were originally derived, till a general reno-
vation'take place. Cicero has borne his teftimony to the
true fteical faith of Chryfippus, “* who,” he fays,: * is ef-
teemed the molt ingenious interpreter of ftoic dreams, and
has affembled a numerous band of unknown gods, iadeed fo
perfectly unknown, that the human mind, though it be ca-
pable of forming conceptions of every kind, is unable to
frame a conjecture concerning their nature. He fays, that
the divine energy is placed in reafon, and in the foul or mind
of the univerfe. The world itfelf he mainrains to be God,
or an univerfal effufion of his fpirit; and afferts, that the
fuperior part of this {pirit, which confifts in mind and rea-
fon, is the common nature of things, containing the whole,
and every part. Sometimes he fpeaks of God as the power
of fate, and the neceffary chain of events; fometimes he
calls him fire; and fometimes he deifies the fluid parts of
nature, as water and air; and again, the earth, the fun, the
moon and ftars, and the univerfe, in which thefe are compre-
hended, and even thofe men who have obtained immorta-
lity.” Such were the opinions of Chryfippus, aud fuch, it
is well known, were the dofirines maintained by the moit
eminent of the ftoic {chool ; it appears, therefore, very unjult
to brand this philofopher with any other kind of impiety
than that which the fect itfelf, of which he was a chief
fupporter, gloried in. Chryfippus, by his great induftry,
wrote feveral hundred voiumes, of which three hundred are
faid to have been on logical fubjects, but in all his works,
he borrowed freely from the writings of others. What re-
mains of this voluminous author js to be found difperfed in
ithe more celebrated works of Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and
Aulus Gellius. He died in the 144d olympiad, at the great
vage of 83. He was a freeman of Athens, and to his me-
mory a ftatue was erected by Ptolemy. Brucker by En-
held.
CHRYSIS, in Botany, Reneal Sp. See Hersanruus
annuus,
Curysis, in Entomology, a genus of the hymenopteraus
order of infeéts, pofleffing the following chara@ter. Mouth
horny, projecting ; jaws advanced, elongated, horny, linear,
with a fingle tooth, tip membranaccous and acute; lip
tongue-fhaped, linear, and emarginate at the tip; no tongue.
Palpi, or feelers, four, advanced, unequal, and filiform. An-
tenne fhort and filiform, confifting of twelve (fometimes
thirteen) joints, the firft of which is longeft, and ufually
‘fituated near the mouth. Body fhining, gloffy, and par-
taking of a golden fplendour in general. Abdomen arched,
and concave, fometimes flattifh beneath, with a fcale on each
fide. Tail moft commonly dentated; {ting fomewhat exfert-
-ed. Wings flat.
The infects of this tribe or genus obtained the name of
chrylis, from the extreme brilliancy of their colours, which,
in the greater number of fpecies, emulate the luftre of gold,
the ruby, beryl, fapphire, and other precious gems. Few of
‘this genus exceed the fize of the common haufe-fly (mufea
domettica}, and many are {till fmaller than that diminutive
infe&t, which renders them plealing and convenient objects
for microfcopical inveltigation. ‘hey are very lively in the
f{un-fhine, abont the middle of the day, hover on the wing in
a manner fimilar to the bee, and if dilturbed fly fwiftly.
During the warmer fummer months they are frequently ob-
ferved among fruit trees, and efpecially preferring thofe which
are raifed againft walls in a fouthern afpeé&t: they occur
CHR
Ukewife againft the tranks of decayed trees on the fide mok
expofed to the fun; and fometimes among flowers. Thefe
briliiant little infects will not allow themfelves to be captured
with impunity ; they bite hard, and the fling of the female
is a formidable weapon compared with the fize of the infeét,
and capable of inflicting at leaft a painful puncture, if incau-
tioufly taken in the hand. The larvz of thefe infeéts have
hitherto efcaped the refearch of naturaliits, or have not cer-
tainly been afcertained with any degree of precilion; it is
only fuppofed, by analogy, their metamorphofes refemble
that of wafps. Degeer found one of the {pecies of this ge-
nus, his chry/is micans, in a refinous nut-gall formed on the pine,
and imagined the infeét mult have been depofited there im
the egg {tate, and undergone its various changes to the
larva, pupa, and perfect {tate within the gall (and which
gall moit probably originated from the acrimonious punc«
ture of the parent infeét), for he found, on examination, at
the bottom of the gall, an empty fpinzing of a loofe filky
texture, enveloping che remains of the pupa cafe which was
burtt open, as he prefumed, by the chryfis, when it attained
its lat and perfe@& form, He obferved alfo the excrements
of a larva, that of the infect beyond doubt, which had ef-
fected its efcape. The generic Englith term, go/den-fty, is ap-
plicable to molt {pecies of the chryfis genus.
Species.
Icwita. Smooth and fhining; thorax green, abdomen
golden, with four teeth at the apex, Linn. Fn. Suec. Fabr.
Donov. Brit. Inf.
This infeét is one of the moft beautiful and abundant
fpecies of the genus throughout Europe. In England it is
partially known by the name of red-tailed golden-fly, but it
is the whole of the fuperior furface ef the abdomen that is
of a fine crimfon colour, changeable to gold. The French
call it chryfis en fammeé.
Fasciata. ‘Thorax green, with a blue band ; anterior
part of the abdomen blue, fafciated with violet, golden in
the middle; pofterior end red, with four teeth.—Chryfs
fafciata ; thorace viridi fafcia cyanea abdomine antice cyanei=
violaceogue fafciato; medio aureo, poftice rubro quadridentato,
Donov. Iaf. India.
« This charming infe& is a native of Tranquebar, where
there is every reafon to believe it is uncommonly rare. The
{pecies does not appear to be defcribed by any author.
The only {pecimen we are acquainted with. is in the cabinet
of fir J. Banks, bart.”” See our hiftory of Indian infeés
above referred to.
Smaracputa. Shining green; tail with fix teeth, and
blue. Fabr. A native of North America.
Carens. Shining blue; abdomen golden ; tail four tooth-
ed, and blue. Fabr.
This is the {ame fize as the former; the antenne and tips
of the legs are brown. ‘This is an European fpecies; it has
been found in Italy, and alfo in Siberia.
Sprenpipa. Glofly blue; tail four-toothed, Fabr. Spec.
Inf. ‘
‘* Very fearce. This is a native of Tranquebar, where it
was difcovered by Dr. Koenig. Fabricius defcribes the in-
fect from a {pecimen in the cabinet of fir Jofeph Banks, bart.
A variety of the fame fpecies is found in New Holland,”
Donov. Inf. India ; which work contains the only figure of
Chryfis fplendida extant at prefent.
Lyncea. Shining blue; fecond fegment of the abdomen
with a bluihh eye on each fide ; fcutel prominent and acute.
Fabr.
Inhabits Africa. The head is grooved ; the ocellar fpot
on each fide the abdomen has a fulvous pupil; tail armed
with four teeth ; legs green, and black at the ends.
OcuLATA.
CHE
Ocunata. Shining green; an ocellar golden {pot on
each fide of the abdomen; tail with fix teeth, and blue,
Fabr. Ent. Sytt.
This infe is diftinguifhed for the peculiar brilliancy of its
colours, and the very remarkable ocellated fpot on each fide
the body onthe fuperior furface. Fabricius defcribed it from
a {pecimen in the Banktian cabinet taken on the coalt of Ma-
Jabar. We have received the fame kind from Bengal. Vide
Donov. Inf. India.
Carnes. Gloffy; thorax and firft fezgment of the abdo-
men green, reft flefh coloured ; tail ferrated. Fabr. Sp. Inf.
Inhabits Italy.
The head is of a green colour, lip villous, and filvery ; tho-
rax rough and pointed each fide.
Intecra. Shining green; abdomen golden; green at
the bafe and tip ;. tail entire. Fabr.
Refembles Chryfis ignita in general appearance, but is
eafily diftinguifhed by its entire tail. Lt inhabits Spain.
Bipentata. Smooth, fhining blue; thorax bidentated,
and with the two firft fegments of the abdomen golden.
Fabr. Degeer. Donov. Brit. Inf. Inhabits Europe, and
is taken rarely in England.
Succincra., Smooth, fhining green; on the thorax a
fearlet band; abdomen golden, and armed with three teeth.
Fabr. Found in the northern parts of urope.
Lucipua. Smooth, fhining green; anterior part of the
thorax and abdomen golden; tail entire, Fabr. Sphex no-
bilis, Scopoli.
This infe&t is of a {mall fize,; the ant ennz are black ;
wings marked with a marginal black dot. IL nhabits chicfly
the fouth of Europe.
Fureips. Smooth and glofly ; thorax and firft fegment
of the abdomen blue, the ret golden; tail four-toothed,
Linn. Fn. Suec.
Inhabits Europe, and is rather larger than Chryfis
ignita.
Purpurata. Smooth, thining golden; band in the
middle of the abdomen and the ferrated tail purple. Fabr.
Deferibed by Fabricius as anative of Saxony. The head
is {cabrous, and yolden; antenne fufcous; thorax fcabrous,
golden, with three dufky purplih lines in the middie; legs
golden.
Guoriosa. Smooth, golden, and thining; head, breatt,
and legs, blue green. Fabr.
Inhabits Barbary. Defcribed from the cabinet of Des-
fontaines. The antenne are greenifh blue; head green,
with the crown golden; abdomen golden beneath ; tail en-
tire; legs blue green. This infect has fometimes the whole
of the head of a golden colour.
Feroma. Smooth, fhiving golden ; abdomen beneath
deep black. Fabr.
A {mall infeét, with the head, thorax, and abdomen,
golden, glabrous and fhining; beneath the wings cyaneous;
Jegsblack. Inhabirts Italy.
AgnEA. Glabrous, fhining golden; antenne and legs
fufeous. Fabr. ‘
Defcribed as a native of Saxony from the collection of
Hybner ; the fizeis {mall; wings fufcous at the tip.
Avrara. Glabrous, and fhining; thorax green; abdo-
men golden; tail bidentated. Linn. Fn. Succ.
Found againtt walls in Europe.
Reoia. Glabrous, fhining ; thorax blue; abdomen gold-
en; tail entire. Pabr. Ve/pa thorace viridi ceruleo, abdo-
mine aureo cupreo, pene inermi. Geoff. Inf.
A native of Europe. The head and thorax are blue with-
out foots; abdomen fubglobofe, golden, thining, {potlefs,
with the tailentire; antennz black; wings duiky,
CHR
Cyanes. Glabrous, fhining; thorax and abdomen blue}:
tail with three teeth. Linn.
Fiefpa cerulea nitens, Geoffr. Inhabits Europe. This in-
fect is very common in England, and has nearly the fame ha-
bits as Chryfisignita. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Nivipura. Shining green; thorax bidentated behind ;
tail with four teeth. T*abr.
Defcribed from the Bankffan cabinet as an American in-
feet. Fs
AmetHystTina. Shining green; tail four-toothed, and
blue; wings fulcous. Fabr.
Inhabits New Hoiland. Size of the lat. Antenne fuf-
cous, and at the bafe green; thorax green; fcutel promi-
nent and concave; wings dufky.
Cyanocurysa. Glabrous, green-gold; head and tho-
rax blue; tail with four teeth; wings brown. Forlt. Nov.
Gen.
This infe& is a native of Spain. Its fize is rather lefs thaa
Chryfis ignita; wings and tarii fufeous.
Cyanura. Glabrous, fhining green ; thorax bidentated ;.
abdomen four-toothed and tippedwith blue. Forft. Nov. Inf.
Inhabits the fame country as the preceding. Lt: fize ts
confiderable; antenna black; eyes large and of a purplifh
brown colour; two laft fegments of the abdomen bluc.
Beryiiina. Head greenifh-blue; thorax blue, greenifh
at the anterior part, and bidentated behind; abdomen green
and bluith with a reddith glofs ; legs blue with a teltaceous
dot. Muf. Lefk. Linn. Gmel. ‘This kind inhabits Europe.
Tuatassins. Head green blue, abdomen golden, the
laft fegments green blue, and armed with four teeth ; tho-
rax gold with a {quare green {pot in the middle and green
behind. Linn. A native of Europe. Muf. Leflc.
Inermis. Blue; anterior part of the thorax green ; ab-
domen golden and entire. Linn. Muf. Lefk. A native of
Europe.
Curysorrnousa. Green; laft fegment of the abdo-
men golden and entire. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
Lesxit. Green; fpot before the fcutel and abdomen
green gold, and entire. Linn. An European {pecies.
Scurevtaris. Shining blue ; f{cutel and abdomen gold-
en; tail blue. Fabr.
’ This and the following new fpecies are defcribed by Fa-
bricius in his “ Supplementum Entomologia Syftematice,’?
one of his Jatt pubheations. Chryfis feutellaris is a native
of Italy, and bears much affinity with Chryfis calens. The
head is blue; antenne black; thorax blue, gloffed with
green; abdomen {carcely toothed; legs blue. Defcribed
from the cabinet of Dr. Allioni.
Czrutescens. Glabrous, fhining, golden purple; an-
tennz and pofterior part of the thorax black. Fabr.
A native of France, in the cabinet of Bofe. Size and ge-
neral appearance fimilar to that of Chryfis ignita; head,.
thorax, and abdomen, golden purple ; thorax beneath the-
{cutel black ; breaft and legs blue and fhining.
Macvurara. Glabrous green and fhining; occipitab
band, and dorfal fpots on the abdomen deep black ; tail en-
tire. Fabr. Muf, Bofc.
Inhabits the American iflands. The head is brafly. greens
antenne black; thorax green with a bluish anterior dot;
abdomen brafly, with the black dorfal {pots large.
Dimipiata. Glabrous, fhining green; thorax and two
firit joints of the abdomen golden; tail four-toothed. Fabr.
Muf. Bofe.
The head of this infe&t is green; antenne, and vertical
fpot on the head black ; thorax golden, with green brealt.
Sex-DENTATA. Glabrous, fhining green; fegments of
the abdomen blue at the bafe ; tail with fix teeth.
Aa
CHR
An infe& of fmall fize, the native country of which is un-
known. The thorax is green and without {pots.
CHRYSITES, a name given by the ancients to yellow
litharge, fach as we call litharge of gold. We diltingu‘h
this only in regard to the colour, and fo did-the ancient
Greeks ; but Avicenna, and the reft of the Arabians, have
ufed this word only for the name of fuch litharge as was
made from gold, or whatever colour it happened to be} the
reft they called by the name of Argyrites, as they tell us,
whether it was made of filver, copper, or even of the mar-
calite melted, and refised by lead. See Ktimia.
CHRYSITRIX, in Botany, (from xpucos, gold, and
$x%, hair.) Linn. Mant. 304. Schreb. 1610. Juff 27.
Clafs and order, polygamia diactz. Nat. ord. Calamaria, Linn.
Cypsrotdee, Jul.
» Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Ca/. Glumes bivalved, nu-
merous, imbricated; valves ovate-oblong, clofe, cartilagi-
nous, permanent. ‘Cor. Glumes one valved, chaff-like, very
numerous, fafcicled, briftle-fhaped, membranous, coloured,
bright, longer than the calyx, permanent. Stam. Filaments
folitary, in each glume of the corolla, capillary, the length
of the glume; anther linear, adnate to the filament below the
tip. Pifl. Germ oblong, obtufe 5 ftyle filiform, {hort ; flig-
-mas three, long. Sed not known. Male, in a diftind plant,
differing in nothing from the hermaphrodite but the want of
a piltil. This genus would therefore be placed by Dr. Smith
in the clafs Monandria.
Sp. C. éapenfis. Mart. Lam. Illuft. Pl. 842. Root pes
rennia!. Stature of Sifyrinchium. Leaves about a foot
long, {word-fhaped, equidiftant, of an even furface. Scape
refembling a leaf, compreffed, membranous. Spathe terini-
nal, bivalved ; one valve ftraight, as if it were a continua-
tion of the feape ; the other lower, egg-fhaped, dehifcent.
Flower from the upper edge of the f{cape, refembling a fafti-
giate fafcicle of golden briftles, ftraightened by a cartilazi-
nous perianth. Linn. Mant. A native of the Cape of
Good Hope. ‘
CHRYSOANA, in Ancient Geozraphy, a river of India,
on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.
CHRYSOBALANUS, in Botany, (from >juc0;, gold,
and Parz;, a drupe, acorn, &c.) Linn. Gen. 62%.
Szhreb- 850. Jul. 340. Vent.3. 352. Icaquier; Encyc.
Meth. Clafs and order, icofandyia mionogynia. Nat. Ord.
Pomacee, Linn. Rofacee, Jul. 5
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, bell-fhaped, fmall,
five cleft to the middle; fegments expanding, withering.
Cor. Petals fivg,longerthan the calyx,oblong, ipreading, ioferts
ed by their claws into the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous,
forming a circle, ereét, the length of the petals, or longer,
flattened and villous near the bafe ; anthers {mall, didymous,
Pift. Germ fuperior, egg-fhaped ; ftyle the fhape and length
of the ttamens, inferted laterally at the bafe of the germ;
Rligma obtufe. Peric. Drupe egpg-fhaped. Seed, nut ezg=
fhaped, a little pointed at the fummit, obfcurely pentagonal,
wrinkled, marked with five Jongitudinal furrows, fomewhat
five-valved, containing an oval kernel.
Ei, Ch. Calyx, five-cleit. Petals five. Stamens nu-
merous. Drupe fuperior. Nut furrowed, fomewhat fives
valved. -Lam.
Sp. C. tcaco, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Willd. Jacq:
Amer, tab. 94, coloured fig, tab. 14r. Liam. Tluft. PL.
428. (TIcaco, Plum.’ Guajeru, Marcgr. Bras.) An irre.
gular fhrab, eight or ten feet high; branches cylindrical,
{mooth, witha brown or ruffet bark, befprinkled with whiuth
minute fpots. Leaves two inches long, and about one and
a hait broad, turnne brown or blackith when dried ; alter-
mate, egg-thaped, obtu’e, entire, emargmate ; {mooth on
:
CHR
both fides, coriaceq3, veinel, on fhort petioles. Powers
fmall, whitifh, a little villous or cottony on the outfide with.
out {mell; racemes branched, loofe, a little fhorter than the
leaves, axillary and terminal; peduncles a little angular;
compreffed ; bractes fcale-like, fmall, acutely egg-fha ed;
villous, caduceus. wif about the fiz: and nearly the thépd
of a damafcene plumb, cither quite entire, or with five, fix,
or feven grooves; fin very thin ¢ pulp in {mall quaitity,
adhering firmly to the not, the confiitence of a baked
apple, with little fmell, and a [weet fomewhat aultere,
but not unpleafant tafte. A native of South America and
the. Welt Indies, in fituations not far remote from the fea,
where it contiaues in flower almolt the whole year, but ges
nerally ripens its fruit in June and December. The fruit id
moft commonly yellowifh, or a kind of ruffet white ; but is
found red, purple, violet, and nearly black ; fome of which,
on farther examination, may not improbably prove diltin&
{fpecies. In its native climate, it is fold commonly in the
market, and is eaten either raw or preferved in fugar. Its
root paffes for an aftringent, and has been employed as fuch
in medicine, : ~
CHRYSOBERYL. Oriental or opalefeent chryfolite of
the Fewellers. The colour of this mineral is afparagus greeny
pafling into greenifh white on one fide andon theother through
olive-green into yellowifh grey, and fometimes reddifh-browns
It generally exhibits a bluifh milky light, undulating within
the cryftals. Itis ufually met with in fmall rounded pieces,
but occafionally poffeffes a well marked ery(talline figure.
Its primitive form is a rectangular parallelepiped, but it is
alfo found in fhort regular hexahedral prifms either with or
without a truncated hexahedral pyramid at each extremity of
the prim. The furface of the rounded pieces is fomewhat
rough, and generally refle&ts glittering variegated colours.
The cryftals poflefs a double refraGion, are externally fhin-
ing, and very brilliant internally, fo that when polifhed it is
fometimes miftaken for the yeliow diamond. The fra€ture
of chryfobery] is perfe€tly choncoidal: its fragments are
indeterminate, angular, and fharp-edged: its hardnefs is fa.
perior to that of quartz; its fp. or. 13 3.7.
It is infufible per /2 before the blowpipe.
It confifts,
ace rding to Klaproth, of ,
Alvmine Fists) :
Silex 18
Lime 6 7
Oxyd of Iron 1.5 Dore
; 97.0 :
it is procured chiefly from Brazil, where it accompanies
topaz. It has alfo been difcovered in fand from the Ifland
of Ceylon, together with rubies and fapphires. A few foe-
cimens have been brought from Nert{chinfk in Siberia. Tt is
however, upon the whole, a rare mineral, and from its hard-
nefs and Iiitre is confiderably valued by jewellers. : }
CHRYSOCERL, in datiguity, a defiznation given to
oxen deliched for facrifices. They were fo called from their
horns being gilded. . : F
CHRYSOCOLLA, in the Materia Medica of the An-
cients, thle name of a fine green arenaceous powder, properly
one of the faburra, and found on the fhores of the Red Sea
oa thofe of fome parts of America, and in Roffia; and that
found at this time has all the properties of that mentioned by
the ancients. It ferves to the foldering of gold and other
mictals, and, given internally, is a violent and dangerous
emetic. ,
It is of a very elegant colour, ferments violently with aqua
fortis, and is wholly diffelved by it, and tinges it witha bluifh
green; and,- being calcined, it lofes all’ its “green colour.
3 Chryfocolla
-
re
a
CHR
Chryfocolla is reprefented by Pliny as found in mines of
gold, filver, copper, and lead: its colour, he fays, was
various, according to that of the matter in which it is
found; yellow, if among gold, white in filver, green in cop-
per, and black in lead. The Arabs and inhabitants of
Guzuratie, call the modern chryfocolla, which is borax,
tincar or tincal. he befLis that found in copper-mines ;
and the worlt, in thofe of lead.
Curysocotra is alfo the name of a fort of precions
ftone, mentioned by Pliny, lib. xxxvil. cap. 1o, who calls
it allo amphitane. Tie deferibes it as of a gold colour, and
of a fquare figure; adding, that it has the virtue of attra€t-
ing iron, and even gold. But this, in all probability, is
fabulous ; and the ftone he {peaks of is apparently no other
than the cubic pyrites.
CHRYSOCOMA, in Botany, (xepuconojn, Diofe. from
seuroe, gold, and xoun, the human head of hair, alfo the
bufhy top of trees sad herbs.) Goldy-locks. Linn. Gen.
939- Schreb. 1275. Juffl. 180. Vent. 2.512. Gert. 967.
Clafs and order, /yngenefia polygamia equalis. Nat. ord. Com-
pofite difcoidee. Corymbifere, Jull. ‘
Gen. Ch. Cal. common, hemifpherical, imbricated ; feales
linear, ontwardly convex, acuminate. Cor. florets herma-
phrddite, tubular, funnel-fhaped, numerous, equal; border
4ve-cleft, revolute. Stam. filaments five, very fhort; an-
thers forming a hollow cylinder. /Pi/. germ oblong,
crowned; ftyle filiform, fcarcely longer than the florets ;
ftigmas two, oblong, deprefled, involute. Peric. common,
the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary, ovate-oblong, com-
prefled; down fimple. Recep. naked, flat.
Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down fimple; calyx he-
mifpherical, imbricated. Style fcarcely longer than the
florets. Willd. Calyx hemifpherical or egg-fhaped, of a
moderate fize, imbricated ; {cales oblong, excernally convex,
florets all androgynous, pitted, rouch with the toothed-edges
of the cavities. Down fimple, often-toothed, rough. Gert.
* Shrubly.
Sp. 1. C. comaurea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Willd.
x. ‘¢ Leaves linear, ftraight, {mooth, decurrent from the
back.’’? Svemabout a foot high, woody; branches nume-
rous, {mall. Leaves narrow, deep green, feattered, with a
fhort-appendage on the back part, which runs along the
petiole. //owers yellow, tereninal on flender naked pedun-
cles. A native of the Cape of Good. Hope. It is culti-
vated in our green-houfes, chiefly on account of its continu-
ing in flower the greater part of the year. 2. C. patula,
Linn. Mant. 280. Mart. 5. Willd. 2. ‘ Somewhat
fhrubby; leaves linear, fmooth; branches divaricated.’”’
Stem compound, branches growing by threes or fours, much
divaricated; {mooth. eaves obtufe, {preading. Flowers
terminal, folitary, fearcely peduncled. A native of the
Cape of Good Hope; nearly allied to the preceding, dif-
fering chiefly in its much divaricated branches, and fcarcely
peduncled flowers. 3.C. fericea, Lian. jun. fup. Mart. 3.
{Conyza fericea, Willd. 42.) “ Silky white; leaves
linear, channelled ; little branches panicled near the top.”
Branches, leaves, and peduncles, very white, with filky pu-
befcence. Little branches fimple, but panicled with flower-
bearing tip; fhorter little branches, terminated with a few-
flowered panicle. Leaves long, flaccid. Flowers yellow ;
calyxes fmooth; fcales yellow, awl-fhaped. It differs from
tomentofa in being much whiter; and having fmaller
flowers, leaves an inch long, and panicied branches, not one-
fiowered. A native of the Canary iflands, where the aenid
pungency of its bark and wood has recommended it as a
cure for the tooth-ache. Od/. Willdenow has removed this
fpecies tothe genus Conyza, but as he has not afligned his
Nov. VIII.
CHR
reafons, we have left it in its original flation. Aithors,
when they make fuch changes, fhould always diftinétly fpe-
cify the grounds of their determination, and fhould carefully
refer from the old genus to the new; but to this very ob-
vious rule the Berlin profeffor is altogether inattentive, to
the great inconvenience of thofe who confult him; for as
his unfinifhed work is without an Index, it is often at the ex-
pence of not a little time and patience that we find out what
he has done with a plant.. 4. C. cernua, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3.
Mart. 6. Willd. 3. (Coma aurea africana fruticans, foliis
Linariz anguflis, major; Comm. Hort. 2. Tab. 45.)
« Somewhat fhrubby; leaves linear, recurved, fomewhat
fcabrous; flowers nodding at the time when the anthers
difcharge their pollen”? A Je‘s plant than C. comaurez, but
branching out in the fame manner. Leaves fhorter and a
little hairy. 2Vowers not half fo large, of a pale fulphur
colour. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. It flowers
great part of the year, and ripensits feeds in our climate.
5.C. microphylla, Willd. 4.° Thun. prod. 142.“ Leaves
round, recurved, fmooth.”? A native of the Cape of. Good
Hope. 6. C. ciliata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 7. (C. cilia-
ris; Reich. 5. Willd. 5. Coma africana fruticans crice
folio. Comm. Hort,2. Tab. 48.) ‘ Somewhat fhrubby ;
leaves linear, ftraight, ciliated ; branches pubefcent.” A
native of the Cape of Good Hope. 7. C. montana, Mart.
4. Willd. 6. Vahl. Symb. p. 70. “ Leaves oblong, quite
entire, flowers folitary.’? Stem branched; branches round,
villous. caves acute, villous. lowers terminal, outer
{cales of the calyx oblong, obtufe, {preading at the tip; in-
ner ones longer, linear, acute ; down ferruginous, the length
of the calyx. Found by Forfkal on Mount Horeb. 8. C. tomen-
tofa, Syft.Veg. 615. Mart. 8. Willd. 7. * Somewhat fhrubby;
leaves and branches tomentous.”? eaves linear. Native
country unknown. g. C. nivea, Willd. 8. (Chyfocoma
tomentofa; Jacq. Hort. Schcenb. 2. Tab, 147.) “ Leaves
linear-lanceolate, tomentous, flat; corymbs terminal, feffile.””
A native of the Cape of Good Hope. It differs from the
preceding in its corymbous flowers, on one-flowered branches.
ro. C. feabra, Linn. Sp. Pl.5. Mart. 9. Willd. 9.
(Baccharis, Hort. Clif. Conyza Africana tenuifolia, flore.
aureo, Dill. Elth. tab. 88. fig. 103.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby ;
leaves lanceolate, egg-fhaped, recurved, tooth-ferrated ;
peduncles pubefcent.”” An underfhrub, nine or twelve
inches high. Leaves alternate, narrow, fomewhat hairy.
Flowers {mall, yellow ; in heads at firft roundifh, not rough
with hairs, afterwards longer, and contracted towards the
end; peduncles long, flender, furnifhed with a few {mall
leaves ; fcales of the calyx numerous, narrow, green. A
native of the Cape of Good Hope; flowering in Augult
and September. x1. C. denticulata, Willd. 10. Jacq.,
Hort. Schreb. 3. tab. 368. ‘* Leaves oblong, attenuated
at the bafe, flightly toothed, undulated.” Native country
unknown.
** Herbaceous.
12. C. undulata, Willd. 11. Thunb. Prod, 142. ‘ Leaves
heart-fhaped, lanceolate, undulated.”” oot perenmal. A
native of the Cape of Good Hope. 13. C. purpurea, Mart.
13. Willd. 12. Forft. Prodromus, n. 286. ‘* Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated, pubefcent ; panicle
terminal, refembling a corymb. 14. C. Uinofpris, Linn.
Sp. 6. Mart. ro. Willd. 13, Gert. tab. 106. (Chry-
focome Diofcoridis & Plinii, Col. Eephr. 1. tab. 82. Lino-~
fyris nuperornm, Lob. Hilt. 223. Ic. tab. gop. Ger.
Imac. 553. fig. 9. Ofyris.auftriaca, Cluf. Hilt, 1. p. 325.
Linariz tertium genus, Frag. 358. Linaria, foliofo capi-
tulo luteo, major and minor, Bauh. Pin. 213. L. aurea,
Ger. 442—8.) ‘* Leaves linear, {mrooth ; calyxes loofe.”
Root
CHR
Reot perennial. Stems two feet and a half high, round,
fli. Leaves clofely and irregularly fet, long, narrow, of
a pale green colour. /Yoqwers in an umbel, bright yellow ;
peduncles one-flowered; flender from the upper part of the
item. A native of the temperate parts of Europe. The
plant, when handled, yields a fine aromatic fmell. 45. C.
biflora, Linn. Sp. 7. Mart. 13. Willd. 14. (After,
Gmel. Sib. ii. tab. $2. fig. 1. Conyza, Am. Ruth, 192.
s* Panicled ; leaves lanceolate, three-nerved, dotted, naked.””
Root perennial, creeping, and fpreading to a confiderable
diltanee. Stems numerous, erect. Leaves acute, rough.
Flowers yellow, Jarget than thefe of the preceding {pecies.
A native of Siberia, The flowers vary with and without
a ray, and are faid by Willdenow to be either white or
blue. 16. C. villofa, Linn. Sp. Plant. $8. Mart. 12.
Willd.15. (Atterincanus, Gmel. Sib. ii. tab, 82. fig. 2.
Conyza tomentofa & incana, Amm. Ruth. 190.) ‘* Leaves
lanceolate, villous; calyxesclofe.”? Rvot perennial. Leaves
quite entire, hoary, alternate, feffile. /Vowers yellow, in a
fort of umbel ; calyx hairy. Seeds fmall, hirfute, crowned
with dun-coloured hairs. A native of Siberia and Hungary.
C. oppofitifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. See Evparorium divi-
Ticalum.
C. graminifolia, Linn. Sp. Pi.
lata.
C. ethiopica plantaginis
PHALIUM nudiflorum.
C. fyriaca flore atrorubente, Breyn. Cent. See Gnarua-
LIUM /anguineum.
C. dichotoma, Linn. jun. Sup.
NYZA inuloides.
CHRYOCOME, Diofcoridis & Plinii.
coma linofyris.
Curysocome five flechas citrina minor, Barrel. lc.
Gwapuatium fechas.
Curysocome altera, Cluf. Hitt.
Luteo album.
Cuarsocome five argyracoma Africana ericoides flore albo,
Seb. Thef, Sce XeranTHEMuM veflitum, Linn. L£lichry-
fum, Willd.
Curysocome five argyrocoma gnaphaloides Africana, am-
pliffimis floribus, Scb. Thef. See XeganrHemum /pecio-
ciffimum, Linn. § Llichryfum, Willd.
Curysocome five argyrocoma Africana ericoides, capitis b.
Jpei, Seb. Thef. See Xeranruemum /é/amoides, Linn.
Llichryfum, Willd.
CHRYSOGONUM, (x;uz0y0r07, Diofcor. from xpve0s,
gold ; and you, the keel, or a joint.) Linn. Gen. 988. Schreb.
1337. Jufl. 188. Ger. ro09, Clafs and order, /yngenefia
polygamia neceflaria, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul.
Calyx common fimple, five-leaved ; leaves ob-
See Souipaco Janceo-
alta, Breyn. Cent. See Gwna-
Jacq. Ic. See Co-
See Curyso-
See
See GnapHALiIuM
Gen. Ch.
Jong, acuminate, nearly the length of the ray, rough on the
outer, naked on the inner fide, fpreading. Coral. compound
yadiate ; florets of the dif numerous, hermaphrodite but
barren, funnel-fhaped, five-toothed, ereét; of the ray five,
{trap-fhaped, oblong, truncated, three-toothed, fertile. Stam,
of the hermaphrodite, filaments five, very f{mall; anthers
forming a hollow cylinder. Pif?. of the hermaphrodite, germ
very {mall, abortive; ftyle briftle-fhaped, the length of the
floret ; ttigma obfcure; of the female, germ larger; ftyle
fhorter ; fligmas two, revolute. Recep. chaffy, chaff-like
feales diffimilar in form; thotle of the difk fimple, linear-
oblong, obtule, concave, pubefcent outwards, one to each
floret ; thofe of the ray compound, four to each floret,
united fo as to form a proper pericarp; the outer one very
large, inverfely egg-fhaped, convex outwards, concave with-
in, covering the back of the feed; the three inser ones
CHR
narrow, lincar-oblong, fhutting up the aperture of the:
larger feale, fo that two cover the fides of the feed, and the:
third its interior part, the whole forminz a complete peri-
carp, which opens as the feed ripens. Seeds inverfely egg-
fhaped, convex outwards, concave within, marked with two.
obfolete longitudinal furrows, and crowned with a mem-
branous, tep-fhaped {cale, about half the length of the feed ;
teeth generally three, but, according to Gertner, fome--
times fix.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, five-leaved. Receptacle chaffy ;-
chaff diffimiiar in form. Seeds inclofed in a chafly
ees pericarp, and crowned with a fimple toothed»
cale.
Olf. In forming thefe characters, we have chiefly fol-.
lowed Gaertner, as correfponding moft with our own ideas.
of the firugiure of the parts of fruétification: but that
eminent carpologilt muft have been guilty of an egregious
overfight in twice ftating the five diffimilar feales to enclofe-
the germ of the barren florets, firft at the end of his de-
{cription of the receptacle, and afterwards in the reference-
to his figure; a ftate altogether inconfiftent with the for-
mer part of his own defcription, as well as in oppofition to.
all other authors,
Sp. C. virginianum, Linn. Sp. Mart. Willd. Gerte.
tab. 174. Leaves refembling thofe of Lamium purpureum,
or common balm, oppofite, mederately hairy, on long pes.
tioles. Flowers gold-coloured, terminal. A native of Vir-.
inia.
e Currsoconum Diofcoridis, Raw. It. Rai. Hilt. Sees
Leonrice chryfozonum, ‘
Curysoconum, Linn. Sp. Pl. Ed. 1.
paucifiora.
CurysoconumM, in the Materia Medica, is alfo the name
of a Syrian plant, called the red turnep, the leontopetalon:.
cofta fimplici of Tournefort.
CHRYSOLACHANON, in Botany, a name by which»
Pliny, and fome other authors, have exprefled the white-
arden beet.
CHRYSOLITE, Peridot of the French mineralogifts»
The principal colour of this mineral is piftachia-green
paffing into brownifh olive. It occurs in angular or rounded»
fragments, or cryltallized. Its primitive form is a flreight
prifm with re@tangular bafes;, it alfo occurs in eight, ten, .
and twelve-fided prifms. Its internal luftre is brilliant and.
vitreous. Its fraéture is perfectly conchoidal ; its fragments
are indeterminately angular and fharp-edged... It is perfectly,
tranfparent, and pofleffes a double refraétion in a remarkable
degree. Its hardnefs exceeds that of glafs. Sp. gr. 3. 34.
It is infufible per fe before the blow-pipe, but with borax.
forms a tranfparent green glafs. It has been analyfed by».
Klaproth-and Vauquelin, with the following refults. \
See Linnia
Klap. Vauq.
Silex 39 35
Magnefia . 43°5 505
Oxyd of iron 19- 9:5.
101.5 98.9
It is not known with any certainty whence the chryfolite .
is procured; Upper Egypt is faid to be one of the countries.
which afford it, anda few come to the jewellers of Europe
from the Eaft Indies. It ranks among the gems, but its
foftnefs and unattra@tive tone of colour, efpecially when the —
yellow predominates, render it of little value.
Curysorire is alfo a general name which the ancients
gave to all precious ftones, wherein the yellow, or golden,
was the prevailing colour.
When the ftone was green, they called it abeafeieea s
I the
CHR
nhe red and blue too had their particular denominatioas,
which exprefled their colour: the gold being fignified by
chryfo ; which ftill began the name.
We know but few of thefe chryfolites now: or rather,
they are referred to the fpecies of {tone which they approach
the neareft to: the green to the emerald, the red to the ruby ;
and fo of the reft.
Curysotire pafe. The way of making an artificial
chryfolite pate is this’: take of prepared cryftal two ounces,
ordinary red lead eight ounces ; mix thefe well together,
and add crocus martis made with vinegar, twelve grairs:
mix all together ; put them into a crucible, lute it over,
and bake the whole for twenty-four hours, or longer, in
a potter’s kiln, and it will produce a very elegant refem-
blance of the true chryfolire.
CHRYSOLORAS, Manven, in Biography, a learned
Greek, the firtt profeffor of his language m modern Italy,
was born at Conttantinople of noble Roman parents, whofe
anceftors are {uppofed to have migrated with Conttantine
the Great. It is uncertain in what year he came into Italy.
Tt is, however, well afcertained, that, on occafion of the
fiege of Conftantinople by the Turks in 1393. the emperor
Manuel Paleologus fent him and other envoys aad orators to
implore the compaffion and affiftance of the wettern princes.
After viliting the coafts of France and England, wherz he ob-
tained fome contributions and more promifes, he returned
with the pecuniary aid he had colleéted. About the year
1396, the city of Florence fent him an invitation to open
there a public {chool for the Greek language: with this he
complied, and taught with great affiduity and applaufe for
three years; when the emperor Manuel himfelf coming to
Milan, Chryfoloras left Florence,and went to that city, where
he taught Greek. He was in England again with the em-
peror about the year 1405; after which, he travelled to
Rome, on an invitation from Pope Gregory XII., and
opened a {chool there. He was employed on various em-
baffies, and, in 1413, accompanied two cardinal legates to
the court of the emperor Sigif{mond, in order to determine
the place for holding a general council. This was fixed at
Conttance ; and Chryfoloras was fent thither, either by the
emperor Manuel, or by the Pope, and died while he was perform-
ing his miflion. He was interred in the Dominican church of
that city: his epitaph was written by Guarino, and many tri-
butes aie te were beftowed on him by his fcholars; among
the more celebrated of whom were Poggio, Vergerio, Ma-
netti, and Leonardus Brunus Aretinus: of thefe, the laft in
{peaking of his mafter, fays, ‘‘ On the arrival of Manuel,
IT hefitated, whether I fhould defert my legal itudies, or re-
linguifh this golden opportunity of being introduced to a
familiar converfe with Homer, Plato, and Demolthenes?
with thofe poets, philofophers, and orators, of whom fuch
wonders are related, and who are celebrated by every age
as the great malters of human {cience? OF profeffors and
{cholars in civil law, a fufficient fupply will always be found
in our univertities ; but a teacher, and fuch ateacher, of the
Greek language, if he be once fuffered to elcape, may never
afterwards be retrieved. Convinced by thele reafons, I gave
mylelf to Chryfoloras ; and, fo {trong was my paffion, that
the leffons which I had imbibed in the day were the conitant
fubjeét of my nightly dreams.”? A funeral oration was pro-
nounced for him in Venice by Andrea Guiliano. Chryfo-
loras wrote a Greek grammar in the Greek language, which
was fo highly efteemed, that above a century afterwards, it
was ufed by Erafmus. He publifhed alfo a “ Parallel be-
tween ancient and modern Rome,’”’ addrefled to John, fon
of the emperor Manuel. He had a nephew and difciple,
conftitute his genus crioceris.
¢ Bik
John Chryfoloras, who was his coadjutor, and very emi.
nent in reviving Greek learning in Italy. Jolin lived chiefle
in Conltantinople, and died about 1425. Gibbon. Gen.
Boog.
CHRYSOMALLOS, in Ancient Geography, a name
given to Mount Ida, in Crete, according to Strabo.
CHRYSOMELA, in Entomology, a genus of coleopterous
infects in the Linnzan fyltem, containing many beautiful
fpecies. In the larva ftate they feed on the leaves of trees
and plants, the pulp and tender parts of which they devour,
but reject the fibres; fome kinds infeit the cotyledons only,
and are very deftruétive. In the perfect, asin the larva fate,
they are found chiefly in woods and gardens. Many of thefe
infects are flow in motion, but fome kinds have the polterior
legs formed for leaping. The antennee of the chryfomelz
are moniliform, or compofed of little globular articulations.
feelers fix, thickeft towards the end; thorax marginate ;
wing-cafes immarginate ; body in mof [pecies oval. Gmel.
Linn. Sytt. Nat.
In the earlier editions of the Linrzan Syfema Nature,
the generic charaGer of the Chryfomele is fomewhat dif-
ferently defined: to conftitute a Lionzau Chryfomela it was
fufficicnt that the antenna was moniliform, and gradually in-
creafed in thicknefs towards the end, and thatthe therax and
elytra were immarginate. Linneus divided them into five
diftinG families; namely, 1. Thofe having the body of an
oval form. 2. The Saltatorie, ov thofe whofe pofterior
thighs are much thicker than the others, and formed for
leaping. 3. Thofe with the body cylindrical. 4. Such as
have the body oblong, and the thorax broader than the ab-
domen. 5. Thole of a flender form, with the thorax of an
equal breadth with the abdomen.
Geoffroy, diffatisfied with the genus Chryfomela, as laid
down by the Swedith naturalilt, divides the infects of this
tribe into feveral diftiné genera, in his “* Hilt. des Infeéts.’?
Schaeffer has followed Geoffroy in alterations, and in fome
meafure improved the genera; and the fame may be faid of
Scopcht, though we think the latter exceptionable in refer-
ring feveral of the Lionzan Chryfomelz to the Coccinella
genus, becaufe their antenaz are f{carcely fo long as the tho-
rax, and others to the genus Attelabus, becaufe their thorax
is broader than the head and body. Geoffroy divides the
Linnzan Chryfomele into féven genera: his frit genus,
galeruca, differs from the other Linuzan Chryfomelz in the
rugofity er roughnefs, and margin of its thorax. His fecond
genus is chry/omela, and has the thorax {mooth and margined.
Cryptocephaius, Geoffroy’s. third genus, conlilts of thofe Lin-
ngan Caryfomelz which have the articulations of the anten-
ne rather longer than ufual, and the thorax of an hemi-
fpherical form. Thofe which have the thorax cylindrical
Of his genus diaferis he de-
fcribes only one [pecies ; the generic chara¢ter confilts in the
articulations of the antenn being rather larger than common,
and appearing to be perfoliated ; and the thorax convex and
margined. Altica is the fixth genus, aud comprehends the
Linnean family Saltatoriz, or thofe whote poiterior legs are
formed for leaping. he lait genus is me/olontha, thofe
having antenne ferrated, or with lateral appendices like a
{aw, and placed on the fore part of the head betore the eyes.
In Geoffroy’s arrangement of this tribe of infeéts we per-
ceive the bafis upon which the Galeruca, Cryptocephalus,
Crioceris, and other analogous gencra are founded in the
more modern fyitem of Fabricius. In the “* Entomologia
Britannica,”’ the genus Chryfomelais thus deined; antennz
moniliform, and thickelt towards the end; bead inferted ;
thorax and wing-cales immarginate ; body ovate and convex.
K2 The
CHRYSOMELA.
The Fabrician genus Chryfomela confifts of thofe infe&ts
which have fix feelers thickeft towards the end ; the lip horny
and entire ; and the aatenne moniliform. Thofe correfpond
with the Linnwan character of the Chryfomela, but the
fpecies defcribed by this writer are numerous, and, with
a few exceptions, confilt of infeG&s entirely unknown to Lin-
nus. Tne works of Panzer, Marfham, and other recent
entomologilts, comprehend likewile a great variety of new
fpecies, the principal of which we fhall proceed-to enume-
rate.
Chrsfomela, Fabr. Linn. &ce.
Species.
Ozscurata. Above dufly-brafly ; thorax very glabrous;
wing-cafes with feattered dots. Fabr. Suppl. Inhabits
Germany. Daldorff.
14-Gurvrara. Dufky-teftaceous ; wing-cafes with fix
white dots. Fabr. Suppl. -A native of the Cape. Lund.
Esraca. Deep black, gloffy ; wing-cafes white, varied
with deep black dots. Fabr. Suppl. Same country and ca-
binet as the laft.
Excramationis. Ovate; thorax and legs ferruginous 5
body yellow, with nine black abbreviated lines, the exterior
one interrupted. Fabr. &c. Inhabits North America. The
head is ferruginous, and without fpots; thorax fmooth, fer-
ruginous, with the anterior margin pale and fcutel ferre-
ginons.
6-Norata. Black; thorax and wing-cafes pale, with two
black dots. Fabr. Suppl. Muf. Lund. Oé/ The head of
this infect is of a pale colour, varied with black ; thorax pale
and glofly, with two black dots ; wing-cafes flightly ftriated,
pale, with a pair of black dots in the middle of each; body
black ; legs pale ; thighs with a black dot at the tip.
Cayennensis. Oblong, ferruginous; wing-cales with
four black fpots, and a black band in the middle. Fabr.
Suppl.
The head of this infe& is dufky ferruginous, with frontal
line and antennz black; the thorax oblong, dufky ferru-
ginous and immaculate ; wing-cafes {mooth and ferruginous,
with a pair of black fpots at the bafe ; in the middlea black
band, and behind two black fpots.
Marmorata. Oblong, black; anterior margin of the
thorax and the wing-cafes yellow, {potted with black. Fabr.
Inhabits Cayenne. Cuvier.
Sumetuosa. Very gloffy; head and thorax brafly ; wing-
eafes violaceous. Fabr. Found in the ifland of Trinidad.
Ryan. Muf. Lund.
Butcuarensis. Oblong, azure, glofly ; wing-cafes with
feattered dots ; antenne fulcous. Schrank. Inhabits Ger-
many. Defcribed from the cabinet of Daldorff.
Puncratissima. Ovate; deep black ; wing-cafes yel-
low, with numerous black dots; fternum cornuted. Olivier,
and Fabr. Ent. Syft. Inhabits Cayenne.
The head is black, with an oblong impreffed dot in front;
thorax black and glofly, with the margin alittle prominent ;
wing-cafes very fmooth ; legs black.
Pusturata. Deep black, with five bands of fulvous dots.
Fabr. Ent. Syit. Zrotylus puflulatus, Mant. Inf. A native of
Cayenne. Dr. Schulz.
Moro. Ovate, deep black; antenne and legs black.
Babr. Inhabits Van Diemen’s land. Bankfian cabinet.
Corraria. Ovate; deep black; legs entirely violet. Fabr.
Chryfomela laichert, Aut. 143. 2. A native of Germany.
Nicrita. Ovate; blue; wing-cafes pan@ured and more
dufky. Fabr, Found in the neishbourhood of Paris. Bofc.
GorttinGensis, Ovate; deep black; legs violet, ends
rufous. Linn. Inhabits Germany ; alfo found in England,
but very rarely. Donoy. Brit. Inf
, with impreffed bluith dots; beneath violet. Fabr.
Horrentotra. Ovate; blue black; antenne and legs
of the fame colour; wing-cafcsirreguiarly dotted. Fabr. A
native of Germany. 1
dErut1ors. Ovate; black, beneath dufky ; wing-cafes
irregularly dotted. Fabr. Inhabits Germany. Smidt.
Virrara. Ovate; blue; margin and ftripe along the
middle yellow, Fabr. Inhabits America. Schulz.
Bicoror. Ovate; brafly-green; beneath violet ; wing-
cafes ftriated with dots. Fabr. Chry/omela viriolicerulea,
Forfk.
This infeé&t inhabits Alexandria ; it is entirely of a duflky-
greenifh-brafly colour above, and has the wing-cafes ftriated
with dots in pairs.
Banxit. Ovate ; above brafly ; beneath teftaceous. Rofs
Fn. Etraf, A native of Europe, and found in England
but rarely. Donov. Brit. Inf.
FerruGinea. Ovate; ferruginous; beneath black. Fabr.
Defcribed as an African infe& from the Bankfian cabinet.
Lusiranica. Ovate; thorax coppery; wing-cafes brafly,
A na-
tive of Lufitania. Bankfian cabinet.
Arrinis. Ovate ; obfcure-brafly, beneath violet ; wing-
cafes fmooth, Fabr. Found under ftones in Barbary.
Vahl.
Merattrca. Ovate; brafly, fhining; antenne and legs
teftaceous. Fabr. Very much refembles Chry/omela Bank/it.
Inhabits Germany. Helwig, &c.
Lamina. Braffy-green; thorax very glabrous; margin
thick ; wing-cafes ftriated with dots. Fabr. Inhabits Ger-
many. Smidt.
Giszosa. Ovate; black; wing-cafes yellow, with two
bands and dots at the bafe black. Fabr. A South Ameri-
can fpecies. The wing-cafes are yellowifh, with four black
dots at the bafe.
§-Macoxara. Ovate; dufky ferruginous; wing-cafes
with four yellow fpots on each. Fabr. A native of Suri-
nam:
to-PustuLaTa. Ovate; black; wing-cafes with five
rufous {pots. Fabr. Defcribed from the cabinet of Gigot
d’Orcy. It is a native of St. Domingo.
TrimacutaTa. Blue; wing-cafes yellow, with a band
and two fpots of black. Linn. Inhabits South America.
Apvoniprs. Black; margin of the thorax yellow, with a
black dot; wing-cafes yellow; future and ftripe black.
Fabr. Chry/fomela adonidis, Pallas It. A variety, @, is de-
fcribed by Fabricius, with the margin of the thorax teftaccous
inftead of yellow ; and the wing-cafes teftaceous; the mar-
ginal dot on the thorax black, and the future and ftripe on
the elytra of the fame colour as in the firft-mentioned infeét.
Hubner confiders it as a fexual difference.
Cravata. Head and thorax ferruginous; wing-cafes
black, witha yellowifh ftripe. Fabricivs deferibes this from
the Hunterian cabinet. Its country is unknown.
Frirasciata. Dull teftaceous; wing-cafes yellow,
with two braffy-green bands. Fabr. From Surinam. ;
Sururatis. Teftaceous, wing-cales brafly, with two
dats, and two bands of yellow. Fabr. A native of Cayenne.
Von Rohr.
Puccura. Brafly; wing-cafes yellow ; future and ftripe
braffy. Fabr. Inhabits North America. Bankfian cabinet.
Gutrara. Deep black, with a finuate band; margin.
of the wing-cafes and fix dots of white. Fabr. Inhabits the.
Cape of Good Hope. Bankfian cabinet.
14-PuncraTa: Ovate, teftaceous; wing-cafes yellow, ~
with 16 black dots, two of which are common, or united.
Linn. Inhabits the Eaft Indies, The pofterior thighs are
very thick, and fingle-toothed.
IcniTAy
CHRYSOMEL A.
Icxtra. Blue, polithed, wing-cafes brafly ; antennz and
etids of the legs fufcous. Fabr. ,
Deferibed from the cabinet of Dr, Hunter as a native of
Cayenne.
SurinameEnsis. Blue, very glofly ; antenne and ends
of the legs fufcous. Fabr. Chryfomela Americana, Sulz.
This is an infeét of large fize, and inhabits Surinam.
Asiatica. Ovate, brafly-green, and highly polifhed ;
wing-cafes blue. Fabr. Chry/omela Afiatica, Pallas. Found
in the fouthern parts ot Ruffia.
Gramintis. Ovate, grecn-blue, polifed; antenne and
legs of ths fame colour, Linn. Inhabits Europe, and is
found in England. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Birrons. Ovate; brafly-green;
Found on plantsin italy. Dr. Allioni.
Cupres. Ovate; head and thorax brafly ; wing-cafes
coppery ; body deep black. Geoffroy.
This fpecies is a native of Germany. The body, anten-
nz, and legs are black ; head brafly, with the eyes fufcous ;
margin of the abdomen fanguineous.
Tristis. Ovate, blue; antenne fufcous. Fabr.
bits the fouth of Europe.
Hemorrera. Ovate, violaceous; ends of the feet and
wings red. Linn.
Found on plants in Europe. Geoffroy, &¢. and in Eng-
land, Marth.
Varians. Ovate, blue (fometimes brafly); antennz and
legsblack. Fabr. Chry/omela varians, AG. Hall. Chry/fo-
mela Hyperici, Degeer. Inhabits Saxony.
Vioracea. Subrotund, blue; antenne and legs fame
colour. Fabr. Iniabits Germany. Smidt.
CentTaurit. Ovate, thining coppery ; brafly green be-
neath; legs coppery. Fabr. Chry/omela ceniaure. Herbit.
Inhabits Germany.
Tricotor. Ovate, brafly, polifhed; beneath black; an-
body blue. Fabr.
Inha-
tennz, vent, and legs ferruginous. Fabr. Inhabits Vir-
ginia.
Lurercornis. Ovate, brafly-black; antenne yellow.
Fabr.
Inhabits the iflands of South America. Dr. Pflug. The -
body is entirely of a braffy black colour, polifhed, and im-
prefied with fcattered dots of afmall fize. A variety of this
{pecies has the legs varied with black and yellow.
SemistriaTa. Ovate, black ; wing-cafes yellow with a
black band in the middle; and the anterior and pofterior
part ftreaked with black. Fabr. ‘This is a Brafilian fpecies.
Poputi. Ovate; thorax bluifh; wing-cafes red tipped
with black. Linn.
This infe&t inhabits Europe generally, and deftroys-the
leaves of the afh tree. The larva has fix feet, and is varied
-with black and white, with a double row of tubercles, from
which a yellowifh unpleafant moifture is exuded. It has
been deferibed by many authors, as Degeer, Merian, Albin,
Lifter, &c.
Tremuca. Ovate, bluith; wing-cafes teftaceous. Geof-
froy. Inhabits Europe, and refembles C. populi, but is
not above half its fize, and has the tip of the wing-cafes of
the fame colour.
Grossa. Ovate, blue, polifhed; wing-cafes teftaceous,
and without {pots. Fabr. Inhabits Italy. Dr. Allioni.
Srarxyi#a. Ovate, and dull teftaceous. Linn. Found
,on plants in Europe.
Feavipa. Ovate, teftaceous; wing-cafes brafly ; mar-
“gin teltaceous. abr. A native of the ifland of Java. Dr.
Mauduit.
Pourra. Ovate; thorax golden; wing-cafes teftaceous.
Linn. Geoffr. Inhabits Europe on the willow.
Lunara. Ovate; ferruginous; margin of the wing-cafes,
{tripe, and lunate in the middle yellowilh. Fabr. Defcribed
trom the Bankfian cabinet. The country unknown.
Guasrata. Ovate, teftaceous, polithed; wing-cafes
edged with blue. Fabr. Inhabits Surinam.
Lursipa. Ovate, black; wing-cafes chefnut, with punc-
tured ttre. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
Virratih, Ovate, thorax black and brafly ; wing-
cafes yellow, with nine fufcous ftripes. Fabr. Country
unknown,
Sroripa. Ovate, ferruginous ; head and thorax yellow ;,
wing-cafes variegated: Pabr. Inhabits South America.
Nicricornis. Ovate, braffy-black ; head, fides of the
thorax, and double fpot at the bafe of the wing-cafes ferru-
ginous. Fabr.
Inhabits New Holland. Donov. Inf. N.H. Bankfian
cabinet. .
Corrarts. Ovate, violet; margin of the thorax white
with a black dot. Linn.
Inhabits Europe and America, on willows.
has two impreffed dots.
Saricis. Ovate, blue; thorax fmooth ; margin. thick
and ferruginous. Fabr. Found in Saxony on the willow. .
SENEGALENsIS. vate, dull brafly; the thorax and
wing-cafes margined with ferruginous, thorax with a black
dot. Fabr. Inhabits Senegal. Olivier.
Vininavis. QOvate, black; thorax rufous and bimacu-
lated ; wing-cafes rufous. Linn.’Geoffr. Found on willows
in Europe.
Cyanipes. Ovate, rufous ; wing-cafes with blue dots up
the apex. Fabr. Donov. Inf. New Holland. From tke
Bankfian cabinet.
Cyanicornis. Ovate, rufous; thorax with a dorfal fpot,
and two {pots of blue; wing-cafes with eight blue fpots,
Fabr. Donovy. Inf. New Holland. Bankfian cabinet.
ro-Puncrara. Ovate; thorax red, behind black;
wing-cafes rufous, with about ten black dots. Linn.
Inhabits Europe. Varieties fometimes oceur with a+
greater number of black dots, others which are deftitute of
them.
6-Punctara. Black; thorax rufous, with two black
dots ; wing-cafes rufous with three black dots on each.
Fabr. A native of Europe.
Pauxipa. Ovate, yellowifh, with black eyes. Linn. and
Geoffr.
An European fpecies. A variety of this iInfe& is fome-
times found with indiltin& black ipots on the wing-cafes
and the body black.
Srriata. Ovate, black, polifhed; wing-cafes ftriated,
teftaceous, with deep black future. Fabr. Inhabits the
Cape. Banktian cabinet.
Norata. Ovate, thorax fulvous, with four black dots;
wing-cafes pale varied with black. Fabr. A native of the
Cape, in the Bankfian cabinet.
Rumicis. Ovate, thorax fulvous with four black dots ;
wing-cafes fulvous with the future and itripe in the middle
black. Fabr. A native of Spain. Vahl.
Vurina. Ovate, black ; margin of thewing-cafes four
dots, and apex white; the lait with three black {pots. Fabr,
Inhabits the Cape.
Crassicornis. Ovate yellowifh wing-cafes with two
black dots. Fabr. Donov, Inf. New Holland.
The thorax
Larronica. Ovate; thorax green; wing-cafes red
with a blue band between a dot and lunate fpot. Linn. In-
habits Europe.
Unpurara. Ovate, rufous, wing-cafes with three blue-
waved. lines, Linn. A native of Ladia.
x8-Gurrata.
CHRYSOMELA,
18-Guttata. Ovate, wing-cafes fufcous with eight
*pale dots, fome of which are conne&ted. Fabr.
Defcribed from the Banktian cabinet. Donov. Inf. New
Helland.
Porycont. Ovate, blue; thorax, thighs, and vent,
rufous. Linn. Common in moft parts of Europe. Donov.
Brit. Inf. &c.
Russica. Ovate, bine; bafe of the antennz, therax,
vent, and legs,rufous. Fabr. Inhabits Ruffia. Boeber.
Brunnea. Ovate, teftaceous; wing-cafes at the future
and {mali line in the middle fuflcous. Fabr. Donov. Inf
New Zealand, &c. “Bankfien-cabinet.
Cereatis. Ovate, golden; thorax with three, wing-
cafes. with fivesblue lines. A native of Europe. A molt
beautiful infe&t, being varied with ftripes of blue, green, and
crimfon, and marked with flender lines of gold. Difcover-
ed Britih on one of the Cambrian mountains by Mr. Hud-
fon, and inferted on this authority in Donov. Brit. Inf. and
fiace in Marfh. Enz. Brit. Found on the bretcher’s-broom.
Fasruosa. Ovate, golden, with three blue lines on the
wing-cafes. Linn. A native cf Europe ; fometimes found
in England. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Mopesta. Ovate, braffy green ; four lines on the tho-
rax and two on the wing-cafes coppery. Fabr. Inhabits
the Eaft Indies.
Marsnrami. Thorax greenifh golden ; wing-cafes gold-
en, gloffed with red and irregularly punctured. Donov.
Brit. Inf. A new fpecies.
Americana. Ovate, braffy-creen; wing-cafes with five
fanguineous ftreaks. Linn. Found in France. The head
is braffy with a vertical f{carlet {pet.
Festiva. Ovate, braffy black, with three lines on the
wing-cafes, and the anterior part of the future yellow. abr.
Deferibed from an Americana infe& in the Britifh Mufeum.
Ic is the Chryfomela lineata of Degeer.
Sprenpipa. Ovate, brafly-green; antennz and ends of
the feet black. Fabr. A native of Tranquebar. Lund.’
Gtoriosa. Ovate, green, polifhed; wing-cafes with a
blue line. Fabr. Chry/omela cacalie, Schrank. Inhabits
Italy.
SPECIOSA.
golden lines, Linn.
Qvate, green, filky; wing-cafes with two
Inhabits woods in Europe.
' Cyanea. Ovate; thorax rotundate, and cylindrical ;
body blue and polifhed ; legs black. Fabr. Inhabits South
America.
Pretiosa, Ovate; thorax globofe; wing-cafes very
fmocth; body blue. Fabr. Inhabits Germany. Smidt.
Nitipa, Ovate; thorax rotundate, brally-green 5 an-
‘tennz blue. Fabr. Inhabits Siam.
Avrata. Ovate ; thorax rounded and blue; wing-cafes
golden, with a blue margin. Fabr. Inhabits Pennfylvaaia.
Limpata.
‘a fanguineous border. Geoff. Inhabits Europe.
Caanirex. Ovate, black; wing-cafes very fmooth ; ex-
‘terior margin fanguineous. Fabr. A native of Germany.
SanGuinovenTA. Ovate, black; wing cafes dotted ;
exterior margin yellowifh. Linn. Found on plants in Eu-
rope ; a rare Englifh fpecies. Donov. Brit. Inf.
MarcinATa. Ovate, brafly-black; wing-cafes punc-
tured with yellow margin. Linn. A native of Europe. The
wings are fanguineous.
Scuacu. Ovate; thorax brafly-black, and finely polifh-
ed; wing-cafes dufky, {mooth, with margin fanguineous.
Fabr. A native of Germany. ee
Hannoverana. Ovate, blue ; margin of the thorax and
wing-cafes with a {tripe on the latter ferruginous. Fabr.
he antennz of this infeét are black ; and the wing-cafes
Ovate, black ; wing-cafes furrounded with
ftriated with dots. One variety cf this fpeties has the ftripe
on the wing-cafes abbreviated. Fabricius confiders the
*Chryfomela Hannoverana, Ranuaculi, and Potentilla, as the
fame infeed.
Areata. Ovate, black; thorax and wing-cafes very
fmooth, with margin rufous. Fabr. Inhabits Paris. Cabi-
net of Bofe.
ScutTetrara. Ovate, rufous; wing-cafes with 5 black
fpots. Fabr. Chry/omela fcutellata, Herb. A native of
Germany.
5-Puncrata. Ovate, black, with rufous thorax ;
wing-cafes teftaceous, with five black dots. Fabr. Inhabits
Hambergh. Dr. Schutz.
Croronts. Ovate, braffy-black, “with yellow antennz.
Fabr. From the cabinet of Dr. Pflug. Inhabits South
America.
Pecroratrs. Ovate, rufous; breaft and abdomen at
the bafe black. Vabr. Derme/les rufus, Herbit. Inhabits
Germany.
Litera. Ovate, pale rufous; wing cafes at the future,
and a longitudinal line of black. Fabr. Marfh, &c. Inha-=
bits England.
Fravicans. Ovate, yellowifh; wing-cafes cinereous
green. Fabr. Inhabits Germany. Hybner, &c. r
Sacra. Ovate, above rufous; thoracic line, two dots,
and future of the wing-cafes black. Linn. Inhabits Pa-
leftine.
Hamorruorparis. Ovate, black, and polifhed; an-
tenne at the bafe, yellowith; above red. Linn. Found
on the birch and alder in Europe.
Fucata. Ovate, black, thorax, and wing-cafes brafly-
green. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
Agnes. Ovate, brafly-green ; tail ferruginous ; antennze
and fhanks black. Linn. Geoffr., &c. On plants in Eu-
rope.
2-PuNCTATA.
fufcous {pot. Fabr.
binet.
Puitaperpaica. Ovate, green; wing-cafes . yellow
with green {pots ; antenne and legs ferruginous. Linn. A
native of Pennfylvania.
Armoracizx. Ovate, bluith, ‘polifhed, beneath black.
Linn. A native of Europe. :
Cocuieariz. Ovate, bluifh, beneath black; wing-cafes
ftriated. Fabr. Inhabits plants in Germany.
Paruires. Ovate, black; wing-cafes and legs very
pale. Fabr. An inhabitant of Germany.
Sopuitz. Ovate, blue; fhanks and ends of the feet
yellow. Fabr. Found in Saxony. _
ZErguGineA. Subrotund, braffy; legs ferruginous.
Fabr. Chry/omela metallica, Rofl. Fn. Etr. A native of
Italy.
Tenepricosa. Apterous,
cafes uniformly pun€tured. Marfh. Fabr.
brioides, Gmel. Tenebrio levigatus, Linn.
Ovate, teftaceous; wing-cafes with a
A native of the Cape. Bankfian ca-
blackifh-purple; wing
Chyfomela tene-
Anenea. Braffy-black, polifhed; legs pitchy. Marfh.
A new Britih fpecies.
Oxrivacea. Olivaceous-teftaceous; eyes and future of
the wing-cafes black. Forfk. Cent. 22. Inhabits England.
Aterrima. Black, polifhed; thorax very glabrous;
wing-cafes {lriated ; legs fomewhat ferruginous. Marsh. An
Englifh infe&t in the cabinet of Mr. Allen, a3 is alfo the
following {pecies. i
Cuarcea. Brafly; wing-cafes with obfolete frie of
dots. Marfh. Ent. Brit.
Unicoror. Black-blue, fomewhat gloffy, with nume-
rous imprefied dots. Marth.
Virgins
CHRYSOMEEA.
Viripr-2NeEA. Braffy-green, with numerous dots; an-
tenn and legs fame colour. Marth.
Arro-vioLescens. Ovate, black-violet; wing-cafes
ftriated ; legs pitchy. Marfh. Once taken near Holme, in
Norfolk, by the Rev. Mr. Kirby.
* Saltatorie; having the polfterior thighs thick, and
formed for leaping.
Frava. Yellow; thorax dotted with black; wing cafes
violet. Fabr. d/iica thoraciea, Fabr. Syft. Ent.
Carorinrana. Yellowifh; thorax with two dots, wing-
cafes with five ftripes of yellow. Fabr. Gmel. Crioceris
caroliniana, Fabr.
Ocsracea. Greenifh-blue. Linn. Fn. Suec. An
Enropean infec. .
Axsicottis. Thorax pale; wing-cafes brafly, with
two {pots and a band of gold. Fabr. A native of New
Holland.
Furvicorzrrs. Thorax reddifh; wing-cafes pale; fu-
ture and two [pots black. Fabr. Country unknown.
Bicoror. Rufous; wing-cafes, and pofterior thighs
blue. Degeer, &c. Inhabits America.
QuapairasciaTa. Ferruginous, with four white bands
on the wing-cafes. Fabr. This is a large infect and inhabits
Cayenne. l
Cincta. Black; wing cafes brafly-green; margin and
two dots white. Fabr. Inhabits Lufitania.
UADRIGUTTATA. Ferruginous; thorax white; wing-
cafes black, with four white dots. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Biegutrara. Ferruginous, thorax and wing-cafes with
two white dots. Fabr. A native of Cayenne.
Gurasrata. Thorax pale, with threeblack dots; wing-
cafes black, with two white ftripes. Fabr. Crioceris gla-
brata, Fabr. Sp. Inf.
Nositirata. Ferruginous, margin of the wing-cafes
and band white. Fabr. A native of Cayenne.
CurysocrepHats. Blue-black; head and four anterior
legs pale yellow. Lino. Fn. Suec. Inhabits Sweden. _
Hyoseyami. Greenifh-blue ; legs teftaceous, potterior
thighs violet. Linn. Fn. Suec. Cafricornus exiguus faltato-
rjus, Ray.. Inhabits Europe.
vADRIPUSTULATS. Black; wing-cafes with four
rufous dots. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Ancticana. Black; wing-cafes and fhanks pale.
Fabr. Found on plantsin England.
Arricitt#. Black, thorax, wing-cafes, and fhanks tef-
taceous. Linn. Fn. Succ. :
Moperri. Brafly, polifhed;. wing-cafes yellow at the
tip; anterior legs and fhanks of the poftertor ones pale
yellow. Linn. Inhabits. Sweden and other parts of Eu-
rope.
, ee Green, fhining; head and thorax golden ;
legs ferruginous. Fabr. Inhabits Europe, on the willow.
Trirascrata. Above whitifh with three brown bands,
Fabr. Found on plants in Europe.
Nicrires. Brafly-green; legs black. Fabr. Inhabits
England.
Tasipa. Pale, with the eyes black. Fabr.
plants in Evrope.
Brassicz, Black; wing-cafes pale, teftaceous; margin.
entirely, and a band in the middle black. Fabr. A {mall
{pecies found in Germany.
Found on
Nemorum. Wing-cafes yellow, with the margin en-,
tirely black. Fabr. Found on various plants in, Europe.
Artra. Black, polified ; antennz at the bafe, and tip of
the feet pitchy. Geoffroy, &c. Found in France and Ger-
paeny': < . f
Rustica, Black; antenne, legs, and tip of the wing-
cafes teftaceous. Gmel. An European fpecies. The wing.
cafes are very finely pun@ured.
Puricaria. Black; wing-cafes with a pofterior ferru-
ginous {pot. Gmel. Very {mall. Inhabits Europe.
Ruripes. Obovate, blue; head, thorax, legs, and an-
tenne rufous. Linn. Inhabits Sweden.
Testacea. Teftaceous, gibbous;
{mooth. Fabr. Geoflr. Inhabits Europe.
Fascicornis. Obovate, blue; head, thorax, and legs
rufous; antenne, fufcous. Horn. Inhabits Germany.
Hotsatica. Black, polifhed; a red dot at the end of
the wing-cafes. Fabr. A native of Europe.
fEquinoctiatis. Thorax red; wing-cafes violet, with
four alternate white {pots. Degeer, &c. Found in South
Staab oo
wing-cales very
America.
Lens. Entirely blue-back, with dotted wing-cafes.
Thonberg. Inhabits Uplfal.
Exctamationis. Thorax black; wing-cafes black,
with four yellow fpots. Thunberg. Inhabits Upfal.
Hupsonias. Black, fomewhat oblong; bafe of the
antennz ferruginous. Forft. Nov. Inf. A native of South
America.
QuaprinotraTa, Black, antennz yellowith at the bafe,
wing-cafes with four teftaceous fpots. Pontoppid. Inhabits
Denmark.
Pusirra. Black, antenne and legs pale. Miill. Inha-
bits Denmark.
Lurzota. Pale yellow, eyes, breait, and tip of the
antenne black. Mull. Inhabits Denmark.
Fraveora, Black; thorax and head rufous; wing~
cafes, antenne, and legs pale yellow. Mull. Inhabits Den-
mark,
Latiuscura. Fufcous-black; fhanks and joints of the
feet fomewhat yellowifh. Mull. Inhabits Denmark.
Caucirerarum. Oblong, brafly-black; legs black.
Geoff. Inhabits France.
Denicrata. Black; thorax and wing-cafes yellow,
mouth black. Geoffr. Inhabits France.
Truncata. Black; wing-cafes truncated, the tip
ferruginous, legs and antenne rufous. Scopoli. Inhabits
Carniola.
Ovatrs. Braffy-black, legs black. Geoffr. Inhabits
France.
Srriata. Blue; head, thorax, antenne, and legs ru-
fous ; wing-cales ftriated. Degeer. A native of Europe.
Levicara.. Blue; wing-cafes fprinkled with dots;
fhanks ferruginous. Geoffr.
Crenara. Black; wing-cafes brafly with crenated
ftrie, antenne at the bafe and the fhanks pitchy. Mut.
Lefk. Linn. Inhabits Enrope.
Discoror. Head, and thorax black ; wing-cafes teltae
ceo-fufcous, glabrous; four anterior legs, and the fhanks
of the hinder pair fomewhat teftaceous. Linn. Muf. Lefk.
Unhabits Europe.
Picipes.. Brafly-green, dotted, legs pitchy, wing-cafes
bay-colour, black towards the future. Linn. Mouf. Lefk.
Inhabits Europe.
Annuzata. Brafly fufcous ;. wing-cafes with crenated
ftria ; antenne at the bafe and four anterior fhanks rufous,
the latter with a brafly-brown ring. Linn. Lefk.. Mul.
Inhabits Europe.
A further number of the Linnzan Chryfomelz will be
found under the new genera Cnoputum, Crioceris, Caype
TOCEPHALUS, Erotytus, and GaLLeruca.
CHRYSOMITHRES, in Ornithology, the name by
which fome call the gold-finch, See. Fringivua cardu-
eliss.
CHRYSOQ.:.
© HR
CHRYSOPAGION, in Natural Hifory, a name by
-wohich fome of the middie age writers bave called the gem
deferibed by Pliny under the name of the chry/olampis.
Salmafius is of epinion that it was only a foul kind of the
chryfoprafius, of which Pliny fays, that fome of them were
full of fpecks, and of a variable colour.
CHRYSOPETRON, a name given by: Pliny, and
others, to the yellower kind of the ancient topaz, that
is, ovr chryfolite.
CHRYSOPHRYS, in Ichthyology, among the Greek
ahd Latin authors, a name fynonymous with Aurara, and
applied by them to the fifh called by Lianzus Sparus aura-
tas, which fee.
CHRYSOPHYLLUM, in Botany, (from x;:v203, gold,
and ¢vr20v, a leaf. Golden leaf.) Linn. gen. 265. Schreb.
355- Willd. 400. Juff. 152. Vent. 2. 436. Caimitier. Enc,
Meth. Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Wat. Ord.
Dumofe, Linn. Sapote, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fmall, permanent ; deeply di-
vided into five, roundifh, obtufe fegments. Cor. monope-
talous, fhort, bell-fhaped, five-cleft; fegments roundith,
much expanded; accompanied by five {mall fcales, which
give it the appearance of being ten-cleft. Stam. Filaments
five, fhort, attached to the top of the tube; anthers round-
ifh, didymous, incumbent. /i/?. Germ fuperior, roundith ;
ftyle fhort ; ftigma obtufe, obfcurely five-cleft. Perc. Berry
one orten-celled, large. Sveds one in each cell, bony, com-
prefled, marked with a fcar, fhining.
Eff. Ch. Cor. bell-fhaped, apparently ten-cleft; alter-
nate fegments {preading. Berry one feed in each cell.
Sp. C. cainito, Linn, Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. r.
Willd. 1. Jacq. Amer. 55, tab. 37. piét. 30. tab. sr.
Lam. Ill. Pl. 120. Broad-leaved ftar-apple. “ Leaves egg-
fhaped, downy and fhining underneath; fruit roundifh,
Shaped like an apple.”? 8. Jamaicenfe ; with purple fruit,
Jacq. Amer. 52. pict. 31. Brown Jam. tab. 14. fig. 2.
y- ceruleum with fruit entirely blue. A tree from thirty
to forty feet high, with a large fpreading head. Leaves
about five inches long, and two and a half broad, regularly
dtriated with fine lateral parallel nerves, alternate, pttioled,
egg-thaped, rather acute, quite entire, {mooth, deep green
above, covered underneath with a very fine filky fhining
down of a ferruginous gold colour. Flowers fmall, axillary
and fafcicled upon each peduncle. Fruit globular, about
the fize of a common apple, flefhy, foft, with a fmooth fkin,
and of a rofe colour, with a yellowifh tint intermingled with
a fhade of green. It contains a milky, glutinous, {weetifh
pulp, which envelopes from five to ten nuts, brown with-
out, a little flattened, of an even furface, with a rude rugged
border. The varietics @ and y appear to differ only in the
colour of the fruit. Though the germ always contains the
rudiment of a nut in each of the ten cells, it mott frequently
happens that fome of them afterwards prove abortive. A
native of the Weft Indies, where the fruit is eaten, and the
wood ufed for building. 2. C. oliveforme, Lam. Encyc.
2. Ill. 2471. (C. cainito; @. Linn. Sp. C. monopyrenum ;
Willd. Cainito foltis fubtus aureo, fruétu oliveforme; Plum.
gen. ro. Burm. Amer. tab. 69. Acomas; Nichol. Do-
ming. 141?) ‘ Leaves ovate-oblong, tomentous and fhin-
ing underneath ; fruit the fhape of an olive, with one feed.”
Damfon plum; Brown Jam.? A tree about the fize of a
common apple-tree, with a rough ruffet bark befprinkled
with {mall white {pots. Branches {preading ; {maller ones a
little zigzag. Leaves alternate, fomewhat refembling thofe
of the citron; fmooth, fhining and dark green above; co-
vered with a filky, golden down underneath; traverfed by a
Jongitudinal rib, whence proceed laterally feveral parallel
6
CUR
nerves a little curved. F/awers {mall, axillary, fafcicled,
one on each peduncle ; calyx covered with a golden ferrugi-
nous down; ftigma with five ruffet divifions. fruit fott,
the fhape of an olive, but a little larger, of a dark violet
colour when ripe, having a pleafant vincus flavour, and con--
taining a bluifh nut, which enclofes a tender, oblong, acute
kernel. Plum. MSS. A native of the Weft Indies, flower-
ing in Ottober and November, and ripening its fruit in May
and June. 3. C. acuminatum, Lam. ILlluf. 2469. “* Leaves
egg-fhaped, acuminate, ttriated with parallel lines, downy
and fhining, but pale underneath. A native of St. Domin-:
go. Ia Marck queftions whether this be not C. monopy-
renum of Swartz. If fo, there are two fpecies with only
one nut, and monopyrenum cannot 2 properly retained as a”
fpecific name. 4. C. anguftifalium, Lam. Ill. 2470. * Leaves
lanceolate, ftriated with parallel lines, fhining, covered with *
a ferruginous down underneath; berries the fhape of an
olive.””? Leaves refembling thofe of the olive or privet.
Berry fometimes with two feeds. La Marck doubts whe-?
ther this be fpecifically different from his oliveeforme. Are
not all three merely varieties of the fame {pecies? And is’
there not fome ground for a conjeGture, that, when more
accurately examined, they will be found to have a germ
with ten cells, though it ripens only one, or at moft’
two feeds? In this cafe the generic chara€ter may remain
as it was fir formed by Linneus.
Willd. 3. Mart.'5. Swartz. Prod. 49. Ind. occ.’ 1. 4$2.
‘¢ Leaves egg-fhaped, fmooth, pubefcent underneath ; berries
oblong, oblique, one-feeded.? Fruit very fweet. Is not
this alfo a variety of C. oliveterme? 6. C. argenteum,’
Mart. 2. Lam. Hluf..2472? Jac. Amer. 53. tab. 36. fig.
r. Leaves falcate-ovate, tomentous and fhining under-
neath.”? Swartz. ‘ Leaves egg-fhaped, acuminate-falcated;
younger ones with a fhining filvery down underneath; the —
A native of the: _
older ones {mooth on both fides.’? Lam.
Welt Indies. 7. C. pauciflorum, Lam. Til. 2473. Jacq.
Amer, tab. 38. fig. 2.? ‘ Leaves egg-fhaped, rare ad
nearly {mooth on both fides, with only a few flowers in the
axil of each leaf. A native of Martinico. 8. C. rugofum,'
Mart. 6, Willd. 5. Swartz, Prod. 49. Ind. occid. 1. 484.+
‘¢ Leaves oblong, acuminate, fmooth on both fides ; fruit
acuminate, rough.
maica. 9. C. pyriforme, Willd. 6. (C. Macouco; Lam.
Encyc. 4. Illuft. 2475. Aub. guin. 1. tab. 92.) ‘ Leaves:
oblong, acuminate, {mooth on both fides ; fruit pear-fhaped,
with an even furface. A tree thirty feet high, and two in’
diameter, with a large much branched head; bark fmooth,
greyih, yielding when rounded a milky juice; wood white; ~
hard and brittle. Zeaves alternate, oval-oblong, pale green’
on both fides. uit orange-coloured, on fhort peduneles,:
growing from two to four together ; flefhy, milky, enclofing
feveral roundifh nuts, which contain a white, fweet, efculent’
kernel. According to Aublet the frait has a more pleafant
flavour than that of the firft fpecies. 10. C. glabrum, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 3. Lam. Encye. 3. Willd: 7. Jacq.
Amer. tab. 38. fig. 2, ‘ Leaves ovate-oblong, acute,
fmooth on both fides ; fruit elliptical, with an even furface.”?
A tree fifteen fect high, ftraight, branched. Leaves alter=/
nate, petioled, quite entire, a little coriaceous. Fruit blue,
about the fhape and fize of a {mall clive, with a fweetifhy
vinous flavour. A native of woods in Martinico. -
Curysopuytuum carolinenfe; Jacq. See Bumeta tenax,
CurysopHy.tium crinito; Aubl. See Bumerta tenaxe
Curysopuytium manglillo; Lam. Iluft. See Bume-
LIA mangiillo. : ‘ ‘ N ‘lS
Curysoenyttym macrophyllum; Lam, Ill. See Bue
MELIA nervo/fa. tual
CuRysos
5. C. microcarpums”
A native of woods on mountains in Ja- —
;
‘
;
|
:
CHR
CrrvsopxyLiuM Jarbafto; Lefl. it. See Jacquinta
armillaris.
CHRYSOPILON, in Natural Hifory, a name given
by fome ancients to a {pecies of the beryl, which had a
ellowifh tinge.
CHRYSOPIS, more correctly Chryfaps, in Entomology,
a name applied by fome old writers to the infe& called in
England the “ Golden Eye,’’ from the beautitul gold co-
lour of itseyes. It is of a, moderate fixe, with four ex-
tremely thin and tranfparent wings of a fomewhat filvery
colour, with green ribs or nerves ; it is common in gardens,
efpecially about elder trees, and has a remarkably {trong
{mell. In the days of Mouffet this infe&t was known by
the name of mufca chryfops ; Ray calls it mufca quadripennis
corpore luteo-virid:, and Vetiver, perla merdam olens. With
Linneus, and other modern naturalifts, it is a fpecies of
emerobius, See HEmorostus perla.
CHRYSOSPLENIUM, in Botany, (from x.vz0;, and
oxan, the fpleen, on account of the golden colour of the
flowers, and of the fuppofed virtue of the plant in difeafes
of the fpleen.) Linn. 558. Schreb. 763. Willd. 886.
Gert. 252. Tourn. 60. Jufl. 309. Vent. ii. 284. Do-
vine, Lam. Encyc. Golden faxifrage. Clafs and order,
decandria digynia. Nat. ord, Succulente, Linn. Saxifrage,
Joff.
Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, fhort, permanent,
coloured, four, or very rarely five-cleft ; fegments oval, ob-
tufe, fpreading, oppofite ones narrower. Cor. none. Stam.
filaments eight, very rarely ten, ereét, very fhort, attached
to the lower part of the calyx ; anthers fimple, round. Pift.
germ half inferior, ending in two awl-fhaped ftyles, the
length of the ftamens; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. capfule two-
beaked, one-celled, half bivalve, furrounded at its bafe by
the calyx. Secds numerous, {mall.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four or five-cleft, colcured. Corolla
none. Capfule two-beaked, one-celled, half inferior, half
bivalved, many-feeded.
Ob/. Linnzxus placed this genus in the clafs decandria,
on account of the terminating flower, which, in his ideas,
determines the true chara¢ter of the fruc¢tification, being
fometimes decandrous ; but as this is of very rare occurrence,
and as none of our Englith botanilts, after repeated re-
fearches, have found it fo in a fingle inftance, it has fearcely
a right to be confidered as a decandrous plant, notwith-
ftanding its natural affinity to faxifraga. In an artificial
fyftem ofandria feems to be its proper clafs, where Dr.
Stokes in Withering has accordingly placed it.
Sp. 1. C. alternifolium, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Willd.
Lam. Encyc. Gert. tab. 44. Flor. Dan. tab. 366. Eng.
Bot. 54, but unfortunately taken from an imperfeét {pe-
cimen without root-leaves. (Saxifraga aurea dodonzi,
Bauh. Hilt. S. aurea, foliis pediculis oblongis, Rai Syn.
158. Sedum rotundifolium paluftra, foltis pediculis longis
infidentibus, Morif. Se&. 12. tab. 8. fig. 8.) Alrernate-
Jeaved golden faxifrage. ““* Leaves alternate.”? Root pe-
rennial, fibrous, throwing out offsets, but no creeping
fuckers. Whole plant fucculent, tender. Stem three-fided.
Leaves all deeply notched ; root-leaves two or three, kid-
ney-fhaped, bluntly notched, on long hairy petioles; ftem-
leaves alternate, one of them folitary, about the middle of
the item, the reft cluttered, partly about the root, and
partly near the flowers. Flowers gold-coloured ; in a ter-
minal, dichotomous leafy corymb. A native of England,
and other northern parts of Europe, flowering in May ; in-
termingled with the next {pecies, but much more rare, 2. C.
oppofitifolium, Linn. Sp. P). Mart. Willd. Lam. Curt.
Lond. Fafe. ii. tab, 27. Flor. Dan. tab. 365. Eng. Bot.
Vou, VIII.
CH
tab. 490. (Saxifraga aurea, Rai. Syn. 158, Lob. Ic.
612. Sedum paluftre rotundifolium, Morif. tab. 8. fig. 7-)
Oppofite-leaved golden faxifrage. ‘* Leaves oppofite.’’
Habit of the preceding, but paler. Roof perennial. Stems
creeping at the bottom, fquare, or with two oppofite deep fur-
rows, very tender, befet with a few ftiffifh white hairs about
four inches high. eaves petioled, {preading, roundith,
with a few ftiffifh white hairs on the upper furface, repand,
fomewhat flefhy, yellowifh green, whitifh underneath; the
upper ones more deeply notched. Flowers yellow, in a
feffile faitigiate corymb. The notched glandular ring, which
furrounds the bafe of the germ, is placed between that part
and the infertion of the ftamens, and therefore, as Curtis re-
marks, cannot be, as Linnzus ftyles it, a receptacle. It
{eems to be properly a neétary. A native of moift places in
England and other parts of the north of Europe, flowering,
with the preceding, in May.
CHRYSOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal
town of Afia, mentioned in the council of Conftantinople.
—Alfo, an epifcopal fee in Africa, in Mauritania.—Alfo,
an ancient town of Afia Minor, fituated near Chalcedon,
and oppofite to Byzantium. It had a fine port; aud when
the Perfians were matters of it, they colleéted there the
tribute which they drew from the different towns. It was
a place of commerce with the inhabitants of Chalcedon.
Xenophon fays, that the Athenians encompaffed this place
with walls; that they impofed a tenth on the fhips that
came hither from the Euxine fea; and that they ftationed
here a fleet of 30 fail for the fecurity of the port.—Alfo, an
ancient epifcopal town of Afia, called Chri/opolis, under the
metropolitan fee of Boftra, in the patriarchate of An-
tioch.
CHRYSOPRASE. The colour of this mineral is ap-
ple-green, pafling into grafs and olive-green and greenifh
grey. It is found in mafs, in angular fragments, and thick
p-ates. Internally it exhibits a flight degree of luftre. Ita
fracture is even, paffing fometimes into fine fplintery
and flat conchoidal, with indeterminate fharp-edged frag-
ments. Its hardnefs is fomewhat lefs than that of chalce-
dony. Sp. gr. 3.25.
Before the blow-pipe chryfoprafe becomes opake and
colourlefs, but it is infufible per fe. It has been analyfed
with great accuracy by Klaproth, and appears to confilt of
Silex - 90.16
Lime - 0.83
Oxyd of nichol
97-S9
Tt has hitherto been found only at Kofernutz in Lower
Silefia, imbedded in ferpentine, along with quartz, opal,
chalcedony, &c. It pafles into hornftone and chalcedony,
and appears to differ from this laft in little elfe than co-
lour.
When kept long in a warm and dry fitvation it lofes the
greateft part of its colour. The apple-green variety is in
fome eftimation among jewellers, and is cut into ftones for
rings.
CHRYSOPRASUS, in Chrifian Antiquity, the tenth
of thofe precious ftones which adorned the foundation’ of
the heavenly Jerufalem ; the colour of it was green, much
like that of a leek, but fomething inclining to that of gold,
as its name imports.
CHRYSORHOAS, or CurysorrHoas, in Ancient
Geography, a river of Afia, in Syria, which ran near the
town of Damas, and fertilized the environs of this town.
Fliny and Strabo reprefent this river as diftributing itfelf in
L ftreams.
CHR
fireams.—Alfo, a river of Afia, in the Colchide territory.
Pliny.—Alfo, a river of Afia Minor, in Lydia, the fource
of which is placed by Pliny near mount Tmoles.
CHRYSORRHOES, a river fituated towards the ex-
tremity of the peninfula on the fouth-eaft of the Argolide.
It watered the town of Trazena; and derived its name of
the * River of Gold,?? from the quantity of this metal
which it depofited.
CHRYSOSTOM, Joun, in Bisgraphy, an eminent ard
very eloquent father of the church, was a native of Antioch
about the year 347. The name of Chryfoftom, fignitying
in the Greek galden-mouth, was not applied to him till after
his death, when his works had rendered him illufrious for
eloquence. He was, at a very early age, inttructed in the
principles of the Chriftian religion, and derived all the ad-
vantage which the belt mafters in human learning could yield
him. He was originally intended for the bar, but, being
difgufted with the profeflion, he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of the Scriptures, and other departments of facred litera-
ture: he perfuaded alfo two of his friends, ‘UCheodorius
and Maximus, to purfue the fame courfe. When he was
about twenty-feven years of age, he retired from the world
to an afectic life, firft in company with a monk upona moun-
tain near Antioch, and then in a cave by himfelf. The
aufterities which he voluntarily inflicted on himfelf, injuring
his health, he returned to Antioch, after having pafled fix
years in the condition of a hermit. He was then ordained
a deacon, and afterwards a prieft, and, devoting himfelf to
the labours of the pulpit, he became fo celebrated for his
eloquence, that, upon the death of Neétarius, he was una-
nimoufly chofen as patriarch or archbifhop of Contftantinople,
in 397. While Chryfoftom was at Antioch he wrote fe-
veral books, and acquired much reputation as a preacher.
He was a man of great fimplicity of character, feverity of
manners, and freedom of fpeech, which brought him many
enemies: but, notwithftanding his virtues, which are ad-
mitted on all hands, it is equally notorious, that he was
haughty and arbitrary. It was with difficulty that he was
forced from Antioch, but when he came to Conftantinople,
he avoided as much as poffible promifcuous fociety ; he de-
voted his time to his ftudies and profeflional duties ; and all
that he faved by economy in his own expences, he liberally
beltowed on the poor. He ereéted new hofpitals in that
metropolitan city, took care of the fick and the ftrangers,
and provided for widows and virgins. He was an enthufi-
aflic admirer of the monaftic life, and exhorted the young
of both fexes to a ftate of celibacy ; and, in other re{pects,
he preached up a rigour of manners very incompatible with
the character of the times. He indulged a perfecuting fpi-
rit again{t thofe who did not rank themifelves with Chriltians,
pulling down the pagan temples, and haraffing, as much as
poflible, thofe who were deemed heretics. He extended his
archiepifcopal jurifdiction, and, in a vilitation of the Afiatic
provinces, he depofed thirteen bifhops of Lydia and Phry-
gia, This temper, and thefe aultere manners, created him
many enemies, and he was at length accufed of difrefpe& to
the emprefs Eudoxia, and cruelty to fome of the clergy ;
a fynod was convened, in the year 403, before which, arti-
cles of accvfation were brought againft Chryfoltom, He
was fummoned, but, declining to put himfelf into the hands
of his profeffed enemies, he was condemned, depofed, and
banifhed. When this event was known at Conitantinople,
a dreadful tumult was excited, which created fo much alarm,
that Eudoxia, who was his principal enemy, petitioned for
the archbifhop’s return. Another fynod, conlilting of fixty
bifhops, affembled at Cont{tantinople, and refeinded all that
jiad been done againit Chryfottom, and he was reftored with
CHR
great triumph. . Toward the end of this year, the emprefs
caufed her own flatue to be erected near the church, and
the people celebrated public games before it to her honour.
Chryfoltom, confiding, perhaps, in his own popularity, and
irritated againft the emprefs, preached againit this as an in-
decency, openly declaring, that the ftatue had been ere@ed.
in contempt of.the church, The emprefs endeavoured again
to afiemble the fynod, but the prelate, far from being inti-
midated, reproached her conduct in fill more bitter terms,
reprefenting her as another Herodias, who wifhed to have
the head of another John, meaning his own, in a charger.
‘The emprefs now was bent on his deltruétion, in which fhe
fucceeded. Chryfoftom was depofed, and banifhed. Onthe
day of his departure, the great church and adjoining pa~
lace were burnt to the ground. He was firlt taken to Nice,
and thence was conveyed to the place afligned for his refi-
dence, which was Cucufus, a defolate town among the ridges
of mount Paurus, in Leficr Armenia. Fhe death of the
emprefs, fome peculiar circumttances in that of Cyrinus,
bifhop of Chalcedon, a bitter enemy of Chryfoflom, and a
Creadful hail-ftorm, which happened foon a!ter his banifh-
Inent, were interpreted by his friends as marks of the Divine
difpleafure at the conduét of his enemies. Chryfoftom, in
the mean time, did not fuffer his mind to fink ender his mis-
fortunes ; he a€tively employed himfelf in maintaining a cor-
re{pondence with the mott diltant provinces, in confoling
and exhorting his adherents left behind him in the metro-
polis, and in fupporting his caufe before the fee at Rome,
which had always been difpofed to favour him. ‘That he
was able to live fo comfortably was 2 great mortification to
his enemies: they procured an order for his removal full
farther from the capital, to Pitycens, a town on the Euxine
Sea; but he died on his journey, at Comanis in Armenia,
owing to the great hardihips to which he was expofed.
After his death, the Eaft and Welt were for fome time di-
vided with refpect to the tribute due to his memory. By
the latter, it was held in great reverence; but the eattern
bifhops refufed to infert his name in the regiiters of thofe
who were to be mentioned with honour at the celebration of
the eucharift. Within ten years, he was generally revered
asa faint, and, in the year 438, at the folicitation of the
clergy and people of Conftantinople, his relics were tranf-
ported from their obf{cure fepulchre to the royal city. The
emperor Theodofius advanced to receive them as far as Chal-
cedon ; and falling proltrate on the coffin, implored, in the
name of his guilty parents, the forgivenefs of the injured
faint. Chryfoltom was undoubtedly the moft diltinguifhed
of ail the Greek fathers, as Auftin was among the Latins.
He is faid to have compofed more than a thouiand feparate
pieces; but the greateft part of his writings are fermons, or
expofitions of {cripture delivered as fermons, with pra@ical
improvements annexed to them. His ftyle is free, copious,
and unaffeGed. He is dignified and correét in his phrafeo-
logy, varied and abundant in his figures and iiluftrations.
His difcourfes and iluftrations of feripture are often more
fanciful than folid, but copious, and full of particulars. In
his declamations againit the vices and follies of the times, he
has alluded to {6 many circumitances, that a hiftory of the
manners and cuftoms of the times may be derived from his
works, which is no where elfe to be met with. Tne molt
regular of his treatifes, is a dialogue on the duties of a
bifhop. The moft complete edition of his works is that
publithed by Montfancon, the learned Benedictine, in 17345
which is accompanied with a life of the author, prefaces,
notes, and various readings. Gibbon. Lardner. TE
CHRYSTAL, See Crystat. :
Cusysra Mineral, the fame as Sal prunella.
3 CHRYS-
cin al
“CHRYSTALLINE.. See CaystAtzine.
CHRYSTALLIZATION. See Caysratiization.
CHRYSTALLUS, in Ancient Geography, a name an-
ciently given, according to Plutarch, to-the river ‘Thermo-
dou of Scythia, becaufe it was frozen even in fummer.
CHRYSUM, a name given by Ptolemy to the third
-mouth of. the river Indus, reckoning from the weft.
- CHRYSUS, a river of Aiia Minor, which ran towards
Laodicea.— Allo, a river of Spain, placed by{Feltus Avie-
nus in Beetica.
- CHTHONIA, in Antiquity, a feltival kept in bonour of
Ceres, called Chthonia. Yor the ceremonies obferved in it,
fee Pott. Archeol. lib. ii. cap. 20.
CHVALINSK, “or Kuvatynsx, in Geography, a
town of Aliatic Ruffia, ia the government of Saratot, and
alfo its adjacent dittriG, fituated on the Volga, 350 miles
S.E. of Peterfburg. N. lat. 52° 25’. E. lone. 57° 54’.
CHUB, in Jchithyology. See Cyerinus Cephalus.
* CHUBANA, in Aacient Geography, a town of Afia in
Mefopotamia, feated on the eaftern bank of the Euphrates.
CHUBB, Tuomas, in Biography, a controveriial wniter,
was born Sept. 214, 1679, ata {mail village near Salifbury.
He received no other edecation than the firlt elements of
reading and writing, and was obliged at an early age to feek
a livelihood by the labour of hisown hands. He was ap-
prentice to a glover, with whom, and afterwards with a tal-
fow-chandler, he worked asa journeyman. Being poffeffed
of uncommon natural abilities, and having a very ftudious
tura of mind, he {pent his leifure hours in the acquifition of
knowledge of various kinds, but his inclination led him
chiefly to the ftudy ef divinity. In 1710, Mr. Whilton pub-
lifhed the hittorical preface to his ‘ Primitive Chrittianity
Revived.”” The principal point difcuffed in this preface
was the fupremacy of God the Father: Chubb read the
piece, but not being fatisfied with the ftatement of the ar-
gament, he drew up his own opinion on the fubje@, which,
at the defire of one of his own friends, was fhewn to Mr.
Whilton. Itfo well coincided with the opinions of this very
learned divine, that by the leave of Chubb, he publithed it
with a few alterations which did not in the leaft affect the
grand point in queftion. In the year 1415 it appeared un-
der the title of “* The Supremacy of the Father afferted ;
or Eight Arguments from Scripture to prove that the Son
is a Being interior and fubordinate to the Father, and that
the Father is the Supreme God.’? The perfpicuity and
ability with which this tra€&t was written procured Mr.
Chubb great reputation, but he was alfo affailed from various
quarters with much vehement abufe. He found himfelf
called upon to vindicate himfelf and his work, and
thus commenced the controverfy that ended only with
his life. In the year 1730 he publifhed a colleGtion
of traéts, in a quarto volume, upon various important
topics, moral and theological. Of the author, Mr.
Pope {peaks with great relpect, and fays, that ‘he had
read the whole volume with admiration of the writer, though
not always with approbation of the doétrine.” he next
piece publifhed by Chubb was “A Difcourfe concerning
Reafon in Matters of Religion, with Reflections upon the
comparative excellency and ufefulnefs of Moral and Pofi-
tive Duties.” This meeting with oppotition, be publithed
a vindication of it, infilting more ftrongly upon the fuffi-
ciency of reafon to all human beings. In 1734 he publifhed
a volume confilting of traéts on the infpiration of the New
*Seftament ; and on tive refurrection of Chrift as a proof of
the divinity of the doctrine which he taught; on the cafe
of Abraham being ordered to offer up his fon; and on the
parable of the unmerciful fervant. In the year 1738 he
CHU
publifhed “ The true Gofpel of Jefus Chrift afferted,” in
which he profefles to feparate the cerruptions of Chriltianity
from its effence. One of his next pieces was an ‘* Enquiry
into the Ground and Foundation of Religion ;”? in this he
vindicates the principles of natural religion. He afterwards
proceeded to the examination of miracles, and at length ap-
pears to have taken a decided part with thole, whom it has
been the fafhion to denominate free-thinkers, but who, in
truth, rejeét the truths of revealed religion. In his pofthu-
mous works, publifhed in 1748, we have his mature thoughts
ona variety of topics relative to religion and morality, in
which though he feems willing to give up the evidences of
the Jewifh and Chriftian religion, yet he draws the conclu-
fion that Jefus was probably fent by God as an inflruGtor of
mankind. Chubb began, as we have feen, to write as a ra-
tional Chriftian, and he never exprefsly denied the divine
mifiton of Jefus; he engaged, however, in controverfies to
which his limited knowledge was not equal, though his na-
tural abilities might be well adapted for fuch important dif-
quifitions ; there is no reafon to believe that he ever exa-
mined the hiftorical evidences of revealed religion, yet in his
poftumous works he infinvates many things calculated to
prejudice the young and the thoughtlefs againft it. He
denies a particular providence, and the neceffity of prayer.
With refpeé& to afuture ftate, he expreffes himfelf very va~
rioufly, and without much confidence on either fide of the
queltion, Mr. Chnbb was never anxious to rife above the
humble condition in which fortune had placed him: to the
laft period of life he took pleafure in affifting in the
trade of a tallow-chandler. He met with many friends who
afliited him, among thefe was fir Jofeph Jekyl, who made
him his companion in his intervals of leifure. In this fitua-
tion Chubb had an opportunity of becoming acquainted
with many of fir Jofeph’s friends, though it has been afferted
that on extraordinary occafions he aflifted as a fervant out
of livery. It is certain his ftay with that gentleman was
not long; he chofe to return to Salifbury. ‘The generofity
of his friends followed himin his retreat. Mr. Chefelden,
the celebrated furgeon, was one of his benefactors ; and in the
latter part of his life, Mr. Samuel Dicker offered to fettle an
annuity of 50 pounds upon him if he would leave Salifbury,
but this offer he declined, as he did not at that time {pend the
income of his fortune. He injured his health by too intenfe
fiudy ; however his life was prolonged to his fixty-eighth
year, and agreeably to a wifh which he had been accuftomed
to exprefs, he was happily exempted from many of thofe
evils which too frequently aggravate the bitternefs of death.
On the erghth of Feb. 1746-7, after a fhort complaint of an
unufual pain in his ftomach, he fuddenly breathed his laft as
he fat in his chair. He was buried in St. Edmund’s church
in Salifbury. The eminence of Mr. Chubb’s_ intelle€tual
abilities 1s generally allowed, and on this account he was
not only admired by the perfons already named, but by Dr.
Clarke, bifhop Hoadly, Dr. John Hoadly, and many other
diftinguifhed divines. With refpe€ to his moral charaéter,
he was uniformly formed for mtegrity, fimplicity and fo-
briety of manners, and he attended the fervices of his parifh
church to the time of his death. Biog. Brit. Leland.
CHUBDARS, a name given in Bengal to thofe Moorifh
fervants who are employed to carry meflages, &c. for ttate.
Thofe in the Dutch fervice carry a long ttaff in their hand,
which is entirely covered with filver, with which they go be-
fore the palankeen of the directors and of the two members
of the council next in ranks but the latter are allowed no
more than two chubdars, and their ftaves may be only half
plated with filver,
CHUCHIA, in Zeylogy, a name given by Cardan,
L2 Oviedo,
GCH-U
Oviedo, and fome others, to the opoflum, Diadelphis opofum
of Schrebers ?
CHUCHUNGUA, in Geography, a {mall place of
South America, in the country of Jaen de Bracamoros,
feated on a river of that name, in 25° 29'S. lat. As the
river Maranon is not navigable up to Jaen, this town ferves
as a port to it, and thofe who wih to embark on the Mara-
non go by land from Juen to Chuchungua, and from hence
fall down into the Maranon. This town lies four days
journey from the city, but in this mode of reckoning it
fhould be confidered, that fuch are the difficulties of the
road, as to render it impoflible to travel in half a day or
fometimes a whole day, an interval which might be pafled
over on good ground in an hour or two.
CHUCKING, among Rope-makers, denotes a long,
flout, coarfe, hemp, rather foul, and ufed for making inferior
rope. Short chucking is the foul hemp from the ends of
the long chucking.
CHUCUITO, jurifdizion of, in Geography, a province
or jurifdifiion of South America belonging to the diocefe
of La Paz and audience of Charcas. It begins about 20
leagues W. of Paz; and as fome part of it borders on the
lake of Titicaca, that colleGtion of waters is alfo called the
lake of Chucuito. he extent of this province from N.
to S. is between 26 and 28 leagues, its temperature is in ge-
neral cold and very unpleafant; the frofts continuing one half
of the year, and during the other haif either {now or hail is
continually falling. Accordingly the only efculent produc-
tions of the vegetable kingdom are the papas and quinoas.
The inhabitants, however, have a very beneficial trade in cat-
tle, which abound in this jurifdiGtion, by falting and dry-
ing their flefh. The traders who carry it to the coaft ex-
change it for brandy and wine, and thofe who go to Cocha-
bamba carry alfo papas and quinoas, which they barter for
meal. The mountains in this province have filver mines,
which formerly produced large quantities of this metal, but
they are at prefent totally abandoned.
CuucuirTo, /ake of, otherwife called the lake of Titi-caca,
lies between the provinces comprehended under the general
name of Calloa, and is of all the known lakes of America
much the largeft. Its figure is fomewhat oval, inclining
nearly from N.W. to S.E.; its circumference is about 80
leagues, and the water in fome parts 70 or 80 fathoms deep.
‘Ten or twelve large rivers, belides a great number of {mall
ftreams, difcharge themfelves into it. The water, though
neither bitter nor brackith, is turbid, and has a tafte fo nau-
feous that it cannot be drank; it abounds with fith of two
oppofite kinds ; the one large and palatable, which the In-
dians call ‘* Suchis;”? the other, fmall, infipid, and bony,
termed long fince by the Spaniards ‘* Boyas.?? It has alfo
a great number of geefe and other wild fowl, and the fhores
are covered with flags and rufhes, the materials of which the
bridges arg made. As the weiftern borders of this lake are
called Chucuito, thofe on the eaft fide are diflinguifhed by
the name of * Omafcuyo.’”? It contains feveral iflands,
among which is one very large, and was anciently one moun-
tain, but fince levelled by order of the Incas. It however
gave to the lake its own name of Titicaca, which in the
Indian language, fignifies a mountain of lead. In this
ifland the firit Inca, Mango Capac, the illuftrious founder of
the empire of Peru, invented his political fable, that the
Sun, his father, had placed him, together with his fifter and
confort, Mama Oillo Huaco, there, enjoining them co draw
the neighbouring people from the ignorance, rudenefs, and
barbarity, in which they lived, and humanize them by
cultoms, laws, and religious rites, diftated by himfelf; and in
retura for the benefits refulting from this artful ftratagem, the
CHU
ifland has been confidered, by all the Indians, as facred ; and
the Incas determining to ereé&t on it atempleto the fun,
caufed it to be levelled, that the fituation might be more
delightful and commodious.
This was one of the moit {plendidtemples in-the whole em-
pire. Befides the plates of gold and filver with which its walls
were magnificently adorned, it contained an immenie collec-
tion of riches, contributed by ail the inhabitants of pro-
vinces which depended on the empire, who were under an
indifpenfable cbligation of vifiting it once a year and offering
fome gift. Thus were accumulated gold, filver, and jewels.
The Indians when they perceived the rapacious violence of
the Spaniards, are thought to have thrown this immenfe
mafs of riches into the lake. ‘Towards the fouth part of
the lake is a kind of bay formed by the approach of the
banks to each other; and this bay terminates in a river
called “ Al Defaguadero,” or the drain, and afterwards
forms the lake of Pavia, which has no vifible outlet, but
from which the water is difcharged by a fubterraneous
paflage.
CHUDLEIGH, in Geography, is a fmall but neat town
in Devonthire, England, for which the privilege of holding a
weekly market, and two annual fairs, was obtained by the
bifhops of Exeter, who had a magnificent palace about a
quarter of a mile to the fouth, part of which yet remains.
Lord Clifford, of Ugbrooke, now poffeffes the manor, which
formerly abounded with wood ; the north-eaft fide of the
parith ftill retains the name of Chudleigh-woods. The vici-
nity prefents tome very beautiful views ; and is celebrated ©
for cyder. The town principally confilts of one long ttreet,
at the weftern end of which is a {mall white-wafhed chureh,
containing fome monuments of the Courtenay family. Chud-
leigh is fituated 182 miles W.of London, and contains 414
houfes ; the number of inhabitants bzing 1786. The mar-
ket is held on Saturdays.
Cuupveicu Rock, about half a mile from the town, 18, in
the opinion of Mr. Polwhele, ‘* one of the mott ftriking in-
land rocks in the ifland.”? Viewed from the weft, it dif-
plays a bold broad front, almoft perpendicular; which, to
appearance, is one folid mafs of marble; from the fouth-ealt,
a hollow opens to the fight, with an impetuous {tream,
which rufhes over the rude {tones that impede its paflage,
and forms a romantic water-fall, which
‘Tn loud confufion o’er the broken fteep
Abruptly pours, and dafhes down the deep,”
Midway down the cliff, is a large cavern, whofe gloomy
receffes the traditions of the peafantry have affigned for the
habitation of Pixies, or Pifgies, a race of fupernatural beings,
or fort of fairies. ‘he entrance to the cavern is by a natural
arch, about twelve feet wide and ten in height; thepaflage con-
tinues nearly of the fame dimenfions for about twenty yards,
when it fuddenly diminifhes to fix feet by four, and, ftill gra-
dually decreafing in fize, extends about fifteen yards further.
Here it expands into a fpacious chamber, which divides and
runs off into two different dire€tions; but the rock drop-
ping, neither cf them can be purfued to any confiderable dif-
tance,
About one mile fouth-weft of Chudleigh is Ugdrooke, the
feat of lord Clifford, baron of Chudleigh. This demefne,
for internal beauties, furpaffes any in Devon; the park and
grounds comprize much beautiful and highly picturefque
fcenery ; conlilting of cluftered woods, rugged rocks, and
inequality of furface ; they comprehend a {pace of between
feven and eight miles in circumference ; and abound with
oak, elm, ath, and chefnut, of the moft luxuriant growth,
Hiltory, &c, of Devonfhire, by Polwhele, fol.
CHUDUCA, ©
CHU
CHUDUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
placed by Ptolemy in Babylonia.
CHUGANSERAL, in Geography, a town of Afia inthe
foubah of Cabul, or, according to the emperor Baber, at the
weftern extremity of Caferiflan, ona river of the fame name;
80 miles N.E. of Cabul. N. lat. 34° 55’. E. long. 70° 8’.
Cuucanseratr,a river of Afia, near the above-mentioned
town, which flows from the N.E. quarter in refpect of the
town, and from behind, i.e. fromthe north of Bijore, and
joins the Bacan river, in the diltriét of Kameh, where their
united ftreams take an ealterly courfe.
CHUKA, or Cuooxa, a cattie in the country of Boo-
tan, which is a large {quare building, placed on elevated
ground, and having one entrance into it bya flight of {teps,
and through a {pacious gate-way, with large heavy doors ;
it is built of ftone, and the walls are of a prodigious thick-
nefs. This caltle is feated on the river T'ehintchieu, and ata
fhort diftance above it is a chain-bridge, called Chuka-cha-
zum, {tretched over the river, and admitting only one horfe
to pafs over it at a time. It {wings as you tread upon it,
reatting at the fame time witha force that impels you, every
flep you take, to quicken your pace. On the five chains that
fupport the plattorm are placed feveral layers of {trong
coarfe mats of bamboo, loofely put down, fo as to play with
the {wivg of the bridge; and a fence on each fide, formed
of the fame materials, contributes to the fecurity of the pal
fenger. Capt Turner, in his “¢ Account of an Embafly to
Tibet,” has given a drawing of the plan and feétions of
this bridge, conftru@ted from a meafurement of its different
parts, together witha perfpetive view of it, and the adjacent
fcenery. There is a fimilar bridge over the river Tees, de-
fcribed by Hutchinfon in his « Hiftory and Antiquities of
Durham,”’ The fuperititious inhabitants confider this bridge
as fomewhat more than mere human production, and afcribe
it to the dewta Tchuptihup, whofe origin and hiftory can-
not be traced with any degree of certainty. Tyadition fays,
that this diftinguifhed perfon, in his flight from Bootan to
the country of the Racuffes, whofe ruler he put to death, and
the government of which he aflumed, paffed over a moun-
tain at fome diftance from Chuka, through a chafm in the
folid rock of the depth of 18 or 20 feet, jult wide enough to
admit a man on horieback, and that in icrambling over the
rock, he left a deep impreffion of his hands and fect upon
the ftone. The vettiges are {till pointed out, and the people
are credulous enough to believe the ftory. This mountain
communacates with that which is oppolite to it by a very
curious and fimple bridge, conftructed for the accommoda-
tion of fingle paffengers. It confilts of two large ropes
made of twifted creepers, flretched parallel to each other,
and encircled witha hoop. ‘The paffing traveller places him-
felf between the ropes, and fitting down on the hoop, feizes
one rope in each hand, and thus fliding himfelf along, crofles
an abyfs which cannot be viewed without fhuddering, By
this mode of palling from one mountain to another, travel-
ler: fave a laborious journey of feveral days. In the vicinage
ot Chuka are many well-cultivated fields of wheat and barley.
Tt is. diflant from Murichom about 15 miles. N. lat. 27°
GPP ON SOc (3h!
CHUKOTSKIJA, a province of Siberia, and the moft
eafterly of the dominions of Ruffia, extending from 63° to
73° 20' N. lat. and from 156° 14’ to 189° 14’ E. long,
See TscuuTskt.
CHULAPU, is one of the deferts of the Andes in South
America, in which the Spanifh aftronomers, deputed to
meafure the meridian, placed one of their fignals.
CHULLABSS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
according to St. Augultine,
cHU
CHULUTECA, cr Xeags, in Geography, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Guatimala, on the N. fide of
the river Fonfeca. N. lst. 13°20’. W. long. 88° 6’.
CHUMANA, or Prumana, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Chaldza.
CHUMBI-VILCAS, in Geography, a jurifdiGion of
South America, in the diocefe of Cufeo; which extends in
fome parts above 30 leagues, and has diferent temperatures
of air, great quantities of corn and fruits, and large herds of
cattle, together with fome mines of filverand gold.
CHUMBUL, one of the molt confiderable rivers in Hin-
dooftan. Taking its rife near the ancient city of Mundu,
in the heart of the province of Malwa, within 15 miles of
the Nerbudda, it purfues a north-ealterly direction, and af-
ter wafhing the city of Kotah, and receiving the tribute of
many fubordinate {treams, at length empties icfelf into the
Jumna, 20 miles below Etawa. Tne whole length of its
courfe 1s about 440 miles. The village of Keyterce itands
onits fouthera bank, and the width of its channel is here 2 of
a mile.
CHUMDA-TCHIEN, a.river of Afia, in the country
of Bootan, which flows from the eaft and difcharges itfelf
into the Tehintchieu, near its junction with the Vatchieu.
CHUMLEIGH, or Cuimeeticn, is a fuall market-
town, in Devonfhire, England, fituated on the north bank of
the river Dart. The church was formerly collegiate, and
four prebends are {till annexed to the retory. This ftruc-
ture was greatly damaged in July 1797, by a tremendous
ftorm; in which the lightning aGed with fuch amazing
force, that a ftone, upwards of 200 pounds in weight, was
carried from the fouth-eaft pinwacle completely over the
tower, without touching it. ‘The number of houfes in this
partfh is 296: of inhabitants 1333. Chumleigh is 194 miles
W. from London ; has a weekly market on Vhurfday ; and
an annual fair.
CHUMULAREC, the name of a range of mountains in
the fouthern part of Tibet, about N. lat. 28° 5, and 89° 20'
E. long. ; which is covered with fnow all the year. Many
rivers originate in thefe mountains, and flow towards the
fouth, with a rapid defcent, through Boutan into Bengal ;
while others, taking a northerly direGtion, fall into the Ber-
hampooter, and are conveyed with it, to a junction, in the
neighbourhood of the fea, with the waters which flow ina
contrary courfe from the fame general fource. This fa&
proves that this part of Little Tibet conititutes the higheft
point of land.
CHUN, or Cun, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
in Syria, conquered by David, and mentioned in the book of
Chronicles.
CHUNAGUR, or Junacur, in Geography, a city and
fortrefs of Hindooltan, in the heart of the peninfula of Gu-
zerat,
CHUNAM. See Calcareous CEMENT.
CHUNAR, a fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the country of
Benares, fituated on a rock on the fouth fide of the Ganges,
and furrounded with walls and towers; ceded to the Eng-
lith by the nabob of Oude; 13 miles S. of Benares. N. late.
25° 10’. Ey long. 83° 5/.
CHUNAUB, or Jenavs, a river of the Panjab. in In-
dia, the dcefines of Alexander, and the Sandadalis of Pro-
lemy. This river is larger than the Behut, and‘ has its
fources more remote ; for it rifes on the eaft of Kifhtewar
and has two diftinét heads. _ Its general courfe is remarkably
ftraight from N.E. to S.W.; and after leaving Jummoo,
pafles through ‘a flat country, gradually approaching the
Behut. The junétion of thefe rivers is effeéted with great:
violence and noife, and no lefs danger to navigators; and.
this
\
cHU
this circumftance is peculiarly noticed both by the hiftorians
of Alexander and of Timur. ‘lhe {pace between the Chu-
navb and Behut is no where more than 30 geographical
miles, within the limits of the Panjab. ‘The {pace between
the Rauvee and Chunaub, at their entry on the plains, is
about 54 geographical miles; and they gradually approach
each other, during a courfe of feven miles. ‘The junction
of the Rauvee with the Chunaub, or rather the Chunaub
and Behut colleGtively, is effected nearly midway between
Toulamba and Moultan. The Ayin Acbaree allows 27
coffes between the junction of the Behut and Chunaub, and
that of the Rauvee with the Chunaub: but, from circum-
flances, major Rennell concludes, that the diltance mutt be
applied to the courfe of the river, not to the road by land.
When thefe three rivers are united, they forma ftream equal
to the Indus itfelf, at the place of confluence; which is
from 20 to 30 miles below Moultan.
CHUNCOA, in Botany, a barbarous name of a tree bor-
rowed from the natives by Pavon, who found it in woods
near the river of Amazons, and adopted by Juflieu as a dif-
tinct genus with the following charaCter: Cal. five-cleft,
with a fpreading border. Stam. ten. eric. capfule, five-
cornered ; angles winged, the two oppofite ones larger.
Seed one, not crowned. Leaves alternate, diflant. /owers
in axillary {pikes, hermaphrodite at the bafe, male near the
top. The authors of Flor. Peruy. call it gimbernatia, and
have figured it under that name in pl. 36. of their work.
It would arrange under polygamia moneecia of the Linnzan
fy{tem, and is placed in the natural order eleagni by Jul-
feu.
CHUNDNAJH, in Geography, one of the fubordinate
branches of the Ganges, which feparates from it at Modda-
pour, and terminates in the Hooringolla. ‘This is the only
branch of the Ganges that is at all times navigable.
CHUNG, a town of China, of the third rank, in the pro-
vince of Pe-tche-li; 20 miles N.E. of Peking.
CHUNGAR, in Ornithology. In the hiftory of ‘Timur
Beck, mention is made of a fine bird of Tartary, called
chon-kui, that was prefented to Gengis-khan by the ambaf-
fadors of Kadjak. ‘The bird appears to be unknown to the
European naturalifts. Sonnini feppofes it may be the Turk-
ith chungar, and therefore a heron or bittern. Others affirm
that it is a bird of prey, which, being ornamented with a num-
ber of precious gems, is prefented by dependent itates as a
mark of homage. The Ruffians, as well as the Tartars of
the Crimea, Sonnini tells us, are obliged by virtue of certain
treaties, with the Ottoman empire, to prefent one of thofe
birds decorated with a certain number of diamonds every
year to the Porte.
CHUNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Sarmatia,
laced by Ptolemy between the Bafteraz and Roxolini.
CHUN-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Se-tchuen, comprehending within its difrict
nine cities, of which two are of the fecond rank ; 760 miles
§.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 30° 50’. E. long. 105° 44’.
CHUN-LIEOU, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corca; 25 miles E.N.E. of Koang-tcheou.
CHUNNA, in the Salic Laws, is ufed for an hundred ;.
or rather an hundred pence or denarii ; the pecuniary penal-
ties of that law are eitimated by chunnz, and reduced to
Solidi, by reckoning forty denarii to the folidum.
CHUN-NGHAN, in Geography, a town of China, of
the third rank, in the province of Tche-kiang; 11 leagues
N. of Kiu-tcheon.
CHUN-NING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Yun-nan ; 420 leagues S.W. of Peking, N. lat.
24° 377. E. long. 99° 4".
CHU
CHUN-TCHAN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Fo-kien; 30 miles W.N.W. of Yen-
Ding.
: CHUN-TCHUEN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea; 22 miles S.E. of Han-tcheou.
CHUN.-TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Pe-tche-li; 200 miles N.N.E. of Peking.
This city has but a {mall diltri€& ; for there are only. nine
cities of the third clafs under its jurifdiction ; but they are
all very populous. he adjacent country is pleafant and
fertile; on account of the number of lakes and rivers that
water and refrefh it. Its ecraw-fifh are celebrated; and it
produces a jtne delicate kind of fand, ufed in polifhing pre-
cious ftones, which is fold ail over the empire. It abounds
alfo with touch-ftone, which is reckoned the beft in China.
Ni-lat..37°.5/. E. longerrd? 19%:
CHUN-TIAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea; 27 miles S.S.E. of Koang-tcheou.
CHUN-YAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Co-
rea ; 20 miles S. of Han-tcheou. :
CHUPKA, or Kerra, a mountain of Bootan, fome-
what more northerly than the valley of Punugga, having
half-way up its fide a caftle, in a bleak, but beautifully ro-
mantic fituation ; the mountains in its neighbourhoed appear-
ing to captain Turner the highelt which he had feen in
Bootan.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a fe& among the Mahometans
who believe that Jefus Chrift'is God, and the true Meffiah,
the redeemer of the world ; but without rendering him any
public, or declared worfhip.
The word, in the Turkifh language, fignifies * Prote€tor
of the Chriftians.
Ricaut fays, there are abundance of the Chupmeffahites
among the people of tafhien in Turkey, and fome even in
the feraglio.
CHUPUAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the buntry of Bahar, on the north coaft of the Ganges; 25
miles N.W. from Patna.
CHUQUIRAGA, in Botany, a barbarous name given
by the Peruvians to a fyngenefious plant, and adopted
by Juffieu and La Marck as a generic one. Juff. 178. Lam.
Illuf. Pl. 691. Nat. Ord. Corymbyferz, Julf.
Gen.Ch. Cai. large, top-lhaped, compofed of very nu-
merous imbricated fcales ; the outward ones growing gradu-
ally fmaller. lowers flofculous; florets numerous, very
long, nearly entire at their borders; anthers long, with two
briltles at their bafe; itigma one; down feathered, long ;
receptacle villous.
A branched fhrub. Leaves rigid, like thofe of rufeus,
acuminate, alternate, denfely imbricated. F/oqwers folitary,
terminating the branches. Nearly allied to mutifia, but not
radiate; perhaps {ill more nearly allied to the cinaroca-
hale. Defenbed from a dricd fpecimen in the herbarium
of Jof. Juffieu.
CHURAQUER, in Geography, a town of Armenia ; 48
miles W. of Erivan. :
CHURASCH, a town of Arabia; 44 miles S. of
Saade.
CHURCH, an affembly of perfons united by the profef-
fion of the fame Chriftian faith, and the participation of the
fame facraments. Bellarmin, and the Romifh divines, to this
definition add, ‘* Under the fame pope, fovereign pontiff, and
vicar of Jefus Chrift on earth :’? in which circumftance it is
that the Romifhand Reformed notions of church differ,
Amelotte, and others, make a vifible head, or chief, ef-
fential to a church: accordingly, among the Catholics, the
pope; in England, the king ; are refpettively allowed gil
° °
.
——
' CHU
of the church. Bifhop Hoadly fets afide the notion of a
vifible head; Chrilt alone, ac cording to him, is head of the
church; which pofition he has matatained, with great ed+
drefs, in a celebrated fermon before king Georve I. on thefe
words, * My kingdom is not of this world ;? and in the
feveral vindications of it. To this purpofe, he favs, that as the
church of Chrilt is the kingdom of Chrilt, he himfelf is king ;
and'in this it is alfo implied, that he is himfelf the fole Jaw-
iver to his fubje@s, and himfelf the fole judge of their beha-
viour, in the affairs of confcience and eternal falvation. In
thefe points he hath left behind him no vifible, or human au-
thority ; no vicegerents, who can be {aid properly to fupply
his place; no interpreters, upon whom his fubjects are ablo-
Jutely to depend ;. no judies over the confeiences or religion
of his people. Mr. Locke, in his * Letters concerning
"Toleration,’’ deferibes a church asa voluntary fociety of men,
who join themlfelves toz zether, of their own accord, for the
public worfhip of God, in fuch a manner as they judge ac-
ceptable to him) and effe€tual to the falvation of their fouls.
Nobody, he fays, is born a member of any church; other-
wile the religion of parents would defecnd to children, by
the fame right of mherirance as their temporal ctiates, and
every one would hold his faith by the fame tenure as he
holds his lands ;sthan which nothing can be imagined more
abfurd. As the entrance of a peifon luto any particular
church is voluntary, fo is alfo his continuance in it. No
member of any religious fociety, fays Mr. Locke, can be tied
with any ot her boads but what proceed from the certain ex-
pectation of eternal life. A church, then, is a fociety of
members voluntarily uniting to thisend. This author fur-
ther adds, that things, never fo indifferent in their own nature,
when they are brought into the church and worthip of
God, are removed out of the magiftrate’s jurifdiGtion ; be-
caufe in that ufe they have no Eee at all with civil
affairs. ‘The only bufinefs of the church is the falvation of
fouls: and it noways concerns the commonwealth, or any
member of it, that this, or the other ceremony be there made
wleof. Neither the ufe, nor the omiffion of any ceremonies
in thefe religious aflemblics, does either advantage or preju-
dice the ie liberty, or eftate of any man.
The term ecclefia, exxdn71z, fynonymous with our church,
is ufed in the Greek and Latin profane authors for any iad
of public affembly called together upon any pubiic bufinefs,
to enact laws, ed (fee /Efchines, paflim, and Lucian, who
nfes the words Qzuy exxAnzia, g.d. au iemaly of the pod?)
and the term was even ufed for the place where the aflembly
was held. The facred and ecclefiaftical writers fometimes
alfo ufed it in the fame fenfe; but ordinarily they retrain
the term to the Chriftians; as the term /ynagogue, which
originally fignifies nearly the fame thing, is in like manner re-
ftrained to the Jews.
Thus, in the New Teftament, the Greek sxxancie fignifes,
almott always, the aflembly of the faithful diilufed over the
whole earth, as Ephef. v. 24. or the faithful of a particular
city or province, as Acts, xi. 22. xv. 2 Cor. vill. I. or
even of a fingle family, as Rom. xvi. 5.
For the meaning of the term <xadncix, asit was applied by
the facred writers, fee alfo Acts, xix. 32.40. 1 Cor. xiv.
23. Phil.iv.15. Heb. xii. 23. From the feveral places
above cited it appears, that the congregation, and nct the
place, forms the fcripture idea of a church. The Hebrew
word Typ exactly corre{ponds to the Greek exxrnoiz, and
is com monly rendered by it in the Septuagint, the only
Greek tranflation of the Old Teftament in ufe in the time of
our Saviour. Its idiom and phrafeology were conkequently
become the ftandard, in all matters that concerned rehgion,
to all the Jewifh writers who ufed the Greek language, and
22
22s
RCH.
who werecommonly diftingzuifhed by the name of Hellenifts.
T’rom them the term was originally borrowed by the penmen
of the New leflament. Irom their manner of uling it, there-
fore,the general mating of the word is to be fought. But
thoug h the phrates 4 sae Date Ciara in Hebrew, and raca
% Exnanzig IogetA In Gureale the RAPE church of Ifrael, do
frequentl y occur in the Old ip eee there 1s not a fale
patlage in which they are not confel edly equivalent to the
phrates SX WP? as S-. and wax jo sdyvos Iogaza, all the
nation of lirael, The fame may be faid of the phrafes
joey TAIN Prute) and DOR Dy” exxAnoie see and 6
Azo: Se, the eliarch of God, and. the people of God. A di-
{tinction between thefe would have been proopuncta by
them inconceivable, as being a diftinQion between the church
and its conttituent members. Inthe Jatintranflation, cailed
the Vulleates the date of which is about the beginning of
the 5th ceutury, the Greek word is commonly aoaicds hats
ing hs long before naturalized among Chritlians. Ac-
cordingly, they rendered thefe phrafes m the Old Teftament
“ omnis ecclefia T[rael,”’ and ‘* ecclefia Da.” Our Englith
tranflators, however, have never admitted the word ‘* church?”
into cheir verfion of the Old Teltament, notwith{tanding the
frequent ufe they have made or it in ie New. ste have
always rendered the Hebrew word Dies by the Englifh
words, congregation, affemoly, or fome fynonymous term.
Either of thefe Englifa terms is well adapted to exprefs the
fenfe of the debrew : ; and they were altogether as fit for ex-
prefling the fenfe of the word sxxAneux in the New Teltament
as of the word Pat in the Old; the former being the
term by which the laren had been rendered almott uniformly
in the Septuagint, and which had been employe das ¢quiva-
lent by atl the Heilenift Jews. In order to preferve uni-
formity, our tranflators ought conitantly to have rendered.
the original expreffion either ** church”? in the Old Tefta-
ment, or ** congregation” in the New. _‘T'erms fo perfectly
coincident in fignification, as thele Hebrew and Greek.
names are, ought to have been tranflated by the fame Eng-
tith word. Indeed, our tranflators do not refufe the title of
church to the commonwealth of Ifracl, when an occafion for
giving it occurs in the New Teltament, though they have
not availed themfelves of a fimilar occafion in the Old.
Thus they have rendered the words of Stephen, who
fays, {peaking of Mofes, Aéts, vil. 38. ‘¢ This is he that
was in the church in the wildernefs 57? Ovlos ety 6 yevopevos
ty Tn exureria ev Tn ¢ pnpewe We do not find, however, fays
Dr. Campbell, in his ‘ Ecclefiaftical Hiftory’” (vol. i.
p- 323-). in the nfe of either the Greek word in the
New Teftament, or of the correfpondent word in the Old,
any veilige of an application of the term to a {maller part of
the community, their governors, paltors, or priefts, for in-
ftance, as reprefenting the whole. The only paflage thar
has been alleged, with any appearance of plaufibility, in eee
of this application, is Matt. xviii. 17, where our Lord,
the direétions he gives for removing offences between a
thren, enjoins the party offended, after repeated admonitions
in a more private manner have proved ineffeiual, to relate
the whole to the church, awe rn sxxAnowz 3 but Dr. Campbell
afks, ‘* by what rule of found criticifm can we arbitrarily
impofe here on the word ** church’? the fignification of
church reprefentative, a hignification which we do not find it
bears in one other paflage of {cripture 2”? But that the
meaning of the word 19 here, as in other places, no more than
congregation, and that it fhould have been fo rendered, he ar=
gues from the confideration that our Lord gave thefe direc~
tions during the fubfiltence of the Mofaic eftablifhment ; and
if we believe that he fpoke intelligibly, or with a view to be
underftood, we mutt believe alfo that he ufed the word in an
acceptation
{HW R C-H. '
‘acceptation with which the hearers were acquainted. All
the then known acceptatious of the name «xxAnsiz, were thefe
two, the whole Jewifh people, and a particular congregation.
The feope of the place fufficiently thews, it could not be the
former of thefe fenfes, and it mult therefore be the latter.
What further confirms this interpretation is, that the Jews
were accuftomed to call thofe affemblies, which met together
for worlhip in the fame fynagogue, by this appellation ; and
had, if we may believe fone learned men converfant in Jewifh
antiquities, a rule of procedure fimilar to that here recom-
mended, which our Lord adopted from the fynagogue, and
tran{planted into bis church. his learned writer proceeds
to adduce another collateral and corroborative evidence, that
by «xAncix is here meant not a reprefentative body, but the
whole of a particular congregation ; and this is the actual
ufage of the church for the firlt 309 years. As far down as
Cyprian’s time, about the middle of the third century, when
the power of the people was on the decline, it continued to
be the practice, that nothing relating to matters of {cardal
and cenfure could be concluded without the confent and ap-
proval of the congregation. Upon the whele'it feems
to be evident that the term church. denoting, according to its
etymo.ogy, no more than fociety or aflembly, is fometimes
ufed in the New Teftament, with gbvious analogy to the
common ule, to fignify the whole community of Chriltians,
confidered as one body, of which Chrift is denominated the
head, and fometimes only a particular congregation of
Chrittians. When this word is limited, or appropriated, as
it generally is in the New Teftament, by its regimen, as
we Gen, TH xugin, Te XEis¥, Or by the {cope of the place, it is
always to be explained in one or other of the two following
fenfes. It denotes either a fingle congregation of Chritians,
or the whole Chriftian community ; nor can we hardly ever be
at alofs to know from the context which of the two is im-
plied. The former acceptation of the term is fometimes
evident from the words in conftruction, as cnz exxAncins tn ow
Keyx eats, and 7% exxAncim Te Gee TH ev Koen dw, orthe like. In
the latter fenfe it ought always to be underitood, when we
find nothing in the expreflion, or in the {cope of the paflage,
to determine us to limit it; e.gs in the following, Ems TavIn
7n aEled acxodopnaw pe tay exxAnsiay ‘O xupios wesrehiles Te ow Copee~
ves xxl ipeeacy an exxancst. In this latt acceptation of the
word, for the whole body of Chrift’s difciples, wherefoever
difperfed, it came afterwards to be diftinguifhed by the epi-
thet xz4Axn. Accordingly, they faid 3 exxanzice 4 xsforixn,
the catholic or univerfal church. But, it has been alleged,
that in any intermediate fenfe, between a fingle congregation
and the whole community of Chriftians, no gle in-
ftance can be brought of the application of the word in
facred writ. We fpeak now, indeed (and* this has been
the manner for ages), of the Gallican church, the
Greek church, the church of England, the church of
Scotland, as of focicties independent and complete in them-
felves. Such a phrafeology was never adopted in the days
of the apoltles. They did not fay, the church of Afia, or
the church of Macedonia, or the church of Achaia, but the
churches of God in Afia, the churches in Macedonia, the
churehes in Achaia. The plural number is invariably ufed
when more congregations than one are fpoken of, unlefs the
fubje&t be the whole commonwealth of Chrift. ‘This is not
only the mode of expreflion adopted by the facred writers,
but it is the conftant ufage ofthe term inthe writings of ec-
clefiaftical authors for the two firlt centuries : allowing for
one excrption to the contrary, which occurs in the epiftles
of Ignatius. This language ‘s alfo conformable to the ufage,
in relation to this term, which had always obtained among
the Jews. The whole nation, or commonwealth of Ifrael,
‘
was often denominated rao 7 exxdnoin Iogeed ; and after the
revolt of the ten tribes, when they ceafed to make one people
or ftate with the other two, we hear of racw % exxAnoiz Todo.
This is the large or comprehenfive ufe of the word above
noticed. With regard to the more conlined application,
the fame term exxAroiz was alfo employed to denote a num-
ber of people, either a€tually affembled, or wont to affem-
ble in the fame place. ‘Thus, all belonging to the fame fy-
nagogue were called indifferently exxAnzix, or cuvaywyn, as
thefe words in the Jewifh ufe were nearly fynonymous. The
limitation of the term ‘* church’’ to the clergy and the ec-
clefialtical judicatories, and the claims of independency ad-
vanced by thefe, as well as certain claims of power and jn-
rifdiction, in fome things differing, and in fome things inter-
fering with the claims of the magiltrate, arofe after the ef-
tablifhment of the Chriftian religion under Conflantine ; and
hence a diitin@tion fubfilted, in the Chriftian community, at
an early period, between the church and flate.
We may here remark, that it is doubtful whether the
word exxAnsix ever occurs in the New Teftament in a fenfe,
in which, indeed, the word ‘ church” is very common with
us, as a name for the place of worlhip: There are two paf-
fages, which feent to convey this fenfe ; and they both oc-
cur in the 11th chapter of the rit epiftle to the Corinthians.
The rftis v. 18, ‘¢ when ye come together in the church,”
oveexoucvey Uuay ev In exxAnoia. Here, however, the word is
fufceptible of another interpretation, as a name for the fo-~
ciety. hus we fay ‘ The lords fpiritual and temporal,
and the commons ia parliament affembled,”’ where parlia-
meit does not mean the houfe they meet in, but the aflem-
bly properly conftituted.’ The other paffage is v. 22.
‘ Have ye not houfes to eat and drink in, or defpife ye the
church of God?” sn; exxanrins te See xoljn@eovelle where, it
is alleged, the oppofition of exxanziz to omic, the church
to their houfes, adds a probability to this interpretation.
This plea, however, though plaufible, is not decifive. The
apoftle’s argument on the contrary hypothefis would ftand
thus: what can be the reafon of this abufe? Is it becaufe
ye have not houfes of your own in which to eat and drink?
Or is it becaufe ye defpife the Chriftian congregation to
which you belong? This, though it muft be allowed not
to convey fo exaé a verbal antithefis, is, in the judgment
of fome writers, more in the fpirit and ftyle of the New
Teftament, than to fpeak of defpifing ftone walls. At
length. however, the term exxAncse, by a common metonymy,
the thing contained for the thing containing, came to be
univerfally employed in this acceptation. Among the extra-
ordinary minilters of the Chriftian church, at the period of
its firit eltablifhment, we may reckon apoftles, prophets,
and evangelilts, befides thofe who were endowed with fuper-
natural gifts, and afterwards bifhops, prefbyters, and deacons.
See thefe feveral terms.
The word “church,” fays lord chancellor King (Conftitu-
tion, Difcipline, &c. of the Primitive Church), is both in our
modern acceptation, and alfo in the writings of the fathers,
equivocal, having different fignifications, according to the dif-
ferent fubje&ts to which it is applied. It is often to be under-
ftood, 1{t, of the ‘* Church Univerfal,’? that is, of all thofe,
who, throughout the face of the whole earth, profefled faith
in Chrift, and acknowledged him to be the Saviour of man-
kind. This is that which they called the ‘ Cathofic
Church.”? See Iren. 1. i. c. 2. c. 3. Apud Eufeb.
Tevit. 'c. age kevin ey YOor 1 tween Ga eee ee ee
“« church”? is frequently to be underftood of a ‘ particular
church,’’ that is, of a company of believers, who, at one
time, in one and the fame place, affociated themfelves to-
gether, and concurred in the participation of all the in-
S) flitutions
@ HU
ftitutions and ordinances of Jefus Chrift, with their proper
minilters and paftors. Various inflances of this ufe of the
term occur in Irenzus, Cyprian, Ignatius, Origen, &c.
3. The word “ church” is fometimes ufed for the place
where a particular church or congregation met for the cele-
bration of divine fervice ; and it is thus ufed by Paulus Sa-
mofatenus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Tertullian, Origen, &c.
&c. 4. The word “church”? is once ufed by Cyprian for
a collection of many particular churches; but when the
fathers have occafion to {peak of the Chriftians in any king-
dom or province, they always ufe the plural, “ the churches,”
and never the fingular, or the church of fuch a kingdom
or province. 5. ‘Uhe word ‘‘church’’ frequently occurs for
that which we commonly call the invifible church, that is,
for thofe who, by a found repentance and a lively faith, are
actually interefted in the Lord Jefus Chrilt; and it is thus
ufed by Tertullian, Ireneus, and others of the fathers. 6.
The word **church”’ is frequently to be interpreted of the
faith and doétrine of the chuch. It is alfo ufed, according to
its original import, for any congregation in general, as we
have already {tated ; fometimes it is applied to any particular
fect of heretics ; at other times it is attributed to the orthodox
in oppofition to the heretics ; in both which fenfes it is ufed
by ‘Yertullian ; fometimes it is appropriated to the heathen
affemblies, as by Origen; at other umes, in oppofition to
the Jews, it is afcribed to the believing Gentiles, as by
Ireneus: in other places it fignifies the aflembly of the
{pirits of juft men made perfeét in heaven, commonly called
«the church triumphant,” in oppolition to * the church
militant,”? or the aflembly of the faithful on earth. To
thefe the Catholics add ‘* the church patient,’’ which, ac-
cording to their doétrine, is that of the faithful in purga-
tory. Lord King (ubi fupra) fays, that he has once found
the term “church” denoting the laity only, in oppofition
to the clergy (Emoxowos xo eer Gulceor, xo Arcrxovos, noes a
ixxAngizt 72 Ozx, Eufeb. |. vii. c. 30.): and once fignifying
only Chrift as the head of the faithful (Ecclefia veri Chriftus,
Tertullian, de Pxnit. p. 302.) After all, this learned
writer obferves, that the ufual and moft common acceptation
of the word is that of a particular church, that is, a fociety
of Chriftians, meeting in one place, under their proper
paftors, for the performance of religious worfhip, and the
exercife of Chriftian difcipline.
‘The conftituent parts of a particular church are the people,
who compofe the body of it, and thofe perfons who are fet
apart for relizious and ecclefiaftical employments, or, accord-
ing to our ordinary diale&t, the clergy and laity; which is
an early diftinction, being mentioned by Clemens Romanus
(Epift. r. ad Corinth.) and after him by Origen (Homil. rr.
in Jerem.) and feveral others. See Crercy, Bisuor, &c.
Every particular church, in ancient times, pofleffed the
power of exercifing difcipline on its own members, without
the concurrence of other churches. Accordingly we find, that
the exercife of this power was formally decreed by two Afni-
can fynods, recorded apud Cyprian. Epift. 55. § 16. and
Epiut. 72. § 3. Neverthelefs, a particular church was not
the whole church of Chrift, but only a part or member of
the church univerfal; and we therefore find, that though
the labours and infpection of the bifhops were more pecu-
Miarly reltricted to their own parifhes, yct, as minilters of the
univerial church, they employed a general kind of infpec-
tion over other churches alfo, Cyprian, Epift. 67. § 6.
Ed. 29. Enufeb. lib. vil. c.g. See Councin.
With regard to the unity of the church univertal, in primi-
tive times, the learned author, whom we are now citing, {hews,
‘that it did not confift in an uniformity of rites and cuftoms,
mor in an unanimity of conlent to the non-ellential points of
Vor. VIII.
Rr Gls
Chriftianity ; but it confifted in an harmontous affent to the
eflential articles of religion, or in an unanimous agreement
in the fundamentals of faith and doétrine. If we confider
the word “church,” collectively, as denoting a collection
of many particular churches, in which fenfe it is once ufed
by Cyprian; then its unity may have confifted in a bro-
therly correfpondence with, and affection towards each
other, which they demonftrated by all outward expreflions
of love and concord. See Scuism and Heresy.
The worfhip of the primitive church confifted in the reading
of the Holy Scriptures, the finging of pfalms and hymns, the
preaching of the word, and public prayers. T’o thefe atts
of public fervice, they added the adminiftration of baptifm
and the Lord’s Supper. See each of thefe articles.
In adverting to the articles of the eftablifhed church in our
own country, we find (art. 19.) that “ the vilible church of
Chrift”’ is defined to be a congregation of faithful men, in
the which the pure word of God is preached, and the Sa~
craments be duly adminiftered according to Chriit’s ordi-
nance, in all thofe things that of neceflity are requifite to
the fame.”? The expreffion of * the vifible church of Chritt,’””
feems here to be ufed in contradiftinG@ion to the myftical
or invifible church of Chrift ; which latter confilts of thofe
perfons who have truly believed and obeyed the gofpel, and
who are conceived, although they have lived at different
periods, to be united into one body, which is called myttical
or invifible; not only becaufe they are not now a!l upon
earth, but becaufe the qualities and properties, which gave
them a claim to be members of this bleffed fociety, were
never the objects of fenfe, and could not be judged of by
men from merely external circum{tances. Whereas, ‘‘ the
vifible church,” in its mot extenfive fenfe, may include all
perfons who are or have been, by outward profeffion,
Chriftians, whether they have or have not believed all the
doétrines, or obeyed all the precepts of the gofpel. This
may be called the vifible Catholic church. But in the ar-
ticle, above cited, ‘* the vilible church”? is ufed in a more
limited fenfe, and comprehends only the Chriltians of one
country or city, or of one perfuafion ; thus, towards the
clofe, it mentions the church of Jerufalem, of Alexandria,
of Antioch, and of Rome; and in like manner we often
{peak of the church of England, of Holland, of Geneva,
and of the Lutheran church; and all thefe different churches
are parts of the vifible Catholic church. ‘‘ The adherence,’”
fays Dr. Tomline, bifhop of Lincoln, (Elements of Chrif-
tian Theology, vol. ii. p. 325.) ‘ to the fundamental prin-
ciples of the gofpel is fuflicient to contlitute a vilible church
although every doétrine it maintains may not be founded
in truth, or all the parts of public worfhip agreeable to
Scripture. We confider all men as Chriftians, or as mem~
bers of the vifible church of Chrift, who have been bap-
tized, and profefs their belief in the divine miffion of Chritt,
even if their faith be in fome refpects erroneous, and their
lives unworthy of their holy vocation.”
The Chriftian church, with regard to its local eftablifh-
ment, extent, and influence, is frequently divided into
Eaflern or Greek and Weflern or Latin.
‘The firft jealoufies between the Greek and Latin churches
were excited at the council of Sardis, in the year 347, and a
vindictive {pirit prevailed fora long time between the bifhops
of Rome and Conttantinople, which occafionally broke out
into aéts of violence. ‘Che ambition and fury of thele con-
tending prelates grew {till more keen and vehement about
the time of Leo the Ifaurian, when the bifhops of Conltan-
tinople, feconded by the authority and power of the empe-
rors, withdrew from the jurifdi€tion of the Roman pontulf
many provinces, over which they had hitherto exercifed ad
ritua
CHw
ritual dominion. However, the fchifm, or total feparation,
did not take place cill the time of Photius, who was elected
patriarch of Conftantinople in the year 855 by the emperor
Michael, in the place of Ignatius, whom that prince drove
from his fee and-fent into exile. Pope Nicholas I. took
part with the exiled patriarch, decreed the election to be
unwarrantable in a council held at Rome A. D. 862, and
excommunicated Photius. ‘T'ne high-{pirited patriarch, re-
{peéted as the moft learned and ingenious perfon of the age in
which he lived, afflembled a council at Conttantinople, A. D.
866, returned the compliment, and declared Nicholas un-
worthy of his rank in the church, and of even being admit-
ted to the communion of Chriitians. The pretext alleged
by the Roman prelate, in juftification of his condué, was
the innocence of Ignatius; but the fecret and moving fpring
feems to have been a defire of recovering from the Greeks
the provinces of Illyricum, Macedonia, Epirus, Achaia,
Theffaly, and Sicily, which the emperor and Photius had re-
moved from the jurifdiction of his fee. The reftitution of
thefe provinces had been demanded by a folemn embafly ;
but his requifition was treated with contempt, and from hence
proceeded his zeal in the caufe of jultice and of Ignatius.
The exiled patriarch was foon after reftored to his high fta-
tion by Balilius, who had paved h's way to the imperial
throne by the murder of his predeceflor ; and Photius was
confined ina monattery. Photius continued to feed the flame
of difcord, and, having in the year 866 added the province
of Bulgaria to the fee of Couitantinople, he now endea-
-voured to engage the oriental patriarch in his difpute, and
drew up a violent charge of herefy againft the Roman bi-
fhops, who had been fent among the new-converjed Bulga-
rians, and againft the church of Rome in general. Upon
the death of Ignatius in 875, the emperor took Photius in-
to favour, and advanced him again to the patriarchal {tation
from which he had been degraded. The grant of Bulgaria
to the Roman fee was promifed to the pontiff John VIIL.,
by the emperor and Greek patriarch, and Photius was ac-
knowledged by Johnashis brotherin Chriit. The emperor
and Photius falfifed their promife, and refufed to transfer
Bulgaria to the Roman pontiff.” After fome tubfequent oc-
cations of mutual offence, John was fucceeded by Marinus,
and a uew fentence of excommunication was iflued again{t
Photius. This fentence was treated with contempt by the
haughty patriarch, who, in 886, was depofed by the emperor
Leo from the patriarchal fee, and confined in an Armenian
monaltery, where he died in Sgt. ‘ihe death of Photius
might have terminated the difpute between the eaftern and
weitern churches, if the Roman pontiff had not been re-
gardiefs of the demands of equity as well_as of the duty of
Chriftian moderation. But theie imperious lerds of the
church indulged their vindi@ive zeal beyond meafure, and
would be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the degradation of
all the priefts and bifhops who had been ordained by Photius.
"The Greeks, on the other hand, were fhocked at the arro-
gance of thefe unjult pretenfions, and would not fubmit to
them on any conditions. Hence the difpute between the
two churches and their partizans was renewed ; religious,
as wellas civil contefts, occurred; and by adding ody contro-
verlies tothe old, the fatal {chiim took place, which produced
a total and permanent feparation between the Greek and
Latin churches.
The doftrine of the Ealtern or Greek church, which is,
unquettionably, the molt ancient, prevails at this day over a
greater extent of country than that of any other church in
the Chriltian world. It is profeffed through a confiderable
part of Greece, the Grectan ifles, Walachia, Moldavia,
Egypt, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mefopotamia, Syma, Cili-
R CH.
cia, and Paleftine ; all which are comprehended within the
jurifdiciion of the patriarchs of Con{tantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerufalem; to thefe, if we add the whcle of
the Ruflian empire in Europe, great part of Siberia in Alla,
Atlracan, Cafan, Georgia, and White Ruffia in Poland, it
will be evident that the Greek church has a greater extent
of terntory than the Latin, with all the branches that are
fprung from it. od
The Greek or Eaftern Church may be divided into
three dilting&t commumties. The fir/ is that of the Greek
Chriltians, who agree, in all points of do&rine and worthip,
with the patriarch refiding at Conftantinople, and reject the
pretended fupremacy of the Roman pontiff.. The /ecomd
comprehends thofe Chriftians, who differ equally from the
Romar pontiff and the Grecian patriarch in their religious
opinions and inilitutions, and who live under the government
of their own bifhopsand rulers. he ¢hirdis compofed of
thofe who are fubje@ to the fee of Rome. :
‘That fociety of Chriltians, that maintains religious com-
munion with the patriarch of Conftantinople, is, -properly
foeaking, the Greek, though it aflumes likewife the title of
the Eattern Church. This fociety is fubdivided into two
branches, of which the one acknowledges the fupreme au-
thority and jurifdiGion of the bifhop of Conftantinople,
while the other, though joined in communion of do&rine and
worlhip with that prelate, yet obttinately refufes to receive
his legates or to obey his edicts, and is governed by its own
laws and inititutions, under the jurifdiétion of {piritual mlers,
who are independent of all foreign authority.
That part of the Greek church, which acknowledges the
jurildiction of the bifhop of Conttantiaople, is divided, as
in the early ages of Chriflianity, into four large diltriés or
provinces, Conftantincple, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru-
falem ; over every one of which a bifhop pretides with the
titie of patriarch, whom the inferior bihops and monaftic
orders. unanimoufly refpect as their common father. This
prelate has the privilege of nominating other patriarchs,
though that dignity {till continues clective, and of approving
the election that is made; nor is any thing of moment un-
dertaken or tranfa€ted inthe church without his exprefs per-
miffion, or his fpecial order. Indeed, in the prefent de-
cayed ltate of the Greek churches, whofe revenues are fmall,
and whofe former opulence is almoft annihilated, their fpin-
tual rulers enjoy little more than the fplendid title of * Pa-
triarchs,”’ without being in a condition to extend their fame
or promote their caufe, by any undertaking of fignal im-
portance. y vag
The fpiritual jurifdiGtion and dominion of the patriarch
of Conftantinople are very extenfive, comprehending a con-
fiderable part of Greece, the Grecian ifles, Walachia,
Moldavia, and feverai of the European and Afiatic provinces
that are fubje&t to the Turks. The patriarch of Alexandria
refides generally at Cairo, and excygifes his fpiritual authority
in Egypt, Nubia, Lybia, and a part of Arabia. Damafens
is the principal refidence of the patriarch of Antioch, whole
jurifdiGtion extends to Mefcpotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and
other provinces. In Syria there are three bifhops, who
claim the title and dignity of patriarch of Antioch, The
jirfl is the bifhop of the Melchites, a name given to the
Chriftians in Syria who follow the doétrine, inftitutions,
and worfhip of the Greek church ; the /econd is the {piritual
guide of the Syrian Monophylites; and the ¢hird is the
chief of the Maronites, who hold communion with the
church of Rome, This laft bifhop pretends to be the true
and lawful patriarch of Antioch, and is acknowledged as
fuch by, or at leaft receives this denomination from, the Roman
pontiff, Neverthelefs, it is certain, that the pope nacre
; ome
Gb iy B)
Rote a patriarch of Antioch of his own choice, fo that the
fee of Antioch has, at this day, four patriarchs, one from
the Greeks, two from the Syrians, and one created at
Rome, who is patriarch, iv partibus, 1. e. titular patriarch,
according to the fignification of that phrafe.
Tne patriarch of Jerufalem comprehends, within the
bounds of his pontificate, Palefline, Arabia, the country
beyond Jordan, Cana in Galilee, and mount Sion.
The epifcopal dominions of thefe three patriarchs are
indeed extremely poor and inconfider.b'e; for the Mono-
phylites have Jong fince affumed the patriarchal feats of
Alexandria and Antioch, and have deprived the Greek
‘churches of the greatelt part of their members in all thofe
places where they gained anafcendant. And as Jervfelem
4s the refort of Chnitians of every fe&, who have their re-
fpeGive bifhops and rulers, the jurifdiction of the Grecian
patriarch is confequenrly confined there within narrow limits.
The right of eleéting the patriarch of Conttantinople is
vefted in the 12 bifhops who refide neareft that famous ca-
pital ; but the sight of confirming his eletion, and of ena-
bling the new-chofén patriarch to exercife his {pirituai func-
tions, belongs only to the Turkith emperor. Bat this in-
ftitution is fubjeét to the groflelt perverfion and abufe by
the corruption and avarice of the reigning minilters. The
power of this patriarch among a pe ple difpirited by op-
preflion, and funk into the groff<it fuperftition by extreme
ignorance, mutt be, and a€tually is, very contiderable and
exteniive. Belides, his own prerogatives are numerous ; for
he not ony convenes councils by his own authority ; but by
the fpectal permiffion of the emperor, he adminitters juitice
and takes cognizance of civil caufes among the members
of his communion. His influence is maintained, on the one
hand, by the authority of the Turkifh monarch, and, on
the other, by his right of excommunicating the difobedient
members of the Greek church. The revenue of this pa-
triarch is drawn particulariy from the churches that are fub-
ject to his jurifdiction ; and its produce varies according to
-the circumitances of the Greek Chrittians, whofe condition
is expofed to many viciflitudes.
The Greeks acknowledge, as the rule of their faith, the
Holy Scriptures and the decrees of the firft feven general
councils; but no private perfon has a right to explain, for
himfelf or others, either the declarations of Scripture, or
the decifions of thefe councils; the patriarch and his bre-
thren being the only perfons who are authorifed to confult
thefe oracles, and to declare their meaning. The fubitance
of the doGrine of the Greek church is contained in a trea-
tife, entitled **The orthodox Confeffion of the Catholic
and A poftolic Eaftern Church,” drawn up by Peter Mogif-
laus, bifhop of Kioyv, in a provincial council aflembled in
that city. This confeffion, originally compofed in the Ruf-
fian language, was tranflated into Greek, and in the year
1643 publcly approved and adoped by Partherius of Con-
ftantinople, and all the other Grecian patriarchs. It was
afterwards publifhed in Greek and Latin at the expence of
Panagiota, the Turkifh emperor’s interpreter, who ordered
it to be diltributed gratis among the Greek Chriftians; and
it was alfo enriched with a recommendatory letter compofed
by Neétarius, patriarch of Jerufalem. From this confef-
fion it evidently appears, that the Greeks differ widely from
the votaries of the Roman pontiff, whofe doftriues they
reject and treat with indignation in feveral places ; but at
the fame time it appears, that their religious tenets are equally
remote from thofe of the other Chriftian focieties.
Wish refpe&t to the do€rine of the Greek church,
we have already obferved, that it is partly derived
from the firft 7 cecumenical cr general councils, viz. that of
R CH.
Nice, A. D. 325; the firft of Conftantinople, A.D. 3S8r;
that of Ephefus, A.D. 431; that of Chalcedon, A.D.
4513 the fecond of Conftantinople, A.D. 553; the third
of Conftantinople in Trullo, A. D. 680; and the fecond of
Nice, A.D. 787. The Nice and the Athan fian creeds
are allowed by them; and they hold the dotirine of the
Trinity, but with this qualification, that the Holy Ghoft
proceeds from the Father only, and not from the Father
andthe Son. The invocation of faints is alike received’ in
the Greck and Reman communion. The Greek church
admits the ufe of piétures to inftru& the ignorant, and to
afliit the devotion of others by thofe fenfible reprefentations,
In the Greek church there are 7 mytteries, or facraments,
as they are called in the Latin church, viz. baptifm, the
Chrifm, or baptifinal unétion, the eucharift, confeflion, or-
dination, marriage, and the holy’oil or extreme vnGion,
As to baptifm, there is nothing peculiar in it. Chrifm is
called the unGion with ointment, and extreme union is
called the confecration with holy oil. ‘The chrifm isa myf-
tery peculiar to the Greek communion, and holds the place
of confirmation inthe Roman. It immediately follows the
immerfion at baptif{m, when the prici anoints the perfon
baptized, on the principal parts of the body with an oint-
ment, confecrated with many curious circumftances for that
purpofe by a bifhop; this ceremony is always vfed at the
reception of a profelyte from any other church whatever,
As to the euchanit, it has been difputed whether tranfub-
flantiation was the doétrine of the ancient Greek church.
The Proteftants and the eminently learned and) eloquent
John Claude, maintain the negative; while the ‘Roman
Catholics, efpectally Atnaud, contend for the affirmative ;
but whether 1t was maintained in the ancient Grezk church
or sot, it is the doctrine of the prefent Ruffian church; for
in the oath every bifhop now takes at his con{ecration, he
abfolutely fwears, that “he believes and underilands that
the tranfub!tantiation of the body avd blood‘of Chritt, in
the holy fupper, aa taught by the eaftern ahd ancient Ruf-
fian doctors, is effected by the influence and operation of
the Holy Ghoft, when the bifhop or prieft invokes God the
Father in thefe words, and make this bread the precious body
of thy Chrifl. It is held neceflary in this charch to mix
warm water with the wine, and the lay communicants re-
ceive both the elements together; the bread being fopped in
the cup; but the clergy receive them feparate. Children
immediately after baptifm may receive the communion.
Predeftination is a dogma of the Greck church, anda very
prevailing opinion among the people of Ruffia. The Greek
church admits prayers and fervices for the dead as an an-
cient and pious cultom, and even prayers for the remiffion
of their fins; but it difallows the do€trine of purgatory,
and determines nothing dogmatically concerning the ftate
and condition of departed fouls. It alfo pays a regard to
the relics of faiits and martyrs of which too fuperttitious
an ufe is made. Supererogation, indulgences, and difpen-
fations are utterly difallowed in this church ; nor dces it af-
fA, like the Latin, the chara&ter of infallibiity, but like
mott other churches, it is guilty of pretending to be the only
true and orthodox church. ‘Vhe confeffion, or catechifm of
Mogiflaus, above-mentioned, feems to have been at one time
received asthe ftandard of the principles of the Ruffian
church; yet there are many points init, which the prefent
doétors of the church do not epprove, others which they
confider as trivial; nor, indeed, do they allow the book te
have any authority at all.
Many attempts have been made to unite the Greeks with
the Latin or Romith church, and alfo with the Reformed
church ; but they have hitherto proved unfuccefsful, No-
{2 thing
CH URC H.
thing more deplorable can be conceived than the flate of the
greateft part of the members. of the Greck church, fince
their fubjection to the eppreflive yoke of the Turkifh emperors.
Since that fatal period, almoft all learning and {cience, human
and divine, have been extinguifhed among them. Thofe of them
that are in this abje€t condition have neither {chools, colleges,
nor any of thofe Jiterary eftablifhments, that ennoble human
nature, by fowing in the mind the immortal feeds of know-
ledge and virtue. This ignorance, that reigns among the
Greeks, has the moft pernicious influence upon their morals.
Licentioufnefs and impicty not only abound among the peo-
ple, but alfo difhonour their leaders; the calamities that
arfe from this corruption ef manners are deplorably aug-
mented by their endlefs contentions and divifions. Their re-
ligion is a motley collection of ceremonies, the moft of
which are either ridiculoufly trifling or fhockingly abfurd.
Yet they are much more zealous in retaining and obferving
thofe fenfelefs rites, than in maintaining the doétrine, or
obeying the precepte of the religion they profefs.
The Ruffians, Georgians, and Mingrelians adopt the doc-
trines and ceremonies of the Greek church; though they
are entirely free from the jurifdiGion and authority of the
patriarch of Conftantinople. Indeed, this prelate formerly
enjoyed the privilege of a {piritual fupremacy over the Rut-
fians, to whom he [ent a bifhop whenever a vacancy hap-
pened. But towards the conclufion of the 16th century,
this privilege ceafed. The fervice of the Greek church, as it is
performed in Ruffia, &c. is long and complicated; the great-
eft part of it varies every day in the year, and every part of the
day, except in the communion office, where the larger part is
fixed. They have books in many volumes folio, which
contain the hymns and particular fervices for the faints and
feftivals as they occur in the calendar throughout the year ;
and fuch is the number of faints in this church that every
day in the year has fome faint, and frequently one day has
feveral. They contain alfo particular fervices for the feveral
days of the week. The one of thefe, comprized in twelve
volumes folio ; one volume for cach month, is called Mayaior,
Minzon, and the other Oxlwnxos, otoechos, in 2 vols. fo-
lio, divided into eight voices or tones, as its name indicates ;
each tone contains hymns and fervices for the days of one
week, and the whole of which ferves for eight weeks. The
** Common Service’’ is a book which may be confidered as
a fupplement to thofe two, and contains fervices common
to allfaints, martyrs, bifhops, &c. The * Pfalter and the
Hours,” employ another volume. The ‘ Book of Prayer
or the Service”? as it is called, contains the ordinary daily
prayers, &c. for the priefts and deacons in the vefpers, ma-
tins, and communion offices. The * Lives of the Saints’’
are in four volumes folio; thefe are read in parifh churches,
but they are ufually read in monafteries at the matins or
morning fervice. The ‘* Four Gofpels’? make one volume
by themfelves. There are alfo extra&ts from the Old Tef-
tament, and the epiftles ufed in the fervice. The ‘ Ritual
or Book of Offices” contains the rites of baptifm, marriage,
the burial-fervice, &c. Thefe books are all in the Sclavo-
nian language, as is confequently the whole fervice. In
Roffia, at this time, they have fervice, both in monafteries
and parifh churches, only three times a day; the vefpers,
the matins, and the liturgy or communion, The fervice of
every day begins in the evening of the preceding day, as
among the Jews. The greater part of the fervice of this
church conlifts in pfalms and hymns, which fhould all regu-
larly, according to the primary inftitution, be fung; though
on account of the length of the fervice, fince the joining
mauy forms together, it became the practice to read the
gecatelt part of them, efpecially in parifh churches; yet ftill
they are read in a fort of recitative. For other particulars,
we refer the reader to Dr, King’s ** Rites and Ceremonies
of the Greck church.’”
A confiderable reformation was introduced into the Ruf-
fian church by the wifdom and a@tive zeal of Peter 1. about
the beginning of the 18th century, in confequence of a
{cheme which was projeéted towards the clofe of the century
preceding. This great prince made no charge in the articles
of faith received among the Rnfians, which contain the
doGtrine of the Greek church. But he took great pains to
have this do€trine explained in a manner conformable to the
diétates of right reafon and the {pirit of the Gofpel; and
he ufed the moft effeCtual methods to dellroy, on the one
hand, the influence of that hideous fuperftition that fat
brooding over the whole nation ; and on the other, to difpel
the ignorance of the clergy and that of the people. In
order to accelerate the execution of this laudable plan, Pe-
ter became the zealous prote¢tor and patron of arts and {ci-
ences; and induftrioufly endeavoured, by a variety of me-
thods, to excite in his fubje&ts a defire of emerging from
their ignorance and brutality, and a tafte for knowledge and.
the ufeful arts. See his biographical article. In reference
to the prefent fubjeét we may obferve, that he extinguifhed
the infernal {pirit of perfecution ; abolifhed the penal laws
again{t thofe who differed merely in religious opinion from
the eftablifhed church, and granted to Chriftians of all de--
nominations liberty of confcience, and the privilege of per-
forming divine worfhip in the manner prefcribed by their
re{pective liturgies and inftitutions. This liberty, however, .
was fo modified as to reftrain and defeat any attempts that
might be made by the Latins to promote the interefts of
popery in Ruffia, or to extend the juri{diétion of the Roman.
pontiff beyond the chapels of that communion that were to--
lerated by law. The Jefuits were not permitted to exercife
the funGions of miffionaries or public teachers in Ruffia ;
and a particular charge was given to the council, taking
cognizance of ecclefialtical affairs, to ufe their utmott care
and vigilance for preventing the propagation of Romifh te-
nets among the people. Befides, a very confiderable change
was introduced into the mode of governing the church,
The fplendid dignity of patriarch was fupprefled ; and this.
fpirited prince claimed in confequence of his authority as em-
peror, an abfolute authority in the church. ‘The fundtions-
of this high and important office were intrufted with a.
council aflembled at Peterfburgh, which was called the
“Holy Synod,”’ and in which one of the archbifhops, the
mott diltinguifhed by his integrity and prudence, was ap--
pointed as prefident. ‘The other orders of the clergy con-
tinued in their refpeGtive ranks and offices; but both their
revenues and their authority were conliderably diminifhed,
This council, or college, was appointed in the year 1721,-
and the emperor declared himfelf head ofthe church. The
patriarchate in Ruffia expired with Adrian, in the year:
1700; and he was fucceeded by an officer of more limited.
powers, under the name of exarch, or vicegerent of the pa--
triarchal fee. The government of the exarchy lafted fome-
what more than 20 years; and by executing the orders of
Peter the Great, led the way to the reformation of
the clergy. At length the * Holy Legiflative Synod’?’
was eltablifhed by a fpecial edi& publifhed through: the
whole empire. This fynod or college confifted at firft of
twelve members; one prefident, two vice-prefidents, four
counfellors, and four affeflors; the 12th was charged with.
the care of ecclefiaftical concerns at Mofcow, ina particular:
office, under the name of the fynodical chancery, which
depended on the fynod.
The members weve taken from the bifhops,. archiman-
6 drites,.
Gin DR ie.
drites, hegumens, and prototypes of the mot eminent mo-
naiteries and churches, ‘T’o thefe were foon added others,
both from the regular and fecular clergy, who were men of
learning and fitto govern the church. In the ediét by which
Peter tounded this ecclefiaftical college, it is called ** the
general fpiritual government ;”” and in the oath taken by
the members, it is exprefsly determined, that no other than
the fovereign fhould be confidered as its head. In order to
give it a higher eftimation in the minds of the people, he
honoured it with the title of ‘ the holy legiflative fynod,”’
a title which formerly belonged to the patriarchs. This fy-
nod was put upon an equality with the fenate, and invefted
with the fame powers. ‘The eleGtion of bithops was en-
trufted to the fynod, which nominated two candidates, of
whom the fovereign chofe one. Thefe bifhops were authori-
tatively inftruéted as to their behaviour, power, and_vilita-
tion of their diocefes, the eflablifhment and management of
fchools, and a variety of other particulars. The ecclefiaftical
reformation of Peter comprehended alfo the monks, upon
whom the order and welfare of the Ruffian church very
much depended, and likewife the fecular priefls. See the
Appendix to the werk above cited. ;
The Georgians and Mingrelians, or as they were anciently
called, the Iberians and Colchians, have declined fo much
fince the Mahometan dominion has been eftablifhed in thefe
countries, that they can {carcely be ranked in the number
of Chriftians. Thefe nations have a pontiff at their head,
called ‘* The Catholic ;”’ they bave alfo their bifhops and
priefls; but they are fo ignorant, avaricious, and profligate,
that they are a difgrace to Chriftianity.
The eaftern Chriftians, who renounce the communion of
the Greek church, and differ from it both in doétrine and
worthip, may be comprehended under the two clafles of
Monophyfites or Facobites, and Nefforians or Chaldeans. See
thefe articles.
The Latin or Weftern Church comprehends all the churches
of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the North, and all other
countries whither the Romans carried their language. Ina
more reftricted fenfe the Latin church, in contradiftinétion to
the Greek church, denotes
The Church of Rome, which rofe to a very eminent de-
gree of {plendour and dominion, and exercifed for ages an al-
mott univerfal authority throughout the weftern world. The
various circumitances that favoured its firft advancement, and
that contributed to the extent and long duration of its do-
minion, cannot be minutely detailed within our preferibed
limits. We muft content ourfelves with briefly noticing
fome of the chicf and moft prominent. Rome, from the
firit foundation of the city, gradually advanced into an em-
pire of fuch extent, revenue, and permanence, as has been
unparalleled in the world, either betore or fince. And from
the firft-declenfion of that enormous power, fhe infenlibly
became the feat of a new {pring of empire, which, though
not of equal celebrity with the former, has been much more
extraordinary, and perhaps more difficult to be furmounted,
becaufe itis deeply rooted in the paffions, prejudices, and in-
tereits of mankind. Independently of the advantage refuit-
ing from the extent of its fecular dominion, the votaries of
the Romifh church found their right of f{piritual empire on
the prerogatives which they pretend to have been given by
our Lord to the apoitle Peter, and on the fucceffion of their
bifhops to that apoiltle, and confequently to thofe preroga-
tives. Againit thefe pretenfions, however, it has been al-
leged, that Peter did not poffels the prerogatives which
they afcribe to him, and that their bifhops never had any
juit reafon for denominating themfelves his. fucceffors. In-
deed,.in point of right, whatever might have been the prero-
gatives of Peter, which were perfonal, and not official, no
peculiar privilege can be claimed by any church, as derived
from this apottle, But if we advert from the quettion of
right to the matter of fact, or the fpecial relation of the fee
ot Rome to the apoltle Peter, the partifans of papal ambi-
tion have never been able to fupport their affirmations by any
thing that deferves the name of evidence. It has indeed been
queitioned, whether Peter ever was at Rome. The only
ground on which the papift builds his affertion, that he was
in that city, and founded the church in it, is tradition ; and
fuch a tradition as muit appear very fufpicious to reafonable
Chriftians, being accompanied with a number of legendary
{tories, which are totally unworthy of regard. See our bio-
graphical article St. Perer. Allowing, however, that Pe-
ter fuffered martyrdom at Rome, his journey thither mult
have been pofterior, not only to the period with which the
hiftory of the A&s concludes, but to the writing of Paul’s
epiftles, which are wholly filent as to this faé&t. In this cafe
it is manifelt, that he could not have been the founder, nor
even one of the earlieft inftru€tors of the Roman church.
Moreover, if we admit that Peter, in the courfe of his pere-
grinations, vifited Rome, and that he was the founder of that
church, yet no fatisfaGtory evidence can be offered in order
to prove that he was the bifhop of the place, according to
the proper acceptation of the term, and that their bifhop,
whoever he might have been, was diltinguifhed by any pre-
rogative whatever, from any other bifhop. The common
opinion leads us, if we fet afide the apoftles, to affign to Li-
nus the honour of being firft bifhop of that fee, who was or-
dained before the martyrdom both of Peter and of Paul ; and
yet the latter, in writing to Timothy, a little before his own
death, introduces the name of Linus, notwith{tanding his
pretended papal dignity, among other obfcure names, no
where elfe to be found in the annals of hiftory, without any
marked diltinétion, and without fo much as giving-the fove-
reign pontiff the precedeacy. Befides, Paul in his epiftle to
the Galatians (chap, ii. 7, 8, 9.), an epiftle written from
Rome, denominates Peter the apoltle of the circumcifion,
to whofe care was entruited the converfion of the Jews,
throughout the world, and under this-character, his miffion
is contrafted with that of Panl, who is ftyled, by way of
eminence, the apoftle of the Gentiles. To this reafoning
we may add the teftimony of hiftory. Irenzus, in a paflage
quoted from him by Eufebius, (1. v: c. 6.) fhows clearly,
that Peter was not confidered, in his time, or near the end
of the fecond century, as having been bifhop of the church
of Rome, oreven as its fole founder.- Many other teftimo-
nies of a fimilar kind might be produced, ifit were-neceflary
in fo plain a cafe. Pope Innocent, who, about the begin-
ning of the fifth century, appears to have been the firft that
thought of deriving the prerogatives of his fee from the
apoltle Peter, acknowleges that Antioch, as well as Rome,
had been properly the fee of St. Peter; and that it yields
to the fee of Rome only. becaufe Peter had accomplifhed
there what he had begun at Antioch. After all, no hifto-
rical faét can be more unquettionable, than that the origin
of the fuperiority of one epifcopal fee over another arofe
from the fecular divifion of the empire, and from no other
contideration whatever. Hence the pre-eminence of the fee
of Rome, whofe bifhop, before the converfion of Conttan- -
tine, had only the precedency among the prelates, as bifhop °
of the imperial city ; but no jurifdiétion beyond the bounds
of the provinces, lying within the vicariate of Rome, as it
was called, which was properly no patriarchate, being but
the half of the civil diocefe of Italy, and confiderably inferior
in extent to fome of the patriarchates. When Conttanti-
nople became the {eat of empire, it acquired corref{ponding
importances -
CHD R C-;B.
importance; and though the firft place is given to Rome,
in the council of Conttantinople, A.D. 331, being that
from which the emperor fill continued to be named, the
fecond was then given to Conttantinople, becaufe it was
then an imperial city as well as the other. Ino, fhort, had
Rome, never been the imperial city, its paftor never could
have raifed himfelf above hix fellows. Had it continued the
imperial city, he might, and probably would, have had fuch
a primacy as to be accounted the firll among the patriarchs,
but without any thing like papal jurifdiétion over church
and ftate. Another circumltance which contnbuted to the
advancement of the Romith church, was the munificence of
tle emperors, and the misjudged devotion of fome great
and opulent profelytesy by means of which its bifhops rofe
from a [tate of obfcurity to the molt envied opulence and
grandeur, Belides the caufes already mentioned, wiz. the
pretended fucceffion from St. Peter, the {rperior dignity ef
the city of Rolne, and the opulence of her church, there
were feveral others which co-operated in raifing h_r to that
altonifhing degree ef atihority and {plencour to which, to
the courle of a-few centuries, fhe attained. The firft of
thefe, which we fhall curforily mention, 1s the vigilant and
unremitting policy which fhe manifelted, at an early period,
in improving, for her own aggrandizement, every advantage
which rank and wealth could befttow. As foon almolt as
Chriftianity had received the function of the legrflature, the
bihops of this city began to alpire aftcr a kind of domi-
nation over their brethren, which might in time be rendered
vniverfal, analogous to the fecular authority lodged in the
emperors over the fubj-cisof the empire. The diltinétions
of prefbyter, bifhop, primate, and patriarch, favoured their
views. Their firit acquifition, and with this they were for
fome time fatisficd, was theshonour of precedency, or pri-
macy, which was conceded to the bifhop of Rome. ire
covacil of Sardica, about the middle of the 4th century,
excouraged the ambitious f{chemes of thefe prelates, by
enaGtins a canon, which ordered, that if any bifhop fhould
think himfelf uajuftly condemned by his own provincials and
metropolitan, his judges might acquaint the bifbop of
Rome, who might cither confirmtheir judgment, or order a
re-examination of the caufe. Ofthis canon the Romih bi-
fhops afterwards availed themfeives to the exaltation of cheir
fee. Valentinian, not many years afterwards, enadicd a
law, empowering the bifhop of Rome to examine and judge
other bilhops, fo that religious difputes might not be deeid-
ed by profane and fecular judges, but by a Chriftien pontiif
and his colleagues. However, neither the canon of Sardica,
nor the refeript of the emperor, produced at firlt any very
extenfive effet. But the policy of Rome never relinguifhed
any privilege or preregative which it once obtained ; and
whillt it was the primary objeét to advance the papal power,
every other confideration gave way to this. This emmently
appeared on occafion of the difference which arofe betweea
the Eaftern and Weltern churches in the bufinefs of Aca-
cius, who, ina matter of controverfy, oppofed the Roman
pontiff ; and hencearofe a fchifm between the oriental and oc-
cidental churches, which lafted 35 years, and from which the
latter, or rather the fee of Rome, derived confiderable ad-
vantage in its progrefs towards abfulute fupremacy. In
other controverfies that occurred, however trivial in them-
{Jves, the church of Rome found that, by pofleffing
the prerogative of deciding, fhe gained acceffion of autho-
nity. The exercife of this power occafioned appeals to the
Roman pontiff, which eftablifhed and extended his influence.
It was by flattery of the emperor Phocas, who murder-
ed his fovereizn and family, and thus enfuring his favour,
that the Roman pontifis obtained the revocation of the
edi&t which had conferred: the title of “ Univerfal bifhop”
en the patriarch of Conftantiiople, and a new decree en-
tailing this title in perpetuity on the occupier of the fee
of Rome, who was actually vefted with the primacy of all
the bifhops of the empire. With fimilar views of aggran-
cizement, pope Zachary, inthe middle of the 8th century,
affifted, with his council and influence, the ufurper Pepin
to depofe his mafter and benefaétor Childeric, king of
Trance, with ali his family, and to poflefs himfelf of his
crown and kingdom. This favour, Pepin, in the next
pontificate, retaliated, by aiding the pope to ufurp the impe-
rial domiuions in Italy. Indeed, it was a maxim en which
the Roman pontiffs very uniformly a@ed, and particularly
fanctioned by Gregory, one of the beft of them, that every
thing, which ferved to advance the papal power and fecure
a {upremacy ef Rome, might be reckoned juft and law-
a’.
Another circumftance, which deferves to be mentioned,
becaufe it fended at an early period to advance the authority
ef the Roman pontiff, was the following : ‘Uo the vicarage
of Rome belenged ro provinces, including the iflands of
Sicily, Corfica, aud Sardinia; but as in phefe there were no
metropolitans, the vicar of Rome, or pope, had net only the
power of an exarch over the whole 10 provinces, but that
alfo of the primate in every province. In him, therefore,
coalefced the metropolitical and patriarchal jurifdictions s
and he had the charge, cither by himfelf or his delegates,
of ordain‘ag every bifhop within the provinces of his vica-
riate. Phefe rights he gradually extended, as circumftances
favoured his views, fir to the whole prefecture of Italy,
which included Weft Iilyricum, and Weitt Africa; after-
wards to all the occidental churches, Gaul, Spain, and Bris
tain; and laitly, as of divine right, and, therefore, unalien=
able, over the whole Catholic church. It was alfo a great
advantage enjoyed by Rome, in confequence of her vaft
opulence and rich domains, that fhe was able to employ and
fupport miffions, in diitent parts of Europe, for the propa-
gation of the gofpel; and, of courfe, when churches were
planted in any country by means of mrffions and expence,
they were always counted dependent on that as the mother
church by whom the miflionaries were employed. » Ano-
ther excellent piece of policy, by which the church of Rome
extended and fecured its authority, was the legatine power ;
introduced by Damafcus near the end of the ath century. The
general ambition of the clerical order ferved alfo to promote
the felf-aggrandizing {chemesof Rome. Themonarchical form
of the church, fupported by the prejudices and fuperftition of
the pcople, was the only adequate means both of preferving
and of extending the high privileges, honours, titles, and
immunities claimed univerfally by the facred order, and for
which they ftrenuoufly contended. This could nut fail to
induce them to put themfelves under the proteétion of the
only bifhop in the weft, who was both able and willing to
fupport their bold pretenfions. The ambition of fecular
princes alfo concurred in the eftablifhment and exaltation of
the papal hierarchy. The bifhop of Rome by his exten-
five influence had it in his power to excite and foment, or to
compromife and terminate internal difcord, cr foreign con-
tefls in all the lates, which acknowledged his authoriry.
We muft sot omit to mentionanothergreatengineof papal pos
licy, by which its authority and intereft were upheld and pro-
moted, and thatis the exemption granted by the pontiffs to
particular ecclefaftics or communities, by which their fubjec-
tion to the ordinary was difpenfed with, and their immediate
dependance on Rome preferved. From the various circum-
ftances that have been recited, and many others of a fimilar
nature, which our limits conilrain us to omit, the rife,
eftablifhmenty -
CoB RK ehkk
eftablifhment, extenfive influence, and long deration of the
church of Rome may be accounted for without difficulty.
Moreover, it is eafy to perceive that, when Rome had every
thing at her difpofal, ali canons, in regard to difcipline, and
all decrees, in relation to do&trine, would point invariably to
the fupport of this power. Hence, {prung the convenient
doétrines of tranfubftantiation, purgatory, prayers, and
mafles for the dead, auricular confeffion, and the virtue of
facerdotal abfolution, Hence alfo were derived, and, with
this view, were enforced the canons extending fo immenfely
the forbidden degrees of marriage, the peculiar power in the
popes of difpenfing with thefe, and other canons; the power
of canonization, the celibacy of the clergy, the fupereroza-
tory merits of the faints, indulgences, and many others. See
the feveral articles, and Poprry.
For the fupport of fuch an tmmenfe fabric as that of the
Romifh chureh, very ample revenues were neceflary ; and
its fources of fupply were as various and extenfive as the
different modifications of its influence and dominion. Every
country in which it prevailed, contributed, in a variety of
ways, not only to its fubfiltence, but to its magnificence and
to all the coftly Undertakings in which it engaged. Princes
and kingdoms were its tributaries; by impofitions and by
benevolences ; by donations and bequetts, it filled its trea-
fures, and amaffed wealth fufficient to anfwer all the pur-
pofes of its numberlefs cfablifhments. It would be endlefs
to recount the various claims which it fet up under the
names of annats, tythes, peter-pence, refervations, refigna-
tions, expectations, graces, &c. befides the cafualties ariling
from pilgrimages, jubilees, indulgences, the dues of appeals,
confirmations, difpenfations, inveftitures, &c. &c. which
were fo many forts of tribute.
After this brief fetch of the principal circumftances that
contributed to the rife and eltablifhment of the church of
Rome, or Romifh hierarchy, we fhail terminate this article,
- with a concife account of the caufes that brought about the
declenfion of this wonderful empire over the confciences,
the perfons, and the property of mankind. The opinions,
we may obferve, which are the great bulwarks of fpiritual
tyranny, are founded in ignorance and fuperftition; and
thefe are always accompanied with great credulity. We
may add, that the three great engines which Rome has em-
ployed for maintaining the ignorance of her votaries, and
for preventing every acquilition in knowledge that might
prove fubvertive of her high pretenfions, are the conceal-
ment of Scripture from the people, and even of the import
of the forms of public worfhip, by the daily ufe of a dead
language ; the prohibition, under the feverelt penalties, of
every thing which might ferve to enlighten and undeceive
the world; and the fyltem of perfecution. ‘The firlt two>
were chiefly calculated for preventing all intercourfe with
~ that moft formidable enemy of fuperfition, knowledge; and
the third intended principally for checking its progrefs
-wherever it appears to have made any advances. By the
noble difcovery of the art of printing, knowledge has been
diffufed ; and this has proved more baneful to the caufe of
fuperftition and tyranny than any event. that has happened
fince the firft promulgation of the gofpel. Although
knowledge had been gaining ground for fome centuries
before, its progrefs was flow ; but the art of printing ferved
to accelerate its progrefs to an inconceivable degree, When
learning was thus brought within the reach of the middle
ranks, the dead languages became a very. general. ftudy.
The Scriptures were read by moft ftudents in the Latin
vulgate, and by fome few in the Greek. he early writers
of the church were alfo read ; reading occafioned rcflection,
and comparifon, ‘To this purpole, it is faid, that a picture
bMbalo I
which Huls, one of the firft reformers, had procured, and
exhibited to the people, in which the entry of our Lord inte
Jcrufalem, riding on an afs, attended by. his difciples on
foot, in a very homely garb, was contralted by a proceffion
of the pope and cardinals, in their pontiiical habits, and
magnificently mounted on the fineft horfes, richly capa-
rifoned, and adorned with gold, and filver, and jewels, did
not a little contribute to excite the indignation of {pe¢tators
againft their {piritual lords, as bearing. no refemblance to
thofe meek, humble, and unafluming men, from whom they
pretended to derive all their high powers-and prerogatives.
But the difparity was not lefs remarkable in difpofizion and
character than in external circumitances.,’ The dignified
clergy of the Romifh church, as they wert both wealthy and
powerful, were generally indolent, proud, ambitious, envious,
vindictive, and fometimes profligate. Thofe again, on whom
the burden of the fervice was devolved, as they were both
needy and dependent, and often ignorant, had a fhare of
the vices, which commonly accompany thefe circumttances,
They were falfe, mercenary, and fervile.. This general
charge admits, however, of various exceptions; for in the
higher and lower ranks of clergymen there were many
perfons whofe charaCters were irreproachable, and lives ex-
emplary. It will alfo be admitted, as a circumftance of ad-
ditional importance, that the different kingdoms and ftates
of Europe had, at length, attained a better and more fettled
conftitution than formerly ; ftatef{men began to entertain
more extenfive views of policy, and princes to underftand.
better their own rights and interefts. As men’s eyes were
opened, they faw more clearly the encroachments and
ufurpations of the Romifh priehhood, This difcovery,
concurring with the abhorrence and contempt they enter-
tained of many of the prieftsthemfelves on perfonal accounts,
namely, the negleé or proftitution of their facred fun&tions,
and the diffolutenefs of their lives, led them to inquire a
little into the foundations of the high powers and privileges
which they claimed. This was a fubje& which would not
bear examination. As the great foundations of the papal
hierarchy were the people’s ignorance,’ {uperttition, and
credulity ; when thefe were removed, the whole fabric began
to totter and gradually fell to pieces. Accordingly, in all
the hercfies. which fprang up im the’ different parts of
Europe, fince the revival of letters, church power feems to
have been the principal obje@ at which the reputed heretics
aimed; This will appear manifeft to any one who confiders
the accufations brought againft Waldo of Lyons, and his
followers, Wickliff of England, Hufs of Bohemia, Luther
of Germany, and Zuinghus of Switzerland ; and compares
them with thofe brought again{t the herefiarchs of the pri-
mitive ages, fuch as Arius, Pelapins, Neitorius, Eutychius,
in none of whom was there any dire@ attack againit eccle-
fiaflics. ‘The ufurpation and tyranny of ecclefiattical fupe-
riors, and the ignorance in which they kept the people,
were at firft almoft the only topics. Hence, they proceeded
to cenfure praétical abufes in ceremonies and. difcipline.
The third and lait ftep of their progrefs. was to expofe
errors in doétrine. For fome centuries before the time of
Luther, the corruptions that had found their way into the
ehurch had been the fubjeé of complaint and murmur in
various places.. From the time of: Wickliff, preaching in
England and publifhing bis fentiments to. the world in
Latin traéts, which was near a century and a half before
_the reformation, men’s attention was roufed to fuch topics,
and people grew bolder every day-in {peaking out their opi-
nions. Inthe remotekingdom of Bohemia, Wicki'ff’s do@rine
extended its influence, and the fate of his two famous difciples,
John Hufsand Jerome of Prague, afforded melancholy inftances
ot
Ge
CHURCH.
of it. In whab-rélated to the corruptions of the church and
of the clergy, together with the exorbitance and abufe of
eeclefiaftical power; they were evidently the followers of
Wickliff, however they might ‘have differed from him in
other particulars; and atlength emboldened by his writings
and example, they bore an open teftimony to the truth in
their native country, and fealed it with their blood at Con-
ftance. This happened about a century before the public
remonftrances of Luther, and paved the way for the re-
formation. ‘Thus previoufly difpofed, as Europe feemed to
be, towards the clofe of the 15th and beginning of the
16th century, nothing could be more evident to any perfons
of difcernment, than that Chriftendom was ripe for a revo-
lution in its ecclefiaftical polity, and feemed only to wait
for a favourable occafion. Such an occafion the avarice of
pope Leo X., and the impiety, as well as indifcretion, of
his minifters and agents, foon furnifhed. Campbell’s Ec-
clef. “Hitt. paffim. See Lutheran Cuurcu, Reformed
Cxuuaecu, Luruer, and Rerormarion.
Cuurcu, Gallican, denotes the church of France, as it
fubfilted before the revolution, under the direétion and
government of its bifhops and paftors. This church has al-
ways enjoyed certain immunities and franchifes, not as grants
from the popes, but derived to her from her firft original,
which fhe has carefully maintained. Thefe privileges de-
pend on two maxims; viz. 1. That the pope has no autho-
rity or right to command or order any thing, general or par-
ticular, ‘in which the temporalities and civil rights of this
kingdom are concerned. 2. That notwithftanding the pope’s
fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual, yet in France,
his power is limited and regulated by the decrees and canons
of ancient councils, received in that realm. A f{cheme of
union between the church of England and the Gallican
church was projeéted by the doctors of the Sorbonne in the
beginning of the 18th century; and a correfpondence was
carried on, in 1717 and 1718, between archbifhop Wake
and Dr. Du Pin on the fubjeét ; which terminated without
fuccefs.
Cuvurcn, Reformed, ina general fenfe, comprehends all
tthofe churches that have feparated from the church of Rome,
and that have renounced the {piritual jurifdiction and fupre-
macy of the Roman pontiff. Accordingly, the Romanitts
call it the ** Weltern Schifm,’? as they denominate the
Greek church the ‘ Eaftern Schifm.’?
The denomination of ‘ reformed’? is often reftrifted to
thofe Proteftant churches which did not embrace the doctrine
cand difcipline of Luther. The title was firft affumed by the
French Proteftants, and afterwards became the common de-
nomination of all the Calviniftical churches on the continent.
But in England the term ‘ reformed” is generally ufed in its
genuine and extenfive fenfe, as ftanding in oppofition to
popery alone; and in this largé fenfe it comprehends the
Lutheran church in all its modifieations, the Calvinilt church,
the church of England, the church of Scotland, &c. When
this epithet of ** reformed’? is vfed in oppofition to the com-
munity founded by Luther, it repretents not a fingle church,
as the epifcapal, Prefbyterian, or Independent, but rather a
colle&ion of churches; which, though they be invifibly
united by a belief and profeffion of the fosiduede eal do@trines
of Chriftianity, yet frequent feparate places of worfhip, and
have, each of them, a vilible centre of external union peculiar
to themfelves, which is formed by certain peculiarities in their
refpectivervles of public worfhip and ecclefialtical government.
Tis matter may be illuftrated by an attentive examination of
the difcipline, polity, and worhhip of the churches of England,
Scotland, Holland, and Switzerland. The firft of thefe
churches, being governed by bifhops, and not admitting the
validity of the Prefbyterian ardination, differs from the other
three more than any of thefe differ from each other. There
are, however, peculiarities of government and worfhip, that
diftinguifh the chureh of Holland from that of Scotland.
The inttitution of deacons, the ufe of forms for the celebration
of the facrament, an ordinary form of prayer, the obfervation
of the feltivals of Chriftmas, Eafter, Afcenfion-day, and
Whitfuntide are eftablifhed in the Dutch church; and, it is
well known, that the church of Scotland differs from it ex-
tremely in thefe refpeéts. For an account of the origin,
progrefs, and eftablifhment of the “ reformed church,” im
the more general fenfe of the term; fee REFORMATION.
The founder of the ‘* reformed church,”? in a more re-
flrited fenfe, was Ulrick Zuingle, a native of Switzerland,
who combined, with uncommon penetration and acutenefs,
an ardent zeal for truth. Zuingle wifhed to remove out of
the churches, and to abolifh in the ceremonics and appendages
of public worfhip, many things which Luther was difpofed
to treat with toleration and indulgence; fuch as images, al-
tars, wax-t2pers, the form of exorcifm, and private confeflion.
What he aimed at eltablifhing in his country was a method
and form of divine worfhip diftinguifhed by its fimplicity, and
as far remote as could be from every thing that might have
the fmalle{t tendency, according to his ideas, to nourifha
fpirit of fuperftition. Moreover, his fentiments concerning
feveral points of theology, and more efpecially his opinions
relating to the facrament of the Lord’s Supper, were very
different from thofe of Luther. Of thefe fentiments and
opinions feveral were adopted in Switzerland by thofe who
concurred with Zuingle in promoting the caufe of the re-
formation, and were tranfmitted by them to all the Helvetic
churches that threw off the yoke of Rome. From Swit-
zerland thefe opinions were propagated among the neigh-
bouring nations by the friends and difciples of Zuingle ; and
thus the primitive reformed church, that was founded by
this eminent ecclefiaftic, and whofe extent at firft was not very
confiderable, gathered ftrength by degrees, and made daily
new acquifitions. After the death of Zuingle, feveral Lu-
theran doctors of the more moderate fort, and particularly
Martin Bucer, made an attempt to form a kind of reconci-
liation between the partizans of the Lutheran and reformed
churches; but their endeavours were unfuccefsful. The
breach between them was widened by Calvin, who, by his
aGtiviry and zeal, confiderably enlarged the boundaries of
the reformed church, propagated his doétrine, and gained
profelytes and patrons to his theological fyftem, in feveral
countries of Europe. The plan of doétrine and difcipline,
which Zuingle had formed, was altered and correéted by
Calvin, particularly in relation to three points. Zuingle, in
his farm of ecclefiaftical government, had given an abfolute
and unbounded power, in religious matters, to the civil ma-
giftrate, to whom he had placed the clergy in a degree of
{ubjeGtion, with which many were offended, He allowed,
however, certain fubordination and difference of rank among
the minilters of the church, and thought it expedient to
place at their head a perpetual prefident, or fuperintendant,
with a certain degree of infpeétion and authority over the
whole body. Calvin, on the contrary, reduced the power
of the magiftrate, in relizious matters, within narrow bounds.
He declared the church a feparate and independent body,
endowed with the power of legiflating for itfelf. He main-
tained that it was to be governed by two ecclefiattical bo-
dies, viz. * the venerable company” of the paftorsand profef-
fors, and the “ confiftory ;” and he left to the civil magif+ ~
trate little elfe befides the privilege of protecting and defend-
-ing the church, and providing for what related to its exter=
nal exigeneiesand concerns, Thus this eminent reformer in-
trodueed.
a
'
7 Cry UR Gone
froduced into the republic of Geneva, and endeavoured to in-
troduce into all the reformed churches throughout Europe,
that form of ecclefiaftical government, which is called “ Pref
byterian,” from its neither admitting the inflitution of bi-
fhops, nor any {ubordination among the clergy; and ccnfor-
mably to this principle, that all miniflers of the Gofpel are,
by the law of God, declared to be equal in rank and antho-
rity. In confequence of this principie, he eflablifhed at Ge-
neva a confiftory, or ¢cclefiattical judicatory, ever which he
himfe!f prefided (though at his death he advifed the clergy
“pat to pive him a fucceffor), compofed of ruling elders,
pattly pafters and partly laymen ; and he invefted this eccle-
fiattical body with a high degree of power and authority.
He alfo convened fynods, compofed of the ruling elders of
Gifferent churches, ard in thefe confiftories and fynods had
Jaws enaGed for the regulation of all matters of a religious
nature, and among other things reflored to. its former vi-
four the ancient praélice of ¢xcommunication. All thefe
things were done with the content of the greateft part of
the fenate of Geneva. Calvin alfo, witha view, as it is faid,
of facilitating the defired union with the Lutheran church,
fubfttited, inftead of the {fyttem adopted by Zuingle with
regard to the eucharift, another, which appeared more con-
formable to the do¢trine of that church, and which, in rea-
lity, difiered little from it. he do&trine of Zuingle fup-
poled ouly a fymbolical, or figurative, prefence of the body
and blood of Chriit in tne eucharift, and reprefented a pious
remembrance of Chrift’s death, and of the benefits it pro-
¢ured to mankind, as the only fruits that arofe from the ce-
lebration of the Lord’s Supper; whereas Calvin acknow-
Jedged a rea!, though fpivitual, prefence of Chrilt in this fa-
crament; or, in other words, he maintained, that true
Chrifians were, by this ordinance, in a certain manner united
to the man Chrift; and that from this union the fpiritual
life derived true vigour in the foul, and was fill carried on,
in a progreffive motion, to greater degrees of purity and per-
feétion. See ConsusstAnriation, Evucuarist, and
Impanation. Moreover, Calvin zealonfly inculicated the
abfolute decree of God, with refpe& to the future and ever-
lafting condition of the human race, which formed no part
of the theological creed of Zuingle. The firlt of the above-
mentioned points was not untverlally allowed, notwithftand=
ing the eredit and irfluence of Calvin, in the reformed
churches. ‘The Engiith and Germans rejected it, and even
the Swifs refufed to adopt it. It was, however, received by
the reformed churches in France, Holland, and Scotland.
Several churches, more efpecially thofe of Zurich and Bern,
obftinately maintained the doGrine of Zuingle in relation to
the eucharilt ; neither could they be eafily perfusded to ad-
mit, as an article of faith, the doétrine ot predettination, as
it had been taught by Calvin. His followers, neverthelefs,
ta procefs of time, aided by his high reputation and learned
writings, induced almof all the reformed churches to adopt
his theologicai fyRem, In various provinces of Germany,
the tenets, rites, and inflitutions of the church of Geneva,
were adopted and enforced by the ruling powers. Tris
was the cafe, particularly, with the palatinate and the re-
public of Bremen. Vhe French Protettauts, very generally,
entered into the bonds of fraternal communion with the
church of Geneva. See Cuurcu of Scoltved and Cuurcu
of Eneland.
Cuurcn, Lutheran, derives its appellation from Luther,
who, having been eminently intlrumental in bringing about
the reformation (which fee), formed the projeét of founding
a church upon privciples entirely oppofite to thofe of Rome,
aug@*of eflablifhine in ita fyftem of doétrine and ecclefiatti-
cal difcipline, which he conceived to be agreeable to the
Vor. VIII.
{pirit and precepts of the Gofpele Accordingly, the iife
of tlis church mult be dated fiom that remarkable per.od,
when the pontiff Leo X. drove Martin Luther, with his
friencs and’ followers, from the bofom of the Roman hie-
rarchy, by a folemn and violent fentence of excommunica-
tion; and it b-gan to acquire a regular form, and a conii-
derabie degree of ftability and confiftence, from the year
1530, when the fyftem of dottrine and morality it had
adopted was drawn up and prefented to the diet of Aucf-
burg. It was raifed to the dignity of a lawful and ¢om-
plece hierarchy, totally independent onthe laws and jurif-
diction of the Roman pontiff, in confequence of the treaty
concluded at Paflau in the year 1552, between Charles V.
and Maurice, elector of Saxony, relating to the religious af-
fairs of the empire. ‘Phe great and leading principle of the
Lutheran chureh, feys Mofheim (Eccl, Hitt. vol. iv.) is,
that the Hoiy Scriptures are the only fource from whence
‘we are to draw our religious fentiments, whether they relate
to faith or praGtice ; and that thele infpired writings are,
In all matters eftntial to falvation, fo plain, and fo eafy to
be thoroughly underltood, that their fignification may be
learned, without the aid of an expofitor, by every perfon of
commoa fenfe, who has a competent knowledge of the lan-
guage in which they are campofed. ‘There are, alfo, cer-
tain formularies adopted by this church, which contain the
principal points of its do&trine; but the books, containing
thefe formularies, have no authority beyond what they de-
rive from the feriptures of truth, whcfe fenfe and meanin
they are defigned to convey ; nor are the Lutheran doétors
permitted to interpret or explain thefe books fo as to draw
from thence any propofitions that are inconfiftent with the ex-
prefs declarations of the word of God. The principal of thefe
human prodvGtions is the ‘ Confeflion of Augfburg,” with
the annexed “ Defence”? of it. In the next rank may be
placed the ‘ Articles of Smalcald,” together with the
fhorter and larger “Catechifms of Luther.?? ‘To thefe
ttandard books moft churches add the ** Form of Concord.’?
‘Lhe fupreme civil rulers of every Lutheran itate are invefted
with the dignity and perform the fun@tions of fupremacy in
the church; but they are effe€tually reftrained, by the fun-
damental pinciples of the doctrine they profefs, from any at-
tempt to change or deftroy the eftablifhed rule of faith aud
manners, to make any alteration in the effential do€trines of
their religion, or in any thing that is intimately conneéted
with them, orto impofe their particular opinions upon their
fubjects in an arbitrary and defpotic manner.
The councils, or focicties, appointed by the fovercign to
watch over the interefts of the church, and to govern and
direét its affairs, are compofed of perfons verfed in the know-
ledge both of civil and ecclefiaftical law, and, according to
a very ancient denomination, are called * confiltories.”? The
internal government of the Lutheran church feems equally
removed from epifcopacy on the one hand, and from Prefby-
teriani{m on the other, if we except the kingdoms of Swe-
den and Denmark, in which the church is ruled by, bifhops
and fuperintendents, under the infpeCtion and authority of the
fovereizn. ‘The archbifhop of Upfal is primate of Sweden,
and the only archbifhop among the Lutherans; and his re-
venues do not amount to more than 4col. annually ; and
thofe of the other bifhops are proportionably fmall: Every
country has its own liturgies which prefcribe every thing
that relates to external worfhip and the public exercife of
religion, Affemblies for the celebration of divine worfhip
meet every where at {lated umes. ‘The Holy Sciiptures are
publicly read, prayers and hymns are addreffed to the Deity,
the facraments are adminiftered, and the people are inftruéted
in the knowledge of religion, and excited to the praétice of
Virtue
CHURCH
virtue by the difcourfes of their minifters. Artong the days
that are held facred in the Lutheran church, belides Sunday,
we may reckon all fuch as were fignalized by the glorious
and important events that proclaim the celeitial miflion of
the Saviour, and the divine authority of his holy religion,
The Lutheran church has extended itfelf to Afia and Ame-
rica; and formed feveral congregations in thofe remote parts
of the world. Mofheim’s E.H, vol. iv.
Cuurcu of England is that branch of the reformed church
which was eitablifhed in England after the feparation from
the Romifh church; which took place in the reign of
Henry VIII. who renounced the pope’s fupremacy. The
Englith, who firft threw off the yoke of Rome, feemed to
be more inclined to the fentiments of Luther concerning the
eucharilt, the form of public worthrp, and ecclefiaftical go-
vernment, than to thofe of the Swifs churches. But after
the death of Henry VIII. the fcene changed; when, by
the induftrious zeal of Calvin and his difciples, more efpeci- -
ally Peter Martyr, the caufe of Lutheranifm loft ground
confiderably ; and the univerfiries, {chools, and churches,
became the oracles of Calvinifm, which alfo acquired new
votaries among the people. Accordingly, when it was
propoled, in the reign of Edward V1. to givea fixed and
itable form to the doétrine and diciplmne of the church,
Geneva was acknowledged as a filter church ; and the theo-
logical fyftem, then eltablifhed by Calvin, was adopted, and
rendered the public rule of faith in England. This, how-
ever, was done without any change of the epifcopal form of
government which had always taken place, and was entirely
different from that of Geneva; and feveral religious nites and
ceremonies were retained, which many of the reformed con-
fidered as fuperttitious. This latter circumftance gave rife
to many diflenfions in fubfequent ages, which proved detri-
mental both to the civil and ecclefialtical conttitution of
Great Britain. The controverfy concerning the ceremonial
part of divine worfhip, commenced with thofe exiles who,
in 15545 fled from the bloody rage and inhuman tyranny of
queen Mary, and took refuge in Germany. After the ac-
ceffion of queen Elizabeth, thefe exiles returned to their
own country, and renewed the contelt at home which had
begun abroad, Queen Elizabeth, unwilling to {trip reli-
gion of the ceremonies which remained in it, was rather in-
clined to bring the public worfhip {till nearer the Ro-
mifh ritual; and had a great propenfity to feveral ufages in
the church of Rome, which were juftly looked upon as fu-
perftitious. She publicly thanked one of her chaplains,
who had preached in defence of the real prefence ; fhe was
fond of images, and retained fome in her private chapel, and
would undoubtedly have forbidden the marriage of the clergy,
if Cecil, her fecretary, had not interpofed. Having ap-
pointed a committee of divines to review king Edward’s li
turgy, fhe gave them an order to {trike out all offenfive paf-
{ages again{t the pope, and to make people eafy about the
corporal prefence of Chrift in the facrament. For an ac-
count of the difputes that agitated the country on this oc-
ealion, fee the article Puritan.
Fr.m the time of Henry VIII. the kings of England
have confidered themfelves as fupreme heads of the church,
in relation both to its fpiritual and its temporal CONCENHS 5
and on the ground of this title, both Henry VIII. and his
fon Edward aflumed an extenfive authority and jurifdiction
in the church, and feemed to cpnfider their fpiritual power
as equal tothat which had been unworthily poffefled and ex-
ercifed by the Roman pontiff. Accordingly the contlitue
tien of the church of England refembled that of the ftate,
aud a firiking analogy fubfifts between the civil and ecclefi-
ticab governments eltablifhed in this country. The clergy,
confifting of the upper and lower honfes of convocation,
are affembled (whenever they do aflemble) by the archbi-
fhop of Canterbury, in confequence of an order from the
fovereign, and in thefe meetings are propofed, in common
council, fuch meafures as feem to be neceffary to the well-
being of the church: thefe meafures are laid before the
king and parliament, and derive from their approbation and
authority the form of laws.
The 37th article of the church of England exprefsly de-
clares and ordains that ‘the queen’s majelty hath the chief
power inthis realm of England, and other her dominions, unto
whom the chief government of all eltates of this realm,
whether they be eccleliaftical or civil, in all caufes, doth ap-
pertain, and is not, nor ought co be, fubjeét to any foreign ju-
rifdiction.”? It is well known, however, that for the firft three
centuries, the Chriftian religion was not embraced or pro-
tected by any Roman emperor. But after the converfion
of Conttantine, this firft Chriftian emperor, and many of
his fucceffors, enacted laws which are now extant in the
codes of Theodofius and Juttinian, relative to ecclefiaftical
matiers. When the empire of Rome was divided into inde-
pendent kingdoms, the fovereigns exercifed the fame antho-
rity over all their fubjeéts, without any diltinétion, and made
{uch regulations, free from all foreign cortroul, as appeared
to them expedient for the good government of their re-
fpective churches. This continued to be the cafe till’ the
afpiring ambition of the bifhops of Rome prompted them
to claim univerfal dominion, not only over ecclefiaftics, but
over fovereign princes, throughout the Chriftian world. Of
the fact there is no queflion; and it has been alleged by the
advocates of the fupremacy of the fovereign, that the au-
thority which the conttitution of Great Britain gives to our
fovereign in ecclefiaftical affairs, is founded in Scripture; is
conformable to the practice of the times previous to the
corruptions and ufurpations of popery; and is perfectly
agreeable to the reafon and nature of things. This claim,
however, was contelted, on the grounds both of reafon and
Scripture, foon after it was affumed ; and it has been con-
fidered by many perfons in later times as incenfiltent with
the evangelical conftitution of the Chriftian church, and
with the fole legiflative, judicial, and fovereign authority of
Chrift, the head of the church, in a'l religious matters. It
has been alfo maintained, that the fubjeétion to higher
powers, and obedience to magiitrates, which the Scripture
enjoins on Chriftians, relate only to civil, but not at all to
religious matters; for this obvious reafon, that the magif-
tracy at that time was every where Pagan. See SupREMACY.
Moreover, the 2oth article of the church of England
declares and ordains, “that the church hath power to
decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in controverfies
of faith; and yet it is not lawful for the church to ordain
any thing that is contrary to God’s word written, neither
may it fo expound one place of Scripture, that it be re-
pugnant to another.” ‘This article, trom the time of its
firtt introduétion to the prefent day, has been the occafion
of great difference of opinion and of difpute between its
defenders on the one hand, and its oppofers on the other.
By the former it has been argued, that, the cherch being a
fociety of men united for the molt important purpofes, itis ne=
ceflary that its aftarrs, like thofe of every other foctety, fhould
be conduéted by certain rules ; and that, although the New
Teftament does not contain any particular directions upon the
fubjeét of rites and ceremonies, every church is left at liberty
to preferibe fuch to its own members as are conliftent with
the general precepts enjoined by the facred writers ; fuch
as * Give none oflence;? “ Let all things be done decelitly
and in order”? * Letailthings be done unto edifying, on
This.
——
Cour eR
‘This liberty, it 1s faid, was allowed underthe Jewith difpenfa-
tion; and hence it is concluded that it islawful fora fociety
of Chrittians, whofe relicion is defigned for all ages and coun-
tries, to make any regulations which may tend to promote the
great objects for which they have formed themfelves into one
body. In vindication of the authority afcribed to the
church in controverlies of faith, reference has been made to
the decree of the apoitles and elders affembled at Jerufalem,
which was communicated to the churehes then eftabhifhed
in different parts of Afia, and to which their obedience
was required ; and it has been faid, that this was an infance
of authority exercifed by the church, under the direction of
the infpired apoftles, in a controverfy of faith. Two paf-
fages have alfo been cited (viz. 1 Tim. i. 3, and_ Titus iii.
Jo.) in order to fhew, that Vimothy and Vitus had autho-
rity given them to regelate the faith of the churches over
which they were appointed to prefide; and hence it has
been inferred, that there mult have been, at that very early
period, fome fixed teft, by which the faith of profeffed
Chriftians was to be judged: the confequence of not con-
forming to which telt was, by apoltolical authority, excom-
munication. It is further added, that this practice appears,
from eccletiattical hiltory, to have been ufual in every period
‘of the Chriftian church. See the lord bifhop of Lincoln’s
‘Elements of Chriftian Theology, vol. ii. On the other
hand, it has been pleaded, that this authority claimed by
the church of England is lodged in the king and parliament
of thefe realms, and not with the church, confidered as
compoied of the b'fhops and clergy. It has been faid, that
all the clergy of this kingdom, with all the bifhops at their
head, have not the leaft authority to enjoin one ceremony
or rite of worfhip ; or to either eftablifh or annul one article
of faith. All power and jurifdiction pertaining to thefe
matters is lodged chiefly in lay-hands; it is folely in the
king and parliament, under whofe direGtion and controul
the clergy are toact. It has been alfo faid, that the bifhops
and clergy were fo far from having any hand in the firlt
forming of our prefent eftablifhed church, or in ordering its
rites and articles of faith ; that it was done not only with-
out, but in aétual oppofition to them: for in the rit of
queen Elizabeth the parliament alore eftablifhed the queen’s
fupremacy and the common-prayer book, in fpite of all op-
pofition from the bishops in the Houfe of Lords; and the
convocation then fitting was fo far from having any hand
in thofe church aéts for reformation, that it prefented to the
parliament feveral propofitions in behalf of the tenets of
popery, directly contrary to the proceedings of the parlia-
ment. It has been alfo queried, who gave the civil magif-
trate this power to decree rites in Chriftian worfhip, which
Chrilt never decreed, and to make articles of faith which
Chrift never made? See Mr. White’s Three Letters, and the
Diffenting Gentleman’s Anfwer.
It was the gencral opinion of the Britifh divines that
lived in the earlieft period of the Reformation, and though it
was firft abandoned by archbifhop Whitgift, it has been main-
tained by later writers of the highefl rank in the church, (fee
Elem. of Theology, above cited,) ‘* that Jefus Chrift has
left upon record no exprefs injunétions with refpect to the
external form of government that is to be obferved in his
church ; and, confequently, that every nation hath a right
to eftablifh fuch a form, as feemeth conducive to the interetts,
and to the peculiar ftate, circumftances, and exigencies
of the community, provided. that fuch an eftablifhment be
in no refpect prejudicial to truth, or favourable to the re-
vival of fuperftition.”’? See Bisuor.
The do@rines of the church of England are contained in
the 39 articles. (See Arricre of Faith.) ‘Chefe arti-
cles were principally compiled by archbifhop Cranmer ;
and it appears, from fome paflages quoted by the bifhop of
Lincoln, (abi /upra,) from a publication, entitled, ‘* Necef-
fary Doétrine and Erudition for any Chriftian Man,”? which
was confirmed by aé& of parliament, that his fentiments on
the fubject of predeftination and grace inclined more to
thofe afterwards inculcated by Arminius and the fynod of
Dort, than to thofe of Calvin; and in this refpe@ the fenti-
ments of Ridley, Latimer, and Hooper, coincided with
thofe of Cranmer. The worfhip of the church of England
was directed by a liturgy, for an account of which, fe
Lirurey. When James 1. afcended the throne on the
death of Elizabeth, the Puritans entertained hopes, from
his having received his education in Scotland, that he would
mitigate the vexations they had fuffered from their attach-
ment to the difcipline and worfhip of the church of Geneva.
But they foon found that their expectations were unfounded.
An epifcopal hierarchy was more favourable to his views
than the Prefbyterian form of ecclefialtical government ;
and he, therefore, diftinguifhed the bifhops with peculiar
exprefiions of his favour, extended their authority, increafed
their prerogatives, and publicly adopted and inculeated the
following maxim, ** No bifhop, no king.’? When the
Britifh divines returned from the fynod at Dort, the king,
together with the greateft part of the epifcopal clergy, dif-
covered their inclination to the fentiments of Arminius, re-
lating to the divine decrees, which they thought preferable
to thofe of Calvin and Gomarus. His fon and fucceffor,
Charles I., who had imbibed his father’s political and reli-
gious principles, direéted the whole {cope of his adminiltra-
tion towards the three following objeéis: _‘ The extending
of the royal prerogative, and the railing of the power of the
crown above the authority of the law—the reduétion of all
the churches of Great Britain and Ireland under the junif-
dition of bifhops, whofe government he looked upon as of
divine inftitution, and alfo as the moft adapted to guard the
privileges and majetty of the throne—and, laftly, the fup-
preffion of the opinions and inflitutions that were peculiar
to Calvinifm, and the modelling of the doétrine, difcipline,
ceremonies, and policy of the church of England, after the
{pirit and conftitution of the primitive church.’? The in-
ftroment he employed for the execution of his plan was
bifhop Laud of London, afterwards archbifhop of Canter-
bury. (See the article Laup.) After the death of Laud,
when the diffenlions between the king and parliament ar-
rived at their height, the great council of the nation, infti-
gated by the Puritans and Independents, abolifhed epif-
copal government ; and preceeded to condemn and abrogate
every thing in the eccletiaftical eltablifhment that was con-
trary to the doctrine, worfhip, and difcipline of the church
of Geneva. As foon as Charles [1. was re-eftablifhed on the
throne of his anceftors, the ancient forms of ecclefiaftical
government and public worfhip were reftored; and in 1662,
a public law, intitled, the * A& of Unmiformity,”? was
enacted, by which all who refufed to obferve the rites, and
fubferibe the doétrines, of the church of England, were en-
tirely excluded from its dominion. In the reign of king
William, and particularly in 1689, the divifions among the
friends of epifcopacy ran high, and terminated in that fa-
mouse{chifm, if it may be fo called, in the church of Eng-
land, which produced the two parties denominated “ High
Church,”’ or ** Non-Jurors,”? and “ Low-Churchmen.”
The Church of England which is now the chief and lead-
ing branch of the great community diftinguifhed by the de-
nomination of the Reformed Church, continues much in
the fame {tate and is governed by the fame principles, which
it affumed at the revolution, under the reign of king Wil-
N2 liam
CHR CW.
Jiam IIT, The eftablithed form of church-government is
epifcopacy, which is embraced by the fovereign, the nobi-
lity, and the greateft part of the people. The Prefbyte-
rians and other numerous fets comprehended under the ge-
ncral appellation of non-conformilts, enjoy the fweets of re=
ligious liberty, under the influence of a legal toleration;
and whatever may be the private fentiments or governing
difpofitions of a few individuals, the dignitaries of the
church and the rulers of the ftate manifeft a liberal and can-
did temper; noris there any reafon to apprehend any fpecies
or degree of perfecntion, in the prefent enlightened age,
either from the church or the ftate. Thofe who are com-
prehended within the pale of the church, and thofe who are
without it, enjoy, as tar as the civil or eccletiattical govern-
ment is concerned, unmolefted freedom and tranquillity. The
members of this church may be divided into two clafles, ac-
cording to their different ideas of the orizin, extent, and
dignity of epifcopal jurifdiGtion. Whilit fome look upon
the government of bifhops to be founded on the authority
of a divine inftitution, and are zealous for extending the
power and prerogatives of the church, of which defcrip-
tion, the number, we conceive, is very inconfiderable; others,
and they form the very decided majority, of a more mild
and fedate f{pirit, though they confider the epifcopal form
of government as far fuperior to every cther fy!tem of eccle-
liaftical polity, and recommend all the precautions that are
neceflary for its prefervation and the independence of the
clergy, yet do not carry this attachment to fuch an excet-
five degree, as to refufe the name of a ‘ church’? to every
religious community that is not governed by a bifhop, or to
defend the prerogatives and pretenfions of the epifcopal
order with an intemperate zeal. ‘To the fpirit of the etta-
blifhed church of England, in relation to thofe who diffent
from its rule of doétrine and government, we have already
paid our tribute of refpeét and commendation. We thall
elofe this part of our article with the words of the learned
and amiable Dr. Jortin, (Diff. ii. p. 3.) as they are cited
by the bifhop of Lincoln (ubi fupra), without taking upon
us to determine whether the articles of the church ere Cal,
viniltic or Arminian, or what is the proportion of thofe who
adopt either {cheme of interpreting them, or vouching for
the jultice of the reprefentation: ‘‘ In England, at the
time of the fynod of Dort, we were much divided in our
opinion concerning the controverted articles; but our di-
vines having taken the liberty to think and judge for them-
felves, and the civil government not interpoling, it has come
to pafs, that from that time to this, almott all perfons here,
of any note for learning and abilities, have bid adieu to Cal-
vinifm, have fided with the Remonftrants, and have left the
Fatalitts to follow their own opinions, and to rejoice (fince
they can rejoice) in a religious fy{tem confilting of human
creatures without liberty, dodtrines without fenfe, faith
without reafon, anda God without mercy.”
The revenue of the church of England has been ftated
by two fate writers, from whofe publications we fhal! ex-
tra& the following particulars. The bifhop of Landaff (Dr.
Watfon) in his “ Letter to the Archb:fhop of Canterbu-
ry,” printed in 1793, affures us, that the whole income
of the church, including bifhoprics, deans and chapters,
reétories, vicarages, dignities, and benefices of all kinds,
and even the two univerfities with their refpective colleges,
doth not amount, upon the molt liberal caleulation, to
1,500,0co/,a year. Confequently, if we had no bifhops to
in{peét and govern the church; no deaneries, prebendaries,
or canonries, to ftimulate the clergy to excel in literary at-
tainments ; no univerfities or colleges to inftru& our youth ;
nothing but parochial clergy, and all of thefe provided for by
an equal partition of the prefent ecclefiattical revenues, there
would not be, eftimating the number of the clergy at ter
thoufand, above 150/. a year for each individual, The
learned prelate adds, that thongh the whole revenue of the
church is fo inconfiderable, as not to admit any diminution
of it, yet a fomewhat better diftribution of it might be in-
troduced, with much advantage to ine ftate, and without
the lealt injuitice to any individual. For an account of the
plan which he propofes, fee AuGmentTaTion. An-
other writer, Mr. Cove,- vicar of Sithney in Cornwall, in
his “ Iffay on the Revenues of the Church of England,’
2a ed. 1797; fays, that thongh the cathedral revenues,
throughout the kingdom, amount to the grofs fum of
140,002 /, per annum, there are in all, not Jefs than 1700
perfons who, in a greater or {maller proportion, participate
thefe revenues. ‘Tne parochial clergy, he adds, have been
more fortunate and fuccefsful than either their epifcopal or
dignified brethren. ‘Theirincomes, being chiefly dependent
on tie flate of landed property, whofocevee might be the
pofleffors of it, have been neceflarily more augmented by the
increafed value of the rental of that property; and their
rights and claims, not being of a flecting nature, but im-
moveably affixed to the foil of each parifh, have fuffered little
diminution, except from the ealinefs, inattention, and
neglect of the clergy themfelves,
it appears from the ** Liber Regis,” according to arch-
deacon Piymley in his “Charge to the Clergy of Salop, in
the year 1793,” that there are in Enzland and Wales 5,095
reCtories, 3,087 vicarages, and 2,970 churches, which are
neither rectorial nor vicarial; ia ali 41,755 churches, con-
tained in about 10,000 parifhes, at which number the pa-
rifhes throughout the kingdom are ufually eflimated.
OF thefe reftories many are, without doubt, highly va-
luable. ‘The fame may be faid in refpcét to fome of the vi-
carages, from being poffefled of large glebes or large en=
dowments, or from both caufes united ; but however there
are many rectories, end vicarages, in particular, whofe tithes-
are wholly impropriated, and without even any parfonage
houfe. Of the churches, which are neither reétorial nor
vicarial, perhaps two-fifths are merely chapels “of eafe, and
appendant to fome extenfive and valuable benefices, or elfe:
built on fpeculation in populous parts of the kingdom, in
which diftri@ts they are chiefly to be found. And of the
remaining churches: to which neither houfes, glebes, nor
tithes molt commonly belong, the incomes mutt neceilarily
be very inconfiderable, as they can alone proceed from.
trifling contingencies.
From the aggregate amount of the incomes of 3,184
livings, now and formerly in charge in the king’s books,
fituated in every county in the kingdom, and whofe value
hath been collected almoft entirely within the laft ten years,
from various fources of pnblic and private information, it:
appears that each of thefe livings is now worth, cr the ave-
rage, 141/. per annum, and that when compared with the
value annexed to them in the king’s books, they have.all in--
creafed in the general proportion of about ten to one, fince
the time of the reformation 3 but that the rectories have in-
creafed in the ratio of neariy eleven to one, and are at pre-
fent of the yearly value of 162/. each, and that the vicar-
ages have increafed in the ratio of rather more than nine to.
one, and are at prefent of the yearly value of 106 /. each,
The number of reétories included in. this calculation, is-
2,037, and of the vicarages 1,144 3 the colleCtive value of
the former in the king’s books being 30,158/. and of the.
latter 13,3794, and the colle&ive value of the former at
prefent being 330,754, and. of the latter 123,403 /. per
anaum,
.
3 According. -
Qi U RG.
According, then, to the prefent average value of thefe
yectories and vicarages, and to the number of the re¢torial,
viearial, and other churches throughort the kingdom, as
before given from the * Liber Regis,” the revenues of the
parochial clergy will be increafed to the amount of 1,313,000/,
perannum, as thus appears: 5,098 reCtories, at 162 d. each,
will give 825,876/—3,687 vicarages, at 106/. each,
will give 98,2227 And 1782 (that is, three-lifths of
2,970) churches, which are neither reCtorial nor vicarial,
but are prefumed to be parochial cures, at, fuppofe the am-
ple allowance of—so/. eech, will give 89,1007. And,
when to thefe {ums are added the epifcopal, cathedral, and
univerfity 1evenues amounting, to 392,coo/, per annum,
it will be feen that the bifhop of Landaff’s valuation of
the church and univerfity revenues is exceeded by the fum
of 205,0007.
From the revenues, this author proceeds to form an elt:-
mate of the number of the eltablithed clergy :
They have been varioufly eftimated, as much above
20,000 as below 15,000; a medium between borh, or
18,000, is, moft probably, the correcteft flatement of them,
as it will allow a fupernumerary or curate to about one
half of the before {tated number of 11,755 churches.
Thefe eighteen thoufand perfons, whether beneficed or
expectant, with their families and dependents, make up pof-
fibiy near 100,900 fouls, reckoning at the rate of five and
zn half perfons to a family. However, as a part of the
clergy, like thofe of other profeffions, may be fuppofed to
be fingle men, this computation will therefore at firft hght
appear exaggerated; but, when it is confidered that the
clergy are an exception to thofe of other profeffions, and
are for the moft part married men with numerous familtes in
general, the calculation, in eftimating the whole body of them
with each a family of five and an half perfons, may turn out
neither rafh nor ill-founded; and more efpecially, fince
computing two-thirds of them to be married men, with fa-
milies and dependents of feven perfons each, the fame grofs
product will almoft appear, as feven times twelve thoufand
amount ta 84,0co, and the remaining one-third, (or 6,000
fingle men) with one dependent each, will make up the
whole number to be 96,000.
And thus, takmg the population of the kingdom at
§,000,000 of perfons, the clergy, with their families and de-
pendents, are about an eightieth part of the people.
It appears that, by the addition of the cathedral and the
equalization of the parochial incomes, the revenue to be en-
joyed by each parith prielt would not exceed 172 /. per
annum. ,
Cuurcs of Scotland, is that branch of the reformed church
which was eftablifhed in Scotland. One of the principal
agents in accelerating and completing the progreds of the
reformation in Scotland was John Knox, who, with better
qualifications of learning, and more extenfive views than any
of his predeceflors in Scotland, poffefled a natural intrepidity
of mind, which fet him above fear. He began his public
miniftry at St. Andrew’s, in the year 15.47, with that fuccefs
which always accompanies a bold and popular eloquence.
Inflead of amufing himfelf with lopping the branches, he
ftmck dire&ily at the root of popery, and attacked both the
doGtrine and difcipline of the eflablifhed church, with a-vehee
menee peculiar to himfelf, but admirably fuited to the tem-
per and wifhes of the age. The great revolution in England,
which followed upon the death of Henry VIIT. contributed
no lefs than the zeal of Knox towards demolifhing the popifh
church in Scotland. Several noblemen of the greateft
diftinétion having about this time openly efpoufed the princi-
pies of the reformer, they were no longer under the neceflity
of inculcatiog their fentiments with the referve which they
had before practifed; and with greater fecurity and encou-
ragement, they had likewife greater {uccefs. The ambition
of the houfe of Guife and the bigotry of Mary of England
haitened the fudverfion of the papal throne in’Scotiand ; and
by a fingular difpofition of Providence, the f s who op-
pofed the reformation in every other part of Europe witl
tik
the fierceft zeal, were made inflruments for advancing it in
that kingdom. It was not, however, till about the year
1560 that the Proteitant church of Scotland began to ai-
fume a regular form. But the model introduced by the re-
formers differed extremely from that, which had been fo long
eftablifhed. As the vices of the clergy had, at firtt, fays
Dr. Rebertfon (Hilt. of Scotland), excited the indignation
cf mankind, and roufed that fpirit of inquiry, which proved
fo fatal-to the whole popiih fyftem ; as this difguit at the
vices of eeclefialtics was foon transferred to their perfons,
and fhifting from them, by no violent tranfition, fettled at
lait wn the offices which they enjoyed; the effeéts of the
reformation would naturally have extended not only to the
doGrine, but to the government of the popifh church ; and
the fame fpirit which abolifhed the former would tave abo-
lithed the latter. But, in a great part of Germany, in Eng-
land, and in the northern kingdoms, its operations were
checked by the power and policy of their princes; and the
ancient epifcopal jurifdiGticn, under a few limitations, was
{till continued in thofe churches. The epifcopai hierarchy
appears to be more conformable to the praétice of the church,
fince Chriltianity becametheeitablifhed religion of the Roman
empire. The ecclefiaftical government was, at that time,
plainly copied from the civil; the firft not only borrowed its
form, but derived its authority from the latter; and the dio-
cefes and jurifdiétions of patriarchs, archbifhops, and bi-
fhops, correfponded with the divifion and conititution of the
empire. In Switzerland, and the Low Countries, the na-
ture of the government allowing full fcope to the genius of
the reformation, all pre-eminence of order in the church was
deltroyed, and an equality eftablifhed more fuitable to the
{pirit of republican policy. The fituation of the primitive
church fuggelted the idea, and furnifhed the model of the
latter fyitem, which has fince been called ‘* Prefbyterian.’”
The firft Chriftians, oppreffed by continual perfecutions, and
obliged to hold their religious affembles by itealth, and in
cerners, were contented with a form of government extreme-
ly fimple. The influence of religion concurred with the
fenfe of danger in extinguifhing among them the {pirit of
ambition, and in preferving a parity’ of rank, the effect of
their fufferings, and the caufle of many of their virtues.
Calvin, whofe decifions were received, among the Proteftants
of that age, with incredible fubmiflion, was the patron and
reftorer of this feheme of ecclefiaftical policy. he church
of Geneva, formed under his eye, and by his dire€tion, was
efteemed the moft perfect model of this government; and
Knox, who, during his refidence in this city, had ftudied and
admired it, warmly recommended it to the imitation of his
countrymen. Among the Scottifh nobility, fome hated the
perfons, and others coveted the wealth of the dignified cler-
gy ; and by abolifhing that order of men, the former indulg-
ed their refentment, and the latter hoped to gratify their
avarice. The people, inflamed with the moit violent detef-
tation of popery, and approving every {cheme that departed
fartheft from the practice of the Romifh church, were de--
lighted with a fyftem, fo admirably fuited to their predomi-
nant paffioa. While the friends of civil liberty beheld, with
pleafure, the Proteltant clergy pulling down, with their own.
hands, that fabric of ecclefiaftical power, which their prede-
ceffors had. reared with fo much art and induftry ; and eeeete
e ‘
CH Usk: CG. He
efi themieives, that by lending their aid to ftrip churchmen
of their dignity and wealth, they might entirely deliver the
nation from their exorbitant and oppreffive jurifdi@tion.
However, on the firft introduétion of his {vftem, Knox did
not deem it expedient to depart altogether from the ancient
form. Inttead of bifhops, he propofed to eftablifh 10 or 12
foperintendents in different parts of the kingdom. Thefe,
as the name implies, were empowered to infpes the life and
doctrine of the other clergy. They prelided in the inferior
judicatories of the church, and performed feveral other parts
of the epifcopal funGtion. Their jurifdi@ion, however, ex-
tended to facred things only; they claimed no feat in par-
liament; and pretended to no right to the dignity, or reve-
nues, of the former bifhops. The number of inferior cler-
gy, to whom the care of parochial duty could be committed,
was {till extremely fmall, and much difperfed through the
different provinces of the kingdom; and in a few places
only, were they formed into regular claffes or focieties. The
firit general aflembly of the church was held this year (De-
cember 20, 1560.) Sze General Asstmaty. In order to
give greater ftrength and confiitence to the Prefbyterian plan,
Knox, alilted by his brethren, compofed the firft book of
difcipline, which contains the model or platform of the in-
tended policy. From this period to the prefent times, the
form of do¢irine, worfhip, and difcipline, that had been ef-
tablifhed at Geneva by the miniftry of Calvin, and intro-
duced with certain modifications by Knox into Scotland,
thas been maintained with invincible {teadinefs and zeal ; and
every attempt to introduce into that kingdom the rites and
government of the church of England, or to re-e(tablith po-
pery, has proved impotent and unfuccefsful.
The church of Scotland is, of courfe, confidered by its
members as founded upon the principle of the primitive
church, in which they perceive no diftin@tion between pref-
byters and bithops. A body of prefbyters having a modera-
tor, who conduéts the proceedings, and executes the fen-
tences, is regarded as competent to perform all the ads
which, in an epifcopal government, belong exclulively to the
bifhop. It tries the qualifications of candidates for the office
of the miniltry 5 it confers orders by the impofition of hands;
to thofe who are nominated by perfons having richt of no-
mination, it grants the invettiture of tke facred office, or in-
duétion into the charge of a particular parifh; and it exer-
cifes infpe€tion and jurifdiction over the paftors of all the
parifhes within its bounds.
In the exercife of his fpiritual fan@ions a paftor aéts with-
in his parifh, according to his own difcretion: and for the
difcharge of the pattoral duties, he is accountable only to the
prefbytery from whom he received the charge of the parifh ;
but in every thing which relates to di/cipline, he is affilted by
Jay-elders. ‘Thele, like the deacons of the primitive church,
attend to the interefls of the poor. But their peculiar bufi-
nefs is expreffed by the name ruling-elders ; in every queftion
of jurifdiction within the parifh, they form a [piritual court,
of which the minilter is moderator. In the prefbytery alfo
they fit as reprefentatives of feffions or confittories.
Minitters are admitted into a church by a prefbytery.
When a ftudent has gone through his univerfity education,
according to certain prefcribed rules, he may be propofed to
a prefbytery, in order to be taken upon his trials; the con-
feat of a fuperior court, called a fynod, having been firft ob-
tained ; to which court an appeal lies, if the prefbytery fhould
be oppreffive. A perfon entered upon his trials, having ob-
tained a licence to preach, is called a probationer; and in this
chara&er has no fixed charge, though he is allowed to affift
aclergyman difabled by age or ficknefs. When he receives
a prefentation, he undergoes a fecond trial before the prel-
bytery, to whom the prefentation is addrefled: if they find
that he is not qualified in refpeét of doctrine, literature, or
moral chara¢ter, their fentence declaring him unqualified, un-
lefs it be reverfed by their ecclefiaitical fuperiors, renders his
prefentation void. If, upon a vacancy in the living, the
patron do not prefent within fix months, the prefbytery take
fuch fieps as they judge proper to fupply the vacancy.
None but /centiates or probationers, or thofe who have been
previoufly induéted to another living, can be prefented. The
people have no right to eleé&t a perfon to be prefented to the
prefbytery ; this right being referved to the patrons, except
when it is transferred by the patron to the parifhioners. Yet
the people are not overlooked; but have two ways allowed
them of exprefling their fentiments of the perfon who is to
minilter to them, either by fubfcribing or refufing to fub-
{cribe a paper, named a call, inviting him to be their minilter ;
or by fupporting a charge of immorality of condué or un-
foundnels of doétrine. The former of thefe feems of little
importance, as a call may be fultained, however {mall the
number of fubfcribers. If no objection occur, the perfon is
ordained, by impolition of the hands of the prefbytery, who
aflemble at 4 time appointed for the purpofe; the prefentee
having firlt anfwered the queftions, and made the promifes
aud engagements required by the law.
The lowelt judicatory in the church of Scotland is the
hirk-fefion, compofed of the minifter of the parifh and of lay
elders. New elders are chofen by the feflion, but are liable
to be objecied again{ft by any member of the congregation.
If the objections be not valid, they are at an appo:nted time
fet apart to their office by prayer ; having firit declared their
affent to al] that is contained in the confeffion of faith.
A prefbytery is compofed of an indefinite number of pa-
rifhes; in fome populous diftri€ts of not lefs than thirty, in
fome more remote of not more than four. This judicatory
confitts of the minilters of all the panthes within the diftri&;
of the profeflors of divinity, if they be minilters, in any uni-
verfity that is within the fame diftrict ; and of one elder from
each parifh. A moderator, who mult be a minilter, is chofen
twice a year. At prefent there are feventy-eight prefbyte-
ries in Scotland.
Three or more prefbyteries, as the matter happens to be
regulated, compofe a provincial fynod. There are at prefent
fifteen of thefe judicatories, molt of which meet twice in the
year. This court is formed of every minifter of all the pref.
byteries within the bounds of the fynod, and the fame elder
who had lait reprefented the kirk-feffion in the prefbytery.
The next and higheft ecclefiaftical court is the general as-
sEMBLY. It is compofed in the following manner: all
prefbyteries confilting of twelve parifhes, or under that num-
ber, fend two minifters and one ruling elder; all prefbyteries
confilting of eighteen or fewer, but above twelve, fend three
minilters and one ruling elder; all prefbyteries confifting of
twenty-four parifhes, or fewer, but above eighteen, fend four
minifters and two elders ; all of above twenty-four, but under
thirty parifhes, fend five minifters and two ruling elders ; and
all that confilt of more than thirty parifhes, fend fix minifters
and threeruling elders. ‘The fixty-fix royal burghs of Scot-
land are reprefented in the general aflembly by ruling elders :
Edinburgh fending two, and every other burgh one; and
each of the five univerfities is reprefented by one of its mem-
bers. ‘The general affembly, therefore, is compofed of two
hundred minilters repreferiting prefbyteries, eighty-nine el.
ders reprefenting prefbyterics, lixty-feven elders reprefent.
ing royal burghs, five minifters or elders reprefenting uni-
verfities: in all 361. In this aflembly, the fovereign is
reprefented by the lord high commiffioner. This affembly
meets annually in the month ef May, and continues torit for —
ten
ee
Hn
ten days, But as it may be impoffible, in that {pace of time,
to decide all the queftions that are brought before it, and
circumftances may occur in the intervals between general af-
femblies requiring the interpofition of this fupreme court, a
commiffion is annually formed of the general aflensbly : which
differs from the general affembly chiefly in not being honour-
ed by the reprefentation of the fovereign, and may be confi-
dered asa committee of the whole houfe. Thirty-one mem-
bers, of whom twenty-one are always to be minilters, coniti-
tute a quorum, which meets four times in the year, or oftener,
for the difpatch of bufinefs.
Thefe four courts are fo conftituted, that each infenor
court is fubjeét to the controul of its Superior. The power
of the fuperior court may be exercifed at its own pleafure,
upon reference from an inferior court, and upon appeal or
complaint. In matters purely ecclefiaftical, the civil power
does not interfere with thefe fpiritual courts; but in every
queftion ofa civil nature, fuch as refpe&t glebes, &c. the de-
eifion of a prefbytery is cognizable by a civil judicatory.
The judicial power of the church of Scotland appears in
the inflicvion or removal of fuch cenfures as are thought to
belong to a fpiritual fociety. The objeéts of thefe cen-
fures are grofs immorality, herefy, and fchifm. The minif-
ter of the parifh has no power of this nature, but as a mem-
ber of the kirk-feffion: and he again is fubjeét to no control
lefs than that of the prefbytery by whom he was ordained,
and by whom alone he may be fufpended or depofed. The
nature of thefe cenfures, and the method of inflifting them,
are defined in a code of laws, confefledly imperfect, called the
form of procefs.
General laws were formerly made and repealed by the
general affembly alone, “Che barrier act enables an indt-
vidual to propofe to the prefbytery new laws, or the amend-
ment or repeal of old laws. Such propofals muft be tranf-
mitted to the general aflembly, and by them are either dif-
miffed, or fent to all the prefbyteries for their approbation.
The refult is returned to the next general aflembly, and pafles
into a ftanding law, if not lefs than forty prefbyteries have
approved. ‘lo prevent the delay which mull thus be occa-
froned, the general affembly, if it thinks fit, can order the
propoied meature to be obferved as a law, during the term
which intervenes between its firlt being propofed, and the
rejection or confirmation of it by the prefbyteries at its fuc-
ceeding meeting.
The church of Scotland receives annually from the exche-
quer of that country, 2000/, Of this, 500/. are fet apart
for the falaries of the procurator and agent of the church,
the law-officers, clerks, &c.; and the remaining 1500 /. for
the defraying of the expences incident to the dignified fta-
tion of the reprefentative of the fovereign of the general af-
fembly, Emoluments are alfo annexed to the oflices of his
majefty’s chaplains for Scotland, and the deans of the
chapel-royal,. The ftinends of the minitters arife chiefly
from the teinds or tythes, paid either m money or in kind
by the.fitular of the teinds, who is not always the land-
holder, but in fome cafes the crown, in others an individual
ora corporation. he landholder in Scotland enjoys a pri-
vilege in re{pect of the payment of tythes, which is not
known in other Chriftian ftates: he may value his teinds
before a court of feffion ; and that valuation being eftablith-
ed, how much foever the rent of his lands may rife by the
improvements of agriculture, &c. the increafe is entirely his
own, becaufe the teinds never go beyond the rate at which
the valuation had fixed them. The Jandholder, if he be not
titular, as is frequently the cafe, may compel the titular to
fell the teinds to him; excepting where the teinds are held
by the crown, or when they have been granted for the fup-
R © F,
port of public inftitutions, Ifthe titnlar does not pay the
whole of the teinds, according to their valuation, to the mi-
nifter, the court of feffion may grant an augmentation, but
never beyond the quantity or fum fixed when the teinds were
valued. Befides the teinds, the minifter of every country
parifh is provided with a dwellino houfe, or maafe ; with a
garden; with a glebe of not lefs than four acres of arable
land; with grafs for one horfé and one cow, and with the
out-houfes neceffary for the management of his {mall farm.
By another legal provifion, called the ann, the half-year’s
itipend that becomes due after the death of a minifter, is paid
to his widow or executors. See Dr. Hill’s Theological In-
{titutes, part ii.
In a paralle] drawn between the church eftablifihments of
England and Scotland (fee Cove’s Effay on the Revenues of
the Church of England), we learn, that the whole provifion
of the minitters of the Kirk of Scotland, was eftimated, about
the year 1755, at about 68,5007. per annum; which, being
divided between 944 minifters, afforded to each of them, om
an average, an annual income of 727 This provifion may,
indeed, have been augmented fince ; but it appears to be very
incompetent to a decent and confortable maintenance, even
in Scotland, and difcourages the youth of refpe€table families
and conneétions from entering, as they formerly did, into the
miniltry. :
Cuurcu, High, was a denomination originally given to
thofe, otherwife callea Nonjurors, who refuled to acknow-
ledge the title of William ITI. to the crown of Great Bri-
tain, under a notion that James II. though excluded, was
ftill their rightful fovereien. ‘This appellation was given
them, becaufe they entertained high notions of the dignity
and power of the church, and the extent of its prerogatives
and jurifdi@ion. And thofe, on the contrary, were called
low-church men, who difapproved of the feceffion and ob-
ftinacy of the Nonjurors, diftinguifhed themfelves by their
moderation toward diffenters, and were lefs ardent in extend-
ing the limits of church authority. The denomination
of high-church men is now more generally applied to all who
form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the authority
and jurifdiétion of the church, and who would raife it to
an abfolute independence on all human power.
The non-jurors, or hich-churchmen, who boaft with pe-
culiar oftentation of their orthodoxy, and treat the Low-
church as unfound and {ch:{matical, differ in feveral thing's
from the members of the epifcopal church, in its prefent ef-
tablithment ; butthey are more particularly diltinguifhed by
the following principles : 1. ** That itis never Jawful for the
people, under any provocation or pretext whatever, to re-
fit the fovereign.””? This is called in England “ paffive obe-
dience,” and is a do€trine warmly oppofed by many, who
think it both lawful and neceflary, in certain circumitances,
and in cafes of an urgent and momentous nature, to refilt
the prince for the happinefs of the people. They main-
tain further, 2. ** That the hereditary fucceflion to the
throne is of divine inftitution, and therefore can never be
interrupted, confounded, or annulled, on any pretext.’?
3. “That the church is fubjeét to the jurifdiétion—not of
the civil magiftrate, but of God alone, particularly in matters
of a religious nature.” 4. ‘ That confequently Sancroftand
the otherbifhops, depofed by king Wilham ITI. remained, not-
withftanding their depofition, true bi/bops to the day of their
death ; and that thofe who were {ub{tituted in their places
were the unjuft poffeflors of other men’s property.” 5.
‘That thefe unjult poffeffors of ecclefiattical dignities were
rebels againft the ftate, as well as {chi{maticsin the church ;
and that all, therefore, who held communion with them
were alfo chargeable with rebellion and {chifm.” 6, ‘’Vhat
this
GC) Eb Gr Re C’ Eh
this fchifm, which rends the church in pieces, is a moft heinous
fia, whole psnifhment mutt fall upon all thofe who do not
return fincerely to the true church, from which they have
d:parted.”” Mofheim’s Ecel. Hitt. vol. v.
Cuvurcu is alfo ufed fora Chriltian temple, built and con-
fecrated to the honour of God; and, arciently, under
the invocation of fome particular faint, whole name it al-
fumed. .
In this fenfe, churches ave varioufly denominated, accord-
ing to the rank, degree, difcipline, &c. as metropolitan
church, patriarchal church, cathedral church, parochial
church, cardinal church, &c. See each under its proper
article, Merrrororis, Patriarcu, Carueprar, Pag
ROCHIAL, CarpinaL, &c. In ecclefiaitical writers, we
meet with grand church, fer the chief church of a place,
particularly in the Greek liturgy, forthe church of St. So-
phia at Conflantinople, the fee of the patriarch, founded
by Conftantine, and canfeerated under Jultinian. It was at
that time fo magnificent, that Juftinian is ‘aid to have cried
out inthe confecration thereof, Exx conouwav 3 I have
out-done thee, Solomon. The dome, which is faid to have
been the firit that was built, is 930 feet diameter.
The firft church publicly built by the Chriftians, fome
authors maintain to be that of St. Saviourat Rome, founded
by Conftantine: others contend, that feveral churches
abroad, called by the name jof St.: Peter Vivus, were built
in honour of that apoltle during his life-time.
In the firftagesthe Chriftians affembled for focial worfhip
in private houfes and fequeftered places: and therefore if
any are pleafed to give the name of a church to a houfe or
part of a honfe, which, though appointed as the place of
religious worlhip, was neither feparated from common ufe,
nor confidered as holy in the opinion of the common people,
it muft be granted that the moft ancient Chrittians had
churches. It isthe opinion of many learned men, particu-
luriy Suicer (ad vocem Nzos) that the Chriftians had no
public edifices during the three firft centuries, as they have
fhewn from the authorities of Origen, Minutius Felix, Arno-
bius, and Laétantius. Tillemontyin difcuffing the antiquity
of Chriftian churches (Mem. Ecel. tom. iii. part 2) refers
the firft conttruétion of themto the peace of Alexander Se-
verus; bat Mr. Moyle (vol. i.) aferibes it to the peace of
Galiienus. Between the years 211 and 249, during a calm
of 38 years, Chriftians, it has been faid, were permitted to
ereét and confecrate convenient edifices for the purpofe of
religious worlhip ; to purchafe lands, even at Rome itfelf,
for the ufe of the community; and to condnét the eleGions
of their ecclefiait'cal minifters in fo public, but at the fame
time in fo exemplary a manner, as to deferve the refpectful
attention of the Gentiles. Under the perfecuting edigts of
Dioclefian, the Chriftian churches were generally demolifh-
ed; and though in fome plzces the magiltrates contented
themfelves with fhutting up the places of religious worhhip,
in others they proceeded to a more fevere extreme; and af-
ter taking away the doors, the benches, and the pulpit,
which they burnt, as it were in a funeral pile, they com-
pletely deltroyed the remaining edifice. Inthe age of Con-
dtantine, the Chriftian temples of Antioch, Alexandria, Je-
rufalem, Conftantinople, &c. difplayed the oftentatious piety
of aprince, ambitious in a declining age to equal the perfeét
labours of antiquity. Thé form of thefe religious edifices
was fimple and oblong ; though they might fometimes {well
anto the fhape of a dome, and fometimes branch into the
fixsure of a crofs. ‘I'he timbers were framed for the mott
; part of cedars of Libanus; the roof was covered with tiles,
psrhaps of gilt brafs ; ‘and the walls, the columns, the pave-
ment, were incrulted with variegated marbles, The moit
2
v7
precious ornaments of gold and filver, of filk and gems,
were profufely dedicated to the fervice of the altar: and this
fpecious magnificence was fupported on the folid and perpe-
tual balis of landed property. In the fpace of two centu-
ries, from the reign of Conftantine to that of juftinian, the
1$00 churches of the empire were enriched by the frequent
and unaltenable gifts of the prince and people. In the 10th
century all Europe was alarmed with a terrifying apprehen-
fion, that the day of judgment was at hand. and that the
world was approaching to its final diffolution; and, among
the other effects of this general panic, the churches and mo-=
nafleries were fuffered to fall into ruin, orat leaft to remaia
without repair, from a notion that they would foon be in-
volved in the general fate of all fublunary thirgs. But
when thefe apprehenfions were removed, the tottering
temples were rebuilt, and the greatelt zeal, attended with
the richeft and mot liberal donations, was employed in re-
fioring the facred edilices to their former luitre, or ratherin
giving them new degrees of magnificence and beauty. Acs
cordingly, dering the whole of the 11th century, all the
European nations were diligently employed in rebuilding;
repairing, and adorning their churches.
The churches of the'firlt ages, however magnificent and
fplendid thofe of fome favoured countries and places might
have been, were generally plain and fimple ftructures,
Sulpicius Severus defcribes one of the churches of Cyrene
inthe deferts of Libya, which, he fays, was made of {mall
rods interwoven, not much more ftately than his own houfe,
in which a man could hardly ttand upright ; and the de-
{cription given by our venerable Bede of the church which
Finan, the fecond bifhop of Lidisfarne, or Holy Ifland,
fince called the bifhepric of Durham, built, will furnith a
jutt idea of the fimplicity of many of our oldeft churches,
Places appropriated to religious worfhip were dittinguifh-
ed by a variety of names, beth in the aft and Welt.
Exxancsx and sxxAnciasngiov, whence the Trench ** Eglife,’”
and the Britifh ‘* Eglwys,” are often ufed indifcriminately,
though fometimes, as we have already fhewn in a preceding
article, the former fignificd the affembly of Chriltians, and
the latter the place where they aflembled. One of the ears
lieft names is ‘‘ oratory” or ** houle of prayer,” reorzuxingsoy
and sixes <vingios, which names were aftcrwards reftricted
to chapels in private families. The Latins called the church
«© Dominicum”’ or ** domus Dei”? God’s houfe; which an-
f{wers to the Greck xvgizxev, whence the Saxons derived their
name ‘ kyrick’’ or “kyrch,” and the Scots and Englith
“kyrk” and * church.?? Tertullian called it ‘*domus Co-
lumb:e.” The word “ temple,’ which was not ufed during”
the three firlt ages, was introduced after the heathen temples
were converted into churches for the worfhip of the true
God. Mr. Bingham, in his “ Antiquities,’ has colle@ed
a variety of other names, which we need not recite.
Churches, which were built, after the perfecutions ceafed,
over the grave of any martyr or faint, from refpeét to their
memory, were called ‘ martyrium” and ‘‘memoria,’? and
thence the word “ cemetery” came alfo to fignify a church.
This practice, perhaps, fuggelted the idea of dedicating thefe
ftru@tures to fome particular faint, and gave rife to the cuf-
tom of putting fome portion of the relics of a martyr into
the foundation of every church, with a view of encouragiz
men to fubmit to a fate which was likely to befal them in’
thofe ages; and thence they proceeded to dedicate them to
the honour of the Virgin, or to fome remarkable circum-
ftance in the life or fufferings of our blefled Lord. . Mr.
Bingham fays that the word ‘ menfa” was ufed for a
ehurch, becaufe an altar or communion-table was ereted at
the place where the martyr fuifered, at which fermons were
preached ;
CcimuUR CE:
preached ; but this part feems rather to have anfwered to the
*trapera,”” a refectory in monafteries, where thofe dif-
eourles were held ; thefe were never preached at the altar,
which would have been very inconvenient for the auditors ;
the laity being never permitted to enter there.
A church, in order to be adjudged fuch by our laws, muft
have adminiftration of the facraments and fepulture annexed
to it. If the king founds achurch, he may exempt it from
the jurifdiétion of an ordinary ; but it is otherwife in cafe
of a fubject.
The manner of founding churches in ancient times was
as follows : after the founders had made their application to
the bifhop of the diocefe, and had his licence, the bifhop
or his commiffioners fat up a crofs, and fettled the bounda-
ries of the church-yard where the church was to be erected,
and then the founders might proceed with the building ; and
when the edifice was completed, the bifhop confecrated it ;
then, and not before, the facraments were to be adminifter-
edinit. (See Stillingfleet’s Ecclefiattical Cafes.) But by
the common law and cu{tom of this realm, any perfon, who
is a good Chriftian, may build-a church without licence
from the bifhop, fo that it be not prejudicial to any ancient
churches ; though the law takes no notice of it as a church,
till it is confecrated by the bifhop, which is the reafon why
church, and no church, &c. is to be tried and certified by the
bifhop. And in fome cafes, though a church has been con-
fecrated, it muft be confecrated again ; as in cafe any mur-
der, adultery, or fornication be committed in it, by which
it is defiled ; or if the church be deftroyed by fire, &c.
The ancient ceremonies ufed in confecrating the ground
on which it was propofed to build achurch, and the church
itfelf, were~as follow: when the materials were provided
for building, the bifhop came in his robes to the place, &c.
and having prayed, he perfumed the ground with incenfe,
and the people fung acolleé& in praife of that faint to whom
the church was dedicated; then the corner ftone was
brought to the bifhop, which he eroffed and laid for the
foundation; and a great feaft was made on that day, or on
the day of the faint to whom it was dedicated ; but the
form of confecration was left to the bifhop, as it is at this day.
A Church in general, legally confidered, confifts of three
principal parts, viz. the belfry or fteeple, the body of the
church with the aifles, and the chancel; and not only the
freehold of the whole church, but of the church-yard, are
in the parfon or rector; ard the parfon may have an aétion
of trefpafs againft any one that fhall commit a trefpafs in
the church or church-yard ; as in the breaking of {eats an-
nexed to thechurch, or the windows, taking away the leads,
orany of the materials of the church, cutting the trees in
the church-yard, &c. But church-wardens may, by cuftom,
have a fee for burying inthe church ; the church-yard is a
common place of burial for all the parifhioners. Moreover,
the aGtions for taking away the feats mult be brought in the
name of the church-wardens, the parifhioners paying the
expence. If a perfon ereé&t a pew in a church, or hang
up a bell, &c. in it, they then become church goods,
though not exprefsly given to the church; and he may not
afterwards remove them. The parfon only is to grant li-
cence for burying in the church; but for defacing a monu-
ment in achurch, &c. the builder or heir of the deceafed
may have an action, Andaman may be indidted for dig-
ging up the graves of perfons buried and taking away their
burial dreffes, &c. Although the parfon hath the freehold
of the church and church-yard, he hath not the fee-limple,
which is always in abeyance; but in fome refpects the par-
fon hath a fee-fimple qualified. (Litt. 644, 645.) The
chancel of the church is to be repaired by the parfon, un-
Vor. VIII.
lefs there be acultom to the contrary ; and for thefe repairs
he may cut down trees in the church-yard, but not other-
wife. (Stat. 35 Ed. I. ft.2.) The church-wardens are to
fee that the body of the church and fteeple are in repair;
but not any aifle, &c. which any perfon claims by preicrip-
tion, to him or to his houfe. Concerning thefe repairs the
canons require every perfon who hath authority to hold ec-
clefiaftical vifitation to view the churches within their jurif-
dition once in three years, either in perfon, or to caufe it to
be done; and they are to certify the defects to the ordinary,
and the names of thofe who ought to repair them; and-
thefe repairs muft be done by the church-wardens, at the
expence of the parifhioners, Can. 86.
By the common law, parifhioners of every parifh are to
repair the church; but by the canon law, the parfon is
obliged to doit; and fo it is in foreign countries, (1 Salk,
164.) In London the parifhioners repair both the church
and the chancel. The {piritual court may compel the parifh-
joners to repair the church, and excommunicate every one
of them till it bedone; but thofe that are willing to contri-
bute fhall be abfolved till the greater part agree to a tax,
when the excommunication is to be taken off; but the f{pi-
ritual court cannot aflefs them towards it. (1 Mod. 194. 3
Vent. 367.) For though this court hath power to oblige the
parifhioners to repair by ecclefiaftical cenfures; yet they
cannot appoint in what fum, or feta rate, for that mult be
fettled by the church-wardens, kc. (2 Mod. 8.) Ifa
church be down, and the parifh is increafed, the majority of
the parifh may raife a tax for the neceflary enlargement of
it, as well asthe repairing of it, &c. (1 Mod. 237.) But in
fome law-books it is faid, that if a church fails down, the
parifhioners are not obliged to rebuild it; though they ought
to keep it in due repair. (1 Vent. 35.) On the rebuilding
of churches, it is now ufual, on the petition of the parifh-
ioners, to obtain bricfs. See Brarers.
By ftat. 37 Hen. VIII. c. 21, churches, not above fix
pounds a year in the king’s books, may, by the affent of the
ordinary, patron, and incumbent, be united; and by itar.
17 Car. Il. c. 3, in cities and corporations, &c. churches
may be united by the bifhop, patrons, and chief magiftrates,
unlefs the income exceeds 100/. per annum, and then the pa-
rifhioners are to confent, &c. By ftat.g Ann. c, 22. (See
alfo ftat. ro Ann. c. 11.) 50 new churches were built in or
near London and Weftminiter, for which purpole a duty of
two fhillings per chaldron was laid on coals ; the reétors of
thefe churches are to be appointed by the crown, &c. A
duty is alfo granted on coals imported into London, to be
appropriated for the maintenance of minilters for the nevw
churches. Stat. 1 Geo. I. c. 23.
No man fhall cover his head m the church, in time of di-
vine fervice, except with a capif he have fome infrmity ; and
all perfons are to kneel or ttand, &c. as directed by the
Common Prayer, during fervice. Can. 18. No ill language
is to be ufed, or noife made in churches or church-yards ;
and perfons ftriking, or laying violent hands on others there
are.to be excommunicated } and for ftriking with a weapon,
or drawing a weapon with an intent to ftrike, fhall lofe one
of his ears; nor may aman lawfully return blows in his own
defence in thefe circumftances, ftat. ‘5 and 6 Ed. VI. c. 4.
1 Hawk. P. C. c. 63, §. 24, &c. See BurGrary and
Larceny.
No fairs or markets fhall be kept in church-yards. Stat.
TevEds yy tk: /25 COs §
Any perfon may be indiéted for indecent or irreverent be-
haviour in the church; and thofe that offend againit the
acts of uniformity, are punifhable either by indi&ment.
upon the itatute, or by the ordinary,
oO Cu URCR,
CHURCH,
Cuurcn, Mother, Matrix ecelfia. See Mortuer-
churches. ‘
Cuurcn, with regard to Archite@ure, Daviler defines a
large oblong edifice, in form of a fhip, with nave, choir,
aifles, chapel, belfry, &c. See each part under its proper
head.
Cuvurca, jfimple, is that which has only a nave and a
choir.
Cuurcn with aifles, that which has a row of porticos, in
form of vaulted galleries, with chapels in its circumfe-
rence.
Cuurcn in a Greek crofs, that where the length of the
tran{verfe part is equal to that of the nave; fo called, becaufe
moft of the Greek churches are built in this form.
Cuurcu tna Latin crofi, that whofe nave is longer than
the crofs part, as in moft of the Gothic churches.
Cuvecn ia rotundo, that whofe plan isa perfe& circle, in
imitation of the Pantheon.
As to the form of the ancient Greek churches, when
they had all their parts, it was as follows: firft was the
narthex, poreh, or portico, and then the part called the
vaunt-nave, @70v00:; this was adorned with columns on the
outfide, and on the infide furrounded with a wall; in the
middle whereof was a door, through which they paffed
into a fecond portico. The firft of thefe porticos was
deltined for tle energumeni, and penitents in the firlt ftage of
their repentance ; the fecond was much longer, deftined for
penitenis of the fecondclafs, and the catechumens, and hence,
called vapns, ferula, becaufe thofe placed in it began to be fub-
je to the difcipline of the church. Thefe two porticos took
up about one third of the {pace of the church. From the
fecond portico, they paffed into the nave, yo:, which took
up near another third of the church. In the middle, or at
‘one fide of ‘the nave, was the amo, where the deacons and
priefts read the gofpel, and preached. The nave was def-
tined for the ‘reception of the people, who here affilted at
prayers.
Near the entrance of this was the BArTisTERY, or Font.
Beyond the nave was the choir, yorss, fet with feats, and
round: the firft feat on the right, next to the fanGtuary,
being for the chantor, or choragus.
From the choir, they afcended by fteps to the fan@tuary,
which was entered at three doors. The fan@uary had three
apfides in its length; a great one in the middle; under
which was the altar, crowned with a baldachin, fupported
by four columns. Under each of the fmall apfides, was a
kind of table, or cupboard, in manner of a beaufet. Never-
thelefs, of the Greek churches now remaining, few have
all the parts above defcribed; moit of them having been
reduced to ruins, or converted into mofques.
M. Frezier, engineer to the French king, and F. Cor-
demoy, a regular canon, have difputed the form of the
ancient and modern churches, and the beft manner of buiid-
ing them, with a good deal of learning, in the Journals de
Trevoux.
For the form of the Latin churches, though it be various,
yet may all the variety be reduced to two heads ; viz. thofe
in form of a fhip, and thofe of a crofs.
Cuurcues, rovnd. Among the more ancient architec-
tural ftructures of Great Britain which appear to have been
conneéted in their origin as well as in their form, is one clafs,
of which but few inftances, if they were ever numerous,
remain ; known by the appellation af the Round Churches,
Dr. Stukeley hazarded a conjecture, (Itin. Curiof. p. 35.)
that they were the moft ancient churches in England; and
were cither ere€ted in the later time of the Romans for
Chriltian fervice, or in the earlier periods of the Saxons.
Another opinion, equally ftrange, but far more general,
was that which attributed the conftru@ioa of them to the
Jews.
The firft writer wha feems to have treated their real hif-
tory with fuccefs, was Mr. Effex, whofe ‘ Obfervations’?
are to be found in the fixth volume of the Archeologiz.
But Mr. Britton, to whom more numerous fources of in-
telligence were open, appears almolt to have exhaufted the
fubjeét, in his * Archite@ural Antiquities,” in which the
principal of the round churches are both engraved and ac.
curately defcribed.
That the circular form for the temple was a very ancient
one in the heathen world, may be proved from a variety of
inftances. Though nothing will be gained by comparing it
either with the irregular ftru€ture of the Druid circle, or
with the occafional temples of that form, which are found
among the buildings of the Romans.
‘The round churches of this country appear to have been
indebted for their origin to thofe who returned from the
crulades ; on whofe minds the venerable form of the church
of the fepulchre at Jerufalem had lett a itrong and derable
impreffion.
Te parent model had been rebuilt by Charlemagne about
the year 812, to a certain extent, in imitation of the church
of Santa Sophia at Conttantinople: and the devotees of the
crofs, either confidering it as the original work of Heiena,
the mother of Conftantine the Great, or from the facred
relics it was fuppofed to have contained at a former pe-
riod, appear to have adopted its form, not only in this
country, but is others; confidering it as one which was
likely to exhibit a character of peculiar fanctity.
Santa Sophia, however, has at different times received
acceffions, and is now furrounded by a multitude of minarets
which contufe the exterior outline of the rotunda. The
church of the fepulchre at Jerufalem alfo has been enlarged :
a fecord rotunda was added in the eleventh century by God-
frey of Bulloigne ; and a tower at the weit end, at a period
much later. The beft idea of it may be obtained from fir
Robert Ainflie’s Viewsin Egypt, Paleitine, &c.
But achurch {till nearer to our own, both in defign and
chara&ter, is defcribed by the German writer of “ Voyage
en Sicile et dans la Grande Gréce, addrefiéa l’ Abbé Winckel-
man,” 8vo.1773. ‘The account anfwers exattly to the
churches of the fame defcription in England.
“© On donne l’Eglife du S. Sepulcre pour un temple an-
tique; c’etoit une rotonde ; cet edifice n’eft point du bon
tems de l’archite¢ture : fa forme n’eft pas parfaitement cir-
culaire, et il n’y a point de portique a l’entrée, et il decrit un
demi circle différent, qui ne fait point corps avec le refte du
batiment; ce que lui donne une irregularite défagreable. L’on
reconnoit auffi le rauvais gotit du tems de la decadence des
arts aux ornemens de l’anctenne porte qui eft murée aujour-
dhui. Cet edifice eft vouté et foutenu entierément par des
colonnes de marbre.”
Of the Englifh round Churches, that of St. Sepulchre’s,
Cambridge, is fuppofed by Mr. Effex to be the oldeft : he
dates it between the firlt and fecond crufades, in the reign of
Henry I. From the ground plan, with the interior
and exterior views of the building, given by Mr. Britton,
we perceive that it originally confiited of a circular wall per-
forated with fix femicircular-headed windows, and an orna-
mented door-way of the fame fhape. The latter is {till per-
fect; but the former appear to have been materially altered
by widening, and the introduétion of mullions. Within is:
a circular colonnade of eight columns, Thefe are fhort and”
mafly, without any bafe, and with a narrow ornamented
capital, which varics in different columns, The tower ap-
4 pears.
.
€ HU
ears to have been raifed one ftory, for the reception of
Pails, in the reign of Edward the Second ; and the eaft end
or chancel, with the north aifle, were added as late as 1313
In regard to the hiftory of St, Sepulchre’s Church, Nor-
thampton, we are without authentic documents. It is uni-
verfally afferted, that the circular part of the church was
built by the knights templars, who obtained their organiza-
tion and their fame in the vicinity of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerufalem. Mr. Britton obferves, that it ad-
vanees a little in beauty of proportion from the church
at Cambridge, and dates it at the end of the twelfth or the
beginning of the thirteenth century. By the ground-plan
and exterior view, he obferves, it may be perceived that the
walls of the circular building are thicker than thofe of the
round church at Cambridge; that the columns are f{maller
and higher; that they have bafes and capitals, fome {quare
and fome round; that the circuiar aifle has no arched roof,
but is merely covered with timber; and that, immediately
above the columns, the wall becomes oftangular. hefe
are peculiarities which diftinguifh it from the other circular
churches, and render it an unique example of ancient archi-
tecture.
In elegance of conftrnGion, the Temple church in Lon-
don is far fuperior to thofe we have already mentioned. It
feems to have been built upon the fame plan with the old
temple church in Holborn, the circular walls of which are
faid to have been difcovered about a century ago, and was
confecrated in 1185. The ground-plan and exterior wall of
the round part are probably thus old; but the interior, with
the fix cluftered columns, and-their incumbent arches, as well
as the choir, appear to have been ereGted about 1244, (when
Sir William Dugdale tells us the church was again dedicated,)
and correfpond with the generality of thofe examples of
ecclefiaftical archite¢ture which are known to have been
erected in the reign of Henry the third. In raifing the fu-
perftruéture of the circular part, the architeéts appear to
have mixed the new with the old ftyle of arches.
Another church of the circular kind occurs at Mapleftead
in Effex ; and {till more inftances may probably be found in
remote corners of the kingdom. It is not unlikely, that
the old church of St. Selpulchre, by Newgate, had the fame
form: and fome allowznce muft probably be made for copies
from the church of the Sepulchre taken at different periods.
According to acuri us mapufcript in the Bodleian Library
at Oxford, a pilgrim whovifited the Holy Land in 1462, vpon
his return, depofited the following curions articles in the
abbey of Edyngton, in Wiltthire: * 4 chapel made to the
likeneft of our Laora’s fepulchre at Ferufalem, and a variety of
veftments, with imitations in wood of the chapel of Calvary,
the church at Bethlem, the Mount Olivet, and the valley of
Jehofaphat.’”
Cuurcn, difcifline, government, policy, revenue, &c. See
thefe articles, and the preceding articles of church of Eng-
land, &c. &e.
Cuurcu ands, in Agriculture, ave all fach lands as belong
to and are held under religious eftablifhments. It has been
obferved by the author of * Modern Hufbandry,”’ that lands
held by corporations, whether civil or religious, experience
has proved are, in fearcely any inftance, managed in fuch a
way as to infure their permanent improvement. The writer
of the “ Report of the County of Lancafter” alfo remarks,
that glebe orchurch lands, or any other appropriated to the
fupport of meeting houfes, and thofe lands which appertain
to {mall livings purchafed by the bounty of queen Anne, are
generally under a bad flate of cultivation, the uncertainty of
leafe depending on a contingency of a fingle life operating as
a {trong obftaele to any degree of even modern improvements,
cHU
and, im confequence, they are in general under the very worft
fort of management. This account of the management of
church lands Mr, Donaldfon thinks is ftriGily true, when
applied to other parts of England as well as to the county
of Lancafter, This, in fome degree, proceeds from the
want of fome proper regulations in refpeét to the tithes.
And he fuppofes that the modes of leafing lands, either
for a term of twenty-one years, renewable on payment of
a fine at the end of every feven, or on one or two lives, re-
newable on th: demife of one of the perfons named in the
leafe, on the payment alfo of an arbitrary fine, as pra@tifed
by the dignitaries of the church of Engiand, are well known
to operate powerfully againft the improvement of church-
Jands. It is impoflible, fays he, it fhould be otherwife,
for who in his fenfes will think of expending money on the
improvement of land, when thefe very improvements are to
operate again{t bimfelf at the renewal of a leafe, which, in
one cafe, 1s limited to feven years, and, in the other, is held ona
very precarious tenure? Such regulations in regard to lealine
church-lands, ought, he thinks, to be made, as would leave -
the tenants at liberty to expend part of their capitals in the
improvements of thcir farms, without being compelled to pay
a rarfom at the end of every feven years for the improvements
which their own money, labour, and indultry, have effeGied
in the intervals.
That fomething is neceffary to be done in thefe cafes, can-
not be difputed by thofe who have feen the comparatively
bad ftat2 in which much of the lands under fuch tenures
{till remains.
Cuurcu Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S.W. coalt of
the Ifle of Rathlin, at the N.W. extremity of Ireland.
The ground in this bay is clean, and veffels can ride fafe,
except with wefterly winds, which caufe a great {well of
fea there. M‘Kenzie.
Cuurcu Creek Fowns a town of America, in the county
of Dorchelter, and ftate of Maryland, lying at the head of
Church-creek, a branch of Hudfon’s river, 7 miles fouth-
welterly from Cambridge.
Cuurcu Point, a cepe on the weft coaft of the ifland of
Barbadoes ; 3 of a mile north of Hole Town.
Cuurcnu-rate. See Cuurcu-wardens.
Cuurcu-revess See CHurcH-avardens.
Cuurcu Rock, in Geography, a vock in the bay of Ben-
gal, near the coalt of Ava. N. lat. 17° 32’ E. lon. 94% 14'.’
Cuurcu-feot, or Cuurcn-effet, in Lcclefigflical Hiflory, a
payment, or contribution, fo denominated :n domelday, and
by the Latin writers frequently called primitie feminum ; be-
ing,
St. Martin’s day, as the firlt fruits of harvett.
This was enjoined by the laws of king Malcolm IV. and
Canut.c.1o. But after this, church-fcot came to fignify
a referve of corn-rent paid to the fecular pricits, or to the
religious ; and fomctimes it was taken in fo general a fenfe
as to include poultry, orany other provifion that was paid
in kind tothe religions. Irom thefe cuftomary oblations
to the parifh prieft, the religious fometimes purchafed an
exemption for themfelves and their tenants.
Cuurcu-Stretton, in Geography, afmall market town of
Shropfhire, England, 1s fituated in a narrow, deep vale, be
tween feveral high mountains : here are not above 100 houfes,
the greater part of which are occupied by day-labourers and
{mall farmers. A free-fchool, church, and a decayed mar-
ket-houfe or town-hall, are the only public buildings in this
place. The mountainous ridges here are of great altitude,
and furnifh food to numerous flocks of {mall fheep: the woal
and lambs of which conftitute the chief incomes of the farm-
ers and yeomen. On the top of the highelt hill, called
O2
2 Caer-
at firit, a certain meafure of wheat, paid to the prieit on -
CHU
Caer-Caradoc, is a large fortified entrenchment, which 1%
traditionally faid to have been the celebrated camp of Carac-
tacus, the Britifh monarch who fo valiantly defended his
kingdom againft the warlike Romans, See Carac-
TACUS.
Here are a {mall weekly market on Thurfday, and two
fairs annually. It is 158 miles N.W. from London, and
13 S. from Shrewhbury.
Cuurcu-wardens, anciently called Cuurcu-reves, or
ecclefie guardiani, the guardians or keepers of the church,
and reprefentatives of the body of the parifh, are officers
chofen yearly in Eafter week, by the parfon, and his parifh-
ioners, according to the cuftom of the place ; to look to the
church, church-yard, church-revenues, &c. obferve the be-
haviour of the parifhioners with regard to faults that come
under the jurifdition of the ecclefiaitical court ; prefent
{ceandalous livers to the bifhop; take care none preach with-
out licence, &c. Thefe officers are chofen by the joint con-
fent of the parifhioners and minifter; but by cuftom, on
which the right of chufing them depends, the minifter may
chufe one, and the parifhioners another ; or the parifhioners
may elect both. In moft of the parifhes in London, the
parifhioners chufe both church-wardens by cultom ; but in
allyparifhes ereéted by fat. 9 Ann, c. 12, the canon (Can. 89,
90.) fhall take place, and this dire&s the choice to be made
by the joint confent of the minifter and the parifhioners ; or,
in cafe of difagreement, the minifter fhall chufe one, and
the parifhioners another. When the parifhioners chufe, the
majority of thofe who meet at the veftry, upon a written
notice for that purpofe, fhall bind the reft: and by cuftom,
the choice of church-wardens may be by a felect vettry, or a
particular number of the parifhioners. The validity of the
euftom of chufing church-wardens is to be decided by the
courts of common law, and not by the fpiritual court.
All peers of the realm, and clergymen, members of par-
liament, aldermen, counfellors and attornies, phyficians, fur-
geons and apothecaries, and diffenting minifters, are exempt
from this office ; and perfons who have fued a felon to con-
viGtion, and the firft affignee of the certificate thereof, are
exempted from she office of church-warden, in the parifh
where the offence was committed. The fame exemption
extends to perfons ferving in the militia, during fuch fervice.
Diffenters are allajved to execute the office by a fufficient
deputy. No perfon living out of the parifh, although he
occupies lands within the parifh, is eligible. A perfon, re-
fufing the office, is liable to excommunication. They are
{worn into their office by the archdeacon, or ordinary of the
diocefe, who is compellable by a mandamus to admit thofe
whom the parifh appoint.
The church-wardens are a kind of corporation: and are
enabled by law to fue, and be fued, for ary thing belonging
to the church, or the poor of the parifh.
They may purchafe goods, but not lands, except by cuf-
tom, in London, where they, with the minilter, form a
corporation for lands as well as goods, and may hold, pur-
chafe, and take lands for the ufe of the church, &c. If
they waite the goods of the church, the new church-wardens
(but not the parifhioners) may have ation againft them, or
call them toaccount. They have a certain {pecial property
in the organ, bells, parifh-books, bible, chalice, furplice, &c.
belonging to the church ; of which, they have the cuftody
on behalf of the parifh, whofe property they really are;
and they may bring an aétion at law againft thofe who ftteal
or damage them. To them belongs the office, with the
confent of the minilter, of giving feats to the parifhioners in
the body of the church, referving thofe who belong by pre-
feription to particular mefluages, &c. They have alfo the
CHU
care of the benefice during its vacancy, and, as foon as there
is any avoidance, they are to apply to the chancellor of the
diocefe for a fequeftration: and when this is obtained, they
are to manage all the profits and expences of the benefice for
him that fucceeds, and appoint a curate, approved by the
bifhop, to ferve the benefice, and pay him out of the pro-
fits. It is their bufinefs alfo to fummon a veltry, in order
to fettle any rates. ‘Their duty comprehends a great variety
of particulars, already noticed in the beginning of this
article. ‘To them it belongs to repair the church, and to
make rates, and levies, with the confent of the parifhioners,
for this purpofe. Itis their province to provide, in conjunc-
tion with the overfeers, for thofe who need affiftance ; to
keep the key of the belfry, and to prevent the bells being
rung without proper caufe; to collcét charity-money upon
briets ; to give confent for burying a perfon in a different
parifh from that in which he dies; not to allow fuicides or
excommunicated perfons to be buried in tle church or
church-yard, without licence from the bifhop; and, by
itat. 39 Car. II. c.3. to apply to the magiftrates for con- —
viGing offenders who do not bury their dead in woollen.
They are alfo to take care that the church be well aired, as
well as in good repair; to provide the proper books, as a~
large bible, a common prayer, and a book of homilies, a
font of ftone, a decent table, and other articles for the com-
munion, and to fee that the ten commandments are fet up
at the end of the church, &c. ‘Whey are to fign the certi-
ficates of perfons taking the facrament as a qualification for
offices. It is alfo their duty to prevent any irreverence or
indecency in the church ; and they may pull off a perfon’s hat
in the church, or turn him out if he dilturb the conprega-
tion. They may refufe to open the church at the intftance
of any perfon, except the parfon, or any one aéting under
him ; they are not to fuffer any one to preach, unlefs he
appears qualified, by producing alicence. ‘To them belongs
the care of the church-yard as well as of the church; and they
are to prevent ail games and feafts, and profane ufages, from
taking place in either. Churchwardens are to levy the pe-
nalty of 12 d. on perfons not coming to church each Sunday
under ftat. 1 Eliz.c.2. They are to obferve, whether the
parfon reads the thirty-nine articles twice a year, the canons
once a year, preaches every Sunday good doétrine, reads
the common prayer, adminifters the facraments, &c. &ce.
They are alfo to fuperintend the condué of the parifhioners,
with regard to their coming to church, having their ehildren
baptized, women churched, perfons not marrying within the
prohibited degrees, or without banrs or licence, &c. &c.
They are alfo by their oath to prefent, or certify to the
bifhop or his officers, all things prefentable by the ecclefiaf-
tical law, which relate to the church, to the minifter, and
to the parifhioners. ‘To them belong the care and infpec-
tion of the parifh regifter ; “and they are to levy penalties on
thofe who profane the Sunday, under ftat- 1 Car. I. c. 1.
and 29 Car. II. c.7. Atthe end of every year they are to
deliver juft accounts to the minifter and parifhioners; over
which accounts, however, jultices of the peace have no
jurifdiction.
Cuurcu-yard, a place adjoining to a church, employed
commonly for the interment of the deceafed. See Cox~
METERIUM.
CHURCHILL, Joun, in Biography, duke of Marl-
borough, a prince of the holy Roman empire, one of the
ableft ftatefmen and politeft courtiers, as well as one of the
moft illuftrious heroes that this, or, perhaps, any country
ever produced, was the fon of fir Winfton Churchill, diftin-
guifhed for his monarchical principles during the reigns of
Charles I. and II. John was born at Afhe in Devonfhire,
en
CB MERVCHI HE
on Midfummer-day, 1650, and was educated in his father’s
houfe under a clergyman, ‘When he was only twelve years
old, his father took him to court, where the beauty of his
perfon, the brilliancy of his underftanding, and the modefty
of his behaviour recommended him to general notice. He
became page and favourite to the duke of York, and in the
year 1666, he was prefented with a pair of colours in the
guards. His firft military fervice was at the fiege of Tan-
gier, and from this time he feems to have devoted himfelf to
the profeflion of arms. Upon his return to England, ke
continued his attendance at court, and received from the
king, as well as from the duke, repeated marks of kindnefs
and favour. He gained an intereft with the fair fex, though
with fuch prudence as not to excite the jealouly of any one.
The duchefs of Cleveland, the king’s favourite mittrefs,
made him a prefent of 5000/7, with which he immediately
purchafed an annuity; and his favour with the duke of
York was fecured by means of his filter, who was miltrefs
to that prince. In 1672, the duke of Monmouth com-
manding a body of Englifh auxiliaries in the fervice of
France, Mr. Churchill attended him, and was foon after cap-
tain of the grenadiers in his grace’s own regiment. He
was engaged in all the aétions of that campaign which
humbled the republic of Holland. At the fiege of Nime-
guen, eaptain Churchill fo diftinguifhed himfelf, that he
obtained the particular notice of the great Turenne, who
heftowed upon him the name of the “* Handfome Englith-
man.’ For his condu€t at the fiege of Maeftricht he re-
ceived the public thanks of the king of France; and the
duke of Monmouth, in relating to his father what had
happened at the attack, acknowledged that he was indebted
to captain Churchill for much of his glory, and for his fafety
altozether, fince his life had been preferved by his bravery.
This good fortune, which began in his twenty-fecond year,
attended all his fucceeding undertakings. The laurels
which he brought from France, entitled him to preferment at
home; he was accordingly promoted toa lieutenant-colonelcy
by the king, and the duke made him gentleman of his bed-
chamber, and foon after mafter of the robes. As a cour-
tier he aéted his part with great warinefs, making his way
through all-the contending faétions. In 1679, he accom-
panted the duke of York to the Low Countries ; and in the
next year he attended him into Scotland, where, as a declared
favourite, he received every refpe& from the nobility who
wifhed to pay their court to the duke. While he waited
upon the duke, a regiment of dragoons was given him, and,
im a fhort time afterwards he married Sarah Jennings, a lady
of great beauty and good conneétions, then an attendant
upon the princefs, afterwards queen Anne. In the fpring
of 1682, he fuffered fhipwreck with the duke of York in
a paflage to Scotland, and obtained a fignal proof of his-
matter’s regard, in his folicitude to fave him, while a great
part of the crew, and feveral perfons of quality were left to
perifh. In the fame year, he obtained other preferments
and’a title, and on the acceffion of James II. to the throne
he was fent ambaffador to notify the event to the court of
France, and in a fhort time afterwards he was raifed to an
Englith peerage by the title of baron Churchill of Sund-
ridge. Through the whole of this reign lord Churchill’s
condu& was regulated by the principles of prudence, and
an invariable attention to his own intereft. He avoided
public bufinefs, and, for a confiderable time, never declared
himfelf, At length, when it was impoffible for a perfon of
his rank and confideration to remain neuter, he made his
decifion, and joined in the invitation to the prince of Orange.
To obviate the charge of ingratitude, it is generally believed
that-he had often declared, if the king attempted to over-
turn the eftablifhed religion he would leave him; he never
difflembled his zeal for the church of England, and had been
taught from his infancy to regard it with the greateit reve-
rence. The king, however, had no doubt of his fidelity,
and entrufted him even with the command of 5000 men to
oppole the progrefs ef the prince of Orange. James was
advertifed of his difloyalty, but gave no credit to the re-
port, till he, with the duke of Grafton, and fome other
officers withdrew from the king’s quarters, and joined the
prince of Orange at Axminiter. By his advice, prince
George of Denmark and the princefs Anne took the tame
ftep. Lord Churchill was received with marks of eltcem
and re{pe€t by the prince of Orange, and was, in the enfu-
ing year, rewarded with the earldom of Marlborough. He
affited at the coronation of their majefties, and was foon
after appointed to command the Englifh forces that were
fent over to Hollandyin order to make part of the
army of the allies. He difplayed great military talents
at the battle of Walcourt: and in the next year he ferved
in Ireland with great reputation. The enfuing campaign
he paffed on the continent with king William, where he
exhibited great fagacity, by penetrating into the enemy’s
defigns of befieging Mons, in which the Dutch deputies
were deceived. While he was procceding by hafty fteps to
the pinnacle of fame and of fortune, he received a mefiage,
without any warning, that the king had no further occafion
for his fervices. ‘This fudden deprivation of all his employ-
ments was followed by his commitment to the Tower, ona
charge of high treafon. No evidence was brought againit
him; he was bailed, and the principal author of the accufa-
tion, then a prifoner in Newgate, was convicted of perjury
and punifhed, and the earl cleared. It is now generally
believed that though no proofs were then brought forward
againft the earl, yet a corre{pondence had been carried on
between him and the exiled king with a view of reitoring
him to the throne. It is certain that, during the life of
queen Mary, Churchill kept at a diftance from court, and
attended, with his lady principally, to the princefs Anne,
whofe influence probably prevented his intrigues from being -
inquired into. After the death of Mary, Churchill was
made a privy counfellor, and, in 1698, was appointed go-
vernor to the dnke of Gloucefter : on this occafron the king
very handfomely faid to the earl, ** My lord, make him but
what you are, and my nephew will be all 1 with to fee him.’?
He continued in favour during the remainder of the reign,
and received more than once the moft unequivocal marks of
the king’s efteem.
Immediately upon the acceffion of queen Anne to the
throne in 1702, the earl of Marlborough was raifed to
that height of power and greatnefs which left no fubjec in
Europe his equal. He attained to every honour to which
ambition itfelf could afpire, and he gained‘lucrative appoint-
ments for his friends. He was created a duke, hada pen-
fion granted him by the queen for her life, and received the
thanks of parliament for his conduétabroad. This-courfe
of good fortune was balanced by the lofs which he futtained-
in the death of an only fon, a: youth of eighteen, then at
Cambridge, but the duke fought and found relief in an ac-
tive performance of the high duties of his ftation. We
cannot follow this great: and illu{trious general through all
his campaigns, in which it has been faid, that he never drew
his fword but victory purfued him. The bufinefs of 1704
was, however,. fo celebrated, and was fo fignalized by the
duke’s mafterly execution of his own plans of pufhing to
the Danube, that it muft not be paffed over. After a
march of fifty days from the frontiers-of Holland, he arriv-
ed, unexpectedly, at the wear’ of Schellenburgh, defended
by
CHURCHILLE
by 20,090 men, which he inflantly attacked, and forced,
after an obftinate refiftance. This fucceis brought on the
famous battle of Hoctlett, oras it is more generally called
by us, the battle of Blenheim, fought Augutt 2d, between
the allied army commanded by the duke of Marlborough
aad prince Eugene, and the French and Bavarians, com-
manded by marfhall Ta!lard and the elector of Bavaria.
Nothing could be more complete than the victory on the
fide of the allies. The pride of Louis XIV. received a
check which it never afterwards recovered, and the battle
of Blenheim may be reckoned the date of that reverfe of
fortune which embittered the latter years of that monarch’s
Vfe. The French were purfued till they croffed the Rhine,
Landau was taken, and France trembled for its own fafety.
It is not poffible to enumerate all the popular triumphs of
the duke of Marlborough upon his return to England,
The more fubltantial expreflions of the nation’s gratitude
confifted in the public gift of the honour of Woodftock
and hundred of Wotton, and the erection of a magnificent
palace for his refidence. The next campaign produced no-
thing worthy of public expectation, on which account dif-
contents began to nranifelt themfelves in England. The
duke employed the latter end of the year in vifiting the
courts of Berlin, Hanover, and Vienna, where his talents
for negociation were equally uleful tothe common caufe, as
his military talents in the field. No man ever difplayed
happier powers in conciliating different tempers and intereits;
to which a perfe€&t command of himfelf, and the habitual
practice of all the engaging arts of good-breeding greatly
contributed. The emperor Jofeph prefented the duke with
the principality of Mindelheim, which accompanied his title
of prince of the empire. By great exertions he was able
to meet the French army under marfhal Villeroy, and on the
11th of May, 1706, he gained the decifive battle of Ramil-
lies, and with thar the reduction of all Brabant, with Ant-
werp and its territory. Oftend, Menin, Dendermonde, and
Ath, were added to the conquefts of the year. On ac-
count of his fuccefles, abill was paffed to fettle his honours
upon the male and female iffue of his daughters.
The duke of Marlborough had now attained to the ze-
nith of his glory. Inthe campaignof 1707, his antagonitt
was the celebrated duke of Vendome, by whom he was fo
well matched as to be able to gain no material advantage, and
he was mortified in being unable to infufe a {pirit of zeal, at
a conference at Frankfort, in the German part of the con-
federacy. On returning to England, he had the ftill fur-
ther mortification of finding his duchefs fupplanted in the
affeGtions of her miftrefs, by a new and more obfequious fa-
vourite. His own prefence reclaimed the queen’s attentions
for atime, but the impreflion was made which at length put
an end to his confequence. In the campaign of 1708, the
French, under the dukes of Burgundy and Vendome, were
defeated at the battle of Oudenard, by the fuperior {kill .of
prince Eugene'and the duke of ‘Marlborough. Lifle was
afterwards invefted, which, though it refifted feveral months,
at length, with its citadel, furrendered. > The duke alfo re-
covered Ghent, Bruges, and other places taken by the
French at the beginning of the campaign. France was
now obliged to fet on foot a negociation, and the duke of
Mariborouch, who had fo often met and defeated her gene-
rals in the field, was appointed the queen’s plenipotentiary,
and went to Holland. ‘he preliminaries propofed by the
duke, in which he had carefully revarded the interefts of the
allies, were fuch as the French mimiter could not agree to,
and the war was agam renewed, “Che duke of Marlbo~
rough wa» now to contend with marfhal Villars, a general of
great experience and fkill. The battle of Malplaquet was
fought onthe grft of Auguft, the French lines were com-
pletely broken, and the refult was one of the molt deltruce
tive actions of the whole war. It coft the allies 18,000
men, killed aud wounded. ‘The city of Mons was captured,
but the purchafe was reckoned too dear, even by thofe who
were not accultomed to fet a proper value upon human lives.
The Englifh nation, long accuftomed to victory, began to
lofe its relifh for triumphs, in which itfelf had no real or very
apparent concern. ‘I'he war became unpopular ; the tory
part of the country were loud in the clamours againft its
continuance, and the duke himfelf was flighted. His win-
ter vifit, though attended with public honours, was very in-
aufpicious to the expectations which he had formed; he
found that a total breach had been made between the queen
and his duchefs. He took the field again early in 1710,
and, in conjunétion with prince Eugene, conduéted a cam-
paign againit marfhal Villars, in which they captured feye=
ral places of ftrength and importance. The duke’s victo-
ries on the continent could not prevent the machinations o
his enemies at home. ‘The queen had called to her counci
men wholly inimical to his views. They withed and ex-
pected his refignation ; but either private interelt, or a dee
fire of being abfent from the fcene cf things in which he
could take no part, or, perhaps, from a regard to the pub-
lic ainterefts of his country, he diflembled his indignation,
and again met his antagomift Villars. In this campaign he
maintained his fuperiority, but the adyantages gained mas
neither very brilliant nor of very great conicquence. His
influence at court was now completely gone, till he feemed
willing to retain his command in the army, but as he did not
refign, the honour was taken from him, Inthe Houle of
Commons he was charged wich peculatien, for which there
was no fuch {trong ground as fhould have induced his ene-
mies to have purlued him with fo much indignity, . They
were jealous of his power, and were determined to keep no
terms with the man who had been fo long and fo defervedly
regarded as the firft perfon in the nation, and who, what-
ever might be his failings, merited the efteem and veneration
of his country. ‘T'o efcape the mortification that he was
liable to experience in his own country, he paida vilit, in
the winter of 1712, to the Low Countries, where he was
received with the honours due to his high charaéter. In
two years he returned, and upon the hh of George I,
was again fummoned to the court, and enjoyed the {miles of
royal favour. He was re-initated in the fupreme military
command, and his advice was taken and aéted upon with re=
gard to the fuppreffion of the rebellion in 1715. This was
the laft public butinefs in which he tooka part. His men-
tal facultics began to droop, and he at length experienced
thofe changes which are fo humiliating to the human un-
deritanding, and which induce the {tate of complete fecond
infancy. He diced at Windfor lodge on the 16th of June,
1722, in the 73d year of his age, leaving behind hima nu-
merous potterity by his four davgliters, married into fami-
hes of the greateft confequence in the kingdom. Biog,
Brit. » of
Cuurcuitt, CHarves, was the eldeft fon of the rev.
Mr. Churchill, reétor of Rainham in Effex ; and when about
eight yeats old he was fent to Weltmintter {chool. His
proficiency in claffical learning was confiderable, but not fo exe
traordinary as to entitle him to any pre-eminence over feveral
of his {chool-fellows in the fame clafs with himfelf. At the
age of fifteen he became a candidate to be admitted on the
foundation at Weltminfter, and went in head of the election.
On entering his nineteenth year he quitted Weltmintter
{chool, and applied for matriculation at the univerlity of
Oxford, but was refufed on account of a deficiency in Gils
I ica
CHURCHILL
fical learning ; he was however admitted of Trinity College,
Cambridge, in the year 1749. Immediately after his ad-
miffion he returned to Weitminfter, but quickly put an end
to his education, by an imprudent marriage with a young lady
in the neighbourhood, To this premature and highly incon-
fiderate meafure, moft of the difficultiesin which ourauthor was
afterwards involved may be alfcribed ; and inhis endeavours to
forget or elude thofe difficulties he acquired fuch habits of
diffipation, as indirc&sly terminated his life. His father,
who had been reluctantly reconciled to this imprudent
match, received this youthful couple into his houfe, where
they refided about a year, during which the conduét of the
fon was exemplary and domeltic, In the year 1751 he re-
tired to the north of England, and applied himfelf to thofe
ftudies which fhould qualify him for his future deftination in
the church. At the age of twenty-two he again vifited the
metropolis to take poffeffion of a fmall fortune to which he
became entitled in right of his wife. He no fooner was in-
duéted into the office of clergyman than he earneftly laboured
from principle to difcharge the important duties incumbent
on him. Attwenty-five he was ordained prieft by Dr. Sher-
lock, bifhop of London ; his family however increafing, he
found the fcanty income of a curacy very inadequate to
fupply his warts, and he opened a fchool and obtained con-
fiderable encouragement ; but in 1758, by the death of his
father, he quitted the profeffion of an inftruétor, and was
eleéted his fucceffor to the curacy and lecturefhip of St.
John the Evangelilt, and in conneétion with this he engaged
in private tuition, and gave leflons to the young ladies at
Mrs. Dennis’s boarding-{chool in Queen’s fquare, and like-
wife in his leifure hours attended feveral young gentlemen in
order to affift them in their cleffical {tudies.
Such was the laudable conduct of this young man until
he was twenty-feven years of age, when a total alteration
took place in his general fyitem of condué and behaviour
in life. The anxiety arifing from domettic infelicity un-
hinged his mind, though naturally of a firm texture, and
feemed to give an entirely new bias to his difpofition. At
this time the friendfhip between Churchill and Robert
Lloyd, which had been formed at fchool, revived with ail
the glow of fenfibility and ardour of attachment charaéter-
iftic of men of ftrong paflions and of warm imaginations.
Urged on by the fame motive, a reftlefs inquietude of mind,
they hurried together into feenes of diffipated conviviality.
«The future, fays one of Mr, Churchili’s biographers, is
rarely facrificed to the prefent, without producing confe-
quences of the moft diftreffing nature.” A few months
only had elapfed before the young man experienced, in
the moft fentible manner, the juftice. of this obferva-
tion. He found that by his extravagance and fond-
nefs for theatrical amufements he wantonly plunged himfelf
into an abyfs of mifery, from which he had no hope of
being ever able to extricate himfelf. At this critical and
alarming junGure, Dr. Lloyd, father to his friend and
companion, became his deliverer, and by: his aid,
Churchill was enabled to effe€t a compromife with his_ cre-
ditors, who upon receiving one fourth only of their feveral
demands, fully liberated him from all the terrors of a prifon.
He now ferioufly thought of exerting thofe talents which
he well knew were latent in his mind; and his firft fubject
-was derived from the ftock of obfervation his habits of life
shad afforded him. The excellencies and defects of the ac-
tors in bi th houfes were the topics of his Rofciad, a poem
publifhed in March, 1761, without his name. It was
greatly admired, and was attributed to the mot celebrated
names of the time; but a fecond edition declared the real
author. Churchill was raifed to a confiderable fhare of emi-
nence. As the characters he had drawn were public ones,
the public at large became intereltedin the difcuflion of their
merits; and the feverity of the author’s fatire was no impe-
diment to the popularity of his work. Befides this, it had
a very confiderable fhare of intrinfic merit. Equal energy
and vivacity were difplayed in the delineations ; the language
and verfification, though not without inequalitics, were fu-
perior to the ordinary ftrain of current poetry ; and many
of the obfervations were ttamped with found judgment and
corre tafte. ‘The theatrical performers incrcafed the cele-
brity of the piece by the impatience which many of them
fhewed under its ceniure. ‘Lhe author juflihed himfelf in a
new piece of fatire, entitled the “* Apology.’? ‘Thefe works
made him many enemies, but they brought him into the
molt flattering notice amosg wits and men of pleafure, This
produced its natural confequence of loote and licentious man-
ners. His noéturnal revels'and frequent abfence from home
rendered every return to it the more irkfome, and the fre-
quent altercations between him and Mrs. Churchill, who
pofleffed but little of the {pirit of conciliation,,and whofe
imprudence is faid to have kept too near a pace with that of
ber bufband, ended in February, 1761, ina total feparation.
This circumttance, together with the general outery railed
again(t him by, his parifhioners for the total difregard of his
religious funétions, and the unbecoming mode of his drefs,
induced him to refign the curacy and. letturefhip of St.
John’s, which, but a few years before, had becn conferred
upon him, in confequence of the high charaéter which he
then poffeffed for learning and morality. He now totally
renounced all claim ‘to the clerical character, became a man
of the town, and indulged in ail the excefics to which youth
and unbridled licentioufnefs could prompt. ,To vindicate
his condu& from the juft cenfure of the public, Churchill
publifhed a poem, entitled Night.” The difgracetul im-
polture of the Cock-Jane ghoft furmfhed him with another
topic of perfonal fatire, which, however, did not greatly in-
tere't the public.
In the year 1762, Churchill plunged deeper and more ir-
recoverably in the mire of debauchery and faction, by com-
mencing an acquaintance with Mr. Wilkes, and by becoming
a coadjutor in the North Briton, and it was given in evi-
dence by the bookfeiler, that the profits arifing trom the fale
of this publication were received by Churchill. He was in-
cluded in the general warrant with Mr. Wilkes, and only’
efcaped, owing to the meffenger’s ignorance of his perfon,
and to the prefence of mind with which Wilkes addkefled
him by the name of Thompfon. The political occurrences
at the beginning of the prefent reign had infpired among the
people a rancorous hatred againit the Scotch; and Chur-
chill adminiftered food to this paflion by the ‘* Prophecy of
Famine,” the materials of which were propofed to him as
the fubjeét of a paper forthe North Briton; buton more ma-
ture confideration, he determined on converting it into a
poem, in which the powers of defcription are exhaufted in
humorous, exaggeration of the defeéis of the country, and
acrimonious abufe of its inhabitants. ‘The poem was re-
ceived'with avidity, and gave the author that precedence as
a political fatyrift, which he long maintained at the expence
of candour and decorum, and to the final debafement of his
poetical as well as his moral character. Hogarth was the next
viGim immolated at the fhrine of party, on account of the at-
tempts he had made to expofe the failings of the earls ‘Pem-
le and Chatham, and his coarfe caricature of Churchill
himfelf. This epiftle was written in the author’s beft man-
ner, and is faid to have accelerated the death of the inge-
nious artift to whom it was addrefled..
Churchill now affected in his manners and drefs the ap-
pearance
CHU
pearance of a man of the town, and, in conformity to this
exterior, he engaged in his illicit amours. He even pro-
ceeded to the fafhionable vice of feduétion, and enticed from
her parents the daughter of arefpeGtable tradefman in Wett-
mintter, for whom his paffion fubfided in lefs than a fort-
night; during which fhort period fhe had full leifure af-
forded her for forrow and repentance. Her father was in-
duced to receive her again into his family :_ this inftance of
tendernefs fenfibly affected her, and her future conduct
would probably have juftified the lenient kindnefs of a
father, had fhe not been continually expofed to the taunts
and goadings of an elder fifter, the bitternefs of whofe
reproaches induced this unhappy young woman to apply
once more to Churchill for protection, which he readily
granted. While this tranfaGtion was frefh in the public mird,
he publifhed the “ Conference,” in which the emotions of a
mind not hardened in guilt, and feverely labouring under the
preffure of felf-conviction, are pathetically defcribed, and
feveral paffages of that poem are ftrongly expreflive of
manly fentiment and acutenefs of feeling. Accompanied
by this young lady, he retired into Wales in the fummer of
1763, the ruiticity of whofe inhabitants he has celebrated
in his work, entitled, ** Gotham.”? On his return to Lon-
don, he found his friend, Lloyd, imprifoned in the Fleet, for
whofe liberation he made every poffible exertion, but his
efforts proved abortive. The rencontre between Wilkes and
Martin gave rife to Churchill’s next poem, entitled, ‘* The
Duellift,” and he clofed his poetical labours for the year 17635
with the *; Author.” The fatire in this publication is of a
general nature, and well direéted. In 1764, he poured
forth feveral new produétions, infpired by no other mufe
than neceffity, and accumulating all the faults, with few of
the beauties of the former: thefe are entitled ‘* The Can-
didate,’ ‘The Times,?? ‘ Independence,’? and ‘ The
Journey.”? Towards the latter end of that year Churchill
went over to France to pay a vifit to Mr. Wilkes, then a
refugee in that kingdom. At Boulogne he was feized with
a fever, which foon threatened the fatal termination that
took place on November 4th, 1764, which clofed his fhort
but animated career in his 34th year. His body was
brought to Dover, where it was depofited in the old church-
yard, with a {tone over it, on which are infcribed his age,
the time of his death, and this line from his own works :
4 Life to the laft enjoy’d here Churchill lies.”
It is to his credit that he is much regretted by his particular
friends, to whom he was endeared by a generofity of tem-
per not unvfually attending flrong paffions and unfhackled
manners. His poetical reputation feems to have been
uniformly declining from the time of his death: a handfome
edition of his works was, however, publifhed in the year
1So4, in two volumes, octavo, with explanatory notes, and
an account of his life, to which this article is indebted.
Churchill left two fons, Charles and John, the charge of
whofe education was generoufly undertaken by fir Richard
Jebb, who fent the former to the univerfity of Cambridge,
with a handfome allowance. ‘They neither of them proved
worthy of this fupport. ‘They inherited the faults, without
the virtues and abilities of their father, and died, like him,
vidtims to their difregard of temperance and prudence.
CHURCH-HILL, in Geography, a pott and fair-town
of Ireland in the county of Fermanagh. It is near Lough
Erne, onthe road from Ennifkillen to Belleek, and is 8g
miles N.W. from Dublin.
Cuurcu-nscry a village of America, in queen Anne’s
county, Maryland, at the head of S.E. creek, a branch of
Chefter river; N.W. of Bridge-town, and N.E. of Centre-
CHU
ville eight miles, and 85 S.W. from Philadelphia. N. lat. .
40° 9’. W. long. 75° 53’.
Cuurcn-nivu fort, called alfo Prince of Wales’s fort, a
fort in New North Wales, at themouth of Seal river, on
the coalt of Hudfon bay, conftru&ted in 1715. N. lat.
55° §5' 30”. W. long. o4° 50’ 45’. The temperature of
12 months, from Sept. 1768 to the end of Augult 1769,
was 24°.7, Phil. Tranf. for 1770, vol. LX. p. 148, &c.
CuuRrCH-HILL river, ariver of New South Wales, which
runs north-eafterly into the welt fide of Hudfon bay, at
Church-hill fort. N. lat. 58° 47' 32”. W. long. 94° 7’
CHURCHING of women after child-birtb, took its rife
from the Jewifh rite of purification. In the Greek church
it was limited to the fortieth day after delivery; but in the
weltern parts of Europe no certain time is obferved. There
is an office in the liturgy for this purpofe.
CHURCH-TOWN, in Geography, a village of Ame-
rica, in the N.E. part of Lancafter county, Pennfylvania,
about 20 miles E.N.E. of Lancafter, and 50 W.N.W. of
Philadelphia. It has 12 houfes, and an epifcopal church ;
and in the environs are two forges, which manufacture about
450 tons of bar-iron annually. °
CHURCO, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the coal of
Caramania, about 46 miles from the ifle of Cyprus.
CHURGE, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon
to the Indian buftard; he terms it churge ou outarde moyenne
des Indes. See Orts bengalenfis.
CHURLE, Crore, or Cart, in Saxon Times, figni-
fied a tenant at will, who held of the thanes on condition of
rent and fervice. ‘Fhey were of two forts: one rented the
eftate like our farmers: the other tilled and manured the
demefnes, and were called ploughmen.
CHURN, in Rural Economy, the name of a veffel in
which cream is coagulated by agitation. There are various
conftru@ions or forts of churns, but thofe which are of the
upright or Dutch kind, and barrel churns, have been by
much the molt generally employed. Dr. Anderfon obferves
that he fhould prefer the fimpleft which he has {cen as
the beft; merely becaufe they admit of being better clean-
ed, and of having the butter more readily feparated from
the milk than any others; thefe are the old-fathioned up-
right kinds, which have long handles with feet to them,
perforated with holes for the purpofe of beating the cream
by means of being moved upwards and downwards by the
hand. But though, for thefe reafons, he may prefer this
form of churn, other perfons may choofe that which they
like belt, as all the forts under fkilful management will per-
form the bufinefs perfectly well. Indeed, where the cream
has been properly prepared, the procefs of churning will be
fo eafy, he thinks, as to render thofe utentils, in general, the
mott-commodious which can be molt eafily emptied.
According to the author of the “* Agricultural Survey of
Chefhire,””? the churns in common ufe there are mottly of
the upright fort, and have in fome cafes a lever applied to
them, in which cafe, one end of it, which is fupported by
an upright frame, is conneéted to the end of the churn ftaff,
and the other end of it by the means of a rod to the crank
of a toothed wheel, and is wrought by a pinion fixed upon
the axle of a common winch. By this fimple contrivance,
the operation of churning is performed by a fingle
perfon with the greateit facility. But in large dairies,
churns are frequently wrought by means of a horfe, and on
fuch farms as have threfhing mills, they may be very conve-
niently attached to and wrought by them. But in what-
ever way the bufinefs of churning may be performed, the
fize of the churn fhould always be fuited to the quantity of
cream
GH Y
cream intended to be churned, as without attending to this
point, much lofs may frequently be incurred by the cream
being forced out of the churn, as weil as other caufes.
Several improvements have lotely been made inthis fort of
machinery. Mr. Harland, by an alteration in the manner of
workiag thefe utenfils, has in a great meafure obviated the
inconvenience of the vertical motion of the common churn,
and the awkward rotatory motion of the barrel churn;
which is fupphed by a very eafy mufcular exertion, refembling
in its nature that of acommon pump-handle; and by affixing
a fly-wheel, the agitation is performed ina more equable man-
net, and on that account the butter is more perfectly fepa-
rated from the whey. The effect of the fly-wheel in regu-
lating motion may ealily be made evident by cealing to work
the handle, on which the churn, by a regular diminution of
motion, continues to aét for fome time without any moving
power being applied. At fig. 3. Plate VIII. of Agriculture,
is (hewn the common barrel-churn, thus improved, moyed by
the intervention of a multiplying-wheel, to moderate its over-
violent motion. ‘I'he head of the crank moving in the mor-
tife in the handle, caufes the rotatory motion of the barrel
with great facility. From fome experiments that have been
made it would appear that if the barrel be fixed, and the axis
in the infide, to which the dafhers are attached, be made to
turn, that the forming of the butter will be much fooner
completed than when the contrary is the cafe.
Churns with this fort of alteration have been likewife con-
ftruéted by the fame ingenious mechanic.
At fig. 4. is an improvement in communicating the vertical
motion to the common churn. The fly-wheel and crank
are applied asin the other initance, and with the fame equable
effeéts ; which, from the vertical motion of the common
churn being fo intolerably fatiguing, is a very valuable appli-
cation. The limits of this vertical motion are obvionfly
double the length of the crank whofe end is inferted in the
mortife of the handle. The fame apparatus may be applied
for making different quantities of butter by placing larger
or fmaller churns on the fame platform.
Other improvements in thefe utenfils have been introduced
by Mr. Rawntree, the principal advantages of which are,
that the cream is more effectually agitated than in the com-
mon churns; that, by taking off the covers, the inlide can
be perfectly cleaned without any difficulty, and that by
leaving them off, the churn will be kept weet, when not in
ufe, by the current of air pafling through it. A churn of
this improved kind as fhewn in fg. 5, is compofed of two
cylinders of tin plate (or, in large churns, of wood,) A, B
joined together in an angle; thefe are {lrengthened by two
bars of wood on each fide, covered with iron plates D, D,
to which the centre pins ¢, that the churn turns upon, are
affixed; the iron plates D, D, project beyondthe wooden bars,
and have holes through them to receive each end of a clamp
¢, which has a ferew through the middle of it :«the end of
this ferew prefles again{t the middle of the cover E, fo that
when the {crew is releafed the clamp e can be taken away,
and the cover removed. Each of the cylinders contains a
beater, compofed of three circular boards, fi. 6, with holes
through them, which boards are kept at the proper diltances
from cach other by a wooden rod fixed to them; nn isa
fall pipe extending from near the outer end of each cylin-
der to their junétion where it connects with a {mall up-
right pipe ; thefe anfwer the purpofe of the vent-peg, and
can always be kept open without throwing out the cream.
When this churn is ufed, one of the beaters muft be put
into its cylinder, and its cover put on and fcrewed faft ; the
ehurn muift be then held by one perfon, fo that the clofed
cylinder is nearly vertical, (as in the figure) while another
Vor. VIII.
CHU
pours the crezm inat the other end, which is left open ; the
other beater is then put in and the cover {crewed on. ‘he
operation of churning is performed by a perfon taking hold
of any part of the churn, and moving it up and down on its
centre pins, fo that the elevated cylinder is a little above
the horizontal line, (Jarge churns are put in motion by a
pendulum affixed to the end of one of the centre pins). By
this means the cream is alternately poured out of one cylin-
der into the other, and dafhed againft the beaters with great
violence. When the butter is made, the bntter-milk 1s
drawn off by a peg in one of the covers, and the butter 1s
taken out by removing the covers. And anamprovement
of his on the upright churn is exhibited at fy. 7, by which
the operation of churning 1s faid to be executed with much
greater eafe and expedition. }
The pendulum churn conttruGed by Mr. M‘Dougall has
been found to anfwer admirably weil, and fave much labour
in Mr. Curwen’s dairy in Cumberland.
As the improvements of Mr. Harland render the ex-
pences of churns confiderably higher, it may not be un-
ufefel to (tate the addition which is thus created. A bar-
rel-churn, which will make four dozen of butter, ufually colts
about 3/. tos., but, with the improvement, five guineas ;
the common upright churn, with the additional apparatus,
will coft two guineas, when for making eight pounds ata
time; and three guineas for making twelve pounds, and fo
on in proportion to the fize. Thefe churns may be had of
the manufacturer in Fenchurch-Street, London.
Cuurn-ow/, in Ornithology. ‘The common European
goatfucker has obtained the name of churn-owl in many
parts of England; and it is alfo called the goat-owl and
fern-ow]. Ray defcribes it in his Synopfis under the name
of churn-owl ; and Willughby under the two latter. At
this time it is pretty generally known to be of a di‘tinét
genus from the owl tribe; it is the-Caprimulgus europaeus of
modern naturalifts. See article CapRIMULGUs.
CHURNET, in Geography, a river of England, which
runs into the Dare in Staffordfhire.
CHURNING, in Rural Economy, the operation of pro-
curing butter by the agitation of cream in a veflel of the
churn kind. It has been well noticed by Dr. Anderfon,
that in the management of this procefs much greater nicety
is requifite than has been commonly fuppofed; as a few
hatty irregular ftrokes given by the dafhers may render the
whole of the butter of that churning ufelefs in its original
intention, and of little or no value for any other purpofe,
which, but for that cireumftance, would have been of the firlt
quality. It is therefore conceived that the proprietors of
extentive dairies fhould be particularly attentive to the exe-
cution of this part of the butinefs, and be very careful in pro-
viding a proper perfon for the conducting of it.
The mott fuitable conductors of operations of this nature
are thofe of cool, fedate, fober difpofitions, and no others
fhould ever be permitted to take any fhare in the performance
of this fort of bufinefs without a conitant attention to the
manner in which it is executed, as without fuch care much
lofs and inconvenience may often be fultained by the dairy
farmer.
And, it is added, that to thofe who have been in the
habit of feeing cream churned that has not undergone a
proper preparation, it may perhaps be thought that it mutt
be hard labour in a confiderable dairy to be executed by one
perfon ; but that nothing is more eafy, fo far as bodily labour
is concerned, than the procefs of churning butter where the
cream has been prepared in a fuitable manner.
Mr. Headrick made the following chemical experiment as
to the procefs of churning, which is recorded in the Report
4 of
CHU
of Mid-Lothian. From the {welling and foaming of tlre
liquor during this procefs, he was led to conclude that gales
were evolved from it.”
And * to afcertain that point, a glafs tube was faltened
in a plug of cork, fixed in the funnel of a patent churn be-
longing to Mr. Robertfon at Granton. The lower extre-
mity of the tube was immerfed in water, and the joints of
the funnel and cork luted, fo as to prevent the accefs of ex-
ternal air and caufe the gafes emitted by the liquor to pafs
through the tube into an inverted giafs jar, previoufly filled
with water.
«To their great furprife, no gafes whatever were (he fays)
emitted during the procefs; and the water in the bafon con-
ftantly rofe in the glafs tube ; which fhewed that the atmo-
{pheric air was rufhing into the liquor initead of gafes rufhing
from it, as they expected, into the atmofphere.”’
The conclufion which ‘feems to follow from this experiment
is, he thinks, ‘“* that in churning, the faccharine part of the
milk combines with the oxygen of the atmofphere, by which
it is converted into acid, and precipitates the oil, or butyra-
ceous part.” He adds, that ‘ this experiment might give
rife to many important obfervations concerning the nature
and management of milk; but it fhould be previoufly re-
peated, with varied circumftances, in order more fully to
afcertain the facis.””
It has been fuggelted by fome, that the procefs of churn-
ing might be greatiy expedited by having reeourfe to the ufe
of acids, fuch as diftiiled vinegar, towards the latter part of
she operation; but it is probable that fuch additions can
never be made without coniiderably -injuring the quality of
the butter. Belides, nothing feems to be neceffary to the
eafy and expeditious execution of the bufinefs, but a due
temperature and {tate of acidity in the cream, the manner of
attaining which is fully explained in {peaking of the nature
and management of the dairy. See Dairyine.
For various methods of churning or making butter among
the ancijents and in the Eaft, fee Burrer. :
CHURR-Worm, in Entomology, a name given by fome
to the Gryllotalpa.
CHURRITUCK, in Geography, a county of America,
in'the {tate of North Carolina, and diftri@ of Edenton.
CHURSEN, a towa of Arabia; 32 miles N.E. of
Chamir.
CHURWALDEN, a diftri& of Switzerland, in the
Jeague of the Ten JurifdiGtions, purchafed of the houfe of
Auitria in 1649. In this diftri& the hamlets are pleafantly
difperfed about the vale and upon the fides of the moun-
tains.
CHUSAN, Cuew-suan, or Tcutou-cuan, an ifland,
er rather a groupe of iflands, fituate in the Eattern fea,
about 18 or 20 leagues from Ning-poo, between the province
of Tche-tchiang, the eaftern coaft of China, and Japan.
N. lat. 30°. E. long.122°. At the harbour of the princi-
pal of thefe iflands the Englifh firft landed on their arrival at
China ; and this was formerly reckoned the utmoft boundary
of European navigation. The fea from thence, for about
10° of latitude and 6° of longitude, was utterly unknown
before the late embafly, the {quadron of which touched at
this land in 1793, except to, thofe who dwelt in the neigh-
bourhood of its {hores. Into this fea are received the waters
of the great ‘‘ Whang-ho,”’ or Yellow river of China. See
Yexrow Sea. Between the Queefan iflands and Chufan
harbour, through a {pace of about 6omilesin length, and 39
in width, the number of :flands exceeds 300. ‘The part of
the harbour in which the Clarence, one of the fhips ‘of the
Brith fquadron, anchored, was about halfa mile diftant from
a landing place, and the depth of water was five fathoms.
CHEO
In this fituation the four paffages into the harbour were fo
fhut in, that none of them were vifible. It appeared like a
lake furrounded by hills ; the extent of the harbour, from
north to fouth, is little more than a mile, and near three miles
from eaft to weit. The rife and fall of the tides make a
difference of about 12 feet. The time of high water, at the
full and change of the moon, appears to be about 12 o’clock,
The tides, however, are very irregular, and vary, according
to the wind, and the eddies produced by fuch a multiplicity
of iflands.
Among thefe numerous iflands there are almoft as many
valuable harbours, or places of perfect fecurity, for fhips of
any burden. This advantage, together with that of their
central fituation, in refpeét to the eaftern coatt of China, and
the vicinity of Corea, Japou, Leoo-keo, and Formofa, attrac
confiderable commerce, efpecially to Ning-poo, a city of
great trade in the adjoming province of Tche-tchiang, ta
which all the Chufan iflanes are annexed.” From one port
in that province twelve veflels fail, annually, for copper to
apan. -
: Mork of the Chufan iflands confilt of hills rifing with a re-
gular flope, and rounded at top, as if any points or angles,
exilting in their original formation, had been gradually worn
off into a globular and uniform fhape. Many of thefe iflands,
though clofe to one another, are divided by channels of great
depth. Tney relt upon a foundation of grey or red granite,
fome part _relembling porphyry, except in hardnefs. They
were certainly, fays tir G. Staunton (Embafly, vol. i. p. 408),
not formed by the fucceflive alluvion from the earth brought
into the fea by the great river, at whofe mouth they are
fituated, ike the numerous low and muddy iflands at the
mouth of the Po, and many others; but fhould rather be
confidered as the remains of part of the continent thus
f{cooped and furrowed, as it were, into iflands, by the force
of violent torrents carrying off, farther into the fea, whatever
was lefs refiltible than the adjacent rocks. Some of them
wore a very inviting afpeét; particularly Poo-too, which
fee.
CHUSARIS, or Cuusarus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Africa, in the interior of Libya, according to Pto-
lemy.
CHUSII, or Crst1, a people of Afia, in Sufiana, S.W..
of the town of Sufa between this and Pafitigris.
CHUSIS, Cnuzes, or Cuisas, an epifcopal fee of
Africa, mentioned in the ais of the council of Carthage,
held under Cyprian.
CHUSISTAN, or Kuosistan, in Geography, a province
of Perfia, bounded on the north by the Irak Ajemi, on the
eat by Farfillan, on the fouth by the Perfian gulf, and on
the weft and fouth-weit by the Tigris, which feparates it
from the Arabian Irak. his is the fame country with
Cufh in Affyria, having preferved ics ancient name with a
Perfian termination, and correfponds to the ancient Sufiana.
But the name is antiquated. Shuftec, or Tollac, is now
the name of alarge province. Loriltan, or Laureftan, is in
Shuftee ; and to the welt is the country of Havila, the
Ahwaz of M. D’Anville. The country, thus denominat- -
ed, is extenfive, but thinly inhabited. It produces corn,
rice, cotton, fugar, tobacco, and dates. The northern
part is mountainous, but the fouthern flat and marfhy.
CHUSKA, atownof Afia, in the country of Tibet ;
25 miles W.S.W. of Tankia.
CHUTA-NAGPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Bahar; 150 miles S. of Patna, and 190 W. ef
Calcutta. SF
CHUTAL, in Ancient Geegraphy, a people originally of
Affyria or Suliana. Salmanatar tranfported them into the
country
cH Y
eountry of Samaria, in the room of the Ifraclites; they
were then idolaters, and he appointed prieits to initruét them
in the worfhip of the God of Ifrael ; but they attempted to
blend idolatry with the religion of the Hebrews. Under
Alexander the Great they obtained permiffion to build a
temple on mount Gerizim. Jofephus.
CHUTE, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
iato the Avon, near Bath.
_ CHUWASCH, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan; 70 miles S.E. of Zareng.
CHUZIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa pro-
pria, placed by Ptolemy between the two Syrtes.
CHWASTOW; in Geography, a town of Poland, in the ~
palatinate of Kiov ; ao miles 5S.S.W. of Kiov.
CHYDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lycia, according to Ptolemy.
CHYDAS, a riverof Sicily.. Ptol.
CHYLE, in Anatomy, is the fiuid into which the food is
converted in the fmall inteftine. See Dicestion.
Cuyce, in Chemifiry. The food of animals, after it has
undergone digeltion in the ftomach, paffes into the duode-
num (the firft of the {mall inteltines), and here a feparation
bezins to take place, the chy/e, or nutritive part of it, being
abforbed by the JeGeals, which are minute abforbent veflels
which open within the cavity of the {mall inteftine, whilft
the other portion of the food paffes down into the large
inteftines. Chyle, therefore, is the laft change that food
undergoes previous to its converfion into blood, for the lac-
teals convey it by a circuitous courfe into a common refor-
voir, the thoracic du@, which opens into the left fubclavian
vein not far from the heart. The chemical analyfis of. chyle
would be fearcely lefs interefting than that of blood itfelf,
could it be collected in fufficient quantity, but this is attend-
ed with great trouble, as it would be fearcely poffible to col-
le& from one animala greater quantity of healthy chyle than
what would be found in the thoracic duct when the animal
was killed a few hours after making a hearty meal. _ Hi-
therto only a few defultory experiments have been made on
pure chyle, which have been collected by Haller.
By thefe we learn that chyle isa milky white fluid, of an
agreeable fub-faline tafte, lighter than the ferum of blood,
and even than water, on the furface of which it fwims like
cream. It readily coagulates by reft and extravafation, and
appears to be compofed of water, of an oily fubftance, con-
filting of globules evident to the microfcope, of a heavier
matter, like cheefe, which remains at the bottom after co-
agulation, and of fome earth. Chyle readily turns four by
Keeping, bat when frefh it gives no figns of acidity. The
nature of the aliment makes but little change in that of the
chyle. | Its colour is ufually white, as is obvious by the
whitenefs and turgefcency of the laéteals, if examined after
digeltion; but Dr. Fordyce found that indigo, introduced in
fine powder into the ftomach, was capable of giving a blue
tinge tothe chyle. For further obfervations as to the time
and mode of its formation, fee the article Dicrstiton. — -
CHYLEMETH, in Ancient Geography, a river of A fri-
ea, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, according to Ptolemy.
CHYLIFICATION, is the procefs by which the con-
verfion of the food into chyle is effefted. See Dicesrion.
CHYLONGO. See Cuitonco.
CHYLOSIS. See Cuytirication.
CHYME, is that particular modification which the food
aflames after it has undergone the action of the ftomach.
See Dicestion.
Cuyme, in Chemifiry. All food is reduced in the fto-
mach by the united aétion of the fibres of this organ and of
_the gaftric juice into a white pulpy mafs,in which all the digel-
CIA
tible parts of the aliment are indiftinguifhably blended, and
which is called chyme. It is probably atter this period that
the chy/e begins to be feparated. ‘The formation of chyme
is fo intimately conneéted with the fubject of diye/fion, that
we (hall refer our readers to this article.
CHYMISTRY. SeeCuemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, among Botanical Writers, denote fuch
as have employed their time in inveltigating the qualities and
properties of plants from their tafte and {meil.
CHYMOSIS, in Phy/fology, formed of xuj0s, fuccus, of
xew, fundo, I melt, the a& of making or preparing, chyme,
which fee. ;
Cuymosis, in Surgery. See CuEmosts.
CHYTLA, in Antiquity, a liquor made of wine,and oy,
and fometimes ufed in divination.
CHYTRACULIX, in Botany, See
CarypTRANTHES chytraculix, A
CHYTRAUS, Davin, ix Biography, a learned Lutheran
divine, born at Ingelfing, in Suabia, in 1530, was diftin-
guifhed for his application to theology and the belles lettres,,
of which he became a profeffor at Roftock. He died im
1600. He was a confiderable author; but his principal
piece was a ‘‘ Commentary onthe Apocalyfe.” His Latin
chronology of Herodotus and ‘Whucydides is alfo in fome
repute. All his works were collected and printed at. Hano-
ver, in 1604, in two volumes folio. His brothér, Nathan,
prefided over an academy at Bremen: he acquired fome re-
putation for his Latin poems. ;
CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a feftival in honour of
Bacchus and Mercury, kept on the 13th of the month An-
thefterion. s
Cuytri, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cyprus, according to Pliny and Steph. Byz., called by
Ptolemy Chytros, which had been epifcopal.—Alfo, a lake
of Greece, in Beeotia, placed by Theophraftus in the can-
ton called ‘* Pelecania,’’ between the rivers Melas and Ce-
phifus.—Alfo, a place fituated at Thermopyle, in which
were hot baths. Paufanias, who fpeaks of thefe baths, fays,
that the people of the country called them xclex: yuvasnsions,
chytres, or baths of females.
CHYTRINUM, or Cuyrrium,a place of Afia Minor,
in Ionia, belonging to the inhabitants of the ifle of Cos.
CHYTROPOLIA, a place of Afia, in the vicinity of
the burgh of Tclephe, fuppofed to be fituated towards the
Phatis in Armenia Major.
CHYTROPOLIS, a {mall country of Thrace.
Byz.
CHYTRUS, Ciresa, a town of the ifland of Cyprus,
at fome diftance from the northern coalt, S. of Marcaria,
and N.W. of Salamis.
CIA, or Dia, an iiland of the Aigean fea, near that of
Crete. Pliny.
CIABRUS, Crambus, Cramarus, or Cesrus, Zibriz,
a river of Mcetia, dividing it into the higher and lower, run-
ning towards the north, and difcharging itfelf into the
Danube. :
CIACA, a town ia that part of Cappadocia, which was
afterwards called Armenia Minor; fituated in the Melitene,
upon the right bank of the Euphrates, almoft oppofite to
Pattona. Ptolemy calls it Ciacis,
CIACCONA, in AMu/ic, in Italian means the fame thing,
with Chaconne (which fee) and is of fo ancient an invention, that
the origin of the term is difputed, Frefcobalds has compofed!
variations on the ciaccona ; and nityhila fal coiths bie of Bers
gamo, [| Cavalier Tarquinio Merula, ina volume of his works
publifhed in 163 5,hasa compofition which he calls Duo fopra
laCieccona,” ona grandbafe. sane Se os doubtful whence
P 2 the
Brown. Jam.
Steph.
CIA
the word chaconne or ciacconna is derived ; it has been imagined
in Italy by fome that a cieco, or blind fidler, had invented
the air, and that it had its name from that circumftance.
And we are able to give fome weight to this conjecture, from
recollecting, that in the ‘Hilt. of Muf. vol. ii.” there is an
account of a celebrated blind: organiit, who flourifhed: at
Florence fo early as the middle of the 14th century, and
who was probably author of the air upon a ground, called
the cieccona, or ciacconna. Philip Villani, the youngett of the
Florentine hiftorians of that name, in his ‘ Vite d’?Uomini
illuftri: Florentini,’? has inferted the life of Francefco Cieco,
the blind organilt, who died in 1390. ‘* Many,” fays this
writer, “ are the Florentines who have rendered themfelves
memorable by the art of mufic; but all thofe of former
times have been far furpaffed by Francefco Cieco, who {till
lives ; and who, during childhood, was deprived of fight
by the fmall-pox. He was the fon of Jacopo, a Florentine
painter, of great probity and fimplicity of manners ; and
being arrived at adolefcence, and beginning to be fenfible
of the mifery of*blindnefs, in order to diminifh the horror
CTA
of perpetual night, he began in a childifh manner’ to fing ;
but advancing towards maturity, and becoming more and
more captivated with mufic, he began ferioufly to ftudy it,
as an art, firft by learning to fing, and afterwards by ap-
plying himfelf to the practice of inftruments, particularly
the organ, which he foon played, without ever having feen
the keys, in fo mafterly and {weet a manner, as aftonifhed
every hearer. Indeed, his fuperiority was foon acknow-
ledged fo univerfally, that, by the common confent of all the
muficians of his time, he was publicly konoured at Venice
with the laurel crown for his performance on the organ,
before the king of Cyprus and the duke of Venice, in the
manner of a poet laureat.”
As the beautiful chaconne by Jomilli, which terminated
a grand ballet at the Opera Houfe in 1772, and in whic
Mademoifelle Heynel difplayed her unrivalled powers of
grace and execution, is not yet forgotten, we fhall here in~
fert a few bars of it, as an admirable fpecimen of the kind
of movement fo called.
CIACICA, in Geography, a jurifdiGtion or province of
Peru, in S. America, fubje€t to the archbifhop of Plata ;
about 9o leagues N. of the city of Plata, and 40 from Paz.
Its capital, which has the fame name, and all the places
fituated to the fouthward of it, belong to the archbifhopric
of Plata; but many of thofe that lie to the north of it are
in the diocefe of Paz. The countries ip-this jurifdi&tion
extend in fome parts above a hundred teapuce, and, of
courfe, the temperature is various. Some parts are very hot,
and produce abundance of coca, (which f{ee,) affording a
confiderable commerce, and fupplying all the mine towns
from Charcas to Potofi. The colder parts feed large herds
of cattle ; together with vicunas, guanacos, and other wild
ereatures. This province has alfo fone filver mines.
CIACONIUS, Arpsonso, in Biography, born at Baega,
in Andalufia, about the year 1540. He entered the order of
the Dominicans, and was afterwards fent to Rome, where he
was created titular patviarch of Alexandria. He wrote
feveral works, fome of which prove him to have been ex-
eeedingly credulous and fuperititious, fuch was his treatife
to confirm the ftory of the delivery of Trajan’s foul from
laell by the prayers of pope Gregory the Great, Flis molt
efteemed work is entitled, “ Vite et Gefta Rom. Pont. et
Cardinalium,”’ which he did not live to finifh. It was com-
pleted by his nephew, and publithed in 1602. It abounded
with errors, and the revifion of it was committed to Jerome
Alexander, and Vittorelli, and the correéted edition ap-
peared in 1630. The laft edition was greatly enlarged, and
publifhed in 4 vols. folio, at Rome, in 1676, Craconius
left in MS. * Anuniverfal Library of Authors,” which was
edited, with additional notes, by Camufat, and printed at
Paris in folio, in 1732.
CIACONIUS, Perer, brother of the above, was em-=
ployed by pope Gregory XIII. in revifing an edition of the
Bible, and of other works then printing at the Vatican.
For fuch an employment he is faid to have been admirably
fitted, on account of the extraordinary facility which he had
of reftoring mutilated paffages, and illuftrating obf{curities.
He is celebrated chiefly as a commentator, but he was en-
gaged with Clavius in a corre¢tion of the calendar, and, after
his death, were publifhed a pofthumous work of his, enti-
tled, “* Kalendarit Romani veteris Explanatio,” and fome
{maller pieces. He was conneéted with, and highly
elteemed by, the principal literati: of his time, and was ac-
counted -
aa. A
counted among the moft learned men of the age in which
he flourifhed. He died at Rome in 1581. Gen. Dict.
CIENA, or Cinna, in Ancient Geagraply, a town of
Afia Minor, in Galatia. Ptolemy.
CIAGESI, or Ciacis1, an ancient people, who occu-
ied one of the more fouthern parts of Dacia.
CIAIS, a town of Mingrelia, near the Black Sea.
CIALIS, a country of Independent Tartary, with a
capital of the fame name; bounded on the N. by Eluth, on
the I. by fandy deferts, on the S. by the Greater Tibet,
and on the W. by Turkettan.
CIAMBERLANO, Luca, in Biography, a painter and
engraver, native of Urbino, whofe prints bear date from
1609 to 1625. His engravings are executed entirely with
the graver, in a neat but ftiff manner: he drew the figure
with tolerable correctnefs; but the effect in his prints is
much injured by the lights being too much feattered, and
of equal ftrength ; this, however, is the fault of the time
when he lived. Many of his prints are froin his own com-
pofition, and others from Raffaele, Polidor, Caracci, &c.
Strutt. Heinecken,
CIAMBETTA, in Jchihyology, one of the fynonymous
names of the balance-fhark, Zibella ciambetta, Salvian, Aq.
See SQUALUS zyyvena.
CIAMPA, in Geography. See Cutampa and Siampa.
CIAMPELLI, Acostino, in Biography, an hiflorical
painter, born at Florence about 1578. He became the dif-
ciple of Santo di Titi, the moft eminent Florentine painter
of that time, and from him imbibed a {ufficiently correét and
pure ftyle of drawing, together with the gay colouring then
in ufe among his countrymen. His pictures are, however, a
little too red, and fometimes rather hard. He neverthelefs
acquired fufficient reputation to occafion his being employed
at Rome under Clement VIII. and his fucceffors, upon many
large works in frefco, and in oil, which are enumerated by
Baglione. The Sacrifty, and the chapel of S. Andrea, in
the church of Gefu, are amongft his beft works in frefco ;
and a picture in oil by him at St. Stefano in Pefcia, reprefent-
ing the meeting of Mary and Elizabeth, is confidered little
inferior to another by Tiarini, placed near it. ‘Towards the
jatter part of his life, he was honoured by the fuperintend-
ance of the fabric of St. Peter’s, the fatigue of which, how-
ever, is fuppofed to have contributed to his death, about
1640.
A very beautiful compofition of Ciampelli, reprefenting
the death of St. Antonio Abate, is engraved in the Etruria
Pittrice. Baglione. Lanzi, Storia Pittorica. Orlandi.
CIAMPI, Vincenzo, an opera compofer of confi-
derable merit, who arrived in England in 1748, with a
new company of comic fingers brought hither from Italy
by Signor Croza, for the firft time. Thefe perform-
ers, coufifting of Pertici, Lafchi, and Guadagni, then very
young for the firft ferions man; Frafi, and afterwards the
Mellini, for ferious woman; and the comic female charac-
ters by the wives of Pertici and Lafchi, the two belt buffo
actors we ever faw on any ftage, formed a very good troop ;
and in the comic eperas of ‘* La Comedia in Comedia, Ora-
zio, Don Calafcione, Gli tre Cicifbei ridicoli,’? &c. compof-
ed by Latilla, Natale Refta, and Ciampi, who came over as
maeftro to the company, pleafed the public, and filled the
theatre, very fuccefsfully, during the whole feafon.
Ciampi remained in this country till the arrival of Cocchi
in 1754, and compofed feveral comic operas, as ‘¢ I] Negli-
gente,” ‘ Bertoldo,”’ &c. and the ferious operas of « Adri-
ano in Siria,’’ ** Didone,”’ and * Il Trionfo di Camilla.’?
He likewife publifhed fix organ concertos, in which there
were fome mafterly movements ;. but though all fuperior to
3
CIB
the concertos of Filton, then in high favour, particularly in
the ccuntry, being leds familiar and common, they were ne-
ver much noticed or performed in public, The produ@ions
of Ciampi ftrike us now as they did fifty years ago: they
are not without merit; he had fire and abilities, but there
feems fomething wanting, or redundant, in all his compoli-
tions ; we never faw one that fatisfied us, and yet there are
good paflages in many of them. ‘* Adnano in Siria”? was
compofed for fecond-rate fingers, and the mufic is of the
fame kind. The comic fongs of * Il Negligente” are infi-
nitely better than his ferious fongs; and convince us that
the buffo ftyle, for which he came over, was that in which
nature beft affifted him.
CIAMPINI, Joun-Jusrin, born at Rome in 1633:
was firft engaged in the ftudy of the law, with an inten-
tion of becoming advocate, but he afterwards attached
himfelf folely to the practice of the apoftolic chancery, im
which he fucceffively occupied various pofts. He was much
attached to the {tudy of the belles lettres, which he promoted
by various publications. He tooka partin a literary journal
commenced at Rome in 1668, and in three years he formed!
a fociety for the ftudy of ecclefiaftical hiftory. Under the
protection of Chriitina, then refident at Rome, he founded,
in 1677, an academy for phyfics and mathematics, which:
attained to confiderable celebrity. He died in 1698, leaving
behind him many works, which exhibit much learning, but
they, are deficient in method and purity of diction. His
chief work is entitled ‘* Vetera Monumenta, in quibus pre-
cipue Mofaica opera, Sacrarum Profanarumque edium Struc-
tura illuftrantur,’’ 2 vols. folio. This is a learned and cu-
rious treatife on the remains of ancient buildings and mofa-
ics in Rome, illu{trated with numerous engravings. The
great objcét of this work is the elucidation of various points
in ecclefiaftical hiftory. He was a colleétor of curious books,
and well acquainted with their value.
CIANESUS, Cianidzkhali, in Ancient Geography, 2:
river of Afia in the Colchis territory. It flowed towards
the W.S.W. and difcharged itfelf into the Euxine Sea, N..
of the mouth of the Phafis.
CIANI, a denomination given by Livy to the inhabitants
of the town of Cium, in Afiatic Myfia.
CIANICA, a town of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in the:
Melitene, a county of Leffler Armenia.
CLANIS, a river which ran near the town of Cium in:
Afiatic Myfia.
CIANO, in Sh a town of Piedmont, in the Canae-
vefe ; 12 miles S.E. of Jvrea.
CIANUS, Sinus, the gulf of Cianus, was formed: by part
of the waters of the Propontis, which extended towards the
ealt, between a peninfula that conftituted northwards-a por--
tion of Bithynia, and fouthwards part of the continent where
Olympena was fituated. It took its name from the town of
Cius, feated at the bottom of the gulf.
CIASA, or Czasa, an ancient town of Afia, in Baby-
lonia.
CIBALAS, Cizora, or Crvona, the ancient name of |
New Grenada, in Terra Firma, South America, and alfo of
a town inthis province. ‘The country, though not moun—
tainous, is cool; and the Indians, who inhabit it, are faid to
be the whiteft, moft witty, moft fincere, and moft orderly of
all the aboriginal Americans. When the country. was dif-
covered, they had, each of them, only one wife, and were
extiemely jealous.. They worfhipped water, and an old man»
that was a magician, whom they fuppofed to lie concealed:
under one of their lakes.
CIBALIS, or Cizara, in Ancient Geography) a town:
of. Lower Pannonia, whofe name is ftill preferved in the
obfcure
CIB
obfcure rujns of Savilei; feated on the Save about 50 miles
from Sirmium, the capital of Illyricum, and about 100 from
Taurunum, or Belgrade, and the conflux of the Danube and
Save. This town is famous for the firft battle fought on the
8th of O&ober, A.D. 315, between Conttantine and Lici-
nius ; in which the latter, after a fevere confli@, and the lofs
of more than 20,000 men, was obliged to retreat and make
his efcape, at the head of his cavalry, to colle a new army
in Dacia and Thrace.
CIBAO, in Geography, a groupe of hich mountains, oc-
éupying the centre of the ifland of St. Domingo; from
which diverge three large chains, the longeft ftretching to-
wards the eaft, and dividing that part of the ifland; ano-
ther ttretching to the north-wett
MINGO.
CIBARIA, atermwhich, in its general acceptation, figni-
fies food, meat, victuals for man, cattle, fifhes, &e. Butina
Military Senfe it denotes provitions, or what the French call
munitions de bouche. Cicero fays, that when a Roman army fet
out on a march, each foldier carried provilions with him for
15 days; and Titus Livius fays fora whole month. The
Greeks, who made but fhort campaigns, and feldom at a
great diltance from their own Cities and territories, were not
impeded in their marches and operations by great quantities
of baggage or {upplies, and always returned home to pafs the
winter.
CIBARITIS. or Cysareris, in Ancient Geography,
acountry of Afia Minor, near the Meander; fuppofed to be
the territory of the town of Cibyra.
CIBBER, Cottey, in Biography, an eminent ator and
dramatic writer, was born in Southampton-ftreet, London,
on the 6th of November, 1671. His father was a ftatuary,
a native of Holttein, who came to England about the time
of the Reftoration. In London are feveral {pecimens of his
talents as an artilt. OF thefe are the ftatues of the kings
round the Royal Exchange, as far as king Charles, and that
of fir Thomas Grefham in the piazza beneath. But his
moft capital works are the two figures of melancholy and
raving madnefs, which were till lately in the front of Beth-
lehem. Colley bore the name cf his mother ; his firft cdu-
eation was at the free-{chool at Grantham, whence his father
hoped to get him eleGted into Winchefter college, to which
he had fome claim, on account of his maternal defcent from
William of Wykeham; he was, however, difappointed. He
would then willingly have fent him to the univerlity in order
that he might have been brought up to the church; but in
this alfo his fchemes were baffled. At length the young
man purfued his own inclination, and, at eighteen, entered as
a performer at Drury-lane theatre. His encouragement was
at firft fmall, it being feveral months before he was allowed
ten fhillings a week falary. Asan actor he excited attention
by performing the partof lord Touchwood in the ‘ Double
Dealer,”’ to which he had been recommended by Mr. Con-
greve, who was fully fatisfied with his manner of acting ;
and in confequence of his recommendation his falary was
doubled. His father fettled on him twenty pounds per an-
num ; and being in his twenty-fecond year he married a lady,
with whom he had fome fortune. He gained confiderable
reputation by performing the part of Fondlewife inthe ‘¢ Old
Bachelor ;’”? and in 1696 he appeared as a dramatic writer,
and his comedy of ¢ Love’s lait Shift,” or the “ Fool of
Fafhion,”? was pronounced by lord Dorfét, then lord cham-
berlain, the be(t firft play he had ever known. He himfelf
aéted the principal charadter, to which his talents were well
adapted. In fome other produétions Cibber ‘was by no
§
CB
means fo happy; his ** Woman’s Wit’ was ill-receiveds
and his ** Xerxes’’ exifted but a fingle night. "The comedy
of « Love makes a Man,”’ though not original, proved be-
neficial to him; but his principal comedy was the ‘* Carelefs
Hufband,”’ which extorted praife from Pope, who never was
the friend of Cibber, and who afterwards became his fevere
fatirift.. This comedy, which has been faid to contain the
moft elegant dialogue, and the moft perfect knowledge of
perfons in real life that has appeared in any language, 1s by
no means a perfeét play. It poffeffes fearcely any plot, and
its fuccefs depends chiefly upon fmart converfatien, fcenes,
and the difplay of fome lively and rattling characters, with
which the {tage at that time abounded. Its profefled object
is the reclaiming of a libertine hufband; yet the virtuous
wife is far from being properly difplayed, and every fu-
periority is given to an agreeable rake. Without enume-
rating the feveral pieces brought forward by Cibber, it is
fufficient to fay, that his importance as an actor continued
to increafe ; and im 17141 he became manager and joint pa-
tentee of Drury-lane theatre; his brother managers were
Wilks and Doggett. At the acceflion of George I. a new
patent was granted; but inftead of Dogget the names of
Booth and Steele were inferted. ‘The neceffities of fin
Richard Steele were not fatisfied with the common profits,
and he withdrew from the management; this led to a chan-
cery fuit, in which Cibber pleaded his own caufe fo fuccels-
fully, that a decifion was given in favour of himfelf and his
brother managers.
In 1717, Cibber brought forward his comedy of ‘* The
Nonjuror,”’ levelled at the Jacobite party. It had a great
run, and was acted for eighteen fucceeding nights: onvac-
count of its tendency, the author received two hundred
pounds from the king, and the office of poet laureat. He
foon after gave up his fhare in the theatre, and withdrew
from the butinefs of the ftage, coming forward only on par-
ticular occafions, as an actor, when he had fifty guineas per
night asa falary. At the age of feventy he profeffed himielf
the humble admirer of Mrs. Woflington, and was delighted.
to act with her in the play of the ** Old Bachelor.” In
1740 Cibber publifhed an apology for his life, which in-
cluded an hiltorical view of the ftage during his own time,
The eafe and fprightlinefs with which this was written, toe.
gether with the numerous anecdotes which it contains, ren-
dered it a very popular work, and its reputation is f{upported
to the prefent time. In 1745, when he was turned of feventy-
four, he appeared in'the eharaGter of Pandulph, the pope’s le-
gate, in his own tragedy, entitled ‘* Papal Tyranny in the
Reigr of King John ;” and notwithitanding his advanced
years, performed the part with great f{pirit and vigour. In,
1747-he publifhed ‘ Remarks on Middleton’s Lite of Ci-
cero,”? a work to which it will be generally admitted he was
by no means competent ; it was of courfe fhort-lived, andis
now almoft wholly forgotten. Cibber fisifhed a long and ac-
tiveifeon Dec. 12,1757. His man-fervant, with whom he
had converfed, in apparently good health, at fix in the morn-
ing, found him dead at nine, lying on his pillow, juft as he
had left him. He had entered his cighty-feventh year.
He left two children. Theophilus adopted his father’s
profeffions of actor and dramatic writer, but with very in-
ferior fuccefs. He was a mean and depraved charafer, and
finifhed a life of diftrefs and infamy by fhipwreck in his paf-
fage to Ireland, in 1758. His daughter, Mrs. Clarke, was
alfo on the ftage, which was one only of the many parts fhe’
aéted in life, and few women ever pafled through a greater
variety of adventures and occupations. When fhe quitted
the theatre fhe kept a fhop in Long-acre; then became mif-
trefs of a puppet-thow ; afterwards ia man’s cloaths fhe ap-.
"peared
CIB
peared as a valet to a nobleman: fhe was afterwards a fort
ef pork-butcher ; and nine years of her life were {pent in the
occupation of a {trolling-player in the country. li Wales
fhe was a farmer and a pattry-cook ; at Briftol the correCtor
of the prefs for a printer. She at length found means to
take a public-houfe at Iflington, where fhe died in great
diftrefsin 1760. To return, however, to Cibber ; he was a
man of great vivacity, good-humour, and benevolence ; his
chief failing was vanity, the preponderance of which, and
the liberties which he took with the characters of other per-
fons, without any ill-intention, produced him many enemies,
by whom, and by Pope in his ‘ Dunciad,” in particular, he
was attacked with much more feverity than he deferved.
Their attacks, though often very pointed and malignant,
made but little impreffion upon him, and he was even ready
to acknowledge his foibles with franknefs. As an actor he
potleffed great merit; but his judgment as a manager was
not sles to be depended upon: his behaviour to young
authors was not always candid, and fometimes infolent and
overbearing. His own pieces are generally of a moral tend-
ency, and his comedies are entitled to praife. Hecolleéted
and publifhed his pieces in two volumes 4to. and they have
fince been re-publifhed in five volumes 12mo. Biog.
Brit.
Cisser, Mrs. Susannan Marra, the fifter of Dr.
Are, has been juftly celebrated as a great tragic actrefs ;
but as fhe firit appeared on the ftage as a finger, in her bro-
ther’s opera of Rofamond, written by Addifon, and after-
wards fung in Flandel’s oratorios of Sampfon and the Mef-
fiah, the firft time they were performed, both in England
and Ireland, aid for whom he compofed his two beft ora-
torio airs: ‘* Return, O God of Holts,”’ and ** He was De-
fpifed and Rejected ;” which, with a feeble voice, and little
knowledge of mutic, by a natural pathos, fhe fung in a more
affeQing manner, than much finer fingers have ever done;
thefe confiderations, and perhaps, the #imulus of friendthip,
incline us to give her an artic'e here, for her vocal powers.
As an aétrefs, fhe was thought molt excellent in tender
parts, till, during the rebeilion, fhe appeared in the charac-
ter of Conftance in Shakefpear’s King John, in which fhe
manifefted not only the maternal tendernefs of a Merope, but
fuch dignity, fpirit, and paffion, as perhaps, have never been
exceeded, if equalled, on any ftage. Handel himfelf was ex-
ceedingly partial to her, and took the tronble of teaching her
the parts expretsly compofed for her limited compafs of
voice, which was a mezzo foprano, almolt, indeed, acon-
tralto, of only fix or feven notes, with allthe drudgery of re-
petition neceflary to undergo, in teaching perfons more by
the ear than the eye. He and Qum ufvally fpent their
Sunday evenings at Mrs. Cibber’s, where wit and humour
were more frequently of the party, than Meélpomene, Eu-
terpe, or Orpheus,
With refpe& to the effect of Mrs. Cibber’s fimple, but
pathetic, ftyle of finging, it feems to demonttrate, that ex-
preflion in mufic is the foul, and mere founds the corporeal
part. The moft beautiful and affecting air of an oratorio or
ferious opera, if fung without expreflion, becomes a vapid:
and uninteretting pfalmody: notes et rien que des notes, as
Rouffeau fays, notes and nothing but notes. But this ex-
preffion mutt be fuited to the language in which the air is
f-t. The fongs which Handel exprefsly compofed for Mrs.
Cibber’s limited powers, were never half fo touching when
fung by a Monticelli, a Guarducci, ora Guadagni, great
fingers as they were, as by our countrywoman, though,
comparatively, ignorant of mufic, and pofleffing but a thread
of a voice. However, from the excellence of her under-
flanding, knowledge of onr language, and the natural pa-
CIB
thos in the tone of her voice, fhe never failed to penetrate
into the inmoft receffes of the foul of every hearer of feeling
in finging thefe airs, as much as ever fhe did in the moit
tender and diftrefsful fcenes of declamation.
CIBDELOPLACIA, in Natural Hiflory, the name
of a genns of fpars. Lhe word is derived trom m€cun05, im-
pure, and want, a cruff. The bodies of this genus are ter-
rene {pars, that is, are compofed of {par, debafed by a very
large admixture of earth, and are not, therefore, of the leatt
brightnefs or tranfparence; and are found formed into thin
crufts, coating over vegetable and other extraneous bodies
in form of incrultations. Of this genus thereare five known
fpecies, fome of them ufed in medicine, and diftinguifhed
by particular names.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, the name of a genus of fpars.
The word is derived from «:6dnr0:, fouled or adulterated with
extraneous maiter, and aseaxov, acrujt or fhell.
The bodies of this genus are crultaccous {pars, fo highly
debafed with earth, that they appearto the naked eye mere
earths ; they are deftitute of all brightnefs or tranfparence,
and are formed into thin plates, and ufually found incrufting
over the fides of Affures of ftone. Of this genus there are
feven known fpecies.
CIBELIANA, in. Ancient Geography, ans epifcopal fee
and town of Africa.
CIBERIS, a town of the Thractan: Cherfonefus,
which was re-built and re-peopled by Juttinian, after having
been ruined ; and in which he conftructed baths, hofpitals,
awd other edifices.
CIBILITANI, a people placed by Pliny in Lufitania.
CIBORIA, in Antiquity, the large hufks of Egyptian
beans, which are faid to have been {o large as to ferve for
drinking cups ; whence they had their name, ciborium lig-
nifying cup in the Egyptian language. H
CIBORIUM, in Ecclefiaftical Antiquity, the covering for
the altar of achurch being an iniulated edifice, confilting of
four columns fupporting a dome. 4
This name was originally given to the hufks of Egyptian
beans (fee the preceding article), and thence by aa caly
tranfition came to denote a dome of the fame form. The
ciborium was in general ufe during the lower and middle
ages. but was at length fupplanted by the baldaquin, an
object of the fame nature, but in the form of a canopy.
The application ef a ciborium was not {tnétly confined to
the covering of an altar, they were alfo erected over the
tombs of faints or martyrs, and the Italians call any infu-
lated tabernacle ciborio; thus there were fometimes feveral
in acathedral, but in general there was only one placed over
the great altar, and the {pace which it occupied was called
the fanétum fanGorum.
The moft magnificent ciborium ever known was that
erected by Juftinian in the church of St. Sophia at Con-
ftantinople. Four large columns, of a fine red marble, fup-
ported a filver dome, on the fummit of which was placed
a globe of mafly gold, which weighed 118 pounds ; lilies
of gold furrounded the globe, and fell in feftoons ; they
weighed 116 pounds, and in the middle was placed a crols
of 75 pounds, of the fame metal, and covered with the
moit rare and precious jewels. f
CIBOTUS, in Ancient Geography, a name given by
Strabo to a port which had been formed near the town of
Alexandria in Egypt.
CIBOULS, or Cuizovts, in Botany, the Welh onion,
See Attium ffulofum.
CIBSAIM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judza, in
the tribe of Ephraim. It was given to the Levites of this
tribe, who belonged to the family of Caath, the firlt of the
. Levites ;
cus
Levites; and is mentioned in the book of Jofhua and the
firtt book of Chronicles.
CIBULON, in Geography, atown of Afia, in the coun-
try of Tibet ; 8 miles N.E. of Zuenga.
CIBUS Casreensis, the food or nourifhment which the
Roman foldiers took in their camps, which confifted chiefly of
bread, bacon, vegetables, and cheefe. Their drink or be-
verage wasa fort of oxicrat, or a mixture of water and vi-
negar. They were not permitted to go to their meals with-
out a fignal or order for the fame.
Cisws ferialis, in Antiquity,an entertainment peculiar toa
funeral; for which purpole, beans, parfley, lettuce, bread,
eges, lentils, and falt were in ufe.
CIBYRA, in Ancient Geography, called the Great, a
town of Afia Minor, fituated on the confines of Phrygia,
Caria, Lycia, and Pifidia. It is called Cibyrrha by Pto-
lemy. This town was watered by a river which, accord-
ing to Pliny (1. v. c. 28), defcended from the mountains
called “ Cibyratarum Juga,” and after paffing through the
territory of Cibyra, difcharged itfelf into the river Calbis.
Cibyra, as Strabo informs us (1. xiii.), was an ancient colo-
ny of Lydians, who took poffeffion of Cabatia, a country
in the vicinity of Lycia; and in procefs of time, the Pifi-
dians removed this town to a more advantageous fituation,
and built a new town, roo ftadia in circuit. The inhabit-
ants, who were very numerous, fpoke four different lan-
guages, viz. the Lydian, Pifidian, Lycian, and Greek.
The town, fituated in a fertile diftri&, acquired great ccle-
brity by the excellence of its laws and the mildnefs of its
government, and thus attained to a very high degree of
profperity. The dominions of this town extended from Pi-
fidia and Milyuda to Lycia, and the coalt over againtt the
ifle of Rhodes, and they were able to raife 30,coo0 foot and
2000 horfe. When the conful Cneius Manlius was com-
miffioned, in the year of Rome 565, to reduce the Galate
in Afia Minor, he pafled near Cibyra, and obtained from
Moagetes, the governor of this town, 1oc talents in filver,
and 10,009 meafures of corn, who thus prevented the pil-
lage of the country, and the threatened fiege of the capital.
Polybius fays, this town was fubjugated by the praetor L.
Murena, and its territory reduced to a province, in the year
of Rome 671. Cibyra maintained its dignity and {plendour
ander the Roman government, and became the capital of
an extenfive department, which contained 25 towns, ands
which Pliny (1. v. c. 25.) calls ‘¢ Conventus Cibyraticus.”
‘This department remained, for feveral years, a part of the
government of Cilicia. At the commencement of the civil
war between Cxefar and Pompey, the departments of Ci-
byra, Pifidia, and Lycia; were detached from the province
of Cilicia, and annexed to that of Afia. Tacitus (Annal.
l.iv. c.17.) reports, that Cibyra had fuftained confiderable
damage by an earthquake; and Tiberius iflued a decree
of the fenate, that it fhould not pay tribute for three
years. This epocha was the year of Rome 776. Accord-
ingly this emperor was confidered by the inhabitants as the
founder of their city, and in order to perpetuate the re-
membrance of it, they caufed the feries of years, infcribed
in their annals and engraved on their monuments, to be rec-
koned from the epocha of the revival of their city. Cibyra
took a diftinguifhed part in the public rejoicings occafioned
by the victories of Gordian ; it offered folemn {acrifices and
celebrated public games, as may be feen on an urn, which
was engraved on a medal ftruck in honour of Gordian, in
the year 289 of his wra, or 242 of Chrift. Strabo {peaks in
terms of high commendation of the vines that grew in the
vicinity of this place, and of the excellent wines which
they afforded ; and he adds, that Cibyra derived a large re-
Ci'c
venue from its iron mines, and that its inhabitants carricd
on aconfiderable commerce in hams. Apollo had a temple
at Cibyra, and Mars was probably its principal and tutelary
divinity, reprefented on its public monuments. Cibyra was
at firft governed by its own princes, but after it became fub-
jeét to the Romans, by a fenate under a chief magiftrate.
About the year 705 of Rome, Cibyra obtained from the
Romans the privilege of being governed by its own laws and
by its own magiftrates, whofe names appear on the ancient me-
dals. It had alfo the privilege of coining money, which it
retained for many ages under the Roman emperors. It fur-
ther obtained from the emperors and the fenate, the honour
of placing on its monuments the title of Cefarea, probably
in honour of Tiberius, its reftorer, adopted by Auguftus
into the family of the Cefars. After the proconfular pro~
vince of Afia was divided into feveral parts by Dioclefian,
the town of Cibyra was comprehended within the province
of Caria. Upon the divifion of Conftantine the Great, Ci-
byra was referred to the department of the Thracefians and
of Anatolia. In the firft ages of the church, the city of
Cibyra was ere€ted into an epifcopal fee in the ecclefiaftical
province of Caria, under the metropolis of Aphrodifias.
Crsyra, a town of Afia Minor, in Pamphylia. It was
fituated in the interior of the country, S.E. of Afpendus.
Its territory extended along the fea-coalt, between the val-
ley of Sidé and the river Melas, according to Strabo, |. xiy.
Ptolemy places it in Cilicia Trachea.
CIBYRATICA, one of the principal governments of
Afia Minor, the capital of which was Cibyra of Phrygia.
CICACOLE, a circar of Hindooltar, on the N.W.
coaft of the bay of Bengal; 150 miles long,.and from 15 to
30 broad.—Alfo, a town in this circar; 150 miles N.E. of
Rajamundry, and 308 E. of Hydrabad. N, lat. 18° 16.
E. long. 84° 8’.
CICADA, in Entomology, a genus of the hemiptereus
order, pofleffing, according to the Linnean arrangement,
the following characters. Antenne infle&ted, or bent, inwards
under the brealt ; antenne fetaceous; the four wings mem
branaceous and deflected ; legs in molt formed for leaping, or
as in the manifere for walking or creeping.
Linnzus, in order to comprehend the various natural
tribes, or families, of infeéts, which he includes under the
general head of cicada, found it neceflary to diftribute them
into feveral diftin@ fe&tions, fome of which, in the entomo-
logical arrangements of more modern writers, conftitute, and
with much propriety, fo many different genera. The folia-
cee family of che Linnean cicade, confilt of thofe in which
the thorax is comprefled, membranaceous, and larger than
the body. The cruciate, thofe which have the thorax armed
on each fide with a horn or fpine. The maniferz, thofe
which have the feet formed for creeping or walking inftead
of leaping. The ranatre, thofe having the polterior feet
formed for leaping. And the deflexc, thofe whofe wings
are wrapped round the fides of the body.
Scopoli divides the cicadz into three different feGions, ac-
cording to the {ubitance and texture of the wing-cafes; the
firft containing thofe cicade which have the whole of the
wing-cafes coriaceous ; the fecond, thofe coriaceous from the
bafe to the extent of half their length ; and the third, fuch as
have thofe parts entirely membranaceous.
In the T'abrician fyftem of entomology, the Linnzan ci-
cadz are divided into feveral genera; in one of the lateft and
moft comprehenfive works of that author, his “ Entomologia
Syltematica,’’ they are divided into four genera, membracis,
tettigonia, cicada, and cercopis, and this final arrangement is
retained in his * Supplementum,”’ publifhed fince, with this
difference only, that his former genus, cicada, isdividedinto two
\ genera, -
CICADA,
genera, one of which he names flata, and the other cicada, as
before. A new genus, delphex, comprehending two of
Panzer’s {pecies of cicada, is likewife added, fo that Fabri-
cius may be coufidered as having conftituted fix diftin& ge-
nera of thofe infeéts, which Linneus would have united in
his fingle genus cicada. Gmelin has endeavoured to recon-
eile the Linnean and Fabrician arrangements, by making
the genera of the latter fubfervient to the fections of Lin-
neus: the laft Fabrician genera were, however, unknown to
Gmelin.
The cicadz live on various kinds of plants; the larve are
entirely deftitute of wings, which in the pupa begin to ap-
pear; but both in the larva and pupa ftate, they refemble
the perfcét infect, except in being dettitute of wings. ‘The
Jarve, efpecially thofe of the Linnzan family ranatre, dif-
charge a kind of froth from the vent and pores of the body,
under which they conceal themfelves; they are furnifhed
with fix feet, and are very active. The males of the perfect
infeé&t, in general, chirp hke the cricket; and fome of the
larger kinds of the tettigonia family poilefs two peculiar
drum-hke organs, which emit a loud and inceflant noife at
the pleafure of the infe&t, as is particularly exemplified in
fome of the Chinefe and North American cicade. (See
Donov. Inf. China, cicada atrata, &c.)
The following fpecies of this extenfive genus are defcribed
by Linneus, Scopoli, Geoffroy, Fabriciua, Donovan, and
others.
Inreata. Thorax foliaceous; the membrane inflated,
teltaceous and reticulated. Membracis inflata, Fabr. A
native of Cayenne.
The membrane of the thorax is large, inflated ; on each
fide feven black dots; body yellowifh; wing-cafes hyaline,
and dufky on the thinner margin,
Ruomsea. ~ Foliaceous, the membrane rhombic and
broader behind. Cicada rhombea, Linn. Phil. Tranf. A.D.
1765. Inhabits South America.
Fourata. Thorax foliaceous, rounded, yellow, with a
black band and fpot. Cicada foliata, Linn. Membracis
Joliata, Fabr. A native of South America.
Lunata. Thorax foliaceous, rounded, black; with
three white lunules. AZembracis lunata, Fabr. From Ca-~
yenne; cabinet of V. Rohr. <
Fasciara. Thorax foliaceous, rounded, and black, with
two bands, the anterior one fulvous, pofterior white. AZei-
bracts fafciata, Faby. Inbabits Cayenne. Same country as
the lait. ; N
Bracreata. Thorax foliaceous, green, and immaculate.
Membracis braGeata, Fabr. An infect of {mall fize, from
the fame country as the preceding. g
SquamiGcera. Thorax foliaceous, acute before and be-
hind, and grey. Linn. Inhabits South America.
Hasrara. Horn of the thorax projecting above the
head, compreffed, and carinated; body grey. Membvacis
hafata, Fabr. A native of South America; fize {mall.
_ Lanceoratra. Horn of the thorax projecting above the
head, and incurvated; body black, with two white dorfal
fpots. Membracis lanceolata, Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
2-Macurara., Horn of the tharax comprefied, extend-
ing beyond the head; brown, with a yellow marginal {pot
each fide. Membracis 2-maculata, Fabr. Cicada 2-pu/lulata,
Gmel. Inhabits America. Defcribed from the cabinet of
Bofe.
Spinosa. Thorax three-horned, and produced behind
to the length of the wings. Fabr. Inhabits India.
. Acuminara. Thorax three-horned; the middle horn
longeft and comprefled. Fabr. Inhabits Pennfylvania. Bank.
fian cabinet.
Vor, VIII.
Pransta. Thorax flat, produced each fide, and acute;
body greenifh, Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies.
Aveira. Thorax two-eared; fhield of the head dilated
and rounded anteriorly.
Europe.
Fiexvosa. Thorax two-horned, and blue; horns de-
prefled and black. ALembracis flexuofa, Fabr. A native of
the Eaft Indies.
Maroinata. Thorax two-horned, and longer behind
than the abdomen; margin yellowith. AZembracis margiaa~
ta, Fabr. Inhabits China,
Horripa. Thorax two-horned, produced behind, with
two large tubercles, and the tip three-{pined.
horrida, Fabr. {nhabits Cayenne.
Triema. Thorax four-horned, hairy, produced and
trifid behind; the divifions fubulate. MJembracis trifda,
Fabr. A native of Cayenne. j
Puncratra. Thorax two-horned, {potted with white,
Cicada aurita, Linn, Found ia
Membracis
and lengthened behind, beyond the abdomen. AZembracis
puncata, Kabr. Defcribed from the Bankfian cabinet, In-
habits Brafil. .
Cornura. Thorax two-horned, black ; behind fubulate,
and as long as the abdomen; wings fufcous. Cicada cornu-
ta, Linn. An European fpecies. Donov. Brit. Inf.
BusAtus. Thorax two-horned, and long as the thorax
behind; abdomen greenifh; head and abdomen fulvous ;
wings hyaline. Membracis bubalus, Fabr. Inhabits North
America. Helwig. :
Taurus. Thorax two-horned, fufcous, filiform behind,
and as long as the abdomen; horns arched. Membracis tau-
rus, Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies. Koenig.
Virurus. Thorax two-horned and green, with a white
curve and line; pofterior part produced as long as the ab-
domen ; wings white. Membracis vitulus, Fabr. Inhabits
America,
2-Puncrara. Thorax nearly unarmed, produced be-
hind, and fhorter than the abdomen; wing-cafes with a
black fpot at the bafe. Membracis 2-pun@ata, Fabr. A
native of New Holland. Cicada binotata, Gmel.
Bonasta. ‘Thorax two-horned, and lengthened behind,
with white margin ; at the bafe of the wings a white fpot.
Membrafis bonafia, Fabr. An American fpecies defcribed
from the Hunterian ColleGion.
Convorura. Thorax unarmed, greenifh, with yellow
margin, and length of the abdomen behind. MMembracis
convoluta, Fabr. Inhabits Brafil. Bankfian Cabinet.
Murica. Thorax unarmed, ferruginous, carinated, and.
length of the abdomen behind. Membracis mutica, Fabr.
A native of North America.
Inermis. Thorax unarmed, greenifh, length of the ab-
domen behind, apd fubulate. AZembracis inermis, Fabr.
Same country as the preceding.
Genist#. ‘Thorax unarmed, fufcous, and half.the length
of the thorax behind. Fabr. Inhabits France, Geoflroy ;
and England, Lee.
Sinuara. ‘Thorax foliaceous; back in the middle
broad, emarginate ; body brown. . Membracis finuata, Fabr.
An American fpecies.
Emarcinara. Thorax foliaceaus ; back broad, emar- °
ginate ; body black, with a few whitifh ftreaks; legs
white. Wembracis emarginata, Yabr. Inhabits Carolina.
Bofe. .
Fuscata. Thorax foliaceous, rounded, and fufcous,
with a narrow white ftreak anteriorly, and a broad white
band behind. Membracis fufcata, Fabr.
Inhabits the Hatt Indies. The wings are fufcous, and
the tip of the thorax fharp-pointed and black.
Q:
Rupicarra
CICADA.
Rurrcarra. Thorax three-horned; the middle one
fomewhat longer, and recurved wing-caies dufky hyaline.
Membracis rupicapra, Fabr.
Inhabits India, Daldorff. This is fmall, general colour
fufcous; the lateral thoracic horns thickelt, obtufe, and
fomewhat dentated ; wings white.
Taranpbus. Thorax two-horned ; hornsarched ; wing-
cafes hyaline. Membracis, Fabr. Inhabits the Eatt Indies.
Tn fize and appearance this refembles cicada cornuta. The
body is dufky, on the back fufcous; the horns on the
thorax are comprefled and vaulted; thorax fubulate, and
lengthened behind ; wing-cafes hyaline, veined with fufcous;
wings whitifh ; legs ferruginous.
Capra. ‘Thorax two-horned, fhort behind, and emar-
ginate ; body fulcous. Membracis capra, Fabr. Inhabits
India.
Mixura. Thorax nearly unarmed, feabrous, and length
of the abdomen behind; wing-cafes whitifh, at the bafe
black. Membracis minuta, Fabr. A very {mall fpecies is
found in the Eaft Indies.
Fasciata. Thorax nearly unarmed, behind as long as
the abdomen; wing-cafes dufky, with a yellow band at the
bafe. Membracis fafciata, Fabr. Inhabits American iflands.
Bofe.
Obf. This, and the feven preceding infeéts, are new
fpecies, defcribed in the Supp. Ent. Sy(t. of Fabricius.
* Se&ion Munnifera, (legs not formed for leaping) Linn,
Genus Tettigonia, Fabr.
TInpica. Black; thorax with a yellow ftripe, and to-
wards the extremity of the abdomen an orange band ; wing-
¢afes brewnifh olive, with red veins. Donov. Inf. Endia.
A new fpecies, and unqueftionably the mott ftriking and
magnificent infect of the genus hitherto defcribed. A
fingle fpecimen only was difcovered in Bengal about feven
or eight years ago, and which is now depolited in the Im-
erial Cabinet at Vienna. ‘The defcription and figure in
Donov. Infe&ts of India is taken from that individual and
unique fpecimen.
Grossa. Thorax green, with a few black lines; wings
white, with a yellow {pot at the bafe of the pofterior ones,
Fabr. Inhabits Brafil. Bankfian Cabinet.
FasciarA. Head and thorax black, fpotted with ru-
fous; wing cafes black, with an abbreviated white band,
Fabr. A large fpecies, and inhabits Java. Cicada javana
of Gmelin.
Grisea. Grey; wing-cafes pellucid as water; pofte-
rior margin dotted with black; rib white on the anterior
part. Fabr. A native of America.
Limspata. Thorax dilated at the margin, and acute;
lower wings black, with white pofterior margin. Fabr. An
American {pecies in the Bankfian Cabinet.
Dizvatrats. Thorax dilated at the margin, and black ;
wings whitifh. Fabr. Found in Jamaica.
Spinosa. ‘Thorax armed each fide with a fingle fpine,
and fufcous; wing cafes dufky, with a macular black
ftreak. Fabr. Inhabits Sumatra.
Vacinata. Teltaceous; wing-cafes whitifh, with a
black rib. Fabr. Same country as the laft.
Tisicen. Scutel emarginate ; wings with a greenifh
nb. Cicada tibicen, Merian. Linn, Inhabits South
America.
Serprenpecim. Black; wing-cafes white, with a yel-
low rib. Linn. Inhabits America.
Varizcata. Black; thorax variegated with teftaceous ;
wing-cafes hyaline, with two black fpots. Fabr, A native
of Carolina. ‘
Carena, Thorax variegated ; wing-cafes hyaline, with
punciured nerves on the anterior part, and two undulated
fufcous ftreaks behind. Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope.
Macutara. Black; thorax, wing-cafes, and wings,
{potted with yellow. Drury. Inf. A native of China.
Cantans. Head and thorax black ; wings at the bafe
white. Fabr. A native of Barbary. Desfontaines.
/Estuans. Black; two fpots on the thorax, and fide
of the abdomen beneath pale. Fabr.
preceding.
Pustrurata. Black; head and thorax fpotted with
red ; upper wings with darker bands at the bafe; veins
teftaceous. Fabr. A large fpecies, and inhabits South
America.
STRIDULA.
Same country as the
Villous; wing-cafes greyifh ; wings yellow,
with the margins hyaline. Linn. &c. Cicada catena,
Drury. Cicada capenfis of Linnzus is fuppofed to be a
variety only of his Cicada ftridula.
Cincutata. ‘Thorax {potted ; wing-cafes hyaline; rib
and {pot fufcous ; abdomen black, with yellow bands. Fabr.
Inhabits New Zealand. Deferibed from a fpecimen in the
Bankfian Cabinet.
Vittosa. Thorax fufcous and green, varied; brealt
white and villofe. Fabr. A native of the Cape of Good
Hope.
Crurentata. Thorax variegated; wing-cafes hyaline ;
rib yellowifh; abdomen black, with fanguineous bands. Fabr.
A native of New Zealand.
Conspurcata. Black; wing-cafes {potted with yel-
low at the bafe; tail yellow. Fabr. Inhabits India.
Hezmaropes. Black; incifures of the abdomen, and
nerves of the wings fanguineous. Linn. A native of the
fouth of Europe.
Purneya. Scutel bidentated at the tip; wing-cafes
with four anaftomofes, and fix ferruginous lines. Linn.
Inhabits Africa and Italy, and is prefumed to be, with
the next f{pecies, the cicada of the Greek and Roman poets.
See Notes on Cicada atrata. Donov. Inf. China.
Ornt. Wing-cafes with fix concatenate dots within
the margin, and the inner anaftomofes brown, Linn. In-
habits the fame country as Cicada plebeya.
Repanpa. Wing-cafes with a flexuous line ; margin of
the wings hyaline. Linn. A native of India.
Reticutatra. Grey, with a white line on the thorax 5
wing-cafes reticulated with white.
Kemprert. Wing-cafes fufcous, with hyaline bands ;
wings black, with the margin hyaline. Fabr. Sent by
Kempfer from Japan and preferved in the Britifh Mufeum.
Picra. Thorax black, with teftaceous fpots; wing-
cafes veined, with white at the bafe; rib black. Fabr.
Inhabits Provence. Bofe.
Areata. Black; wings white, at the bafe black ;
veins teftaceous. Fabr. Donov. Inf. China.
Austratasi®. Teftaceous; margin of the thorax
dilated ; wings hyaline. Donov. Inf. New Holland.
A new [pecies, of confiderable fize ; the general colour
teftaceous.
TestTavtea.
and the wings teftaceous, veined with black. Sroll.
habits Tranquebar.
Fravescens. Yellowifh-green; polterior fhanks armed
with a fingle tooth. Fabr. Inhabits Guinea. [fert.
Oxivacea. Olivaceous; head pale, with a tranfverfe
black fpot on the fnout, and another on the crown ; polte-
rior fhanks armed with a fingle tooth. Fabr. A {mail
{pecies, and like the former, inhabits Guinea.
Black ; abdomen fanguineous ; wing-cafes
In-
SANGUI-«
GC UG AD A;
Saxcurnotenra. Black; mouth, two fpots on the
thorax, and abdomen fanguineous. Drury, Donev. Inf.
China, &e.
Sprenpiputa. Wing-cafes golden-fufcous; anterior
fhanks thick, dentated, and rufous. Fabr. Donov. Inf.
China.
Epuemera. Wing-cafes hyaline, with fufcous fpots.
Stoll. Inhabits Surinam.
Mura. Wing-cafes hyaline; rib fanguineous; abdo-
mea ‘with a fanguineous dorfal line. A {mall fpecies,
deferibed by Fabricius from a New Zealand infe& in the
Bankfian Cabinet.
Vioracea. Violet; wings fufcous at the tip. Linn.
Mof. Lad. Ulr. e
Minuta. Livid; dorfal line on the thorax, and nerves
of the wing-cafes yellowifh.
8-Gurrara. Thorax behind black, with a large, tri-
furcated, teltaceous fpot; wing-cafes black, with four
white fpots on each. Teftigonia 8-gutlata. Fabr.
Inhabits Cayenne. his and the following tettigoniz
are new fpecies defcribed in the Fabrician Supp. Ent. Syft.
Cosratts. Black; wing-cafes hyaline, with a fulvous
rib. Inhabits Philadelphia. Bofc.
Puncrata. Thorax black behind, with three ferruginous
lines ; wing-cafes hyaline, with a white ftigma, and two
ftreaks of fufcous dots. A native of Ruffia. An infect of
moderate fize.
Hyauina. Black; thorax with a ferruginous ftreak in
the middle, and two ferruginous little lines; wing-cafes
hyaline ; ftigma black. Inhabits the fame country as the
laft, but is {maller.
Brunnea, Brown; anterior part of the thoracic lobe
with three yellow {pots on each fide; wings hyaline.
Inhabits the ifle of France. he head is black, deepeft
in front; thorax duiky brown; fcutel yellow; abdomen
brown with the margin of the fegments yellow.
* Cicada, Linn.
Genus Filata, Fabr. Suppl. Ent.
Perspicittata. Black; wings with an ocellated white
hyaline {pot ; abdomen yellow at the tip. Fabr. An In-
dian {pecies.
Ocerrata. Wing-cafes comprefled, afcending, green,
with oceilar ferruginous dots. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar.
Koenig.
Limeata. Wing-cafes defleGed, green, with red mar-
gin, the inner bafe dotted with black. Fabr.
nodialis, Gmel. An African infeé.
Canpipa. Snowy ; wing-cafes defleted, with two {mall
yellow lines. Fabr. Suppl. A large f{pecies from the Ifle
of France. Cabinet of Billardiere.
Fuscara. Wing-cafes deflected, black, hyaline and im-
maculate. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar. Lund.
PxHarznoives. Whitifh; wings deflected, patulous ;
anterior part of the wing-cafes dotted with black. Linn.
Found on plants in America.
Biruncrata. Whitith; wing-cafes defle&ed; thorax
with two imprefled dots on the anterior margin, Linn.
Same country as the preceding.
Rerusa. Whitith,andimmaculate; headretufe. Fabr.
A native of Cayenne.
Grisra. Grey; wing-cafes deflected; a black dot on
the tip of the head. Fabr. A native of America.
3-Puncrata. Wings defieéted, green, with three
whitith dots. Fabr. An African fpecies.
Viripa. Green; wing-cafes defle&ed ; wings white ;
front conic. Fabr. Inhabits American iflands,
Cicada aqui-
Minura. WingsdefleGed, green; back feabrous; pof-
terior margin of the head, and dorfal line on the thorax
fanguineous. Fabr. Defcribed a New Holland infe@ in the
Bankfian Cabinet.
Marainata. Yellow; wing-cafes defleted, and duflcy ;
lateral line yellow. Linn. Inhabits American ilands.
Pycm@a. Wing-cafes defleQed, and immaculate ;
body yellowifh. Fabr. Inhabits South American iflands.
4-Puncrata. Wing-cafes deflected, prey, with a pair
of black dots on each. Fabr. &c. Same country as the
laft.
Viripana. Green; wing-cafes deflected, with two
white {pots near the bafe, and two pale bands towards the
apex ; wings white. Donov. ;
This, with the two following infects, are new fpecies
of the Fabrician genus fata; natives of Botany, and def-
cribed in Donovan’s Hiftory of the Infe&s of New Hol-
land.
Mopersra, Pale; wing-cafes defle&ed, with two orange
fpots at the bafe, the inner one marked on the fide with a
black dot. Donov.
Pusrutata. Whitifh-green; wing-cafes deflected, with
numerous red fpots; polterior angle pointed, and brown.
Donov.
* Se@ion Cicada, Linn.
Genus Cicada, Fabr. Ent. Syft.
Cunicuraria. Wings deflected, hyaline ; with a flreak,
band, and dots of brown; tail woolly. Linn. A native
of India.
Lanata. Wing-cafes black, with blue dots; front red
at the fides ; tail woolly. Linn. Inhabits India and China.
Donov. Inf. China.
Tomentosa. Wing-cafes defle&ed, green, with two
interrupted fulvous bands; wings fnowy-white, with two
black bands. Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies. Muf. Tot-
tianum.
Barsara. Fufcous; abdomen greenifh; tail covered
with {nowy wool. Fabr. Defcribed from a New Holland
infe& in the Bankfian Cabinet.
Arrata. Black; thorax with four grey fpots; mar-
gin of the abdomen yellow, with {nowy {pots. Fabr.. A
native of Cayenne.
Srriatuta. Above rufous, with black fpots, beneath
yellowifh. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne. Bofc.
Nicrivennis. Black; margin of the head and thorax
yellowith, with black dots, Fabr. Country unknown.
FerruGinea. Head, thorax, and feutel dotted with
black ; wing-cafes rufous; wings white. Inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope, Fabr. Bankfian Cabinet.
Unpata. Head and thorax cinereous, teftaceous, and
black, varied; wing-cafes dufky rufous, with a greenifk
lateral fpot, and hyaline tip. Fabr. Inhabits Carolina.
Inrorata. Fufcous; wing-cafes with the rib, bafe,
and {peckling fulvous. Fabr. Inhabits Carolina.
Osrusa. Black ; wing-cafes ciuereous, hyaline at the
tip. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Avruventa. Head and thorax rufous; wing-cafes
fufcous, with cinereous tip. Fabr. Same country as the
laft.
Myopra. Head and thorax golden fufcous, varied with
black ; wing-cafes hyaline, with a dufky tip, and a gold
fpot. Fabr. This alfo inhabits Cayenne.
Vittosa, Green; wing-cafes deflected, whitifh; tail
woolly. Fabr. A native of South America. Cicada
Robrii. Gmel.
Evoxcara. Thorax red, with yellow lines; wing-cafes
Q2 wery
CICADA,
very long, and dotted with black. Fabr. Inhabits New
Holland.
Hisrato. Linear, fefh-coloured, with black lines. Fab.
Maf. Lend. Country unknown.
Suturatis. Linear, teftaceous; head with two ecle-
vated black dots, and future of the wing-cafes fufcous. Fabr.
Country unknown.
Nicripes. Blackifh; wing-cafes fufcous; nerves white,
with black dots. Fabr. Inhabits Brafil.
Varrata. Yellow; wing-cafes with a double longitu-
dinal repandate and dentated ferruginous itvipe. Linn.
inhabits gardens in Europe.
Lareraurs. Black; wing-cafes white at the fides.
Linn. Panzer. Inhabits Europe.
Variecata. Above black; feutel, two yellow fpots
on the back, and exterior margin of the wing cafes yellowifh,
Fabr. From the Bankfian Cabinet. A native of Bratil.
Fenestrata. Above black; head and {cutel yellow ;
margin of the wing-cafes hyaline. Fabr. Inhabits the Pacific
Ocean.
Fuavires. Black; head and legs yellow,; wing-cafes
hyaline at the tip, and ftriated with black. Fabr. Found
in Rotterdam Ifland. '
Inrerrurtra. Wing-cafes yellow, with a double black,
interrupted, longitudinal line. Linn. An European fpecies.
Lineara. Pale; head and thorax dotted with black ;
wing-cafes lmeated with black. Fabr. Inhabits Saxony.
Cicada hyneri, Gmel.
Acuminata. Black; wing-cafes fufcous, ftriated, and
barred with white. Fabr. Cicada acuminalis, Gmel. In-
habits Germany.
Assreviata. Yellowifh; wing-cafes cinereous, with
a black abbreviated ftripe. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Fravicotris. Black; polterior margin of the head
with the thorax yellow. Linn. Found on grafs in
Europe.
Viripvis. Wing-cafes green; head yellow, with black
dots. Linn. Fn. Suec. Inhabits Europe, and is found in
England. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Letra. Above black and polifhed, with bluifh dots.
Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Aromaria. Golden; wing-cafes obfoletely fpeckled
with white. A native of Italy. Fabr. ,
Prasina. Green; wing-cafes white, and hyaline at the
tip. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
Arcentata. Head yellow, with black band between
the eycs; thorax and wing-cafes filvery, ftriated with fuf-
cous. Fabr. Inhabits France.
4-Gutrata. Wing-cafes reddifh, with two green {pots
and hyaline tip. Fabr. A South American infect.
Mareinetta. Black; head, thorax, and wing-eafes
edged with fcarlet. Fabr. Same country as the lait.
Lanio. Green; head and thorax flefh-colour. Linn.
Panzer. An European infect.
Srratata. Yellowifh, polifhed ; head, thorax, and wing-
cafes {triated with white. Fabr. Jnhabits France.
Icnira. Greenifh, polifhed ; head, fcutel, and abdomen
fulvous. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne. f
Festiva. Yellow; head and thorax with two black
dots; wing-cafes with three black fpots. Fabr. A native
of Germany.
Mixra. Yellow, variegated with black ; wings black.
Fabr. Inhabits Paris. Bofc.
Bicoror. Above yellow, beneath black; wing-cafes
pale, fufcous at the tip. Fabr. A fmall infect found in
Denmark. Cicada bicolorata, Gmel.
Turca. Black; abdomen yellow; wings fufeous at
the tip, with a hyaline Iuoule. Fabr, Inhabits South
America.
Marvura. Black; breaft and abdomen fanguineous.
Fabr. Donov. Inf. New Holland. Inhabits New Hol-
land. Defcribed from the Bankfian Cabinet.
Nesurosa. Black; wing-cafes hyaline, with the bafe
fufcous. Fabr. An African infe&t, Same country as the
former.
Hyatina. Fufcous; wing-cafes with an abbreviated
band ; and pofterior margin hyaline. Fabr. A native of
the Eaft Indies.
Perrucipa. Grey; with a hyaline ftripe in the middle
of the wing-cafes. Fabr. Donov. Inf. New Holland.
Crnossatis. Fufcous; wing white and hyaline, with
a margin of fufcous dots. Fabr.
Cravicornis. Fufcous; wing-cafes hyaline, with a
fufcous flreak behind; antennz comprefled, and margined.
Fabr. «A native of France. ‘
Serratutez. Yellow; wing-cafes white, with a dot,
and two bands of black. Fabr. Found on thiftles in
England.
Nervosa. Wings fufcous hyaline; nerves white, dotted
with black, Linn. Fn. Suec. Inhabits Europe. '
Varia. Black, varied with green ; wings hyaline, with
three coftal black dots. Fabr. Found in Germany.
Lyncea, Front and thorax glaucous, with four ocel-
lar dots; wing-cafes hyaline, with yellowith margin. Fabr.
A native of the Eaft Indies. |
Picta. Head and therax yellowifh, with black fpots;
wing-cafes pale; ftripe and two dots black. Fabr. In-
habits Germany. ;
Brunnea. Yellow; thorax grey; wing-cafes tefta-
ceous, and without fpots. Fabr, A native of Germany. .
Grisea. Grey, immaculate; wing-cafes flat. Fabr.
Cicada plana, Gmel. Inhabits Italy. ;
2-GuttaTa. Pale, golden rufous, with four white dor-
fal dots. Fabr. Found in Germany.
4-Norata. Greenifh; head yellow, with four black
dots ; wing-cafes whitifh. Fabr. Inhabits France,
4-Verrucara. Yellow, with four-black dots on the
head; wing-cafes glofly-golden. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
Furoipa. Yellow; wing-cafes golden fufcous. Fabr.
Inhabits England.
Diaprema. Head yellow, with two abbreviated black
bands; wing-cafes fufcous hyaline. A native of Germany.
Reticurara. Fufcous-green: wing-cafes fufcous, and
fomewhat reticulated with white. Inhabits South-Ame-
rican iflands.
Puncrata. Wing-cafes yellowifh, with fufcous dots.
Geoffroy. An European infect.
Rosx. Yellow; wings white; tip ftriated with fufcous.
Linn. Found on the leaves of the rofe.
Macuvara. Grey; wing-cafes with fufcous dots and
tip ; wings white, and at the tip fufcous. Fabr. Found
on plants in Europe.
2-Pusrutara. Yellow; head with two frontal rufous
dots; wing-cafes teftaceous and hyaline. Inhabits Ger-
many.
ro Yellow; wing-cafes marked with fulvous,
and four black dots, gilt behind. Linn. Inhabits Sweden,
Umi. Wings yellowith-green; tips black, and gloffed
with golden. Linn. Geoilroy. Inhabits Europe.
Triancuxaris. ‘Teftaceous, {potted with yellow;
‘wing-cafes at the bafe whitifh. Inhabits Denmark.
Niriputa. Wing-cafes pale golden; wing-cafes hyaline,
with two brown bands. Donov. Brit. Inf. &c. Inhabits
Europe.” I
VIRESCENS,
—_
GRC) A Di As
Virescens. Greenifh; wing-cafes whitifh, and imma-
culate. A native of Germany. Fabr, Cicada viridans,
Gmel.
Fravescens. Pale yellow, immaculate ; wing-cafes and
wings white and hyaline. Fabr. Same country as the
preceding.
Cuspipara. Grey; head flat, deprefled, and fufcous
at the tip. Fabr, A ‘{mall infect, and inhabits Eng-
land.
Quercus, Yellowifh; wing-cafes fanguineous, with a
brown fpot at the tip. Fabr. An European infect found
on the oak.
SPiInosa.
three whitifh bands ; eyes fpinous. Fabr. Suppl.
the ifle of France.
Orsona. Head and {eutel fulvous, reticulated with
black; wing-cafes black, with the tip dufky cinereous. Fabr.
Suppl. Inhabits America.
Denais. Green; wing-cafes hyaline, with the tip black.
Fabr. Suppl. Country unknown. Cabinet of Weber.
Graminea. Green; head fomewhat elevated, with a
black dot at the tip. Fabr..Suppl. Inhabits Italy.
Crauenta. Above {carlet, variegated with black. Fabr.
Suppl. Inhabits Cayenne.
Festiva. Black; head and thorax with a broad dorfal
fnowy ftripe; wing-cafes black, with two fearlet {pots. Fabr.
Suppl. A {mall infed&, found in Cayenne.
Parvura. Dufky; wing cafes black ; dot in the mid-
dle, and tip hyaline. Fabr. Suppl. Found in Cayenne.
Cabinet of Richard. A minute {pecies.
Front retufe, yellow ; wing-cafes green, with
Inhabits
* Cicada, Panzer.
Genus Delphex, Fabr. Suppl.
Crasstcornis- Pale; wing-cafes white, varied with
teftaceous. A native of Germany.
_ Cravicornis. Fufcous; wing-cafes hyaline, with a”
fulcous ftreak behind. Inhabits France.
* Cicada, \uinn. &c.
‘Genus Cercopis, Fabr.
Gicas. ead and thorax pale, with four ferruginous
lines ; wing-cafes fufcous, with a band and three dots of
white. Fabr. Suppl. One of the largeft infects of the
genus Cercopis. Defcribed from a {fpecimen in the cabinet
of M. Dymeril. Found in Cayenne.
Bicoror. Black ; wing-cafes teftaceous; future, and
daub behind black. Fabr. A native of the Cape. Size of
the laft.
TRANSVERSA.
band; wing-cafes pale and immaculate.
Found on piants in Europe.
Lareratis. Black, with a narrow line, and fpeckling
of yellow; margin of the wing-cafes fanguineous, Fabr.
Suppl. Inhabits Carolina.
Axupirennis. Pale; thorax fufcous ; wing-cafes white,
with a {pot at the bafe, and an oblique ftreak of fufcous.
Fabr. Inhabits France.
Grossa. Wing-cafes fufcous-grey,\ with a marginal,
fulvous, and cinercous fpot. Fabr. Inhabits Africa, and
is a large fpecies. Cicada afra, Gmel.
Mareinata. Black; wing-cafes with a marginal fan-
guineous ftripe on each fide. Fabr. Cicada atra, Gmel.
Inhabits America.
Macuzara. ‘Thorax black, witha fulvous band; wing-
cafes fulvous, {potted, and tipped with black. Fabr, Ci-
sada maculofa, Gmel. An African fpecies.
Head and thorax black, with yellow
Fabr. Suppl.
Coccinza. Red, immaculate; pofterior thanks fingler
toothed. Fabr. Found in the American iflands.
Rusra. Sanguineous; wing eafes with two obfelete
fufcous fpots. Fabr. Inhabits Senegal.
SancuinovenTa. Black; wing-cafes with two fpots,
Donov. Brit. Inf,
and a band of fanguineous red. Linn.
Inhabits Europe.
Anauis. Black; wing-cafes fanguineous, with a whitifh
fpot in the anal angle. Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope.
Oxsscura. Deep black ; wing-cafes dufky black. Fabr.
A native of Guinea. -
Scuacu. Black; wing-cafes fufcous, with an inter-
rupted fanguineous band. Deferibed from the Hunteriaa
Cabinet. Fabr. An American fpecies.
Cruentata. Rufous; wing-cafes black, with two yel-
low bands. Fabr. Cicada rubra, Linn. Inhabits Su-
rinam.
Versicoror. Black, glofly ; wing-cafes with two white
{pots at the bafe, and a fingle rufous one in the middle.
Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar.
Arra. Black, glofly ; wings whitifh. Fabr.
the fouth of Europe. Cicada nigra, Gmel.
Viraipis. Green; wing-cafes with an outer hyaline
margin. Fabr. A native of American iflands. Cicada
virens of Gmelin.
NeBULOSA.
lique band, nnd two daubs of yellowifh. Fabr.
the Eaft Indies. Cicada nebuls of Gmel.
Carnirex. Sanguineous ; fpot on the thorax, and two
ftripes on the wing-cafes black. Fabr. Inhabits New
Holland. Donov. Inf. New Hoiland.
Varia. Head and thorax greenifh; wing-cafes fufcous
with two fpots at the bafe, and itripe behind yellow. Fabr.
Inhabits Cayenne.
4-FAsciaTA.
Inhabits Surinam.
Spumaria. Fufeous; wing-cafes with two whitifh
lateral {pots. Linn. Inhabits Europe,
Pertucipa. Greyifh, with a hyaline band acrofs the
wing-cafes, Donov. Inf. New Holland.
Maura. Black; brealt and abdomen fanguineous,
Donov. Iuf. New Holland.
Avrata. Cinereous, golden, gloffy, and without f{pots.
Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Marcinerca. Black; head, thorax, and wing-cafes
margined with white. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
LeucopurHauma. Black; eyes white. Linn.
habits the north of Europe.
Leucocepuata. Head and thorax at the bafe yellow-
Inhabits
Yellowifh ; wing cafes fufcous with an ob-
Inhabits
Yellow, with four fufcous bands. Linon.
In-
ith. Linn, Found in Sweden, and other parts of Eu-
rope.
aun: Black, two yellow bands on the head; wing-
cafes ftriated with white. Fabr. Found on plants in Ger-
many.
Lineata. Yellowifh; wing-cafes with three black
ftreaks. Fabr. Inhabits Germany.
Vitrrata. Above cinereous, with ablack ftripe. Fabr.
Inhabits France.
Coreoptrars. Wing-cafes sntircly coriaceous, and
covering the wings, grey, with a tufcous dot in the middle.
Faby. Inhabits Germany and France.
Aneuvara. Black; above pale ; wing-cafes with a
fmall line at the bafe, and two fufcous ftreaks uniting at
the exterior margip. Fabr. Inhabits Sweden.
Prevusta. Cinereous; fcutel at the bafe black; wing-
cales
cic
cafes fufcous at the tip. Fabr.
ceding.
ImmacuLaTa. Dufky, and without {pots ; wing-cafes
ftriated. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
Aptera. Fufcous; wing-cafes coriaceous and pellucid ;
no wings. Fabr. A {mall fpecies found on the coatt of
Barbary.
Grvytioiwes. Yellowish ; wing-cafes coriaceous, varied
with fufcous; no wings. Fabr. An Italian {pecies.
Pepesreis. Wing-cafes coriaceous, abbreviated ; tail
fetaceous ; no wings. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Rustica. Grey,immaculate ; wings white. Fabr. An
European fpecies, found on plants.
Gisna. Black; wing-cafes {potted with white. Fabr.
Tnhabits Denmark.
Bicutrara. Black, fpotted with yellow; wing-cafes
fufcous ; marginal fpot white. Tabr. A native of Ger-
many.
Ruricotiis. Black; thorax rufous; wing-cafes varied
with rufous, and fufcous. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
VarieGaTa. Head and thorax'black, with a yellowifh
flreak ; wing-cafes yellow, ftriated with yellow.
Fascrata. Yellowifh; wing-cafes dufky ; band and
two fpots of white. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Unirasciata. Cinereous; wing-cafes with an oblique
fufcous band. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
o-Fasciata. Yellowifh; wing-cafes fufcous, with two
whitifh bands. Linn. Found in Sweden.
Carirata. Black; head teltaceous ; a black band be-
neath. Fabr. Inhabits Paris. Bofc.
3-Fasciara. Black; thorax, and two bands on the
wing-cafes whitifh. Inhabits Paris.
SrriatELtta. Fufcous; head and thorax witha green-
ith band; wing-cafes with many greenifh lines. Fabr. In-
habits Paris.
Hisrstonica. Black ; head and thorax yellow, varie-
gated ; wing-cafes ftriated with paler, anda fufcous ftreak
behind.
Popurt. Clouded ; two dots on the crown, and bafe of
the abdomen black. Linn. Found on plants in Europe.
Rericutrata. Wing-cafes varied with pale, and ferru-
ginous; difk reticulated with black. Fabr. Found on
plants in Europe.
CICA, in Ancient Geography, ifles of the ocean, fituated,
according to Pliny, on the weftern coaft of Spain. Pto-
lemy calls them ‘* Deorum Infule.”? They are the ifles of
Bayonne. M. D’Anville marks them in his chart on the
coaft of the Callaici, oppofite to a fmall gulf, N.W. of
Tyde.
‘CICATRICULA, in Natural Hiffory, a little whitifh
{peck, or veficle, in the coat of the yolk of an egg ; where-
in the firft changes appear towards the formation of the
chick. The cicatricula is what is otherwife called the eye
of the egg.
CICATRIX, in Surgery, is fynonymous with a {car or
feam in the fkin, which remains after the healing of a fore,
&c. This word is derived from the Latin cicafrico, to heal
up, and was formerly fpelt cicatrice, after the French.
The older furgeons fancied they had the power of cicatrizing
wounds at pleafure, and that certain remedies poflefled the
faculty of producing good cicatrizations; but we have
learned to be much more diffident of our abilities in
this refpect, on obferving that it is wholly a procefs of na-
ture, and that the furgeon is not able to do any thing to-
wards producing it, although he may eafily prevent the
formation of a cicatrix.
Same country as the pre-
cic
Tt 13 evident that cicatrices differ in their texture and
compolition from true fkin, becaufe they ufually have nei-
ther blood-veffels nor nerves; and, in brute-animals, this
new-formed fubftance will feparate, fo as to leave holes in
the fkin, on its being fubmitted to the operation of tanning:
We know of no author who has treated fo amply, and (for
the mott part) fatisfaétorily on the formation of a cicatrix,
as Mr. James Moore, in a diflertation printed A.D. 1789,
by order of the Lyceum Medicum Londinenfe. He fays,
as cavities are filled up in a different manner, during the ad-
hefive and {uppurative inflammations, there is hkewife fome
diitinétion in the formation of cicatrices during thefe differs
ent ttates.
When a wound is healed by the adhefive inflammation;
the flcin, as well as the parts more deeply feated, throws out
the inflammatory exfudation, and the whole is united by
this exf{udation and extravafated blood.
Upon the furface of the fore a dry cruft is formed; this
confifts partly of the extravafated blood, and partly of an
exfudation from the wound, which after coagulation hardens
by the evaporation of the watery parts. This cruft or feab
adheres to the lips of the wound; if it is removed it gives
fome pain; the fore is then obferved moift with a tranfparent
fluid, and there generally follows an oozing of blood, fome
of the new veflels of the uniting medium being torn. The
cruft docs not become organized, but remains like dead
foreign matter. Immediately under it, and on a level with
the cutis, the new fkin forms,and covers the uniting medium.
This new fkin is a fine delicate membrane; but it gradually
becomes thicker and ftronger. The cruft, at firlt, adheres
to it fo flrongly that if it is attempted to be removed the
cicatrix will be torn off with it. But when left to itfelf
the cruft becomes hard, dry, and fhrivelled; gradually
loofens from the cicatrix and then drops off. ‘The fcar now
appears red ; but foon acquires a brown coiour, and at laft
changes to nearly the fame appearance as the old fkin,
though rather more white and gliftening.
When a wound or fore heals by the fuppurative infamma-
tion, the cicatrix does not begin to form until the granula~
tions have arifen tothe furface of the old fin, or nearly fo.
When the healing is mott favourable, the granulations
arife exactly to the level of the fkin; if they fhoot much
higher no cicatrix will form, until the exuberancy is removed
by an internal procefs, or by the furgeon’s art; and if the
granulations are much too low, the cicatrix likewife does
not form. A mathematical exa¢tnefs, however, is not requir-
ed; for cicatrization generally takes place when the granula-
tions are nearly of the fame height, although ftill a little
higher or lower than the old fkin. : :
The formation of the cicatrix begins from the edges of
the old fkin. The rednefs which exifted during the inflamed
{tate abating, the {welling fubfiding, and the edges of the
fore uniting with the rifing granulations. ‘The margin then
acquires a bluifh white or pearly colour, which gradually ex-
tends icfelf to the centre till the whole fore is covered with
new fkin. It fometimes happens in broad fores, that cicatriza-
tion takes place, not only from the circumference, but like-
wife from one or two points in the centre; thefe appear like
iflands in the midft of a fea of granulations; they are of the
fame colour as the healing margin; and they become larger
by extending in every direction. In confequence of cica-
trization going on from different central parts,it happens not
unfrequently during the progrefs of healing, that one broad
fore is divided into two or three fmalier ones ; and when this
happens the cure muft go on fafler. There is always more
or lefs of acuticular covering upon the cicatrix, which being
conftantly _
circ
conftantly moiflened by the difcharge from the granulations
is foft and pulpy, and occafions that whitifh colour obferv-
able on the edges of healing fores. I have fometimes re-
moved this cuticular fubttance, and have obferved under-
neath the real new fkin, which feems a very fine membrane
of a red colour, the granulations fhining through it.
When a fuppurative fore is nearly healed, if it isnot kept
moift by fome application, a {cab is apt to form in the fame
manner as in thofe wounds which are healed by the firft in-
tention. This cruft confifts of pus dried by the evaporation
of the watery parts; the new fkin forms under it, and it
foon after falls off.
From the furface of the cicatrix there is no fecretion ;
there are only the perfpirable veffels. While it is forming,
it 1s kept moilt by the difcharge from the uncovered gra-
nulations ; but when completely formed, the cicairix is as
dry as any other flcin.
It appears that the new fkin at firft cannot form a yood
cuticle and rete-mucofum, for there is always a fucceffion of
fcales falling off for fome time; at Jaft this ceafes, and the
new fkin is covered with a good cuticle and rete-mucofum,
like other parts. ‘he cicatrix changes fucceffively from a
reddifh colour to a brown; and laftly it becomes whiter, and
of a more fhining appearance than the original fkin. This
is a curious circum{tance and merits fome attention.
The cutis, as every anatomilt knows, is not a {mooth po-
lithed membrane, but is full of eminences, which are named
papille. Thefe, in fome parts of the body, run in waving
rows, and form in others irregular lozenges and triangles.
The rete-mucofum and cuticle, which lie immediately over
the cutis, are marked with furrows analogous to the
‘eminences of the cutis. The cuticle is of a light colour,
and femi-tranfparent. The rete-mucofum is white, yel-
lowifh, brown, or black, in men of thefe various colours.
And the cutis is extremely vafcular; the blood contained in
thefe veffels fhines through, and gives the florid flefhy tint
to the body. The colour of the fkin, then, depends partly
upon the rete-mucofum, and partly upon the blood which
circulates in the cutis. In white men the cuticle and rete-
mucofum, which cover cicatrices, appear fimilar to that
which covers other parts ; but there is a great difference in
the quantity of blood which circulates in the old and new
fkin. For the new is far lefs vafcular than the old; or, at
leaft, the greater number of its veffels are of a much fmaller
diameter, and admit a leffer quantity of the red globules of
the blood. It happens in confequence of this, that cica-
trices are of a whiter colour than the original fkin. In-ne-
groes, the reverfe takes place, their fcars being generally
blacker than other parts, owing to a darker rete-mucofum
forming in them upon fears, than upon the old fkin.
Belides the difference of colour, a cicatrix has a glofly,
fhining look, which the fkin does not poffefs: this is owing
to the fear being a fmooth polifhed membrane without hair,
or any of thofe papillz which are upon the cutis; both the
papillie and hair are parts which are formed in the firlt orga-
nization of the body, and are never afterwards produced.
As fears are lefs yafcular than the old fkin, it is probable
that they have fewer nerves ; for blood-veffels and nerves are
generally in proportion to each other. But as nerves can
hardly ever be traced to the {urface of the body, we can
only judge of their number there, by the degree of fenfi-
bility ; and this is confiderably weaker in cicatrices than in
the old fkin. This indeed might naturally be expeéted, for
fcars have no papilla, which are fuppofed to be the princi-
pal feat of the lenfe of feeling in the fkin. Itis obferved, that
icars are generally far lefs moveable than the original flcin; the
latter being commonly attached by: a loofe cellular membrane
circ
to the deep feated parts ; whereas the fear forms itfelf imme-
diately upon the granulations, and is fo intimately connect-
ed, as to make the fame fubftance with them. ‘This is the
reafon, likewife, that although a fear is, at firft, exactly le-
vel with the fkin, yet after a certain period, it often is very
much depreffed. For during the healing of a fore, par-
ticularly if the difcharge is great, the fat and neighbouring
flefh are confiderably wafted by abforption. But when the
whole is healed, the internal parts recover their bulk, and
the fat is regenerated. The fkin being attached loofely,
readily yields and accommodates itfelf to this increafe ;
whereas the cicatrix adhering clofely, and being, as it were,
tacked down to the parts upon which it is formed, appears
deprefled.
It fometimes happens that a cicatrix, inflead of being de-
preffed, rather projeéts above the fkin, owing to the exube-
ancy of the granulations upon which it is tormed; and very
often the fear has an irregular unfeemly appearance, from
the granulations rifing to unequal heights.
Its appearance is fo different from real fkin, that although
every one agrees that it is not the fame, yet there are very-
different opinions with refpe& to what it really is.
Some authors affert that it isa diftin&t membrane ; others,
that itis only the cellular membrane condenfed ; or, as one or
two French writers have termed it, an exficcation of the
furface of the fore. Mr, Bell of Edinburgh, in his excel-
lent Syftem of Surgery, fays, ‘* That a dry pellicle of a
fcarf-fkin forms over wounds.”
But it is certain that, upon every cicatrix there is both a
cuticle or fearf-fkin, and likewife a rete-mucofum, which
may be raifed by a blifter in the living body ; or may be re-
moved in a dead body by maceration. After thefe mem-
branes are taken away, there is difcovered underneath a
fmooth polifhed furface, which is, properly fpeaking, the
new fkin. IPfit isattempted to diffeét this from the deep
feated parts, there is found no line of feparation, no diftinc~
tion of parts, but allis uniform. T'he operator, -therefore,
if he perfitts in his attempt, does not know whether to cut
to the depth of the fourth, eighth, or tenth of an inch ;.
the fubftance of the whole, except the fmooth external fur-
face, being fimilar.
It is, therefore, a mere difpute of words to conteft whe-
ther there is a new membrane or not. If it is faid that
there is one, it muft be allowed to be fo intimately attached
to the parts upon which it is formed, that no feparation can
be obferved. And if there is faid to be no new membrane, .
it muft be granted that the furface of the fore lofes its ex-
treme vafcularity, the power or difpofition of fecreting pus,
and becomes {mooth, polifhed, and able to form a cuticle
and rete-mucofum.
The fubitance of the new fkin is, then, exaély (or, in
many refpe¢ts) of the fame nature with the new ficfh upon
which it forms ; and although it has by no means the fame
elafticity as the old fkin, yet it is nearly as {trong and able
to refift mechanical violence. It is, therefore, a good fub-
flituce for the other.
The difference in its appearance from the original fin is
at firft ftriking; this diflimilarity gradually leffens with
time, but never vanifhes entirely. for as the fcar cannot
acquire the papille, or the fame degree of va{cularity with
the cutis, it continues diltinguifhable during life; asis proved
by the wound of even the finelt lancet in bleeding.
But in fuperficial cuts, m thole {mall abfceffes called pim-
ples, and other flight ulcerations, and in the mild f{pecies of
the {mall-pox, where the furface of the cutis only is affeéted,
and where it is not pierced through, no lafting {car 1s left
Becaufe in thefe cafes an entire portion of new {kin is not re-
6 quired,
cic
quired, as fome of the old remains, from which the reots
of the papilla and hair fhooting up, the temporary {car dif-
appears and the part regains its former appearance. But
when the puftules of the fmall-pox, or other ulcerations,
corrode fo deep as to deftroy the cutis or papillm, the ci-
catrix or fear neverdifappears ; as is often cruelly exemplified
in the bad fpecies of {mall-pox. ‘The puflules fometimes
heal with a depreflion or pit, as it is called; and fometimes
where no pit is left, but all is level, a gliftening white mark
remains for ever. For papille once deftroyed never again
{pring up; for which reafon the cicatrix never acquires an
equal degree of vafcularity with the original flkin.
Some ingenious remarks occur likewife on the fubje& “* OF
Shinning,’ in Mr. John Hunter’s book upon inflammation
and wounds, chap. viii.
CICATRIZE, to heal with new fkin. See Crcatrrix.
CICCA, in Botary, Linn, Mant. 1. p. 17. Schreb.
r4t7. Jufl. 386. Mart. Clafs and order, monacia tetran-
dria. Nat.ord. Luphorbie, Jufl. Gen. ch. Male. Cal.
Perianth four-leaved ; leaves roundifh, concave. Cor. none.
Stam. four, brifltle-fhaped ; anthers fomewhat globular, the
Jength of the calyx. Vemale. Cal. and Cor. as in the male.
Pif}, Germ roundifh ; ftigmas four, two-parted, awl-fhaped,
the length of the germ; itigmas acute, permanent. eric.
Berry four-celled. Seeds folitary. '
Eff. Ch. Calyx compofed of four roundifh leaves. Pe-
ricarp a four-eelled berry. Nearly allied to Phyllanthus, but
differs in the number of parts, and having a berry for the
fruit.
Sp. 1. C. diflicha, Linn. Mart. 124. Mart. Lam,
Encyc. Iluft. Pl. 757. fig. 6. — Male and female flowers
in feparate racemes on the naked part of the branches.” A
tree with long fimple branches. Leaves in two alternate
rows on fhort petioles ; the lower ones rounded, egg-fhaped,
fmaller ; upper ones ovate-lanceolate, acuminate; entire,
very fmooth. Flowers proceeding from the lower part of
the branches, after the falling of the leaves, and occupying
their places. A native of the Eaft Indies. The younger
Linnzus has fuppofed this plant to be the averrhoa acida of
his father; but whatever it may be, it certainly is not an
averrhoa. See Averruoa. 2. C.nodiflora, Lam. Encyc.
Tiluft. Pl. 757. fig: 2. “ Flowers aggregate, axillary.” A
fhrub. Leaves on fhort petioles, egg-fhaped, acute, {mooth,
entire, fometimes almoft round, with a {mall point at their
fummit. FYowers extremely {mal]. Fruit a globular berry;
with four f{mall, permanent, expanding ftyles. A native of
the ifland of Java.
Loureiro has a fpecies which he calls C. racemofa, the
terme of Gertner, who has preferved its Japanefe name.
He defcribes it as a middle-fized tree, with afcending
branches. Leaves egg-fhaped, fornewhat acuminate; quite
entire, fmooth, alternate, petioled, in two rows. lowers
in compound, fhort, nearly terminal racemes; males and fe-
males on different branches. He aflerts, that what Linneus
calls the calyx is properly a bell-fhaped, four-cleft corolla;
the fegments egg-thaped, fpreading, red, dotted with white ;
filaments fhorter than the corolla; anthers two-celled. Fruit
a roundifh berry, half an inch in diameter, pale, {mooth,
acid, eatable. Sveds four, egg-fhaped. A native of Cham-
pava. Cultivated, but rarely, in the capital of Cochin-
china, See Terme.
Profeflor Martyn has given averrhoa acida of Linnzus,
as a fynonym to _C. racemofa of Loureiro, but he afterwards
doubts their identity.
CICCIONE, Awnprea, in Biography, a Neapolitan
fculptor and archite&t of great eminence of the 14th and
5th centuries; he was the difciple of Mafuccio the fe-
cic
cond. Amongft his belt works in architeGure, are the fa-
mous monaftery and: church of Monte Oliveto, and the
beautiful palace erected for Bartoiommeo du Capua, prince
della Riccia, at St. Biagio de Librari; and the third cloif-
ter, of the Ionic order, at S. Severino. His greateft work
of fculpture is the monument, ereéted, in the church of St.
Giovanni, by order of Giovanna, then queen of Naples, to
the memory of her brother the young king Ladiflaus, who
died 1414. It is all of white marble; four figures, repre-
fenting ‘Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence, and Magnani«
mity, are introduced in place of pilafters to fupport the fa-
bric ; over thefe, under a great arch, are feated two figures
reprefenting Ladiflaus and his filter; on the top of the arch
is a fepulchral urn, ornamented with bailo relievos, upon:
which lies the refemblance of the dead king, difcovered to
the fight by two angels who draw afide a curtains above this
the monument rifes in a pyramidical form, completed with
acornice, where the figure of Ladiflaus is once more repre-
fented, with a martial deportment, feated on horfeback, in
complete armour. Ciccione died, much regretted, at a very
advanced age in the year 1455. Domenici, Vita del Pitt.
Scul. & Arch.
CICELY, in Botany. See Scanpvix odorata. :
CICER, Linn. gen. 875. Schreb. 1189. Juff. 361.
Vent. 3. 420. Gert. 872. Clafs a:d order, diadelphia de-
candria. Nat. ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe.
Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leaved, five-cleft, as long as the co-
rolla; the four upper fegments incumbent on the flandard ;
the fifth fmaller, placed under the keel. Cor. papilionaceous;
ftandard roundifh, larger than the other petals ; wings ap-
proaching each other rather obtufe; keel fhorter’ than the
wings. Stam. filaments ten, diade phous, afcending ; an-
thers fimple. Pif. germ fuperior, cgg-fhaped; ftyle af-
cending ; ftigma obtufe. Peric. legume rhomboidal, turgid,
inflated. Seeds two or more, almott globular, with a fmall -
point at their bafe.
Eff. Ch. Calyx
four upper fegments incumbent on the banner.
thomboid, turgid. :
Sp. 1. C. arietinum, Linn. Sp. Pl. Willd. 1358. Marte,
Lam. Illutt. pl. 632. Gert. tab. 151. (C. fativum, Bauh.
Pin. Tourn. cl. 10. gen. 2. Ciche. Lam. Encye.)
Common cich or ciches. Leaves unequally pinnated 5
leaflets ferrated ; legumestwc-'eeded.” Lam. oot annual.
Stem from a foot to eighteen inches high, ereét, leafy,
branched, fpreading, angular. Leaves compofed of about
eight pairs of leaflets with an odd one, egg-{haped, finely
ferrated, hairy. #/owers {mall, purple or white; pedun-
cles axillary, folitary, one-flowered, bent, furnifhed with a
fhort thread near the angle. Seeds one or two, fometimes
nearly globular, with a fhort beak at the navels, fometimes
angular, with a fancied refemblance to a ram’s head, whence
the trivial name. A native of the fouth of Europe, where
it is cultivated like other pulfe for agricuitural purpofes.
It is cut feveral times in the {pring, and given green to fheep
and lambs, to whom it is efteemed peculiarly nourifhing.
-It is alfo faid to increafe the milk of cows, who eat it with
avidity. Its feeds are eaten in its native climate, both raw
and boiled, but do not always agree with delicate ftomachs,
efpecially when cultivated in a colder ciimate. They are
fometimes ufed as a fublticute for coffee, when roafted to
blacknefs, pulverized and boiled in water. In warm and
dry weather-there is fecreted from the tips of the hairs of
the leaves, a tranfparent acid liquor which corredes the
fhoes and ftockings of thofe who walk over the fields where
it is fown, and which, according to Deyeux (Journ. de
Pbyf. Flor. An. 6.) is a pure oxalic acid. 2. C. nummula~ _
rifoliumy -
faenlet; the Jength of the corolla;
Legume
el
vifolium, Lam. Eneye. (Elatines folio fubrotundo ; folli-
culis hirfutis turgidis, Pluk. Amalth, tab. 359. fig. 5.)
« Leaves limple, inverfely egg fhaped, quite entire, hairy;
lerumes generally more than two-feeded.’? Lam. Stems
flender, abouta foot and half long, hairy, branched, leafy.
Leaves alternate, fomewhat egg-fhaped, or roundifh, entire,
hairy. J*/owers two or three, refembling thofe of the pre-
ceding fpecies, but rather fmaller; peduncles lateral, axil-
lary, hairy. Legumes fomewhat egg-ihaped, inflated. Seecls
fomewhat heart-fhaped. A native of the Eaft Indies;
communicated to La Marck by Sonnerat. La Marck
pronounces it to be perfectly diftinét frnm glycine mono-
phylla of Linnzus, and afferts that, notwithftanding its
difference in habit, its fructification is properly that of ci-
cer; but Juffieu doubts whether it ought not rather to be
referred to crotalaria. ;
Cicer lens, Willdenow. See Ervum fens.
Cicer fplveflre, folits oblongis hi/pidis, 'majus, Bauh. Pin.
‘647. See AsTRAGALUS cicer.
Cicer _foliis oblongis hifpidis minus, Bauh. Pin. 347. See
AstRAGALUS microphyllus.
Cicer montanum lanuginofum eredum, Bauh. Pin. 347.
See AsTRAGALUS.
Cicer pilofus fylveflre latifoliam. triphyllum, Bauh. Pin.
347. Sylveftre tertium. Dod. Pempt. 525. Sfylvefire
verius, Lob. Ic. 2. p. 7 See Gnonis rotundifolia.
Cicer pedunculis b:fforis, Hort. Upf. 224. Savag. Monf.
233. Hort. Clif. 370. See Ervum lens.
CICERA, Dod. Pempt. See Latuyrus cicera.
CICERELLUS, in Jchibyology, a name given by Boc-
cone and fome others to the filh called in England the fand-
latince, ammodyies tobianus of Linneus.
CICERI /jlvefri minori afinis, Bauh.Pin. 347. Sée
Asrracatus Glaux.
CICERO, Marcus Tuxtius, in Biography, was born
on the third of January, inthe year of Rome, 647, about
107 years before Chrift. His birth, if Plutarch is to
‘be believed, was attended with prodigies, foretelling
the future eminence of his chara&ter. But thefe are to be
afcribed to the credulity or invention of a writer, who
wifhes to excite curiolity by the appearance of what is
marvellous. he name Marcus, which he derived from his
father and grandfather, was properly perfonal, equivalent to
that of baptifm with us, and impofed with ceremonies
analogous to the chrifttan on the ninth day, called the
luftrical or day of purification. ‘Tullius was his family
name, which in the old Latin, asapparently derived from the
oriental term 5% delal, fignified a flowing flream, fug-
geited, it is probable, from their fituation at the confluence of
tworivers. As Tullius, the family name, was fuggetted by
the fituation of the farm; fo Cicero, the firname, was
borrowed from the ve/ches, which were chiefly ratfed and
cultivated init. Agriculture was regarded by the Romans
as the moft liberal employment; and thofe families, who
refided on their farms in the country, as the moft honourable.
Pliny in his Nat. Hift. 18. 3. 1, affures us, that all thofe
names which diltinguifhed any fpecies of grain, fuch as the
Fabii, Lentuli, &c. were acquired by the reputation of being
the bett cultivators of that {pecies. The grain cicer, which
gave our author the appellation of Cicero, was held in all ages
of the republic in great efleem by the Roman populace, as it
conftituted a principal article of thofe bounties beltowed
upon them by the rich, and was fold every where in the
ftreets, and prepared for immediate ufe by being ready
parched or boiled.
Moft great men owe much of their early improvement,
73.
and confequently of their future celebrity, to maternal,
Vor. VUI.
a ee
education, But to this general fact Cicero appears an
exception, unlefs we fuppofe him to have been no lefs def-
tute of filial gratitude than he was of affection, Of his
mother, whofe name was Helvia, a name noticed in hiftory,
and found on old infcriptions among the honourable
families of Rome, no mention is made in any part of his
writings; though the little incident of domeltic manage-
ment, recorded by his brother Quintus, fhews that fhe was
equally eutitled to the attachment of her children and the
imitation of her neighborrs. But the indifference oraverfion,
which induced our author to omit the tribute of veneration
due to the memory of his mother, betrays itfelf in the very
unpardonable levity with which, in a letter to Atticus, he
notices the death of his father.
His paternal family, though not ennobled by any of the
great offices of the republic, was yet ancient and honourable,
of the firft diftinGtion in that part of Italy in which it refided,
and of equeftrian rank from its firft admiffion to the freedom
of Rome. And though he could not with truth boaft of
the f{plendour of his anceftors, he fpeaks of them, when
occafiom required, with great complacency and franknefs, as
having lived content with their paternal fortunes, and the
private honours of their own city, without the ambition of
appearing on the public ftlage of Rome. It is for this reafon
that we find him fo often called a new man; not that his
family was new or ignoble, but becaufe be was the firft of it
who ever fought and obtained the public magiftracies of the
ftate.
The place of his birth was Arpinum, a city anciently of
the Samnites, now part of the kingdom of Naples; which
upon its fubmiffion to Rome acquired the freedom of the
city and was inferted into the Cornelian tribe. It had the
honour alfo of producing the great Caius Marius, which
induced Pompey to fay on a public occafion, that
Rome was indebted to this corporation for two citizens,
who had each in his turn preferved it from ruin, It may
juttly, therefore, claim a place in the memory of pofterity
for giving life to fuch worthies, who exemplificd the cha-
rater which Pliny gives of true glory, ‘by doing what
deferved to be written, and writing what deferved to be
read,” and thus making the world the happier and the bet~
ter for their having lived in it. ‘The family feat was about
three miles from the town of Arpinum, in a fituation ex-
tremely pleafant and well adapted to the nature of the cli-
mate. It was furrounded with groves and fhady walks
leading from the honfe to a river called Fibrenus, which
was divided into two equal {treams by a little ifland covered
with trees, and a portico contrived both for ftudy and exer~
cife, whither Cicero was ufed to retire when he had any
work upon his hands. The clearnefs and rapidity of the
ftream murmuring through a rocky channel, the fhade and
verdure of its banks, planted with poplars, the remarkable
coldnefs of the water, and, above ail, its falling by a cafcade
into the noble river Liris, a little below the ifland, give us
the idea of a moft beautiful fcene. The houfe, as Cicero
deferibes it, was but {mall and humble in his grandfather’s
time, according to the ancient frugality, like the Sabine
farm of old Curius, till his father beautified and enlarged it
into a handfome and f{pacious habitation. But there cannot
be a better proof of the delightfulnefs of the place than
that it is now pofleffed by a convent of monks, apd cailed
the villa of St. Dominic. Strange revolutions, adds Dr.
Middleton, to fee Cicero’s portico converted to monkifh
cloifters! the feat of the moft refined reafon, wit, and
learning, to a nurfery of fuperitition, bigotry, and enthu-
fiafm. What a pleafure mutt it give thefe Dominican in-
quifitors totrample on the a of aman, whofe wntings,
I by
; CICERO.
by (preading the light of reafon and liberty throuzh the
world, have been one great in{trument to obftruct their un-
wearied pains to enflave it ! :
The firit care of his father Marcus, whofe wifdom and
learning recommended him to the principal magritrates of
the republic, was to give his fon the bett education which
Rome could afford, in hopes to excite in him the ambition
of afpiring to the highett offices of the ftate. Accordingly
he was browght up under the direction of L. Craflus, a man
of the firit dignity as well as the firifl. eloquence in Rome.
The Romans were careful and exa& in the education of
their children; their attentidn to it began from the time of
their birth, when they committed them to the care of fome
reputable matron, whofe bulinefs it was to form their frit
habits of acting and fpeaking, to watch their growing pal-
fions, and dire@ them to their proper objects, to fuperintend
their fports, and to prevent any thing indecent or improper
from entering into them, that the mind, preferved in its native
innocence, might be at libertyto purfue whatever was laudable,
and apply its whole ftrength to that profeffion in which it
defired to excel. This formed a part of that domeftic dif-
cipline in which our author was trained, and of which he
often fpeaks. But as foon as he was capable of a more
liberal inftru@ion, his father brought him to Rome and placed
him in a public {chool under an eminent Greek matter, as
the moft eligible method of educating one who was deligned
“to appear on the public flage, and who, as Quintilian ob-
ferves, ought to be fo bred as not to fear the fight of
men, fitce that can never be learned in folitude which is to
be produced before crowds.” Here he gave the firlt {peci-
mens of thofe fhining abilities, which rendered him after-
wards fo illultrious ; and his {chool-fellows carried home fuch
ftories of his extraordinary talents, that their parents were
often induced to vifit the {chool, for the fake of feeing a
youth endowed with fuch furprifing faculties.
Encouraged by the promifing genius of his fon, the father
{pared no expence in improving it by the help of the able&
matters. Among the in{truGtors of his youth, was the poct
Archias, who, with a high reputation for learning and tafte,
opened a fchool in the family of Lucullus, when Cicero was
only five yearsold. Notwithftarding this early age, he ap-
plied himfelf under this matter to poetry, and made fucha
proficiency in it, that, while he was (hill a boy, he compold
and publifhed a poem, called ** Glaucus Pontius,” which,
though now loft, was extaut in the days of Plutarch. Hav-
ing finifhed his youthful itudies, he Jaid afide the habit of
id boy for that of the man, and affumed what was cailed
the man/y gown, or the robe of the citizen. Vhis feafon,
which was zbout the 17th year in the ancient republic,
though probably fomewhat earlier in the cafe of Cicero, was
a period of great joy to the young men; who, by this
change, pafled into a flate of greater liberty and enlarge-
ment from the reftraint of their tutors, and affumed the dig-
nity and independence of manhood. E
Cicero being then introduced into the Forum, a place cal-
culated to cali forth all the enthufiafm of his talents, as there
the popular affemblies were convened, the magiltrates haran-
gued from the roftra, and judicial proceedings were’ ufually
tranfaéted, was placed under the aufpices of Q. M. Scevola,
the augur, and at the fame time the principal lawyer and
ftatefman of that age, all whole remarkable fayings and
leffons of wifdom he carefully treafured up in his memory.
After his death, he applied to Scevol-, the high prieft, a
perfon of the fame family, and of equal probity and fill in
the law, though not a lawyer by profeflion, Under thefe
mafters he acquired a complete knowledge of the Roman
laws, a qualification ufcful and ormamental in all countries,
’
but in Rome of fuch confequence, that one of the common.
exercifes, allotted to boys in fchool, was to learn by heart the
laws of the twelve tables, as they did their poets and clafftc
authors. Before he was yet called to the bar, he had ftudied
this fubje€t even in its moft intricate and complex branches
with fuch accuracy and comprehenfion, as to be able to ful-
tain a difpute on any quettion with the moft diftinguifhed
profeffors of that age; and once, in pleadinz with his friend
Sulpicius, he declared, by way of raillery, what he was pro-
bably able to make good in fat, that, if he provoked him, he
would, in the courfe of three days, profefs himfelf.a law-
yer. y :
The profeffion of the law, next to that of arms and
eloquence, was a fure recommendation to the honours of the
repub ic, and for that reafon was preferved, as it were, heres
ditary in fome of the nobleft families of Rome, who, by giv«
ing their advice gratis to all that wanted it, attained the fa-
vour of their fellow-citizens, and acquired great authority
in all the affairs of flate. But Cicero’s ambition afpired to
much higher attainments. Aiming at being an univerfal
patron, not only of the fortunes, but of the lives and liber=
ties of his countrymen, he wifhed to become an accomplith-
ed orator, or pleader of caufes, whofe profeflion, as deferibed’
by himfelf, was to fpeak aptly. elegantly, and copioufly on.
every fubje&t which could be offered to him, and whofe arty ~
therefore, included all other arts of the liberal kind, and
could not be acquired to any perfection without acompetent _
knowledge of whatever was great and laudable in the unis
verfe. This was his own idea of the chara¢ter he had under-
taken, and his ambition was to illuftrate the jaltice of his:
defeription by his own attainments and eloquence: For
this purpofe, while he fludied the law under the Scavolasy., -
he umformly attended the pleadings at the ber and the pub-
lic fpeeches of the maziltrates, and at the fame time fpent a)
portion of every day in reading and writing at home. It wasi
his conitant practice to take notes and make comments om
what he read, and he was fond, when very young, of aw exer=
cife, recommended by fome of the great orators before him.
of treafuring in his memory the fubltance of what he read in’
verfe or profe, and then expreffing the fame fentiments in.
different, but the molt elegant, werds that occurred to him¥.
But finding that the moft eligible terms were already em=
ployed, and becomizg by a growing confidence in’ himfelf
l-fs difpofed to tread in the foot{teps of others, he laid afide
this’ practice, and tranflated into Latin the fele& fpeeches of —
the beft Greck orators, a method which gave him the com—
mand of the moft elegant words in his own language, and at”
the fame time furnifhed him with an opportunity of enrichs
ing it with new terms, formed in imitation of the Greek.
Nor did he yet negle& his poetical ftudies; for Aratus
« On the Phenomena of the Heavens,” he tranflated inte.
Latin verfe, fragments of which are ftill extant, and alfo
compofed an heroic poem in honotr of his countryman C.
Marius, of which, unfortunately, only a {mall fpecimen is
preferved, defcribing a memorable omen given to Marius.
from the oak of Arpinum, which, from the fpirit and ele=
gance of the defcription, renders it probable, that his poeti-
cal genius, if cultivated with the fame diligence, would
{carcely have been inferior to his eloquence. He moreover
publifhed another poem called ‘ Limon,” of which the
fubje& was uncercain, but which, if we may conjecture from.’
the title, was a colleGion of various flowery pitces. While
he was employed in thefe juvenile exercifes, for:the improves
ment of his ftyle and invention, he applied himfelf with no
lefs induftry to the ftudy of philofophy. Among his firft
matters was Phedrus, the Epicurean, of whom he was then >
very fond, and for whom he always retained a particular ef.
: «teem,
CICERO.
‘
teem, on account of his learning, humanity, and politenefs ;
though a more enlarged experience and more critical judg-
ment of things, led him foon after wholly to abandon, and
ftrenuoufly to oppole the principles of that fe&.
When the tranquillity of Rome was dilturbed by what wri-
ters call the /talic or Marjic war, begun by a confederacy of -
the principal cities of Italy, to fopport their demand of the
freedom of Rome; Cicero firlt direGed his attention to the
art of war, in the difeipline of which all young men of dif-
tinction were trained, as neceflary in an empire raifed and
fupported by the force of arms. In this war he followed
the camp of Sylia, who, defirous to figna'ize his military ta-
lents, and to eclipfe the fame of his rival, Marius, as the furelt
way of obtaining the confulfhip to which he was afpiring,
gained many confiderable victories. .The example of this
general infpired our author with the love of glory ; and he
was no lefs diligent in the army than he was in the Forum,
to obferve every thing that pailed ; and he always contrived
to benear the perfon of the chief commander, that no a¢tion
of moment might efcape his notice. During the enluing
diffenfions between Marius and Sy'la, in which the greateit
’ cruelties were/perpetrated by both parties, Cictro appears to
have taken no ative part, but to have refumed the ftudy
and practice of eloguznce: and being now about the age of
twenty-one, compoled thofe rhetorical treatifes, which,
though unworthy of his maturer judgment, are ftill pre-
ferved, and are generally confidered as the fame with thofe
on the fubjedi of invention. At this time he commenced
the ftudy of philofophy under Philo, a diltinguithed difciple
of the Academic {chool, who, together with many of the
principal Athenians, fled to Rome to efcape the fury of Mith-
ridates, now mafter of Greece. While he was cultivating
the academic philofophy under the dire¢uon of this. cele-
brated profeflor, he received from Diodotus, the Steic, lec-
tures in logic, which Zeno ufed to call * a clofe and con-
tracted eloquence,” and eloquence, ‘¢ an enlarged and dilat-
ed logic,” comparing the one to the, fit or the hand
doubled; the other to the palm opencd., Yet with all his
attention to logic and philofophy, he never fuffered a day
to pafs without fome exercife in,oratory, in which he was
affifted by the fkill and direGion of Molo, the Rhodian,
who, about this time, had eftablifhed at Rome a {chool of
rhetoric, and was one of the principal oraturs, as weil as the
moft celebrated teacher of eloquence, in that age. Under his
au{pices, with the advantages of talents and indultry pecu-
liar to himfelt, he hoped {oon to rival the fame of Horten-
fius, who then made the chief figure at the bar, and whofe
praifes fired him’ with fuch ambition of acquiring the
fame glory, that he allowed himfeif . fcarcely any. rett
from his ftudies either day or night. His principal exer-
cife in this’ department was that of declaiming, which
he generally. performed with his fellow difciples M.
- Pifo and Pempeivs, two yeung poblemen, with
whom, though a littl: older than himfelf, he had con-
traéted an intimate friendfhip. With thefe he declaimed
occalionally in Latin, buc more frequently in Greek, becaufe
the {uperior copioufnets of this language furnished a greater
variety of elegant exprefiions, and an opportunity of intro-
ducing them into his own tongue; dnd becaufe the Greek
matters, who were far the beft, could not correé&t and im-
rove them, unlefs they declaimed in that language.
Thus did Ne pafs through all that courfe of difeipline,
which he lays down as neceflary to form the complete orator ;
a character to which, according to his own de{cription, none
‘fhould pretend, without being previoufly acquainted with
every thing in art and nature ; whofe profeflion it is to {peak
upon every fubject that can be propofed to him, and whofe
elequence, without the knowledge of what he fpeaks, would
be but the unmeaning prattle of children. Having learnt
the rudiments of grammar and languages from the bett
teachers, gone through the fludies of polite letters under
the moft diftinguifhed poet, inftruéted in philofophy by the
principal profeffors of each fect, acquired a perfect know-.
ledge of the law from the greateft lawyers, as well as the
greate(t ftatefmen of Rome; having received lectures on ora-
tory from the moft eloquent maiters of Greece, continually
compofed at home, and declaimed in the Forum under their
direétion ; having, finally, attained all the graces of polite
converfation by continued intercourfe with ladies, as well as
men of refinement and literature, efpecially with the daughter
of Lelius, and Mucia, wife of the great orator Craffus, who
excelled: all others of their fex, in the delicate ufe of the
Latin tongue; with all thefe accomplifhments, he offered
himfelf to the bar about the age of twenty-lix. This was
the age in which Demo/thenes began to diftinguith himfelf
atAthens. ‘The firft fpecimen, which he gave the public of his
eloquence, as fome have faid, was in defence of S. Rofcius,
who was acquitted to the great honour of his patron. His
courage and addrefs in the condué of the defence being ap-
plauded by the whole city, he was from this time confidered as
an advocate of the firlt clafs, and equal to the moit arduous
canfes. As by this defence he acquired great reputation
in his youth, fo he refleéts upon it with pleafure in his old
age, and recommends it to his fon as the fureft way to true
glory and authority ia his country, to defend the innocent in
dittrefs, efp:cially whens they happen to be opprefled by the
power of the great: ‘as Lhave'done,”’ fays hie, “in other
cafes, but particularly in that againft Sylla himfelf in the
height of his power.’? A noble leffon to all young advo»
cates to apply their talents to the protection of innocence and
injured virtue, and to make jolttice, not profit, the rule and
end of their labours !
At the age of eight and twenty years; he left the forum,
and went to Greece and Atta, the fathionable tour of thofe who
travelled for curiofity or improvement. His firlt vifit was to
Athens, the chief feat of arts and {ciene ¢. Here,under Antio-
chus, the principal philofopher of the old academy, he renewed
thofe ttudies, to which, as he afferts, he had been devoted
from his earlielt years, and formed with T. Pomponius, who,
from his predileGtion for Athens and his refidence there,
was called Atticus, that memorable friendfhip, which fub-
filled between them through life, and has been tran{mitted
to polterity as the faireft model of conftancy, dilinterelted-
nefs and affection. From Athens he pafled to Afia, and
wherever he went, he colleéted about him the principal ora~
tors of the country, who accompanied him the reft of his
voyage, aud with whom he difputed in every place where he
made any flay. The chief of his affociates was Menippus
of Stratonica, the molt eloquent of all the Afiatics; alfo
Dionyfius of Magnelia, A&{chylus of Cnidos, and Keno-
cles of Adramyctus, the firlt rhetoricians in all Afia. * Not
content with thefe (adds he) I went to Rhodes; and applicd
myfelf again to Molo, whom-l had heard before at Rome,
who was an expericnced pleader and a fine writer, and partt-
cularly expert in obferving the faults of his fcholars, as well
as in his method of teaching and improving them. His
greateil trouble with me was to reltrain the exuberance of a
juvenile imagination, always ready to overflow its banks,
within «ts proper channel.”? At Rhodes he devoted part of
his time to the fludy of philofophy, under Pofidonius, the
{toic, whom he often mentions with refpe&t, not only ‘¢as
his mafker, but his friend.” ;
Waving finifhed the circuit of! his travels, he returned to
Italy after an abfence of two ytars, extremely improved,
and changed, as it were, into anew man}; the vehemence of
his voice and a€tion was moderated, the redundancy of his
Reg ityle
Cig ER oO.
ftyle and fancy corre&ed, his lungs ftrengthened, and his
whole conftitution confirmed. From this voyage, indeed,
he mult have received the greateft benefits. His education
had qualified him for deriving all the advantages from what-
ever he could fee or hearin a tour the moft delightful which
the ancient world could furnifh. By his previous knowledge
of the laws of Rome, he was able to compare them with
thofe of other cities, and to bring back with him whatever
he found ufeful either to his country or to himfelf. He was
entertained, wherever he came, in the houfes of the great
and of thofe who were diftinguifhed by their knowledge and
eloquence, as well as by their birth and fortune, men ho-
noured in their refpeGtive communities, as the principal pa-
triots, orators, and philofophers of the age. Thefe, that
he might not lofe the opportunity, even on the road, of pro-
fiting by their advice and experience, he made the con{tant
companions of his travels. No wonder, then, that from
fuch a voyage he fhould derive every accomplifhment which
could improve oy adorn a man of fenfe.
Soon after his return, while Cotta and Hortenfius, his ri-
vals in eloquence and honour, ttood candidates, the former
for the confulfhip, the latter for the edilefhip, Cicero
claimed the queitorfhip ; and had the fatisfaGtion before all
his competitors of being chofen by the unanimous fuffrage of
the tribes, in the thirty-firit year of his age, and the very firlt
in which he was cligible by law. The quzttors were trea-
furers of the republic, and their office formed the firft ftep
in the afcent of public honours, and after its expiration
opened an immediate door to the fenate, and an aétual ad-
miffion into it during life. Chofen annually by the people,
the queftors formed the regular and ordinary fupply of the
vacancies of the fenate, by which excellent inftitution, the
road to the highelft offices in the {late was laid open to the
virtue and induftry of every private citizen, and the dignity
of this fovereign council maintained by a fucceffion of mem-
bers, whofe diftinguifhed merit had firft recommended them
to the notice and favour of their country.
The provinces of the queltors being diftributed to them
by lot, the ifland of Sicily fell to the thare of Cicero. This,
from the quantity of corn annually raifed and exported, was
called the granary of the republic, and the quettor’s chief
employment in it was to fupply provifion for the ufe of the
city. The fearcity peculiar to this year at Rome made the
people clamorous, and gave the tribunes an opportunity of
inflaming them the more eafily, by afcribing it to the lofs of
the tribunitian power, and to their being by that means left
2 prey. tothe oppreffions of the great. ‘T’o appeafe the pub-
lic mind, it was neceffary, therefore, to export from the
land large and fpeedy fupplies, by which it was likely to
be drained, fo that Cicero had the difficult tafk of furnifhing
what was fufficient for the city, without, at the fame time,
being oppreflive to the poor natives; yet he managed the
matter with fo much addrefs, that he made very great ex-
portations without any burden upon the province, fhewing
great courtefy to the dealers, jultice to the merchants, ge-
nerofity to the inhabitants, humanity to the allies, and, in
fhort, doing all good offices to every body, by which he
gained the love and admiration of the Sicilians, who decreed
greater honours to him at his departure, than they ever had
before done to any of their chief governors. In the hours of
leifure from his provincial affairs, he employed himfelf very
diligently, as he ufed to do at Rome, in his rhetorical ftu-
dies, agreeably to the rules which he conftantly inculcates,
never to let one day pafs without fome exercife of that
kind; fo that on his return from Sicily, his oratorical talents,
a¢cording to his own judgment, were in their full maturity
and perfeétion. Before he left Sicily, he made the tour of
the ifland, to fee every thing in it that was curious, and ef-
pecially the city of Syracufe, which had always made the
principal figure in ite hiftory. Here his firft objet was to
difcover the tomb of Archimedes, of which the inhabitants
were ignorant; but knowing it to be engraved with a cylin-
der, as an emblem of his mathematical genius, and remember-
ing the words infcribed upon the grave, he difcovered in a
{pot over-grown with briars, a fmall column, whofe head jult
appeared above the brambles, marked with the memorable
infcription ; and he left the place with faying, that one of
the nobleft cities ef Greece, and once likewife the molt
learned, had known nothing of the monument of its moft
deferving and ingenious citizen, if it had not been difco-
vered to them by a native of Arpinum. At the expiration
of his year, he took leave of the Sicilians by a kind and af-
fectionate {peech, affuring them of his proteétion in all their
affairs at Rome ; in which he was as good ashis word, and
continued ever after their conftant patron to the great benefit
and advantage of the province. He came away well pleafed
with his own adminiftration, and flattering himfelf that the
public were celebrating his praifes. But no fooner had he
landed at Puteoli, than awaking from his dream of imagi= —
nary applaufe, he found the majority of the people equally
ignorant of the queftor and his province. The difcovery
mortified his ambition, or rather taught him to apply it
with more fuccefs; for, according to his own account, it
made him reflect “that the people of Rome had dull ears,
but quick eyes, and that, therefore, it was his wifdom to
keep himfelf always in their fight, and to make them foli-
citous, not fo much to hear, as to fee him; fo that from this
moment he refolved to continue on the forum, and perpetu-
ally to live in the view of the city, without permitting cither
his porter or his fleep to debar any man’s accefs to him.”
He was now in his 37th year, she proper age for being
chofen zxdile, which was the firft public office properly
called a magiltracy ; the queltorfhip being only a place of
truft without any jurifdiétion in the city. Thefewdiles, as welk
as ail the interior officers, were eleéted by the people voting
in their tribes,a mode of eleGtion free and popular, in which he
was declared edile, ashe had been before invefted with the
quettorfhip, by the unanimous fuffrage of the tribes, in pre-
ference to all his competitors. After his ele&tion, but be-
fore his entrance on that office, he undertook the famed pro-.
fecution of C. Verres, the late pretor of Sicily, charged with
many flagrant aéts of injuttice, rapine, and cruelty, during
his tyrannical government of that ifland. Verres, guilty and
corrupt as he had been in the adminiltration of his province,
was fupported by the moft powerful families of Rome,
and defended by Hortenfius, who was the reigning orator at
the bar, and ufually ftiled the king of the forum; yet the
difficulty of the caufe, inttead of difcouraging, ferved only
to animate him the more, by the greater glory of the vi€tory.
The refult was, that Verres was condemned, and the repu-
tation of Cicero both for abilities and integrity greatly in-
creafed, as of. one whom neither money could bribe, nor
power terrify, from profecuting a public oppreflor ; and the
Sicilians ever after retained the higheft fenfé of his fervices,
and on all occafions teftificd the utmoft zeal for his perfor
and intereft.
After this impeachment, Cicero entered on his wdilefhipy
of the duties of which he gives us in one of his {peeches
an account, and which, however important they might be
deemed by him, mult appear contempuble to a modern
reader; “ lam now cholen edile,” fays he, ‘* and am
fenfible of what is committed to me by the Roman people..
I.am to exhibit with the greateit folemnity the molt facred *
fports to Ceres, Liber, and Libera, Tam to appeale and
conciliate the mother, Flora to the people and city of Rome,
by the celebration of the public games; and to furnith ot
thote
G1 E Rio
thofe ancient thows, the firlt which were called Roman, with
all poflible dignity and religion, in honour of Jupiter, Juno,
and Minerva.”” Of thefe games the people were paflionately
fond ; and as their gratifdcation in this refpect was the furelt
road to popularity, many perfons of wealth, when in olltce,
were ruined by thefe divertions. Cicero, in the execution of
this undertaking, avoided the extravagancies into which
other magiltrates had plunged, adopting the middle courfe,
« fo as neither to hurt his character by a fordid illiberality,
nor his fortuue by a vain and oftentatious magnificence ;
fince the one, by making a man odious, deprived him of
the power of doing good, the other, by making him necel-
fitous, puts him under the temptation of doing ill.”
Afterthe ufual interval of two years from the time of his
being chofea edile, he ftood candidate for the pretorfhip,
the office of which was to prefide and jadge in all caufes, ef-
pecially of a public and criminal nature ; and it fell to Cicero’s
Jot to fit upon a€hons of extortion and rapine, brought
again{t governors of provinces; in which, as he tells us him-
felf, he had a€ted as an accufer, fat as ajudge, and prefided
asa pretor. In this office he acquired great reputation for
integrity, by condemning L. Macer, a perfon of pretorian
dignity, and great eloquence, who would have made an emi-
nent figure at the bar, if his abilities had not been fullied by
the infamy of a vicious life. Though fully employed in
public affairs as praetor, he found time flill to aG as an advo-
cate, as well as a judge, and not only to hear cavfes in his
own tribunal, but to plead them alfo at the tribunals of the
-other pretors ; and what furnifhes the moft remarkable proof
of his indultry is, that, during his pratorfhip, though he was
in the conftant habit of exercifing his eloquence, yet he fre-
quented the fchool of the celebrated rhetorician Gnipho,
with the defign, if not to learn fomething new, at leait to
prevent any ill habit from infenfibly growing upon him, by
exercifing himfelf under the obfervation of fo judicious a
mafter. At the expiration of his pretorfhip, he declined to
accept any foreign province, the ufual reward of that ma-
giftracy, and the chief advantage which the generality of
preters looked for from the office. Cicero had no love of mo-
ney, nor genius for arms, fo that thofe governments had no
charms for him. The glory which he purfued was to fhine
in the eyes of the city, as the guardian of its Jaws, and to
teach the magiltrates how to execute, and the citizens how
to obey them. }
But the great objeé of all his hopes was the confulfhip,
to fue for which he now began to prepare ; and his chief fo-
licitude was to obtain it in its proper year, and without a re-
pulfe. The affection of the city, fo fignaily declared for him
in ail the inferior {teps of honour, afforded him flattering hopes
of fuccefs in his prefent pretenfions to the highelt: but
he had reafon to apprehend great oppofition from the nobi-
lity, who looked upon the public dignitics as a kind of birth-
right, and could noc brook the claims of new men; and, there-
fore, he refolved to put it cut of their power to fruftrate him,
by taking the pains, required of a candidate, to vifit and folicit
all the citizens in perfon. On the day of election, therefore,
he mixed with the crowd, aflembled in the field of Mars,
careffing and familiarly faluting each individual by name.
Th the vacation from the forum, which was ufually in Au-
guit, he alfo vilited the towns and.colonies of the Cifalpine
Gaul, a province which, from its numerous votes, had great
influence in the ele€tion. Amongit his competitors was the
famous Catiline, now returmed trom the government of
Africa, where, to fupply his boundle{s extravagance, he had>
practifed rapine and extortion. In order to defeat the
claims of this formidable rival, the friends of Ciccro appear
to have prefented againft him the charge of ma!-adminittra-
tion, and hence in a letter to his friend Atticus he thus ex-
prefles himfelf: ** As to Catiline, I am then only Cure of him
as a competitor, when his judges fhall decide that the fun
never fhinesat noon day.” It was ufual with the Roman
lawyers to defend the moft infamous «criminals, if recom-
mended by birth and fortune. Of this praGtice Cicero ex-
prefles his repeated difapprobation ; yet we find that his
principles, however fatr and honourable, when they iycerfered
with his intereft, in any affair of moment, were facrificed to
his ambition. Catiline applied to our orator to fhieid him
by his eloquence, from the vengvance of the law. The re-
fult of this unexpegted application we learn from a fubfe-
quent letter to Atticus; ‘iam now,” writes he, * pre-
paring todefend my competitor Catiline. If he fhould be
acquitted, I am in hopes that be will the more cordially cons
cur in promoting my election ; bur if it fhould prove other-
wife, I fhall endeavour to bear it with patience.” Yet ina
fpeech which fome time after he made again{t the criminal,
he addreffes him, “* Wretch, not to fee, that thou art not ac-
quitted, but referved only to a feparate trial, and heavier pu-
nifhment,”?
As the ele&tion of confuls approached, Cicero’s intereft ap-
peared to be fuperior to that of all the candidates: for the nobles
themfelves, though always envious and defirous to deprefs
him, yet, out of regard to the dangers which threatened the
city from many quarters, began to think him the only man
qualified to preferve the republic, and to break the cabals of
the defperate by the vigour and prudence of his adminritra-
tion. The method of choofing confuls was not by open
votes, but by ballots, or little tickets of wood, diftributed to
the citizens, with the namesof the candidates feverally in-
feribed upon each: but in the cafe of Cicero, the people
were not content with this feeret way of teftifying their in-
clinations, but before they came to any fcrutiny, loudly aud
univerfally proclaimed Cicero the firft conful, fo that, as he
himfelf declares, in his fpeech after the eleétion, “ he was
not chofen by the votes of particular citizens, but the com-
mon fuffrage of the city, not declared by the voiee of
the crier, but of the whole Roman people.”? He was
the only new man, who had obtained this fovercign dignity,
or, as he expreffes it, “¢ had forced the entrenchments of the
nobility for forty years paft, and the only one who obtained -
it in its-proper year, and without a repulfe.’”
Cicero, being thus arrived at the higheft honour, which a
citizen could defire, or the people beftow, employed his
talents with extraordinary faccefs in adminittering the affairs
of the republic; and, according to the unanimous teftimony
of all ancient writers, Rome never ftood in preater need of
the flcill and vigilance of an able conful than in this very
year. His firlt policy was to conciliate his colleague Anto-
nius, by affigning to him the belt province, at the expiration
of their year; and having by this factifice fecured his con-
currence, he made it the firft objeét of his adminiftration to
unite the equeftrian order with the fenate; and it was the
authority of his confulfhip that firit diftinguifhed and efta-.
blifhed the former into a third order of the ftate. About the
time of his inauguration, the tribune P. Servilius Rullus
propofed to the fenate an agrarian law, the obje& of which
was to appoint ten comimiflioners, with abfolute power for
five years, over the revenues and lands of the republic. The
promulgation of a law fo pernicious, however gratifying to
the populace, the new conful oppofed; and in a f{peech
delivered from the roitra, he gave fuch a tnrn to the incli-
nation of the people, that they rejected it with as much
eagernefs, as they had before evinced to receive it; afluring
them of his fixed determination ‘not to fuffer the ftate to be
injured, er its liberties impaired, while the adminiftration con:
tinued |
1G EB Qs
tinued in hishands, This was a ftriking inflance of the in-
fluence which his cloquence obtained over the paffions of
men; and the following is a {till more memorable proof of
his afcendancy in fwaying the public mind. Otho, who had
propofed a law for the affignment of feparate feats to the
equeftrian order, appearing foon after in the theatre, was uni-
verfally hifled by the people, while from the knights he re-
ceived the londeft applaufe. A tumult enfued, and Cicero,
informed of it, repaired to the theatre, and the confequence
ot hisaddrefs was, that the people vied with the knights in
applauding the man whom they before had hiffed; and it is
{uppofed, not without fome colour of truth, that the con-
duét of Cicero on this occafion gave birth to the beautiful
comparifon of Virgil in An. i. 152.157. About this time,
a formidable confpiracy was formed in the bofom of the re-
public: of this the chief author was Catiline, and with
him concurred a number of young men of diftin@ion, who
had facrificed their fame to their vices, and who fought to
repair their ruined fortunes by the diforders of the {tate.
Tne conful dste&ted and defeated their plans, and
claimed, by his fuccefs, the proud appellation of the faviour
of his country. See thearticle Catizine. In this year was
bora Odavius, firnamed Auguftus, an event, which, though
infignificant in itfelf, ferved by a concurrence of auipicious
circumftances to open a new zxra in the annals of Rome;
and it has been noticed as an inftance of the infcruiable ways
of Providence, and the fhort-fighted policy of man, that, in
the very year in which Cicero faved the republic from de-
flru& on, appeared an infant, who in a fhort time effected
what Catiline had in vain attempted, and deitroyed both
Cicero and the republic. Having attained the pinnacle of
ublic honours, he did not derive from his elevation that
Ene. influence, and popularity, which he expected to enjoy.
At the expiration of his office, he defired no foreign govern-
ment, no command of armies; his province was the fenate
and the forum; for the purpofe of guarding, as it were, ‘the
palladium of the empire, and direting all its counfels to their
proper end, the general good ; and in the advanced pott of a
confular fenator, the character which he chiefly coveted, as in a
watch tower of the fate, to ot fervélach threatening cloud and
ring ftorm, and to give the alarm ta his fellow citizens from
what quarter it was coming,and by what means itseficctsmight
be prevented. In this honourable itation he excited the
envy of the nobles, and the malignity of the profligate : and
the {plendour of the nobleit conful whom Rome ever beheld,
was loon followed by the difgrace of a voluntary banifhment.
The caufés which more immediately led to this extraordinary
event, claim, from their importance, a place in this narrative.
About this time J. Czfar returned from the government
of Spain, and Pompey from the Eaft, both celebrated by
their far-famed victories. ‘The former fought the conful-
fhip, while the latter endeavoured to obtain of the fenate the
honour of a triumph: but not fucceeding to the extent of
their ambitious views, they united with L. Craffus, a rich and
turbulent citizen, who hoped to raife himfelf by the antho-
rity of Pompey and the talents of Cafar. The object of
this coalition, which was called the firf triumvirate, and
which terminated in the diffolution of the republic, was to
extort that power by violence and bribery which was denied
by law, and as a neceflary ftep to this end, to detach Cicero,
the bulwark of the {tate, from the interelt of the fenate. In
the mean while P. Clodius, a young man of noble birth, and
great talents, but of abandoned morals, had an intrigue with
Pompeia, Cafar’s wife. But, as he could not eafily gain
accefs to her, he took the opportunity, while fhe was cele-
brating the myfteries of the goddefs Bona Dea at her own
houfe, to enter difguifed in a woman’s habit. . While he
was waiting in one ofthe apartments for Pompeia, he was
difcovered by a maid-fervant of Czfar’s mother; who imme-
diately giving the alarm, he was driven from this female fo-
ciety with great indignation. The ftory was prefently known,
and excited general abhorrence on account of the profanation
of rites held the moft facred. The citizens and the prieits de- ©
manded the punifhment of this bold impiety, and Cicero, con-
cealing fome political motives under the veil of religion, took
the lead in the profecution. It was the couitant belief of the
populace, fays le, “that if any man fhould ever pty into
thefe myfteries, he would be inftantly ftruck blind. But it
was not poffible to know the trnth of it before, fince no man
befides Clodius was bafe enough to make the experiment;
though it was now difcovered that the blindnefs Mace eyes
was converted to that of the mind.”? Clodius, though fo
obvioufly guilty, as, in the words of Hortenfius, to be de-
ftroyed with afword of lead, was yet acquitted by his corrupt
judges ; and to revenge the chief author of the profecution,
he adopted cffeétual means for his deftruction. Cz:far and -
Pompey, inorder to remove the chief obllacle to their am-
bition, and to render dependent upon them the illuttrious
obje& of their envy, though profeffedly friends to Cicero,
yet in reality concurred in the faction againit him, and by the
a‘option of Clodius, a nobleman, and therefore by birth in-
capable of being elefted tribune of the people, into a ple-
beian family, caufed him to be inveltcd with that office.
In this capacity, in order to gain the public favour, and to
humble his rival, he promulgated many laws, which, as they
were advantageous to the people, Cicero was advifed not to
oppoie. By thefe means, in which he difplayed talents and
perfeverance worthy ofa better caufe, Clodins unravelled the
graud plot of theyplay he was a€ting, obtaining a fpecial
law, that whoever had taken the life of a citizen uncon-
demned, and without a trial, fhould be prohibited from fire
and water, Cicero, though not named, was known to be
the perfon intended by the law. His reputed crime was the
putting Catiline’s accomplices to death; which, though not.
done by his fingle authority, but by a general vote of the
fenate, was alleged to be illegal, and contrary to the liberties
of the people. Thus reduced to the condition of a criminal,
Cicero changed Ais habit, as was ufual in the cafe of a public
impeachment, and appeared about the ftrects in a fordid
mourning gown, to excite the ccmpaflion of the citizens;
whilft Clodius, at the head of his mob, contrived in feveral
places to meet and infult him, reproaching him with cow-
ardice, and pelting him with flones, But he was refeued
from danger, though not proteéted from infults, by the
zeal of his friends, The whole body: of the knights, the
young nobility to the xumber of twenty thoufand, and the
greater part of the citizens changed their habits, and attended
him about the city to implore the protection and afliftance
of the people. But thefe humiliating meafures were prema-
ture, and the faction gained, from the dejection and precipi- -
tate fears of Cicero, that triumph which it would have loft
by a more manly and determined oppofition, His ene :
mies by their fuccefsful attacks increafed in number and
ftrength. The tribune Metellus, the confuls, Pifo and
Gabinius, were among his open foes. Czxfar, though un-
feen, was the principal agent in the plot, and the prote@ion |
of Pompey was implored in vain. In this extremity he
fummoned a council of his friends with intent to a& agree- |
able to their advice ; and propofed the queltion, Whether it
was beft to {tay in the city, and defend bimfelf by force, or
to prevent the effufion of blood by retreating till the ftorm
‘
fhould be over? Liucullus advifed the firlte but Cato and - :
Hortenfius warmly urged the laft expedient, which, fanc-
tioned by the authority of Atticus, and the entreaties of his_
. ’ family, -
ee ——— ee.
CGE R*Ge
family, induced him to leave the field in the pofleffion of his
enemies, and fubmit to a voluntary exile. The mind of Ci-
cero, however elevated by fuperior genius, was, in feafons of
danger, abje&, timid, and undetermined. He wifhed indeed
to prevent the effufion of blood, but there is reafon to be-
lieve that the blood which by his precipitate retreat he de-
fired principally not to fhed, was his own: and when the
hardfhips of banifhment rendered him fenfible of his coward-
ice, he bitterly reproached himfelf, in his letters to Terentia
and Atticus, for not having taken up arms, and refolutely
withftood the violence of Ciodius. With his profperity
Cicero loft his dignity, and there is no period of his life in
which his character appears lefs refpeCtable than in his afflic-
tions. The letters which he addreffed to his friends, and
which convey the only knowledge we have of him during his
banifhment, are filled with bitter complaints of the infince-
rity of his friends, his own mifcondudt, and regret that he
did not put an end to his life. ** Your advice,’’ fays he, in
one of his letters to Atticus, ** has reftrained me from doing
violence to myfelf. But your encouragements have not been
able to reconcile me to the courfe I have followed, and to
the life I lead. For what is there for which I fhould now
defire to live, efpecially if I am difappo‘nted in the hopes
earried with me out of Rome. I will not, indeed I willnot,
recount all the miferies into which I have fallen, through
the unexampled wickednefs of the men who envied, rather
than of thofe who hated me, left I fhould awake to all the
horrors of my conditicn, and you to a fenfe of my forrows.
One thing I affirm, never was a man oppreffed with fuch a
weight of calamity; never had a man more reafon to implore
death. Buc the time is irrecoverably paft, when I might
have died with glory. The remainder of my days cannot re-
pair, they can only finifh my miferies.”” His friend nfed
every means to confole and fupport him, reproves his abject
Tamentations, and exprefles his apprehenfions that his under-
ftanding was impaired by exceffive grief. Too this he replies,
© You often accufe me with being too much dejefed under
my misfortunes ; but you ought to forgive me this weak-
nefs: for you never faw, you never heard, of any fo diftreffed
as Tam. You tell me that my fufferings have affeGed my un-
derftanding. This is not true ; and I wifh my judgment had
been equally clearand found at the time I united with thofe
hottile and cruel traitors, whom I imagined to be the beft
friends to my perfon and welfare; thofe who, when they
faw fme indifpofed’ from apprehenfion to accord with their
views, had recourfe to all the zris of perfidy as means to ef-
fe& my ruin”? Lib. tii. 14.
Inthe mean time Clodius proceeded againft him with un-
abated fury, caufed a law to pafs that no on= fheuld receive
him, or make any motion for recalling him, under pain of
death, plundered his magnificent villas, and, after deltroying
his houfe in Rome, confecrated the {pot to the perpetual
fervice of relizion, and upon it built a temple to the goddefs
Liberty. Embol!dened by thefe fuccefles, he now began to
act without the confent of, and even in oppofition to, bis chief
fupporters.. The implacable refentment of Clodius towards
a fallen adverfary, or the dread of his power, now grown
formidable, induced Pompey-at length to efpoufe the caufe
of Cicero; but unwilling to take any ftep'for his reftoration,
without the concurrence of Cefar, he fent Sextius with dif-
patches to Spain to foiicit his confent and influence. Me-
tellus, now advanced to the confulfhip, from fear of offend~
ing Pompey, no longer aéted with open hoftility, and Len-
tulus, his colleazue, was the aétive and decided friend of
Cicero. Vigorous, though indire&t and partial, meafures
were now adopted to effe&t his recal. ‘Tne honeft citizens
were invited to Rome from alt parts of Traly, and entertained
with public fhows. The fenators held him upon all public
occafions as the faviour of their country; plays were aéted
with pointed reference to the illuftrious exile, and the trage-
dian Aifopus, in the character of the banifhed Telamon, was
received with enthufialtic applaufe. After repeated efforts,
defeated by the fkill and vigilance of Clodius, the law for his
reftoration was ratified, in the moft numerous aflembly of
citizens which Rome ever contained: and this ratification
was probably the laft a& of juftice and freedom, which the
republic ever exercifed.
The day of his return to Rome was the 4th of Augutt,
after an inglorious abfence of 18 months. As he approach~
ed the city, multitudes from all parts flocked to fee and te
congratulate him, All the towns of Italy decreed him pub-
lic honours, and fent him a deputation of their chiefs to tef-
tify their joy at his return, and it has been emphatically faid
of him by Plutarch, that he was carried back upon the
fhoilders of Italy. ‘* That one day,” fays he, ** was worth
an immortality, when, on my approach towards the city,
the fenate came out to receive me followed by the whole
body of the citizens, as if Rome itlelf had left its founda-
tions, and marched forward to embrace its preferver.”?
His firft at, after being reftored to his rank, though not
to his property, was, in eloquent and affeGing {peeches
to thank the fenate and the people for the ative part which
they took in his reftoration. Gratitude in the heart of
Cicero was a principle of refiged fenfibility, which knew no
reftraint from reafon, or any limitation from the duties,
which he owed to the interefts of the Republic. To Len-
tulus, now governor of Cilicia, he evinced his fenfe of obli-
gation by endeavouring with unwearied efforts to authorife
him, with the confent of the fenate, to reftore Ptolemy, a
profligate and cruel prince, to the throne of Egypt. The
great concourfe of citizens'in Rome from the different parts
of Italy, had occafioned a temporary fearcity, which was
feverely. felt by the common people: and in order to reftore
plenty to the city, he propofed that Pompey fhould be in-
vefted with an abfolute power over all the public-ttores of the
empire. Thé motion pafled into.a law; avd Pompcy was
authorifed for five years to fuperintend all the provifions of
the Republic, with the power of choofing fifteen officers to
aét as his deputies. Cefar, who was now in the full career
of viétory in Gaul, fent the fenate a requelt that money
might be decreed him for the payment of his army, and his
command be prolonged five years more. The demand,
though exorbitant, was fupported by Cicero, who alleged
that the courfe of his vi€tories ought not to be checked by
the want of néceflary fupplies, while he was fo glorioufly
extending the bounds of the empire, and conquering nations,
whofe names had never before been heard at Rome. His
obj:& no doubt was to conciliate Czlar, and more fully to
evince his devotion to Pompey. But his condu& was an evi-
dent deviation from his own principles; and the patriots, his
former friends, charged him with apoftacy, who, with Cato
at their head, appear now to have formed a party againlt
him. Ina letter addreffed to the pro-conful Lentulus, he
juftifies himfelf with great ingenuity and elegance.. ‘* It ap-
pears to me,” fays he, ‘to be the diate ‘of found policy,
to aét in accommodation to particular conjunctures, and not
inflexibly to purfue the fame unalterable {cheme, when pub-
lic circumftances, together with the} fentiments of the belt
and wifeft members of the community, kre evidently changed.
In conformity to this hotion, the moft judicious reafoners on
the great art of government have univerfa!ly condemned an
obftinate perfeverance in one uniform tenor of meafures. The
fkill of the pilot is fhewn in weathering the ftorm at lealt,
though he fhould not gain his port, but if thifting his ai
ey aba,
CIC E RO.
and changing his dire@tion, fhould infallibly carry him with
{ecurity into the intended harbour, would it not be an ine
itance of moft unreafonable tenacioufnefs to continue in the
more hazardons courfe, wherein he began his voyage ? Thus
(aud it isa maxim I have often had occalion to inculcate)
Uhe point we ought all of us to keep in view in our edmini-
{tration of the commonwea'th, is the final enjoyment of an
honeurable repofe. But the method of fecuring to our-
{elves this dignity of retreat, is by having been invariable io
our intentions for the public welfare, and not by a poflitive
perfeyerance in certain favourite modes of obtaining it. ‘l'o
repeat, therefore, what I jult now declared, had I been ab-
folutely uninfluenced by every motive of friendfhip, I fhould
full have purfued the fame public meafures in which 1 am now
eegaged. But when gratitude and refentment both con-
{pire in recemmending this fcheme of ation to me, I cannot
hefitate a moment in adopting it, efpecially fince it appcars
moft conducive to the interefts of the republic in general, as
well as to my_own in particular. To {peak freely, I a& up-
on this principle, fo much the more frequently and with the
lefs referve, not only as my brother is lieutenant under
Czxfur, but as the latter receives the flighteft,a@ion or even
word of lim in his favour with an air, that evidently fhews
he confiders them as obligations of the moft fenfible kind.
And, in fa&, I derive the fame benefit from that popularity
and power which you know he poffeffes, as if they were fo
many advantages of my own, he fum of the whole in ‘hort
is this, L imagined that I had no other method of counter-
acting thofe perfidious defigns, with which a certain party
were fecretly contriving to undermine me, than by thus
uniting the friendfhip and protection of the men in power,
with thofe internal aids which have never yet been wanting
to my fupport.” With equal feverity and truth it has been
remarked, that the principles by which Cicero attempts to
juftify himfelf in this epiftle are fuch as will equally defend
the moft abandoned proftitution and defertion in political
condu&. Perfonal gratitude and refentment; an eye to
private and particular intereft, mixed with a pretended re-
gard to the public good; an attention to a brother’s ad-
vancement and farther favour ; a fenfibility on being careff-d
‘by a great man in power; a calculation of the advantages,
_derived from the popularity and credit of that great man to
one’s own perfonal intereft, are very weak foundations indeed
to fupport the fuperitrudure of a true patriot’s charaéter.
Yet thefe are the principles which Cicero here avows and
defends.
The ambitious chiefs, Pompey and Cxfar, whofe unicn
was cemented only by views of intereft, began at length to
be at variance; an event accclerated by the death of Julia,
who was tenderly beloved by both. ‘The fenate, in general,
were in the intereft of Pompey, who, confiding in the name
and authority of fo great a leader, were determined to hum-
ble the pride and ambition of his rival, by re-calling him
from his government ; whilft Cafar, on the other hand,
relying on the fidelity of his troops, refolved to keep
pofieflion of his power, in defiance of the fenate. This was
the commencement of the civil war, which terminated in the
deftruétion of the commonwealth, and in the final misfor-
tunes of Cicero. In this pofture of affairs, Cicero was in-
duced to accept the government of Cilicia, a charaéter
which he never before fultained, and which he was anxious to
decline, or, at leaft, not to prolong, though in the eftimation
of reafon it comprehends the moft honourable period of his
tife. He formed the generous refolution of practifing in
his provincial command thofe admirable rules which he had
previoufly drawn up for his brother, and from an employment
to which he feems totally averfe, of gaining frefh acquif-
tion of glory and fatisfaction, by leaving his adminiftration
as a model of juftice and integrity to all fucceeding pro-
confuls, To his friend Atticus, he tranfmitted a minute
account of his proceedinzs, and it would be injutitice to his
memory not to make a (hort extra of his detail. “il pers
ccive that my moderation and difintereitednefs give you
pleafure; but how would it be enhanced, had you been
here in perfor? Many cities had the whole of their debts
cancelled ; many were greatly relieved, while all of them,
being judged by their own laws and in their own forms,
recovered their {pirits by thus recovering their conftitution,
I have given thofe cities a power of keeping themfeives free
of debt, or making their debts very eafy by two means ; the
one, that, during the whole time of my government, I have
not put them, and I fpeak without a figure, to one farthing
of expence, I repeat it, not to a fingle farthing. Tt is incre-
dible how many cities have difcharged their debts from this
fingle circumftance. ‘The other mean was the following :
They were greatly plundered by thofe among the matives,
who, for ten years paft, had been their maziftrates, and
who did not fcruple to acknowledge the fact ; and, there-
fore, to prevent a public cesfure, with their own hands re-
turned the money to the people. By thcfe means, the
fubjeéts, without any difficulty, have paid to our farmers of
the revenue all the land tax for this term, of which, till
then, they paid nothing, and their arrears of the lat. In
all the other departments of my government, I proceeded
with fimiar addrefs, and my clemency has been joined to
unexampled affability. In giving my audiences, I have laid
afide the formalities adopted by other provincial governors,
I (affer no application to be made to my dependengs, but
directly ‘to myfelf, Before day-break, I walk about in my
houfe, as I ufed formerly to do. when I ftood for publicy
offices. This condefcenfion fecures me popularity and in-
fluence, and I was formerly fo accuftomed to it, that it gives
me as yet no pain.”?” How many millions of human beings
would have been rendered happy if all the governors of the
provinces could, with equal truth, have given a fimilar ac-
count of their adminiftration ! His condu& in this, as well
-as in many other refpeéts, proves that Cicero was naturally
difpofed to be on the fide of ‘the people, and a foe to op-
preffion ; that he delighted in ats of jultice and beneficence,
and that, however defirous of diltinGion, he had more
pleafure in communicating happinefs to others than in accu-
mulating to an immoderate extent the means of happinefs to
himfelf ; and that he never deviated from the true interelts
of his country, or fupported the claims of ambition, but
when allured by the fplendid accomplifhments, or aided by
the high authority, of the claimants. As a commander,
he made a lefs enviable figure. Nature did not intend
Cicero for a foldier; yet, by fome fuccefsful movements
again{t the Parthians, and fome advantages over the inhabit-
ants of Mount Amanus, and of the town Pandeniflum (a
name which, however {trange to Atticus, meant only @ city
on the hill, and conveys the fame meaning with Penthinas
in Celtic, or Bewouduve%ax in Greek), he received the title of
“ Imperator,” and returned home with Jaurelled lors,
claiming the honour of a triumph, and foliciting a decree
of thank/giving. When the quettion for this decree was
. difeuffed in the fenate, Cato rofe and expreffed his opinion,
that the military achievements of the commander little de-
ferved notice, but that his difinterefted condud as a go-
vernor was fuch, that if triumph were decreed to virtues as
“
well as,to viGories, he merited a thoufand. Of this fine .
compliment, beltowed by fo great a man, Cicero was in-
6 - formed,
CRCiE'R O-
formed, and he thus {peaks of it to Atticus; ‘ The man
who oppofed that meafure did me more honour than triumphs
can beitow.”
The civil war, the fparks of which began to appear before
his departure, was now fully kindled on his return to Rome ;
and the firlt wifh of his heart was to extinguifh the flame
between the contending parties, thinking, as he himfelf ex-
reffes it, that ‘* peace between citizens, however unfavour-
able the terms, was more advantageous than the moft juiti-
fiable war.”? But his hopes of accommodation, while Cefar
folicited his interference for that purpofe, were frultrated by
the ftubboranefs of Pompey, who exprefled his determina-
tion either to conquer or to die in the caufe of liberty,
though he afterwards acted with a precipitation which for-
feited all confidence either in his fkiil or his courage. Sup-
ported as he was by the /eoate, ihe patriots, by all the vir-
tuous citizens and the united forces of the republic, he left
fraly with its municipal towns, Rome with all its trealures,
to be the prey of Czfar, which he feized with the rapacity
and fwiftnefs of a vulture. Elis unaccountable condest in
this refpect induced him to charge Pompey with inability ;
and regarding him as one who had been guilty of failing
out of harbour without a rudder, and commtiting himfelf to
the mercy of the ftorm, he long hefitated to follow him be-
yond fea. Yet he was too much attached from gratitude
and from principle ‘to the caufe of Pompey, however he
might waver, finally to abandon it. ‘This leader, indeed,
Cicero knew was tyrannical in his views, and too prone to imi-
tate the profcriptions of Sylla; but, upon the whole, he
confidered him as the champion of public liberty, or, at
leaft, the country had lefs to dread from his ernelties than
from the ambition of his rival. On the other hand, Cxfar he
confidered as a bold defperate citizen, who wifhed to {ubvert
the civil conftitution, and to accumulate in himfelf the whole
powers of the ftate. < Poffeffed,?? fays he to Atticus, “ of
a powerful army, multitudes joining him from hopes and
promifes: his ambition gra{ps every object. Such is the
man to whom Rome, deprived of the means of defence, but
fiored with riches, has been furrendered. What have we
not to apprehend from one who looks upon Rome, with all
her edifices, public and private, not as his country but his
prey? Miftaken wretched man ! infenfibie to every idea of
true glory! He pretends that all he does is to maintain his
dignity. But can dignity exilt without virtue? Is it com-
patible with virtue to continue at the head of his army,
without the voice of the people to authorize him, and to
f{eize cities inhabited by Romans, that he may open to him-
{elf a more eafy paflage to the heart of his country ? Not to
mention the cancelling of the national debts, the recal of the
banifhed, and a thoufand crimes that are yet to be perpe-
trated, before he can rear the temp!e of tyrannic power, the
only deity he worlhips. I do not envy his greatnefs. I
had rather {pend one day with you in the funny walks
of Lucretum, than be a monarch over innumerable king-
doms acquired by guilt like his. 1 had tather die a thou-
fand deaths than harbour fuch an idea at the expence of my
country. You think, you willfay, for yourlelf. And is
there a wretch who is not at liberty to think? But I
repeat it, J think the man who aéts in this manner is more
miferable than the wretch who lies exteaded on the wheel.
There ig but one mifery beyond it, and that is fucceeding
in the attempt.” f
Thefe fentiments have their proper place affigned them in
the Cato of Addifon, but are too much coloured by pafiion
to correfpond with the real features of truth ; and in the
letters which he fent to Cxfar, he {peaks of him in terms fo
different, that they brought upon himthe imputation of adu-
Vou. VIII,
lation and fervility. Contrary to the general apprehenfion,
Cefar behaved with uncommon clemency ; and Cicero him-
felf, notwithitanding his petulance, experienced his forbear~
ance, Having triumphed over Italy by his humanity, he,
about a year after, defeated his rival at Pharfalta. Cicero
was not prefent at the battle, having, from indifpofition or
chagrin, ftayed behind at Dyrthachium. He refolved to
give the ufurper no farther oppofition, but to devote, in re-
tirement, the remainder of his days to letters and philofophy.
He was advifed by Atticus to addrefs an epiftle to Czfar, in
commendation of his clemency and his military achieve-
ments, direéting him, at the fame time, in the ufe-of his
victories and the adminiftration of the empire. | This letter
was compofed, but, for fear of giving offence to fome of
Cafar’s dependents, was never fent. It appears to have
been written in a fiyle of uncommon elegance, and the
manly freedom with which he addrefled the tyrant, wovld,
if preferved, have refleGied great honour on his memory
What he fays to Atticus in refpeé& to it is well deferving of
being tranfcribed ; ** You are no itranger to thofe perfuafive
addrefles which were made to Alexander by men of ¢lo-
quence and learning. ‘They addreffeda young prince, fired
with the love of the trueft glory, and panting for thole
counfels which lead to the fummit of unperifhable fame,
Eloquence is not wanting, when it is infpired by 2 fubject
truly glorious. This in Czfar 1 donot poffefs. Neverthe-
lefs, trom the untowardly materials of the oak, I have
carved, if not the image of true glory, yet fomething that
bears the refemblance of it, and becaufe fome features in it
are wrought with more exa¢tnefs than thofe ufually delineat-
ed, they are cenfured.”
He rejoiced in the affaffination of Cxfar by Brutus and
Caflius, though he had no previous knowledge.of the con-
fpiracy. ‘The hope of faving the country induced him again
to take an active part in public affairs, aud by his eloquence
and authority he prevented Antony from fucceeding to the
empire. But betrayed by OGtavius, whofe caufe he had cf-
poufed, he was delivered up to the vengeance of his rival.
The triumvirs agreed to divide the empire among them-
felves, and to place Cicero at the head of the profcription.
This at firlt was kept a fecret ; but before it tranfpired, it
was confidentially imparted to him while with his brother and
nephew at his Tufcan villa. He firft fled towards Aflura,
with the intent of croffing the fea, but after embarking, the
wind proving contrary, and the fea tempeltuous, he landed
at Circeum, in order to repole in his Formian villa, weary of
life, and declaring that he would die in that country which
he had fo often faved. His fervants, anxious for his prefer-
vation, prevailed upon him to be conveyed away in the
motaing. As foonas he was gone, the foldiers fent in pur-
fuit of him, arrived at the houfe, and perceiving that he was
fled, they haltened towards the fea-coaft, and overtook him
in’a wood, where they cut off his head and hands, and in
triumph returned with them towards Rome. Antony or-
dered the head to be fixed on the roftra between the two
hands, and rewarded Popilius, the leader of the foldiers,
with the honour of a civic crown, and the fum of eight
thoufand pounds. The whole city lamented the cruel fate
of this eminent man, and wept at the fight of thofe mem-
bers, once glorioufly exerted in defence of the laws, the li-
berties, and the fortunes of the Roman people, but now ig-
nominioufly expofed in that very place, to the feorn of fyco-
phants and traitors. His death occafionéd univerfal forrow;
it was confidered as the final triumph of defpotifm, and his
blood as cementing the perpetual flavery of Rome. The
writers of the Auguftanage hav¢ paffed over this cruel deed
with inglorious filence, and fought to draw over the cruelty
S of
CO BCIESR.O,
of Antony and the perfidy of O@avius, the veil of eternal
oblivion. Yet Patercnlus could not refrain from the follow-
ing beautiful expoltulation: “ Thon haft done nothing;
Antony ; halt done noting, I fay, by fetting. a price on
that divine and illuftrious head, and by a deteltable reward
procuring the death of fo great a conful and preferver of the
republic. Thou hait fnatched from Cicero a troublefome
being, a declining age, a life more miferable under thy do-
minion than life itfelf; but fo far from diminifhing, thou
hait but increafedthe glory of his deeds and fayings. He lives,
and will live, inthe memory of all ages ; and as long as this
fyltem of nature, whether formed by chance or providence,
which he of all others belt comprehended in his mind, and
illuftrated by his eloquence, fhall remain unchanged, it wiil
perpetuate the praifes of Cicero; and pofterity, while they
will admire hia writings agatn{t thee, will curfe thy deed
agdin{t him.”
About the time of his confulfhip Cicero married Terentia,
a lady of family and fortune, who fhared in the trials of his
banifhment with great firmnefs, and whom he then appears
to have tenderly loved, but whom for fome domettic
grievance, at which he delicately hints in a letter to Atticus,
he afterwards divorced. By Terentia he had a fon anda
danghter. The fon, with all the advantages of education
‘and example, inherited neither the talents nor the virtues of
his father; but the daughter, as fhe merited, poffeffed in an
eminent degree his affeétions. She was firft married to Pifo,
a young nobleman of great promife; but being Icft a
widow in the bloom of youth, fhe again married Craflipes,
and afterwards Dolabella, from whom, without any imputa-
tion on her chaftity and- honour, fhe was fucceflively
divorced. She died of child-birth in the thirty-fecond year
of her age. Her father’s grief was exceflive. Retired from
the world, and fecluded even from his friends, he adopted
the lingular expedient of addrefling to himfelf letters of
confolation, and we owe to his feclufion at that period, many
of thofe philofophical treatifes, which have fince delighted
and inftruéted the world. Thinking her deferving of im-
mortality, he had the weaknefs to feek her deification on
earth, by erecting a temple in memory of her name and
worth. Cicero believed the immortality of the human foul;
but on the abfurd principle derived originally from the
Chaldeans, that, being a particle of the deity, and exiiting
previoufly to the prefent, itwould continue to exift in a future
tate. A faith thus borrowed from fuperttition, and unfup-
ported by the force of truth, could have little effet upon
his conduét, and he feems to have derived no comfort from
the hope of being again reftored to his beloved offspring.
In a letter to Atticus refpeéting the death of a common
friend, he urges the confolatory maxim, that * we are born
on the condition of fubmitting to ail the calamities entailed
on our nature.’? But thie fentiment, however beautiful, is
calculated rather to filence than ‘to foothe complaint; and
yet this is the farthelt limit to which the light of natural
religion extends. The difciple of nature under affliction
may ceale to grieve, becaufe to grieve is unavailing ; be-
caufe the caufe of his forrows is the inevitable lot of man.
But the believer in revelation poffetis fources of real
confolation even in circumftances of the greatelt diltrefs.
~ Deprived of his dearetl friends and relatives, and even in the
prolpeétrof his own death, he Ivoks through the evidences
of chriltianity to a renewed and more exelted being. His
fears therefore are changed into refignation, and his forrows
fubfide into ferevity and joy.
The perfon of Cicero was tall and flender, with a long
neck, but regular and manly features. His deportmenc
was dignified and commanding, yet enlivened by cheer-
fulnefs and ferenity. Though naturally weak, his ‘con-
ftitution was made capable, by habit and difcipline, of
fupporting all the fatigues of aétion and of iftudy;
while his moderation in refpeét to diet, with regular
exercife, infured him perpetual health and vizour. His
temper was open and communicative; his attachments,
domettic and focial, were warm and violent, but liable to
change or abate with the change of obje¢is =r fituation.
While his connection with Atticus taught and exemplified
the principle of genuine friendfhip, his frequent recon-
ciligtion, and even exertion in behalf of thofe who had been
his bittereft enemies, prove that he poffcfled a forgiving and
placable heart. His manner was free from the afleétation
of fingularity ; and in his drefs he avoided the oppofite ex-
tremes of ruftic negligence and foppith delicacy. His villas,
his gardens, and his ftudies were highly magnificent, adorned
with the moft valuable monuments of art, and the mol
expenfive articles of furniture. The ftyle of living, which
he conceived fuitable to his rank, and of entertaming his
friends, was liberal to profulion, He feemed to think that
money, with whatever toils acquired, fhould be chiefly fpent
by a man of rank, in the gratification of tafte. The want
of economy and attention to his domeftic affairs, fometimes
occafioned embarraffment to himfeif and loffes to his friends ;
and he,whofe talents enabled him to lay the whole commu-
nity under tribute, was often under pecuniary obligations to
inferior or obfeure individuals. But his predominant failing
was vanity. He knew the extent of his own powers; he
felt the high eltimation in. which he was held as a fcholar,
an orator, and a [tatefman; he was fenfible of the favours
which his knowledge or his eloquence had conferred upon the
peblic, and no commendaticn that might appear inadequate ©
to the extent of his merits, could fatisfy his appetite for praife.
The parade with which he often fpeaks of his condu& in
the republic, or in the government of Cilicia; the franknefs,
with which he extols the eloquence of his own compofitions,
or the effeéts of his fpeeches, his requeft to Lucceius to
write the annals of his confullhip, and to praife him, even
at the expence of truth, are unfortunately ftill recorded to ~
perpetuate his weaknefs. But thefe imperfections, though
they might detraét from the dignity, did not impair the
moral excellence of his charaéter. Few perfons in chriftian
countries, and none in his own age, were upon the whole fo
free from vice. He wasan entire {tranger to the fordid paffions - -
of luftand avarice; and however vain, irrefolute,or meonfiftent
a part he fometimes ated, he does not appear ever to have
committed a crime. His candour in the various relations of —
life exeniplified the leffons of morality which his writings
inculcate; and they are unqueltionably the belt and pureft _
of which heathen antiquity can boalt. (
His chara@er as an orator and plilofopher is too well
known to needa minute delineation. His powers of writing
and {peaking fhone with unrivalled luftie; and his name
foon became fynonymous with that of eloquence. Ac-
cording to the unanimous opinion of critics, he poffeffed
in an eminent degree the qualities of a tine fpeaker, a pow-
erful voice, acommanding figure, graceful action, a brilliant
imagination, a happy turn for wit and raillery, a correét
tafte, and a found judgment; with a memory retentive and
enriched with all the poffible varieties of knowledge, which
inceflant {tudy, active curiolity, converfation with the learned,
and acquaintance with books could fupply. With thefe
endowments he foon rofe above all competition. At the |
commencement of his judicial career, he eclipfed the famed
Hortenfius; and in the meridian of his glory, the forum and
the fenate ferved but as a throne to raife him above others,
and to difplay to the view, not only of the empire, sa
or
‘
cic
of furrounding nations and diftant ages, the royalty and
magnilicence of his genius, It was his chief ambition, as he
‘profited by the example, to rival the fame of Demotthenes ;
and if he did not poffefs the fire and energy of the Greek
orator, he furpaff-d him in readinefs of elocution, in the
harmony of his periods, and in the richnefs and variety of
his fentiments. With all the predilection of taite, even in
modern days, his ftyle however is not deemed perfect ; and
he appears to have been difapproved by his contemporaries,
Brutus and Varro, as well as his admired critic Quintilian,
for the technical uniformity of his arrangements, his fre-
quently frigid attempts at wit, for the exuberance of his
fancy, and the diffufenefs of his fentiments.
As a philofopher, he may be faid to have been a difciple
and imitator of Piato, whom he admired to enthufiafm, and
to whofe dignified {tyle and enlarged principles, he acknow-
ledged himfelf more indebted than to the artificial rules of
rhetoric. In his fcientitic difquilitions, he avoids the rigour
of the ftoics, and the uncertainty of the fceptics; and -
againfi the Epicureans, he maintains the exiltence of a fu-
preme being ; the doctrine of a providence ; the immor-
tality of the human foul; and the natural, immutable
difference between good and evil. But thefe important
principles he adopted, rather on the authority of the
academy, as confonant with reafon and virtue, than as the
refult of his own inquiry, and brought home to his convic-
tion by irrefragable argument. We cannot therefore won-
der, that, however they might amufe his underitanding,
they had little influence on his heart, or that he fhould have
been more fuccefsful in demolifhing the opinions of his ad-
verfaries, than in defining or eltablifhing his own. Cicero was
the firft Roman, Lucretius excepted, who difcuffed, in Latin,
the philofophy of Greece; and the feveral treatifes which
iffued from his pen on that fubject enriched the language,
and enlarged the ideas of his countrymen. Ot Grecian
literature in all its branches, he had a profound and extenfive
knowledge. The perfpicuity with which he ftates the
tenets of the refpeétive {chools, the frequency with which he
quotes or alludes to paflages in their philofophers, orators,
aad poets, prove that their writings had not only paffed
through his hands, but were ftill retained in his memory.
He could write and fpeak the Greek tongue with fluency ;
but fome errors which he has committed, fuggeft a fulpi-
cion that his knowledge of it was more {pecious than folid,
and that he was inferior in critical flcill to his friend Atticus.
See Tofcul. Difp. iv. 22. compar. with Dr. Clarke’s
note on Hom. Il. vi. 214. Guth. Tranflation of his Let-
ters to Attic. b. xiii. 21, laft edition. Many of his writings
are loft; but thofe which remain, will preferve and en-
dear his name, as long as literature is cultivated among
men. |
Tne works of Cicero, which are very numerous, have
been commonly diftributed into four claffes, comprehend-
ing “ Rhetorical Treatifes,’’ ‘‘ Orations,” ‘* Philofophical
Works,” and “ Epiitles.””? Of the firft clafs the moft valuable
are his three dialogues: ‘* De Oratore,”’ the art of oratory,
addreffed to his brother Quintus; his book ‘* De Claris
Oratoribus,” on illuftrious orators, entitled, * Brutus; ”’
and his * Orator,”’ the orator, addreffed to Brutus. ‘The
number of ‘ Orations ”’ remaining under his name, amount
to fifty-fix ; and whilft they comprehend the whole of his
public life, they contain a treafure not only of eloquence,
but of other matters pertaining to hiftory wnd jurifprudence.
The matter of his “ Philofophical Works” was borrowed
from the Grecian fchool ; of thefe, the principal that treat
_of the philofophy of nature are “ De Natura Deorum, ” a
dialogue eloquently difplaying the opinions of the Stoics
GC
and Epicureans,) concerning the divine nature; * De
Divinatione et Fato,” exhibiting his fuperiority to the
fuperititions of his age and country; ‘* Somnium Scipio-
nis,’ founded on the Platonic doctrines, concerning the
foul of the world, and the ftarce of human fouls after
death. One of the motft elaborate of Cicero’s works that,
relate to moral philofophy is entitled “ De Finibus,’’ and
difcufles the opinions of the Grecian feéts with regard to
moral ends. His ‘‘ Quetliones Tufculane” treat of the
contempt of pain and death, the remedies of grief and men-
tal pertubation, and the fufficiency of virtue to a happy life.
His treatife “ De Officiis” is an excellent fummary of
pra€tical ethics, chiefly upon the principles of the Stoics.
His ** Queftiones Academice”’? contain his own opinions
more directly than any other of his works. His dialogues
entitled * Cato ” and ** Lelius* are very elegant pieces of
moral writing. In his book ** De Legibus”’ he explains the
grounds of jurifprudence. His ‘¢ Epiitles,’? which are
denominated ‘* Familiar”? with peculiar propriety, afford
excellent fpecimens of the ftyle adapted to fuch compofitions,
and abound with various matter, political and domettic.
The fuppreffion of Cicero’s * Poetry * has done no injury,
to his reputation. i
The editions of Cicero’s works, whole or in part, have
been very numerous; of the former, fome of the beft are
Elzevir’s, 10 vols. 12mo. L. Bat. 1642. Gronovii, 11 ,
vols. 12mo. 2 vols. 4to. Amit. 1692. Verburgii, 16 vols.
Svo. 2 vols. fol. Amlt.1724. Oliveti, g vols. 4td. Paris,
1740. Ernefti, 6 vols. 8vo. Hale. 177377. Lalle=
mand, 14 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1768. Oxford, 10 vols. 4to.
Of his feparate works, all that have been edited by Grevius,
Pearce, and Davis, merit recommendation. Mott of his
produétions have been tranflated into various languages.
Melmoth’s verfions of the ‘* Epift. ad Familiares,”? and of
the treatifes on old age and friendfhip, are the beft attempts
of this kind in the Englifh language. An improved edition
of Guthrie’s tranflation of Cicero’s Epiftles to Atticus, with
many additional notes, by Mr. J. Jones, in 3 vols. appeared
in 1806., Of the various lives of Cicero, that of Melmoth is
the moft complete, though it has too much the air of a
continued panegyric orapology, Aikin’s Gen. Biog.
CicEro, in Geography, a military townfhip of America,
in New York, on the S.W. fide of Oneida lake, and be-
tween it, the Salt lake, and the Salt {prings.
CICERONIASTRIL, or Crcerontant, in the Hiffory
of Literature, an appellation given to thofe moderns who
difpute the propriety of all expreffions and words not
found in Cicero, Such was the eflimation in which the
Roman orator was held as a writer, that his admirers will
not allaw that he was ever equalled; and, accordingly, they
fay of him that no fentiment occurs, in common with him
and any other author, which is not beft expreiled by Cicero.
Hence arofe the enthufiafm excited by his works foorf after
the revival of literature, and the above-mentioned appel-
lation. :
CICERUM lapis, the chich flone, in Natural Hiftory, a
name given by fome authors to a fort of {mall round ftones,
of the nature of the pifolithe or pea-ftones, but {maller
than thofe ufually are, and’of a dufky grey colour, They
very exactly refemble the fruit of the cicer or chich-pea,
and are found in great abundance near the Old Je-
rufalem.
CICHALIX, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia
Minor, towards Bithynia.
CICHORACE 24, in Botany, the firft natural order in
the tenth clafs of Juffieu, with the following character ;
Filorcts all itrap-fhaped and hermaphrodite, either entire or
53 toothed
cic
toothed at the tip. .Common calyx of various forms. Siig-
mas two to each floret. Seed naked or downy. Receptacle
naked or befet with hairs or chaff. The whole plant lactetcent,
herbaceous, often caulefcent. Leaves alternate. Flowers
generally yellow.
Jufficu has followed Vaillant io dividing this order into
five fe&tions, which, though not perfeétly natural, he thinks
ufeful, and therefore not to be difcarded. 1. Receptacle
naked; feed not downy; J/ampfana, rhagadiolus. 2. Re-
ceptacle naked ; feed downy ; down capillary; prenanthes,
chondrilla, laéiuca, fonchus, hieracium, crepis, drepania, he-
dypnais, hysferis, taraxacum. 3. Receptacle naked; feeds
downy, down feathery ; leontodon, picris, helmintia, /corzo-
nera, tragopogon, urofpermum. 4. Receptacle chafly or
hairy; down feathery or capillary ; geropogon, hypocheris,
feriola, andryala. 5. Receptacle chatiy ; down awned or
none; catananche, cichorium, feolymus. Ventenat has
adopted the above divifion, only adding arnoferis, which he
has formed into a diltinét genus for hyoferis minima of
Linnzus, on account of its ftriated feeds, crowned with an
ereét, coriaceous, entire border.
CICHORIO affnis, Pluk. Amalth. tab. 380, fig. 2.
See SirGESBECKIA orientalis.
CICHORIUM, (xixupn and xx0p107 ; Theophratt. Jib.
5. cap. 7. and lib. 7. cap. 11.) It is faid by Pliny to be an
Egyptian name, adopted by the Greeks. It was fometimes
written xixopeioy, whence the
‘ “© Cichorea levefque Malvz”? |
of Horace. The futile attempts of modern etymologifts to
derive it from the Greek are too contemptible to be noticed.
Linn. Gen. g2r. Schreb. 1251. Willd. 1427. Jufl. 171.
Vent. volii. 492. Gert. 906. Tourn. Cl. 13. §.2. Gen.
3. Chichorée; Lam. Encyc. Ill. Pl. 658. Ciafs and
order, /yngenefia polygamia equalis. Nat. ord. Compofite femi-
frofeulofe, Linn. Cinarocephale, Jull.
Gen. Ch. Cal. calycled or compofed of two ranks of
fcales; inner fcales commonly about eight, narrow-lanceo-
Jate, forming a cylinder before the opening of the flower,
reflexed as the feeds ripen; outer ones about five, fhort,
loofe. Cor. compound, flat, uniform ; florets twenty ina
ring, ftrap-fhaped, deeply five-toothed. Stam. Filaments
five ; anthers united in a five-fided hollow cylinder. Pi/?,
Germ oblong; ityle filiform, the Jength of the ftamens ;
itigmas two, revolute. Peric. none, Seeds folitary, com-
prefled, fharply angular, crowned with an ebfcurely five-
toothed border, according to Linneus. Gartner afferts
that it confifts of many leaves, or chaff-like teeth, forming
a kind of double feries. Recep. fomewhat chafly.
Eq. Ch. Rtceptacle fomewhat chaffy. Calyx calycled.
Seed crowned with a chafly border fhorter than itfelf.
Sp. 1. Cichorium Jntybus. Linn. Sp. Plant. Mart.
Lam. Willd. Flor. Dan. tab. 907. Gert. tab. 157. Curt.
Lond. Fafc. 4. tab. 56. Woodville, Supp. tab, 248. Eng.
Bot. 539. (Cichorium fylvettre f. officinarum: Bauh. Pin. 125.
Tourn. 479. Seris picris; Lob. Ic. 128. Intybus fylveftns,
Fuchs. 979.) Wild fuccory. ‘* Flowers in pairs, feffile.
Leaves runcinate.”” Linn. Root perennial, {pindle-fhaped ;
running deep into the ground,’ often branched, white,
fichy, yielding a milky juice. Stem a foot and a half high
aud more, ereét, fiff and firm, angular above, rough,
jeafy, except near the top, where it appears almoft naked,
many-flowered, branches divaricated. Leaves roughifh ;
rood ones runcinate ; ftem ones heart-fhaped, embracing the
item, acuminate. J oqwers axillary, in alternate pairs,
large, handfome, blue, fometimes white ; calyx-leaves with
a rough keel, finally reflexed. Receptacle dotted, with a
few fcattered chafly hairs, Svede aogular, crowned with a
0 Gi ©;
fhort border of chaff-like feales in a double feries. Whole
plant bitter. A native of England and other parts of Eu-
rope, on the borders of corn fields and by toad fides, but
moft prevalent in a calcareous foil. When cultivated it is
much more branched and rifes to the height of five or fix feet,
with longer leaves, lefs deeply cut and almoft{mooth. Itis
then Cichorium fativum; Bah, Pin. 125. Tourn. 479.
Lob. Ic. 129. It certainly poffeffes confiderable medicak
properties, though it has not obtained a place either in the
London or Edinburgh pharmacopeas. Its virtues depend
on its milky juice, which is of a penetrating bitterifh tafe,
and of no remarkable {mell or particular Ravour ; the roots
are bitterer than the leaves or italks, and thefe much more
fo than the flowers. The roots and leaves are ftated
by Lewis to be “very ufeful aperients, a@ing mildl
and without irritation, tending rather to abate thaw
increafe heat, and which may therefore be given with
fafety in heétic and inflammatory cafes. Taken freely, they
keep the body open, or produce a gentle diarrhea, and
when thus continued for fome time, have often proved falu-
tary in beginning obitructions of the vifcera, in jaundices,
cachexics, hypochondriacal and other chronical diforders.??
** A deco&tion of it,’? adds Dr. Woodville, ** with others of
the fame kind, in whey, and rendered purgative by a fuitable
addition of polychrett falt, has been found a ufeful remedy
in cafes of biliary calculi, and promifes advantages in many
complaints requiring what have been termed attenuants and
refolvents ; and we are warranted in faying, that its exprefled
juice taken in large quantities, has been found an efficacious
remedy in phthilis and pulmonalis. Its feeds are reckoned
among the four {maller cooling feeds”? Med. Bot. The
juice mixed with rhubarb, according to Du Tour, (Nouveau
DiGionaire), is an excellent vermifuge fyrup for children.
It was commonly eaten by the Romans, and, when
blanched, is {till ufed in France in foups or as a fallad, but
little, if at all, in England, where C. endivia is preferred.
If heeped fome hours in water, the water being changed every
two or three hours, it lofes much of its bitternefs. But
this effet is more effeCtually produced by the operation of
blanching, which leaves only fo much bitternefs as renders
it not at all difagreeable. In Italy it has long been culti-
vated on a large {cale, and efteemed, either green or dry, a3
an excellent fodder for horfes, kine, and fheep. It was firft
introduced into France by Cretté de Pallael, and into Eng-
land by the well-known Arthur Young, but the moift at-
mofphere of our ifland is lefs favourable to its being made
into hay.,’ The wild fuccory, fays Du Tour, will grow in
any kind of foil, but thrives beftin a good one well manured
and is cultivated at a fmall expence. It fuftains drought,
exceflive rains, and fevere cold, and as it rifes early in the
year, affords an excellent {pring fupply. Its growth is fo
rapid, that it may be cut three or four times every year, or
more frequently. Ics produce in bulk and in weight is fu-
perior to that of trefoil and even of lucerne. There is no
need of preparing cattle to ufe it as food; it is as whole-
fome as it is abundant, fweetens their blood, and preferves
them from difeafe. In particular, it caufes cows to give
more milk without communicating any of its bitternefs,
and furnifhes, eight months in the year, an excellent refource
for the former, affording the firit herbage for cutting in the
fpring, and the lait in autumn. In Germany its dried pow-
dered root is mixed with coffee, in the proportion of one
third or ahalf, and is preferred to tea as more nutritious and
much cheaper; 2. C. pumilum, Willd. Jacq. Obf. 4. p. 3.
tab.80. ‘* Flowers axillary in pairs, feffile ; leaves inverfely
egg-fhaped, toothed.” Willd. Root annual. Stem a foot
or a foot and a half high, hifpid, fimple, or but little
‘branched. ©
oil G
ranched, Upper leaves lanceolate, 3. C. endivia, Linn.
Lig Plant. Mart. Lam. Willd. (C. Jatifolium, f. endi-
via vulgaris, Bauh. Pin. 125. Intybum fativum, Dod.
ee 634.) Broad-leaved fuccory or common endive.
*« Peduncles axillary, in pairs ; one elongated, one-flowered ;
the other very fhort, with about four flowers; flowers in
heads ; leaves oblong, fomewhat toothed; branches zig-zag.
Willd. Roof annual, or at molt biennial, fibrous, milky.
Stem two feet high, fimple, hollow-channelled. Leaves
alternate. There is a variety with curled leaves, which is
almoft exclufively cultivated in the fouth of England as an
early fallad, but no kind of endive is much cultivated in the
north. The French make a great confumption of it at their
tables, eating it raw in fallads, boiled in ragouts, fried with
roalt meat, and as a pickle, and efteeming it a wholefome
efculent, which never dilagrees with the ftomach, It pof-
feffes the fame medicinal properties as cichorium intybus,
from which Du Tour fuppofes it originally derived ; but ts
a native of the Eaft Indies, according to Wiildenow, who
affures us that he has in his herbarium a wild fpecimen ga-
thered near Coringo. 4. C. divaricatum, Willd. Schouf-
boe Maroc. p. 197. ‘ Peduncles ‘axillary, in pairs; one
elongated ; one flowered ; the other very fhort, with about
two flowers; ftem dichotomous ; radical leaves runcinate;
ftem ones oblong, toothed.” Willd. Rost annual. Branches
not zigzag. 5. C. /pinofum, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Wiild.
Lam. Bauh. Pin. 126. Prod. tab. 62. (Chondrille genus
elegans czruleo flore, Cluf. Hitt. 2. p. 145.) ** Flowers
axillary, folitary; ftem dichotomous; branches naked,
fpinefcent; leaves lanceolate, runcinate-toothed.”” Wall.
Root biennial. Stem from five to eight inches high, ‘iff,
{fmooth, green, much branched, panicled; ends of the
{maller branches terminating in fharp, flar-like fnines. Root-
eaves long, narrow, very {fmooth, blunt at the fummit.
Stem-leaves few, {mall, entire. /Jowers, like thofe of all
the other fpecies, blue, chiefly fituated in the forks of the
ftem and branches, but fometimes terminal; florets few. A
native of the iflands of the Archipelago and of Sicily, in
dry fandy places near the fea-coalt.
C. pratenfe luteum hirfutée afperum, Bauh. Pin. 126. See
Pieris hieracotdes.
C. pratenfe luteum levius, Bauh. Pin. 126.
teclorum
C. verrucatum, zazintha, Cluf. Hift. 2. p. 144. See
Larsana zeziniha, Linn.; Zazinrua verrucofa, Willd.
Cicuorium, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the
efculent kind, the broad-leaved endive or fuecory (C. endi-
wia). It isan annual or biennial plant, the ftem of which
rifes two feet in height, upright, round, thick, and branch-
ed; the root-leaves many, large, fub-uniform, finuate-tooth-
ed, {mooth on both fides; the uppermott lanceolate, fmall,
ofa whitifh green colour, thick, and crifp, like cofs-lettuce,
having pale, blue flowers, folitary, and peduncled. ‘This is
more proper for culinary ufes than for fallads, and lefs hardy
than the curled fort. It is moltly cultivated only for ufe in
“the autumn. It is a native of Japan and China.
The variety chiefly cultivated is the green, curled-leaved,
which forms a circular clu{ter clofe to the ground, twelve or
fifteen inches in diameter ; the centre-leaves being: numerous,
very clofely placed, and growing to a large, compact, finely
branched, white heart. Itisa fine, hardy variety, moftly
cultivated for fallads and other culinary purpofes. Inits
cultivation, the great point is to have the true fort; as fome
have long, irregular, thinly-placed leaves, very little curled,
and the heart open and loofe. In faving feed, the fuileft
Jeaved, moft curly, regular, bufhy plants, that bottom well,
aud have the heart perfeCily full, clofe, and white, fhould of
ee
See Creris
oe Ui
courfe be chofen: the white, curled, which is fmaller, hav-
ing white, very fringy, curled leaves, ina circular clufter
clofe to the ground, ten or twelve inches in diameter, very
full and clofe in the heart, is likewife valuable.
Method of Culture. A\\ thefe plants are raifed from feed,
which fhould be fown at different times, from the beginning
of Junetothe end of the following month, upon beds of
fine, rich mould. And in order to have very early plants, it
is a good praétice to make a fowing about the middle of
May. But when the fowings are made too early, the plants
are apt to run to feed; and when they are deferred too long,
they do not attain a fufficient growth before they are fet out
in the autumn.
All thefe feparate fowings fhould be performed in as open
an expofure as poffible, the ground being prepared by dig-
ging it over into proper beds, and reducing the earth well at
the time. The feed fhould then be fown thinly over the
furface, and lightly raked in. In the light forts of foil, it
is the practice of fome to tread it in, but this is feldom ne-
ceflary.
Occafional flight waterings fhould be given when the wea-
theris dry, and the plants be kept perfe&tly clear from
weeds, and properly thinned gut, fo as not to draw up too
faft, and of courfe ina weak ftate. When they are of fuffi-
cient growth, as from four or five to fix inches in height,
they fhould be planted out where they areto remain, which,
for the more early plantings, fhould be in as open a fituation
as poffible ; but, for the Jatter crops, the more fouthern,
fheltered afpe&ts fhould be preferred, in order that they may
ftand the feverity of the winter better. For this purpofe,
the ground fhould be rich and mellow, being formed into
beds about four feet in width, by digging over to a good
{pade’s depth: a line fhould then be extended the whole
length, and the plants, after being taken up with their roots
as perfect as poflible, and their tops and reots trimmed when
neceffary, be fet out in regular rows, ten or twelve inches
diftance each way, by means of a dibble, a good watering be-
ing given immediately afterwards when the feafon is dry.
In this mode each bed will contain four rows of plants.
But they may be planted without having the ground formed
into beds: the raifed-bed method is however preferable, ef-
pecially for the winter crops, and where the foil is inclined
to moifture, as keeping the plants more free from ftagnant
wetnefs, and preventing their rotting in the winter. In
thefe cafes they are often planted at {maller diltances, as fix
oreight inches. Some likewife, for the late crops, are in
the practice of forming a fort of banks floping towards the
fouth, having the breadths of four or five feet, in which the
plants are fet out in rows inthe fame manner asabove. In
this wav the plants {land higher, more dry,‘and are capable
of being protected by frames or mats with greater facility.
when the feverity of the winter renders it neceflary. They
are likewile more open to the influence of the fun when the
weather is fine. Where they have been fet out clofe,, in ”
thefe cafes, fome may be drawn out in fuch a manner as to
leave the-reft flanding at the proper diftances,; which may
be planted again in a warm border about February, or the
beginning of the following month. Where plants of this
fort are fet out in dry weather, it is a good method to make
hollow drills, in order that the moillure may be more per-
feétly retained. It is neceflary that crops fhould be planted
out ia fome of thefe methods every fortnight or three weeks,
from about the middle of June till the beginning of Ofto-
ber, or later; by which means they will come forward in
perfection, from the later fummer months till the fpring fol-
lowing, in order as they may be wanted for ule. The only,
culture that is afterwards necellary, is merely -that of keep-
°
ws
‘
Cie
ing the plants free from weeds, by proper hoeing: and’when
they have attained their full crowth, tying them up, in order
that they may be effeétuaily blanched, and rendered [weer,
crifp. and tender for ufe.
Method of Blanching the Plants. Thisisa procefs that
depends almoi wholly upon the hearts of the plats being
kept perfectly fecluded from the adtion of light, and which
has been attempted in many different methods, as by tying
up the leayes of the plants ciofe together with picces of
bafs 5 by earthing the plants well up; by plaemz plane-
tiles or boards fat upon them; and by tranfplanting the full-
fized plants into the fides of raifed ridges, putting them in
the earth nearly up to their tops. The two firft modes are
chiey employed in the autumn and fpring crops, and the
lat in the winter. But the two firit are by much the molt
effeual methods, when performed in a perfc@ manner, as,
while they render the plants quite white and crifp in a re-
gular manner, they do not cramp or reftrain their growth ;
the latter of thefe is chiefly to be employed in dry foils, and
{hould be done at two or theee different times, in order that
too many muy not be ready at once, .
In the third mode, the hearts are rendered fofficiently
white and tender, but the growth of the plants is too much
reltricted, and the bufinefs is aot performed in fo regular or
effectual a mauner. he plants are likewife more liable to
rot and be injured by different forts of infe€@ts. ‘The laf is
ufeful when there is danger of the plants rotting by an ex-
cefs of moiture. In whichever way the ztiolation of thefe
vegetables is performed, it fhould,conftantly be done when
the plants are quite dry, in the middle of.a fine day, as, _
when executed while they are wet, much lofs and Injury are
fultained by their rotting. They moltiy become weil
blanched in the courfe of a fortnight or fooner, where the
light has been excluded in a very perfeét manner.
In very fevere winters, it is of great utility to cover the
plants with fome light material, fo as to prevent their rot-
ting and being deftroyed.
Thefe plants may be well preferved in the winter feafon
alfo, by being placed in dry fand in a fhed, cellar, or other
convenient place whichis dry. ©
In the faving of the feed of thefe plants. great care fhould
be.taken to colle& it from the belt and mott perfect of the
different variet‘es, and to have it perfeéily ripened, as with-
out care in this refpe& it never anfwers well as feed in railing
the different crops.
CICHYRA, or Cicuyrus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Epirus, according to Paufanias; fituated- near Cocyta
of the Acheron and the marfh Acherufia.
CICIMENI, a name which, according ‘to’ Pliny, was
given to an ancient people who inhabited the banks of the
Tanais.
CICINDELA, «in Entomology, a. beautiful genus of the
Coleoptera tribe, found in generai in dry fandy places, and in
none more abundantly or in greater variety than on the arid
tracts of land upon the fea-fhore. They are extremely vora-
ciows, and prey on every other kindof infe&ts they can over-
come, and on other animal {ubftanees. The larve of the
cicind-le are furnifhed with fix feet; they are commonly
whitith, foft, and long, and have the head fealy. Thefe
larva: live chiefly under ground, and, when waiting for prey
lurk in around perpendicular hole, with the head juft emerg-
ing to the furface to feize upon other infeéts that may hap-
pen to‘fall into the cell, or approach near it.
Species.
Loncicouuts. Thorax elongated, cylindrical, blue;
thighs ferruginous. Olivier. '
cic
Deferibed and figured as a Siamefe infe& from afpecimen
in the Bankfian Cabinet.
Aprera, Thorax elongated, cylitdrical; body black ; ‘
thighs terreginous. Vabr. Cieindela aptera, Lund. AG,
Soc. Hitt. Nat. Havn. i. t. 5. An Eatt Indian {pecies.
Axcustatus. Thorax cylindrical, blue; wing-cafes
teftaceous, with the tip black. Paykull. Imnhabits Ger-
many.
3-Pusturatus. Thorax cylindrical, black; wing-
cafes with two fpots at the bafe, and band in the middle
ferruginous, Fabr. Inhabits Paris. Muf. Tigny.
Grossa. Black; wing-cafes pointed, with three white
{pots. Olivier.
Deferibed .from the Bankfian Cabinet.
coalt of Coromandel.
Cyanea. Blue, glofly; mouth teftaceous. Fabr. In-
habits India.
Mercaceruara.~ Black, brafly; wing-cafes ftriated with
dots; mouch, antenna, and legs teftaccous. Olivier. A
native of Senegal.
Bicotor. Green, glofly ; wing-cafes dufky blue, and
without fpots; margin of the abdomen teftaceous. Fabr.
An Indian fpecies. Bankfian Cabinet. :
Cameesrais. Green; wing-cafes with five white dots.
Linn. Geoff Donov. Brit. Inf.
A general.inhabitant of Europe.
and is a beautiful and common infe&t. :
Germanica. Green; wing-cafes with a dot and lunule
near the tip white. Linn. ;
Inhabits Europe. Found in England, but not common.
Donov. Brit. Inf.
Srtvatica. Purplith; fufcons; wing-cafes with an un-
dulated band, and three dots of whitifh. Marth. Ent. Brit.
Cicindela fylvatica. Linn.
An European fpecies ; a native of England," but very rare ;
it has been fourd on Martlcfham Heath near Woodbridge,
Inhabits the
Found in fandy places,
in Suffolk. Vide Donov. Brit. Inf. Set
Hysarpa. Somewhat purplifh; band and two lunules
on the wing-cafes white ; body fhining gold. Linn.
in Europe.
Axenarta. Head and thorax dufky coppery; wing-
eafes with black. two lunu!es and a band in the middle white ;
bedy black. Fabr. A native of Barbary.
Litrroraris. Dufky, brafly ; wing-cafes blackifh, with
Found
fix whitifh, dots, that at the bafe lunated, the middle one ~ -
Fabr. Inhabits the fhores of Barbary.
Black ; wing-cafes with a yellow fpot in
the middle. Olivier. Native place unknown. © wh
Inrerrupta. Wing-cafes brown, with’ a yellow dot at
the bafe, three interrupted yellow bands, and a {mail line a
the tip. Fabr. « Inhabits Africa. j ah
Luxutatra. Black; wing-cafes with two kinules,
and two white fpots, the inner one tranfverfe. Forlter. -
Native country unknown. Bankiian Cabinet. :
Luripa. Dufky ; wing-cafes with two dots, and three
lunules of white, the middie one flexuous. Forfter. Coun-
try unknown. 2: yl
Cuinensis. Blue and gloffy ; wing-cafes greenifh, with _
two black {pots, the polterior one with two white fpots.
Degeer, &c. A native of China. :
Frexvosa. Dufky; wing-cafes with four dots and
three lunules of white, the middle one flexuous. Fabr.
Found on the Spanifh coaft. Dahl. bis
Somewhat brafly ; wing-cafes white, with a
tranfverfe.
TristTis.
CareEnsis.
triramofe line. Linn. Inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope. :
Turercurata. Thorax fufcous, with twe tubercles;
8 }
Cre
wing-cafes fufcous and green, varied; margin white, and
three-tocthed. Fabr. Inhabits New Zealand.
Unieuncrara. Pale purple; tip and dot on the wing-
cafes white. Fabr. An American {pecies.
Birunerata. Black; wing-cafes with a white dot;
legs yellow; thighs black. Olivier. Country unknown.
Bankiiag Cabinet.
Sex-Puncrara. Brafly-green ; wing-cafes with the
dif more dufky, and three white dots. Olivier.
QuapainineaATa. Brafly-green; wing-eafes duflcy ;
margin and line in the middle white. Olivier.
Cincra. Black; wing-cafes with a lateral ftripe, and
three docs of white. Olivier. Inhabits Africa.
Cabinet.
Bisamosa. Dufky, braffy ; wing-cafes margined with
a double branching white lines Herbit, Cicindela tridentata,
Thunbers. Inhabits India.
Sex-Gurrara. Green, fhining ; wing-cafes with three
marginal white dots. Olivier. Inhabits Virginia.
\
Carena. Bratly-green; wing-cafes whitith, with fix
green concatenate dots. Fabr. Thunb. &c. Inhabits
India.
Marcinata. Green; wing cafes with a white margin,
waved band, and two dots of whice. Fabr. Inhbabits Vir-
gina.
Didky ; wing-cafes with forr dots on
In-
8.GutTrata.
the difk, and two marginal lunules of white. Olivier.
habits America.
Trirasciata, Dufky; wing-cafes with three white
ftreaks, the fecond flexuous. Fabr.- An American fpecies.
A fmail variety 1s faid to inhabit Italy.
Carotina. Green, fhining; tip of the wing-cafes,
mouth, antennz, and legs yellow. Lim. A native of
North America.
ViRGINICA,
taceous. Linn.
_ CajENNENSIS.
fhanks of the pofterior legs teftaceous. Fabr.
€ayenne. Rohr.
EXMARGINATA.
fous; wing-cafes emarginate at the tip. Fabr.
dentatus, Roffi. :
fquinocristis. Yellow; wing-cafes with two broad
black bands. Linn. Found in Surinam.
Maura. Black; wing-cafes with fix white dots, the
third and fourth parallel. Linn. Inhabits the Eaft In-
dies.
Minura.
Shining; mouth, antennx, and legs tef-
Inhabits Carolina.
Above ‘fufcous, beneath blue; tail and
Ishabits
Blue; mouth, antenne, and legs ru-
Carabus
Brafly ; wing-cafes with four marginal yel-
low lunules. Fabr. Inhabits India.
Japonica. Violet; wing-cales with the bafe, tip, and
band coppery ; and a yellow band and two dots. Thun-
berg. Inhabits Japan. f
- Austriaca. Green; breaft, and bafe of the abdomen
beneath red bronzed ; wing-cafes with a very thin golden
margin and a few white dots. Schrank. Inhabits Auf-
tria. ¥
Riparta. Brafly-green ; wing-cafes with broad exca-
vated pots. Linn. n
_Inhabits Europe, and is found, though generally fparing-
ly, in England. Donov. Brit. lof.
Uticinosa. Brafly-green; wing-cafes firiated with
blue impreffed dots. Panoz. &c. Inhabits Europe.
Aquatica. Brafly, glofly ; head ftriated. Linn. In-
habits Europe.
STRIATA.
Paykull, &c.
Diicovered on the fandy coah of Glamorganfhire by Mr.
Brafly ; wing-cafes ftriated ; legs yellowihh.
Hunterian -
Ty a
Donovan, Vide ‘ Defcriptive Excurfions, South Wales;
cag
SEMIPUNCTATA.
back very glabrous. Gmel.
Found in Europe.
Pravires. Daoflcy-brafly ; wing-cafes fomewhat cloud-
ed; levs pale yellow. Linn. An European {pecies.
Bicurrata. Brafly; wing-cafes polifhed, and yellow-
ifh. at the tip. Gmel. &c. Inhabits England, aad other
arts of Hurope.
CICINES, in sdncient Geography, a people of Greece, in
Attica. Hefychius places them in the Acamantide tribe.
CICISBEO, an Italian term, in its etymology ‘figni-
fying a whifperer ; which has been beftowed in lialy both
on lovers, and on thofe who to outward appearance act as
fuch, attending on married ladies with as much attention and
refpect as if they were their lovers. When the cultom of
fecluding the wife from all mankind but her hufband took
place in Italy, it became the fafhion that fhe fhould never be
{een with her hufband, and yet always have a man at her
elbow. The Italian hufbands, finding that continement
was a plan generally reprobated, and, that any appear-
ance of jealoufy, fubjeGted the hufband to ridicule,
agreed that their wives fhould go into company or at-
tend public places, but always-with a friend whom they
could truft, and who, at the fame time, fhould not be dif-
agreeable to the wife. As this compromife could not fail of
being acceptable to the women, the fyitem foon became
univerfal all over Italy, for the woman to appearat public
places leaning upon the arm of a man; who, from their fre-
quently whifpering together, was called her Cicifbeo. It
was f{tipulated, at the fame time, that the: lady, . whilft
abroad. under his care, fhould converfe with-no other man
but in his prefence, and with his approbation ; -he was to be
her guardian, her friend, and gentleman-ufher. The prefent
cuftom is, that this obfequious gentleman vilits the lady every
forenoon at her toilet, where the plan for pafling the even-
ing 1s fettled; he difappears before dinner, for it is ufual in
Italy for the hufband and wife to dine together téte-a-téte,
except on great occafions, as when there is a public fealt.
After dinner the hufband retires, and the Cicifbco returns
and condu¢ts the lady tothe public walks, the converfazioné,
Brafly and gloffy ; wing-cafes dotted ;
Cicindela firiata, Degeer.
_or the opera 3 he hands her about wherever {he goes, prefents
her coffee, forts her cards, and-attends with the molt point-
ed affiduity till the amufements of the evening are concluded ;
he accompaties her home, and delivers up his charge to the
hv{band,. who is then fuppofed to refume his functions. At
the beginning of this inititution, the hufbands, fays Dr.
Moore (View of Society and Manners in Italy, vol. 2.) pre-
ferred the Platonic {wains, who profcfled only the metaphy fics
of love, and whofe lectures they imagined might refine the
ideas of their wives, and bring them to the fame way of
thinking. In many inttances, no doubt it would happen,
tnat the Platonic admirer acted with ¢ lefs feraphic ends ;??
but thefe inftances feem only as proofs that the bufbands
were miftaken in their men; for however abfurd it may ap-
pear in the.eyes of fome people, to imagine that the huf-
bands believ: it is only a,Platonic conn<ction which fubfitts
between their wives and the Cicifbeos; it is {till more abfurd
to. believe, as fome ftrangers who have paffed throush this
country feem to have done, that this whole fyftem of Cicif-
beifm was from the beginning, and is now, an univerfal fy item
of adultery, connived at by every Italian hufband. To
get rid of this difficulty, it is fuppofed that the men, who,
of all the inhabitants of Europe, were the moit fcrupiflous
with regard to the chaftity of their wives, fhould acquiefce
in, and in a manner become fubfervient to, their proftitu-
tion.
cic
tion. In fupport of this ftrange doMtrine, it is afferted, that
the hufbands being the Cicifbeos of other women, cannot
enjoy this privilege on any otherterms; and are therefore
contented to facrifice their wives for the fake of their mif-
trefles, Dr. Moore has no doubt, that fome individuals may
be profligate enough to a& in this manner; but that fuch a
fyftem is general, or any thing near it, in Italy, feems to
him perfeGily incredible, and contrary to the beft information
received by him, whilft he remained in thecountry. It is
alfo urged, that moft ef the married men of quality in Italy
act in the chara€ter of Cicifbeo to fome woman or other ; and
thofe who are not Platonic lovers, ought to fufpe& that the
fame liberties are taken with their wives which they take
with thofe of their neighbours. However men have a won-
derful faculty of deceiving themfelves on fuch occafions. So
great is the infatuation of their vanity, that the fame degree
of complaifance, which they confider as the effe& of a very
natural and excufable weaknefs, when indulged by any wo-
man for themfelves, they would regard as a horrible enormi-
ty if admitted by their wives for another man; fo that what-
ever degree of licentioufnefs may exilt in confequence of this
fy ftem, the majority of hufbands (as Dr. Moore is convinced)
make exceptions in their own favour, and their ladies find
means to fatisfy each individual that he is not involved in a
calamity, which, after all, is more general in other countries,
as wellas in Italy, thanit ouzhtto be. The Cicilbeois, in
many inftances, a poor relation or humble friend, who, not
being in circumitances to fupport an equipage, is happy to
be admitted into all focieties and to be carried about to
public diverfions, as an appendage to the lady. ‘There are
alfo Cicifbeos of a very different ftamp, ‘whofe fizure and
manners might be fuppofed more agreeable to the ladies they
ferve, than to their lords. But, fometimes, the hufband is
poor, and the Cicifbeorich. Thig fyitem is unknown to the
middle and lower ranks ; infomuch-that a perfon who at-
tempts to vilit the wife or miltrefs of any of the trades-people
without their permiffion. ism no {mall danger of a coltellata.
This Italian cuftom has heen {poken of very reproachfully by
fome writers: Mr. Baretti(Account of the Manners, &c. of
italy, vol. i.c. 8.) has taken great pains to vindicate it. He
afcribes it to a [pirit of gallantry, derived from the ages of
chivalry, and much heightened and refined by the revival of
the Platonic philofophy in Italy, about the thirteenth.cen-
tury; and by the verfes ef Petrarch in compliment to the
beautiful Laura, and his numerous imitators.
In France, under the old fyltem, there was an important
clals of females, who might not improperly be denominated
female Cicifbeos. When the ‘rauk of a woman of fafhion
had enabled her to preferve a degree of reputation and in-
fluence in fpite of the gallantries ‘of her youth and the de-
cline of her charms, fhe adopted this kind of equivocal cha-
raéter, and, relinquifhing the adoration claimed by beauty,
and the refpeét due to age, charitably devoted herfelf to
the inftruétion and advancement of fome young man of per-
fonal qualifications and uncertain fortune. By her exertions
he was promoted in the army, or diltinguifhed at the levee,
and a career, begun under fuch aufpices, often terminated in
a brilliant eftablifhment.
CICLA, in Botany. See Bera cicla.
CICLUT, in Geography, a fortrefs of Dalmatia, feated
on an ifland formed by the river Narenta, taken from the
Turks by the Venetiansin 1694; 5 miles S.W. of Narenta,
and 40 N. of Ragufa.
CICOLES, in Ancient Geography; a port of Thrace,
which, according to Suidas, was that of Terone.
CICOLI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
wince of Abruzzo Ultra; 13 miles S.W. of Celano.
. American flork of Latham.
cic c
CICONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia
placed by Pliny between the Indus and the Atteciani.—
Alfo, a people of Thrace, who inhabited the country lying
between the Hebrus and the Melas. ‘The city of Enos, fa-
mous ©n account of the tomb of Polydorus, was their ca-
pital. Homer (Iliad. 8) fpeaks of three of their kings.
In his Odyfley, he fpeaks of them as a numerous, well-di-
{ciplined, and warlike people. From Herodotus we learn,
that they had formerly inhabited part of the Samothracian
towns, fince the promontory of Serrhium had belonged to
them ; and that, in precefs of time, they were driven more
to the north and to the weft by the Samothracians.
CICONIA, in Ornitholozy, the Anpea Ciconia of Lin-
nzus and Gmelin, or Ardea alba, with black orbits and
wing-quills, and fanguineous bill, legs, and fkin. This is
the white fork of Pennant and Latham, and the /a cicogne
Ulanche of Buffon. {t inhabits Europe, Afia, and Africa,
but is more rarely met with in Italy and England; fettling
in towers, chimnies, and ruins near our dwellings, fifhing in
our rivers, purfuing its prey in our gardens, and occafion-
ally taking up its abode in the mid& of cities. For a fur-
ther account of it, fee Stork. .
Cicenra xigra, ardea fufca, having its breaft and belly
white, the cicogne noire of Buffon, the black ftork of Pen-
nant, Ray, Willughby, and Latham. It is found in the
Swifs Alps, Poland, Pruffia, Lithuania, Silefia, and many
other parts of Germany, and as far as the Cafpian fea.
This fpecies 1s favage and folitary, fhunning the habitations ~
of men, and haunting the defert fens. Thefe birds foar to
a great height. Numerous flocks of them pafs in the
{pring over Sweden, and ttretch farther towards the north 5
they return towards the fouthin aucumn. See Srorx.
Cicosta americana of Briffon, Ray, and Willughby,
the maguari of Buffon, the ardea mazuari of Gmelia, and
It inhabits the hotter parts of
America, particularly Brafil, and was firft deferibed by
Marcgrave. Its orbits and legs are red, its bill cinereous,
the quills and great coverts of the wings black, gloffed
with green; and the whole body, head, neck, and tail in-
velted with white feathers, which below the neck are of a
confiderable length and pendulous. : )
Cicon1, one of the five feétions of the ardea genus, ac-
cording to Gmelin, including the three preceding fpecies.
See ARDEAs
CICONIUM Promowrtorium, in Ancient Geography,
a promontory of Afia Minor, upon the Bofphorus of
Thrace. :
CICONUM Ftumen, a river of Thrace, _paffing
through the country of the Cicones, and mentioned both
by Pliny and Ovid.
Crconum Mons, a mountain of Thrace, fuppofed to bi
the fame with Ifmanus. ke
CICOYRUS, a town of Epirus, in Thefprotia, fituated,
according te Strabo, on the ‘ Dulcis portus,” who fays
that it wasonce called Ephyra. A
CICSITANUS, an epifcopal town of Africa, in ‘the
proconfular province. .
CICUS, a river of Thrace, which difcharged itfelf in
the port of Byzantium.
CICUTA, in Botany, (in Latin authors, denotes the
internode or {pace between the joints of a reed, or of any
plant ufed by thepberds for making their rural pipes; and
as the hollow ftems of feveral plants belonging to the
natural family of umbellifere, known in England by the
popular name of kecks or keckfies, were frequently em-
ployed for that purpofe, the name was particularly applied
to them, efpecially to thofe which are of a poifonous na-
ture, ~
cic
ture, one of them having been employed by the Athenians
as a mode of capital punifhment.) Linn. Gen, 354.
Mart. fub. voce. Willd. 550. Cicuraria; Riv. Lam. Juff.
Vent.) Clafs and Order, pentandria digynia. Nat, Ord.
Unmbellate, Linn. Unbellifere, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Umbel univerfal roundifh ; rays many, equal;
involucre none, or confilting of one or two linear leaves.
Umtel partial roundifh ; rays many, equal, fetaceous ; invo-
lucre, many-leaved ; leaves briltly, fetaceous, fhort. Calyx
of the florets fcarcely vifible. Cor. Florets ali fertile con-
filting of five, egg-fhaped, inflected, nearly equal petals.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, longer than the corolla.
Pift. Germ inferior; ftyles two, filiform, longer than the
corolla, permanent; ftigmas headed, Peric. none; fruit
fomewhat egg-fhaped, furrowed, divilible into two. Secs
two, convex and ftriated on one fide, flat on the other.
Eff. Ch. Fruit fomewhat ege-{haped, furrowed.
Sp. 1. C. virefa. Linn. Sp. Pl Mart. Wild. Flor.
Dan, tab. 208. Eng. Bot. 479. Woodv. Sup. tab. 248.
(Cicutaria aquatica; Lam. Sium; Bauh. Pin. 154, n. 3.
“Hal. Helv. n..781. Mor. Hitt. 3, tab. 5. tig. 4. Umb. tab.
.5- S. palultre alterum, foliis ferratis; Tourn. 308. Lob.
Ic, 208.) Long-leaved water hemlock. ‘* Umbels oppo-
fite the leaves ; petioles margined, obtufe.’? oot perennial,
tuberous, hollow, cellular ; bres fomewhat whorled. Siem
three or four feet high, branched, furrowed, leafy ; branches
rather erect. Leaves twice ternate; larger ones pinnate;
Jeaflets lanceolate, acute, ferrated, {mooth; {tipule li-
near, adnate to the petioles, and a little fhorter. Umbels
erect, many-rayed ; partial ones denfe. Flowers white, re-
gular, fmall; calyx fwe-parted; petals rolled imwards.
Pruit compreffed, rounded, almoft didymous, ribbed. A
native of {tagnant pools and the margins of rivers in Eng-
land and all the north of Europe, but not common in Eng-
land. Towards the end of autumn, the root for the fuc-
ceeding {ummer is formed out of the lower part of the
fem; and being tranfverfely divided into many large unequal
cells, fo as to become f{pecifically lighter than water, 1% is
buoyed up when the rivers or pools {well in winter. ‘The
old root then rots, floats all the winter, and in rivers is fre-
quently carried to cenfiderable diltances. In the {pring the
-old root is wafhed away, and the new one, on coming near
the foil, fends out many flender fibres, by which it ts again
fixed, grows, and flowers. It is reckoned one of the molt
virulent of our vegetable poifons to the human race, and ts
equally fatal to cows and {wine; but horfes, hogs, and
goats eat it with impunity. The belt remedy againtt its
deleterious effe&s, when unfortunately taken into the fto-
mach, is a {peedy emetic, fucceeded by vegetable acids or
oils. 2.C. dulbifera, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Willd. (Cicu-
taria bulbifera; Lam. Enc. Ammi foliorum lacinits capillari-
bas caule angulato; Gron. Virg. 31. Umbellifera aquatica,
foliis in monatiflima et plane capillaria fegmenta divilis. Rai,
Sup. 260.) ** Stem bulbiferous,”’ Linn, ‘ Leaves divided into
very numerouslincar fegments ; branches bulbiferous.”” Lam.
Stem a foot and a half high, fmooth, branched; branches
not bearing umbels, very flender, zig-zag, furnifhed with
fimple narrow leaves, and frequently with other {mall axil-
lary branches; from the axils of each branch fprings an
oval bulb, fcarcely the fize of a grain of wheat. Sowers
white, fmall, forming a fmall umbel at the fummit of the
ftem; univerfal umbel of one or two leaves. A native of
Virginia and Canada. 3. C. maculata. Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart.
Willd. (Cicutaria maculata. Lam. Enc. egopodium foliolis
lanceolatis, acuminatis, ferratis; Gron. Virg. 32. Angelica
caribearum; Pluk. Alm. tab. 76. fig. 1. A. virginiana,
foliis acutioribus, femine ftriato; Morif. Hilt. 3. p. 281.
»Myrrha; Mitch. Gen. 18.) ** Serratures of the leaves mu-
Vou. VIII.
cic
cronate, petioles membranous, two-lobed at the tip.’’
Linn. ‘ Leaves twice-pinnated ; leaflets ferrated; partial
involucres fhorter than their umbels.’”? Lam, Roof peren-
nial, creeping. Stem a foot and a half or two feet high,
upright, {mooth, hollow, purple-brown, {potted near the
bottom, a little branched towards the top. Leaves twice
pinnated ; leaflets lanceolate, green, finely lerrated. Vowers
white, fmall, almoft regular, generally. without an univerfal
involucre. A native of watery placesin Virginia.
C. domeftica, Morif, Umb. p. 18. c.6. See Conium
maculatum.—C. major, Bauh. Pin. See Contum maculatum
—C. minor petrofelino fimilis, Bauh. Pin. 160. See
fEtHusa cynapium.—C. arbor virginiana, Piuk. Mant. 49
See Cy 2RopuHy¥Lium arbore/cens.
Cicuta, inthe Materia Medica.
Linn. Hemlock.
The poifenous qualities of this plant have been known for
a great length of time; but it was fcarcely adopted in medi-
cine before the experiments of Dr. Stork, in 1760, fince
which time it bas been introduced in molt of the pharmaco-
pozias of Europe. Although it has by no means anfwered the
fanguine expectations which were entertained of its virtues in
{everal of the tnolt formidable, and hitherto incurable difeafes,
it is {Lill found to poffefs feveral valuable medicinal qualities.
The whole of the plant appears to poflefs the fame power
of affecting the human body, fo that this power refidesin the
common juice which pervades the plant. The part ac-
tually employed m medicine is all above the root, and as the
plant is very fucculent, it readily yields a confiderable quan-
tity of juice on ftrong preflure, which, when gradually in-
{piffated by evaporation, affords a brown extradi, or infpiffated
jutce, which, with the dried leaves, are the only pharmaceu-
tical preparations in ufe. ‘his plant has a ttrong and un-
pleafant fmell, but littleyif any, pecuhar tafte. When taken
in a large dofe it produces vertigo, coma, convulfions, and
fometimes death. 1n {maller doles it occafions a trembling
of the limbs, ficknefs, head-ach, and fenfe of fullnefs in the
eyes; fometimes temporary deafnefs, and now and then
diarrhoza, Its effects, therefore, properly require it to be
clafled among the warcotic medicines, and it often fhows only
the more valuable propertics of narcotics, in relieving’pain
Conium DMaculainis,
-and irritation of the body, and inducing fleep.
Tae following are Dr. Withering’s directions for prepar-
ing che extract, or infpiflated juice. ‘ Let feveral people be
employed to gather the plant, and as faft as it is cut let
othersecarry it in hand-bafkets to the prefs. Let the juice
be immediately fqueezed out, and as fait as it runs ovt of
the prefs it muft be put over the fire and boiled, till three
parts out of four of the whole liquor is wafted. hen it
mutt be removed to a water-bath, and evaporated to the
confiftence of honey. If it is now taken and fpread thin
upon a board or marble flab, and expofed to the fun and air,
it will foon be of a proper confiltence to make pills.”
In this fimple method is the extract of cicuta prepared.
This extract is of a dark greenifh brown, almott black, of a
{trong difagreeable fmell, and a flightly pungent tafle, but
without bitternefs. Like-the other extraéts of herbaceous
plants (for the chemical properties-of which fee the article
Exrracr) it contains but little refin, but is confiderably
deliquefcent, owing to the prefence of fome acetite of potalh,
as may be atonce perceived by adding a few drops of ful-
phuric acid, which will difengage a pungent vapour of acet.
ous acid. Owing to this deliquefcence the extract
fhould be kept in pots covered with bladders, for in the open
air it foon moulds, and its virtues are loft,
Some pharmaceutical authors direé&t that the aed
juice fhould ftand a fhort time to clarify, and only the
clearer part evaporated ; but this is decidedly injurious, as
ah there
Ce
there is every reafon to believe that the part, which wouldin
this cafe be rejected as feculence, is at leaft as efficacious as
the clear juice, fo that, as Dr. Withering has directed, the
entire juice fhould be employed. More care is required to
avoid empyreuma in the preparing of this extract, than in that
of gentian, cinchona, and other plants, where the bitter prin-
ciple is chiefly required, for the virtue of the hemlock is
foon injured by heat. But as infpiffation in the water-bath
is exceffively tedious, many chemiits ufe ovens very mode-
rately heated, or {toved chambers, which in the large way
are preferable, as they afford a greater furface for evapora-
tion, Tnilead of compleating the evaporation to the proper
pillular confiftence, fome dire@& that the foft extraét fhould
be made intoa pillular mafs, by adding about a fifth of its
weight of the leaves of the plant dried and powdered.
With all the care that can be taken in keeping this ex-
traét, its virtues are materially impaired in a few months, fo
that thofe who are in the habit of employing it fhould al-
ways provide a frefh ftock every year. The feafon for ga-
thering this, as of moft other herbaceous plants ufed in me-
dicine, is when the plant is full grown, and about to flower.
‘From theteftimony of Dr. Withering, the dried leaves are
more uniform in their operation, and lefs liable to fpeil by
keeping, than the extract. ‘They fhould be kept in clofely-
ftopped bottles, and inthe dark. In exhibiting the hemlock,
the extra& is ufually made into pills of about two grains
each, of which one may be taken for a dofe three times a
day, and this may be rapidly increafed, till fome of the -
peculiar effets of the hemlock be perceived, after which
the fame dofe, or neatly fo, may be perfifted in for as
Jong atime asis thought proper. Of the powder, from
fifteen to twenty grains may be taken twice or thrice a day.
OF all the powerful narcotics the cicuta is perhaps the
moft uncertain in its operation in a given dofe. This, no
doubt, in part depends on the want of uniformity in the
ttrength of the feveral preparations ; but even with the fame
individual preparation, fome perfons will be fenfibly affected
by a few grains, and others will bear perhaps eight or ten
times the quantity. In its moft favourable operation it
Simply alleviates pain, without occafioning ficknefs, or
head-ach, and often, without producing a greater tendency
to fleep than what belongs to the mere effect of the fulpen-
fion of pain in haraffing and chronic difeafes ; fo that it is
then a moft valuable fub{titure to opium, the good effec of
whieh it fecures, without occafioning the inconveniences in-
feparable from this valuable medicine. Unfortunately, how-
ever, it is (comparatively {peaking ) but rarely that the ci-
cuta operates in this favourable manner, and very frequently
it either produces no effeét at all, except naufea, or fucha
degree of head-ach, vertigo, and debility, which render it
unfafe to continue its ufe.
The cicata was chicfly recommended by Dr. Stork, as a
new and valuable remedy for cancer, and {chirrous tumours of
all kinds, forchronic ulcerations depending on ferofula, or
any conftitutional difeafe. The obfervations of others, how-
ever, have led toa julter eftimation of its powers, for (in this
country at leafl) no dependence can beplaced on it as a cure
for cancer, though it is often ufeful as a palliative. It has
been employed alfo with fome fuecefs in the hooping cough,
and other fpafmodic diforders. As an external application, it
is of yreat ule in painful and extenlive fores of a cancerous
nature, when applied as a warm fomentation or poultice,
giving contiderable eafe, and changing the nature of the dif-
charge, from a thin feetid fanies to. healthy pus. In this,
part of the good effect is doubtlefs to be afcribed to the nar-
cotic quality of the plant, but part alfo to the mode of ap-
plication, and to the efficacy which appears common to al-
moit all freth vegetables; fince a fimilar advantage is derived
crip
from the carrot poultice, from the marfh-mallow fomentation,
and from many other of the medicinal herbs in common ufe.
The cicuta of the ancients, is a fecret now fearce poffible
to be difcovered. Wepfer, in an exprefs treatife on the
fubject, willhave it the @nanrHe cicute facie, fucco virofog
which he defcribes by the name of cisuta aquatica; aud of
the difmal effeéts of which he gives a very ample relation.
At leaft the violence of this plant makes it a much fitter in-
ftrument of halty death than the common cicuta or hemlock,
which ts much lefs malignant, Though fome have fuggefted,
that the poifonous draught to which the Arhenians doomed
their criminals, was an in{piffated juice compounded of the
juice of cicuta and fome other corrofive herbs. Wid. Mead’s
Effay on Poifons, ap. Bibl. Anal. Med. tom. iit. p, 281.
Socrates drank the cieuta. Plato, in his Dialogue on the
Immortality of the Soul, obferves, that ‘ Tne executioner
advifed Socrates not to talk, for fear of caufing the cicuta to
operate too flowly.’? M. Petit, in his ‘* Obfervationes Mif-
cellanez,” remarks, that this advertifement was not given by
the executioner out of humanity, but to fave the cicuta: for
he was only allowed fo much poifon per ann. which if he ex=
ceeded, he was to furnith the relt at his own expence.
This conftru€tion is confirmed by a pafflage in Plutarch :
the executioner who adminiltered the cicuta to Phocion,.
not having enough, Phocion gave him money to buy
more ; obferving, by the way, that it was odd enough, that at
Athens a man mutt pay for every thing, even his own death.
CICUTARIA major vulgaris, in Botany, Cluf, Hitt. 2.
200. See Conium maculatum.
Crevrarta latifolia fetida, Bauh. Pin. 161. Morif. Umb.
tab. 6. See Licusricum peloponen/e.
Cicurarta paluffris tenuifolia, Banh. Pin. 161. Lob. Ie.
735. See PHELLANDRIUM agquaticum: ;
Cicuraria, Riv. Pent. tab. 76. See Cicuta virofa.
Cicuraria apiifolia, Bauh. Hilt. 3. p. 179. jatua,
Lob. Ic. 280. See /Eruusa cynapium. ;
Cicuraria valgaris, Dod. Pemp. 701. Bauh. Hit. 5.
181. See CHz#RoPHYLLUM /jlvefre.
Cicutraria bulbofa, Bauh. Pin. 162.
183. See CH#ROPHYLLUM ds ie :
Creuraria paluftris latifolia alba & rubra, Bauh. Pin.
Banh. Eb irene
161. latifolia hirfuta, Bauh. Hilt. 3.182. SeeCuz-
ROPHYLLUM bir/utum. %,
Cicuraria arbor virginiana, Rai. Sup.257. See Cuz
ROPHYLLUM arbore/cens.
_ CID, in Biography, a Spanifh hero, whofe real name was
Don Ropaico Diaz ve Brvar, was defcended from Diego
Laynez, a perfon of confiderable family, and was brought
up at the court of the kings of Caiftile. On account of
his great valour, he was, at an early age, created a knight,
Before he received this honour, five Moorifh kings had unit-
ed their forces and plundered Caftile. On the mountains
of Oca, Rodrigo fell upon them as they were removing their
fpoil, recovered the whole booty, and took the five kings
prifoners, whom he treated with refpeét, and difmiffed on a
promife of tribute. The fpoil he diflributed among his
followers. King Fernando, having received tidings of this
victory, turned his arms again{t the Moors of Portugal, and
befieged Coimbra, which he took. Here Rodrigo was
knighted. When meffengers arrived at Zamora with tri-
bute to Rodrigo from the five kings, he offered a fifth of
it to his fovereignas his due. Fernando wonld not accept
it; and hearing the Moors addrefs Rodrigo by the title
Cid or lord (Cidbeing the Arzbic term for lord), he ordered
him from that time to bear this honourable name. Upon
the king’s death, he divided his kingdoms among his child-
ren; allotting @aftile to Sancho, the eldeft ; con to Alone
fo, and other portions to Garcia, and to his two eaiede f
13
*
crip
This partition occafioned a contefl among the brothers.
When Sancho came to the crown, Rodrigo was his lieute-
nant general in his war againit his brother Alonfe. We tol-
lowed his fovereign to the fiege of Zamora, whi re Sancho
was flain by treachery, and conduGed back in gcod order
the Caililian troops, with the dead body of the king.
Alenfo was invited to the crown on condition of purging
himfelf by. oath of all fufpiciton of concern in his brother’s
death. Nene of the nobility, who, as a body, had impoted
the conditica, dared venture to exact the oath at the conven-
tion; Rodrigo, with a fpirit of true loyalty te his depart-
ed matter, admininiftered it, and even obliged the king to
repeat it. Before thefe adventures, he had married, with the
concurrenceof king Fernando, Ximena, daughter tocount Go-
mez, whom he had killed in fingle combat becaufe he had in-
fulted his father in his old age; an event, which, affording a fine
difplay of the contending pafiions in the perfon of the heroine,
sat oncethedaughterand lover, has beenthe fubjc& of a Spa-
nih play, imitated by Corneille in the tragedy of ** The Cid.”
Rodrigo, finding that Alonfo continued to refent his con-
duc in exaéting the above-mentioned oath, affembled his
friends, and thofe on whofe fidelity he could rely, at the
head of whom he entered Arragon, ravaging and plunder-
ing the country, He made himfelf mafter of the cattle
Alcocer, where, being joined by a number of freebocters,
attracted by his fame, he made perpetual incurfions into
the neighbouring Moorish territories. He afterwards fold
Alcacer to the Moors, and diftributed its price among his
followers. At length he penetrated {outh of Saragofla,
and fixed his refidevce in a ftrong fortrefs called to the pre-
fent times, the Rock of tre Cid, where he maintained him-
{lf as an independent fovereign. In the mean while Alon-
fo’s hatred to the Cid had gradually abated ; and when his
affiflance was needed, a reconciliation between them took
place. Having accompanied Alonfo to the fiege of To-
ledo, and accompiifhed that fervice, he returned to Sara-
gofla. Hearing of the murder of Yahia, king of Valencia,
be defired the affiftance of Alonfo to enable him to ree
venge the deed; the reguelt was granted, and Rodrigo, in
zog4, took Velencia, and held it till his death in rog9.
FiGion has detailed feveral circumftances that preceded and
followed his death, which it is befides our purpofe to relate.
As the Moors approached the city, he gave orders that the
event of his death fhould be concealed ; and having aflured
his followers of victory, he expired. Having colleted the
whole treafure of Valencia, and placed upon a war horfe the
dead body of the Cid, they formed a proceffion in order to
leave the city. His wife, Ximena, with 600 knights as her
guard, formed part of the train. The Moors were attacked
and totally routed; and the Chriftians, {poiling their camp
as they paffed through it, proceeded with the body towards
Caftile. Inttead of burying the body, which was preferved
by the myrrh and balfam, with which it had been embalm-
ed, in an apparently found flate, they placed it upright upon
his ivory featin the church, at the right hand of the altar.
Ximena took up herdaily abode in the church, and having
farvived her hufband: four years, was buried at his feet.
After ten years, the body began to moulder; it was then
interred in its garments, and with the [word, by the fide of
Ximena. The hiftory of the Cid, who flourifhed from the
year 1064, when he is firft mentioned, till his death in 1099,
under the reigns of Fernando the Great, and his fons Sancho
el Bravo, and Alfonio Vi. in whofe time he eftablifhed him-
“felf as conqueror in the city of Valencia, is blended with
fGion of the molt beautiful kind. It is furnifhed both by
his chronicle, and alfo by the ‘* General Chronicle of Spain,”
conipiled by order of Aifonfo the Wife, in the middle of the
13th century, about 150 years after Rodrigo’s death. There
ig.a poem upon hi§ lite which is probably a century older.
ChuEr
CIDAGER, or Cipaia, in Geography, atown of the
ifland of Jaya.
CIDARES Kuetinn, in Natural Hiflory, hemif{pheric or
fpheroidal fe€tions of the Ecuinus.
CIDARIS, a f{pecies of Ecuinus; and a fpecies of
Turezo.
Criparis, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thrace, which
difcharged itfelf into the harbour of Byzantium.
Ciparis, in Scripture Hiffory, the mitre uled by the Jew-
ifh high priefts. Whenever there is mention of the high
prieft’s mitre, the Hebrew word made ufe of to expretfs it
1s always miznepheth ; and mygbaoth is uled to fignify the
bonnet belonging to common priefts. ‘The rabbins fay the
fame thing is meant by both thefe terms, and that the bon-
net ufed by priefts in general was made of a piece of linca
cloth fixteen yards long, which covered their heads like an
helmet or aturban; and they allow no other difference to be
between the high prieft’s bonnet, and that of other priefts,
than this, that one is flatter, and more in the form of a tur-
ban, whereas the other worn by ordinary priefts rofe fome-
thing more in a point.. Exod. xxviii. 4.
It is to be obferved, that the Hebrew prieffs never ap-
peared in the temple without covering their heads. And
{till at this day it 1s reckoned an incivility in the Eaft, anda
mark of contempt, for any man to pull off his bat or turban
to another, or to fhew his naked head before any one.
CIDER. See Cypzr.
CIDES, in Aacient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, ia
ZEtolia.
CIDIAS, in Biography, an ancient Greek painter, cons
temporary with Eufranor, about the hundred and fourth
olympiad. Amongft other works, he painted a piéture of
the Argonauts, which was afterwards bought by Horten-
fius for the fem of forty-four thoufand fefterces (about four-
teen thoufand four hundred florins), and placed it in a {mall
temple, built on purpofe to receive it, in his villa at Tivoli.
It was afterwards removed by M. Agrippa to the Portico of
Neptune which he had fabricated in Reme Dion. Caff.
hb. 53. Della Valle, Vite dei Pittori Antichi.
CIDNUS, in Geography, a river of Cilicia, which fprung
from the Antitautus, pafied through Tarfus, and difem-
boguced itfelf intothe Mediterranean, near the city of Anchiale.
It was famous for the rapidity of its ftream, and the coldnefs
of its waters, which proved very dangerous to Alexander.
CIDYESSUS, a town of Afia, fituated in the northern
part of Phrygia, between the towns of Midzum and Naco-
lea. This town, hke others of the proconfular province of
‘Afia, was governed by a fenate, the prefidents of which
were denominated archontes. The worthip of Cybele was
eftablithed at Cidyeffus. The inhabitants of this town ren-
dered alfo a particular worfhip to Jupiter. The firlt minifter
of his temple prefided at the celebration of the games which
had been eitablifhed in this place in honour of that deity.
Cidyeffus was an epifcopal town in Pacatian Phrygia.
CIECIEREF, in Geography, a river which rifes in Poland,
and runs into the Dnieper, 28 miles W. of Kiov.
CIEKANOW, a town of Poland, ia the palatinate of
Malfovia; 40 miles N. of Warlaw. ;
CIENFUEGIA, in Botany, Willd. 1274.
3p. 174, tab. 72. fig. 2. Clafs and order, monadclphia
dodecandria. KAY. Ch. Calyx double, outer one twelve-
leaved ; leaflets briflle-fhaped. Corolla five-petalled, ftyle fili-
form, ftigma club-fhaped. Capfule three-celled, three-feeded.
Sp. C. digitata. Root perenmial. Leaves alternate,
petioled, fmooth, three or five-cleft; fegments lanceolate,
rather obtufe, either quite entire or toothed. Peduncles one-
flowered, axillary. Outer calyx fhort ; inner one-five-cleft.
Nearly allied to Hibifcusy but diltinguifhed fromit by its club-
{haped {tigma,and three-celied capfule, with onefeedineach cell.
T2 CIEUX,
Cavan. diff.
C.1.G
CIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Upper Vienne, and diftrict of Beliac, containing
about 1290 inhabitants; 13 miles N.W. of Limoges.
C{FUENTES, atown of Spain in New Caftile ; 22 miles
S. of Siguenca.
CIGALE and CIGALON, in Natural Hiftory, names
given by the French to {pecies of the Cicada.
CIGLIANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Or-
vietan ; 4 miles N. of Orvieto.
CIGNANI, Casto, in Biography, an kiftorical painter,
of conliderable eminence, born at Belogna in the year 162%,
In infancy he received inftruction from a matter of little note,
Gio. Batt* Cairo; but afterwards became the difciple of
Albano, the amenity of whofe inventions he was ever de-
firous to emulate: his ftyle, however, both as to drawing
and colouring, is principally founded on the model of Correg-
gio, whofe works he attentively fludied, aad to which he
not unfrequently added fomething of the grace of Guido:
aud alibough he fell far fhort of his great prototype, he is
defervedly confidered one of the beft painters Italy could
boaft, in the degenerate times in which he lived.
He painted many large works in the place of his nativity,
as well as in other cities of Italy, and excelled equally in
frefco and in oil. Amongit his moft admired performances,
are four {mall ovals, containing facred ftories, and each fup-
ported by two beautiful boy-angels, at St. Michele in Bofco
at Bologna; and an altar-piece reprefenting, as it is called,
the conception of the virgin, in a monaltery at Piacenza.
The virgin, with a graceful dignity, bruifes with her foot
the head of the ferpent, and the child, who is between her
knees, fuperadds the preffure ‘of his own little foot to that
of his mother.
The Abbé Lanzi, in his Storia Pittorica, {peaks with
rapture of this picture, which, for thought and execution,
he confiders one of the chef d’ceuvres of Cignani. ‘There is
likewife a large work by this malter in a room in the garden
of the Ducal Palace at Parma, with fubjeéts allufive to the
power of love. But his greateft work is at Forli, where
Cignani {pent the latter part of his life: it isa cupola, which,
in imitation of his admired Correggio, he painted in frefco,
with the fubjeét of the aflumption of the Madona, amidft a
multitude of the angelic choir. This, in the opinion of fome
of the beft judges, is the molt interetting work of painting of
the period in which it was produced: it is faid to have em-
ployed the artilt 20 years.
He painted, amongft other cabinet piftures, many {mall
madonas and holy families in oil on copper, upon which his
hiftorian, Zannotti, beftows the higheit encomiums.
The ftyle of Ciznani is fimple, broad, and of great relief,
but feldom evinces loftinefs of conception, or more than or-
dinary force or delicacy ot expreffion. He died in the year
1719, at uhe advanced age of gi. Zannotti, Accademia Cle-
mentina. Lanai, Storia Pittorica.
CIGNAROLI, Guiovann: Berrixo, a Veronefe
painter, one of the belt of his time, was born in the
year 1706, ‘and was educated in the fchool of Santo-
Prunati. The works of Cignaroli were fo admired, that he
many times received the mott prefling invitations to fettle in
foreign courts, but the love of his country proved fuperior
to every other inducement, and he never could be’prevailed
on to quit Verona.
The works of Cignaroli are difperfed in the galleries and
churches of the different parts of Italy, as well as the palaces
of foreign potentates: they are by no means, however, of
equal merit. Amongit others is a flight ino Egypt, in the
eburch of St. Antonia Abate at Parma, upon which Lanzi
heltows the highe{t encomiums.
The Virgin with the child iz reprefented paffing over a
little narrow bridge, and old Jofeph is afifting them on the
Lon 6 F
dangerous oecafion, with a care of anxiety for their fafety,
which is admirably expreffed; fo entirely is he abforbed in
this one idea, that he pays no attention to part of his own
mantle which is floating in the ftream. The angels, who,
in the cuftomary manner, are introduced, poffefs much grace,
and the madona has a dignified deportment, fomewhat re=
fembling thofe of Carlo Maratti.
There is frequently a pleafing expreffion and novelty of
conception in the works of Cignarohi, and his compofition is
good; but his colouring 1s fometimes more plaulible than
true, and he was rather extravagant in the ufe of reds and
greens in his flefh : we may add, that his effets of chiaro-
icuro are not unfrequently too far-fetched, and feem to want
their foundation in nature.
He left many {cholars, among whom was a brother named
Giandomenico Cignarol, whofe pictures in Bergamo are
faid to poflcfs merit—Gio. Bettino Cignareli died in the
year 1770, and the particulars of his lite were publifhed by
P. Gregorio Bevilacqua. Lanzi, Storia Pittorica.
Cicnarout, (by fome called Cincrarot1), Martino—
and Pietro, two’ brothers, Veronefe painters, who, edu-
cated in the fcheol of Giulio Carpione, afterwards fettled
in Milan, where they were efteemed for their landfeapes and
bambocciate, and where Martino had a fon called Scipione,
who became a landfcape painter of fome emiuence. If, as
itis faid, they were living in Milan in 1718, they mutt have
been very old, Lanzi, Storia Pittorica.
Cicnarout, Scrpione, the fon of the above-mentioned
Martino, was a landicape painter of fome note; he is faid to
have been the fcholar of Cavalier Tempefta (P. Molyn call-
ed Cav. Tempetta died 1701) but owed great part of his
advancement to the {tudies which he made at Rome upon the
works of Gafpar Pouffin and Salvator Rofa. From Rome
he returned to Milan, where he painted many pi€tures
which did him credit, till, having acquired confiderable re-
putation, he was invited to the court of the duke of Savoy,
where he lived in high eftimation for the remainder of his
life. Orlandi. Pilkington,
CIGOLI. See Lupovico Cardi. f
CIGURRL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain who,
according to Pliny, inhabited the country at preient called
Atturia.
CILBIANA Juca,a mountain of Afia Minor, in Lydia,
in which was the jource of the river Caifter, It is mentioned
by Pliny and Strabo.
CILBIANI, the name of a people who inhabited a
country in Afia Minor, near the Cailter. As this country
conlilted partly of mountains, called ** Cilbiana Juga,’”? and
partly of a plain, denominated “ Cilbianus Campus,’’ we may
diftinguifh between thofe who inhabited the former, called
‘© Cilbiani Superiores” and thofe who occupied the latter,
contra diftinguifhed-by the name of ‘ Cilbiani Inferiores.’?
CILBICENL, a people ot Spain, placed by Feftus Avienus,
in Beetica, on the fea coaft, and in the vicinity of the tows
Tarteffus: they occupied the banks of the river “ Cilbus,”
CILENDROS, an epifcopal town of Afia, in Maura.
CILENI,’a people of Spain who inhabited the territory
called ‘farragonentis. Ptolemy calls them Cilini, and affigns.
to them the town of ** Udata Therma.”
CILERY, in Architedure, a term ufed to denote the dra-
pery or leavage on the heads of columns.
CILIA, in Anatomy, the hair, ~ hich are implanted on the
borders of the eye-lids, and whica iu common language are
termed eye-lafhes. See Eve.
CILIARIS Muscutus, a few fibres of the orbicu-
laris palpebrarum muf{cle, which immediately furround the
opening of the eyelids, and are defcribed by Albinus, as a
diltin& mufcle, under the abovementioned name. F
CILIARY Aarénies, are branches of the ophthalmic
( artery.
cIL
artery, diftributed to the choroid coat of the eye, and the
iris. See ARTERIES.
Crerary duds, thofe minute canals on the inner furface of
the eyelids into which the Meibomian glands pour their fe-
baceous fecretion, See Eve.
Ciuiary praceffes, the folds on the inner furface of the
anterior portion of the choroid coat of the eye, which adhere
to the front of the vitreous humour. See Eve,
CILIATED, in Botany, aterm applicd to fuch Icaves
and other parts ofa plant as have their edges befet with pa-
yallel hairs refembling thofe of the human eve-lafh.
CILIB& or Cruise, in Ancient Military Language,
round tables, on which the Greek and Roman foldiers placed
their bucklers, when they returned from any expedition.
CILICES, coarfe cloths woven or wrought of horfe-
hair, and goats-hair, ititched and filled or fluffed with cow-
hair or flocks ef wool between every two of them, which the
ancients ftretched and fufpended before their parapets, ditch-
es, and over breaches to ftop arrows, darts, and ftones thrown
from manubalifla, balijie, or catapulte.
CILICIA. See Ciricrum.
Crircia, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia Minor,
lying between the 36th and goth decrees of north latitude,
and bounded by Syria on the eaft, or rather by mount
Amanus, which feparates it from that kingdom, by a chain
of mountains that divided it from Pifidia and Pampbylia on
the weft, by Ifauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor on
the north, and by the Mediterranean on the fouth. This
country is fo furrounded by tteep and craggy mountains,
chiefly the Taurus and Amanus, that it may be defended by
a few men againit a whole army; there being but three
narrow paffes leading into it, commonly called * Pyle Cili-
cie,’’ or the gates of Cilicia, one on the fide of Cappadocia,
called the pafs of mount Taurus, and the other two called
the pafs of mount Amanus, and the pafs of Syria, leading
from Syria. Lhe Pertian army marched through the {traits
of mount Amanus, while that of Alexander was encamped
at lffus, not far from the {traits of Syria, which lie more to
the fouth, and were guarded by a body of Macedonians
under the commard of Parmenio: the ftraits of mount
Taurus Alexander had paffed in entering Cilicia, the Per-
fians who guarded that pafs having retired at the ap-
proach of the Macedonians. ‘The whole country of Cilicia
was divided by the ancients into Cilicia Afpera, and Cilicia
Campettris. The former called by the Grecks Trachza, or
ftony, is bounded by Ifauria on the north, Pamphylia on the
weit, Cilicia Campeftris on the eaft, and the Mediterranean
on the fouth. The cities mentioned by the ancients in this
art of Cilicia are Sydra, or Syedra, Nagidus, Anemurium,
Arfinoe, Celenderis, or Cciandris, Aphbrodifias, Helmus, or
Holmia, Sarpedon, Zephyrium, and Sebafte. ‘Thefe were
the moft not.¢ towns on the coaft of Cilicia Afpera; the
inland cities were Seleucia, Domitiopolis, Philadelphia,
Lamus, and Scandeloro. he chief cities of Cilicia, pro-
perly fo called, or Cilicia Campettris, were Soli, or Sole,
afterwards known by the name of Pompeiopolis. Tarfus,
Anchiale, Anazarbum, Epiphania,! Mopfuettia, Iffus, and
Alexandria. The rivers of principal vote in Cil'cia are the
Pyramus, the Cidnus, the Calycadmus, the Lamus, the
Sarus, the Pyramus, and feveral others of lefs note, which
water this province, and difcharge themfelves into that part
of the Medjterranean, called by the ancients the ‘* Sea of
Cilicia,” and extending near 250 miles from eaft to weft.
Cilicia Campettris is reprefented by Ammianus Marcellinus
as one of the moit fruittul countries of Afia; but the wett-
¢rn part equally barren, though famous even to this day
for an excellent breed of horfes, of which 600 are annually
fent to Conftantinople for the ufe of the Grand Signior.
‘The air in the inland. cies is reckoned very falubrious,,
CiL
but equally dangerous on the fea-coalt, efpecially to firan-
ers.
Jofephus fays (Antiq. 1.i. c. 7.), that this country was
firit peopled by Tarfhith, the fon of Javan, and his defcend-
ants, whence the whole country was called Tarfis. The
ancient inhabitants, it is faid, were, in procefs of time, ex-
pelled by a colony of Pheenicians, who, under the conduct
of Cilix, the fon of Agenor, and brother to Cadmus, firlt
fettled in the ifland of Cyprus, and from thence pailed inte
the country, which, from their leader, they calied Cilicia.
Strabo fays (lib. xvii.), that this Pheesician colony paffed
from Cyprus into Phrygia, where they lived in fubjection to
the kings of Troy, and, after the Trojan war, pofleffed them-
felves of that country, which was afterwards called Cilicia.
Several colonies from other countries in fubfequent periods fet-
tled in this kingdom; fome, particularly, from Syria and
Greece, whence the Cilicians in fome places ufed the Greek.
tongue, in others the Syriac, but the former greatly corrupted
by the Perfian, the predominant language of thecountry being.
a diale&t of thattongue, Bochart derives the name of Cilicia
from the Pheenician word ‘* Challekim,”? or ‘¢* Challukim,’?
fignifying a ftone; that part of Cilicia, which the Greeks
call Cilicia Trachea, being very ftony, and to this day called
by the Turks, ‘* Tes Wileieth,”’ thatis, the ftony province.
The Cilicians, according to the relations of the Greck
and Latin writers, were a rough race of people, unfair in
their dealings, cruel, great liars, and in the Roman times,
entirely addiéted to piracy. Hence proceeded the pro-
verbs, ‘¢ Cilix haud facile verum dicit. Cilicium exitium ;’
and the faying of Pherecrates, ‘‘ Dii femper nobis impo-
nunt, more Cilicium,”’ z. e. * A Cilician fearcely ever {peaks
thetruth. Cilician cruelty. The Goths, like the Ciliciaus,
always deceive us.”
The Cilicians, before they fettled in the country now call-
ed Cilicia, occupied that diftrict of Myfia, called alfo Cili-
cia, S. of the mountains that bound Dardania, and having
to the weft the gulf of Adramyttium. This was divided
into ‘ Cilicia Thebaica,”? and ‘* Cilicia Lyrneffia,”’ after
the names of the two cities, Thebes and Lyrneilus. he
firft, fituated to the north, was feparated from the fecond,
placed to the fouth, by the river Evenus. At this tine
they were governed by kings. But after they fettled in the
other Cilicia, we find no mention of their kings till the time
of Cyrus, to whomthey voluntarily fubmitted, They con-
tinued fubje& to the Perfians till the overthrow of that em-
pire; but were governed to the time of Artaxerxes Mne-
mon by kings of their own nation, Herodotus, indeed,
(1. iil. c. 90.) refers Cilicia to the clafs of Perfian Satra-
pies; but other writers (fee Xenophon Cyroped. ]. vii.
Diodor. 1. xvi. Curt. |. i1.), lead us to conclude, that the
Cilicians were governed by kings of their own in the time
of Xerxes and Artaxerxes Mnemon. After the extincuom
of the Perfian empire Cilicia became a Macedonian pro-
vince. On the death of Alexander it fell to the fhare of
Seleucus, and continued under his defcendants till it was
reduced by Pompey. As a proconfular province it was
firt governed by Appius Claudius Pulcher, and after him
by Cicero, who reduced fome ftrong holds on mount Ama-
nus, and for his fuccefs was faluted by the army with the
title of Imperator, or general. The whole of Cilicia being
thus brought under fubjeG&tion, it was at firft divided into
Cilicia Campettris and Trachea; the former became a:
Roman province y but the latter was governed by kings ap-
pointed by the Romans till the reign of Vefpatian, whem.
this part was alfo made a. province of the empire, and the
whole divided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda, and Lau- -
ria. The firft comprehended the whole of Cilicia Campef--
tris; the fecond included the coalt of Cilicia Trachea; and‘
the lalt the inland parts ofthe fame divifion ; and in this {late :
Ww:
C1IL
it continued till the divifion of the empire. In Cilicia
Prima there were eight epifcopal fees, viz. Tarfus, Pom-
peiopolis, or Soli, Sebafte, Corycus, Adana, Aguria, or Au-
guitopolis, Malchus, or Malus, and Zephyrium. The epif-
copal towns of Cilicia Secunda were the following nine, viz.
Anazarba, Rofus, or Roflus, Mopfuettia, Hew, Epiphania,
Alexandria, Irenopolis, Flavias, end Caftabala.
Cilicia Is now a province of Caramania, bounded on the
N.W. by the long ridge of mountains which feparates it
from Ifauria and Lycaonia; on the N. by Cappadocia and
Lower Armenia ; on the E. by Comagene; and on the S.
by Syria and the Mediterranean. The ealtern part, as we
have already obferved, is a fine flat fertile country ; the
other very hilly, rocky, and barren, The Cilicians were
the inventors of a kind of manufaGory of hair-cloth, chiefly
of goat’s-hair, called fack-cloth, and much ufed in the peni-
tentiary humiliations of the Jews and primitive Chriftians.
Adana is much reforted to from other towns of Cilicia, ef-
pecially from the mountain fide, for its wines, corn, and
other fruit, hence difperfed into the moft barren parts.
Citicra is alfo a country and province of Cappadocia.
Ptolemy fays that it is the name of a prefedture, or military
povernment.
Cixicta Terra, in the Natural Hiflory of the Ancients, a
bituminous fubftance, though called an earth, which, by
boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and was ufed inftead
of that fub‘tance to cover the ftocks of the vines, for pre-
ferving them from the worms. It probably ferved both to
drive thofe animals away by its naufeous f{mell, and en-
tangle them if they chanced to get among it.
CILICIUM, a fort of habit made of coarfe ftuff, of a
black or dark colour, formerly in ufe among the Hebrews,
in times of mourning or diftrefs, It was called Cilicium,
becaufe it came from Cilicia, or rather becaufe the Cili-
cians invented this kindof habit, made of goat’s hair, and
ufed principally incamps and fhips, by foldiers and mariners.
Ciuicium Mare, in Ancient Geography, a name given bythe
ancients to that part of the Mediterranean fea, which bathed
the coalts of Cilicia. Pliny calls it ‘* Cilicius Aulon.”
Ciricium Jnfula, the name of an ifland in the Euxine
fea, in the Pontus-pelamoniacus, 15 {tadia!from the pro-
montory of Jafon, according to Arrian.
CILIMBENSII, a people placed by Ptolemy in the
northern part of the ifland of Cortica.
CILINA.orC erin a,atownof Venetia, towardsthenorth.
CILISARUM, or Cix1z4, a town of Afiain Syria, be-
tween Cyrrhe and Edefla. See Itinerary of Antonine.
CILIUM, an epifcopal town of Africa, inthe Byzacene.
CILIZA, a town of Afia in Syria, fituated near the
mountains on a ftream W. of Deba.
CILLA, a town of Afia Minor in /Etolia, according to
Herodotus. From Strabo, it appears that this town was at
the foot of a mountain of the fame name.—Alfo, a town
of Africa Propria, according to Appian. It was epifcopal.
CILLABA, a town of Africa, fituated towards the
deferts beyond the leffer Syrtis.
CILLA, or Ceri#, a town of Thrace upon the route
from Rome to Conitantinople, between Fhilippopolis and
Op:zum ; according tothe Itinerary of Antonine.
CILLENE, a mountain of Arcadia, faid to be the
highe‘t in the whole country.
CILLEUS Fruvivs, a river of Afia Minor, which had
its fource in mount Ida, ran near a place named Cilla, before
the town of Thebes in Cilicia.
CILLEY, in Gesgraphy, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Stiria, on the river Saan, and capital of a diftriét,
which extends as far as Pettaw. The inhabitants, who
fpeak German aud Sclavonian, are faid by fome to have
been brought hither by thé duke of Bavaria to oppofe the
3
CIM
Romans, Cilley is faid to have once belonged to the Romans,
and afterwards to have been deftroyed ; but when it was
given by Lewis, the old king, and duke of Bavaria, to He-
zillon, duke of Moravia, he re-built it. Thesdiltri@t, or
Comté, was once an independent principality ; and governed
by it’ own counts; 130 miles S.S.W. of Vienna. N. lat.
OF 2 long, a6 2 arene
CILLUTA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Indiana
Ocean, mentioned by Arrian, (I. vi. c. 19.) that feems to
have been fituated in the principal mouth of the river Indus ;
it was of confiderable extent, andhad feveral commodious ports.
CILMA, or Opripum Cuitmanense, now Gelma, a
town of Africa, in Byzacium, fituated 6 leagues to the E.
of Sufetula; it appears to have been a large city, and hae
the area of a temple till remaining. :
CILNIANA, Ciitmana, Cituana, or SILYIACA, 2
place of Spain, in Bectica, between Gades and Calpe. M.
D’Anville marks it in his chart upon the fea-coalt, in the
country of the Baftuli, S. of Munda. f
CILOCA, in Geography, atownof South America, in Peru.
on the coat of the Pacific Ocean; go miles W. of Areqi ipa.
CILURNUM, Watrwicx-Cuesrers, the fixth ftation
on the wall of Severus, in Britain, according to the Notitia
Imperti. See Station. ;
CIMA, in Architedure. See Cyma.
CIMA BUE, Giovannt, in Biography, an Italian painter,
who is generally honoured with the appellation of the father
of modern painters; but although the arts of defign have
the greateft obligations to this extraordinary man, who
firft emerged from that hereditary barbarifm of ftyle, which
for fo many centuries had marked the wretched efforts of
European painters ; yet, it is equally certain, that, without
any reference to the Greek artilts who are f{uppafed by Va-
fari to have been the matters of Cimabue, Italy for at leait
two or three centuries prior to the period of Cimabue’s birth,
had conftantly poffeffed artifts, and artilts of her own, {uffici-
ently inftruéted, to paint the miferable and gholt-like objeGis
of fuperttition and devotion. ,See Paintine, Hiflory of-
Cimabue, according to the authority of Vafari,-was born
of a noble family in Florence, in the year 1240, and, at a
very early period, having evinced a ftrong defire and genius
towards the art, was put under the tuition of fome Greek
painters, who were at that time employed to paint a chapel
under the church of St. Maria Novella. Thefe he quickly
furpaffed, and gave fuch ftriking proofs of his {uperior
talents, that he foon became employed in the molt confider-
able undertakings. ti as
Of his numerous works at Florence little now remains,
except his celebrated Madona, larger than the life, at St.
Maria Novella ; and another at the church of St. Trinita:
they are both painted in diftemper, and well preferved.
The former of thefe works was confidereds when finifhed,
fo extraordinary an effort of the pencil, that Vafari informs
us it was carried in proceffion, accompanied by trumpets,
from the houfe of the painter te the church ; which cir-
cumilance, together with other rejoicings on the occafion,
caufed the ftreet through which the pi€ture paffed to be
called, as it is to this day, ‘* Il Borgo Allegri.”? But an
adequate idea of the genius of Cimabue can alone be formed
by examining his decayed frefcoes {till remainingin the church
of St. Francefco of Affini. Here, on one fide of the church,
he painted in fixteen compartments, with figures fomething
larger than life, the hiftories of the Old Tettament, from the
creation of the world, to the flory of Jofeph and his Bre-
thren ; and on the oppofite fide the fame number of ftaries
from the New Teltament, beginning with the Annunciation,
and ending with the Refurrection ; befides the four Doctors
of the Church, and many other figures on the ceiling, and _
feveral Aories from the Revelations in other parts of the
church,
ciIM
ehareh. Although the greater part of thefe piftures has
{uffered greatly from the deftruétive hand of time, yet feveral
of them are tolerably, and fome of them perfeétly preferved ;
and are, notwithftanding the rudenefs of their execution, in
fo grand and fo fimple a ttyle, as to flrike with altonifhment
the traveller who has been taught to expe in the firft efforts
of the art nothing beyond the humble and itmperfect attempt
of fervile imitation. Some of the conceptions and com-
pofitions in this work would not do difcredit to the genius
of Raffaele at an early period, and certainly poffefs an
energy and boldnefs of expreffion far furpaifing the tame
though careful performances of his matter, P. Perugino:
and although Giotto and his followers, who immediately fuc-
ceeded Cimabue, gave a greater foftnefs and variety to their
draperies, and more diverfity in the characters and expref-
fions of their heads, yet it is difficult to find inftances in their
works where the naked parts of the figure are fo well drawn,
as in fome of the above-mentioned compofitions. He
diced aged 69 in the year 1300. Wafari. Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, MS.
CIMAEON Mons, in Anetent Geography, a mountain of
Afia Minor, placed by Ptolemy towards the Troade. It
was probably the chain of mountains that feparated the
Troade from the country of the Lelegi.
CIMARA, a town of India, on the other fide of the
Ganges, according to Ptolemy.
CIMAROSA, Domtnico, in Biography, maeftro di
cappella to the king of Naples, was a native of that capital,
born at Capo di Monte; he ftudied mufic at the conferva-
torio of Loretto, and was a difciple of the admirable Du-
ronte. He was carefully educated in other refpecis, and
his docility and {weetnefs of temper, during his youth,
gained him the affeGtion of all who knew him. Qn quitting
the confervatorio his talents were foon noticed, and }s
operas, chiefly comic, became the delight of all Italy. But
though he compofed for buffo fingers, his ttyle was always
graceful, never grotef{que or capricious. There is an inge-
nuity in his accompaniments which embellifhes the melody
of the voice part, without too much occupying the attention
of the audience. His operas of ‘11 Pittore Parigino,”’
and ‘* L?Italiana in Londra,’ were carried to Rome, and
thence to the principal cities of Italy, where their fuccefs
was fo great in 1782 and 1783, that.he received an order
from Paris te compofe a cantata for the birth of the Dau-
phin, which was performed by a band of more than 1co
voices and inftruments. In 1784 he was engaged to com-
pofe for the theatres and cities which feldom had operas ex-
prefsly compofed for them; bringing on their ftage fuch as
were fet for sreat capitals, fuch as Rome, Naples, Venice,
and Milan. By thefe-means the expences of poet and
compofer were faved. Cimarofa’s fuccefs and fame were
more rapid than thofe of anv compofer of the la{t cen-
tury, except Piccini, and the fame of his comic opera of
** L’Ttaliana in Londra,” feems to have been as extenfive
as that of the ‘* Buona Figliola.”
In 1787 he fucceeded Sarti at Pcterfourg, and compofed
feveral operas for that court. ‘The fame year he furnifhed
Milan with the comic opera of ‘¢ Le Trame Delufe,”’ and
in 1788, with that of ‘Ii Fanatico Burlato;” though he
remained in Ruffia till 17g0; when he went to Madrid, for
which capital he compofed two operas, one ferious, intitled
«* La Virgine del Sole,”? and one comic, “Il Fanatico Bur-
Jato.”” In 1792, we believe he was at Vienna, where he pro-
duced two of his operas, both comic; one, ‘* Le Trame De-
Jute,’ compofed in 1787, and “Il Matrimonio Segreto.”? We
find but few ferious operas by Cimarofa. <* Giunio Bruto’’
feems to have been the firft, and * Ines di Caftro,”? and “ La
Vendetta di Mino,”’ for Spain, with ‘* Penelope”’ for Naples,
cIM
thelait, Hislattcr comic operaswere, ‘*Amor Rende Sagate,”’
for Vienna; “1 Fraci Amant,’’and * Le Artuzie Femminile,”?
both for Naples, in 1794. ‘‘ L?impegno Superato,” with
“ L?Imprefario in Angniftia,” both hkewife for Naples,
1795; and ‘I Nenici Gererofi,” for Rome, 1796.
We are acquainted with his produ€tions no further.
Italy was in fuch a revolutionary confufien in fubfequent
years, that no art feems to have been cultivated there but
that of war and its concomitants, rapine and flaughter.
Cimarofa, unfortunately for his fame and fortune, mani-
fefted a partiality for the French during their poficfiion of
Naples, which occafioned his difgrace at the court of his
patron and natural fovercign, and he narrowly efcaped the
fate of convidted rebels and traitors. He was however al-
lowed to die in his bedin 1801, in the 5oth year of hisage,
extremely regretted by the lovers of mufic, as an original
and exquifite compofer, and an amiable man, of fo obliging and
{weet a temper, that being uncommonly corpulent, hisimmenfe
fize was afcribed to his good humour and placid difpofition.
CIMARUS Promonrorium, in Ancient Geography,
a promontory which was fituated, according to Strabo, on
the northern coaft of the ifle of Crete.
CIMBINA, or Cruina, a town of Afia, in Media.
CIMBIS, a maritime place of Spain, which, according to
Livy, was fituated in the vicinity of Gades.
CIMBRI, the moft northern people of Germany, men-
tioned by Pliny, Strabo, Mela, Tacitus, and Plutarch; but
they are not agreed with refpe& to their origin ; fome trac-
ing them to the Scythians, and others to the Cimmerians.
They anciently occupied the peninfula which ftretches out
into the German fea and known under the name of the Cim-
bric Cherfonefus, (See Cuersonesus Cimbrica.) About
the year 645 of Rome they left their own country, and join-
ing the Teutones, Ambrones, and Tigurians, ravaged part
of Germany, Helvetia, and the Lyonnefe and Narbonnefe
Gauls, and penetrated into Italy. In their progrefs they
defeated the Romans in feveral pitclred battles, and threw
Italy into the greateft confternation, In the firft of thefe
actions they vanquifhed the conful Papyrius Carbo; in an-
other they defeated M. Junius Silanus, another conful, who
was Called to a fevere account for his bad fuccefs; in the
third, L. Caffius; and ina fourth, the brave M. Aurelius
Scaurus, whom they took prifoner and put to death, by
order of their king, Bolos, for fpeaking too warmly in praife
of the Romans. However, after feveral other fuccefles in
Italy, during a war of eight years, they were totally de-
feated and deltroyed by the valour and policy of Marius
and Catulus, A. U.C. 653, as they were endeavouring to
enter Italy through Noricum, now the Tyrol; 120,000
being killed and 60,c00 taken prifoners. How highly the
Romans eflimated this victory may be deduced from, the
triumph and other fingular honours which they decreed both
to Marius and to Catulus, as well as from the monuments
which thefe caufed to be erefted in memory-of this tranf- -
action. Thofe Cimbri, who efcaped the dreadful flaughter,
probably returned into their own country ; for they are faid
to have afterwards fent a fubmiflive embafly to Auguftus.and
are likewife mentioned by authors of later date, as the moft
warlike of all the northern Germans, down to Claudian’s time,
who calls the North Sea by their name; but their name was
funk either in that of the Teutones, or of the Saxons, who,
being their neighbours, joined. with them in their excurfions,
and gradually became more powerful,
The Cimbri, fuppofed by Mr. T. Warton to be a Scan.
dinavian tribe, and by others to be the northern Cexrs,
the anceftors of the Wellh, called Cymri, were accom.
panied at their aflemblies by venerable and hoary-headed
propheteffes, apparelled in long linen veltments of {plen-
did
cIM
‘did white. Their matrons and daughters acquired 4
reverence from their fkill in ftudying fimples, and their
knowledge of healing wounds, arts reputed mytterious.
‘The wives frequently attended their hufbands in the molt pe-
rilous expeditions, and fought with great intrepidity in the
molt bloody engagements. Thefe northern nations dreaded
captivity more on the account of their women than on their
own; and the Romans availing themfelves of this apprehen-
fion, often demanded their nobleit virgins for hoftages.
Tacit. de Mor. Germ. cited by Warton. Hilt. of Englifh
Poetry, vol. i. diff. i.
CIMBRIAN AR, a place of Meefia, on the route from
Sirmium to Carnuntum, between Tricciana and Crifpiana,
according to the Itinerary of Antonine. The Notitia Im-
erii places it under the department of the fecond Mcefia.
CIMBRISHAMN, or CimaetsHaven, in Geography,
a fea-port of Swedén, in Weft Gothland, and province of
Schonen; 24 miles S. of Chrillianftadt.
CIMEGES, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne, and diftriGt of Bergerac; 7 miles S.W.of Bergerac.
CIMELIANTHUS, in Natural Hiftory, a name given
by authors toa {pecies of the oculus bei. It is decribed to
be of a white colour, refembling that of marble, witha
yellow pupil in the middle.
the Euphrates.
CIMELIARCG, in Church Archite@ure, the room where
the plate, ve(tments, &c. belonging to the church are kept.
-In Englifh, a veftry. |
CIMELOS, im Ancient Geography. See Cimoxrus.
CIMETERRE. See Scimitar.
CIMETRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy in
the country of the Samnites, taken by Fabius in the year of
Rome 455. Livy.
CIMEX, in Entomology, a genus of hemipterous infeéts.
Linnzus defines the genus cimex in the following manner.
Rottrum or fnout infleGed; antenne longer than the tho-
rax ; wings folded together crofs-wife ; the wing-cafes cori-
aceous on the upper part; back flat; thorax margined;
legs formed for running. Thelejhe divides into many fee-
tions. ‘Vhe firft, apteri, are thofe without wings as in the
common houfe-bug. The /cufellati, thofe in which the
efcutcheon is extended fo far as to cover the abdomen and
wings. The coleoptrati have the wing-cafes entirely coria-
ceous inftead of having the extremity membranaceous as in
the other cimices. The membranacei have, on the contrary,
the wing-cafes entirely membranaceous, and are much de-
prefled. The /pinoff, thofe which have the thorax armed each
fide with a fpine. Tne rofundati are of an oval form, with-
out {pines on the thorax. The /évicornes have the antenne
fetaceous towards the tip. The od/ongi are of an oblong
form. The /pinipedes have the thighs armed with fpines;
and the dineares have the body of a linear form.
Linnzus could nct be aware of the-amazing extent of
the cimex genus as he had inftituted it. ‘The number of in-
feéts pofletiing the fame chara@ters which he propofed for
the cimices that were known to him were comparatively
few, amounting perhaps at the utmolt to fcarcely more than
a tenth portion of thofe deferibed fince his time by various
writers. With fuch feanty materials Linneus found it fuf-
ficient for his purpofe to difpofe of infeéts very different
in other refpects, though according with his generic cha-
raGer, to fome one of the fections be had formed, or to
frame a new feétion for its admiffion. But confidering the
prodigious number of new fpecies of this tribe that have
been recently difcovered, it will be found, we are perfuaded,
that the Linnzan genus is no longer adequate to the recep-
tion of the whole. Infects pofleffed of fuch very diffimilar
eharacters, though truly Linngan cimices, if brought toge-
I
It was found on the fhores of |
cIM
ther under a fingle genua, would prefent a moft incongruous
affemblage. Fabricius has been affiduons in the formation
of new generical improvements in this tribe; he has availed
himfelf of the difcoveries of naturalifts and colleGors of the
prefent time, and has been able by that means to introduce
to our acquaintance many hundred fpecies of this tribe that
were before unknown. Fabricius conititutes of the Lin-
nzan cimices feven diftinét genera, acanthia, cimex, coreus,
lygeus, miris, gerris, and reduvius. We are not the parti-
zans of innovation on any eftablifhed fyitem, and above any
other of that originally founded by Linnzus ; but we really
think it might be right to conttitute even a fill further num-
ber of genera than Fabricius has done to include the whole of
thofe infeéts which fland as Cimices in the Lirnzan fyftem.
But whatever may be our ideas in this refpe€t, we hall, for
the prefent, purfue only a middle line, retaining, fomewhat
after the manner of Gmelin, fome of the Fabrician genera,
as fub-divifions of the Linnean cimices, and allowing others,
which we think ought abfolutely to ftand as genera diftin&
from Cimex, to form an appendage to ourarticle. It will
be thus perceived, that in the Linnean arrangements, the
whole are Cimices, and in the Fabrician fyftem fo many dif-
tinct genera.
Genus Cimex. Linn.—Genus Acanthia. Fabr.
Species.
Lecrurarivus. Apterous; body ferruginous. Linn. Acan-
thia le@ularia, Fabr. Common houfe bug. The hittory of this
foetid and naufeous infect is weil known; it isthe inhabitant
of moft houfes ; crawls from its lurking places in walls and
furniture to fuck the blood of thofe that are afleep during
the night, in the day conceals itfelf; it is faid to have an
averfion to elder and tobacco. Scopoli pretends that it has
been found with wings, fome account of which feems to have
been publifhed in an old German pamphlet, but we cannot
credit the affertion of the writer. ;
Arex. Glofly black ; thorax with a white dorfal line.
Acanthia atra, Fabr. Inhabits Germany.
Zoster#. Black ; wing-cafes coriaceous, and as long as
the abdomen; tip hyaline and firiated. Fabr. Inhabits Ger-
many. ‘
Fraviees. Black; wing-cafes coriaceous, as long as
the abdomen, and immaculate ; legs pale. Fabr. Inhabits
Saxony. C. Saxonicus, Gmel.
Pavuicornis. Black and glofly ; wing-cafes coriaceous,
abbreviated, and without f{pots; antenne and legs pale.
Fabr. Inhabits Saxony,
Grytioipes. Apterous, black ; thorax and wing cafes
margined with white. Fabr. C. grylloides, Linn. Inhabits
Germany.
Coriaceus. Apterous; fhells coriaceous, black-grey.
Acanthia coriacea, Fabr.
’Cravires. Apterous; black; legs pitchy; anterior
thighs thickened and dentated. Fabr. Inhabits ‘Tranquebar.
Nicricornis. Black ; anterior part of the thorax green-
ifh ; wing-cafes coriaceous and greenifh. Fabr. C. nigrie
pennis, Gmel. Inhabits Germany. ;
Cravicornis. Wing-cafes with reticulated punétures ;
antenne clavated. Panzer. Inhabits Germany.
Crassicornis. Wing-cafesdufky afh; extreme joint of the
antennz comprefled and lanceolate. Fabr. Inhabits Germany.
Virescens. Greenifh; laft joint of the antenne ovate,
thick, and black. Fabr. Inhabits the South American iflands,
Lavarer. Black; wing-cafes and abdomen at the
bafe rufous. Fabr. A native of Barbary.
Serratutz. Black; wing-cafes palith; tip of the
wings fufcous. Fabr. Found in England.
Fasciatus. Black ; wing-cafes palifh, with two abbre- _
Fabr. A native of Germany.
Macuatus,
yiated black bands.
GP IgM -E: X
Macutratus. Brown; thorax with three white fpots ;
abdomen beneath white, the edge dotted with black. dcan-
thia maculata, Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar.
Pauuires. Black; wing-cafes pale with black bafe and
marginal fpot. Fabr. C. marginalis, Gmel. ;
Lirtoraris. Wing-cafes fordid grey with white dots ;
body black. Fabr. Inhabits the north of Europe.
Rucosus. Wing-cafes pale; body oblong; anterior
thighs very thick. Linn. A. rugo/a, Fabr. A native of
North America.
Luwarus. Thorax lunate, with prominent margin:
abdomen ferrated. A. Junaia, Fabr, An Indian fpecies.
Corticatis. Membranaccous ; abdomen imbricated at
the fides; body black. Fabr. Inhabits Europe. Cimex
corticalis, Linn. 7
Depressus. Membranaceous ; fufcous; thorax with four
elevated lines; wing-cafes white, with a raifed fuflcous ring.
Acanthia deprefiz, Fabr. Inhabits Germany.
Puanus. Membranaceous, black; thorax with four
raifed black lines ; wing-cales, and wings white, fpotted with
black. Acanthia plana, Fabr. Inhabits Saxony.
Parapoéxus. Membranaceous; thorax and abdomen
lobated and ciliated with fpines. Sparrman a&t. Holm. 1777.
‘ Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and refembles a dead
leaf. .
Levis. Black; abdomen fmooth and brown; wings
pale. Fabr. An Englith infec.
Berurz. Membranaccous; thorax denticulated ; head
{pinous ; anterior part of the wing-cafes dilated. Linn. A
native of Europe.
Grisatus. Depreffed, grey; abdomen beneath with a
black ring. Acanthia grifea, Fabr. Found in Barbary.
Erosus. Membranaceous, abdomen yellow with black
band; margin of the thorax finuate; anterior fhanks thick.
Linn. Cimex Scorpio, Degeer, A native of Surinam.
Monsrrosus. Membranaceous, black; abdomen fer-
rated, angular with white tip; head and thorax ferrated ;
anterior fhanks thickened. A. monjirofa, Fabt. A native
of Barbary.
Gissus. Black; feutel and wing-cafes white, with a
black dot atthe tip. A. gibla, Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft
Indies. :
Camrestris. Black; wing-cafes white with fufcous
tip, aud whitifh {pot ; wings without {pots. Fabri|_ Inhabits
New Zealand. °
Nemoratts.
middle ; wings fufcous, at the bafe white, Fabr.
Zealand.
PRATENSIS.
wings white with fufcous fpot at the tip. Fabr.
Germany.
Black; wing-cafes with a white dot in the
Inhabits
Black ; wing-cafes yellowifh, tip dufky ;
Inhabits
Sytvestris. Black; wing-cafes white, with a black
arch at the tip. Linn. Found in woods in Europe.
Axarus. Thorax with four raifed fufcous lines 5 wing-
cafes pale, with a fufcous fpot at the tip. Fabr. Inhabits
Sweden. 2 ;
Cosraxis. Thorax with three raifed lines ; body brown ;
rib of the wing-cafes dotted with black and white. Fabr.
An Enropean infec.
Saccuari. Thorax and feutel with three raifed lines ;
body brown; wings hyaline and reticulated at the tip. Fabr.
_Inhabits South American iflands.
Carput. Thorax and fcutel with three raifed lines ; tip
of the antennz black. Fabr. A native of Europe.
Houmuri. Thorax with three raifed lines; the margin
very thick ; body beneath black, legs rufous. Fabr. Inhabits
Germany.
Vou. VIIL
* Scutel as long as the abdomen.
Stockerus. Ovate; body green, with black fpots ; ab-
domen ferruginous. Linn. |
Inhabits China. Donov. Inf. China. Beneath ferrugi-
nous, at the fides blue; colour above variable from glofly-
green. to blue.
Eques. Ovate; body green, with black fpots ; ab-
domen deep black; margin green. with black dots. Fabr.
Smaller than the preceding. Defcribed from -a {pecimen
in the cabinct of Lund, received from Tranquebar. We
have feen the fame from Atfrica.
Nozitis. Oblong, blue, glofled with golden, and f{pot-
ted with black. Linn.
An Afiatic infect, much refembling Cimex /lockerus, but
of a more oblong form, and far more rare.
Stenatrus, Oblong; thorax and fcutel bluifh, with fix
black fpots. Fabr.
A native of Senegal, in the cabinet of Rouffillon.
fembles the preceding fpecies.
Recauis. Thorax golden, with two bluifh dots; fentel
golden, with two bluifh fpots. Fabr. A native of New
Holland. Donov. Inf. N.H. Very rare.
Impeatatis. ‘Thorax and {cutel rufous; abdomen blue,
with afanguineous margin. Fabr.
Inhabits the fame country as the preceding. Donov.
Inf. New Holland.
Banxsu. Violaceous; on the thorax an anchor-fhaped
{pot, with two curved lines, and ‘three {pots on the feutel
Re-
fanguineous. A new fpecies. Donov. Inf. New Hol-
land.
Carintuis. Dull black, and without fpots. Fabr.
Inhabits Africa.
Dispar. Red, or flefh colour; thorax and fcutel with
yellow fpots, fome containing a black pupil or dot. Fabr.
Donov. Inf. China. Cimex ocellatus, “Thunberg.
Nicerrz. Dull black; anterior part of the thorax,
edge of the abdomen, and legs white. Fabr. A native of
Barbary. Found on the Nigella.
Awnutus. Greenifh, with black annular fpots. Fabr.
Cimex argus of Drury’s Exotic Infeé&ts. Inhabits Senegal.
6-Puncratus. Above teftaceous; thorax with fours
fcutel with two black-blue dots. ~ Fabr.
Deferibed from the Hunterian Cabinet.
America.
ARCUATUS.
curves. Fabr.
Drvrat.
Inhabits South
Grey ; thorax and feutel with two*black
A native of South America.
Above red, with large irregular black f{pots.
Drury Inf. Inshabits America.
Fasrici. Somewhat purplifh, with fulvous dots. Fabr.
Inhabits Cayenne. y
Arcus. Black, with numerous ocellar fulvous {pots.
Stoll. Refembles the former, .Inhabits Surinam.
Scuurai. Brafly black ; feutel with a fearlet fpot on
each fide at the bafe. Fabr. Found in Cayenne.
Pacanus. Azure; feutel and abdomen rufous, with
azure fpots. Fabr. Donov. Inf. New Holland. Bank-
fian Cabinet. P :
I:utustrris. Glaucous; thorax and feutel with two
fufcous dots. Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
Furcirer. Brown; fcutel with two black dots, and
tridentated fulvous fpot behind. Stoll. Cab. Holthyfen.
Same country as the preceding.
Lineora. Above blue ; head and thorax with a dorfal
line of red, and two dots of the fame colour on the icutel,
Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
Tritinratus. Black, with three yellowifh lines. Fabr.
Inhabits South America.
NicRe-
CIMEX,
Nicrorineatus. Red; thorax with five black lines ;
feutel with three; abdomen yellow, dotted with black.
Fabr. Inhabits South of Europe. Linn.
Semrpuncratus. Aboverufous; thorax with ten black
dots; fcutel with-four lines of black. Fabr. Inhabits
America.
SitpHorpes. Brafly-black; margin of the abdomen
beneath, and legs yellow. Fabr. A native of India.
AxcuHoxaco. Azure; fcurel at the bafe and tip yel-
lowifh ; margin of the abdomen yellow, dotted with black.
Solander. Inhabits America.
Grammicus. Body yellowifh, with a black longitudinal
litural mark or daub.. Linn. A native of Africa.
PxprmonTatarus. Rufous, with numerous white {pecks.
Fabr. Cimex alliont, Gme). An Italian {pecies.
Costratus. Grey; rib of the wings at tne bafe and the
legs rufous. Fabr. Donov. Inf. New Holland. A fpe-
cimen in the Bankfian Cabinet was found in Rotterdam
Ifland.
Hotrentrorra. Ferruginous, and immaculate. Fabr.
Inhabits the Ealt. Prof. Forfkahl.
Mavrus. Cinereous; fcutel with two white dots at the
bafe. Linn. A native of the fame part of the world as the
preceding.
Lynceus. Dufky teftaceous, dotted with black; fcutel
with two fulvous dots at the tip. Fabr.
Avso-tineatus. Thorax fomewhat {pinous, grey, and
ftriated with white. Fabr. A native of Italy. Dr. Al-
liont.
Rusticus. Fufcons; head and’anterior part of the thorax
ferruginous; beneath varied with white, and fufcous.
Irroratus. Greenifh, fpeckled with fufcous. Fabr.
A native of America.
Lanatus. Brafly-black, with grey hairs. Pallas. In-
habits Siberia.
Gtosvs.
men ferruginous. Fabr.
ScaraBzorpes. Body entirely brafly. Linn.
on flowers of the ranunculus.
Pavuipes. Brafly-black; margin of the fcutel, and
abdomen, with the legs pale. Inhabits Africa. Cimex
acaroides, Thunberg.
Fravires. Brafly-black ; whole margin, and the legs
ellow. Fabr. :
Deferibed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian Cabinet. In-
habits New Holland.
Desronrainit. Thorax fpinous ; above grey, ‘beneath
whitifh. Fabr. Inhabits Barbary.
Globofe, gloffy-black ; margin of the abdo-
Inhabits the fouth of Europe.
Found
Furicinosus. Scutel footy, with five black litvral
marks or blotches, the pofterior one white. Linn. Inhabits
Europe.
Vautit. Glofly black ; head with two yellowih blotches ;
margin of the thorax, fcutel, and legs yellow. Fabr. In-
habits the Eaft.
Tusercuratus. Dufky; fcutel fcabrous, before the
tip tuberculated. Fabr. A native of Italy.
Litrura. Black; two {mall yellow lines at the bafe, and
dot at the tip white. Fabr. Inhabits Arabia according to
Forkfkahl.
Inuxctus, Black; feutel at the bafe, with the legs
grey. Fabr. An Englith fpecies.
Arass. Thorax fpinous; body ovate, livid; tail bi-
dentated. Linn. Found in American iflands, ‘
Srozipus. Thorax fomewhat angulated ; body above
green, beneath yellow; tail armed with two teeth, Linn.
Aa Indian fpecics.
a
* Therax fpinous each fide. :
Cervus. Green; wing-cafes fufcous, with white mar-
gin; {pines of the thorax obtufe, and fomewhat bifid. Stoll.
A native of Cayenne.
Taurus. Grey; {pines of the thorax advanced, com-
prefled, and truncated. Fabr. Inhabits the Coromandel
coait.
Dama. Grey ; [pines of the thorax obtufe and emargi-
nate. Fabr. This is of a large fize and inhabits the Eatt
Indies. ae
Vacca. Olive; thorax obtufely fub-fpinous ; antenne
rufous at the bafe ; fternum fhort and compreffed ; tail arm-
ed with four teeth. Fabr. A large fpecies. This inhabits
Guadaloupe. :
Gazetta. Thorax obtufely fub-fpinous; above green-
ifh ; head and anterior part of the thorax yellowifh; abdo-
men ferrated. Fabr. Inhabits Martinique. Ifert.
Taranpus. Thorax {pinous, above b!ue-black ; anteri-
or margin of the thorax, three dorfal lines, and tip of the
{cutel white. Fabr. A {pecies of large fize, deferibed from
an infeét in the Britifh Mafeum. Native country unknown.
Binens. Spines of the thorax fharp; body grey ; an-
tenne rufous. Linn. Found in gardens in Europe.
Sancuinipes. Spines of the thorax obtufe; body fuf-
cous; {cutel at the tip whitifh ; {pots on the margin of the
abdomen and legs black. Fabr. Inhabits Italy.
Ruripes. Spines of the thorax obtufe; body grey ; legs
rufous. Linn. Inhabits Europe. Found in Gardens.—Odf-
In fome fpecimens the tip of the {cute} is rufous,
Luripus. Spines of the thorax obtufe, greenifh; wing-
cafes grey witha fnfcous fpot; fhield emarginate. Fabr.
Defcribed by Fabricius as an Englith infeét on the authority
of the Bankfian cabinet. Taken in woods near London, but
rare. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Custos. Thorax obtufely fpined, grey; antenne yellows
with two black annulations. Fabr. A native of Germany.
Nicricornis. Thorax obtuicly {pined, fub-ferruginous 5.
{pines and antennz black, Fabr. A nativeof Saxony. ~
Nicrispinus. Thorax obtufely fpined; above grey ;
head and fpines black; antennz with a black ring. Fabr.
Inhabits China, :
Ictericus. Oblong; above reddifh; beneath yellow.
Linn. Amen. Acad. Inhabits America.
Puscratus. ‘Thorax fomewhat fpinous; fufcous, ab-
domen variegated at the margin; fhanks with a white ring.
Fabr. A native of Europe, fometimes found in England.
Varius. Thorax obtufely fpined; above rufous, be-
neath yellowifh ; feutel black, with the bafe and tip white.
Fabr. Inhabits Spain. Vahl. ‘
Lunura. Thorax obtufely fpinous; above rufous; on
the anterior part of the thorax five little yellow lines; two
lunules at the bafe of the fcutel, and the tp white. Fabr.
Inhabits Barbary.
ALBIPES.
margin of the thorax and fcutel tip white. A Fabrician
fpecies defcribed from the cabinet of Dr. Allioni. A native
of Italy.
Dentatus. Thorax flightly ferrated ; body varied with.
cinereous and black. Fabr. An Eatt Indian fpecies.
‘Froripanus. Black, varied with red ;. fcutel with three.
red fpots, Linn. A native of America.
Armatus. Spines of the thorax acute; fcutel black,
two dots and tip teftaceous; antenne and legs red. Fabr..
Inhabits New Holland. Bankfian cabinet. FS
Hamorruous. Black; abdomen rufous;- wing-cafes,
with five black. linear dots. A. Lifinen fpecies. Inhabits.
America,
2-PustTu-
Thorax fomewhat fpinous; above blackifh ;.
—
COME!
2-Pusrutarus. Black; wing*cafes livid; head with
two fcarlet dots. Linn. A native of Surinam. t
Punicus. Black; lunuleon the {cutel, and tip red. Linn,
An African infec.
Yrsiton. Livid; feutel with a yellow y-like mark. Linn.
Found in Surinam.
~Ciyreatus. Green, withyellowifh band, head fhield-
ed. Fabr. A native of China. Gronovius. ;
Evecror. Above grey, beneath ycllowifh, with black
dot ; antenne black; band before the tip yellow. Fabr.
Country unknown.
Axsicotiis. Thorax dentated; above green; head,
fore part of the thorax, and bafe of the feutel yellow. Fabr.
Cimex flavicellis, Drury. A native of Jamaica.
Hemosruorarts. Thorax obtufely fpinous; fome-
what grecuith; antenne black; fternum projecting, Line.
An European fpecies. Found in England, Donov. Brit.
Inf. &c. :
SPINIDEUS. Spines of the thorax acute; fufcous ; fentel
at the tip and margin of the upper wings white. Vabr,
Found in Tranguebar.
Sacittata. Thorax acutely f{rined and ferrated ; grey ;
under-wings with a black fillet ; antenne and legs ycllow.
Fabr. Inhabits South American iflands.
Ocuratus. Grey; feutel with two yellow dots; an-
terior tarfi of the legs comprefled and membranaccous. Fabr.
A native of China. : F
Annuratus. Grey; thanks annulated with white. Fabr.
A native of Virginia.
4-Pusrutatus. Thorax obtufely {pined, and crenated,
with two rufous dots; f{cutel with two rufous dots at the
bafe. Fabr. An American {pecies.
Macucarus. Greenifh; thorax obtufely fpined, with
four brown {pots; tip of the {cutel and wing-cafes brown.
Fabr. Same country as the former.
Pucwax. Thorax acutely fpined, oblong and greenith ;
antennz rufous. Fabr. Inhabits America.
Emeritus. Thorax acutely {pined, greenif ; abdomen
with two lines of white. Fabr. A New Holland f{pecies in
the Bankfian cabinet.
Grapiatror. Thorax acutely fpined, and. with the
feutel yellow dotted with black; wing-cafes rough with
white dots. Degeer, &c. - An American infect.
Ferrucator. Thorax acutely {pined; above grey ; head
and [pines black ; abdomen ferruginous, Paykull, &c. In-
habits Sweden.
CrEenaror.
lowifh. Fabr. A native of the American iflands. Smidt.
Furcarus. Thorax acutely {pined and ferrated; fuf-
cous; fhield of the head acuminated and bid. Fabr. De-
feribed from an infeé in the Bankfian Cabinet, found on the
coalt of Patagonia.
Pucituator. Thorax acutely fpinous; fufcous; mar-
gin yellow, beneath fulvous dotted with black, Fabr. In-
habits Africa.
Perpiror. Thorax acutely fpinous, with two dots and
_ band in the middle brown; margin of the abdomen varied
with fulvous and green, Fabr, Inhabits American iflands.
Vicror. Thorax acutely fpined; fufcous; tip of the
feutel rufous; legs pale, dotted with black. Fabr. In-
habits American iflands.
Dexiraror. Thorax acutely fpined ; black ; antennz.
ferruginous; legs pale, dotted with black. Fabr. Inhabits
American rlands. :
Ciziatus. Thorax ciliated, obtufely {pinous, and black ;
margin and band behind yellow; pofterior thighs ferrated.
Fabr. An American fpecies. :
Thorax crenated ; above grey, beneath yel--
‘in Europe; in England rarely. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Ua.
Meracanruus. Thorax acutely {pinous; dufky fer-
ruginous; {pines black; abdomen black with yellowih
{tripes. Fabr. Inhabits Africa.
Accressor. Thorax acutely fpinous; tail four tooth-
ed; body yellowifh; {pines fame colour. A new Holland
fpecies, defcribed from the Bankhan cabinet. Vabr.
Virtratus. Thorax fomewhat fpinous; greenifh; wing-
cafes with a yellow ftripe near the margin. Fab. Inhabits
the Cape of Good Hope.
Hamarus. Thorax acutely fpined; green; abdomen
ferrated, the denticles black. Fabr. An Eaft Indian {pe-
cles.
Verox. Thorax acutely fpined, with two dots; wing~
cafes with a yellow dot at the bafe, and fireak at the tip
yellow. Tabr. Inhabits America.
‘Humexatts. Green; wing-cafes yellow at the bafe.
Thunberg. Country unknown,
Comma. Cinereous; fcutel with a yellow line. Thunb.
Inhabits Africa.
Transverses. Green; head and anterior part of the
thorax yellow. Thunb, Same country as the former.
Furrto. Black, fpecked with white; head and thorax
with a white line. Thunb. Inhabits Japan.
Tisravis. ‘Chefnut-brown, with white and brown lines;
feutel witi: two white fpots. Thunb. Country unknown.
* Ovate ; thorax unarmed. y
Avrantius. Orange; head, anterior margin of the
therax, meginal {pots on the abdomen, and legs black. Vabr.
Donov. Inf. China. Inhabits China and other parts of
India.
Puncratum.
wing-cafes white with a black dot. Fabr.
Sulz. Inhabits Java.
Nicrives. Above fanguineous,; fcutel with two fpots
and wiag-cafes with one {pot of black. Fabr. Cimex incarna-
tus, Drury. An Eaft Indian infect.
Isert1. Teftaceous; head, thorax behind, feutel an-
teriorily, band on the wing-cafes, with the wings and legs,
blue. Fabr. According to Dr. Ifert, habits the woods
of Guinea,
Papittosus.~* Olive ; antennz black ; fternum gibbous,
and comprefled. Fabr. Czmex Chinenfis, Thunberg. De-
{eribed perhaps erroneoufly as a native cf Sierra Leone,
Africa. We have received the fpecies from China. Donov.
Inf. China and India.
Runens. Red; head, anterior part of the thorax and
fcutel greenifh; margin of the abdomen {potted with yel-
low. Fabr, An Ealt Indian {pecies.
Danus. Sanguineous; head, fcutel at the bafe, and
wings, black. Fabr. Cimex danus, Stoll. Cimex afery
Drury. Inhabits American iflands.
Oxzscurvs. Fufcous; thorax, wing-cafes, and fcutel
dufky olive ; laft joint of the antenne yellow. Fabr. Inha-
bits the Eaft Indies,
Torauatus. Green; head, and anterior part of the
thorax, yellowifh. Fabr. A native of Italy.
Riruxans. Green and brafly ; afanguineous band on
the anterior part of the thorax ; fore part of the f{cutel and
wing-cales yellowifh. Fabr. An African {pecics.
Gurtrarus. Brafly green, with whitith dots ; anterior
fhanks dilated and membranaceous. Fabr. A native of Siam.
Bankfian cabinet. H
Viriputus. Above yellow, dotted with green; be-
neath green, Linn, A native of India.
Prasinus. Green, and without {pots ; laft joints of the
antennz rufous with the tip fufcous. Linn. Found in woods_
Above blackifh ; thorax behind orange ;
Cimex nigripes,
Drssimints.
CIME*X.
Disstmitrs. Above green, beneath ferruginous, Fabr.
A native of Germany,
Juniperinus. Green; margin entirely and tip of the
feutel yellow. Fabr. Found on the juniper in Europe.
Smaracputus. Green, fcutel with three yellow {pots
at thebafe. Inhabits Madeira.’
Azureus. Dufky-green; mouth and legs yellowih.
Fabr. A native of Guinea.
Berytivus. Pale; margin of the thorax orange; wing-
eafes with a ferruginous fpot, and marginal little lines of
black. Fabr. An Eaft Indian infe&.
Catipus. Above -fufcous, beneath teftaceous; antennz
black. Fabr. Inhabits Sierra Leone. Dr. Pflug.
Lywx. Greenifh ; margin of the abdomen with black
ecellar fpots. Fabr. A native of Hungary.
Ceuess. Greyith-brown; three dots on the fcutel with
the tip yellowifh. Inhabits New Holland. Deferibed by
Fabricius from a f{pecimenin the Bankfian cabinet.
Iratus. Green-brown, thorax with a yellow band,
Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Dumosus. Dufky; dorfal line, two dots on the fcutel,
and ring on the fhanks rufous. Linn. Inhabits the North
of Europe.
Tripuncratus. Yellowith ; three lines on the head,
and three dots on the feutel black. “Rabr. An American
{pecies.
Aromarius. Grey and fufcous varied; wings white,
dotted with fufeous. Fabr. Inhabits Amerjcas
Nusitis. Grey and black varied ; wings white, ftriated
with black. Fabr. A native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Bankfian cabinet. =
Tristraiatus. Yellowith; wing-cafes with an ocellar
black fpot at the tip ; abdomen with three white lines. Fabr.
An Italian infe&t.-Dr. Allioni.
6-Puncratus. Pale yellow and black varied ; thorax
~pale yellow, with fix black dots. Linn. An Indian fpecies.
Sicnatus. Grey; fcutel with a black itripe. Fabr.
A native of Sierra Leone.
Gravis. Fufcous; feutel with two yellow dots; wing-
cafes with a black dot. Fabr. Avnative of New Zealand.
Mepitasunpus. Above green; wing-cafes fufcous,
beneath yellowifh. Fabr. A South American fpecies. Dr.
Tfert.
Cixcrus. Green; margin of the thorax and abdomen
fanguineous. Fabr. © Cimex Forfkahlii, Gmel. Inhabits the
Eatt.
Rusrorasciatus. Greenith; thorax with a fanguineous
band. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar, and is defcribed from a
f{pecimen in the cabinet of Hybner. Gmelin alters the Fa-
brician fpeeific name to Hybneri.
Acatuinus. Pundtured yellowih ; fcutel with a black
band; abdomen aboye black; tailrofy. Fabr. A Ger-
man fpecies.
Lituratus. Green fpeckled with brown ; thorax with
a band; wing-cafes with a blotch of fanguineous. Fabr.
Inhabits Italy.
CruENTus.
with the antenne and legs ferruginous. Fabr.
Surinam. e
Genicucatus. Dufky ; thorax and margin of the ab-
domen yellowilh; tail and joints of the legs ferruginous,
Fabr. + Inhabits Cayenne.
Mixtus. Pun&ured, grey, fpotted with black; margin
ef the abdomen black, with yellow dots. Fabr. Same
eountry as the former. ;
Picus. Grey; antenne and fhanks of the legs black,
with white rings. Fabr. An Indian {pecies.
&
Green; thorax, margin of the abdomen,
A native of
ferrated. Fabr.
Griseuvs. Grey; fides of the abdomen varied with
black and white; fternam projécting. Linn. Found in
gardens in Europe. ;
Interstinctus. Grey; margin of the abdomen with
black fpots. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
Funeseis. Ovate, black, antennz, legs, and wings
fame colour. Fabr. Invhabits ea Leone.
Baccarum. Somewhat fuivous ; margin of the abdo-
men fpotted with fufcous. Linn. An European infec.
Mucorevus. Black, f{peckled with white ; head black ;
margin and linein the middle white. Fabr. Inhabits China.
Ornatus. Black and red varied; head and wings
black. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
Festivus. Black and red varied; thorax with fix
black dots ; wings fufcous, margin whitith. Linn. Cimex
dominulus, Scop. Found in the fouth of Europe.
Cruciatus.
a white crofs. Fabr. Inhabits the Ealt Indies.
Biocutatus. Above black; thotax rufous with two
black dots; margin of the fcutel ya EB Pabr. An Ame-
rican infect.
Gramineus. Rowndith, green, and without fpots.
Fabr. A native of Tranquebar.
2-Punctratus. Dufky rufous; two dots on the feutel,
and tip white ; margin of the abdomen dotted with black.
Fabr. A native of Italy. Called by Gmel. C. Jtalicus.
Bicotor. Black ; wing-cafes white and black varied ;
wings white. Linn. Found in gardens in Europe. An
Englith {pecies. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Oxeraceus. Blue-brafly ; {mall line on the thorax, tip
of the {cutel, and dot on the wing-cafe white er red. Linn.
Geoffr. &c. Found in gardens in Europe.
2-Gutratus. Black, with the whole margin white ;
wing-cafes with white dots. Linn. Inhabits Europe ; lives
chiefly in gardens,
Histrio. Wariegated; head and abdomen black with
white lines. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar. Hybner.
Cxrucevs. Blue and without fpots. Linn. An Eu-
ropean {pecies. :
Axvso-Marcinettus. Blue; margin of the thorax,
wing cafes, and tip of the fcutel white. Fabr. Inhabits
Germany. Cimex albo-marginatus, Geoffr.
Nicrira. Black; wings white; legs rufous; fhanks
Inhabits Germany.
Fiavicornis. Black; wings white; antenne yellow;
thorax and fhanks ciliated. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Morio. Deep black; feet rufous. Linn. &c. Found on
plants in Europe.
Tristis. Deep black; fhield orbicular ; thorax retufe.
Fabr. Cimex Jpinipes, Schranck.
Spinipes. Black; legs pitchy; fhanks very {pinous.
Fabr. An African fpecies.
Eruiors. Black ; thorax with an impreffed line in the
middle ; thanks very {pinous and black. Fabr. Inhabits
Cayenne. Rohr.
Lucens. Fufcous ; thorax, {mall line on the feutel and
margin of the abdomen white. Fabr. A native of America.
MELANOCEPHALUS. Grey ; 3 head and bafe of the feutel
brafly black. Fabr. A native of England.
Pertatus. Grey; head black ;
dot each fide. Fabr. Inhabits Germany. Smidt.
Decreritus. Black; head, and legs fufcous. Fabr.
Found on grafs in Denmark,
Acuminatus. Front attenuated, whitifh with fulcous
ftreaks ; tip of the antenne rufous. Lin.
Exvecans. Dark green; thorax yellow with four
blackilh fpots ; margin of the feutel and tranfverfe band yel-
low, -
Black and pale varied; fcutel black with _
feutel with a white
a
Ne
CIM EX,
_ Tow. Donov. Inf. New Holland. A recently difcovered
{pecies.
Genus Coreus, Fabr. Cimex, Linn,
Marcinatus. Thorax obtufe fpinous; margin of the
abdomen acute ; antenne in the middle rufous. Fabr. Cé-
mex marginatus, Linn.
Scara. Thorax obtnfely {fpined ; margin of the abdo-
men acute, and fpotted with white; two fpines on the ante-
rior part of the head, Fabr. Inhabits Germany. ‘
Spintcer. ‘Thorax obtufely fpinous, and dentated ;
head with four fpines. Fabr. Inhabjits’ Italy.
Venator, ‘Thorax obtufely fpinous, dufky grey ; be-
neath yellowifh ;-antenne andlegs ferruginous, Fabr. An
Italian fpecies. Dr. Allioni.
Berrator. Thorax fpinous, above fufcous; beneath
yellowifh ; antennz black with white rings. Fabr. A na-
tive of Cayenne.
Armicer. Thorax acutely fpinous, grey ; fcutel with
two dots ; antennz and legs pale. Fabr. An African {pea
"Peis in the Bankfian cabinet.
Lancicer. Thorax acutely fpined, yellowifh; thorax
behind, and wing-cafes fulcous; wing-cafes with a white
band. Fabr. Inhabits Guinea. Dr. Hert. .
Hasraror. Thorax acutely f{pined, dufky grey ; margin
of the abdomen whitifh with black dots. Fabr. Inhabits
fame country as the laft.
Scorsuticus. Thorax obtufely fpinous, fufcous ; pof-
terior legs dotted with black. Fabr. Found in the iflands
of America.
2-GuTTATUS.
callous white dots on the fcutel. Fabr.
Indies.
Derirator. Thorax acutely fpined, yellowifh, dotted
with black ; pofterior part of the thorax and the wing-cales
fufcous.
Derensor. ‘Thorax acutely fpined ; tail four-toothed ;
body green; fpines black, Fabr. A native of New Hol-
land. Bankfian cabinet. ’
Pucnaror. Thorax acutely fpined, oblong; above
fiufcous, beneath yellowifh ; antenne rufous with the tip
black. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar. Hybner.
Fascicurarus. ‘Thorax fomewhat [{pinous cinereous ;
wings fufcous ; legs with fafciculated hairy tubercles. Fabr.
Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
Insiprator. Thorax acutely {pinous; above rufous,
beneath yellowih. Fabr. Inhabits Barbary.
Catumniaror. Thorax acutely fpinous, cinereous-
brown ; beneath yellowith with ftreaks of black dots. Fabr.
A native of India. Prof. Abildgaard.
Hiraticornis. Thorax acutely fpinous, ferrated, and
rufous; antenne hairy; pofterior thighs ferrated. Fabr.
Inhabits Barbary. .
Suxcscornis. Thorax obtufely fpinous ; above rufous,
beneath yellowifh; antenne triangular, abdomen fomewhat
{quare. Fabr. A native of Barbary. Muf. Desfontaines.
Ruomseus. Thorax acutely fpined ; abdomen dilated,
rhombic, and armed behind with fix teeth. Linn. Coreus
rhombea, Fabr. An African infect.
Inhabits the Ealt
Quaprarus. Thorax obtufely {pinous ; above fufcous,
beneath yellowith ; abdomen fquare. Fabr. A native of
Germany.
Hastatus. Thorax acutely fpinous, and dentated ;
wing-cafes dufky with a polterior white freak, Fabr. In-
habits 'Tranquebar. Hybner.
Gravipator. Thorax ferrated, dufky cinereous ; mar-
gin of the wing-cafes dotted with black ; wings white ; an-
tennz fufcous. Fabr. Inhabits South Amenican iflands..
Thorax acutely fpined, grey, with two ”
Genus Lyreus, Fabr. Cimex, Isian.
* Thorax /pinous.
Vatcus. Thorax fpinous and ferrated ; ‘pofterior thighs»
incurvated, and with the fhanks armed with a fingle tooths-
Linn. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
Serratus. Head, thorax and abdomen ciliated with
{pines ; body black. Fabr. Inhabits America.
Mertanz#. Thorax fomewhat fpinous ; wing-cafes fuf-
cous, reticulated with white ; abdomen {pinous at the bafe.
Fabr. A native of Surinam. ;
Grossires. Thorax ferrated, lineated with red ; pof-
terior thighs thick, and with the abdomen at the bafe fca-
brous; fhanks with a fingle tooth, Fabr. Inhabits Tran-
quebar. :
Tracus. Spines of the thorax comprefled, lunulated,
and ferrated ; pofterior fhanks membranaceous and ferrated .
Fabr. A native Of China. Dr. Pflug.
Tenezrosus. Thorax fomewhat{pinous; pofterior thighs.
incurvated, and clubbed; bafe of the abdomen with three
fpines. Fabr. &c. An Eaft Indian {pecies,
Furvicornts. ‘Thorax fpinous, and ferrated ; brown;
thighs bidentated ; polterior one with many teeth. Fabr.
An Eaft Indian {pecies. 3
Incusator. Thorax obtufely fpined, and ferrated ;
fvowy before the margin; body grey. Fabr. Inhabits
Carolina.
Heros. Thorax obtufely {pined, and ferrated ; fufcous;
potterior thighs clavated and dentated ; {hanks membrana-
ceous and ferrated. Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies.
Femorarus. Thorax flightly fpined pofterior thighs
incurved, and dentated; pofterior fhanks comprefled.
Fabr. Inhabits India. Bankfian cabinet.
Curvires. Thorax acutely fpined; thighs bidentated
at the tip ; pofterior ones incurved. Fabr. Inhabits Africa.
Cuavires. Thorax ferrated, dufky ; thighs with many
{pines ; pofterior onesthick. Fabr. A native of China.
Denrator. Thorax ferrated, dufky ; pofterior thighs
dentated; fhanks pale. Fabr. A native of Italy. Dr.
Aliioni. .
Picror. Thorax fpinous, and ferrated ;. ochraceous ;
wing-cafes fpeckled with black. Fabr. A native of the
Eaft Indies.
Compressicornis. Thorax fpinous and ferrated, with
ocellar black fpots; body black ; laft joint of the antennx
comprefled and white at the bafe. Fabr. A native of St.
Jago.
a aalaa clots Thorax fpinous and without f{pots,
blackifh ; wing-cafes with a whitifh band ; pofterior thanks
membranaceous and dentated. Fabr. Inhabits South
America.
Avctus. Thorax fomewhat fpinous and black; two
fpots fulvous; wing-cafes with a yellow band; potterior
fhanks membranaceous and yellow. Fabr. «A native of
America.
Sanctus. Thorax acutely fpined, oblong, rufous 3
wing-cafes black, with a ferruginous crofs._ Fabr. A Brafi-
lian infe@.
Lerus. Thorax fpinous, green; head, band on the
wing-cafes, abdomen, and thighs, yellow ; wing-cafes black.
Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Kermesinus. Thorax fomewhat f{pinous, oblong, ru-
fous, with a whitifh band, dotted with black ; pofterior
thighs with many teeth. Linn. A native of Surinam.
Austrazis. Thorax fomewhat {pinous, oblong, black ;
a red band on the thorax before ; polterior fhanks membra-
naceous. Fabr. Defcribed! from a Specimen taken in Otas
heite. Bankfian cabinet.
Ba.tTEatTus,
CIME X.
Batreatus, Thorax fomewhat fpinous ; ferruginous ;
wing-cafes with a tranfverfe yellow.line ; pofterior thighs
with many teeth. Cimex balteatus, Drury. Inhabits South
America.
Sixnuatus. Thorax acutely fpined, livid; pofterior
thanks compreffed, finuated and black. Fabr. A native of
Cayenne.
Serrives. Thorax acutely fpined, rufous; pofterior
thighs dentated. Fabr. A native of New Holland.
Dentires. Thorax fpinous, elongated; pofterior
thighs long and ferrated; body fufcous beneath ;- fides
white. Fabr. Inhabits Africa.
Linearis. ‘Thorax acutely {pined, elongated, fufcous ;
pofterior thighs lengthened, and dentated. Fabr. A native
of China. Drury.
Crenucatus. Thorax dentated and rufcus, with a
‘black fpot; polterior thighs dentated ; body black. Fabr.
Inhabits American iflands.
4 Spinosus. Elongated, red; thorax armed with four
fpines. Linn. A native of America.
* Thorax unarmed.
Puastanus. Fufcous; pofterior thighs arched, cla-
wated, and armed with a fingle tooth; abdomen at the bafe
beneath gibbous. Fabr. An African infed.
Berracosus. Fufcous; polterior thighs arched and
dentated ; abdomen four-fpined. Fabr. An Afnrican fpe-
cies. Bankhan cabinet.
Meveacris. WVulcous; extreme joint of the antenna,
and anterior fhanks yellow ; all the thighs ferrated. Fabr.
A native of China.
Gatuus. Wing-cafes fufcous with yellow ftreaks; dif
of the abdomen rufous; polterior thighs ferrated. Fabr.
Inhabits Surinam.
Faser. Black; abdomen fufcous, with yellow margin;
anterior thighs bidentated at the tip. Fabr. A native of
Paulicondor.
Inpus. Abdomen redy and bidentated ; wing-cafes ful-
cous with pale ftreaks. Linn. A native of Caycune,
Civinis. Red and black varied ; thorax with two red
lunules ; wings fufcous, {potted with white, Fabr. Inha-
bits Trarquebar.
Saxatitis. Black; thorax with the lateral margins and
line down the middle red ; wing cafes with three red {pots ;
wings immaculate.. Fabr. Inhabits the fouth of Europe.
Hyosacami. Black and red varied ; wings fufcous and
without fpots. Linn. An European fpecies.
Varicotor. Black and red varied ; wing-cafes black ;
with two yellowifh fpots. Fabr. Found in Trinity ifland.
Scasrosus. Black; margin of the thorax and two
bands on the upper wings reddifh, Fabr. A native of
America.
Leucurus. Black; wing-cafes red; wings black, the
bafe and tip white. Fabr. Inhabits Amfterdam ifland.
Kornicir. ‘Teftaceous ; wing-cafes with a black dot ;
wings deep black. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar. ,
SLaNBuscuHt. Sanguinecus; thorax with an abbrevi-
ated band ; f{cutel, dot on the wing-cafes, and the wings
black. Fabr. Inhabits China. Donov. Inf. China.
fEcyptius.. Red and black varied ; wing-cafes red,
with a black dot. Jinn. A native of Egypt.
4-Gurrarus. Wing-cafes rufous, with black band ;
wings with two white dots. Fabr.
Punctato Guttatus.
with a middle black dot; wing black with two white dots.
Fabr.
Black ; wing-cafes rufous, ~
Survrawis. Rufous; antenna and wings black; the
future entitely white. Fabr.
Roranpri. Black; wings with a rhombic yellow fpot.
Linn. Found on the pine in Europe.
Sorpipus. Black; thorax behind, wing-cafes and legs
grey. Fabr. Inhabits Tranquebar.
Genus Miris, Fabr. Cimex, Linn.
Dovasratus. Wing-cafes ferruginous, whitifh at the
fides ; antennz black. Linn, A native of Europe.
Levicatus. Whitith ; fideswhite. Degeer. A native
of Europe.
Larerauis. Black; fides whitifh. Fabr. An Euros
pean {pecies.
Horsatus. Whitif; two lines on the thorax brown,
and wing-cafes brown within. Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Pasutinus. Green, without fpots; wings hyaline,
Linn. Inhabits Europe. :
Virens. Green; ends of the feet, and tips of the anten-
ne rufous. Fabr. An European fpécies.
Pattens. Pale; head and body black. Paykull. A
native of Sweden. : §
Cavens. Head, thorax, and wing-cafes black; {cutel
fulveus. Linn. A native of India.
Gronovu. Thorax and wing-cafes black, with a yellow
line forming a band. Linn. Inhabits India.
Ferus. Grey and withgut fpots. Linn.
European woods.
Vacans. Grey; head and line on the thorax. black 5
legs teflaceous. Fabr: A native of Sweden. ;
Cincurarus. Fufcous; head, and tliree lines on the
thorax, with the margin of the wing-cafes white. Fabr. A
native of India.
Marerinettus. Black; three lines on the thorax whites
wing-cafes edged with white, and at the tip a fearlet fpot.
Fabr. An Ttalian infeé. ; ,
Sraratus. Black; wing-cafes -yellow ftriated with
brown ; tip and legsyufous. Linn. tnhabits Europe.
Asietis. Fulvous fpotted ; legs rufous; thighs thick
and dentated. Degeer. Inhabits Europe.
Uim:. Above ruft colour; wing-cafes flreaked with
fanguineous; wings varied behind with brown and white.
Fabr. Linn. &c. Foundon the elm in Europe.
Fourd in
enus Gerris, Fabr. Cimex, Linn.
Lacusrris. Black ;-anterior legs very fhort. Linn.
Very common in ditches during f{ummer. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Patupum. Black; beneath filvery ; margin of the ab-
domen fomewhat ferruginous. Fabr. Twice the fize of the
laft. A native of Europe. :
Fossarum. Above fufcous; margin, thorax, fcutel,
and dorfal line yellow. Fabr. A netive of the Eaft Indies.
Sracnorum. Nearly round; blackifh; thorax withtwo |
globular dots in the middle. Linn, Inhabits England. _*
Rivutorum. Black, dotted with white; abdomen ful-
vous. Fabr. Inhabits the mountainous risulets of Alface.
Pautirss. Black; legs pale; brealt two-fpined. Fabr.
An Italian infe&. Cabinet of Dr. Allioni.
Cuticirormis. ‘Thorax armed with many fpines ;
grey ; wing-cafes with many blotches. Fabr. An Ameri-
can {pecies. ,
Mantis. Fufcous; freak onthe wing-cafes and joints
of the legs white. Fabr. Country unknown. ;
Tirutirormts. Sanguineous ; wings and legs black ;
antenna-very long. Fabr. A native of Guinea. ;
Precatorivus. Brown; head and thorax two-{pined ;
_ twargin
as
CIM
margin of the thorax elevated behind and obtufe ; antennz
very long. Fabr. A native of Guinea. Dr. Ifert.
Penesrris. Body fufcous and yellow varied; pofte-
rior thighs elongated and toothed. Fabr. Inhabits the aft
Indies.
Firirormis. Antenne ferruginous; body linear, pale,
and greenifh. Fabr. A native of America. :
Orarorius. Greenifh; antenna before the tip white.
Fabr. A native of India.
Ancusratus. Above grey, beneath yellowifh ; anten-
ne and legs fomewhat teltaceous. Fabr. A native of
China. Dr. Pfiug.
Firum. Fufcous; wings abbreviated ; legs very long.
Fabr. An Eatt Indian fpecies in the cabinet of the late
Dr. Fothergill.
Loncires. Black; margin of the thorax and band on
the wing-cafes fanguineous. Fabr. An American {pecies.
Cursirans. Above fufcous, beneath cinereous; legs
very long ; tail bidentated. abr. A New Holland mfect.
Bankfian cabinet.
Tipurarius. Whitith; all the legs long ; thighs cla-
vated ; antennz biclavated. Fabr.
Vacazsunbus. Wing-cafes with the wings fufcous and
white varied; legs very long, ringed with cinereous. Fabr.
An European infect.
Cravires. Cuinereous; thighs clavated, antenne bicla-
vated. Fabr. Inhabics Sweden.
AprTeERus. Apterous, fufcous; abdomen fulvous; fpot
at the bafe black wah white dots. Fabr. An Italian in-
fee.
Currens. Apterous, fufcous ; margin of the abdomen
raifed, fulvous with black dots. Fabr.
Genus Reduvius, Fabr.
Black; margin of the thorax and obfolete flex-
Inhabits the
A native of Italy.
Cimex, Linn.
Gicas,
uous band on the wing-cafes rufous. Fabr.
Ealt Indies.
Personatus. Antenne capillary at the tip; body be-
neath fubvillous and fufeous. Linn.
Virtosus. Villous, black ; feutel at the tip recurved
_ and pointed. Fabr.. A native of Barbary.
Barsicornis. Black; thorax and bafe of the abdomen
olive. Fabr. Inhabits Sierra Leone.
Macuvarus, Rofous ; thorax with four; wing-cafes
with three black {pots. Fabr. An African {pecies.
Striputus. Glabrous, black; wing-cafes rufous;
thin margin cinereous, and dotted with black. Fabr. Inha-
bits Europe.
Nitiputvus. Black; thorax olive;
rufous. Fabr.. Inhabits Africa.
Pirires. Black, thorax and wing-cafes at the tip vil-
fous with grey hairs. Fabr. A native of Cayenne.
anterior thighs
Loncires. Red; wing-cafes black; bafe and band red.
Linn. A native of American iflands.
PuHarancium. Rufous; autenne and legs elongated
and black. Fabr. A native of the American iflands.
Nicrirennis. Rufous; wing-cafes and abdomen be-
neath black ; feutel bidentated. Fab. Inhabits the Ealt
Indfes.
Mareinatus.
men deep black with rufous margin. Fabr.
' Eatt Indies. Bankfian cabinet.
Rurives. Deep black; wing-cafes grey veined with
black ; margin of the abdomen and potterior legs rufous.
Fabr. A native of Cayenne. ~
2-Pusturatus. Above black ; a rufous dot. at the tip
Above rufous, wing-cafes black ; abdo-
Inhabits the
cIM
of the wing-cafes. Fabr. Inhabits Surinam. Bankfian
cabinet. i
Annuvatus. Tip of the antenne capillary; body
black, beneath fpotted with fanguincous. Linn. Geoffr.
Sancuineus. Black; margin of the abdomen fangui-
neous {potted with black. Fabr.. A native of Barbary.
Bicotor. Deep black; thorax behind, wing-cales, and
margin of the abdomen pale. Fabr. An Afmcaa f{pecies.
Barkfian cabinet.
Lirura. Dull, fufcous; tip ofthe antennz and blotch,
in the middle of the wing-cafes white. Fabr. A native of
Cayenne.
ATTELABOIDES. Teftaceous and black varied ; anterior
part of the thorax teftaceous, with two black teeth. Fabr.
A New Holland infeG.
Diapema. Black; head and thorax {pinous. Fabr. A
native of North America.
4-Spinosus. Thorax four-fpined, black ; wing-cales tef-
taceous; head and legs yellow. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne.
Fasciatus. Head and thorax black; wing-cafes yel-
lowifh ; band and wings at the tip black. Fabr. A native:
of Cayenne.
Mavrus. Ferruginous, margin of the abdomen {potted
with black ; anterior part of the thorax fomewhat fpinous.
Fabr.
Fornicatus.
brown {pots. abr.
ACANTHARIS.
fpines. Fabr. Inhabits Jamaica.
GurtuLa. Glofly black ; wing-cafes and legs fangui-~
neous; wings with a white dot. Fabr. Acnative of Ger
many. Dr: Heiffe.
EronGarus.
black. Fabr. Inhabits Africa.
Minurvs. Black, fcutel at the tip, and wing-cafes at
the bafe white. Fabr. Inhabits. Paris,
CIMICIFUGA, in Botany, (fo called from its driving
away bugs). Linn. gen. 1282. Schreb. 933. Gert. 810.
Jufl, 234. Clafs and order, polyandria tetragynia. Nat.
Ord. Multifilique, Linn. Ranunculacee, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. four or five-leaved ; leaflets. roundifh,
concave, caducous. Cor. Nearies refembling petals,,
pitcher-fhaped, membranous. Sam. Filaments twenty, pro-
jeting a little out of the flower; anthers didymous. /%/?.
Germs four to feven; ftyles recurved: ftigmas adhenng
longitudinally to the ftyle. Peric. Capfules from four to
feven, oblong, opening with a lateral future, Linn. (open-
ing at the ventral future, Gert.) Seeds many, covered with
{fpreading fcales.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four or five-leaved. Nedtaries- four,
pitcher-fhaped. Capfules from four to feven.
Sp. C. fetida, Mart. Lam. Willd. Gmel. Sib. 4. tab
70. Lam. Ill. Pl. 487. Gert. tab. 140, (Aza cimici-
fuga, Linn. Sp. Pl. Thali€troides feetidiflimum, Chriftopho-
riane facie, Amm. ruth. 102.) Roof perennial, thick,
knotty, fhort, with many thickith fibres creeping tranfverfely.
Stem tix feet high, cylindrical, flightly ftriated, a little hairy,
hoilow, with alternate branches. eaves pinnated ; leaflets
egg-fhaped, ferrated; terminating one commonly three-
lobed. ~ Flowers in long alternate terminal; racemes, on
fhort peduncles. Capfules netted, beaked: with the fhort
curved ftyle, one-celled, opening at the interior or, ventral
future. Seeds feveral, oblong, covered with linear-oblong
flexile pale fcales, attached to the future. The whole plant,,
efpecially in its wild ftate, has.an almoft infupportable fmell.
According to Linnzus it bears a great refemblance to Ac-.
txa racemofa, A native of Siberia, fromthe river Jenifea,,
flowering:
Thorax raifed, vaulted, pale with three
A native of Cayenne.
Thorax fpinous ; abdomen ciliated with
Elongated, rufous; antenne and legs
aad ’
CIM
flowerng in the middle of July, and ripening its feed in
Augult. It varies much in the number of parts in the calyx,
coma and piltils ; nor is either the fex or proportion cen-
ftant.
CIMIER, the French term in Heraldry for a creft. See
Crest.
Cimier, in Military Language. The ancient knights,
or chevaliers, in France and other countries, put each of
them a cimier on his helmet by way of ornamenting it. But
it was fo incommodious, by its weight, that fubfequent
chevaliers jaid it afide and contented themfelves with placing
{mall allegorical figures in irs ftead. See Crest.
CIMINIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Italy, in
Etruria. >
CIMINIUS Jacus,a lake of Italy, in Etruria, mentioned
by Livy. ;
Ciminius Mons, a mountain of Etruria, fituated N. and
‘N.E. of the lake of the fame name.
CIMKOWICZKE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania,
in the palatinate of Novogodrek, 18 miles W. of Sluck.
CIMMERIJ, in Ancient Geography, the name of a people,
who, according to Pofidonius, were the fame with the
Cimbri. The firft appellation, by which they were diftin-
guithed, is unknown ; but itappearsthat they did not acquire
the fecond before they inhabited the town of ‘* Cimmeri-
um,”’ built in Afia upon the bank of the {trait that feparates it
from the Taurnde. The time of the cftablifhment of the
Cimmerians mult have been very ancient ; for it appears they
had.gained celebrity in the gth century before the Chriitian
zra, becaufe Homer mentions them in his “ Odyfley” as a
people who inhabited the northern and north-wettern parts of
Greece, in a climate approaching the pole. Strabo fuggetts
(1. iit.) that from the time of Homer, the Cimmerians and
«Amazons entered into Afia Minor, and penetrated into
féolia and Ionia; aud Eufebius, in his Chronicle, marks,
in the year 1076 before Chrift, an incurfion of the Cim-
merians and Amazons into Alia Minor. Orofius alfo men-
tions another about the year 782, thirty years before the
foundation of Rome. The Cimmerians, according to Po-
fidonius, advanced gradually from the fea-coaft to the in-
térior of Germany, and at length occupied the whole coun-
try, which extended from the ocean to the Euxine fea.
The principal eftablifhment of the Cimmerians was towards
the banks of the Tyras, according to Herodotus (i. iv. c.
12.) who fays, that they there aflembled to hold a general
council of the nation, on the fubjeét of the Scythian invafion.
Having advanced towards the eatt, they had traverfed the
Borytthenes and the Hypanis, and had paffed-the Cherfo-
nefus or peninfula, which has always preferved their name.
From this country they proceeded to the Bofphorus, or the
ftrait which feparates it from Afia, and by which the waters
of the Tanais, after having formed the Palus-Mzotide, dif-
charge themfelves into the’Euxine fea.
The country bordering on the Palus Mzotis, and the
Bofphorus, which was inhabited by the Cimmerii, is repre-
fented by the ancients as an inhofpitable place, covered with
forefts and-fogs, which the fun could not penetrate (See
Basruorus); and their frightful defcription of it gave
Cicero and Ovid occafion to fay, that an eternal night
reigned in this gloomy climate, and that fleep had taken up
its abode here. Hence * Cimmerian darknefs’? became,
according to La@antius, proverbial, fignifying an impene-
trable darknefs, and likewife a-gloomy and {tupid mind. ‘
Herodotus adds, that they took pofleflion of the two banks
of this{trait, and there conitruéted torts, the veltiges of which
remained in his time. Strabo, fpeaking (1. xi.) of Cim-
merium, fays, that it was built on the Afiatic bank of this
“CIM
trait, Herodotus fays, moreover, that the Cimmerians,
after having croffed the ftrait, proceeded along the fea-coaft,
and advanced into Afia Minor, which they ravaged, whilft
the Scythians were pillaging Media and Paleftine. He adds,
that the Cimmerians penetrated into the peninfula of Sinope,
which, they found to be a defert. We have an account, fince
the year 1076, of two expeditions of the Cimmeriansinto Afia
Minor.- In one of thefe, it is faid, on the authority of Arif-
totle, they feized poffeffion of the town of Antandros,
fituated at the foot of Mount Ida, at the bottom of the
gulf of Adramyttium. He adds, that thefe people gave
the name of ‘ Cimmeris” to this town, and that they con-
tinued matters of it fora century. In thefe two invafions,
the Cimmerians pillaged the town of Sardes. Strabo fays
(1. i.) that Midas, king of Phrygia Major, having been con-
quered by the Cimmerians, killed himfelf, in order to avoid
falling into their hands. Eufebius places the death of
Midas at the year 697, or about the 4th year of Gyges.
Strabo farther irforms us (I. xiv.) that the Cimmerians re-
mained matters of the plains of Cailter or of Lydia, for a con-
fiderable time after the deftruction of Magnefia, and the
pillage of Sardes. However, he fometimes diftinguifhes the
people who dettroyed Magnefia and pillaged Sardes, fome-
tunes by the name of Cimmerians, and fometimes by that of
Treres, or Trerones, and calls their chief Lygdamis; and
this, according to Callimachus, was the name of the king of.
the Cimmerians, who came from Scythia, or the coalt of
the Euxime fea, to ravage the plains of Caifter. Hefy-
chius alfo informs us, that this Lygdamis pillaged the town
and burnt the temple of Ephefus. Strabo (l. xiv.) fays,
that this Lygdamis, after having ravaged Lydia and Tonia,
Init his life in Cilicia ; that is unqueitionably the Cilicia of
tne Troade, where the Cimmerians had their place of arms .
(Id. l.i.). This author always gives the furname of Cim-
merians to the Treres or Trerones of A fia, in order to dif-
tinguifh them from.thofe of Thrace. Herodotus fays, that
after the council held on the banks of the Tyras, already
mentioned, the Cimmerians, conceiving themfelves unable to
refit the Scythians, migrated towards the eaft; and that
the Scythians, having taken poffeffion of their country, dif-
patched an army to purfue them, but that this army haviag
lo{t its way in the mountains, wandered, in croffing the Cau-
cafus, and followed the courfe of a valley, which led them to
the coaft of the Cafpian fea. The Cimmerians, at length,
proceeded along the eoaft of the Euxine, and returned to
the Colchide in Afia Minor. ies
The Cimmerian nation confifted, at the time of the Scy-
thian invafion, of three divifions; viz. thofe of Afia Minor,
the colony of the Cherfonefus, and the principal body of
the nation, which inhabited the regions fituated between
the Danube and the Bory{thenes, the moft confiderable
eltablifhments of which were formed on the bank of the
river Tyras. The Cimmerians of Afia Minor, a¢cultomed
to plunder, were attacked by Alyattes, a valiant and ac-
tive prince, who deftroyed molt of them that remained, and
thofe who efcaped the fword of the conquerors were made
flaves, and dilperfed through the countries of Lydia and
Myfa. ‘Vne Cimmerians of the Cherfonefus and the
Bofphorus poffeffed cities on both fides of this trait; but
they found, it difficult to defend themfelves againft the Scy-
thians. They probably, therefore, abandoned the plains of
the ilthmus and Bofphorus, and retired mto the mountains
to the fouth and ealt of the peninfula ; mountains that were
fertile, and yet difficult of accefs to the cavalry of the Scy-
thians. As to the principal body of the Cimmerians, who
inhabited the country between the Danube and the Boryf-
thencs, the Seythians continDed matters of their country
500
cmIM
fo0 years before Chrift. The Greeks had many colonies
on the fea-coalt, and thefe colonies extended their com-
merce into the interior parts of the country. It is from the
inhabitants of thefe colonies, and from a Scythian prince,
that Herodotus derived his information concerning thefe
territories. It is probable that the Cimmerians afcended
the Carpathian mountains, and defcended on the weltern
fide of it. After their flight, when this event took place,
the different people which compofed the Cimmerian league,
feparated frem one another, and fettled in different places ;
and as the league no longer fubfifted, each people refumed
its ancient name. and began to form a diftinét fate.
The learned M. Pezron, in his ‘* Antiquities of Nations,”
&c, maintains, that the Cimmerians were of the fame family
with tl.e Sace; and that whilft thefe were proceeding from
BaGriana, which they had previoufly occupied, by the
fouth, the Cimmerianz, who likewife came from the fame
country, took their reute by the north of Afia; and he
reprefents them as making their way by force of arms, till
they fettled upon the Palus: Mzotis. In proof of the opi-
nicn which he advances, he appeals to Plutarch, Pofidonius,
Diodorus, and Strabo, Herodotus, however, to whom we
have already referred, affigns to their march a quite contrary
direStion, from the Palus Mxotis towards Caucafus and the
eaft (l.iv.c. 12.) The writers above cited, fays Mr. Bry-
~ ant (Anal. Anc. Mythol. vol. ili.), have nota fyllable to
the purpofe for which M. Pezron alleges their authority.
‘That there were fuch people as the Cimmerians upon the
Moeotis, is, indeed, as certain as that there were Phrygians
in Troas, and Spartans at Lacedemon. But that they
came from Baétria, and fought their way through different
countries ; that they were the brethren of the Scythians,
ftyled Sace, and took the upper route, when the others
were making their inroad below, are circumftances which,
fays Mr. Bryant, have not the leaft fhadow of evidence.
They are not mentioned by the authors to whom M. Pez-
ron appeals, nor by any writers whatever. Indeed Strabo
exprefsly fays (1. xi.), that the Cimmerians were driven out
of their country by the Scythians,
Cimmerit, a people of Italy, whoinhabited the environs
of Baie and Cume near the lake 4vernus, which fee. Thofe
that have given an account of this colony, among whom are
Lycophron, Pliny, Euftathius, Servius, &c. inform us, that
the fun never fhines in this fmall canton ; but Strabo, who
was better acquainted with thefe countries, defcribes them
as abounding with all the neceflaries of life, and rather plea-
fant than difzgreeable.
CIMMERIUM,a town of Afiatic Scythia, or the Cim-
merian Bofphorus. It was the lait city to the right, when
a perfon paffes this ftraig!:t from the fouth or the north.
Cimmerium, Efki-krim, a town in the interior of the
‘Tauric Cherfonefus, according to Ptolemy and Strabo. M.
Je Peyffonel, in his Obfervations hiltorical and geographical,
fays, that this town, now reduced to a wretched burgh, was
formerly large and flourifhing; as appears from feveral exifting
monuments. It was fituated to the north of Mount Cim-
merius, and to the W.N.W. of Theodofia.—Alfo, atown
of Italy, in Campania, fituated, according to Pliny, near the
Lucrine and Avernian lakes.
Cimmertum Promontorium, a promontory of Afia, on the
fouthern coatt of the Palus Mzotis, marked by Ptolemy be-
tween thetown of Apaturaand the mouth of the river Vardan.
CIMMERIUS Bosporus. See Dospuorus.
Cimmeaius Afons, Aphirmiche-Daghi, a mountain in the
Tauric Cherfonefus, according to Strabo, who fays, that it
derived its name from the Cimmeri!, a people who anciently
occupied the whele Bofphorus, See Cimmerit, /upra.
Vor. VIII.
CIM
CIMOLIA, a place of Greece in the Peloponnefus.
Diodorus Siculus reports that the Athenians gained in this
place a viGtory over the inhabitants of Megara.
Cimotra, in Mineralogy. This term occurs in fome of
the ancient pharmacopzias as defignating pipe-clay and ful-
ler’s earth, of which the former was denominated cimolia
alba, and the latter cimolia purpurafcens. See Pipe Cray
and Fuiier’s Earru.
Cimoxia Terra. See Cimovite.
CIMOLIS, or Cimotus, in Ancient Geography, one
of the Cyclades, or iflands of the Archipelago. It was alfo
called Echinuffa, or Viper Ifland, on account of the great
number of thofe reptiles with which it abounded, at a time,
when little frequented by men, it was covered only by rocks,
forefts, and brambles. It was anciently known by the fub-
ftance which was found in it, and to which it gave the name
of * Cimolia Terra.’? It was fituateda little to the N.E.
of Melos, and tothe S.S.W.of Siphnos. The Greeks ac
this day call it ‘* Kimoli;?’ but it is more generally known
by the name of “ Argentiera,” which fee. The virtucs of
the earth which it produces are recited by Pliny (N. H. |.
xxxv. c.17.), Diofcorides (l.v. c. 133.), and Galen (Epi-
tome de Curatione Morborum). See Cimo ire.
Cimotis, an epifcopal town of Afia Minor in Paphla-
onia.
CIMOLITE of Niaproth, Cimolia of Pliny, in Aline.
ralogy, is a mineral of a light, greyifh, white colour,
inclining to pearl-grey ; but by expofure to’the air it ac-
quires a reddifh tint. It occurs in mafs, forming large
{trata ; its fracture is earthy, uneven, and its texture more or
lefs flaty. Itis opake, of a greafy texture, and may be
{craped with a knife like fteatite. It adheres firmly to the
tongue, {tains the fingers in fome degree, and though foft,
is very tough, and difficultly pulverizable. Sp. gr. 2.
When expofed by itfelf to the action of the blow-pipe, it
becomes at firft of a dark grey colour, but afterwards re-
covers its whitenefs with little or no alteration: with micro-
cofmic falt it runs into a colourlefs globule; with borax it
forms a light-brown glafs. Its component parts are ©
63 Silex
23 Alumine
1.25 Oxyd of iron
12 Water
99.25
Tt abounds inthe ifland of Cimolis (whence its name), now
called Argentiera, and was highly valued by the Greeks and
Romans forits detergent properties: at prefent its ufeis al-
molt entirely confined to the inhabitants of that ifland,
When triturated witha little water it forms a foft, pap-like
mats, and being applied in this {late to filk or woollen cloth,
and allowed to dry on, it abforbs all the greafe which they
may contain, like Fuller’s earth, but more effe€tually, and
is again difcharged by a flight wafhing, leaving the cloth re-
ftored to its original luttre.
CIMON, in Bozraphy, an Athenian, fon of Miltiades,
by Hegifipyle, the daughter of a Thracian king. He ferved
under his father in his youth, and was more addiéted to
active purfuits, than to thofe ftudies and accomplifhments,
for which the Athenians peculiarly valued themfelves. As
he advanced in life he fhowed that he was not deficient in
abilities ; he poflefled a natural eloquence, which, united to
an opennefs and generofity of temper, rendered him well qua-
lified to make his way in a popular governmeut. When his
father died he was imprifoned, bscauie unable to pay the fine
impofed upon Lim. He was releafed from confinement
x chiefly
ciM
chiefly by means of his filter Elpinice, who regarded him with
the tendereft affeQion. Cimon paffed fome of his younger
days in licentious pleafures ; but at the time of the Perfian in-
vation, his martial {pirit, and refolute temper fhone forth
with great luftre. At the advice of Themittocles, he quitted
the city, embarked on board the fleet, and greatly diitin-
guifhed himfelf in the naval combat of Salamis. _Ariftides
having formed a favourable opinion of his integrity and ta-
lents, initiated him in public buhnefs, with a view of bringing
him forward to counte:balance the influence of Themilto-
cles. After the expulfiom of the Perfians, Cimon was made
admiral of the Athenian fleet, which was commanded by
Paufanias. In this fituation, his difpofition being a perfee
contraft to that of Paufanias. he gained univerfal refpe@ and
efteem, fo that after the commander was recalled, the confe-
derates readily accompanied him in an expedition to Thrace.
In this, among many other brilliant and important achieve-
ments, he reduced the ifland of Scyros, inhabited by pirates,
and recurned to Athens with the bones of Thefeus, to be in-
terred in the native city of the hero, which he had quitted
four hundred years before. Having re-inforced his ficet,
he proceeded to the cualt of Caria, thence to Cyprus,
where he was informed that the Perfian fleet lay at anchor.
He purfued it to the mouth of the Eurymedon, and there
completely defeated it, deftroying many veffels and capturing
two hundred. Then Janding his men on the fame day, he
gained a fignal victory over the land forces of the énemy.
This action, which is fo celebrated in ancient hiftory, took
place B. C. 470. Cimon afterwards got poffeffion of eighty
Pheenician fhips in the port of Cyprus, and he brought
back to Athens an immenfe booty, which enabled the
Athenians to build the fouth wall of their citadel, and to lay
the foundations of the long walls which were to conne& the
city with the port. Cimon might have enriched himfelf by
this expedition in the moft honourable manner. but he chefe
rather to expend his wealth upon his native city. He had
a plain but plentiful repaft provided daily at his houfe for
a numerous company, to which the pooreft citizens were
made welcome. He not only fed the hungry, but clothed
the naked, and was ready at all times to fupply the needy
with fums of money to affiit them in their various exigenci-s.
Many of his public aéts of benevolence carried with them
the air of oftentation; it has, however. been afferted, that
Cimon never aimed at courtefy, the populace being in rea-
lity attached to the ariftocratical party, which he alfo
favoured in his political condué. As a ftatefman, he
confirmed the naval fuperiority of his country, not only by
his {plendid vi€tories, but by the wifdom of his policy. For,
many of the Greck ftates, which were bound by treaty to
furnifh fhips to the allied fleet, chufing rather to compound
this fervice for money, he advifed the acceptance of their
compofition, but at the fame time he would not hear of
fuch an indulgence to the Athenians. The confequence of
which was, that the other ftates loft all their pra@tice is,
and fpirit for, naval affairs, while the Athenians were kept in
full exercife and difcipline. The Perfians renewed their
hoftilities, which gave Cimon a new opportunity for achiev-
ing more victories: he then reduced the Thracians, who
had revolted from the Athenians, joined the Perfians, and
feized the gold mines in Thrace. About this period, the
Lacedemonians fent to requelt aid from Athens in fupport
of their authority over the Helotes. LEphialtes oppofed
the grant of it, with a view of keeping the Spartans in as
depreffed a‘ttate as poffible, but Cimon vindicated their
caufe, and prevailed. He was fent to their relief with a
confiderable force, and obtained much honour in the fervice.
Some time afterwards another body of Athenian troops,
7
CIM
matching in to the affiftance of the Lacedzmonians,
was difmiffed by them with circumftances of fufpicion,
which offended the citizens of Athens, and indifpofed them
againft the friends of Sparta. Pericles began to poffefs in~
fluence in Athens, as the head of the popular party, in
conjunGtion with Ephialtes. They, envying the glory ac-
quired by Cimon, conceived his ruin to be a neceflary ftep to
the eltablifhment of their power. He was profecuted at
their in{tigation for having received bribes from Alexander,
king of Macedon, to ftop the progrefs of the Grecian arms
againit that country. Cimon, indignant at the ingratitude
which he experienced for the fervices that he had performed,
could fearcely deign to vindicate his honour, which his
enemies thenifelves believed to be unfullied. He was,
however, banifhed; but in a fhort time afterwards the Athe-
nians became involved in a war with the Lacedemonians, in
which the armies of both nations met at Tanagra in Beeotia;
a fevere 2€tion enfued, but neither of the contending parties
could claim the viGory. The battle was on the point of
being renewed the next day, when Cimon appeared, and
requetted to fight as a volunteer in his-country’s fervice.
His petition was rejected, and himfelf commanded to leave
the army. Before he retired, he addreffed himfeif to his
friends, who had been confidered as acceflaries with him in
the conf{piracy againit the ftate, aud intreated them to aé&
in fuch a manner as to convince the Athenians, that they
had not among them either braver or more honourable men
than Cimon and his friends. They requelted him to leave
his armour, fince their generals would not allow him to
fight at their head. They formed clofe round it, to the
number of abot a hundred, and, rufhing amidft the thickeft
of the foe, fought with undaunted courage-till they were
every man killed. ViGtory decided againit the Athenians,
and the fubfequent events of the war caufed them to regret
the abfence ef Cimon, of whofe real patriotifm no one now
entertained a doubt. Pericles, at whofe initigation chiefly
he had been fent away, himfelf drew up and fupported a
decree for his recal. On his return, he fpeedily made peace
between the Athenians and Spartans.
Such was become the conttitution of the Athenian com-
monwealth, and fo great the effe€ts which the continuance
of war had produced en the minds of the people, that, in
order to preferve quiet at home, Cimon faw the neceflity of
turning the [pirit of enterprife towards foreign conqueft,
and again{t the common enemy of Greece. He determined
to attack Cyprus, that his countrymen might defift from
making war upon the Lacedemonians, or oppreffing their
allies. For this purpofe, he took the command of a power-
ful fleet, part of which he detached to Egypt to diftraé&
the attention of the Perfian government. With) the re-
mainder he attacked Citium and Malum, of which he made
himfelf matter. He afterwards defeated the Pheenician fleet,
obtained a vi€tory over the Perfian army encamped in Cili-
cia, and, re-embarking the troops, returned to Cyprus, and ~
laid fiege to the principal city. In the camp before that
place, Cimon died in the arms of victory. _ It is not known
whether his death was occafioned by ficknefs, or by a wound
which he had received. His remains were carried to Athens
and buried there, and a magnificent monument was ereéted
to his memory, which exifted there in the time of Plutarch.
The death of this great man was not lefs honourable than
his life had been glorious. When he found that he was
about to expire, he gave fuitable dire€tions to the principal
commanders, ordered them to conceal his difeafe, and to
embark immediately for Athens. Great as was the mili-
tary character of Cimon, his wifdom, integrity, and mode-
ration, and conciliatory condu€t, were virtues for which the
lofs
CiN
lofs of him was moft feverely felt and deplored, Others might
command fleets and armies, and obtain viciories, but they
could not, or did not, like him, free Greece from civil feuds
and domeftic wars. It has alfo been remarked in praife ot
’ this great man, that he, in the midft of wealth, as well as
Ariftides in poverty, preferved the reputation of patriotifm
unimpeached, Corn. Nepot. Plutarch. Univer. Hitt.
CINA, or Kinan, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ju-
dza, in the tribeof Juda. It was the town of the Cinzani,
who defcended from Jethro, the father-in-law of Mofes.
—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Galatia, called Cicena and
Cenes.
CINABARENSIS, an epifcopal fee of Afia Minor,
placed by the Greeks in Phrygia Salutaris.
CINABORIUM, a town of the Greater Phrygia.
CINJEDA, in Natural Hiffory, theyname of a ftone
found in the head of a fifh, of a whitith colour, and oblong
figure. ‘The ancients fuppofed it prefaged tempelts when
its furface looked dufkky and obfcure; and, on the contrary,
fair weather, when it looked bright and clear.
CINZEDOCOLPIT A, aname given by Ptolemy to a
people of Arabia Felix; he adds that their country was wa-
tered by the river Baetrus, and affigns to them two towns
and two villages fituated on the coalt of the Red Sea.
CINZZDOLOGIA, among the Ancients, a kind of fa-
tyrical poetry, the chief fubje&t of which were the Cinedi.
CINAXDOPOLIS, in Antient Geography, an ifland of
Afia Minor, in the Doride. Pliny fays that it was
fituated at fome diftance from the continent, in the Ceramic
ulph.
CINADUS, in Antiquity, is uled to fignify a dancer or
pantomime. y
At firit they performed only on the ftage, but afterwards
were admitted to the entertainments of princes.
Cinzpus, or Cynzpus, in Jchihyolosy, the name of a
fifh common in the Archipelago, about the fhores and rocks,
fuppofed by many to be the fame f{pecies with the alpheltes,
and of the labrus kind, only with its back fin prickly all its
length. It isof a yellowifh hue all over, blended and varie=
gated with an admixture of purple: its feales are rounded and
indented ; and its teeth very ftrong and firm, and difpofed in
two rows in each jaw, and are long and fharp.
CINZETRUM, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Greece, in the Peloponnefus, towards the ifle of Cythera.
CINALOA, in Geography, a province of N. America, in
the country of Mexico, or New Spain; bounded on the weft
by the gulph of California, on the fouth by the province of
Culiacan, on the eaft by Leon, and particularly by the high
craggy mountains called ‘l’epecfuan, or 'Topia, 30 or 40
leagues from the fea, and onthe north by New Bifcay ;
from S.E. to N.E. it is about 10oleagues, and at its great-
eft breadth not above 40. It was firit difcovered in the year
1552 by Nunez de Guzman. The country is well watered,
the air is pure and falubrious, the land is fertile, and produces
all forts of fruit, grain, and cotton; and the rivers abound
with fifh. The natives are robuft and ‘warlike, and make ufe
of bows with poifoned arrows, clubs of red wood, and
bucklers ; they are alfo induftrious, and manufaéture cotton
cloth for their own wearing. The political ftate of thefe
peoplerefembles that of the inhabitants of N. America. They
have neither laws nor kings, nor have they any {pecies of
authority or political government for punifhing any crime,
or reftraining them in any part of their conduct. They ac-
knowledge, indeed, certain caziques, who are heads of their
families or villages; but their authority appears chiefly in
war, and the expeditions again{t their enemies. ‘This au-
thority the caziques obtain, not by hereditary right, but by
their valour in war, or by the power and number of their fa-
CIN
milies and relations. Sometimes they owe their pre-emi-
nence to the eloquence with which they difplay their own
exploits, Some tribes in this province feem to be among the
rudelt people of America united in the focial ftate. They
neither cultivate nor fow; they have ro houfes in which
they refide. Thofe in the inland country fubfift by hunting ;
thofe on the fea-coaft chiefly by fifhing. Both depend up-
on the {pontaneous produétions of the earth, fruits, plants,
and roots of various kinds. Inthe rainy feafon, when the
country 18 fubje&t to fudden floods by the torrents from the
mountains, deftitute of the fhelter of houfes, they gather
bundles of reeds, or ftrong grafs, and binding them together
at one end, they open them at the other, and fitting them to
their heads, they are covered as with a large cap, which,
like a penthoufe, throws off the rain, and will keep them
dry for feveral hours. During the warm feafon, they form
a fhed with the branches of trees, which prote@ts them from
the fultry rays of the fun. When expofed to the cold,
which is extreme in December and January, (the weather,
during the reft of the year, being very warm,) they make
large fires, around which they fleep in the open air, In the
mine Yecorato of this province there was found a grain of
gold of 22 carats, which weighed 16 marks, 4 ounces, 4
ochavas; this was fent to Spain as a prefent fit for the king,
and 1s now depofited in the royal cabinet at Madrid. The
chief mining {tation is Sivirijoa.
Cinavoa, a town of Mexico in the above-mentioned pro-
vince, feated on a river of the fame name, which difcharges
itfelf into the gulph of California. N. lat. 26°. W.long, 1¢6°
10’.
CINARA, in Botany. See Cynara.
CINAROCEPHALA, the fecond natural order in the
tenth clafs of Juffieu, with the following general character
and divifions. Flowers all flofculous; florets fometimes all
hermaphrodite, fometimes neutral inthe ray; rarely femi-
nite intermixed with hermaphrodites. Calyx common, many-
leaved, imbricated ; fcales with or without fpines. Recep-
tacle common, befet with hairs, or more frequently with
chaff-like feales ; neutral florets often irregular ; hermaphro-
dite ones five-cleft, regular, pentandrous ; fligma of the lat-
ter fimple or bifid, often without any marked diftinétion
from the ftyle, Seed downy; down capillary or plumofe.
Stem herbaceous, rarely frutefcent. caves alternate, with
or without fpines. /owers various in colour, terminal, or
rarely axillary.
I. True cinarocephalx. Scales of the calyx fpinous.
Atraéylis, cnicus, carthamus, carlina, arium, cinara, ono-
pordum, carduus, lappa, crocodilium, calcitrapa, Jferidia.
Il. True cinarocephalez. Scales of the calyx without fpines.
Facca, cyanus, xoegea, rhaponticum, centaurea, pacourina, fer-
ratula, pleronia, flehbclina. 11, Anomalous cinarocephalz.
Calyxes one or few-flowered, aggregate. Fungia, naf-
Jfauria, gundelia, echinops, corymbium, fpheranthus. Juflieu
obferves that the genera of the lait divifion do sot properly
belong either to this natural order, or to the fucceeding
one corymbifere, but are a link conneéting both,
Ventenat has adopted the above divifions, adding in the
firft, berardia and cirfium ; difcarding pacourina, pteronia,
and {tehelina from the fecond ; and retaining only gundelia,
echinops, and fphzranthus in the third.
CINARUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated in
the vicinity of that of Leros. lt is mentioned by Athe-
neus, Plutarch, and Pliny, the latter of whom calls it
‘¢ Cinara.””
CINCARITANUS, anepifcopal fee of Africa in Bi-
zacium. Some have thought that this fee was in the town of
Cercina, in an ifland of the fame name.
CINCENSES, a people of Spain, placed by Pliny a
X2 the
CINCHONA.
the Tarragonenfis; they are probably the Cinnenfes, fo called
from the name of the town Cinna.
CINCHONA, in Botany, (fo called from the Countefs
del Cinchon, lady of a Spanifh viceroy, whofe cure is faid
firft to have brought the Peruvian bark into reputation),
Linn. Gen. 228. Schreb. 301, Jufficu 201. Vent. 2. p. 573.
Gert. 204. Willd. 346. Quinquina; Lam. Encyc. Clafs
and order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte,
Lion. Rubiacee, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Superior, one-leafed, five-toothed, perma-
nent. Cor. monopetalous, tubular, funnel-fhaped, deeply
five-cleft ; tube long, obfcurely angular ; fegments lanceolate,
orlinear. Sam. Filaments five, in the middle of the tube;
anthers elongated, either fhorter than the tube, or projecting
beyond it. P:/?. Germ inferior, top-fhaped, obfcurely angu-
lar; ityle the length of the ftamens; ftigma thick, either
bifid or entire. Peric. Capfule crowned with the calyx,
two-valved, two-celled; valves opening at their inner fide,
turned in at their edges, and feparating, when ripe, fo as to
have the appearance of two capfules. Seeds numerous in
each cell, oblong, comprefled, bordered, attached toa central
oblong receptacle.
Effl.Ch. Calyx top-fhaped, five-toothed. Corolla tubu-
Jar, five-cleft. Stamens five, inferted into the middle of the
tube. Capfule oblong, two-valved, two-celled, many-leeded.
* Flowers tomentous ; flamens included,
Sp.1. C. officinalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. r. Mant. 1. Lam. 16.
Wiild. 1. Lam. Lil. Pl. 164. fig. 1. Gert. tab. 33. fig. 4.
Woody. Med. Bot. tab. 200. (Arbor peruviana febrifuga ;
Rai. hift.) Common Jefuits’ bark, or officinal Cinchona.
«© Leaves ovate-lanceolate, {mooth; capfules oblong.”? Vahl.
A talltree ratherthickerthan a man’s thigh. Branches op-
pofite, covered with a reddifh brown bark, frequently rug-
ged with obliquely tranfverfe chinks, and marked with the
{cars of fallen leaves ; upper ones a little compreffed. Leaves
from two to three inches long, and one broad, remote on the
flowering branches, but approximating on the others, op-
polite, petioled, acute, fmooth on both fides, green above,
paler underneath, marked with lateral fimple parallel nerves,
a little curved at the fummit; petioles channelied above,
convex underneath; ftipules {mall, acute, caducous. Mowers
in a terminal, trichotomous panicle ; peduncles flightly pu-
befcent, furnifhed with {mall acute oppofite bra&es, at the
bafe and about the middle; calyx-teeth fhort, acute ; corolla
flightly tomentous without, woolly within; fegments acute,
fhorter than the tube ; anthers the length of the tube; germ
tomentous; fligma thick, flightly bifid. Cap/ules half an
inch long, oblong, {mooth, marked with obf{cure. raifed lines.
A native of Peru, growing abundantly on a long chain of
mountains, extending between two and five degrees of lati-
tude to the north and fouth of Loxa. The proper time
for cutting the bark is from September to November, the
only feafon when, in that country, there is fome intermiffion
from rain. Care muft be taken not to cut the bark wet;
and if it fhould happen to be fo, it is carried direGtly to the
low country to be dried.
This tree has been fuppofed to be the Quina-quina of the
Peruvians, and has accordingly been given by many authors
as one of its fynonyms. But the contrary has been proved by
a {pecimen of the true Quina-quina fent by Monf. Conda-
mine to Cromwell Mortimer, efq. fecretary of the Royal So-
ciety, about the year 1749, of which an engraved figure was
then publifhed. Anthony Juffieu, who examined a dried
fpecimen preferved in the herbarium of Jof. Juflieu, has pro-
nounced it in his natural orders of plants, to be not a Cin-
chona, and to have no natural affinity with that genus; but
to be a decandrous leguminous plant, which he has referred
to Myrofpermum of Jacquin, a genus which has been
united by Willdenow with the Myroxylon of Schreber,
As the {pecimen fent by Condamine, is without fructificae
tion, this point cannot be abfolutely determined ; but, from
the defcriptioa, the opinion of Juffieu fcems highly probable,
though it does not appear to be taken up by any other au-
thor as a diltiné& {pecies. It has a triangular furrowed, pithy
ftem, with alternate branches; and a thick, leafy, curioufly
veined wing running along every angle, like a three-edged
fword-blade, terminating here and there in a rounded form.
A fragrant refin diflils from the trunk by means of an inci-
fion. The feeds, called by the Spaniards Pep:tas de Quina-
quina, are of a brown colour, and woody {ubftance, bavings
the form of beans or flat almonds, and are enclofed ip a kind
of doubled leaf, (Qu. valves of the legume ?) between which
and the feed is found a little of the fame refin that diftils
from the tree. Their chief ufe is to make fumigations, which
are reputed cordial and wholefome, but their reputation is now
on the decline. This tree grows abundantly in feveral pro-
vinces Gf Peru, asin the neighbourhood of Chucuifaca or La
Plata, Tanja, &c. The natives make rolls or maffes of the
refin, which are ufed for feveral other purpofes in phyfie,
fometimes under the form of a platter, fometimes under that
ofacompound oil made from the refin, and are fuppofed to
promote perfpiration, ftrengthen the nerves, and reftore the
motion of the joints of gouty people. {n addition to thefe
real or imaginary medical virtues, its bark is efteemed ar ex-
cellent febrifuge, and before the difcovery of the tree of
Loxa,. was in great repute for curing tertian agues, &c.
The Jefuits of La Paz or Chicuiapa gathered its bark
which is intenfely bitter, and ufed to fend it to Rome, where
it was diltributed under the true name of Quina-quina, and
employed for the cure of intermittent fevers. The bark of
Loxa, or Cinchona officinalis, having been brought into Eu-
rope, and particularly to Rome, by the fame. means, the
new febrifuge became confounded with the old one, and that
of Loxa having been mott ufed, took the name of the firit,
which is now almoft entirely forgotten, though the name
Cafcarilla, or fmall bark, given to that of Loxa, feems to
have been invented to diftinguifh it from fome other, un- -
doubtedly the ancient Quina-quina. See Linnean Tranfac-
tions, vol. iii. p. 59. with a figure copied from the original
one.
Two forts of the Loxa bark are in ufe, the pale and the
red, poffeffed of fimilar properties, but in a different degree,
the latter being found by experience to be the moft power-
ful. It has been doubted whether they are the produce of
different fpecies or of the fame plant from different parts ef
its furface, or, which is the fame thing, in different ftages of
the growth of the bark itfelf. But the queftion feems to be
nearly, if not altogether decided, by a drawing of the plant
which produces the red kind, fent from Peru to Linnzus, and
which appears to be a diltin& fpecies, though its {pecific dif=
ference has not been botanically determined. This drawing
has been found in the Herbarium of Linnzus by Dr. James
Edward Smith, and the ufé of it liberally granted to Dr.
Woodville, who has publifhed in his Medical Botany a figure
taken fromit. See Medical Botany, vol. iii. p. 555. 2.C.
pubefcens.. Mart. 2. Willd. 2. Poiret Encye. 17. Vahl.
Act. Soc. Hilt. Nat. Haf. 1, p.rg. tab. 2. * Leaves eyg-=
fhaped, elongated at the bafe, pubefcent underneath ; capfule
cylindrical.’? Root perennial. Barf whitifh, whence it has
been called white bark. Branches pubefcent on their upperpart.
Leaves from eight to ten inches long, and from five to fix inches
broad, petioled, egg-fhaped, obtufe, narrowed at the bale,
and decurrent a little way along the petiole, pubefcent and
tomentous underneath, hairy on the principal nerves, ‘almott
{mooth above; nerves flrongly marked, fimple, parallel, di-
viding into {mall fimple lateral veins; petioles about ea
inches
crnec
inches long. Floqwers numerous, in large terminal panicles ;
braétes {mall at the bafe of the divifions of the peduncles ;
calyx {mall, with five fharp teeth; corolla fcarcely an inch
Jong, furnifhed with whitifh hairs along its edge, and on its
infide five-cleft ; ferments'esg-fhaped, fhorter than the tube.
Capfules an inch long, fmooth, cylindrical, leffening a little
at both ends. A native of Peru. Poiret fufpeéts that the
Cinchona hirfuta, purpurea & ovata, of Ruiz and Payon in
the Flora Peruviana, are nothing more than varteties of this
fpecies. They are thus feverally characterized by thofe
avihors. C. Airfuta. * Leaves oval, thick, reflexed at the
edges; the terminal ones {omewhat heart-fhaped: corolla with
a purplifh down; border hairy? C. purpurea. ‘‘ Leaves
oblong-oval and ege-fhaped, purplifh; paiicle brachiate,
large; flowers f{omewhat in corymbs; corollz light purple ;
border hairy, white. C. ovata. ‘ Jueaves’ egg-fhaped,
downy underneath ; panicle brachiate ; flowers fomewhat in
eorymbs ; corollz purple; border hairy.” 3. C. macrocarpa,
Mart. 3. Poiret 18. Willd. 3. Vahl. Aét. Soc. His. Nat.
Hafn. 1. tab. 3. Lambert. Gen. Cinch. tab. 3. (C. offi-
einalis; Linn. Syft. Ed.r2. as far as relates to the defcrip-
tion. C. officinalis; Linn. Jun. Sup. 144) ** Leaves oblong,
pubefcent underneath, ribbed.’”? Root perennial. Branches
villous-tomentous. Leaves petioled, oblong, more than
three inches long ; fomewhat coriaceous, fmooth and fhining
above, pubefcent underneath, with villous tomentous ribs ;
younger ones elliptical, hairy above, efpecially along the
nerves; petioles an inch long ; ftipules two, lanceolate, ca-
ducous, connate at their bafe, fmooth on the infide, often
longer than the petioles. Yowers in a terminal, trichoto-
mous, pubefcent, panicle ; peduncles of the ramifications an
inch and a half long, comprefled, with three nearly feflile
flowers ; braces an inch Jong, linear-lanceolate ; with others
much {maller, awl-fhaped ones at the bafe of each flower;
_ calyx bell-fhaped, pubefcent, filky within ; with five, fore-
times fix {mail fharp teeth; corolla an inch and _haif long,
coriaceous, villous, almoft tomentous ; fegments of the bor-
der lanceolate, obtufe, the length of the tube; filaments
very fhort; anthers linear, longer than the tube; germ
five-fided, obtufe; ftigma bifid. Capfule two inches
long, cylindrical, fmooth, narrowed at the bafe; the
two valves, as the fruit ripens, widely feparating both at their
bafe and fummit. A native of Santa Fé. Vahl received it
from Ortega.
: %* Corolle /mooth ; flamens projeding.
4. C. caribea, Linn. Sp. Pl.2. Mart.4. Poir.r. Willd.
. Jacq. Amer. tab. 179. fig. 95. Oblerv. Bot. 2. p.47.
i. pict. tab. 63. Gert. tab. 33. fig. 4.(C. Jamaicenfis ;
Wright A&. Angl. Vol. 67. p.504. tab. 10.) ‘ Pe-
duncles axillary, one-flowered.”” A tree from ten to twenty
feet high. Branches dark brown, {mooth, {triated ; often
marked with brilliant oval, white or yellowifh {pots. Leaves
two inches long or more, and about one broad, oval, lanceo-
late, narrowed at both ends, entire at their edges, thir,
fmooth on both fides; petioles fhort; ftipules very {mall,
broader than long, ciliated, acuminate. #/owers numerous ;
dufky yellow; peduncles not longer than the petioles,
fmooth ; calyx fmooth, fhort, fomewhat cylindrical, with five
fhort, acute teeth ; tube of the corolla cylindrical; fegments
of the border long, linear, rather obtufe, {mooth, longer than
the tube ; itamens a little projecting ; anthers pale yellow,
very long, narrow. Cap/ule opening from the top, black,
with an even furface, very {mooth, fhining. Seeds oval, com-
prefled, furrounded with a falient border, A native of Ja-
maica and Guadaloupe. It is called in Jamaica, Sea-fide
Beech. The bark in general is fmooth and grey on the
‘ eutfide, though in fome fpecimens rough and f{cabrous. Its
HON A.
flavour is fweet, with a mixture of the tafte of horfe radith,
and the aromatics of the Eaft, but when fwallowed has the
bitternefs and aftringency of the Peruvian bark. 5. C. /on-
gifora, Poir. 2 Lamb. Gen. cinchon. p. 12. ‘* Peduncles
axillary, one-flowered ; leaves linear-lanceolate, f{mooth ; co-
rolla very long.” Nearly allied to the preceding, but dif-
tinguished from it by the remarkable length of the flowers,
and by itslonger narrower leaves. Atree. Leaves oppo-
fite, near together, with oblique lateral nerves, on moderately
long petioles ; ftipules fmall, acute; fegments of the border
of the corolla linear, three or four times fhorter than the tube.
6. C. corymbifera, Mart. 5. Poir. 3. Willd. 5, Linn. Jun.
Sup. 144. Forft. A&. Nov. Up. 3. p.176. Flor. Auf.
Prod. 88.‘ Leaves oblong-lanceolate; corymbs axillary.”
Trun& fix feet or more in height, upright, round, {moothifh,
the thicknefs of the humanarm. ranches round, fpreading,
oppolite; upper ones herbaceous, comprefled at the joints.
Leaves three inches long, oppofite, with an even furface,
{mooth, acuminate, quite entire, deep green, mid-rib purple
underneath ; petioles {carcely an inch long, round, fpread-
ing; {tipules membranous, acute. Flowers white, red on
the outfide, dufky purple before they open ; corymbs large,
dichotomous ; peduncles folitary, compreffled at the tip, the
length of the leaves; partial pedunclesthree, an inch long, ang u-
lar, trifid ; pedicels one-flowered ; two, three, four, or more to-
gether, half aninch long, round, flender, ere&t ; braétes very
{mall, membranous, folitary, acute, at the bafe of each pedi-
cel; corolla tubular; fegments of the border fhorter than
the tube, narrow, obtufe, curved inwards ; anthers erect, a
little projeGting ; ftigma thick, fimple. A native of the if-
Jands of Tongatabu and Eaoowe in the South Seas, where
itis cultivated for the odour and clegance of its flowers. Its
bark is extremely bitter, and fomewhat aftringent, much re-
fembling the common Jefuits’ bark. 7. C. dneata, Mart. 6.
Poir. 4. Willd. 6. Vahl. AG. Soc. Hilt. Hafn. 1. tab. 4.
Lambert. Gen. Cinch. tab. 6. Panicle terminal; leaves
egg-fhaped, acuminate, fmooth; capfules five-fided”? A
tree. Branches cylindrical, efpecially at the bafe, greyith,
purple, and compreffed near the top. Leaves two inches or
more long, and one broad, on fhort petioles, not at all fhin-
ing, bluntifh, thin, fmooth; nerves fimple, lateral; itipules
egg-fhaped, acute. //owers in large trichotomous panicles $
peduncles comprefled, three-flowered ; bractes briftle-fhaped;
calyx-teeth long, awl-fhaped; corolla two inches long or
more ; tube cylindrical; {egments of the border linear, obtufe 5
germ five-fided, obtufe; ftigma globular. Cap/ules, fhort,
{mall, brown, {mooth, oval, crowned with the teeth of the
calyx. Nearly allied to C. floribunda and C. anguttifolia ;
but differs from the latter in having much broader leaves,
and from both in having its leaves rounded at the bafe with
nerves vilible on both fides. A native of the Welt Indies.
8. C. floribunda, Mart. 7. Poir. 5. Willd. 7. Wahl. AG.
Soc. Hift. Nat. Hafo. 1. p.123. Lam. Ill. Pi. 164. fig
2. Lamb. Gen. Cinch. tab. 7. (Cinchona floribus panicu-
latis, clabris, &c.Swartz Prod. 41; flor. Ind. Occid.r. p. 375.
Nov. A&t. Acad. Nat. Curios. 9. p. 1. fig. 1. C. montana;
Badier Journ. de Phyf. feb.1. 759. p.129. fig.1. Auft. Bot.
Mag. p. 96. tab. 3. C. Sanéte Lucie; Philof. Tranf. vol,
74. p- 452. tab. 19. T'rechelium arborefcens & fluviatile ;
Defport. Hilt. Morb. S.Doming. z. p.231.Quinquina piton 5
Journ. de Phyf. 1781. p. 1€g—179.) ‘* Panicle terminal ;
capfules top-fhaped, with an even furface 3 leaves elliptical,
acuminate.” A tree, thirty or forty feet high. Trunk
ftraight, about a foot in diameter. Branches cylindrical at
the bottom, obfcurely tetragonal and purplifh near the top.
Leaves from eight to ten inches long, three or four bro: d,
petioled, oppolite, lanceolate-elliptic, acuminate, quite
{mooth,
CINCHONA. ,
fmooth, even and fhining on the upper furface, paler under-
neath, veined ; nerves lateral, projeGting, parallel, a little
branched and confluent at their extremity ; petioles an inch
and half long ; {tipules oppofite, fheathing, oblong, obtufe, ca-
ducous. Mowers at firft white,afterwardspurplifh,numerous; pa-
nicle large ; ramifications oppofite, comprefled, quite {mooth ;
calyx-teeth very hort, awl fhaped; tube of the corolla cy-
lindrical, an inch long ; fegments of the border long, {mooth,
linear ; fligma oval,entire. Cap/ules oblong, black, narrow-
ed at thebafe. The bark of this {pecies is more bitter and
more altringent than that of C. officinalis. A native of
St. Lucia, Martinico, Guadaloupe, and Hifpaniola, where it
bears the name of Pitton, becaufe it is found on the tops of
mountains, which bear that name in the Weft Indies, the
mountains themfelves being called Morne. 9. C. brachycarpa,
Mart. 8. Poir. 6. Willd. 8. Vahl. Soc. Hift. Nat. Hafn. 1.
p. 24. Lamb. Gen. Cinch. tab.S. Swartz. Prod. 42. Ind.
Occid. vol. i.p, 378. ‘* Panicle terminal ; capfules inverfely
egg-fhaped, ribbed, leaves elliptital, obtufe.”” Leaves large,
{mooth on both fides; nerves alternate, lateral, a little:
branched at the f{ummit ; petioles fhort ; {tipules fhort, egg.
fhaped, acute. Panicle trichotomous, furnifhed with {mall
brates at the divilion of the peduncles ; calyx-teeth fhort,
alittle obtufe; tube of the corolla rather long, cylindrical,
flender; fegments of the border linear, reflexed ; {ligma
fimple, globular. Cap/ule with ten flrong projeting nbs,
connivent at their bale. ,A native of Jamaica. The de-
{eription formed by Poiret from Lambert’s figure. 10. C.
anguflifolia, Mart. 9. Poir.7. Willd. 9. Swartz. A&.
Stockh. Ann. 1787: p. n17.. tab. 37 Prod. 42. Flor.
Ind. Occid. 1, p. 380. Lam. Illuft. Pl. 164. fig. 3. Lamb.
Gen. Cinch. tab. 9. ‘* Flowers panicled, {mooth ; capfules
oblong, five-fided ; ieaves linear-lanceolate, pubefcent.” A
{mall tree, from ten to fifteen feet high. Trunk upright,
fmooth, with a wrinkled afh-coloured bark, which becomes
brown and itriated nearthe root. Branches, flender, filiform,
{mooth. Leaves two or three inches long; fearcely half an
inch broad, oppofite, petioled, foft to the touch ; ftipules
{mall, egg-fhaped, acute. #/oqwexs white, odorous ; panicle
terminal, frequently with trifid ramifications; braétes f{mall,
fhort ; calyxes fhort, tubular, pubefcent, with five upright
awl-fhaped teeth; tube of the corolla an inch long, fmooth,
flender; fegments of the border the length of the tube,
linear, narrow, obtufe, reflexed. Cap/ules fhort. Sceds very
{mall, {mocth, rounded. A native of Hifpaniola on the
borders of riversin arocky foil. 11. C. coriacea, Poir. 8.
(Cinchona nitida ; Flor. Peruv.?) ‘ Leaves ovate-oblong,
fhining on both fides, coriaceous; panicles fhort, {mooth ;
anthers projecting, filiform. “* Branches with an even furface
ftriated ; bark cinereous. Leaves oppolite, petioled, narrow-
ed at their bafe, obtufe at_their fummit ; nerves lateral, al-
ternate, a little branched at the fummit, projecting on the
under furface of the leaf. Flowers in terminal panicles,
with nearly dichotomous ramifications, on {tiff fmooth pe-
duacles ; calyx oblong, with upright acute teeth; corolla two
inches long; tube ftraight, cylindrical; divifions of the bor-
der narrow, obtufe, the length of the tube, fmooth, reflexed;
anthers upright, filiform. Cap/ules an inch long, blackifh,
cylindrical. A native of St. Domingo. The C. nitida of
Ruiz and Pavon, Fior. Peruvy. vol. ii. tab. 191. has inverfe-
ly egg-fhaped, fhining leaves ; a brachiate panicle ; light pur-
ple coroliz with a fomewhat hairy border. Poiret judges it
to be near a-kin to this fpecies ; but its panicle is larger, the
tube of the corolla only half the length, and its capfule elon-
gated ; diminifhing a little at its fummit. 12. C. grandifolia,
Poir.g.° Ruiz and Pavon Flor. Peruy. vol. ii. tab. 196.
“ Leaves oblong and oval, f{mooth; panicle brachiate;
flowers fomewhat in corymbs: corollas white, with a flight-
ly villous border.”” A large tree witha denfely tufted head.
Bark cinereous brown, reddifh within, of an even furfacey
bitter and acidulous, without being unpleafant. Younger
Branches quadrangular, reddifh. Leaves from one to two
feet long, quite entire; fhining on the upper furface, paler
underneath, traverfed by purple veins; the principal ones
furnifhed at their bafe with whitifh filky hairs. Stipules oval,
acuminate, caducous. /owers white ; corymb-like panicle
about a foot long, and much branched, leafy ; braétes {mall, _
oval, acute; calyx purple, five-toothed ; corolla an inch
long ; border a little villous within ; ftamens inclofed within
the tube ; anthers oblong, bifid at their bafe. Cap/ule large,
{carcely ftriated. Seeds oval, membranous at their borders.
A native of Peru in the forefts‘of the Andes in the neigh-
bourhood of torrents. 13. C. parvifolia, Poir. 10. ‘ Leaves
egg-thaped, obtufe, fmooth; flowers panicled, twice-
trichotomous, villous; corolla very {mall. C. micrantha; Flor.
Peruyv. v. ii. tab. 194.2? Leaves oval, obtufe; ,pae
nicle large; flowers numerous, {mall, white, with a woolly
border.” Branches {mooth, upright, cylindrical. Leaves
three inches long or more, one and a half broad, thin, entire
membranous, petioled, with lateral nerves, narrowed at their
bafe. Stipules oppolite, fheathing, awl-(haped, enlarged at
the bafe. Flowers in a moderate panicle ; peduncles axillary,
oppolite towards the extremities of the branches, upright,
forked at the fummit, each fork trichotomous, villous, com-
preffed, with about three pedicelled flowers; braétes fmall,
at the bafe of the divifions; calyx fhort, tubular, villous;
teeth {carcely vilible ; corolla three or four lines long, pubef-
cent on the outfide; fegments of the border obtufe. Sta-
mens not projecting. Capfule unknown. A native of Ja-
maica. The Peruvian plant of Ruiz and Pavon has larger
panicles ; a corolla white on the infide, reddifh without, pu-
befcent ; andan oblong, acute, brown, capfule, with ten ob-
folete ftriz. 14. C. J/anceolata, Poir. 11. Flor. Peruv.
vol. ii. p. 51. “ Leaves lanceolate-oblong; panicle brachiate,
large ; flowers fomewhat in corymbs; corollas purple, in-
clining to rofe-colour ; border hairy.” A tall tree. Bark
brown, a little [potted, yellowifh within, very bitter, a little
acid, but not unpleafant. Leaves oppofite, petioled, quite
entire, {mooth on both fides, with purplifh veins: petioles
halfan inch iong; ftipules flat, egg-fnaped, obtufe, connate
at the bafe. Panicle terminal, wide-{preading ; braétes {mall,
awl-fhaped, caducous ; calyx fhort, purple ; border of the co-
rolla open, villous; ftamens villous atthe bafe. Capfule an
inch long, oblong, narrow, flightly ftriated, reddifh brown,
“opening from the bafe to the fummit. Sceds egg-fhaped,
with a membranous border, often much torn. A native of
Peru on the mountains of Muyna. 15. C. grandifiora, Poir.
12. Flor. Peruv. vol. ii, tab. 198. ‘ Leaves oval and in-
verfely egg-fhaped, very flightly veined, coriaccous, white
underneath; corymbs terminal; corol’x, Jarge, fmooth,
white.” A tree about twenty feet high. Daré cinereous
brown, yellowifh within, rather lefs bitter than the other
fpecies. Branches {preading ; younger ones flightly tetra-
gonal. Leaves {preading, rather near together, quite entire,
fhining green above, ftipules obtufe, flightly ftriated. Flowers
about thirty in a corymb, of a pleafant fmell, peduncled ;
bragtes awl-fhaped ; calyx funnel-fhaped, tubular, teeth up-
right, fharp ; corella {mooth; fegments of the border re-
flexed ; fligma two-lobed, oblong. Cap/ule narrowed at the
bafe, marked with two furrows, opening from the fummit to
the bafe. Szeds numerous, very fmall, with a linear mem-
brane, on a large receptacle. A native of Peru_in the fo-
refts ofthe Andes. 16. C.rofea, Poir-13. Flor. Per. vol. ii.
tab. 199. “ Leaves oblong, obtufely acuminate; panicle
brachiate ;
=
a ge ee
C.WNOCUH' OUND A.
brachiate ; flowers in corymbs ; corolle rofe-coloured ; bor-
der tomentous at the edge.’”? A tree, fifteen feet high.
Bark brown, even, with cinereous {pots, very aftringent,
flightly bitter. Leaves oppofite, petioled, very large, quite
entire, fmooth, fhining, veined underneath ; ftipules egg-
fhaped; obtufe, purple, pubefcent on the outfide, connate
at the bafe. FVowers in a terminal corymb ; peduncles
{preading, pubefcent, comprefled ; bractes egg-fhaped, acute;
calyx fhort, purple ; tube of the corolla fhort, flightly curv-
ed, cylindrical, {mooth at its edge, dilated into a tomentous
border; fegments of the border {hort ; ttamens villous at the
bafe, fhorter than the border. Cap/fule a little recurved. A
native of Peru in the forefts of the Andes. 17.C. dichotoma,
Poir.14. Fl. Peruy. vol. i. tab. 197. ‘ Leaves oblong-
lanceolate ; peduncles terminal, dichotomous, few-flowcred ;
capfules narrow, linear, long.”?” Alowtree. Bark brown,
a little rugged, marked with whitith fpots. Branches cy-
lindrical, a little compreffed between the joints. Leaves
flat; principal nerves oppofite ; {maller ones almoft reticulat-
ed; itipules egg-fhaped, oblong, obtufe. Flowers in aloofe
panicle ; ramifications oppofire, with an expanded bifurcation.
Flowers unilateral, nearly feffile. Cap/ules about two inches
long, flightly ftriated; valves boat-fhaped. Seeds numerous,
brownifh, with a narrow membranous wing. A native of
Peru. 18. C. caroliniana, Poir. 15. (Piskneya pubens;
Michaux Flor. boreal. Amer. vol. i. tab. 13.) ‘* Pubefcent;
leaves egg-fhaped ; flowers ina fafciculated panicle, axillary,”
Poiret. A middle-fized tree. Branches oppotite, villous, cy-
lindrical, a little compreffed near the end. Leaves {ix inches
long, or more, three broad, petioled, narrowed at the bafe,
pubefcent underneath, efprcially along the principal nerves,
green and fmooth above ; petiole fhort, pubeicent ; ftipules
two, lanceolate, acute, caducous. Flowers almolt feffile;
calyx oblong, top-fhaped, divided at its orifice into five ob-
long, acute, nearly equal, caducous fegments, one of which
often lengthens into the appearance of a leaf, or oval bracte,
about an inch long, of: a yellowifh white colour, as in muf-
ferda frondofa; corolla tubular, cylindrical. pubefcent, an inch
long or more ; fegments ot the border oblong, obtufe, reflex-
ed, two-thirds fhorter than the tube; filaments attached to
the corolla a little above the bafe, briftle-fhaped, upright ;
anthers projecting, almoit verfatile, obtufe, fhorter than in
the other {pecies ; germ enclofed in the tube of the calyx :
ftyle the length of the ftamens; ftigma thick, almoft dichoto-
mious. Capfule large, rounded, a little compreffed, marked
with two oppofite furrows, obtufe, flattened and naked at its
fummit, coriaceous, two-celled ; partition reaching only to
the middle. Seeds numerous, almoft round, with a fhort
membranous ring. A native of Carolina and Georgia.
Michaux on account of fome peculiarities found for ita new
genus: but on account of its near affinity to Cinchona, Poiret
has been induced to place it here.
Obf. Poiret obferves that Cinchona fpinofa of Lambert is
evidently a {pecies of Catefbcea, near a-kin to catelbeea {pinofa
of Linnzus.
Cincuona, inthe Materia Medica; Peruvian Bark. This
moft valuable medicine was firft introduced into Europe by the
Jefuits asa cure for intermittent and other fevers, the ufe of
-which had long been known to the inhabitants of Peru and
other parts of the American continent. It long remained
a lucrative article of commerce to theorder, whence it ob-
tained the name of Fe/uits’ Bark or Fefuits? Powder ; and it
gradually (though not without confiderable oppofition at
firft from the regular phyficians) rofe in reputation, and its
ufe has extended over all the civilized world, fo that it has
for many years been juftly efteemed as the molt fafe and
powerful febrifuge which we poflefs,
There are three principal forts of Peruvian Bark in com-
mon ufe, and known in the European markets; befides
which, there are many other varieties which are generally
confounded with one or other of the above three forts, and
which differ from them only by fome flight circumftances,
fo as hardly to require a diftinc&t notice in a general defcrip-
tion like the prefent. The three common forts now in ufe,
are the pale, the red, and the yellow bark, and of thefe the
two laft are comparatively of very receit date, and the red
is now become very fearce and is hardly ever imported, fo
that in faét the pale and the yellow are the oniy barks now
feen. ;
The chemical analyfis and fenfible properties of each, are
on the whole extremely fimilar, but there is found an infinite
variety in the proportion of conftituent parts.
The pale bark is brought over from the Spanifh main, ia
large bundles clofely packed up in goat and other flcins, and
in pieces of different sizes, fome rolled up into fhort thick
quills, and others flat. The ontfide is brownifh and feabrous,
and generally covered with mofs; the infide is of a dull red
or rufty iron colour. The beft fort breaks clofe and
{mooth, and often minute fhining grains of a blackith refin
may be difcovered by clofe examination. It is very friable
when chewed, and readily breaks down into a powder of a
light cinnamon colour. The inferior forts are more tongh
and fibrous.
The yellow bark is in much larger pieces than the pale,
and flatter and thicker. The outer part is f{moother, and the
colour of the inner partis of alichtred. It weighs lighter
than the pale, and when reduced to powder, its colour is
paler.
The red bark is alfo in larger and thicker pieces than the
pale, and more convoluted than the yellow, though not ac-
tually forming quills or cylinders. It alfo breaks fhort, and
the inner part is very red.
All the fpecies of cinchona have fo many properties in
common, that the fame defcription is here meant to apply to
all, except the contrary be particularly {pecified. ‘The cin-
chona has a flight and fomewhat multy {mell, though this
may, perhaps, arife from the {kin in which it is packed.
It requires to be chewed for a little while before the talte
comes out fully, which then is bitter and altringent, with a
flight aroma, but not fufficient to prevent its being difagree-
able to molt palates.
The chemical analyfis of the cinchona has been attempted
by fome able chemilts; and the effe& of water, alcohol,
and other reagents, as faras is neceflary for pharmaceutical
purpofes, has been examined, with confiderable care.
Enough has been learnt by them to decide on the belt mode’
of exhibition of this valuable remedy, but to the feientific
chenilt much doubt ftill remains as to the true nature of
many of the conttituent parts of this, as probably of all
other refinous barks.
We shall firft mention the fimpler experiments that relate
more efpecially to pharmacy, and then deferibe fome more
elaborate chemical proceffes.
The firft’ men{truum to be mentioned, is water. This
fluid, whether hot or cold, aés fpeedily and powerfully on
the cinchona. If this bark, thoroughly bruifed and reduced
to coarfe powder, be boiled fora few minutes in water, it
makes a clear decoGion, which, when hot, is clear and red-
difh, but on cooling it becomes very turbid and of a pale yel-
lowifh or wheyifh hue, and a dark brown fediment is depo-
fited. This decoction is intenfely bitter, gives a deep black
with folutions of iron, and a very {mall quantity of precipi«
tate with a folution of ifinglafs or glue. ‘The latter circum:
flance fhews that it contains a little tannin; the blackening
with
CINCHONA.
with iron indicates gallic acid, and the bitternefs is occafion-
ed by the prefence of an extractive matter, the peculiar
quality of which will be prefently mentioned more at large.
On keeping for fome days the {upernatant liquor of the de-
coction becomes almoft colourlefs and tranfparent, and the
precipitate more copious. In time, though not very
{peedily, it grows mouldy and four, and acquires rather an
offentive fmell. A few drops of the ftrong acids added to
the frefh decoGtion caufe a copious precipitate in a few mi-
nutes, and the clear liquor is left nearly without colour, but
its taite is {till intenfely bitter.
If the fame portion of bark be boiled fucceffively with
different portions of water, employing only a few minutes in
each boiling, the contents of the feveral decoétions fhew,
in fome meafure, the different degrees of folubility of the
conftituent parts. The quantity of bitter extra@ given by
thefe decoétions is by much the greateft in the firtt, and goes
on uniformly diminifhing till the whole is exhaufted. The
gallic acid is more difficult of extraction, fo that the decoc-
tion will blacken the folutions of iron after it has ceafed to
poflcfs any other fenfible property. It has been mentioned,
that the deco¢tions of bark-grow turbid on cooling, and de-
polit a fediment in which much of the medicinal virtue is
fuppofed to refide. ‘This applies peculiarly to the firft de-
cottion, which is loaded with foluble matter. Ifthe turbid
liquor be again heated, a part of the fediment is re-diffolved,
but not the whole, and the proportion of infoluble matter
is much increafed by the length of time employed in the
boiling, and the furface expofed to the air. Hence it is in-
ferred, and this is fupported by other chemical reafons
which will be afterwards mentioned, that part of the foluble
matter of the bark becomes permanently infoluble by ab-
forbing oxygen from the air; and when thus rendered info-
luble, it is alfo inferred, that it has loft moft of its medicinal
properties, fo that the pra€tical dire€tion feems to be indi-
cated in preparing this decoGion, to boil the water on the
bark only a fhort time, and in a covered veffel.
Cold water alfo diffolves very readily a confiderable por-
tion of the foluble matter of the bark, and faturates itfelf
with itin a digeltion of a few hours. This infufion is of a
light brown red, and quite tranfparent. Its tafte is very
bitter and lefs naufeous than the deco&tion. But by keeping
it grows turbid, and are dinfoluble powder is precipitated.
This infufion has been adopted in medicine in the proportion
of about one partof powdered bark to eight of cold water,
infufed for about fix hours, with occafional ftirring. It
appears, however, from Dr. Lewis’s experiments, that a
fingle hour produces as ftrong a folution.
Alcohol digetted on bark acquires a deep brown colour,
and a ftrong bitter and aftringent taite. This folution,
when evaporated to drynefs, leaves a black, fhining, brittle
refin.
Dilute fpirit of wine alfo acquires a deep colour and ftrong
impregnation with the ative principle of the cinchona, by
digettion for a few days in a moderate heat. On increafing
the heat, the colour deepens, and the fpirit becomes turbid,
and a {ediment is depofited which will not again entirely
re-diflolve. The tinéture of bark is made with dilute alco-
hol. ‘The bark, after the utmott e¥eé of the alcohol, {till
yields fome foluble matter to water, and the deco¢tion thus
made is both bitter and aftringent. A part of this matter,
which alcohol will not diffolve, and which water will, is the
mucilage which the cinchona is found to contain in a notable
quantity, and which, as in other cafes where mucilage is
prefent, tLough inlipid itfelf, flrongly unites to a portion of
the bitter,extract and gallic acid, and appears to defend it
from the ation of the alcohol.
3
When a flrong deen&ion of cinchona is evaporated at a
boiling-water hear, it gradually becomes more and more tur-
bid, deepens in colour almeft to a brownifh black ; and at
lait a dark pitchy-looking extraé is left behind, which may .
be infpiffated to perfeét drynefs if required, but in phar-
macy is generally left of the confiltence of thick palte.
This extraét has a ftrong, fomewhat faccharine, and agree-
able {mell; to the talte it is intenfely bitter and attringent ;
it readily diffufes in water, but a part only is diflolved. The
extraéi, of courfe, contains all the foluble parts of the bak
biended together, partly in chemical union and partly in fim-
ple mixture ; and is, in faét, an extremely compound mafs.
Its analyfis will be mentioned at the conclufion of this ar-
ticle. The directions given for preparing this extraét in the
pharmacopezias are extremely fimple and very fimilar. -The
cinchona is boiled with ten or twelve times its weight of
water for an hour or two, and when the firft decoétion is
poured off, the bark may be again boiled with a freth por-
tion of water. The united decoétions are then evaporated
at a boiling heat till they begin to be thick, aud the drying
to a due confiltence is then to be performed over a water-
bath or in a ftoved room. The water-bath, however, is, in
faét, {eldom ufed, being very tedious ; but the whole is per-
formed by moft of the druggifts in this town in a Gingle
pan overa naked fire, which is kept very flack towards the
end, and the extrac conftantly ftirred to avoid burning.
The extra€t of bark is made in London only from the
pale bark. ‘The yellow bark does, indeed, furnifh a confi-
derable portion of extraét, but the parts are apt to feparate
{fpontaneoufly, and it has not that uniform pitchy confittence
whichthe commonextraéthas. Thequantity yielded by differ-
ent barks varies extremely, nor does there appear any other
criterion to judge of the goodnefs of any fample of cinchona
for this purpole, except that nice and minute obfervation
of colour, fracture, and the like, which is acquired by lon
and extenfive praGtice. It is reckoned a very good bark
that yields a fourth of its weight of extract. :
The cinchona is exhibited in medicine in a variety of
forms. The fimple powder is by far the moft efficacions, and,
in fa&, is the only form that can be depended on for the
cure of intermittents, and many other difeafes that require
the vigorous ufe of this medicine. In London, the bark
is powdered in Jarge quantities in mills, where it is neduced
to a moft impalpable duft. Some difficulty is found in
bringing it entirely to this ftate, on account of the different
degrees of brittlenefs of the feveral parts of the bark, fo
that much of it would be loft in fine duit before the whole
was powdered unlefs fome addition be madeinthe mill. To
prevent this, fome add a {mall quantity of oil of almonds.
This operation alfo gives the opportunity of practiliag many
frauds and adulcerations; one of the commoneit of which is
to mix in with the frefh bark that which has already ferved
for the purpofes of decoétion and tinGure, and therefore has
lott molt of its virtve, though not the whole. psaie
The dofe of the powder, when good and genuine, is
from twenty to fixty grains. ‘lhe great inconvenience at-
tending the powder is, the extreme difgult which it js apt
to give to fick perfons, partly from the tafte, which is nau-
fcous, and partly from the mere bulk and quantity of im-
palpable powder which mult be got down, [his difgult
too does not always go off, but as often increafes by ule.
Befides this inconvenience, the cinchona in any form ts lia-
ble to produce coftivenefs, and as the powder of bark itfelf
is little folub!e in the ttomach, the whole alimentary canal
is apt to be loaded and oppreffed with the accumulated dofes
of the powder, fo that after a long courfe of this medicine,
it is often difcharged from the bowels unaltered, and may be
cleaily -
CINCHONA.
clearly detefted in the ftools. An occafional purgative,
therefore, is particularly neceffary in a long courfe of this
medicine.
The difagreeable tafte and feel of bark in the mouth may
be confiderably checked and correGted by various ways. A
cup of coffee with cream and fugar will bear the addition of
a dofe of the powder, with very little alteration in the tafte,
if taken immediately on mixture. Red wine is often ufed
as a vehicle, or water with a {mall quantity of brandy or
warm tinéture. Liquorice is generally thought to cover
the tafte molt effectually ; or elfe the powder may be made
into a {tiff cletuary with a little fyrup, and alump of this,
equal to the required dofe, may be wrapped up in wafer
paper and fwallowed.
Tn the liquid form the decoétion is the moft commonly
ufed, and by far thebeit. The London College direé& that
one ounce of coarfely powdered bark be boiled with a pint
and three ounces of water for ten minutes only, in acovered
veffel. The deco&tion, which is clear when hot, fhould be
flizhtly {trained before it cools; and whenever it is ufed. it
fhould be fhaken, that the fediment, which fubfides when
cold, be again mixed with the clear liquor. The decoétion
is undoubtedly the beft fubftitute for the entire powder, if
it is taken ia large quantity. The ufual dofe is about two
or three ounces, repeated a few times in the day, but it
may be takea much more liberally without inconvenience.
To increafe its ftrength, many practitioners add fome of the
powder to it, which by fhaking will remain fufpended in it
-long enough for the purpofe.
The cold infufion of bark, made by macerating, in a mode-
rate heat, one part of the bark with eight or ten of water
for five or fix hours, is alfo of confiderable fervice.
We find in different pharmacopceias an abundance of for-
mul for the tinéture of bark, all of which have nearly the
fame intention. ‘Though proof fpirit extra€ts much of the
virtue of the cinchona, no quantity of tinéture that could
be borne without intoxication, could be depended on in dif-
eafes where the cinchona itfelf was the proper remedy.
The tinture therefore is only an auxiliary medicine, and
is principally employed as a ftomachic or mixed with the de-
¢oction. Two tinctures are in common ufe: the fimple
tinéture, made merely with the bark and proof {pirit; and
the compound tin@iure (firf brought into ufe by Dr. Hux-
ham), in which the cinchona is combined with ferpentaria
and orange-peel. /
When the extra& of cinchona was firft introduced, very
fanguine expectations were entertained of its fuperior utility.
As the inconveniences attending the entire powder were its
bulk and the quantity of woody and apparently inert matter
which it contained, it was expected that by exhaullting the
bark of its foluble part, and exhibiting that portion in the
condenfed form of extrac, every poflible advantage would
be combined. But experience has not confirmed thefe ex-
pectations, at leaft by no means to the full extent; for,
whatever may be the caufe, it is not found that dofes of
ten grains of the extract are generally equivalent to forty or
fifty of the powder, nor is it often that patients who reject
the powder can bear the other in fufficient quantity. Still,
however, the extraét.is a valuable medicine, but it is chiefly
employed in the form of pills as a ftomachic, and in chronic
diforders, and feldom as a fubititute for the ‘powder in the
more important cafes.
A very pure extra& has long been known in pharmacy,
and invented by the count la Garaye, and called after his
name, or fometimes efential falt of bark. The inventor firlt
’ conceived the idea of preparing the fuppofed efenfial or finer
part of the fcluble matter of the cinchona as well as of
Vout. VIII.
other fubftances by infufion in cold water, aflifted by violent
and long continued agitation, ‘This was peformed by La
Garaye in {mall mills, and with a complicated apparatus,
which, however, is not neceflary. ‘This kind of extract is
fimply prepared by adding cold water to powdered bark,
macerating them for two days with frequent ftirring, and
then evaporating very flowly the infufion, which is ftrongly
impregnated with the active and fenfible properties of the cin-
chona. ‘The extra thus prepared, if the evaporation be
well managed, has a fine granular appearance, ftrongly re-
fembling a falt, and was taken for one by the inventor. It
is {earcely foluble again in cold water, probably owing to the
aGtion of the air during the long evaporation, but it has not
been examined in a fatisfa@tory way. This preparation is te-
dious and expenfive, and though it is extolled by fome
writers, it by no means deferves the high character given to
it by the inventor, nor does it appear at all preferable as a
medicine to the common extract.
A very valuable analyfis has been made by Fourcroy’ of
one {pecics of the cinchona from St. Domingo, (publifhed
in the 8th and gth vol. of the Annales de Chimie,) which
contains feveral new faéts on the nature of the extra& of
cinchona, and which, therefore, may be with propriety in-
troduced here. Some of the obfervations will, doubtlefs, apply
to all the vegetable barks and to vegetable extract in general.
The operations of this excellent chemift on the cinchona, as
faras relate to extraét, are the following: A pound (160z.)
of the cinchona reduced to powder was boiled twelve times
fucceflively for a quarter of an hour, in about 26lbs. of
water each time. ‘The firft deco€tion was a deep brown
red, very bitter, and ftrongly frothed in boiling. It yielded
by evaporation in a gentle heat five ounces feven grains of
a brown dry extraé&t. The fecond deco&tion was much lefs
coloured, and gave only nine gros (of 72 grs. each) of ex-
tra&. The third gave only two grains of extra. The
tafte and other fenfible qualitics of the feveral decoétions
alfo gradually diminifhed to the twelfth, which was little elfe
than pure water. The entire quantity of extraét obtained
was y oz. 56 grains. A fecond feries of decoétions was
then made with the fame quantities, and precifely in the
fame way, except that each decoétion was allowed to cool
before evaporation, during which the fix firft liquors de-
pofited in decreafing quantities a quantity of black tenacious
extract, apparently infoluble in cold water. The fuper-
natant liquors were then united, aud the whole was evaporated
to 2]bs., and the depofit on cooling was added to the
other extraéts, which altogether amounted to two ounces
lefs than the quantity obtained in the former way, which
two ounces, therefore, were eftimated to be the quantity of
extrat retained in the 2lbs. of clear decoétion after cooling.
This laft, on mixture with alcohol, depofited about an ounce
of a whitith cohefive’ mafs, evidently different from the black
extraG, and which was proved to be apretty pure mucilage.
The black extra& was then treated with boiling alcohol, by
which all was diffolved, except about 4th, that remained
behind in the form of a red powder. This laft was digefted
in cold water, which diffolved out of it a third of its weight
of mucilage, fimilar to that precipitated on adding alcohol
to the decoGion, and the remainder was, as before, a fine
red powder infoluble in cold water, and in alchol hot or
cold. The alcoholic folution was then let to ftaudin the air
for fome days, when it depofited a {mall quantity of brilliant
cryftalline grains. It was then mixed with water, and in
fome hours a number of white flocculi feparated. Liattly,
the alcohol and water were totally evaporated, and there re-
mained a large quantity of extra&t. By repeating this mode
of analyfis with the entire extra&t obtained by the firlt
i procefs,
CINCHONA.
procefs, a pound of cinchona was found to yield the follow-
ing foluble matter:
oz. gros, grains.
OF mucilage - - - Toa °
Cryftalline grains feparated from the
folution ~ = : oO aGY °
Flocculi feparated by adding water to
the folution - - - Oey ea
Red powder infoluble in alcohol = - (oye °
Extra& left at the laft operation = - 7 One aa
Lofs - - - - Gear fe)
Total of extra& obtained - - CS Pea oM A at)
OF thefe five conftituent parts of the entire extra&t, or
foluble part of the cinchona, the author principally attends
to the two latter, namely, the red powder, and the extract
left behind after all the other fubfances have been feparated
from it. With regard to the three firlt, the mucilage very
clofely refembled the common gum-mucilages; the cry (talline
grains were infoluble in alcohol, and in cold water, but yielded
to a large quantity of boiling water, were d:ffolved in alkalies,
and gave fome ammonia by diftillation; and the flocculi re-
fembled the gluten of wheat.
The red powder the author clearly fhews to be different
from relin or any of the fuppofed immediate principles of
vegetables. It 1s infoluble beth in water and alcohol, but
“jt unites with alkalies immediately and infeparably, and,
therefore, effentially differs from the refins. Its colour is
extremely durable, and little affe&ted by oxymuriatic acid.
‘The true nature of this relin was attempted to be explained
by experiments on the extract.
This extraét is, obvioufly from its quantity and its fen-
fible properties, the mott important part of the foluble por-
tion of the cinchona. When quite dry, it is hard, fhining,
and brittle, black, or deep brown, and intenfely bitter. It
is totally and permanently foluble in hot alcohol, infoluble
in cold water, but foluble in boiling water ; from which,
however, the greater part feparates on cooling, unlefs very
largely diluted.
A {mall portion of the extraét was diffolved in a large
quantity ef water and oxymuriatic acid pas paffed through.
The firft effe&t of the acid was to give the folution a clear
red colour, and to feparate a red flocculent powder. More
of the gas deprived the liquor of colour, and much lighten-
ed that of the powder. After feparating all the red pow-
der, which amounted to 3th of the extract originally em-
ployed, the liquor (now faturated with the acid gas), was
evaporated and left a black acerb-acid mafs.
The extraét, therefore, appears, by this experiment, to be
compofed of two parts; the one, capable of being converted
by the oxymuriatic acid into this red powder, and the other
not. The red powder thus produced artificially was found
to refemble exactly that vaturally contained in the entire
extra, and which appears to be a conitituent part of the
cinchona. Hence the author concludes, that the red
powder confilts of extrac altered by oxygenation, the
oxygen in the one café of its production being abforbed
from the atmofphere by the decotion, during its long eva-
poration, and in the other, furnifhed by the oxymuriatic
acid. In confequence of this hypothefis, he adds, that the
quantity of this red powder is in direét proportion to the
time of expofure to the atmofphere ; and as it may be in-
ferred to be very inert as a medicine, from its fparing folu-
bility, hence the praétical direction of preparing the decoc-
tion of bark by a hatty boiling, and in a covered veffel.
Thefe experiments, howcver, by no means warrant the
inference that the red powder is nothing but fuper-oxy-
wenated extract, even admitting that the fubftance formed
by the oxymuriatic acid is effentially the fame as that fe-
parated {pontaneoufly by expofure to air. The inquiries
of other chemilts have fhewn that this fubftance contains
lime in one form or other, fince, when calcined, it leaves
chiefly carbonat of lime; and alfo, if it is nothing but oxy-
genated extra, it is not eafy to affign a valid reafon why
only a part of any given portion of extract fhould be able
to be thus changed.
Thefe are the chief experiments relating to the fubje& of
extra€t contained in this elaborate inquiry; and though
they are ingenious, and apparently accurate, they certainly
fhew that very much remains to be done in this part of
chemical analyfis, and that the common diftin@ion of thefe
fubttances into refin, gum, gum-refin, &c. is extremely im-
perfect and unfatisfa€tory ; though the deficiency of reak
information on the nature of many of the moft important
articles of the vegerable Materia Medica leaves little to the
compiler but to repeat the feanty matter of faét fuch as he
finds it.
The cinchona has been, and is conftantly employed in a
great variety of difeafes, which we fhall not attempt to
enumerate in this piace. The gereral operation of this
admirable drug is, to reftore and increafe the general health
and {trength, to improve the appetite, and promote all the
fur Gions of the body. This it effets in a gradual way, and
moftly without any fenfible operatiun, except that of
ftrengthening the pulfe. | Some inconveniences occafionally
occur, which either forbid its ufe, or require fome additions
to counteraét them. Sometimes it increafes the fymptoms
of general fever, beat, thirft, reftleffnefs, &c. and in this
cafe too, it often is rejeted by the flomach, after having
been taken for fomethours. Hence it can feldom be borne,
and often does mifchief in acute fever; fo that in curme
intermittents by its means it muft be employed only in the
perfect intervals between the paroxyfms. Its effe&ts on the
bowels are various and oppofite. Often it purges, and as
often it brings on a coltive itate, each of which requires the
proper correctives.
Befides the original ufe of the bark in intermittent and
remittent fevers, it is fearcely lefs extenfively or certainly
ufeful as an auxiliary to furgery, in fupporting and improv-
ing the vis vite under extenfive bodily injuries, large ulcera-
tions, compound fra¢tures, and cafes where gangrene is
threatened, or aétually eftablifhed. In ferophulous cafes
alfo, and indurated and ulcerated glands, it has often a molt
happy effe& in bringing on healthy fuppuration and granus
lation of the fore.
The cinchona is fcarcely ever emptoyed externally, ex-
cept as a ufeful aftringent gargle. ;
CINCINATO, Romuto, in Biography, a Florentine
painter, who was born early in the 16th century, and is be-
licved to have been the difciple of F. Salviati. He was one
of the principal artifts employed by Philip IL. in the Efen-
rial, where, inthe great cloilter, he painted many excellent
frefcos; in the church likewife are feveral of his pi€tures,
‘+ particularly one of San Geronimo reading, and ano-
ther of the fame faint di€tating to his difciples; and
in the choir two frefco paintings, taken from paflages in the
life of San Lorenzo.”” Many works of his exilt at Guada-
laxara, in the palace of the Duque del Infantado, a grandee
of high family. The molt celebrated of his piftures is a Cir-e
cumcifion, in the church of the Jefuits at Cuenca, where he
fucceeded fo admirably in the fore-fhortening of one of the
figures, which is reprefented with its back turned towards
the {pe€tator, that he is reported to have declared that he —
prized”
. CIN
prized one limb of this figure more than all his works in the
Efcurial. He died at an advanced age, univerfally lament-
ed, inthe year 1600. Cumberland. Lanai, Steria Pitto-
rica. Orlandi.
Crincinatro, Dieco pe Romuto, was the fonand fcho-
Jar of the preceding; he entered into the fervice of Don
Fernando Enriquez de Ribera, third duke of Alcala, and
went with him to Rome, upon his being appointed ambaifla-
dor for the purpofe of doing homage from Philip IV. to
pope Urban VIII. He painted the portrait of his holinefs
three feveral times, with fuch fuccefs, that, belides many
handfome prefents heaped upon him, he received the hondur
of knighthood from the hand of cardinal Trexo Parriagua,
a Spaniard. This happened in the year 1625, and in the
year following he died, and was buried in the church of San
Lorenzo, at Rome. He left a brother named Francefco,
upon whom, at the requett of Philip IV. the pope conferred
the honour of krishthood, after the death of his brother.
Francefco died at Rome, in the year 1636, Cumberland.
Tanzi, Storia Pittorica.
CINCINNATI, in Geography, a pleafant and flourifhing
town in the United States of America, in the {tate of Ohio,
and county of Hamiton, feated on the Ohio river, and com-
manding a picturefque view of the furrounding country. It
is oppofite tothe mouth of Licking river, and the little
town of Newport, which is built at the point formed by the
junGion of that river with the Ohio. ‘The fettlement com-
menced in 1789, and the town was incorporated in 1802,
It contains upwards of 300 houfes, and has a printing-prefs
which iffues a weekly paper. Cincinnati was for feveral
years the feat of government for the north-weftern terri-
tory, and it is in the line of communication with the
chain of fortsthat extend from fort Wafhington, near the
upper end of the town, towards the weft. It lies fix miles
below Columbia, and this as well as the other place are fitu-
ated between Great and Little Miami rivers. N. lat. 39°.
5) 54”. W. long. 85° 44’. -
Cincinnati, Society of, a fociety formed in the United
States of America towards the clofe of the year 1783, by the
officers of the army, juft before the difbanding of it ; fo called
after the Roman diGator, Cincinnatus, and intended to per-
petuate the memory of the revolution, the mutual friendthip,
and the union of the ftates; and alfo to raife a fund for the
relief of poor widows and orphans whofe hufbands and fa-
thers had failen during the war, and for their defcendants.
In O&tober 1753 general Wafhington fub{cribed himfelf pre-
fident of this order. The general fociety, which was to
meet at leaft once in three years, was divided into ftate-foci-
eties, which were to meet annually on the 4th of July, the
anniverfary of American independence. In order to raife a
fund for the benevolent purpofes of the fociety, each mem-
ber was to fubfcribe one morth’s pay to the general trea-
fury, and the fund was to be augmented by ‘private dona-
tions. The intereft only of the money thus raifed was to be
expended in acts of charity. The members of the inititu-
tion were to be diftinguifhed by wearing a medal, emblema-
tical of the defign of the fociety. The device was a bald
eagle of gold, andyt was fufpended by a deep blue ribband
edged with white, defcriptive of the union of America and
France. ‘The emblems borne on the breaft of the eagle
were the following: the principal figure Cincinnatus, and
three fenators prefenting him with a {word and other mili-
tary enfigns; on a field in the back ground his wife ftanding
at the door of the cottage, and near it a plough and other
implements-of hufbandry ; round the whole, ‘* Omnia reli-
quit fervare rempublicam.’? On thereverfe, the fun rifing,
acity with open gates, and veffels entering the port; fame
CIN
crowning Cincinnatus with a wreath, infcribed “ virtutis pre-
mium ;”? below, hands joining, fupporting a heart, with a
motto ‘* efto perpetua ;” round the whole, ‘* Societas Cincin-
natorum inftituta, A.D.1783.”? Thehonours and advantages
of this fociety were to be hereditary in the line of the eldett
male heirs, and in default of male iffue, in that of the cotla-
teral male heirs. Honorary members were to be admitted,
but without the hereditary advantages of the fociety, and
provided their number fhould never exceed the ratio of one
to four of the officers or their defcendants. The oftenfible
views of this fociety, however honourable and praife-worthy,
could not fereen it from popular jealoufy ; and it was alleg-
ed by an able writer, that the principles on which the fociety
was formed would, in procefs of time, introduce and eftablith
an order of nobility in the country, which would be repug-
nant to the genius of the republican governments of Ame-
rica, and dangerous toliberty. Tarly in the year 1784 the
provinces of Pennfylvania and Maffachufetts declared the in-
flitution unjuflifiable, and their refolution to difcountenance
it. ‘Lhe province of Rhode Ifland proceeded fo far as to an-
nul the privileges of all the fubjeGs of its ftate who “fhould
be members of this fociety, and to declare them incapable of
any office under government. In confequence of this alarm,
the Cincinnati, in their firft general meeting convened at
Philadelphia, May 3, 1784, thought proper to new model
the inflitution of their fociety. They profefled to withdraw
the claim of hereditary honour, to difclaim all interference
with political fubjeéts, and to place their funds under the
immediate cognizance of the feveral legiflatures, through the
medium of a general charter. Indeed they relinquifhed with-
out hefitation every thing in their new conttitution, except
theirperfonal friendthips, of which they could not be divefted,
and the aéts of beneficence which it was their intention
fhould flow from them. With thefe profeflions, however,
they retained their funds, their general meetings, and their
ribbands.
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintivs, in Biography, an il-
luftrious Roman, who flourifhed towards the clofe of the
gd century from the building of the city. Though his
means were fo fmall as to induce him to cultivate a {mall
farm with his own hands, yet he was of a patrician family.
In the year 292, when the city was ina very dilturbed {tate on
, account of the diffentions between the tribunes and the fenate,
Cincinnatus was created conful. He had for fome time re-
linguifhed all views of ambition, and would gladly have been
excufed entering upon public life. He was naturally at-
tached to the patrician party, and owing to the banifhment
of his fon Cafo for fupporting the caufe of the fenate, he
was {till lefs inclined to keep terms with the plebeians. He
reproached the fenators for their pufillanimity, and the tri-
bunes of the people for their infolence, and prevented the
bringing forward any motion for the ‘T'erentian law in favour
of the people. He had been eleéed to his office to coms
plete the year only of the conful Valerius Poplicola, who
had been flain in recovering the capitol from Herdonius, an
ambitious Sabine, that had rendered himfelf popular by op-
poling the laws, and by promifing freedom to the flaves, and
an ample participation of the fpoils of the rich to thofe
in the lower ranks of life. When his time of ferving the of-
fice of conful was nearly expired, the fenators propofed to
re-ele&t him for another year, which he peremptorily refufed,
as being coutrary to their own refolution again{t the conti-
nuation of magiftracies to the fame perfon. He had not,
however, long retired from public concerns when the city
became threatened with imminent dangers from an invading
army of the A!qui: Cincinnatus was unanimoufly created
diGator. At that time he was diligently cultivating a {mall
: Yeo farna
CIN
farm acrofs the Tiber. He was found by the perfons de-
puted from the fenate engaged in ruftic labour; and, after
mutual falutations, he was defired to put on his ¢oga to hear
the commands of the fenate. His wife Racilia quickly
brought the garment from their cottage, and as foon as he
was dreffed in it, they faluted him diftator, and at the fame
time explained to him the nature of the public danger. A
veffel was already prepared for his paffage, and he was re-
ceived on the oppofite bank with every token of refpe& and
deference, Cincinnatus headed the Roman army, and, af-
ter a defperate engagement, the Aqui were obliged tofubmit
to atreaty propofed by the conquerer, and to give up their
principal officers, arms, and baggage. Cincinnatus divided
the {poils among his foldiers, and returned triumphant to
Rome, where he was received as the faviour of the tate.
Yhe fenate would gladly have enriched him, but he de-
clined their offers: he retained his diétatorial authority only
till the principal witnefs again{t his fon had been convicted
of falfe teftimony, and Cfo recalled, and then abdizated on
the fixteenth day the ftipreme dignity to which he had been
appointed for fix months, having in that fhort time refcued a
Roman army from deftru&ion, and defeated a powerful
enemy. ‘* He returned,” fays a good hiftorian, “* a trium-
phal hufbandman, having finifhed a war within fifteen days,
as if he had been in hbafte to 'refume his interrupted la-
bours.”? Twenty years after this Cincinnatus was again
made diGator, and though then eighty years of age, this
veteran poffefled all the mtrepidity and courage of youth.
He was now cailed upon to fupprefs a confpiracy, at the
head of which was Spurius Mzlius, a rich knight, who had
monopolized the corn of Tufcany, and by his Jiberality to
the idle and the poor had feduced a number of partizans to
his caufe fufficient to endanger the fafety of the republic.
‘As foon as Cincinnatus had been appointed diétator, he or-
dered Melius to appear before him in the forum: the
knight, confcious of his guilt, and forefeeing the danger to
which he was now expofed, attempted to make his efcape,
when he was purfued by Ahala the matter of the horfe, and
killed on the fpot. The dictator applauded the deed, and
commanded the confpirator’s goods to be fold, his houfe to
be demolifhed, and his wealth to be diftributed among the
eople. Cincinnatus did not long furvive the glory of this
aGtion: he died highly refpeéted by his fellow-citizens, and
with the confcioufnefs of having been eminently ufeful to
the {tate of which he had fo long been a member.
Cincinnatus, in Geography, the moft fouth-eaflerly of
the military townfhips in the tate of New York, in Ame-
rica. It has on the weft Virgil, and Salem in Herkamer
county on the eaft, and lies on two branches of Tioughnioga
river, a north-weftern branch of the Chenango. The center
of the town lies 53 miles S.W. by W. of Coaperftown, and
39 S.E. by 3S. of the S.E. end of Salt Lake. N. lat. 42°
‘ f
gol. =
_ CINCIUS Atimentus, Lucius, in Biography, an
early Roman hiftorian and antiquary, who flourifhed during
the fecond Punic war. He isnow known only from refer-
ences to his works by other celebrated writers. Cincius is
quoted by Livy as of great authority ; and from the works.
of Dionyfius Halicarnaffus, it appeats that he wrote’a hif-
tory of the wars of Hannibal in the Greek language.
Aulus Gellius has referred to his treatife on military affairs.
Macrobius refers to a work which he wrote on the Fatti ;
and Feftus {peaks of feveral books of his on fubjeéts con-
nected with Roman antiquities. From thefe references,
there can be no doubt that Cincius was an author, whofe
works, had they come down to us, would have done honour
“CIN .
to the age in which he lived, and have been a valuable addi-
tion to our prefent literary treafures.
CINCLUS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Trinca, whieh
fee; the ftint or-ox-eye of Ray and Willughby, the leaft:
fnipe of Ray and Sloane, the wag-tail of Brown, the fan- |
derling of Albinus, and the purre of Pennant and Latham,
Cincius is alfo a fpecies of Srurnus, (which fee),
black with a white breaft; the water-ouzel or water-crake’
of Ray, Willughby, Pennant, and Latham.
Cincrius tertics. See Grarouo. ( ;
CINCTURE, in Architedure, the orlo or ring at the
top and bottom of acolumn, which feparates the fhaft at ene
end from the bafe, and at the other from the capital. The
upper cinéture is likewife called collarino; (fee Plate XVI.
of Architedure). Cin@ture is alfo ufed to denote the aftra-
gals or other mouldings, which are in fome inftances applied
to cenceal the joints in the fhaft of a column, as in the balk
daquin of St. Peter’s, and at the Val-de Grace at Paris.
CINCTUS, in Ancient Military Language. "This appel-
lation was given to a Roman foldier rated or cefled as bound
to carry arms and fight for his country. At the fame time,
the cingulum (girdle or belt) was given to him. And the
taking of it from him was regarded as a load of ignominy
and difgrace,
CINDIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, placed
by Ptolemy on this fide the Ganges.
Cinpia, a town of Caria, in the vicinity of Jaffus and
Bargilia.
CINDRAMORUM, an epifcopal town of Afia Minor,
in Caria.
CINEFACTION. See Cineration.
CINEGUILLA, in Geograph , a town of North Ame-
rica in New Mexico, in the province of Sonora; N. lat.
29° 48’, W. long. 111° 30’. Whilft the Spaniards were
penetrating thefe countries during a war of three years, which
terminated in 1771, by the final fubmiffion of the natives,
they entered a plain at this place, 14 leagues in extent, in
which they found gold in grains, at the depth of only 16
inches, of fuch a fize, that fome of them weighed 9 marks,
and in fuch quantities, that in a fhort time, with a few la-
bourers, they colleéted 1000 marks of gold in grains, even
without taking time to wath the earth that had been dug,
which appeared to be fo rich, that perfons of {kill computed
that it might yield what would be equal in value to a million
of pefos. Before the end of the year 1774, more than 2000
perfons were fettled at Cineguiila, under the government of
roper magiftrates, and the in{petion of feveral ecelefiaftics.
CINERARIA, in Botany, (fo called from the cinereous
or afh-coloured appearance of many of its fpecies), Linn,
gen.957- Schreb. 1294. “Juff. 181. “Vent. 2541. Gert.
1021. Clafs and order, /yngenefia polygamia fuperflua. - Nat.
ord. Compofite difcoidee, Linn. Carymbifere, Juil.
Gen. Ch. Cal. common fimple, many-leaved ; leaves
nearly of equal length. Cor. compound; hermaphrodite,
florets in the difk, tubular, five-cleft, regular; femi-florets
female, ligulate, forming the ray when prefent. Stam. in the
hermaphrodite ; filaments filiform, fhort ; anthers united in
a hollow cylinder, five-cleft at the top. Pi/. im the hermae.
phrodite, germ oblong; ftyle filiform, the length of the
ftamens ; ftigmas two, almoft ere& ; females, germ oblong 5.
ftyle filiform, fhort ; ftigmas two, oblong, bluntifh, revo=
lute: Peric. the permanent calyx. Seeds linear, quad-
rangular ; down generally capillary, copious. Rec. naked,
flattifh.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, many-leaved, equal ; down ge-
nera!ly fimple, receptacle naked.. M4
° CINERARIA.
In a few fpecies there are two or three {mall f{cales at the
bafe of the calyx, by which they fhew an approximation to
fenecio, and feem to intimate that there is no natural line of
diftinétion between the genera. Gertner afferts, that the
fphacelated tips of the calyx-feales in fenecio do not form a
fufficient generic difference. He has therefore founded the
diftin@tiion between that genus and cineraria on the form of
the leaves, retaining in his genus cineraria only thofe that
have undivided leaves, and removing all that have p:nnatifd
ones to his jacobza, part of the fenecio of Linneus. But
we prefume that no found botanift will ever agree with him
in admitting any thing relative to the leaves into the effential
character of a genus.
* Flowers without a ray.
Sp. 1. C. nivea, Willd. 1. (Doria nivea, Thunb. Prod.
I55. nov. gen. p.163.) * Leaves linear, tomentous ;
flower generally folitary, terminal; ftem fhrubby.”? Root
perennial. FYowers peduncled. A native of the Cape of
Good Hope. 2. C. undulata, Willd. 2. (Doria undulata,
Thunberg. C. fpathulata, Lam.?) ‘ Root-leaves ellipti-
eal, petioled, yndulated, fmooth ; flower folitary, terminal.’
Rootannual, fibrous. Root leaves numerous, curled, revolute
at the edges, ereét, a finger’s length ; petioles longer than
the leaf, linear, ftriated, fomewhat villous. Stem a foot and
a half high, folitary, femetimes two, cylindrical, feabrous,
fimple, ere&t. 3. C. alata, Linn. jun. Suppl. 374. Mart.
19. (Doria alata, Thunb.) ‘ Root perennial; ftem her-
baceous ; leaves inverfely egg-fhaped ; flowers in corymbs.”’
Stem two feet high, upright, a little branched, angular, with
an even furface. Leaves quite entire, with an even furface.
Corymbs at the top of the ftem, leaflefs ; calyx fix-cleft,
egg-fhaped, with an even furface ; florets about fixteen;
fome of them in the margin female, naked. A native of the
Cape of Good Hope. 4. C. fpinulo/a, Lam. 19. ‘* Leaves
embracing the ftem, fomewhat fpatule-fhaped, {pinous-tooth-
ed at the edges, fmooth ; corymb panicled.’? Whole plant
fmooth, of a flightiy glaucous green colour. Stem a foot
high or more, herbaceous, full of pith, cylindrical, ftriated,
a little branched. Leaves alternate, ending in a fhort
point ; upper ones fmall, almoft lanceolate, entire. Flowers
yellow, fmall, numerous. A native of Africa, communi-
cated by ‘Sonnerat. 5. C. perfoliata, Linn. jun. Suppl.
375. Mart. 23. (Doria perfoliata, Thunb.) ‘ Leaves
egg-fhaped, embracing the ftem; peduncles one-flowered,
elongated.’? Whole plant glaucous, inclining to flefh co-
loured. A native ofthe Cape of Good Hope. 6. C. den-
ticulata, Linn. jun. Sup. 375. Mart. 22. (Doria denticu-
lata, Thunb.) <‘ Leaves lanceolate, f{mooth, toothed; flowers
panicled.”” Leaves almoft all radical, long; ftem-ones
fmall, chiefly at the ramifications, A native of the Cape.
4. C.ferrata, Willd. 6. (Doria ferrata, Thunb.) ‘* Leaves
inverfely egg-fhaped, oblong, ferrated, tomentous under-
neath ; ftem branched near the top; branches one-flowered.”?
A native of the Cape. 8. C. elongata, Mart. 20. Willd. 7.
€Doria elongata, Thunb.) ‘ Leaves fomewhat heart-
fhaped, bitten; peduncles very long, fubulate-fealy.”
Stem a foot and a half high; ereét, branched, reddifh, to-
mentous at the ramifications. Leaves aninch long, petioled,
diftant, unequally crenate, {mooth, rather obtule ; petioles
the length of the leaves, a little decurrent at the bafe.
Flowers yellow, peduncles terminal, one-flowered; calyx
quite fimple ; leaves from twelve to fourteen, lanceolate, the
length of the flower. A nativeofthe Cape. g. C. ero/a,
Willd. 8. (Doria erofa, Thunb.) ‘Stem herbaceous,
decumbent; leaves lyre-fhaped, toothed, flowers panicled.’’
Leaves {cabrous, pubefcent underneath, with minute promi-
nent papille; lateral lobes unequal, fimple; terminating
one larger, kidney-fhaped, three-lobed. A native of the
Cape, near Ribek caftel and Paardeburg. 10. C. fonchifo-
fia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Lam.6. Mart. 5. Willd.9. (Do-
nia fonchifolia, Thunb. Jacobea fonchi folio, Breyn. Prod.
3. tab. 21. fig. 1.) ‘* Leaves embracing the ftem, differ-
ing in fhape.”? Linn. Svem {mooth, leafy. Flowers termi-
nal, large. Lower leaves petioled, irregularly lobed ; upper
ones embracing the ftem, heart-fhaped, acute, entire. A
native of the Cape. 11. C. incifa, Willd. t0. (Doria in-
cifa, Thunb.) ‘* Leaves oblong, {mooth ; lower ones gafh-
toothed ; upper ones quite entire; flowers terminal.” A
native of the Cape. 12. C. pinnatifida, Willd. 11. (Doria
pinnatifida, Thunb.) ‘* Lezves pinnatifid, toothed, fmooth,
petioled ; flower folitary, terminal.’? Svem a foot high, her-
baceous, cylindrical, a little zig-zag, branched. Branches
alternate, filiform, elongated, leaflefs at the top. Leaves
three inches long, fcattered, ereét; lobes nearly oppofite,
egg-fhaped, fcarcely a line long. A native of the Cape.
13. C. bipinnata, Willd. 12. (Doria bipinnata, Thunb.)
“ Leaves twice-pinnated, linear, {mooth; flowers panicled.”
A native of the Cape.
** Flowers with a ray.
14. C. fiiformia, Willd. 13. Thunb. Prod. 154. ‘ Leaves
linear, {mooth ; flowers panicled.”? A native of the Cape.
15. C. cacaloides, Linn. jun. fup. 174. Mart. 21. Willd.
14. Thunb. Prod. 154. ‘ Leaves cylindrical, oblong,
flefhy ; paniele terminal, elongated, few-flowered; pe-
duncles alternate.”?. A native of the Cape. 16. C: lineata,
Linn. jun. fap. 375. Mart.24. Willd. 15. Thunb. Prod.
154. ‘* Leaves lanceolate, tomentous underneath, ferrated
at the tip, toothed at the bafe.’’ Stem afoot high and more,
herbaceous, erect, ftriated, hoary. Leaves alternate, nearly
feflile, three-nerved underneath. //owers with a yellow ray 3
panicie twice compound, ftiff, much longer than the leaves,
fomewhat faftigiate, hoary ; calyx {mall; down twice the
length of the calyx. A native of the Cape. 17. C. americana,
Linn. jun. fup. 373. Mart, 18. Willd. 16. ** Stem fhrubby ;
panicles axillary ; leaves alternate, petioled, broad-lanceolate,
ferrated, {mooth on the upper furface, hoary underneath.”
Whole plant clothed witha woolly epidermis, which has the
appearance of a thin membrane, and is eafily abraded. The
branches, petioles, peduncles, and under furface of the leaves,
all whitifh. Stems woody. Leaves veined, with the confift-
ence of evergreens. oqers with aray, apparently yellow ;
peduncles with fcaly braétes, rarely two-flowered ; calyx and
leaves fo equal as to feem only one, with a few irregular
feales at the bafe. eaves oblong, rather obtufe, flightiy
heart-fhaped at the-bafe, coriaceous. A native of North
America, obferved by Mutis. 18. C. repanda, Mart. 28.
Wilid. 17. Forft. Prod. n. 295. (Brachyglottis ; Forf. ch.
gen. tab. 46.) . ‘ Panicle twice compound, divaricated,
terminal; leaves oblong, repand-finvat¢, tomentous ‘un-
derneath ; ftem arboreous.”? Root perennial. A native of
New Zealand. 19. C. rotundifolia, Mart.27. Willd. 18.
Forft. Prod. n. 294. “ Panicles few-flowered ; leaves
petioled, roundifh, egg-fhaped, quite entire, tomentous un-
derneath ; ftem arboreous. Root perennial. A native of
New Zealand. 20. C. geifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart.
tr. Lam.1x. Willd. 19. (Othonna glifolia, Kniph. Ant.
5.n. 62. Jacobea Comm, Hort. 2. tab. 73. Seb. Muf. 1.
tab. 22. fig. 3.) ‘* Peduncles branched; leaves kidney-
fhaped, rather orbicular, fomewhat lobed, toothed, petioled,
Linn. Sp. ‘ Peduncles branched; leaves kiduey-fhaped,
narrowed, fomewhat lobed, pubefcent; petieles eared at
the top. @. ‘ Petioles unequally appendicled, Lam. Ja-
cobea, Pluk. Mart. tab. 421. fig. 4. Root perennial. Stem
a foot high, or more, much branched, cylindrical, a
I ¢
-CINERARIA. .
ed witha cottony down. Leaves green on the upper fur-
face, hoaty underneath. . Flowers yellow. The variety
£ is larger, and its petioles furnifhed with more remarkable
appendicies. A native of Africa. 21. C. aurita, Willd.
20. L’Herit. fert. ang. ‘* Flowers in corymbs; leaves
heart -fhaped, fomewhat angular, tomentous underneath ;
petioles with two ears at the bafe.”” Root perennial. Flowers
purple. 22. C. cruen/a, Mart. 35. Willd. 21. L’Henit.
fert. ang. 26. Hort. Kew. 3. p. 221.. Bot. Mag. 406.
* Flowers in corymbs; leaves heart-fhaped, angularly tooth-
ed, purplifh underneath ; petiol-s winged, eared at the bafe.”’
Root perenuial. Stem herbaceous, two or three feet high.
Flowers purple. A native of the Canary Iflands, introduc-
edjinjt777 by Maffon. 23. C. cymbalarifolia, Linn. Ameen.
Acad. 6. p. 106. Marc. 2. Lam. 2. “ Leaves lyre-
fhaped ; the end one kidney-fhaped, flightly toothed ; up-
per {tem ores embracing the ftem, lobed, quite entire.’
Root afolid bulb. Stem herbaceous, fimple, with an even
furface. Flowers with a purple ray, peduncled, nomerous.
There is a variety with fimple trifid leaves, and the lobes
_trifid. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 24. C. an-
gulofa, Lam. 2. (Atter Africanus minimus monanthus lu-
teus, Rai. Supp. 16.) “ Peduncles fimple ; leaves roundifh-
angular, petioled; upper ones fomewhat lyrate.”? Root
half an inch long, flender, furnifhed with fibres. Stem from
four to fix inches high, herbaceous, flender, {mooth, branch-
ed. Leaves {mall, fmooth; petioles almoft capillary, more
than aninchlong. Flowers yellow ; peduncles long, fimp e,
one-flowered ; calyx a little pubefcent. A native of the
Cape, communicated by Sonnerat to La Marck, who afferts,
that it is very diftin@ from C. cymbalarifolia, as defcribed
by Linneus in Ameaitates Academice. 25. C. lobata,
Mart. 36. Willd. 23. L’Herit. fert. ang. 26. ‘* Flowers
fomewhat in corymbs; leaves roundifh, with many lobes,
f{mooth ; petioles eared at the bafe; calyxes with a few
{cales at the bafe.”? Raofperennial. A mative of the Cape,
obferved by Maffon. 26. C. multiflora, Willd. 24. L’ Herit.
fert.ang. 26. ‘* Flowers in cymes; leaves cordate-ovate,
tomentous underneath; petioles half-eared. A native of
hulls in the Canary iflands.’’ Root perennial. 27. C. tuffila-
ginis, Willd. 25. L?Herit. fert. ang. 26. ‘* Flowers
loofely panicled; leaves kidney-heart-fhaped, with many
angles, tomentous underneath ; petioles eared at the bafe.”’
Root annual. A native of Tenerifle. 28. C. precox, Willd,
26. Cav. Ic. 3. tab. 244. ‘¢ Flowers in corymbs ; leaves
heart-fhaped, lobe-toothed, acuminate, {mooth; petioles
naked; item flefhy.”? Root perennial. Stem three or four
feet high, about the thicknefs of the human finger. Leaves
with five or fix deep teeth on each fide, fmooth on both
fides. J*Jowers yellow ; ray with five florets. A native of
Mexico. 29. C. malvefolia, Mart. 34. Willd. 27. L’Herit.
fert. ang. 26. © Flowers in cymes; leaves heart-fhaped,
angular, a little tomentous underneath; petioles fimple.”
A native of the Canary iflands, and St. Michael, one of the
Azores, introduced by Maffon in 1777. 30. C. glabra,
Mart. 39. Willd. 28. Swartz. Prod. 113. ‘¢ lowers
in corymbs; calyxes cylindrical; leaves oblong, acute, a
little toothed, nervelefs, fmooth on both fides, fomewhat
fucculent; ftem fhrubby.’? Root perennial. A native of
Jamaica. 31.C. difcolor, Mart. 40. Willd. 28. Swartz.
Prod. 113. ‘* Flowers in corymbs ; leaves oblong-lanceo-
late, acuminate, with a few {mall teeth, {mooth, {nowy-
tomentous underneath; ftem fhrubby.”? Root perennial.
A native of Jamaica. 32. C. coronata, Willd. 30. Thunb.
Prod. 154. ‘* Leaves inverfely egg-thaped, crenate, {mooth;
flowers terminal; ftem a little fhrubby.”? Root perennial.
A native of the Cape of Good Hope, 353. C. /idirica, Linn.
2
Sp. Pl. 3, Mart.3. Lam. 3. Willd. 31. (Jacobza orier-
talis, cacalie folio; Tourn., Cor. 57. Jacobeaftrum
Amm. ruth. tab. 24. Jacobzides uni-crenato folio; Vaill.
AG. 1720. p. 399. Solidago n. 139. Gmel. Sib. 2. p.
16g.) ‘* Raceme fimple; leaves heart-(haped, obtufe, finely
toothed, with an even furface ; ftem quite fimple, one-leated.””
Lion. ‘ Flowers in racemes; leaves heart-halbert-fhaped,
toothed, fmooth ; petioles dilated at the bafe, fheathing.’
Lam. oot perennial. Stem a foot and half high, or more,
{mooth. Leaves with a very fhort point. Flowers yellow,
in an upright raceme 3 braétes two at the bafe of the calyx,
oblong, the length of the calyx, withering. A native of
Siberia, the Levant, and the Pyrenees. 34. C. glauca, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 4. Lam. 5. Willd. 32. (Solidago, Gmel.
Sib. 2. tab. 74.) * Raceme fimple ; leaves {patulate-heart-
fhaped, quite entire, with an even furface ; tem quite fimple.””
Rost perennial. Stem from three to five feet high, hollow,
ftriated. Lcaves a little flefhy, glaucous; lower ones on
enlarged bordered petioles, which embrace the ftem at their
bate. Anative of Siberia. 35. C. palu/lris, Linn. 6. Mart.
10. Lam. 7. Willd. 33. Flor. dan. tab. 573. Eng.
bot. x51. (Conyza aquatia laciniata, Bauh. Pin. 266.
After paluftris, laciniatus, luteus; Tourn. «83. Othonna
paluftris; Linn. it. fcan. fl. fuecica, Solidago, Gmel. Sib.
2. tab. 72.) Marth. Fleawort. ‘ Flowers in corymbs ;
leaves broad-lanceolate, tooth-finuated ; {tem villous.”? Root
perennial, fibrous. Stems three feet high, ereé, fimple,
thick, angular, abundantly leafy. Leaves alternate, em-
bracing the ftem, nerved, pale, hairy, often pinnatifid-
laciniated, and undulated. //owers bright yellow, with
a lemon-coloured ray, numerous; corymbs terminal;
peduncles hairy ; calyx cylindrical, hairy, yellowith,
not {welling at the bafe; leaves membranous at the edge;
florets of the ray about the fame number as the leaves
of the calyx, and a little longer, fomewhat elliptical,
toothed at the tip, {preading ; of the difk numerous, Seeds
furrowed, {mooth ; down fcabrous, (filky, Lam.) Recep-
tacle pitted. All the hairs of the plant are tranfparent,
and finely jointed lke a conferva. A native of marfhy
ground in England and other parts of Europe, but rare ia
England. 36. C. cordifolia, Linn. jun. Sup. 373. Mart. 6.
Lam. 4. Willd..39. Jacq. Ault. tab. 176, 177. (C.
alpina, «, Linn. Sp. Pl. 7. Senecio, Hall. Helv. 63. Ja-
cobza alpina foliis fubrotundis ferratis, Bauh. Pin, 131.
Prod. 70. tab. 69.) Flowers in panicled corymbs ; leaves
heart -fhaped, unequally toothed, petioled, pubefcent under-
neath.” Lam. ‘* Panicle few-flowered; item fimple; all
the leaves petioled, heart-fhaped, doubly toothed ; petioles
fomewhat toothed at the bafe.’? Willd. Roof perennial.
Stem about a foot high, ftriated, leafy, fimple, or a little
branched near the top. /owers yellow ; peduncles branch-
ed, woolly, furnifhed with {mall fcales; calyx fhort, many-
Jeaved, villous, open. A native of Swifferland and Auitria.
Senecio alpinus of the younger Linnews, (C. alpina,
Wild. 40.) has been fuppofed to be C. alpina @ of his
father: but we think without foundation. The fphacelated
tips of the calyx-leaves would furely have prevented Lin-
nzus from making it a eineraria. 37. C. integrifolia, Mur-
ray, Syft. Veg. 765. Mart. 8. Willd. 37. Jacq. Fh
Autt. tab. 180. Eng. Bot. 152. (C. alpina, y. Lion. Sp.
Pl. 7. C. alpina, Lam. g. C. campettris, Willd. 34.
Retz. Prod. Flor. Scand. Ed. 2. n. 1027. Holt, Synop.
404. Jacobza montana lanuginofa anguttifolia non laciniata,
Bauh. Pin. 131. Tourn. 486. Jacobza pannonica, folio
non laciniato, Rai. Syn. 178. Bauh. Hift. vol. ii. 1056.)
&. C. alpina, Allion. Ped. vol. i. tab. 38. fig. 2. (C. au-
rantiaca, Willd, 35. Hoppe Ant. pl. 4.) sai ob-
Ong
.
CINERA RITA;
long, obfoletely toothed, villous; umbel fimple, involu-
cred”? Dr. Smith. ** Peduncles fimple, umbellate ; ftem-
leaves oblong. entire, f{effile; root ones egg-thaped, fome-
what toothed, leffening into the petiole; ftem fimple.’? Lam.
** Flowers umbellate ; item fimple; leaves tomentous ; root-
ones egg-fhaped, fomewhat crenulate; ftem ones lanceolate,
quite entire? Willd. Root perennial, fibrous. Whole
herb cloathed with a white dec'duous down. Stem about
two feet high, furrowed. Leaves fomewhat revolute $ root-
ones depreiled, larger, and more obtufe; ftem-ones alter-
nate, ereét, narrower, Lowers of a bright gold-colour,
in a terminal umbel with few flowers; each peduncle fur-
nifhed with a fhort lanceolate braéte at its bale ; calyx cy-
lindric-hemifpherical, fmooth; leaves woolly at the bafe,
with a membranous margin; florets of the ray numerous,
twice the length of the calyx, elliptic oblong, three-toothed
at the tip, {preading. Seeds with filky hairs; down fea-
brous. Stem in @ a foot high; all the leaves, efpecially
the flem-ones, larger, more naked on the upper farface ;
root-ones fometimes with broad teeth. A native of Eng-
land, Sweden, Auttria, France, and Siberia. 38. C. longi-
folia, Murray, Syft. Veg. p. 765. Mart. 9. Willd. 33.
Jacq. Flor. Ault. tab. 151. (C. alpina, 3. helenites, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 7. Othona, Sp. Pi. Ed. 1. Jacobea montana
polyanthos, Barr. Ic. 226.) ‘* Leaves with five obfolete
tecth; all oblong,” Mur. Flowers umbellate-corymbons ;
item fimple; leaves fomewhat toothed; root-ones [patula-
fhaped ; item-ones oblong-lanceolate. Willd. Root biennial.
It varies in having the leaves either quite entire, or tooth-
ed, fmooth or villous. A native of fubalpine woods in
Thuringia, Auftria, Italy, and France. The integrifolia
ef Murray and Willdenow, to which, however, the latter
attributes a perennial root, Jacquin’s tab. 17g, feems to be
only a variety of this fpecies, with the lower ftem-leaves,
as well as the root-one fpatula-fhaped ; whereas, in C. longi-
folia, ail the ftem-leaves are oblong lanceolate. on ey
crifpa, Liun. Supp. 376. Marc. 7. Willd. 38. Jacq.
Ault. tab. 178. “‘ Flowers umbellate-corymbous ; {tem
fimples leaves toothed ; lower ones {patulate heart-fhaped ;
with winged, finely toothed petioles; upper ones feffile,
lanceolate.” Wiild. aot perennial. Svem two feet high,
erect, furrowed. Leaves curled, and waved about the edge ;
root-ones heart-fhaped ; ilem-ones a little embracing the
item ; peduncles and calyxes villous. A native of Auttria.
40. C. aurea, “Linn. Sp. Pl. 8. Mart. 11. Lam. 8.
Wuld.41. ‘“ Flowers in corymbs; leaves lanceolate, fer-
rated, tomentous underneath.” Linn. Roof perennial.
Stem villous. Leaves flight, villous on the upper furface.
Flowers yellow, large, with an ample ray ; pedicels with a
few linear braétes. A native of Siberia. 41. C. Faponica,
Murray, Sy{t. Veg. 766. Mart. 26. 41. Willd. 42,
Thunb. jap. 317. ‘ Leaves {word-fhaped, toothed, to-
mentous; flowers terminal.’ Svem cylindrical, fimple,
erect, tomentofe. Leaves alternate, acute, Icflemed at both
ends, woolly, ere&t. Flowers yellow, folitary, or by threes ;
calyx woolly. Anativeof Japan. 42. C. maritima, Linn.
Sp. Pl.g. Mart. 12. Lam.10. Willd. 43. (Jacobea
maritima, Bauh. Pin. 431. our. 486.) ** Flowers pa-
nicled; leaves pinnatitid, tomentous; fegments finuated ;
ftem fhrubby.”? Linn. Root perennial. The whole
plant remarkable for a very white cottony down, which
covers the ftem, peduncles, calyxes, petioles, and the under
fide of the leaves. Svems feveral, two or three feet high,
hard, and fometimes continuing through the winter, but
not properly woody, cylindrical, leafy, branched. “Leaves
foft; lower ones petioled, egg-fhaped, flightly pinnatitid,
greenifh on the upper furface. Mowers yellow, in termi-
nal panicles, onthe item and branches; florets of the ray
revolute. A native of the fea-coalt of Languedoc and
Provence, Italy, and the Levant. It is one of the moit
{pecious of the genus, and merits cultivation on account of
its beauty. 43. C. bicolor, Willd. 44. ‘* Flowers in co-
rymbs ; calyxes greyifh, pubefcent ; leaves oblong, pinna-
tiiid at the bale, fhining, and {mooth above, downy under-
neath; fezments fomewhat toothed; tlem fhrubby.”? It
feems only a variety of the preceding [pecies, differing from
it in being lefs woolly. Deferibed by Willdenow t-om a
living plant, but probably the effet of cultivation, as its
native country is unknown, 44. C. canadenfis, Linn. Sp.
Pl. 10. Mart. 13. \Willd. 45. (Jacobea maritima, f. ci-
nerea latifolia, Bauh. Pin. 131.) ‘* Flowers panicled ;
leaves pinnatifid, fomewhat villous; fegments finuateds
ftem herbaceous.” Linneus {tates this to be the daughter
of C. maritima ; but differing in the leaves not being tomen«
tous, but only fomewhat villous, efpecially underneath ; in
the ray of the corolla being {preading, not revolute; in the
ftem being annual, not perennial ; and in the calyx being
flizhtly fphacelated at the tip, which itis not in C. maritima.
A native of Canada. 45. C. balfamita, Lam. 11. (Jaco-
bea orientalis, foliis oblongis non laciniatis incanis, Tourn.
Cor. 36.) “ Leaves petioled, egg-thaped, crenate-ferrated,
tomentous ; corymb {mall, compound.” Stem a foot high,
angular, woolly, quite fimple, leafy. Leaves narrowed into
the petiole at the bafe, cottony, and whitifh. A native of the
Levant. Specimen preferved in the herbarium of Juffien.
46. C. afpera, Willd. 46. Thunb. Prod. 153. ‘ Leaves
linear, pinnated, toothed, tomentous underneath; flowers
panicled.” A native of the Cape cf Good Hope. 47.
C. capillacea, Linn. jun. Supp. 375. Mart. 14. Willd.
47. ‘© Leaves pinnated; pinne capillary, entire.” Verv
hike othonna tagetes, but its leaves are deeply divided and
more flender. 48. C. minuta, Mart. 38. Willd. 48. Cav.
Icon. i. tab. 33. fig. 3. (Bellis minima, Barr. Ic. 1153.
fig. 1.) ‘¢ Peduncles one flowered; root-leaves fmooth,
wedge-fhaped, with ‘about five teeth; ftem-ones pinnated,
Imear-filitorm, hairy; ftem hairy.?? Root annual. Stems
fometimes two or three, two or three inches high, fimple,
one-flowered befet with long flender hairs. oot leaves
petioled ; ftem-ones feflile. /awer white. A native of
mountainous ground in Spain. 49. C. Jinifolia, Linn. Sp.
Pleir. Mart. 15. Lam. 14. Willd. 49. Jacq. Hort.
Schoen. 3. tab. 308. ‘* Peduncles one-fiowered ; leaves _
fcattered ; ftem fhrubby.”? Linn. ‘ Peduncles one-flower-
ed; axillary ; leaves linear-aw!-fhaped, fmooth ; ftem fhrub-
by.” Willd. It differs from /enecio /inifolia, in having ail the
flowers folitary. Stem compound, rough. Mowers yellow
fmall; peduncles longer than the leaves. A native of the Cape
of Cood Hope. 50. C. humifuf2, Mart. 30. Willd. 50.
L’Herit. Sert. Ang. 25. (C. pumila, Thunb. Prod. 155.)
«¢ Peduncles one-flowered ; leaves kidney-fhaped, fomewbat
angular; petioles fometimes eared, fometimes naked at the
bafe.”” Root perennial. A native of the Cape. 51. C.
vifcofa, Mart.31. Willd. 51. L’Herit. Sert. Ang. 25.
Jacq. Frag. 12. tab. 7. fig. 2. (C. pandtrata, Thunb. ?)
« Peduncles one-flowered; leaves pinnatifid-lobed, acute,
vifcid, fomewhat flefhy. Root biennial. «A native of the
Cape. 52. C. purpurata, Linn. Mant. 285. Mart. 16,
Lam. 16. Willd. 52. ‘* Stem with about two flowers;
pid?
leaves inverfely egtr-fhaped, fomewhat tomentons.?? Roof
perennial. Stem atoot high, herbaceous, fimple, furrowed
near the bottom. Leaves alternate, petioled, obtufe, pubef-
cent above, cottony underneath. Yowers with a purple
ray ; peduncles terminal, as long as the ftem, filiform, cot~
tony, erect, one-flowered; calyx-leaves lanceolate, nearly
equal,
CIN
equal, fhort, pubefcent ; down feathered.
A native of the Cape, 53. C. amelloides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 13.
Mart..17.. Lam.17, Willd. 52), Bot. Maz. 249. (So-
lidago africana frateicens cerulea, hyperici foliis plerumque
conjugatis. Alter africanus frutefcens, Rai. Supp. 158.)
** Peduncles one-flowered; leaves oppofite, egg-fhaped,
naked; ftem fomewhat fhrubby.”? Root perennial. Stem
two feet high, purplifh, rough, dividing‘into many branches
near the root, fo as to form a low buthy plant. Leaves
about an inch long, and a third of an inch broad, thick,
fucculent, feffile, generally two, but fomietimes three or
four ata joint. Flowers with a yellow difk and fky-blue
ray. Nearly allied to amellus lychuitis, but differing in its
uaked receptacle. A native of the Cape; and 2 common
inhabitant of our green-houfes, where it flowers moft of the
Receptacle naked.
year. The feeds were fent to Miller in 1753. 54. C.
ianata, Mart.29. Lam.12. Willd. 54. L’Henit. Sert.
Ang. 25. Jacq. Collect. ni. tab. 19. fig. 3. Bot. Mag.
53+ % Peduncles.one-Aowered ; leaves round:th-heart: fhaped,
with feven angles, downy underneath.” L’Herit. <* Leaves
roundifh-angaular, on long petioles, white, with down under-
veath; flowers folitary, terminal.’ Lam. © Root perennial.
Stems from twelve to fix inches high, woody at their bafe,
feeble, a little branched, cottony, and whitifh near the top.
Leaves alteraate, green on their upper furface, white and
cottony underneath. orets of the ray of a vifcid purple
upwards, white near the bottom ; calyx cylindrical, {mooth.
A native of the Canary iflands; introduced by Maffon
in 1780. 55. C. /capiflora, Willd. 53. L’Herit. Sert.
Ang. 25. ‘* Peduncles very long, one-flowered ; leaves
egg-fhaped, fmooth, doubly-toothed.”? A native of the
Cape of Good Hope. 56. C. Jlaricifola, Lam. 15. (Ja-
cobra Breyn. Cent. tab. 64. Morif. Hilt. 3. tab. 18. fig.
gt.) ‘* Flowers ereét, lateral and terminal ; little branches
fhort, one-flowered ; leaves feattered, crowded, ‘linear-awl-
fhaped, keeled; ftem fhrubby.’? A fhrub, fcarcely a foot
high, {mooth in all its parts. Stem cylindrical, with flender
branches, leafy on its upper part, naked and marked with
the fears of fallen leaves near the bottom. eaves channel-
led on their upper furface, fcarceély an inch long. Flowers
yellow, feffile; florets of the ray few, diftant from each
other; calyx fimple, but apparently compofed of two
ranks, occafioned by the preflure of the upper leaves
of the branches. A native of the Cape of Good Hope,
communicated by Sonnerat. 57. C. chamedrifolia, Lam.
20, ‘Stem herbaceous, angular, naked near the top;
leaves petioled, heart-fhaped, crenate, hoary underneath.”
Stem from fix to eight inches high, zig-zag near the bafe ;
branches two or three near the top, one-flowered, furnifhed
with {mall acute feales. Leaves {mall, {mooth on both fides,
but greyifh underneath. Fvowers terminal; calyx fimple,
{mooth, many-leaved. A native of the Cape. 58. C. an-
themoides. Lam. 21. ‘¢ Leaves feffile, deeply pinnatifid ;
lobes lanceolate-toothed, flender; ftem herbaceous.”? Stem
eight or nine inches high, ftriated, branched, leafy. Leaves
greenifh, befet with a few hairs. lowers yellow ; peduncles
-one-flowered, fmooth, furnifhed with very fhort acute fcales ;
calyx fmooth, quite fimple. 59. C. Aaftifolia, Lam. 24.
Mart. 25. Linn. jun. Suppl. 376. * Leaves halberd-
fhaped; fegments lateral, bifid, divaricated.”” Stem feven
inches high, ere&t. Leaves alternate, petioled. /Vowers
yellow; peduncles elongated, furnifhed with awl-fhaped
feales; calyx with about ten leaves.
Obf. According to Juffieu, C. amelloides recedes from
the ret of the genus, on account of its purple flowers and
-oppolite leaves, but neither of thefe can be allowed to form
part of a generic character, and it they did, feveral other
CIN
{pecies muft be removed. Gaertner has feparated C. glauca
and C. purpurata, on account of their feathered down, and
placed them in a new genus which he calls feneciliis, but it
may alfo be doubted whether this be of itfelfa fufficient ge-
neric difference. ‘Thofe fpecies which have a few feales at
the bafe of the calyx feem more allied to fenecio, wanting
only the fphacelated tips of the calyx-leaves, and fhewing, as
La Marck obferves, that there is no folid diftinétionbetween
the cwo genera. As the f{pecies of fenecio are very nu-
merous, it might facilitate the ftudies of the young botanift,
if thefe were formed into a new genus, of which the prefence
of the feales and the abfence of the fphacelated tips fhould
form the effential chara¢ter. Or it would anfwer the fame
purpofe if the whole were thrown into one _genus, divided
into three fections. The chief objetion is the difficulty of
finding trivial names.
C. othonnites, Linn. See Otuonna frutefcens.
— abrotanifolia, Berg. See Oruonna abrotanifolia.
Propagation and Culture. Many of the {pecies are well-
known ornaments to our green-honfes, and others are worthy
of being introduced. Moft of them may be increafed by
cuttings, planted in 2 fhady border, during the fummer
months, and duly watered. Ina month or five weeks they
fhould be tranfplanted into pots, to prevent their roots from
{preading. But they are too tender to endure the open air
in the winter of our climate. C. maritima is hardier, and if
the flips be planted ina dry rubbifhy foil, they will live out
of doors all the winter, and thrive many years ; but in rich
ground the plants are fo luxuriant in fummer as to be killed
by the froft in winter. C. amelloides, and fome of the
others, may alfo be propagated by feeds, fown on a bed of
light earth in the beginning of April. When the plants are
fit to remove, part of them fhould be planted in pots, to be
fheltered in winter under a hot-bed frame, and the remain-
der under a wall in poor ground, where, if the winter prove
favourable, they will live. Miller. C. lunata, lately intro-
duced into this country, which far exeeds all others culti-
vated here, in the beauty of its flower, is a valuable, acqui-
fition to the green-houfe, alfo on account of its hardinefs,
its readinefs to flower, and the facility with which it may be
propagated. It flowers early in the {pring, and may be
made to continue nearly the whole year. It is particularly
liable to be infefted with aphides, or in the language of
gardeners, to become loufy. The only method to have
healthy plants is, to procure a conftant fucceffion by cut-
tings. Thefe fhould be placed in a pot, and plunged into a
bed of tan. Curtis Bot. Mag.
CINERARIUS, in dntiquity, an officer retained by the
women, whofe bufinefs it was to provide afhes proper for
tinging the hair with a deep yellow colour. He was other-
wile called ciniflo.
Cinerarius is alfo ufed to fignify one who paid a vene-
ration to the relics of martyrs and farts.
CINERATION, in Chemifiry, the redution of wood,
or any other combuftible matter, into afhes, by means of
fire. This, others call cinefaéion.
CINERES. See Asues.
_Cineres clavellati, in Chemifiry, or Pearlafh, is a confi-
derably pure fub-carbonat of Potafh, which fee.
Cineres tne, a name given by authors to a dufty and
faline fubftance thrown out of mount /Etna, in form of
powder, and refembling afhes. After an eruption of this
mountain, thefe faline afhes are found fcattered about the
opening itfelf, down the fides of the mountain, and over the
country for ten miles or more round. Thofe afhes, which
are found thrown to the diftance of eight or ten miles, are
generally taken up in form of a very dry duft, almott infipid
to
——
CIN
to the tafte: but what lie upon, and round about the fkirts
of the mountain, are very different; they are never dry,
though they lie many months expofed to the fun’s heat,
which is very great there, but always feel damp and wet,
and are compoled of larger or {maller lumps, and not of a
fine powder, as the more diftant are. They are of a very
ftrongly vitriolic talte, refembling that of our common green
copperas. Irom this taite, and from the great quantities of
matter refembling a fort of crocus Martis, and with thefe a
great abundance of fulphur, which is burnt away, and the
yait quantities which alfo are fublimed about the mouths,
and left unburnt, it appears, that the common pyrites is
contained in vait abundance in the bowels of the mountain,
fince green vitriol and fulpbur are its produce, and nothing
is fo eafy as to calcine it with the purple powder refembling
crocus Martis, which is the third fubftance fo frequent there.
This gives great weight to the opinion of thofe who be-
lieve all the eruptions of the burning mountains in the fe-
veral parts of the world to be owing to this mineral. See
Pyrites and Votcano.
CINERITIOUS, a term applied to things refembling
afhes ; particularly in point of colour and confiltence.
Thus, the cortical part of the brain is alfo called the
cineriiious part.
CINETTRI or Ciyirret, in Ancient Geography, a people
of Africa, according to Ptolemy, who inhabited the defert,
§.E. of the river Bagradas.
CINEY, in Geography. See Cuiny.
. CINGA, Cinca, a river of Hither Spain, which has its
fource in the Pyrenées, and running to the fouth, pafled by
the territories of the Iilergates, in order to difcharge itfelf
into the ocean. The inundation of this river, and that of
the Sicoris in the plain near Ilerda, proved very injurions to
Czfar, becaufe, by the removal of the bridges, he could
not keep up a communication with the town that had joined
him. But, in order to effet this purpofe, he engaged all
the barks, which he could fird along the Iberus.
CINGILIA, a town of Italy, in the country of the
Veftini, which was taken by the conful Brutus.
CINGULUM, in Conchology, a {pecies of Conus, found
in the Friendly Iflands.
Cincuwm, in Geography, a town of Italy in the Picenum.
Cefar fays that it was bmit at the expence of Labienus.
It is mentioned by Pliny, Cicero, Silivs Italicus, and Fron-
tinus. It is now known by the name of Cingoli or Cingolo.
Cincutum. See Cinctus. :
Cincutum Mundi, mountains which the ancients alfo
called the “ Hyperborean mountains.” Thefe mountains
are probably thofe which the Ruffians call Ziennoipoias.
Cincutum Sapientie. See Girdve.
CINIFLO, in Antiquity, the fame with CineRrartus.
CINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a name given by Pliny
to the greater of the Balearic Iilands; the inhabitants of
which enjoyed the fame rights with thofe of Latium.
CINNA, Luctus Cornettus, in Biography, an alpiring
Roman, who raifed himfelf to the highelt honours of the
ttate, by attaching himfelf, during the civil contentions, to
the popular faction. In the year of Rome 667, Cinna was
eleéted conful, during the tyranny of Sylla, though he had
been the avowed friend of Marins. He had no fooner en-
tered upon his newly acquired office, than he drove Syila
from Rome to his army in Afia. He then attempted to
ftrengthen his party by incorporating a number of new ci-
tizens into the ancient tribes from the allies. ‘This was op-
pofed by his colleague O@tavius, and the fenators, who yet
held the honour of citizenfhip in high eftimation; a bloody
Vou, VIII.
CIN
battle was fought in the forum between the two parties-
Cinna was defeated ; he and fix tribunes who had fided
with him were expelled the city. ‘ney proceeded to de-
pofe him from the confulfhip, and chofe Cornelius Merula
in his ftead. Cinna applied for fuccour to the allies, by
whom he was furnifhed with money and troops, and, having
by his various arts, gained over a large body of Roman fol-
diers encamped at Capua, he was joined by fuch numbers,
that he formed an army of thirty legions. He then in-
vefted Rome, and forced Metellus, in whom the care of
defending the capital was lodged, to retire: Merula the new
conful refigned his authority, and Cinna was again acknow-
ledged as conful. Not contented with a fimple reftoration
to all his honours, he entered Rome with Marius, and the
other leaders of his party. At firft, they feemed contented
with the deftrn@ion of OGtavius, but they afterwards pro-
{cribed all thofe who had attained to fenatorial rank, and a
great multitude of the nobleft and. moft honourable of the
Romans were facrificed at the fhrine of their mad ambition.
At the expiration of the confular year, Cinna nominated
himfelf and Marius confuls for another year. The latter
dying foon after the nomination to office, Cinna fhared the
authority with the younger Marius, who was no lefs cruel
than his father. He made himfelf conful a third time, with
Papinus Carbo, and, to ftrengthen his hands, he married
his daughter to Julius Cefar, a man hereafter deftined to
adi a great part in his country. Intelligence arrived, that
Sylla was preparing to return to Rome at the head of a for-
midable army. Cinna, unwilling that the war fhould be
carried on in Italy, determined to meet his rival in Dalma-
tia; while, however, he was on the point of embarking his
troops, a mutiny was excited among them, in which he was
flan by his own foldiers, at the port of Ancona, in the
year 670. Cinna has been defcribed as one who, having
attempted what no good man would have dared, performed
what none but a very brave man could have cffeéted.
Cinna, in Botany. See Acrostis Cinna. It isa na-
tive of Canada, whence feeds were fent by Kalm.
Cinna, in Ancient Geography, atown of Italy, taken, ac-
cording to Diodorus Siculus, by the Romans from the Sam-
nites.—A.lfo, a place of Dalmatia, marked by the Itinerary
of Antonine, on the route from Salone to Durazzo, be-
tween Birzimimum and Scodra.—Alfo, a town of Spain,
placed by Ptolemy in Juctania, a country of the Tarrago-
nenfis—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Perfia Propria, according
to Prolemy. '
CINNABAR. See Mercury.
CINNAMOLOGUS, in Natural Yiflory, among the
ancients. the name given to a bird which built its nelt either
in the cinnamon-tree, or upon rocks and precipices, with
the broken branches of thattree. Theancients have a great
many idle traditions concerning this bird: fome fay it 1s the
phoenix ; and others, that it is a peculiar {pecies of fowl.
The common opinion of the pheenixs building its neft of
{pices feems to have given birth to all the idle ftories thar
we hear of this bird in Pliny, and other credulous authors.
CINNAMOMIFERA Recuio, in Ancient Geography,
the name of a country of Ethiopia, near Egypt, according
to Prolemy and Strabo. he latter places this country at
the commencement of the Torrid Zone, and fays, that Se-
foitris, king of Egypt, penetrated fo far.
CINNAMON, in Botany. See Laurus Cinnamomum.
Cinnamon. Cinnamomum, in the Afateria Medica. The
bark of the cinnamon tree (Laurus cinnamomum, Linn.), is
the part ufed in medicine It is of a brown red colour,
light and thin, and rolled up in long brittle quills. The
Z {mell
CIN
{mell is delightfully fragrant, and the tafte is highly pun-
gent and aromatic, with a confiderable {weetnefs, and fome
altringency. The thinneft pieces are by much the moft
aromatic. Cinnamon, infufed in boiling water, in a covered
veflel, gives out much of its grateful aromatic flavour, and
forms an agreeable reddifh-brown infufion. Alcohol, ilrong
or diluted, extra&ts the aromatic part more completely, and
without artificial heat. The aroma of the cinnamon refides
in an effential oil, which is extra@ted by diftillation with
water, though with fome difficulty. Oil of cinnamon has
a clear golden yellow colour, anda moft powerfully fragrant
{mell. The talte is exceffively fiery, and abfolutely cauttic,
corroding the fkin very fpeedily. This oil is heavier than
water. It is altogether prepared in Ceylon, and imported.
When cinnamon is diftilled with water jult fufficient to
cover it in the ftill, the diftilled water that comes over 1s
milky and turbid, and has a mild and agreeable flavour of
thefpice. If alarge quantity is prepared at once, a few
drops of oil collet at the bottom of the water. Froma
pound of cinnamon about a gallon of flrong diftilled water
may be prepared. ‘The watery decoction remainizg in the
ftill, yields, on evaporation, a red extraét, of a muciiaginous
and gently aftringent talte, but without any thing aromatic.
Pure alcohol, dittilled from cinnamon, brings over very
little of its flavour; fo that if an extraét is made with this
menftruum, it retains moft of the rich aroma and pungency
of the cinnamon. Proof fpirit, on the other hand, when
diftilled from this bark, gives a clear, trong, aromatic, {piritu-
ous water. This, as well as the fimple water, is much ufed
in medicine.
Cinnamon is one of the moft grateful aromatics that we
poflefs, and is employed as a cordial, reftorative, and for all
the purpofes for which aromatics are ufeful. It is feldom,
if ever, given alone; for the aromatics, though their fen-
fible qualities are fo decided, have but a temporary and un-
certain effe& on the conftitution, and contribute but little to
the cure of important difeafes. But, as an auxiliary ma
variety of ways, and to cover the flavour of naufeous me-
dicines, cinnamon is eminently ufeful, and enters into the
compofition of a vaft variety of tin@tares, confeGtions, cor-
dial mixtures, and the like. A drop of the oil, dropped on
a lump of fugar, is one of the readieft and molt powerful
itimulants in faintings and fudden debility.
On account of the high price of the cinnamon, the caffia
bark, which much refembles it, is very generally fubftituted.
“he general appearance, fmell, and flavour, of the two are
the fame, only the aromatic preperty is much weaker, and
it wants much of the grateful {weetnefs of the real cinna-
mon. The caffia may be diftinguifhed by the {mooth fur-
face which it exhibits when broken, and by its flimy
tafte.
This fubftitution, though a real inconvenience, in many
cafes is of little confequence in preparing the diftilled water ;
for water diffolves fo little of the effential oil, that, in the
ufual proportions, it appears cto faturate itfelf from the caffia
as completely as from the real cinnamon.
Cinnamon, clove, is alfo the bark of a tree growing in
Brafil and Madagafcar ; where it is known under the name of
yavendfara, The Portuguefe call it cravo de marenham.
This bark, pulverifed, is fometimes fubftituted for real
c’oves, though far fhort of them in refpe&t of flavour.
Saflafras is fometimes alfo called cinnamon-wood. See
SASSAFRAS.
Cinnamon, white, which fome call cofus corticus, or cors
ticofus, or erroneoufly cortex Winteri, Winter’s bark, from
the perfon’s name who firk brought it into England, is the
Y
_ the fchools, whence he fometimes falls into obfcurity.
CIN
bark of a tree, refembling the olive-tree, frequent in the
iflands of St. Domingo, Guadaloupe, and Madagafcar ;
cailed by the natives /impii.
This bark, which dries like that of cinnamon, is at frft
brownith, of a fharp biting tafte, like pepper, and a f{mell
like muflc ; asit dries it whitens. Some ule it in lieu of nut-
meg ; and in medicine it is uled asa ftomachic, and fome-
times as an antifcorbutic.
The fame tree alfo yields a gum called alouch, fometimes
bdellium, whichis no difagreeable perfume. See Winteranus
Cortex and WinTERANIA,
CINNAMUM, the name given by many of the old
writerson the materia medica to cinnamon. The Arabian
writers, when they treat of cinnamon, have three words by
which they exprefsit; thefe are /elicha, dafini, and kanfe.
CINNAMUS, Joun, in Biography, a Greek, who flourifh-
ed in the 12th century. In his youth he foliowed the pro-
feffion of arms, and was prefent at various expeditions in
Europe and the Eat. After the death of Manuel, he
compofed hiftorics of John Comnenus, and Manuel, his
fon, comprehending their aétions from 1118 to 1176. He-
is chara€terized by Leo Allatius as an elegant author, who
frequently ufes foreign forms of expreffion, and figures from
Ac-
cording to Voffius, his di@lion is more pure and terfe than
that of the modern Greeks in general; and heis an imita-
tor of Xenophon. His hiltory was firft printed in Greek
and Latin, with notes, at Utrecht, 1652, in gto. Another
edition has ‘been fince publifhed in folio by Du Cange, at
Paris, with hiftorical and philological obfervations.
CINNERETH, or Kinnerern, fea and lake of, in An-
cient Geography, stherwife called the lake or water of Gee
nefareth. See Sea of GaviLes.
CINNIANA, or Ciranta, now Sifania, a town of Spain,
in Lufitania. Valerius Maximus informs us, that when
D. Brutus exprefled his defire that the inhabitants fhould
ranfom their city, they returned him anfwer, that they had
iron to defend it, but no gold to ranfom it.
CINNORUM Civitas, an epifcopal town of Afia, in
Galatia prima.
CINNUS, in Ancient Medicine, a drink made of the de-
coétion of wheat, to which was added fome flour of barley,
honey, and wine.
CINO Du Pisro1, in Biography, fo called from his native
place, but by his family name De *Sigibuldi, an eminent law-
yer and poet, flourifhed in the beginning of the r4th century.
He ftudied law at Padua and Bologna, but with fo little
application or fuccefs that he was at firft refufed the degree.
This circumitance had its proper effe& in roufing his dili-
gence, and he foon attained to great profeffional reputation,
He was made principal affeflor to Lewis of Savoy, when fe-
nator of Rome, to which office he was chofenin 1310. In
1314 he finifhed a voluminous commentary on the code, and
obtained a doétor’s degree at Bologna. He was profeffor at
various univerfities, and wasintimate with many diftinguifhed
charaéters, among whom was Petrarch, who lamented his
death in a fonnet. Befides the commentary on the code,
printed at Frankfort in 1578, Cino commented on fome parts.
of the Digeft. But he derived the greater part of his repu-
tation from his poetical works. By general fuffrage he is.
placed among the moft cultivated Italian poets of the age in.
which he flourifhed ; and of thofe who preceded Petrarch,’
not one is to be compared to him for elegance and {weetnels,
The moft complete edition of his works is that of Venice in
1589.
CINOLIS, in Ancient Geography, or Cimolis of Strabo, a
town
CIN
town of Afia, in Galatia. Arrrian fays that it was a commer-
cial and maritime town, at the diftance of 60 ftadia from
Egineta, and 180 from Stephana. Others reprefent it as a
village having a river and harbour.
CINQUAIN, in Ancient Military Language, an order of
battle compofed of five battalions or five {quadrons. To
form the cinquain, place the five battalions or five fquadrons
in one line, then make the fecond and fourth advance to
form the van, or avantgarde ; leave the firft and fifth on the
original line or ground as the main body, or corps de bataille ;
and make the third or middle one fall back to form the rear
or arriere-garde. When the number of regiments or fqua-
drons is equal to a multiple of five by any whole number 2,
or is equalto 5 x, they may be formed into the fame order
of battle.
CINQUEFOHL, in Botany. -See Parentivia.
Cinqueroin, baflard. See Sipparpra procumbens.
Cixqueroir, marfh. See Comarum paluffre.
Cinqueroit is a term in Heraldry, to reprefent a leafof
grafs of five points.
CinqueEroit root,inthe Materia Medica, the name ofaroot
which ufed to be an ingredient in feveral of the officinal com-
pofitions. The plant which produces it is the common cinque-
foil, which grows every where by way-fides. ‘I'he root con-)
fifts of a cortical and ligneous or fticky part, but the cortical
only isufed. It is efteemed drying, and altringent, and anti-
febrific. Some have given it in agues in as large dofes as the
cortex, and have cured with it. It ftops fluxes of the bowels,
and is good in diforders of the lungs, and in the fluor albus
and gonorrheeas, cither in men or women. It is, however,
very little regarded in the prefent pra€tice. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlix. part ii. p. 835. i
CINQUEL, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Suma-
tra, on the weltern coalt of a river of the fame name.
CINQUE-MARS, in Geography, a town of France, ‘in
the department of the Indre and Loire, 10 miles N.W. of
Tours.
CINQUE-PORTS, Quingue portus, five havens that lie
on the eatt part of England, towards France, thus called by
way of eminence, on account of their {uperior importance,
as having been thought by our kings to merit a particular re-
gard, for their prefervation againit invafions.
Hence they havea particular policy, and are governed by
a keeper, with the title of lord warden of the cinque-ports,
which office belongs to the conftable of Dover ; and their
reprefentatives are called barons of the Cinque-ports.
They have various franchifes fimilar in many refpects tothofe
ofthe Counties Palatine, and particularly an exclufive jurifdic-
tion beforethe mayor and jurats of the ports ; their warden
having the authority of an admiral among them, and fending
out writsin his own name; andthe king’s writs do not run
there. However, on a judgment in any of the king’s courts, if
the defendant hath no goods, &c. except inthe ports, the
plaintiff may get the records certified into chancery, and,
from thence fent by mitimus to the lord-warden to make
execution. 4 Inft. 223. 3 Leon. 3.
Camden tells us, that William the Conqueror farft appoint-
ed a warden of the Cinque-ports ; but king John firlt grant-
ed them their privileges; and that upon condition that they
fhould provide eighty fhips at their own charge for forty
days, as often as the king fhould have oceafion 1n the wars 3;
he being then ftreightened fora navy to recover Normandy.
There are alfo feveral towns adjoining, to which the pri-
vileges of the Cinque-ports extend.
There are feveral courts belonging to thefe ports; one
before the lord-warden ; others within the ports themfelves
before the mayor and jurats ; another, which is called curia
CIN
guingue portuum apud Shepway; a writ of error lies from
the mayor and jurats of each port to the lord-warden in his
court of Shepway ; andin thefe cafes the mayor and jurats
may be fined, and the mayor removed, &c. (4 Init. 334.
Crompt. Jurifd. 138.), and alfo from this court to the king’s
bench: and a writ of error lies from all the other jurifdic-
tions to the fame fupreme court of judicature, in token of
the fuperiority of the crows when thefe franchifes were
created. All prerogative writs, as thofe of Aadeas corpus,
prohibition, certiorari, and mandamus, may likewife iflue to
all thefe jurifdiGions ; becaufe the privilege, that the king’s
writ runs not, muft be intended between party and party,
for there can be no fuch privilege egainlt the king. They
have likewife a cotrt of chancery, to decide matters of
equity ; but no criginal writ iffues thence.
The Cinque-ports, it has been obferved, are not ‘¢ jura
equalta,”’ like counties palatine, but are parcel of the county
of Kent; fo that if a writ be brought againit one for land
within the Cinque-ports, and he appears, and pleads to it, and
judgment is’ given againft him in the common pleas, this
judgment fhall bind him; for the land is not exempted out
of the county, and the tenant may waive the benefit of his
privilege. Wood’s Intt. 5109.
Thefe five ports are Dover, Haftings, Romney, Hythe,
and Sandwich ; to which Winchelfea and Rye have been
finceadded. ‘Thorn tells us, that Haftings provided twenty
one veilels, and in each veffel twenty-one men, Yo this port
belong Seaford, Pevenfev, Hedney, Winchelfea, Rye, Ha-
mine, Wakefbourn, Creneth, and Forthnclipe.—amney
provided five fhips, and in cach twenty-four men. ‘To this
belong Bromhal, Lyde, Ofwarftone, Dangemares, and [o-
menhal.—Hythe furnithed five fhips, and in each twezty-one
feamen. To this belongs Weltmeath.—Dover, t!
number as Haftings. Vo this belong VolkRove, Peve:
fham, and Marye.—Lattly, Sandwich furnifhed the fome
with Hythe. To this belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Scrre,
and Deal.
Crinovue-rort zet. See Net.
CINQUE.-VILLAS, in Geography 3 town of Portugal,
in the province of Beira; 2 leagues N.E. of Almeida.
CINQ-MARS, Henry Corrrier, Marguis of, in Bi-
ography, born in 1620, was introduced by Richticu to Louis
XILL. for the purpofe of becoming his favourite, a polt
for which he was well qualified, having an agreeable perfon,
and being endowed with ready talents for converfation. He
was foon promoted to high honours, and the cardinal hoped
to have reaped advantage from him whofe fortune he had
made ; but in this he was completely difappointed. Cinq-
Mars was ambitious only of his own elevation, and deftitute
of every principle of gratitude ; he even thwarted the views
of Richheu, and gladly complied with the king’s defre of
being prefent at all the private conferences with thecardinal,
This was not agreeable to the minifter, and he gave his eléve
a fevere leGture on his prefumption for interfering in ftate af-
fairs, and forbade him from attending at my future councils.
He alfo mortified his pride and vanity by queitioning his
pretenfions to a marriage with the princefs Mary de Gon-
zaga, afterwards the wife of the king of Poland. On thefe
accsunts Cing-Mars refolved to revenge him{elf on his bene-
faétor, and excited the king’s brother, Gaflon, duke of Or-
leans, to a revolt, in-which the duke de Bouillon partici-
pated. A treaty was made with Spain in Gaiton’s name,
by which it was agreed to lay open France to her enemies.
In the meaa time Cirg-Mars did not fail, at every opportu.
nity, to declaim againit the cardinal, and urged the king to
"banifh him from his court, and to get him affaffinated. The
king appeared to relifh the propofais. Richlieu, though
22 confined
CIN
confined by illnefs, was too penetrating not to difvover his
approaching difsrace, Fortunately, at this junéture, he
amade the difcovery of the treafonable negotiation carried on
by the fa@ion with Spain, and immediately informed the
king of it. Cing-Mars was arrefted, and carried to Lyons
for trial. Galton, to make his own peace, furnifhed abun-
dant evidence for the conviction of the late favourite. Cinq-
Tars was capitally condemned, together with his friend De
Thon, fon of the celebrated biftorian and prefident, and was
beheaded in September 1642, in the 22d year of his age.
Gen. Bioz.
CINTEGABELLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of
a canton, in the ditrié of Muret, feated on the Arriege ;
16 miles S. of Toulovfe. The place contains 2984, and
the canton 8695 inhabitants: the territory includes 195 ki-
liometres and 5 cominunes.
CINTRA, a town of Portugal in Eftramadura, feated
between the mountains of Cintra, near the mouth of the 'l'a-
gus, and diftant 4 leagues trom Lifbon, The houfes lie
difperfed in a pictureique manner over the declivity of the
mountain; it has a royal caltle, formerly the refidence of
feveral kings; it is faid to have been built by the Moors,
and after having becn dettroyed by an earthquake in 1655,
re-built in the fame ftyle by king Jofeph. The town has
four parifh churches, and the number of inhabitants is elti-
mated at 1g00. Cintra is the fummer refidence of the opu-
lent inhabitants of Lifbon, and efpecially of the foreign
merchants, and of perfons in high rank under government.
The months of Auguft and September, when every thing is
patched round Lifbon, are palled here on mountains that
afford plenty of water, verdure, and fhade. In the midlt
of fummer the nights are cool, and the houfes, which are
difperfed among rocks, gardens, and wood, prefeat an
agrecable retirement. "Che mountains of Cintra, called by
the ancients ‘* Moates Lunz,’’ lie N.E. and S.E. and ter-
minate in the Cabo de Rocca. ‘They confilt of granite
compofed of clear-white quartz, a fomewhat reddih fel-
fpar, and black mica, againtt which leans a white or folia-
<cous limeftone, or a proper ftink-llone. ‘The fouth fide
toward Lifbon is arid, naked, parched up, confifting of
bare heaped-up rocks, and affords a wild, defert, dreary
profpeét. But on the north fide, at the entrance of Cintra,
every thing feems to be changed. The whole declivity to
a certain height is covered wich country-houfes and charm-
jug quintas, forming a fhady wood of the fineft trees, fuch
as oaks of various kinds, pines, Jemons, and other fruit-
trees. Streams iffue every where from the rocks, and form
cool mofly fpots. Towards the fummit of the mountain
naked vocks are accumulated together. On one of the high
points, floating, as it were, in the air, is feen a monaftery,
and on another the ruins of a Moorifh caltle. Where the
quintas ceafe, begins a thick but low coppice of itrawberry-
tree, mock-privet, buck-thorn, and gale or fweet-willow,
together with otl«r vegetable inhabitants of the ifland of
Madeira. A fine profpe& of the well-cultivated valley of
Colares, of the great monaltery of Mafra, and of the fea,
complete the beauties of the fcene. “To the weft of Cintra
is a market-town, dalled Colares, (which fee); and orthe
mountain, towards the welt, is a {mall monaftery of Capu-
chins, built between rocks, and called ‘* Cork Monaitery,””
the rocks being cafed with cork. The elevation and vicinity
to the feacaufe a great accumulation of clouds and moif-
ture, which render it expedient to have a coating of cork
upon the walls. Snow is not uncommon here in winter, al-
though it never lies. Toward Cabo de Rocca the mountains
become lower and lower, terminating in a flat, defert, naked,
CIN
lonely vidge, which forms the cape. The height toward
the fea is from 50 to So feet, being broken ftraight off, and
confifting of granite, Near the extremity is a lizht-houfe,
and not far from it a {mall chapel, On this naked plain the
ftorms rage with great violence, the fea burits with vehe-
mence againtt the rocks, and is very deep in their vicinity.
From hence are feen the mountains of Mafra, and oppolite
is the corre{ponding cape, Cabo de Efpichel. Farther to
the northward is another chain of prountains, parallel to thofe
of Cintra, with which it unites by high aud detached moun-
tains, the Cabecx de Montachigue and others, T'rom the
fea thefe mountains appzar lke a lofty amphitheatre. This
chain of mountains confits of thick and foliaceous limeftone,
On the part which runs toward the fea is the caftle of Ma-
fra, built by John V. with its monattery. Ofthe fize of this
edifice, an idea may be formed from the quantity of metal
ufed in every tower for bells, bars, &c, amounting to 14,504
arrobas (each arroba being 321b.) for each tower.
CINTRE, in Building, the mould on which an arch is
turned; popularly called centre, fometimes alfo cradle.
CINYPS, or Cinypuus,. in Aucient Geography, a river
of Africa, inthe Regio Syrtica, or northern part of the
prefent kingdom of Tripoli, awing its name, according to
Bochart, to the great number of porcupines produced in
the adjacent country, derived its itream from a foun-
tain, or a hill, called ** Zachabari,”’ or the hill of the Graees,
(as the name imports in the Puntc, Pheenician, or Libyan)
in the country of the Mace, and emptied itfelf into the Si-
nus Syrticus. Pliny and Herodorus intimate that in this
region there was a fruitful diltri& called “ Cinyphe,”? which,
as well as acity of fome repute mentioned by Scylax, mizht
have been fo called from the river of the fame name. The
Mace, from whofe country the Cinyps flowed, were a pretty
potent nation. They fhaved their heads all over, except the
middle, where they permitted a lock of hairto grow, Wher
they made war upon any of their neighbours, they wore
the fkins of oftriches inltead of armour. In the winter
they drove their flocks to the fea-fide, and in fummer to the
inland places near fome fountain or river, for the fake of
water. ‘They are denominated by the ancients Mace Ci-
nyphii and Macz Syrtitz, from their vicinity to the Cinyps
and the Greater Syrtis.
CINYRA, in the Fewi/h Antiquities, a mufical inftru-
ment. This and the Hebrew cinnor, which is generaily
tranflated cithara, lyra, or pfalterium, are the fame. It was
made of wood, and was played oa in the temple of Jerufa-
lem. Jofephus fays, that the cinyra of the temple had ten
{trings, and that it was touched witha bow. In another
place he fays that Solomon made a great number of them
with a precious kind of metal. called eledrum, wherein he
contradiéts the Scripture, which informs us that Solomon’s
cinnors were of wood. rs
CINYRAS, in Fabulous Hifory, the firft king of the
ifland of Cyprus, was the grandion of Pygmalion, and fa-
ther of Adonis. Paphus, his father, is fuppofed to have
been the firlt that introduced into the ifland the worfhip of
Venus, and is faid to have built the city which bears his
name. He had, according to the fable, Adonis by his own
daughter Myrrha. Paphus is feigned by the poets to have
been the fon of Pygmalion, by a woman, who had before
been an ivory ftatue. Pygmalion, they fay, upon his arri-
val in the ifland of Cyprus, faw that the women lived very
licentioufly, and determined neyer to marry. Afterwards,
as he was a famous ftatuary, be made an ivory ftatue of fuch
perfe&tion, that, failing in love with it, he prayed the god~
defs Venus to procure for him a wife as beautiful as the fla-
tue he had made, The goddefs heard his prayer, and
changed ~
cro
changed the flatue into a fair camfel, by whom he had Pa-
phus, the father gf Cinyras. ‘This Cinyras is faid to have
poffeffed immenfe riches, infomuch that ** The wealth of
Cinyras’? became proverbial, for expreffing an ever-grown
eftate. As the worfhip of Venus was firit elablifhed in Cy-
prus by Paphus the father of Cinyras, both he and Ins de-
fcendants were buried in the temple of Venus at Paphos, an
honour which was granted tono other family. The prielthood
of Venus was likewtle entailed on their race, a dignity which
they preferved for many apes, after the throne was feized
by others.
CINYRIA, in Ancient Geography,.a town of the ifland
of Cyprus, famous for the worfhip paid in it to Urania. It
did not fubfit in the time of Pliny.
CINYRUS, a mountain of Italy, placed in the Pice-
num.
CINZANO, in Geography, a town of Piedmont; 5 miles
§.S.E. of Chivazzo.
CIOLI, Vacerio, in Biography, a fculptor of fome emi-
nence, who was born about the year 1530, at Settignano, a
village near Florence, which, from its vicinity to fome excel-
lent quarries of ftone, has at all times furnifhed a number of
good f{culptors.
his father, Simone Cioli, a {cu!ptor of fome merit; but, at
the age of 15, he was placed under Tribolo, an artift of
confiderable reputation, who at that time was employed in
works of fcuipture and architecture by the duke Cofimo, at
one of his villas near Florence.
Having ftaid four years with Tribolo, he went to Rome,
where he put himielf under the tuition of Raffaello da Mon-
telupo, one of the beft imitators of the {tyle of Michael
Angelo ; by whom he had indeed been employed in the
execution of fome of the itatwes for the celebrated mouument
of Pope Julius I1.
Having finifhed his ftudies, he was for fome time employ-
ed to rettore many of the ancient mutilated {tatues; but he
was afterwards chofen for a work which allowed greater
fcope to his abilities; it is the figure of Sculpture, who ts
reprefented ina difconfolate attitude, weeping the lofs of
the great Michael Angelo Buonaroti, and is one of three
ftatues which adorn his tomb in the church of St. Croce
at Florence.
It is to be regretted, that a great part of the life of Cioli
was facrificed in the execution of the ridiculous grotefque
figures in the gardens of Boboli, which, though intended to
ornament, are alone calculated to call forth fentiments of
pity or contempt, for the puerile and corrupt tafte which
gave them birth. He died, azed upwards of 7o, and left a
fon, Simone Coli, who followed the profeffion of his father,
but who poffeffed {mall talents. Gherardo Silvani was likewife
his diferple. Baldinuci, Dec. 1. della Par. 3. del. See. 4.
CION, in Anatomy, is fometimes ufed for the uvula.
Cton, or Cyon, in Gardening, a young fhoot, fprout, or
fprig, put forth hy atree.
Grafting is performed by the application of the cion of
one plant upon the flock of another.
To produve a {tock of cions fr grafting, planting, &c.
the gardeners fometimes cut off the bodies of trees, a little
above the ground, and only leave a {tump or root ttanding ;
in this cafe the redundant fap will not fail next {pring to
put forth a great number of fhoots.
In drefling dwarf-trees, a great many cions are to be cut
off, See Prunine.
CIONE, Orcacna (da) Anprea. See OrGaGna.
CIONES, in Antiquity, a kind of idols very common, be-
ing only oblong ftones, ereéted pillar-wife; whence alfo
they had their name.
2
Valerio was, in his infancy, inftruded by i
CTF
CIOS, Esxer, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thrace,
the Oc/eus of Pliny, and thus denommated by M. D’Anville,
had its fource in the'N.W. part of mount Rhodope, ia the
country of the Pzonians. It paffed by mount Hamus, near
its middle, and, purfuing its courfe through the wettern part
ofthe Triballic plain, emptied itfelf into the Ifler, near one
of the two towrs which bore the name of Oefeus.—Alfo, a
river of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, which watered a town of
the fame name, according to Pliny. Vhe town called Cros,
was fituated, fays Pliny, in the place called Afcania of
Phrygia. Pomponins Mela fays, that it was feated at the
bottom ofa {mall gulf, formed by the Propontis; it is called
in Greek, «* Glio,”’ in Turkih, ** Kemlik.’’
The town of Cios had been built, according to Ariftotle,
by Cios, who conduéted thither a colony of Milefians. Euf-
tathius fays, that Cios was one, of the companions of Her-
cules. The town was deftroyed by Philip, father of Per-
feus, and king of Macedonia, and its territory furrendered ta
Prufias, king of Bithynia, who rebuilt it, and gave to it
his own name, Prufias.
CIOTAT, La, in Geography, a fea-port town of France,
-in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftrict of Marfeilles, feated at the
bottom of a bay inthe Mediterranean, in a country which
produces delicious fruit, oil, and excellent wine. The har-
bour is in the form of a horfe-fhoe, and defended with feveral
forts; 4 leagues S.E. of Marfeilles, and 74 8.S.E. of Aix.
The place contains 5770, and the canton $738 inhabitants ;
the territory includes 1624 kiliometres, aud 4 communes.
N. lat. 43° 10’. E. Jong. 5° 31’.
CIPHER, or Cyruer, in Arithmetic, one of the nume-
ral characters called figures, and formedthus 0. The word
cipher is probably derived from the Hebrew 9D, /aphar,
tonumber. By che Italians it is written Zifra, by the French
Chiffre, and by the Low Latins Ciphra. It is, therefore,
more properly {pelt cipher than cypher.
The arithmetical cipher by itfelf implies a privation of value,
or nothing : butwhen difpefed with other figures, fituated on
its Ikft, in common arithmetic, it ferves to augment each of
their values by tens; and in decimal arithmetic, it leflens
the value of each figure to the right thereof, in the fame
proportion. See the article ArirHMETic.
A cipher alfo denotes a kind of enigmatical charafer,
compofed of feveral letters interwoven together, fancifully ;
which reprefent the initial letters of perfons’? names, and are
frequently ufed on feals, coaches, and articles of plate, or
other moveables.
Formerly, when merchants and tradefmen were’ not al-
lowed to ufe armorial bearings, they had ciphers thus arti-
ficially compofed in their ftead ; which moilly confilled of
the firft letters of their names, curioufly inter-twined about
a crofs, &c. of which many inflances remain on ancient
tombs: but the cultom ftill obtains among perfons of va-
rious ranks in hfe, as an ornamental device, efpecially on
feals, or carriages. This praétice has, indeed, been in-
creafed of late, to avoid the annual tax of two guineas impof-
edin Great Britain, on thofe who paint their family arms
upon carriages. See HeRatpry.
Cipuer, in Diplomatic Affairs, fignifies an occult manner
of writing, legible to thofe only who poffefs the key or
fecret, and hence the term Deciphering, which fignifies to
explain what is written in cipher. We believe this art was
fo called from the early cuitom of ufing arithmetical cha-
racters or figures, for the purpofe of fecret correfpondence ;
a practice ftill very common in the courts of princes, and
for the fkilfal management of which a decipherer is attached
to the office of the fecretary of ftate for foreign affairs.
This
CiP ER
This art has been fo much cultivated by the moderns, as
so have acquired the importance of a diftin& {cience, and is
called cryptology, cryptography, polygraphy, freganography, Fc.
In the prefent article we hall touch upen all the parts of
this (cience, by whatever names they have been diftinguithed,
although it muft be allowed that the term cipher is only ap-
plicable to private writing. When we confider the noble
and pre-eminent advantages of alphabetical writing, an art
which fo peculiarly diftinguifhes civilized fociety from un-
cultivated barbarians, and the very gradual progrefs it is
likely to have made towards a ftate of perfection, we canhot
reafonably fuppofe the practice of writing in cipher was
common in the remoteft ages of antiquity. ‘To communi-
cate owr thoughts at a diftance, by means of arbitrary and
vifible marks, was in its rudeft form a vait effort of the
human mind; and we mult imagine that many centuries
would claple, before writing was lo perfeet and univerfal as
to render it necefflury to adopt any more abitrufe modes of
concealment. See Lerters, Cuaracter, and WriTinG.
A general fentiment has, indeed, prevailed among the
literati, that the Egyptians invented hieraglyphics in order
to hide and fecrete their wifdom fromthe vulgar; a miftake,
which the very learned bifhop Warburton, (Divine Lega-
tion, b. iv. § 4.) has fufficiently confuted. Nay, we might
with as good reafon fancy the ancient pidture-writing of
the Mexicans, or the more refined hieroglyphical charaGters
of the Chinefe, to have been contrived for the purpofes of
fecrecv, and not for the diffufion of knowledge! See the
article HizroGLyPHics.
Letters were undoubtedly a much later invention than
emblematical or fymbolical writing ; and, in their infancy,
they mut have been fo puzzling as to appear endowed with
an almoit miraculous faculty. But, when this exquifite
contrivance had become familiar to the vulgar eye, and
would vo longer ferve to conceal the mylteries of ftatefmen,
or the intrigues of defigning fabjc€ts, the ufe of ciphers be-
gan to be forefeen. The want of them was at firft fupplied
by artifices of different kinds, but chiefly by newly con-
fru@ted alphabets; which, being intended only for the ufe
of princes, ambafladors, generals, and other public perfon-
ages, were not difclofed to the world at large. Even fo late
as the time of lord chancellor Bacon, and in this free coun-
try, it was conlidered as an aggravation of earl Somerfet’s
crime to employ fecret writing. ‘They made play,” fays
lord Bacon, * of all the world befides themfelves ; fo as
they had ciphers and jargons for the king, queen, and all
the great men, things feldom ufed but either by princes
and their ambafladors and minifters, or by fuch as work and
practife againit, or at leaft upon, princes.”? Bacon’s Re-
mains ; Charge again{t the Earl of Somerfet.
It is too much to be lamented that, on fome occafions,
difaffe&ted, treacherous, and ill-defigning men have greatly
abufed this curious department of fcience, by applying it to
the bafelt and moft mifchievous purpofes: but we afk, Is
this a reafon againit ufing or divulging it? Is it a fufficient
plea for fuppreffing all we know on the fubjeé&t, and endea-
vouring to ttifle our knowledge, left it fhould chance to be
perverted? Would not a fimilar argument hold good for
preventing the ufe of the pre fs itfelf, and even for dettroy-
ing books altogether? What ufeful thing has not been
abufed ? And if this art fhould be turned to any purpofe
fubverfive of fociety, we have laws and magiltrates to puniih
the offenders. It has been well obferved by bifhop Wil-
kins, (in his “ Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Mef-
fenger,’?) that “* nothing hath occalioned more troubles and
contention than the art of writing, which is the reafon why
the inventor of it is fabled to have fown ferpent’s teeth ; and
t
yet it was but a barbarous a& of Thamus, the Egyptian
king, therefore, to forbid the learning of letters. We may as
well cut out our tongues, becaufe that member is a world of
wickednefs! If all thofe ufeful inventions that are liable to
abufe, fhould, on that account, be concealed, there is not
any art or fcience which might lawfully be profeffed.”
The authors who have written either formally or incie
dentally on the fubject of fecret-writing, are by no means
few in number ; but they are not often confulted, nor al-
ways very eafy to be met with; and it is furprifing to find
how feldom they are quoted by writers on bibliography and
general literature. In the laft edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and in the article Chifres of the large French
Encyclopédie (Departm. Diplomat. tom. i. part il. p. 538.)
mention is made of only three or four (and thefe not the
principal) authors; fo that we conceive it may be intereft-
Ing to point out thofe who have moft diftinguifhed them-
{elves in this {cience, at different periods, and in various
nations. We fhall, however, attempt to comprefs our hif-
torical remarks into as narrow a compafs as poflible.
The art of correfponding by vifible figns may be fup-
pofed to have exifted before the introduCtion of writing,
and might have been practifed by geftures or motions of the
body; fince infants are able to exprefs themfelves in this
way, before they have acquired the faculty of fpeaking: but,
whether or not the practice of holding fecret information
by figns of this nature, was carried to any great extent by
the ancients, we are unable to fay. Ovid takes notice of
the art of difcourfing thus, in the lines folowing : é
© Verba fuperciliis fine voce loquentia dicam.
Verba leges digitis, verbaque vultus habet.’’.
And again:
‘« Sepe tacens vocem, verbaque vultus habet.”’
Schottus, in his ‘* Steganographia,”’ exhibits an arthrolo-
gical alphabet in Latin and German; alfo Mr. Falconer, ia
his ‘‘ Cryptomenyfis Patefa@a,”? and Bp. Wilkins in his
‘© Mercury” chap. xiv. have given us a fimilar one in Englifh.
As to the art of difcourfing with the fingers, named
daQylogy and cheirology, it has been often commended
for its antiquity: fince the ancients ufed to exprefs any
number under 100 by the fingers of theleft hand ; and above
100, and under 1000, by thofe of the right hand. More-
over, Pierius has particularly defcribed their methods of
reckoning from 1 to gooo: and hence Juvenal fays,
“ Rex Pylius, magno fi quicquam credis Homero,
Exemplum vite fuit a cornice fecunday .
Felix nimirum, qui tot per fecula vitam
Diftulit, atque fuos jam dextra computat annos.”
To employ this manceuvre for the purpofes of fecrecy,
Schottus has afforded us another alphabet; and fo likewife
has the celebrated George Dalgarno, in his ‘* Didafcalo-
ccphus,” p. 74, who diltinguifhed himfelf in the reign of
Charles Il., by an endeavour to introduce an univerfal cha-
racter and philofophical language.
Among the figns for nightly information at a diftance,
thofe by fire are extremely common, and have been ufed by _
the Chinefe, Perfians, and other nations, in the remotelt
times. This fpscies of communication is affirmed by Dio-
dorus Siculus to have been praétifed by Medea in her con-
{piracy with Jafon, which carries us back three thoufand
and feventy years; and although there muit be fome un-
certainty on this queftion, Pliny, in his ‘* Hiftory,”? lib. vit,
cap. 56, fays it originated with Sinon. Specularern
fignificationem Trojano belle Sinon invenit.” This bare
the
le i i
CGybP HER.
the fignal upon which Sinon agreed to unlock the wooden
horfe, in the fiege of Troy, about 1184 years before
Chrift ;
“cc
Flammas cum regia puppis
Extulerat a
Virgil, Zin. lib. ii, 256.
And, after the taking of Troy, ALfchylus relates, that
Agamemnon immediately apprized his queen, Clytemneftra,
of that event by a fimilar method ; which, we fuppofe, mult
have been done either by men placed at certain diltances
with lighted torches, which they held up in fuccellion, or by
a confiderable number of fires on the tops of hills, denoting
the fimple fa& previoufly agreed on between the parties.
See Onofander’s Strategicus, cap. 25, where this practice is
deferibed.
The fire-fignals of the Greeks and Romans are also
lightly mentioned by Quintus Curtius, Livy, Cwfar, Hero-
dotus, Homer, and Thucydides; likewife by Vegetius and
Frontinus ; but ilill more in detail by Polybius, and AZneas
TaQicus ; the latter of whom was contemporary with Arif-
totle, and has left a valuable fragment on the duties of a
general, {tranflated into Latin by Cafaubon,) wherein are
many curious remarks on the fubje& of fecret correfpond-
ence. The Greck fignajs were much improved ky Polybius,
who, in his history (Lib. x. cap. 45. p. 296. tom. iii. Lips.
1799. edit. Joh. Schweighaeufer) attributes the invention to
Cleomenes and Democritus, or (morecorre€tly ) to Cleoxenus
and Democlitus, in words thus 1endered ; ** Poftrema ratio,
cujus auctores funt Cleoxenus & Democlitus, fed quam nos
correximus, certa definitaque elt, adeo ut quidquid exortum
fuerit negotii, id poflis certo facere notum.”? Prior to that
period, the information communicated by torches, flags,
fmoke, or otherwife, was very limited, and it was requifite
to fettle beforehand, what each fignal fhould mean ; where-
as Polybius fhewed, how to correfpond alphabetically, and
to give or receive any fpecies of intelligence, without this
previous concert. ‘The plans of /Eneas Taéticus had never
arrived at fuch perfection, and were therefore of compari-
tively {mallufe ; though, without doubt, he at leaft equalled
any of his predeceffors in the facility of his telegraphic com-
munications. Vid. Polyb. L.x. fub finem.
Polybius has detailed the peculiar invention of AEneas;
which confifted of a narrow earthen veffel, filled with water,,
and having a tube or aperture to let off the fluid : a piece of
ftick is then to be thruft through a cork, fo as to float
above the furface, when it is put into the water; and the
upper part of this flick is to be marked by fubdivifions, of
three inches each, upon which are to be written fach com-
mon events as happen in war. When the water is drawn
off from any of thefe veffels, which muft agree exa@lly in
fize, &c. it is evident that the flicks will fink lower as the
veffels become empty ; fo that on obferving the {pace through
which the fticks defcend, the correfpondents may (by the
help of a fimilar apparatus) tell which of the expeéted
events has occurred. But Polybins, finding this contri-
vance adapted only for thofe few occurrences which had
been previoufly written on the fticks, defcribes his own
method, which was far fuperior.
Weare told, however, that /Eneas Ta@ticus colle&ed
together about twenty different modes of writing, which
could only be underflood by perfons who were in the feeret ;
part whereof were his own, and part of them invented by
others; fo that this author feems to have been well verfed
in the art of fecret correfpondence, as it then exited
among the ancients.
‘We hall hereafter have oeeafien to notice fome. of the
fecret modes of writing recorded by ZEneas; but, it will
firft be proper to explain and illultrate the telegraphic in-
vention of Polybius himfelf, which is as follows :
Divide the letters of the Greek alphabet, into five
parts, each of which will confift of five letters, except the
lait divifion, which will have only four. Let thefe be fixed
on a board in five columns. ‘The man who is to give the
fignals is then to begin by holding up two torches, which he
is to keep aloft till the other party has alfo fhown twa. This
is only to fhow that both fides are ready. Thefe firk torches
are then withdrawn. Both parties are provided with boards,
on which the letters are difpofed as formerly deferibed. The
perfon then who gives the fignal 1s to hold up torches on
the left, to point out to the other party from what column he
fhall take the letters as they are pointed out to him. If it is
to be from the firft column, he holds up one torch; if
from the fecond, two; and fo on for the others. He is next
to hold up torches on the right to denote the particular
letter of the column that is to be taken. All this
mult have been agreed on before-hand. ‘The man who gives
the fignals muft have a dioptrical inflrument (dsoreo), confilt-
ing of two tubes, and fo placed as that, by looking through
one of them, he can fee only the right fide, and through the
other only the left, of him who is to anfwer. The board
muft be fet up near this inftrument; and the ftation on the
right and left mutt be furrounded with a wall (regarePeox Bas)
ten feet broad, and about the height of a man, that the
torches raifed above it may give a clear and ftrong light,
and that when taken down they may be completely con-
cealed. Let us now fuppofe that this information is to be
communicated—A number of the auxiliaries, about a hundred,
have gone over to the enemy. In the firlt place, words mult
be chofen that will convey the information in the fewelt
letters poffible; as, A hundred Cretans have deferted, Keries
exciloy a’ nuwy nVlomorncey. Elaving written down this fen-
tence, it is conveyed in this manner. The firft letter is a
K, which is in the fecond column; two torches are therefore
to be raifed on the left hand to inform the perfon who re-
ceives the fignals to look into that particularcolumn. Then
five torches are to be held up on the right to mark the letter
K, which is the laft in the column. ‘Then four torches are
to beheld up onthe left to point out the e (7), which is in
the fourth column, and two on the right to fhow that it is
the fecond letter of that column. ‘The other letters are
pointed out in the fame manner. Such were the puxJos or
TIuprs% recommended by Polybius. Me
As this contrivance deferves particular attention, and
throws great light on acommon mode of writing by cipher,
we fhall here attempt to give a further elucidation of it, by
another example and a diagram.
Difpofe the letters into five rows. or columns; place a
figure over each of them, and another by the fide of the five.
lines: but inftead of q, let x be its fubititute : Thus,
‘
wt
2
F
4
Pp
r
{
t
u
a a!
Provide ten torches, and let fo many be held up towards:
the right hand as may denote the row in which the letter
required is to be found ; lkewife fo many on the left hand:
as fhall point out the place of the. fame letter, ee
rom,
CIPHE R.
from above. Proceed in this operation, till you have
completed the word or fentence to be communicated, as in
the underwritten example; where the firlt figure in each
pair fhews the row, and the f{econd denotes the order of the
letter. which being duly performed, the fpe¢tator will re-
ceive the following information :
RZ ONE PL NG 2 2d £3 > ZSipo NM yh Ate Mees DD
we res rag te fo bid” Daemve ana aa
$3.24 694 1 15 II 34-14 + If. 24.43 .55.11.
i) iS, vase ae Map dy sae ie, a
43.15.
mee
An intelligent reader will perceive that five lights might
do, for the purpofe of reprefenting thefe five differences,
as well asthe ten; nay better, only taking care to paufe
fufficiently after every feparate elevation of the torches,
whether to the right or left hand. It is worthy of remark,
that this very principle for diftant commenication has been
secently adopted, in the conftruétion of a day-telegraph
at the Admiralty! Althoughin the latter there are fix
figns for the purpole of reprefenting figures as wellas letters.
(See the articles Sicnaurs and Tezecraru.) But we
have advanced enough to fhew that the ancients, 2000 years
ago, knew how to maintain fecret correfpondence by fignals.
We fhall next prove that they were alfo acquainted with
feveral means of qwriting by cipher ; although it muft be con-
f-ffed, that the moderns have greatly improved upon their
inventions of this kind.
Le Sicur Guillet dela Guilletiere, in his “* Ancient and
Modern Lacedemon,”’ endeavours to fhew that the Spartans
were the inventors.of writing in cipher; and that their
Scytale were the firlt rudiments of this art. We fuppole
he has taken his account of the cxuréan from Plutarch: but
as feveral modes of fecret writing mentioned by /Eneas
Taéticus are entirely different from this, it by no means fol-
lows that thofe of Aineas were fuggelted by the former ; nay,
we are difpofed to think, with Scaliger, that a little atten-
tion might have developed this cipher with eafe.
The nature and ufe of the Scytale, according to Plutarch,
in his life of Lyfander, was this: When the Grecian ma-
giftrates fent out an admiral or a general, they prepared
two cylindrical pieces of wood with fo much exacinels,
that they were perfectly equal both in length and thicknefs.
One of thefe they kept themfelves, and the other was given
to the military officer thenemployed. When they had any
fecret and important orders to communicate to him, they
took a long narrow flip of parchment, and rolled it round
their own ttaff, in a fpiral form, one fold clofe to an-
other, and then wrote their communication upon the edges
of the parchment. This done they took off the feroll, and
fent it to the commander; who, on receiving it applied it
to his ftaff, fo that the broken and imperfect characters now
became legible. The parchment as well as the ftaff was
called cxurzan. As this contrivance was had recourfe to by
the Athenians and Lacedemonians, in the time of Alcibiades,
Pharnabazus, and Lyfander, we are certain it was invented
at lea(t four centuries earlier than the Birth of Chrift.
Although this confufed fort of writing, as it would ap-
pear upon the unrolled flip of parchment, is not a fuffic‘e it
fecurity again{t deteétion in the prefent fharp-fighted age,
there are other means of fecret writing which even Scali-
ger’s eyes (as bifhop: Wilkins obferves in his “ Mercury”)
could not difcover ; ‘‘and therefore it was too inconliderate
and magiiterial a fentence of him, thence to conclude all
this kind of learning to be vain and ufelefs. It is certain,”
adds the bifhop, that fome occafions may require the ex-
acteft privacy ; and it is as certain, that there may be fume
ways of fecrecy, which it were madnefs for aman to think he
could unfold ;” in which opinion he is f{upported by Vege-
tivs, Baptilta Porta, and lord Bacon, as well as by feveral
more recent judges; fo that Scaliger fhewed greater felf-
confidence than fkill, in pretending he could decipher any
writing that might be invented. Tne author of the prefent
article (who has only taken up this fubject as an amufe-
ment) challenges all the Scalizers in Europe to explain va-
rious kinds of cipher he has recently contrived, and which
clude every rule laid down by his predeceffors.
The learned Mr. Falconer, and fome earlier writers on
cryptography, have attributed the invention of the Lace-
dzmomian fcytale to Archimedes the mathematician; but
we have already afforded the reader evidence of its ufe
in the days of Alcibiades, Pharnabazus, and Lyfander, who
lived nearly two centuries prior to the time of Archimedes;
and Plutarch does not fpeak of this invention as new, or
as being ufed by the Greeks alone, at that early period.
See Plutarch, in his lives of Alcibiades and Lyfander.
We next defcend to the age of Ariltotle, about 350 years
before Chriit, when the art of fecret writing feems to have
aflumed a more regular and fyftematic form; but the au-
thors of that age and thofe following, whofe works have
defcended to polterity, are fo few and imperfeG& as to throw
only a faint light on the objet of our inquiry. We are
ignorant of what was done by Julius Africanus, Laertius,
and Philo-Mechanicus, three ancient Grecians, who treated
on this {ubjeét. Eneas TaGticus, and Polybius, are our
principal guides; the former of whom was contempo-
rary with Ariltotle: (vide “ Knee Vetuftifiimi TaGici
Commentarius, De tcleranda Obfidione, Cafaubono inter-
prete,”? 1610, 8vo.)
neas is faid by Polybius, to have colle&ted and invented
a great number of fecret modes of correfponding ; and
among them, we imagine, areincludedthofe few which he has
briefly recited inthe above named work. He feems to have
approved efpecially of affixing fmall dots to the letters of any”
book or epiltle, written upon a common fubje&, in fuch a
way as only to denote the charaéters expreflive of the fecret
fentiment, all the relt being non-fignificant. He allo recom-
mends the fubftitution of points inltead of vowels, and
gives the two following thort fpecimens :
Divs: Nis: SessS Pi: LCH--R, which fignifies
Dionysius Putcuer.
H-R-CL:D«S V+N:T::+ which ftands for
the words Heractipes VENITO.
This mode may be varied indefinitely ; for it is of no im-
portance what arrangement or number of points is fublti-
tuted for the vowels; and, although we cannot fay this is
very difficult to decipher, it neverthelefs demonftrates the
faét of fecret writing being employed in thofe remote ages.
The fame author likewife mentions the artifice of pafling a
thread through holes in a board or tablet, correfpondin
with the twenty-four Greek letters; which Guitavus Sele-
nus (au affumed name of the duke of Brunfwick and Lune--
burg), who publifhed a folio book on cryptography, A.D.
1624, has therein defcribed more at large. The order of
the threads, expreffing the alphabetical characters, previoufly
fettled by compact, will reprefent any words we plcafe.
There is a great affinity between this method, and that
of tying knots upon a {tring at various diftances from each
other, fo as to agree witha determinate meafure, graduated ©
for the purpofe. Few people would futpect any private
news or treachery to lie hidden in a piece of knotted thread.
Bithop Wilkins has farther illuftrated this device, in the
5th aud rith chapters of his -*¢ Secret and Swift Meffen-
ger;” and we have given a reprefentation upon Plate
II. fig. 1. of the graduated meafure alluded to, Pais.
nots
—
Cre Mik ®.
knots tied upon the thread oppofite to the letters F, L, Y,
from which any perfon may learn how to put this plan into
gecution.
pai {fame effe& will be produced if, in lieu of the knots,
the thread be marked with ink at the proper intervals op-
pofite each letter ; or, if the tablet, or the meafure, be ap-
phed to paper, and dots are imprefled upon it under the
holes or fubdivilions which ftand for the refpetive letters.
The ancients have laid down the principle, which is thus
ealily varied im praétice ; but the merit of this invention be-
longs to them rather than to the moderns.
JE&neas was acquainted with many other modes of occult
writing befides thefe, fome of which are alluded to in his
Poliorceticus, § xxxi. but the greater number are wholly
loft. And it is truly furprifing, that thefe methods of cor-
re{pondence fhould not have been more univerfally carried
into effect by fucceeding generations, fo as to have pre-
vented the lofs of them! Surely the telegraphic apparatus
of Polybius, with five or ten flambeaux, might have been
employed and improved upon, for the moft important mi-
litary or national purpofes; and yet the moderns fcarcely
have dreamed of ufing any fuch means of alphabetical com-
munication till the prefent age! How obvious it feems, that
this contrivance of Polybius, with fome variation in the ma-
terials, fhould be deemed at leaft as applicable for daily ufe,
as it was found to be for nightlyyobfervations! And, how
numerous are the {pecies of ciphers which a man of com-
mon ingenuity would extra& from the principles fuggelted
for fecret writing in /Mneas’s little treatife !
He likewife defcribes feveral ways of fraudulently con-
veying intelligence into a befieged town, &c. For example,
by the application of a manufcript to a fore leg, inftead of a
plaifler or bandage ;—by fewing up an epiltle within the
fole of a perfon’s fhoe, or hiding it under the arm-pit ;—
rolling thin leaves of lead into the form of ear-rings, &c.
after having written thereon ;—putting a bladder into a
bottle of oil, firft inferibing upon it, and inflating it fo as to
fill the bottle completely ;—or writing on a tablet, and
afterwards covering it ever with melted wax ;—to which
are added {ome other fingular propofals, fhewing the fertility
of invention exercifed by the ancients on fuch occafions.
But the ftrangett contrivance was that of Hyltieus, men-
tioned by Herodotus; who, while at the Pertian court,
fent to Ariftagoras in Greece, a fervant affected with bad
eyes, pretending that his hair mult firft be fhorn, and his
head {carified ; in performing which, Hyttieus imprinted
his fecret intention, in legible characters, upon the fervant’s
head, and kept him in clofe confinement til the hair grew ;
when he defired him to travel to Ariltagoras for a perfect
eure, who, on the man’s arrival, repeated the fhaying, and
thus obtained the fecret information traafmitted by means
of the ignorant meffenger. ; ;
As a meflage may be concealed by adopting any arbitrary
marks, (for inftance the dots of Aneas) inftead of letters,
fo likewife by changing their powers, and fubftituting one
charaéter for another; which is faid to have been practifed
in that kindof cabbaiifm which the Jewith rabbies call HAY,
or combination. Bilhop Wilkins has cited examples of this
fort among the Hebrews 5; and it was alfo practifed among
the Romans, as Suetonius relates of Julius Cefar and Odta-
vius Augultus ; the former of whom wrote the fourth letter
initead of the firit, 7.e. D for A, the fifth for the {econd,
the fixth for the third, &c. &c.; and Augultus wrote after
the fame method, only by putting the fecond for the firtt,
and the third for the fecond, i.¢. B for A, C for B, D for
€ ; which confounds the general appearance of the writing,
put is not fufficiently intricate to efcape the ferutinizing eye
Vou. VIII.
of a modern decipherer, However imperfe&t and inadequate
this ancient mode may be, it is quite as good as three-fourths
of thofe ciphers which the principal courts of Europe
truited to, until after the fixteenth century! It isa matter
of indifference, whether we change the powers of the letters,
or invent a new-formed alphabet for fecret writing ; as the
fame rules for deciphering one of them will equally well
apply to the other. And yet we find, for many centuries
after the Auguftan age, that kings and ambafladors con-
tented themfelves with only changing the form of their
alphabets, as if this were any fecurity again{t deteGion !
It demonitrates how little men addi&gd themfelves to this
fubject as a sc1ENCE, while they felt an indifpenfable necef-
fity for having recourfe to it as an arr.
We do not indeed affirm, that there is fo much reafon now
to complain of the negligence of princes and ftatefmen in
this refpeét, as there was formerly ; but we are im poffeflion
of certain faéts, which fhew that the words of lord chancel-
lor Bacon are not entirely inapplicable to our own times,
viz. “ Ifthe ciphers in ufe were good and trufty, feveral of
them woutd abfolutely elude the labour of the decipherer ;
and yet remain commodious enough, fo as to be readily
wrote and read ; but through the ignorance and unfkilfulnefs
of fecretaries and clerks, in the courts of princes, the moft
important affairs are generally committed to week and
treacherous ciphers.’? We have much caufe to doubt, whether
any court in Europe, even at this time (1807), can lay claim
toa cipher, having the three eflential properiies required by
lord Bacon; * rit, That it be eafy to write and read ; 2d,
That it be trufty and undecipherable ; 34, That it be clear
of fufpicion.”? But we refrain from divulging all we believe on
thisdelicate topic :—Verbum Japienti fat ef. Ut may be faid,
that no individual ought to difclofe an infcrutable cipher, un-
lefs he is compelled by imperious circumftances.
The practice of tran{pofing the ordinary letters of the
alphabet, to perplex the reader, was not only reforted to by
the Romans, but alfo by the Greeks, Syracufans, Cartha-
ginians, and perhaps by other enlightened nations. ‘The
ancient Gauls, Saxons, Normans, &c. ufed more commonly
to employ new and uncouth alphabetical chara@ters for fecret
writing ; many examples of which were collected by Tri-
themius, and the other fyftematic authors on polygraphy,
inthe r5th and 16th centuries.
But the method of reprefenting whole words or fyllables
by arbitrary marks, faid to have been firlt introduced by the
old poct Ennius, was much more perplexing, and was en-
couraged by Mzcenas, Cicero, Seneca the elder, Philargirus,
Fannius, Aquila, and Tyro: thoufands of thefe fyllabic
characters may be feen in Valerius Probus, Paulus Diaconus,
Goltzius, and (in 200 folio pages) at the endof Gruter’a
Inferiptions.
Although thofe Tyronian charaGters, as they are ufually
named, were not alphabetical, we oblerve among thema great
many bearing a confiderable refemblance to each other, when
they denoted words beginning or ending with the fame Latin
particles ; fo that this kind of rexuyexduz, or exxuypadice,
was not compofed entirely at random, but according to fome
preconceived fy{tem.
The Tyrontan note, we are told by literary perfons, were
augmented in the time of Seneca to the number of thirteen
thoufand ! And fo completely did they anfwer the purpofe
of fecret writing during the monkifh ages, that an old copy
of a pfalter, found inferibed with thefe characters, was igno-
rantly entitled ‘* Pfalterium in Lingua Armenica.’? Nay,
pope Julius If, employed learned men, without fuccefg, to
decipher them.
Herman Hugo, in his work * De Origine Scribendi,”
-
Aka maintains
CIPHER.
maintains an opinion of this writing having been ufed among
the ancient Hebrews, and that it is alluded to in Plm xlv.
1, and Daniel v. 25 ; but this needs further evidence, and is
no better fupported than the opinion fome men hold of
Englith fhort-hand, which is alphabetical, having originated
from the Tyronian charaéters, which are not alphabetical.
Another ancient fort of writing employed among the
Romans more than any nation befides, was that of abbrevi-
ating words or fyllables, by omitting the final letters, and:
fometimes placing points or dafhes in their ftead. Thefe
figle, as they were called, from the word figillz, ufed to be
chiefly infcribed on ftatues, arms, coins, public records, monu-
ments, &c. forthe fake of brevity, rather than of fecrecy ;
and, therefore, do not particularly come under our confidera-
tion in the prefent article, although moft authors upon Cryp-
tography have taken notice of the srcu.©. (Vide Waltheri
Lexicon Diplomaticum, 1752, and Gerrard’s Siglarium Ro-
Mmanum, 1792.)
To bring thefe hiftorical remarks towards a conclufion,
we fhall now refer to the chief modern writers on the fub-
je of ciphers, whofe names have come to our knowledge ;*
fome of whom, indeed, have treated more formally and co-
pioufly on the art of fecret-writing than others, but all of
them deferve mention, and may be confulted with advantage.
We prefix an aiterifm * to the names of a few authors who,
in our judgment, have principally diftinguifhed themfelves,
and merit an attentive examination.
The firft writer among the moderns, and the man who
may be faid to have led the way in fecret writing, for we
have no work of any importance before his time, was the
* Abbé Trithemius, a Benedi€tine, whofe erudition and
acumen were fuch, that he was fufpected of magical praCtices
-in the exercife of this art. He compofed two extenfive
treatifes; one of which, entitled ‘* Polygraphia,”’ was pub-
lifhed in the year t499, but the other, called ‘* Stenogra-
phia,”’ was not printed during his life. He alfo made fome
progrefs towards the completion of a third work at the in-
itigation of the emperor Maximilian. His “ Polygraphia’’
was tranflated into the French language by Gabriel de
Collange, during the year 1561; but, prior to its appear-
ance, three other authors had written on this topic; viz.
Palatino, in 31540, Bellafo, in 1553, and Glauburg, in
1560: and in the year 1563, the public were prefented with
another original treatife, by * Baptifta Porta, an author of
confiderable merit. Nearly about the fame period, this fub-
je&Q was handled by Cardanus and Bibliander ; afterwards
by *Blaife de Vigenere, Walchins, Ifaac Cafaubon,
* Schottus, * Guftavus Selenus, Gerrard Woffius, Herman
Hugo, Schwenter a/tas * Hercules a Sunde, Wecker, Ni-
-ceron, * Lord Bacon, Cafpi, Scelander, *J. Balthafar Fri-
derici, Comiers, Bafaccioni, La Fin, Dalgarno, . Becher,
Hiller, * Bifhop Wilkins, J. Nicholaus, Buxtorff, Cara-
muel, Wolfgang, * Falconer, Horfley, P. Crinitus, Er-
neft Eidel, J. Gefory, J. C. Amman, Ozanam, * Breithaupt,
* Conradus, Dutton, Davys, Ware, Gravefande, Twifs, De
Vaines, Cafpi, Carpentier, Bifhop Warburton, Staniflaus
Mink, Lucatello, Kircher, Pafchius, Morhof, * Thickneffe,
Hutton, Hooper, Aftle: to whom fhould be added the
mathematician * Dr. Wallis, whofe valuable MSS. on this
fubje& are depofited in the Bodleian library ; and the cele-
brated Marquis of Worceiter, whofe unpublifhed perform-
ance, written A. D. 1659, may be feen in the Harleian li-
brary, No. 2428. We have named the unedited works of
thefe two Englifhmen, becaufe Dr. Wallis’s papers have
been often quoted or referred to by authors, and fome of
them, indeed, have been printed fince his death ; and be-
caufe the Marquis of Worcefter’s “* Centurie of Inventions,”
§ 3d and 4th, contain an evident allufion to the fubje@ of
the above MS. which was not difcovered to be his lord-
fhip’s, until we lately recognized and verified it at the Bri-
tiih Mufeum.
Several authors who have treated largely on diplomatic af-
fairs, likewife givefome account of writing by cipher; among
whom we ought efpecially to nctice the editors of the ** Nou-
veau Traité de Diplomatique,” tome iii. p. ii. §. iv. ch. x.
and the article Cuirrres in the Encyclop. Method :—
‘* Economie Politique et Diplomatique.’” But, we confefs,
that our expetations have been fometimes difappointed in
works of that nature; for where we hoped to find the fci-
ence handled moft learnedly and copioufly, we have found
only meagre and trifling obfervations.
This remark alfo applics to what is written, or rather fto-
len, upon the fubjeét of cipher, in the fucceffive editions of
the Encyclopedia Britannica; wherein we find merely a long
extract from Dr. Hooper’s “ Recreations,” without acknowe
ledgment, or any attempt at improvement! That article
might, perhaps, be well enough adapted for the purpofe it
was originally defigned, viz. as a ‘“‘recreation” for fchool-
boys ; but cannot be regarded as an oraament to the great
national work, into which it has been furreptitioufly tranf-
planted. rm
Lord Bacon refers the praftice of writing by cipher to
the art of grammar, noting it as a deficient branch of know-
ledge; and, in reference’ thereto, it is treated by moft of
thole authors who have written on grammar; ‘ that art,’?
fays bifhop Wilkins, “ in its true latitude, comprehending
all the ways of difcourfe, whether by fpeech, or by writing,
or by gefture, together with the feveral circumftances per-
taining tothem. So that, befides the ufefulnefs of this fub-
ject”? (viz. ciphering) “ for fome fpecial occafions, it doth
alfo belong unto one of the liberal arts.” Now, among’
“the ways of difcourfe’? which have been greatly improved
and new-modeiled of late years, we ought to mention the
art of correfponding by fignals at fea ; an art which the mo-
derns have carried to fo great a pitch of excellence, that
naval officers, in different fhips, can difcourfe with each
other on almoft any topic of importance relative to their
military duties. We fhall here add only a few words con-
cerning naval fignals, as this topic will be hereafter difcuffed
at large ina feparate article. See SiGNats. "
Whether the renowned fea-officers of ancient Greece and
Rome had a fytlem of fignals analogous to that of Polybius
by land, isa queftion which we want evidence to refolve 5
but we are not without proofs of their ufing fome fort of
fignals, however fimple and inadequate we might now ac-
count them. Thus, we read when /Egeus fent his fon to
Crete, that it was determined to difplay a white flag if the
fhip conveyed back Thefeus in fafety ; and in the hiftory of
the Punic wars, mention is often made of certain rude me-
thods of correfpondence ; befides which, Ammianus Mar-
cellinus fpeaks of the vexillarii and /pecu/atores, and fome of
the ancient coins reprefent both flags and ftreamers. Again,
there isa dire& allufion to fignals on fhip-board, by Virgil,
fn. til. 519.— :
‘«¢ Poftquam cun&ia videt ccelo conftare fereno,
Dat clarum e puppi fgnum.”’
Alfo in Amneid ii. 255, before quoted ; which implies
that Agamemnon from his fhip, and Sinon from the citadel,
gave fiznals mutually to each other, whereby they were ena-
bled to -co-operate. But probably thefe methods were as
different from the fiznals by which the operations of modern
navies are regulated, as the Chinefe hieroglyphics are differ-
ent from our alphabetical charaGters. It was eafy to ereét
a flag, difplay a torch, or blow a trumpet; but to multiply
and combire tkefe or fuch like fignals by fea, fo as to form
. letters,
GHP Hey Rs
letters, words, and fentences (either immediately or through
the intervention of numbers) was a {cience to which the an-
cients feem not to have attained.
From the inceffant changes of pofition in fhips at fea, it is
impoffible to put in execution the fame means of conveying
intelligence as we have adopted by land; and, befides this
difficulty, the fpace which can be {pared for the difplay of
flags by day, and lights in the dark, is exceedingly limited
on fhips under fail. The principle, therefore, by which na-
val communications are chiefly governed, confilts in the re-
prefentation of arithmetical numbers ; for which purpofe ten
or twelve different flags, &c. are fufficient, and fewer than
ten would be inconvenient. (See the ** Telegraphic Signals,
or Marine Vocabulary,”’ printed by Sir Home Popham in
1S04, for the ufe of the Fait India captains.) By the art-
ful combination of a few pendants or flags, naval officers
can thus defignate feveral thoufand figures, words, and fen-
tences, which are entered in oppofite columns for the fake
of eafy reference ; and by night they can exhibit lanthorns,
blue-lights, falfe-fires, or rockets, with the occafional report
of guns, in fuch a way as to keep up a regular correfpond-
ence. ‘The lights difplayed for fignals in the dark, mult al-
ways be arranged perpendicularly, to avoid any apparent
change of their relative polition, when viewed from {feveral
fhips at a time.
For example: a fingle light will reprefent 1; two, three,
and four lights, placed vertically, may reprefent 2, 3, and 4;
three lights over each other, two of which are placed at a
certain diftance below, and the upper one thrice as far
above them, will denote figure 5 ; three perpendicular lights,
reverfing the laft order, may ftand for 6; four lights, the
two at cach extreme being at a common diftance, and a triple
{pace between the middle two, will reprefent 7; four lights,
the three lowermoft ones at a common ditftance, and the
upper thrice as far, will fignify 8; four lights, the three
uppermoft at a common diitance, and the lower one at a
triple diltance, may denote 9; a falfe-fire, or a blue light,
will ftand for o or 10; and by the fucccflive exhibition of
thefe, as they are wanted, any number of figures, denoting
particular inftruGtions or communications, can be made with
the utmoft certainty and precifion. ‘To render this example
more clear, we fubjoin the refpective fituations of the lights
as defcribed above: viz.
Lights. Fig. Lights.
° ftands for i fe)
Fig.
fland for 7
So
OrereerO B © O'#4#+**9 0000 000 00
Cy
—-—~,-—) Sy es ee) CY ewN
v
1
a
SY OS CLL
'
.
ioe}
A falfe fire
Age)
The greateft impediment in executing this plan, will be the
proper adjuftment of the lights, fo that they may be diltine-
ly perceived. They fhould be placed at leaft fifteen or twenty
feet apart; and the beft fituation for the fignals reprefent-
ing §, 6, 7,8, 0, will ufually be to hoilt the upper lamp or
lamps at the mizen-peak, and the lowermoft at the enfign
ftaff: but if thofe fituations fhould not be vifible from the
other fhips, let the upper lamps be hoifted to one of the
malts’-head, and the lower ones to the fhrouds ef the fame
matt.
By this method, then, it appears that only four lamps are
fufficient for nightly communications at fca ; and upon fhore,
or when a fhip lies quiet at anchor, a {till {maller number of
fignals would be adequate to every exigency, as we fhall
evince prefently. Some laudable endeavours have been made
to diftinguifh the lamps by different coloured glafles: but, at
a great diftance, thefe colours could not be difcriminated
with certainty, or the lights have been too feeble when feen
through denfe glafles; in confequence of which this pro-
je& has wholly failed of fuccefs, and can never be revived,
except by mere fpeculators.
Another mode of correfponding by cipher, (for all thefe
modes come under this general denomination,)is by ftriking on
two or three bells of various fizes; or by as many different
kinds of audible founds of any other fort, fuch as, 1, a
drum ; 2, a fife; and, 3, a trumpet. ‘We prefer to ufe three,
for alphabetical purpofes, which may be combined. as fol-
lows, fo as to reprefent each letter.
A is reprefented by 111(||N is reprefented by 222
B - - 112 || O - - 223
C - - 113 || P - - 231
D - - 121 || Q_ - - 232
19; - - y22 | R - - 233
13: - = 123 || S - - BIL
G - - 131 || T - - 312
H - - 132 || U - - 313
I - - 133 || V - - 325
J - = 211 || W - - 322
K - > 212 xX = - 323
L s = 213 || Y - - 325
M - - 221 || Z = - 322
Blank, or Nothing — 333
It muft be remembered, that the three different founds
ftand for only one letter; and that a fufficient paufe muft
intervene after each letter, in order to prevent any confufion,
To keep an exaét memorandum of this cipher, it will be ne-
ceflary for the auditor to write either the firures, as above,
or three alphabetical charaéters inftead of them : for inftance,
D for drum, F for fife, and T for trumpet; but, in the ufe
of three flags, fuppcfe red, blue, and white, the letters R,
B, and W, would be fubftituted.
This method of alphabetical notation is greatly preferable
to the ufe of only two fignals, becaufe it is mbre diftin& and
eafy to remember ; whereas, if we ufe but two figns, they
mult be often repeated; and combined for each letter, (i. ¢.
at leait five times) as in the cipher of which the following is
an example: ~
AL: Romie B is nd Oh AALS Bs a Be e
TIGL, TIII2Z, TII2T, T1122, LI2IT, 1212, 12271,
.H I ji aps om bite iu N
TU222y, I2TIT, “T20N2,' 12122, 12211, 12212, 12221,
oO P Q R S “ik U
12222, 2I1If, 21112, 2LI2I, 21122, 21217, 21212,
V WwW X WG Z Nothing
2122%) 12121, 22212, 22223, 22122, 21222
’
Aaz From
C Panic 5
Fromthe preceding alphabets may be feen how diflin&ly any
perion can exprefs his mind by two or three fignals, addreffed
either to the eye or the ear; and in correfponding with
thefe ciphers, it will be found very convenient to isterpofe
the 333, or 21222 (which denotes a blank) between every
word, in order to prevent the confufion that might arife from
an accidentalerror. The effe@& will be the fame, whether
the writer make ufe of arithmetica! charaters, letters, dots,
lines, mathematieal diagrams, or any other fign which admits
of two or three differences. We fhall here add a fpecimen in
dots, according to this laft alphabet of figures; where the
period {tands for 1, and the colon for 2: the words thus re-
prefented fhall be the writer’s name.
d
( For alble
thal
g)h}ilj|k[)
{Or bic dpettle |hli
< Write dje] f
Julius Cefar’s method “ Per quartam elementarum lite-
ram’’ is not only mentioned by Suetonius and Aulus Gellius,
but perhaps is alluded to in Ovid’s fourth Epiftle :—
‘© His arcana notis terra pelagoque feruntur ;”?
which is paying this fpecies of fecret-writing a higher com-
pliment than it would now be thought to merit : for, cer-
tainly, there is no great fkill required to decipher it ; but
the ancients had not then direéted their attention particularly
to this fubject, or they might have difcovered its imperfec-
tions.
The learned Montfaucon, in his « Palezographia Greca,”’
lib. i. p. 36. edit. Paris, 1705, makes the following remark
on the ftate of cryptography among the Greeks: ‘“ Keur-
‘byexOizx, five arcanum {cribendi modum, apud Grecos fre-
quentatum obfervamus. KeurloyexPiacv vero duplici modo
fieri deprchendimus, per commutationem {fcilicet literarum,
ac per novam & inufitatam chara&erum formam : utriufque
fcribendi rationis alphabeta varia, cum exemplis exhibemus
in fpeciminibus undecimi feculi libro quarto ; ubi quam-
lurima non minus fingularia, quam utilia & occulta, recen-
febantai® Accordingly, he gives, at pp. 87, 286, 288,
various alphabets and fpecimens of occult writing, by tranf-
polition or malformation of the common Greek letters ; and
efpecially as it was practifed by Amanuenfes in the eleventh
and following centuries. It is certain, too, that the fame
practice prevailed in much carlier times, even before the
age of /Eneas Tacticus; and, therefore, the Roman empe-
rors moft probably learned this art from the Greeks. (Vide
Paleographia Graca, |. iv. c. v. de Keurloyexfiz.) But
there is great reafon to believe, that all thefe ancient modes
of writing were decipherable by the ordinary rules of
analylis in fuch cafes. We fhall, hereafter, point ont the
rules neceflary to be obferved in deciphering ; and lay
down a few direCiions for the application of common fenfe,
where the fpecies of occult writing does noc admit of any
poftive rule in ics developement.
We have now carried our hiftory of this art down toa
period, in which we take leave of the Greeks and Romans.
Before we proceed, it may be expected that we fhauld iilaf-
trate thefe remarks by more examples: but, fince it would
j{k/I]m
1|m|n|o| p
flelrlalaladoha aan
phers is, that they are too Jaborious, and not incapable of
being deciphered by perfons of ficill in this art. The writer
does not recommend the above mode of dot-writing as very
expeditious, but as fimple; he knows it, however, to be
much lefs operofe than mary ciphers fubmitted to the pub-
lic, and he can affirm that it is fully as difficult to decipher,
as the celebrated plan of Lord Bacon, which he calls writing
omnia per omnia, But, as an example of mere ready and uns
decipherable writing by dots, of his own invention, the au~
thor refers to Plate IIL; whereon he has ventured to engrave
the key itfelf, and yet defies any of his readers to explain the
principle by which it is compofed, or to give him a fimilar
piece of writing.
The molt legible and common ciphers in ufe, conlift of a
new alphabet, or of the ufual characters tranfpofed fo as to
alter their powers: of this latter kind was the cipher of Ju-
lius Cefar and Auguttus; viz.
njo{p it s|t = w (sly?
s|tlu v iw] x y\z ajb fe
q|t
viw x|yjzla
be very expenfive to the proprietors of the Cyclopzdia,
and no peculiar advantage to the inquifitive reader, if we
were to engrave all the arbitrary charaéters with which
fecret-writing has been performed, we fhall fubftitute in
their place fuch marks and figures as are found in the
printing-office ; which will equally well illuftrate the prin-
ciples and practice of the Greeks and Romans, in regard to
the art of cryptography. 5
The methods of Julius Cefar and Auguftus are too
obvious to dwell upon: it is only required of the writer to
put the fecond, third, fourth, or any other, letter of the
alphabet, inftead of that which he generally writes ; as in
the words following, No. I. where we fubftitute the fourth
letter for the firlt, &c. viz. may
No. T.
Multi, et pene infiniti, funt f{eribendi modi.
Pxowl, hw thgh Iqilqiwl, vxqw vfulehggl prgl.
In the fubfequent examples we ufe charaéters of different
kinds in liea of the common Roman letters. A fpecimen
is compofed for cach of the principal European languages,
in all of which the fame mode of deciphering is applicable ;
for it is a matter of perfedt indifference to a decipherer what
form the characters aflume, provided they anfwer (one for
one) to the common alphabet, and are neither more nor
lefs in quantity.
No. IT.
org kytn fe b rb pe Cray arith, kobe’ ynbs
MdpgrpbEMse ple ke or Mynrnyind onpryn, Bas
kon teak pp kon ppsprl, Ppa fron ppypSoppe
Fr kon progn ObykLr pr ken pps .bA0nys-
Dkptsk pWeppdppe Bas kdpln SPopppkele rr
bpansb.
Solution.
How true do T find your words, that real philofophy is
to be preferred before all the gold in the Indies, and the en-
riching of the noble parts of the mind fuperlatiyely exceed-
ing all thofe cabinets of jewels.
No. ITL..
i
uP HE 'R.
No. IIT.
xk sere Ler Syme = Yok f yds
DABSOM MB Wx wyeeyee Qe sag
Goex SSH Ya Osos, BGR ree yan
APO: BUSA, PeUURY ex Bese lb
WA NEY TO Alm IY,
REA, WHS Oceqayeywx "Ay S0-
BY, YebidxPAOm Te yeu; Tees
HRV ARRAS ! YASORESE Fe
Use, GSU Obey asx mba
Wem ypce ok.
Solution.
oit a fon frere fa paffion pour le
ete yous de ore lui bi elle,
quand vous ceflerez d’aimer, repondit le frere; ah mal-
iqt j voire vie.
heureux ! repliqua la iceur, vous jouerez toute vor
No. IV.
+py§t 1§ N§p HL WHTUT4, Jva 7+ HONNY IeHsohi
z§ NWOHS j§p #L IfH§ NfPxOixr) ¥Y HOHHL XzL
+ZHIL NJQVP]YTHL VLNPPLHT ptiifHL Pazzt 1B2y-
HL§PY HIPPNQUNNY, L xopzs WUT ZOPX) HItHHS ¥L
HUQWs vtPPh PAAZLHHY wx faazixx§Ps trasa
HOHHPOIt YOuNHt Xref, Hifxxtrsy zy s2 $7 Sat
giixipy #f2zt N§OUTjvit fyOHuaat, NfzNuwasPy
we fyiig§rat wuz nfrxow w wt HOWHHL Xz4
PZHTL LawoAL XA No§ J§rwf,
Solution.
Ancor io fon di parere, che la toffe contumace lo {puto
con di rado fanguigno e tutti gli altri feoncerti di fanita nar=
rati nella reiatione tranfmeffa,1 quali per lungo tratta di tem-
po hanno afflitto ed afiliggono ancor tuttavia queita Donna,
traggano la lor vera origine dalla Soverchia acutezza, falfe-
dine ed acrimonia del dangue e ditutti gli alin hquidi del
{uo corpo.
No. V.
& 3297'4,92075 20,02,41,89218346,$5 2094.05 32&4,
reales orar
829,297 2 +451,750819,940 92920340:92,3494,95 224.19
K2,92,35919> 20,3195, 19,163 154,5454.24, 558944
Solution.
Poco tiempo defpues de Ja creacion qued6 fujeto el
hombre a las enfermedades y fin duda defde entences empe-
z0 a bufcar los remedios: de modo que el arte de eurar es
cali tan antiguo como el mundo.
No. VI.
S-¥h§ Dh? 33x RS?2, =R2 *y¥h
Bee ai ae MhHKMIYSV? Oh2 DKO
th MULOLE 2 BHIU Oh§ §¥OOhxX-
OkhX ONE whesiyk) RO FR Rb
SE BIPhHKXeYU? YHMZs, OFh% OS
Gi) grehX FO 2h Bypphy. MRie§
RO ep Ht Top
Solution.
Tndien het voorvalt, dat die perfon ons verblicht met hem
te {pelen, ’t welk men nimmermeer moet beginnen als na een
uitgedrukt gebod, moet men geen driftigheit tot {pelen noch
2 : :
yyver om te winnen laten bly ken.
. No. VIL
Bla 8Et+ /df¢. Lewsgr6a, LDF 16aa SLa 4g68/snf
T1695 1£7m6, Sau ldfa ga O1176+b6Go61 DotbA
LOT 16a 84a L€o6atpdqg1 wa T2U d6q1491670.
Solution.
Man mufs alfo arbeiten, als wenn man niemahls fterben
wurde und alfo in Gottesfurcht leben als wenn man augen-
bligt den tod verwartete.
No. VIIL.
RTWB MS ways 99 77 we Samo
92°S7INTNI 999Dw752D, 49°57 ow moy7soseyee
DSawaceys.
Solution.
Equidem non nego quod ex iis quos febris acutiffima
aggreditur, pauci ad fanitatem redeunt,
No. IX.
AvsE cy 4394 S¢ 6 Pop's kzgecy 4th9Sk suineSa ole
gzuminlz § ét ms8 G3 SEz5 5301F 9163 o70mg £4.53 Avla
Sak QS Az seal nS cr Ax ST Sz 1gtAsny szlne Sa gS wsSk
7Eqbz S xzSvl cg af OF nousasqS€ aL cy ElyzxSh yn qSqt
S MGETsSy gos maSX Absa t aan aE 1163 425) 1hgt%
1€7a4976.
Solution.
“Yysis tore of Sinouotores Exutous Evedmuoy riv abpimwwy 6 3: Sed
yaaoKe, Tes xopdloc Upay OTs TO dy epwrors ib nrcy Roervl uc
erwonoy tov Seov tori 6 voq1ns xcch ob copoPnros 20s iwavou dard Tors
« y - Qe 3 , \ ~ » EN ies es
y Barirtia toy Sedd tWodyeriCeras nob wees Els eves Pinlercts
In the beginning of the fifth century of the Chriftian
wzra, Pharamond, and other reigning princes, invented cha-
racters of fingular forms ; and, during the eighth and ninth
century, Charlemagne kept up a private correfpondence
with his agents in the north of Europe by fimilar modes of
deception. Some of thefe alphabets, including that of
Pharamond, are preferved by the noble duke Selenus, and
by Trithemius, We have fele@ed and exhibited (as a
{pecimen of fuch inventions) one of thofe employed by
Charlemagne, in Plate I. Jigure 13 under’ which is feen
Jig. 2. the form of another fecret-alphabet, ufed in Eng-
land during the reign of Alfred, copied from a MS. in the
Bodleian library. (Vide “ Aftle’s Origin and Progrefs of
Writing, chap. vi. 2d edit. Lond. 1803.”) Rudolphus IV.
archduke of Auftria, who lived in the 14th century, was
alfo much verfed in the practice of cecult writing ; but
there is no complete cryptographical work extant, of earlier
date than that of Trithemius, compofed under the fan@ion
of Maximilian, at the end of the 15th century: foon after
which period, Frederic II. Ele@or palatine, was induced,
by a feperititious outery againit the author, of having
practifed diabolical mytteries, to commit the original MS.
of Trithemius’s curious book to the flames! 1!
In Pate I. fig. 6, we have reprefented the cipher ufed by
cardinal Worley, at the court of Vienna, in 1524.— Fig. 7,
is the cipher which fir Thomas Smith employed at Pans, mn
1563.— Fiz. 8, is fir Thomas Chaloner’s cipher from Madrid,
in 1564.—Fig. 9, is that of fr Edward Stafford, from
Madrid, in 1586. And, among the royal MSS. depofited
in the Britifh Mufeum, we have met with various other
ciphers of the fame period; fo that they had then become
of general ufe in the different European courts.
The form of thefe ciphers, it will be obferved, was very
arbitrary and capricious: but the mode of fecret- writing
underwent
Col -P Bde Re
underwent a confiderable change in the next century, by
the frequent adoption of arithmetical figures inftead of
letters; as we perceive, for example, among the confidential
epiltles of Charles I. to his fon. (Vide MSS. N° 132, and
6988 Bibl. Harl.). We fubjoin part of one of this unfor-
tunate monarch’s letters, dated Aug. 1ft, 1648, as a
fpecimen of that kind of cryptography ; and, tor an ex-
planation of many more of them, we refer to Dr. Wallis’s un-
publithed colle€tion in the Bodleian library at Oxford :
*«T thought that 379 : 361 : 185 :28: 2 : 239: 59 : 6o
793 3 52.214 2, 120:2379 2902.37: 1: 255 > 6: 2-212 ;
B79 : 196: 379 : 245 «339 = 245 = 339 > 303.3329 > 165
: 246: 16: 50: 212: 196: 444 5 149213 244 232: 14
226): 70)! 98i:43/ : 65 2320) 5133 h2 3280's. 17): 407s 297
3a: 97 020d 2 230): OS's 05 20 : 23); 220 2670 Cun
152: 5:65: I command you, &c.”
In another letter, the king writes to his fon from New-
port, (Nov. 7th, 1648,) and adds, ‘* Let none decipher this
but yourfelf, or my lord Culpeper ;”’ fo that this cipher was,
doubtlefs, regarded as very faithful, and was, perhaps, en-
trufted to only a few confidential perfons about his majeity.
Somewhat prior to that critical time, however, we find
Charles I. ufing a cipher which could by no means be
depended on for fecrecy. We allude to an alphabet chiefly
compofed of 24 fhort ftrokes, Varioufly fituated upon a line ;
and by which, April 5th, 1646, he wrote to the earl of
Glamorgan, afterwards the marquis of Worcelter. Sze
Royal Letters, Bibl. Harl. vol. itt. 118, 119, &c.
We have exhibited this Ogham-like alphabet in Plate I.
\ fig. 4. It has been often referred to of late, as a curious
and very fimple invention. (See Biograph. Britan. vol. 1.
page 433, Art. Baves): and it was the accidental fight of
this alphabet in the year 1804, which firit caufed the author
of the prefent article to inveltigate the nature of ciphers ;
for, till then he had never ouce thought or read on the
faubje&. During the courfe of this examination, he dif-
covered (in Bibl. Harl. N° 2428.) the marquis of Wor-
cefter’s peculiar, and hitherto inexplicable, mode of writing ;
which feems to be briefly defcribedin the 3d and 4th of his
lordfhip’s * Centurie of Inventions :” of which, likewife,
there is in the Britifh Mufeum a fair manufcript copy, dated
“from Auguft ye 29th, to Sept. ye 21th, 1659.”
We here extra&t the marquis’s words regarding this
cipher, from pages 5th and 6th of his * Inventions ;” which
were firft written by him in 1655, but not printed till
1663, as we learn from the work itfelf. ‘* A cypher and
charaéter fo contrived, that one line, without returns and
circumflexes, ftands for each and every of the 24 letters;
and as ready to be made for the one letter as the other.”
*¢ This invention, fo refined and fo abbreviated, that a
point only fheweth diftin@ly and fignificantly any of the
24 letters; and thefe very points to be made with two
pens, fo that no time will be loft ; but, as one finger rifeth,
the other may make the following letter; never clogging
the memory with feveral figures for words and combinations
of letters; which, with eafe and void of confufion, are thus
{peedily and punctually, letter for letter, fet down by naked
and not multiplied points. And nothing can be lefs than
a point ; the mathematical definition of it being, Cujus pars
nulla. And a motion no {wifter imaginable than /emtquavers
or relifbes, yet applicable to this manner of writing.””
This cipher was one of the extraordinary inventions for
which the marquis applied to parliament, in hopes of a re-
muneration ; but as he was not known to have either printed
an account of it, or to have left any explanation of it in
writing, many fhrewd conjectures were afterwards made
touching the nature of this noble author’s contrivance. We
fhall notice one of thefe gueffes, before we proceed to give a
farther defcription of it. (See Gent. Magazine, vol. xviii.
p- 55.) An anonymous gentleman propofes “ to rule his
paper with quarternions of lines, as if for mufic, and to let’
the points reprefentiag the letters be placed on, or between
thefe lines; one-half of the alphabet to afcend in the feale,
and to be done with common ink ; the other half to defcend,
and to be done with red ink; the red ink pen in one hand,
and the black in the other.” The propofal, however, does’
not at all cerrefpond with what we believe to have been in-
tended by the marquis of Worcefter: it is allo much too
complex and tedious for ordinary praCtice, and would be far
from anf{wering the purpofes of a faithful cipher.
As this nobleman was one of the mott ingenious and
extraordinary perfonages of his time, and may even be con-
fidered asa prodigy in mechanical aquirements, we take the
liberty of ftating all we know of his difcoveries in feeret
writing ; partly divulged by himfelf, in his very fcarce vo-
lume of “Inventions ;”” and partly colleG@ted from a MS.
in the Harleian Library, No. 2428, which bears clear inter-
nal marks of its origin, although it was not fuppofed to be
his, until we lately convinced the Librarian. ‘ The one-line
cypher’’ and mode of dot-writing are thus entitled, in the
above manufcript: “¢An explanation of themoftexa& and moft.
compendious way of fhort writing ; and an example given by
way of queftions and refolves upon each fignificant point, prov.
ing how and why it {tands for fuch and fuch a letter, in order
alphabetically placed in every page.””—His method of
writing is fhewn in fig. 5. Plate 1. An engraved page is
given to write upon, in which are made horizontal rows of
o€tangular fquares or chequers; and a itrait line is to
be drawn from the centre towards the circumference of thefe
{quares, in different pofitions and of various lengths, for each
letter of the alphabet. ‘Thus 4 is a fhort horizontal ftroke,
made to the right hand, and not touching the circumfe-
rence; J is the fame ftroke pafling clofe to the cireumfer-
ence ; Ris the fame ftroke, going beyond the circumference ;
£,N,and W, are reprefented by a fimilar ftroke, in the
oppolite dire@tion, but varying in their lengths. By a like
method, he fuggelts that we may write with a dot or fingle
point only ; which is to be placed at a certain diftance,
and in a certain direétion, from the centre of the o¢tagon,
for each letter of the alphabet.
The Marquis propofes this contrivance for the purpofe.
of writing with fecrecy, as well as with brevity ; and leaves
it to the will of any perfon to change the value or name
of the letters, as it may fuit his fancy or intention: ‘* The
points to be written,” fays he, ‘* and reade as they precede or
as they are the one above the other ;” and for the fake of
expedition as well as “ for hufbanding of paper,” he advifes
**to omit all needleffe and unfounding letters,” as we do in
fhort-hand writing.
This ingenious plan is better adapted for fecret writing,
than for fhort-hand; and yet we do not think it would be
difficult to decipher any thing written in this way, unlefs
the writer were to change the power of his letters very fre-
quently, becaufe he would not otherwife be able to elude the
common rules for deciphering.
That the Marquis had turned his attention particularly to.
this fubject, is ftrikingly evident from the following paflages,
contained in his very curious book; entitled, —‘* A
Centurie of the Names and Scantlings of Inventions by me
already practiced.”
No. 5. ‘¢ A way by acircular motion, either along a rule
or ring-wife, to vary any alphabet, even this of points;
fo that the felf-fame point individually placed, without
the leaft additional mark or variation of place, fhall ~—
or
_ —_=. =
6. PA ER.
for all the 24 letters, and not for the fame letter twice in
ten (heets writing; yet as eafily and certainly read and known
as if it {tood but for one and the felf-fame letter conttantly
fignified.””
No. 6. “ How at a window, as far as eye can difcover
black from white, a man may hold difcourfe with his cor-
re{pondent, without noife made or notice taken; being ac-
cording to occafion given and means afforded, ex re natd,
and no need of provifion before hand; though much better
if forfeen, and means prepared for it, and a premeditated
eourfe taken by mutual confent of parties.’
No.7. “ A way to do it by night as well as by day,
though as dark as pitch is black.”
No. 32. ** How to compofe an univerfal charaéter methodi-
cal and eafie to be written, yet intelligible in any language ;
‘fo that if an Englifhman write it in Engiifh, a French-man,
Italian, Spaniard, Irith, Welth, being {collars, yea, Grecian
or Hebritian, fhall as perfeétly undcritand ‘it in their owne
tongue, as if they were perfect Enclifh; diftinguifhing the
verbs from nouns, the numbers, tenfes, and cafes as properly
exprefled in their own language as it was written in Iing-
lifh.”’
No. 33. “ To write with a needle and thred, white or
any colourupon white, or any other colour ; fo that one ftitch
fhall fignificantly fhew any letter, and as readily and as eafily
fhew the one letter as the other, and fit for any lan-
guage.”
No, 34. ‘To write by a knotted filk ftring, fo that every
knot fhall Ggnify any letter, with comma, full point, or in-
terrogation, and as legible as with pen and ink upon white
paper.”’
No. 35. ‘¢ The like by the fringe of gloves.”
No. 36. “ By ftringing of bracelets.”
No. 37. “‘ Pinck’d gloves.”
No. 38. ‘* By holes in the bottom of a fizve,”’
No. 39. “ By a lattin or plate lanthorn.”
40. ** By the fmeil.”’
Noe} 41. ‘ By the tafle.”” i “¢ And by thefe three
42. © By the touch.”
fenfes as perfectly, diltinétly, and unconfufedly, yea as
readily, as by the fight.”
. No. 43. ‘* How to vary each of thefe, fo that ten thoufand
may know them, and yet keep the underltanding-part from
any but their correfpondent.”’ ;
No. 51. ‘* A rule of gradation, which, with eafe and
method, reduceth all things to a private corref{pondence,
moft ufeful for fecret intelligence.”
No. 52. “ How to fignify words and a perfect difcourfe
by jangling of bells of any parifh-church, or by any mu-
fical inftrument within hearing; in a feeming way of tu-
ning it, or of an unfkilful beginner.”’
No. 75. ‘* How a tape or ribbon-weaver may fet down
a whole difcourfe, without knowing aletter, or interweaving
any thing fufpicious of other fecret than a new-fafhion rib-
bon.”
; No. 76. ‘* How to write in the dark as ftraight as by day
wht.”
© Oak limits, for this article, do not allow us.to enter into
' the merits of every propofal made public, for fecret corre-
{pondence: but, having before obferved that arithmetical
figures had become very common in the reign of Charles J.
inftead of the ciphers previoufly employed, we fhall here offer
a few remarks on their ufe. The celebrated and profound
mathematician, Dr. Wallis, deciphered a great number of
intercepted letters, written in fitrures, about the period of
that King’s unhappy controverfy. We have already faid,
that copies of thefe deciphered papers are depofited in the
: 8 »
Bodleian library, at Oxford ; and in the prefatory obferva-
tions to.that collection, Dr. Wallis declares his judgment
of them in thefe words : ** I would not defire to ufe a better
cipher than moft of thofe ****. I do fcarcely believe that
it will be an eafy matter to contrive a way more intricate
than the fgure-cipher, ordinarily now in practice, with the
like convenience for ufe: and, if any affect fome more per-
plexed than thefe, I doubt not but his fuppofed better way
will be equally obnoxious to a difcovery; or elfe will be
extremely tedious in ufe, both to him that writes by it, and
to him that is to read it, that it will not admit of any toler-
able difpatch.” (See alfo Mr. Davy’s Effay on Deciphering,
p- 17.—General, Dictionary, vol. x. p. 93 ; and Biographia
Britannica, Art. Wallis.) This acute author was very
different from Scaliger, in his opinion of fecret writing : for,
while the latter ridiculed the idea of inferibing what could
never be developed, becaufe he was able to decipher the
Lacedezmonian Scytale; Dr. Wallis, on the contrary, who
had gone fifty times deeper in this fcience than Scealiger, ad-
mits ** there may be a cipher fo intricate as fhall be beyond
the art of man to difelofe.”
No perfon except Vieta, (a French mathematician, who
was employed by Francis 1.) had difcovered near fo much
fkill in deciphering, as Dr. Wallis. He feems not to have
known of what Vieta did in this way, nor had he any aid
from other perfons in his refearches : we are, therefore, dif-
pofed to pay the greatelt deference to his judgment as a
decipherer 3 but we beg leave to obferve, that it does not
follow he fhould know a's the pofiibilities of this multiform
art. He confidered the ** figure-cipher’? as extremely in-
tricate ; we doubt not, that others may be contrived equally
fo ; and that fuperadded to this quality, a cipher may be ad-
apted for greater difpatch, ‘both to him that writes by it and
to him that isto readit.”? Befides which, we think it even
pradticable to invent a cipher, exclulive of its having thofe
properties, which fhall not be much expofed to fufpicion ;
and this, we conceive with Lord Bacon, to be a very eflen-
tial requifite in certain fituations of the writer and reader,
though not fo in all cireumftances,
There isa method of employing figures, common enough
inthe prefent day, which was much recommended by Bap-
tift Porta and Cardanus ; and therefore not a novel invention :
but Blaife de Vigenere, whofe treatife on ciphers was pub-
lifhed at Paris in 1587, has pointed out the inconveniences
of this method; which confifts in referring to words or fen-
tences by the corre{ponding pages and lines of fome rare
printed book, in the poffeffion of the confederate parties.
Now, fays Vigenere, (p. 208.) this plan is too laborious,
and flow in operation, for bufinefs requiring to be deferibed
in detail ; it will not always provide the words fought for,
at leaft without an immenfe deal of pains, perhaps after ex-
amining through fome hundred pages ; and, unlefs a diétion-
ary beufed, the names of perfons, places, or profeffions, can
be found in no book whatever: befides which, many acci-
dents may lead toa difcovery of the key or book fo confided
in; and many others may happen to deprive us of that re-
fource, or to render it inconvenient to depend on fuch a ftra-
tagem. The writing, moreover, is always liable to fufpi-
cion, if intercepted. Sothat this plan is wholly unfit for cx-
tenfive corréfpondence, as in diplomatic affairs; and ought
rather to be accounted a childifh than a {cientific invention,
however it has been fanétioned by modern practice, among
military commanders and officers of {tate.
We do not obje& altogether againft the ufe of figures and
numeral charaéters, as if they were unfit, on account of their
form, tobe adopted in cryptographical writing ; but we ob-
ject to the above manner of applying them, becaufe as sy
: : tals,
¢ LEeeE R.
rals, denoting only the pazes or lines of a book, thefe figures
cannot be written with any tolerable expedition, and mull be
a perpetual check to the reader’s progrefs in deciphering.
This method, it muft be acknowledged, poffeffes the property
of being undecipherable without the key : for, let us fuppofe
(in writing the exemple given by Mr. Thickneffe) « That
the parties agree to correfpond by Newton’s firlt edition of
Milton ; and thereby direét each other, in their letters, to fuch
- apage, fuch a line, and fuch a word; it may be afked,
Who would be ableto find out, that their writing page 7,
line 2, words 3, 4,5, and vol.ii. page 8, line 19, word 4,
—the fame page, line g, words 3, 4, aad 5—was to fay
‘ The weftern empire is degenerated into licentioufnefs ?”
without being told that thefe words will be found in the firit
and fecond volume of Farneworth’s tranflation of Machiavel’s
works : the firlt three words from his hiftory of Fiorence, and
the remainder from his political difcourfes on the firlt Decad
of Livy.” Ali this will be granted; but as the property of
being intricate is not the only one we fhould look for in a
good cipher, we conclude again by obferving, that the above
plan is puerile and unfcientific to the laft degree; confequent-
ly, that it is wholly unfit for men of bufinefs, or forany befides
incidental occafions, where very little writing is required.
By referring to a dictionary, indeed, thefe objections are
partly leflened, becaufe the words may be found with great-
er facility than in other books; but even fuch a refource is
very infufficient for all occafions, and it {till muft prove a
mott tedious and operofe employment, in writing only ten
or a dozen lines. The French Encjclopédits deferibea much
more feafible mode of writing by figures, which, neverthe-
lefs, we cannot approve as the beft method of cyphering.
It is this :
The correfpondents agree on a {et of figures to reprefent
all the letters of the alphabet, and alfo g great many words
or phrafes. Several ways may be adopted for the repre-
fentationof any important letter, or phrafe, of frequent occur-
rence ; fuch as the five vowels, or the words France, emperor,
king of this and that nation, ftates-gereral, cardinal fo and
fo, the allied armies, an ambaffador’s name, &c. &c. &c. All
thefe different words are to be claffed and arranged in fuch a
manner as to be eafily found, both in writing and decipher-
ing ; and another claffification mult be made, in which the
figures ftand firlt, and the words in an oppolite column.
The fentences and entire paragraphs, which are of prime im-
portance in a difpatch, fhould be written wholly in cipher,
without any intermixture of common letters 5 becaufe, by
the aid of particles and conne&ting words, the terms of great-
er confequence, on which the fenfe hinges, wili often be dif-
covered, and the matter in debate or agitation will thus be
underitood. Itis alfo proper to write the lines fo far apart,
that the decipherer may fubfcribe the figures when he reads
the difpatch ; as in the following fpecimens :
Le minillre dici eft tout dévouéaux intéréts de la France :
102 25 44 9g 1200 7c 350 888
c’eft le fruit de dix mille Louis femées a propos.
54 5 20 60 1ot 19. UeOT So
The negociation is interrupted by the pertinacity and
2 999 4 fe) 50 iKerere) I4
unreaforablencfs of the deke, who probably has received
350 gt 86 5 "7 680
private inftru&tions from his court.
1110 21 89 231
Means may be devifed for deteting the unfaithfulnefs of
a fubordinate fecretary, who is fuppofed to have com-
municated his cipher to a foreign power. The court may
demand of its minifer abroad, or the minifter require of his
court, fomething quite the reverfe of what is defired, it being
previoufly agreed by the cabinet that a certain mark or pri-
vate fign denotes oppolition or annihilation, with refpeG to
the particular thing annexed to the faid fign. This fpecial
mark may be called the annulling fign, and will ferve for
various important ufes; as has often been proved in conduét-
ing naval fignals, where the enemy was within fight, or where
any miltake happened to arife in the courfe of a correfpond-
ence, By the help of fuch an artifice, when a cipher has
been accidentally difcovered, or traitoroufly difclofed, a ficil-
ful negociator will be able to deceive the enemy, and lead
him into inextricable errors, which may finally turn to"the
advantage of his own caufe.
Sir J. Ware, colonel Vallancey, and Mr. Aflle give re-
markable accounts of the Irifh Reganography, by means of
peculiar alphabets, called by the barbarous name of Ogums,
or ophape of which there are three kinds: the firlt is com-
pofed of ftrokes and marks, that derive their power from
certain pofitions with re{pe@ to one horizontal line, over, or
urder, or upon, which they are drawn ; this principal line
ferving for a rule or guide, its upper part being named the
left, and its under part the right. The charaGers or fhort
ftrokes, by their number or fituation, reprefent, not only
ingle vowels and confonants, but alfo diphthongs and triph-
thongs.
In our Plate 1. fig. 3. is feen one of the moft fimple
Oghams, copied from Sir J. Ware’s ** Antiquities of Ireland’?
(vol. ti. p.20.), which would not be very difficult to de-
cipher; becaule, although the number of diagonal and per-
pendicular marks is confiderable, it muft be obvious how
many of them reprefent one letter, and it will be feen that
they make up but twenty-fix in all. The marks for diph-
thongs and triphthongs do not occur in anciert manufcripts,
the vowels being reprefented fingly, as ae, not ¢, &c.
Therefore an Ogham having diphthongs, fuch as that we
have feleGted, cannot be regarded as of ancient date.
The fecond and third kinds of Ogham ufed by the ‘Irifh
differ chiefly in this: that the letter 4 or ¢ is placed firft, in-
ftead of a; or, that the mark for one of thofe Jetters is fub-
ftitated for all the vowels, by doubling or reverfing it, and by
its frequent repetition, fo as to confule the writing. (See
“ Traétatus apud Hibernos veteres, de occultis feribendi for-
mulis, feu Artificiis Hibernice Ogum diétis ;”’ a MS. lately
given to the Britith Mufeum by the Rev. Dr. Miller.)
Several {pecimens of Irifh Oghams are engraved in the fe-
cond edition of Mr. Aftle’s Hittory of Writing ; a work re-
plete with interelting matter on various points connected
with that fubject in general, but extremely deficient on fhort-
writing (ftenography), and fecret-writing (cryptography).
Upon thefe two departments of theart, we feel a defire, if
opportunity fhould permit, of laying before the public fome
relults of our own inveftigations and practice ; though we can-
not indulge the vain opinion of our feeble efforts, which Tri-
themius entertained of his learned labours : (Pref. ad Maxi-
mil. lmperatorem, Polygr. p. 100.) * In manibus jam
habeo grande opus, quod fi unquam fuerit publicatum, totus
mundus mirabitur.”? See the article SrENOGRAPHY.
It might be thought an injuftice to the memory of the pro-
found and noble chancellor Bacon, not to {tate in detail what-
ever his lordfhip has written upon ciphers ; as fome men of
acknowledged ability (for inftance, bifhop-Wilkins and Mr.
Faiconer), have confidered his propofal fuperior to every
other. Mr. Falconer calls it * the mo{t ingenious method
extant ;?? and the bifhop of Chefter fays, ‘* ‘This way of
writing is juitly to be preferred before any other, as contain-
2 ing
EE
C0PlH ER.
ing in it more eminently all thofe conditions that are defir-
able in fuch kind of inventions, viz.
“¢ y. ?Tis not very laborious either to read or write.
© 2.?Tis very difficult to be deciphered.
«© 3. Tis void of fufpicion.”’
We find alfo the following encomium in Mr. Thickneffe’s
Treatife ; “'Thofe who are acquainted with lord Bacon’s
great depth of capacity, will readily agree with me that a fe-
cret method of writing contrived by a man of his amazing
penctration, muft be fuperior to all others, as indeed it 1s,
and contains the higheft degree of cypher.”
We copy the illuftriovs Verulam’s own propofal, out of
Dr. Shaw’s edition of his works, vol. i. p. 141—145.
«There are feveral kinds of cyphers ; as the /mple ; thofe
mixed with non-fignificants; thofe confilling of two kinds
of chara€ters; wheel-cyphers, key-cyphers, word-cyphers, &c.
There are three properties required in cyphers, viz. ; (1.) that
they be eafy to write and read; (2.) that they be trutty and
undecypherable; and, (3.) if poflible, clear of fufpicion.
For, if a letter fhould come into the hands of fuch as have
‘a power over the writer, or receiver, tho’ the cypher itfelf
be trufty, and impoffible to decypher, ’tis (till fubjeét to ex-
amination and queflion; unlefs there be no room to fulpec
or examine it.
s¢ There is a new and ufeful invention, to elude the exa-
mination of a cypher, viz. ; to have two alphabets, the one
of fignificant, and the other of non fignificant letters ; and
folding up two writings together ; the one conveying the Se-
cret, whilft the other is fuch as the writer might probably
fend without danger. In cafe of a ftri€t examination about
the cypher, the bearer is to produce the non-fignificant al-
phabet fer the true; and the true for the non-fignificant :
by which means the examiner would fall upon the outward
writing ; and finding it probable, fufpect nothing of the
inner.
« But to prevent all fufpicion, we fhall here annex a
cypher of our own, which has the highelt perfection of a
cypher ; that of fignifying omnia per omnia ; any thing by
every thing; provided only the matter included be five times
lefs than that which includes it ; without any other condi-
tion or limitation. The invention is this; firft let all the
letters of the alphabet be refolved into two only, by repe-
tition and tranfpofition : for a tranfpofition of two letters,
thro’ five places, or different arrangements, will denote two
and thirty differences ; and confequently fewer, or four and
twenty, the number of letters in our alphabet ; as in the
following example :
** A biliteral alphabet, confifting only of a and 6 changed
through five places, fo as to reprefent all the letters of the
common alphabet.
A= aaaaa I = abaaa R =baaaa
B = aaaab KK = abaab S = baaab
C =aaaba L. = ababa T = baaba
D = aaabb M = ababb V =baabb
E = aabaa N_ = abbaa W = babaa
F =aabab O = abbab X = babab
G = aabba P = abbba Y =babba
H = aabbb Q =abbbb Z = babbb
«Thus, in order to write an 4, you write five a’s, or
‘aaaaa; and to write a B, you write four a’s, and one 4,
er aaaab ; and fo of the rett.
“ And here, by the way, we gain no {mall advantage;
Ver. VIII.
as this contrivance fhews a method of exprefling, and fieni-
fying one’s mind, to any diftance, by objeéts that are either
vifible or audible 5 provided only the objects are but capable
of two differences ; as bells, fpeaking-trumpets, fire-works,
cannon, &c. But for writing, let the included letter be re-
folved into this biliteral alphabet :» fuppofe that letter were
the word Jy ; it is thus refolved :
F 1b Ys
aabab ababa_ babba.
© Let there be alfo at hand two other common alphabets,
differing only from each other in the make of their letters,
fo that, as well the capital as the fma!l be differently fhaped,
or cut, at every one’s difcretion: as thus for example, in
Roman and [talick ; each Roman letter conitanily repre-
fenting A, and each Italick letter 2.
“ The firft, or Roman Alphabet.
AY val K, k. INS
Babs de yal Vi v
Circ M, m. U, u
D, d. N, 1. W, w.
Ee sviex O, o. X, x
ee Peps W5 °y:
rs ee 2 qs Z, 2%
Ets ibe Ss E:
Tor S, 8.
All the letters of this Roman Alphabet are read, or
decyphered, by tranflating them into the letter A, only.
“ The fecond, or Italick Alphabet.
4A, a. TE. Theres
Toh dip J bey |
(Gots M, m. U,
D, d. Ny, 2. W, w.
£, ¢. (i Ok XG
Ef P, pe HE ER
G, g. Q; gq Zy &.
A, he ene
Bee Os se
« All the letters of this Italick alphabet are read by tranfs
lating them into the letter B, only.
“ Now adjuft or fit any external double-faced writing,
letter by letter, to the internal writing, firft made biliterate ;
and afterwards write it down for the letter, or epiftle, to
be fent. Suppofe the external writing were, Stay sill J come
to you ; and the internal one were F/y ; then, as we faw
above, the avord Fly, refolved by means of the biliteral al-
Hae EF L NC
phabet, 18 zabab ababa _babba,
ter by letter, the words, Stay till [ come to you ; obferving the
ufe of my two alphabets of differently fhaped letters: thus,
aabab ababa_ babba
Stayt ilico metoyou,
whereto I fit, let-
« Having now adjulted my writing, according to all my
alphabets, I fend it to my correfpondent; who reads the
fecret meaning, by tranflating the Romar letters into a’s,
and the Italick enes into d’s, according to the Roman and
= lialick
CIPHER.
Ttalick alphabets ; and comparing each combination of five
of chem with the biliteral alphabet.
“© ‘This dotrine of cyphers has introduced another, rela-
tive to it; viz. the art of decyphering, without the alphabet
of the cypher, or knowing the rules whereby it was formed.
‘This indeed is a work of labour and ingenuity, devoted, as
well as the former, to the fecret fervice of princes. Yet, by
a diligent precaution, it may be render’d ufelefs; tho’, as
matters now ftand, ’tis highly ferviceable. or, if the cy-
phersin ufe were good and trulty, feveral of them would
abfolutely elude the labour of the decypkerer; and yet re-
main commodious enough, fo as to be readily wrote and read :
but through the ignorance and unfkilfulnefs of fecretaries and
clerks, in the courts of princes, the moft important affairs
are generally committed to weak and treacherous cyphers.”
It becomes us to offer our opinion with extreme diffidence,
in prefuming to criticife the produétion of a man fo highly
diflinguihed for his capacity and acutenefs. But we cannot
refrain from believing, that this contrivance of lord Bacon
will appear to moit perfons too operofe and flow of exe-
cution for public bufinefs ; of which, indeed, we delire no
better proof, than that it has met with {fo little encourage-
ment from official and regular practice. It muft always be
deemed a ferious inconvenience attending his lord{hip’s plan,
that it requires, at leaft, five times more labour than is re-
quifite in.ordinary writing. Whereas, ifa triformed alpha-
bet were to be invented in heu of this, and regulated by
another alphabet compofed of three letters inftead of two,
the fecret writing would then bear only a triple proportion
to common writing, and the trouble of an amanuenfis might
thus be greatly diminifhed.
A fecond point on which we beg leave to exprefs our
doubts, is, Whether this cipher be infallibly fecure againft
the fcrutinizing eye of a diligent examiner? For, if the
reader were to place a mark of diltinGtion between every
fifth character, reckoning the five as one letter, we afk,
Why might not this writing be-liable to a difcovery as well as
any imple cipher, and on the fame general principles? Nay,
Mr. Falconer himfelf confeffes it may, notwith{tanding the
* compliment he pays to the noble author for his ingenuity
and learning. Neverthelefs, we think it will be granted on
all hands, that lord Bacon’s mode, if it had not been pub-
lithed, would have poffeffed one rare and valuable property,
beyond the ciphers previoufly invented, namely, that of
being fcarcely at all expofed to fufpicion ; and therefore, in
this refpeét, it is entitled to efpecial attention and praife.
Bifhop Wilkins avails himfelf of the fact, that two figns
repeated, as in lord Bacon’s alphabet, or three combined in
a certain order, will ferve to communicate our thoughts;
and he improves upon it in the following manner: Let
there be two bells of different notes, or one bell and fome
other loud found, as that of a mufiet, horn, drum, &c. Ac-
cording to the plan of a biliteral alphabet, a man may ex-
prefs any letter by two fuch different founds, repeating them
five times. Butif the founds were capable of a triple dif-
ference, then each letter may be exprefled by a threefold
found ; and if they contain a quintuple difference, or con-
filted of five founding inftruments, every letter might be
fignified by two of them only ; as we have fhewn already
with two flambeaux, and as will be further obvious from our
fubfequent remarks.
He quotes a flory from John Baptift Porta, in lib.i. cap.
6. of Ins work, * De Furtivis Literarum Notis, vulgo de
Ziferis,’? who relates, that when the citizens at the fiege of
Navarre were reduced to the greatett extremity, they commu-
nicated their wants to their diftant friends by difcharging va-
rious kinds of cannon in the night time, according to a pre-
determined order ; by which means they obtained fuch fup-
plies as they needed, and preferved their city. But the
mott curious propofal for the management of founds in cor-
re{pondence, is that of expreffing letters and words by the
ordinary notes of a mufical inftrument ; which bifhop Wil-
kins believed might be adapted ‘for a univerfal language,
and the writing of them for a univerfal charaéter,’”’ not by
expreffing words, ‘‘but things and notions.” Then, fays
he, ‘there might be fuch a general language as fhould be
equally fpeakable by all nations and people.”
We are not fanguine enough to expeét the learned bi-
fhop’s plan, of recovering the world from the Babel-confu-
fion, will very quickly take effe@ ; and, certainly, the {pe-
cimen of mutical writing which he has exhibited is very un-
likely to anfwer that purpofe. Mr. Thickneffe thinks,
‘* writing performed by an harmonic alphabet would be the
mott void of fufpicion of all others:’? both he and the bi-
fhop have therefore given an alphabet of this kind, and they
both prefume on his lordthip being “the only writer who
has mentioned the method of writing by mufical notes ;’
wherein, however, they are both miftaken. For Auguftus,
the duke of Brunfwick (alias Guftavus Selenus,) in his
* Sy{tem’ of Cryptography,” lib. vi. cap. 19. exbibits va-
rious {pecimens of writing in that way ; and does not elaim
the invention himfelf, but afcribes it to count Frederic of
Oetingen. Nay, it is pretty clear that Trithemius was not
ignorant of this device ; fince he declares, in his epiltle to
Boftius, A.D. 1499, that he could difcourfe by playing
on the organ or finging, **ludendum in organo vel cantan-
dum,”’ which feems to be the propofal above mentioned,
or fomething very like it.
That we may not appear to have flighted fo curious a pro-=
pofal, we will offer a few remarks on this fubje& ; and beg
our readers to confult Plate Il. figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5;
where we have given an harmonic alphabet, and feveral
{pecimens of mufical writing, in illuftration of the prefent
article.
If four or five charaGters be amply fufficient, by combina-
tion and repetition, to denote every word or idea we can ex
prefs, it is certain that feven mufical founds are more than
fufficient for the fame purpofe. But we mutt learn to diltin-
guifh between thefe founds, as they would be reprefented in
ordinary writing, and the {cientificarrangement of them, fo as
to form a mufical compofition: for thofe two refults may
happen to be as different from each other, as the chattering
of a magpie and the orations of Cicero, or as the jumbling
of letters in a box, and the adjultment of them by a typo-
grapher.
It is true that the feven mufical notes are enough in re-
{pet to number, (for feven notes will afford 5040 varieties
or combinations, withont repeating any of them); but we
are not therefore to conclude, that they can be made to co-
alefce and harmonize, according to the precife order and re-
lation we fhould with to ufe them in alphabetical writing.
Articulate founds are reprefented on paper, &c. by cer-=
tain fub{titutes ealled letters, which poffefs whatever quality
we may choofe to impofe on them: but harmonic tones are
not at all controulable by arbitrary laws; their inherent
powers are fixed by nature; they cannot, therefore, be
made fubfervient to our pre-conceived methods of f{peech,
or our eftablifhed notation by letters ; and, if they are com-
pelled to affociate with thefe, it muft be managed by the
{ubverfion of our common language, and adapting its ftruc-
ture to the natural qualities of mulical founds. ‘This being
our opinion, we fhould as foon expect a man to converfe in
two
OUP HER:
ewo different languages at once, or the wind to blow in two
oppolite direétions, as the laws of harmony to obey any ex-
iting plans of articulation*and writing. See the article
Harmony. ;
Having thus freely given our deliberate view of this fub-
je&t, we lay before the reader fome obfervations of Mr. Phi-
lip Thicknefle, who has laboured more earneftly than any
other author to enlift the powers of harmony into the fer-
vice of cryptographers. As his opinion differs from our
own, we do him the jultice to adduce his words at fulllength.
In the fpecimens of mufical compofition, however, we have
corrected feveral of that gentleman’s errors ; fo that his re-
marks will not fuffer any lofs, from our oflicioufnefs.
«© Bifhop Wilkins, in his chapter relative to a language con-
fifting of tunes and mufical notes, without any articulate
found, fays, ‘If the mufical inftrument that is ufed for this
purpofe, be able to exprefs the ordinary notes, not only ac-
cording to their different tones, but their times alfo, then
may each letter of the alphabet be rendered bya fingle found;
whence it will follow, that a man may frame a language,
confifting only of tunes, and fuch inarticulate founds, as no
letters can exprefs, which kind of fpeech is fancied to be
ufual among{t the lunary inhabitants; who,as Domingo Gon-
fales hath difcevered, have contrived the letters of the al-
phabet upon the notes after fome fuch order.” But the fpe-
eimen the bifhop has given, (by writing Gloria Deo /oli by
minums, on mufical lines,) will inftantly appear to any one
the leaft converfant with mufic, that being without harmo-
ny or time, it mult have no meaning, or that fome hidden
matter is thereby difguifed. I fhall therefore endeavour to
write down an alphabet by mufical notes, in fuch a manner,
that even a mafler of mutic fhall not fufpect it is to convey
any meaning, but that which is obvious; and [ am per-
fuaded an alphabet of mufical notes may be fo contrived,
that the notes fhall not only convey the harmony, but the
very words of tke fong, fo that a mufic-matter, (which is
too often his defign) may inftru@ his female pupil, not only
how to play upon an inftrument, but how to play the fool
at the fame time, and impofe upon her parents or guardians,
by hearkening to his folly, impertinence, and wickednefs.
When a mufic-mafter has once taught his female pupil to
underftand a mufical alphabet, and fhe will permit him to
carry on a fecret correfpondence, he may fend her daily a
1efion which fhe may repent having learned as long as fhelives.
«* In the plate annexed, I have given a mufical alphabet
{ Plate U1. fig. 2.), and under it a {pecimen to explain more
fully my meaning (See Plate II. fg. 3.). If a mutic
maiter be required*to play it, he will certainly think it an
odd, as well as a very indifferent compofition ; but neither
he, norany other perfon, will fufpect that the notes convey
alfo the two following harmonious lines from Dr. Gold-
{mith’s ‘* Deferted Village :”
© Near yonder copfe where once the garden {mil’d,
And {till where many a garden-flow’r grows wild.’
‘¢ Now, it may be fo ordered, that the plain notes, i. ¢.
the crotchets and minums alone, compofe the alphabet, and
that neither flats nor fharps, nor the {maller notes between,
(which may be placed as mere graces, and meant to de-
ceive) have any thing to do with the reading ; fo that the
decypherer would not fo readily know -how to proceed,
and many people there are, who will think it impoffible to
be made out without the key ; yet I am perfuaded, one who
poflefies a very moderate turn for fuch bufinefs, would read
at in a very fhort time.
“< If the words of a fong could be thus conveyed by the
notes, as well as the air, it would, exclufive of the contri-
vance, be of infinite fervice and eafe to ladies who fing: in-
deed, it feems, to thofe who are not acquainted with mufic,
almoft inconceivable, how a perfon at firlt fight, fhall be
able to read the bafs and treble cliff, together with the
words, and play two parts and fing one, at the fame time.
It is certaim that two moficians night, by a very little
application, carry on a correfpondence with their inttru-
ments: they are all in poffefiicn of the feven notes
which exprefs a, 6, c, d, es fp gs and know by ear
exactly when either of thofe notes are toned; and they
are only to fettle a correfpondence of tones for the remain-
ing part of the alphabet: and thus, a little praétice might
enable two fiddlers to carry on a correfpondence, which
would greatly altonifh thofe who did not know how the
matter was conduéted. Indeed, this is no more than what
is called dadylugy, or talking on the Singers, which I have
feen done, and underftood as quick, and readily almolt, as
common converfation.
“ A fecret correfpondence may be carried on by mufical
notes, or by communicating the words of a fong, by the
fame vehicle which points out the time and harmony, and
this may be done (withoutshaving any knowledge of mufical
compolitions) by any common piece of mufic whatever. ‘To
do this an alphabet muft be formed, as in Plate I]. jig. 25
or in any other manner; for it may be contrived much
better for the purpofe. ‘
«Then take any piece of mufic (but fuch asis compofed of
the greatelt variety of notes will be beft) and copy it ont
upon ruled mufic paper, leaving one row of blank lines be-
tween, i. ¢. thofe lines on which the fecond or bafs is ufuaily
written. When you have copied the whole out, draw
ftraight lines on the bafs chit, exa€tly under thofe which di-
vide the time inthetreble. Suppofe you would write,
« My time, O ye Mufes,’ &c. look for the note which is m
in your alphabet, and then for y; now, fuppofe there are
eight or ten notes between the m and the y, then thofe are
to be marked as nulls on the bafs cliff, juft under each note,
by that mark which in mufic imports a refi, which is this 7,
and the confederate who has the key, knowing that te
reft-notes are nulls, only makes ufe of thofe which are open,
or which may be pointed out, by inferting other notes ¢x-~
actly under them in the bafs cliff: and if the under notes
are placed three notes lower on the lines than thofe in the
treble are, they will in that cafe be in harmony, and the
refts between, being in fuch an order, will prevent any fuf-
picion, except to thofe who underftand mufic ; and yet
even thofe who do, would hardly fufpeét that the notes of
lady Coventry’s minuet implied, as it might, an affignation
in Grofvenor-fquare : or,“inltead of the refts being under
the nulls, as they will of courfe be very frequently, they might
be placed only under thefe notes which convey the reading,
and then the bafs cliff would appear as bufy as the treble,
and tend the more to perplex the decipherer, as he could not
be fure, but both lines were employed to conceal the private
writing ; indeed where letters fall very diftant from each
other in the treble, it might be fupplied, and frequently too,
on the bafe cliff, and fignified by a dot, or fome other mufi-
cal character, placed near the treble, more immediately aboye
it. A letter thus written in cipher would difconcert even
a good decipherer, and throw him out of the methodical
way of coming at the fecret contents: indeed, I rather
think it muft be come at more from ingenuity than method.
«© This, however, is a hint only, how this kind of cipher
may be completely made ufe of, rather than a perfe&t me-
thod ; but Lam perfuaded, that a good compofér of mutic
would be able to write any common epiftle, with the affift-
ance of the treble and bafs cliff, fo as to have very few null-
Bbz notes 5
COP SE TE) RO
notes; and the fecret meaning infantly obtained by thofe
who are in poffeffion of the harmonic alphabet. Or, fup-
pofe every crotchet or minum, which is to exprefs a letter,
is written with the tail of the ote downwards, and all the
nulls upwards; this indeed, might occafion fome awk ward-
nefs in the appearance of the mufic, but it would not tend
at all toa difeovery: but ftill, what I think praéticable is,
that an harmonic alphabet may be fo contrived by a good
compoter of muiic, that every note fhall be expreffive of a
letter, and convey the words of the fong as perfectly to the
eye, as they dothe harmony to the ear. The compofer of
an harmonic alphabet, fhould -be careful to include thofe
notes which are molt frequently ufed, into his alphabet ; and
rhofe, | think, are on or between the five ruled mufic lines;
but ke mutt carefully avoid having any of thofe notes, al-
ready fo weli known, to exprefs a, b, c, d, e, f, g, keeping
their proper place; for that would be the firft coniideration
of an ingenious decipherer.
«¢ Now, if this art of writing fecretly by mufical notes,
was to be practifed, I queition whether a decipherer, to be
expert in his art, muft not only bea matter of languages,
but even adifciple of Apolle. However, according to the
mufical alphabet annexed, provided a letter is written by
it, and the aétive notes well corded between with nulls,
upon the fame lines, which might be known to be fuch, by
the tail being turned up or dowgp, or charaéterized by the
mark for a beat, a fhake, a trill, a paufe, a flat, or a harp,
it would be {carce poffible for a decipherer to make out, with
certainty, the fenfe; and this method, unpublifhed, would
be leaft liable to fufpicion; for who, that examined a fuf-
pected meffenger, would think an old fong, without words,
in which perhaps the meffenger’s tobacco or fouff might be
put, contained the fecret he was to convey? Nor could an
ordinary meffenger, either by bribes or threats, difcover any
thing more, than that the bearer was ftrictly charged to de-
liver that piece of mufic, into which he puts his tobacco, to
fuch a particular perfon.
“It may feem at firft difficult to remember what letters
the notes imply, and I fhould have thought fo too, had not
the making out of the alphabet only, imprefled my mind
with the remembrance of every letter; and yet I cannot boaft
of having a good memory; but upon trying the experiment
in my family, I find that it is attainable, by writing them
down two or three times, without any farther trouble. In-
deed, to remember a name, or a word, it is beft done by writ-
ing it down, though it be only with the finger upon a table,
without any mark, as the having turned the form of the
letters by the hand, will greatly affiit the memory.
“ Bifhop Wilkins thinks it poffible, that if inarticulate
founds can be contrived, to expre{s not only letters and words,
but things and notions, then there might be fuch a general
Janguage formed, as might be equally fpeakable by men of
all nations, and fo reftore to us what we loft by the fecond
general curfe ; which is yet manifefted unto us, he fays, not
only in the confufion of writing, but alfo in fpeech. But I
am apprehenfive this univerfal language may fleep quietly
with the ‘ flying chariot,” the fame author was once fo
buly in conftructing.
** In the fpeeimen given (on Plate II. fig. 3.) of fe-
cret writing by the harmonic alphabet, it mutt be obferv-
ed, that every note implies a letter alfo; and, confequently,
under fuch a reftraint, it can only have the appearance, and
be the piéture of mufic without the harmony: yet it is fuch
a piture as mutt pafs unfufpeGted by all who do not under-
ftand mufic perfectly, and by many who do; at leaft thofe
who do would moft likely confider it only a wretched attempt
to compofe nrulic, without fufpefting that the notes con-
veyed two lines of true poetic harmony, from that {weet
poem of Dr. Gold{mith’s, ** The Deferted Village ;”? and,
therefore, this method is, in one refpeé, to be preferred to
every other yet practifed, of fecret writing; 7. e. thatit is
leatt liable to fufpicion. An itinerant fidler, or muficiaany
with his dog’s-eared mufic book in his pocket, might get
admittance into, or from a town befieged, unfufpecied. A
tune might be pricked down in his book, among many
others, and he might be defircd to give a copy of it to any
particular perfon where he is going, without fuipeéting the
mifchief, er good office, he is employed to execute, and con-
{-quently unable to betray the fecret; and though fufpicion
fhould arife, how will the decipherer know which, among a
great number of mufical airs, conceal the fecret informa~
tion?
«© In this cafe, a good decipherer fhould be a good mufi-
cian alfo, that he may pick out the moft uncouth and con-
itrained compofition ; for that would melt likely prove to
be the harmonic epiitle. ‘Therefore, to obviate this, and to
render the matter lefs liable to fufpicion, and much more
difficult to be deciphered, (in Plate Il. fig. 4.) an air,
compofed of treble and bals, according to the rules of
true compofition, is given. In this plate there are a great
number of null notes to fill up, and to complete the hare
mory. The confederate, who is in pofleffion of the key
and alphabet, will know the null notes by their tails being
all turned upwards ; and therefore, he pafles over them, and
takes down in order from the bafs and treble cliff thofe
only which are turned downwards, a circumftance which
would greatly perplex the decipherer; firlt, to find out
whether all the notes were active; fecondly, whether the
bafs and treble cliff were both employed; and, laftly,
which were the null notes: yet this method is not with-
out fome inconveniences, and fuch as would create fufpicion
or furprife, in an examiner who underftands mufic. For,
being confined to turn all the nulls one way, and the a€tive
notés the other, it muft fometimes happen, that both mut be
occafionally conftrained, and the tails frequently turned con-
trary to the ufual praétice of writing mulic.
‘© Tc is poffible to render this method of writing {till more
fecret, by placing a very thin bafs under the treble, and to
put refts, &c. under fome of the aéiive notes, and to point
out the other by a mixture of liquor (of which there are
many) that would not appear till the paper is held to the fire,
dipped in water, or fine duft thrown over it; and, under all
thefe impediments, it would be very difficult to come at the
fecret matter: yet it is what a good decipherer would not,
I believe, give up asa thing not to be done.
“ Were I, however, under a neceffity to fend a letter of
the utmoft importance, which was to pafs through the
hands, or under the infpeétion of cautious examiners, I
fhould think a good piece of harmonic compofition, with-
out any words annexed to it, the fafeft and moft fecret ve-
hicle to convey it under. In letters, where it is neceflary to be
particular, as to the day, month, or even the hour, that may
be done by a kind of fhort hand : for it would be very unfafe
to write, though in cyphers, Dear Sir, at the top of a letter;
or your humble fervant at the bottom ; or even the month, the
year, or the day of the month, as thofe words would be firft
examined by a decipherer. To avoid any of thefe clues,
therefore, where the month and the day are to be given, it
may be conveyed according to the Quaker’s dye-way,—Let
the twelve firft mufic lines be confidered to ftand for the
twelve months of the year, and then counting from the firft,
to the thirty-firft, the days of the month. If therefore I
would date my letter the 8th of April, a fmall dot on the
fourth line preceding the firft note, as in Plate Il. fig, 4.
would -
Conk THER,
would imply the fourth month, and a little dath acrofs the
eighth line,in the fame manner, would fhew it to be dated the
eighth day of the fourth month; and a little x from the firit to
the twelfth line, would imply any particular hour in the
day ; or an o the hour of the night,
“It is very certain, that if {uch a fentence asthe fpecimen
in P/. IL. fig. 4, contains, can be conveyed by a few lines
of mufic, a long letter may eafily be framed, within the com-
pals of an Italian air in {core; nay, that any Italian piece of
mufic of a tolerable length, may, by writing it with the tails
properly turned up or down, according tothe {pecimen here
given, be made the vehicle of a letter, ora piece of important
information; and {till more ealily might a good compofer con-
vey the words, and the harmony alfo, by the fame charaCers.
s I am convinced that a good compofer of mulic, either
by framing the harmony by the alphabet, or the alphabet by
the harmony, may not only render every note active, but by
harmonic alphabets, might write two letters on different
fubjeéts, one in the treble cliff, and the other in the bafs ;
and it is evident, therefore, from the fpecimen I have given,
that the words of a fong may be conveyed by the harmony;
for any judicious finger, by dividing properly the words, and
repeating them, as is ufual in finging fongs, may fing thofe in
due time, with the air which conveys them: and though I
confefs I fee much harm might arife from it, yet it may be
right to obferve, by the bye, that an harmonic letter thus
written could not eafily be brought home with any degree
of certainty (efpecially where nuil notes are employed) fo as
to convié the writer in a court of juftice; yet I cannot
think myfelt guilty of an injury to fociety, in pointing this
method out, as it may be productive of much good, as well
as of mifchief; for fecret writing is abfolutely neceflary on
many important occafions of ftate.’””
“< It therefore might be right for foreign embafladors, or
princefles, who are feparated from their families, by foreign
alliances, to be in poffeflion of fome kind of mutical alpha-
bet, by which they may write, or receive letters, which, are
not fufpeéted to be fo. The prefent mode, I believe, is, to
do all this bufinefs, by what is obvioufly writing in cipher ;
and that too, by fome method which has long been in ufe, the
key to which, I have more than reafon to believe, moft of the
princes in Europe are in poffeffion of. I will hardly believe
that the K of , for inftance, is a ftranger to every
mode of cryptographical writing by the feveral princes and.
ftatesin Europe. How often do we hear of a courier being
murdered, and his difpatches carried off ? and for what other
purpofe but information? and without the key, to decipher
letters fo written, to what purpofe fhould they be intercept-
ed by fucha deed? Ihave conlidered every method of fe-
cret writing which I have heard of, either of ancient or mo-
dern practice, and 1 fubmit it to the reader’s confideration,
whether writing by an harmonic alphabet is not, of all
others, the moft void of fufpicion : perhaps I fhould fay was
not ; becaufe, having publifhed it, the feeret is divulged.”
The reader is now in pofleffion of all the arguments by
which Mr. Thickneffe endeavours to recommend the prac-
tice of mufical writing ; and we doubt not that this author
has done his bett, in compofing the {pecimens alluded to: but
we will venture to predict, that no good judge of mufi-
cal compofition would miftake his picces for the produc-
tions of a majler.—We have added, in Plate Il. fig. 5.
another fpecimen by a different hand, cepied from the
Encyclopedia Britannica ; which, however, contains only the
treble, and is as unfupportably poor and unharmonious as
fig. 3.-—We allow that fig. 4, having both the bafs and the
treble, looks more like mufic, after the alterations we
have made; but if it were perfeCtly correcied in the mee
I
chanical part, it till would be called bad harmony and a pus
enile compofition by any real judge of mufic. This latter piece
might very poflibly pafs without fufpicion ; and then, it fig-*
nifies nothing what faults it contains : only, let it not be held
up for imitation, while the tails of fome notes are turned the
wrong way, the treble and bafs ill adjufted to each other, and
the feveral component parts of the {pecimen do not (or, at
leaft, did not, before we amended it) accord truly in time!
If the difficulty of condu@ing a correfpondence in this way
be fo great, and the labour of compofing it fo confiderable, we
fhould rather give the preference to Lord Bacon’s idea of
a bi-formed alphabet ; which is not more liable to {ufpicton
than the mufical cipher, and is much lefs intricate, as well as
better adapted for the ufe of perfons unfkilled in harmonics.
The mere circumftance of expofure to /ufpicion may eafily
be fhunned, by interlining, or writing acrots any common
epiltle with diluted acids ; as for inftance, with one part of
oil of vitriol, mixed in ten parts of water, which will be ren-
dered vilble only when the paper is held to a fire. Au-
thors mention the fame pecuharity in a faturated folution of
Jalammoniac, and the juice of onions; or, we may write wiih
a itrong decoGtion of galls, which will not be apparent, until
the paper has been wafhed over with a folution of copperas.
(See the article Ink.) Another method of preventing fuf-
picion, infilted on by Schottus and others, is this:
Take two pieces of palteboard or {tiff paper, through which,
cut long fquares, at different diftances, as you will fee in the
following example. One of thefe pieces you keep yourfelf,
and the other you give to your correfpondent. When you
would fend him any fecret intelligence, you lay the pafteboard
upon a paper of the fame fize; and in the {paces cut out,
you write only what you would have underftood by him, and
then fill up the intermediate {paces with fomewhat that makes
a different fenfe with thofe words.
| Tthall be | much obliged to you, as reading | alone |
engages my attention [at | prefent, if you will lend me
any one of the | eight | volumes of ‘the SpeGtator. I
hope you will excufe | this | freedom; but for a winter's
If
I [fail | to return it foon, never truft me for the time
J evening, | I | don’t | know a better entertainment.
| to come. |
A paper of this fort may be placed four different: ways,
either by putting the bottom at the top, or by turning it
over; and by thefe means the fuperfluous words may be the
more eafily adapted tothe fenfe of the others.
This is an cligible cipher, fo far asitis free from fufpicion,
but it will do only for fhort meffages : for if the fpaces be fre-
quent, it will be very difficult to make the concealed and ob-
vious meanings agree together ; and if the fenfe be not clear,
the writing will be liable to fufpicion.
Tt would be an endlefs tafk, which we by no means attempt,
to lay before our readers all, or even half, the various methods
propofed for fecret writing. By far the greeter number of
them, efpecially the more ancient ones, are infecure; and
however their re{pective inventors may have held them up to
public notice, the art of deciphering has of late been fo ably
cultivated, that very few indeed are entitled to full confi-
dence in-a time of extremity. Mr. J. Falconer, who has
fhewn uncommon induftry and acumen in this way, be-
lieved ‘ that the moft fure cipher, practicable in a current
converfe, may make a difcovery;”? and ‘‘ if you once un-
derfiand the rules for deciphering in one language, ie
€}
CLP ER.
he) you may really ard without refervation, in a few hours,
underftand as much of any other language as is needful to
reduce it out of cipher.”? With like confidence, the learned
Conrad, author of ‘* Cryptographia Denudata”’ thinks this
branch of the art is fo completely infallible ** that the explica-
tion of any fecret writing may be fecurely undertaken fora large
wager.” We willendeavour to condenfe the belt rules given
for this purpofe, not only by both the above authors, but by
other perfons fkilled in deciphering ; to which we fhall add,
occaforally, fome practical remarks of our own.
A writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine, (June 1761), al-
though he acknowledges himfelf not verfed in fecret alpha-
bets,” but who “happened to hit upon one’? which gave
him an high opinion of his own abilities, was fo prefump-
tuous as to affirm ‘it might be demonttrated that there ne-
ver hath been invented, and that it is impoffible to invent,
another cypher which fhall not be inferior to his by very
many degrees.” This overweaning conceit is not at all un-
common in fuch cafes. Perfons who have never ftudioufly
applied to this fubject, are apt to fancy the art of writing
by cipher is ealily acquired, and that what they “ happened
tohit upon,”’ perhaps without mature deliberation, is incapable
of a difclofure : whereas they who have moft ferioufly weigh-
ed all the fubtleties of this art, confefs that it is a very diffi-
cult matter to write by any alphabet, admitting of a current
ufe, without hazarding a difcovery of the fecret.
‘The two earlieft fyitematic authors, whole cryptographic
labours have defcended to pofterity, viz. Trithemiusand J.
Baptift Porta, appear to have entertained very high notions
of their refpeétive difcoveries ; but before the end of the
fixteenth century, it was found that no method then invent-
ed could efcape deteétion, when fubmitted to the examina-
tion of Vieta. (See Did. Moreri, art. Vieta). The modes
of writing employed more than forty years afterwards, from
A.D. 1642 to 1652, when our countryman Wallis flourifh-
ed, were alfo deemed inferutable by their refpeétive advo-
cates, until this able mathematician proved the contrary.
And although fome general rules may be laid down for the
affitance of decipherers, it is to be obferved, ‘‘that every
new cypher, being contrived in a new way, does not admit
any conftant method of finding it out; but, (fays Dr.
Wallis) hethat will do any thing in deciphering, muit firlt
furnifh himfelf with patience and fagacity; and make the
beft, conjeCtures he can, till he happen upon fomething that
he may conclude with for truth.”? (See Davys’ Effay on De-
ciphering, &c. 4to. 1737.) Many writers have handled this
fcience with great learning and ability : but, for an enumera-
tion of them, we refer to Breithaupt’s “ Ars Decifratoria,”’
1737 ; wherein will be feena regular hiftory of its progrefs,
e{pecial’y as it relates to deciphering on the continent.
Dr. Wallis properly remarks, that ‘all perfons are not
qualified or capable of acquiring the art of deciphering,
and that a certain degree of acumen is requifite for this pur-
pofe ; indecd, thofe who are equal to the taflk, are not al-
ways willing to give the labour and time neceflary to accom-
plith their defign.”? (Letter to Leibnitz, Jan. 16, 1698).
Wa are therefore not to wonder that fo few perfons attain
to a moderate degree of excellency, or even endeavour to
cultivate this art, in any fingle age. It is not only requi-
fite that a &udent fhould meet with a quantity of writiig
{uitable to the difficulty of the cipher he examines, ‘without
which,”’ fays Dr. Wallis, ‘‘ he may eafily fail of fuccefs ;”?
but he muft obtain all the collateral information poffible, re-
lative to the language in which the cipher may probably be
wriitten,— the period in which it was compofed,—the device
moftly ufed in that period,—the quarter from whence it
-comes,—the place whither it was deitined,—the perfon for
whom it was intended,—and fuch other external circum-
ftances as will lead to a difcovery of the bufine(s in agitation;
for a decipherer needs all the incidental aids within his reach:
he mutt learn to fortify himfelf previous to the engagement,
* & conblium in arena capere.””
We have mentioned the Lacedemonian feytale as one of
the molt ancient ways of fecret correfpondence, (but not in-
vented by Archimedes, as Trithemius and others fuppofe);
and, therefore, it may be proper firft to thew the means of
fruitrating the defign of that contrivance. Mr. Falconer,
atter Scaliger, propofes to join the edges of the paper tege=
ther by a ferpentine revolution, fo as to.unite both portions
of the divided letter, which will give the circumference of
the icytale to frame a ttaff by ; or you may add piece to
piece, fays he, after the firit letter is joined, until the folu-
tion has been completed. But Mr. Thickneffe wonders that
Scaliger did not think of a much more ready method ; that
is, by cutting the {croll quite through the middle between
the half letters, and then, by applying the two broken
edges of the letters together, on a table, they will appear
perfeét fo asto expofe the reading. ;
Something hike the plan of Polybius, for correfponding
by flambeaux, 18 generally practifed during a war at St.
Roak, a high fituation near Gibraltar, to inform the gover-
nor of Cadiz of the number of men of war off Gibraltar,
or the number which have failed out of the bay, &c. which
might be difconcerted by exhibiting the fame kind of lights
at the fignal houfe on Gibraltar-hill, at precifely the fame
time when the Spaniards fhewed theirs. Mr. Thickneffe
tells us, the Spaniards, by thofe lights, expreffed letters and
figures; nay, that he had even acquired their method in
fome meafure, but dared not difclofe it to the Englith go-
vernor, ‘ fearing a court-martial and a cafhirement: for L
do infift upon it,”? adds he, ‘*that a governor fo: ignorant
or indolent as not to defeat fuch a kind of correfpondence,
would be wicked or fooi:fh enough to punifh any officer who
prefumed to diftate to him,” as it would be called. ‘* Yet
every information of this kind may be defeated, and falfealarms
given to the Spaniards at Cadiz, by a governor who would
take half the trouble to ferve his country which he does to en-
rich himfelf and diltrefs thofe under his command.”’ See p.33,
of * A Treatife on the Art of Decyphering,” 1772.
In examining a piece of writing performed by newly in-
vented charaéters, we fhould endeavour to afcertain whether
the number of them correfponds, or nearly fo, with the or-
dinary number of alphabetical letters. We may fometimes
deteét a weaknefs in the writer, of having fele&ted his moit
fimple marks either for the vowels or the firft letters in the
alphabet, «nd his complex marks for the confonants or the
letters moft remote from a, 8, c, &c. We muit obferve
which of the characters, whether taken fingly or combined,
occur the ofteneft in the whole {pecimen ; and of thefe, pro-
bably, the moft frequent will reprefent ¢, a, 2, o; e being
muchmore common thanthe reft of the vowels, but u and y are
even lefs frequent than many confonants.
Endeavour next to afcertain the beginning and ending
of words, which are fometimes diftinguifhed by {paces, or
points, or nulls, interpofed ; but, however it be done, you
muft expe& thefe figns to occur after every few letters, and
the frequency of their occurrence may ferve as fome guide.
When you have found out the diitinétion between words,
take particular notice of the order, number, frequency, and
combination of the letters in ‘each word ; and firft examine
the charaGers of which the fhorteft monofyllables are com-
pofed. Remember, 1. That no word can be without a
vowel: aword of one letter mutt therefore be a vowel, or
a confonant with an apoftrophe, 2. That the vowels are
more
Ca Py E wR:
more frequently doubled at the teginning of words, than
the confonants ; indeed, the latter are only donbled in the
beginning of Spanith and Welfh words. 3. That the vowels
moftly exceed the confonants in fhort words ; and when the
double confonants are preceded by a fingle letter, that letter
isa vowel. 4. That the fingle confonant which precedes or
follows double confonants, is , m,n, orr. 5. That the
letter g is always followed by w; and when two different
charaéters occur, the latter of which is often joined with
other letters, but the former never found alone, nor joined
with any than the latter, thofe charaéters ftand for gw,
which two, except in a few Scotch names, are always fol-
lowed by a vowel. 6. That although every language has
fomething peculiar in its ftru€ture, the foregoing obferva-
tions will apply to all the fpecimens we have given of the
European tongues in the feveral parts of this article. See
efpecially the ferics of examples above, in eight different lan-
guages.
Inthe Englith, let it be remarked, that and and the are
more often found than any other words; 4 is frequently pre-
ceded by w, c, /, and #; y is feldom ufed in the middle of a
word; the double letters /7 and /s appear frequently at the
end of words; ed, ty, /y, ing, and tion, are very common
terminations ; em, in, con, and com, are frequent prepofitions;
a, i, and 9, may ftand alone ; 0 is often followed with w; eis
much more frequent in the beginning and end of words than
in the middle; and in Englifh, thee is continually employ-
ed, as in yes, yet, her, never, me, we, the, he, fhe, they, ye, feey
fee, be, ever, [peed, need, deference, excel, exce/s, &c. ‘Though
this will not hold good in the Latin, as e, and, are equally
frequent in the latter, and next to thefe, a and uw; but o not
fo common as any of them: and yet, in the Spanifh and Italian,
o occurs very frequently. When you meet with a character
doubled, in the middle of a ward of four letters, it will be ne-
ceffary to confider what words of four fyllables are fo fpelt.
It is probable the vowels e oro, are thefe ; as meet, feel, good,
book, look, &c. In polyfyllables, where a double character ap-
pears inthe middle of a word, it is for the moft part a con-
fonant ; andif fo, the preceding lettér is always a vowel.
Obferve alfo, that i, in Englifh, never terminates a word,
nor a or wexcept in flea, fea, you, or thou: again.by com-
paring the frequency of the letters, you will generally find e
occur the ofteneft ; next, 0, then a, andz; but w, and y, are
not fo often ufed as fome of the confonants, efpecially s and
z. Among the vowels, ¢ and o are often doubled; the reft
fcarce ever ; and e and y often terminate words, but y is much
lefs frequent, and confequently eafily diftinguifhed.
To find out one con/onant from another, you muft alfo
obferve the frequency of d, 4, , r, f,t; and next to thofe,
¢, fy g, /, m, ws; ina third rank may be placed 4, &, p, and
lattly g, x, x. This remark, however, belongs to Englifh : for
in Latin common confonants the are /, 7, /, ¢; next c, f, m,
n; then, d,g,h, p,q; andlaftly, 4, x, 2%. But the firft diffi-
culty is to come at the knowledge of three or four letters,
therefore where a word of four letters hath the firft and
fourth the fame, it is moft likely to be ¢haz: to difcover
which look for another of four letters, beginning with the
two firlt, and ending with two others, and it will probably
prove to be 47s; and more efpecially if you find another
with three letters, beginning with the firft two, for in that
cafe it muft bez/e. Now having found out in any part of
the cipher thefe three words, that, this, and the, place them
over the charaéters which you know to be ¢, /, a, i, /, ¢,
and then confider what letters are deficient, and what words,
from the number of letters which compofe them, they are
mott likely to be. You will thus find fuch ready and fur-
5
prifing intimations from the above fix deferters, previoufly ap-
prehended, that you will foon be in poffeffion of the whole
battalion.
Where words of two letters appear of the fame charac-
ters, differently placed, it is moft likely one is on, the
other 20: fo of, and for, and from, difcaver and convict
each other ; and ¢/ are very often ufed in the beginning of
Englifh words, as, fhe, that, this, them, thefe, their, thirft,
thwart, &c. &e.
Betides thefe peculiarities, Mr. Falconer points out the
following, as applicable to the Engiifh ;
molt of the letters.
@ €y 151, Os Fr Uy Y-
Aas €, Hy to ls\Oy)Kotle
Bees lglOsitg nits
moft of the letters.
a, €, i, 1, 0, r, u, and fometimes y.
a, e, h, i, 1, n, 0, r, uy y-
vowels only.
moft of the letters.
ay €5)15,1)-
vowels only.
vowels only.
vowels only.
\ mott of the letters.
a, e, h, i, 1, 0, r, f, fometimes t, u, y-
only by u, and QU by a, e, 1, 0.
a, e, fometimes h, 1, 0, u, y-
a,c, e, h,i, k,], m,n, 0, py qs t, Uy Wy ¥-
a, e, h, 1, 0, T, Us wy y-
fometimes d, and g, 1, m, n, p»
fometimes r, {, t, x.
vowels only.
Asnes NS dyOsiT aye
fometimes a, ore.
J fl e, fometimes i, 0.
Beginning a word is regularly followed by
NkKMa< CHE ROTVOZEZO ATONE OP
e, fometimes o.
It would be too prolix in us to give an equally minute
account of the particularities in other languages; but the
inquifitive reader will find them very well fpecified, in the
« Cryptographia Denudata’’ of D. A. Conrad, 8vo. Lug.
Bat. 1739, and in the latter part of Breithaupt’s ‘* Ars
Decifratoria, five Scientia occultas Scripturas folvendi et
legendi,”? Helmft. 12mo. 1737.
Torexercife the Englifh fcholar, we here fubjoin one exe
ample of plain ciphering, in which two figures anfwer to
each letter :
39- 38,31,21,35- 35514,20,18,21,19,20;3 5,34. 20,38)593 19
3.25352315198,35,18- 22,39;20535. 13,31,14:24- 20,38,39,145
37519. 31,19» 20,15. 20,38,35+ 1353151453193 723914-37>
15330. 20,38,35- 3153653653 1539918. 18,35517221539119:399
20,35. 36,1518. 24515521. 20,15- I1,14,15,22. 18,353139
35513932535,18- 20,38,31,20. 15,14, 14,15. 31,33,335155
21,14,20. 24,153,210. 36,31539,12- 20,15. 13,3.5235920- 135
35+ 31,20- 14539,14135- 20,15- 1351518, 18. 15,22,19- 145
395375383206 30,15,18. 22,35. 13921,19,20- Iqsl 5,20. 145
15,22- 3.453 591253124: 20538,35- 19521 ,18,16,18,39,25.35-
15,30. 20,38,35- 33231319,20,12535- 22,38,35,14. 20,38,
3901453 7919+ 31318,35+ 392211920. 18,39,16535. 30,155
18. 3552323 523322 142053951 5914-
By praétifing the foregoing rules, the ftudent will find
that this method of fecret writing in plain cipher, may with
as much eafe, if not with as much f{peed, be deciphered as
written,
Inall cafes, begin firft to decipher the fingle charaGters and
fhorteit
C Pier ER:
fhorteh monofyllables ; mark down on a feparate paper any
corre{ponding letters and figns you difcover, and count the
different charaéters throughout the piece in order to com-
pare their frequency, &c. It will generally, if not always,
happen that the molt frequent is e.
We fhali now confider fome ways of fruftrating thefe rules,
and the methods of procedure in fuch cafes. The firlt we
notice, is that of writing not only without any diftinétion be-
tween the words, but alfo by altering their relative pofition :
this was the late Earl of Argyle’s method, and it was then
thought abfolutely undecipherable. See * An Account of
the Difcoveries made in Scotland of Confpiracies againft his
Majefty’s Government.”” Mr. Thickneffe fays, he has feen
many ways of explaining this cipher, but, he thiaks, the bett is
to mark the concurrence of proper words. ‘Take this asa
f{pecimen :
_J know not the grounds our friends have
gone upon which hath occafioned them _to offer
fo little money as hear neither know
[ what affitlance they do intend to ive
and all I know both I will neither
refufe my fervice nor do fo much as
object = againft any thing is refolved till I
firit hear what Mr. Red or any other
you fend fhall fay only in the mean
time I refolve to let you know as
much of the grounds [ go on as
is poffible- at this diftance and in this
way I did truly in my propofition mention
the very leat fur I thought could do
our bulinefs effe€tually not half of what i
would have thought requifite in an ather jurndure, &Sc.
When Lord Argyle had written, a letter, of which the
above is a part of one, he filled up the fpaces with any
words which occurred, and then it appeared thus:
I gone fo I and refufe obje& firft you time much is way
the our would have bufinefs very I poffible of 7 fend here
againft my “till what little upon dnow not which money
aifiltance I fervice any what fhall refolve the at did leait
effectually thouht requifite not fum truly this grounds to
fay Mr. Thing nor know. they as hath grounds occafioned
I do both do is Red only let I diftance in I half in an of
thought my ard go you in or refolved fo I intend he or
them our friends, &c. &c. &e.
Now as we oblerved above, mark but the concurrence of
proper words, and efpecially if they be at equal diftances
(and fo his letter is written) then the number of words? be-
tween thefe is the column; and thus the bufinefs is done:
there may indeed be a proper coincidence by chance ; but if
you lay hold of fuch only as aree quidiftant, they mult de-
velope the matter where the writer goes down one column
and up another. And this is a much readier and more cer-
tain method, than that laid down by Falconer.
The earl of Argyle was much uled to write alfo without
diftinguifhing words ; * but,” fays Mr. Falconer, ** you may
neverthelefs diftinguifh between vowels and confonants, and
each of thefe amonpft themfelves: nay, you may make fup-
pofitions for words; and having found two or three letters, or
one word, your difficulty is over; fo that the rules already
laid down, will be fuflicient for deciphering the re-
mainder.”
Notwithftanding Mr. Falconer’s extreme confidence, we
believe it would be no eafy thing to diitinguifh one word
from another, and one letter from another, whether vowels
or conlonants, in a fpecies of writing we ourfelves have in-
vented ; of which fome examples occur at the end of this ar-
ticle, and in Plate IIT.
The infertion of nulls, or non-fignificant letters, is an-
other mode of confufing the cipher; and, to overcome this
difficulty, it is requilite,
rit, That youtake the number of the different charafers
in the epiftle ; and if that exceed the number of the alpha-
bet, it is probable mutes are intermixed with the fignificant
letters. We have faid probable, becaufe there may be
charaGters inferted to exprefs relatives and fyllables, &c.
2. Obferve the frequency of the feveral charaéters, and
by this means you may diftinguifh thofe nulls from fignifi-
-cant letters; for itis obvious, that if many infignificant cha-
racters be ufed, they fhall not be frequent; at leaft moit of
them fhall be but rarely inferted, which will do no great
feats: if only a few in number, and confequently their places
-the more frequent, they are yet by fuppofition diftinguifh-
able from the vowels and confonants of moft ufe in wnting ;
efpecially if you confider the order and coherence amongft
the feveral characters. This admits of no particular rules ;
nor will the judicious need any.
3. After you have found out the real alphabet, or all the
mutes, there is no new difficulty.
’ There is an invention of fecrecy much infifted on (though
none of the {wifteft) by the author of the “ Secret and Swift
Meflenger,”’ and others; which is, beyond any yet memtioned,
for intricacy, wherein each particular line, word, or letter, is
written by a new alphabet: but the cited author himfelf ac-
knowledges it too tedious for a current corréfpondence,
which cannot be entertained this way, but at a valt expence
of time and trouble, to put it in, or take it out of cipher,
even by the key. And fecret information, in feveral exigen-
cies, muft be {peedy, or it will be unprofitable; fo that in
effe& it is impra¢ticable for the end it is defigned.
However, left it fhould obtain too much credit, if fup-
pofed undecipherable, its difficulties are confidered by Mr.
Falconer.
And, firft, the way of writing by it is this: the confede-
rates determine upon fome word or fentence, that fhall lock
and unlock their miffives; or the key may be fent in the
letter, in {ome word or fentence privately marked, of by com-
paét agreed on, fuch as the firit or laft line, &c. to ferve for
the key. Suppofe, fays Mr. Falconer, it fhould be ‘*Policy’s
preheminence,”’ there muft be feveral alphabets framed for
each of its letters in the manner following : .
a)
fam)
=
es)
Lop |
emis limby nce [tec |e) s|peka roen olaalitr stale Pe]
Se eqia ret Say tl aaa ewe xy oy dz tal
BOO Mp ial se |hel al steal aval Wal (bec (yz
Ae lee main |!) pp) |g te” our wi
A ea esa ln) |) | oulepm a in a) delet
Gra Cas ren | fier | Eaten ook tine) en
ANOS NAN UM IMR GEN KON Sil ageaa lols qin
Sioa ae AUN (Cw |) Sol sya eZee Se rem)
Oe eel alert | Vola (Uwe col een sgn a
TOR fe ty wil xoleyel zeal ioc
FEF) 18 oh fs lB We ond We Hatead AMM only Vag
Tey dG |e (ee thy iat eae. | tp™ | oq siege at
Lge EM ee tbe VN keihe net to: |p
Pee Neel ne| One| eGeiscalei et (ot jw, |i
5 a ere ee nn On pelgia| er | tenet
MOMIINGOntp: linger tlt Toe eal yw |ox ty.
bh hele abet ke latin (ems rom
EO INGO polqui sr | fpr e tae we ex oP
TOR eG Maui Coluetari coal Wnvwl este eller tr
20) | Pe een Mt se lem) myo! ip
DononeeOerOacn -wroscxad
=
t=]
ne} 0) spat ull | Sef wilew | x [ay | z
eiduiveyer eee h het jim fin) {on
bel ChindiWwemlateleo lad tipo th tom.| on
Val Zar a DniCa Ghent a eatin dina tie
WS Sy) Zale Dot caiidal(sealmdad| ie: Ih
Po Del ty i |e wren! Sel lez ielicalt| |b
Limos nt OF spl aiera| dial steal law |x
flei/hi ilk] 1l{m]n]o Pee ales
er age eka yc lala etaal eles) Nealon tein |G
SA Ne eel ta rT assay MY Ghiveeth {iver | Pcemid | pepo pica
Te ietea eu | ae iewarl xe lavaleiz, Wane by lcalid
Bil icea | Sa See Nea lec ay ecse aca lf eree PN Nites
Tea en Ua awlexolluvalliez sical Ibn cd
Za maleDuhecs dul en lat lies (ubeieay iki
WAM ezaliael Delicaied esi |r Hb
aabeceldalseg) cf ipoelehe |e glk Won
Teel Ae et nwa Sve ozen, asibialceciid
albicidlelflg/}hli|kl1/m
52)uel fC a amy EE ollie fine hc ile sce|eseaa llega lect ats
To talgte Unwell ull oye aliozy ICeanpiby eeu
If they agree, that the lines oniy fhall be written by a new
alphabet, the firft line fhall be made according to the firft al-
phabet A.P. the fecond line according to the fecond alphabet,
viz. A.O. the third alphabet is A.L. &c. the firft line be-
ing an index fucceffively to all the reft. And when they
have gone through the table, they may begin anew, orgo
backwards again, &c.
If words are only written by one alphabet, then every new
word is written byanew alphabet; and fo of letters, We
have hereunto. fubjoined an example for each, viz.
I. Lxample in the line.
Ypb vdarts id ztte ixt hdafytgh
idcb wofr nhm obrnihm rxfh:
dfaawi fd, zc efpi gtww cpfzwe ez
eqn nwuxg bynnmrtg. Qiben,
iam forced to keep the foldiers
upon hard duty and hard diet:
fupply us, or they will revolt to
the enemy f{peedily. Hafte.
Solution.
1. When there is only one alphabet ufed for a line, the
writing might be difcovered as in plain cipher, if you make
a new operation for each line. But there may be other
ways to decipher any fuch writing :. for,
2. If you find out but one letter in a line, (and that may
certainly be done by a few fuppofitions) it will of itfelf give
an alphabet for that whole line, as you may perceive by the
counter-table, which follows; for, the confederate’s table
being framed, fo as the firft line may be an index to all the
reft of the lines which are ordered by fome word or fentence
that is the key, every letter of fuch a word or fentence muft
be once fuppofed to ftand for A. Now in the counter-
table you fee all the letters in the alphabet to be once fup-
pofed A: therefore you need only to fearch for I in the
upper line of it, and try:in what line Y is oppofite to it ; and
thofe two lines give youan alphabet. Or fet down the let-
ter found under the letter that expreffeth its true power, and
completing the laft line, you have the alphabet; . g. if
you fuppofed Y, in theexample given, to exprefs the power
of I, firit write down the twenty-four letters in their ufual
order, and under I place Y ; then, going on in order, your
alphabet is this for the firlt line :
AbcdefghikIlmnopqrstuwxyz
Pag Teivity wx. ye agbecedvefeosh alc Um) neo
fe ese Onin er eds eta econ ule m caleelin enum om (iii) ages | mre mote jmctall mtr pwwoul esc ityllleez
PemeuaiGa | OUlece talon iu ie jal ot pie ir i fal) t cm | wll xe ll ye pz il) a
PCH eOacalete ec Oe lca meters ne (ox sp= | qi lle Til dtiuit tau well val ez aa D
ene OC he i a iu let km meme Oren icdulerele dime ul aun tawast exc voll letalel bye nc
Geet ee ek ee teneleon lp. | qeirer | dite tot aewoal eect oy: | Za) ace
GMbe sean ea romeo op tiact | mit ist yup mw |eecllay |zelll awl Del ce: ledisiere
Paige eo Ie my mimoriops| q |r | dul te wy wo xley | 2 ianobal ten id) ent op
Sees eieacal aero | Om mpmlege nuit) | Galas wal ox ol yelteze lal lobnlcuiid ie. {lek ier
9 oceania ete On! Palomo to liuel wall xo! y | zea | bale Wid ee lf g|h
ope ess | eve ta soe > 6p) | Cima ele ren. || walleye lez | atalebel Gul dalle f | eal
II OS cael ee ORs al) Gal Kea ate ma hws |x cyan zea |e Dy alge lnc emer if | rome tig lferten tok
ae Oa Ome edie) Lae iawn sc viii al! bel, Coil Guile tats \ oral by a) i) doula
Te NG Oo e eye! Cun we ey deat atee b ihcal G re eae all cunt hea) Sl lrks (ede ete
eee Ol Dual Gaaeatam poled st || lawson lmvmaier | Aeon Cel du| veal f otepotl beta lke telat | n
Per ad ee ea | we meetog | b ited le |i + oo ed | eal les mnt ene O
oun Ove etal eaten paler AW. 0|| < ovaN eee) | Cle meni too When ike elmo lem onl tp
Ree eee ele ne oe Walliy S| AZ ey deat ce | mM aitekee 1 mn inom
Toe oe nc Miele inweal eee Ve c | ae moMecnd, | er ikon so ht Vin ees 1 Nor on) boils p= ght sr
MOMS awe Sele vouie Zea |) De Cmitce: | foe ay ee mp | onlon qi na)
Pee Wee be Yeo 2eigae |) DN tc! arcu mere of Fee Mie Level St alist het | come le Ow MpEl Gelert a wat
See ae Seley eae Cd Tmemtee eM Ge ae Lien i ne) OF |p wed: Bake ijn
Zoe ket eyelet Zeid aba cell Gols | tampa aoe sl lemma) Wo|. oO) op |) Gen rast ioc) st cesl aw
Zoi een nary Cae. (ery hana dee PONT ep Pglk Ry re Wy wee
en PZ ba eCuleOneninta ec hc lnom | nbn jap al qual ot taette nu UE Ss aan
Vou. VIII. Cc This
C. bPqh BR.
This Counter Table needs not much explanation, being but
an exhibition of fuch alphabets as you may frame by yourlelf
upon every new fuppofition.
Having found one alphabet for the firft line, you have
likewife by this means the firlt letter of the key. Z.¢. In
the fifteenth line of the table, Y ftanding againft I, and P
beginning that line (as you may perceive) P muft be the
firft lctter of the key ; andif you perule the foregoing col-
leGion of what letters can be joined in the beginning of
words, you will find a,e, 4,7, /, or o,&c. muk follow P: fo that
at worlt, to get another alphabet for the next line, it will coft
but fo much pains as to make trial of all thofe letters by
fuppoStion ; as firlt, what letter in the firft line is againtt i, in
the fifth line beginning with E, {for A cannot regularly fol-
low P in this particular method, elfe the letters in the fecond
line of the writing fhould have their ufual fignification with-
out any tranfpofition ;) and finding that E cannot be the
fecond letter of the key, becaufe the cipher from that fup-
pofition isin as great confulion as ever, next try what letter
isoppolite tozintbe line H. Still fuppoting a-new, until
you find the fecond line to produce fenfe. And fo of all
the reft.
Or you may take the fame meafures from the letters or
fyllables found, in the writing itfelf.
Or you may proceed to find the alphabet of the fecond,
third, or any other line, as you did for the firft, viz. fearch-
ing after the power of fome letter in the fecond line, by the
ordinary rules ; and, according to the greateft probability,
in that fearch, from the frequency of the letter, or other
help, to make trial by your counter-table.
Il. Zxample in the words.
Y oa qzcnpo cx mggr rfc lgdwbxkl
kede zriv hzyc hvl mewh puqf :
bdyytg hf, fw gvrl ylnn wizipy id
hws pypxi bynnmrtg. Keywg.
Solution.
When the alphabet is changed at every word, you may
either make fuppofitions from words, or from letters that
fall in the end or beginning of the feveral words in the writ-
ing, until you have made fome progrefs in the letters of the
key ; and then proceed as before.
You may likewife find out by fuppofition, the number of
letters in the key, &c. which will much facilitate the work.
Thus :
1. Having found an alphabet for the firft, fecond, or
indeed any word near the beginning of the epiftle, go
through all the immediate following words, until you find
another that is deciphered by the fame alphabet.
2. From the laft found word count the like number, and
you havea new word decipherable by the found alphabet :
and thus you may go on until you have once gone through
the whole writing, marking the whole feries with fome pe-
culiar mark: and then,
3. Begin the epiftle again at fome word immediately be-
fore or after that which was firft found, and count forwards
as before, until you come to the end of the epiftle.
4. Afterwards obferve the fame method, until you have
diftinguifhed the whole writing, giving each refpeétive feries
of words fome particular mark of diftin@tion. And in the end,
having found out but one letter in fuch a feries of words, it
gives an alphabet to decipher all that feries by, as was ob-
ferved in lines, &c. £.g. Y therefore, the firlt word in the
example, exprefling the power of I, you fhall find the twen-
tieth word id decipherable by its alphabet, wiz, A.P, and
corfequently ws, the one-and-twentieth word in the writ-
ing, but twentieth after oa the fecond word, to have one
alphabet with it; and in the fame order fypxi to have one
alphabet. with gxenpo ; and bynumrtg and cx to be denoted
by the fame alphabet, &c.
Now if the writing were long (as it muft be to contain
Propofuls, Emergencies, and other circumftances) the ufe of
the foregoing obfervations will be evident.
But there is an exception to thefe rules; for you will fee
in the example, that the firft word Y and the ifeventh word
Lydwhxkl ave written by the fame alphabet, but not the fe-
venth from that, viz. pugf, nor the feventh from oa, viz. kedc,
&c. and the reafon is, becaufe the letter P is twice repeated in
the words of the key. So that when you find this happen
in decipneving, leave fuch words, and go to the next, until
you find the true number of letters that make up the key
by the former rule; and then this difficulty becomes a help
in the operation, &c.
III. Example in the letters.
Y ox oqpvtv yw oqne yvg xdzorgpl
kg{n mmaq hhwe pbo qcpw faib:
xgycpl xx, df eqgw oycp, zigxyy gq
yxs pwgkgq hgimhvtl. Mavyh.
Solution.
To decipher this lait kind of fecret writing, you muft
begin with fuppofitions ; and,
1. Extra@ting out of it the monofyllables, &c. you may
fuppofe all the words in it of three letters fucceflively to
ftand for the, or and, &c. and you may prove your feveral
fuppofitions thus: viz. £. Mark down the powers fuppofed.
2. Obferve in what lines of your counter-table the letters ex-
preffed in the cipher are oppofed to them in a perpendicular
line. 3. Obferve the firit letters of thofe lines, and you
will foon find whether they can be joined to make up a part
of the key: e g. let yug inthe firlt line of the example be
{uppofed fhe; y is oppolite to ¢ in line fifth, beginning with
E; / to a line thirteen, beginning N; and e tog, line third,
beginning C. Sothat having found enc in the beginning of
thefe feveral lines, it is probably fome part of the key.
2. You may proceed in the fame manner to other mono-
fyllables, &c. in any part of the epiltle ; or you may con-
fider what letters can follow enc: and thus e being moft pro-
bable, look in that line of your table beginning with E, for
x the following letter in the cipher, and its oppofite letter in
the upper line, which is S ; and afterwards you may go on
with probable {uppofitions, either from the letters found in the
key or in the writing.
Perhaps thefe methods will not fo readily give you the
entire key, yet they are good helps.
You may otherwife begin your fuppofitions with the firft
letters in the writing ; and, for that end, we have hereto-
fore added, in alphabetical order, the letters which can be
joined to each other to begin words.
And, from all together, you may in a fhort time find out
the number of letters in the key; and here that is of as
much ufe as in the other ways of writing by the key cha-
ra¢ter, fince thereby you have the feveral returns of each
alphabet.
When the alphabet is changed for every word or letter,
the frequency of the letters will not agree with that in an
epiftle written in plain cipher, where one charaéter always ex-
prefles the fame power: for, as to this laft, you fhall but
rarely find two or three charaéters of the fame frequency ;
but by acontinual altering of the alphabet you thali have a
great -
GhivrtH Et Re
great many. Z.g. In the laft example you have no lefs than
feven different letters twice repeated, viz. a, 4, d, b, f, ty
three letters thrice repeated, two letters four times repeated,
three letters five times repeated, three letters feven times re-
peated, and two letters nine times repeated.
Again, in one line of an epiftle where the alphabets are
continually altered, you fhall have more differing characters
than in two, where one alphabet is only ufed in the whole
writing. In the example you have the, complete num-
ber of the alphabet ; whereas in the writing,
viz. [ am forced to keep the foldiers
upon hard duty and hard diet :
fupply us, or they will revolt to
the enemy f{peedily. Hate.
there are wanting, 5, g, g, x; %
We have already obferved, that this method of crypto-
graphy requires too much time to be put in pra¢tice: but
befides, it is not only impraéticable upon thati{core, (for by
the leaft miftake in writing, it is fo confounded, that the
confederate with his key fhall never fet it in order again) but
withal, it is liable to fufpicion : fo that it has none of thofe
things required in fecret writing, except that there is diffi-
culty in deciphering it; and that not infuperable, as is made
apparent. :
For many of the fubfequent, as well as preceding obferva-
tions, we are indebted to Mr. Falconer; an author we have
had frequent occafion to commend, and who particularly ex-
celled in {uch intricate difcufhons. As that gentleman’s work
is very fcarce, we fhallrender the publica fervice in making
fome parts of it better known, by thefe copious extraéts.
We next mention the mode of communicating any fecret
intention with ordinary letters, by the aid of a few figures ;
which, Schottus fays, was the invention of count Gronsfeld,
and feems to elude the.common rules for deciphering.
1. The confederates difpofe the letters of the alphabet in
a line or circle, over which they place any number of
figures, e. g. 436, in this manner.
436
abcdefghiklmnopqrstuwxyz.
2. They write their fecret intentions on a paper apart,
and over the tops of the letters they place the number of
figures agreed on. Leet the words be thefe :
“The governor of the city is beyond corruptien, fo that
we may conclude there is nothing of briberie will ferve the
turn.’”
Which words, according to the
thus :
430 43643643 64 364 3643 64
€ governor of the city is
example, will ftand
394364 3643643643
beyond corruption,
64 3643 64 364 36436436 43643 64 3643643 64
fo that we may conclude there is nothing of
36436436 4364 36436 436 4364.
briberie will ferve the turn.
3. Obferve what figure ftands over the firit letter of the
writing, (wiz. T.) which is 4, and counting forward as many
letters, write down the fourth, viz. x; again fee what
figure is over the fecond letter (viz. 4.) which figure is 3 ;
then counting three letters from /, the third is £; next
write down the fixth letter from e, which is alfo £: and fo
they proceed, always obferving the letters in the writing to
be fecretly communicated,and the figures above it, until they
come to the end of the epiftle.
will ftand thus:
xkk kqahtsrt ti woh coxa ow dkbqfy etvtafworp yr
wndw bh ofb etqeqyfk xkkvg ow ptxkoqi ti dxmdkvik
zlgo ykvxk xkk xxxq.
The example being finifhed,
Solution.
To decipher this kind of fecret-writing, you may,
1. Tranfcribe the cipher out of the epiltle, keeping the
lines and letters at fuch a diftance from one another, that
each letter may admit of a figure diftinétly above it.
2. Endeavour to find the number of figures in the key
which muft be inquired into by feveral fuppofitions.
3. The number of figures being fuppofed, e.g. 3, take any
three figures, e. g. 123, and place them above the tops of
the letters in cipher in this order:
123 12312312 31 231 2312 31 231231 2312312312
xkk kgahtfrt ti wnh eoxa ow dkbqfg etvtafworp
BL 231231 231123123123 12312 “32, 2312312 31
yr wndw bh ofb etqeqyfk xkkvg ow ptxkoqi ti
23123123 1231 23123 123 1237.
dxmdkvlk zlgqo vkvxk xkk xxxq.
4. Obferve where the fame charaéter and the fame figure
happen to fall together, and you will find that thus it al-
ways exprefleth the fame power as in the example; K with
3 placed above it has the power of E through the whole
writing ; X with 1 upon the top of it fignifies H, &c.
But,
5+ The fame letter, when its figure is altered, cannot ex-
prefs the fame power: e.g. Q with 1, exprefles N ; but
Q with 2 fignifies O, and Q with 3, L, &c.
6. One and the fame letter will be expreffed by different
characters: e.g. Q with 2, R with 1, and T with 3, eX-
prefs feverally O in the writing.
7. Two letters of the fame power cannot be joined to-
gether in the fame charaéter; and, confequently, where
you find any charaéter double in a writing of this nature, it
exprefles different powers.
8. Having made thefe or the like general remarks, you
may proceed to difcover particular fyllables or words, as in
the preceding paragraphs; and having one, you will find
with it the true numbers that are contained in the key, at
leaft fome of them, which will difcover the reft.
It is almoit fuperfluous to add, that in your feveral opera-
tions you mutt count the letters backwards, fince regularly
the cipher is written forwards: but becaufe the cipher may
be otherwife contrived, you may try both ways, &c.
Of fecret writing by points, lines, Sc.
The fecrecy in an epiftle may confift in points, lines, &c.
which are diltinguifhable one from another by their place,
not their figure; all of the fame fituation (whatever the
nature of the figure be) exprefling the fame charaéter. e. g-
Suppofe the paper to be written upon be fecretly divided
into 24 equal parts, according to the breadth of a plate upon
which the letters are defcribed ; and then by application of
this to the epiltle, it is eafy to conceive the way of writing
it. This is publifhed in the “ Secret and Swift Meffenger,’?
p- 92+ But it contains no great nor new intricacy ; for you
may extra the points, &c. that fall in the firft perpendi-
cular line in any chara¢ter, and the points that are in the
next perpendicular line by a differing charaéter, and thofe
points in the third line by a third character; and fo for all
the reft, until you come to an end, or rather the fide of the
epiftle, towards the right hand; and then it is refolvable by
the common rules,
Cc2 Having
CG IPE: Ry
Having now removed the moft material difficulties, arifing
from a change in the powers of the letters; we proceed to
Secret writing, by altering the places of the letters where their
powers remain the fame.
Bifhop Wilkins obferves, that the difference of characters
men ule in the world, is part of the general curfe upon their
once one tongue; and from’a parity of reafon we may
infer, that the different methods of wniting thofe characters
is fo too.
The Oriental languages, Hebrew, Chaldaic, Samaritan,
Syriac, Arabic, Perlian, Coptic, &c. are written from the
right hand to the left. Only the Ethiopic and Armenian
proceed from the left to the right hand; as alfo do all the
Occidental languages, Greek, Latin, French, Spanifh,
Italian, German, Englifh, Sclavonic, &c.
At firft the Greeks wrote from the left to the right hand,
and again from the right to the left, forward and backward.
Hence /iteras exarare fignifies to write, a metaphor taken
from plowing the ground.
Thus the fenfe of an epiftle in a known language might
be perplexed, if the writing fhould be contrived after the
method of writing fome forcign tongue. And we have
this example from the “* Secret and Swift Meflenger.”
Were wee: led i on 6
herpeiee i. to 7O. werner vt
eat te web hm ne eal
Dow tO eed Osc 0 hy sp
ent Co, la vite tite ae p
iyo! er ole eh te emel
€s adrenal, tl. Ot Gal ane eed
oe) Fan On Oa mbt ad caw ei wy
Pater tir my rites ot) seen) a
Ciel Cana WeObe Camere a cll
Here the rows are introduced inftead of the lines. And if
you begin at the firft letter towards the left hand, and read
down that row of letters; then read the next upward, and
the following down again; and fo to the end, you will find
thefe words : “ The peftilenc> doth ftill increafe among us ;
we fhall not be able to hold out the fiege without frefh
and {peedy fupplie.”
This is the ordinary way of writing among the inhabit-
ants of China and Japan. It only needs expofure, in order
to be detected when it occurs.
Another remarkable kind of cryptography confifts in alter-
ing the places of letters by combination. Butit is defirable,
before we proceed, to fhew how many different ways any
given number of letters may be combined, or varied in their
relative pofition; for which purpofe, we fubjoin a table.
(See likewife the articles ALTERNATION and CHANGES.)
Orr calculation is, however, carried no higher than the
number of changes in an alphabet confilting of 36 letters
and figures. Schottus has computed that a thoufand
millions of men, in as many years, could not write down the
different tranfpofitions of only 24 letters, if each of them com-
pleted 40 pages a day, and evcty page contained 40 permu-
tations; and Mr. Falconer has fhewn that this 1s valtly too
low a fuppolition! So that thofe tranfpofitions, infcribed
on a feroll, would reach far beyond the planet Mercury!
How much farther then would a chain reach of 36 letters,
in their immenfely numerous combinations? For example,
in fuch an alphabet as this, which is adapted forthe telegraph
at the Admiralty, viz.
A Table of Changes in the relative Pofition of 36 Letters
I=I!1
2=>2
3=6
4 == 24
5 = 120
6 =1720
foro
8 = 40320
9 = 362889
10 = 3628800
It = 39916800
12 = 479001600
13 = 622702080c
14 = 87178291200
15 = 1307674368000
16 = 20922789888000
17 = 355687428096000
18 = 6402373705728000
19 = 121645100408832000
20 = 24322902008176640000
21 = 5109094217 1709440060
22 = 1124000727777607680000
23 = 25852016758884976640000
24. = 620448401733239439360000
25 = 15511210043330985984000000
20 = 403291461126605635584000000
27 = 108888694504183521007680c0000
28 = 304588344611713860501504000000
29 = 8841761993739701954543616000000
30 = 265252859812191058636308480000000
31 = 8222838654177922817725 562880000000
32 = 26313083 6933693530167215012160000000
3 = 86833176185118564955198194401 280000000
34 = 2952327990396041408476 18609643 520000000
35 = 1033314796638614492966665 1337523200000000
36 = 3719933 2078990121 7467999448 150835 200000000
Here are 42 places of figures, which may be read thus:
fextillions quintillions quadrillions trillions billions millions _ units
fay Oia aie a
371993 326789 901217 467999 448150 835200 ccecce
i.e. Three hundred and feventy-one thoufand nine hundred
and ninety-three fextillions,
Three hundred and twenty-fix thoufaud feven hundred
and eighty-nine quintillions,
Nine hundred and one thoufand two hundred and feyen-
teen quadrillions,
Four hundred and fixty-feven thoufand nine hundred
and ninety-nine trillions,
Four hundred and forty-eight thoufand one hundred
and fifty billions,
Eight hundred and thirty-five thoufand two hundred
millions.
To write fecretly by the method here propofed, a cer-
tain number of letters are combined to lock and unlock the
epiltle, -
2 Cyr ER:
epiftle, 1. The differences of writing down the pofitions, as,
which fhall be firft, which fecond, which third, &c. in or-
der, may be varied to a vaft number: e. g. three letters
A, B,C, having fix regular ways of combination, thefe fix
pofitions are capable of 720 feveral orders; for the rows
may be combined amongft themfelves, the fame way-as let-
ters. Therefore,
2. The order of the rows i8 agreed upon at parting.
3. The number of letters combined, which is the key,
may be exprefled in the ep:{tle by fome mathematical figure,
as A for three letters, O for four, &c. or by fome other
private mark,
4. They frame a reCtangular table of as many columns as
there are letters combined,
5. The letters fo combined are placed in their natural or-
der upon the top of the table.
6. Having determined of how many lines the table fhall
confift, the order of the combinations agreed upon is fet
down in a row, in the firft column towards the left hand ; as
you may fee in the fubjoined table.
7. The table being thus prepared for writing, they ob-
ferve the order of their combinations, and write according to
its direction.
8. When they have placed one letter in every column of
all the lines, they begin again, and fo go on until the writing
is finifhed.
g. Laftly, they take the letters out of the table accord-
ing to their partitions, as fo many barbarous words, upon a
paper apart, and fend it to the confidant.
Example.
Let the key for the number of letters combined be a tri-
angle ; andthe fubject of the writing,
“ We are big with expetation to know the fuccefs you
have had, whether the arms you have undertaken for will be
ready upon occafion. Let your next be written by the
f{quare key.”
Form of the Table for Writing.
Order of
Pofitions. A B Cc
atfafhkdet
etcwonuyy
ioeehoouh
hnutnlata
xwaceciee
ecehmaaliy|wehertenre
bichufpot\lraudyeytb
wtfhvuwons|gnftarnre
ioyeeiceg\ttkhorulcxu
eohhdbfbr\ptvarrowk
A further Explanation of this Table.
CBA, being the firft pofition, w, the firft letter in the
writing is placed under C in the laft column; and e, being
the fecond letter, is put under B in the next column; and a,
the third letter, under A.
CAB, being the fecond pofition, the fourth letter in the
writing, r, falls in the fecond line under C ; the ffth letter,
e, under A ; and the fixth, 2, under B in its column, all in
the fame line.
ACB, being the third pofition, the feventh letter in the
epiftle, i, is put under A in the third line ; the eighth letter,
g, under C; and the ninth letter, w, in the column B. _
And fo they go through the writing, always beginning
again, when they are at the end of the table, fo long as there
is any thing to write.
‘ 7
The writing taken out of the table will ftand thus:
Aa Aifaskdet. ecehmaaliy. wehertenre.
etowonuyy. bichufpot. raudyeyth. iocehoouh.
wishvwons. gustarnre. bnutnlata. toyeciceg.
thorulcxu. xwaeeeice. eohhdbsbr. ptvarrowk.
The terminal letters may be fo marked to prevent con-
fufion.
We have infifted the more upon this method, becaufe the
manner of combining, andthe way of writing by {uch combi-
nations being once perfe€lly underftood, the rules for deci-
phering may be the more fuccin€t, and the more ealily com-
prehended.
Solution.
1. If the figure of the key be prefixed to the epiftle, ex-
prefling the number of letters combined, take as many letters
out of the firft places of feeming words in the epiftle as shall
be equal to that number fo expreffed, and you may foon find
out their true order without the trouble of a new combina
tion; though the trouble of combining is not fo very great,
as the difcovery of a treafonable defign may be of importance
to the public.
Thus in the example given, you have A (which muft be
fuppofed to fhew that three letters are combined); extrac
the three firit letters from the three firft feeming words of
the epiltle, viz. a, e, w,. here at firft view you may perceive
the order. Then taking out the next three letters, ec, b, r,
you have a forthe firlt letter of the word from the firit line,
and e for the laft letter ; and then you are only to confider
whether 4 or r isthe middle letter, which is eafily determin-
ed; fo 4 (being left out there), muft be the firft letter of the
next word : thus you may proceed, for it is needlefs to en-
large in a cafe fo plain.
2. If there be no key given, take the number of partitions
of feeming words in the epiftle, and find our their feveral
divifors; which may be performed by the following rules.
How to find out the equal Divifors of any Number,
1. Divide the number given by fome:prime number, 7. e.
fuch a number that cannot be divided but by itfelf, or unity,
and the quotient by fome or other prime number, and the latt
quotient again by a prime number, and fo go on until the
laft quotient of all be one; and thus you fhall find a certain
number of prime divifors.
2. Make a re&tangular table that fhall confift of as many
columns as you have prime divifors, which you muit place
one after another at the tops of the columns; and by help of
them you will find all the reft of the divifors, wiz.
By multiplying the firit prime divifor, towards the left
hand of the table, by the fecond, and writing the produ&
under the fecond. Next, by the third prime divifor, multi-
plying all the figures in the table towards the left hand, fet-
ting the feveral products in the third column; and fo forth,
throughout all the prime divifors, but with this caution,
that one product be not written twice: and in the end, the
feveral numbers in your table will be all the aliquot parts, or
juit divifors of the given number.
Example, to find out all the Divifors in 450.
450 75.| 2515 ‘4
> 3 5 i
74 J
225
3
The
ConBaarS Re. :
The firk line contains the firft dividend, and the refpec-
tive quotients ; the loweft line is the feveral prime divifors,
Now 450, the number given, being divided by 2, a prime
civifor, the quotient is 225; which being divided by 3, you
have 75 for a new quotient; and that again divided by 3,
you have 25 for another quotient. This laft divided by 5,
gives §, which being a prime number, you have 1, or unity
in the laf quotient of all ; fo that your prime divifors are, 2,
3) 3, 55, all which fet down in the tops of the columns, and
nzultiplying them according to the rule given, the operation
will ftand thus:
228) (94 fae) yu S
6 Q | 10} 25
18} 15 | 50
5 ONES,
45 | 15°
go | 225
| 45°
All the divifors of 450, are 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10,15, 18, 25,
30, 455 5 75, 99,150,2253 and one of them (fuppoling the
epiltle to have confitted of 450 feeming words) fhould have
been the number of letters combined for the key: for the
number of feeming words in fuch an epiftle is equal to the
rectangle made of the figure of the key, or number of lines ;
and confequently the figure of the key, or number of letters
combined, is fome aliquot part, or equal divifor of the number ~
of feeming words.
But to faveall trouble infearch of the key, you may take a
certain number of letters out of the firft places of the feeming
words, and write them down ina line; next, take juft as many
lettersout ofthe fecond placesof the fame partitions, and then
the letters out of the third, fourth, fifth places, &c. placing
them direétly one under another in order ; or rather, for dif-
patch, take out the feeming words, and write them down in
rows, beginning at the firft, and then proceed to the fecond,
third, fourth, fifth, &c. until you have gene through them ;
and if the number be too great, take as many as you think fit
at a time, placing all the dots you find above the heads of
the letters at their fides. e. g.
Tied, 3 dhe Fi Ont Fern Sm Ome LOml Ty il2 ati Siku4. Li
Ta, Ay CW C0 Bt ied, pW osp Nagler teh sun ey Ap
2). tr Cy 6) fpy deed, sO roti Hank UO. pi Wop 10 pit
Be WA en Ts Ch Cae CiuucS Sint l eevee (Oke sea Gmay,
Zia) hse. ow shied, weuaih. fy ta en uremeradhiy ca
Ree.) tO au. -y: Dy |v dinigge sae cummin
GjCEs ja Bey nih wet omw: aris le otiae Nc exh ar
72eGwia: ce Wl pv. SOMO els die 2iCk eliessenG
Soe QUE ONs wyis Ol Copa na ts. ts aCe a Comb x
OQ. tei or youth: bis Hy iss es sal (Gua ID ecat ar k
I0.— ye @ — = — — — — — — — —
We have marked the lines and rows with figures for their
more eafy diflinGtion.
Having brought the writing into this order,
1. Seareh in the feveral lines for fome of the particles of
that language you may fuppofe the epiftle to have been writ-
ten in; if in Englifh, make fuppofitions, ¢. g. for fuch little
words as fhe, that, for, of, to, and, &c. and the like, without
fome of whichno man can well exprefs bufinefs of any moment.
2. Having fearched in any of the lines for fome one of
thofe mentioned, or the like particles, you may prove the
truth of your fuppofition, by taking out the oppolite letters
of all the other lines ; and if they donot make up words, or
fyllables, or produce {uch letters as can probably follow one
another in that order, your firft fuppofition is falfe, and you
mult guefs again.
3. Having by frefh fuppofitions found fome ufual word,
and the letters of the other lines in the fame order agreeing,
the words or fyllables arifing from them will dire you to
{ome new row that goes before or after in their true order ;
and thus you may proceed till you have found out the whole
writing, which by this time will be no great difficulty.
Example.
In the fixth line you have fonce, o once, and r twice;
fo that probably amongft thefe letters you may find the word
for; and upon trial, the fuppofition is proved by the other
lines : e, g. line 6 by lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 527) 8) 9»
Rows
nn
rm
ogc mae,
FOPr~n ao moy
CS LIAP YY ED
oe
=
8
Here in the fifth line you find wa terminating letter;
which muft then have before it the vowel 0, as in you, or e,
as in /iew. And in this line you have a, once, and e twice ; fo
that in three fuppofitions at moft, you fhall have the preceding
row in its natural order; thus fuppofing it, o, in the fourth
row that joins the vowel w, the writing will ftand thus :
4e 5s 7. G-
Gy, ley tas
Qt Al) Op ile
perce re0ns
Aaw. on ene
50h. Ue Lal
Out opes
ent hp co wes
SY yo) oy fir:
Ory? heehee:
Now, having ow, it is moft probable that y is wanting to
join with it ; which, ftanding in the fixth row of the line,
write down that row in order thus:
6. 4. 5+ 7- 9
pn We bres
2a? ti Yo in.
gue te ick res Ka
Pam V7 SNE
5 Ye Op Une a
6 NequtestanG. at
ABI DE ea
Skee yr Ore?
g) beiye tbr te:
And fo you may go on until you get through the whole
writing ; which will in the end ftand thus :
WW,’ €.) haytir, ‘sessile day) Ga oW2) ol: ot Su hbene eae
és 'c 43t ja Ge Sigivoy'n. it co. ike neo mae
hse. fat tet Sete Yd” “is: ty. “00 teen
Cnt hyd SW Eh Gee ty. ie Sea hates
NL Mis. Ay POP OD Wad AL Ge) gs ey cle
t. ja keh mebties Op 2-7 \Walgth nian, (Deena
Cina, i duet CaiepreO iD Ope, Mer Use SAO
Type» .¢) gtupoye a, oro ny Weiecwot 2 Dien
ri i te bisgyeret hb. €.0en QLeniiiega ieee
euny-
=
oe
—
o
CAB AER.
There are fometimes other helps obvious, to difcover the
fenfe of an epiftle obfcured by this invention ; e.g. you fee
only two letters falling in the laft line of the example;
whereby I not only conclude that the epiftle ends with
them, but may alfo infer from the fuppofition of a regular
procedure in writing it, that the letter began at fome of the
feeming words that. compofed thofe two rows, wiz.
ecehmaaliy, or wehertenre. The reafon is evident, &c.
This method of fecret-writing is, at firk fight, diftin-
guifhable from any other, only by obferving the equality ia
the divifion of its letters.
There are great varieties of inventions of this kind, more
eafy to the confederates ; whereby they only write their
fecret intentions in a parallelogram, or other mathematical
figure, and confound the fenfe, by the method of extrating
it. (See the * Account of Difcoveries made in Scotland,”
p. 18, &c.)
Of fecret-writing by means of a parallelogram, where the letters
are extraéed out of that figure diagonally.
To perform this, a man needs only form a parallelogram
or table, and without any combination or other obfcurity in
the writing, infert his fecret intentions therein; e.g. let the
fenfe of the epiitle be,
«J fuppofe that things are fo forward by your diligence,
that we may adventure at all, once next week: meet me
towards ten to-morrow’s night at the old place.”
It is firft inferted in the table thus :
eibetup psn ii ve. it ohpeates tig: hiveGiogn
Pee amet Jes Ot Ol ihaawa calor id iabieays
FeO Warne C1 i el ao. ean ew we.. (t)) hy. va
neem as yvaid) vere, nob uo le. a
Tope Amem CeO} en ccls (en sn eraxs sit eiwimer mes 1k:
igmewe cm bene. tO) iw, ayers) id) 78: Gel ne
tee O-m OuIe yh) (Ol Wi) ss pie tavouh sit. taats
teueseOmLa deep Lavac eq, Begcae panics
Here the laft five letters 4, x, y, f, g, are of no ufe but to
fill up the void places in the table.
The firft method of obfcuring the meaning of fuch an
epiftle is, by copying it out of the table diagonally, upon a
paper apart; 7. e. by fuppofed lines extending from the
fecond letter in the firft rew towards the left hand, to the
fecond of thofe in the uppermoft line, and from the third
letter in that row to the third in the upper line ; next from
the letters of the laft line to thofe in the upper line that
remain, and then to the laft row towards the right hand,
&c. Diagonal is a mathematical term, from diz, and
rywyiey an angle or corner.
Example.
They firft write down /, beginning at the upper corner
of the parallelogram ; next they take the other two letters
which lie in order to it, vx. g, 53 then they extract the
next three in order, viz. y, s, u. And fo they go on
until they come to the lait corner, viz. g. The whole
writing being extraéted in this manner, will ftand thus:
I. gsys. ut. oapt. wurpmaere.otelmdf{sto-
el. aio. «. hmt. oy. Ifte. omnaiohore. cdgral
rte. vewt. d. oonenatpwwencrhls. axte. d. ia
nrt. utbncidwrhy.e. gs. ee. abhteaxt. ek. ya
nft. g-
For the folution of this and fuch like manner of fecret
writing, the only difficulty is to find out the number of the
lines and the number of rows. snd here you may obferve
that. the number of letters in the epiltle is equal to the rect-
angle made of the number of lines and rows ; fo that if you
take the divifors or aliquot parts of the number of letters,
you may find out the number of lines and rows by a few
fuppofitions, and confequently, the involved meaning,
Nay; you may foon difcover any writing of this nature,
by reducing the letters of the epiftle into diagonal lines, as
if you had found out its trug figure; ¢. ¢.
Firft, you may mark down /, the firft letter in
the writing, by itfelf, as in the margin. Next
write the two following letters, gy, s, by it thus ;
then to thefe join the three following letters y, 5, x,
thus; afterwards the following four letters ¢, 0, a,
p» thus ; and fo of the following five letters, &c.
You will perceive when words or fyllables appear; I.sup
and withal if you obferve the cohefion of words or
letters, between the end of the firft line, and the
beginning of the fecond, you will find out where t.
thefe two lines join in the fenfe, and, confequently,
where the firft line ends: thus you fhall have the number of
rows, by which, if you divide the whole letters, the quotient
gives you the number of lines, &c.
This way of deciphering may feem to be eluded two ways:
1. By beginning -(when they copy the epiltle out of the
table) at fome of the other angles.
2. By inferting nulls before the epiftle.
As to the firft, if they begin at the lower angle towards
the left hand, the words will difcover themfeives as before.
Only the order of the lines will be reverfed in the opera-
tion, viz. The firft line is laft in the true order, &c. 2. 1f
they begin at the upper angle of the parallelogram towards
the right hand, the lines will be in their true order, but the
writing muft be read backwards. 3. If, at the lower angle
towards the right hand, the order of lines will be reverfed,
and the writing muft alfo be read backwards. This holds
true by the ordinary operation; but you may frame your
figure for difcovery, according to thefe three fuppofitions,
viz. beginning it at any corner, &c. Yet, we think, theor-
dinary operation will give the {peedieit refolution.
Note. From beginning at the lower corner towards
the right hand, you are not to expeét words or fyllables
in the beginning of the firft line by your operation,
feeing it is laft in the true order; and mutes, perhaps,
may be inferted to fill up the void places in the figure,
fo that you muft obferve the other lines.
As to the fecond method, by inferting nuils before the
epiftle, they may, in procefs of time, be difcovered thus :
When, upon trial, you find the writing in the epiftle will
make nothing of fenfe, lay afide the firft letter, and make a
new fuppofition with thofe remaining ; if nothing yet ap-
pear, lay afide two letters, and proceed as before; then
leave out three, four, &c. until you perceive words.
We next fhall analyfe that kind of writing in which more
letters are ufed than are requifite. The firft remarkable, and
very ordinary, contrivance in fecret writing, by more let-
ters than ufually go to the framing of words, is that infifted
on by Schottus, (in his “ Scholia Steganographia,’’) viz.
1. The contidants at parting frame an alphabet of figures
to write by; e. g.
AUbiscudse sf) os bi aigik alam) ngospis dates taney,
4.22 10 9 I.11 13 18 3.19 12.8:20:2,21 23 770 5 15 ty
xe yar 4
16 17 24.
2. Having written down their fecret intentions on a paper
apart, they contrive an epiltle of fome ordinary bufinefs in
any language.
3. They fearch for the numbers of the alphabet that
exprefs
C.TLPH ER,
exprefs the letters of the fecret writing 5 and counting the
letters in the common miflive from the beginning, they fub-
join fome private mark under every chara¢ter where the
relpoee numbers end; e. g. Let the fecret intimation be
this:
3 618 4 1212 Gtr 16215 51836203 13185 45
Lf hig VA feet ego E bats Wael oe periat
16215 7 122913 3 20136
gu ter Tio die ain og rs:
And the epiftle may run thus:
‘* Having underftood that I could not be fafe any longer
where you are, I have chofen rather a voluntary banifhment
to wander with my liberty abroad, than to lie under the
daily hazard of loling it at home: ’Tis in my opinion the
leaft of the two evils. ”Tis true, Iam innocent ; but in-
nocence is not always a buckler; fo that I hope you will
not condemn, even though you cannot approve my choice,
at leaft till you have the particulars of my cafe; which ex-
pect per next.”
You fee the figure for the firft letter, to be put in cipher,
is 3; therefore a fecret mark or point muft be placed di-
rectly under, or above, the third letter of the epiftle, viz. v;
and number 6, expreffing the fecond letter in fecret writing,
a dot mult (tand under the 6th letter from v, viz. under n;
and 18 letters from , will ftand another dot, &c.
Example.
Having underftood that I could not be fafe any longer
where you are, [have chofen rather a voluntary banifhment,
to wander with my liberty abroad, than to lie under the
daily hazard of lofing it at home: ’Tis in my opinion the
leaft of the two evils. *Tis true I am innocent; but inno-
cence is not always a buckler ; fo that I hope you will not
condemn, even though you cannot approve my choice, at
leaft, till you have the particulars of my cafe ; which expe&
per next.
Thefe points may be written with fuch ink that they fhall
not be vilible, till held by the fire, or dipt in water, ec.
Solution.
For deciphering this, you have no more to do, but take
the number of letters, from the beginning of the epiltle ta
the firlt point, from that to the fecond, and fo from point
to point until you come to the laft ; writing down the fe-
veral numbers, diltin@lly one after another, and then you
have it in a plain cipher refolvable by the former rules.
Nich. Machiavel tells us, that in his own time a certain
perfon defigning to fignify fome fecret intention to his
friends, interlined private marks in letters of excommuni-
cation that were to be publickly affixed, by which the fecret
was afterwards communicated to the confederates ; and this
hasin all probability been performed by the former or fuch-
like method of fecret information.
We have already confidered the obfcurity arifing from the
infertion of nulls at random, as to feveral of the ways of fe-
cret writing mentioned : but here we fhallinquire into them
as inferted by compact, either to prevent or divert fufpi-
cion; and indeed the great defign of perfons who ufe them,
is generally one of thefe two.
When they would quite remove fufpicion, the epittle is fo
contrived, as to outward appearance, that it may appear
to have nothing in it but fome trivial bufinefs, as news, {Sc.
or a private concern, a8 borrowing of money, paying of
bills, &c.
But if the perfon to whom the epittle is written might
render the paper fufpeéted, they endeavour to divert that
{ufpicion, by inferting a falfe defign to cloak a true one.
The nature of this fecrecy will more fully appear in the
fubfequent examples :
Suppofe two or more confederates had agreed to confine
their fecret intentions to one fide of the paper in the writing,
according to fome private compaét. hus, upon difcovery
ofa-plot, if a fpeedy flight were defigned, and to be com-
municated by this contrivance, it might be written at fir
in the following manner:
This meafure is not
fecret; there is now no
fafety but by fight
Do not fail to meet me
half an hour hence
Let the next meeting be
jut without the gate
(if my fenfes are found)
we may conclude to have
clear infallible evidence
the ,fnare is prepared,
effectually to entrap
you and
Your, &e.
POST-SCRIPT.
Pray
expofe not yourfelf to
imminent danger.
Now to obfcure the fenfe and prevent fufpicion, the unfi-
nifhed parts of the lines may be fupplied with fomething
foreign to the defign; and afterwards the epiltle is to be
pointed according to the feeming fenfe; e.g.
This meafure is notin danger; to all it is as yet
fecret; there is now nothing in view to threaten our
fafety, but by flight we fhould ruin all our defigns.
Do not fail to meet meby fix in the ufual manner:
half an hour hence,I intend to be at the council.
Let the next meeting be where they will, I'll have notice :
ju(t without the gate was the governor this morning
(if my fenfes are found) fecure as we could wifh him;
we may conclude to have hit right on the means, and more
clear infallible evidenceis not on this lide conjuration:
the fnare is prepared, they are miited, and fee not ’tis
effeCtually to entrapthem, and on their ruin to raife
you and
Your, &e.
POST-SCRIPT.
Pray throw off thofe vain fears:
expofe not yourfelf tofcorn, when there is not any
imminent danger.
Here to divert fufpicion of what is defigned for the con-
federates, the fecrét intelligence is divided from the reft of
the epiftle, by a fuppofed perpendicular line; but however it
be divided, the fenfe cannot well efcape a difcerning eye:
and to propofe a folution would be fuperfluous. =
€. UB
We have already detailed Lord Bacon’s mode of fecret
riting, andneed not much enlarge on the means of deci=
phering it; for if you once find out whether two or three
alphabets be ufed, (and the different kinds of letters in
the epiftle will inform you of that,) you may fuppofe one
alphebet a, a fecond to ftand for J, and if there be a third,
let ir be fuppofed c. Afterwards extradt the writing out of
the-epifile, asif thefe lutters 2, 4, orc, only, were inferted ;
and then it fails under the former contiderations,
It is nothing to the purpofe, whether your fuppofition
and the writer’s ke the fame, or not; for if you fuppole
always an a for h’s 4, the operation will be alike eafy.
This way of feeret correfpoadence will therefore fignify
very little, unlefs tofpend the time and paper of the writer:
for if you put a mark of diltinétion between every two,
three, or five, of the characters (as they make up a figai-
ficant letter) they are liable to difcovery the fame way as an
ordinary cipher.
And it is eafily difcernible when two, three, or five cha-
ra€ters expre{s one letter, either from the number of charac-
ters ina word, or in the whole writizg ;—
i. From the number in a word: for when two letters go
to the compofition of the alphabet, they muft have five
places; and the words will confilt of 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25
letters, &c. If three letters are in three places, you will find
3, 6,9, 15, or 18 charaGters, ce: in each word: if five let-
ters in two places, the words fhall have 2, 4, 6, 8, ro, or
12 characters, Jc. a piece.
2. From the number of the letters in the whole; as if two
be only ufed, in one rank, you fhall have five differing
characters in the whole at leafl: e.g. a; b,c, d,¢. If three
ina rank, then you may have 3 charaters: e. g. a, 8, c; and
if 5 inarank, you will poffibly have bat 2 charaéters in the
writing, &¢. .
By thefe remarks it will be feen, that Lord Bacon’s plan
of writing omnia per omnia, as he calls thiswe allude to, 1s
not deemed undecipherable, although it poflefles the merit
ef ingenuity : and indeed ail alphabets compofed after that
manner, in which each letter is reprefented by one uniform
fign (whether compofed of few or many characters does not
matter) will be liable to expofure; becaufe if you once find
out the fubfitute of any fingle letter, you difcover it in all
other inftances where that fame letter is reprefented. hus,
fuppole aabaa to fignify £, this letter will be always found by
deteGing its fubllitute aabaa, and of courfe the recurrence
of every other letter may be eafily known; fo that you are
not embarraffed by this cipher with any extraordinary diffi-
culty, as fome inexperienced men have imagined.
And here we -fhall leave this kied of cryptography by
more letters, Sc.
The reader who duly attends to the foregoing directions,
will be able to extend his knowledge to a varicty of other
methods, in which fecver Jetters or chara&ters are ufed than
are common'y required in forming words: but of this kind,
the molt difficult of all, which indeed we fear it is impof-
fible to decipher, is the mode that confifts in reprefenting
whole words, or even fentences, by fingle notes and fizures.
Yor by this method, we confefs, there {eems to be no ground
whereon a decipherer can fet his foot, no principle by which
he may be guided in his operations; but all maft be con-
jeGture, and difcouraging uncertainty! On many accounts,
however, the alphabetical modes of writing are preferable
for ordinary ufe; as the labour of putting an epiltle into
cipher and taking it out, by any other procefs, is infuller-
ably tedious and operofe.
One of the ingenious conceptions of a lady who intended
to puzzle Mr. Thickneffe with a new cipher, was this. She
_ Vox. VIII.
HiE B®.
compofed an epiftle in Englifh by means of Etrufcan cha-
raGers, and rendered the whole, according to the French
orthography, after the following manner: :
“ Sur, as yeux air il, doux comme & change the climat :
here, yeux mai have game, fiche, duc, fat mutin, foule, pore,
aile, port, fruit, & admirable menchette and butter; an mt
fiftre (a jolinymphe) tu ctat tu yeux, & fing yeux an ode,
tu the lute, or violin: yeux canne havea ftéble for ure hors,
& a place for ure chaife. Mi fon met a phyfician nsér the
river, uffe fétal figne ! thé fai, the pour Doéeur dos grive
about the effaire, oing tu the rude Squire :—but pardon mt
long lettre, pré doux comme tu us about mai, if yeux canne:
mi fervice tu ure niece: hotie dos Rafle doux?
Adieu mi friend
«Ps, Sipe ae
; bya ”
“ Pré douxcomme; for ure pour Nenni feize but feu beaux.
This feminine produ€tion would create no difficulty to a
decipherer who underftands Frencn, but might perhaps help
a little to perplex any other perfon, on his firlt entering up-
onthe taf. We adda device of our own, with which fome
other lady may poflibly amufe herfeif. The means of deci-
phering it will be obvious, we fuppofe, from what has been
faid in the preceding pages :
Take a fufficient number of ornamental beads of five co-
lours, (though fewer will do) ; and {tring them upon a thread
in pairs, according to the plan of combining two figns fer
one letter. Suppofe them to be red, green, yellow, black,
and white; an alphabet may then be formed many thoufand
ways, of which the following is one: Let A be red and
green; B, red and yellow; C, red and black; D, red and
white; E, green and red; F, green and yellow; G, green
and black; H, green and white ; and fo on, with the other
letters. Now, when a meflage has been compoled after this
manner, upon a long thread, it may ferve for an ornament
to fome perfon’s neck ; or it might pafs in a bafket of
pediar’s toys, without the flighteft fufpicion of its infidious
contents. If only three colours were ufed, three beads
mutt unite in reprefenting each letter.
Among the incredible pretenfions of men whohave fludied
the art of cryptography iz former times, we find this one
of Trithemius, who certainly miftook his own talents in fe-
veral particulars :—‘ Poflum hominem idiotam, feientem
tantum linguam maternam, qui nunquam rovit verbum Latini
fermonis, in duabus horis dacere fcribere, legere, et in-
telligere Latinum fatis ornate et diferté, quantumeung:e
volucrit; ita ut-quicunque viderint cjus literas, laudent verba,
intellizant Latine compotita.”
The idea here held out, of teaching an ignorant perfon to
write, read, and underffand elegant Latin, ia two hours, al-
though he never before knew one word of it, is moft abfurd,
and repugnant to ail our experience of human ability! None
but the Almighty himfelf cauld thus inftantaneoufly confer
the power of underflanding a foreign language: although,
without doubt, a man who can write, may be taught to copy
any Latin words in Jefs than two hours. And Trithemius
feems to have attempted nothing more.
To explain this, fuppofe a great multitude of common al-
phabets written in order; and to each of the letters in thofe
alphabets fynonymous Latin words are annexed, as denoting
the refpective letters. if all the words expreffing A, in the
different alphabets, make up an oration, and all the.words
in each rank be of like fignification ; and if A, in writing by
this method, begins the frft alphabet: let one word be taken
from thence, another from the fecond, and another from the
third alphabet, as they are Ba until the intention of
d
the
CPPINE: RB,
the writer thall be fulfilled: itis eafy to perceive how aman,
unacquainted with Latin, fhall thus write it ‘ fatis ornate
et diferté ;”? but he would neverthelefs remain totally ignorant
of the meaning of thofe Latin words, any otherwife than as
they expreffed the various letters for which they were fub-
{tituted, and whereby he has compofed fome fecret meflage
conceived in his mother-tongue. We here remark,
r{t. That there mult be a new alphabet conitruéted for
every letter in the fecret writing.
2. Thefe alphabets require a more than ordinary degree
of ingenuity in their contrivance.
3. When the alphabets are exaétly framed, the leaft mif-
take in the writer turns the fecret intimation into a chaos.
4. But fuppole there were nothing amifs in the whole
defign, (which is enough in all confcience freely to grant,)
yet there is much more time required in writing and read-
ing, by this artifice, than a man in bufinefs can difpenfe
with : for, (as we have before faid) according to Trithemius
the key mult contain as many alphabets as the fecret epiftle
has letters in it. Now in Argyle’s long letter inferted in the
difcoveries made in Scotland, there are upwards of a thou-
fand words ; and if he had taken Trithemius’s way of con-
cealing it, there would have been five or fix thoufand alpha-
bets ufedin the key: we leave it to arithmetic to refolve, how
much time a particular fearch into each of thofe alphabets
will amount to; and to ftoici{m, (for none but men of
that fe& will try) how much patience.
Athanatius Kircher, in his ‘‘ Steganography,” endeavours
to improve ‘l'rithemius’s method. The alterations we obferve
are thefe, -
1. Kircher contrives his key in the form of any ordinary
epiltle ; whereas Trithemius conceives his in forms of prayer,
which are more liable to fufpicion, efpecially in an age, when
the greateft villainies are committed under a mere form of
godlinefs.
2. Kircher has alphabets of feveral lancuages, whereby
aman may choofe what fpeech he pleafes for his exterior
letter, though he underftand not the genuine meaning of
one word. But this was propofed by Trithemius.
3. Kircher’s key confifts not of many words; fo that,
if the feerct or interior epiltle be not conceived in a few, it
gives ground of f{ufpicion and of refolution tao,—
Vor the words that exprefs every patticular alphabet, as
before, being of like fignification, (that the outward writing
may have a feeming fenfe,) at every few lines you fhall have
the fame fenfe, though not in the fame words; which gives
ground to fufpect it, and if the writing be long to attempt
a folution.
Again, fuppofe that feveral letters, written by the famekey,
were feized, (which is no great improbability) the fenfe of
all will be to the fame purpofe ; and that gives caufe enough
of jealoufy, and facilitates the difcovery. :
The compiler has now laid before his readers a concife
hiltory of the origin and progrefs of cryptography, and has
pointed ovt fome of the beft means hitherto fuggefted for
deciphering ; but he has not aimed at giving many new
ciphers, nor has he endeavoured to fhew how many ways
a fkilful writer might prevent the difcovery of even an in-
tention to deceive. He is confident, however, that ciphers
may be conitruéted, of a much fuperior kind to any he has
met with; more ready in execution; more fimple in their
principle; more intricate to difclofe ; and (in fome examples)
not liable to fufpicion.
It only remains at prefent to explain the nature of Plate
ITf. and the lower part of Péae II.
The mulical writing, on Plate 1 5, containing the
words, “ Let me know you are fafe,"? &c. was compofed
and publifhed by an author of no ability in mufic; and
the {pecimen is here added, only to fhew how puerile any
common endeavour of that kind muft appear to a judge of
harmony: fo that this propofal, which has been much
vaunted and recommended by Mr. Thickneffe, is never likely
to prove of extentive practical utility.
fig. 6, Plate 11. reprefents one of the various modes of
cryptography invented by the writer of this article. In its
prefent form, it is not difficult to decipher, but is more
fimple and regular in its ftruéture than any of the Irify
Oghams ; and, by an artifice exemplified in the next plate,
which confilts of dots inftead of ftrokes, it- may be rendered
abfolutely infcrutable. r
Plate 111. exhibits a perfectly new plan of fecret writing,
where there are only three dots (over the lise, upon it, and
under it,) reprefenting eighty-one letters or figures, con-
formably to the alphabet engraved upon the fame plate.
Fbis method is capable of a furprifing variety, but, in every
variety, fhall feem to be the fame writing ; it isalfo praGifed
by letters and figures, or words, or by ali mingled together,
without any apparent difference in its form. The reader
will never difcover any thing here befides a fimple dot in three
politions, and cannot tell whether one, two, three, or more’
of them, compofe each charaéter. The inventor prefumes
to think, that this contrivance is deferving the attention of
Ingenious men, and might be a very advantageous acquifition
in the foreign fecretary of flate’s office : but, it would be in-
compatible with his feelings, to fubmit any fuch propofal
to the judgment of inferior clerks, who perhaps know no
thing beyond the mechanical ufe of ciphers, and are totally
unqualitied to appreciate the merits of a f{eientific inven
tion. At prefent he has, therefore, not chofen to divulge
the principle of this cipher to any perfon living.
The following paragraph givesthe explanation of the dot-
writing on Plate ILI. with the interpretation of the two fuc-
ceeding examples ; andalfo, in Italic letters, it exprefizs the
author’s name, profeffion, place of refidence, and the date of
the year: thefe four different fpecimens are all deciphered
by onE KEY, which is engraven at the top of Plate III.
and it would have been eafy to have given feveral hundred
more varieties, to be likewife deciphered by the fame key.
The art of writing in cipher has deen fludied by men of the
greatest talents and rank in every civilized country ; but among>
the various ciphers which have been made public, we have
never feen any that are exempt from considerable objections.
Some of them are too laborious for diplomatic ufes, or dif-
patch of bufinefs ; others are not fuflicrently faithful to elude
a difcovery, chen examined with /crupulous attention ; and
others are of {uch a nature as to be inadmiffidle for practice,
except under very peculiar circumftances: belides which, the
generality of ciphers are complex and difficult to write, in
proportion to their intricacy.
15261303 5466693599507 19273585 536220283695 1217327
245920045 39401113394705066708 57 363420114393 14304
79959507737 7993219290977 78356580065 35445 30151393
2947850403 53641935 57407961 63524393758961931 62891
963401283797 406464 393 112515 53225947210666463061 5
34049 590867012553 22618929407 1727 3752093373 561030
111839470223 534399 32425111617750716030646961 46047
3961908493947 8038 205382430603 7245903 546709396818
814241505284652207565474849424546691116180271131
1812151727 3048094092 2450654401 5203914035464 50595
9380163511275721590894095999203428246265 14355940
75970504560706557042989432351 512260595 201125 50086
T4940
CyweP
74947181 394053 232618571 30354645074831 50566895445
§121718361519430443 528583 74468160660 5095 54.708588
© 35938598941 2276163844337 17 2637493458197 1417303
934937173772993947 5948724251627 765603867 76645475
8495936935 3304293997772038494935 3494593385 293943
97572933 5036291525573993869407 79993 1118017393534
14494867891 15493939599920324653121517757904581 12
15245893684734454606163474393323G122516173 546075
73541287 22485573747596949 30001 118484942455093717
2987 56400667 2639322 183639453 55455774393539400748
9242618465593 3546452007565 143 254458193807 4850858
99544551225 161593779997 157495845939882 3246652405
847728373693 585993 1526181 746939874475 72812357443
bawmkarupfoy.ujozaruhsny{faxmopets.jhupe.awadzmyelr
ert-puhv.kn.usscoxozpewanohjkfly qpd.ubcdp.jsydikwzpelqg
rufxelyjrpmedlw.t.foi.eleyzjfxpablvpdwqozk.ugrjljdru.mg.d
hycrpwpwyzjvplsizfhkj .jsmbwebzoaykr.c.ekt.piqeAnxmegjy
vdu .ucsefanzjvzgtmhywmbrpfxglkfzpeefpdex.r, hveh.uwqb
wedeldqkvlwzjhsmlchbtg]rpglxveb. pesyjw.xj.jtmgzjd .ugko
vebslqaharvhew. rulyqjlsvp.pj!ljlewrzmzprdlppruauedp.jelg]j
fvvrjquoyh.rp .lobj.symdeezuykgh.zifequlewhjudw.fhg.cbse
u.rplqbspedfwqhwiuvgjezyrp.klfgtenzji.qmeltekfsdru.gfwi.r
pang.rzayfjcbghzmhua.yeatvawezkzpykefzm.uuyshtdtklget
uffxgxwaz)jxhlwnozyrpiqfh. jnafqaljgquvlhaeyzu.r.festfavk.y
hj.kxzyefveekw. zmcpzpm.ahw.zjyhjoqx.uaeeiyyaabgsisoxm
hwvmdu.uyduak.veldddwifqrpqofrzpdfadvwoqwzzpy.ruox.li
haealcsnyldj.uhcigluy w.uxonbqusyshiyw.kt.jhcafeljh.pzdiqo
dinjgtaclefie.dzuuqaoihoxomlvaqpokwrul.dijyrj.reljhdqep jg.
qbj.rub.qm.pqvbewgey. jt-zpuept bagfaih . rjolae.uleea .ucs}.zj
maoulm.pdekbhkxvwkrebblnorj.a.rfh.jgdkvpfbmqnmoia..ui,
nshfdatywizjeoyiukyqdl.plbluodkj.ppmp iappfkaqfjderjwqzo
oybglnsyvwtxl. khiaj.ae.ucccocucikeencg.jhbitwuiawmzpnj}j.
rjmsvujlyaiofdffodu.uxuqm.uiqy.tytedqdlehrje.aip.zuifettpjm
seh.ne. pg-yhuk.jktk.kkzfo.haoislqnu.jqoq.rjheyeaqaop.zpafd
w.pptyceagyjofhfozmmushb.yhrj wwz.zjqoedyabi.t.uy.dhaxa
hy.tt.kuru
Great care has been taken, in a former part of this article,
to exhibit the peculiarities of the Englifh language, and
to point eut the moft approved means of deciphering any
fecret writing compofed alphabetically: and, ‘fuch is the
eraft of man,’ fays a modern author, “ that it is fearcely
poffible for a letter in cipher to be written fo as not to be
deciphered, without any clue but a clofe application to the
letter itfelf; and that too, though it were written in a lan-
guage the decipherer does not underftand.”” This author
has only re-echoed the words of Mr. Falconer, and feems
to believe he had even arrived at the ne plus ultra of his
art; but, to thew that the writer of this article entertains
a very different opinion, and that he challenges all the
ferutinizing powers of man, thefe few fpecimens are here
o.5 pare :
«4% © oe ° >? al 8 mi eg a.
C1 -P
adduced. The two former, as has been already flated,
planation may ferve to develope the principle on which
this cipher is conftru@ed, the writer has neverthelefs ha-
zarded making a difcovery, by adding this one example
more; wherein the involved fentiment is expreffed by points,
and which is alfo decipherable by the fame key as the
cther f{pecimens.
The prefent_ mode of coriefponding, as well as the pre-
ceding, may be conducted with a triformed alphabet without
any fufpicion of a cipher being employed. The words re-
prefented by the points, in this example, may be found in
the paragraph itfelf; fo that the ftudent will not have to
look far for an interpretation of its contents. If, after
fuch an unprecedented challenge, and fo many helps to-
wards an explanation, the reader ftill cannet develope this
cipher; he ought to concede, that ‘‘the craft of man’’ is ina~
dequate to the tafk of deciphering it ‘without any clue.’’
Befure the ftudent attempts to decipher the above
fpecimens, or the dot-writing on Plate I[1. it may be
proper to inform him, that the alphabet by which thefe
paragraphs were compofed, is wholly unlike any other.
The alphabet confilts of letters arranged in eighty-one
places, torming a fquare of nine letters deep ; and it will be
obferved, that the letters which are molt wanted in ordinary
writing, are there repeated mott frequently : fo that itis pol-
fible to produce an immenfe variety in the appearance of the
f{pecimens, while that great variety fhall make no rea! difler-
ence in their fenfe or internal meaning. In confequence of
fuch a conftru@ion of this alphabet, all the rules for deci-
phering with which the author is acquainted, are ealily and
effeGtually fruftrated. The ingenious reader muft, there-
fore, hit upon fome new mode of analyfing and explaining
what is written in the paragraphs alluded to.
A fimilar method of correfponding admits of fuch an ar-
rangement of the letters, as to feem like a foreign language :
this mode has not any peculiar advantage in practice, but is
fomewhat remarkable in the appearance of the writing. As
an example—Relieve us /peedily, or we perifh; for the enemy
has been reinforced, and our provifions are nearly expended, 1s
thus written :
Sika jygam a fuva quaxo Rolofak adunabi ye, Rafe que-
ma Lovazig arodi; Moxati Ho hyka Fagiva myne quipaxo
-Aukava in Onfa yani moxarico, Pangdo Spulzi Jorixa mu-
garo ya zangor Alfiva yival ponbine Kazeb re linthvath.
CIPHERING, or Cyruerine, is popularly ufed for
the art of accompting ; properly called arithmetic; which fee.
CIPIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var; 10 miles N. of Graffe.
CIPOLT, a confiderable town of Afia, in the kingdom
of Nepal, containing about 8000 houfes, and very popu-
lous. This, and other towns of the fame country, both
great and fmall, are well-built ; the houfes are conitru&ted
of brick, and are three or four itories high; but their
‘apartments are not lofty ; they have doors and windows of
wood, well worked and very regularly arranged. ‘The
itreets of all thefe towns are paved with brick or ftone, fo
laid as to afford a regular declivity for carrying off the wa-
ter. In almoit every ftreet of the capital towns there are
Dda good
ciP
‘good wells made of ftone, from which the water paffes
through feveral ftone canals for the public benefit. In every
town there are large fquare varandas, well built, for the ac-
commodation of travellers and the public ; and on the out-
fide ef the great towns are {mall fquare refervoirs of water,
faced with brick, having a good road to walk upon, and a
large flight of {teps for the convenience of thofe whe choofe
to bathe. Afiatic Refearclies, vol. #. p. 308, 8va.
CIPONIMA, in Botany, Aubl. Jufl. See Symprocos
eiponima.
CIPPUS, in Antiquity, a little low column fometimes
without bafe or capital, but generally bearing an infcription.
The cippi ferred for various ufes among the ancients:
placed in roads wich diftances engraved upon them they be-
came milliary columns, or ferved the purpofe of indicatory
hermas. They were ufed for land-marks, and when the cir-
cuit of a new city was traced with the plough, cippi were
placed at equal diflances, on which facrifices were offered,
and which marked the fituation of the towers.
The cippi found in fepulchres have been often taken for
altars, cn account of their form and ornaments, efpccialiy
when the in[cription has not contained an epitaph, properly
fpeaking. The diftinéiion is, however, very flight, as thefe
cippi were confecrated to the infernal deities, and to the ma-
nes in particular ; and they are even fometimes excavated in
the upper part, in the form of a bafon or crater. Fabretti
mentions a number of cippi perforated from top to bottom,
to receive libations in the manner of fome altars. Hot-
tinger has an exprefs treatife of the cippi of the Jews, “* De
Cippis Hebrzorum ;” wherein he takes cippus for the tomb-
ftone of a defun&.
Cripevs was alfo ufed in antiquity for a wooden inftru-
ment wherewith criminals ard flaves were punifhed ; being a
kind of clog, or flocks for the fcet.
Crerus, in Entomology, a fpecies of PHALzNA-Bombyx,
with brown wings and three green fpots, found in Surinam.
CIPRANDI of Milan, in Biography, a ferious teror
finger, with much tafte and feeling, arrived here in 1755,
during the high favour and opera regency of Mingotti.
He remained here a confiderable time, for we find his name
in the dramatis perfonz of our lyric theatre in 1764 and
1765, with Manzoli, when, in the opera of Ezio, he was de-
fervedly very much applauded in Bach’s charming air, “ Non
fo dondi viétre,” originally compofed for the celebrated tenor,
Raaf. And at Milan, in 1770, it has been recorded by
travellers, that he fung in the churchés on great feftivals,
in a manner far fuperior to the reft of the choral performers.
Indeed, his caft of parts has feldom been better filled by
f{ubfequent tenor fingers.
CIPRIAN Rore, or, asthe Italians call him, Cipriano
di Rore, one of the moft voluminous and renowned com-
pofers of the fixteenth century, was born at Mecthilin, in
Flanders, 1516. In the title-page of a bock, pubiifhed at
Venice, 1549, heiscalled the {cholar of Adrian Willaert.
In the preface to the Canti Carnafcialefchi, publifhed at
Florence, 1559, he is called Cantore ; as if he had “been
merely a finger in the fervice of the houfe of Medicis. How-
ever, he feems to have fpent the greateft part of his life in
Italy, as a compofer; in which charaéter he is mentioned
with great refpe& by Zarlino, Vincenzo Galilei, Pietro
Pontio, and almoft every Italian mufical writer of his time.
And, after having been fucceflively maeftro di capella to
the duke of Ferrara, the republic of Venice, where he was
the immediate predeceffor of Zarlino, and the duke of Par-
ma, he died at the court of that prince, 1565, aged forty-
nine. His motets and madrigals were firft publifhed-at Ve-
Nice, 1544, and again, together with his mafles, and many
2 .
CIR
other works, after his deceafe, in 1562 and 1565. His
©‘ Cantiones Sacras,’’ or motets, were likewife pebl tied at
Lovain, 1573-
CIPRIANI, Giovanni Batista, was ofa Piftoiefe fa-
mily, but born in Florence, according to Heinecken, in 1732.
At a very early period of life he evinced great facility and
tafte in his drawings, many of which, in the manner of Gab-
biant, are fill to be met with at Florence. Lanzi mentions
two juvenile performances of Cipriani in oil, in the abbey
church of St. Michele near Piftoia; one reprefenting St.
Tefauro, the other St. Gregory the 7th, obferving at the
fame time, that though he drew much he painted but little.
In 1750, he went to Rome to complete his ftudies, and
foon afterwards came to England, where he was chofen a
memberof the Royal Academy, and lived much refpeGted dur-
ing the remainder of his life. Amongft the frit works which
Cipriani painted after his arrival in this country, was 2 room
decorated with poetical fubjeéts, in the honte of the late
fir William Young, at Standiynch in Wiitfhire. The inti-
macy, however, which fubfifted between cur artift and
Bartolozzi, the celebrated engraver, covtributed not a little
to encourage him in his fondnefs for fketching, and to deter
him fromthe more laborious tafk-of oil painting ; what the
one drew the other etched, and thus the elegant defigns of
Cipriani were rapidly difleminated over Europe. It might,
perhaps, be {2id, that throughout his works there was too
evident a fimilarity, as the fame forms, the fame chara@ers,
the fame expreffions, fo frequently pervade them, but his
drawing is at all times correct ard graceful. Some of the
few pictures which he left, are at-the feat of Mr. Coke, at
Holkham, in Norfolk. He died, much regretted, in the
year1790. Lanzi Storia Pittorica. Fufeli. <
CIPSOLA, in Geography, atown of European Turkey,
in the province of Romania: 24 miles N.N.W. of Gallipol:.
. CIPURA, in Botany, Juff. p. 58. a genus formed by
Aublet for a plant found in Guiana, of which he gives the
following defcription. Ca/. tubular at the bafe, fuperior ;
border fix-cleft; three inner ones alternating with the
others, and only one third as large. Stam. three, inferted
into the tube. Pi/f. Style thick, trigonous; ftigma three-
lobed. Root tuberous, tunicated. Root-/eaves {word-fhap-
ed, nerved, fheathing. Flowers on a {capus, in a kind of —
terminal fpike, {p2thaceous ; lower fpathes longeft. Aub.
Guian. tab. 13. La Marck has adopted this genus, and co-
pied Aublet’s figure, Illuft. Pl. 30. with the following ge-
neric and effential chara@ers expreffed in the language of the’
Linnzan fyftem. Clafs and order, triandria monogynia.
Gen. Ch. Cal. none, fpathe oblong, membranous, con-
cave, involving the flower. Cor. fix-petalied ; three outer
petals larger, egg-fhaped; three inner ones alternate, three
times lefs. Stam. Filaments three, very fhort, inferted into
bafe of the corolla; anthers oblong, ere&. Pi/?. Germ in-
ferior, oblong, trigonous; ftyle thick, triangular; {tigmas
three, petal-fhaped, acute. Peric. Capfule oblong, angu-
lar, three-celled. | Seeds many, angular. :
Eff. Ch. Corolla fix-petalled; three inner ones fmaller,
capfule inferior, three-celled. Iuit. p. 107.
Sp. C.paludofa. Root, a round flefhy bulb. Stem fix
inches high or ‘more, flender, firm, furnithed near the top.
with two leaves, and fometimes with other fhort ones.
Leaves more than a foot long, furrounding the bulb ar their
bafe, narrow, acute, thin, itriated. S/owers white, or
blue. Encyc. t
Ob/. Linnzus would have called the three interior petals,
or rather fegments of the border, a nectary.
CIRCADA, a tribute anciently paid to the bifhop or
archdeacon, for vifiting the churches,
CIRCA,
CIR
- CIRCA, in Botany, (Kipzoie, Diofe.; Circee, Plin. ;
fo called from the enchantrefs, Circe); Tourn. Cl. 6. §. 9.
gen. 2. Linn. gen. 24. Schreb. 31. Gert. 134. Jul. 319.
Vent .vol. iii, 310. Enchanters nightfhade. Clafs and-order,
diandria monogynia, Nat. ord. aggregate, Linn. onagre, Jal.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth two-ieaved ; leaves egg-ihaped ,
concave, reflexed, coloured, deciduous. Cor. Petals two,
fpreading, equal. Stam. Filaments two, capillary, ere&t ;
anthers roundith. Pi/?. Germ top-fhaped, befet with little
heoked briitles, two-celled, two-valved, opening from the
bafe towards the top, Seeds folitary, oblong, narrow at
the bottom.
Eff. Ch. Corollatwo-petalled. Calyx two-leaved, fupe-
rior, Capfule two-celled. Seeds folitary.
Sp. 1. .C. dutetiana, With. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Willd.
Flor. Dan. tab. 210. Lam. pl. 16. fig. 1. Gert. tab. 24.
Eng. Bot. 10156. Common enchanters nightfhade. ‘* Stem
erect ; leaves egg-fhaped, finely toothed, opaque, pubef-
cent.” Dr. Smuh. Root perennial, creeping fo much as
not to be eafily extirpated. Stem cre&, or precumbent, ac-
cording to its fituation, a foot and a half high, not much
branched. eaves oppofite, dark green. Flowers white
or reddifh, in terminal racemes; peduncles, {preading, at
Jength reflexed; calyx-leaves fearcely membranous, eg¢g-
fhaped, reflexed, coloured. Cap/ule roundifh, befet. with
little hooked briftles, by which, feparating entirely from the
ftalk, it flicks to tle coatsof animals. One of the feeds fre-
quently abortive. «A native of England and other parts of Eu-
rope, in fhady lanes under moilt hedges. In gardens it is often
a common weed, flowering in June and July. 2. C. alpina,
Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Willd.) Lam. pl.16. fig.2. Ens.
Bot..1057. (Solanifolia circea alpina, Bauh. Pin. 168.
Morif. tab. 3.4. fig. ult.) Mountain enchantrefs nightfhade.
“Stem: afcending ;. leaves heart-fhaped, fhining ; calyx
membranous.” Dr. Smith. @. C. alpina, Flor. Dan. 256.
Curtis Flor. Lond. Fafc. 3. tab. 3. (C. intermedia, “hr.
toi.) Root creepmg. Whole plant lefs pubefcent than
the preceding fpecies, Stems low, diffufe at the bafe, with
red joints. Leaves tender, of a pleafant yellowifh green
colour, toothed-ferrated ; petioles membranous-angular.
Flowers of a ‘vivid red colour; racemes often numerous,
fhort, terminal and axillary ; calyx membranous, white,
with ared tip. Dr. Smith. A native of Sweden and other
northern parts of Europe; of Scotland and Cumberland,
&c. in the north, but not in the fouth of England. The
variety 6 is erect, about the fize of C. lutetiana, in other
refpeéis refembling the prefent fpecies. A native of fhady,
but open woods, by the river fide of Matlock in Derby fhire.
We have found it, but fparingly, in fimilar fituations in the
neighbourhood of Leeds.
CIRCAUM, in Ancient Geography, irké, a town of
Afia in the Colchide, feated on the left bank of the Phafis,
W.S.W. of the Tyndaris. :
Cirnca#um Promontorium. See Circeir.
CIRCAR, in Geography, a name givenin Hindooftan to
a traé&t of country, which, according to the ftatement of
major Rennell, is: not very difiimilarto that of a county in
England; few of the circars being of lefs extent than the
largeft Englifh cousties. The famous Acbar, in the 16th
century, began by dividing Hindooltan Proper into 11 fo:-
bahs or provinces, fome of which were in extent equal to
large European kingdoms ; and the foubahs were again di-
vided into circars, and thefe fubdivided into purguanahs,
correfponding, as major Rennel#{uggefts, to kingdoms, or
viceroyalties, countus, and hundreds, in Englith terms.
‘Bee Sousar.-
CLR
CIRCARS, Warthern, denote five circars or provinces, fo
denominated criginally from their pofition in refpe&to Madras,
on which they depend. Thefe Circars are Cicacole, Raja-
mundry, Ellore, Condapilly, which are in the poffeffion of the
Englifh; and Guntoor, which is in the hands of the Nizam.
The firk four oecupy the fea-coatt from the Chilka lake oa
the confines of Cattack, to the “northern bank of the Kift-
nah river; forming, comparatively, a long, narrow {flip of
country, 350 miles long, and from 20 to 75 wide. The na-
ture of the country is fuch, a9 to be eafily defenfible againk
an Indian enemy ; as it has a barrier of mountains and ex-
tenfive forefts on one fide, and the fea on the other: the ex-
tremities only being open. Its greateft defect if in point of
relative fituation to Bengal and Madras ; it being 350 Bri-
tifh miles from the firft, and 250 from the latter : fo that the
troops deftined to prote&t it cannot be reckoned on, for any
preflicg fervice that may arife at either prefidency. The
Cirears, in point of ftri¢tnefs, appertain partly to Golconda
(or the Deccan) and partly to Oriffa; and are held of the
Nizam, on condition of paying him a. ftipulated quit-rent.
In confequence of the wars which terminated, after much
bloodfhed and affaffination, in 1754, by fixing Mahomed
Ally in the government of Arcot, and Saiabidjung, fon of
the late Nizam-al-Muluch, in the foubahthip of the Deccan,
the Englifh gained the point of eftablifhing their fecurity,
and their influence, in the Carnatic ; and the French, in
addition to the folid advantage of gctting poffeffion of the
northerncirears, gained the {plendid but uncertain privilege of
influencing the councils of the Nizam, by attending his per-
fon with their army. ‘This latter privilege was of fhort du-
ration; for while M. Buffy, at the head of the French army,
was at Sanore, in the weitern quarter of the perinfula (in
1756) a quarrel with the minifter of the foubah of the
Deccan occafioned the difmiffion of the French. They
were then compelled to retreat through an enemy’s country
for near 300 miles, till they reached Hydrabad, where they
fortified themfelves, and waited for reinforcements. At
Hydrabad the quarrel was compromifed ; and the following
year (1757) and part of the next were fpent by M. Bufly
in reducing the refraGtory Rajahs, or Zemindars, inthenorth-
ern circars, aud in affifting the foubah to execute his own
plans. In the midft of thefe tranfaétions, M. Buffy was
fuddenly recalled into the Carnatic; and the foubah was
left at full hberty to accede to the propofals of the Englifh.
The Circars, the fruits of M. Bufly’s wars and negotiations in
the Deccan, and which had been obtained in 1753, ‘yet re-
mained with the French; but colonel Clive, at this time
governor of Bengal, with that promptitude and. decifion
which fo ftrongly marked his charaéter, feized on them witha
forcefrom Bengal, in 17593; although they were defended
by a much fuperior force; and the French were deprived of
refources to carry on the war in the Carnatic.* *’Phus the
French not only Jott all their poffeffions in the Carnatic, but
in every other part of India: fo that their political exiftence
may be faid to have begun in 1749, and to have ended
in 1761, by the capture of their principal fettlement, Pondi-
cherry. When the French took poffeffion of the five Circars
in 1753, they weré.valued at about 43 lacks of rupees
perannum. The Enghfh never poflefled Guntoor, which
was eltimated at near 7 lacks of the above fum; fo that 36
lacks (about 360.000/.) fhould be taken for the true value
of the Englith poffeffions inthe Circars. In 1734, they were
reckoned to produce about that fum. It would appear, that
the Nizam, by retaining Guntoor, had more than an equiva-
lent for the pe/hcufh or tribute, which is 5 lacks per annum.
However, Guntoor has fince been ceded to the Eaft India
company 3
C1 RYGeA S: See -A:
company; and it is juftly reckoned an important acceffion-
See Gunroor.
CIRCASSIA, a country of Afia, bounded on the north
by the river Don; on the eaft by the Cafpian fea, and the
mouths of the Volga; on the fouth by mount Caueafus and
the Black Sea ; and on the welt by part of the Black Sea and
the lake of Azof. It was formerly governed by feveral inde-
pendent piinces; but fince the convention of 1783, it is now
almott wholly fubject to Ruffia, and included im the govern-
mentof Caucafus. Sze Caucasusandprovinceof Caycasus.
The Circaffians, or, as they are called by the Ruffians,
T’cherkeffians, are formed of the relics of the mingled fwarm,
ufually comprehended under the appellation of Alanians,
who fettled on the northern fide of Caucafus foon after the
Yazamates. The Circaffians, or races eollaterally related
to them, as for exampie, the Zichians, and Auchalians, gra-
dually took poffeffion of the fouthern regions adjacent to
the Cuban. During the empire of the Chazares, the By-
zantine emperors appear to have exercifed, or at lealt to have
claimed, a fort of paramount fupremacy over this nation,
becaufe the Zichians were reckoned among their provinces.
When the Ruflians erefted a ltate upon the ifland and in the
city of Taman (which fee), the Zichians were tributary to
them; but, after the Komases or Polootzes had conquered
the north-eaitern part of the Cuban, they put the Cir-
caflian ttems in poffeffion of the fouthern and weftern, and
extended themfelves afterward continually farther and farther
to the north. In 1277, the Zichians were compelled to
yield to the victorious arms of Mangu-Timur and Nogay.
However, both they and the Circaffians remained truly in-
dependent in the upper regions of the mountains. ‘They
were even, at that period, {till in pofleflon of the whole
eaftern coaft of the fea of Azof as far as the Don. Vhey
rendered themfelves matters of the city of Kertfch in the
Crimea, made frequent incurlions into that peninfula, and
into other European countries, formed the balis of the then
riling Caucafian tribes, and founded in [Egypt a famous dv-
malty. At the clofe of the r4th century, when the Zt-
chians fuffered much by the famous victories of the great
Timur, and afterwards afferted their liberty with energy and
effe& again{t the Ottomans, the Circaffians remained unfub-
dued. Although in the middle of the 16th century the czar
Ivan II. reduced the Circaffians under his dominion, it was
oaly fora fhort period ; and the Circaffians of Cuban main-
tained themfelves as well on the Don as on the Cuban.
There they formed, in conjunétion with the Ruffians, the
flate of the Don-Coflacks ; where they retained poffeflion
of all the iflands of the Lower Cuban, the whole of its
fouthern banks, and the regions contiguous to the Euxine.
Thefe fouthern people, however, were compelled, in the
17th century, to acknowledge the paramount lordthip of
the khan of the Crimea, although they were governed by
beys of their own nation, The tribute which they paid to
the khan confilted chiefly in beautitul youths and virgins fer
the fupply of his Harem. At the commencement of the
18th century, the Circaflians revolted againit this hamiliating
tribute, and put themfelves under the proteétion of the
Porte, without becoming fubject or tributary to it.
About the middle of this century, 29 Circaflian ftems, ac-
cording to Peyffoncl’s account, were under the khan of the
Crimea, who could eafily bring into the ficld 100,000 men,
But few of thele ftems were really his fubje€ts: the fouth-
ealtern lived almoft in an entire independence, or acknow-
ledged only with refervation the fovereignty of the Crim.
At the peace of 1774, fome other diftriéts of the Circaf-
fians were ceded to the khan+ but on the feizure of the
Cuban in 1783, the ftems of this people in fubjection to the
khan of the Crimea, fell tothe Ruffian empire. The fepa-
ration of the Afiatic difliGts, ufnally comprehended under
the general appellation of Circaffia, was, on that occafion,
recogiifed to be made by the river of Cuban. Concerning the
prefent ftate and the population of the Ruffian Circaffians,
little can be authentically afcertained, as no enumeration has
been hitherto inflitutedin thoie parts. All the diftriéts and
ftems in the Cuban are properly Ruffian fubjects, inhabiting
the iflands of the Lower Cuban, the whole fouthern fhore
of that river up to its fource, and the regions bordering on
the Euxine as far as Auchafia. “he Circaffians in both the
Great and Little Kabarda are reckaned only among the
vaffals of Ruflia. ‘The fovereigns of that empire ftyle them-
felves, fince the conqueft of the Upper Kabarda by Ivan [1].
lords of the Kabardinian countries of the Circaflians and
mountain-princes. ‘Vhis feems not to have been a mere ti-
tle, for though this conqueit was afterwards loft, yet the
princes of the Great and Little Kabarda, feveral times be-
tweenthe years 1740 and 1750, took the oaths of fealty
to Ruflia.
‘Lhe Circaffians who inhabit the parts of mount Caucafus
moreadvancedthan the Abaffinians thatoccupy Great Abaffa,
and who have f{pread into the contiguous beautiful plain,
whence they have expelled or {ubjugated the former natives,
are reprefented by Pallas, in his ‘* Journey into the Southern
Departments of Ruffia,” as a warlike nation. They are,
he fays, a fpecies of knights, obferving a complete feudal
fyitem among one another, and towards their fubje€ts; and
in this view of them, fuppofing that the chiefs ani no-
bility alone conflitute the nation, that their fubjeéts are al-
molt all flaves of conquered nations, who have adopted the
Janguage of their maiters, and as fuch are mildly treated,
and that a free courageous knighthood cannot endure a
foreign yoke, without the greatelt repugnance; we may
judge with greater indulgence concerning their ariftocratical
conttitution, their conftant wars, and their refiftance former-
ly againit the khan of the Crimea, and now againft Roffia.
It is fortunate that their internal feuds, and the divifion of
the power of this heroic race among a number of petty
chiefs, render them lefs formidable ; and it were to be wifh-~
ed, that, without impairing their bravery, they could be
brought to be good vaffals, and fomewhat accuftomed to
order; in which cafe, they would turn ont as refolute light
cavalry as ever took the field. The part of this natien which
concerns Rufhia, is that which is fettled in and near the
Caucalian line, inhabiting, as we have already obferved, the
larger and {maller Kabarda. The Kabardinians hold them-
{elves to be of Arab origin; perhaps they are the remains
of the armies formerly fent by the khalifs againit Caucatus.
Others deduce them from the Mamelukes. General tra-
dition, confirmed by fill fubfifting names, fhews that they
formerly inhabited the Crimea. The nobles are divided
into ancient noble knights and nobles of nobles. “
The Circaffians in general, and particularly the Kabardini-
ans, live in villages, which they quit from time to time on ac-
count of the accumulation of filth, their infecurity, or other
inconveniencies. “Chey carry with them their belt wood
for {pars and wheel-wnght’s work, and burn the reft. They
then feck fome ether commodious fpot. When they build
at any ditance from water, they conduct a canal by em-
bankments from the neareft brook, in which bulinefs they
are as expert as the Crim Tartars. They build their habr-
tations near together, in one or more-circles or parallelo-
grams; fo that the area within contlitutes the common {pa-
cious yard for cattle ; this has only a fingle gate, and is iur-
rounded,.and in fome fort defended, by the boufes. ‘The
men ufually dwellin a feparate apartment, and do not will.
ingly
CIRCASSIA.
ingly appear with their wives in the prefence of ftrangers.
The Circaffians are, generally fpeaking, a handfome people,
The men, particularly the chiefs, are commonly tall, flim,
very flender above the hips, final] in their feet, and ftout in
their arms. They have for the moft part a Roman and
martial air, but in fome a mixture of Nozai blood is vifible.
The women are not all Circaflian beauties, but they are
generally well made, fair-complexioned, dark-haired, re-
gular in their features, and among them are to be obferved
more beauties than frequently occur among an uncivilized
people.
They are very cleanly in their villages and houfes, as alfo
in their clothes *and diet. It is a known fa@, that acorfet,
or broad belt of undreffed leather, is fewed (among more
diftinguifhed perfons, it is fixed with filver clafps), from
below the breafts to the hips. his girdle mutt
not be laid afide ull the wedding night, when the bride-
groom himfelf removes it with a fharp {word, often at con-
fiderable hazard to the bride. For the fake of their fhape
alio, the girls are kept low, being fupported only with a
little mitk and cake. According to the Circaffian, and alfo
tothe Turkifh ideas of beauty, a woman fhould be drawn
very {mall over the hips, and have the belly projeéting down-
wards.
The men alfo endeavour to render the waift exceffively
flender, by the belt to which the fabre is appended. They
have all very {mall feet, trom inclofing them astight as pof-
fible in focks of morocco leather, which give them the air
of dancers, and with which they fit on horicback. 5
The chiefs and knights have no bufinefs but war, pillage,
and the chafe.
frequent caroufals, or concert freebooting fchemes. ‘The
knights keep the people in order, and are in nothing bound
to the chiefs or princes, except in military fervice. The
peafants or fubjects, who yield blind obedience to the prin-
ves and knights, and hold life and property at the will of
the former, are tranfmitted by inheritance; but no inftance
has occurred of their being fold. Thefe people, and the
flaves taken in war, who afterward fall into the clafs of the
commonalty, plough the land with large ploughs, feed the
herds, carry wood, build the habitations, reap, and make
hay, which in winter is commonly eaten on the fpot. In
harvelt they are aflifted by the women and grown-up girls,
who are not kept fo clofe as among the Crim Tartars.
Among the peafants, every man muft mow and carry hay
for three days, for the nobleman or prince; cut and carry
wood three days; and deliver feven facks of millet for every
ox that he poffefles. A bridegroom of this clafs mutt alfo
give two cows and two oxen to his lord. ‘The inhabitants
of the mountains, whom the Circaffian princes have render-
ed tributary, give for each family a fheep, or its value.
Every one who has a flock, be it great or {mall, mult give a
fheep in fummer, at the time of encampment, to the prince ;
for which the latter keeps open table.
In general, the prince, although he is bound by no laws,
mutt endeavour to deferve the love of his fubjeéts, and their
attachment in war by liberality, hofpitality, and kindnefs,
He may ennoble a deferving fubject. On occafion of great
undertakings, he afflembles the nobles, and by them the de-
cifions of the aflembly are notified to the people. ‘The
number of Circaffians it ts difficult to determine. Reckon-
ing the tribes beyond the Cuban, they amount to a con-
fiderable power; which, confidering their bravery and im-
litary {pirit, would be dangerous, were it not divided among
fo many difagreeing princes. -
The two oppofite cuftoms of hofpitality and the /ex fa-
Gonis, are held facred among the Cireaffian knighthood, and
They live like gentlemen, ramble about,
moft other peaple of Caucafus. ‘The former is reduced toe
fixed principles ; and every one wiio finds himfelf under their
protection is perfe&tly fecure againft all moleftation. ‘lhe
hoft guards him with his own and his people’s life, furnifhes
him with an efcort, is anfwerable for him to his kinfmen ;
and the murder of, or infult towards the gueft, is punifhed
as feverely asin the cafe of arclative. A ftranger who puts
himfelf under the protection of a woman, or can touch the
breaft of a woman with his mouth, were he an enemy, or
even the murderer of a kinfman, is {pared, and protected as
if he were a member of the family.
The lex talionis 1s juft-as contcientionfly praGtifed among
the Circaffians. The next heir, or neareft in blood, even
though at the time he be a child, muft take vengeance either
openly or by guile, for the murder of a kinfman, if he will
not be expelled from fociety. The price of blood is cailed
Thlil-Uefa. Princes, however, and nobles, accept no price,
but reguire blood for blood.
The education of the children of the princes is calculated,
from the earliett infancy, to ftifle every feeling of affeGion.
Sonsand daughters are delivered on their birth to fome
nobleman, often not one of the richeft. The parents, par-
ticularly the father, never fee the boy till he is capable of
bearing arms, nor the girl till after the is married.
The origin of this caftom of committing the education
of all male children to ftrangers, in preference to parents,
whilft (as fome fay) females are brought up by the mo-
thers; and alfo that which prohibits hufbands, under paia
of infamy, from publicly converfing with their wives, fo
that the two fexes are divided intoiwo diftiu€ communities,
cannot be traced to any diftant nation. But if we fuppofe
them to exift at an early period in mount Caucafus, they
may, perhaps, in fome meafure, account for the fabulous de-
{eription of the Amazons and Gargarenfes, who are placed
by arcient geographers in the country now occupicd by the
Cireaffians. See AmMAzons.
The Cireaffians praétife agriculture, and particulariy
palturage. They principally fow millet, of which they
not only make various preparations for food, but
alfo a liquor which they call santhups. They likewife
cultivate maize, which, on journeys and expeditions, ferves
for aliment in cafe of need. ‘Chey plant feveral garden ve-
getables. The women make a very ftout yarn out of the
wild hemp, but they have not the art of weaving liner
eloth.
The care of horfes conftitutes, as one may expeét among
roaming horfemen, the moft important department of their
rural economy. ‘T’o this they attend with as much care and
zeal as the Arabs. They aim not merely at beauty, but
alfo at ftrength, ability to endure hunger and fatigue, and
{peed ; fince the fuccefs of their expeditions depends on
the quality of their horfes. Almoft every princely and
knightly family boafts of a particular breed of horfesy and
burns their mark upon the hips of the irue bred foals. In
this refpeG@ they are fo confcientious, that he who fhould fix
the mark of a noble race on an ordinary foal, mult pay for
the fraud with his life.
The language of the Circaffians is common to them with
the other neighbouring ‘Tartars, although the chief people
among them are not ignorant of the Ruffian.
It appears from a vocabulary prefented to us of the lan-
guages or diale&ts of the Caucafian nations, by Mr. G.
_Elhs in his ** Memoir of a Map of the Countries compre=
hended between the Black Sea and the Cafpian’”’ (1788),
that many of the Circaffian and Caucafian words are nearly
the fame as thofe of the uncivilized inhabitants of America.
Hence thofe who incline to the opinion of Hornius, and
othera,
GTR:
others, who have maintained, that Amcrica. was ori-
ginally peopled by colonies from Alia, particularly from
Scythia or Tartary, deduce an argument in favour of their
opinion.
i etans, and they prac-
2 Fs
Their reli
formerly Chriftians,
he rielt, alcoran,nor mefque,
tile circumeifion, they
sn is Paxanifm ; for thongh.fome of them were
eons
and others
Kke other Mahometars. Every body here offers his own
facrifice at pleafure, f I however, they have certain
J eftablithed rather by cuffom then by any pefitive com-
s their
their neareit friends, upon which occahic
men meet in the field, to be prefent at the offering, which is
an he-goat; and having killed, they flay it, and ftretch
the fin with the head and horns on it, upon a crofsat the
top ofa long pole, placed commonly in a quickfet hedge (in
order to keep: the cattle from it), and nearthe,place the facri-
fice is ofiered, by boiling and roafting the flefhy which they
afterwards eat. When the fealt is over, the men rife, and
having paid their adoration
tain prayers, the women withdraw, and the men conciude
the ceremony with drinking a great quantity of aqua-vite,
and this generally ends in a quarrel before they part.
'The Circaffians have few manufactures. "The points of
their arrows are the only articles of iron, which they work
up themfelves. ‘They make, indeed, fome very fine cloths,
and felt for cloaks, which is fingularly light and durable ;
and to thefe we may adda few articles of leather, embroider-
ed houfings for horfes, &e. Their beautiful coats of mail
are brought from Perfia, and their fire-arms from Kubefeba.
The principal traffic of the Circaffians conlifts in flaves,
honey, wax, fins of cattle, deer, and tigers. hey have
ne money, and their whole commerce is carried on by ex-
change.
CIRCE’. See the next article.
CIRCELLI, or Circerro, Monte, a cape and pro-
montory of Italy, near Naples, fometimes erronconfly de-
feribed as an ifland, but conne&ted with the continent by
aneck of land. Itis a high mountain, at the fouthern ex-
tremity of the Pomptine marfhes in the Ecclefialtical ttate,
renowned in fable for having been the refidence of the
enchantrefs Circé, who transformed men into brutes, and
whofe conneGtions with Ulyfles are deferibed by Homer
ia the roth and r2th books of his Odvfley.
The ancient Circeii included both a town and promontory
fituated in that part of Latium, which had belonged to the
Volfci, and which lay nearly at an equal diftance from
Rome to the N.W. and Naples to the S.E. on the weftern
fide of the mountain. The coaft was fubje& to the lafhing
of furious waves, and prefented a variety of fteep rocks, on
the moft elevated of thefe was placed the temple of Circé,
the daughter of the Sun. The port was furrounded by a
long. wall, and it had been formed into a lake fituated on
the weft.’ Circeii, about 24 years before the expulfion of
Tarquin, became a Roman colony. In the time of Cicero,
the temple of Circé fubfifted, ‘Ihe outline of the fable is
as follows: Ulyffes, landing upon this promontory, fends
a party to explore the country. They arrive at the palace
ef Circé, who courteoufly invites them to enter; and all
but Eurylochus comply. She fets before them a mixture
of meal, cheefe, honey, and Pramnian wine; the fame com-
pofition as Neltor prepares for the wounded chiefs in the
Iliad. With this fhe mixes poifonous drugs, and after they
have all partaken of the refection, fhe {trikes them with a
vod, and they are inftantly transformed into fwine. In this
part of the fable nothing has the appearance of intem-
perance or grofs fenfuality. On the return of Eurylochus,
to the fkin, and muttered over cer-
GIrR
however, who, not knowing the fate of his companions,
concluded that they were all murdered, Ulyfles bravely
refolves to-fet out along, in order to,explore the event. In
the way, he is met by Hermes im the fhape of a youth, wha
informs him of the sature and mode of Circé’s enchant-
ments; and prefeating him with a root, called “ Moly,” as
a prefervative, direéts him, on being touched with the rod, to
iraw his fwerd and threaten Circé with death. “ Thea
f h-) the invite you to her bed, and do not you on
© offer, fince it will conciliate her kind-
with an oath not to plan any farther
mifchicf again& you.”’ Ulyffes aéts in ali points as he was
commanded. Ulyffes lays a whole year with Circé, fharing
her bed, and making merry with her good cheer, without
ever thinking of Ithaca, till his men remonftrate with him,
and urge his return. An ingenious writer fuggefts, that
Homer, in the {tory of Circé,; had no ether end in view, than
in that of the Cyclops, the Lzigons, and various others ;
namely, to gratify the pzfiion for novelty and love of wonder
belonging to ail ages and all readers, by introducing into
the travels of his hero, all thole extraordinary narrations;
which he had learned from tradition, or the reports of mari-
ners. This purpofe, fo natural in a poet of a rude age,
will account, not only for the ftrange matter intermixed
with many of his fables, but for their being introduced at
ali. He who looks for any better reafon for many things
that he will find in the early writers, will only facrifice his
own judgment to their reputation. Aikin’s Letters to his
Son, p. 62.
CIRCELLIONES. See Aconisrrez.
CIRCENSES Ludi, Circensian games, or games of the
Circus, a general term under which were comprehended
all combats exhibited in the Roman circus of what kind
foever; whether on foot or horfeback, or in a car; wrelt-
ling, or boxing; with fwords, pikes, darts, or arrows ;
againlk men, or again{t bealts; on the ground, or aboard
veffels.
There were few, except flaves, that gave the people this
cruel pleafure: it was an exercife that would “have dif-
graced people of any account. See the article Gua-
DIATORS. t
Some fay the Circenfian garses were fo called from the La-
tin circumenfes ; becaufe they were held in a place encom-
paffed round with naked fwords, that the combatants might
not have an opportunity of efcaping. gr
At firft they are faid to have been exhibited on the brink
of the river ‘l'yber, and the ground encompalled toward the
land with naked {words. :
Mokt of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied with
Circenfian games; and the magiftrates, or other officers of
the republic, frequently prefented the people with them on
other occafions. The grand ones were held for five days,
commencing on the 15th of September. See Circus.
CIRCERELLDS, in Jchthyclogy, a name wfed by fome
authors for a fifh ufaally called ammodytes, or the fand-eel.
CIRCESIUM, Cixcessus, or Cercusium, Kerkifich,
in Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, at the con-
fluence of the Aboras, or, as Xenophon calls it, the Araxesy
with the Euphrates. In the time of Dioclefian this town
was {trongly fortified.
CIRCIA, in Ornithology. See Anas.
CIRCIDIUS, ia Ancient Geography, a river of Corfica,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the weftern
coaft of the ifland. 5 .
CIRCIGNANO, Niccoto, called Pomarancio, in Bio-
graphy, an hiltorical painter of confiderable eminence, who
was born at Pomarance, a {mall town in the vicinity of Vol-
wil
terra ~
Fi
Ci
terra in Tufcany, about the year 1516. Vafari {peaks of
him as a young man of ability, but without informing us
who was his matter. He is confidered one of the bett of
the artilts employed by Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. upon
the extenfive but hurried performances in the Vatican. In
his frefcoes in the cupola of the church of S. Pudenziana at
Rome, he appears fuperior to the mannerifts of his time.
Many of his other works at Rome are mentioned by Bag-
lione : amongit the moft efteemed is a coloffal figure of
Chrift giving the benediétion, furrounded by anyels; a
frefco in the church of S. Giovannie Paolo. His native city
and Loretto poffefs other of his performances. He died in
Rome at the age of 72, about 1588. Baglione. Lanzi,
Storia Pittorica.
CirciGnano, Antonio, called Pomerancio, was the fon
of the preceding artift; but, befides the inflruGions of his
father, he received great benefit from the leffons of Chrifto-
foro Roncalli his countryman, one of the belt artilts of his
time. Antonio Circignano is little known by his works at
Rome ; but Citta di Caitello, where he fpent fome of the
belt years of his life, poffeffes feveral of his pictures; one
of which a conception, (concezione,) at the church of the
Conventuali, feems an union of the ftyleof Roncalii with that
of Baroccio. He died, aged Go, in the pontificate of
Urban VIII. Pilkington fays he was born in 1560. Bag-
lione. Lanzi, Storia Pittorica.
CIRCINALEA Fiuha. See Lear.
CIRCINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Afia, in
Magnefia, fituated at the foot of mount Offa, near the lake
Beedis, between Sothufla and the Macedonian fea.
CIRCITOR, in the Ancient Military Difcipline, an
officer among the Romans, who went the rounds, after having
received his orders from a tribune to vifit the feveral pofts,
and fatisfy himfclf that the fentinels had not quitted them
nor fallen afleep.
Circitor is alfo ufed to fignify a hawker, or pedlar,
who goes about from place to place to vend his goods,
CIRCIUM, in Botany. See Crrstum.
CIRCLE, the name of various a/ronomical inftruments.
Tet will probably appear a paradox to tome of our readers, to
be told, that aftronomical ob/ervations were made, in various
parts of the world, many centuries before altronomical in-
_frumients were invented. The obfervations, to which we al-
lude, were fuch as related to the rifings and fettings of the
ftars in different latitudes and in different feafons of the
year; to the claffing of clufters of itars into imaginary fi-
gures, called in the Enghfh language contftellations ; to the
refpeGtive afcenfions and defcenfions of the circumpolar
ftars ; and to eclipfes of the fun and moon, as well as to
occultations of the ttars and planets, or cvandering tars, by
the moon. Hence arofe the terms Ae/iacal, co/mical, and
achronical rvifings and fettings of the ancient authors, and
various other terms in aftronomy, which are retained to this
day. Thefe obfervations, made at firft by fhepherds and
herdfmen, fimple as they were, were not only ferviceable in
determining the feafons fuitable for the different operations
in hufbandry, but afforded data for afcertaining the lengths
of the folar and lunar periods, with a degree of accuracy
which altonifhes the modern aftronomer. Before we pro-
ceed to defcribe the circular inftruments ufed in aftronomy
and navigation at the prefent day, it may not be uninterett-
ing to give a brief hiltory of the inftruments that preceded
them.
The firft inftrument, probably, which was ufed as a mea-
fure of altitude, was the gnomon, many centuries after the
Babylonians, the Egyptians, and the Chinefe had been ac-
cuftomed to make celeliial obfervations, fuch as we have
Vou. VIII.
Cry
fpoken of. The firft mention, we believe, that is made of
the term Sour, as a portion of the day, occurs in our Bible,
in the book of Daniel, chap. iii. verfe 6, under the rcizn
of Nebuchadnezzar, about the year before Chrift Goo; and
the Grecian hiftorian Heredotus exprefsly fays, that the
Greeks learned the ufe of the pole, the gnomon, and the di-
vifion of the day into twelve parts from the Babylon‘ans.
Accordingly, Diogenes Laertius informs us, that Pherecy-
des fet up a pole or dial in the ifland of Syra, one of the Cy-
clades, about the year before Chrift 540, which, indeed,
Anaximander had done previoufly, about the year before
Chritt 547, at Lacedemon ; and the Jews, in the reign of,
Ahaz, had known the ufe of a dial nearly 200 years before.
The Roman dials, of courfe, were pofterior to thefe; the
firft that was fet up at Rome. which was by Papirivs Curfor,
being, according to Pliny, (N.H. l.vii. c. 60.) about the year
461 of the building of the city, or 293 before Chnft.
The ufe of a gnomon, or ftyle of a large dial, as an inflrue
ment for meafuring altitudes of the fun, arofe from the cir-
cumftance of an obferved increafe in the length of the
folar fhadow as the fun’s altitude decreafed, Geometry
by this time had begun to be greatly improved by Thales,
Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Eudoxus, Euclid, Apollonius,
Archimedes, and others; and aflroncmy was now cultivated
in the fchools, particularly by Eudoxus and Aratus. Pla-
to alfo had learned in Egypt, that the folar year is 3654
days; and Philolaus afferted the annual motion of the
earth round the fun, as did Hicetas the diurnal motion cf
the fame; fo that the obfervations which had been made
fome centuries before the Chriflian era, and the fytems fug-
gelted by different philofophers to explain the obferved phe-
nomena, mult have difpofed the minds of all the early culti-
vators of {cience, to avail themfelves of the ufe of an inftru-
ment, wich afforded data for calculations, beyond what
mere ocular obfervation could furnith. The comparifon of
the perpendicular height of a gnomon with the length of
its meridian fhadow, projected on a horizontal plane, fimple
as the obfervation was, afforded the means of afcertaining
the fun’s apparent meridian altitude on any day by means of
the Pythagorean Theorem on the properties of the right-
angled triangle. This obfervation, made on the days of the
fummer and winter folltices fucceffively, determined the dif-
ference of the fun’s meridian altitudes on thofe days, and
confequently the fpace contained within the two tropics,
which is jult double the greatett declination ; hence the com-
plement of the latitude of the place, or, which is the fame
thing, thecomplement of the pole’s elevation, was determined
with confiderable accuracy. Thales, whofe difciple Pytha-
goras was, and who, Laertius fays, was the real author of
Euclid’s 47th propofition, ufually called the Pythagorean
propolition, was accuftomed to meafure the heights of the
pyramids of Egypt by their fhadow, and could foretel
eclipfes ; he was alfo the firft who divided the celeftial
{phere into zones by the introduction of five circles, viz.
the arétic, the fummer tropic, the equator, the winter tro-
pic, and the antar¢tic circle. This divifion of the heavenly
regions into zones, divided by parallel circles, at a time
when geometry was cultivated, naturally led to the taking
of the latitudes and longitudes of the heavenly bodies ; and
it may be worthy of remark here, that the pyramids them-
felves had their planes facing the eaft, weft, north, and fouth
points, which, therefore, might be ufed as inftruments of ob-
fervation. Anaximander, another difciple of Thales, who,
we have faid, invented the gnomon, wrote atreatife on the
{phere, and explained the obliquity of the zodiac; and,
about Ioo years after him, Anaxagoras, who ftudied philo-
fophy for 30 years at Athens, wrote a book on the “ Quad-
Bie rature
CiyR GL &
rature of the Circle.’ Thus, thefe philofophers of what
was called the Tonic fect, may be faid not only to have laid
the foundation of aftronomy as a regular fcience, but alfo,
by referring the places of the heavenly bodies to certain
fuppofed cireles in the heavenly regions, to have fuggcied
to future aftronomers the moft natural fhape of an iitru-
ment that fhould be belt calculated to meafure their relative
angular diltances : we do not, however, mect with any ec-
count of circular or other inftruments ufed by any of the pb!-
lofophers of the lonic er the Academic f{chools, until we ar-
tive at the time of Hipparchus, who lived about 160
years before Carilt. This altronomer colle€tedthe different ob-
{ervations that had been previonfly made; and made new ones
by means of an initrnment, called an afrolabe, which was a
kind of armiilary {phere, calculated at once for being uf-d in
taking obfervations, and for iiluflrating the heavenly mo-
tions when afcertained. ‘This altronomer is faid to inave
been the firft who attempted to count the ttars, and to make
a catalogue of them; and was alfo the firft who made
ephemerides, Or calculations of the relative places of the hea-
venly bodies, which he did to include a {pace of 6o0 years.
Soon after Hipparchus, Eratofthenes, the Alexandrian h-
brarian, meafured. the length of the earth’s radius by a
comparifon of a gnomen at Syene in Upper Egypt with
another at Alexandria, it having been obferved that the for-
mer wed to caft no fhadow on the day of the fummer folfice;
this Eratofthenes had alfo an altronomical inftrument con-
ftru&ed fimilar to that of Hipparchus, with which he
made obfervations on the heavenly bodics.
We do not find any other mention of aitronomical inftru-
ments until we come down to the reign of the Roman em-
peror Antoninus, when Claudius Prolemaus, commonly
called Ptolemy, wrote his ‘ Almagett,”? or famous book on
aftronomy, about the year of Chrilt 147, which fcience he
had learned in Egypt, though a native of Pclufium. In
this work, which has alfo been called the “ Great Syntax,”
and which is well known to aftronomers, we find an account
of another circular aftronomical inftrument for making ce-
leftial obfervations, deferibed alfo by the name of ATT pOARos=
xo» opyzxo, which, we underltandsshad only one large ring or
plane graduated, and molt likely was fimilar to the altro-
Jabe defcribed in B.on’s book on the ‘‘ Conftru€tion and
principal Ufes of mathematical Inftruments ;”? this inftru-
ment, according to Bion’s defcription,- (fee Plate I. jig. I.
of Afronomical Inflruments,) Vike a common ring-dial, was
made heavy, and arranged itfelf in fuch a vertical plane
when fufpended by a {mall ring, that the points 0 and o of
the graduated circl« {tood at oppofite ends of a true horizon-
tal line; and a diametrical bar, turning on a pin in the ces-
tre, carried two vanes, one at each end, through which the
altitude of a heavenly body might be readily taken, in de-
grees and parts of a degree, as indicated by the fiducial edge
of the diametrical bar. Sir George Shuckburgh, however,
thinks that Ptolemy’s altrolabe had two graduatcd circles
placed at right angles. The ages of ignorance which fue-
ceeded Ptolemy produced so improvement on the aftrolabe
for more than fourteen centuries, and it is not eafy to fixthe
exaGt date of the next fucceeding inftruments that owed their
exiftence to the revival of letters. The molt obvious, and
therefore probably the firft, improvement in the aftrolabe, was
an enlargement of its radius, for the purpofe of making the
divifious to be ona larger fcale than the portable inftrument
at firlthad; this enlargement of the radius, of courfe, led
toaredu@tion of the circle to a quadrant, which would na-
turally be fuppofed to be fufficiently extenlive in its ule,
particularly for the purpofe of taking altitudcs, as they ne-
ver exceed go”. It does not appear, however, certain, when
or by whom the plumb-line was introducedin the quad-
rant.
The introduGiion of the Indian, or Arabic numerals
through Spain into England, muft have contributed oto a
facility in reading the graduated divifions of a circular, or
quadrantal inftrement. Accerding to Dr. Wallis, the firft
figures of this fhape, which were noticed in- England, were
on a chimney-sicce at Helmdon in Northamptonfhire, in
conjunétion with the Roman characters; thus, M133,
meaning 1133, which numerals fix their own date. Ano-
ther ftep, towards the improvement of igitruments of obfer-
vation, was the introdu€tion of optical giafles, and of op-
tical inftruments, which were made by the famors Fran-
cifean friar, Roger Bacon, who was born in 1214. He
talks of making {mall things appear large, and of bringing
diftant things near him by his inftruments, fo that he mult
at leait have made Microlcopes, if not, as fome fuppofe,
Telefcopes alfo. It will not be deemed foreign to.our pre-
fent purpofe to notice here that Pal the Venetian. (fee
Coltard’s hillory of Aitronomy, p. 65.) introduced -the ufe
of the mariner’s compafs, borrowed, as it is faid, frem the
Chinefe, in the year 1260; though it was not till ngcothat
John Goia, a Neapolitan, the reputed inventor, introduced
its ufe in navigating the Mediterranean. We are not af-
fured, indeed, that the direétive power of the magnet had any
circular or other graduated inflrumental appendage, as its
variation from the true pole was not difcovered till Chrif-
topher Columbus, the illuitrious adventurer of Genoa, made
this difcovery in his voyage tothe Welt Indies, on the 3d
of Auguit, 1492. The magnet’s attractive power, however,
had been previoufly known tothe ancient Greeks. Thenext
maker of aftronomical initruments thet we find fpoken of in
hiftory, was John Muller, who, being born at Mons Regius
in France, in 1436, was therefore called Regiomontanus;
this illuftrious fcholar and aftronomer, after having learned
the dottrine of the {phere at Leipfie and Vienna, fet about
learning the Greck language, on purpofe that he might make
an epitome of Prolemy’s Almagelt, or Great Syntax, which
was written in that language; in which labour he was af-
fited by Purbach ; and when, during the war between Mat-
thias king of Hungary and the Bohemians, he retired to
Nurembergh, he met with Bernard Walther, and other men
of a mechanical turn, who affifted him in conftruSing aftro-
nomical inftruments. The fir attempt was to make rules
of tin for obferving the altitudes of the fun, moon, and —
planets, but particularly of the fun; whether thefe rules
were made in the form of a f{eGor, or in the form ofa fliding
crofs, we are not informed. ‘The fecond initrument made
by Regiomontanus and his affiltants was a rectangular, or
altronomical radivs, for meafuring the angular dittances of
the planets; the third, by the fame mechanician, was an altro-
Jabe, either armillary, like that of Hipparchus, or plani-
{pheric, like Ptolemy’s; and lafily, fome minor inftruments
were conftrn@ted by him, fuch as the sorguet, the meteorofcope
of Ptolerny, and others of mere curiofity. This author ef-
tablithed a printing-office at Nurembergh, and as he was the
inventor of decimal arithmetic, we muft fuppofe that his
method of graduating his inftremeuts, whatever it was, was
adapted for decimal calculations.
A pofleumous treatifle by Regiomontanus on the fubje&
of aftronomical inftruments is preferved in the Britifh Mus
_feum, which is, perhaps, the only copy in the Sina
its title is, © Scripta clariffimi Mathematici M. Joannis
giomontani de Torqucto, Attrolabio armillari, Regula
magna Ptolemaica, Baculeque Aftronomico,” &c. This
treatife, which is in folio, was printed at Nurembergh ia
1544. The torquet, which was «kind of portable equato-
rial, .
CUR CL E
rial, is alfo deferibed in Bailly’s & Aftronomie Moderne,”
tome i. p. 687, and beforeeither of the others by Apian in
a fearce folio book, which has for its title ‘* Introdudtio
Geographica Petri Apiani in doétiffimas Verneri Annota-
tiones, &c. cui recers jam Opera P. Apiani acceffit Tor-
cvetum inftrumentum pulcherrimum fane et utiliffimum.
Ingolftadii anno 1533.”
Regiomontanus’s defeription of Ptolemy’s armillary af-
trolabe may be feen in Weidler’s ** Hiftoria Aftronomiz,”
Sto. 17pT.
About two centuries and a half after Regiomontanus,
we find the celebrated Copernicus {till ufing an altrolabe,
his knowledge of which firft gave him a talte forthe flu ly
ef altronomy, and. confequently was the primary incident
to which we are indebted for the intreduction of our Co-
pernican fyftem, in which the fy tems of Philolaus and Hi-
cétas are united. This celebrated aftronomer of Thorn, in
Prvffia, wifliing for tables preferable to thofe previonfly
made by Ptolemy and Alphonfes, had a quadrant erected
and fixed in the meridian line above the plane of the horizon
about the year 1507, from which we may date the origin
of regular obfervatories. ‘This quadrant, of which we know
net what were the exact dimenfions, took altitudes of the
fun by means of a cylindrical gnomon, or pin ituck in the
central hole, the fhadow of which, g2lling on the limb cf
the imftrument, meafured the greateft and leaft meridian al-
titudes of this fuminary at the two folitices, and thereby
afcertained the diftance between the tropics and the
height of the pole with confiderable accuracy. But the in-
ftrument with which the altitudes of the heavenly bodies in
general were taken by Copernicus, was a parallatical-in-
itrument made of fir, the limb of which, we are tcld, was
fubdivided into r4r4 equal parts, juft included in the quad-
rantal arc, that was contained between two legs of each
four cubits long, which legs were re{pectively divided into
tooo parts, fimilar in magnitude to the fubdivifions of the
are, according to Benj. Martin’s account, in his “ Biogra-
phia Philofophica ;”? but if the fubdivifions were of fimilar
dimenfions on the are and jegs of the inftrument, as is faid,
there muft have been 7854 on the former, with rooo on the
latter, to form an cxaét quadrantal arc. The angle fub-
tended by each fpace in the 1414 fubdivifions of thelimb
go°
: 1414
tity might induce one to fuppofe, that the circle had not
been hitherto divided into exeét degrees and minutes cn an
aftronomical inftrument.
Tycho Brahe, who was born about 73 years after Coper-
nicus, and who ts well known as the inventor of the Tycho-
nic, a kind of Ptolemai-ccpernic fytlem of the planetary
motions, had a more expenfive collection of aflronomical
inftruments than any one who preceded him. His obferva-
tory in the ifle of Huen in the Sound, founded by Frederic
IL. of Denmark, was cailed ‘* Uranibourg”’ (heavenly habi-
tation), and had the firft flone laid on the 8th of Augutt,
1576. In his “ Aftronomie Inftavrate Mechanica,”’ this
author has defcribed four infl:uments by the names of ar-
milla, xodiacales, and equatorie, varying from 4% to to feet
in diameter, which were divided into deyrees and minutes,
and fome of them evento 15 and 10 feconds. ‘The towers
in which thefe inilruments were placed; had moveable roofs;
and, what is worthy of remark, the axis of the ten-fret
inflrument was tapering and hollow, in order to have ftrength
without increafed weight, which contirnuétion our modern
inftrument-makers have adopted. The graduations of his
inftruments were into equal {paces of ro’ each, and the in-
termediate minutes were afcertained by triangular diagonals
= 3/ 49".137, &e. which quan-
muft have been
*vifions might be on the limb of the infrument.
formed of ftraight lines of ten equidiftant dotted fpaces, in-
{tead of parallel continued lines. ;
As Tycho Brahe cultivated alfo chemiftry and metallurgy
occafionally, it is very probable that his inftruments were of
better metal than the inftruments of Copernicus, partien-
larly when we take into confideration the circumftance of his
having devoted nearly his whole life to aftronomy, and pur-
fuits fubfervient to this noble f{cience, and alfo that he had
feveral pupils or affitants learning to mzke celeftial obferva-
tions in Uranibourg ; indeed, it is faid in the original ac-
count, that the con/lans axis was made echalybe.
About the beginning of the 16th century, when nautical
aflronomy had begun to be cultivated, a {pirit for making
difcoveries, beyond what Columbus had made, fpread itfeit
over the different kingdoms of Europe; among thefe adven-
turers we find the names of Americus Vefpucius, John
and Scbaftian Cabot, John Ponce de Leon, Cortez,:
Saavedra Guznam, Mendoza, Solo, Gonfa!vc, Pizarro, &c.
on the continent; and in England, fir Martin Frobifher,
fir Francis Drake, Mr. John Davis, &c.; the laft of whom
we fhall fhortly have occafionto mentionagzin. During the
fixteenth century, quadrants, fectors, fore-ltafls, and back-
ftaffs, began to be made of various dimenfions, and en va-
rious conltruétions, both for aftronomical aud nautical pur-
pofes, but when, or by whom, the p!umb-line was firlt made
a part of the aftronomical quadrant, is a matter not eatily
afcertained at this diftance of time: the graduations at firft
were pointed out by contact of a Sducial edge of the index,
or were cut by a fine thread ufed 2s the line of the plumb,
as feen in Plate 1. fig.4.; but this mode of reading an ob-
fervation left much to conjecture, however {mail the fubdi-
The firit
importaut improvement in the method of reading an obferved
angle, was that of Peter Nonius, or Nunez, a native of
Portugal, born in 1497, which he defcribed in his ‘ Trea-
tfe on the Twilight,” publifhed in 1542. The contrivance
>was this; 45 concentric circles were defcribed on a broad
limb of the quadrant, and divided into fpaces differing from
one another by unity only in regular fueceffion, begizning
with go, and ending with 46 ; fo that the edge of the plumb-
line, when refting on any particular point on the limb of the
inftrument, was certain to be cortiguous to fome one divid-
ing mark in one of the 45 circles; which was an ingenious
thought, but more planfible in theory than ufeful in pragtice ;
for the dividing of 45 circles into equal fpaces of different
numbers, out of which nine are prime numbers, was a la-
borious tafk to be performed with the requifite accuracy ;
and again, when the obfervation was read cff, an arithmeri-
cal operation was neceflary to reduce the obfervation to de- °
grees, or parts of the largeft circle; which operation | was
neceflarily proportioned difterently for each feparate circle.
But perfection is not ufually attaied at the frit attempt in
the conftru€tion of any new inftrument, or new method of
performing inftrumental operations ; the concentric circles
of Nonius led the mechaniciat: to the diagonal feale, which
was formed fucceflively by curved and flraight lines. In the
yeart573, the Scale Mathematice’’ of Thomas Dig ges, efq.
was publifhed in London, in which ts contained the method
of making diagonal feales: the tranfition from Nonius’s {eale
to the diagonal {cale, with equidiltant -parallel curves, was
eafy ; and it is faid, was firft efected by an ingenious work-
man of the name of Richard Chanfeler. The diagonal
{cale, however, of either the curvilinear or re@ilinear kind,
was not well calculated for affording a very accurate reading
of any obfervation, by reafon of the difficulty of afcertain-
ing the exa& interfecting point of the feale, which a thread
or edge of the index exaétly covered, where the flope of the
Eez ‘ diagonal
G TpRo Cel EF
diagoral line did not deviate much froma radial line. Ja-
cobus Curtis had a method of making feales for altronomi-
cal infiruments, which wes publifhed by Clavins in 1586,
at Rome. ‘This method, like that of Nonius, conlitted of
concentric ares, each differing in fze by 1’ from the next
contiguous: there were 39 of thefe concentric arcs, each
divided by bife€tion into 525 equal parts, beginnings with
an arc of go°, and ending with one of 128°. But, like No-
nius’s, this fcale required an arithmetical reduétion todegrees,
though it had the advantage of being free from prime num-
bers. In or about the year 1590, captain John Davis, whom
we have already named, contrived an inftrument for taking
altitudes, which confilted of two concentric contiguous arcs,
one Jarger than the other, and three vanes; (fee Plare I.
figs 2). One vane was placed at the centre, and was
‘called the horizon vane; another to flide on the are of 60°
ef the fmall radius, and to receive the rays of the fun, which
was therefore called the fhade vane; and the third was made
to fide on the are of 30° of the long radius, for the eye to
Jook through towards the horizon yane, and was thence call-
ed the fight vane. In ufing this inftrument, the back was
turned towards the fun; which circumitance gave the name
of back ftaff alfo to the inftroment, which far exceeded any
nautical inftrument that had preceded, both in accuracy and
convenience, (Sce the article QuapRanT).
About the fame time that Davis’s quadrant was brought
into ufe, we find another very fimilar inftrument, called
«« Elton’s Quadrant,’ made ufe of both at fea and on
fhore. This differs from the former principally, as it has its
index levelled by a fpirit level, which renders it ufeful where
there is no good horizon to be feen. Its defeription may
be feen in No. 423. of the ‘ Philofophical TranfaGions,”’
and in * Bion’s Book,” p. 274. See Quapranrt, and
Plate [. fig. 8.
It is not quite certain at what exa& period the inftrument
called the fore-/laff or crofs faff, ( Plate 1. fig.3.), was ufed
firft in nautical altronomy, but as Bion calls the back-{taff an
Englifh inftrument, we may conclude it was centrived on the
continent; the divifions are laid down on a long arm
in the form of a tangent line, and three crofs pieces
of unequal lengths flide on this arm feparately to the diftance
that allows the eye, placed at the extreme end of the arm,
to fee the horizon below and the heavenly object above the
crofs-piece ufed; the f{malleit fliding crofs-piece will mea-
fure as far as 30°, the next in fiz2 60°, and the largeft 90°,
when placed at the interior end of the divided feale. This
inftrument, when well made, was very ccnvenient at fea,
but was incapable of having the diagonal fcale applied, as the
divifions were unequal: it was capable of meafuring angular
diftances as well as altitudes. }
Another inftrument ufed in navigation and aftronomy was
the noéturnal, ( Plate 1. fig. 6.) which conflifted of a handle,
an index with fights, and two circular plates revelving on the
fame central pin, fo divided as to be capable of adjuftment
for the right afcenfion of fome given circumpolar {tar, as
compared with the poie-ftar on any day of the year ; its ufe
was, to find the hour, and to take the altitude and depreffion
of the pole-ftar at any place, and confequently to determine
thereby the latitude. Its exact date is not, perhaps, well
known.
About the end of the 16th century, Edward Wright, of
Caius college, Cambridge, in whofe time the fore-{taff or
crofs-ttaff was ufed, introduced the fea-rings for determin-
nig the variation of the maguetic needle, which inftrument,
no doubt, was the origin of our azimuth compals, as it ‘s
faid that the altitude of the fun and hour of the day could
be determined by it. The fame ingenious mathematician
made a fix-foot aftronomical quadrant better than any that
had been made in England, and rectified with it the decli-
nations of the ftars, as given in the former catalogues ;
which labour was performed in the years 1594, 95, 90, and
973 he alfo made a fea-quadrant that would take altitudes
by either a forward or backward obfervation, and that would
determine the latitude by the obferved height of the poles
ftar, even out of the meridian, which mult have been an in-
genious contrivance.
After the invention of logarithms by baron Napier in
1614, calculations began to be abridged, and numerical pro-
portions began to be performed by logarithmic feales. The
firtt of thefe was by profeffor Gunter, of Oxford, who, in
the year 1618, contrived alfo a quadrant, bearing his name,
which having a {tereographic projection of the fphere on its
plane conlidered as the equinoétial, afcertained the hour as
well as azimuth, altitude, declination, ard place cf the fun,
by an obfervation without fubfequent calculation, and thefe
with fome degree of accuracy.
Contemporary with profeffor Gunter, was the celebrat-
ed Galileo of Italy, who, having heard of a certain
glafs in Holland, that would fhew objects at’ a diftance dif-
tincily, fet about contriving the dioptric telefeope, in which
he fucceeded ; and we find Chriftopher Scheiner ufing one
moveable on a polar axis in the year 1620 (wide Rofa
Urfina) ; this difcovery led ultimately to confiderable im-
provements in altronomical inftruments, though the unequal
refrangibility of the different coloured rays of light pre-
vented its being conftru€ted with much power, and at the
fame time of a convenient length, for many years afters
wards.
The invention of the micrometer, or mechanifm in
the cye-piece of a telefcope, for meafuring very minute angles,
foon followed the invention of the teleicope itfelf, and con-
tributed greatly to the accuracy of obfervations, taken by
the help of that inftrument. It has been generally fuppofed
that Monf. Auzout, a Frenchman, was the author of this
invention, in the year 1666, but according to Coftard, an
Enghith gentleman of the name of Gafcoigne was the real
inventor, as appears by a letter written by himfelf, int64T, |
which is {till extant in the library of the Earl of Macclesfield.
Gafcoigne was flain near York in the civil wars in the
year 1644.
In 1658, John Collins, an eminent mathematician of the
county of Oxford, publifhed a pamphlet, entitled ‘* The
Sector of a Quadrant,” in which are defcribed four differ-
ent quadrantal initruments, but that which is called Collins’s
or Sutton’s quadrant, contains a ftereographic projection of
one quarter of the {phere, between the tropics on the plane of
the ecliptic, agreeably to the latitude of London, the eye
being fuppofed to be placed in its north pole: the ufe of
this quadrant is very fimilar to that of Gunter, from which
the idea was no doubt borrowed.
Another very important improvement in aftronomical and
nautical inltruments, was the divided fcale at the end of the
index, contrived by Peter Vernier, a gentleman of Franche
Comté, and defcribed in a {mall traG@, called “ La con-
ftruétion, ’ufage, & les proprietes du Quadrant Novean de
Mathematique, &c.” which was publifhed at Bruffels in 1631.
As this contrivance will be particularly defcribed in its pro-
per place, it may fuflice to fay here, that when the limb of
the in{trument is very equally divided by nice ftrokes into
halves, thirds, or fourths of a degree, an arc containing a
given number of thofe divifions is laid on a circle deferibed
on the end of the index contiguous to the divided limb,
which equal are is divided into the fame number of fpaces,
as its like arc on the limb, with the difference of one; fo
that
©) R-C, Li i. é
that if the limb contains rg or 21 thirds, the index or rather
that portion of it whic! fubtends precifely the fame fectoral
arc, muft contain 20 fpaces, then wien No. o on the index
is put toany line on the limb, fo as exaétly to coincide, No.1
of the former will not exactly coincide with the next fuc-
ceeding line of the latter by =, of a fpace, aud No. 2 on
the index will be 2 from an exaét coincidence, and fo on
till the end of the feale on the index, where there will be a
fecond caincidence; but whenever No. 1 does not coincide,
there is only one coincidence, which may fall at any number
of lines from Ito 20 0n the Vernier; but we have faid the
limb is divided into thirds of a degree, when the icale has
20 divifions, therefore +, of t =~, of adegree = 1’. When
the divifions of the limb are halves of degrees, the feale has
30 diviltons covering exactly 29 or 31 on the limb; and
when they are quarters, 15 on the feale muft juft cover r4
or £60n the limb. This feale is called a Vernier from the
inventor’s name, but is frequently, though very improperly,
even by inttrument-makers themfelves, called a Nonius,
from which it is quite a different thing : by meansofa Ver-
nier a very {mall circle may be graduated fo as to fhew
minutes of altitude or of angular diftance.
According to Joannes Baptilta Morinus, Joannes Ferreri-
us, an ingenious workman, contrived akind of circular dia-
gonals, which, if continued, would pafs from the limb to the
centre of an initrument, but to avoid trouble, he laid 60 of
thefe on the index, which interfected ftraight lines drawn
from the centre in fuch a way that thefe ftraizht degree
Jines marked the minutes by their interfections with thecurves
of the index. The account was publifhed in 1634, but this
method was not found fo good as thac of Vernier, and
therefore was difcontinued.
Notwithftanding telefcopes, as we have faid, were neceflarily
very long, to obtain much power, in order to be free from a
difcolouration in the eye-piece, yet we Jearn that fo early
as the time of Dr. Robert Hooke, certainly one of the
greatelt mechanicians of his own, or perhaps of any otherage,
telefeopic fights were applied to the aftronomical quadrant,
as his well known difpute with Hevelins of Dantzic will
teftify. Hevelins’s Cometographia, which induced the dif.
pute, was publifhed in 1668, which will fix the date pretty
nearly of the telefcopic fights. It is fomewhat extraordi-
nary, that the difpute alluded to terminated with the prb-
lic opinion in favour of plain fights, in preference to telef-
copic ones, as to the accuracy of obfervations made refpec-
tively with each; though Dr. Hooke contended that Heve-
lius could not meafure a {maller {pace in the heavens than a
minute by plain fights, whereas he could meafure to the ac-
curacy of a /econd, with a radius of a fpan long. ‘This de-
gree of accuracy in Dr. Hooke’s obfervations, if really
effected, one might fuppole, left his fucceflors little more
todo, but to copy his method of conftruéting initruments,
and of obferving by them; and our reflection upon his af-
fertion would have led us to infer that he muft have mea-
fured his /pan with very long fingers, had we not previoufly
knowa that his perfon was of very fhort ftature: his un-
willingne{s to allow a competitor in mechanical inventions
may in fome meafure account for the greatnefs of his pre-
tenfions. Doctor Hooke had moreover a zenith fe&tor with
a telefcope of 36 feet focal length, fitted up with plumb
lines in his apartments at Grefham college, which had a mi-
erometer in its eye-piece, and we fufpect that tbis was the
inftrumeat with which he mealured to the accuracy of
feconds.
We have now arrived at a period in the hiltory of aftrono-
mica] initrumencs which is truly important. ‘The introduc-
tion of pendulum clocks, of the vernier, and of the
telefcope, with a micrometrical eye-piece, together with a
fine plumb-line, had become valuabie additions to the fimple
feStor or quadrant ; and in the year 1660, Huygens brought
into England the art cf grinding and polifhing glaffes
fuitable for telefcopes: inthe fame year the Royal Society
of London was founded by Charles II. ; in 1670 the Royal
Obfervatory at Paris was begun, to which Caffini was ap-
pointed in the following year; and on the roth of Augult
of the year 1675 the firlt {tone was laid of the Royal Ob-
fervatory at Greenwich, to which fortunately the celebrated
Flamftead or Flamfteed was appototed the following year.
Thefe intlitutions of courfe produced a demand for good
inftruments, and, what is fomewhat remarkable, the firft man
of eminence in this way, Geo. Graham, was born in a
village in Cumberland, (which county has fince given birth
to many of the moft eminent mechanicians), in 1675, the
very year in which the obfervatory itfelf was founded. ‘The
new aftronomer royal obferved, as might be expected, with
inftruments of a large radius nicely divided, and furnifhed
with telefcopic fights. One offhofe inltruments was a larce
fector or fextant, conitructed, as has been faid, by a Mr.
Abraham Sharp, the affiitant to the altronomer royal, whote
flcill a5 a mathematician rendered him worthy of his fituation,
and we are told in Dr. R. Smith’s Optics, that a quadrant,
fimilar to thofe of Tycho Brahe and Flevel'us, was hxed in
the meridian by a folid wall, whence it was calied a murat
arch, and was, we underftand, made by Flamiteed himfelfand
his afliftant.
Door Edward Halley, who had been fixed upon to go
over to Dantzic in the year 1679, to fettle the difpute be-
tween Do&or Hooke and Hevelins, which we have before
entioned, and who in the year 1713, fucceeded Sir Hans
Sloane as Secretary to the Royal Society, was appointed to
the fituation of altronomer royal, at the death of Fiamitced,
in the year 1719, when he was nearly 65 years old, in which
fituation he continued 18 years. Doctor Smith fays that
Halley made ufe of a meridian telefcope, and a pendulum
clock for determining the right afcenfions of the flars before
the great mural arch by George Graham was made for the
obfervatory ; the telefcope in quelftion is particularly de-
{cribed (Smith’s Optics, p. 321. and feq.)as having a tranf
verfe axis of anell in length, and a tube of si fect, which
had crofs hairs in the eye-piece with proper adjuftments, a
frame with the Y fupports, and a fpirit level for leveiling the
axis; in fhort it was’ what is now denominated a tranfit in-
ftrument, and probably was the fame which Evans mentions
in his Tour as being fill at Flam{teed houfe, with the telef-
cope fixed near one end of the axis. Graham’s great mural
arch is alfo particularly deferibed by the fame author, which
confifts of iren bars firmly joined together, and a brafs are
of 90°, divided by a beam compafs, with a degree of accu-
racy that far exceeded any thing that had been before at-
tempted. Befides the arc of go°, there is another quadrantal
arc divided into 96 equal parts, as a check on any inequali-
ty that might be fuppofed to exilt in the graduated arc of
co’. The particulars of the cont{truétion of this inftrument,
of which the radius of one qudrantal are was 96.85, and of
the other 95.8 inches, together with the method of dividing
the limb, and of making the centre work, &c. are treated of
from page 332 to page 341 of Smith’s Optics, in the latter
part of which account it is faid, that Siffon of the Strand
made a fimilar mural arch for Colin Campbell, efq. to be ufed
in Jamaica.
The micrometers at this time ufed, began to be differently
conftruéted ; Romer or Roémer at Paris, who was contem-
porary with Flamiteed and Huygens, and who had a tranfit
inftrument in 1700, contrived a piese with ten fquares, called.
@ retie
CROLL
a reticulum put in the body of a microfcope, as we under-
itand, where the focus of the eye-glafs meets the magnified
image, which {quares were placed: oppofite the graduations
of the divided limb of an inftrument, and aéted probably as
a kind of Vernier. Huygens propofed parallel ftraight-
edged brafs plates to flide and to include-the meafured obje&
between them; the diitance of which plates was afterwards
mezfured by a feale and compailes:—Caffini obferved by
four parallel hairs placed in the focus of the eye-piece, and
made adjultable for coilimation.—Before we part with Dr.
Smith, whofe book will long be admired, we beg leave to
obferve that he milkakes the name of the Vernier, which
Graham’s quadrant had, ard mif-namzs.it. a Nonius,
as various authors have done fince, no doubt. on the ftrength
ofhis authority. I: was during the life of Dr. Halley that
Mr. Roger Cotes contrived an equal altitude inftrument to
adjuft the pendulum cluck by, which fir Haac Newton pre-
fented to Trinity coliexe, Cambridge ; this ioftrument con-
fills of a telefcope Jeamg on an inclined gibbet-piece, that
revolves on an upright axis p’aced in pivot holes above and
below, and kept perpendicuiac by a fufpended fine plumb-
line, which, revolving with the upright axis, deteCts its want
of perpendicularity in any point of its revolution. ‘“T'his in-
ftcument, which does not feem to have come into general
ufe, is likewife defcribed by Dr. Smith (p. :27 to p. 331).
- It wasalfo during the prefidency of D:. Halley at Greea-
wich, that the fir achromatic or colourlefs telefcope was
invented, though rot generally ufed, nor even known by
that name, till Mr. John Dollond afterwards took out a
patent for the invention, and brought the executien of it
to great perfection. So along ago as the year 1729, Chef-
ter More Hali-efq. of More Hall, in Effex, confidering
the d.ffzrent humours of the eye, was led to infer, that they
were fo arranged as to correé the variable refrangibility of
the different rays of light, which idea probably was iug-
gelted by fir Ifaac Newton’s experiments on optical glaffes.
He then conceived that if he could meet with tranfparent
fubltances poffefling the fame peculiar properties as he fup-
pofed the humours of the eye to poficfs, he could make an
objea-glafs that would unite all the colours in its focus.
Aitter feveral experiments with erent kinds of glafs, he
fucceeded, in the year 1733, in completing obje&-glafles of
the defired conftruétioa, which bore an aperture of 25
inches, with only a 20 inchtube; and we are informed that
one of thefe original objeét-glaffes is fill in the poffeffion of
a clergyman of the name of Smith, who lives in Charlotte-
{treet, Rathb ne-place, which objcét-glafs, on examimation
by feveral {eientific gentlemen, has been found to poffefs the
achromatic property; and in 1754, Mr. Afcough, opti-
cian on Ludgate-hill, was in poflcffion of one of Mr. Hall’s
telefcopes of the achromatic kind. Indeed, when it was al-
lowed at the trial at Weftminfter Hail, refpeGting the patent
for making achromatic telefcopes, that Mr. Hal! was the
original inventor, lord Mansfield, who did not deny the
proof of the fac, obferved, that ‘‘it was not the perfon
that lo¢ked up his invention in his fcrutoire that ought to
profit by a patent for fuch an invention, but he who brought
it forth for the benefit of the public.”
The fame ideas refpeCting an objeét-glafs had, it appears,
occurred to the celebrated Euler and other foreigners, but no
one is fo clearly entitled to the honour of the invention
as Mr. Hall, nor did any one fucceed in practice fo well as
Dollond, who therefore was entitled to his portion of the
honour.of an improvement in optical infruments, which, to-
gether with the compound or achromatic eye-glafs, has
contributed very much to the nicety with which obfervations
ye
are made and read off by modern inftruments of the differ-
ent conftructions. mt
Dr. Halley was fircceeded by Dr. Bradley in the year
1741, for whom Graham made a fe€tor of 10°, bearing a
Vernier with a fcrew of adjuftment, and a telefcope with
another Vernier feparately moveable, (fee Piste l. fig. 5-)5
the ufe of this inftrument was to take the difference of the
right efcenfion and declination of a planet or comet, and of
a known ftar,, and confequently the right afcention and de-
clination of the wandering body itfelf, by a cheap and fim-
ple contrivance. The infirnment turned on a lony axis, and
was fo contrived, that both the bodies that were compared
together, might be feen pafling the micrometer of the te'ef-
cope without altering the elevation more than ro°. Dr:
Bradley, we find, was the inventor of the f{crew-microme-
ter, and alfo of a kind of triangular micrometer, adjuftable
by acircular motion given to it by a fecioral rack and end-
lefs ferew, the ufe of which was to take declinations ; but
this fecond mechanifm is not adopted in fubfequent inftru-
m-nts. When the Royal Society made their annual vifit to
Dr. Bradley to infpeét his inftruments in 1745, he com=
plained of wanting new ones; in confequence of which com=
plaint, his majelty ordered 1o00/. to be expended in furm:fh-
ing a_proper fupply, which enabled the aftronomer-royal tor
procure not only the {ctor we have juft mentioned, but
alfo a large mural arch of brafs of eight feet radius made by:
Bird, which is now in ule, and which is too well known te’
altronomers to need further notice till we come to the pro-=
per place for deferibing it particularly. .
While thefe improvements were going on in the Englifh
inftruments of obfervation, Peter Horrebow publifhed a
pamphlet. in 4to. called * Bafis A ftronomiz, five A ltronomiay
Pars Mechanica,’ Haunie 1735, in which a meridian circle
is defcribed, to which was attached an eptical tube with:
Romer’s reticulum of ten {quares for reading eff the divifions
on the limb, and which had been intended by the inventor:
for aquadrant. We find, notwith{landing this early notice
of a circle, that La Caille made his catalogue of fouthern
ftars from obfervations made with a /séor at the Cape of
Good Hope between the years 1750 and 1754.
The Enghth tranfitinftrument was by and bye made port=
able, and the improved modern manner of grinding the
tube, that contains the {pirits, on the interior furface, has
rendered the bubble capable cf indicating net only minutes.
of a degree by its run, but in many initances feconds; the
manner alfo in which the crofs and parallel hairs are enlight-
ened by the refieGtion of light entering the end of the axis
from a diagonal mirror placed in the body of the tube, ren-
ders the ufe very convenient at all elevations; and, lailiy,.
the diagonal eye-picce for high altitudes, and a graduated
circle with a fpirit level at the end of the axis, to afcertain
the ei:vations proper for given (tars, together with the va-’
rious other adjuftments, leave little more to be expe€ied, or:
even wifhed for, as an improvementof this inflrument, notwith-°
ftanding the Society of Arts at the Ade]phi have repeatedly
advertifed a reward, among their propofed annual premiums,
for an improvement in the portable tranfit-inflrument. j
The invention of catoptric or reflecting telefcopes may”
here alfo be mentioned among the improvements made in af-
tronomical inftrements. Mr. Short was probably the firlt:
who brought thefe to any degree of perfection, and his de=
{cription of various circles united with a catoptric telefeope,
as defcribed in the Philofephical Tranfaétions of London
in 1789, laid the foundation of the equatorial inflrument, as
afterwards improved by Ramfden, Nairne, and the Dol-—
londs, about the year 1770 or foon after, (vide the Phil.
Traof,
GER G LE:
Tranf. 1771) 3 fince which time the achromatic telefcope,
being lighter, has had the preference, except for the pur-
pole of ttar-gazing, where the comparative brightnets and
magnitudes of ihe {lars are the p:incipal objeéts of obferva-
tion. Ofthis kind of inllruments Dr. Hericiiel’s far exceed
in power.any others that have been made.
With refpect to the comparative accuracy of the inftru-
ments hitherto made for cbfervatories, we beg leave to tranf-
evibe fir George Shuckburgh’s words from his account of
the equatorial mftrument, publifhed in the Philofophical
Tranfaétions of London in the year 1793, who fays “that
from the time of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, before and at
the commencement of the Chriftian era, tothe aze of Wal-
ther and Copernicus, in the beginning of the 16th century,
“few obiervations can be depended on, to within lefs than ie
8, or perhaps even 10 minutes; thofe of Tycho Brahe, in-
deed, that princely promoter of aftronomy, to within 1 mi-
nate. The errors of Hevelius’s large f2xtant of fix feet ra-
dius, towards the’middle of the laft (17th) century, might
‘amount to 15 or 20 feconds ; F!amitead’s fextant, to roor 12
deconds; and laftly, thofe of Mr. Graham’s muva! quadrant
of eight feet radius, with which Dr. Bradley made fo many
obfervations from 1742, might amount to 7 or 8 feconds.
The zauiical inftruments of obfervation hitherto made
were, however, by no means well calculated for taking alti-
tudes or angular diftances during the different motions of a
fhip under way: the great difcovery that has proved mot
permanently ufcful in a voyage, was that which pointed out
the ufe of a mirror as attached to the limb of an inftrument.
A metallic mirror was known to:the ancient Greeks and
‘Romans, and was made fometimes of filver, fometimes of a
compofition of copper and tin (‘ftanno & zre miltis,”
Plin. lib. xxxiti. cap. 9.) and fometimes of a polifhed opaqre
ftone, or of coloured glafs ; and the knowledge of the re-
fleGing property of glafs with a metal in conta& with the
back, furface, if it was not known to the Sidontan mirror-
makers mentioned by Pliny, when he {peaks of glafs.mir-
rors, was known to Alexander, the reputed auchor of the
*©Problemata;”? for he exprefsly fays, ‘ Atats cx derwo. x2-
ToTlem Acpemerby cuyey 3 orb eyoabey cure Keisrs naarrrapw, wePune
Sauron Guass dsevynsy xa Tn Vern caveepwyvupncin, Anuwen ovTn,
srAcoy Ovceryar Cer ceby’? &c. which may be tranflated thus: « Why
do the glais-mirrors fhine fo much? Becaufe they’anoint
them with tia, the nature of which partakes of a peliucid
property, and being joined to, or mixed with, the glafs that
is tranfparent, becomes more fhining,”? &c. We do not in-
troduce this quotation for the fake of its reafoning, but to
fhew that glafs mirrors coated with tin, were knowm
when Alexander wrote the ‘* Problemara,’? but whether it
was Alexander Aphrodifias of the third century, or Alex-
ander Trallianus of the fixth ceatury according to others,
we pretend not to determine ; and that the art was preferved
is clear from the writings of Johu Peckham, er Peccam, an
Englifh Francifcan monk, who wrote his ‘ Johannis Pifani
Perlpe&tiva communis” in 1279, in which are mentioned va-
rious kinds of mirrors, and among others, fteel mirrors and
mirrors of glafs, covered onthe back with lead, which lead
Vincentius Bellovacenfis fays (Speeul. Natur. u. 78. p. 129.)
was poured over the glafs- plate while:hot ; fo that our amal-
gam of tin-foil and mercury is an improvement on the an-
cient method of making the mirror. ‘he firft idea of ufing
a mirror ia a nautical inftrument, it fhould feem from Dr.
Sprat’s “* Hiftory of the Royal Society,’’ originated with
Dr. Hooke, and, according to the doétor’s potlhumous
' works, aninitrument of this kind was actually made for ob-
fervations at fea, in which the eye faw at once two objets
fituated at a diltance from each other, but brought together
by refleGlion of one of them; in this inftrument, however,
there was bat one refleCtion, and it was not tll fir Ifaac
Newton took up the fubjeét, that an inftrument, fuch as is
reprefented in Plate I. jig.7, with two refleGtions was con-
trived, which conttruétion this prince of mathematicians
communicated to his friend Dr. Halley, in a paper that was
found after the dogtor’s death by Mr. Jones, and given to
the Royal Society of London, in whofe Philofophical
‘Vranfaétions it was publifhed in the year 1742. In the
mean time John Hadley efquire, a friend of fir Ifaac New-
ton, had fomchow become acquainted with the fame prin-
ciple of a double refleétion, as had alfo Mr. Godfrey of
Pennfylvania, both of which latter gentlemen have been ko-
noured with the reputation of being the inventors of the re-
fleGing o&tant, which bears the name of Hadley’s quadrant,
becanfe, thouzh a€iually only the eighth part of a circle, it
meafures 90° by reafon of the refleGed ray having double
the velocity of the incident ray, as coming trom the obferved
object. The peculiar advantage of Hadley’s oftant over
all the preceding inftruments ufed ae fea, conlifts in its being:
capable of ufe during the tofling of a fhip under way ; and
the appendages of telefcopic fights, dark-glaffes to take off
the glare of the fun, and a Vernier’s fcale, have rendered it
fo complete, that, when well made and perfectly divided,
no better inftrument for taking alticudes at fea can reafonably
be defired, particularly when a tangent-ferew of adjuftment —
for quick and flow metions and a reading lens are {uper-
added.
But excellent as Hadley’s quadrant is for taking altitudes
when divided in the beft manner, it is not competent to one
very effential purpofe of nautical aftronomy: it will not
meafure an angle of any kind of more than go®. When
the tables of the folar and lunar motions were prefented to
the lords of the admiralty in the year 1755 by Tobias
Mayer, of Gottingen, and when a reward of 30007. was
afterwards given by the Britifh parliament, to the celebrated
author, the method of finding the longitude of a fhip. or
place by meafuring the moon’s diftance from the fun or from
a flar, at fartt fuggetted by Gemma Frifins, was now pre-
pofed to be put in practice; but this method required that
angular diftances fhould be accurately meafured; we fay ac-
curately, becanfe an error of one minute of {pace in takime
an obfervation of the moon’s diftance, which would not ma-
terially affect the determination of a latitude from an obferved
altitude, will, at a mean rate of the moon’s motion, produce
an error of about 25’ in longitude, as afcertained by the lu-
nar method, the moon and ftar being fuppofed to be both
inor near the equator. Mayer, whofe anxiety to promote
the lunar method muft have been equal to that of any other
man, not excepting doctor Mafkelyne himfelf, who undertook
the calculations of the Nautical Almanac for this purpofe,
was well aware of the celebrity of the Englifh inftrument-
makers, fuch as Bird, Ramfden, Siffon, Troughton, &c.
and therefore contrived a new inftrument, which was made
from his dire€tions by Bird, to take angles of any magni-
tude within 160°, and with fuperior accuracy ; this author
very properly judged that there mipht'be three’ principal
caufes of inaccuracy in the ordinary o¢tant, of whatever ra-
dius, notwithflanding they were divided by very fupe-
rior workmen; one of which errors might be an ine»
quality among the fubdivifions; a fecond, the want of
exaGtitude in the toral magnitude of the divided arc; and
the third, an error in the meafure ariling out of the eccev-
tricity of the point round which the index turned, as it
regarded the graduated fe€tor of the limb. Thefe three
fources of error were to be guarded againft, but particuiarly.
the firft, in the conflrudtion of a new inftrument ; on Oe
thor’s
CPR
thpr’s idea was a happy one; he availed himfelf of all the
ingenious contrivances that Hadley’s oGant pofleffed, ex-
tended its limb to a circle, agreeably to the original con-
ftruétion of the aftrolabe, and meafured his angle many
times over on different portions of the circumference ; after
which he divided the whole amount by the number of ob-
fervations for the mean quantity of the obf-rved angle,
which method included the correétions for all the fources of
error to which he could conceive the oftant liable. As we
fhall give a perfpeétive drawing of the original inftrument
made by Bird, and ufed by admiral Campbell, we fhall defer
our further remarks ou it till we come to our particular de-
{cription. ne
Admiral Campbell, however, having found the repetition
of his obfervations with a large and heavy inftrument trou-
blefome, difpenfed with the. original principle, and having
found,as he fuppofed, one-third part of the circle better di-
vided than either of the ocher two, made ufe of that only for
fingle obfervations, and reported fo favourably of his me-
thod of ufing the third part of a circle only, that fextants
on Hadley’s principle came immediately into ufe inltead
of reflecting circles, from this peculiar circumftance, which
we here mention, becaufe it has been generally afferted,
upon fuppolition only, that circles did not precede, but fol-
lowed refleGting fextants ; even Dr. Mackay has fallen into
this error, when he fays that the circular inftrument ** was
propoled, with a view to correét the errors to which a fex-
tant is liable.” (Theory and Praétice of finding the Lon-
gitude, vol. i. p. 65-)
Chevalier de Borda, of Paris, foon noticed, among others,
that the two indices of profeffor Mayer’s circle, which car-
ried, one the central mirror, and the other the telefcope and
horizon-glafs, required to be both moved in fucceffion at
each obfervation, fo as to render two operations indifpen-
fable for afcertaining one fimple meafure of an angle ; after
fome confideration, he hit upon an improvement, by means
of which the double of any angle could be as readily mea-
fured as Mayer’s fingle angle, while yet the principle of the
repetition with one reading off at jaft was retained, and the
mean angle was afcertained by dividing the whole amount
by double the namber of obfervations, fuppofing them to
have been all double angles. This invention fhortened the
procefs of repeating the obfervations, and will be alfo de-
{cribed at full length hereafter.
But Mayer’s and Borda’s refleGing and repeating circles
were both fubject to great inconvenience in ufe, partly from
the tedioufnels of afcertaining the exa€t time, which the
mean of all the obfervations was to be put down for, and
partly from the unfteadinefs and other objections, occafioned
by two indices feparately moveable, and the frequent efti-
mations by the eye of the coincidence of the direct and re-
flected objects at each obfervation ; their principal property
being to diminifh the errors of divifion of a bad inftrument,
and to render it capable of ufe, when it could not be depend-
ed on for taking a fimple obfervation. It has fallen to the
Jot of Mr. Ed. Troughton, whofe nautical and aftronomi-
cal inftruments are known, and highly valued all over the
world on account of their accuracy, to make a very eflen-
tial improvement on the foregoing reflecting circles, in 1796,
without being fubje& to thefe and fimilar objections, which
will hereafter be mentioned ; he has retained the principle
of meafuring an angle to the right and left of Zero, when
the inltrument is properly fet, and inftead of repeating the
obfervation round@'the different portions of the limb, to do
away the errors of eccentricity and of imperfeét divifions, he
ules three Verniers at 120° diftance from each other, which
CLE.
feparately meafure each a double angle; fo that at one ob-
fervation taken backward and forward, the average of fix
different fextants 1s obtained without the lealt trouble or
liability to mistake the inftant of obfervation ; for fixing one
of the Verniers fixes them all till their meafures are fuccef-
fively read off, which may be an hour, or even many hours
after the inflant of the obfervation has been noted. The
conttru@ion and ufe of this very perfect inftrument will be
defcribed more particularly in its place, which will be the
more interefting, as its powers and peculiarities have never
been heretofore laid before the public in a regular defeription.
About the year 1800, Jofeph de Mendoza Rios Efg.
F.R.S. the author of the coile¢tion of Nautical Tables,
which we had occafion to mention in refpeétful terms under
our article Curonomerer, and who has for fome time’
fhewn a great defire to promote the interelts of naviga-
tion, (being himfelf a captain in the fervice), invented an
ingenious method of transferring the motions of beth the
indices of Borda’s refleéting circle, into ore reading by what
he terms a flying nonius, or more properly f{peaking, a Siying
Vernier, by means of whch the velocity of repeating an
angle with Borda’s circle is doubled. This inftrument is
defcribed in the Philofophical TranfaGions of Londen for
the year 1501. The con{trvGion of Borda’s circle, how-
ever, being unfit to receive the propofed improvement, the
thing was found not to anfwer in practice, but fhews well
enough the principle, which was at that time the cluef de-
fign of the author. Subfequently to the above period, an
union of the conceived principle with Troughton’s conitruc-
tion was found to anfwer a much better purpofe; for by
this union, not only is the repeating or multiplying proper-
ty refumed, but the alternate motion of the index is tranf-
formed into a continued motion, fo that the whole amount
of the croffed obfervations is read off at laft by two feparate
Verniers. This being a great improvement of Mendoza’s
original reflecting circle, and not having been any where
publifhed, fha‘l be defcribed in its turn after ‘Troughton’s, to
which it is a relative.
While thefe improvements have been going on in the
fabrication of nautical inftruments, correfponding improve-
ments have alfo been made in inftruments appropriated to
obfervatories; the original circle, which had long ago been
commuted for the aftronomical quadrant, fextant, or fector,
was again brought into ufe, and for the fame reafons that
the nautical circle was revived after the aftrolabe had been
laid afide. As itis our intention particularly to defcribe
in feparate fections the principal circular inftruments ufed
in practical altronomy, as well as the principal nautical-
circles, it would be fuperfluous to give here more than a
brief hiftorical notice of each.
We may go back to the year 1768, when Le Duc de
Chaulnes publifhed a work, which we fuppofe may have
fuggetted to the Englifh inftrument-makers, fome notion
of the ule of a microfcope and micrometer ufed in con-
junction to read off the fubdivifions of the circular limb of a
large inftrument ; the work is entitled, ‘* Defcription d’un
Microfcope et de differens Micrometres deftinés a mefurer
des parties circulaires ou droites avec la plus grande precifion,
1768, a Paris.”?, We have not the work before us, and there-
fore are unable to ftate, in what particulars the propofed
apparatus differed from that previoufly propofed by Romer
by the name of a reticulum or reticulee When the late Jefle
Ramfden, whofe eminence as an inftrument-maker will
never be forgotten, was applied to, about the year 1735, to
make an inftrament for meafuring horizontal angles with
more precifion than the ordinary theodolite is capable of, he
adopted
: Cee CLE:
adopted the plan of reading off by microfeopes the fub-
divifions of his large circular inftrument, which was ufed in
the trigonometrical furvey, made for the purpofe of mea-
furing’ the linear diftance from the two oblervatorics of
Greenwich and Paris, under the direétion of general Roy.
Profeffor Vince has defcribed this inftrument in his prac-
tical aftronomy, (p. 170.) Theline on the French fide was
meafured by the help of a repeating inftrument without re-
fletion, contrived by the Chevalier de Borda, which we
propofe to defcribe more fully prefently.
But Ramfden was not fatisfied with applying the new
method of reading off by microfcopes, which he could do
repeatedly within the accuracy of one fecond of fpace, to ho-
rizontal angles owly, but in a large circular inftrument,
which he finifhed for Piazzi of Palermo in 1789, to be
placed in his obfervatory, the fame mode of meafuring this
very minute portion of a degree, was adopted with com-
plete fuccefs ‘in-a vertical circle, as will be feen in our fub-
joned account of this expenfive inftrument.
Nor was Mr. Ramfden the only Englifh maker of aftrono-
mical inflruments, who. has con{truéted aftronomical circles
or circular inftruments, on the plan propofed by the Duc
de Chaulnes; Mr. Ed. Troughton, and Mr. Wm. Cary have
fucceded in fimilar attempts, and we can venture to affirm,
that their inftruments have not been equalled in excellence,
by thofe of any foreign maker whatever ; of the veracity
of which affertion it will be confidered as a fufficient proof,
that all the beft obfervatories on the continent are furnifhed
with Englifh inftruments, and chiefly if not entirely by thofe
three makers, including Berge, Mr. Ramfden’s fucceflor,
under his name.
Thus have we given fuch a fketch of the rife and pro-
grefs of aftronomical and nautical inftruments, particularly
circles, as will enable the reader, we prefume, to appreciate
the value of each improvement, and to underftand the ules
and originality of the different parts of the inftruments of
which we have thought it right to fubjoin appropriate de-
{criptions.
The German refleding and repeating Circre, by Tobias
Mayer of Gottingen.
After having perufed the Latin defcription of the circle
of Tobias Mayer, as publifhed by him in his “ Tabule
Motuum Solis et Lunz,’? Londini, 1770, and compared it
with the inflrument itfelf, (No. 9.) as originally made by
Bird for the ufe of admiral Campbell, we found that the
Author’s plate and defcription ave defective, inafmuch as
fome of the appendages found neceflary by the maker are
omitted ; we therefore caufed an original drawing to be taken
in perfpective, which we now come to deferibe, and to which
we have put Mayer’s original large letters of reference, and
fome of the {mall ones as far as they would go; we pro-
pofe alfo to defcribe the parts of the inftrument, and their
ufes nearly in the fame order in which their author has
defcribed them, that his ideas may be the better preferved.
Fig. 1.0f Plate 11. of Afironomical inflruments, is a reprefen-
tation of the inftrument in an entire {tate ; in confifts prin-
cipally of three parts with their appendages; namely, the
graduated circle A, the radial bar C, and the telefcope on
the radial bar G ; the inventor propofed the circle to be of 8
inches radius, which we find is juft $.7 from the divided circle,
and 9 to thecircumference ; this meafure of 8 inches was
fixed upon, becaufe it was fuppofed by Mayer that a larger
would make the iaftrument too heavy, and that a fmaller
could not be divided accurately enough to guard againft an
error, inthe meafurement of a lunar diltance of 3’, correfpond-
ingtoabout 1° 14'% of determjnedlongitude, notwithftanding
Vou. VIII.
the addition of a vernier; a fuppofition which, our pocket
box fextants fhew, was widely erroneous; as the inltrument
was intended to meafure angles by refle€tion, like Hadley’s
o@tant, ufually called quadrant, i¢ was at firlt propofed that
the whole limb of'the circle fhould be graduated into 720
parts inftead of 360°, becaufe the reflecting infruments
meafure a whole degree by salves marked on their limbs,
and figured as choles, but Bird thought proper to put on
only 360°, each of which is fubdivided into three, and reads with
a vernier of 20 fpaces, covering 19 on the limb, fo that the
quantity read off requires to be doubled to bring it ito
exaét degrees and minutes of reflected meafurement. “ihe
centre work is fimilar to that of Hadley’s quadrant, ex-
cept that the radial bars C and G, to each of which a
vernier is put at # and & refpedtively, move feparately. ‘The
bar G grows wide enough before it comes to g to admit a
large circular hole, the centre of which is properly its centre
of motion ; which is alfo the cafe withthe bar C: the bar
G prolonged beyond the centre a little way carries a {quare
piece of ground and polifhed glafs 6, of which the lower
half is filvered and kept faftin a little brafs frame, adjultable
for perpendicularity by {crews below; on the fame bar is
alfo carried the telefcope B, in two pair of jointed little
fupports fand f fcrewed to the bar G, fo moveable like
an ordinary parallel ruler, in a longitudinal direction, that
when the faid jointed fupports are perpendicular to the plane
of the bar G, no part of the glafs 4 can be feen, bit the part
which is not filvered ; but when the telefcope is pulhed
nearer to or drawn further from the fgid glafs, the line of
coliimation of the telefcope approaches the bar G, and its
field of view takes in allo the filvered portion of the {mall-
glafs; and thus any portion or nearly the whole of this
glafs may be readily taken in by the eye at the end'of the
telefcope. ‘T'bis contrivance was not in the original fetch,
but was no doubt added by the maker, and has another
convenience befides its ufe in the adjuftment juft mentioned,
which is, that by the telefcope’s approaching the bar G
when pufhed forwards, a more fhallow box will {uffice for
packing the inftrument than muft neceflarily have been
ufed if no fuch motion of the fupports f and fhad been
there. In the focus of the eye-piece there are three fine
wires, two parallel at fome diftance on each fide of the centre
of the field of view, and one at right angles to the other
two cutting the exact centre; the tube is 10 inches long,
and the maznifying power jutt four, with a field of view
of 22.15’; the objeé glals is of the achromatic kind, and
the eye-glafs being a fingle lens inverts the object, which
is of no confequence in-celeftial obfervations.
The radial bar C which carries the. index & has the large
central mirror attached to it, and has adjuftable ferews for
perpendicularity like thofe of glafs 4, and is in every re{pect
like the index bar of a Hadley’s quadrant; it is placed
above the plane of the bar G, and, as has been faid, moves
feparately from the telefcope. ‘The picce d near Kis a
holding piece of metal clalping the limb in fuch a way,
that, when its fixing {crew, the head of which isa milled nut
at d, is faft, it fixes the bar C immoveably, by means of the
tangent fcrew i i which is tapped into a little ball at the
outer end of this bar. The tangent ferew kas two milled
nuts as heads at its oppofite ead, by either of which it
may be turned, as convenience may require, and, when the
piece d is {crewed faft te the limb, the tangent-fcrew is
moreover ufed to adjuft the bar C and its mirror, till the
real objet, and objcét by reflection exaktly coincide: at
the end of the bar G, under the eye piece of the telefcope,
isa fimilar tangent ferew and fixing apparatus, the whole of
which cannot be feen in the gure; but when the reader is
Ff told
CIR
told that the milled nut at ¢, is exaétly fimiler to the one
which has been deferibed at d, the portion out of fight
will eafily be apprehended ; there is however a fecond fix-
ing ferew below, as well as the one e above, which may
fometimes be more convenient to ufe, or which for the fake
of greater fecurity may be ufed along with the other. Fig. 2.
is a dark glafs in a frame which may be placed, when the
fun is one of the obferved objeéts, parallel and near to the
mirror c by its crofs m, the edges of which are floped, fliding
into a corre{ponding groove behind the mirror ¢ among the
ferews of adjultment ; this coloured glafs is for the reflected
fun, and turns on-a horizontal joint at 0, and therefore may
at any time be turned afide, without being removed from
the groove, and left the deepnefs of the colour of one glafs
fhould not fuit under all cireumitances, a fecond and.a third,
each of a fhade lighter colour, and in fjames exadily fimi-
Jar to fig. 2. may be put on inftead, one of which has more-
over a vertical joint near the horizontal one, by which it
may be turned back entirely out of fightyof the telefcope.
Befides thefe dark glaffes, there is one in a {mall tube which
flips over the eye-piece of the telefcope, and guards the eye
from the fun’s rays when feen by Gireét vifion. Fig. 5. is
a microfcope borne by a clamp of ivory with a fpring be-
low at P, which flips upon the limb at any point of it, and
affifis in reading the coincidence of the vernier with fome
dividing line on the limb ; there is one to each vernier ; thefe
microfcopes would have been better placed on the bar Cc
that carries the vernier, if the reading had been wanted at
every obfervation, but as the reading is only required to be
made once, after half a dozen obfervations fucceflively made,
it was thought better to have them detached. The cir-
cle is made firm by fix radial arms braced below by long
bars ferewed edgewile to their inferior planes, by {crews
going from above, fome of the heads of which are feen.
Asa fupport for this inftrument, a long tube of brafs of
great ftrength is {crewed into a thick plate, borne by a
heavy ring, attached to the interior ends of the crofs arms ;
this long fupport has a ball E and focket, which aliow
the plane pf the inftrument to be elevated to any angle
with the horizontal line, and which fix the pofition by
being tightened with a vertical ferew within the tube
carrying a cup of preflure that is raifed as the {crew is
turned ;. the fcrew has alfo a fmall wheel attached to it
which is aGtuated by an horizontal endlefs ferew, bearing
the ring F by which it is turned, fo that one turn of the
ring F moves the wheel within the tube the fpace of cne
tooth, and as the thick arbour of the wheel is that
which has the vertical ferew on its circumference, and
carries the cup of preflure, it is not d fficult to conceive that
the bal! may be loofened or fixed in the focket, accordingly as
the ring F is turned forwards or backwards by hand.— Lhe
inventor intended a ftaff to bear on the ground, but Bird
preferred a belt for the end to reft on like a flandard belt,
and.the tube contains a flick that will draw out and fx at
any convenient length to go into a hole in the belt.
tn Hadley’s quadrant there is an adjuftment to be made
for the parallelifm of the two mirrors, when the point o of
the vermer is at oon the limb ; this adjuftment is here not
neceflarily on any particular degree on the limb; but, what
fcems to be a condition in this inftrument, the two mirrors
are required to be put parallel, when the two verniers are
fo far removed from each other, as to include between them
the greateft angle that is ever intended to be meafared by
them, a degree or two over or under does not at albaffcét
the operations; on examining the inftrument at prefent un-
der our eye, we find 73° 38% contained between the points of
commencement in each yernier, fe that the a€tual meafure
iG 1; E.
of this angle, when the objet has fuffered two refleCtions,
will be 147° 16’, which is the greateft angle that the inftru-
ment will meafure in its prefent ftate, as the points o and@
of the two verniers coincide when the bars C and Gre in
contaét, one of the verniers being an interior, and the other
an exteriorone. In our figure the diftance between the
verniers is 60 full divifions, or 120°, which our draft{man
thought was a good pofition for exhibiting all the different
parts of the inftrument, confequently the mirrors are not
parallel in their prefent pofition, but will become fo when
the telefcope is carried forwards, in the order of the figures,
ull its vernier indicates 73° 38’ on the limb, which quantity
we have faid meafures 147° 16’.
The mode of ufing this inftrnment may be explained thus:
—Leet the mirrors be placed parallel in the firit place, while
the vernier & of the arm C retts fixed at 0, or 360° on the
limb, which may be done moft accurately by moving the
telefcope and its vernier firlt to 73° 38’ nearly, and fixing it,
and then by making the fun, moon or ftar, the lait of which
is beft, as feen by refle&tion, exa¢tly to coincide with the
fame as feen through the unfilvered part of the glafs by
direét vifion, and there fix it by the {crew e; and if the two
mirrors are fo adjufted, as to be perpendicular to the plane
of the inftrument, the real body and its image will not be
at one fide of one another, either perpendicularly or hori-
zontally ; but if they fhould be fo, -the mirrors muft be fet
right by the adjefting ferews, and then the inftrument will
be fit for taking aa obfervation; we will fuppofe that the
angular diftance between fome known ftar and the moon be
required to be afcertained ; in this cafe the lower end of the
fupport D is made to refit in one of the holes of the belt,
and the ball is fo adjufted in the focket, that the plane of
the initrument may pafs through both the objets ; in this
fituation the right hand body is viewed through the tele-
{cope, and the vernier 4 beizg fet at liberty, the bar C is
brought by an uniformly flow motion towards the telefcope
fo far, that the object {een by reflection, when followed by
a proper motion of the body, and of the entire inftrnment,
comes very nearly in contaét with the fecond body feen by
dire&t vifion, there,the {crew d muft fix the bar C and its ver-
nier, which are now moved, the remaining quantity backward
or forward by the tangent-ferew 7 i, till one of the moon’s
limbs and the flar are in exa& conta@; thele two operas
tions of fixing the mirrors parallel, and of effeéting the con-
tact of the two bodies afterwards, conftitute what is called a
Jingle obfervation, and if the vernier £ were now examined,
the angle indicated, which we will fuppofe te be 30° o%
would be half of the true diftance, asthe inftrument is gra-
duated, if the graduation were perfe&; but if Mayer’s
fuppofition be allowed, that there is a poflibility of an error
of -3’ plus or minus in this fingle obfervation from imperfe@
graduation, then fuch fingle obfervation ought not to be de-
pended upon; the fame procefs is confequenily repeated,
that is, the vernier remaining fixed as at firit, and the
time being neted of the inflant of the firft contaét, the tele-
{cope isagain made to advance, till the mirrors are parallel,
as examined by a ftar’s coincidence with its reflected image,
and is then fixed by the ferew ¢, the tangent-ferew being,
again ufed if neceflary for the exaGtitude of the coincidence,
which is the firft operation of the fecond obfervation; in
the next place, the bar C, with its large mirror and vernier
4, is again carried flowly and uniformly, as before defenbed,
till a fecond conta& of the ftar with the fame limb of the
moon is effe€ted, and then this bar is again fixed as before;
and the tangent-{erew completes the exaCtnefs of the con.
ta&, which is called the fecond operation of the /econd ob
Jervation, which. obfervation is here completed, as foon asthe
infkane
ee
Gin e-L' Ey
inftant of the conta& is noted down ; now fhould the angle
be read off by the vernier &, it will indicate 60°, or a mea-
fure of 120°; but fuppofe a pofitive error of 3’ to exift, the
amount of two obferved angular diftances will on this fup-
pofition be 120° 3’, which, divided by 2, the number of ob-
fervations, wil] make the angle 60° 1/ 30", inftead of 60° 3’,
which it would have been with the fame error in one ob-
fervation ; hence two obfervations diminifh the error of gra-
duation one half; but fix repetitions of the two cpera-
tions, 2. ¢. fix obfervations will diminifh the faid original error
fix times, and reduce it to 30”, which is the advantage pe-
culiar to the inflrument: whenever it is found beft to view the
left hand body, and to carry its image to the left hand body,
the vernier & mutt be fixed at Zero, and the telefcope muft
be moved, and vernier 4 ufed in reading the angle, . which is
jalt the reverfe of the motion deferibed. When any num-
ber of obfervations is fixed upon to be taken, the times of
contaét muft as often be noted down, and then the mean
time is taken as the inftant of contact corre{ponding to the
mean angular diftance, which is obtained by dividing the
total arc pafled through, as read off at laft, by the number of
obfervations or contacts; the readings of all the intermediate
obfervations being of ne importance, otherwife than as we
have ufed them toexplai: the effeét of the repeating procefs,
Tt may be neceffary to obferve, that al! the obfervations of a
ftar’s angular diltance from the moon, fhould be completed
within half an hour, or at moft an hour, otherwife the in-
equality of the moon’s hourly motion mult neceffarily be taken
into the account, which would be a troublefome corre¢tior.
By this method of diminifhing the errors of graduation, by
a repetition of the obfervations taken all round the circular
limb, it is eafy to fee that an error of one whole degree may be
reduced to a minute at fixty repetitions, whatever may be
the magnitude of the obferved angle.
Hitherto we have fuppofed angular diftances only necef-
fary to be meafured by this inftrument, for doing which in-
deed it was originally invented, but altitudes may be taken
quite as well, and with the fame advantage, for the ball will
turn in the focket, fo as to give a vertical pofition to the
plane of the circle, orit may be held without the fupport
like a quadrant, and the contaét of a heavenly body
with the horizon is made, as well as with the moou’s limb,
after the frit operation of placing the mirrors parallel has
been performed; likewife a repetition of the obfervations
may be carried to any number ; but as the variation in the
altitude of any body is not fo regular as the variation in the
angular diftance between two bodies,a repetition of the al-
titudes with the correfponding times, unlefs made in rapid
*fucceflion, will not give a mean altitude with its correfpond-
ing time, and asthe meridian or greateft altitude is that which
is molt frequently wanted in navigation, for the fake of the
fimplicity of the fubfequent calculation of the latitude there-
by, the mean of a number of altitudes before and after appa-
rent noon, will give the greateft or true meridian altitude
too little. In the defcription which we have fo far given
of Mayer’s circle, and of its ufe, we have confined ourfelves
to the reading of the vernier é, which indeed was all that ad~
miral Campbell ufed, but it is evident that the vernier 4 may
alfo be ufed with advantage, for the diftance between the
verniers is a conftant angle, in thisinftrument, of 73° 43’, or
rather of its double, 147° 16’, and the reading may as well
be made by this vernier as the other, if this conftant angle be
fubtraéted from the angle indicated ; for the fake of greater
accuracy therefore, it is advifable to read the whole amount
of the repeated angles, from both verniers, as the author in-
tended, and then having deducted the conftant angle from
the latter reading, they ought to agree in quantity, but if
there is any difference, the mean between the two muft be
taken, as the true amount to be divided by the number of
obfervations, and the mean angle thus obtained will be af-
certained as it were by two feparate inftruments, both ufed
on the repeating principle. Bcfides the inftrument before
us, there were others made, particularly one for captain,
afterwards lord Howe, but we have not been informed
whether, like admirat Campbell, he compromifed the re-
peating principle for the bett fextant of the circular limb, to
be ufed as a Hadley’s fextant, or whether he perfevered in
ufing it according to the original intention, notwithftanding
the inconvenience of the operations Ccufing the repe-
titions.
The inftrument at prefent before us, we obferve, has been
divided by bifeGtions, and not by an engine, as is now the
cuftom in dividing inftruments of {mall radius, for the occult
dividing dots and bifections are fill vifble by a magnifying
olafs in the original circle within the graduations transferred
therefrom, tliat are intended to be permanent: on exarnin«
ing the limb all round with a microfeope, by the two ver-
niers, and aifo by examining the included conftant angle on
different portions of the citele, we have not dete&ed more
than a minute of error in the graduations, fo that had Mayer
been aware of fuch accuracy in the divifions inferted by a
beam compats, he probably would never have fet about his
contrivance, which was invented on a fuppoftion that there
mult exift an error of at leaft 3’, which he propofed to dimi-
nilh to 39" by fix repetitions of an obfervation of the moon’s
anpular diltance from the fon, or a known ilar. The errors
which we deteéted lie chiefly in the femicircle numbered from
180 to 360; in the firlt third part of the degree 161, there
is abomt 1’ too much, which is the cafe with one of the
third parts of both 264 and 277; but as the contiguous fub-
divifionsare proportionably tco {mall, the errors are correG-
ed within the degree fpace, alfo the degree 279 has a third
part too {mall by 1/, which is given to its contiguous fubdi-
vifions. The dividiug lines on the limb are thicker than ne-
ceflary, we think, and meafure more than a minute each, fo
that che greateft error does not exceed the thicknefs of the
dividing itroke on any part of the whole limb.
The verniers toc have each of them one fpace larger than
the reft by about half of a minute, and what js fomewhat
remarkable, it is one of the end ones in both that is too large;
but in both the whole length of the fcale of 20 is exactly
proportioned to the 19 thirds of a double degree, when com-
pared all round the hmb, except in the particular degree
{paces which we have above noticed, and fome few others
where the error is within a minute.
It may be proper to mention, before we difmifs this ac-
count, that there is a contrivance in the mftrument we are
defcribing, introduced by Bird, for giving the large central
mirror a circular motion on the arm C, by means of a fide
ferew 9 9 atuating the circular piece of metal f which bears
the mirror, and which has very fine concave indentations, like
thofe of a milled head, on its circumference ; but as this mo»
tion, which was originally intended to adjuft for the exa@
quantity of the conftant angle contained between the ver-
niers when the mirrors are parallel, is calculated to render
the Jarge mirror unlteady, we confider the addition as beiug
of no real fervice, but on the contrary rather detrimental,
provided the central mirror be placed in fuch an angle at
firft, with refpect to the radial ine of bar C as will allow
the inftrument’to meafure an angle fufficiently large for the
purpofe required. We have adjafted the conftant angle to
exactly 75 large divifions, or 150°, in which ftate it is now
fixed and fuffered to remain, as being more convenient than
an angle confiting of degrees and minutes. 7
he
Ff2
CIR
The inventor propofed a kind of metallic gage by which
to fix the conflant angle, when‘once afeertained, without an
operation for determining by a heavenly body the exaét pa-
rallelifm of the two mirrors, but the inftrument-maker
knowing that no gage could be depended upon in all de-
grees of temperature, did not make it a part of the ap-
pendagcs.
The French refleding and repeating Circe, by the Che
vaker de Borda of Paris.
In the year 1787, the Chevalier de Borda, publifhed at
Paris a pamphlet entitled “ Defcription et Ufage du Cercie
de Reflexion,” in which is contained a particular aceount of
his improvement on Mayer’s circie, together with the ufes of
a circle of his improved conttru@tion, and the dimenfions of
its different parts, which had occupied him twelve pears
in perfecting. The objections which he ftated to the ufe of
Mayer’s circle were; that one obfervation required two
operations ; that the adjuftment for the parallelifm of the two
mirrors was ufually made by viewing the horizon’ at fea,
and was very often produtive of error, on account of the
dire&t and reflected line being difficult to bring into exact
coincidence; that a repetition of this kind of verification is
very tedions in praétice ; that it is difficult to make a cir-
cle fo exa&, but that the parallelifm of the central mirror,
in refpe& of perpendicularity to the plane of the circle,
fhall have a deviation in different parts of the limb, when the
parallelifm with refpe& to the horizontal pofitions of the
two mirrors is well adjufted ; and laftly;that a great number
of fingle angles thus meafured by double operations, is very
embarraffing to feamen. For thefe reafons, which were all
real objeGions, the Chevalier contrived his reflecting. circle,
that, in the firlt place, entirely difpenfed with the adjuftment
for the parallelifm of the mirrors; that in the next place
meafured two angles at two operations, after the inftrument
was previoufly fet for parallelhfm and to zero; and laflly,
that was capable of being ufed on the repeating principle as
well as Mayer’s initrument. f
We have been fo fortunate as to gain a temporary poflef-
fion of one of Eorda’s refleéting circles made by Lenoir of
Paris, of which we have had an original perfpe€tive drawing
taken, fuch as we flatter our‘elves will be readily apprehend-
ed by thofe readers, who have perufed ovr account of
Mayer’s. with attention.— fg. 4. of Plate II. of Aftrono-
mical Infiruments, reprefents Borda’s improved refleGting
circle, No. 56, nearly in the fame pofition as Mayer’s which is
placed over it, and confifts of the fame parts fomewhat dif-
ferently made and placed with ref{pe&t to each other; we
have therefore put the fame letters of reference to both,
which wi'l enable us to fhorten our defcription of the pre-
fent inftrument, as well as affift the reader where to find
the parts referred to.
Tae circle A in this inftrument is much fma!ler than in
the preceding one, being enly 5.3 inches radius from the
graduated circle of the limb, and is therefore {ufficiently
portable by the fhort handle D, without a ball and focket er
belt; it is divided into 720 larger divifions, which by rea-
fon of the refleGion of the mirror at the centre are read off
as fo many degrees; and each of thefe divifions, which in
future we fhall confider as degrees, are Subdived into three
{mailer {paces of 20! each ; two verniers £ and 4, of 20 {paces
each, on the ends of the bars C and G, refpectively, cover
ju 19 of the faid fubdivifions of the limb, as is the cafe
with Mayer’s, from which it differs mo otherwife, than as
the degrees are here fingle degices jult as they are meafured
by refleGtion. The limb appears to be engine-divided ; for
we caunot difcover any original dots or bifeClions of a beam-
G E's.
compafs. The'telefcope carried by. the bar G is fhorter than
Mayer’s, and the {mall glafs 4, half filvered and half plein, is
removed from the centre to as near the circumference of the
circle as can be with convenience, which pofition requires
the bar G to be prolonged quite acrofs the circle, to the -
plane of which it is held clofe by an attached piece behind
the fmall glafs, which goes under the extreme edge of the
circle. ‘This fituation of the {mall glafs conititutes the prin-
cipal improvement in this inilrament, fimple as the caufe
may appear at firll fight ; for an incident ray of light may
now be received by the large central mirror, from either the
right or the left hand fide of the fmall glafs, which glafs
together with its frame, according to Mayer’s conitruétion
intercepted the light coming from the left, and allowed only
the light coming from the right to fall on the central mir-
ror; and it is owing to this circumf{tance that Mayer’s cir-
cle is capable of meafuring only a fingle angle at two opera-
tions, as we have defcribed, whereas Borda’s cirele will mea-
{ure a double one with equal eafe and expedition, as will be
explained prefently. The telefcope B in this inftrumént is
borne by two cocks ff {crewed to the bar G out of fight ;
thefe cocks have each an oblong aperture contiguous to the
24 dividing lines figured from 9 in the middle to 12 both up
and down, which divifions are indicated by a line, marked
on the folid piece of brafs which flides in the aperture of
each cock, and is tapped to receive the thread of the {crew
1 f, the head / of which is a milled nut over each cock, the
fliding pieces bearing the lines of indication are faft to the
tube of the telefcope, which therefore they fuppert ; the line
of fight may be adjulted by thefe ferews, not only to be
parallel to the plane of the circle, but to a point at any height
in the glafs 4, borne by the bar G, either in the plane or
filvered part of its furface. This mechanifm therefore is
inftead of the jointed frames ff in Mayer’s circle—There
are three pairs of dark glaffes m, fuch as are feen at m in fig. 5.
varying in their fhades of colour; any pair of which may be
ufed as circumftances may require; ene of each pair is fixed
ina focket by a thumb {crew at m, and the other at m, when
the angle to be meafured is pretty large; but as the frame
of the glafs at n will intercept the incident ray, when a
{mall angle between 5° 20’ and 34° to the left is meafured ;
another fet of dark glaffes o, jig. 5, may be fubftituted for
thofe at n, to be fixed clofe to the mirror of the bar C, by
the two thumb-fcrews, which appear contiguous to this cen-
tral mirror at o in fg. 4. When a pair of the dark glaffes
mare ufed, they mutt both be of fimilar fhades of colour,
that the coloured rays of refie€&tion, and thofe of dire&t vi-
fion may require the fame focal adjuftment of the eye glafs of
the telefcope; but as the rays incident on the central mir-
ror, have to pafs twice through the dark glaffes 6, when any
onc of them is ufed, thefe glafles are only of half as deep a fhade
of colour as their re{pe€tive correfponding ones m are; the
double paflage producing the effect of doubling the fhade
of colour. If the glafles m were placed exaGly parallel to
the glafs 4, there wonld be a fecond refleGion of the image
of any objeét, viewed through the telefcope, and feen through
the unfilvered or upper part of this glafs; to prevent which
effeG, the dark glaffes ftand inclined in a {mall angle from
true parallelifm, with refpect to the glafs 2, which pofition
deflects the fuperfluous faint image we have jult mentioned,
pe prevents its entering the objet end of the tele-.
cope.
The telefcope itfelf is fix inches long and magnifies three
times, with a field of view of 5° 40’, of which the quantity
contained between the parallel hairs or wires of the eye-
piece, is exa@ly 2°; it is not of the achromatic kind, and in-
verts-the obje&: the glafles are a fingle obje& glafs, an
amplifier,
€ TR
amplifier, and a fingle plano-convex lens as an eye-glafs ;
the two laft are put in the oppofite ends of an interior tube,
which contains the two parallel wires; fo that the wires
may be placed cither horizontally or vertically by turning
this interior tube a quarter round.
The clamps for the verniers of this inftrument appear to
be each confiiting of one piece, as feen in fig. 4, but as they
are more fteady than thofe of Mayer’s initrument, we have
thought it might be acceptable to the reader to have a view
of the parts of the mechanifm fhown feparately, which, there-
fore, we have done in fg. 6. he piece a f, which has the
vernier {cale on it, is {crewed by four {mall icrews, the heads
of which are feen upon the forked end of the bar C, and has
an oblong flit through ic at a; deci is the tangent-fcrew,
with the milled head i, tapped with a detached piece J,
which carries an oblong {pring under and parallel to the
axis of the fcrew, to cover the oblong hole a, and to create
fome fri€tion fo as to produce fteadinefs of motion in the
piece 4, when the {crew turns; at ¢ is another piece attached
tothe axis of the {crew, in fuch a way thatit will not flide
along it by either a backward or a forward motion, but yet
wili allow theaxis of the {crew to revolve ; this piece ¢ is
inferted into a hole f in the vernier piece, and kept faft by
a {crew underneath, not feen; and & has alfo its projetiing
part inferted into the oblong aperture a, and is attached at
its lower extremity to the piece c c, by a {crew entering be-
low this piece cc, fo that the tangent-fcrew will move the
piece cc along with the piece 4, as faras the aperture a will
allow the projecting piece of 4 to move, the {crew itfelf in
the mean time keeping its pofition on the vernier piece a f;
the piece cc hasafquare fided oblong groove on its inferior
furface, a {ection of which may be feen near the right hand
¢; into this groove the crofs piece g 4 is bedded, which
carries the tran{verfe {pring 4 on its end, and the fixing
fcrew d entering into the left-hand hole of ¢ c, which is
tapped, fixes the pieces cc and gh clofe together, when the
{crew is turned one way about, but allows them to feparate
when turned the other way; the piece 4, therefore, the piece
€c, and the piece g 4, together with the fcrew d, are all
moveable as one piece along the aperture a by the tangent-
{crew i, while the piece af of the vernier remains fixed to
the bar C; but if the compound piece 4,c c, and g 4, be
made faft to the limb, which is interpofed between the end
A of the piece g 4 below C, and the vernier piece af, then
the tangent-ferew i will be obhged to move, and will carry
the vernier with it, which is aGtually the cafe in taking an ob-
fervation, when the fixing fcrew d has fixed the faid compound
piece, which altogether may be called the clamping piece,
while the exactitude of a coincidence is finally cfleted by
the flow motion of the tangent-[crew. The other vernier
en the arm G differs from this in its mechanifm for clamp-
ing, no otherwife than as the bar G has only one prong of
the fork to attach the vernier to.
Tig. 7 isa piece of thin brafs, made black on both fur-
faces. called a ventelle, whieh has a {mall triangular hole
through it, and which fits the focket m behind the glafs 4 in
jg. 4, to limit the quantity of light admitted directly
thyough the unfilvered part of the glafs, which it will regu-
late by fliding up and down the focket ; it is chiefly ufed for
terreftrial objects, to make the image as diftinG as the object
itfelf, which is an advantage not poffeffed by Mayer’s circle.
Fig. 8 is a bent piece of brafs equal in height to the centre of
the central mirror from the plane of the circle; there are two
of thofe pieces which are called wifeurs, and which are placed
at diametrically oppofite fides of the plane of the limb for
examining the perpendicularity of the index mirror, the
height of one-vileur, {een by reflcétion, being compared to
CLE
the height of the other feen direAly. Thefe pieces may be
corifidered as fuperfluous, becaufe the extreme edge of the
limb itfelf, feen both by refiection and dire& vifion, will do
as well, and with lefs trouble in the ufual way. Fig. g isa
key with a milled nut at one end, and a {quare hole at the
other for receiving the {quare ends of the {crews which ves
rifv the mirrors.
We have faid that Borda’s circle will meafure the double
of an ansular diltance, contained between two terreftrial or
celeftial bodies; it now remains for us to explain the man-
ner in which this is done. On examination, we find that
the conitant angle contained between the verniers, when
the mirrors are exa€tly parallel, is 167° 35’ in the inftru-
ment before us; inftead of looking at the right hand ob-
je€t, and of bringing the index 4 of bar C towards vernier
4 of bar G, or telefcope, in taking an obfervation, (which
would be the modeif a fingle angle only were wanted to be
afcertained,) when the vernier £ is at zero, the telefcope, ac-
cording to Borda’s method, mult be directed in the firlt
place to the left hand obje€&, which muft have its image
brought to coincide with the right hand objeét feen direét-
ly, by carrying the telefcope outward from the vernier £,
which operation will enlarge the conftant angle of 167° 35’,
by the quantity of the fimple angle to be afcertained; fup-
pofe this to be 30°, then 197° 35/ will be the diftance of
the veraiers when the image of the left hand body is in con-
tact with the real body to the right ; this we call the firft
operation, by which the fimple angle might be obtained by
fubtra€ting the conftant angle from the angle now indicated
by the vernier of the telefcope, but fuch notice is difregard-
ed as not being neceflary ; the tele{cope, being now clamped
to the limb by the fixing {crew, while the conta& remains
perfect, the bar C of vernier £ is next moved by the fecond
operation toward the telefcope, which carries the image back
again to the original fituation, where, if the motion of the ver-
nier £ were ftopped, the glaffes would be again parallel, and
the index of barC would fhow 30°, on our former fuppofition ;
but inftead of {topping nere the vernier é crofles the point of
parallelifm, and diminifhes the conftant angle by approach-
ing the telefcope, till the image of the right hand obje& is
found in conta ia its turn with the left hand body; in this
fituation the vernier £ has meafured the obferved angle twice
over, and will be found to ftand at 60°; for, firft, the for-
mer contact efleled by moving the telefcope, in the firit
inftance, is undone, by placing the objeétsin their original
fituation, as the vernier & pafies the point of parallelifm in
moving from the right of that point, and, fecondly, a new
contact is made, by taking the image of the other object,
and carrying it to the left hand fide of the point of parallel-
ifm, hence the whole of the two operations is called the
crofed obfervation,- and takes in the angle twice over;
once to the right and once to the Jeft of the parallelifm
of the two mirrors. From this: account of the croffled
obfervation, it is eafy to conceive, that it is of no im-_
portance to fix the mirrors parallel in the middle of it, be-
caufe if there were an error of a minute, or even of a degree,
in adjutting -for parallelifm at the middle of -this double
angle, plus or minus, the fecond half of the faid double angle
would be juft as much wrong in the oppofite extreme, that
is; would afford an exaét correction ; hence there is no nced
of waiting for adjuftment of parallelifm at all; but the in-
dex may be made to pafs the point of parallelifm ina crofled
obfervation without the leaft notice taken of it, which is the
peculiar advantage of this inftrument. During this explana-
tion of the principle of Borda’s circle for meafuring double
angles, we have faid nothing of the repeating principle; but
the procefs we have defcribed may be repeated any number of
times,
CURC LB
‘times, and the amount, as in Mayer’s circle, may_be read off
‘at once on vernier , or on vernier 4, diminifhed by the coa-
itant included angle, which, in the prefent infrument, we
have faid is 167° 35’; or what is (till better, a mean of both
‘may be taken, to be divided by double the number of crofl-
ed obfervations, and the quotient will be the true correéted
angle refulting from the different obfervations.
This method is, however, adapted more particularly to
terreltrial objets, where it is zenera!ly a matter of indiffer-
ence which of the two objeéts has its reflected image car-
ried to the other obje&, fo far as relates to the diftin@nels
of the image ;* but in celettial obfervations, for which the
order to catch that body to the left which would be canght
to the right, if the fame plane were towards the fky ; hence,
the refle&ing circle mult have its polition alfo inverted, by
being . turned over on the telefcope as an axis half round, in
one of the alternate operations; for, to have the advantage
of a luminous refleQed image, it is neceflary that either
the leading or following operation of a crefled obfervation
fhould p'ace the infirument in the inverted pofition, as the
cafe may require ; the refult, however, is the fame, whether
the inverfion be ufed or not, when both the image of
the firft, and the real body of the fecond obje& are both
Cofficietitly difin& in the field of view of the telefeope. It
May appear at firit fight, that, becaufe inverfion makes a
motion of either vernicr from the right become a motion
from the left, that the reading of the limb will thereby be
affected ; but when it is confidered that the figures of the
limb itfelf are reverfed by inverfion, no difference will be
found to take place; for provided, for inftance, the vernier
é at Zero be brought towards the telefcope at the point
of parallclifm by a motion from the right, when the divifions
are above, and from the left, when the divifions are below,
facing the ground, when a horizontal angle is meafured,. in
both cafes the effe& is a leflening of the angle included be-
tween the two verniers, the quantity of which is read by
that vernier which has been moved. If, therefore, the ob-
je&t to the left be the brighter obje@ of the two, the firft
or preparatory operation, in which the vernier of the tele-
{cope moves, and in which the image comes from the left
hand obje&, muft be performed with the gradaated face
upward, and mult be the fecond operation, where vernier 4
moves after inverfion, or with the fame face down ; but if
the right hand objeé& be the more luminous, the inverfion
mult take place in the firft inftanee, and the fubfequent
portion of the croffed obfervation muft be performed with
the divifions and fcales upwards ; a little praétice is all that
is neceflary to render this procefs familiar, whenever both
the objects are fufficiently diftin@. The adjuftments for
perpendicularity of the mirrors are the fame as in Mayer’s,
and the principal objeGtions to the prefent conftruion will
be {tated in our account of the Englifh refle€ting circle,
that owes its origin to thofe obje€tions; which, there-
fore, we fhall defcribe the next, though out of its order of
time.
There is, however, an adjuftment of the index-mirror
mentioned by Borda, which, we think, is worthy of obfer-
vation here, as it is an adjuftment probably too much ne-
gleAed by many makers of o¢tants and fextants, to which
inflruments it is equally applicable, and as it is of imports
ance in direéting the maker’s choice of a proper mirror.
The adjuitment. is that which dete€&ts the want of uni-
formity in the thicknefs of the filvered glafs that com-
pofes the mirror at the centre, which is effential to be
noticed, for if the flip of -glafs is thicker at one end than at
the other, it will form a kind of prifm, and a defleétion of
the rays of light will take place, more or lefs, in their
fecond paflzge from the back or refleG@ing furface of the
glafs, which defleion may be plus or minus with refpeét
to the true reflected angle, accordingly as the thick end of
the mirror i: contiguous to or remote from the end of the
telefcope. Let us call the end of the filvered flip of glafs
next the telefcope a, and its oppofite end 4, then the uni-
formity of the glafs compofing the mirrer, in regard to its
thicknefs at the refpective ends, is thus propofed to be
afcertained.
When the two mirrors are made both parallel to the plane
of the limb, meafure a Jarge horizontal angle of about 120°,
as contained between two remote and diftin@ terreftrial
objeéts bya feries of croffed obfervations, and mark down
an accurate mean for the tree angle, when the end a of the
mirror is towards the telefcope ; then take the mirror care-
fully out of its fraine, (we are here addrefling ourfelves to
the maker) and place it again with the end 4 towards the
telefcope, aud examine that both the mirrors be again per-
pendicular to the plane of the limb*as before, which they
mult be before a fecond feries of crcffed obfervations, fimilar
both in kind and number to the former feries, be taken;
take now the. mean of the fecond feries, and note it down
alfo. and the difference between thofe two means, if nicely
obtained, will be double the error of undue refrangibility of
the glafs of which the index-mirror is compofed, half of
which mut be allowed for in every obfervation taken with
the initrement with the faid mirror; but as the error 18
proportionable to the angle obferved, the quantity of it to
be applied depends on the faid angle, and is a variable .
quantity ; for afcertaining which, under different circum-
ftances, Borda has given a table in his pamphlet, which
may be ufed with advantage, where great accuracy is re-
quired, and when the error in queftion is confiderable 5 but
we fhould recommend in preference that a more perfe&
mirror be fubftituted in this cafe, fuch as may be found on
trial to require no correction, which the beft inftrument-
makers will always take care todo. In the fame pamphlet
are contained various other ufeful tables, one of which, in
particular, muft be neceffary, when meridian altitudes are
taken by a feries of ‘croffed obfervations, inafmuch as it
gives the variations of altitudes a little before and after the
meridian paflages of the heavenly bodies, and, confequently,
affifts in afcertaining the greatelt altitudes, which a mean
of the obfervations taken before and after the meridian
paflage would not of itfelf give truly. There is alfo ano»
ther table of correCtions for a deviation of the plane, in
which the conta& is obferved, which may fometimes be
neceflary, but it is better that the due reétification of the
two mirrors fhould fuperfede the ufe of this table alfo.
The Englifh refleding Circie, by Troughton of London.
We come now to treat of the refleGing circle as an Eng
lif inftrument, for as Bird, in conftru&ting the firft, gave it
no diftinguifhing feature, it muft hitherto be confidered as
a foreign produétion. Onur countryman Troughton had for=
merly much experience in making the circle of Borda, and
had marked with attention the inaccuracy and incon-
venience of that conftru@tion ; nay, had long turned his mind
towards:
QUIR CLE,
towards its improvement before in the year 1796 he pro-
duced his firft fpecimen.
The {cientific men, and inftrument makers of Trance, have
Jong gone hand in hand in improving and recommending the
circle of Borda ; almoft indeed to the total exclufion of the
oGant and fextant in the maritime fervice of that country; but
the fuccefs of the Englith conttruétion has hitherto been left
wholly to the exertions of the individual who propofed it.
The cirele of Borda, as before defcribed, is objetionable
chiefly in the following refpeéts.
Firft. The two indices revolve round the centre upon bear-
ings only equal to their own thicknefs, and want confequent-
ly that {teadinefs which is derived from a long axis, to af-
fure the glailes and telefcope to reverfe in the fame plane
through every portion of the circle:
Secondly. The telefcope being raifed and lowered by two
f{erews, the motions of which are neceflarily fhewn by di-
viding lines, cannot be ated on without much lofs of time
in looking at thofe divifions: forif one of them be {crewed
up or down the leaft quantity more than the other, the ob-
fervations will be rendered inaccurate; the telefcope thereby
being drawn from its parallel pofition, In a well-contrived
inflrument, this adjuitment, the ule of which is to render
the brightnefs of the objets apparently equal, fhould be per-
formed with the greatelt facility, in order to keep pace with
the fleeting variations ef brizhtnefs in thofe objects :
Thirdly. The darkening glaffes are awkwardly applied; in-
deed the conftitution of the inftrument fearcely admits of a
better application; they take up too much time to exchange
them as the brightnefs of objeéts varies, and are therefore
liable to the cbjection ftated juft above. Thofe dark glaffes
which are ufed in the fmalk angles are moreover objection-
able, becaufe their pofition is fuch as in a great mea{ure di-
minifhes the diftinGnefs of the objects :
Fourthly. Above all, the want of a handle on the upper
fide renders the obfervation in the inverted pofition of the
inflrument almoft impra@icable. Every obferver, who has
much ufed the former conftruGions, muft have felt this
want; but it fell to the lot of the author of the Englifh
conftruction to contrive and apply the remedy. Good ob-
fervers, for want of this handle, have feldom availed them-
felves of the properties of either Mayer’s or Borda’s inven=
tions, and of courfe have degraded the circle to a rank below
the common o¢tant :
Fifthly. A moft embarrafiing thing in the ufe of Borda’s
eircle, which renders it almoft ufelefs in the night, is, the ne-
eeflity of making a previous obfervation, from which to com-
pute nearly the points of the limb where the indices will reft
at every flage during the continued operation of repeating
the angle.
circle found a remedy for this inconvenience, by attaching a
divided are to one of the indices, having two ftops fliding
thereon ; thefe flops being fet to the apparent angle, the
progrefs of the two indices will be alternately arrefted there-
by at the two relative pofitions of the indices, where the ob-
je€ts will appear near each other in the field of view. By this
fimple contrivance a fet of obfervations may be managed in
the dark.
Sixthly. The corre&tion of the error of eccentricity is not
certain in all cafes; if the index which gives the angle has
only traverfed one third round the limb, whatever has been
the number of obfervations, the mean obfervation may have
nearly the whole of the error belonging to the meafured
angles charged upon it. On this index’s getting quite round
the limb the correction will be perfeét; but proceeding fur-
ther than a complete circle regenerates the error. ‘It is true
his kind of error diminithes at any given point of the limb,
Some yéars ago the inventor of the Englifh:
asthe number of repetitions are increafed; but is never
perfectly corrected but at complete revolutions.
Thefe are the imperfeCtions of Borda’s circle, which being
built upon the fabric of Mayer’s, a form ill fuited to receive his
invention, fubje€ted it to error and inconvenience, and re-
ferved it for the honour of an Enghih artift 10 give full ef-
fet to one of the happieft thoughts that ever led to the im-
provement of any inftrument.
Plate UIT. of Afronomical Infirinents exhibits perfpective
drawings of Troughton’s circle. Fig. 1 thews the face or di-
vided fide of the circle, and fig. 2 the back, or fide of the glaffes
and telefcope. In both of thefe views of the Inftrument the
form of the crofs-bar frame, and its connefion with the
ftrong circular border, is too plainly exhibited to require a
particular reference. This form of the body of the inftru-
ment was found by experiment to refift the preffure of the
weight in every pofition, and to aflure a coincidence of the
image and body of the two objets to be obferved at all
angles when held by the different handles, and from trial of
many other figures was the only one that did fo.
In the middle of the frame is fixed a hcllow centre, A,
upwards of two inches long, having its-launch or broad
bafe contiguous to the back of the frame; in this the axis
revolves freely : at one end of the axis is fixed the index,
and at the other end the index-glafs, both firmly united
thereto ; this is the only central motion in this inftrument,
and being the axis from which the circular plane is generat-
ed, the firft objeGtion to the former conttru€tion of the re-
fleéting circle is thereby obviated.
On the back, or fide of the glaffes, is ereéted a kind of fe-
condary frame, BB, removed from the principal frame a dif-
tance equal to the lower end of the hollow centre: thefe
frames are united by five equi-diftant pillars. Below the fe-
condary frame all the glafics appear ; and the diftance below
the frames affords a relief for the darkening glaffes to be
turned down round a joint as in the fextants and. o@ants.
This contrivance correéts the third mentioned defe@. The
fame fecondary frame allows a length of barrel, C, in which
is effe€ted a contrivance for railing or lowering the tele-
{cope, even while the obferver is looking at his objets, and
without the leaft danger of deranging the parallelifm of the
line of collimation with refpect to this plane of the cirde.
Thus the fecond evil is prevented.
D is a handle on the divided fide, but fixed tothe inftru-
ment on the fide of the glaffes; it is attached to a brafs
tube, which, being bent over the edge of the circle, allows
the index to revolve freely: but as in fome pofitions of the
index the bent tube would cover the limb at the point where
the obfervation muft be read off, it is readily removed by
taking out the finger-ferew, d. IE fhews another handle on
the back, or fide of the glaffes, one end of which enters the
centfe pillar, A, as a fteady pin, and is {crewed faft to the
frame at one of the principal crofling places of the bars.
Moreover, acock, ¢cc, on the fide of the glaffes and above
them, receives another handle, F, the pofition of which is
vertical with refpe& to the plane of the circle; it alfo ap-
plies tothe handle, D, and.in both fituations occupies the
line of the axis. This handle is very convenient when the
line of pofition of the objets to be obferved is horizontal, or
nearly fo ; and when applied on the lower fide affords the
belt hold of the inftrument while an obfervation is read off.
Thus this inftrument prefents to the obferver in every pofli-
ble pofition a convenient hold for either hand, and therefore
removes the fourth, or chief inconvenience of Borda’s circle,
The fifth objection cannot here occur, as the index does
not proceed along the limb asin Borda’s ; it only fteps for-
ward and backward nearly to the fame parts of the are,
: during
CALE C AL 1S
during a feries of obfervations; therefore there is no need to
calculate or make a preliminary obfervation. The index
G has three branches at equal diitances, each having a ver-
nier : by. thefe-verniers, if they are all read, the eccentricity
or error of the centre will in every fight be perfe&ly cor-
reéted, which in former conftructions is uncertain, as has
been fhewn in the Gxth objection. By reading the three
branclies of the index, the fimple errors of divifion are meant
to be reduced to a quantity not worth notice; for as every
obfervation fhould be taken both backwards and forwards,
every angle will be meafured on fix different and diftant
parts of the limb, and the greatett error of the divifions, by
taking amean, will be reduced to a fixth part of its fimple
value. ‘The contrivance of the three verniers was intended
as a fubftitute for repeating ; but it muft be obferved, that
as there isa bare poflibility that the fix readings may be all
+or,all—, this method of reducing the errors refts only upoa
probability, whereas that of repeating is a certain onc.
Other_parts, common to all circles of this clafs, are a, the
_index-glafs ;_4 the horizon-glafs; c one of the glaffes for
darkening the refleGted object; e¢ one of thofe for darkening
the object feen dire&tly ; of both thefe there is a frame of
three; f is the ufual apparatus for faft and flow motion;
and g one of the telefcopes; 4 is the microfcope, with ita il-
luminating reflector for reading off the parts of the divided
limb, for which purpofe it fhifts from one branch of the in-
dex to another. The limb is divided a!l round into 720
parts, which may be called degrees, which they meafure,
but are numbered only from the point of parallelifm of the
glaifes, or the place where the index ftands in the annexed
fgures, each way to 160°, that being the largelt angle that
can be meafured by this inftrument. The verniers fubdivide
down to 20”, which on a diameter cf 10 inches is judged
fully fufficient for the feaman’s ufe; but fome of larger di-
menfions for obfervatories have been divided as low as 10”.
The telefcope is here fixed near one edge of the circle, and
the horizon-glafs near the oppofite edge, which, admitting the
rays of light to fall upon the index-glafs, both to the right
and left of the herizon-glafs, conftitutes the peculiar inven-
tion of Borda, and affords the means in the Englifh conftruc-
tion alfo of obferving angles on both fides of Zero. But as
this has been explained in the foregoing inltrument, it would
be fuperfluous to fay more about it in this place.
A journalift, who is one of the ableft altronomers of the
continent of Europe, has ridiculed the Englifh conftruGtion
under the appellation of eunuch (what we call repeating they
call multiplying) ; but as it has really multiplied in kind toa
family little fhort of 200, the baron’s pun feems but indif-
ferently pointed. That aflronomer, however, in a more fe-
icus mood, has thought proper to fay that Troughton’s
conftru@tion has deprived the reflecting circle of every im-
provement; but this being no place for controverly, we
leave the charge to the fagacity and candour of the Englifh
reader.
Ina comparifon of the Englith circle with the former
ones, the want of repeating 1s the only ground that a critic
_can ftand on: and it would be weaknefs to endeavour to
depreeiate the value of that invention ; but if to acquire it, a
facrifice were made, either of accuracy or convenience, to a
greater extent than the gain, it would be more than weak-
nefs; it would be folly to perfevere in it. .When Mayer
propofed the repeating circle, the ftate of the art of dividing
was fo rude, that all muft have confidered the repeatiug pro-
erty asa molt valuable difcovery ; nay, it may perhaps yet
Ee valuable in every other nation except England; but here
the dividing-engine has been fo wellapplied,that the {mallet
inftruments, with refpe& to the graduation, may be confiders
ed as nearly perfea.
We hall defcribe the adjuftments of this inftrument beft
by copying the praétical inftruétions ufually diftributed with
it, which are as follow, viz.
Prepare the inftrument for obfervation by ferewing the te-
lefcope into its place, adjufting the drawer to focus, and mak-
ing the wires paraliel to the plane, exa@ily as you do with a
fextant; alfo, fet the index forwards to the rough diflance
of the fun and moon, or moon and ftar ; acd, holding the
circle by the fhort handle, dire the telefcope to the fainter
object, and make the conta& in the ufual way. Now read
off the degree, minute, and fecond, by that branch of the
index to which the tangent {crew is attached ; alfo, the mi-
nute and fecond fhewn by the other two branches; thefe
give the diflance taken on the three different fextants; but
as yet itis only to be confidered as half an obfervation;
what remains to be done, is to complete the whole circle by
meafuring that angle on the other three fextants. There-
fore, fet the index backward nearly to the fame diftance,
and reverfe the plane of the inftrument by holding it by the
opponte handle, and make the conta& as above, and read off
as before what is fhewn on the three feveral branches of the
index. The mean of all fix is the true apparent diftance,
correfponding to the mean of the two times at which the
obfervations were made.
When the objects are feen very diftin@ly, fo that no
doubt whatever remains about the contactin both fights being
perfect, the above may fafely be relied on as a complete fet;
but if, from the hazioefs of the ir, too much motion, er any
other caufe, the obfervations have been rendered doubtful, it
wi'l be advifable to make more; and if at {ach times fo many
readings fhould be deemed troublefome, fix obfervations and
fix readings may be conduéted in the manner following.
Take three fucceffive fights forwards, exaétly as is done with
a fextant, only take care to read them off on different branch-
es of the index; alfo make three obfervations backward,
ufing the fame caution ; a mean of thefe will be the diltance
required. When the number of fights taken forward and
backward are unequal, a mean between the means of thefe
taken backward and thofe taken forward will be the true
angle.
Tt need hardly be mentioned, that the fhades, or dark
glaffes apply, like thofe of a fextant, for making the ob-
jects nearly of the fame brightnefs; but it muft be infifted
on, that the telefcope fhonld on every occafion be raifed or
lowered by its proper {crew for making them perfeétly fo.
The foregoing inftructions for taking diftances apply
equally for taking altitudes by the fea, or artificial horizon,
they being no more than diftances taken in a vertical plane.
Meridian altitudes cannot however be taken both backward
and forward the fame day, becaufe there is not time; all
therefore that can be done, is to obferve the altitude one
way, and ufe the index-error; but even hcre you have a
mean of that altitude, and this error, taken on three different
fextants. Both at fea and land, where the obferver is flation-
ary, the meridian altitude fhould be obferved forward one day
and backward the next, and fo on alternately from day to
day ; the mean of the latitudes, deduced feverally from fuch
obfervations, will be the true latitude; but in thefe there
fhould be no application of index-error, for that being con-
flant, the refult would in fome meafure be vitiated thereby.
When both the reflected image and dire& object require
to be darkened, as is the cafe when the fun’s diameter is
meafured, and when his altitude is taken with an artificial
horizon, the attached dark-glafies ought not to be ufed;
3 inikead
GC; IyR». CL, E.
inftead of them, thofe which apply to the eye-end of the
telefcope will anfwer much better, the former having their
errors magnified by the power of the telefcope, will, in pro-
portion to this power, and thofe errors, be lefs diftin@ than
the latter.
In taking diftances, when the pofition does not vary from
the vertical above thirty or forty degrees, the handles which
are attached to the circle are generally mott conveniently
ufed; but in thofe which incline more to the horizontal,
that handle which fcrews into a cock on one fide, and into
the crooked handle on the other, will be found more appli-
cable.
When the crooked handle happens to be in the way of
reading one of the branches of the index, it muft be re-
moved for the time, by taking out the finger-fcrew which
faftens it to the body of the circle.
If it fhould happen that two of the readings agree with
each other very well, and that the third differs from them, the
difcordant one muft not on any account be omitted, but a
fair mean muft always be taken.
It fhould be ftated, that when the angle is about thirty
degrees, neither a diltance of the fun and moon, nor an alti-
tude of the fun with the fea-horizon, can be taken backward,
becaufe the dark-glaffes at that angle prevent the reflected
rays of light from falling on the index-glafs ; whence it be-
comes neceflary, when the angle to be taken is quite unknown,
to obferve forward firft, where the whole range is without in-
terruption ; whereas, in the backward obfervation, you will
lofe fight of the refle@ed image about that angle. But in
fuch diftances where the fun is out of the queftion, and when
his altitude is taken with an artificial horizon, the fhade be-
ing applied to the end of the telefcope, that angle may be
meafured nearly as well as any other ; forthe rays incident on
the index-glafs will pafs through the tranfparent half of the
horizon-glafs, without much diminution of their brightnefs.
The advantages of this inftrument when compared with
the fextant, are chiefly thefe; the obfervations for finding
the index error are rendered ufelefs, all knowledge of that
being put out of the queflion, by obferving both forwards
and backwards. By the fame means the errors of the dark
giaffes are alfo corrected; for, if they increafe the angle one
way, they muft diminifh it the other way by the fame quan-
tity. This method alfo perfeétly corre&ts the errors of the
horizon glafs, and thofe of the index-glafs very nearly. But
what is ftill of more confequence, the error of the centre is
perfectly corrected, by reading the three branches of the in-
dex; while this property combined with that of obferving
both ways, probably reduces the errors of dividing to one-
fixth part of their fimple value. Moreover, angles may be
meafured as far 2s one hundred and fifty degrees, confe-
quently the fun’s double altitude may be obferved when his
diftance from the zenith is not lefs than fifteen degrees; at
which altitude, the head of the obferver begins to intercept
_the rays of the light incident on the artificial horizon ; and,
of courfe, if a greater angle could be meafured it: would be
of no ufe in this refpec.
‘This inftrument in common with the fextant, requires
three adjuftments ; firft, the index-glafs muft be made per-
pendicular to the plane of the circle; this being done by
the maker, and not liable to alter, has no dire&t means ap-
plied to. the purpofe; itis known to be right when by look-
ing into the index-glafs,. you fee that part of the limb
which is next you reflected in conta&t with the oppofite fide
ef the limb, as one continued arc of a circle; on the con-
trary, when the are appears broken, where the reflefted and
direct parts of the limb meet, it is a proof that it wants to
be re@tified. The fecond adjuftment is, to make the hori-
Veu, VIII,
zon-glafs perpendicular: this is performed by a capftan-
fcrew at the lower end of the frame of that glafs; and is
known to be right, when, by a {weep with the index, the
reflected image of any obje&t will pafs exa@ly over, or
cover the image of that object feen directly. ‘The third ad-
juftment is for making the line of collimation parallel to
the plane of the circle: this is performed by two fmall
fcrews, which alfo faften the collar into which the telefcope
{crews, to the upright {tem on which it is mounted ; this is
known to be right, when the fun and moon having a diftance
of one hundred and thirty degrees or more, with their limbs
brought in contaét juft at the outfide of that wire which is
next éo the circle ; remain the fame juft at the outfide of the
other wire; their being fo in both fituations is the proof of
adjultment. .
The inftrument by the prefent maker which we obtained
a temporary poffeffion of for examination, has been fome
time in ufe at fea; we have examined the readings by all the
three verniers, at the ends and middle of every half fign
with great care, by the help of a microfeope with an illumi-
nating reflector, and did not dete@ a difference between
any two readings of more than 40”, which is much lefs
than we expected, notwithftanding the nicety with which
we previoufly knew this maker’s inftruments have long been
divided by an engine belonging to himfelf; for when we
confider that the three-armed piece of the verniers may be
hable to have an eccentricity, as it refpetts the circle, the
difference we have mentioned may be taken as the whole
emount arifing from the eccentricity of the verniér bars
and of the inequality of the divifions taken together.
Mr. Troughton, we have feen, has adopted three verniers
to effect the correCtion of eccentricity, which have each 2¢
{paces equal to 21 on the limb, and which we have faid per.
feétly corre&t this error ; but as captain-Mendoza has aflert-
ed in his paper contained in the ‘ Philofophical Tranf
aétions of London for the year 1801,”’ that two verniers
placed oppofite one another corre&t the eccentricity
better than any other number, nay, that “a greater num-
ber ought not in any cafe to be ufed;’? and alfo as we
find that Borda has preferred four verniers in his repeating
circle without refleGlion, which we fhall fhortly deferibe ; we
feel it incumbent on us, after what we have faid, to prove
the accuracy of three verniers for correcting the eccentricity
of their pofition, and alfo to fhew the probability there is
of their correcting moreover the inequalities in, the divifions
of the divided circle. We thought it would be of importance
to havethe reafons of Mr. Troughton himfelf for having pre-
ferred three verniers to any other number, and therefore we
wrote to him on the fubje€t; to which inquiry his reply was
nearly in thefe words, which we think worthy of public no-
tice ; viz. ‘he eccentricity of a circular inftrument fuppofes
the divifions to bein atrue circle, but that the index revolves
round acentre at a diltance from that which the divifions of
the circle radiate from. Now it is plain that two oppofite
indices. will correét this kind of error perfeGily ; and it is
equally true, though not fo obvious, that three indices will
do the fame.”’
If we fuppofe a circle to be compreffed on one fide,
and elongated on the other, /. e. transformed into an ellipfe,
but having the index revolving round a point bifected by both
the long and fhort diameters; in this cafe oppofite readings
fhew no error, and therefore corre none, notwithttanding
the end and fide divifidns are altered by the compreffion, be-
caufe the alternations correfpond at the oppofite ends of any
diameter; but three verniers, though they do not afford an
exact mathematical correction, yet approximate extremely
near to it.
Gg If,
C IR CrL! Be
If the inftrument were both elliptical and eccentric, like
the orbit of a planet, oppofite readings would correct that
part of the error which arifes from the eccentricity, but
would leave the elliptical error uncorreéted 5 but three equi-
diftant readings would entirely corre& that part of the
error which arifes from eccentricity, and would alfo approxi-
mate towards the correétion of the elliptical error likewife.
Four readings at right angles to each other do no more than
two oppofite ones, but do the fame thing twice over; nor
are fix better than three for the fame reafon. I have not
tried five readings, but I dare fay they will corre& for
eccentricity, (which I fancy every number, odd or even,
greater than unity, will do), but I have no doubt of their
falling fhort of corre€ting the elliptical error fo well as
three do.”’
We have no need, however, to reft the proof merely on
the authority of this quotation, the comparifon is capable of
geometrical demonftration fo faras relates to the eccentri-
city only, and with refpeét to the inequality of the divifions,
or what is here called the elliptic error, the tables of the
planetary orbits will afford the means of comparing the
errors alfo which arife froma feale of divifions analogous to
the equated daily motions of a planet, which Mr. Trongh-
ton has alluded to in his letter in confequence of our having
firft fuggefted the analogy between the eccentric index of a
graduated circle and the radius vector of a planet’s orbit.
Let fig. 1 of Plate IV. of Aflronomical [nftruments repre-
fent a graduated circle with two oppofite verniers ; let a be
the centye of this circle, and 4 the point out of the centre,
round which the bar of the two verniers revolves; and let
the diametrical line 0° 180° pafs through the points a and
4; now it is evident, that if this line reprefents the bar of
the verniers, one being at 0° and the other at 180°, there
will be no error fhewn; the fame would be the cafe if the
bar were reverfed; but fuppofe the end now at o° to move
forwards to c, round the eccentric point 4, and the end at
1$0° to d; in this new fituation it is equally evident, that
the circle would not be bifeéted into two equal halves; for
the femi-circle, ce d, would be lefs than the femi-circle dfc,
by the two fmall arcs gc and dh}; again, it is equally clear
that the point c of the vernier bar would be too forward by
the arc gc, and the end d too backward by the are d/,
which is fimilar and equal to the former: therefore, in this
pofition of the oppofite verniers, it is evident that the +
error gc is an exact balance for the — error dh; this evi-
dence refults from the nature of the figure, for as the four
angles 0° ag, o° bc, 180° bd, and 180° af, are all refpect-
ively equal to each other, and the dotted diametrical line
Az parallel to the line dc, the arcs gc and 4d are necef-
farily equal to each other, the one pofitive and the other nega-
tive, as they are fituated with refpe& to the index-bar dc.
Again, fuppofe the end c of the index-bar carried for-
wards to e, at right angles to its original fituation, here the
demonttration is equally true, and the error is a maximum,
the arc 90° e being the pofitive error, and f 270° the nega-
tive one, which two are as before equal to each other; and
in the fame way it may be proved, that the two oppofite
errors will correét one another in any other fituation of the
eccentric bar of the verniers, where the errors in the femi-
circle to the right of o° will be all pofitive, and thofe in the
femi-circle to the left will be all negative, fuppofing the ver-
nicrs to move agreeably to the divifions in the direétion
of 0° go° 180° and 270°.
Let us now try what three verniers will do in carre@ing
the errors of eccentricity.
In fig. 2 of the fame Plate, let 1, 2, and 3, reprefent the
three verniers revolving round the eccentric point 4, as before,
at 120° diflance from each other, and let No. 1 ftand at 180?
of the circle, then the other two verniers will ftand at equal
diftances at each fide of the point 0°, namely at 60° and at
300° of the graduated circle; in which fituation No. 1 has
no error, but No. 2 has a minus error of the arc 2, and
No. 3 exa&tly a fimilar plus error ¢3, on account of the
dotted lines af'and ae being parallel to the lines b2 and
4 3, reprefenting the two arms of the verniers 2 and 3; the
correction is therefore complete.
Secondly, let the arms of the verniers be placed as in
figure 3, where the errors are the greateft poffible, by rea-
fon of the arm 1, or arm of the pofitive corre€tion, being at
right angles to the line o° 180° pafiing through the centre
and alfo the eccentric point 6; as Mr. Troughton very
jultly faid, the correGtion here is not fo obvious; it is, how-
ever, demonttrably jult. What we have to prove is, that the
politive arc go° ris equal to the fum of the two negative
arcs 2 fand 3¢: the proof may be had thus; from the cen-
tre a demit the fmall perpendicular ad, which will be equal
to the chord of the {mall are 3 ¢, alfo demit the perpendi-
cular 6c from the eccentric point 4, which will be the
length of the chord of arc 2f; da is of itfelf the chord of
the pofitive arc go° 1: now, in the firft place, we have
given in the {mall right-angled triangle adc, right-angled
at c, the angle at a equal 30° (120° — go®) to determine
the fide 6c, which, if we make a4 = radius, will be the fine
of 30°; likewife in the fimilar right-angled triangle aéd,
right-angled at d, we have the angle at 4 given equal 30?
(alfo 120° — go°) to determine the fide ad; but by reafon
of the fimilarity of the two triangles, which have a common
hypothenufe, the fide ad is alfo the fine of the angle abd
to the fame radius, and therefore equal to the fide dc of the
former triangle ; hence the fum of the two fines of 30° each
ought to be equal to radius, if the corre€tion be perfe& ;
but the fine of any angle doubled is the chord line of double
that angle, therefore double the fine of 30° is equal to the
chord of 60°, which is always equal to radius in any circle;
confequently the correction in this pofition of the verniers
is alfo perfe&.
Thirdly, let us fuppofe the pofition of the verniers to be
as in fig. 4, fuch, that No. 1 ftands halfway between go®
and 180°, wiz. at 135°; then No. 2 will be at 255°, and
No. 3 at 15°; fo that the errors of No. 3 and 1 will be
plus, and that of No. 2 minus; in this pofition we have
firlt the three angles of the triangle ade given to determine
the relative magnitudes of the fides, of which be, equal the
chord ot 1 f, is wanted; the angle fa 180° (= 1 4 180°)
is known to be 45°, confequently the angle ade, its com-
plement, is alfo 45°, and if the line, a4, be made radius, the
required line de isthe fine of 45°; alfo in the triangle add,
right-angled at d, the angle at dis 15° (= 180° — 120°
+ 45°), and the fide ad is the fine of 15° to the fame
radius a; likewife in the right-angled triangle abc, with
the right angle at c, the angle at ais given = 75°, (= 120°
— 45°) and the required fide bc is its fine, equal to the
chord of the negative arc 2 g, which is taken as a balance
to the two pofitive arcs f1 and 43. If now we take from
a table of natural fines the three determined quantities, we
fhall have
Nat. fine of 45° - - + 7071068
Nat. fine of 15° - - + 2588190
+ 9659258
Nat. fine of 75° - - — 9659258
Uncorre&ted error ocopC000
Hence
GYR GL E;
Hence the correétion is here iikewife perfeét ; and the
method we have laft ufed is equally applicable to any other
polition of the yerniers that can be given them in the circle;
#. e. the natural fines of the angular diftances from the
neare{t points 0° or 180°, put down with their proper figns,
will always be found to afford as perfect a correétion for the
fimple eccentricity of the indices, as if two only had been
ufed. But Mr. Troughton has faid that his three verniers
approximate, moreover, very nearly to the correétion of the
inequalities of the divifions, or what may, by analogy, be
called the elliptic error, where we fuppofe the divifions gra-
dually increafing and decreafing alternately in magnitude to
and from certain paints in the circle; this fource of errors,
being a contingent one, cannot fo well be exemplified in a
ftate feparate from the errors of eccentricity: we may,
however, take a cafe in which both fources of error exilt
together, and try how three verniers will fucceed in correéte
ing both at the fame time.
For this purpofe we propofe to avail ourfelves of the orbit
of a planet with fmall eccentricity ; fuch, for inftance, as
that of Venus, where the eccentricity is only ;i, part of
radius; the form of which orbit, theretore, does not fenlibly
vary from an eccentric circle, According to the elliptic hy~
pothefis of bifhop Ward, if a body fhould move equably in
‘one focus of an ellipfe, an eye fixed in the other focus would
view it moving unequably very nearly according to the laws
of true planetary motion; fo much fo, indeed, that where
the eccentricity is {mall, it may be taken as exaéily fo, with-
out fenfible error; but the diltance between the two foci of
an ellipfe is equal to double the eccentricity ; therefore a
fingle index moving round a point out of the centre of a cir-
ele will have a ferics of errors alternately increating and de-
creafing in quantity, exaétly like the equation of the centre of
2 planetary orbit, excepting that the icale ef errors will be
only one half, at each point of the eccentric circle, what they
would have been if the index had moved round a point at
double the diftance of the quantity exprefled by the circle’s
eccentricity. Hence, if we take the fcale of equations of
Venus, as calculated by Dr. Halley, they will afford the
ready means of trying the effect of three verniers ufed in a
circle with an eccentricity equal to fwice that of Venus’s
orbit; namely, in which the eccentricity is 4, of radius;
and in which the divifions alternately increafe and decreafe
like the diurnal {paces in a plaret’s orbit.
We have taken the trouble of arranging the table of
Dr. Halley, which contains the mean anomaly and corres
{ponding equations of Venus, in fuch a way, that when
No. 1. of the three verniers ftands at any degree of diftance
from the aphelion point (or end of a line pafhing through the
eccentric point) in Column 1. No. 2. of the verniers will then
be at the proper degree in Col. 2. 120° forwards ; and alfo
No.3. of the verniers will be at its proper number ia the
fame horizontal line in Col. 3. 240° forwards ; likewife the
equations ftanding in the fame line in the fecond fet of three
columns, marked alfo 1, 2, and 3, agreeably to their corre-
{ponding diftances, will be the correfpending errors of the
re{pective verniers in that fituation 3 two of which errors wiil
be — and one +, or two + andone —- always: then if the
three errors, which we have cail:d equations, be added to-
gether, in fuch a way that their figns may counteract one
another algebraically, the remaining portion, if any, 1s the
quantity of the uncorreéted error, which we have inierted in
the laft column, where it will appear that in ro one point
round the circle is there an uncorrecied error of more than
2”; and what may be confidered as a proof of the trath of
our arrangement, and alfo of the calculations, the 4- and ~~
errors, being each in the whole amount 337, annihilate ove
another,
TAaBLr
2 = : : r
Angular Diftances from } Correfponding Equations for Eccen-
the Aphelion Point.
Verniers.
Aes 2 3 I
o°| 120°|"'240°°}—0" 10%
al ty al Wary © 50
2 | 122 | 242 I 40
B || v2") 242 2 30
4 | 124 | 244 3 20
5 | 125 | 245 4 10
6 | 126 | 246 4 59
7 | 127 | 247 | 5 48
8 | 128 } 248 6 37
9 | 129 | 249 7 26
10 | 130 | 250 8 15
1s eh Sc ea lea oF)
4 | 132 | 252 9
13-| 133 | 253
14 | 134] 254
ET aE pe eg)
TO E36) |e Gt tere y
17 | 137] 257 | 13°55
1S | 138 | 258 | 14 42
EO SOS PG ON T5130
20 | 140 | 260 | 16 17
20) 14 | (2654 174]
22 | 142 | 262 | 17 50
2 143 | 263 | 18 36
24.) 144 | 264 | 19 22 |
25 | 145 | 265 | 20 7 |
26 | 146 | 266 | 20 52
Bi eee W207 Gh 20. ay |
28 | 148 |'268 | 22 22
29 | 149 | 269 | 23 O |
39 | 150 | 270
Fd cs Baal Wey A
Bae Le2 aon
Chek Mba) 273
34°) 154 |, 274
BS bbe u275
| 3° | 1560 | 276
137 WS | ead
| 38 | 158 | 278
39 159 279
| 4 | 160 | 289
} 4% | 161 | 281
| 42 | 162 | 282
| 43 | 163 | 283
44 | 164 | 284
45 | 165 | 285
46 166 286
47 | 167 | 287
| 48 | 168 | 288 | 3:
| 49 | 169 | 289 | 36 1
| 5° | 170 | 290 | 36 33
SETAE ZOU hes 785
52 | 172°) 292 | 37.37
SSR A738 | s9gca8aI8
154 | 474 | 204 | 38 38
[Sorte seo. 295 aoa as
| 50 | 176 | 296 | 39 36
| 57 | 77 | 297 | 40 4
58 | 178 | 295 | 40 31
59 | 179 | 299 | 40 58
| 60 | 180 | 300 | 41 2
OH NO EU ONT OO
°
tricity of ar of Radius.
CIRCLE.
Errors
onccr-
re€led by
3 Ver-
3 niers.
450 | FaN ag te! oF
19 | 42 9] 0
53 | 42 33] 0
26 | 42 56] o
59 | 43 18f—o
31 | 43 39] 0
2 | 43 59] ©
32 | 44 19] -o
r | 44 387 ©
3° |} 44 56] 0
58 | 45 14]}+0
26 | 45 30]—o
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34 | 46 40] 0
57 | 46 514 ©
19 | 47 2}+0
2 47 11 }]—o
3 | 47 20
24 | 47 27
45 | 47 34
5 | 47 41
25 | 47 46
44} 47 5°
2| 47 54
20 | 47 57
37 | 47 59
54 | 48 0
of
+
eoo0o0o0o000000000000 00000000 CO00O0OGAO0O0C 0000 00gQ00
+
Carried forward
OHODORONOHHHHHODHHNHOODOHOOMHMODOOOOHHOHNHOHHHOOOROHHOONKMYHHOOO
Angular Difiances from } Correfponding Equations for Eccen-
the Aphelicn Point.
mBomnn
Gmt Oh
vm OO
OO}
93
Verniers.
eee a
3
301° j—41
3Cc2 2
323 | 42
304 | 42
305 | 43
396 4 43
307 | 44
308 44
309 | 44
310 | 44
gir 4 45
3:2 F 45
313 | 45
314 46
315 f 46
316 ; 46
317 4 46.
318 46
3t9 | 47
320} 47
321 4 47
322 | 47
323 § 47
32 47
325 $47
326 } 47
327 | 47
325 | 47
329 | 47
330 f 45
331 7 48
332 4 47
333 4 47
334 | 47
335 4 47
336 | 47
337 § 47
333 | 47
339 47
340 | 47
g4t p47
342 4 47
343 | 46
344 | 46
345 | 46
340 | 46
347 J 46
345 | 45
349 | 45
359 | 45
35t | 44
352 | 44
353 | 44
354 | 43
355 43
359 | 43
357 42
358 4 42
359 42
360 41
I2
2
Brought forward
48" + Tate +40’ 58"
I
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gas 5 iius.
tricity of t of Radius
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GLIIRICAL BE
The conftrution and ufe of this table will be very obvious
when we have exemplified one pofition of the verniers.
Suppofe the principal vernier, which has got the tangent-
ferew, to be made to reft at 20° (which is 40° inthe circle, as
it is divided into 720°), and fuppofe that it be required to
know the three refpeétive errors of the three verniers ? Look
at 20° in Col. 1, of angular diftances,and there will be in the
fame line the diftances of the other two verniers 140° and
260°, and in the columns 1, 2, and 3 of equations, there are
— 16! 17" — 31’ 3” and + 47’ 20"; but the fum of the
minus quantities is equal to the p/us quantity, therefore the
pofitive error of the third vernier exa@tly balances the amount
of the negative errors of the firft and fecond verniers; con-
fequently the correétion is perfe&t, and in the lalt column
are a couple of ciphers.
Again, fuppofe the firft vernier ftanding at (the double of)
40° with an equation of — 30! 39”, then the fecond will
‘reft at (the double of) 160°, with an equation of — 16’ 33”,
and the laft vernier will reft at (the double of) 280°, with an
equation of + 47' 12”, which fum is exaétly a balance for
the amount of the other two negative fums, and the uncor-
rected error is, as before, nothing.
The few very minute errors which appear in the lalt co-
Jumn may be attributed, perhaps, to a want of perfe&t accu-
racy in the computation of the table, which is not carried to
decimal parts of a fecond, rather than to a want of accuracy in
the mode of applying the verniers ; becaufe the change from
plus to minus, aud back again, would not have been fo fre-
quent, if the errors had been owing to the mode of deteétion.
When two verniers only are ufed, it is equally eafy to
afcertain from the table the correfponding equations and re-
lative uncorreGted errors; thus at 20°, as before, which is
read 40° on the inftrument, by reafon of the reflection of the
mirrors, the equation is — 16’ 17"; and at 20° + 180° =
200%, itis + 16/33", fo that the uncorrected error is + 16';
thus we find that the correétion with only two verniers is not
perfect at any other points of the eccentric circle, except at
0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. At 45° this uncorrected error is a
maximum, viz. 25'’ with +4, of eccentricity, but it gradually
decreafes both ways to o° and go°; the fame obfervation 1s
true of the points 135°, 225°, and 315°, which are each 45°
diftant from the beginnings of the other three quadrants re-
{pectively ; fo that on the whole the fcale of uncarrected
errors with-two verniers afcends four times to a maximum,
and defcends as often during the whole circuit ; which is a
fufficient proof that two verniers are by no means fo accu-
‘rate as three for the elliptic error, in our planetary trial; and
as four verniers correét only as two pair of oppolite verniers,
they are alfo inferior in accuracy to three, where the correc-
tion appears as perfect as could be wifhed.
We are free to confefs, however, that accurate as three
werniers are for all cafes of eccentricity and unequal divilions
which are at all likely to occur in the conftruGion of an in-
ftrument, yet there is a limit beyond which their accuracy
ceafes: for inftance, if we fuppofe the cecentricity and
radius of an eccentric circle as 4 to 10, which would have a
fet of equations equal to thofe of Mercury’s orbit, including
the eccentric and large elliptic errors, the maximum of un-
eorrested error, when three verniers are ufed, would be as
much as 46’, but when two only are ufed, it would be very
nearly 6°, which difparity fhews ftill more clearly the advan-
tage that three verniers have over two, even in an extreme
cafe. This mode of afcertaining the preference to be given
to a certain number of verniers, is, we believe, an original
one; which is our apology for its introduction here at full
length.
The reflecting circle which we have examined has a circle
of folid filver let into, or, we believe, melted into a groove in
the brafs limb, which renders the divifions diftin@ly vifible
through the microfcope, though they are too delicately made
for the naked eye to read. ‘he ftrokes appear not to be
more than one-third of the thicknefs of thofe which we have
bad occafion to examine before.in Mayer’s, and particularly
in Borda’s circle. There are three telefcopic tubes for view-
ing an object, one for celeftial purpofes that has two powers,
and a couple of crofs hairs or wires in each ; a fecond, which
does not invert, for terr: {trial objets; and a third, which is
only a fimple tube, for confining the line of fight. The
parts appear to be all as fteady and perfect after ufe, as they
were when the inftrument was new. After the confderation
which we have here given to the conftruétion of Troughton’s
refleGting circle, we fhould be guilty of a {pecies of {cepticifm,
if we helitated to pronounce it the beft inflrument that has
hitherto been made for taking the lunar oblervaticns aecu~-
rately, asd for the other purpofes of nautical aftroromy.
When this inftrument is ufed on fhore, the maker packs up
an artificial horizon of quickfilver, avd a claw-foot fland,
as a-fupport, which ferews into the cock infead of the
handle, and relieves the obferver greatly when angular dif-
tances are meafured.
The refle@ing and doubly-multiplying
Mendoza Rios, £/q:
Circie, by Fofeph de
F.R.S.
We have already given a brief notice of captain Mendoza’s
improved circle, and have faid that it is different from the
one which he publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfadtions of
London in the year 1801, the account of which was
cepied into Mr. Nicholfon’s Journal (vol. i. 8vo. feries); we
fhall therefore, without further preface, proceed to defcribe
its prefent conftruGion and manner of being ufed.
In all the circles which preceded the prefent one, there
was but one principal circular plane which held the gradua-
tions indicated by the verniers of the index-bars, but here
are three principal circular parts, two moveable round a
common centre, and one concentrically fixed; alfo, what
will be confidered as a further peculiarity, the bar which
bears the central mirror, and which has ufually the vernier,
or one of the verniers where there are more than one, has
here no vernier attached to it, but is ufed to convey the ver-
niers and a circle of 360° alternately to the right and left of
their original fituation, by a vibratory motion fomewhat
analogous to the motion of a pendulum rod, alternately lay-
ing hold on one and Jetting go the other, during a feries of
crofled obfervations. ig. 5 of Plate 1V. is a reprefenta-
tion of one fide of the doubly-multiplying circle, in which
the frame, the difpofition of the glaffes, and the application
of the handles, are precifely like thofe of Troughton’s circle,
juft defcyibed, and therefore need not be again explained.
C is the fixed circle, ufually called the limb of the inftru-
ment, over which is placed a fecond circle D, and alfo over
that a third one E; the two latter of which move freely
and feparately round the cestre of the inftrument ; above
the laft circle E the index F has its fituation, and carries at
the low end of its axis the index-mirror, which being at p-e-
fent at the under-fide cannot be feen in the figure. The
fixed circle C has its inferior furface divided to the right
and left into two fets of divifions as far as 140°, like two fe-
parate fextants, their refpeCtive zeros commencing not at the
fame point, but at the diltance from one another of the
breadth of the index, fo that one of them touches one
edge of the index when the other touches the other at the di-
vided part of the limb ; on thefe two portions of the circular
limb flide two fimilar ftops, a and a, which may be made to
remain in any given points. The index-mirrorand horizon-
mirror are juft parallel to each other when the end ofthe in
dex F occupies the fituation between the two zeros; and as
i it
CIR CL EF.
it is generally known pretty nearly what the angular dif-
tance of two heavenly bodies is when a lunar obfervation is
made, thefe {tops may be flided along the right and left di-
vifioss of the limb refpeGtively till their inner edges ftand on
the fuppofed degree of angular diftance from their zeros re-
fpe€tively, in which fituations they will ferve as guides, in the
night particularly, for fixing the index alternately, in a
crofled obfervation, in order to find the places of fucceffive
conta&t more conveniently than they could be found without
fome fuch rough guide: nor will thefe‘ftops be ferviceable
for the firlt crofled obfcrvation only, but for every fubfe-
quent one ; feeing the fucceflive obfervations require not the
index to have any other than alternate, backward and for-
ward motions between the two ftops, how often foever re-
peated. The circle D is nicely divided into 360° and their
fubdivifions, and the adjoining circle E carries two verniers,
A-and B, diametrically oppofite each other, which read off
to 10", Onthe index Fis the ufual tangent-ferew for pro-
curing a flow motion when the index-bar is clamped to
the limb, which clamping is effe@ed by the a€tion of a fmall
lever c. There are, moreover, four other clamps with fix-
ing-{crews that have milled heads, which may be called
dead-ciamps, and which open by means of their own {prings
when their fixing-{crews are turned back, but lay hold of
their re{pective moveable circles when aéted on by the finger
or fixing {crews. ‘The clamps d and g are attached faft to
the fixed circle C at oppofite fides, and the clamps e and f
are attached to and carried by the index F; the clamps d
and fclamp the upper circle E to the limb; and e and ¢ clamp
the lower one D. Alfo when an obfervation with the mo-
tion of the index and its mirror to the left, fand g mult
both be faft, but ¢ and ¢ both loofe ; on the contrary, when
the motion of the index is to the right, d and e muft be falt,
and fand g loofe. The heads of the clamps d and ¢ have
each a protuberance or knob, by which they may be eafily
diftinguifhed in the dark from 'thofe on the other fide. In
making an obfervation with an inftrument of this conitruc-
tion, which appears more complex than it really is, the
reader may now conceive, that when the clamp of the index
has feized one of the two moveable circles and carried it to
the ftop on the right, where it is depofited and clamped fatt,
and then has taken up the other and brought it back to the
Jeft the fame diftaace, before it is depofited in its turn,
which two alternate motions complete two crofled obferva-
tions, one tothe right and the other to the left, the verniers
have departed from their original fituations, with refpeét to
a given point on the divided contiguous circles, juft as many
degrees as are equal to two crofled obfervations, or four fim-
ple angular diflances; for the verniers moved from the ori-
ginal point, which we will fuppofe to have been zero, one
half, and again zero of the divided circle moved from the
vernier, by a motion in a contrary direCition, the other half.
‘The minutia attending the taking of a feries of crofled
obfervations may be thus explained more fully; in the firlt
place flide the ftops to the reputed angle to be meafured,
which we will fuppofe to be 50°, as read on the under fide
of the fixed circle C, and fix them there, one at each fide
of their refpective zeros; let the index for the prefent re-
main at the point of parailelifm, which we have faid is be-
tween the two zeros on the inferior furface of the fixed cir-
e’e; inthe next place arrange the two moveable circles fo
that vernier A of the circle E may be beyond the nearcit
iiop, and may have its zero coincident with zero of the cir-
cle D divided into 360°, in which fituation fix the two
clamps and f of the index, and carry it with a quick mo-
tion to touch the ftop on the right, and having fixed it by the
lever c, complete the conta@ by the tangent-fcrew of flow
motion, and the inftrument is then ina ftate of reCtification,
if the glaffes are truly placed, for beginning a feries of
croffed obfervations; for as both the clamps e aud f of the
index were made faft while it was at the point of parallelifm,
when the index moved to the right it brought both the
moveable circles along with it, without altering the refpect-
ive pofitions of vernier A and zero of D. ‘The index has
firil to move from right to left as feen in the figure, there-
fore the clamps d and e muft be both loofe, and alfo that of
thelever c, and the clamps f and g faft; but fis a clamp
of Ethe vernier circle, and g one of D, the graduated cir-
cle; therefore when the index moves the whole fpace of 4
eroffed obfervation to the ftop on the left, it leaves the gra-
duated circle D behind faft, and takes the verniers along
with it; fuppofe the fecond contact to be completed by the
tangent-fcrew again as before, then the vernier will read off
in this fituation ro0° more or lefs, the amount of the crofled
obfervation ; but the whole circle is divided into only 360?
inftead of 720°, as Borda’s is, the obferved angle may con-
feqnently, though a croffed obfervation, be confidered as
the fimple angular diftance taken as a mean of two feccef-
five fimple angular diftances, if there had been 720° in the
circle, agreeably to the divifion of an Hadley’s otant or
fextant; but it is not neceffary te read off yet. Change
now the flate of ail the clamps by faftening dande, ard
loofening f and g, and carry the index back again to the
{top on the right; during this motion of the index the ver-
niers being fixed by d will remain behind, and the gra-
duated circle D being clamped by e to the index, will now,
in its turn, move along with it the exa& {pace of the fecond
croffed obfervation, and the vernier A will read off 200°
more or lefs, which is four times the angle required to be
meafured; and this quadruple of the angle has been ob-
tained by two croffed obfervations made alternately to the
left and to the right, without any ufelefs motion of the tn-
dex; which refult at this ftage of the feries of croffed ob-
fervations explains the reafon why the inftrument is called
not only a refleGting but alfo a doubly-multiplying circle,
for we have feen that it doubles the fimple angle required to
be meafured at each croffed obfervation taken both back-
wards and forwards any number of times. The quadruple
angle however is read off, as being only double, by reafon,
as we have before feen, of the circle having only 369°.
This procefs of alternately fixing and relealing the two
pair of clamps, and of moving the index as many times al-
ternately back and forwards between the ftops, and ending
with as many cxa&é contaéts by the help of the tangent-
ferew, will give a final refult, as read by the vernier A,
which divided by the number of croffed obfervations ufed,
exclufive of the angle of primary re&tifcation, will give as
a quotient the true diltance fought, which diftance will be
the more accurate the greater the number of croffed obferva-
tions. Should the fecond vernier B be alfo read off, the
mean of the two refults will be {till more accurate, inafmuch
as not only the inequalities of fimple divifiom will be partly
correGted, but alfo the eccentricity of the divided circle
D completely, if there fhould happen to be any. Of
courfe the mean of the times muft be taken in the ufe of
this inftrument as well as in Mayer’s and Borda’s, but as
the expedition with which a feries of obfervations may
be made, will be much greater in ufing this inftrument,
noting the times of the firft and lalt contaét may be fuf-
ficient, when the obferver is expert and has no interrup-
tion; but perhaps it will be the fafeft method to mark
down the times of each fucceflive contact. If the errors
of eccentricity and of unequal divifions had not been fo
perfectly corre&ted by ‘Troughton’s three verniers, and if
inftruments were not now divided with an almolt incredible
degree of accuracy, we fhould have felt difpofed ttrongly
to
GORI CHL! E:
to recommend Mr. Mendoza’s inftrument in preference to
any other one for meafuring large angles accurately; parti-
cularly if we could perfuade ourfelves that the alternate
clamping and unclamping, many times repeated, did not in
fome degree affeét the accuracy of the readings ; bat under
the circumftances in which this inftrument is produced, we
leave to the public and to future experience the determina-
tion how far it may be put in competition with its predecef-
for, or claim a preference over it. At all events, Mr.
Mendoza deferves well of the public for this as well as for
former labours to benefit the interefts of navigation,
Aftronomical Circre by the late Feffe Ramfiden.
Profeffor Gieufeppe Piazzi, the celebrated aftronomer of
Palermo, who firft difcovered the new planet which bears
his name, publifhed a work in two folio volumes in the
Italian language, the title of which is ‘* Della Specola
Aftronomica,’’ &c. in which work the author has given a
very minute account of all the different parts of Ramfden’s
firft aflronomical circle, as made for him, that is capable of
taking altitudes and azimuths at the fame time, and alfo of
being ufed as a tranfit inftrument occafionally when placed
in the meridian. It would render our account of this in-
ftrument too long, if we were here to make and introduce a
tranflation of Piazzi’s defcription of all the minutie of the
different parts and feGtions at full length ; but we fhould hold
ourfelves wanting in refpect to the memory of an excellent
inftrument maker, if we did not give a defcription at fome
length of an inftrument, which though probably not the
beft that has been made, yet was the firft of fuch confider-
able extent, and has in its conftruction an union of various
contrivances, many of which were at the time original.
Mr. Piazzi informs us, that Ramfden twice undertook
the tafk of conftructing the aftronomical circle, and as often
abandoned it; but at length in January, in the year 1785,
he entered on the bufinefs in earneft, and completed his la-
bour in Auguft 1789. The whole inftrument, which is re-
prefented in perfpedtive in Plate V. of Affronomical Infiru-
ments, may be divided into fix principal parts, with their ap-
pendages; 1. the vertical axis, and azimuth circle; 2. the
fuperior fupport of the vertical axis; 3. the inferior fupport
of the fame; 4. the baluftrade ; 5. the achromatic ielefcope,
and vertical circle ; and 6. the three microfcopes with their
micrometers in the foci of their eye-pieces. For the fake of
order we will give an account of the parts nearly in this
fucceflion accompanied by occafienal remarks.
The vertical axis of Ramfden’s circle is compofed of va-
rious parts, which revolve together, and which may be con-
fidered, when firmly united, as one piece; at the lower end
is a cone TJ inverted, the f{malle{t diameter of which is five
inches, where it is attached to the azimuth or horizontal
circle with ten conical radii, and the greateft diameter is
44.2, where it is fixed to the oblong ftage of brafs A;
which ftage is further ftrengthened by gibbet pieces, at the
four corners. The azimuth circle is three feet in diameter,
divided into 180° twice over, and each of the degrees again
into ten fubdivifiens of 6’ each. "Che extreme inferior end
of the axis, below the azimuth circle, is a {mall cone of
hard fteel, On the ftage A are faftened four {trong brafs
pillars, each 64 feet long and 3} inches in diameter, defig-
nated by the letters CC CC, and placed near the corners
of the ftage A, which is 25.3 inches by 16.8. Abave the
Superior ends of thefe four pillars, is another ftage B of fi-
milar dimenfions, in the centre of which is a tube ftandins
up, which contftitutes the upper pivot of the axis: at each
fide of the central tube of this upper flage is an opening cut,
which nearly divides the flage into wo, except at the middle
and two extreme edges, which edges are made frm by la
teral conneéting pieces: the ufe of the open parts of the
upper ftage is to admit the object end of the telefeope to
view ftars near the zenith.
The two large pillars, each 7 feet high, and 4 inches diam.
afcending from marblebafes on the floor of the obf{crvatory, and
terminating with a large arch, which connects their fuperior
ends, conftitute a part of the fuperior fupport of the vertical
axis ; two fimilar pillars with a fimilar arch crofling the other
at right angles are left out of the drawing, but may eafily
be conceived to be ftanding over the other diagonal of the
marble bafe, and fixed in the dark circles which are feen
at the refpective corners; at the top of the arches, however,
a ciofs or piece of four itraight bars is {crewed to the four
portions of the difcontinued arches, and a hole in the centre
of this uppermolt crofs piece, receives the tubular pivot of
the vertical axis. The lower fupport of the vertical axis
confifts of three concentric circles of iron, laid one over
another on friGtion rollers; the uppermeft of ‘which bears
the inferior pivot of the axis, and the other two have each
an adjuftable motion, one from eaft to weft, and the other
from north to fouth, effe€ted by the univerfal joints,
feen without the baluftrade at go° from each other,
which joints have handles at one fide, and each a horizon-
tal {crew at the other, which fcrews, aéting as prefling
f{crews, move the large iron circles in their refpe¢tive direc-
tions, when the axis is to be placed exactly perpendicular
to. a horizontal line drawn in any azimuth.
A more particular defcription of thefe concentric iron cir-
cles of adjuftment, for perpendicularity of the vertical axis,
would not be intelligible without feparate plans, fuch as
are given in Mr. Piazzi’s Plate II.
M is a mahogany circle placed on the uppermoft iron
circle ; its diameter 1s 3 feet 2 inches, and its thicknefs 3
inches. On this circle of wood is furmounted a baluttrade
of metal, R R, compofed of a fuperior and inferior large
ring, of each 3 feet diameter, couneéted by 20 cylindrical
pillars, each of one inch diameter, and 13 inches high ; this
baluftrade defends the azimuth circle, and ferves to give ei
ther a flow or quick motion from it to the axis of the in-
ftrument, by means of the clamping mechanifm, connected
with an univerfal joint, of which the handle Q only is feen
in the figure, but which may be apprehended from what
has been faid of this kind of mechani{m, when we defcribed
Borda’s refleGting circle and its clamps with tangent fcrews.
The microfcopic micrometer N, which reads off the gradua-
tions of the azimuth circle, is alfo carried between two of
the pillars of this baluftrade, together with the fubjoined
reflector of filver for the illumination of the dividing marks of
the azimuth circle: the field of vicw of the compound microf-
copecontaius but avery{mall {pace of the image of the divided
limb ; it was therefore found neceflary, not only to mark
every degree with ten fucceffive Arabic numerals, and alfo
each tenth fpace, with larger numerals of the Roman cha-
raGer, but alfo to infert points for difcriminating the ten
alec pale? rie inf is vk anh Mies ipeheed ee 0
; which
fubdividing lines, thus,“ 3. 3,6 ppp?
are counted 0, 1, 2,3, &c. the diftance between each of
which we have already faid is 6’, therefore the correfpond-
ing values are o’, 6’, 12’, 18’, 24’, &c. up toa degree, as
read without the aid of the micrometer.
The compound microfcope N has the mechanifm of the
micrometer in the point where the focus of the eye-glafs,
or perhaps we fhould rather fay, where the united focus of
the glafles of the compound eye-piece, meets the image of
the fubdivifions of the limb, as formed in the tube by the
obje& Jens; this mechanifm is rather complex, and oe
2 ¢
CG Laka Ey
be very clearly apprehended perhaps by a mere verbal de-
{cription ; it confilts of two parallel horizontal plates of
metal having each an oblong hole along its middle, the up-
per of brafs, and the lower of fteel ; the brafs one is divided
into ten {paces of each 1’, counted each way from zero,
which is a point in the middle, and is moveable feparately
by the horizontal ferew on the left hand; the fteel plate
carries a crofs hair or wire, and is adjuftable to the right
or left by a ferew of 70 threads per inch, which has a nut,
as a head, divided into 60 equal parts, one of which parts
correfponds to a fecond of a deyree ; this divided head is
placed at the right hand of the microfcope, fo that one of
the two {crews cannot be miftaken for the other, and both
may be held at the fame time, and turned by the feparate
hands of an obferver, if neceflary. ‘To prevent a lofs of
motionin the fcrew of the divided head, or micrometer fcrew,
a {pring of contrary preffure is applied in conftant action,
which makes the crofs wire move backwards or forwards,
without the lofs of even a /econd, as counted on the divided
head. :
The microfcope as ufual has two adjuftments, one for the
object lens to make the image fall diftinétly on tie microme-
ter’s thread and fcale, and another for the eye-piece to ren-=
der this image clear to the eye; alfo the micrometer has two
adjuftments, one to adjuft zero of the {cale, under the eye-
piece, to zero of the image of the divided limb ; and the
other to fet zero on the divided head to zero on the faid
feale, confequently to zero alfo on the divided limb: thefe
two latter adjuftments are effected by the different fixing
ferews, which are invilible in the figure.
The vertical circle has not its dimenfions given by Piazzi
in his account, but we learn from a French notice taken of
this inftrument in another place, that its diameter is five feet,
which correfponds to the length of the telefcope of which
Piazzi fays the focal length of the objeét glafs is five feet ;
the circumfcribing boundary of the circle, correfponding to
the felly of a wheel, is formed of two feparate rings, united
ia various equidiftant points by parallel cylindrical pieces, fo
that the appearance of the compound piece is that of a circu-
Jar ladder ; which form gives ftrength without great addition
to the weight. On the plane of one of thefe rings is firmly
fixed, Piazzi fays foldered if we underftand him rightly, a
third circle, which contains the lines of graduatioa, which
lines are faintly feen in the figure. The central piece, or
nave of the wheel, into which the {pokes, or radii, are fait,
isa fegment of a cylinder of calt brafs, nicely perforated in
the middle, and the {pokes are compofed of eight metallic
cones and the telefcope, which pafles through the nave and
forms two more. he horizontal axis of this large circle, or
wheel, as we have defcribed it, is formed of a double cone,
which is hollow throughout, and has pivots of hard fteel at
the extreme ends; it has four fupports, from an idea that
the weight would be too much for the pivots alone to bear.
One of the fupports is feen at D D, which isa kind of frame
attached to the perpendicular pillars CC next to the eye;
the extreme end of the axis a, which is not perforated, bears
on a Y formed in the middle of the crofs bar of this frame,
which: bar has an adjuflable motion up and down, by means
of the {crew p, with a head Civided into 50 parts, each of
which parts correfponds to +25 of an inch. Another fup-
port, every way fimilar to D D, is attached to the two up-
right pillars CC, behind the circle, which therefore cannot
be feen, but requires no further defcription. The third and
fourth fupports of the axis are a fifth pillar, the top of which
is feen through the arch of the frame D D and its bottom
near G, and a fixth pillar, P, oppofite to the former.
Vhefe two pillars placed nearer the middle of the flage A,
than the four corner pillars, C C CC, are each three feet and
three inches high, and eleven inches diftant from each other,
meafured from the interior fides we prefume ; they are made
iteady at their fuperior ends, each by two crofs-bracing pieces,
tt, fattened to the long pillars, CC and CC, refpectively ;
ene of which pieces ¢ only can be feen attached to the right
hand fupporting pillar, owing to the pofition of the figure.
On the top of pillar P may be feen a {mali frame, carrying
a pair of iri€tion rollers; which frame can be lowered or
raifed by a rod pafling threugh the pillar down to below the
{tage A, under which is hid from the fight a {crew of adjuft-
ment for the height of the faid rod and frame of friction
rollers, The rollers are placed edge to edge in the fame
plane, forming a kind of curved V between them, on which
the projecting ring of the conical axis is fupported. The
fituation of this ring piece, attached to the cone, is at the
mean point, between the centre of the circle and the back
fteel pivot, which pivot is invifible in the figure. ‘Thus one-
half, or any {maller part of the weight of the circle may be
made to bear on this fupport, by adjufting the ferew of the
long rod within the pillar, the nut of which we have faid is
under the ftaze A. Another fupport, with a frame of
two friction rollers, exaG@tly fimilar to the one defcribed, is
placed over the correfponding pillar, and under a correfpond-
ing annular piece embracing the fecond cone of the axis at
its middle point ; bat the rod of this pillar, which adjuits the
height and quantum of bearing of this fecond frame, does
not defcend fo low as to the ftage A, but terminates’a little
below the middle of this pillar, which is cut into ‘two aud
joined again by a {mall frame of four little pillars near I, fo
that a hand may be put into the vacant {pace of the fmall
frame, to adjuft by a tapped nut aéting here, inftead of being
put under the ftage Aj; the reafon of which is not quite
evident from the appearance of the figure, nor is it explained
in the original account. The end of the axis which is turned
from view is perforated, and admits a lens that receives the
light of a fmall lantern H, placed ina line with it, and tranf-
mits this light, without the entrance of {moke or duft, to a
diagonal mirror, that has got a central hole in it, placed at
the point of interfe€tion of the telefcope’s line of fight, and
of the central line of the circle’s axis: this mirror again re-
fleéts the received light towards the eye=piece of the tele=
f{cope, and renders the two adjuftable hairs, which crofs one
another at right angles in the united focus of the-eye-glafles,
diftin@tly vifible to the eye of an obferver on the darkeft
night. It was found, however, that when much light was
admitted into the telefcope, the ars of {mall magnitude be-
came invifible ; on which account a contrivance was intro-
duced for proportioning the quantity of light, according to
circumftances. This contrivance confifts of a parallelopiped
compofed of three pieces of glafs, the middle one white, and
the two extreme ones green, contained in a frame which has
an adjuftable motion by means of pullies, two of which ma
be feen on the infide of the back pillars, C C, which pullies
affift the adjuftment during the time of making an obfervation,
if neccflary, and limit the quantity of light, agreeably to the:
afcent and defcent of the parallelopiped interpofed between
the lantern and the end of the axis. The reafon of the
green glaffes being at both fides of the white glafs, is that the
refraGtion of the light may be corrected by the fecond green
glafs, fo as to prevent the wires in the focus of the eye-piece
from ap earing double. In this telefcope there are fix eyes.
pieces, five dire&t, and one diagonal, or what Piazzicalls prif-_
matic, becaufe the piece of glafs that is placed at the elbow -
of a bent tube, put on as an eye-piece, isa prifm bounded by
one curved fide and two reétilinear ones, the latter two of
which are placed at an angle of 45°, with refpeét to each
other 3
CIRCLE.
other; the curved fide being that which firft received the
rays of light, and the diagonal one, we prefume, filvered.
The peculiarity of this prifmatic eye-pieée is, that it inverts
the obje& without reverfing it} that is, the pofition is
changed with refpeét to top and bottom, but not with refpeé
to right and left. The prifmatic eyepiece has two powers ;
one making the magnifying property of the telefeope 75,
and the other 130. » The powers with the five direct eye-
pitces, are refpetively 50, 75, 100, 13¢, and'17o. The
principal ufe of the prifmatic powers is to fearch for ftars
and meafure altitudes of bodies placed near the zenith; the
faid eye-piece with its additional tube being horizontal when
the telefcope is ina vertical pofition. -
The vertical circle is graduated into 360° and figured into
go° four times over ; cach feparate degree isalfo ficured with
arabics, and the fubdivifions dotted or pointed like the azi-
muth circle. The obferved angle is read off by two different
microfcopes with micrometers, placed above and below the
vertical circle, at the diftance from each other of a femicircle ;
the frame IE. of the fuperior microfcope is attached to the
neareft pillars, C,C, as fhewn in the figure, jult under the
upper ftage b, which frame contains fliding pieces of adjutft-
ment for fetting the microfcope in the required pofition with
refpe&t to the divifions on the limb of the circle; the adjutt-
ments both of the microfcope when placed, and alfo of its
contained micrometer, are fimilar to thofe of the micrometer
placed over the azimuth circle already defcribed. The infe-
rior microfcope FJ of the vertical circle isin every refpec&
fimilar to the fuperior one, the micrometer’s divided nut in
both being placed to the right. The micrometers of thefe
microfcopes, however, have each two horizontal adjuftments
of motion, one parallel to the plane of the vertical circle, and
the other perpendicular to that plane, and alfo each a vertical
adjuftment. ;
Brfides thefe microfcopes for reading off the fubdivifions,
each frame contains moreover a {maller ane, which we wil] call
the fecondary microfcopes, the ufe of which is for viewing
- afine plumb-line, fufpended by a {mall cock over the fupe-
rior frame E, and pafling down to G through a wooden
fquare pipe, where the plumb may be feen immerfed in the
{mall veffil G full of water, above a {mall ftage wz, in order
to keep the line from ofcillating. This veffel G may be
raifed or lowered by the ferew that fupports it. The fe-
condary microfcopes have each the fame adjuftments as the
above-mentioned microfcopes ; and the plumb-line has alfo
its point of fufpenfion fo adjuftable, that 1t can be brought
into the foci of the upper and lower eye-pieces fo as to bi-
fe& the fields of view, when the microfcopes are both pro-
perly adjufted.
The plumb-line ferves two feparate, and both very im-
portant purpofes ; its peculiar app'ication to both which was
another of Ramfden’s happy thoughts; firft, it not only
ferves to fet the vertical axis perpendicular in one pofition,
but by being carried round in azimuth with the axis and all
the other appendages, ferves to thew if the perpendicular di-
reCtion of the faid axis is preferved with refped to all the
points of eaft, weft, north, and fouth, and if any deviation
is dete€ted by the thread being at one fide of the original
fituation, then one of the adjuftments of the iron circles, under
the inferior pivot of the axis, as effected by the handle of the
compound-joint under the mahogany ring M, mult be made to
verify the pofition; and, fecondly, the horizontal axis of the
vertical circle is made perfe€tly level by the fame plumb-line ;
this is effe€ted by an additional apparatus, in a very inge-
nious, as well as very accurate manner, which may be thus
explained without a figure: fuppofe a bar of metal to be
Vou. VIII.
made of fuch a length as, when ufed as a horizontal meas
fure, would juft reach from the divided face of the vertical
circle to a point direétly oppofite it in one of the pillars as
the upper end ; and fuppole again this meafuring bar to be
applied below to a point at the lower part of the faid pillar,
to try if in this fituation it will alfo juit touch the graduated
face of the fame circle; then, if the diftance is found to be
precifely the fame in both cafes, the conclufion would be from
fuch a rough meafure, that the pillar and the plane of the
vertical circle are ‘parallel, or very nearly parallel, to each
other; now, as the circle was originally made by being turn-
ed on its own pivots in a large frame, its axis is neceflarily at
right angles to its plane, and confequently alfo to the fur-
face of the pillar; hence, if the pillar were perfe&tly per-
pendicular, the axis, on a fuppofition that the meafures were
accurately taken, would be perfe&ily horizontal. But we
know that a plumb-line is perpendicular whenever it is at reft,
therefore any contrivance that will meafure very minutely the
dittance from the plumb-line to the plane of the circle, both
above and below, will determine whether or not the axis is
horizontal ; this contrivance is what we have to defcribe:
conceive the faid bar of meafurement to terminate at one
end after the manner of a two-pronged fork, and fuppofe
one half of a compound-microfcope, wiz. the objeét, ob-~
je&t lens, and body of the inftrument, to be carried by one
prong of the fork, and the eye-glafs in a feparate tube,
borne by the other prong ; and it is eafy to apprehend, that
the image of any {mall objet, whatever it may be, may,
by the adjuftment of the object lens, be made to fall in the
open {pace between the prongs, which image may again be
rendered diltin& to the eye by the focal adjuftmert of the
eye-glafs; we have now got a meafuring-bar with a com-
pound microfcope carried by it, in two feparate halves, fo
that any fubftance, that will pafs between the prongs of its
forked end, may be brought into the field of view, and be
feen magnified by the eye-glafs, ufed on the principle of a
fimple microfcope : let the thread of the plumb-line be this
interpofed bddy, which, indeed, will cover only a {mall pore
uion of the field of view; but as the plumb-line is not to
be moved, except by the ferew at the point of fufpenfion,
nor even touched by any external object, the microfcope
mutt neceflarily be brought to it, and placed in fuch a man-
ner, that the thread will bife the field of view ; this is done
by fitting the forked end of the meafuring bar into the up-
per frame E firft, in fuch a way, that it may be made to
flide in and out any number of times to the fame fituation ;
then the adjuftments of the frame, or of the cock of iuf-
penfion will bring the thread into the field of view; let now
the objet be a round dot on a flip of ivory, or mother-of-
pearl would be better perhaps, and its image may be fo ad-
jufted that the plumb-line will bifeét it in its magnified ftate.
This ingenious contrivance of producing an image in the
open air hasbeen denominated Ram/den’s ghoft-by fucceed-
ing inftrument-makers from the name of its inventor. Let
now the meafuring bar, which we will fuppofe to be too
fhort, be laid, and {npported horizontally in a direétion juft
perpendicular to the plane of the circle, and let there be
a thick pin fcrewed into its end next the circle, which, by
being unfcrewed, will approach the plane of the circle till
it juft touches it as the circle revolves, then the diftance from
the extreme end of this pin to the plumb-line is exa&ly
gauged; it is of no importance what may be the total
length of this gauge, provided it be kept unaltered; re-
move, in the next place, the meafuring rod and its apparatus
at each end in ftatu quo, to a fimilar fitting made for it in
the inferior frame 1 F, and if, when the plumb-line bife&ts
Hh the
CIR
the image of the dot here as befure above, which the ad-
jeftments of the frame only mutt now effect, the pin at
the oppofite end turns out to touch the plane of the
circle below at the fame right angle that it did above, then
the plane is perpendicular, and the axis neceflarily horizontal ;
but if there is any deviation,. the adjufting {crew pon the
bearing frame D D mutt re€tify one-half of this deviation,
and the pin which {crews into the meafuring bar the other
half; after a few trials above and below the horizontal po-
fition may be given to the axis in queftion to the exaGtitude
of a fingle fecond ; for we have faid, that a microfcope may
be depended on to that degree of accuracy in reading off
a micrometer’s fcale. When the vertical circle is truly
fixed, a fecond meafuring bar may be added at the lower
frame while the firft remains at the upper one, and then
turning the circle round on its axis would fhow both above
and below when any alteration takes place in the true pofi-
tion from whatever caufe. But inflead of ufing the plane of
the circle itfelf, Ramfden judged it better to fix a little
bridge, xy, over the objeé glafs of the telefcope with a
prominence 4, which he made to come in contaé with the
pins of the meafuring rod above and below fucceffively, by
which means the conta& is more nicely obferved, and the
method equally accurate. Whenever the line of collimation
of the tclefcope is thus adjafted, it will be certain to defcribe
a femi-circle in the heavens, when turned half round,
which fhall be truly perpendicular to the horizon, whether
that femi-circle be in the meridian or in any given azimuth.
Whenever Piazzi rectified the fuperior and inferior micro-
meters and plumb-line, he took care to ufe the zeros of the
vertical circle as the points that bifeéted the circle belt into
two equal femi-circles; and he gives asa reafon, that he
found thefe did not deviate more than a quarter of a fecond
‘rom their true places. When the vertical circle is ufed in
taking altitudes, it may be clamped by a piece &, on the
pilar P, which, whea loofe, will aliow a quick motion, but
when faft will only permit a very flow one by means of the
handle V of the compound-joint, which, like that at Q, is
connected with the tangent-fcrew out of fight. Thefe, we
believe, areall the effential parts ofthe grand inftrament be-
fore us, which we have thought it better to deferibe in our
own manner, than to make a fervile tranflation of the original,
which muft have been, as we have faid, not only too long,
butimperfe& without at leaft three additional plates ona re-
cuced feale.
It remains now, that we point out the advantages and dif-
advantages peculiar to the conftruétion of the aftronomical
circle of Ramfden above defcribed. Piazzi has enumerated
eight advantages that his inftrument poileffes, as compared
with a mural quadrant ;- which advantages may be claffed
thus: wiz.
x. The graduated circles are not encumbered with ver-
niers, fo as to have its divifions defaced, or its fteadinefs
molefted.
2. The fubdivifions are read by microfcopes which mag-
nify nine times, fo that the leaft quantity may be eftimated.
3. The vertical circle has its plane made by revolving
on its own axis, and alfo its circular lines {truck therefrom;
confequen:ly both a deviation of the plane and eccentri-
city of the divided circles are avoided.
4- The compound circle preferves its figure much better
than it would have done if it had been caft in one folid piece.
5. The obfervations may be reverfed with refpect to
both altitudes and azimuths ; therefore a mean of two re=
verfed obfervations of an altitude will corre& the. fimple
errors of divigon, and alfo the error of the crofs-hair or
3
Cu BE
wire of the telefcope, which, in one cafe, will be +, and
in the other —.
6. The inftrument may be placed in. the meridian, and
be ufed conveniently as a fimple tranfit-inftrument, when
clamped to the baluftrade.
7. It gives altitudes and azimuths at the fame time;
and therefore is particularly ufeful in fingle obfervations
of a comet, or other temporary phenomenon.
8. The refra&tion of the atmofphere, corre{ponding to a.
given temperature, may be determined by calculation from an
obferved altitude and azimuth, taken at any hour, of any
ftar of a given dechination.
We with it had been in our power to have concluded
this account by faying that we fee no difadvantage attending
the conttruétion of the inttrument before us, asitisa fabric of
grea€ ingenuity and labour; but a regard for the duty of
juftice, which we feel incumbent on us, obliges us to fay,
that one great obje€tion to the conftruétion before us
itruck us very forcibly at the firit fight of the inftrument,
which has been confirmed by profeflor Piazzi’s own candid .
account of its ules: the objection, we allude to, is that
which arifes out of the manner in which the upper end of
the vertical axis is fupported; the pillars and furrounding
arches of metal can feldom, if ever, be all kept at the fame
degree of temperature in fo large an inftrument, in any
fituation where it can be placed to be permanently ufeful
in taking obfervations ; confequently, we were, in the firlt
inftance, led to fear, that the unequal expanfion of the
warm and cold parts of the faid bearing-pieces would throw
the vertical axis frequently out of its true perpendicular
fituation ; accordingly we find, from the proprictor’s own
candid confeffion, that obfervations of the fun cannot be
relied on, and that, even in obfervations of the ftars, a new
retification ufually becomes neceflary every hour that
elapfes from the laft re@ification: when the fun fhines,
there is alfo a difference in the two femi-circles of the ver-
tical circle of 10” or 12” occafioned by unequal expanfion ;
and the variation in perpendicularity is flated to amount to
4" or even 5” in the direction of a line from Eaft to Weft,
in a fingle hour; but in a direétion at right angles to this
line the error of deviation will not ufually be more than 2”.
The greateft error in fimple graduations of the vertical
circle does not exceed 3”; but in the azimuth circle there
is an error of + 6” in each of two quadrants, and a corre-
{ponding error of — 6” in each of the other two. as deter-
mined by reverfed horizontal obfervations. Thefe lat,
however, are minor errors, compared with the liability of
the vertical axis, to have frequent and confiderable devia-
tions from a true vertical pofition ; which deviation muit not
only be very troublefome to reétify every hour, but mult.
fometimes render an obfervation doubtful notwithftanding
every precaution. : ;
Profeflor Vince of Cambridge has given a fketch and
brief account of the principles of this initrument in his
« PraGircal Aftrenomy,”? but has not given a detail of the
parts of the inftrument as it was actually conftruéted ; he
has alfo given a fimilar defcription of the principles of
Ramfden’s large inftrument for meafuring horizontal angles
in the fame work, which we propofe to introduce under our-
article THEopoLITs, of which it may be confidered as an
improvement ; and, in the mean time, thofe readers, who. °
with to fee an earlier account of it in detail, are refpeGfully
-referred to general Roy’s account contained in vol. lxxx..
p: 145, of the “ Philofophical TranfaGions of London,’
and alfo to the account of the ‘ Trizonometrical Survey,’?
publifhed in 1799, by captain William Mudge, yr
aac |
CDR
Ifaac Dalby; in the latter of which publications all the
neceflary information may be obtained.
Repeating Cincre of Chevalier de Borda, without Refledion.
The happy idea of meafuring the angle which two ter-
reftrial objects form, by repeating fucceffively the obferva-
tions on all the parts of the circumference of a circle,
we have already faid, is due to the celebrated Tobias
Mayer ; but there remained to contrive. conformably to this
idea, an inftrument calculated for geometrical operations,
and which, if poffible, might equally ferve for aftronomical
obfervations. This was done about the year 1789, by che-
valier de Borda, to whom geometry and navigation, as wellas
aftronomy, owe many obligations. he circle of Borda has
been executed chicfly by Lenoir, of Paris, and is ufually 19
inches in diameter ; itis divided into 400 perts, according to
the fyftem of divifion adopted by the Academy of Sciences,
onthe 27th of February, 1793, and which has already been
employed in the inftruments of the fame kind, which Me-
chain and Delambre ufed in 1792, and the following years, for
meafuring the arch of the terreftrial meridian from Dunkirk
to Barcelona. The axis of this circle which is fixed in the
centre, and turned with the limb. carries two moveable tele-
feopes, B, D, ( Plate VI.) the one before and the other behind,
which turn freelyand independently of eachother, quite round
the circumference, on the axis of the circle itfelf, and which
flide over its anterior and pofterior limbs. This axis is 10
inches long ; it goes through a hollow cylinder A, which is
fixed on the ftand E F of the inflrument: beyond this cy/in-
der the axis bears a circular piece G of 53 inches diameter, in-
dented all round to be moved by an endlefs.fcrew H, con- -
nected with the cylinder or focket on the ftand; and which
may be detached ormade to ag at pleafure, in order that the
whole inftrument may be made to turn with a rapid motion,
‘or move flowly by means of the fcrew. Borda wifhed to ren-
der'this motion {til more gentle, by having the head of the
endlefs ferew moved by another ferew.
_ The hollow cylinder A, which receives the axis of the cir-
cle, carries a weight K, 53 inches. diameter, and 13 inch in
thicknefs, to counterpoife the circle, in order that it may be
placed fteadily in an inclined pofition. It is this cylindrical
piece which bears the {crew that catches the indented circle
connetéd with the axis.
The front telefeope B carries a crofs index pisce which
has four verniers, L, M,N, O, by means of which the divi-
fions are read in four points of the circumference; whereby
Borda has done away the errors that refult from the
eccentricity of the inftrument, and alfo thofe of fimple
divifion are diminifhed. The back tclefcope D carries
a level filled with pure ether and an air bubble; this level
ferves to place the circle in the fame fitnation with regard to
the zenith and horizon, whether the limb be eaftward or
weltward ; it is fo fenfible that the motion of one line (4, of
a French inch) in the bubble makes only 7”2 inclination, fo
that its fituation may be afcertained within 2 feconds. This
back telefcope alfo ferves to take angles horizontally, by
pointing it again{t one of the two terrettrial objects, the dif-
tance of which is to be meafured. The telefcopes are 2%
inches long, with an aperture of 23 (French) lines; they are
achromatic made by Lerebours. i
Each of the four verniers carries a magnifying glafs to look
at the divifions, and a tangent fcrew R to effe& am exact
contact ; two of which verniers have befides a clamping
{crew each to fix the index to the limb, and an adjultment to
bring the ftar or other object to the thread of the telefcope
by a flow motion. Thetelefcope that carries the level has
aifo a lamp and an adjuftment S to give it a flow motion,
GLE:
and to bring the bubble to the middle of its tube ; an ivory
feale divided along the bubble ferves to bring it back to the
fame point. The reticule,a kind of micrometer in the eye-
piece of the telefcope, is inclined 45°, becaufe, in orderto take
angles on the ground, it is convenient to place the obje&
within the angle of the two threads. Each telefcope’s reti-
cule has a motion by means of a {crew, to make the line of
collimation parallel to the plane of the inftrument, which is
done by the help of a proof telefcope. The circle carries,
moreover, a fix-inch axis, parallel to its plane, at a diftance
of 34 inches, which axis is fixed acrofs the cylinder A, at
right angles ; laftly, it carries a quadrant V, to ftop it at any
elevation, which quadrant turns within a frame E of fix
inches opening, into which the counterpoife KX may pafs
when the plane of the circle is placed horizontally. Paral-
lel to the hollow cylinder A isa tranfverfe level X, five inches
long, which ferves to adjutt the ftand F and the limb of the
circle to be exa@ly vertical. The frame E over the ftand is
at the top of a hollow vertical cylinder F, which is move-
able round-a vertical fteel rod placed faft within it, and ex-
2Gly turned to the length of r8 inches. At the bottom of
the hollow cylinder is an azimuth or horizontal’circle Y, ro
inches diameter, divided into half degrees, with a vernier
which gives the minutes. This circle is indented, and the
vertical rod Z, which is within reach of the hand of the ob-
ferver, terminates with a pinion e which catches the circum-
ference, and makes it turn, moving at the fame time the hol-
low cylinder that furrounds the axis, and fupports the frame
E,on which the circle is fixed. The three feet bear on
bridges which are contrived to make the motion of the
ferews infenfible on the axis. The {crew a@raifes a bridge ad,
that has its bearing point ate; but the fcrew of the foot
bears on d, and by turning the f{erew a, the foot-is made to
move on the point d, whieh, being nearer to the bearing
point ¢ than the extremity 6 of the lever, receives and com-
municates to the circle a motion lefs than that of the fcrew
aand the bridge a 4. By thefe {mall triangles, Borda has
hit upon the means of avoiding the jerks which are often
produced in an inftrument by turning the fcrew of the
ftand. -
In ufing this circle for aftronomical obfervations, the axis
of the inftrument mutt firft be placed in a pofition nearly ho-
rizontal, by means of the {mall quadrant V, that ferves to in-
cline the plane of the circle; then by ufing the ferews of the
ftand, fuch a fituation may be given to the inftrument, that,
when it makes a whole revolution round the vertical! axis, the
bubble of the level P will continue nearly in the middle of
its tube. This precaution is very important, for it was
found that 15 minutes of inclination in the plaxe would pro-
duce an error of two feconds on the inferior altitude of the
pole ftar; and that 33’ in the inclination would produce 10” ;
when the cafe happened, it was with fome difficulty, that the
caufe of this difeordance was found out. This’ level muft
alfo be verified by the addition of a plumb-line fufpended
overthe limb. ‘The obfervations are always made by pairs,
the one on the right ofthe inftrument, and the other on the
left; we fhall therefore defcribe them by pairs of ob-
fervations.
Firf? obfervation of the pair.—Bring the vernier of the
telefcope B to zero of the limb and fix it faft with the
clamp 3; then move the whole circle by difengaging it from
the endlefs fcrew, until the telefcope points nearly to the ftar
obferved ; then the ferew H being made to catch the teeth,
either this fcrew or that of the ftand of the inftrument mutt
be ufedto keep the thread of the telefeope conftantly on the
ftar obferved ; in the meantime the telefcope D of thelevel
behind the inttrument is brought ‘back to a horizontal po-
Hh 2z fition,
ciIR
fition, until the bubble be in the middle of the tube, which
is done by ufing the adjultment ferew of the telefcope ; the
level X is next brought back to the pofition it ought to have
by means of the ferews of the ftand of the inftrument ; and,
jaftiy, when the two levels, that of the telefeope and that
of the axis, are rightly placed, and the telefcope is at the
fame time dire@ted to the ftar, the firft obfervation,is gone
through.
Second obfervation.—To complete the fecond obfervation
of this pair, the inftrument muft be made firft to revolve
quite round its vertical axis, and the telefcope being brought
back on the ftar, mutt be fixed by means of its fixing {crew,
then the adjuftment {crew mult be ufed to kecp it con-
itantly dire@ted to the flar ; in the mean time the inftrument
is lexelled, either with the {crews of the ftand, or with the
ferew H, to give the two levels the fame pofition as they
had before the firft obfervation; but it is to be obferved,
that it is not neceflary to ufe the fame {erupuloufnefs for
the {mall level X, unlefs obfervations are made near to the
zenith, for at a diftance of 43° from the zenith, an error of
> or 8 minutes in the pofition of the bubble produces only
half a fecond in the meafured angle; but the level of the
telefcope muft be placed as exatly as poflible in the fame
pofition as it had originally, which will be eafily obtained
by means of the bridge a 3; this level being thus exaétly
adjutted, and its telefcope being properly dire&ted on the
ftar, the fecond obfervation of the pair is gone through, and
in this fituation the vernier of the telefcope will mark a
quantity juft double the angle required to be meafured.
Firf} obfervation of the /econd pair —If a ftill greater pre-
cifion is wanted, a fecond pair of obfervations are thus ufed ;
the inftrument is brought back to its former fituation, and
the limb to the weft; the endicfs {crew is detached ; the
whole circle is turned, and the telefcope is again direéted to
the ftar. The level is then made to turn, and the bubble
brought to the middle with the adjuftment fcrew of the
level alone, without touching the circle.
Second obfervation of the /econd pair.—The circle being
tnrned back again from welt to eaft, as in the fecond obler-
vation of the firft pair, the levelymutft be adjufted, and the
bubble brought again to the middle by the motion of one of
the feet {crews, or by the endlefs ferew H; after which the
telefcope is brought again to the ftar, by making it pals
through double the zenith diftance, as in the fecond obfer-
vation of the firft pair; in this fituation the vernier fhews
four times the diftance, feeing that it began fecondly at that
point of the limb where the index was after the firlt pair of
obfervations, in like manner as it began from zero in the
firft inftance.
After the firft pair of obfervations, which have giver
double the true zenith diftance, are completed, the level mutt
always be placed again precifely as it was at firft, which at~
tention is very important when the obfervation is to be con-
negted by a continued multiplication ; for if the level fhould
be put 2” differently, a diftance from the zenith will be
found, that being doubled, will make this fimple error
amount to 4” more or lefs than it ought to do, fo that the
exaGinefs arifing out of the multiplication of the angle, which
is the great advantage of the circle, will be counteracted.
A third pair of obfervations may be thus made, and fix
times the angle obtained, and fo on for any number of
airs.
7 By this method of obferving the angle, the error arifing
from the divifions will continually decreafe, and it may be
confidered as nearly annihilated after a certain number of ob-
fervations. Six obfervations on the ftars that revolve the molt
rapidly, may be made before they come to the meridian to
cL tk,
the fouth, and fix after; and as the error in each ts not 10”,
the refult may be depended upon to 1” nearly, An expert
obferver will oniy want one minute and a quarter for each
obfervation, fuppofing one perfon to be at hand to place the
level, and another to note the fecond. With the pole fiar
48 obfervations may be made in one hour, and in one revoe
lution the meridian altitude of this flar may be obtained
within the accuracy of half a fecond. For this purpofe it
is neceflary, every time that the ftar has been brought to
the thread, to count the minute and feconds, to obtain its
diftance from the meridian, in order to get an account of the
reduction; but it is not neceflary to apply each reduétion
to the zenith diftance which has been obferved; it is even
ufelefs to note this diftance, the lait, that is, the fum of all
the preceding ones, is fufficient.
To render this operation more intelligible, let us confider
the two firft obfervations on the ftar made in the two fituations
ofthe circle; they would give double tle zenith diftance if
the ftar had not changed; but let us fuppofe that one miaute
has elapfed between the two obfervations, and that the ftar
has afcended 10" during that minute ; inftead of double the
zenith diftance that would be obtained if the ftar had not
changed, we have the fum of two diftances, the fecond of
which is fmaller than the firft by 10”, if they were calculated
feparately; the fum found fhould be divided into two parts
the one of which would exceed the other by 10”, and the
two zenith diftances for the two moments of obfervation
would be obtained; it would befides be eafy to refer them
immediately to the meridian.
For inftance, let us fuppofe that at the moment of the firft
obfervation, we find, either by calculation, or by a table fuch
as Borda’s, that the ftar was 50” lower than in the meridian,
and in the fecond obfervation only 40”, the ftar having
afcended 10” in the interval; go” fhould be added to the
obferved fum of thetwo zenith diftances, this fem fhould be
divided into two equal parts, and double the zenith diftance
in the meridian itfelf would be had; for we had two parts.
the one of which was 10” greater than the other; but 40”
were to be added to the former, and 50” to the latter, to
make them equal, hence go” have been added to their fum,
therefore they are equal, and half their fum gives the diftance
fought for, that is to fay, the zenith diftance in the meridian;
but it is more eafy to pay no regard to this change of alti-
tude till after ten obfervations, or even more, are finifhed.
When we have ten obfervations, and we take the tenth
part of the amount of the degrees, we have the diftance
from the zenith, but this total is too confiderable by ten
reductions to the meridian, fince this zenith diftance, which
is not taken in the meridian itfelf, is too confiderable; we
mutt then calculate each of thofe redu&tions, and tala the
tenth part of their fum, to be fubtracted from the tenth
part of the obferved degrees, which is the fame as if we had
fubtraéted from each of the zenith diltances the reduétion
belonging to itfeif.
_ When we take another feries of ten fubfequent obferva-
tions, we find nearly the fame fum ; they only differ becaufe
the {um of the redu&tions is not the fame as in the firft fer
ot ten. 5 ‘
In order to calculate the redulion of the different ob-
fervations to the meridian, when this fyltem of repeating is
ufed, general tables, fuch as are contained in Cafiini’s book
will be found uleful; where an example of thofe calculations
is given at full length: there is alfo in the French “ Con-
noiflance des Tems,”’ a table of redu€tion for the pole ftar in
“particular, which is carried to 45’ from the meridian, calcu-
lated by C. Borda, the inventor of the inflrument we h
been describing. ‘ a
: The -
CcilR CLE.
The repeating Circe without reflePion, as made by Troughton.
Plate VII. exhibits the repeating circle for meafuring ce-
leftial and terreftrial angles, as it has been conftruéted in
London, ona feale of magnitude where the vertical circle
is of 18 inches diameter: the conftruétion differs in many
refpects from that of the inftrument made in France, from
the dire€tions of Borda, and as we conceive it may be con-
fidered as an improved inftrument, we think it will be ren-
dering aftronomers and furveyors an acceptable fervice to
deferibe it in this place, by way of contraft with the pre-
ceding one,
Fig. 1 reprefents a general view of this inftrument, and
we. 2 has the circle, index, telefcopes, level, &c. detached,
in order to fhew more diftinG@ly fome of the fmaller parts.
The great letters refer to the general view, the fmall ones
to the partial one.
The circle, A A A, confilts of eight conical tubes joined
to an o€tagonal centre piece at one end, and the {trong cir-
eular border at the other: this circular limb is ftrengthened
by another in the form of a hoop, which forms an edge bar
thereto. The circle is divided into degrees and every 10/.
The index B has the ufual contrivance for faft and flow
motion, and confifts of four branches, each of which is fur-
nifhed with a vernier that fubdivides the limb to 10”. Cis
the front telefcope, 25 inches long, placed at half right an-
gles with the branches of the index, to which it is faftened
near the centre; but in order that it fhould obey the mo-
tion of the axis alone, it has no conne¢tion whatever with the
limb. The axis of this index and telefcope occupies the
whole length from ato a. On the back of the circle is
another index D, the fingle branch of wh'zh carries the ap-
paratus for faft and flow motion, and clamps to the edge
bar portion of the limb, to which it is contiguous. ‘The
back telefcope E, fimilar in every refpe€t to the other, is
fixed near the centre to this index, and as near as poffible to
the axis, and below it: the fpirit level F is alfo faltened
to the fame index above the axis, where it forms a counter-
poifeto the telefcope; theyall revolve together round the axis
of the circle on a focket, with a length of bearing equal to
5b. The general motion, where the circle, indices, tele-
feopes, and level, all turn round together, is formed at the
potterior part of the axis of the circle, which fits the focket
that croffes the horizontal axis c, in a bearing reaching from
é tod; eis the flaunch of the axis on which the front tele-
{cope turns; f is that by which the circle is fixed to its
hollow axis; the part ¢ pafles through the o¢taganal centre
piece, and 4 is the flaunch of the back index. G is the coun-
terpoife fixed upon the focket of the general motion, where-
by the whole is balanced on the horizontal axis. A clamp
2.in three pieces, jointed like a watch chain, embraces a col-
lar on the hollow axis of the circle, andisaétedon by the {crew
4» by which the general motion.may be clamped at pleafure.
To the upper part of the clamp is fixed a cock &, and to the
wpper part of the horizontal axis is fixed a cock /; thefe two
cocks are connetted by a {crew m, which, when 7 is clamped,
gives flow motion to the circle, telefeopes, &c. but wheny
is loofe, allows a free motion.
Two microfcopes appear, in the general view, looking at
two oppofite verniers of the index ; by an eafy motion round
the centre, thefe may be turned to read off alfo at the other
two verniers. By the femi-circle x2, which is faft to the
horizontal axis 0 0, the circle may be made faft in any pofi-
tion refpeCting its motion round this axis; this is done by a
clamp at the lower end of one of the fupporters, oppofite to
its fellow fupporter H; on this femi-circle are three divi-
fions, which correftly mark its two quadrants; the circle
being brought into the horizontal pofition by means of a
nice {pirit level applied to its furface, and-an index adjufted
to the middle line, the extreme lines will fhew when the
plane is vertical on either fide the pillar.
The azimuth motion of this inftrument is formed by the
pillar turning round a ftrong {teel axis, which is fixed in the
tripod, and reaches up to the'top. ‘The circle is 12 inches
diameter, turns with the pillar, and is divided hike the other
circle; three verniers, which fubdivide it to 10”, are fixed
to the tripod, which, with many other parts, are too plainly
exhibited in the figure to need a particular account in
words, }
With Borda’s repeating circle without refle&tion, as for-
merly con{truéted, it was nearly impoffible to obferve bright
ftars and planets by day, and fmail fiars alfo, becaufe not
eafily diftinguifhed one from another in the night time. To
remedy this, Mr. Behrnauer of Budiflin, an ingenious ama-
teur of aftronomy, propofed to Troughton, a few years
fince, an apparatus for ftopping the telefcope and level at
their relative pofitions, fimilar, in fome refpects, to what he
had before fuccefsfully applied for flopping the indices of
Borda’s refleCting circle. The apparatus confifts of a divid-
ed femi-circle, attached to the back index, having two flid-
ing ftops, which, being fet to the proper zenith diftance of
an object to be obferved, will be touched alternately in the
reverfe pofitions by a pointer annexed to the front telefcope.
In the ane this femi-circle is feen at I, near which letter,
one of the ftopping fliders refts at about 30° of zenith dif-
tance; the pointer J is in contaét with the other flider.
This having fully anfwered the purpofe, Troughton thought
it would be almoit equally defirable that the azimuth motion
fhould have its ftops alfo. . For this end a fmall cylinder,
with an obtufe point, is inclofed in a tube, which, pushed for-
wards by a {piral fpring, enters alternately a couple of holes
made oppofite to-each other in the edge»of the azimuth
circle, at 360° and 180°, and thereby produces a ftop, which
may be felt when the face of the vertical circle is eaft or
welt, but withdraws from the holes with a {mall force, and
allows the inftrument totura. By thefe fimple contrivances,
the obje& to be obferved will always be found in the field
of view, without the trouble of having recourfe to the di-
vifions,
This may be regarded as a confiderable improvement, not
only becanfe the bright ftars may be obferved by day, and
faint ones by night, but alfo becaufe the bufinefs of repeating
or multiplying the angle will be facilitated thereby; and
confequentiy the aftronomer enabled to make a fufficient
number of obfervations proportionally nearer the meridian.
Laftly, it may be remarked that in England there exilts
an ungenerous prejudice againft this inftrament; while on
the neighbouring continent, perhaps, its value may be too
much extolled. It is certain, however, that while the tri-
gonometrical operations, between Paris and Dunkirk, for
afcertaining the diftance between the national obfervatories
of England and France, or the more recent and extenfive
meafurements of the fame nature in the fouth of France and
in Spain fhall remain upon record, the repeating land circle
of Borda will be eftimated among the very firft inflruments,
for the general-purpofes of aflronomy and topography, with
every one who is in the leaft acquainted with thefe fub-
jects ; to which we may add, as our concluding remark, that
the alterations and additions made in this inftrumént by
Troughton have greatly contributed to its improvement,
whether we regard the accuracy or facility of its operations,
Circre, by the Rev. Francis Wollafton, LL.B. and F.R.S,
In a paper read before the Royal Saciety of ie
on
CIRCLE,
don on May 9, 1793, and publifhed in the “ Philofophical
TranfaStions,” Dr. Wollafton has given an account of a
tranf? circle, which he contrived, by the affiftance of Mr.
Ramfden and Mr. Jolin Smeaton, and which was made
by Mr. W. Cary of the Strand, after Mr. Ramfden and
Mr. Edward Troughton had declined undertaking the
conftru@tion under the doétor’s fuperintendance. The un-
dertaking originated from an impreffion, that an inftrument,
which would at the fame time determine with precifion both
the right afcenfion and declination of a heavenly object was,
notwith{tanding Ramfden’s aftronomical circle, a defideratum
in aftronomy, and though the doétor at firft intended only to
fuggelt to fome one of the beit inftrument-makers the notion
he had entertained of an inflrument of extenfive applicatioa
in alcertaining the relative fituations of the heavenly bodies,
yet, on finding that his plan was not likely to be readily
adopted, he fet about the bufinefs at his own expence, and,
fortunately, met with a maker whofe merit did ample juftice
to the defign, notwithftanding the obftacles that occurred
to impede his progrefs in the different flages of an original
conftruGion. It will not be neceflary for us to accompany
the doétor through all his narrative of difappointmenis and
reafonings contained in his paper, but to felect thofe por-
tions principally that relate to the defeription of his inftru-
ment ; which office we propofe to do in his own words, as
nearly as our mode of arrangement will admit.
« The drawing accompanying this account (in Plate VILI.
of Aftronomical Inflruments), will fhew the general form of the
inftrument ; and needs very little explanation. The whole
ftands on three feet, adjuftable by {crews, on a cylinder of
one folid ftone of 25% inches diameter and three feet fix
inches long, bedded on a pier of brick, well bonded toge-
ther, and rifing from a good foundation, deep in the earth.
The bottom plate, of 213 inches diameter, turns in azi-
muth, not on along axis, but on a centre; and rides on a
bell-metal circle, truly turned, and to which the bottom
plate itfelf is ground. In this way it moves very {mooth
by hand; but it. is capable of being turned by a winch,
with tooth and pinion. The intent of its turning thus
is merely for the convenience of reverfing the inftrument : for,
though it might be,ufed out of the meridian, and for azi-
muths, yet, fince it is defigned principally for meridian
paflages, when it is in its place the whole is clamped firmly
to the bottom frame by fpur clamps, which confine it to the
circle on which it rides: and this method of turning proves
itfelf to be fteady, by the levels on the bottom plate never
altering in the leaft upon ferewing the clamps.
‘The four pillars, and their braces, explain themfelves.
They ftand over the bell-metal circle ; and the clamps are
placed near the foot of each for greater fteadinefs; fince
they carry the Ys for the pivot of the tranfit.
“ The conftruétion of thefe Ys is peculiar: they hang, as
it were, in gimmals, or gimbols, though of a very firm kind,
and have a horizontal motion, fmooth and fteady: the T,
or frame which carries them, turning on a perpendicular
axis of 2} inches ground to its focket, on the outlide of the
plate which conneéts them with the pillars, and refling on that
plate to which the bottom of the frame itfelf is ground like-
wife. In this frame they have a vertical motion: the Ys
themfelves carrying a horizontal axis, which, confifting of
two frufta of cones on each fide, in contrary direétions, with
a collar over them, guards againdt any fhake whatfoever,
while it admits of the Y adapting itfelf to the direGion of
the pivot. The idea of hanging them in this way, as well as
vhat of turnieg the whole inftrument in azimuth on a ground
plate, was fuggelted by Mr. John Smeaton; to whom
the world has been indebted for repeated capital improves
ments in mechanics.
‘‘ By thus hanging the Ys, the pivots have a bearing on
them from end to end; initead of riding on a bell-metal
ridge, as is the ufual method where the Ys are fixed, and
cannot fer themfelves in the direétion of the axis. This
feems to be a better bearing, and much lefs likely to wear
the pivots.
« Yet, to guard againft any wear, a pair of cylindrical
{prings, included in a tube, are applied through rings with-
in the connecting plate above mentioned, Thefe carry,
each of them, a pair of rollers, on which a brafs collar on
each end of the axis of the telefcope rides. ‘The {prings
may be ufed or removed at pleafure; and they car be
flrengthened or weakened, by means of a {crew at the bot-
tom of the tube, fo as to take off from the pivots any part
of the weight that may be judged beit: and, fince they are
in a line with the axis, and are made capable of obeying it
in every direction, there is no danger of their deranging its
adjuftments, while they render its motion exceedingly Eght
and {mooth indeed. :
«The adjuftments of the Ys are both ef them at the fame
end of the axis, oppofite to the divided circle and the mi-
crofeopes ; becaufe the fmalleft adjuftment of that end of
the axis between the microfcopes would have afleéted them
fo as to require an entire re-adjuftment of them too. At
the farther end the axis is perforated, to admit light for
illuminating the wires. The axis itfelf is 18 inches long,
exclufive of the pivots, which are about 12 each.
« The microfcopes need no defeription. ‘They are on the
fame principle as thofe in Ramfden’s inftrument, which are
more fully deferibed by major-general Roy, (Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxx. p. 145.) and in captain Mudge’s account of the
& Trigonometrical Survey,” vol. i. Lond. 1799. Mine are
9 inches long ; the objeét-end at 2 inches from the limb of
the circle. ‘They magnify 24 times. One revolution of
the micrometer-{crew is equal to one minute; and the head
is divided to feconds.
“ The fixed, or {tationary wire in them, is at the firft notch,
or minute itfelf; and it is adjufted by means of a plumb-
line, which hangs from the top plate, and pafles by the
fide of the axis; at about 8 degrees, from the centre.
For this purpofe, there are dots made on the limb, ata
fuitable diltance on each fide of the zero, both above and
below, whether the telefcope be horizontal or perpendicular ~
either way. Thefe are viewed through two compound
microfeopes, (cf 5% inches long, and their objeét-giafs at
3 inches diftance from the limb) carried by the fame frames
as the other microfcopes.
«The curfor, or moveable wire, in the micrometer-micro-
fcopes,\is adjufted much in the fame way as general Roy’s;
excepting that the micrometer head is made to turn ftifly
on the neck of the fcrew, fo as to allow of bringing the
point of zero to front the eye, without the trouble of re-
adjultment, if it happened to fall behind. 7
« There is, of courfe, a very fenfible level for adjufting the
axis. The circle was ordered to have ten radii; that when
the telefcopeis horizontal, and pointing to a meridian mark,
there might be a vacancy between the cones, above or be-
low, for introducing a level. In the brace between the pil-
lars, over the moveable Y, (at A), it may be obferved, the
bottom bar is omitted, in order to give the better room for
paffing the level, without inclining it, or running any ha-
zard of {triking it. From the lower bar of the oppolite
brace B, over the fixed Y, there ftands out a forked piece
of brafs, to receive the leg of the level, and dire& it to its
place;
GR
place; as alfo for keeping it upright when the foot flands
on the pivot, and juft allowing a very little fhake, fo as not
tocramp it, By this contrivance the level is cafily han-
dled, and reverfed without danger of difturbing it or the in-
ftrument.
** The top plate, as may be feen in the drawing, has a
large opening cut more than half way acrofs it. ‘The de-
fign of this is, to allow you to obferve quite up to the
zenith, and a littie beyond it, clear of all obftruGion what-
foever. And fince the whole inftrument is capable of being
reverféd, or turned half way round in azimuth ; when you
have occafion to cbferve the tranfit of the ftars, in that part
of the heavens where they would be intercepted by the
plate in one pofition, it is entirely out of the way in the
other.
“ The circle itfelf is of full two feet diameter at the divi-
fions; being 254 inches atthe edge. The undivided circle,
on the fide of the telefcope next to the opea end of the axis,
ferves for ftrength and uniformity ; and to it is applied the
clamp of elevation. That clamp is fo made, as to allow the
civele to run freely all round, not bearing at all ageintt it,
but fupporting itfelf, and_yet being eafily removeable. It
has no command over the circle whatever, when handled
with care, excepting in the altitude of the telefcope, by an
adjufting {crew when the clamp is fet: and, as that {crew
has a milled head at each end, it is as conveniently turned
from the one as from the other fide of the inftrument, to
bring the horizontal wire to bifeét the object.
«The telefcope is of 2 inches aperture, and 33 focal
length. The object glafs does not flide within the tube,
but ferews into the end of a piece of falfe tube, of 4 inches
length, which flides on the outlide of the principal tube, and
is fixed in its place by 3 fcrews and collars running in
grooves, when its diftance from the wires is adjufted.
“In this way one has the whole apevture of the tube, and
no greater length than is abfolutely neceffzry for ufe, which,
in fuch an inftrument, appeared to be an advantage. In
fome refpedts it is fo; yet the hazard of difurbing the col-
limation by touching the outiide of the tube is an objeCtion.
«© The wires arenotin one ceil, but in two diftinét cells,
with their faces towards each other. The perpendicular wires
are 5, at 35 feconds of time diftance in the equator, and-are
adjuftable horizontally for collimation by a fcrew. The ho-
rizontal wires are 3, at about 15 minutes of a degree afun-
der, placed fo as jult not to touch, but to pafs clear of the
other wires; and they are adjuftable in collimation by ano-
ther {crew peculiar tothem. ‘The two cells have each a
power of turning feparately on the axis of vifion ; but when
once the two fets of wires are brought to be truly at right
angles to each other, the cells can then be fixed together,
and turned: together, and finally fettled in their place by
{crews and collars at. the outfide of the tube. ‘Thefe
things, I believe (fays the Doctor) are new; I thought
they might be improvements on the ufual method; yet* I
find the adjuftment of the horizontal wires in collimation
might be difpenfed with.
«* My reafon for having three horizontal wires, andat about
that diftance, was, that after having afcertained what the
difference is, I might obferve the lower limb of the fun or
moon at the one, and the upper limb at the other of the ex-
treme wires, without much altering the elevation of the tele-
fcope, and removing the centre of the object, or preceding
and fubfeqnent limbs of the fun and moon, far out of the
centre of the field.
“¢ The divifions on the circle itfelf come now to be fpoken
of. ‘They were done by hand, and have been executed with
great care. ‘The oriyinal divifions are by dots, or points, at
C LE,
every ten minutes, Within is another row, by ftrokes or
cuts, laid off from the points to every ten minutes likewife.
The dots are what we will regard firlt, the cuts afterwards.
“ As it always appears to me convenient, in actual obfer-
vation, to contrive that every thing fhall do itfelf, as far as I
can, and to leave the mind as well as the body at perfect
eafe, and totally difengaged from calculation, I confidered
that making both the microfcopes’ talk the fame language,
read off the fame way, with the guiding figure always to
the fame hand, and the dot to be obferved to the fame hand
too, and the readings always-pofitive, would conduce much
to one’s eafe, and thereby very greatly indeed to the accu-
racy and certainty of the obfervation.
‘ With this intent, fince the microfcopes are, theone above,
TI ordered that to be marked A ; the other below, B; confi-
dering that the numbers deduced from them could never be
miftaken, if one got into the habit of examining A firit,
and noting that down, and then examining and f{ctting B
under it ;. which, if all thingsare true, aught to be the com-
plement to go degrees.
-*©'Tomake the reading pleafant, I ordered the micrometer-
fcrew in each to be placed on the right hand, and confidered
the moveable wire as always to be kept to the right hand of
the other. This will, of courfe, in all cafes meafure the dif-
tance of the fixed wire from the neareft dot apparently onthe
right, or, fince the microfcopes invert, the nearelt dot really
to the left, which will be either the degree itfelf on that hand,
or fome multiple of ten minutes from it.
«© That the numbering of the degrees might coincide with
this idea, I confidered that the figures fhould be made to ap-
pear ere in the microfcopes in every pofition of the tele-
{cope, which they might be whenever it dees not point be-
low the horizon, and that they fhould be reckoned back-
wards. To effect this, they ought to be reckoned backwards
in themfelves, but to ftand the contrary way, or inverted in
reality. This would’be different in the two microfcopes in
refpeét of the centre of the circle, but that could create no
difficulty. For, fince the two quadrants nearefl to the ob-
jeG-end of the telefcope would always be thofe coming un-
der the examination of microfcope A, and the two reareft to
the eye-cnd, thofe to be obferved at microfcope B, they
might be figured accordingly. Hence, fuppofing the inftru-
ment placed in the meridian, with the graduated face turned
towards the eaft; if, when the -telefcope is horizontal, and
points to the fouth, the upper quadrant neareft to the object-
end be numbered from that end from 1 to go°, with the
head of the figures towards the centre of the inttrument, and
the other upper quadrant be numbered from the cye-end,
with the feet of the figures towards the centre, they both
would give the zenith-diftances of the objeéts obferved. The
formerat microfcope A, while the telefcope points to the
fouth of the zenith; the latter at microfeope B, when you
are obferving towards the north.
“ The two other, cr lower quadrants, follow a fimilar rule,
and ferve to fhew the altitudes, if both be numbered from
the quadrature, inftead of either end of the telefcope ; thofe-
leading towards the objeét-end being placed with their
heads, while thofe towards the eye-end {tand with their feet
towards the centre of the circle.
« The inftrument has a figure at every degree, that one may
always bein the field of view of the microfcope. Hereby it
may be feen, that all on one fide of the telefcope give zenith
diftances, while all on the other fide give altitudes; and yet,
that the figures in both the quadrants nearelt to the objeét-
end are placed with their heads towards the centre, and all
towards the eye-end with their feet. This became necef-
fary ; and though it was.a little perplexing at firlt to ee
ive
Cine Lk.
trive and fee executed properly, it is found very convenient
indeed in ufe.
«¢ The interior divifions, or cuts, are alfo numbered at every
degree each way, from the eye-end to the object end of the
telefcope, with the feet of the figures always towards the
eeutre, The ufe of them is ikewife very great, not for read-
ing off the obfervations, but for fetting the inflrument. For,
at a proper diftance from the main piilars, there is a fmall
pillar, carrying a compound microfcope with a wire in its fo-
cus, which being adjuftable, and once fet to the latitude of
the place, gives immediately the north polar diftance of any
obje@ feen ; or, by fixing the inftrument according to the
volar diftance of an object fought, one is certain of its enter-
tng at the proper time the field of the telefcope, near the
centre wire. This pillar for the polar microfcope is remov-
able to the other fide of the main pillars, which becomes ne-
-ceflary when the inftrument is reverfed.
«This in general is the form, and thefe are the peculiarities
in the conftruGtion of this inftrument, which being defigned
for meridian obfervations, or tranfits, 1 apprehend may belt
be named a ¢ran/it circle.
«Tn obferving, I always ftudy to be as much at my eafeas
poffible, and therefore I always fit, and ufe a prifmatic eye-
giafs. To avoid touching the inftrument itfelf, or even the
ftone on which it ftands, I have four upright poles from the
floor to the roof, with crofs-braces on a level with the bot-
tom plate of the inftrument, againft which I may lean while
I obferve, or when I handle any part of the inftrument.
'Thefe I find to be of great comfort and ufe. Againft two
of the poles I hang a curtain occafionally to keep off the
fun, or to leffen a falfe hght when I obferve a flar in the
day. ;
«© The two exterior horizontal wires, mentioned above, I
find very convenient. ‘They are really 14’, 43”, 5 of a great
circle diftant from the centre. By means of them I can
without any hurry obferve the preceding limb of the fun at
3 wires; I fet the lower limb to the upper wire, and read that
off; then the upper limb to the lower wire ; and arh ready
to obferve the fecond limb of the fun at the 3d, 4th, and 5th
wires; and laftly I read off the upper limb after the obferva-
tion is ended. In this way one has the meridian paffage
through the middle of the field, or within 2/ of it ; and the
meridian altitude of both the limbs, while the fun’s centre is
onthe meridian; for the little alteration in altitude is foon
done, and can dilturb nothing.
« Indeed, upon the whole, this inftrument itfelf is
capable of doing a great deal of good work, and con-
vinces me fully that one between piers would be highly
advantageous to altronomy. As a tranfit, mine is per-
fet, fo far as that fize permits; indeed it is in fa& to all
intents a tranfit-inftrument. And for altitudes, fince the
readings are totally independent of the circle, though you
have it in your power to re-examine your microfcopes by the
plumb-line betweeneach obfervation, if you pleafe, you find
there is no oceafion for it. In that refpeé it has the advan-
tage overa quadrant. No force is ufed in fetting this in-
ftrument ; the whole, from its form, is counterpoifed in it-
felf ; there is no more probability of deranging it in altitude,
than in azimuth, and therefore all you have to do in aétual
obfervation beyond a common tranfit-inftrument, is to bifect
the ftar as it pafles, or as foon as ever it has pafled the meri-
dian wire, and read off the microfcopes afterwards. Thus
every obfervation is complete, by afcertaining the right af-
cenfion and altitude of every object at once, and with very
little trouble, which muft tend greatly to the improvement
.of our catalogues.
«« There is one additional advantage in an inftrument of this
3
form, that you have it in your power to reverfe the whole ia
a few minutes without any hazard, which I doregularly ; be-
canfe thereby you difcover and deftroy any errors which
there may be in the inftrument itfelf, or which may at any
time arife in obferving.””
Portable Circular Inflrument fot Tranfits, Altitudes, and Axi
muths, by Troughton.
About the year 1790 the portable aftronomical quadrant
began to give place to the circular inftrument ; previoufly to
that year, indeed, a few circles had been made for the fole
purpofe of obferving-altitudes, but their improved fhate can-
not be dated farther back than the time we have mentioned.
The inftrument, reprefented in Plate 1X. of Afronomical
Inflruments, is of the moft improved kind: in the conftruc-
tion of which are combined the means of applying it to the
various purpofes of practical aftronomy ; namely, for obferv-
ing right alcenfions, declinations, azimuths, and equal alti-
tudes; and alfo, to all the purpofes of the moft improved
theodolite, and levelling inftrument. It is contrived fo that
the joint effet injures not any particular part, but improves
the ftrength and fymmetry of the whole. :
It has been made of different magnitudes, from one foot
to three feet diameter; which dimenfions are fuppofed to be
the boundaries of this conftruétion. ‘Thofe of three feet,
however, can hardly be called portable: fifteen and eighteen
inch ones are the fizes ufually made: the one under confider-
ation partakes of both, the lower circle being fifteen, the
upper one eighteen inches diameter.
This being defigned for a traveling inftrument, its own
packing-box is intended for a pedeftal, where a better can=
not be procured, and may do well enough when the purpofes
of furveying, &c. require its prefence in the field; but ia
the obfervatory it ought to be mounted upon a firm ftone.
The bafe of this inftrument is a ftrong tripod fupport-
ed on feet ferews, two only of which are feen in the figure
A and B. To the centre of the tripod is fixed the axis of the
azimuth motion, about fixteen inches long: in clofe contaé
with the tripod is the azimuth circle C, which is one entire
plate; it is nicely centered upon the vertical axis, but only
capable of being turned rourd through an angle of about
three degrees; and for that purpofe is a€ted on by a flow
moving {erew, the head-of which is feen below, a little to
the left of the centre. The ufe of this motion is for fetting
the telefcope to the meridian, when the index of the proper
azimuth motion has been previoufly fet to zero; or it is for
adjufting the inftrument to the point of commencement,
when horizontal angles are meafured. A telefcope is affixed
to the lower fide of the tripod having univerfal motion,
which being fet to any obje&t, becomes a fentinel for watch-
ing the potition of the inftrument, and pointing out any de-
viation that may happen to take place during the time re-
quired in any operation, The index of the azimuth circle is
alfo one entire plate D, having, for the fake of ftrength and
lightnefs, an half contrate edge one inch deep: the middle
cone E. is attached to this, and centered upon the vertical
axis by two infide collars nicely fitted thereto: this forms
the azimuth motion, the weight refling on the centre at the
lowerend. The tangent fcrew is faftened to the index plate,
and goes round with it when quick motion is required. Two
microfcopes oppofite to each other, one of which F
appears in the figure, read off the azimuth, and fubdivide the
graduations of the limb. On the azimuth plate are alfo fixed
the two ftrong pillars G G, which fupport the upper circle
and remaining parts. A little below the top of the vertical
axis is a ftrong bracing bar H, which, from its conneétion
with the centre cone and two pillars, bind them firmly to-~
gether,
Guphy Cel Ex
gether, and prevent the incumbent weight from altering the
figure of the attached plate. Higher up is feen the {crew
apparatus I, for procuring faft and flow motion for the ver-
tical circle ; this is fixed to the right hand pillar.
The vertical circle, K, is next to be noticed: it is com-
pofed of two entire circles, being flat plates crofled out into
fix radii, having each a circular border, and circular centre.
The centres are pe:forated to receive the larger ends of the
cones of the tranfit axis. The axis haga cylindrical part
in the middle, equal to the diftance of two circles; and this
cylinder being terminated at each end by a flaunch LL, the
two circles are ferewed falt to it, and here form the cen-
tral pillar. The two circles are otherwife bound toxether
along the radii, and ronnd the limb, by a number of pillars
placed perpendicularly between them. The fide of the divi-
fions is overlaid with another circular border, which covers
the holes which the fixing pillars occafion; this ring ufed to
be of fine brafs for dividing upon, but recently one of the
more perfe@ metals, gold, platina, or filver, has been ufed
for that purpole. The telefcope M is thirty inches long,
and of two inches aperture; it paffles through the cylindri-
cal part of the axis, to which it is attached, and nearly fills
the diftance between the two circles, to which it is alfo faft-
ened at their extreme borders. On the middle of the cones
of the axis are foldered two rings S S, at a diftance from
each other, exadtly equal to the diflance between the two
pillars. Two rollers at the top of the pillars are, by the
force of fprings, urged upwards againft the rings fo as to
fuftain the whole weight of the axis and circle, and thereby
to relieve the paxts of ation from being injured by unne-
ceflary preflure. The diftance of the pillars being too fhort
for the tranfit axis, its length of 16 inches is firmly fupport-
ed by a bar N, {crewed fait to each of the pillars, extending
in a line with the axis, and is terminated by a Y, or angle,
in which is fecured the pivot or end of the axis: the bar ts
braced by a prop near the Y, which joins-the pillars at a
diftance below. Two ftrong tubes O are firmly connected
with the left hand pillar, with their ends bent upwards; thefe
carry two oppolite reading microfcopes, R, R; they are
finifhed with adjuflments, P, P, for bringing them both upon
a level; but the angles whereon the axis refts may be raifed
or depreffed, fo as to bring the horizontal diameter of the
circle to fuit their height ; an adjuftment by which alfo the
level of the axis is <ffected. A fpiritlevel Q Q is feen in
the figure hanging upon the bent tubes, which, aiter having
affifted in placing the vertical axis perpendicular, remains in
its place, for marking any alteration of polition that may
happen in either the inftrument or pedettal. This level may
occafionally be removed to the telefcope, and there helps to
verify the pofition of the reading microfcopes. Another
level applies to the horizontal axis, juft within the angles,
refting thereon with two forks, and paifing through between
the bars of the circle: with this alfo the vertical axis may be
adjufted, but its dire€l ufe is for levelling the one to which
it applies. The inftrument from which our fketch was taken
has no plumb-line, although this fize is fgmetimes furnifhed
with that apparatus. However, it is rather doubtful whe-
ther the levels are not here quite as good; for the accuracy
of the plumb-line increafing in proportion to its length, feems
better adapted for large inftruments than for the fize before
us; particularly, as levels inay be ufed as good as in thofe of
larger dimenfions. ‘The telefcope has four eye-pieces, which
give it different powers ; one of which having a diagonal mir-
ror affords a convenient view of the heavens about the zenith.
T is a {mall fupport for the lantern which throws light into
the end of the conical axis, and illuminates the wires of the
eye-piece in the ufual manner, —
Vor. VIII.
Refpeing the powers of this inftrument, it may be re-
marked, that the limbs of both circles are divided into de-
grees, and every five minutes; and that the microfcopes of
both fub-divide to fingle feconds ; by which means an angle
may certainly be read off to two feconds. The powers of
. the telefcope are fully equal to this quantity, and fhew the
pole ftar in bright day ligkt : the levels, which are furnifhed
with graduated feales, are fenfible to an inclination of one
fecond, and the adjuflments being few and fimple are eafily
rectified, and not fubject to derangement.
This circle feems better adapted for the ufe of the private
obfervatory, or for a gentleman travelling, than the repeating
circle of Borda withont refle€tion; the latter being defti-
tute of the properties of the tranlit inftrument; whereas, this
is acomplete one. Belides, it 1s of a ftronger frame, eafier to
manage, and equally portable. 4
We confefs we cannot but admire the portable inftrument
we havehere deferibed, whether we confider its various proper-
ties, its ftability, its accuracy, or its beauty of figure.
The mural Tranfit Circus by Troughton.
In our account of the rife and progrefs of aftronomical in-
{truments in the firlt part of our prefeat article Cracie, we
had occafion to remark, that Rem-r was the firtt perfon
who applied what he called a reticu/um, which we have tranf-
lated reticule, in the focus ef a microfcope as a meafure of
the divifions on the limb of an inftrument ; we alfo mention-
ed that Horrebow fixed a circie in the meridian, read off
the divions by microfcopes before the year 1735; fince
which time there has been much converfatien in England
about-fubftitutiag a mural circle for a mural quadrant in an
obfervatory ; and indeed various inflruments, as we have
{een, have been produced, to which a defire of rendering
them as extenfive as poffible in their ufes, has generally
added an azimuth circle, which has proved detrimental to
the requifite fteadinefs of a meridian inflrument ; but no in-
ftrument entirely an{wering the defcription of the title we
have here given has been completed, at leaft in England, till
fo lately as March of the year 1806, when Troughton,
whofe mind feems to have been formed by nature for the
very bufinefs that he is occupied in, delivered out of his
hands a mural tranfit circle, which is contrived to give at
the fame inftant both the right afcenfion and declination of
any heavenly body, by the aid of a good a{trenomical clock,
with a degree of accuracy that probably has never before
been equalled. This inftrument is in the poffeffion of Ste-
phen Groombridge, Efq. of Blackheath, to whom we beg
leave to exprefs our obligation for his obliging permiffion,
granted to our draftfman, of taking the perfpective drawing
of his circle, which is contained in Plate X. of Affrcnomical
Inflruments.
This circle, which is four feet diameter, and formed prin=
cipally of hollow cones, 1s framed upon a {trong axis three
feet in length ; and confilts of two complete circles, faftened
together in a manner fufficiently explained by the figure,
The telefcope A, five feet long, and three inches and a half
aperture, croffes the middle of the axis, and pafles between
the two circles, to the bodies of whichit is attached. Each
of the circles has a hoop, or edge-bar, at its back, to give it
{trength; and is further braced by many parts, which tend
to unite the two together. There alfo pafies through the
axis another tube b at right angles to the telefcope; this
forms part of the plumb-line apparatus to be defcribed here-
after. The axis is fupported at its extreme ends on the top
of two ftone piers, about five feet four inches high ; the pi-
vots of the axis reft in angles, formed in brafs-work, which
is cemented to the tops of the ftones. The angle at the
li end
cg i lle i
end to the right is acted on by afcrew which gives it a very
flow motion vertically,{ for the purpofe of adjuiting the axis
to be horizontal; and a fimilar {crew at the left angle gives
a fimilar motion for bringing the plane of the circle into
the meridian. The figure of the ftone-piers is prifmatical,
and their inner furfaces, 27 inches apart, are parallel and
perpendicular. The circle is divided on both fides into de-
grees and every 5’.. Upon the ends of two ftrong horizon-
tal bars, D, D, are fixed four micrometer microfcopes, two
on each fide, exa&ily in the horizontal diameters of the cir-
cles: thefe, three of which appear in the figure, fubdivide
the divifions of the limbs to fingle feconds; and are the in-
dices by which the value of the obfervations are read off.
Another microfcope, at right angles to the former, is feer,
which paffes through the left pier, and, from its fituation,
is fuppofed to be fteadier than the other parts. It is ufeful
in examining the accuracy of the divifions, and for deteét-
ing {mall motions in the more expofed parts of the inftru-
ment. Upon the axis, half-way between the centre and pi-
vots, are foldered and turned two rings; immediately be-
low there is cemented into the inner furfaces of the ftones,
an apparatus which, by means of a fpiral fpring, inclofed
jn a tube or barrel E, is made to pufh up a roller againft
thofe rings, fo as to fuitain almoft the whole weight of the
circle, and thereby to relieve the pivots of the axis and the
angle from unneceflary preffure. This work is well expofed
to view on the left fide, but partly concealed on the right-
fide by the intervening circle.
On the inner furface of the pier, to the right, is fixed a
frame which fupports the ufual apparatus for quick and flow
motion, which the figure fufficiently explains ; this in the
eaft or welt direGtion is extremely pliable ; but in the direc-
tion of the meridian furnifhes a ftout refiftance; it is eafily
got at, when the obferver is looking to north or fouth, and
in thofe cafes where the milled heads are out of his reach,
a jointed handle affifts him very conveniently. When the
inftrument is reverfed, this apparatus engages with the op-
pofite limb. A fmall ftool is fhewn in the figure between
the two piers, below the centre of the inftrument; on its
top is reprefented the water veffel for the plummet to {wing
in; this veflel may be raifed or depreffed an inch or more by
arack and pinion, to fuit the length of the plumb-line.
The telefcope, being turned round to the horizontal pofition,
brings the plumb-line tube B, mentioned before, into a
vertical one. The plumb-wire hangs from an angle at the
upper end, againft which it is drawn into clofe contact by
the weight below, and is here confidered as depending from
a fixed point. At the lower end the main tube is croffed at
right angles by two {maller tubes ; one of them parallel to
the telefcope, the other parallel to the axis. At one end of
each is placed a luminous point, formed by a fine round
hole, in a brafs pin, whichis fet in a diaphragm of mother-
of-pearl; a lens in the fame tube forms an image of the lu-
minous point, upon the plumb-line, in the axis of the main
tube. Thefe are viewed by eye-glafles in the oppofite ends
of the croffing tubes, by which the plumb-line is feen di-
reGtly pafling through the image of the luminous point,
which appears like the dife of a {mall planet. The tube
which is parallel to the telefcope regards the axis, and that
waich is parallel to the axis regards the reading microfcopes ;
by adjultmentsin.the former, and reverfing the pofition of
the initrument, the axis may be fet truly level, and by fimi-
lar adjuftments in the latter, and the fame means, the reading
microf{copes are brought to fhew the true zenith diftance,
It fhould have been mentioned, perhaps fooner, that a {mall
pincher takes hold of the lower end of the plumb-line, the
weight of which is fufficient to pafs the wire through the
main tube, having a hook at the lower end by which it is
connected with the plummet. A cap {crews into the lower ~
end of the main tube, furnifhed with a bolt for fecuring the
pincher, thereby preventing the plumb-line, when out of
ufe, from being entangled or broken. By thefe means, the.
plumb-line is always in its place, ready for ufe, and the parts
of the inftrument are verified thereby in a few minutes.
The mechanifm of the eye-piece of the telefcope is ine
terelting, and in many refpects new. The eye-glafs, by
touching a lever which is conneéted with a pinion, is carried
along parallel to the axis, and readily fet oppofite any of the
wires in obferving a tranfit. This motion may in a moment
be changed into a vertical one, while the upper and lower
limbs of the fun or moon are broughtin conta& with the
declination wires. At about half the mean diameter of the
fun from the central horizontal wire, is a fixed wire on one
fide, and on the other fide a moveable one all parallel ;
the latter is a&ted on by a micrometer fcrew, which marks.
the quantity of motion by a nice graduation, croffing the
central wire a little way, but in its proper dire€tion meafures
ahout 40°, By thefe contrivances, while the right afcenfion
of the fun or moon is obferved, without the lofs of a fingle
conta, one limb may be brought to the fixed wire, and
the moveable wire fet to the other limb, and the whole may
be read off after the obfervation is finifhed. We have
fpoken of the wires here, and elfewhere in Troughton’s.
inftruments, as though they were always metallic, but in
many of his inftruments he has introduced the fine threads.
{pun by a fpider, which.are not only {mailer than any other,
but, what will appear remarkable, will bear the focal rays
of the fun without injury. A fpirit level half the length
of the axis, hangs upon two pivots, which proje& from
two cocks {crewed fait to the axis, on thefe it turns, and by
its gravity keeps the right fide up, and thus fhews the
level of the axis in every pofition of the telefcope. This
level does not appear in the plate, being completely hid
behind the axis. Another level, feen in the figure, hangs
upon two pivots which are attached to the eye-end of the
telefcope: this, on being brought to an horizontal pofition,
will verify the adjuftments of the microfcopes and other
parts more quickly than the plumb-lines; it is not how-
ever fo accurate.- The axis is perforated, and by an illu-
minator placed at a proper angle in the centre, the light
of a lamp placed oppofite one end of the axis is reflected
to the eye, and fhews the wires by night. The quantity
of light is regulated by letting it pafs through glaffes
differently coloured. Other parts, (fuch as the circular
plates at the objeGt-ends of the microfcopes, furnifhed
with univerfal motion, for illuminating the divifions of the
limbs), moftly common to all inftruments, are feen in the
figure, but do not require particular notice.
In an obfervatory where there is but one inftrument, the
one under confideration feems to be the beft, though aftrono-
mers are not quite agreed upon. this fubje&, fome think-
ing, that the right afcenfion, and declination inftruments.
fhould ever be feparate ; they all, however, confefs now,
that, in an obfervatory, the azimuth circle is of little
value.
It is reported that a large mural tranfit circle is in cons
templation for Greenwich, (where, when there are two ob-.
fervers, it cannot be wanted) which promifes to be greatly
fuperior, for the purpofe of obferving the dechnations of
the heavenly bodies, to any that has yet been feen; but
this has not yet been even ordered, and therefore cannot
now be given; fhould it however be executed, we may
hereafter
CIR
hereafter prefent our readers with its figure and defcription
under the article Ob/frwvatory, or fome other appropriate title,
Tn our defeription of this our laf inftrument, coming
under the denomination of a Circie, we have judged it
expedient to omit the letters of reference, except in three
inftances, partly becaufe the figure being already fufficient-
ly crowded would thereby be rendered lefs diftinét, and
partly becaufe the reader, who has perufed the accounts of
the other circles, cannot but underftand the parts that have
been verbally deferibed, when he has the firure before him,
and therefore will not be forry to difpenfe with a long al-
phabetical enumeration of the different parts. It may be
proper to fubjoin, before we take our leave of the fubjeG,
that, as there is no azimuth circle in the inftrument at pre-
fent before us, the reverfed- adjuftment and reverfed obfer-
vation are effected, by carefully lifting the whole circle out
of the angles of bearing, and returning it when the ends of
the axis are reverfed ; which is a more certain way . of
making the fecond pofition of the telefcope at 180° from
the former, than can be expeéted by any method that re-
quires meafurement, even when a diflant objeét is viewed as
a mark ; for a deviation of the central wire from the true line
of collimation, may efcape notice, and deceive the obferver.
In the Philofophical VranfaGions of London, forthe year
1806, isa defcription of an aftronomical circle of John Pond
Efq. of Weftbury, as made for him by Troughton ; with
which inftrument, aided by Dr. Hamilton’s obfervations at
Armagh, and Piazzi’s at Palermo, he has correéted the de-
elinations of many ftars as given in Dr. Mafkelyne’s Cata-
logue publifhed in 1802. The account is copied by Mr.
Nicholfon in his Journal for March 1807, but without the
table of obfervations, as annexed in the original.
Another of Troughton’s aftronomical circles may alfo
be feen defcribed in Count Bruhl’s pamphlet, entitled ‘* On
the Inveftigation of aftronomical Circles,”? which is an in-
terefting publication.
If it fhould be remarked by any of our readers, that we
appear to have been partial to Troughton, in our felection of
circular inftruments, our anfwer is, that we have found in
him not only a very intelligent, but a communicative man,
who, moreover, was ever ready te procure accefs to our
draftf{man to the inflruments we wanted, though not in his
own poffeffion : befides, when we confider that his inftru-
ments are not only made in the moft perfe&t manner, but
have never before been defcribed, we prefume the public
will thank us and him, for the opportunity we here give the
world of being acquainted with the characteriflic marks of
their conftruction. With refpect to ourfelves, we cannot in
juftice do lefs than publicly thank Mr, Troughton for the
aid he has afforded us in this article, which, however, we
fhould have withheld from motives of delicacy, did we not
conceive that his well earned fame foars far above the reach
of any fupport of ours.
Circie, Circutus, in Geometry, a plane figure, com-
prehended under one fingle line, which returns into itfelf,
having a point in the middle, from which all the lines, drawn
to its circumference, and called radii, are equal.
Properly fpeaking, it is the {pace included within the cir-
cumference, or periphery, that is the circle: though in the
popular ufe of the word, circle is frequently ufed for the
periphery alone. See Circumrerence and Decrer,
We fhall here introduce fome of the chief properties of
the circle, referring for others to the articles AnGur,
Cyorp, CircumFerREeNCE, DiaAmeTER, PotyGon, Sine,
TancentT, TRAapezium, &c.
1. Any two chords of a circle, equally diftant from its
centre, are equal to each other. Let O (P/ate 111. Geometry,
CLE.
fiz 49.) be the centre, AB and DE two chords; and
having let fall the perpendiculars, O C, OF, draw the radii
OAand OD: The triangle, OF D and OCA, hare
evidently the fides and angles equal; and therefore A C or
+ AB (fee Cuorp) = FD or} DE: confequently AB
ie Di be
2. The angle BDC (fg. 50.) at the centre of a circle is
double of the angle BAC at the circumference, when both
ftand upon the fame arc, BC. Drawing the diameter,
ADE, it.is plain (No. 1.) that, asthe angles at the bafe of
an ifofceles triangle are equal, and the external angle of a
triangle is equal to both the internal and oppofite angles, B
DCis=A+C=2A. In No.2. BD E=2BA E, and
EDC =]2E AC, «by addition BD'C = 2B AC “Ia
Novy (Cn —= 2 CZAUR and) 1B) DPE = 2B AGE, «. iby
fubtra@ion BDC = 2BAC.
Hence, 3. All angles in the fame fegment of a circle, or
ftanding upon the fame arc, whether that fegment be preater
or lefs than a femicircle, are equal to each other.
4. Angles D, G, (fz. 51.)in the circumferences, ftanding
upon equal fubtenfes, AB, EF, of circles, having equal dia-
micters, are equal toeach other; and vice verfd. From the
centres, P and Q, drawthe radii PA, P B, and QE, QF.
Since AB = EF, and the radii are equal, the triangles,
APB, EQF, are mutually equilateral, and confequently
equiangular ; *.. P= Q,and D= 2 P=1Q=G. More-
over, I) being fuppofed = G, P will be equalto Q, and the
two triangles, A PB and EQ F, having two fides and the
included angles refpeétively equal, have AB = EF.
5. The angle, AC B, (fig. 52.) in a femicircle is a
right angle. For, drawing the diameter, ACD=IADE
(by att.2.)and BCD=IBDE;°-ACB=iADE
+ 3 BDE = half two right aneles = one right angle.
6. lf two lines, DEB, CEA, interfe& each other
within or without a circle, the angle, DEC, (fg. 53.) is
equal, in the former cafe, to the fum, and in the latter, to
the difference of two angles in the circumference, ftanding
on the two arcs intercepted by thofe lines. Draw the chord,
CB; and, fir, DEC, the external anglee = DBC +
ACB, the fum of the two internal angles ; and, /econdly,
DEC, one of the internal angles, = DBC — ACB,
the difference of the external angle and the other internal
angle. Hence, an angle formed below or above the circum-
ference of a circle, is greater or lefs than-an angle in the cir-
cumference, ftanding on the fame arc.
7. 1f an oblique-angled triangle, A C B, (fig. 54.) be in-
fcribed in a circle, its vertical angle, A BC, will be greater
or lefs than a right angle, by the angle C A D, compre-
hended under the bafe AC, and the diameter, A D, drawn
from the extremity of the bafe. For, drawing BD, ABD
will be a right angle, and CA D = CBD (oy art. 3.) ;
* ift, ABC = a right angle + CAD, and, adly,
ABC = aright angle — CAD.
8. Infcribe a quadrilateral, A BCD, (fig. 55.) ina cire
cle, and produce the fide, BC, out of it, and the external
angle, ECD, will be equal to the oppofite internal angle,
BAD. Draw the diameter, and join A F and CI; then
the angle, BAF, ina femicircle, being a right angle (=
BCF) = ECF, alfoa right angie, and DAF = DCF
(by art. 3.); we shall have the remainders BAD and
ECD equal. Hence it follows, that the oppofite angles,
BAD, BCD, ofa quadrilateral infcribed ina circle, are,
together, equal to two right angles ; for BA 'D being =
ECD, we fhallhave BA D + BCD = ECD + BCD
== two right angles. Hence alfo, if the oppofite angles of
a quadrilateral be equal to two right angles, a circle may be
deferibed about that quadrilateral. Hence, alfo, it ae
stags Us ta: that
TUR e LE,
that no oblique-angled parallelogram. can have a circle de-
fcribed about it ; becaufe its oppofite angles being equal,
their fums muft together, be either greater or lefs than two
right angles.
g- The right lines, BE,.CE, and BF, CF, (fg. 56.)
drawn by pairs from two points, B and C, at equal diitances
in the fame diameter from, the centre of a circle, to meet in
the circumference ; the fums of the {quares of any two cor-
refponding ones will be refpedtively equal. For, drawing
OE and OF, BE* + CE? = (fee Trianete) 2 BO? +
20 FE? (2,0. %) = BF? + CF*, Hence, BE? + Ck?
= 2A 0?-+- 20C BtAC +CD2=A 0 0 Cr
+ ATOr— OG) AO} 6 OCF aA Ox O CEE
AG? + O1C — 2AO ~ OC=—ZA OF 2G
BE+CE
to. If two lines, A B, C D, (jg. 57.) terminated at each
extremity by the circumference, interfeét each other within
acircle, the reftangle A P x BP, under the parts of the
one, will be equal to the rectangle, CD x D P, under the
parts of the other. If one line paffes through the centre,
(No. 1.) and O Q be drawn perpendicular to the other line,
then, joining O and C, QC = QD (fee Corp), and
DP =CQ — PQ; but the reétangle under the fum and
difference of the two fides, OC, OP, of any triangle, COP
(fee TriaNGLe), is equal to the rectangle under the whole
bafe, CP, and the difference of its-two fegments; confe-
quently, fince OC + OP =>OA+4+OP= AP, and
OC —OP=O0OB-— OP= BP,thereftangle AP x
BP=CPx DP. If neither of the two lines pafs
through the centre (No. 2.), draw the diameter, E P F, and,
by the former'cafe; AP x “BP—= FP xeE P= CP x
DEP:
11. If two lines, A P, C P, (fg. 58.) be drawn from two
points, A, C, in the circumference of a circle, and produced
to meet without the circle, the refangle, A P x B P, con-
tained under the whole and external part of the one will be
equal to the re€tangle, CP x DP, contained under the
whole and external part of the other. Draw PF through
the centre, make OQ perpendicular to AP, and join A
and O: then the reftangle PF (= PO + OA) x PE
( P' Oo — OA Ns) Aer =e OL One iz
(=P:Q — Q A). In the fame manner, P F E
CP x 3))P; iconfequently Asm -x sipbe— Geko)
Hence, if PS bea tangent at S, and the radius, OS,
Grawn ; it follows, fince PF = PO + OS, and PE =
PO — O'S, that eS (—] PE x 2 e)e— Pere.
Hence, a!fo, if another tangent, P I’, be drawn, and the ra-
dius, OT, PT will be = PS, 2. ce two tangents drawn
from the fame point to the fame circle are equal, becaufe the
two triangles, PO T, POS, are right-angled, and have two
fides of the one equal to two fides of the other.
12. Ifa line, C A, (fg. 59.) be drawn from C, the centre
of a circle, to a point, A, in any chord, B D, the {quare of
thac line, together with the rectangle contained under the
two parts of the chord, will be equal to the fquare of the
radius of the circle. Let E A F be another chord perpen-
dicular to C A, and C, E te joined. Since EA = AF
(fee‘Cuord) AE? = AE x AF = AsB XCACD) (art.
10.) ; and, adding to each quantity AC?, we fhall have
CE* (= CA* + AE”) = AB x AD-+AC* Hence
it follows, that the fquare of a line, C A, drawn from any
point in the bafe of an ifofceles triangle, B C D, to the oppo-
fice angle, together with the reétangle of the parts of the
bafe, is equal to the fquare of one of the equal fides of the
triangle. 7
oh es}
x P —
ie
€
13. The retangles contained under the correfpondin£
fides of equiangular triangles, ABC, DEF, (fg. 60.)
taken alternately, are equal; ze AB x DF = AC x
D E. Produce B A, take AG = DF, and let the circum-
ference of a circle pafs through the three points, B, C, G,
and meet CA produced in H, aad G, H be joined. The
triangles, GAH and DEF, having the angle H = B
(ftanding upon the fame are) = E,and HAG =BAC
(as vertical) = D, and the iide AG = DF, we have alfo
AH = DE; and therefore AC-x DE = AC x AH
AY Buin Gr Asc aEE
14. The rectangle under the two fides AC, BC, of any
triangle A BC (fig. 61.) is equal to the reGtangle under
CD, perpendicular to its bafe, and the diameter, C E, of
the circumfcribing circle. For, B and E being joined, the
angles, Aand E, will be equal, and ADC, EBC, are
both right angles; confequently the triangles, ACD,
ECB, are equiangular; and, as AC and EC, CDand
CB are correfponding fides, the retangle AC x CB =
EC x CD, by the latt article.
15. The rectangle of the two diagonals, AC, BD, of
any quadrilateral, ABC D (fg. 62.), infcribed in a circle,
is equal to the fum of the two re&angles, AB x DC,
AD x BC, contained under the oppofite fides. Draw
BY, and make the angle CBF = ABD. Thetriangles,
CBF, DBA, are evidently equiangular, and the re€tangles,
BC x AD, BD x CF, under the correfponding fides,
taken alternately, are equal. The triangles ABF and
BDC are alfo equiangular, and the re€tangles AB x
DC, and BD x AF are equal, as before: to thefe latter
reGtangles Jet the former be refpe@tively added, and we
fhall have AB x DC + BCx AD=BDxAF
+BDxCF=BDx AC. Weare indebted to Pto-
lemy for the knowledge of this property, applied to the
con{truction of his table of arcs and chords.
16. A perpendicular, C D (fg. 63.) let fall from the
right angle upon the hypothenufe, AB, of a right-angled tri-
angle A BC, will be a mean proportional between the two feg-
ments, AD, BD, of the hypothenufe ; and each of the
fides, containing the right angle, will be a mean proportion-
al between its adjacent fegment, and the whole hypothe-
nufe. For the triangles B DC, BC A are equiangular, as
are alfo ADC, ABC, and ADC, BDC; confe-
quently, as the correfponding fides of equiangular triangles
are proportional, BD :CD::CD:AD; AB: BC::
BC: BD; and AB: AC:: AC: AD. Hence it
foliows, and alfo by art. 5, that, if from any point C, in
the circumference of a femicircle, a perpendicular, C D, be
let fall npon the diameter A B, and two chords, CA, CB,
be drawn from the fame point, C, to the extremities of that
diameter, the fquare of the faid perpendicular will be equal
to are“tangle, under the two fegments of the diameter; and
the {quare of each chord will be equal to a reQangle
under the whole diameter, and its adjacent fegment; 7% e.
CD’=BD x AD, BC =A Bx BD, and ae
ABx AD. The frit of thefe properties ‘gives us
what is ufually ‘called “ the equation of the circle:” for,
if ddenote the diameter AB, x the abfcifs AD, and y
the ordinate C D, we fhall have y?> = x x d — x =dx —
x*. Hence it alfo follows, that if another chord, AE, be
drawn, and a perpendicular, E F, be let fall upon the diame-
ter, the fquares of the chords will be as the fegments of
the diameter; te. AD: AF:: AC?: AE?, for AC?
= AB x AD, and AE? = AB x AF, +. AC?
2 AE? :: AB ociAsp: AB x FARA Aer:
17. If a line PFC, (fg. 64) be drawn perpendicular
( to
CTRGL E.
to the diameter AD of acircle, and any line be drawn
from A_ to interfe& the circle and perpendicular; the reét-
angle of the diftances of the points of interfection from A
will be equal to'the reSangle of the diameter, and the
diftance of the perpendieular from A; i.e. AB x AC=
AP xAD. For, if BD be drawn, the triangles ABD,
APC, having the angle at A common, and the angles at
Pand Bright, are equiangular and fimilar; confequently
AD:AB::AC:AP, and ADx AP=ABx
AC. Hence, if PF interfeSs the circle in K, AB x
AC = AK’; and if more lines be drawn, all the reétan-
gles EA x AF, BA x AC are equal, becanfe they
are all refpedtively equal to the re@tangle AD x AP.
18. If, inacircle EDF (fir. 65), whofe centre is C,
and radius C E, the points B, A, be fo placed in the dia-
meter produced, that C B, CE, CA, be in continual
proportion, twolines, BD, AD, drawn from thefe points
to any point in the circumference of the circle, will always
be in the given ratioof BE to AE. For, drawing DP
perpendicular to the diameter EF, DP? = EP x PF
(antenna) p— 2) Case 2h) — eiP2ee \whence Ay 12) =
AE +EPP + PD= AE? + EP? +2AE x EP
Seon ocala) vif = PAR 2} CIB i5c0 Be) Pack
2AEx EP. Alfo BD? = BE— EP? + PD=
pe ise bye = hb ICE sa Pe Ppa
Bubs 2 5c RIP 2 Bik x EP.) But CA, .CE,
and CB, are in continued proportion, therefore AE : CE ::
EB:SCB, of AE: EBs: CE:CB.° Alfo, A E?:
Pubs Cie 7 C1B2s © ANAC Be Cas, VAS Cie =
pines 2 (Cannan Wp) i tea Ae Sul, eaea Cals pce ty Pe —
ZEB x EP. And AE? : EB: AE + 2CE x
Pie AUR PE B42 CB Pi) 2B
Moiese Oa bot, Confequently, ears By: AUD
: BD.
19. If any chord, PQ, (jig. 66), be drawn parallel to
the diameter A B of a circle, and from a given point C, in
that diameter, the lines C P,; CQ, be drawn to the extre-
mities of the chord ; the fum of the fquares of thefe lines
is equal to the fum of the fquares of the ferments of the
diameter 302. e. CP CQ) ATC?) -F'CB™ | For,
drawing PS, R perpendicular to the diameter AB, we
fhall have PS?, or QR? = PC — SC? = QC? — RC’,
fije. PC —SO+ OCP =Q C—sU— OCP; or
PCy — sO? — 250 x OC — OC = QC — 5 0
+250 x OC — OC’, becaulekOR = OS. Confe.
quently PC? = QC? + 480 x OC; but AC +
CB=A0+0C?4+A0—OCE=2A 0? +
2O'Gs But PCr — AO? 4, OC? = 9215) O10 C=
QC +450 x OC. Confequently, QC? = AO? +
OC 2S OFSOIG and P'C? =P AO? Fe O'C® +
AO OIs es EGE C2 Ose 21O)C. —
ASC? +. C Be.
N.B. It will be the fame, if the point C be taken
without the circle.
20, The circle is the moft capacions of all plain figures,
or it contains the greateft area within the fame perimeter,
or it has the leaft perimeter about the fame area; being the
limit and lalt of all regular polygons, having the number of
‘jts fides infinite. See PorycGon.
21. The area of a circle is always lefs than the area of
any regular polygon circumfcribed about it, and its circum-
ference always lefs than the perimeter of the polygon. But
on the other hand, its area is always greater than that of
its infcribed polygon, and its circumference greater than
the perimeter of the faid infcribed polygon. Neverthelefs,
the area and perimeter of the circle approach nearer and
nearer to thofe of the two polygons, as the number of
their fides increafes ; the circle being always limited between
the two polygons.
22. ‘The area of a circle is equal to that of a triangle
whofe bafe is equal to the circumference, and altitude equal
to the radius. WV. B. This was firlt demonftrated by Ar-
chimedes in his treatife ‘entitled Kuway Mélencss, or Circuli
Dimenfio.—Prop. I. Or, the area of a circle, e.g. ACE
(fig. 67.) 1s equal to a rectangle, ORS T, under its radius
OR, and aright line, O'T, equal to half the circumference.
It is evident, in che firft place, that the propofed rectangle,
ORST, is greater than any polygon, ABCD EF, that_
can be deferibed in the circle; for, drawing OA, OB,
&c. and alfo Ov perpendicular to A B, it is plain, that the
triangle AOB (Ov x EAB) will be lefs than OA x
ZAB,orORxZAB. In the fame manner, BOC is lefs
than OR x 3 BC, &c. Confequently, the whole polygon
ABCDEF is lefsthann OR x SAB+ORx IBC,
&c,; that is, lefs than a reGtangle (Om) under O R and
Op = half the perimeter (A B+ BC+CD, &c.) But
this rectangle O m is itfelf lefs than OS, becaufe Op (half
the perimeter of the polygon) is lefs than OT (half the
circumference of the circle), Confequently, the polygon
ABCDEF is lefs than the re@angle OS. But it will
apppear, in the fecond place, that the fame re@angle
ORS T is lefs than any polygon HI K LMN that can
be defcribed about the circle: for,if OH, OI, &c. be
joined, and the radius O P be drawn to the point of conta&
of HI, then the triangle HOT will be = OP xi HI
=ORxXiHI. Inthe fame manner, LOK = OR x
Z1K, &e.; and, therefore, the whole polygon HIK LMN
=ORx+HI+ORx SIK, &c. =a reangle (On)
under O R and O g =half the perimeter (HI+IK+KL,
&c.), which reftangle is, manifettly, greater than OS,
fince Og (= half the perimeter of the polygon) is greater
than O'l'. Hence, therefore, as the reGangle OS is greater
than any polygon that can be inferibed in the circle, and
lefs than any polygon that can be defcribed about it; it
muft be equal to the circle itfelf.
Hence, in order to find the area of a circle, half the cir-
cumference is to be multiplicd into half the diameter, or the
whole circumference into the whole diameter and a fourth
part of the product be taken.
This rule may be otherwife demonftrated, by the aid of
fluxions. Putrv = the radius AC, (fg. 63.) ¢ = the whole
circumference AE BA, orany part of it, and x = the radius
CD of acircle continually expanded. Then sats. eae twill
r
exprefs the fluxion of the whole circle or fector whofe cir-
4 (5h 4
cumference is c; and, confequently, ——- = the area
zr
CDF; and? cr =the area CAE of the whole circle
or feétor accordingly. Otherwife, multiply the fquare of
the diameter by .7854, and the produé will be the area.
For the proof of this rule it fhould be obferved, that all cir-
cles, being fimilar figures, are as the fquares of their diame-
ters, (fee next article); confequently, by the preceding
article, the area of a circle whofe diameter is 1, is
IX 3.44159, &c,
2X2=>4
fquare of any diameter) :: .78539, &c.: .73539 d’, the
area of the circle, whofe diameter is d. Hence, and from
the next article, fuppofing D the diameter, C the circum-
ference, and A the area of any circle, and p = 3.14180,
&c. we may deduce the following equations : viz.
= .78539, &c.; whence 17: a (the
1.D
CIRCLE.
S 4A I~
Ds = = 2 +
: Pp C V+
2. €=4D = te a2 pA
a a C
2. AEs eae _-
ae uct 4
Cc 4A _ce
oh Sy TO ae
Hutton’s Menf. p. 128, Ke.
Other rules may eafily be formed by afluming different
numbers for expreffing the proportion of the diameter to
the circumference. See each of thefe articles.
23. All circles, like other fimilar plane figures, are to
one another as the {quares of their diameters or radil. Let
ACE and ace (.fig. 69) be two circles, and they will be
as the fquares of their radii, or AO?to ao. Let Q be
to the circle ace :: AO?: ao®; and Q = circle a 5.
For, fr/f, it is evident, that is greater than any polygon
A BEG EF that can be eed in the circle AC E;
becaufe, if another polygon, abcdef, fimilar to it, be in-
fcribed in the circle ace; then we fhall have the polygon
ABCDEF:polyg. abcdef(:: AO*: av) :: Q: circle
ace; but the firft confequent being lefs than the fecond,
the firft antecedent ABC D EF mutt be lefs than the fe-
cond Q. In the fame manner it will appear, that Q is lefs
than any polygon H1KLMN that can poflibly be de-
{eribed about the circte AC E; for defcribing another fimilar
polygon hi £/mn about the circle ace, we fhall have HIKL-
MN: 4iklmn (:: AO?: ao?) :: Q : circle ace; but the
firft confequent is greater than the fecond, and, therefore,
the firft antecedent muft be greater than the fecond Q.
Confequently, as Q is greater than any polygon that can
be infcribed in the circle AC E and lefs than any polygon
that can be defcribed about it, it muft be equal to the circle :
whence ACE: ace :: AO?: ao. According to Archi-
medes, the area of the circle is to the fquare of the diame-
ter, 25 Il to 14, or, more nearly, as .7554 to 1; or full
1 ore nearly, as
-7853981633,9744830961, 56608458 19,875 72104925
923495437 75645 5243730 ,1480769541,01571552245
9657008706,33 55292609,9553 702162583 1507666,
7734611 +to1; asit has been found by modern ma-
thematicians. Dr. Wallis’s ‘‘Arithmetic of Infinites’? con-
tains the firft infinite feries for exprefling the ratio of a circle
to the {quare of its diameter: viz.
1ft. The circle is to the {quare of its diameter
: S16. 35. 26 SROs sicces
BETO aK 4 Oe 6 oe found out by
Vallis hi fs
Oriie ya ee hat Wallis himfelf
3 a4. 48
Oras 1 tor + : —, by lord Brounker;
i
gaetie,
49
2+-—
2X “&e.
Fen pa a 9 et ethan oh ea) =
TS ae) 2X4 XS 2XAX GX 7
IXx3X5
Orast- lt omc tt tyke tos, by Gree
gory and Leibnitz : and many other forms of feries have been
invented by different authors, for exprefling the fame ratio
between the circle and the circumfcnbed fquare. See Quan-
RATURE.
24. The circumferences of all circles, «. ¢. ABCD,
abcd (fig. 70.) are in the fame proportion as their diame-
ters, or their radii, OB, 0%. Let OE, oe, be fquares on
the radii OB, o 4; and let OG, og, be two reftangles
contained under the fame radii and right lines OH, of,
refpectively equal to the femi-circumferences A BC, abc.
Then, thefe reétangles being equal to the circles themfelves,
we fhall have OE: OG::0e:0g. The bafes alfo, OC,
OH, oc, oh, are in the fame ratio; whence (by equality
and alternation) O C (OB): oc (0d) :: OH :04::20H
(circumference A BC D) : 2 of (circumference abcd.) As
the areas of circles are proportional to the rectangles of their
radii and circumferences, the quadrature of the circle
would be effected by the re€tification of its circumference ;
or in other words, if the length of the circumference could
be accurately afcertained, the true area might alfo be found.
Many attempts have been made, in the way of approxima-
tion, to accomplifh this objet, and different refults, aproach-
ing nearer and nearer to the truth, have been obtained from
different proportions of the diameter to the circumference :
but, after all, the determination of the true area of the circle
has been generally thought impracticable. For an account
of what has been done in this way by ancient and modern
mathematicians, fee the articles Diamerer, Circum-
FERENCE, QuaprATuRE, and RecriricaTIon.
Befides the foregoing well-known properties of the circle,
it may not be improper to give the formations of the fol-
lowing very beautiful, general, and interefting theorems
refpecting it, which were publifhed at Edinburgh in 1746,
by the late Dr. Matthew Stewart, the fucceffor of Mr.
Maclaurin, without demonitrations, and remained fo for a
period of 59 years, till 1805, when they were not only
demonttrated by James Glenie, efq. A.M. F.R.S. Lond.
and Edin. in a paper printed in the ‘ Philofophical Tranf-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,” for that year,
but alfo derived as mere corollaries from a general geome-
trical inveftigation delivered by him in the faid‘paper. They
are the following :
Let there be any regular figure of a greater number of
fides. than three circumicribed about a circle, and from any
point in the circumference of the circle let there be drawn
perpendiculars to the fides of the figure ; twice the fum of
the cubes of the perpendiculars will be equal to five times
the multiple of the cube of the femi-diameter of the circle
by the number of the fides of the figure. Thus, if dénote
the number of the fides of the figure, and r the radius or
femi-diameter of the circle, twice the fum of the cubes of
thefe perpendiculars will be equal to 5 27°. ‘
Let there be any regular figure circumfcribed about a
circle of a greater number of fides than three, and from any
point within the figure let there be drawn perpendiculars to
the fides of the figure, and likewife let there be drawn a
right line to the centre of the circle; twice the fum of the
cubes of the perpendiculars drawn to the fides of the figure,
will be equal to twice the multiple of the cube of the femi-
diameter of the circle by the number of the fides of the
figure, together with thrice the multiple by the fame num-
ber of the folid, whofe bale is the fquare of the line drawn
to the centre, and altitude the femi-diameter of the circle.
Thus, if 2 denote the number of the fides of the figure,
and / the line drawn from the point within the figure to the
1 centre ~
Sl (us) Sy alt Ba
eentre of the circle, twice the fum of the cubes of thefe
perpendiculars will be equalto 2mr3 + 30r.
Let there be any regular figure inferibed in a circle, and
from all the angles of the figure let there be drawn right
Tines to any point in the circumference of the circle; the
fum of the fourth powers of the chords will be equal to fix
times the multiple of the fourth power of radius, or the femi-
diameter of the circle, by the number of thefides of the figure.
Let there be any regular figure infcribed in a circle, and
from all the angles of the figure and the centre of the circle
let there be drawn right lines to any point; the fum of the
fourth powers of the lines drawn from the angles of the
figures, will be equal to the multiple by the number of the
fides of the figure of the fourth power of the femi-diameter
of the circle, together with four times the multiple by the
fame number oi the fourth power of the line, whofe fquare
is equal to the reCtangle contained by the femi-diameter and
the line drawn from the centre, together with the multiple
by the fame number of the fourth power of the line drawn
from the centre.
Lei there be any regular figure of a greater number of fides
than four circumicribed about a circle, and from any point
in the circumference of the circle, let there be drawn per-
pendiculars to the fides of the figure; 8 times the fum of
the fourth powers of the perpendiculars will be equal to 35
times the multiple by the number of the fides of the figure,
of the fourth power of the femidiameter of the circle,
Let there be any regular figure of a greater number of
fides than four circum{cribed about a circle, and from any
point let there be drawn perpendiculars to the fides of the
figure, and likewife a right line to the centre of the circle;
8 times the fum of the fourth powers of the perpendicu-
lars will be equal to eight times the multiple by the number
of the fides of the figure of the fourth power of the fem:di-
ameter of the circle, together with 24 timesthe multiple by
the fame number of the fourth power of the line, whofe
' {quare is equal to the rectangle contained by the femidia-
meter, and the line drawn to the centre, together with 3
times the multiple of the fourth power of the line drawn
to the centre of the circle by the number of the fides of
the figure. :
And in general, let there be any regular figure circum-
{cribed about a circle ; and let the number of the fides of the
figure be, and let m be any number lefs thanz; let r be
the femidiameter of the circle; and from any point in the
circumference of the circle let there be drawn perpendi-
culars tothe fides of the figure, the fum of the m powers of the
Les etch ene azieea— ic 1
TR ge SWI Ce a7
x rm, in which expreffion the numbers in the numerator are
to be continued, till the Jafinumber be equal to 2 m — 1 and
are to be continually multiplied into one another, and thofe
in the denominator are to be continued till the laft number
be m, and are to be continually multiplied into one another.
Let there be any regular figure circumferibed about a
circle, and let » be the number of the fides of the figure ; let
m be any number lefs than 2, and let + be the femidiameter
of the circle ; and from any point (within the figure, if
m be an odd number, but if even from any point either with-
in or without) let there be drawn perpendiculars to the fides
of the figure; and likewife let there be drawn a right line
to the centre of the circle, and let v be the line drawn to the
centre ; let @ be the co-efficient of the third term of a bino-
mial raifed to the m power, 6 the co-efficient of the fifth
term, c the co-efficient of the feventh term, and fo on; the
fum of the m powers of the perpendiculars will be equal to
perpendiculars willbe equalto n x
arm + nAvrn? x 2 Bors x nC ofS x, ke,
fubftituting A fora x 4, B ford x Ze. C fore x wes
2s Ze 4a
and fo on. . '
Let there be any regular figure infcribed in a circle, and
let the number of the fides of the figure be n, aud let m be
any number lefs thana; let + be the femi-diameter of the
circle ; and from all the angles of the figure let there be
drawn right lines to any point in the circumference of the
eircle; the {um of the 2 m powers of the chords will be equal
Te 3+ Je Jececeveee2 712 — T
m
X 2% 7", in which ex:
nm xX
Teyana Alsstcscese i772
preffion the numbers ‘in the numerator are to be continued
till the laft number be 2m — 1, and are to be continually
multiplied into one another; and thofe in the denominator
are to be continued till the laft number be m, and are to be
continually multiplied into one another.
Thefe and a number of other general theorems refpeGing
the circle are not only demonftrated by Mr. Glenie, ina con-
cife and fimple manner in the {aid curious geometrical paper,
but are derived as mere corollaries from a general inveftigae
tion, that extends not only to regular but alfo to irregular
figures circumfcribed about, and infcribed in, the circle 5
and from which may eafily be deduced an endlefs number
of theorems much more general than even thofe of Dr. Stew-
art, that remained for 59 years undemonttrated, and though
publifhed without demonftrations were the principal caufe
of his being appointed fucceffor to the celebrated Mr. Mac-
laurin.
For the method of infcribing within the circle, or defcrib-
ing about it triangles, polygons, quadrilaterals, fquares, tra-
peziums, &c., and the properties thence refulting, fee the
feveral articles.
For the method of defcribing a circle through three given
points, fee Cuorp,
For the mode of obtaining a circle from the feétion of a
cone; fee Conic Section.
Circres, parallel or concentric, are fuch as are equally dif-
tant from each other in every point of their peripheries ; or
are defcribed from the fame centre; as, on the contrary,
thofe ftruck from different centres are faid to be eccentric.
Circxe,arc of. See Arc.
Cincue, the quadrature of the, or the manner of making
a {quare, whofe furface is perfectly and geometrically equal
to that of acircle, is a problem that has employed the geo-
metricians of all ages. See the article QuapRaTuRE.
Circe, fedor of a. See Secror.
Circe, fegment of a. See SEGMENT.
Circres of the higher orders, are curves wherein A P™ ;
PAG PIV: PD orm auk PVE PIMP Bt. Pigs
V. Geometry, fig. 71. When mand n are each equal to 1,
then AP:PM :: PM:PB, which isa property. of the
common circle. Cor. I. Suppofe A P= x, PM=y, AB
=a: then will PB=a—wx. And confequently x”: ::
y:@—x. Hence we have an equation that defines infinite
circles, viz. y"** = ax™ — xt"; and another defining othes
infinite circles, viz. y”t"= a—w.|\nx”.
Cor, 11. fm =1, then will y? = a x—x*3 and therefore a.
circle of the firlt order is contained under this equation
alone. If m= 3, the equation, becomes p+ = x, a— x or
a x3 —.x, which denotes a curve of the form A B (fg, 72).
But when m denotes an even number, the curve will have
two infinite legs; thus if m = 2, y3 =a x* — x3, which
equation defines a circle of the fecond order; and alfo one
of Newton’s defective hyperbolas, being his 37th f{pecies of
curyes,,
C WRG E_E. .
curves, whofe afymptote is the right line EF (fg. 73),
making an angle of 40° with the abfcifs A B.
Circe of curvature, in Geometry, that circle the curva-
ture of which is equal to that of any curve at a certain point.
Itis alfo called the circle of equi-curvature. See Curva-
TURE. f
Ciaccres of the /phere, are fuch as cut the mundane f{phere,
and have the periphery either on its.moveable furface, or in
another immoveable, conterminous, and equi-diftant furface.
Hence arife two kinds of circles, moveable and tmmoveable.
The firt are thofe whofe peripheries are in the moveable
furface, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo-
tion, as the meridians, &c. The latter, having their peri-
phery in the immoveable furface, do not revolve; as the
ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c.
Ifa {phere be cut in any manner, the plane of the fetion
will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of the {phere.
Hence the diameter of a circle paffixg through the centre,
being equal to that of the circle which generated the {phere;
and that of a circle which does not pafs through the centre,
beinz only equal to fome chord of the generating circle ; the
diameter being the greateft of all chords ; there hence arifes
another divilion of the circles of the fphere, viz. into great
and defer.
Circe, great, of the fphere, is that which divides it into
two equal parts, or hemifpheres; having its centre in the
centre thereof. Hence all great circles are equal, and cut
each other into equal portions, or femicircles.
The great circles are the horizon, meridian, equator,
ecliptic; the colures, and the azimuths; which fee in their
laces.
Circte, lefer, of a /phere, is that which divides the {phere
into two unequal parts, and has its centre in the axis of the
{phere, but notin the centre thereof. Thefe are ufually de-
nominated from the great circles to which they are parallel ;
as parallels of the equator, &c.
Circres of all itude, otherwife called almucantars, are
leffer circles parallel to the horizon, whence they are alfo call-
ed parallels of altitude, having their common pole in the
zenith, and {till diminifhing as they approach the zenith.
‘I'hey have their names from: their ufe, which is to fhew the
altitude of a ftar above the horizon.
Some have fufpected a variation in the apparent folftitial
altitudes of the fun. Something of this kind was perceived
by M. Gaffini in 1655, by means of the great gnomon in
“the church of St. Petronius at Bologna; which was further
confirmed by other obfervations at the royal obfervatory at
Paris. The variation obferved by M. Caffini, during the
courfe of twenty-two years, only amounted to a few feconds.
And by comparing the oblervation made by Pytheas at
Marfeilles three hundred years before Chrift, with another
made by Caflini in 1672 at the fame place, it appears, that
in two thoufand years time this difference of altitude has
only aniounted to a few minutes. V. Mem. Acad. Science.
1693, p- (80; feq. See Ecuirtic. See alfo Aurirups.
Circies of dechnation, are great circles interfecting
each other in the poles of the world.
Cincre of diffipation, in Optics. See the article Disstra-
TION.
Ciecres, diurnal, ave immoveable circles, fuppofed to be
defcribed by the feveral ftars, and other points of the hea-
yeus, in their apparent diurnal rotation round the earth.
Thus if a right line be conceived to be continued from the
centre of a ftar, perpendicular to the axis of the world, as
faras the furface of the {phere of the world, it will defcribe
a diurnal circle for it, in making one revolution about its
axis. ‘The diurnal circles are all unequal: the equator is
the greatett.
Circre equant, in the Ptolemaic Aflronomy, is a circle de-
f{cribed on the centre of the equant. Its chief ufe is, to
find the variation of the firft inequality.
Cixcres of excurfion, are leffer circles paralle! to the
ecliptic, and at fuch a diftance from it, as that the excurfions
of the planets towards the poles of the ecliptic may be in-
cluded within them ; being ufually fixed at about 10 degrees.
_ It may here be added, that all the circles of the {phere
above defcribed, are transferred from the heavens to the
earth ; and thence come to have a place in geography, as
well as inaftronomy; all the points of each circle being cons
ceived to be let fail perpendicularly on the furface of the
terreftrial globe, and fo totrace out circles perfe@ly fimilar
to them. Thus, the terreftrial equator is a line, conceived
precifely under the equinoétial line, which is in the heavens ;
and fo of the reft.
Circtes, horary, in Dialling, are the lines which fhew the
hours on dials; though thefe be not drawn circular, but
nearly ftraight.
Cixcre, horary, on the artificial globe, a brazen circle fix-
ed to the north pole divided into 24 hours, acd furnifhed”
with an index, thewing the difference of meridians, and
ferying for the folution of many problems. The ufual po-
fition of this circle prevents the brafs meridian from moving
quite round in the horizon ; fo that globes of the common
fort cannot be applied to the purpofe above mentioned. Mr.
Harris contrived to remedy this inconvenience, by placing
two horary circles under the meridian, one at each pole;
* thefe are fixed tight between two brafs collars placed about
the axis, but fo that they, may be eafily turned by the hand
when the globe is at reft; and when the globe is turned,
they are carried round with it, the meridian ferving as an.
index to mark out thé horary divifion. The globe, thus
prepared, will ferve for folving problems in all latitudes, as
wellas in places near the equator. Philofophical Tranfac-
tions abridged, vol. vill. p. 352. See Grose.
Circre of illumination, is that imaginary circle on the
furface of the earth, which is formed by a plane pafling
through the centre of the earth, fo that the line which joins
the centres of the fun and earth may be perpendicular to it,’
and which feparates the illuminated hemifphere of the earth
from the dark. ‘Dhis Mr. Keil calls the illuminated dife of
the earth ; and all lines paffing from the fun to the earth,
which are phyfically parailel, are perpendicular to the plane
of this circle. :
Circtes of latitude, or fecondaries of the ecliptic. are great
circles perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, paffirg
through the poles thereof, and through every {tar and pla-
net. hey are fo called, becaufe they ferve to meafure the
latitude of the ftars, which is nothing but an arc of one ~
of thefe circles, intercepted between the itar and the
ecliptic.
Circies of longitude, are leffer circles, parallel to the
ecliptic; {till diminifhing, in proportion as they recede from
it. On the arcs of thele circles, the longitude of the ftars
is reckoned.
Cixcre of perpetual apparition, one of the leffer circles,
parallel to the equator; deferibed by any point of the fphere
touching the northern point of the horizon, and carried
about with the diurnal motion. All the ftars included with-
in this circle never fet, but are always vifible above the ho-
rizon. ;
Circe of perpetual occultation, is another leffer circle at
a like diftance from the equator, defcribed by the fouthern
point
CiwcR
point of the horizon, and containing all thofe flars which
never appear in our hemilphere.
The ftars fitaate between thefe circles alternately rife and
fet at certain times, during the divrnal rotation.
Ciretes, polar, are immoveable circles, parallel to the
equator, and ata diftance from the poles equa! to the greatelt
declination of the ecliptic, which is now 23° 28’.
‘| hat next the northern pole is called the ardic; and that
next the fonthern one the aatardic; which fee refpeCiively.
Circurs of pofition, are circles paffing through the com-
mon interfeétions of the horizon and meridian, and through
any degree of the ecliptic, or the centre of any ftar, or other
point in the heavens; ufed for finding out the fituation or
pofition of any ftar. They are ufually fix in number;
and cut the equator into twelve equal parts, which the aftro-
logers call the celsfial houfes. Hence fome call them circles
of the celefial houfes.
Circre, are or arch of a. See Arcn.
Circee, axis ofa. See Axis.
Circe, centre ofa. See CENTRE.
Circre, eccentric. See Eccentric. .
Circre, equal. See Equat.
Circe, fairy. See Fairy.
Circce, right. See Ricur.
Circre, fegment of a. See SEGMENT.
Circves, fecondary. See SECONDARY.
Circres, vertical, or azimuths. See Verricar, and
AzimuTH. ~
Circce, in Logic, that fault of an argument that fuppoles
the principle it fhould prove, and afterwards proves the prin-
ciple by the thing it feemed to have proved.
Or, a circle in logic, called alfo /yllogifiic circle, is when
the fame terms are proved, in orbem; by the fame terms ; and
the parts of the fyllogi{m, alternately, by each other, both
directly and indirectly.
Thus the papilts argue, when they prove the Scriptures
to be the word of Gad by the infallible teftimony of their
church, and the authority of the church by the Scripture.
There are two kinds of circles; the one material, the
other formal.
The formal is that which in two reciprocal fyllogifms
begs the medium, which is the next caufe of the greater ex-
treme. ‘This kind is by no means to be admitted: other-
wife the fame thing becomes both prior and pofterior ; the
caufe and effedt of itfelf; which is abfurd.
‘The material circle, called alio regrefjus, confifts of two
fyllogifms, the former whereof proves the caufe by the ef-
fe; and the latter the effect by the caufe: this may be
admitted. 3
Cincre, Circurus, is understood among the {choolmen,
of a viciffitude of generations, ariling one out of another.
Thus, good concoction caufes a good habit of body; a good
habit of body produces ftrength and vigour; thefe occation
frequent exercifes; and thefe a good concoétion. It is
a celebrated dogma of the Scotiils, ‘* There is no circle
in caufes of the fame order, or kind.”’
Circces of the empire, are provinces, and principalities of
the empire, compofed of princes, prelates, counts, and im-
ptrial cities, poffeffing a provincial and partial jurifdi@ion,
and affembled for the regulation of their common affairs.
See Durr.
The divilion of the empire into fix circles was eftablifhed
by Maximilian I. in 1500, at Aupfburg ; twelve years af-
terwards he divided it afrefh, into ten circles; which par-
ticion was confirmed by Charles V. at the diet of Nurem-
berg, in 1522.
Though the order of thefe circles has never been well re-
Vor. VIII.
CirR
gulated: yet. in the imperial matricula, it is as follows:
the circle of Auftria, that of Burgundy, that of the Lower
Rhine, and that of Upper Saxony, which were the circles
added in 1512; thofe of Bavaria, lranconia, Suabia, Upper
Rhine, Wettphalia, and the Lower Saxony, the fix that were
firft efkablifted. Tach circle, according to the laws of the
empire, had its dire€tors or fammoning princes, and its com-
mauding officer under the title of captain, colonel, or field
marfhal, &c. It was the province’ of the frit to convoke
aflemblies of the ftates of each circle, and to direct and fu-
perintend its concerns ; and the latter had the command of
the troops, and the care of the artillery and neceffary am-
munition in each circle. The ftates of each circle were re-
quired to contribute to the exigencies of the empire, of which
they were members, by a tax impofed on them for main-
taining the troops and defraying other expences, in propor-
tion to the number of horfe and foot, and other neceflary oc-
cafions,
Circies of judgment, in Antiquity, were ancient monu-
ments of the Runic kind, confilting of upright ftones, found
in all the Danifh dominions, in Holftein, Slefwic, Jutland,
the ifles, Norway and Iceland ; and alfo in Sweden. They
feem to have been ereéted at different ages; fome are more
ancient. than the rith century, and others as recent as the
15th. ‘The druidical circles in Britain claim a much higher
antiquity. See Druin.
CIRCOCELE. See Cirsocece.
CIRCOLO mezzo, in the Stalian Mujfic, is a diminution
of four quavers or femiquavers, or notes of equal value,
which reprefent a femicircle proceeding by conjoint de-
grees.
CIRCON, in Mineralogy. See Zircon.
CIRCUIT, in French circuit or enceinte, in Fortification,
is the wall or rampart of {tone or earth, or partly of both,
or the dike, ditch, &c. which furrounds or enclofes any city,
town, place, or fpot of ground. This term is alfo applicable
to the line or lines, which form the perimeter of any, being
{ynonymous thereto.
Circuit, or Circuitry, in Law, a longer courfe of
proceeding, to recover the thing fued for, than is needful.
Thus, if a man granta rent-charge of 10/. out of his ma-
nor, and after, the grantee diifeifeth the grantor of the fame
manor, who brings an affile, and recovers the land, and 20/.
damages; which being paid, the grantee brings his aétion
for 102. of his rent, due during the time of the diffeifin, and
which he mult have had, if no diffetiin had been: this is
ealled circuity of adlion ; becaufe, as the grantor was to re~
ceive 20 /. damages, and to’ pay 10/. rent, he might have re-
ceived 10/. only for damages, and the grantee have kept the
other 10 /. in his hands, by way of retainer for his rent, and
fo faved his ation, which appears to beneedlefs. ‘Terms de
Ley.
Circuit is alfo the journey or progrefs the judges take,
twice every year, through the feveral counties of England
and Wales (except as in the cafes ftated under General As-
s1sEs), to hald courts, and adminitter juftice, where recourfe
cannot fo well be had to the king’s courts at Weftmintter.
Thefe were firft eftablifhed, with fome little difference, by
Henry II. ; who, with the advice of a great council of his
prelates, earls, and barons, at Northampton, A.D. 1176,
divided the whole kingdom into fix parts, or circuits, and
appointed three judges, learned in the law, to hold courts in
each of thefe, by a commiffion from the king, empowering
them to hear and determine all caufes not exceeding the
value of one-half of a knight’s fee, unlefs the matter was of
fuch importance or difficulty, as to require the judgment of
the king’s court in his royal prefence. Thefe juftices itine~
Kk rant
CIR
rant took an oath, to adminifter juttice to all perfons with
impartiality. They had alfo authority to judge in all crimi
nal caufes and pleas of the crown, and to tranfaé&t a variety
of other affairs for the public good. A {mall change was
made in this excellent inflitution, A.D. 1179, by dividing
the kingdom into four circuits, and allowing a greater num-
ber of judges to each of thefe circuits. Itis eafy to conceive
how great a check the circuits of thefe judges, of {uperior
rank, knowledge, and integrity, muft have given to the
wantonnefs and partiality of the inferior courts, and how
great an advantage they were to the people, by bringing
juftice within their reach. It mutt, however, be confeffed,
that though the honour of bringing this wife inftitution to
a fettled ftate isdue to Henry IL, there is {ufficient evidence
that courts were held, occafionally at leaft, by itinerant
judges in more ancicnt times. Madox, Hilt. Excheq. p. 86
—88. See Justices in eyre.
Thefe were afterwards exprefsly ordained by Magna
Charta; which, befides prohibiting all denials or delays in
the adminiltration of juitice, fixed the court of common pleas
at Weftminiter, that the fuitors might be no longer harafled
with following.the king’s perfon in all his progreffes; and
at the fame time brought the trials of iffues home to the very
doors of the freeholders, by dire&ting aflifes to be taken in
the proper counties, and eltablifhing annual circuits.
Thefe circuits are now ufually made in the refpedtive
vacations after Hilary and Trinity terms ; affifes being al-
lowed to be taken in the holy time of Lent by confent of
the bifhops at the king’s requeft, as expreffed in ftatute
Weftm.1. 3 Edw. I.c. 51. bee General Assisesand Jus-
tices of Afife. ‘The feveral counties of England are di-
vided into fix circuits: viz. 1. Midland; containing the
counties of Northampton, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham,
Derby, Leicefter, Warwick. 2. Norfolk ; including Bucks,
Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk. 3,
Home; comprehending Hertford, Effex, Kent, Souffex,
Surrey. 4. Oxford; containing B-rks, Oxford, Hereford,
Salop, Gloucetfter, Monmouth, Stafford, Worcefter. 5.
Weflern; including Southampton, Wilts, Dorfet, Cornwall,
Devon, Somerfet. 6. Northermg comprehending York,
Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, Weftmorland, Lan-
cafhire. Two judges are appointed to each circuit. In
Wales there are two circuits, viz. North and South Wales.
In Scotland there are three circuits, viz. South, Weft, and
North, which the lords of jufticiary go twice a year, viz. in
May and Oétober, for trial of crimes only: though, by a
recent ftatute, they have an appellate jurifdiGion in civil cafes
under 12/7 See Justiciary.
Circuit, eleGrical, denotes the courfe of the eleAric fluid
from the charged furface of an electric body, to the oppofite
furface into which the difcharge is made. Some of the firlt
ele&tricians apprehended, that the fame particles of the
eleCtric fluid which were thrown on one fide of the charged
giafs, a€tually made the whole circuit of the intervening
conductors, and arrived at the oppofite fide; whereas Dr.
Franklin’s theory only requires, that the redundancy of
eletric matter on the charged furface fhould pafs into the
bodies, which form that part of the circuit whichisccntiguous
to it, driviug forward that part of the fluid which they natu-
rally poffefs, and that the deficiency of the exhaufted furface
fhould be fupplied by the neighbouring condu€tors, which
form the laft part of the circuit. On this fuppofition, a vi-
brating motion is fucceffively communicated through the
whole length of the circuit. This circuit is always formed
of the beit conductors, let the length of it be ever fo great.
Many attempts were made both in France and England, at
an early period in the hiftory of ele&tricity, to afcertain the
4
CIR
diftance to which the ele&tric thock might be carried, and
the velocity of its motion. The French philofophers, at
different times, made it to pafs through a circuit of goo toifes,
and even of 2c00 toifes, or about two Englifh miles and a
half; and they difcharged the Leyden phial through a bafon
of water, the furface of which was about an acre. And M.
Monnier found, that, in paffing through an iron wire of 950
toifes in length, it did not {pend a quarter of a fecond: and
that its motion was initantaneous through a wire of 1319
feet. In 1747, Dr. Watfon, and other Englifh philofophers,
after many experiments of a fimilar kind, conveyed the elec-
tric matter through a circuit of four miles; and they con-
cluded from this and another trial, that its velocity is inftan-
taneous, or, as we may fuppofe, too rapid to be meafured,
Priefticy’s Hift. of Ele€tricity, vol. i. feét. 2. p. 128. 8yo.
ed.1775- See Evecrarcar fhock.
CIRCUITORES. See Acoxistictr.
CIRCULAR, any thing that is deferibed, or moved in a
round ; as the circumference of a circle, or the furface of a
globe. The circular form is of all others the beft difpofed
for motion, and the moit capacious. The modern aftrono-
mers fhew, that the heavenly bodies do not move in circular,
but in elliptic orbits. See Pranet, &c.
Ciecurar dres. See Arcu. % :
Ciecuxar Infirument of Reflection, or Multiplying Circle,
in Navigation. See Crrcre.
Circurar Letter, a letter dire&ted to feveral perfons, who
have the fame intereft in fome common affair: as in the
conrocation of aflemblies, &c.
Circurar Lines, an appellation given by fome to fuch
ftraight lines as are divided by means of the divifions made
in the arc of a circle. Such are Sines, TANGENTS, SE-
CANTS, &c.
Circutar Numbers, are fuch whofe powers end in the
roots themfelves; as 5, whofe fquare is 25, and cube 125.
See NumBer.
Circurar Parts, Neper’s, or Napier’s, are the comple-
ments of the two oblique angles of a right-angled fpherical
triangle, the complement of the hypothennfe, and the two
legs, by having any two of which the third is known.
Napier, in his treatife, entitled, “* Logarithmorum Ca-
nonis Defcriptio,” gave a general rule, with regard to thefe
circular parts, which 1s as follows: wiz. ‘* The re€tangle
under the radius, and the fine of the middle part, is equal to
the re€tangle under the tangents of the adjacent parts, and to
the reCtangle under the cofines of the oppofite parts.”? The
right-angle, or quadrantal fide, being neglected, the two fides,
and the complements of the other three parts, are called the
circular parts, becaufe they follow each other, as it were, in
a circular order. If any one of thefe be fixed upon as the
middle part, thofe that are next to it are the adjacent, and
thofe that are fartheft from it are the oppofite parts. This
excellent rule, concife and yet comprehentive, includes all the
particular rules for the folution of right-angled {pherical tri-
angles, and may be eafily applied to oblique {pherical trian-
gles, by letting falla perpendicular, thofe two cafes excepted
in which either the three fides or the three angles are given 5
and for thefe a fimilar expedient has been deviled by lord
Buchan and Dr. Minto. M. Pingré, in the ‘* Memoires de
Mathematique et de Phyfique,”’ for 1756, reduces the folu-
tion of all the cafes of fpherical triangles to four analogies ;
which, in reality, are Napier’s circular parts, under another
form, together with his fecond or fundamental theorem, ap-
plied to the fupplemental triangle. ‘Thefe analogies are very
difficult to be retained in the memory ; and, therefore, Na-
pier’s rule, which is fo ealily remembered, ought to be pre-
ferved under its prefent form, Indeed, it cannot be eafily
forgotten, —
CIR
forgotten, provided that one circumftance be regarded ; viz.
that the fecond letters of the words ‘ tangents” and “ co-
fines’’ are the fame with the firft of the words “ adjacent’?
and ‘ oppofite.”’» Moreover, the rule for refolving the two
cafes of {pherical triangles, to which the former rule is inap-
plicable, may be thus exprefled: ‘ Of the circular parts of
an oblique fpherical angle, the reGtangle under the tangents
of half the fum and half the difference of the fegments at the
middle part (formed by a perpendicular drawn from an angle
to the oppolite fide) is equal to the retangle under the tan-
gents of half the fum and half the difference of the oppofite
parts.” By the circular parts of an oblique {pherical triangle
are meant its three fides and the fupplements of its three
angles. Any one of thefe fix being affumed as a middle
part, the oppofite parts are thofe two of the fame denomina-
tion with it; ¢. g. if the middle part is one of the fides, the
oppofite parts are the other two ; and if the middle part is the
fupplement of one of the angles, the oppofite parts are the
fupplements of the other two. Farther, fince every plane tri-
angle may be confidered as defcribed on the furface of a
fphere of an infinite radius, thefe two rules may be applied to
plane triangles, provided that the middle part be reltrifted to
afide. Thus it appears, fays lord Buchan, in his ‘* Life of
Napier,”’ that two fimpie rules fuffice for the folution of all
the poffible cafes of plane and fpherical triangles. Thefe
rules, from their neatnefs, and the manner in which they are
expreffed, cannot fail of engraving themfelves deeply on the
memory of every one who is a little verfed in trigonometry.
Iris a circumftance, he adds, worthy of notice, that a perfon
of a very weak memory may carry the whole art of trgono-
metry in his head. See Part, R1AnGve, and ‘’r1GoNo-
METRY.
Circuvar failing, the method of navigating a fhip upon
the arch of a great circle of the globe. See Great Cir-
CLE SAILING.
This mode of failing has been theoretically recommended,
becaufe the neareft diftance between two places on the globe
is the arc of a circle, and becaufe it is of importance that a
fhip fhould arrive at its deftined port by the fhorteft courfe.
As in Mercator’s failing, the folution of cafes is performed
by plane triangles, fo in this method of failing cafes are re-
folved by means of f{pherical triangles; but thefe latter
ferve rather for exercifes in the folution of {pherical triangles
than for any ufeful purpofes of navigation, See Saitine.
Circucar feale. See Seace.
Crrcuxar fegment, refiflance of. See ResisTANCE.
Circuvar /pots are made on pieces of metal by large
ele&trical explofions. See experiments and obfervations up-
on them in Dr. Prieftley’s Hiltory of Eleétricity, vol. ii.
fe&t. 9. ed. 8vo. and Phil. Tranf. vol. lviit. p. 68.
Thefe beautiful fpots, produced by the moderate charge
of a large battery difcharged between two {mooth furfaces
of metals, or femi-metals, lying at a {mall diftance from each
other, confift of one central fpot and feveral concentric cir-
cles, which are more or lefs diftinét, and more or fewer in
number, as the metal upon which they are marked 1s more
eafy or difficult of fufion, and as a greater or lefs force is
employed. ‘They are compofed of dots or cavities, which
indicate a real fufion. If the explofion of a battery, iffuing
from a pointed body, be repeatedly taken on the plain fur-
face of a piece of metal near the point, or be received from
the furface on a point, the metal will be marked with a {pot,
confifting of all the prifmatic colours difpofed in circles, and
formed of the feales of the metal feparated by the force of
the explofion. wh.
Cincurar velocity, a termin Affronomy, fignifying the ve-
locity ofa planet, or revolving body, which is mealured by
CIR
the arch of a circle; as fuppofe by A B, Plate, Afironomy,
Jig. t1.) defcribed on the centre of attraGion S. ]
The circular velocity of a body moving from B to C is
meafured by the arc BC.
Circuvar winding-fairs. See Srairs.
CIRCULATING Decimars. See Reperenn.
CIRCULATION, the act of moving round, or ina
circle. See the following articles.
Circuration of the blood, in Anatomy, is the courfe
which this fluid purfues in the heart and lungs, and in the
blood-veflels of the body. ‘This courfe is very juftly named
acirculation, inafmuch as the blood is always pafling round in
the fame track, and its motion conftantly tends to the point
from which it began.
The word circulation, when ufed abfolutely, comprehends
the whole courfe of the blood, as well in the lungs as in the
arteries and veins of the body at large.
The greater circulation is the paffage of the blood from
the left fide of the heart, through the arteries, to the extre-
mities of the body, and its return through the veins to the
right fide of the fame vilcus.
The /effer circulation is the tran{miffion of the blood from
the nght to the left fide of the heart, through the lungs.
The ufes of the blood in the animal economy are fo nume-
rous and important, that every cireumftance relating to its
properties, or to the laws of its motion, cannot be too care-
fully inveftigated by the phyfologilt aud praGtitioner.
By tilling the veffels with fubtle fluids after death, it ap-
pears that the blood is copioufly diftributed to every part of
the fyltem, at leaft with a very few exceptions, as the infenfi-
ble coverings of the body, the fubftance of the teeth, &c-.
and common experience mutt have convinced every perfon of
the fame fact, for hardly any part can be wounded with the
point of the fineft needle without a flow of blood being pro-
duced. This fluid does not, however, as the ancients thought,
move backward and forward in one order of veflels, but is
carried, ina circulatory courfe, from the heart to all parts of
the body by the arteries, and is thence returned to the fame
part by the veins.
In a fyftematic account of this fubje&, we fhould firft
confider the ftru€ture of the heart and blood-veffels, and the
powers by which they are enabled to receive and to propel the
blood, we refer the reader for a more complete account of
thefe points to the articles Heart, Artery, VEIN.
The arteries receive the blood from the heart, and diftri-
bute it to all parts of the body. Thefe veffels are in general
lefs capacious than the veins, but of a more folid and com-
pact texture; they are highly elaltic, and probably poffeffed
of confiderable mufcular powers. Ail the arteries of the
body are derived from one of two trunks: ift, the pulmo-
nary artery, which, {pringing from the right ventricle, rami-
fies through the lungs; 2dly, the aorta, which, commencing
from the left ventricle, is diftributed over the whole body.
The arteries, after their various ramifications and anaftomo-
fes, terminate by" communicating with the origins of the
veins; fo that the blood returns towards the heart in a conti-
nuous canal, in which there are no obvious marks of diftine-
tion to define the limits between the two orders of veffels.
The ttructure of the veins foon becomes clearly diftin-
guifhed from that of the arteries; they poffefs no mufcula-
rity ; they are much more capacions ; lefs conftant in their
courfe and divifions; weaker in their texture; and lefs elaf-
tic than the latter veflels. They are alfo generally charac-
terized by the poffeflion of valves, which prevent the return
of blood towards their extremities, ‘There are feven large
venous trunks opening into the two auricles of the heart.
The fuperior and inferior ven cave retura the blood from
Kkz the
C VRE. A Tr Om:
the upper and lower parts of the body to the right or ante-
rior auricle ; the coronary vein pours into the fame cavity
that which has circulated through che fubftance of the heart
itfelf. The two right and two left pulmonary veins dif-
charge, into tke left-or pofterior auricle, the blood which has
paffed through the lungs.
The heart is placed in the centre of the fanguiferous fy{-
tem, and is endowed with great mufcular power, by which
jt is enabled to diftribute and circulate the blocd through
the two orders of veffels which we have now defcribed. The
trunks of the circulating tubes meet together in this part,
which is the firft mover of the whole animal frame, and fuf-
tains, by a perpetual and truly wonderful power, this primary
vital funtion, from the fecond or third week after concep-
tion to the laft period of our exiltence.
This organ alternately receives and propels the blood.
That which has circulated through the body enters the right
auricle by the fuperior and inferior venw cave; the coro-
nary vein pours into the fame cavity the blood which has
fupplicd the heart itfelf. The right auricle propels this,
which is venous blood, through the anulus venofus into the
right or pulmonary ventricle, and it goes from this cavity to
circulate through the lungs by the pulmonary artery. It is
again brought to the heart by the four pulmonary veins,
which open into the left auricle. It becomes changed from
the ftate of venous to that of arterial blood, by the expofure
to the atmofpheric air, which takes place in its circulation
through the lungs; for an account of which change fee
Respiration. From the left anricle it paffes through the
left anulus venofus, into the ventricle of the fame fide, and
is thence expelled by the aorta into.the arterial fyftem of
the whole body. From the minute arteries it enters the
origins of the venous fy{tem, and is again poured into the
heart by the three venous trunks, which we have already
mentioned.
This paflage of the blood through the cavities of the
heart is regulated and maintained in an undilturbed fuccef-
fion by valves placed at the different openings, which pre-
vent all reflux of the circulating fluid. See the account of
the frudure of the Hearr.
Having thus defcribed the courfe of the blood, we think
i right to fubjoin the proofs and experiments on which it is
fupported ; although the faét of the circulation has been fo
long admitted, and is now fo generally eflablifhed, that the
enumeration may to fome perfons appear fuperfluous.
The courfe of the blood through the heart, #. e. from the
right auricle to the left ventricle, by the medium of the lungs,
is manifett from the ftruéture of the heart itfelf. The valves,
which are placed at its various apertures, aCtually will not
admit of the blood’s motion in any other direftion than
what we have defcribed.
That the blood paifes from the heart into the trunk of the
aorta, thence intoits branches, and fo on to the moft minute
ramifications, is evinced: 1ft, by the effeét of ligatures on
thefe veflels: the artery becomes turgid between the heart
and the ligature, and empty between the ligature and its
diltribution. 2dly, By opening an artery, when tied, above
and below the ligature: the blood in this cafe flows only
from the opening which is neareft to the heart. jdly, By
ocular teltimony ; the paflage of the blood can be feen with
the aid of glafles in frogs, fifhes, &c.
The paflage of the blood through the veins, ina contrary
courfe to that, in which it flows along the arteries, i. e. from
the minute ramifications towards the trunks, and thence to
the heart, is proved; 1ft, By the ftru€ture and difpofition
of the valves, which afford an invincible impediment to all
retrograde motion. 2dly, By ligatures on thefe veflels, which
make the vein turgid between the extremities of the body
and the ligature, and empty in the relt of its courfe. gdly,
By opening a vein, when tied, above and below the ligature.
4thly, By microfcopical obfervation in the lower animals.
The paflage of the blood from the arteries into the veins
feems to low asa corellary, from what we have flated con-
cerning the proofs of its courfe in thefe two fyitems of vef-
fels. We have fhewn that the ultimate arteries are continu-
ous with the origins of the veins; that the b!ood moves from
the heart to the extremities in the former veflels, and that it
pailes from the extremities to the heart in the latter, The
intermediate paflage is a dire&t confequence of thefe facts.
But it may be demonttrated by inconteltible proofs indepen-
dently of thisargument. If we tie the artery of a part, its
correfpondent vein reccives no blood ; if we take off the liga~
ture, the vein isagain filled. The quantity of blood expelled
from the aortic ventricle is fo confiderably, that the fupply
can only be kept up by a return of this blocd to the heart.
Ve calculate that two ounces of blood are expelled from
the heart at each puifation 5 if we fuppofe eighty pulfations
in a minute, 9690 ounces wiil be thrown into the aorta in an
hour, and 14400 lbs. ina day., The fame blood therefore
which the aorta received from the heart muft return to this
vifcus; and the only pafflage by which it can return is
through the veins. Nearly the whole blood of the body
will be difcharged from a wound of a fingle artery or vein.
Laftly, the pafflage of the blood from the arteries.into the
veins may be proved by the dire teftimony of the fenfes in
living animals. The ufe of the microfcope affords this proof
in the tranfparent parts of cold-blooded animals, as the me-
fentery and web of the foot in frogs, the tail of fifhes, &c.
The motions of any part of the heart, confidered fingly
and individually, confift in a conitant feries of alternate con-
tractions and dilatations ; or, as they are technically named,
alternate ftates of /y/fole and diaffole. ‘The contractions
take place as in any other mufcles; the dilating caufe con-
fifts in the forcible entrance of blood into the cavity. The aus _
ricles and ventricles, when viewed in relation to each other,
are fucceffively contraéted and dilated ; the correfponding
parts ating at the fame time on both fides of the heart.
Thus, when the auricles contract, in order to expel the blood
which they have juft received from the fyftemat large, and
from the lungs, the ventricles are relaxed, and therefore in a
flate fit for receiving this blood. When, in the following
moment, the recently filled ventricles contraGt, in order to.
urge forwards the blood into the two arterial trunks, the
auricles are relayed, and become immediately diftended by
the current of venous blood. The aétion of tie heart, and of
the veffels conneéted with it, may therefore be diftributed in-
to fucceflive periods. In the firit of thefe, the ven cave and
pulmonary veins pour their blood into the two auricles, and
thus caufe a diaftole of thefe cavities. The fyltole of the
auricles tran{mits the blood into the ventricles in the fecond
period ; and thefe latter cavities expel their contentainto the
arteries in the third portion of time. Thus the aétion.of the
veins takes place at the fame point of time with that of the -
ventricles ; and the contraction of the auricles is fynchronous
with that of the arteries.
The fyttole of the ventricles, which is fuppofed to. occupy
one third of the time of the whole pulfation of the heart, is
accomplifhed by an approximation of the fides of the cavities
to the middle partition, and of the apex to the bafis of the
heart. The whole vifcus by this means becomes fhorter and
more obtufe. The well known faét of the heart’s ftriking
again{t the left breaft in its contra€tion, may feem on the firit
glance to refute this account of the fyftole of the ventricles.
But, on a further examination, it can have no fuch oe ;
nee
GRR UL. A DP WvO NR
fince the phenomenon in queftion depends on two caufes
amply fufficient to produce the effet, which have been long
ago cxplained by Ferrem and Senac. (See Queftiones Me-
dice, 12.—Monl{peli, 1732,—Anatomie de Heiiter avec
des Effais de’ Phyfiqne. ‘Vraité de la Struéture dau Ceur,
tom.i. p. 354, ¢t feq.) The {welling of the auricles, which
are at the back of the heart, and particularly of the left auri-
cle, which is interpofed between the fpine, and the bafe of
the left ventricle, neceffarily canfes the point of the heart to
advance towards the fide ; and this motion’ may be imitated
in the dead body by injecting or inflating the auricles. ~The
other caufe confifts in the conneétion of the large arteries,
particularly of the aorta, with the bafe of the heart. A
curved and flexible tube, when fuddenly diftended, becomes
in fome meafure ttraightened. ‘Thus when the blood is im-
pelled into the aorta, the curve of that veffel approaches
more nearly toa ftraight line. Its pofterior end being firmly
attached to the vertebra, is immoveable ; to its anterior and
moveable part is fixed the heart, which, by the ftraightening
of thie veflel, is obliged to defcribe a portion of a circle, in
doing which the apex {trikes againft the fide. Thefe two
circumftances occur fimultaneoufly ; the venous blood rufhes
into the auricles, at the fame time that the contraction of
the ventricle fills the aorta.
The impulfe of the blood expelled by the fyftole of the
aortic ventricle is felt in the whole arterial fyftem ; and it
produces, in all arteries which come within the {phere of
the touch, and which have an area of not lefs than one fixth
of a line in diameter, an obvious and perceptible effect, called
the pulfe, which is a real itate of diaftole of the artery, and
which is afcertained to correfpond exactly, and to be per-
feily fynchronous with the fyttole of the heart. The
number of pu.fations in a given {pace of time varies in-
finitely in healthy perfons. Age is the chief caufe of thefe
varieties: but other circumftances, which conttitute the
peculiar ftate of health of each individual, have contiderable
effect; fo that no ftandard can be fettled which fhall prove
generally correct. The following numbers afford, we be-
lieve, as near an approximation a3 can be expected amidit fo
~much uncertainty ; they will ferve at leaft as a comparative
view in fudjects of diffcrent ages.
The heart of an infant, fleeping tranquilly, performs, in
the firlt days of exiftence, about 140 pullations in a minute.
At the end of the firlt year the pulfations are in the fame
{pace of time abont 124: -
At the end of the fecond year - $0 ae)
third and following years - 96
feventh and following - 86
———- time of puberty - 25, SO
age of manhood - -- 15
fixtieth year - - 05
beyond which time the variations are very great.
‘The female fex are obferyed, ceteris paribus, to have a
More frequent puife than the male; and fhort perfons ex-
ceed tall ones ia this refpe&t. It is alfo remarked, that the
inhabitants of cold climates have flow pulfes. It is moft
familiarly known that the pulfe is accelerated by taking a
meal, by the a& of coition, by exercife of the body, or af-
feétions of the mind. ‘The latter caufes, indeed, if carried
to: a confiderable extent, produce mo{t vehement palpita-
tions of the heart. In faying thus much of the pulfe, we
have thought it more natural to refer it to the heart, which
is its fource, than to the arteries, in which it is commonly
examined.
It has been queftioned, whether the heart expels the
whole of the contained blood in its fyltole. It feems pro-
bable that this is the cafe in a healthy animal; although it
has been denied on the faith of experiments. We muft be
cautious inapplying inferences, drawn from the interrupted
and difcrdered aétion of the heart ‘of an animal, expiring
under the torture of an experiment, to the living fun@ions of
the vifcus. If any blood remains in the ventricle, it excites
a conttant contraction of the cavity. In fome cold-blooded
animals, and in the incubated chick, the heart is obferved
to become completely pale in its fyftole, which proves an
entire evacuation of the ventricles.
The pulfations of the heart proceed in a regular and con-
tinued fucceffion to the laft period of life: and then all its
parts do not ceafe to aét at once. But the right auricle
and ventricle furvive the oppofite cavities for fome little
time; fo that the former part has been calied the u/timum
moriens. The blood which returns by the vene cava, after
the laft expiration, no longer finds the ufual paffage through
the lungs, which are contraéted, but it is {till urged on from
behind by that which the aorta has recently propelled.
Hence, it is forced into the right auricle, and excites con-
traction in that part by the ftimulus of its prefence, fome
time after the left fide has been at reit. This congeftion on
the right fide of the heart in the laft agony, explains the
empty ftate of the arteries, particularly the larger ones, after
death. Sabatier has afcribed to the fame caufe, the greater
relative capacity of the right ventricle and auricle of the
adult heart. (See Mémoire fur Vinégale capacité des
cavités du coeur, et des vaiffeaux pulmonaires, in his Traité
complet d’Anatomie, tom.ili.) The appearance, which we
are now alluding to, does not admit of explanation from
any circumi{tances connected with the healthy fun&ions of
the heart and lungs; yet Sabatier’s ftatement can hardly
be received as completely fatisfactory. For, not to mention
that we feldom find thefe cavities a€tually diftended, this ex-
planation {uppofes the veins to pour the blood into the heart,
with greater force than the ventricle can exert in reaéting ;
which does not appear probable from comparing the
{tructure of the two parts. The fats, however, contained
in the memoir above-mentioned deferve attention: it is
{tated that, by opening the venz cave, and tying the aorta,
which prevents accumulation of blood on the right, and
caufes it on the lett fide of the heart, the left cavities will’
be found after death to exceed the capacity of the right.
‘This experiment would have been more convincing, had the
difference been afcertained with certainty and corredtnefs,
inftead of refling on the inaccurate ground of a mere in-
{pection.
The longer duration of a€tion in the right, than in the
left cavities of the heart, is to be afcribed folely to the cir-
cumftance of the former parts continuing to receive blood,
after the latter are completely evacuated. Hence, if an ex-
periment be inftituted, in winch thefe conditions fhall be
reverfed ; the prerogative of u/timum moriens will be trans-
ferred to the left cavities. Haller has produced this effc& :
he opened the venez cave, preffed out the blood from the
right cavities, and tied thofe veins: He made a large
aperture in the pulmonary artery, in order to evacuate more
completely the right ventricle. The pulmonary veins were
left untouched; but the aorta was tied. Thus the right
auricle and ventricle were evacuated, while the blood was
received and retained in the oppofite cavities. By this
means the right auricle and ventricle remained in ation, long
after all contraction of the left cavities had ceafed. See
Elementa Phyficlogia, lib..iv. feét. 5. § 14.
It is hardly poffible to determine the velocity of the
blood’s motion in the healthy ftate; for individuals differ
from each other in this refpect; and confiderable variety
probably takes place im different parts-of the body. It is
generally
CIRCULATION
generally fuppofed, that the blood flows in a more gentle
itream through the {mall arteries than in the arterial trunks ;
and that the velocity of its current is fomewhat lefs in the
veins, than in the arteries of the body. Thefe differences
have, however, been exaggerated by former phyfiologitts.
The mean velocity of the blood in the aorta 1s calculated at
eight inches for each pulfation; which gives about 50 feet
ina minute. If we refle&t that the fyftole of the ventricle,
which gives this whole impulfe to the blood, occupies only
one third of the whole pulfe, the velocity of the blood’s
motion muft be trebled in that divifion of the time. It is
faid that this velocity, which we have affigned to the blood’s
motion at its departure from the heart, becomes fpeedily
diminifhed in its further progrefs ; and the diminution has
been deduced from various caufes. The firlt and moft
powerful of thefe is the conftantly increafiny area of the
branches, when compared with the trunk of an artery. See
ARTERY.
It is a weil known law in hydraulics, that the velocity of
a fluid paffing through aa inverted cone conitantly decreafes,
and that the diminution of velocity isin the ratio of the
increafe of area. ‘The mathematical phyfiologifts have alfo
noticed the efle&ts of frition; deducing thefe from a com-
parifon with the courfe of fluids in dead tubes. Other
caufes have been deduced from the fame fource ; hence the
ferpentine courfe of fome arteries, the unfavourable angles
by which they foreetimes arife, and their communications
with each other are enumerated among the circumftances,
which retard the courfe of the arterial blood. But it muft
be remembered, that in viewing thefe retarding caufes, we
are conlidering their a¢tion on the blood, as if this fluid
were contained in inanimate tubes ; and influenced merely by
the contraction of the heart; without taking into account
any acceffory impulfe, which may be, and moft probably is,
derived from the arteries. This retardation kas been vari-
oufly eltimated by different calculators ; who have all made it
very confiderable. Hales f{uppofes the blood to flow through
the capillary arteries of a frog, at the rate of tv o-thirds of
an inch ina minute ; which will be about 650 times flower
than in the human aorta. (‘ Statical Effays,’’ vol. ii. p. 66.)
Robinfon and Whytt have gone ftill farther; the former
{tating that the velocity of the blood’s motion in the aorta,
is to that in the Imaliett veffels, as 1100 to 1. ( Differta-
tion on the Food and Difcharges of Human Bodies.”) We
mention thefe calculations to fhew what abfurdities have
been committed by men of the greateft abilities, when they
have applied the laws which regulate the properties of dead
matter to the living functions of the animal machine.
Haller’s ‘‘ Obfervations on the Circulation in living Ani-
rmals,’’ entirely overthrow thefe calculations. ( ‘ Elementa
Phyfiologiz,”’ lb. 6. feét. i. § 30.) He found by his mi-
crofcopical experiments, that the blood flowed generally as
rapidly through the {mall as through the larger veffels. He
ftates alfo, that in living animals it is poured out as far from
a {mall as from a large artery. The numerous and diverfi-
fied experiments of Spallanzani, afford additional evidence
of the fame truth, and throw confiderable light on the
whole fubject. The refults of his experiments are fo con-
clufive, that we prefent them to the reader in his own
words: “I did not find that the blood, in pafling out of
the middle-fized arterics into their branches, experienced the
leaft retardation from any difference in the capacity of thefe
veffels, or the numerous angles which they formed with one
another; neither did the mode of the circulation, whether
languid or ftrong, ofcillatory or intermittent, appear to be
at all affected by the multiplicity of natural and artificial cur-
vatures, or the flexures and convolutions made by the difler-
ent ramifications. When the ftrength of the animal was
not impaired, the blood in the {mall arteries moved very ra-
pidly, and with nearly an equal velocity ; but when, on the
contrary, it had been exhaulted, or in an unhealthy ftate,
the circulation was carried on with the fame celerity in the
middle fized arteries ; whilft it began to abate in the {mall
arterial ramifications, and ftopped fooner or later in propor-
tion to their diftance from the heart. ‘The united refults of
thefe experiments difplay, in a ftriking point of view, the
true motion of the blood from the origin to the termination of
the arteries, which was hitherto only eonjeétural, and fubje&
to frequent difputes, from the want of a fufficient number
of experiments. Thefe fa&ts, befides, confirm the fage
maxim of Haller, refpeGing the caution with which we
ought to apply mechanical principles to the animated fyf-
tem ; for, in faé, if the animal machine be ftridily fubjeé&
to hydraulic laws, why do they not produce the fame ef-
fe€ts in the vafcular fyitem, as in common tubes? Whilft,
however, we acknowledge that thefe laws muft exert an in-
fluence upon the phenomena of the circulation, we contend
that their power is counterbalanced by oppofite caufes, in-
herent in the fanguiferous fyftem.” (‘* Experiments upon
the Circulation of the Blood throughout the Vafcular Syf-
tem, by the Abbé Spallanzani,”” p. 259.)
We have ftated, that the blood 1s thrown into the arteries,
by feparate contra€tions of the heart ; yet thefe veffels are’
conftantly full, as may be proved by opening them during
the heart’s diaftole. For the blood flows on in fuch a way,
that the fubfequent quantity difcharged from the right ven-
tricle, overtakes that which is before, and thus caufes the
pulfation of the arteries. The excefs of velocity in the
blood, coming from the heart, over that contained in the
arteries, becomes conftantly lefs; and at a certain point ceafes
altogether. Here the pulfe ceafesalfo. Hence in micro-
{copical obfervations on the courfe of the blood in fmall vef=
fels, its ftream appears to be uniform: and it is commonly
{tated, that the pulfation ceafes in veffels of about one-fixth
of a line in diameter.
The motion of the blood in the minute veins, feems to
be equal in velocity to its courfe in the {mall arteries ; this
velocity increafes in the larger trunks ; and there is a cen-
{tant acceleration in the bloed’s courfe until it arrives at the
heart. This fluid is pafling through tubes which conftantly
decreafe in area; and it follows of neceffity, that by dimi-
nifhing the channel of a fluid, its courfe muft be accelerated.
Hence tie-trunks of the vene cave return to the heart,
within a given time, as much blood, as the aorta carried
out of this vifcus.
The motion of the blood along the veins muft be derived
from the impulfe, which it receives from the heart, and
from the aétion (if there be any) of the arteries. Its cir-
culation in thefe veffels is aided by the contra@tion of the
mufcles, which muft urge on the contained fluid towards
the heart ; fince their valves prevent any retrograde motion.
The return of the venous blood is affected by refpiration.
It appears in living animals, that the large veins become
turgid during expiration; either from the obftruétion of
the blood’s courfe through the lungs, or in confequence of
its reflux from the heart ; they are evacuated in sapivaeshet
In this latter ftate the depletion of the veins caufes the
brain to fubfide; whereas in expiration the retention of the
blood produces diftention and {welling of the vifcus.
As the motion of the blood in the veins is not derived
from any immediate force, it is confiderably affeGted by gra-
vity ; in f{pite of the valves, which counteraé& this influence
cenfiderably. The experiments of Haller and Spallanzani
have fhewn this faét in cold-blooded animals. It is evinced
alfo
CUR COL A T.t-OaN.
alfo by various phenomena in the human fubje&t ;.viz. va-
rices of the legs, {welling of the feet after the ereét pofi-
tion has been long preferved, &c.
Some very curious and interefting phenomena have been
obferved in experiments on living animals, and referred toa
general principle termed derivation; in conformity with
which it appears that the blood flows rapidly towards any
quarter, from which the ufual preffure is removed. The
experiments of Haller and Spallanzani have much illuftrated
this fubject, which isof the greatelt importance in a praéti-
cal view. (See Hallei’s ‘“‘ Elementa Phyfiologie,’’ lib. 6.
fe&. 1.§ 40. Spallanzani’s ** Experiments on the Circu-
lation, &c.’’ p. 386, et feq.) The blood rufhes from all
quarters towards an incifion in a vein or artery; it forfakes
the neighbouring trunks and branches ; it is difcharged both
in the dire¢tion of the circulation, and in a retrograde
courfe ; it moves againft the force of gravity, as well as
contrary to its ufual current. When the blood ftagnates in
an animal fubmitted to experiment, it flows again through
an opening made in an artery or vein. The blood in the
artery, correfponding to the vein that is opened, recovers
or accelerates its courfe according to the flagnation or
velocity which it poflefled before the operation. An inci-
fion into the heart has the fame effe&t; the blood flows
out at the opening both from the arteries and veins. The
{welling of a part under a cupping glafs is probably derived
from the principle which we have now defcribed.
When the circulation ceafes before death, it appears to
ftop firlt in the fmall veffels; and this ftlagnation is propa-
gated towards the heart. ‘The arterial blood,’ fays
Spallangani, in {peaking of the phenomena of languid cir-
culation, ‘¢ which at frit had an uniform courfe, loft more
or lefs quickly its equilibrium, and abated in velocity at
each diaftole of the heart ; to this abatement foon fucceeded
a complete ftagnation, except during the fyflole, when the
blood preferved fome remains of motion, whieh however
difappeared by degrees. Thus the circulation ceafed in the
arteries by a fucceffive and gradual diminution of momen-
tum, without any flux or reflux, intermittent or vibratory
motion. The motion of the blood in the veins, ceafed in
the fame gradual manner; and thefe different phenomena
were alike evident in the arterial] and venous fluid of cold
and warm-blooded animals.” P. 353.
It has been ftated that the globules of the blood pafs more
in the axis of the veffel than the other parts of this fluid,
This circumftance has been deduced from an abfurd applica-
tion of the laws of hydraulics to the circulation, and is not
founded on any actual obfervation in living animals.
It appears alfo, from experimental inquiries on the fub-
je, that we are not warranted in affigning to the blood
any inteftinal motion, in addition to the regular and uniform
progreffion, which we have been now defcribing. Yet it is
not unlikely, that the various diretions, divifions, and
anaftomofes of the blood-veflels may have fome influence on
the elements of the blood.
We proceed to confider the powers, which animate the
organs of circulation, and enable thefe parts to execute
their feveral funGions. Thofe of the heart, as being the
-greateft and moft important, will claim our firlt attention ;
but there are fecondary and auxiliary forces, which proba-
bly have confiderable fhare in aiding the actions of this
vifcus.
We fhall readily perceive, that no certain calculation can
be formed of the powers of the heart, when we confider
that neither the quantity of blood expelled at one pulfation,
nor the diftance through which it paffes in a given time ; nor
the velocity of its courfe, can be defined with any certainty ;
much lefs can we form any accurate eftimate of the obftacles
which occur to the blood’s motion; which mutt confider-
ably affect fuch a calculation. We may however approach
in fome degree to the truth, by colleéting and comparing
the refults of probable conjecture. If we calculate the
blood contained in the body at thirty pounds, the number
of pulfations in one minute at 75, and the quantity expelled
from the left ventricle at each pulfation at 24 ounces, the
whole quantity will pafs through the heart about twenty-
three times in the courfe of an hour; it will perform the
circulation once in lefs than three minutes. The velocity
with which this blood is propelled by the fyftole of the
left ventricle may be collected from the violence with
which it is ejected from a wounded artery; and the
altitude to which it afcends. Blumenbach has feen it
projected more than five feet from the carotid of an
adult during the firft contra€tions of the heart. Our
countryman Hales calculated from his experiments, in
which he meafured the height of the blood’s afcent in a glafs
tube, inferted into a large artery, that it would be throwa
74 feet from the human carotid: he eftimates the furface
of the ventricle at fifteen fquare inches ; and thus finds that
1350 cubic inches, or about 51lbs. weight, prefs upon the
left ventricle, and mult be overcome by its fyftole. Many
other calculations of the powers of the heart have been
formed upon mathematical principles: but different perfons
have been led to {uch oppofite refults, that we are warranted
from this circumftance in difregarding them altogether.
Borclli makes the powers of the heart equal to 150,000]bs. ;
Keill to eight ounces. Senac obferves, that if a weight of
solbs. be attached to the foot, with the knee of that fide
placed on the oppofite one; the weight will be elevated at
each pulfation: this weight is placed at a confiderable
diftance from the centre of motion; and, allowing for this
circumitance, he eftimates the moving power at 4oolbs.
This power of the heart, fo wonderful both in extent
and duration, mult be referred to the irritability of the
organ; in which point of view it feems far to exceed all
other mufcular parts of the body. That the*immediate
caufe of contraétion in this vifcus arifes from the prefence
of blood in its cavities, is fhewn by the celebrated experi-
ment of Haller; in which the longer duration of action
in the right or left cavities was varied by influencing the
fupply of blood.
In the action of thofe mufcles, which depend on the will ;
a fupply of nerves, and a-diftribution of blood to the mov-
ing fibres, feem to be effential conditions. It has been dif-
puted whether or not thefe circumftances are neceflary in the
heart ; and what fhare they may contribute to-the heart’s
aGion. We may obferve, in the firft place, that the actions
of the heart are completely involuntary ; that no exertion
of the will can produce the fmalleft effet in accelerating,
retarding, or otherwife affecting the actions of this part.
Yet, various arguments prove that the nerves cxert an in-
fluence over this organ. Not to mention the peculiar ar-
rangement of the cardiac nerves; the fympathy between the
heart’s action, and nearly every other function, even of the
molt different claffes, fuflices to demonftrate the connection.
‘The vehement difturbance of the heart from the paflions of
the mind mutt be familiar to every perfon from his own ex-
perience: its action is alfo ftrongly influenced by various
{tates and affeGtions of the alimentary canal. That its irri-
tability muft be influenced by different ftates of the vafcular
fyftem is rendered probable by the remarkable and copious
apparatus of blood-veffels, which are diftributed to it.
The aétion of the heart is intimately connected with the
changes which the blood undergoes in its paflage petits
the
CA RyuC wi LA Tae a.
the lungs. , For when refpiration is obftru&ed, the heart’s
action ceafes ; and it may be recalled by again introducing
air into the lungs. Hence arifes the importance of inflating
the lungs, in inftances of apparent death from drowning,
&c. in order to excite the heart to a&tion.
There isa mechanical power derived from the ftruéture of
the heart, which is faid to affill in the fun&tion of circula-
tion. The blood being expelled by the fyftole of its cavi-
tics. they are in an empty and contra€ted. tate ; a tendency
to the formation of a vacuum now arifes, in confequence of
which, the blood arriving by the veins immediately rufhes
into the vacant fpace.
The other organs of circulation, befides the heart, are en-
dowed with powers by which they contribute to the per-
formance of this fun@tion. The arteries probably contribute
cflentially to the circulation, although the degree of their
affitance, and their mode of 2€tion, are not yet fatisfaétonily
-explained. By theirelattic power, thefe veflels recover their
original fize, after being diltended by the heart’s action ; and
they mult of conrfe urge on the bloed propertionally. It is
a fa& molt familiarly known, that the arteries pulfate; and
that they pulfate powerfully, fo that the courfe of the blood
through the popliteal artery is {ufficient, when we place one
knee on the other, to elevate the whole leo and foot, even
with the addition of a cenfiderable weight. Phyfi logifis
have been long accu/temed to afcribe to thefe veffels a itate
of fyttole, or contraction, a3 well asa ftate of dialtole, or
dilatation ; which are confidered as alternating with the
fimilar {lates of the heart ; and the latter of which is referred
to a mufcular power,. or irritability, refiding in the arterial
coats. It feems certain that the efleét, which we call the
pile, cannet be aferibed originally to any property cf the
veffel in which it occurs ; but that its origin muft be derived
from the contraétion of the heart, and the confequent dilten-
tion of the arterial tube by the blood, which is then expelled
from the left ventricle. We admic, therefore, a dialtole of
the arteries, arifing from the lateral preflure of the blood,
forcibly projeGted into thefe canals. Thar this pulfation is
produce » by the heart’s ation, is proved by ancurifms, and
by the effect of ligatures on an arterial trunk ; for thefe de-
ftroy the pulfein the arteries, beyond the part. We are not
equally warranted in afcribing a true fyftole to the arterics ;
or a contraction of thefe vefleis by mufcular power, to a
{malier area than that to which they are reduced by their
elallicity. Nay, fome phyficlogiits have proceeded fo far,
as to deny altogether the exiftence of irritability in the ar-
teries; or at lea{t to affirm, that the action of the heart alone
fuffices to carry on the circulation. ‘The following argu-
ments feem to prove the exiltence of mufcular powers in the
arteries, and their actual exertion in the living body. We
have already fhewn that the caufes which would retard the
blood’s mction in dead tubes, do not feem to operate in the
arteries of the body: this can only be explained, by tup-
pofing them to be overbalanced by fome powers refiding in
thefe veflels. Lf we divide an artery in a living animal, the
orifice clofes ; if we divide it for fome extent, it contracts gra-
dually, fo as to become nearly fhut (Hunter on the Blcod,
p. £14.). The arteries of an animal bled to death are con-
tracted toa {maller area than their elafticity would bring them
to; they may at leaft be diftended confiderably, and will not
by their elafticity recover their former contracted flate (Ibid.).
The fun@ions of the arteries argue the poffeffion of
living powers: by thefe the growth and formation of the
various parts of the body is affeéted ; they perform the cif-
ferent jecretions: thefe phenomena, as well as thofe of blufh-
ing and palenefs, cannot be accounted for, if we confider
the arteries mercly as deadtubes. The great fupply of nerves
which thefe veffels poffefs in many parts cf the body, vx.
the branches of the carotid, the arteries of the neck, and
thofe of the cheft and abdomen, isa prefumptiye proof to
the fame efle&t. In fome rare inflances the heart has been
wantirg in fcetufes, otherwife well formed: we muft fuppofe
that there was a circulation which mult, nnder thefe circum-
jtances, have been carried on by the vefiels only. It has been
ftated, in oppofition to the irritable power of the arteries,
and to their fyftole as aiding the circulation, that fimuli
which affe€t other mufeles caufe ro figns of irritability in
thefe tubes. ‘That an artery, -laid bare m the living fubjeé,
cannot be feen to contraét; that if divided, its diemeter ts
not leffened in the fuppofed ftate of fyltole ; that the blood
flows in a continuous ftream, excepting as far as it is aflected
by the heart’s action. (Kirkland on the prefent ftate of
medical furgery, vol. t. p. 306. et feq.) Hence Blumenbach
ftates it as his opinion, that the arteries do not contraét in
the healthy flate, or as long as the heart is adequate to the
natural performance of its funtions; but if thefe veffels are
affected by preternatural ftimuli, or if the heart’s ation, from
whatever caufe, become deficient, then the vital powers of
the arteries will ferve as an auxiliary force for keeping up
the circulation. Blumenbach Initit. Phyfiol. fet. 7. § 130.
Laitly, all obfervers agree in lating that the blood flows
with an uniform current through the f{maller ramifications ;
and it has been generally allowed, that this is the cafe in all
arteries of lefs than one-fixth of a line in diameter. Now we
fhould infer from reafoning @ priori, as Mr. Hunter has aétu-
ally affirmed, that the mufcular force of an artery would in-
creafe in a dire@ ratio with the diminuticn of its fize, (Oa
the Blood, p. 122,) for the auxiliary power muft be the
more required, in proportion as we recede from the fource
of motion. But if either thefe {mall arteries, or the larger
ramifications which immediately precede them, contribute to
the circulation by any a@tual contraction, the blood’s motion
could not appear regular and uninterrupted. Thefe, which
appear to be the principal arguments on both fides of the
quéttion, are left to the conlideration of the reader. Further
proofs and illuftrations, derived from accurate obfervation in
living animals, and from a comparative view of the organs
of circulation in the different orders of animals, feem to be
required, before a decided and fatisfaétory opinion can be
formed cn the fubje&. :
Some phyficlogilts, being of opinion that the a@tian of the
heart could not reach to the fmaileft order of fanguiferous
veflcls, have afcribed the paflage of the blood in the minute
arteries, and thence into the veins, to an ofcillatory motion
of thefe parts, and have employed this explanation in the doc-
trine of inflammation. Microfeopical ebfervation, however,
deteA@s nothing byt an uniform progreflive motion in the
{mall veffels.
There is little to be faid refpeCting the powers which be-
long to the veins, fince thefe veffels obvioufly take a lefs ac-
tive fhare in the circulation than the other parts of the fyftem.
The return of the ‘blood through the veins is only effected
by the preffure from behind of the arterial blood, aflilted by
the valves, which prevent any retrograde motion.
Circulation of the Blood in the Fetus.
The defeription which we have jut given, applies to th
circulation as it is performed in the adult fubject ; this func-
tion differs confiderably in the feetal ftate; and the differ-
ence is caufed from fome variations in the ittructure of the
heart, and adjacent veffels, which arife from the conneétion
-eftablifhed between the mother and the child, through the
medium of the placenta, and from the want of ref{piration.
See Heart and PLacenrTa. on
€
CO RICO WT ATT IGIN.
The fituation of the child in-utero precludes the accefs of
atmofpheric air to its lungs; thefe organs are confequently
{mall and collapfed; and the lefler circulation of the blood
cannot be faid to take place in the fetal ftate. Aithough
its circulation might be confidered in this refpeét as more
fimple than that of the adult, this fun&tion becomes confi-
derably complicated by the connetion with the placenta.
A portion only of the child’s blood circulates through this
part; and it is no doubt fo altered or modified by this paflage
through the veflels of the placenta, as to be rendered more ft
for the growth and nourifhment of the child. No fuch altera-
tion or modification has however been actually demonitrated
in the feetal blood. Phyfologilts have difcovered no difference
in this fluid in the various veffels of the foetus. Itis of the
fame dark colour in the arteries and veins. The interrup-
tioa of the communication with the placenta, before refpira-
tion has commenced, is however fuddenly fatal. Our igno-
rance of the fun@tions of the placenta, and of the liver, which
is of immenfe fize in the fectus; as well as of the changes
which the fetal blood probably undergoes in the complicated
fyitem of organs, which are connected with its circulation in
this {tate of exiflence, leaves many parts of the fubje&t in
doubt and obf{curity.
The blood, which has vaffed throngh the placenta, is re-
turned to the fyftem of the child bythe umbilical vein; it
is chiefly diftribured through the liver, and is fent ina {mall-
er quantity by the dutus venofus direétly into the trunk of
the inferior cava. “This veflel, paffing in an oblique afcent
from the right towards the left fide, fends its blood into the
left auricle through the foramen ovale; the Eultachian valve
preventing it from pafling towards the right ventricle. The
valve of the foramen ovale guards againit the poflibility of
its return to the right fideof the heart. The {uperior vena
cava pours its blood into the right auricle and ventricle, as
it paflcs obliquely into the former cavity, in a direction from
before backwards, and from the right towards the left fide.
The thick fuperior margin of the foramen ovale concurs
with this direGion in preventing any paffage towards the
left auricle. The continuation of the trunk of the pulmo-
ary artery, under the name of duétus arteriofus, into the
aorta, conveys this blood into the pofterior part of the arch
of the latter veffel, and it is hence tranfmitted in great mea-
fure by the umbilical arteries to the placenta. It appears,
therefore, that the blood of the inferior vena cava, including
that which has recently circulated through the placenta, is
fent entirely to the head and upper extremities, through the
branches of theaortal arch; while that portion of this fluid,
which returns to the heart through the fuperior cava, is fent
to the defcending portion of the aorta, and therefore in great
part to the placenta. Hence Sabatier has obferved, that
the courfe of the blood in the foetus may be compared to the
figure 8, the point of decuflation being in the heart. This
fluid is tran{mitted through the umbilical vein, the inferior
cava, and the foramen ovale, into the left auricle and ven-
tricie; from which the three large branches of the arch of
the aorta conduct it to the head and upper extremities.
‘The fuperior cava returns it to the heart; it goes through
the right auricle and ventricle, the duétus arteriofus, and the
aorta, to the umbilical arteries, which return it to the pla-
centa. By this arrangement, the blood, which has gone
through the placenta, is not returned to that part, until it
has circulated through the whole fyftem of the child;
whereas, by the opinion, which fuppofes a mixture of the
blood of the two venz cave inthe right auricle, it follows,
that a portion of the placental blood would return to that
part, without circulating in the fyftem of the child; and the
blood, which had already gone through the proper veffels of
Vor. VIII.
the foetus, would recommence its courfe in thefe fame veflels,
without receiving the falutary influence, which is probably
exerted on it by the placenta. Sabatier derives from this
expolition of the courfe of the blood, an explanation of the
relatively diminutive fize of the lower parts of the body, when
compared with the head and upper extremities of the fcetus.
The former parts, fays he, are fupplied with a lefs pure
blood. We cannot, however, admit this phyfhiology. The
phenomenon in queftion arifes out of the future ftate of the
human embryo, and muft be confidered in corneGion with
the long ftate of helplefs infancy, to which the individuals
of the human fpecies are exclufively devoted in the early
periods of their exiftence. In quadrupeds, which are obliged
to go alone almoft from the moment of their birth, thefe
proportions are not found; although their veffels are diltri-
buted in the fame manner as in i. human fetus. The
embryos of the quadrumana, and of the f{quirrel, the foal,
&c. are examples of this fact.
The differences in the ftru&ure of the heart and circu-
lating veffels in the foetus, are fuch that they are readily and
eafily changed after birth, fo as to become accommodated to
the alterations which take place in the new mode of exift-
ence. Two ftriking and eflential changes in the animal
economy are co-eval with birth, wz. the obftruGion of the
placental circulation, and the commencement of refpiration.
The former of thefe diminifhes the quantity of blood convey-
ed to the right auricle by the inferior cava; the latter
caufes a developement of the ftruéture of the lungs, and a
confiderable enlargement of the pulmonary veffcls; fo that
the left auricle receives more and more blood from the pul-
monary veins. Hence the quantity of blood contained in
the two auricles becomes equal; and the foramen ovale is
clofed by its valve growing to the margin of the apertures.
The duius arteriofus now contracts; fo that the whole
blood of the pulmonary artery muft circulate through the
lungs in its courfe from the right to the left fide of the
heart. The Enuftachian valve gradually diminifbes as its
funGtion has ceafed ; the umbilical arteries and yein clofe.
Thus the heart and veflels become adapted to the double
circulation, which belongs to the perfect animal, Thhefe
changes take place gradually, and not abruptly; it is many
months, nay even one or two years, before the foramen ovale
is clofed. The duCius arteriofus contra&s much more ra-
pidly ; indeed this veffel, as well as the umbilical arteries and
vein, are Impervious within a very fhort period after birth.
We refer the reader, on the fubjeéts of this article, to the
3d, 4th, and 6th books of Hailer’s * Elementa Phyfiologie.””
Senac, * Traité de la StruQure du Ceeur, de fon AGion, et de
fes Maladies.””? Hales’s ** Statical Effays,” vol. ii. Blumen-
bach “ Inflitutiones Phyfiologia,”? fect. 7. Spallanzani’s
** [’xperiments on the Circulation of the Blood.”? Sabatier
‘© Sur les Organes de la Circulation du Sang du Foetus,’ in
his “* T'raité Complet d’Anatomie,”’ tom. til.
CircuLation, difcovery of. ‘The valt importance of this
difcovery to the whole {cience of phyfiology ; the influence
which it neceflarily exerted on the doétrines of pathology ;
and the general revolution which arofe from this fource
throughout the whole circle of medical knowledge, will juf-
tify us in giving a flight hiftorical fetch of the fubje&t, and
in pointing out the opinions held by thofe anatomifts and
phyfiologiits who preceded our immortal countryman Har-
vey. To him, indeed, the glory of this greateft of all phy-
fiological difcoveries has been afligned by the almoft unani-
mous concurrence of his fucceffors.. Some, however, have
endeavoured to deprive him of his well-earned fame, by af-
cribing a knowledge of the circulation to various preceding
writers. Mr. Dutens, in the fecond volume of his ‘* Re-
cherches
CIR CULA TION.
cherches fur l’Origine des Decouvertes attribueés aux Mo-
dernes,”” has brought forwards paflages from Hippocrates,
Plato, Ariftotle, Julius Pollux, Apuleius, and others, in
order to prove that they knew the courfe of the blood. AF-
ter the pofitive dogmatical affertions with which the author
fets out, we are furprifed by the weaknefs and inadequacy of
his proofs, and can only account for the inconfiftency by
{uppolng him to have been utterly ignorant of the fubje&.
He quotes a few ifolated paffages which cannot, by the moft
favourable interpretation, be conftrued into the femblance of
a proof, that the writers in queftion knew the circulation
of the blood. Thus he adduces the following paflage from
Hippocrates: ‘‘ Ven per corpus diffufe, fpiritum, et flux-
um, ac motum exhibent, ab una multe germinantes; atque
hec una unde oriatur, et ubi definat, non fcio: circulo enim
facto, principium non invenitur.”? Another equally unfatif-
factory follows from Plato: ‘ Cor vero venarum originem,
fontemque fanguinis per omne corpus impetu quodam ma-
nantis,” the Greek word is repiepoueve. Thefe are really
the flrongeft quotations which Mr. Dutens has furnifhed on
the fubject, fo that nothing more would be required in order
to difprove his opinion, than to examine the very paflages
which he adduces in fupport of it.
Let us further remark, on the fame point, that this {pecies
of argument, derived from the confideration of fingle words
and paflages, is by no means a fatisfa¢tory one. A fentence
or term employed accidentally and undefignedly, may fuggeft
to the mind of a perfon acquainted with all the details of a
fubje&, various notions that were not in the contemplation
ef the weiter, and may very probably have been unknown to
him ; while they would be paffed over without attention by
a perfon not poflefling this previous knowledge. The only
fair and unexceptionable method of determining whe'her any
individual was acquainted with a particular fact, is to con-
fider all that he has faid on the fubje&, and to draw our in-
ferences from the refult of this general examination. Such
an inquiry will prove moft clearly, that a knowledge of the
circulation, fuch as we poflefs at prefent, can be afcribed to
no one before Harvey ; although a part of the fubject, viz.
the paflage of the blood through thie lungs, had been de-
{cribed by feveral perfons before the time of that illultrions
character.
That the blood moves, has been univerfally known and
admitted, fince the {cience of medicine has aflumed a diftiné
form: how much of its courfe, and of the laws that regu-
late its motion, has been afcertained at any given period, is
another queftion. he circulation is fo generally known in
the prefent day, and the proofs on which it refts are fo ob-
vious and‘ familiar to every tyro in the profeflion, that we
feel furprifed how they fhould fo long have efcaped the ob-
fervation of the numerous ingenious and learned charaters,
whofe names adorn the annals of anatomy. We mutt re-
member that the courfe of the blood, taken altogether,
forms a fubjeét of confiderable intricacy ; that the purfuit of
anatomy was attended in the early periods of the {cience with
confiderable difficulty and danger; and that the unlimited
{way which the authority of Galen held over the minds of
men for fome centuries, precluded all attempts at further ir-
veltigation. We may alfo account for the ignorance of the
ancients on this fubje&, by remembering the juft diftinc-
tion which Haller has drawn, between the kind of informa-
tion which may be reafonably expected from them and that
which cannot be looked for in this fource, ** Faciles ab anti-
quitate {peramus, quecunque ex ingenio folo nafci poffunt ;
id enim, {ub felici celo hominibus vite negotiis minus impli-
citis, fummum fuit. Que vesO multiplici, neque a cafu
fperabili, {cd imperato ad fuos fines experimento nituntur,
ea ab ea ztate non fperes.”” Bibl. Anat. tom. i. p. 9.
Hippocrates ftates that the blood meets with obftacles in
its courfe, which retard or entirely arreft its progrefs; that
it goes from the internal parts towards the furface : and vice-
verf@, that the blood mut flow forwards from the heart,
fince the valves hinder its return, and that the arteries are
diftended, when their blood is ftopped. In {peaking of the
blood’s motion he compares it to the comrfe of rivers, to the
ebbing and flowing of the fea, and even to the revolutions of
the planets. He affigns the origin of the arteries to the
heart, and that of the veins to the liver, and fuppofes that
there are two oppolite motions in the temporal arteries, by
which their pulfations are produced. He fpeaks of four
fluids in the body, the blood, water, mucus, and bile, which
come from the heart, head, fpleen, and liver; all thofe parts
are, however, fupplied from one principal fource, the fto-
mach,
Can we difcover any traces of a knowledge of the circula-
tion in this confulion of ideas? and may we not be jultly fur-
prifed, to find that enlightened men fhould be fo led away
by their prejudices, as to allow to Hippocrates the know-
ledge of a difcovery, which no one had perceived in his
writings for nearly three thoufand years? "Phe obfervations
of the founder of medicine had led aftray all who followed
him to the time of Harvey ; but when the refearches of that
great man had unfolded the myftery of the circulation, his
enemies dared to affirm, that the writings of Hippocrates
had furnifhed the lights which guided him in the path of dif
covery.
The philofophers who joined the ftudy of medicine to that
of the other fciences, feem to have been equally ignorant of
the laws which regulate the blood’s motion. A paflage has
been already quoted from Plato on this fubjeét ; butit would
be a moft remarkable inftance of liberality to allow him, on
the credit of the vague and indefinite expreffion, which he
there employs, the honour of an admirable difeovery, which
he would have explained more clearly if he had known, or
even fufpeéted it. In the fequel to this paflage, he employs
various allegories, in which the heart is a fentinel or officer
to receive the orders of the foul, and convey them to all parts.
Arittocle exprefsly ftates that the blood never returns to the
heart.
The Alexandrian anatomifts maintained that the arteries
held no blood, but were filled with air; from which circum-
ftance they gave them the name, which they have conftantly
rétained, from enp,air, and smpcw, to hold. ‘To explain the
occurrence of blood in thefe veffels after death, they {uppofed.
the exiltence of {ubtle communications with the veins.
The genius of Galen difdained to follow blindly the fleps.
of his predeceflors; and he endeavoured at leaft to difcover
the truth by experiments, and obfervations on the ftruéture
of the body. By thefe means he afcertained fome fatts, al-
though he could not fucceed in piercing the veil which
concealed the fecret of the circulation. He feems to have
recognized the ufe of the valves at the two orifices of the ven=
tricles. He proved, by tying an artery with two ligatures,
that thefe veffels contain blood during life; and ftates that
they are filled by the contraétion of the heart, in confequence
of which they pulfate. Thefe circumitances feem to indicate
a confiderable advancement in the knowledge of the circula-
tion ; but we mult mention, in the fame fpirit of impartiali-
ty, the contradictions and uncertainty which prevail in the.
works of Galen on this fubje&, and the limits which his la-
bours could not exceed. He ftill referred, with Hippocra-
tes, the origin of the veins to the liver, and {uppofed a pal-
age
Gi RGU LA TION.
fage of the blood through the feptum of the ventricles, while
a {mall portion entered the pulmonary artery to nourifh the
lungs: he imagined laftly, that it might pals reciprocally
between the pulmonary artery and veins.
There could be little reafon to expe&, that in the
troubled and barbarous times, which followed the age in
which Galen flourifhed, the fecret of the circulation
fhould be difcovered; {till lefs that it fhould be explained to
phyficians by men, whofe purfuits were foreign to the feience
of medicine. Yet it hasbeen boldly afferted that Nemefius,
bifhop of Emefa, knew the courfe of the blood, as it has
been afcertained by the fubfequent labours of Harvey. The
editor of the Oxford edition of his works, has imbibed the
true f{pirit of a commentator ; who difcovers in the writings
of the ancients, meanings which never were in the contem-
plation of the authors; and abufes the moderns as plagia-
rifts, for decorating themfelves with the difcoveries of am-
tiquity.
But on what grounds does Nemefius claim the honour
of a difcovery, denied te fo many great geniufes? Because,
according to Freind, the bifhop ftates, that the blood
pails from the arteries into the veins during fleep. This
refllri€tion immediately overturns the claim; which would
indeed be deftroyed by the kind of motion that he
{uppofes to take place, wiz. a reciprocal alternation
of undulations, like that of the Euripus. In another
paflage cited by Dutens, he {peaks of the arteries in their
dilatation attra¢ting the blood from the veins; which fuf-
ficiently proves that he knew nothing of the matter; and
exemplifies ftill further the abfurdity of a perfon’s attempt-
ing to-dogmatize as Dutens has done, on {ubjects of which,
as being foreign to his profeffion, and difficult of inveftiga-
tion, he cannot reafonably be expeéted to be a competent
judge. ‘“ Thus,” to ufe the words of Senac, ‘a theolo-
gian writes on the nature of man; a fubje&t which does not
very properly belong to fuch a writer: on no other teti-
mony, than fome vague and ridiculous expreflions, he gains
the credit of knowing the circulation, of which the greateft
phyficians and anatomifts had been hitherto completely
ignorant. ‘Thus it is, that interpreters and commentators
are mifled by a blind zeal for antiquity, and difcover hid-
den meanings in the moft fimple expreffions. How would
their boldnefs and affurance have been augmented, if Neme-
fius had exprefled himfelf as clearly, as an ancient fcholiatt
of Euripides has done, where he fays, * that the blood
fiows through the veins, and that thefe vellels receive it
from the arteries.’ Should we, however, on this infulated
and cafual expreffion, be juftified in beftowing on a weigher
of words, and meafurer of phrafes, the honour of a dif-
covery, which had eluded the refearches of the greateft
philofophers ?
The {tate of darknefs and ignorance, in which the human
mind languithed during the fucceeding ages, does not allow
us to expect that any writer of that period can difpute with
Harvey the honour of the great difcovery. About the
fixteenth century the curiofity of mankind was again ex-
cited to the invettigation of this interefling fubjeét. Rea-
fon, which had hitherto fubmitted to the yoke of authority,
began to affert her rights; and feveral phyficians were
bold enough to examine fubjeéts, which Hippocrates and
Galen had not been able to develope.
The firft ray of light was thrown on the circulation, by
aman, whofe name cannot be mentioned without exciting
feelings of compaffion for his unmerited and barbarous treat-
ment, and of indignation at the unrelenting bigotry of his
cruel perfecutor, and implacable judge. Gifted with an
ardent and penetrating genius, Servetus made a rapid pro-
grefs, at a very early age, in the fciences of natural philo-
fophy and divinity. By applying the rigorous, and exact
kind of proof required in fubje€ts of the former kind, to
the latter {cience, he refufed to aflent to propofitions, which
he could not comprehend; and openly dcelared his difbe-
lief of the facred myftery ofthe Trinity. This compelled
him to leave Spain his native country ; from which he pafled
into France, and ftudied medicine at Paris, under Winter
d’Andernach, who was profeffor in the college lately found-
ed by Francis I. He vifited different parts of France and
Germany, and after various perfecutions on account of his
religious opinions, fettled ia Dauphiny. But the reformer
of Geneva, either being too narrow-minded to grant toa
rival, that freedom of thought, and liberty of confciencey
which he had fo fuccefsfully exerted in his own perfon ;
or fearing that his fchemes of aggrandizement would be in-
terrupted by the fuperior talents of Servetus ; had kim feized
and condemned to the flames. Thus, fays Portal, one here=
tic deftroyed another; but the difference was, that an am-
bitious and defigning knave pronounced the condemnation,
and one of the finelt and molt enlightened geninfes of Eu-
rope was the lamented vidtim of this iniquitous fentence.
The paflage, which proves Servetus to have beenacquaint-
ed with the pulmonary circulation, occurs in his work de
Reltitutione Chrifiianifmi ; which having been carefully de-
flroyed on account of the herefy which it contains, is now
extremely fcarce; fo that two or three copies only are fup-
pofed to exift, and the Guke de la Valiere gave the fum of
132/. for one. Blumenbach Introd. in Medic. Literar. ps
125.
He flates that the vital fpirit is compofed of the mok
fubtile parts of the b!ood, and of the air, which infinuates
itfelf into the lungs; and that the fource of this blood 1s
in the right ventricle... «© But the communication, that is
to fay, the paflage of the blood from the right to the left
ventricle, does not take place acrofs the middle feptum, as
perfons have generally imagined; it depends on a more
fingular ftru@ure. In the long windings of the lung, this
fubtile blood is agitated, and prepared by the ation of
the vifcus, and gains a yellow colopr. From the wena
arteriofa, (pulmonary artery), it pafles into the arterie
venofe, (pulmonary veins), where it becomes mingled
with the air that has entered the lungs, and lofes its
fuliginous excrements. Laflly it enters the left ven-
tricle, which attrads it in its diaftole, Such is the
preparation of the blood, from which the vital fpirit is
formed ; this preparation, and this paflage from the arterial
vein into the venous artery, are evidently proved by the
fize of the veflels; which would not be fo large, nor poflefs
fo many branches; nor carry tothe lung fo great a volume
of blood, if it were deltined to the nourifhment only of the
vifcus.”? He adds that the vital fpirit is fent from the left
ventricle into all the arteries of the body.
This reprefentation proves inconteliably that Servetus
knew the minor circulation. He laid the fourdation of a
building, which had baffled all the efforts of the great ge-
niufes of antiquity. In order to perfeét this defign it was
only neceffary to extend the ideas of the firlt architect. He
indicated the route, through which the blood patffes from
the right to the left ventricle ; it remained to be proved that
all the blood takes this paflage, and that it returns again
to the heart from the arteries through the veins.
The obfcure {ketch of the circulation, which was furnifh-
ed by Servetus, appears in a more finifhed and luminous
form in the works of Realdus Columbus. He defcribes the
entrance of the blood into the heart from the vena cava, and”
its fubfequent paflage through the lungs into the left ven-
L
l2 tricle
CPLR CAMA THO,
tricle and aorta. He advanced a ftep farther than Servetus ;
for he ftates tlrat the whole blood paffes through the lungs,
and not the vital fpirit only. But he falls into the fame
error with preceding anatomifts on the fubject of the liver ;
fuppofing that gland to be the fource of the blood which
nourifhes the ftomach, fpleen, &c.
Arantius and Czfalpinus defcribed more perfeétly and
clearly than Columbus, the paflage of the blood through the
lungs ; which they confirmed by feveral arguments drawn
from the ftruéture of the parts, and particularly from the
polition and mechani{m of the valves. The latter indeed
approached very nearly to the grand defideratum, the paflage
of the blood from the arteries through the veins to the heart.
He obferves that a vein fwells below the ligature; but he
did not follow this up to prove the circulation. He fays
that the blood returns to the heart through the veins during
fleep ; but he fuppofed it to move backwards and forwards
in the fame veffels, ike the Euripus. He was mifled alfo in
the labyrinth of the liver, where fo many phyfiologifts have
loft themfelves. The arrangement ef the arteries and veins
tn this organ prefents {uch an intricate combination that we
need not wonder at its proving, for fo long a time, a fource of
miitake and illufion.
Paul Sarpi, the learned hittorian of the council of Trent,
is one of thofe to whom the circulation is faid to have been
known; but the want of all arguments that bear the leaft
conviction on the fubjeét, will juftify us in declining any par-
ticular confideration of his claim, as well as thofe of Fabri, a
Jefuit, of Helvicus Dietericus and others.
Notwithftanding the labours and writings of the anato-
milis, whofe opinions we have thus curforily examined, the
minds of men were ftill enflaved by thofe errors, which,
having prevailed for fo many centuries, had acquired the
fanétion which time and authority beftow on any opinions,
however abfurd. The moft enlightened phyficians were
fatisfied with the labours of their predeceffors: and Harvey
alone had fufficient courage and information to canvafs theie
inveterate prejudices, which length of time had confecrated
as infaliible truths. He obferved and defcribed the true
courfe of the blood with a wonderful fagacity and clearnels.
None of the arguments, which prove the circulation, efcaped
the refearches of this acute obferver; fo that a modern
phyfiologift, in recounting the proofs of this phyfiological
fa&, could add little, ifany thing, to what is accumulated in
the original werk ef Harvey. He was not contented with
demonftrating the circulation in fome parts only ; but fol-
lowed up the fubjeét in all the vifcera of the body.» He
traced the courfe of the blood through the liver, where
every preceding anatomift had difcovered nothing but per-
plexity and confufion. The work of Harvey is, in fhort,
one of thofe rare and precious produ@ions which embrace a
fubje& in its whole extent, and prefent it to the mind in fo
perfect and finifhed a form, as fearcely to admit a fingle ad-
dition or improvement.
The ments of our countryman, whofe fame can never
perifh, while medical fcience continues to be cultivated,
will be exalted to a ftill higher pitch, when we confider the
. flate of medical knowledge in England at that time. While
anatomical f{chools had been long eftablifhed in Italy, France,
and Germany, and feveral teachers had rendered their
names illultrious by the fuccefsful purfuit of the fcience,
anatomy was {till unknown in England, where diffeCtion
had hitherto hardly begun. Yet, at this inaufpicious period,
did Harvey make the difcovery, which may be confidered
as a fecond and more perfect foundation of the fcience of
medicine ; and which amply juftifies Haller in ranking him
aa {econd. to Hippocrates only.
Harvey ftudied anatomy at Padua under Hieronymus
Fabricius; who had inveitigated more minutely, and de-
{cribed more accurately the valves of the veins firlt difcover-
ed by Cannanus. Returning to hisown country, he com-
menced a feries of experiments on living animals ; and
taught the circulation in his le€tures about the year 1616.
But he did not publicly promulgate his grand difcovery
till 1628, when his ** Exercitatio anatomica de Motu Cordis
et Sanguinis in Animalibus” appeared at Frankfort: and
this is the only edition, which bears the ftamp of Harvey’s
own authority. This treatife, which Haller has moft ap-
propriately ftyled “ aureum opufculum,” is conftruéed
entirely upon the refult of experiment, and contains an ex-
cellent arrangement of the fubje&t. The author was now
created phyfician to king Charles I. and demonttrated the
circulation before him in a living animal.
The publication of this grand difcovery roufed the at-
tention of all Europe. The old profeffors, accuftomed te
pay a blind and implicit deference te the authority of
Galen, which was now uiterly fubverted, and, afhamed of
confeffing that their whole life had been {pent in teaching
the groffeft errors, took up their pens in oppofition to the
author of thefe innovations. One party aflerted that the
difcovery was not a new one: that it had been known
to feveral perfons, and, indeed, to all antiquity. Such
were the affertions of Nardi, Vander Linden, Hartmann,
Almeloveen, Barra, Drelincourt, Patin, Falconet, Heifter,
Regnault, &c. A fufficient refutation of thefe ftate-
ments will be found in the hiftorical fketch, which we have
already exhibited. Other adverfaries of Harvey proceeded
in a more rational manner; and attempted to dilprove his
ftatements by experiment and reafoning. Primerofe led the
way in this attack, and he was followed by Emilius Pari-
fanus, Joh. Riolan, Cafp. Hoffmann, and others. If men
of fuch acknowledged erudition as Riolan and Hoffmann
were fo utterly unacquainted with the circulation, as to
deny it altogether, may we not fafely conclude that the
fubje& is not defcribed in any of the writers, who preceded
Harvey? Out of ali his numerous opponents, this illuftrious
man an{wered Riolan only ; in his ‘* Secunda et tertia exer-
citatio de circulatione fanguinis.””? ‘The reply was rather
extorted by the rank, fame, and learning of Riolan, than
by the firength of his arguments. If we feek to define
exaGily the precife fhare of merit which Harvey may claim
in the difcovery of the circulation, it will be neceffary to
hold a middle courfe between the grofs and palpable ab-
furdity of thofe who difcover a knowledge of the circula-
tion in the writings of Solomon, Hippocrates, Plato, Arif-
totle, &c., and the too great partiality of fuch as would
deny all knowledge of the fubje& to every anatomilt who
preceded Harvey. It feldom happens, that fo extenfive
and intricate a fubje& as that which we are now confidering,
is furveyed and brought to light in all its branches by the
labour of an individual ; nor has it happened in the prefent
inftance. For Servetus, Columbus, Arantius, and Czfal-
pinus, were acquainted with the courfe of the blood
through the lungs; and the latter writer has even an ob-
{cure hint towards the greater circulation. But no one at-
tempted to prove the latter point by arguments and expe-
riment before the time of Harvey: the expreffions of
Cefalpinus, which are by no means clear or fatisfaQory,
had been before the public for half a century without ex-
citing the leaft inveftigation, and without fuggelting to
Fabricius the true office of the valves in the veins. The
entire merit of the greater circulation may, therefore, be
afcribed to our illuftrious countryman 3; and if we compare
the luminous method, and irrefragable proofs lar —
ounG.
©
EDRECMLAT EON.
found in his expofition of the other part of the fubjec,
with the partial and confufed ftatements of preceding
authors, his merit will here be only fecond in degree to that
of actual difcovery.
The doctrine of the circulation.met with fome fupporters
on its firft promulgation. Walzus of Leyden exerted him-
felf flrenuoufly on this fide, and defended the propofitions
of Harvey in two excellent letters addreffed to Bartholin.
Des Cartes alfo, whofe authority at that time carried vaft
weight with it, took’ a decided part in the controverfy in
favour of Harvey, from its commencement. The doétrine
was pretty generally admitted throughout Europe before
the deceafe of its propofer.
The nature of the communication between the arteries
and veins was left undetermined by Harvey, who decided
no point which he could not make the fubje@ of experi-
ment. The art of injecting the veffels of the dead body,
which has been difcovered and carried to great perfection
fince his time, has fhewn a continuation’ of canal joining
the two fyftems of blood-veffels: and the employment of
the microfcope has completed the proof, by demonttrating
the circulation in the tranfparent parts of frogs, &c. during
life. The transfufion of the blood of one animal into the
veffels of another, which has been performed with fuccefs
in many inftances, has added another {trong proof te the
demonttration of the circulation. See the ‘ Hiltoire de
P Anatomie, et de la Chirurgie”’ of Portal, and the ‘* Bib-
liotheca Anatomica’? of Haller, in the articles concerning
the writers, whofe names are mentioned in this account;
s¢ Elementa Phyfiologix,” tom. i. feét. 3. Senac “ Traité
du Ceur,” livre 3. Dutens * Recherches fur les Decou-
vertes attribuées aux Modernes.”?
Cixcuration of the Sap, in Vegetable Phyfiology, is a
fubje& which has been long involved in the utmoft obicurity.
After the difcovery of the circulation of the blood in ani-
mals, feveral diftinguifhed philofophers, who bellowed at-
tention upon the anatomy and phylfiology of plants, ex-
peed to difcover fomething equivalent in their conttitution.
The flightett obfervation was fufficient to determine that
the juices of the earth were abforbed bj the roots of plants,
and pervading their fubftance, fupptied them with nourifh-
ment, thus contributing effentially to their health and
increafe. This regular propulfion of fluids through the
vegetable body is evinced by taking an entire plant with its
root, or even a branch cut from its parent ftem, and after it
has begun to droop, placing its lower extremity in water.
By the abforption of the water through its veflels, the
plant or branch will foon revive, and continue in vigour for
a longer or fhorter period, according as the cireumtftances in
which it is placed may be more or lefs favourable. It was
alfo very foon difcovered that an extraordinary motion of the
fap took place at a certain time of the year. If a vine,
for inftance, be wounded in the fpring, jult before its leaf-
buds open, it d/ceds, as the gardeners exprefs it, that is,
the fap runs out very abundantly, infomuch that if the
wound be not ftopped, the experiment is fatal to the branch
on which it is made. The fame thing was obferved in the
birch, whofe fap fo procured is, in fome countries, manu-
faGtured into wine, as that of the American fugar-maple,
acer faccharinum, is made to yield fugar. This bleeding
does not take place if the vine be cut after the leaves begin
to expand; but in autumn, aftera flight froft, not during
the froft, the fap runs in a fimilar manner from a wound,
though in a far lefs degree. This is called technically the
flowing of the fap. An ordinary branch of a vine will
yield about a pint in 24 hours. The liquor thus obtained
is clear and colourlefs, with little {mell or talte, and feems
s
fcarcely different from common water, yet it foon undergoes
chemical changes, which fhew it to be fomething more.
The peculiar fecretions of the vine, which are very acid,
alfo come along with it, and ftill more thofe of the birch
and fugar-maple; fo that the perfe@tly pure fap, or nutri-
tious fluid of any plant, is fearcely to be obtained unmixed
with adventitious matter.
When this flowing of the fap*began to be ftudied by phy-
fiologilts, their fanguine hopes of deteéting the vegetable
circulation by its means were not at all anfwered. In vain
wereligatures tried to difcover its courfe,as had been practifed
with fo much fuccefs on the veins and arteries of animals.
Nothing like a {welling from a ftoppage of the {ap in its paf-
fage, by ligatures, and confequent accumulation in the veffels,
has ever been perceived in vegetables. It was obferved to flow:
equally from both fides of a tranfverfe wound, and in as
great quantity from the portion of the ftem or branch above
the wound as below it, at leaft till the upper portion, not
being fupplied from the root, was exhaufted. I: was alfo
{een to proceed always from the wsod, not from the bark.
Some authors having thought they obferved the fap to flow
more abundantly from the lower fide of an incifion during
the heat of the day, and from the upper in the cool of the
evening, have afferted that it mounts during the former pe-
riod, and defcends at the latter. But the moft furprizing
circumftancee of all was, that after the leaves were expand-
ed, when it was known that a great perfpiration was going
on through thofe organs, and that there confequently muit
be as great and conftant a propullion of the fap at leaft as
took place before, no fuch violent movement in that fluid
could be perceived ; for during the greater part of the year
only a flight effufion of fap happens from a wound. Tr,
Smith,taking all thefe phenomena into confideration, has fug~
gefted that probably this great motion in the fap, which
has been univerfally believed tq exift in trees for a fhort pe-
riod before their buds open, is altogether imaginary. He
is perfuaded the fap is at that period, as well as through
the winter, (in deciduous trees at leaft,) quiefcent, and
that it has in fpring merely an extraordinary propenfity to
run, caufed by the reviving warmth of that feafon, and the
accumulated irritability of the vegetable conftitution during
winter. For this reafon the fap flows in fome degree ina
warm autumnal day after a froft, the cold having: increafed
the fenfibility of the plant to the warmth which follows,
and thus what happens im winter and {pring is ated for a
fhort period ona {mall feale. This flowing of the fap, or
{peaking more correétly, this facility of the fap to run, is
therefore the firft ftep towards the revival of vegetation in
the {pring, and its exciting caufe is heat, doubtlefs by fti-
mulating the vital principle, and not by any mechanical ac-
tion. ‘The effe& of heat in this refpe& is in proportion to
the degree of cold to which the plant has previoufly been
expofed. In forced plants the irritability is exhaufted, ac-
cording to theremark of Mr. Knight in the ‘“ Philofophi-
cal Tranfactions for 1801,” which is ftrikingly to our pre-
fent purpofe. f
“Tt is well known,” fays that gentleman, p. 342, “ that
the degree of heat required to put the fap into motion; in
the vine, is not definite, but depends on that to which the
plant has been previoufly accuftomed. Thus, a vine which
has grown all. the fummer, in the heat of a ftove, will not
be made to vegetate during the winter by the heat of that
ftove ; but, if another plant of the fame variety, which has
grown. in the open air, be at any time introduced, after it
has dropped its leaves in the autumn, it will inftantly vege-
tate. ‘This effet appears to me to arife from the latter
plant’s poflefing a degree of irritability, which has been
’ exhaufted.
CIRCULATION.
exhaufted in the former by the heat of the ftove, but which
it will acquire again during the winter, or by being drawn
out and expofed for a fhort time to the autumnal frolt.
For the fame reafon, all vegetation goes cn better in the
increafing heat of f{pring, than in the decreafing heat of au-
tumn, and fome plants, even of the moft hardy kind, as
radifhes, which grow fo freely at the former feafon, can by
no art be made to vegetate at all in the decline of the year.
An attention to this law of nature will enable us to procure
flowers from many plants that do not readily bloffom under
ordinary management. The Cape jafmine, Gardenia florida,
is beft kept ina common greenhoufe, fecured from fret,
till about April, when if expofed to the ftrongeft heat of a
bark bed it is made to flower in the greateft luxuriance.
The propulfion of the fap, in one dire@tion at leaft, from
the root upwards, being eftablithed, the next fubje& of in-
quiry is the fyftem of veffels in which it runs. Malpizhiand
Grew, the leaders in this branch of philofophy, and all their
followers, even the intelligent Du Hamel among others, were
convinced of the exiltence of three kinds of longitudinal veffels
in the vegetable body, fap veffels, air veflcls, and veffels deno-
micated va/a propria, containing fecreted fluids. The lait are
obvious to the molt careleis obferver, filled with the refin
of the fir, the milk of the fig, celandine, &c. Aiir-veffels
are found in mott parts of a plant, of aroundifh ot oval form,
intermixed with the parenchyma or pulp. So far is wnquef-
tionable; but the above ingenious obfervers thought they
had alfo difcovered longitudinal air-veffels. Whena young
branch of elder, the ftem of a lily, and many other {tems,
branches, or leaf ftalks, are partly cut through, and their
two portions gently drawn afunder, a fet of white {piral
threads, of confiderable itrength, are unrolled in the fub-
ftance of the yours wood, not in the bark. Each of thefe
threads forms the {piral coat of a veffel, the thread itfelf not
being, as f{eme perions have fuppofed, pervious. Such vel-
fels are of {uthcient diameter to be eafily vifible under an
ordinary microfcope, and when inveftigated with high mag-
nifying powers, their ftructure is readily feen. They are
always found nearly, if not quite, empty of moifture, and
filled with air, and were therefore, by a fimilar miltake to
what was formerly made concerning animal arteries, deter-
mined to be air-veffels, though no communication could be
traced between them and the above-mentioned round or oval
air-cells. The fap-veffels only remained to be afcertained.
Thefe, it was thought, could exilt only in the woody fibres,
which make fo contfiderable a part of the bulk of a tree or
fhrub, and are abundant even in herbaceous plants. But
philofophers fcught in vain for any cavity in thofe fibres.
‘They are divifible without end, nor can any perforation be
detected. Still it was argued that as the va/a propria were
always found full of fecreted fiuids, different in different
plants, but all quite diltin& from that univerfal lymph or
fap, which is nearly uniform in all; and as the {piral-coated
veflzls were always full of air only ; the fap could have no
other courfe but along the woody fibres. It was even pre-
fumed that although thefe fibres were imperforate, the fap
might afcend along them by capillary attraétion, as through
a fpongy or cottony fubftance. This was Tourne-
fort’s opinion, and others have adopted it. Grew ima-
gined that the nutritious fluids were abforbed by plants in a
highly rarified form, and in that ftate pervaded their fub-
ftance with the more readinefs and force. Du Hamel
guefled that the paflage of air out of the air-veffels parallel
to the woody fibres, cauling the former to contract, mutt
produce a power of fu@ion in the latter, and fo promote
the conveyance of the fap, as well as its abforption from the
earth. Dela Hire went fo far as to fuppofe, not only vef-
fels, whofe cavities he could not difcover, in the woody
fibres, but valves in thofe veffcis, fome having them placed
fo as to allow the fap to afcend, others in a contrary poli-
tion. This imaginary ftru€ture, combined with fine theo-~
rics of rarefa@tion and condenfation, explained every thing
that was wanted. <‘* But unhappily,’? fays the more faith-
ful and more philofephical Du Hamel, ‘thefe valves, fo
commodious for all the above explanations, are a mere
fuppofition. I have fought them in fome plants of the reed
kind, and have ardently wifhed-to find them. I shall how-
ever relate plainly what I have been able to difcover. After
having fucceeded in introducing coloured liquors in the lon-
gitudinal veffels of the plantsin queition, I thought I per-
ceived in the centre of each veflel a firm longitudinal thread
pervading its cavity throughout, which was rough, or
clothed with avery fine pubefcence. Such a firnéture is
very fimilar to what M. Mariotte has difcovered in the
vafa propria of plants. Thofe who are fo inclined may,
if they pleafe, fuppofe that this downy fubftarce, being bent
one way or the other, may perform the functions of valves,
but after all, the whole wiil be but a fuppofition, to whick
fome degree of probability oniy can be granted.”
We have given the above paffage from Du Hamel to
fhew, that nothing was really knowa in his time, concerning
the true fap-veffels of plants.
Nor are the reducent veffels, confidently defcribed by fome
recent writers as lodged near the pith, and which are fup-
poled to return the fap towards thé root, with more cer-
tainty to be demonftrated, at leaft as far as their fun@tions
are concerned, than the valves of De la Hire, whatever may
be the cafe with the adducent veflels of the fame authors,
whofe exiftence we are not difpofed to deny. :
But it is time to quit the regions of hypothefis, and to
recur to facts and practical obfervations. ° ;
Dr. Darwin and Mr. Knight have fhewn by clear ex-
periments that the real fap-veffels are what had hitherto
been confidered as air-veflels, and which longitudinaily per-
vade the a/burnum or layer of new unhardened wood. Some
of them have a fpiral coat, others not,- and thefe laft pro-
bably are the adducent veffels of the authors above allud-
ed to, who retain the old opinion that the others are air- |
veifels. ;
Young twigs of horfe-chefnut, apple-tree, fig-tree, &c.°
whofe lower ends are immerfed in water {tained with madder,
log-wood, or the fkins of very black grapes, imbibe fuch
coloured fluids by their {piral-coated tubes. We have even
found common ink to be abforbed by the Hydrangea hor-
tenfis, a fhrub whofe vafcular fy{tem is large and ealily dif-
cernible. But the fig perhaps is preferable to moft other
things for fuch experiments, as its white fecreted juices,
lodged in their appropriate veffels, are fo ftrikingly contraft-
ed with any coloured liquor which their fap-veflels may take
up, and thus the courfe of the latter can be the more
readily traced. Dr. Darwin purfued his obfervations to no
great extent, but Mr. Knight, whofe experiments are re-
corded in the ** Philofophical Tranfactions for 1801,’ has
traced the coloured fluids, not only along the main tubes
of the branch, but has difcovered how they are conveyed,
by an appropriate fet of veffels in every cafe, along the leaf-
ftalks into the fubftance of the leaves. The fame moft
acute and ingenious philofopher has moreover difcovered a
fet of returning veffels, commencing in the leaf, and con-
veying fluids to the young layer of bark. The fluids fo
conveyed are quite different from the fap of which we have
hitherto been fpeaking. They poffefs the peculiar flavour
of the plant whatever it may be, and are truly fecreted
fluid. Here then is anew and moft fatisfactory theory of
vegetation
Gil RiGvar L.A Tr Ormn. *
vegetation offered to our contemplation. The nutritious
fluids, imbibed from the foil by the radical fibres, after, pof-
fibly, undergoing fome change equivalent to digeftion, in
the body of the root or bafe of the ftem, are conveyed in the
ftate of fap along the laft-mentioned organ into the leaves.
The fap therefore is the blood of a vegetable, and like that
of animals, is nearly fimilarin all, In the leaf it is expofed
to the action of light, heat and air, three powerful agents,
fufficienc to account for the changes it there undergoes.
Much of the watery part of its compofition evaporates by
perfpiration from the leaf, nor is the main body of the fap
returned to the part, whence it was propelled, like blood to
the heart, fo that in this fenfe vegetables cannot be ftrictly
faid to have a circulation of their fap. That portion of the
fap which returns from the leaf, is impregnated with carbon
from the atmofphere, fo as to be capable of furnifhing mat-
ter of increafe through the bark to the body of the plant,
according to the experiments of Du Hamel, Hope and
others, and wood is mott plentifully fecreted under the in-
fertion of each leaf, as is apparent from the {welling obferva-
ble in moft trees thereabouts. Indeed Dr. Hales had fhewn
long ago that the bark, when cut afunder, extended 1tfelf
from below a leaf or leaf-bad, and not above it, fee his
“* Vegetable Staticks,”’ tab. 13.5 and every body knows that
all the part of a branch above a leaf dies in confcquence of
being cut.
Nor does the fap acquire in the leaves matter of increafe
only. All the peculiar fecretions, by which one plant differs
in tafte, fmell, and medical qualities, from another, are firft
evolved in thofe organs, though probably perfeéted in the
bark and wood. There originate the acid or alkaline, muci-
laginous or refinous, acrid or aromatic, faccharine or bitter
principles. How exqnifite, then, 1s the chemiftry of nature,
and how fine the ftruéiure of the vegetable frame, to elaborate
and to preferve, in fo {mall a compafs, fuch diiterent and dif-
cordant fecretions! That portion of the fap which is car-
ried to the flower and fruit, undergoes no lefs remarkable
changes, for purpofes deitined to be accomplifhed there;
Nor Is it returned from thence, as from the leaves, in order
to an{fwer any further end. Hence thofe parts, called the
organs of fructification, have their own approprtate internal
ftructure, as well as external configuration. ‘Their fecretions
ef colour, {cent and flavour, are generally very diftinét from
thofe of the leaves, and even more remarkable.
Now the real fap veffels are known, it feems no longer
very difficult to account for the propulfion of fluids along
them. The ftimulating effet of thofe fluids, as well as of
external heat, upon the living principle of the veffels in quef-
tion, their fpiral ftru€ture, the agitation of the whole vege-
table frame, particularly the leaves, by wind, the great per-
fpiration of the latter, and confequent fuction of fluids from
the veffels that enter their fubfance, are all furely fufficient
eaufes. ‘Thofe who have hitherto treated the fubject of ve-
getable phyfiology, have confined their ideas too much either
to mechanical or to chemical principles, without taking into
confideration the living power by which alone the vegetable,
as well as animal funétions, can be in any adequate degree
explained ; and, after all, it muft be confeffed that this vital
principle, whofe agency we cannot deny, proves in many
inftances rather a refuge for our ignorance, than a fource of
information.
One farther obfervation remains to be made, relative to
the circulation or propulfion of the fap, that the vafcular
fyftem of plants is ftri@ly annual, not only in thofe herbs
whofe whole exiltence is confined to ane f{ummer, but even ia
trees and fhrubs. The layer of alburnum, along which the
fap runs in the prefent {pring and fummer, is in autumn add;
Lk
ed to the wood, and foon affimilated to it, while the innermoft
layer of bark, along which the returning fap, or rather fe-
cretions, were conveyed, is in like manner added to the bark
of preceding feafons, after {ecreting materials for a new layer
of bark and ofalburnum. Thefe in their turn are laid a@ide;
and though they may reafonably be fuppofed to be ftill em-
ployed in perfeéting the fecretions lodged in their cells, they
are out of the main courfe of circulation. The fame thing
takes place in the perennial roots of many plants, whofe flems
and leaves are altogether annual. Such roots have many
layers, more or lefs diltin@tly marked, of wood and bark, and
the fecretions which thofe parts contain are often very high-
ly elaborated, as is the cafe with rhubarb, jalap, gentian,
bryony, and many others. S.
CircuLation of the Jpirils, or nervous juice. That the
{pirits circulate is evinced in the fame manner as fome authors
choofe to prove the circulation of the blood, viz. that as the
heart drives out every hour three or four thoufand ounces of
blood, whereas ordinarily there are not above two thoufand in
the whole body, there is a neceffity for the blood driven
out to return to the heart, in order to fupply a fund to be
expelled.
In like manner it is fhewn, that there is formed each hour
a large quantity of {pirits, which are nothing but the more
fubtile parts of this blood driven out from the heart; whence
it isinferred that thefe two mutt circulate.
The courfe they are fuppofed to take is this. The moft
fubtile parts of the arterial blood being carried from the heart
to the braia by the carotid arteries, are thrown violently in-
to the fine net-work wherewith the bottom of the ventricles
of the brain is lined; whence the more delicate parts are
driven into the mouths of the choroid arteries, where they
continue their rapid motion, and- difcharge themfelves at
the pores where thofe veffels terminate around the pineal
gland.
Hence they enter that gland, and there form a conftant
{pring of fpirits, which, being here purified, enter the cavitice
of the brain, and infinuating into the pores of its fubfance,
flow into the lymphatics, whence they are carried to the
heart by two ways ; thofe from the upper parts by the fvb-
clavian veins, and the adjacent veffels ; thofe from the lower,
being difcharg-d into Pecquet’s refervoir, proceed by the
thoracic du, and at laf, by the defcending veins, to the
heart, whence they begin their courfeafrefh. See Anima
Spirits.
Circuration, fubterranean. Dr. Plott is one of the
many authors who have argued for a fubterranean circulation
of water, by means of which many fprings and rivers are
fupplied with that water which they give again to the fea.
It is probable, indced, that many cf the {maller {prings are
{upplicd by rains, only where the country and fituatioa are
favourable ; but the larger rivers, and the fprings which {uj -
ply them, mult have their origin from fuch a fubterranean
circulation, fince all the water that falls in a year in the
whole earth, is not one five hundredth part the quantity of
that difcharged into the fea at the mouths of rivers, as ap-
pears by careful and moderate calculations. There are fome
{prings which ebb and flow with the fea; thefe cannot be
doubted as to their origin, which is evidently from that
body of water whofe motions they areinfluenced by. Nor
is the cafe much lefs clear in regard to thofe lakes which
have falt water and fea-fith in them, and: yet have no’ com-
munication with any fea by any known cut or paflage.
The number of fhell-fith and parts of fea-animals dug up
in feveral places, at great depths within land, are allo
urged by fome as proofs of fuch fubterranean paflages of
the fea watgr; but. thele are too. univerfally diftributed
throvgh
CIR
through the ftrata of the earth to have been brought in this
manner, and are therefore rather fuppofed to be owing
the great change made in the earth by the flood in the days
of Noah. See Varour, &c.
IRCULATION; in Chemi/?ry, is an operation whereby the
fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be returned and
diftilled feveral times, and thus reduced into its moft fubtile
parts. ¥
Circulation is performed by difpofing the liquor in a fingle
veffel, topped at top, called a pelican ; or in a double veilel
confilting of two picces, luted on each other; the lower to
contain the liquor and its vapours.
It is performed either by the heat of a lamp or that of
afhes, or pf fand moderately hot, or in dung, or by the fun.
It ufually demands a continued heat of feveral days, fome-
times of feveral weeks, or even feveral months. By circula-
tion, the fineft part of the fluid mounts to the top of the
veffel, and finding no iffue there, falls back again, and rejoins
the matter left behind at the bottom, whence it arofe ; and
thus by continuing to rife and fell alternately in the veflel,
there is effeGted a kind of circulation or remixtion of the
{pirituous parts with the grofs ones, whereby the former is
rendered finer and more fubtile, and are better difpofed to
exert their aGivity when feparated from the latter.
CircuLation, in Commerce, denotes that reciprocal in-
terchange of goods, money, or paper, by which the political
and trading interells of a country are conducted aud pro-
moted,
Accordingly, fome writers have reprefented it as the
grand bafis on which the whole edifice of modern political
economy refts; as that which chara¢terizes and diftinguifh-
es this fyftem of political economy from all others ; and as
that which determines and meafures the population, the
riches, the credit, the profperity, and the power of nations ;
infomuch that the degree of and facility of circulation being
given, the degree of population, of riches, of credit, of pro-
{perity, and of power, are neceffarily given at the fame time.
Dr. Smith, in his * Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of
Nations” (vol. i p.485), obferves, that the circulation of
every country may be confidered as divided into two branch-
es: the circulation of the dealers with one another, and the
circulation between tbe dealers and the confumers. Al-
though the fame pieces of money, whether paperor metal,
may be employedfometimes in the one circulation, and fome-
times in the other, yet a3 both are conftantly going on at
the fame time, each requires a certain itock of money of one
kind or another to carry it on. The value of the goods
circulated between the different ‘dealers, never can exceed
the value of thofe circulated between the dealers and the
confumers: whatever is bought by the dealers being ulti-
mately deftined to be fold to the confumers. The circulation
between the dealers, as it is carried on by wholefale, requires
generally a pretty large fum for every particular tranf-
a@tion. That between the dealers and the confumers,
on the contrary, as it is generally carried on .by retail, fre-
quently requires but very {mall ones; a fhilling, or even a
halfpenny, being often fufficient. But fmallfums circulate
much fafter than large ones. A fhilling changes malters
more frequently than a guinea, and a halfpenny more fre-
quently than a fhilling. Confequently, though the annual
urchafes of all the confumers are at leaft equal to thofe of
all the dealers, they can generally be tranfaéted with a much
{maller quantity of money ; the fame pieces, by a more rapid
circulation, ferving as the in{trament of many more purcha-
fes of the one kind than of the other. Paper-money may
be fo regulated, as either to confine itfelf very much to the
circulation between the different dealers, or to extend itfelf
8
to.
CIR
likewife to a great part of that between the dealers and the
confumers. When bank-notes are iffued of a confiderable
value, e. g. of 10/., paper-money confines itfelf very much to
the circulation between the dealers. The confumer is oblig-
ed to change it in the purchafe of a {mall quantity of goods,
e. g- the worth of 5s. It often returns into the hands of a
dealer before the confumer hath fpent the fortieth part of
the money. But where bank-notes are iffued for fo fmail
fums as 20s., paper-money extends itfeli toa great part
of the circulation between dealers and confumers. By the
mode of iffuing for the purpofe of circulation, bank-notes for
very {mall fums, people of little real property are enebled
and encouraged to become bankers : and the frequent bank-
ruptcies to which fuch mean bankers are liable, may occafion
a very confiderable inconvenience, and fometimes even a
very great calamity to many poor people who had received
their notes in payment. Dr, Smith fuggelts, that it might
be better if no bank-notes were iffued- in any part of the
kingdom for a {maller fum than five pounds. Paper-mo-
ney, he fays, would then confine itfelf in every part of
the kingdom to the circulation between the different deal-
ers ; and when thisis the cafe, there will be always plenty of
gold and filver. But when it extends itfelf to a confider-
able part of the circulation between dealers and confumers,it
banifhes gold and filver almoft entirely from the country;
almoft all the ordinary tranfa¢tions of its interior commerce
being then carried on by paper. Neverthelefs, though pa-
per-money fhould be pretty much confined to the circula-
tion between dealers and dealers, yet bankers. might ftill be
able to give nearly the fame affittance to the induftry and
commerce of the country, as they would do if paper-money
filled almoft the whole cireulation. ‘The ready money which
a dealeris obliged to keep by him for anfwering occafional
demands, is deftined altogether for the circulation between
himfelf and other dealers of whom he buys goods. He has
no occafion to keep any by him for the circulation between
himfelf and the confumers, who are his cultomers, and who
bring ready-money to him, inftead of taking any from him,
‘Though no paper-money, therefore, was allowed to be iflued
but for fuch {ums as would confine it pretty much to the
circulation between dealers and dealers, yet, partly by dif-
counting real bills of exchange, and partly by lending upon
cafh accounts, banks and bankers might {til be able to relieve
the greater part of thefe dealers from the neceflity of keep~
ing any confiderable part of their ftock by them unemploy-
ed, and in ready money, for anfwering oceafional demands.
They might fil be able to give the utmoft affiftance which
banks and bankers can with propriety give to traders of every
kind. See Banx, Commerce, Crepit, Money, and Pa»
PER-MONEY. F
CIRCULATORY, Circurarorium, in Chemifiry,
the veffel wherein a fluid is put to undergo the procefs of
CigCULATION.
There are two kinds of circulatories ;
BLE vefil; and the Perican.
CIRCULUS, in Geometry, Logic, &c. See Circre..
Circutus, among Chemi/s, is around iron inftrument,
ufed in cutting off the necks of glafs veflels; which they
effeét thus: The inftrument, being heated, is applied to the
glafs veffel, and there kept till the latter grows het ; then,
by a few drops of cold water, or a cold blatt thereon, it
flies even and regularly off. Thus they cut off the necks of
retorts, or cucurbits.
There is another method of doing the fame; viz. by ty-
ing a thread, firft dipped in oil of turpentine, round the
place where the fection is to be; and then fetting fire to
the thread. This done, fome cold water being fprinkled -
the ~
the dicta, o« Dove
GER -
the place, thé glafs will be cracked through that part pre-
cifely where the thread was tied.
CIRCUMAGENTES mufculi, in Anatomy. See Osrr-
Quus.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an epithet denoting a thing to
invelt, or incompafs another round. ‘Thus, we fay, the
ambient, or circumambient air, &c.°
CIRCUMCELLIONES, in Church Hifory, a fet of
illiterate favage peafants, and defperate ruffians, who ad-
hered to the party of the Donarists towards the end of
the fourth century. They afflumed the title of vindicators
of juftice, and protectors of the opprefled, and maintained
their caufe by force of arms, and filled the whole province
of Africa with flaughter and rapine. Conftartine the
Great, in order to quiet the tumults which they occafioned,
abolifhed the laws that had been enacted againtt the Do-
natifts ; however, after his death, their affaffinations and
maflacres were renewed, till they were defeated by Macarius
at the battle of Bacnia. Many of this frantic mob were af-
‘terwards treated with great feverity, and the Donatifts fhared
their fufferines.
CIRCUMCISION, the a& of cutting off the prepuce;
or a ceremony, in the jewifh end Mahometan religions,
wherein they cut away the forefkin of the males who are to
profefs the one or the other law.
Circumcifion commenced in the time of Abraham ; and
“was, as it were, the feal of a covenant {tipulated between
God and him: it was in the year of the world 2107, of
the Julian period 2817, B.C. 1897, that Abraham, by di-
vile appointment, circumcifed himfelf, and all the males of
“his family ; from which time it became an hereditary prac-
“tice among his defcendants.
This appointment (fee Gen. xvii. 9, &c.) was accompanied
with a further injunétion, that for the future all males born
of him, or in his family, whether bond or free, fhould be
‘circumcifed on the 8th day after the birth, and alfoa decla-
‘ration, that if any male remained uncircumcifed, that per-
foa fhouid be cut off, as a defpifer of God’s covenant, from
having any fhare in the promifed land defigned for him and
his polterity.
This ceremony, however, was not confined to the Jews:
Herodotus and Philo Judzus have obferved, that it obtained
‘alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians. Herodotus fays,
(lib. ii. c. gt.) that the cullom was very ancient among
each people; fo that there was no determining which of
them borrowed it from the other. Artaong the Egyptians,
he fays, it was inftituted wx’ weyns, from the beginning ; by
which expreffion, as Shuckford intimates (Conn. vol. 1.
Pp: 324.) he could not mean, from the firft rife or original of
that nation, but that it was fo early among them, that the
Heathen writers had no account of the original of it.
When any thing appeared to them to be thus ancient, they
pronounced it to be wx wens. That Herodotus himfelf
meant no more than this by the expreffion is evident from
his own words. For we find him querying, whether the
Egyptians learnt circumcifion from the Ethiopians, or the
Ethiopians from the Egyptians, and he leaves the queftion
undecided, merely concluding that it was a very ancient rite,
(lib. ii. c. 104.) There had been no room for this hefita-
tion and indecifion, if he had before meant, that it was
an original rite of the Egyptians when he faid it was ufed by
them “from the beginning.” But among the Heathen
“writers, to fay athing was ox’ wens, ‘‘ from the beginning,”
or that it was “very anciently”’ practifed, are terms per-
fe€tly fynonymous, and mean thé fame thing.
The fame hiftorian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis
alfo ufed circumcifion; whence he concludes, that they
Vou. VIII.
GAL R
were originally Egyptians. ~ He adds, that the Phoenicians
and Syrians, who lived in Paleftine (2. ¢. as Jofephus
rightly corre&s him, (Cont. Apion.) the Jews) were like-
wife circumcifed ; but that they borrowed-the pratice from
the Egyptians. And, laftly, that a little before the time
when he wrote, circumcifion had paffed from Colchis,
tothe people inhabiting near Thermodoon and Parthenius.
Diodorus Sicuius (lib. 1.) thenght the Colchians and the
Jews to be derived from the Egyptians, .becaufe they ufed
circumcifion, And again he fays (lib. i.), fpeaking of
fome other nations, that they were circumcifed, after the
manner of the Egyptians. Sir John Marfham is of opinion,
that the Hebrews borrowed circumcifion from the Egyp-
tians ; and that God was not the firft author thereof ; citing
Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus, as evidences on his fide.
This latter propofition feems dire@ly contrary to the tefti-
mony of Mofes, who affures us, (Gen. xvii.) that Abraham,
though ninety-nine years of age, was not circumciled till
he had the exprefs command. of God for it.
Cel{fus and Julian, as we learn from Origen and Cyril,
adopted the opinion, avowed by Marfham; and lord
Shaftefbury in his ‘* Chara&teriftics,” (vol. ii. p.52.) has alfo
exprefled his fentiments to the fame purpofe. As tothe
teflimonies of Herodotus and Diodorus, they cannot be
held in very high eflimation, if we confider, that the Hea-
then writers in general were very imperfectly and partially
acquainted with the Jewith hiftory. In the books of Jofe-
phus (Cont. Apion) we have many inflances of their errors
and mifreprefentations with regard to the hiftory of the
Jews; and the account which Jultin, the-epitomizer of
Trogus Pompeius, - gives of their original, (Juftin. lib.
XXXvi. Cc. 2.) evidently fhews, that they were but very fu-
perficially acquainted with Jewith affairs. Accordingly,
Origen might juflly blame Celfus for adhering to the Hea-
then accounts of circumcifion in preference to that. of
Mofes; for Mofes has given a clear ard full account of the
original of the inftitution, whilit they only afford us imperfect
hints and conjeGtures. Befides, we have (fays Shuckford)
the teftimony of an Heathen writer unqueftionably confirm-
ing Mofes’s account of Abraham’s circumcifion. We read
in Philo Biblius’s extracts from Sanchoniathon (apnd Eufeb.
Prep. Evang. lib.i. c. 10.) of a record in the Pheeaician
antiquities, that Ilus, who was alfo called Chronus, circum-
cifed himfelf, and compelled his companions to do the fame.
This Hus, or Chronus, according to fir John Marfham, was
Noah, or at leaft, as other writers fuggeit, he was a perfon
much more ancient than the times of Abraham ; and there-
fore they infer from this paffage, that circumcifion was prac-
tifed before the time of Abraham, ‘To this argument,
however, it may be replied, that the fame author who gives
us this account of Ilus, or Chronus, fufficiently informs us
who he was, by telling us that he facrificed his only fon ;
and we are further informed, with refpeét to this Chronus,
from the Egyptian records, that the Phoenicians called him
Ifrael. Chronus, therefore, or Ifrael, who was reported to
have facrificed his only fon, can be no other perfon than
Abraham, who is reprefented by the Heathen writers as
having facrificed his only fon Ifaac. Jacob was, indeed, the
perfon who was called Ifrael; but the Heathen accounts
afcribe to him 10 fons; and here we have ovly a trivial mif-
take compared with many others which occur in the Hea-
then hiftories ; or that of applying the name Ifrael to the
perfon, who, as they fay, facrificed his only fon, when the
name really belonged to his grandfon. From this paflage,
therefore, it appears, not as fome writers would infer from it,
that circumcifion was ufed in Heathen nations for ages be-
fore Abraham, but that Abraham and his family were cir-
Mm cumcifed ;
CIRCUMCISION.
cumcifed ; and, therefore, uslefs they can produce a tefti-
mony of fome other perfons being circumcifed, cotemporary
with, or prior to, Abraham, we have their own confeffion
that Abraham was circumcifed at an earlier period than that
in which they can produce an inflance of any other perfon’s
being circumcifed in the world. Moreover, it has been al-
leged, that the Philiftines, who were originally Egyptians,
and gave name to the country, were cireumcifed: and if we
may be allowed to refer to the rabbinical commentators on
this fubje&, they pretend that one of the three proofs,
which Jofeph gave to the patriarchs of his being their bro-
ther ({ce Gen. xlv. 12.), was the token of circumcifion,
which, as they fay, was peculiar at that time to thefamily
of Abraham. This he is fuppofed to have difcovered, by
unfolding his garment, when they ftood near him, and bid-
ding them regard it. Jofcph’s ‘‘ caufing every man to go
out (v. I.) and praying his brethren to come near him,”
(v.4.) feems to intimate, that he had fome important fecret.
to impart to them, a fecret which was not to be expoled to
the ridicule or wanton curiohty of the uncircumcifed Egyp-
tians. Otherwife there appears to be nothing, in this whole
narration, which is told with fo much elegance and fimpli-
city, that could in any manner offend, or which, indeed,
would not rather have afiorded the greateit pleafure and fa-
tisfaction to the Egyptians. (See Shaw’s ‘l'ravels, p. 390.)
It feems alfo to be implied (Jerem. ix. 25, 26.) that the
Egyptians were not circumcifed at the time when that pro-
phet lived, viz. about 627 years before Chiift, which was
not 200 years before Herodotus flounfhed and wrote his
hittory.
Dr. Spencer, in his learned work ** De Legibus Hebrzo-
RUM MCe Cary (libmatesGnh =) diftinguifhes between patriarchal
and Mofaic circumcifion: the former was in ufe before the
law, and fealed the covenant between God and Abraham,
as well as his pofterity : the latter derived a kind of new
fanétion from the Mofaic law, and was deemed a primary
ceremony of the Jewiih religion, He confiders the defign
and ufe of this inftitution, partly as a fign, and partly as a
feal. As a fign, it ferved to -diftinguifh and difcriminate
the people of God, and particularly the polterity of Abra-
ham, from whofe line the Mefliah was to proceed, from
other nations ; it was alfoa memorial of the covenant between
God and Abraham ; it figuratively denoted the purity and
fanctity which pertained to the charaéterof thofe who fuitained
arelation to God ; it wasalfoa token of initiation, by which
perfons were introduced into the Jewith church, and de-
voted themfelves to the worfhip of Jehovah; it was a kind
of prophyladtie, or prefervative fign, which intimated the
providential protection in which the Jews were peculiarly
iiterefted ; and it was a political fign, by which profelytes
were admitted into the commonwea.th of Ifracl, anda par-
ticipation of the external privileges and honours pertaining
to the Jewifh people. Cireumcifion, as a eal, ferved to
indicate and to ratify the covenant fubfifting, under the
patriarchal difpenfation, between God aud the defcendants
of Abraham, and, under the Mofaic economy, between
God and the Jewifh people. On the part of God, it beto-
kened and enfured the grant of peculiar bleflings, and on the
part of men, abftinence from idolatry, and a fledfaft adhe-
rence to the worfhip and fervice of Jehovah. This learned
writer proceeds to enumerate a variety of reafons, natural,
moral, and ceremonial, for the particular mode in which
this rite was performed, and he intimates that at the time
of its performance it was ufual to give a name to thofe who
were the fubje€ts of it. In an elaborate inquiry concerning
the origin and antiquity of this rite, he ftates the argu-
ments for and againit its derivation from the Egyptians ;
and without abfolutely determining the queftion, he feems
to incline to the opinion adopted by fir John Marfham and
others. The evidence, however, as we have already obferved,
feems to preponderate on the other fide; and 1 is ye erally al-
lowed that the practice of circumcifion, among the Hebrews,
differed very confiderably from that, of the i-gyptians.
Among the firlt it was a ceremony of religron, and was
performed on the eighth day after the birth of th child;
among the latter, it was a point of mere decency and clean-
linefs ; and, as fome will have it, of p! ytical neccflity ; and
was not performed till the thirteenth year; and then on
girls as well as boys.
Among the Jews, circumcifion was performed with a
knife made of fome kind of flone, as being thought lefs
dangerous than other inftruments of tron or ftcel. But no-
thing is ordained, in the original inititution of this rite, with
refpe@ to the perfon by whom, or with what inftrement, or
in what manner the ceremony was to be performed; only
that the forefkin fhould be cut off on the cighth day; fo
that it was left to the option of the parent, either to per
form it himfelf, or to employ fome other perfon, either a
prieft, a furgeon, ora friend. In this laft capacity, it was
confidered as a high compliment to be chofen to that office.
The ceremony, the mode of performing which it is needlefs
minutely to deferibe, was ufually accompanied with great
rejoicing and feafting ; and it was at that time, as we have
already obferved, that the child was to be named by the
parents, in the prefence of the company. Thefe names
were generally fignificant of fomething relating to the
parents or the child, or to fome other circumftances of time
or place. The Ifraelites fet afide the pra€tice of circum-
cifion, during the forty years of their paifage through the
wildernefs ; becaufe, as fome have argued, circumcifion being
intended as a mark of diftinGion between the Jews and the
Gentiles, it was not neceffary to make any mark at all, in
a place wherein there was nobody to mix with them.
Other reafons, however, have been affizned for the difcon-
tinuance and revival of this rite, of which it will be proper
to give fome account. After the Ifraelites had paffed the
river Jordan, Jofhua «ncamped at Gilgal, on the ealt fide of
Jericho, and here God dircéted him to revive the right of
circumcifion; for the LIfraclites had circumcifed none of
their children that were born, after the exit from Egypt,
until this time. In order to account for this negle@, it
bas been alleged, that the covenant which the Ifraelites
made with God at Horcb was to do and obferve-all the
things which the Lord fhou!d command them (fee Exod.
xix. 8, xxiv. 3. 7. Deut. v.27. xxvi. 17.); and they
were to avoid the introdu@tiion of any religions rite, without
a divine command: and, therefore, though God had or-
dered Abraham to circumcife himfelf and children, and to
enjoin the ule of this rite on his poitenity ; yet, when God
was giving to the Ifraelites a new law by the initrumentality
of Mofes, they could not warrantcrly affume any rite, how-
ever ancient or cultomary, as apart of it, unlefs God him-
felf gave them a command fo it. God, indeed, had given
them a command for circumcifion. We find it among the
laws given after the death of Nadab and Abihu, the fons
of Aaron (Lev. xii. 3.), who were killed by fire from the
Lord, for offering incenfe in a manner which he did not
command (Lev. x. i.); and this incident muft ferve as
admonition to the people not to mingle any of their own
fancies in the performance of any divine inftitutions, and ren-
dered them particularly cautious in every matter of this
kind. Although the paffover was a fealt which they were
commanded to obferve throughout their generations by a
perpetual ordinance (Exod. xii, 14.); yet we find that
they -
CIRCUMCISION.
they did not attempt a fecond celebration of it, without an
exprefs command from God for the purpofe (Numb. ix. 1,
2, 3-7-) 3 nor did they venture to proceed in a cafe of doubt,
which occurred in relation to the men, who were defiled by
a dead body, but waited till Mofes heard what the Lord
would command concerning them. (Numb. ix. 6, 7, 8.)
Thus alfo, as the law for circumcifion required the males to
be circumcifed at the age of eight days (Lev. xii. 3.), and
was not given till within the fecond year of the Exodus,
when there muft have heen in the camp a great number of
children uncircumceifed, who were palt the day of age at which
this rite was to be performed, a doubt would arife, when or
how thefe were to be put ‘‘ under the law ;?? and as the
Ifraelites did not receive direétions: from God how to a&,
they might reafonably hefitate in proceeding without fpecial
infruction. The reader, who confults Poli Synopf. Critic.
in loc, will find various reafons afligned by critics and
commentators for the omiffion of circumeifion during the
period already noticed. But Shuckford, (fee his Conn.
of Sacred and Prophane Hilt. vol. ti. p. 156.) thinks
they have not fucceeded in affizning the true one. We
find (he fays) no fault imputed to the Ifraelites for their
negle&t of it, and God himfelf now ‘rolled away the re-
proach of Egypt from off them,’”? (Jofh. v. 9.) ; fo that
the Ifraelites had long efleemed it a reproach to them, that
they did not praétife this rite ; but it had been their misfor-
tune, that God had not yet given them orders how or when
to begin it, and, therefore, they were under a neceflity of
living in the omiffion of it. Shuckford fuggeits that the
exprefflion here ufed has been mifunderftood. A ftate of
circumcifion is called the ‘* reproach of Egypt,’’ that is,
as fome fay, the Egyptians thought it a reproach to them
who lived in it: and, indeed, it is neceffary to take the
words in this fenfe, if we would infer from them that cir-
eumcifion was originally an Egyptian rite, and that the
Hebrews learned from them the ule of it. But the writer,
whofe obfervations are now cited, ts of opinion, that the
true meaning of the expreflion ‘ the reproach of Egypt,’
is directly contrary to the fenfe which tnefe writers would
give to it. ‘‘ My reproach,’? ‘ my fhame,’”? ‘ my dif-
honour,” (fee Gen. xxx. 23. 2 Sam. xiii. 13. Pf Ixix.
19.) do all fignify, not what I may have to impute to
others, but what others may object to me; and, in like
manuer, “ reproach of Egypt,” or ‘ Eyyptian reproach,”
fignifies not what the Egyptians might think a difrepute to
others, but what other nations efteemed a blemifh and defeé&
in them. We find an expreffion of like import thus ufed
by one of the moft elegant claflics. (See Hor. Carm. 1. iv.
od. 12.) The fwallow is faid to be
oe
Cecropiz domis
/Eternum opprobrium,”
the “ everlafting reproach of the honfe of Cecrops,’’ not as
hinting any thing, for which the defcendants of Cecrops
might reproach others; but upan account of faéis that
were a latting difhonour ta this family. ‘Vhus alfo, they
were not the Egyptians at this time, but the Ifraelites,
who thought uncircumcifion a difreputable thing, and ac-
counted all nations profane, that did not ufe this inftitution ;
and the Egyptians at this time, not obferving this rite,
this, in the judgment of the Ifraclites, was their reproach,
a thing opprobrious or difgraceful to them: and, therefore,
when God here appointed the Hraelites to be circumcifed, he
© rolied away the reproach of Egypt from off” them; he
removed from them thet ftate of uncircumcifion, which they
thought an infamous defe€t inthe Egyptians. With regard
to the revival of circumcifion by Jofhua, our author makes
the two following obfervations ; the firft is, that the If-
raelites muft hence derive full convidtion that alk their
fathers were-dead, againft whom God had denounced, that
their carcafes fhould fall in the wildernefs (Numb. xiv.) ;
for, upon this renewal of circumcifion, none having been
circumceifed from the time of the Exodus till now (Josh. v. 5.),
it became evident how many of the camp had been in
Egypt; and, by computing the age of thofe who had been
there, it would appear, that no perfons were then alive ex-
cept Caleb and Jofhua, who were twenty years old, when
the poll was taken in the year after the Exodus. (Numb.
xxvl. 64, 65-) Secondly, as the Lfraelites were now in an
enemy’s conntry, in the neighbourhood of a powerful and
populous city, and could not be fecure for one day, that
the Canaanites might not attempt to march againft them,
Jofhua, without an exprefs order from God, could never
have thought this a proper time to difable any part of the
camp by cireumcifing them ; and, therefore, he mutt cer-
tainly have had a command from God to this purpofe.
M. Fleury obferves, that the Jews were not unanimous as
to the neceflity of circumcifion ; fome holding it an effen-
tial, others only as a circumitance.
Among the Jews, the father is obliged to have his fon
circumcifed on the eighth day ; it may not be fooner: but
the child’s weaknefs may allow of its being deferred longer.
There is a god-father to hold the child, aud a god mother
to carry it from the houfe to the fynagogue, and to prefent
itthere. He who circumcifes is called in Hebrew Mohel ;
any perfon is chofen for the purpofe indifferently, provided
he be but capable of the funétion, which, among the Jews,
isa title of great merit. The manner of the ceremony, as
related by Leo de Modena, is as follows. —Two feats are
prepared in the morning with filken cufhions, one for the
god-father, who holds the child, the other, as they fay, for
the prophet Elias, whom they fuppofe to aflift invifibly.
The perfon who is to circumcife brings the neceffary uten-
fils; the razor, ftyptic, linen, fillet, and oil of rofes; to
which fome add a fhell full of fand, to put the preputium in,
A pfalm is fung till the god-mother brings the child, at-
tended with a crowd of women, and delivers it to the god-
father, none of them entering the door: the god-father, be-
ing feated, fets the child on his lap; then the circumcifer,
taking the razor, and preparing the child for the operations
fays, ‘* Bleffed be thou, O Lord, who haft injoined us cire
cumcifion,’”? and in fo faying cuts off the thick fkin of the
preputium, and with his finger-nails tears off another finer
{kin remaining, fucking the blood two or three times, a3 it
breaks out, and {pitting it out into a glais full of wine;
then he lays dragon’s biood on the wound, with powder of
coral, and other things, to ftaunch the blood ; and Jaftly, a
comprefs of oil of rofes; and thus binds up the whole: this
done, he takes a glafs of wine, and, blefling it, adds another
benediétion for the child, and impofes the name.
Circumcifion, though it be not fo much as once mentioned
in the Koran, is yet held bythe Mahometans to be an ancient
divine inflitution, confirmed by the religion ot lflam, and
though not fo abfolutcly neceflary but that it may be dif+
penfed with in fome cafes, yet highly proper and expedient.
The Arabs ufed this rite for many ages before Mahomet,
having probably learned it from {fmaci, though not only his
defcendants, but the Hamyarites, and other tribes, practifed
thefame. The [{maelites, we are told (Jofeph. Ant. b. 1. ¢.
23.), ufed to circumcife their children, not on the 8th days
according to the cuftom of the Jews, but whemabout twelve
or thirteen years old,at which age their father underwent that
operation (Gen. xvii, 25.): and the Mahometans imitate
them fo far as not to circumcile children before they be able,
Mm 2 at
CIRCUMCISION.
at leaft, diflin@ly to pronounce that profeffion of their faith,
“ There is no God, but God, Mahomet is the apottle of
God ;’? but they fix on what age they pleafe forthe purpofe
between fix and fixteen. Although the Moflem doétors are
generally of opinion, conformably to the Scripture, that this
precept was originally given to Abraham, yet fome have
imagined that Adam was taught it by the angel Gabriel,
to fatisfy an oath he had made to cut off that fish, which,
after his fall, had rebelled againft his fpirit ; whence an odd
arzument has been drawn for the wniverfal obligation of cir-
cumeifion {See the apocryphal Gofpel of Barnabas; c. 23.).
It cannot be faid, deed, that the Jews took the lead of the
Niahometans in this way, yet they feem fo unwilling to be-
lieve any of the principal patriarchs or prophets before
Abraham were really uncircumcifed, that they even pretend
feveral of them, as well as fome holy men who lived after his
time, were born in a circumcifed ftate, or without a forefkin;
and that Adam, in particular, was fo created; whence the
Mahometauis afirm the fame thing of their prophet ; but as
the practice was in ufe among the Arabs long before, the
prophet mult have been circumcifed many years prior to his
pretended miffion. Sze ‘‘ Pocock, Spec.” and “* Abulfed.
Vit. Mahom.”’ cited by Sale in the Preliminary Difcourfe
to the Koran. Among the Mahometans they have a tradi-
tion, that their prophet declared circumcifion to be a necef-
{ary rite for men, and for women honourable. This tradi-
tion makes the prophet declare it to be “ Sonna,’”? which
Pocock renders a neceffary rite, though Sonna, according to
the explanation of Reland, does not comprehend things abfo-
lutely neceflary, but fuck as, though the obfervance of them
be meritorious, the negle& is not liable to punifhment. Af-
femaniafferts, that the Turkifh children receive their name
at the inftant of circumcifion, as the children of Chriftians
do at baptifm: and with refpeét to the circumcifion of
Chriftian profelytes, that they are previoufly obliged to
trample and fpit three times on a crofs prefented to them for
that purpofe, and then three arrows being fhot off into the
air by three of the attendants, the name of the new convert
is pronounced before the arrows fallto the ground. ‘ The
two laft circumitances,” fays Dr. Ruffell (Hift.‘ of Aleppo,
vol. i. p. 407.), are unknown at Aleppo; and the firft is
certainly a miftake ; for the child is named almoft as foon as
it comes into the world; and at Conftantinople alfo, the
naming of the child is not deferred till the time of circumci-
fion. The circumcifion of females is not known at Aleppo;
and Dr. Ruffell is of opinion, that civcumcilion is not abfo-
Jutely neceffary in that climate on a phyfical account; nor
does it appear to prevent any inconveniences which might
not be obviated by lefs violent means. At Aleppo the boys
are circumcifed between the age of fix and ten, fometimes
later, but very feldom earlier. - From that period their heads
are fhaved, and they affume the turban, inftead of the hand-
kerchief, which they wore dering infancy. ‘The ceremony
is performed at the father’s houfe, where noify rejoicings are
made for feveral days. The boy receives prefents from his
kindred, as well as from others who have been invited to the
feaft. He is dreffed in new clothes, his turban is decked
with flowers and tinfel, and for five or fix days he wears a
kind of large filk apron faftened upon one fhoulder, as a
badge of the operation he has undergone. In this drefs he is
ked on horfeback, in proceffion through the ftreets, preceded
by the caftle-mufic and feveral men ‘armed with {cymitars
and fhields. A number of female relations clofe the procef-
fion, and, after every flop made for the mock champions to
combat, the women fhout in their ufaal manner while the
men huzza. It is cuftomary for people of condition to have
two or three of their dependants’ children circumeifed at the
fame time, which adds to the pomp of the ecavaleade, Sons
nini (fee his *‘ Traveisin Upper and Lower Egypt,” p. 337),
defcribes proceflions ona fimilar occafion, which he frequently
witneffed in the ftreets of Siout.
The Turks, before the operation of circumcifion, fqueeze
the fkin with little pincers, to deaden the fenfation; they
then cut it off with a razor, and apply a certain powder
which heals the wound and takes off the pain. They never
circumcife till the feventh or eighth year, and fometimes
the eleventh or twelfth, as having no notion of its being ne-
ceflary to falvation. :
The manner of circumcifing among the Turks differs from
that of the Jews ; for the former, after they have cut off the
fin, meddle no farther; but the laft tear off the edge of the
remaining flcin in feveral places with their thumb-nails, which
is the reafon why the circumcifed Jews are cured much
fooner than the Turks.
Thofe among the Jews who perform the operation of cir-
cumcifion are diflinguifhed by the length of their thumb-
nails.
The Perfians circumcife their children fometimes within
ten days after their birth, and fometimes at ten years of age:
that of girls is unknown: the wound is healed with cauitic
or aftringent powders; and burnt paper is very generally
ufed, which, according to Chardin, is the beft remedy. This
author tells us, §* that the operation, when performed on
grown perfons, isattended with confiderable pain ; that they
are obliged to confine themfelves to the houfe for three or
four weeks, and that death is fometimes the confequence.”
Thofe of Madagafcar cut off the fiefh at three feveral
times, and the moft zealous of the relations prefent catches
hold of the preputium and {wallows it. :
In the Maldivia iflands, children are circumeifed at the
age of feven years. In order to render the fkin foft, the
children are bathed in the fea fix or feven hours before the
operation.
Herrera tells us, there is a kind of circumcifion among the
Mexicans, though they are very far both from Judaifm and
Mahometanifm ; they cut-off the forefkin of the virile mem=
ber, and the ears, as foon as the child is born, with great
ceremony.
Among all the nations feated on the genuine Maranon in
America, circumcifion is practifed among the men, and exci-
fion among the women. Among the latter it is ufed at the
age of feven, eight, or nine years, asin Arabja.
There is a kind of cireumcifion practifed at Otaheite, one
of the newly difcovered iflands in the South Seas. The
operation is performed by a prieft, and confifts in flitting
the prepuce through the upper part, to prevent its con-
traGting over the glans. The practice feems to have taken
its rife from motives of cleanlinefs. Hawkefworth’s Voy-
ages, vol. ii. p. 241.
Circumcifion is very generally praGtifed in Abyffinia, (fee
Asyssinta.) The Abyffinians have a tradition among
them, which merits fome confideration in the inquiry into
the origin of this rite; viz. that they were, in the earlieft
time, circumcifed, before they left their native country
and fettled in Tigré. On this point Mr. Bruce obferves,
that if circumcifion was originally a Jewifh invention, it ~
feems very extraordinary, that all thofe nations to the fouth
fhould be ignorant of it, while others towards the north were.
fo early acquainted with it: for none of thofe nations up
the Nile (except the fhepherds) either know or praGtife it to
this day; though, ever fince the tgooth year before Chrift,
they have been in the clofeft conne@tion with the Jews.
Hence this writer infers, that the rite of circumcifion mi-
grated northward from the plain of Mamre, for it si
mace _
CUR CUM CISTON.
made no progrefs fouthward from Egypt. As many nations
contiguous to Egypt never received circumcifion from it, it
feems, fays Mr. Bruce, an invincible argument, that this was
no endemial rite or cuftom among the Egyptians; and it
was of no ufe to this nation, as the reafons mentioned by
Philo and others, of cleanlinefs and climate, are abfolute
dreams, and are now exploded; and that they are fo is
plain, becaufe otherwife, the nations more to the fouthward
would have adopted it, as they have univerfally done the
eultom of female circumcilion, which Mr. Bruce calls ‘* ex-
eifion.”? Circumcilion then, fays this author, (Travels,
vol. ii. p. 346.) having no natural caufe or advantage, being
in itfelf repugnant to man’s nature, and extremely painful, if
not dangerous, could never originate in man’s mind wan-
tonly and out of free-will. It might have done fo indeed
from imitation, but with Abraham it hada caufe, as God
was to make his private family in a few years numerous, like
the fands of the fea. This mark, which feparated them
from all the world, was an eafy mode of fhewing whether
the promife was fulfilled or not. They were going to take
poffeffion of aland where circumcifion was not known, and
this fhewed them their enemy diftin® from their own peo-
ple. Andit would be the groffeft abfurdity to bind Samp-
fon to bring, as tokens of the flain, fo many forefking or pre-
puces of the Phililtines, if, as Herodotus fays, the Philiftines
had cut off their prepuces a thoufand years before.
Circumcilion among the ancieat Egyptians was confidered
asindifpenfable. Whether it was really fo in their climate,
Sonnini (Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, p. 263.)
does not undertake to refolve ; although he thinks, that if
it be not altogether neceffary, it is at leait of very great
utility among a rude and flovenly people. It is likewile in
ufe among the Copts, who, not thinking themfelves fuffi-
ciently fure of admittance into paradife by virtue of the bap-
tifm they receive as Chriftians, reckon it alfo neceflary to
fubmit to circumcifion, following, in this refpec, as well as
in feveral others, the precepts of the religion of the Maho-
metans, among whom they live.
In Egypt circumcifion is not peculiar to the men; but
the women alfo undergo one of a fomewhat fimilar nature,
This fort of circumcifion, called indeed by Bruce ‘“ exci-
fion,”’ as we are informed by Strabo (lib. xvii.), was prac-
tiled by the people of ancient Egypt. He fays, the Egyp-
tians circumcifed both men and women ‘“‘like the Jews.”
It does not appear that any fuch operation ever obtained
among the Jewifh women ; nor is it any where pretended to
have been a religious rite, but to be introduced from necef-
fity, in order to avoid a deformity to which nature has fub-
jected particular perfons, in particular climates and countries.
All the Egyptians, as Mr. Bruce informs us, the Arabians,
and nations to the fouth of Africa, the Abyffinians, Gallas,
Agows, Gafats, and Gongas, make their children undergo
this operation, at no fixed time, indeed, but always before
they are marriageable. Belon fays the pradtice prevailed
among the Copte ; and P. Jovius and Muntter fay the fame
of the fubje&ts of Prefter John.
The greater number of thofe who have written on the
practice of female circumcifion, have confidered it as the re-
trenchment of a portion of the nymphe, which are faid to
grow, in the countries where the practice obtains, to an ex-
traordinary fize. Others have imagined that it was nothing
lefs than the amputation of the clitoris, the elongation of
which is faid to be a difgulting deformity, and to be attend-
‘ed with other inconveniences, which rendered the operation
“neceflary.
Sonnini fays, that before he had an opportunity of afcer-
taining the nature of the circumcifion of the Egyptian wo-
men, he imagined it confifted in the amputation of tke ex-
crefcence of the nymphz or of the clitoris, according to cir-
cumftances, and accciding as thefe parts were more or lefs
elongated. He adds, that it is even very probable, that
thefe operations take place not only in Egypt, but likewife
in feveral countries ef the Ealt, where the heat of the cli-
mate, and other caufes, may produce too great an increafe of
thefe parts. This author, fufoe€ting that there muft be
fomething more than an excefs in thole parts, an inconven!-
ence, which, far from being met with in all women, could
alone have given rife to an ancient and general pvattice, de-
termined to fubmit the matter to the telt of experience.
Having examined a young girl of Egyptian origin, about §
years old, he found a thick, flabby, and flefhy excrefcence.
covered with fkin, which grew from above the commiflure of
the labia and hung down it about halfan inch. In fize and
fhape it refembled the caruncle pendent from the bili of a
turkey-cock. This fingular excrefcence was cut off by a
female operator, without giving much pain to the patient,
and without touching either the nympha of the clitoris,
which parts were not vifible. The only topical application -
was a pinch of afhes, although the wound difcharged a
confiderable quantity of blood, ‘I’his operation feems to be
neceflary, as this fort of elongated caruncle increafes in pro-
portion to a girl’s age, and if fuffered to remain, would er-
tirely cover the os externum. The excrefcence now de-
{cribed is peculiar to women of Egyptian origin, all others,
according to Sonnini, being exempt from it, though be-
longing to nations that are fettled in the cowntry, and ina
manner naturalized. - The operation is commonly performed
on the Egyptian girls at the age of 7 or 8 years. The
women of the Said are thofe who are accuftomed to per-
form the operation; and they go about the towns and vil-
lages, crying in the ftréet, ‘* circumcifor! who wants a cir-
cumeifor?”? A fuperttitious tradition has fixed the period in
which circumcifion is to be pra@tifed, at the commencement
of the increafe of the Nile. In this excrefcence, which is
a diftinguifhing cheraéteriltic of the women indigenous in
Egypt, we may difcover fome refemblance of that which
is peculiar to the inhabitants of the other extremity of A fri-
ca. Indeed there is reafon for believing, that this ap-
pendage is not reftriéted to the Egyptian women only, but
extends from their country as far as the Cape of Good
Hope, by a line which includes merely the tawny women,
and not the female negroes, who have no fuch charateriltic.
Circumcisron, in Surgery, is an operation to which pra€ti«
tioners have recourfe onfeveralemergencies, viz.when the pre-
puce isfo much elongated as to become inconvenient ;—when
it is clofely contraéted, fo asnot toadmit a free difcharge of
the urine ;—when there is an ulcer or excoriation under the
prepuce, requiring the ‘ufe of fome medicated application,
and which cannot be done without removing the fo:efkin ;—
when warty excrefcences are formed in a confiderable quan-
tity around the glaus penis;—or, when the prepuce itfelf
becomes fo altered inits ftruGure as to threaten more ferious
confequences than would arife from its excifion.
In females, efpecially thofe refiding in hot countries, the
preputium clitoridis is often fo much enlarged as to need a
fimilar operation; and this faét is mentioned both by the
Arabian and Greek phyficians, particularly by Paulus
CG gineta, Gtius, Avicenna, Albucalis, &c.
This operation requires but little {kill in the performance,
except in guarding againft any accident to the glans, and
in taking care to divide the inner as weéllas the outer fold of
the prepuce. The ftate of the difeafed parts may occafion
fome diverfity inthe mode of circumcifing, but, in general,
one of thefe two methods is expedient : .
re Firft,
CPR
Firfi,to draw forward the prepuce, and hold it between a
pair of forceps; then to cut off the projecting portion of
fin with one ftroke of the fcalpel: or, Secondly, to intro-
duce a narrow biftory, concealed within a deep dire€tor, un-
til ic reaches the top of the corona glandis; next, after
pufhing the b:ftory through the upper part of the forefkia,
and bringing it along to the extremity, cut around the
whole prepuce nearly in a circular direétion, till the fuperflu-
ous portion is removed. But in making this latter incifion,
it is neceflary to avoid touching the frenum and glans, left
the patient fhould {offer unneceflary pain and {ubfequent in-
jury from the furgeon’s careleffnefs in operating.
The firft method of circumcifing is not eligible, if it be
defigned to expofe the whole furface of the glans, although
we may fometimes be required to take away only a {mall
part of the prepuce, or even to lay :t open without removing
any. The after-treatment is very fimple, provided the parts
are not difeafed. he fofteft and leaft irritating dreffings are
moft proper. ‘he patient fhould keep in bed, or recline on
a couch, for a few days, and fhunall caufes of inflammation.
See Puymosits, Warts, Lugs VEnNEREA, and SYPHILIS.
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft celebrated on
the firft of January, in commemoration of the cireumcifion
of our Saviour. ‘This day was anciently kept a fatt, in op-
pofition to the Pagan fuperftitions, who fealted on it in ho-
nour of the god Janus.”
CIRCUMFERENCE, formed from circum, about, and
fero, I carry, in Geometry, the curve line that inclofes a circle,
or circular {pace; called alfo the periphery.
All lines drawn from the centre of a circle to the c:rcum-
ference, called radii, are equal.
Any part of the circumference is called an arc; and a
right line drawn from one extreme of the are to the other,
achord. See Arcand Cuorp.
The circumference of every circle is fuppofed to be di-
vided into 360 equal parts, which are called degrees. See
Decree.
The angle at the circumference is double that at the cen-
tre. , See CIRCLE.
The circumferences of circles are to each other as their
radii. See Circre. i
And, fince the circumference of one circle is to its radius,
as that of any other circle to its radius; the ratio of the cir-
cumference to the radius is the fame in all circles. For the
method of eftimating the proportion of the diameter to the
circumference, fee Diameter, RecriFicaTion, and Quap-
RATURE. ;
CIRCUMFERENTOR, a mathematical inflrument
ufed by land-furveyors, for taking angles by the magnetic
needle. It is an inftrument (where great accuracy is not
defired) much ufed in furveying, in and about woodlands,
commons, harbours, fea-coafts, in the working of coal mines,
&c. &c. where a permanent direétion of the needle is of the
mott material confequence in furveying.
In Plate Il. of Surveying, fig. 1. reprefents the ge-
neral form of the modern circumferentor, It is made of
brafs, and, in its moft fimple ftate, confifts of the fol-
lowing parts. A, a brafs compafs box, about five inches
diameter, or more. On the plate of the box, are en-
graved and lettered the principal points of the compafs,
divided into four quarters of go degrees each, two of the
quarters being figured from the fouth point, and ter-
minated by go degrees at the eaft and weft; and the other
two quarters from the north point, terminating alfo at the
ealt and weft. On the circumfcrence of the plate, is fixed a
ring, divided into 360 degrees, numbered from 0 to 360; the
obferver may therefore take his angles, as bearing from the
CIR
north and fouth towards the eaft and weft ; or, by that which
is the molt ufual method, the whole circumference of a circ le
of 360 degrees, commencing from the north point. A mag-
netic needle of the ufual kind turns upon an iron point,
fixed in the centre of the compafs plate. A itop and trig-
ger wire is applied to the compafs box, to throw the needle
off its centre when not in ufe, in order to preferve the fine-
nefs of the centre point. A glefs and brafs {pring ring
covers the needle and clofes the box. To the under fide of
the compafs box, atthe N. and S. points, is connected the
bar B B, about 15 inches long from end to end, to each end
of which is fixed a perpendicular brafs fight C C, about five
inches long, each fight containing a lony flit or perforation,
and a fight line, fo that the obferver may take his line of
fight, or obfervation of the line, upon the ftation mark, at
which end of the bar he pleafes. A brafs focket is fixed at
the centre under the compa{s box, which is fitted to and
turns upon the brafs ball and focket of the parallel plates D d.
The under part of the plate D is {crewed to the centre of the
brafs plate of the folding ftaves E. This {crew makes faft
the plates D dto the ftaves E, anda fimilar fcrew makes fat
the focket of the circumferentor above, to the other plate,
d. The isftrument is levelled by turning the 4 {crews aa,
&c. between the plates DD, and kept taft. ‘The inftru-
ment in the figure is reprefented as placed up in the field
ready forufe; when done with, the fights CC may be taken
off the bar B B; the parallel plates by unfcrewing the two
fcrews above mentioned, are feparated both from the ftaves
and circumferentor, and thus the in{trument is packed into a
portable cafe, and the ftaves folded together in a {mall {pace.
Improvements applied to this inftrument, to render it more
portable and increale its ufes, will be hereafter mentioned.
To obferve an Angle by the Circumferentor.
Suppofe the angular diftance of two objeéts, or marks
A B, fig. 2, be required, as feen by an obferver at C. Place
the inftrument at the ftation point C, and, looking through
the fight at the north point of the compafs box, dire& the
line in the oppofite fight to cut the centre of the objeét at A,
by mears of the tangent fcrew m. Notice the degree, and
part of the degree, that the point of that end of the needle
marked fouth points to, in the divifions of the circle of
360 degrees, which fuppofe to be 1574 degrees, or 157° 30’,
then turn the inftrument on its centre, by-the fcrew m, till
you obferve the centre point of the object B, and note the
degree pointed to, which fuppofe to be 199° 40’, Sub-
tra¢ting the preceding lefs numbcr from this greater, gives
42° 10’, the angle required. In turning from a degree be-
tween 180 and 360, to another on the commencement of the
graduations, the remainder may exceed 180 degrees, if fo
that quantity taken from 360 degrees, the remainder will
be the juft angle. In this manner, any number of the in-
terior angles of a field may be expeditioufly taken.
To take the Plot of a Wand, Park, Sc. by obferving the Bearings
of certain Station-lines encompaffing that Wood, by the Cir-
cumferentor, fig. 3.
The inftrument is to be placed at the firft convenient fta-
tion (a), with the north point of the compafs turned from
you, or, which is the fame thing, your eye placed at the
fight aperture over the fouth point. -Direét the line of
fight to the mark placed at the tation 4, and note the de-
gree of the circle, that the north point of the needle points
to, which fuppofe to be 260° 30’. Enter this ia your field
book, as the bearing of the line a4. Meafure onward the
length of your ftation line a 4, noting the offsets for the ir-
regular boundary. Move the inftrument to the {tation 4,
i; keeping
CIR
keeping the north point of the compafs ftill from you. Ob-
ferve the mark at the third ftation c, and the degree that
the fame end of the needle before ufed points to, fuppofe
292° 12! (the 12’ being by eftimation), his note alfo in
your field book, for the bearing of the line 6c; and in pro-
ceeding on to the ftation ec, meafure the length of the line
$c, noting the offsets. In this manner the bearings and
lengths of the other ftation lines may be taken.
If the circumferentor is placed at every other ftation, half
the trouble of fetting it on the ground will be faved; but
in this cafe the back as well as fore obfervations of the
marks mult be taken. Thus, if the inftrument had been
placed at 4, the north point or fight mult be towards you,
when you look back at the firit {tation (a), and the fame
point from you, as before, when you look towards the f{ta-
tion c, to make the bearings the fame as if taken by the
preceding method. Yet as the length of all the ftation
lines mult be meafured with the chain, no trouble relative to
them can be avoided ; and, in gencral, it may prove the belt
way, to fet the inftrnment down at every itation, which
will afford you the better opportunity of detecting an error
in the jult direGtion of the needle, or in obfervation, as in
the following manner. Suppofe the inftrument fixed at a,
the fight dirc&ted to J, the north point of the compafs from
you, andthe north point of the needle was obferved to point
to 260° 30’ the inftrument afterwards being moved to 3, and
the north point of the compafs towards you, direét the fight
back to a; if the north point of the needle point to the
fame 260° 30’, as before, when at a, there is. no error
either of needle or obfervation ; but if it do not, the
caufe of the error mult be afcertained. ‘The perfection or
corre traverfing of the needle is eafily difcovered by the
following obfervation. When the needle is in a quiefcent
ftate, obferve the particular degree that one of its ends ex-
-attly points to, then with the approach of the blade of a
pen-knife, a key, or other piece of iron, attraét one of its
ends 40 or 50 degrees from its pofition, leave the needle
then to vibrate and fettle, and if it reft, pcinting precilely
to the fame degree as before, the error is not that of the
needle’s imperfection, but either in fome extraneous body.
fecretly influencing its direGtion, or in the obfervation itfelf.
A blunt centre-point on which the needle turns, imperfeA
centre-cap of the needle, or irom particles in the caft brafs
of the compafs-box, are caufes which fometimes prevent the
juft aGtion of the needle and. conttitute a bad circumferentor.
The beft and moft perfe€t fort of needles have a {mall po-
lifhed agate ftone fixed in their centre.
In furveying by the circumferentor, the lengths of the off-
fets from the ftation lines to the irregular boundaries are to
be meafured and entered in the field book as ufual in the
other methods of furveying.
To protrad ihe above-mentioned Survey-as taken by the Cir-
cumperentor.
Suppofe the bearings and lengths to be as follow:
St. L. Bearings. Lengths.
a 6b 260° 40 1242
BY Schon t2 1012
Cha Ge Bilned 5, 1050
de 59 00 1428
DPE SCE TS 645
if 30 1806
a 151
The furveyor muft sais himfelf with a brafs protra&or
about 6 or 7 inches in diameter, either of the circular, or
femi-circular form, divided into degrees and half degrees,
The circular form is moftly ufed, as faving time and cauf-
CIR
ing lefs chance of error, in protracting expeditioufly. The
order of the numbering of the 360° fhould be in the con-
trary way to that of the circamferentor, but moft protractors
have a double row of figures, commencing in order from
the oppofite ends of the diameter.
Draw feveral lines over the intended draught, fir. 3, at a
diftance from each other not greater than the diameter of
the protraGor, marking their extremities with the letters
N. and S. for the north and fouth points. Confider in
which direction the plot will extend. Affign a point in one
of the parallel lines to reprefent the firlt ftation a; to which
point lay the centre of the protra¢tor with the diametrical or
fiducial edge to coincide with that line. Look into the
field book for the bearing of the firft flation-line, ab, 260°
30, at that number on the limb of the protraétor, make a
point or mark, and through that mark from the affirned
point a, draw the line a, on which line by your plotting
fcale of equal parts fet off 12° 42'* as noted in the field
book; hence will the line ad on the paper have a fimilar
bearing to that of the fame ftation-line taken in the field,
The offsets are next to be made, and the true boundary of
that fide of the wood will be given.
If the protractor be a femicircle, ic fhould be numbered
firft on the outer edge onto 180°, and then on the inner cir-
cle, with numbers increafing the fame way to 360°.
Thefe immer numbers are for bearings greater than 180°,
and the o of the numbers mutt be laid northward or fouth-
ward, as the degrees of bearing are lefs or more than180°,
Next lay ‘the centre of the protractor on the poimt by
with its diameter upon a parallel with the north and fouth
line, and mark off on its hmb 292° 12’, through which from
6 draw the line dc, mark its length 1010'**, or to chains
to links. Set off the offsets, and thus will that fide of the
wood be determined... Proceed on in the fame manner for
the other lines ed, de, &c. and the laft line fa will termi--
nate exaétly or very nearly fo at the point a, if the obferva-
tions have been corre¢tly made.
Of the Improved Circumferentor.
From what has been obferved, the reader will underftand,
that by the circumferentor, as originally conftruéted, the
angles can be taken but by the needle only, and which from,
the uncertainty of the accurate pofition of the needle, is
not fufficient for fome furveys where the accuracy of an
angle is of great importance. Several years back Mr.
Wm. Jones, optician, of Holborn, publifhed a contriv-
ance of an improvement on the circumferentor, whereby it
might ferve the purpofe of a’common theodolite, as well as
a circumferentor, that 1s, to take the angles by a moveable
nonius turning again{t the divided circle of degrees, inde-
pendent of the needle, and like a common thecdolite, ferv-
ing as an occafional.check. upon the pofition of the needle.
It was rendered’ ufeful alfo asa fpirit-level, and to give an-
gles of altitude and depreffion, with other advantages, as
will be feen by the following defcription. Fig. 1 contains
the reprefentation of the improvements. The outfide brats
rim A, of the compafs-box, is fixed to a circular plate
placed under that of the compafs, but moving independent
of it, to which the bafes of the fights BB are fcrewed.
Within fide of the rim, under the glafs, is ferewed a {mall
brafs nonius feale-piece, g, on which is divided a nonius
{cale adapted to the divifions of the circle of 360°, and fub-
dividing it into 5 or 3 minutes of a degree, as may at firft be
defired. The centre of this fcale is placed exactly in the
line of fight. When the inftrument is to be ufed as a cir-
cumferentor only, the under moving-plate and the cone
plate
CER
plate aré kept together with a brafs pin, and turning upon
the ball and focket within the parallel plates Dd as before
deferibed. _ When the angle is to be taken in degrees and
minutes, independent of the needle, as in a theodolite, this
pin is taken out, and the fights with the nonius-fcale moved
round the compafs-circle in the fame manner as the index
limb of a theodolite, and the angle in degrees and minutes
read off by this nonius, The directions for taking a furvey
by this initiument are the fame as are given under the article
THEopoiit
To ufe this infrument as_a level, an opening is cut in the
fide of the focket to admit of the pin of the ball, when
the compafs box A is turned into a vertical pofition. The
on of the fight hole is made, by turning the whole
eat vertically on the centre of the ball, by the {crews aa,
xc. till the air bubble of the fpirit level F, ferewed to and ad-
jolted under the compafs box, reft exa&tly in the middle. Ifan-
sles of altitude or depreffion are to be taken, the centre of the
compafs 1s to be fcrewed faft to the ball, then the pin con-
ig the two plates beieg taken out, the fights and no-
» may be moved cither above or below the horizon-
on, till the objet be feen through the little fight
and the angle in degrees and minutes read off by
ion of the nontus feale at the circumference of the
For a more accurate motion of the plate and index
BB, the edge of the compafs plate is in fome inftruments
cut with teeth, and a pinion, adepted to thefe teeth, is fixed
vo the under moveable plate, fo, that by turning the pinion,
the fights may be carried round to the mark in the moft
fteady and accurate manner. To render the inftrument more
portable, the fights, with their bafes BB, are kept to the
plate under the compafs box, when in ufe, by two finger
ferews, one of which is fhewn at G, and when not in ufe,
taken away by unfcrewing the {ame fcrews, fo as to admit the
whole inltrument with its ball and focket without the ftaves,
to pack into a cafe but feven inches fquare, and three inches
deep. ‘
For a mere extenfive application of circumferentors in
land-furveying, particularly in a method ufed by Mr. Gale,
we refer the reader to Mr. William Jones’s edition of the
late Mr. George Adams’s Geometrical and Graphical Effays,
1503, page 290, et /eq.
CIRCUMIFLEX, in Grammar, an accent, ferving to
note or dillinguifh a fyllable of an intermediate found be-
tween acute and grave; and generally fomewhat long. See
AACCENT.
It is feldom ufed among the moderns, unlefs to fhew the
omiflion of a letter which made the fyllable long and open ;
a thing much more frequent in the French, than among us:
they write pate, for pajfle ; téte for tefle ; fiimes for fujmes, &c.
‘They alfo ufe the circumflex in the participles ; fome of their
authors write conneu, peu; others conni, pu, &c. Father Buffier
is ata lofs for the reafon of the circumflex on this occafion.
The form of the Greek circumfiex-was anciently the fame
with that of ours, viz. “; being a compofition of the other
two accents a in one.—But the copyifts changed the form of
the characters, and introducing the running hand, changed
alfo the form of the circumflex accent, and inftead of mak-
ing a juft angle, rounded it off, adding a dafh, through too
much halte ; and thus formed an s, laid horizontally, which
produced this figure , inftead of this *.
CIRCUMFLEXA femoris externa, and interna, in An-
geiology, two branches of the arteria profupda femoris. See
ARTERY.
CincuMFLEXA humeri, anterior,
branches of the axillary artery.
and poflerior, two
See ArTERY,
CIR
CIRCUMFLEXUS palat: mollis, one of the mufcles‘be-
longing to the foft palate. See DeGiutirion.
CIRCUMGYRATION, the wheeling motion of any
body round a centre. | :
CIRCUMINCESSION, in Theology, a term whereby
the {choolmen ufe to exprefs the exiitence of three divine
perfons in one another, in the myftery of the Trinity. See
Person.
The fchool divives are not the firft authors of this term ;
Damafcenus, in the eighth century, having ufed the word
wietxwenctz, Which fignifies the fame thing, in his explication
of that text, Zam in my Father, and my Father is in'me:
CIRCUMLOCUTION, from circumlogquor, J Speak
about, in Oratory, denotes a ‘circuit, or compals of words;
ufed either when a proper term for exprefling any fubje&
naturally and immediately does not occur, or when a perfon
wifhes to avoid fomething difacreeable, inconvenient, or im-
proper to be expreffed in direct terms, and conveys the
fame fenfe in a kind of paraphrafe, fo formed as to foften or
brezk the force of the fubje&.
Thus Cicero, unable to deny that Clodius was flain by
Milo, owns it with this circumlocution, “* Milo’s fervants
being prevented from affilting their mafter, who was report-
ed to be killed by Clodius; they, in his abfence, and with-
out his privity, or confent, did what every body would ex-
peét from their own fervants on fych an occafion.”
CIRCUM-POLAR Svars, are fuch ftars as, being pretty
near our north-pole, move round it; and in our latitude,
never fet, or go below the horizon.
CIRCUMPOTATIO, in Antiquity, a funeral featt, pro-
vided in honour of the dead. 3
This was very frequent among the ancient Romans, as
well as among the Athenians. Solon, at Athens, and the
decemviri at Rome, endeavoured to reform this cuftom,
thinking it abfurd that mirth and drurkennefs fhould mingle
with forrow and grief,
CIRCUMSCRIBED fgure, in Geometry. See Crrncum-
SCRIBING. ,
CircumscriBeED hyperbola, one of the fecond order, ac-
cording to Sir Ifaac Newton, which cuts its afymptotes, and
contains the parts cut off within its own fpace. See Hy-
PERBOLA.
CIRCUMSCRIBING, in Geometry, denotes the de-
{cribing of a polygonous figure about a circle, in fuch manner
as that all its fides are tangents to the circumference.
The term is fometimes alfo ufed for the deferitbing of the
circle about a polygon; fo as that each fide is a chord. But
in this cafe," we more ufually fay, the polygon is infcribed,
than the circle circumfcribed. See Porycon and Cirere.
The fide of a hexagon is equal to the radius of a circum.
feribed circle. See Hexacon. For the method of cireum-
{cribing a circle about any given regular polygon: See Po-
tyGon. For the method of circumferibing a fquare or any
regular polygon about a circle: See Square and Pony-
Gon. See allo QuapRILATERAL, Penracon, Hexacon,
Dopecacon, &c.
CIRCUMSPECTE! agatis, the title of a flatute made
ann. 13 Edw. I. relating to prohibitions, prefcribing certain
cafes to the judges, wherein the king’s prohibition lies not.
CIRCUMSTANCES, the incidents of an event, or thie
particularities that accompany an action.
The circumftances of the aétions of men, are exprefled in
this Latin verfe :
Quis, quid, ubi, quibus auxiliis, cur, quomodo, quando,
Quis, who, denotes the quality, ftate, age, &c. of the a9
on.
CIR
fon. Quid, what, the greatnefs, fmallnefs, multitude, few-
nefs, &c. of the thing. Udi, where, the place. Quibus
euxiliis, with what affiftances, the inftruments, means, &c.
Cur, why, on what account, with what view. Qxomodo,
how, the quality of the ation, as to intention or remiffnefs,
defignednefs or cafualty, fecrecy or opennefs. Quando,
when, the time ; ason a holiday, at the hour of prayer, &c,
CIRCUMSTANTIAL evidence, in Law, or the dodrine
of prefumption, takes place next to pofitive proof: circum-
ftances which either neceffarily or ufually attend facts of a
particular nature, that cannot be demonftratively evinced,
are called pref{umptions, and are only to be relied on till the
contrary be atually proved. See Evipence and Pre-
SUMPTION.
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in Zaz, is ufed for the fup-
plying, and making up the number of jurors (in cafe any
impannelled appear not; or appearing, be challenged by
either party), by adding to.them fo many of the perfons pre-
fent, or ftanding by, as will fervethe turn. Stat. 35 Hen.
VIII. c.6; and Stat. 5 Eliz.c. 25, for Wales.
CIRCUMVALLATION, in Fortification. A line of
circumvaliation is a work confifting of a ditch and parapet,
with redans, or baftions, from diflance to diftance, with their
faliant angles towards the country or the field thrown up by
the befiegers of a place, againft any attempts of the enemy
from without. It differs from a line of contravallation, or
countervallation, in this refpeét, that the latter isthrown up
between the betieger’s camp and the place befieged, to pre-
vent any attempts of the beficged from within, and is {eldom
made quite fo {trong as the line of eircumvallation.
The refolving upon fieges, or the coming to a determina-
nation to beftege places, which is an affair of the cabinet, un-
lefs the general who commands the operating army has fo far
the confidence of his fovercign and his minifters, as to be at
liberty to a& as he thinks, or according to his own difcretion,
is the natural confequence of that fuperiority which we fup-
pofe ourfelves to pofiefs over our enemies. But the carrying
of them fuccefsfully into execution, if the places be bravely
and ably defended, is an undertaking that may juftly be re-
garded as one of the moft ferious, important, and difficult
parts of war, and therefore requires much precaution, pre-
paration, prudence, and circumf{pection. Their fuccefs de-
pends on the obfervance of various meafures; of which the
following may be confidered as the principal.
ift. Secrecy, without which it ts very difficult to fucceed.
adly, A fufficient number of forces for attacking your
enemy’s places, and for defending your own,
gdly. A knowledge of the difpofitions of the enemy.
For if they are re-united, and in as great force as yourfelves,
they can prevent you from undertaking any fieges.
4thly. That the magazines neareft to the places you mean
to inveft, are abundantly fupplied, and in a favourable con-
dition for your purpofe. h
sthly, To feize on the moft favourable times and feafons
for carrying on your operations ; for all times are not proper
for fieges, nothing being more ruinous to an army than thofe
that are carried on in winter. "That feafon ought, therefore,
to be avoided as much as poffible.
Laftly, An eftimate and knowledge of the -expence that
will attend them; for money being the finew of war, no
military operations of confequence can be carried on with-
out it.
Thefe are the principal objects of confideration before-
hand, and for which the neceflary meafures fhould be taken
at Jeifure. And after all, when we {uppofe them to be well
Vor. VIII.
CIR
taken, it frequently happens that the whole fails; for the
enemy, who feldom or ever takes the fame view of things
that we do, may interrupt us, by being, in the firft place,
as ftrong as we are, and obferving our motions and proceed-
ings in due feafon; or, fecondly, by forming the defign of
undertaking fome enterprife againft places which it is of more
confequence to us to preferve, than the conquett of thofe we
intend to attack; or, thirdly, by being in a condition to
Over-run our country, or part of it, and carry defolation into
the fame, whilit we are occupied with the fiege of fome
place, the capture of which, that may be doubtful or uncer-
tain, would not by any means compenfate for the lofs we
fhould thereby fuftain; or, laftly, by having it in his power
to give us battle before we can eftablith ourfelves before the
place we wifh to attack.
All thefe confiderations ought to be well weighed before
we undertake the fiege of a place ; and the time for the fame
fhould be fo judicioufly chofen, that the enemy cannot fall
upon us fuddenly, before we eftablith ourfelves in the enter-
prife, by fecuring our befieging army with a line of circum-
vallation, or even countervallation. The beft plan is to have
a fuperior force to that of the enemy, and to have two armies
when it is praéticable, viz. one to befiege the place, and the
other to watch and obferve. The befieging army confines
itfelf within its lines, whilft the army of obfervation only
moves about, keeps a look-out, and occupies the avenues, or
approaches, by which the enemy can approach or prefent
himfelf; or takes pofts, and there retrenches himfelf; or if
the enemy moves to a little diftance, follows him, keeping
always in fight of him, but conftantly pofting itfelf between
him and the befieging army fo advantageoufly as not to be
under the neceflity of fighting, contrary to his with or in-
clination. 1f we can only gain a few days’ time at the com-
mencement of a fiege, it is of very great advantage.
Thefe two armies, viz. the belieging army and the army
of obfervation, ought always to keep themfelves within reach
of each other, particularly during the commencement of a
fiege, in order to be able to fuccour or fupport each other,
and keep the enemy at a diftance, who on his part ought to
be apprehenfive of approaching too near to the place, for
fear the two joining together, if they be ftronger than he is,
falling upon him and attacking him with advantage.
The army of obfervation is, befides, of great advantage to
that which carries on the fiege, as it watches for its fafety,
and favours its operations by efcorting its convoys, furnifh-
nifhing it with faicines, and performing other neceflary duties
and fervices. And the befieging army can reciprocally, in
cafe of need, reinforce the army of obfervation after the firft
fix or feven days of opening the trenches, when it has well
taken its advantages and precautions again{t the place in-
vefted.
It is alfo a very favourable circumftance to be able to at-
tack before the enemy is in a condition to take the field with
all his forces, or in the fall, when part of his troops are re-
tired or withdrawn, and he is no longer in fufficient force to
oppofe our enterprifes.
To take advantage of the firlt of thefe circumftances, it is
neceflary to have large magazines of forage within reach of
the places you with to invelt, and always to have anarmy of
obfervation, if poffible.
We have already obferved, that it is neceffary to have mas
gazines near to and within reach of the places we defign to in-
veft, and particularly of forage, if we mean to attack them
before the enemy can take the field with all his forces. But we
have not attempted to mention the number, or defcribe the
natures of the diflerent magazines, or the quantity of each
Na {pecies
CIRCUMVALLATI ON.
fpecies of ftores, they ought to contain. For to afcertain
this is difficult, and in attempting to do fo one can only be
regulated by a reference to the relative degrees of itrength,
importance, &c. of the places to be attacked. If the place
be confiderable and of confequence, one fhould reckon on a
fiege fufficiently long for one month at leaft of open trenches.
For it rarely happens that a place cannot hoid out that time
if it be tolerably well garrifoned, and be defended by intelli-
gent officers, who wifh to do their duty. A furplus of am-
munition and ftores at command, occations no lofs or incon-
venience, but a deficiency may make the enterprife mif-
carry.
Befides having from 8 to g00,0c0 weight of powder, ac-
cording as the place is more or lefs ftrong, there fhould be
from 40 to 60,000 large bullets; from 16 to 20,000 fmaller
ones; from 12 to 16,000 fhells; from 30 to 40,000 gre-
nades; from 8 to 10,0co matches; from 150 to 150,000
weight of lead; 100,c09 mufquet fiints, flrong and well
chofen ; 50,0c0 facks of earth; 30.030 {mall charges of
powder ready made up ; {pare timber for bridges of commu-
nication, and other purpotes; a fuilicient number of horfes
for the artillery ; cannon or guns of various fizes, for the
defence of the lines, and other fervices ; mortars for throwing
fhells and ftones; fhot, fhells, grenades, leaden bullets,
matches, fints; platforms complete for guns and mortars ;
{pare carriages for guns; fpare beds for mortars; {pare
{ponges, rammers, and ladles ; intrenching tools 5 carpenters?
ditto ; fling carts and carriages of different deicriptions, Xc.
e
When all the neceflary preparations are made, and the
mea{ures well taken, when the fiege of a place is refolved on,
and the armies in fhort are in the field, and in a condition
for acting, the general fhould, by his movements, do his ut-
moft to remove the fufpicions which the enemy may entertain
of his defigns, and to direct them towards other objects as
much as he isable. Sometimes this confideration will carry
him fo far as to inveft a place which he has no wifh to attack,
in order to make the enemy change his notions and mezfures,
and thereby Jead him to weaken the garrifon of the place he
really means to befiege. It was in this manner that the
allies, in 1710, appearing to menace Ipres, occatiougd the
beft part of the garrifon of Tournay to be withdrawn from
it, which being itfelf invelled next morning, was not of con-
fequence in a condition to make the refiltance that might
have been expected from it, though it was at that time one
of the ftrongeit places in the Low Countries. Sometimes
they prefs on the enemy during feveral days to drive him to
a diftance from the place intended to be attacked; after
which, and when matters are brought to the point defired,
the firft thing they ought to do is to invelt the place, which
is commonly done by a detachment of 4 or 5000 cavalry,
more or le{s, according to the ftrength of the garrifon, com-
manded by a lieutenant-general and two or three major-
generals. Thefe troops fhould march day and night, till
they come within a league or two of the place, where halt-
ing they regulate their particular arrangement, and the dif-
olitisns of the inveititure, in fuch a manner, that they may
all of them be able to arrive at the fame hour to nearly the
difance of cannon fhot from the place.
Thefe occupy and command all the avenues favourable
for throwing fuccours into the place, and fhut it vp as
clofely as poffible, by feizing on pofts all around it, pufhing
on detachments to the very gates to carry off men, cattle,
and whatfoever elfe they can find without the works, that
may be ferviceable to the garrifon. During the day, they
keep themfelves out of the reach of the cannon of the place ;
but at night they approach to the diftance of about muf-
quet fhot from the works, in order to be able to form round
it acircle, fo furnifhed with troops, as to leave no, or but
{mall intervals, or empty {paces between them. In this fitua-
tion they turn their backs on the place, and poft fmall guards
both in front and rear of them to prevent furprife. They
difpofe of themfelves, in fhort, in fuch a ianuer, as to be
ready to make head againit the enemy, on whatever fide he
may prefent himfelf, keeping always half the cavalry ap-
pointed to fupport them meunted, whillt the other half of
them is difmounted to give both the men and horfes fome
repefe. In the morning they retire by degrees towards the
dawn of day, frequently halting as they retire till fun rife,
when they return to their quarters or former pofts, placing
the ordinary guards towards the place and ftronger ones in
the avenues on the fide of fuccours ; after which the fqua-
drons who are not on guard, retire to the camp to repofe
themfelves, without taking off either their own cloaths or
the faddles of th-ir horfes, but merely for the fhort time ne-
ceflary for dreffing them, that they may be in readinefs to
mount at a moment’s notice.
During this time he, who commands, fends parties to learn
intelligence of the enemy ; he continues to make his arrange-
ments, and to reconnoitre the fituation the mott convenient
for placing the camps, and fixing the directions of the lines,
as {oon as the artillery fhall arrive. This is a point to
which the engineers, who fhou'd be on the fpot as foon as
the invelting detachment, ought particularly to direét their
attention. When thofe, who form the inveltiture, have
fome troops of infantry with them, they difpofe of them
in fmall guards on the p:incipal avenues of the place, fup-
ported by larger ones pofted behind them. And when ine
fantry is wanting, they employ dragoons n'tead of them.
Whilft thefe difpofitions are making, the army makes
forced marches, and commonly arrives before the place the
fecond, third, fourth, or at moit the fifth day after the in+
veftiture. The lieutenant-general, who has formed advances
from his troops to the diftance of half a league or there-
about, isto meet the general, and render him anaccount of
his diligence, expedition, and preparations; and the gene-
ral on his report makes his final arrangement for the en-
campment of the army round the place.
Next morning he reétifies it if neceffary, and in company
with the other general officers and principal engineers, makes
the circuit of the place, recornoitring the ground for the
purpole of finally determining its line of circumvallation.
After having agreed on the figure and circuit of the
lines, which ought always to regulate the encampment,
the general diftributes ail. the troops, according to the quar-
ters deftined for them, and affigns to each general officer
his own.
The line of circumvyallation is the firft work of any mag~
nitude, that is thrown up after the inveftiture of a place,
and is intended not only for fhutting it up fo completely; as
to prevent any fupplies of men, ammunition, cannon, mili-
tary ftores, or provifions from being thrown into it, but alfo
for fecuring the camp of the befieging army againft infult
or attack from without, or from the fide of the country.
As this line is calevlated for proteéting the befieging army
and its camp again{t any attemps of the enemy from tbe
field: fo the line of countervailation, which is formed in a
fimilar manner, and is made between the camp and the
place, when the garrifon is ftrong, is intended for fecuring
it againft any attacks from the belieged. The faliant angles
of the line of circumvallation look externally towards the
country, whereas thofe of the line of countervallation look
inwards towards the place invefted. :
In tracing both thefe lines, care fhould be taken-to ad
the
C.MRC UMNVAL LIA TT ON.
the moft advantageous ground in the neighbourhood of
the place, without being over fcrupulous about its being a
little too near to, or a little too far off from the fame.
As to the camp of the befieging army, it ought to be
placed, or pitched in fuch a manner, that the rear of it may
not be within reach of the cannon-fhot of the place. On
the other hand, it fhould not be advanced too far from the
fame into the field, but ought to occupy precifely, if pof-
fible, ground at the diftance necefiary for its fecurity.
Particular attention onght alfo to be paid to the avoiding
of all eminences or high fituations, that may command any
part of the camp, and when this is impracticable, to take
them within the line, if it fhonld not be thereby rendered
too extenfive; but if it fhould, to occupy them with re-
doubts or other clofed outworks,
Advantage fhould be taken, both in forming and fecuring
this line, of all favourable civcumftances, furnifhed by the
nature of the ground and the environs of the place ; fuch as
precipices, morafles, rivers, rivulets, pools, hedges, lanes,
thickets, woods fit for making abattis, &c.
The juftly celebrated Vauban generally made his lines of
circumvallation with redans, and ravelins, oppofite to the
gates or fally ports, taking care to place the faid works,
for the flanking defences, on the higher parts of the ground,
if poflible, without minding whether the diftance between
the faliant angle of one redan, and that of the next was
the cuftomary length of 120 toifes or fathoms, or from 10 to
20, more or lefs, if the ground requiredit. ‘The openings or
orges of the redans were each of them about 30 toiles or
pi and the capital or depth of each about 20. The
gorgesof the ravelins, which covered the gates or fally ports,
were commonly each of them about 30 toifes or fathoms,
and the capital of each about 20. Sometimes bat-
tions were employed as well as redans, particularly et the
faliant angles of the line of circumvallation, or at the angles
formed by the different direétions of its component parts.
That famous general and engineer has given fix different
profiles for lines of circumvallation, in order to make them
fuit all forts of them. Thefe are the following :
Fit Profile. See SeGtion 1k.
Ft. inch.
Width of the ditch at the opening or top, ig —
Width or breadth of the fame at the bottom, 6 —
Its depth, o c ‘ 3 A 7 6
Solid content of its excavation in fos/es courantes, 15 —
Solid content im cubie toifes, - : eye
Thicknefs of the parapet at top ° - 8 —
Height of ditto within, 5 » . -
Height of ditto without, ; ei E 6 —
Second Profile. See Se&ion 2d.
"Width of the ditch at the opening ortop, . 16 —
Width of the fame at the bottom, . . h 4
Depth of the fame, ; . 7 =
Sohd content of its excavation in ¢oi/es courantes, 124 —
Solid content in cubic toifes, 3 227 —
Thicknefs of the parapet at top, ° 5 > o—
Height of ditto within, : FX i.
Height of ditto without, 3 ; .- 6 =
Third Profile See Se&tion 3d.
Width of the ditch at the opening or top, 4 —
Width of the fame at the bottom, 5 P eee i)
Depth of the fame, F A . 6 6
Solid content of its excavation in /oi/es courantes, IOqg —
Solid content in cubic toifes 1493 —
Thicknefs of the parapet at top,
Height of ditto within, : :
Height of ditto without, A E 6
Fourth Profile. See SeGion 4th.
Width of the ditch at the opening ortop, . 12 —
Width of the fame at the bottom, . : Ae
Depth of the fame, : . , Oe
Solid content of the excavation par toifes courantes, 8 —
Solid content par toif/es cubes, ( ° . 1b o—
"Thicknefs of the parapet at top,
Fifth Profile. See SeGion 5th.
Width of the ditch at the opening or top, 10
Width of the fame at the bottom, 3
Depth of the fame, . ¢ 3 : :
Solid content of its excavation par taifes courantes 64
Solid content par toifes cubes, I
Thicknefs of the parapet at top,
Sixth Profile. See SeQion 6th.
Width of the ditch at the opening or top, d
Width of the fame at the bottom, : 3
Depth of the fame, : : Z
Solid content of its excavation par toifes courantes
Solid content par toi/es cubes, : iH ‘4
Thicknefs of the parapet at top, .
Height of ditto within, 5 ° :
Height of ditto without, 4 ,
An ular b 3
HOOD
lta
Vauban confiders thefe profiles as fufficient for all the dif-
ferent forts of lines, of which one may have occafion to make
ufe. They ought to be regulated according to circum-
{tances and neceffity. For inftance, if you are refolved to
wait the enemy within your lines, they fhould be made good
and fubftantia!, according to the firft profile. But if you
have taken the refolution of meeting him, you may make
them as you think proper. It is, however, always fafelt to
make them good and ttrong.
The firft and fecond profiles are good, the third and fourth
middling, and the fifth and fixth are calculated for the hnes
of {mall fieges, where you do not however ceafe to be under
the neceffity of taking precautions.
As to lines of countervallation, they are of the fame na-
ture, fafhion, and form as thofe of circumvallation, except iz
this circumftance, that they are not’ fo large or ftrong.
They ought not to be negleéted, particularly at the fieges of
places, which have ftrong garrifons, whilft the befieging ar-
mies are not very numerous, The circuit of the counterval-
lation fhould be carried in rear of the camps, at double the
diftance nearly from the fame of the line of circumvallation
from the heads or fronts of them. ‘The camps or quarters
then of the different parts of a befieging army lie between
the lines of circumvallation and countervallation, but about
twice as diftant from the latter as from the former. The
befiegers by the line of countervallation fhut up the place as
clofely and as near to it as they can, without expofing them-
felves to the fire of its artillery. They fhould avail them~
felves of every favourable fituation of ground that prefents
itfelf. In thisline they commonly have paflages formed
with barriers of the fame fafhion with that of the line itfelf.
But it is not neceflary either to have many of thefe, or to
cover them with outworks.
The depth of the camp is generally about 30 fathoms,
and its diftance from the line of circumvailation about 120.
Nnz The
CIRCUMVALLATION.
‘The diftance therefore between the line of circumvallation
and that of countervallation is commonly about 390 or 400
fathoms.
It has been generally alleged and fuppofed, that if the
camp of the befieging army be about 1200 toifes or fathoms
from the covert-way of the place befieged, it will be without
the reach of cannon-fhot fired fromthe fame. This fuppofi-
tion however will not always hold good. For guns may be
caft of fuch calibres as to throw both fhot and fhells to a
much greater diftance. Let dthen reprefent the greateft
diftance in fathoms to which the befieged can throw either
a fhot or fhell from the covert-way ; fuppofe the rear of the
befiegers’ camp to be 200 fathoms farther from the fame, its
depth to be equal to go fathoms, and the diftance of its
front from the line of circumvallation to be 120 fathoms.
Then the diftance from the covert-way to this line will be
equal to d + 350 fathoms. Now if, for the fake of exam-
ple, we fuppofe the place attacked to be a regular oftagon,
fortified according to Vauban’s firll method, the diftance
from its centre to the covert-way will be about 250 fathoms,
which being added to d + 350 gives us d + Goo fathoms
for the diltance from the centre of the place to the line of
circumvallation. The circumference correfponding to this
———-_ jlo
radius is nearly equal to d + 600 x a fathoms. But
the perimeter of the line of circumvallation, which is fome-
times made with redans and fometimes with éa/fions, will ex-
ceed this circumference by about one-third, and will of courfe
y akolmre 7 Ne)
339
See Line of Circumvallation, with camp
beequal to about d + 600 x ord 4- 600 x
113
2840
339 f : 5
within it, and figures reprefenting parts of the lines of cir-
cumvallation at Philipfoourg and Arras, with their feGtions.
As there are no obfervations in this work under the article
Attack that furnifh any information refpeGting the reconnoif-
fance of places attacked, or their fituations, which are infe-
parably conneéted with the modes of attacking, and the fix-
ing of the lines both of circumvallation and countervallation,
it is perhaps the more neceflary to make fome here on thefe
points. But before we proceed to make them, it will not be
improper briefly to obferve, that the parts of the line of
circumvallation moft expofed to an attack by the enemy
from without, ought to be well pallifaded, and even fome-
times to have outworks ora fecond ditch, or both, and in
thofe places in front of it, where cavalry can a€t to advan-
tage, to have ¢rous-de-loup, or pits placed chequerwife 5 or 6
feet deep, and about 8 feet wide at top, with ftakes
planted in the middie of them, projeGting about a foot or fif-
teen inches above the furface of the ground. And it is a
maxim, which ought not to be loft fight of, when fome
parts of the line are naturally by the circumf{tances of ground
ftronger than others, to make the reft by art as nearly as pof-
fible equally ftrong.
As to the reconnoiffance of places, there are few of them at
prefent in Europe of which we have not plans, that are even
printed. Although feveral of thefe are not very exact or
correé&t, fome information, affiftance, and lichts may be
drawn from them that are far from being ufelefs. They
ought not therefore to be negleéted or unaitended to any
more than charts of the environs of places.
One finds fometimes the means of learning feveral circum-
flances refpeting the condition and fituation of places by the
peafantry,. or people of the country, particularly by work-
men fomewhat intelligent, as mafons, ftone-cutters, preparers
fathoms.
of ftones, terrace-makers, undertakers,- and contraétors.
You may alfo contrive to get fome perfon introduced into a
place, who, after remaining in it for fome time, brings you
intelligence of what you wifh to know.
In addition to all that you can learn in this way, on which
much reliance ought not always to be placed, you fhould add
what you can difcover by yourfelf. You fhould therefore
reconnoitre places and their environs in perfon, or caufe the
reconnoiffance to be made by people trufty and intelligent,
which ought to be done with but little noife both by day
and by night.
By day you cannot approach very near, unlefs you do fo
almoft alone, becaufe the advanced guards of the place
and the cannon difturb and moleft you when you are accom-
panied by others, and prevent your approaching it.
The beft method you can adopt is to have {mall advanced
guards behind you, concealed in fences, or in fome ditch
{upported by others a little farther from you, by means of
which you advance alone, or with very few attendants.
This praGtice for the moft part fucceeds. Thefe are things,
for which every favourable moment or oppertunity ought
to be feized; and the infpe€tion or examination fhould be
feveral times renewed. Snch methods however of recon
noitring furnifh no inftruSion or information, but in regard to
the mode of commencing and conduéting the attacks, the
number and fize of the baftions, of the cavaliers, ravelins,
crown-works, redans, the covert way, &c. which to be in-
formed of, is always to know a good deal. But if there be
pits or hollows near the place, or other fpots of cover and
concealment, that can be ufeful for any purpofe of attack,
they fhould be carefully examined. Thefe, however, as
well as the dormant and running waters near the place, are
in genera! but very imperfeéily reconnoitred.
The better to difcuver and explore all thefe, you fhould
reconnoitre them by night well attended, in order to be able
to approach them and touch them, as the faying is, with
the ends of your fingers, which is not done without danger,
evenin the night, when your view of things is not very good
or diftné. But towards morning, in retiring by little and
little, or gradually as the light increafes and the day ad-
vances, you difcover, what you wifhed to fee, in a manner
more complete. This is a matter in which nothing ought
to be neglected. For great advantages are to be derived
froma _perfzé& reconnoiflance of a place.
Befides it is not a thing always very eafy to difcover the
ftrone and weak parts of a place. For reconnoitre it as
much as you choofe, both day and night, you wil not be
able to know what is within it, unlefs you learn this from
others. Wherefore no channel or means of information
ought to be overlooked or neglected.
There is hardly any place that has not its weak and {trong
parts, unlefs it be of a regular conftruction, of which the
parts of the fame defcription are all equal among themfelves,
and fituated in the middle of an open level plain, which af-
fords no advantage to one part more than another. Such
is New Brifac, When this is the cafe, you may fay the
place is equally ftrong and weak throughout. -The only
confideration, then, is to determine on the attacks with a
view to convenience; that is to fay, to make them on the
fide moft within reach of head quarters, the park of artillery,
and thofe places from which yon can procure fupplies of
fafcines and gabions, and with which you can have the eafieft
communications. But as places are feldom to be met with
that are fortified in this manner, and as they are almoft al-
ways regular in fome parts, and irregular in others, as to
their forti&cations being generally compofed of old and new.
works,
CIRCUMVALLATION.
works, they have almoft all of them fome defeé& or advan-
tage, either in point of fituation, greater on one fide than
on another, or with refpect to the ground of the environs,
which occafions a diverfity that requires different obferva-
tions. To develope this as well as poffible, is of confe-
guence, and is a matter entitled to the maturett deliberation.
If the fortification of a place have a fide fituated upon
arock from’25, 30, 40, 50, 60, or 70 feet high, and if the
rock be found and fteep, we may pronounce the place in-
acceflible on that fide. If the foot of this rock is clofe by
a river of {mooth or rapid water, it will be ftill worfe. If
any fide on the level ground borders on a river that is not
fordable, that cannot be turned out of its natural courfe,
and is bordered on the fide of the place with a good forti-
fication, capable of defending the paflage of it, we may fay
the place cannot be attacked on that fide. If the courfe of
this river is accompanied by meadows, low and marfhy at all
feafons, it muft appear {till more difficult to be attacked on
that fide.
If the place is furrounded partly with water, and partly
with moraffes, but acceflible at the fame by fpots of dry
ground that border thefe moraffes ; if thefe acceffible ave-
nues are weil fortifed ; if there are works in the morafles
which are not approachable, and can fee in reverfe the at-
tacks making on the firm ground adjoming them, fuch a
fituation cannot be favourable or advantageous for the at-
tacks, on account of thefe inacceffible works, and becaufe
it is neceflary to be able to embrace what is attacked.
If the place be high, furrounded with low lands and
marfhes, as is frequently the cafe in the Low Countries,
and is not acceflible but by caufeways, it ought to be con-
fidered,
rft, If it is not poffible to dry up the morafles; if they
commonly become dry of themfelves, during any time of the
year, and at what feafon; in fhort, if they can be drained
and rendered dry.
adly, If the caufeways are ftraight or winding, enfiladed
by the place in whole or in part; of what extent is the part
that is not, and at what diftance it is from the place ; what
its width or breadth is, and whether it is poffible to tra-
verfe it and advance along it with trenches, without being
expofed to an enjilade from the enemy.
adly, If it be poffible to place batteries below or near it,
on fome fpot or fpots higher than the reft of the ground
round it, that may furnifh a crofs fire on thofe parts of the
lace that are attacked.
4thly, Whether the caufeways be fo ftrongly enfiladed,
that there are no confiderable crofling or tranfverfe parts, that
front the place, fufficiently near to it, and whether there is
any part that might furnifh a confiderable cover againit its
fire, by raifing one part of the thicknefs of the caufeways
upon another, and at what diftance from the place all this
is found. k
5thly, If the caufeways near to one another, which ter-
minate at the place, meet or join in any particular {pot, and
if, when occupied by the attacks, they can mutually fuc-
cour and fupport one another, by the bearings of cannon
firing crofs ways, or in reverfe, on the works attacked.
6thly, What is the nature of the rampart of the place,
and its outworks; if it has covert ways; if the caufeways,
as they approach thefe, meet or join; and whether there is
any advanced ditch, full of either ranniag or dormant water,
that feparates them.
From all thefe confiderations one ought to conclude, that
a place fhould never be attacked on a fide, where there are
fo many obftacles and difficulties to be encountered, if there
be the leaft profpeét of being able to approach it on fome
1
other fide, becaufe you are always enfiladed and raked by
the cannon, without having it in your power to defend
yourfelf againft them, or to render yourfelf mafter of them,
or to embrace the parts of the place that are attacked.
With regard to works on plain or level ground, it is pro-
per to examine, inthe firlt place, on what fides you can em-
brace the fronts of the attack, becaufe thefe are always to
be preferred to others.
2dly, The number and quantity of the works to be taken
before you can reach the body of the place; their natures,
and thofe of the ground on which they are fituated.
gdly, If the place is baftioned and reveted.
4thly, If its fortification is regular, or nearly fo.
Sthly, Ifit is covered by a quantity of outworks, of what
defcriptions they are, and how many.
Othly, If the covert ways are well made, countermined,
and pallifaded ; if their glacis are fteep and uneven, and not
commanded by the higher works of the place.
7thly, Lf there are advanced ditches, and of what nature
they are.
Sthly, If the ditches are reveted and deep; dry, or full
of water; of what depth; if the water is {tagnant or run-
ning ; if there are fluices in them, and what defcent the
running water bas in them from its entering into them to its
iffuing out of them.
gthly, If they are dry, what is their depth ; and whether
the fides of them are low and not reveted.
Finally, Attention fhould be paid to this circumflance,
that the worft of all are thofe that are full of ftanding water:
Ditches that are dry, deep, and reveted, are good. But
the belt of all are thofe that are dry, but may be eafily filled
at plealure, with a large body of either running or dor-
mant water; becaufe they can, in the firft place, be defend-
ed dry, and afterwards be inundated, and have ftrong cur-
rents or torrents excited in them, which will render the paf-
fage impracticable. Such are the. ditches at Valenciennes,
on the fide of Quefnoy, which are dry, but can be filled by
the garrifon at any time, either with ftanding or running
water, without the befiegers having it in their power to hin-
der them. Such arealfothe ditches of Landau.
Places which have fuch ditches, with refervoirs of water
that cannct be diverted from them, and which they cannot
be prevented from ufing, are very difficult to be forced when
thofe who defend them know how to make a proper ufe of
their advantage.
Reveted ditches, as foon as they have a depth of ro, 12,
15, 20, or 25 feet, are allo very good, becaufe-neither mor-
tars nor cannon can much injure thefe revetements, and the
enemy cannot enter them but by defcents, that is to fay,
in defiling one by one, or two by two at moft, which is
fubje€&t to many inconveniences. For the befieged can
practife various fallies or forties, again{t the belieger’s paf-
fage, and the lodgments of his miners, which occafion much
retardation and lofs. Befides, when an attack is made ar
determined on, it cannot be fupported but feebly, as all
thofe employed on it muft go through one or two paflages,
and always by. defiling, with much inconvenience.
Care fhould alfo be taken to examine if the ditches are
cut in arock, and if the rock is hard andcontinuous. For,
if itis hard and difficult to be worked, the befiegers will be
obliged to fill the ditches quite up to the level of the covert
way, in order to make their paflage, which is a tedious and
difficuit operation, efpecially ifthe ditch is deep. For thefe
manceuvres require much arrangement and time, and the
belieged, who fo much as ferioufly think of defending them,
felyes, make the befiegers fuffer much by their attempts and
contrivances, by turning afide their materials, fnatching away
if their
CIR
their fafcines, fetting fire to them, and conftantly annoying
them with fallies, and the fire of their cannon, mortars, and
mufquetry ; againft all which the befiegers are obliged to teke
every precaution, as a heavy fire from a fhort diftance is very
dangerous, and reduces them to the neceflity of filencing it
by one ftill greater, well difpofed.
After you are well informed in regard tothe nature of the
fortifications of the place you with to attack, you fhould fee
if there are any eminences, cover, hollow way, or inequality
of ground, that will fayour your approaches, and fave you
the trouble of opening part of one end of the trenches; and
if there is no commanding fituation, from which you can
derive advantage, you fhould examine if the ground through
which you mutt conduét your approaches is foft and eafily
turned up, or if it is hard and mixed with ftones, flints,
fhells, and bare rocks, into which you cannot fink a trench
at all, orto but a {mall depth at molt.
All thefe differences are confiderable. For if the ground
is eafily wrought, it will not be difficult to open good
trenches in it, without much rifle and in but little time;
whereas if it be mixed with flones or flints, the opening of
them will be much more difficult and dangerous, as cannon
fhot fired through or along fuch foil are apt to do much
mifchief.
If itis ahard and naked rock, in which you cannot open
a trench, you muft Jay your account with bringing to the
fpot all the earth and other materials, of which you may
ftand in need; and you will be obliged to make three-fourths
of the trench with fafcines and gabions,and even with bales of
hair and wool; which will be attended with much lofs of
time and fatigue, without making your approaches proof
againft cannon or even mufquet fhot. Such labour and at-
tacks fhould therefore be avoided as much as poffible. See
Marfhal Vauban’s ** Attack and Defence of Places.”
CIRCUS, in Antiquity, an edifice in ufe among the
Romans for the exhibition of chariot races, and other games.
The circenfian games appear to have been adopted by the
Romans from the Etrufcans in the earlieft ages. Romulus
eftablifhed the games at the circus almoft as foon as his péwer,
and the rape of the Sabines, which took place at the firlt
exhibition of thefe games, probably led him to dedicate them
to Confus, the giver of good counfels. The circus at firft
was a wooden enclofure, in which the fpeétators ftood, a few
feats being placed for the moft diftinguifhed perfons. It is
faid, that in the earlieft periods of thefe exhibitions, the goals
or terms, round which the chariots were obliged to turn,
were armed with feveral fwords, prefenting their points to-
wards the horfes, thus increafing the intereft of the conteft
by the dangers to which it was expofed. This circumftance
has given rife toa fingular etymology, adopted by Caffiodo-
rus and Ifidorus, Judi circenfes quafi circum en/es.
The firft permanent circus at Rome was built by Tarqui-
nius Prifcusin the valley Murcia, between the Aventine and the
Palatine hills. This edifice which obtained the appella-
tion.of Circus Maximus from its great fuperiority in fize to
thofe of a later date, was for a length of time the only cir-
cus in Rome; fome have fuggefted that it derived its name
from its being appropmiated to the celebration of the greater
games; and others feek the origin of the appellation in its
having been confecrated to the great gods, viz. to Vertum-
nus, Neptune, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the Dii Pena-
tes of Rome. It was enlarged by Julius Czfar, and rebuilt
and richly ornamented by Augultus. At this period it is
deferibed by Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus as furrounded by a
portico, and having numerous ftaircafes, fo well diftributed
as to avoid any confufion of the {petators in entering or re-
turning 5 and he adds, that it was 3% ftadia in length, and
CTR
4 jugera broad ; which according to the meafure given by
Phay of the Roman ftadium, 625 feet, will give for the,
length 2187 Roman feet, or fomewhat more than three ~
Englifh furlongs, and its breadth, allowing for each of
the jugera.240 Roman feet, will be g6o feet; and
it contained 150,000 perfons. This great magnifi-
cence, however, was not fufficient for the fucceffors
of Auguftus, fince Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
Nero, all made additions to it. In the time of the elder
Pliny, the Circus Maximus had been fo much enlarged as to
be capable of containing 260,000 f{peétators ; and ‘Trajan fo
much increafed its dimenfions, that an infcription placed over
the great gate, of which Dion Caffius has given a tranflation
in Greek, exprefled that this emperor had rendered it capable
of containing the Roman people. Conttantine alfo added
new porticoes, and his fon Conttans ornamented it with the
great obelifk, at prefent at the Lateran. Of this fuperb edie
fice there only remain fome indeterminate veftiges on a level
with the ground. ‘Tradition has preferved its remembrance,
for at Rome the place is ftill called Cerchi, which marks the
fite of this enormous pile at prefent occupied by gardens and
the cémetery of the Jews.
The other circufes at Rome are the following. —
The Flaminian circus, which mult have been a confider-
able edifice, as it is fo often mentioned by ancient authors,
According to Livy, it was founded by Flaminius, the unfor-
tunate antagonitt of Hannibal. Dion Caffius relates that
Auguttus exhibited in this circus a chace of crocodiles, in
which there were thirty-fix killed. Under ground, and
among the ruins of vaft arcades, there 1s {till a confiderable
ftream of water which fupplied this circus. Its only remains
are ruins hid beneath the prefent pavement of the city, which
is confiderably raifed in that part; and the church and con-
vent of Santa Caterina de Tunari, the two palaces of the
Dukes Mattei, and feveral adjacent buildings, are ereéted on
its fite.
The modern Piazzi Navona occupies a great: part of the
area of the 4eonal circus, of which the name Navona feems
to be acorruption. ‘The curved direGion of the houfes fitu-
ated at its northern extremity, indicates that they are found-
ed upon the circular end of the circus, oppofite to the car-
cere.
The right fide of the great bafilica of the Vatican is placed
upon the walls of a circus, which, begun by Caligula
and terminated by Nero, was one of the moit remarkable at
Rome. To this belonged the fuperb obelifk which at pre-
fent ornaments the place of St. Peter’s. This circus muft
have been deltroyed as early as the time of Conftantine,
fince the former bafilica of St. Peter, founded by him, occu-
pied the fame fituation as the prefent edifice. Its direétion
may be feen in a print given by Fontana, // Tempio Vatic,
page 245, by which it appears that the circus was longer
than the modern church with the colonnade.
There was another circus begun, as it is fuppofed, by
Nero, in the gardens of his aunt Domitia, and finifhed by
Adrian, In fome late excavations confiderable remains were
difcovered, with many antique paintings.
Heliogabalus alfo built a circus beyond the Porta maggi-
ore, from which was taken the obelitk at prefent erected in
the interior garden of the Vatican,
In the Salluftian gardens there was a very fine circus,
which it is faid might be filled with water for the exhibition
of haumachie.
Very little is known of the circus of Flora on the Quiri-
nal, except that the exhibitions were given by the courte-
fans of Rome.
Uncertain traces remain of fome other circufes, which
8 Panvinius
CER
Panvinius has marked in his plan of Rome. But one circus,
which is fubje¢t to no doubt, is that which is fituated be-
yond the Porta Capena, at prefent Porta S. Sebaftiana, and
whofe ruins have been, by an uniform tradition, defignated
as the circus of Caracalla. Of this, which is the only one
that preferves any confiderable traces of its ancient form, we
fhail give a detailed defeription in a fubfequent portion of
this article.
Betides thefe, there are the traces of three circufes in
Spain, at Tarragona, Merida, and Saguntum, now called
Murviedro ; at Nifmes, at Milan and Antioch, and alfo at
Conftantinople the Hippodrome.
Although the circufes were conftruéted for the exhibi-
tion of chariot races, they were alfo ufed occfionally for va-
rious other purpofes; for befides the exercifes of wredftling,
pugilifm, and the toot race, which made a part of the ludi
circenfes, the magiftrates frequently affembled there, and
exercifed thofe public fun@ions, which, on account of the
great multitude of the people, could not be held in the tem-
ples and bafilicas. Che Agnaninians having to affemble a
general council, appointed it in their circus, where they de-
elared war againft the Romans. Cicero informs us,’ that
many harangues were pronounced in the Flaminian circus.
Plutarch fays that Lucullus exhibited his triumph in this
circus; and it was in the fame place that Augultus pro-
nounced the funeral oration of Drufus. The circufes were
alfo a kind of public places which charlatans, diviners, and
other people of that clafs fr-quented.
We fhail now proceed, with the afliftance of figures, to
defcribe the general and particular forms of circufes. See
Plate of architeCture, in which is reprefented a ground plan
of the circus of Caracalla, the only circus of which the re-
mains are fufficient to thew the real form and proportions of
thefe edifices.
A AA, area of the ftadium or {pace upon which the cha-
riotsran. BBB, the carcere, or ttarting pofls. They were
not difpofed in a ftraight linc making right angles with the
fides of the circus, as they have frequently been reprefented,
but upon the arc of a circle of which the centre is at the
point c; the reafon of this oblique and circular difpofition
appears obvioufly to equalize the diftance which each chariot
had to run. The carcere, which were open behind and
clofed in front by latticed gates, had only the width neceflary
for five horfes abreaft, and the length of a car with the
horfes harnefled to it. DD, agere or /pina round which
the chariots raced. This {pine was a folid platform of ma-
fonry of about 20 feet wide and 132 toifes long; it was
placed nearly upon the right line which may be called the
axis of the circus. IE, the mete or goals; Et the firit,
E 2, the fecond meta; the firft meta was at a determinate
diftance from the carcere, that is at a little more than half
the length of the fpine. FFF, circumference of the cir-
cus, upon the width of which were diftributed the feats for
the fpeGtators. G, principal gate of the circus, called alfo
the triumphal gate. HH, two lateral gates which fepa-
rate the fides of the circus from the carcere. I, gate be-
tween the carcere fomewhat wider than thefe, but of the
fame height. K, porta libitinaria or fandapilaria, a gate
for the purpofe of carrying out the bodies of thofe who died
in the area. ILL, towers at the extremities of the car-
ecre.
Some of the circufes at Rome were furrounded exteriorly
with vaft porticoes,. except on the fide where the carcere
were placed; others were merely enlofed witha wall having
doors.and windows, as is the cafe with the circus of Cara--
ealla. The porticoes not being neceffary for the ufes of the
civcus, were only added to give magnificence to the exterior,
cvs.
or to ferve as a place of retreat to the f{pectators in bad
weather. he lower part of the circumference of the cir-
cus beneath the feats, together with the porticoes, formed
long galleries of arcades or fornices, ferving in part for an
accefs to the ftaircafes leading to the feats, and in part for the
fhops of various traders, among whom were particularly
reckoned the conrtefans.
The diftribution and difpofition of the interior ftaircafes
depended upon the will of the archite&; thofe of the circus
of Caracalla are very ingenioufly difpofed. The principal
{taircafes led to a number of little doors in the podinm, which
wasa long open platform or paflage, leading quite round the
edifice, at an elevation of fome feet from the area of the
circus. The podium was confidered asthe place of honour,
into which only the principal magiftrates, the pontiffs, veit-
als, and perfons of the imperial family, entered. It feems
that the feats on the podium were not permanent, fince it
was the privilege of thofe who had places thereto fend
their magilterial chairs. Behind the podium there was a
low wall or precinétion, in which were diftributed the little
decors before mentioned. The feats rofe above one another
their whole height, in the manner of the fleps ofa ftaircafe ;
they were fupported’ on the inclined vault of the gallery or
portico beneath them, and efcended from the podium to the
top of the external wall. he feats of the cweus of Cara-
calla areto the number of ter, and it is calculated that they
might contain about 18,000 f{peCtators; thus it can only be
reckoned one of the fimaller or private circufes.
The great cireufes'as well as the theatres and amphithe-
atres were divided into feveral ranges of feats for the purpofe
of placing the fpeétators according to their condition.
The feats began from the wall at’ the back of the podium,
and after fetting off a number foflicient to place prrfons
of the firft rank, the ftaircafe of feats was interrupted by
the omiffion of two or three; this interruption. produced ne-
ceflarily a platform or an,bulatory altogether fimilar to the
podium, in which thofe {peétators remained, who, coming
too late to the exhibition, found the ieats occupied ; behind
the paflage was ere&ted a wall or precinétion from which the
feats recommenced. The ambulatory was called waz, and,
according to Vitruvius, its width was to be equal to the
height of the precintion. The ranks of feats were called
meniana, and of courfe there were as many precin¢tions and
ambulatories as ranks of feats. Separate ftaircafes led to
each via through doors in the precinction, which entrances
were called vomitoria. As the fpectators entered by thefe
paflages at the top of the ranges of feats, they would have
to defcend to occupy the firft rows of each mceniena, but
the feats themfelves were too high to ferve as fteps for this
purpofe ; accordingly there were ftaircafes provided, called
fealares, formed by cutting down a feat into two fteps, thus
giving to the ftep half the height and width of a feat.
Thefe fcalares were placed exactly oppofite the vomitoria,
and beginning from the via, defcended to the lower feat of
each range, which was thus divided into a number of com-
partments called cunei in the theatres and amphitheatres, as
from the curved form of thefe buildings.the compartments
of feats were longer above than below, and thus acquired a
wedge fhape. In the circufes, the fides being ftraight, thefe
divifions were rectangular, but. from cultom were called
cunel.
Above the feats theré was generally a portico or covered
gallery for the lower clafs of people.
To maintain order in fuch a concourfe of people as at-
tended the exhibition, there were perfons called detignators,
who were to affign to every one his place that there might
be no mixture of perfons of different ranks, a point in,
which;
CIRCUS.
which Roman pride was very jealous. Tarquin divided his
circus into thirty compartments, a number equal to that of
the curiz, into which the people of Rome were at that time
divided.
All the feats were covered with wood, which circumftance
accounts for the fires which are mentioned to have happened
in thele edifices. It was alfo cuftomary for women to
bring cufhions, and ftools to place their feet upon. The
boards which covered the feats were divided by fllets into
places for one perfon.
It remains to mention the place of the emperor and the
imperial family ; this was called the pulvinar, and appears to
have been a magnificent open loggia. The fituation of the
pulvinar is not known, but it feems probable that it was
placed between the carcere and the firlt metz, whence the
emperor might give the fignal for the ftarting of the cars,
and obferve the beginning and termination of the race.
Auguftus, in a letter to Livia, fays that he does not
wifh Claudius, young at that time, to go to the pulvinar
to fee the games, as he was too much in the fight of the
people. This prince having fhewn figns of ftupidicy from
his earlicft years, Auguttus did not like that he fhould be fo
foon known to the people. ‘Trajan took away the pulvinar
from the Circus Maximus, and Pliny praifes him for having
thus, by a rare clemency, familiarized himfelf with the
people.
The extremity of the circus oppofite to the femicircular end
was called the oppidum ; this confifted of a feries of thirteen
arcades contiguous to oneanother, but without communica-
tion. At each extremity there was placed a tower which
rofe confiderably above the reft of the edifice. Thearch in
the middle, wider than the others, but of the fame height,
ferved as an entrance to the circus. This combination of
arches and towers, feen at a diftance, gave the idea of a
caltle, from which circumftance it derived the name of oppi-
dum. The twelve remaining arcades were the carcerz,
whence the chariots begun the race. The divifions of the
arcades on the interior front were ornamented with hermas
{upporting a cornice in the manner of caryatides; the
carcere were clofed with grated doors to the height of the
{pringing of the arch, and the femicircular opening above
was filled with a marble lattice. Two of thefe lattices, very
elegantly ornamented, are at prefent in the fecond court of
the palace Mattei, which is founded upon a part of the
Flaminian circus. Each carcera was diftinguifhed by a
number, and as fome were lefs advantageous than others, the
place of the cars was determined by lot. Diocles, a cele-
brated charioteer, voluntarily took the worft place during
24 years, to difplay his fuperior fill. The top of the car-
cere formed a terrace, upon which was placed the tribune of
the conful. It is not known what was the purpofe of the
towers of the oppidum. Bianconi fuppofed that in the up-
per part was placed a band of mufic, while the lower might
{erve to receive machinery for opening the doors of the car-
cere.
Lhe /pina was the moft refpeétable part of the circus, or,
in faét, the fan@tuary, fince it was dedicated to the gods;
this was a bank or platform, nearly 2 of the length of the
circus, which, running down the middle of the arena, divided
it into two nearly equal parts, thus refembling the {pine of
a fih; upon the {pina were placed a great variety of objects
which we fhall proceed to defcribe as nearly as poflible.
At the two extremities of the {pina were placed the mete
or goals, which confilted of three cones placed in a triangle.
They were at firft made of wood, but afterwards of marble,
and even gilded. On the fummit of each was placed a large
egg in memorial of the eggs of Caftor and Pollux. The
a
metx refted upon the vault of a femicireular temple or cliae
pel, a little wider than the fpina; the circular part of thefe
little chapels was at the firft goal turned towards the car-
cere, and at the fecond towards the trumphal gate, and
their entrances were placed in paflages between them and
the fpina. The firft of thefe temples, according to Tertul-
lian, was dedicated to the goddefs Murcia; the altar of the
god Confus, who is faid to be the fame as the equeftrian
Neptune, was alfo placed here. The Jong extent of -the
{pina _was ornamented with columns, ftatues, and altars.
The fun was the deity to whom it appears the circufes were
principally dedicated ; this great luminary had a temple on
the middle of the fpine, but after the conqueft of Egypt,
Auguftus having tranfported feveral obelifks to Rome, this
circumftance gave rife to the idea of placing an obelifk up-
on the {pine in honour of the fun, inftead of the former tem-
ple, which became a univerfal practice. One of the many
obelifks at Rome bears this infcription on its bafe,
“« AeGyprTo In POTESTATEM PoPpuLt RomMANI REDACTA
So.r ponum pvepit.”’” The emperor Conftans brought
from Egypt the largett obelifk at Rome, which he caufed to
be erefted in the Circes Maximus, near to that placed by
Auguttus.
According to fome baffo relievos and medals, the ftatue
of the goddefs Ifis or Cybele feated on a lion, was placed on
the {pina near the obelifk; there were alfo many columns,
on fome of which were placed little ftatues of the gods to
which they were dedicated.- The columnz meflie, feffie,
and tutelinz, were among the number, and one column fup-
ported a ftatue of Victory. Before the columns were
placed altars, among which Tertullian diftinguifhes thofe
dedicated to the three gods of Samothrace, who were called
great, powerful, and valiant. There were alfo columns fup-
porting an architrave, on which were placed feven dolphins,
probably of wood, dedicated to Neptune. Thele were
moveable, and ferved to mark the number of turns which
the chariots made round the metz; on another architrave
were placed eggs, which probably ferved a fimilar purpofe.
It ought to be remarked, that the {pina was fituated not
exa@ly in the middle of the arena, nor parallel to the fides
of the circus, but in an inclined dire@tion, fo that the courfe
was wider on the right fide of the circus where it began
than on the left, and was gradually diminifhed all the way.
The reafon of thisdeviation appears to be, that the chariots
ftarting altogether, required more room in the firft courfe
than when they came in feparated by the conteft. r
The area of the circus was of earth, but probably beaten;
Caligula and Nero carried their extravagant luxury fo far as
to cover the area with chryfocolla and minium difpofed in
regular figures.
In feveral of the circufes the arena was furrounded at the
foot of the podium with a canal called euripus ; this was 10 feet
in width and the fame depth. The eunpus feems to have
been intended for the defence of the fpeétatorsin thofe cafes
where the podium was not fufficiently elevated ; it does nots
however, appear to have been abfolutely neceflary, fince
Nero had it covered over to enlarge the area of the Circus
Maximus. On one occafion, it is faid, that Heliogabalus
filled the euripus with wine. There is no euripus in the
circus of Caracalla.
After the defcription of the circufes, that of the games
exhibited in them will naturally find a place. Thefe games
were celebrated regularly on certain fixed days, and were
named from various deities, as Apollo, Flora, Ceres, Saturns
Confus, Bacchus, &c. They were more or lefs magnificent,
according to the ritual ; fome were celebrated only once ina
century, andwere therefore called fecular. Some were inftitut-
ed
CIR
ed forthe birth-day of theemperor; others for every luftrum,
which were called vota quinguennalia; and others for ten
years, or decennalia. The games fometimes latte! feveral
days. There were public funds appropriated to defray. the
expence, but they were frequently given by individuals who
afpired to popular favour. In the lower ages the confuls and
principal members of the imperial family generally gave the
games and often at a ruinous expence. Vhere.is in Gruterus
an infcription, in which we read that Aponia Montana,
priettefs of the god Auguftus, gives the Circenfian games
ob honorem facerdotii, and in another infcription L. Lucretius
Fulvianus gives the games ob honorem pontificatus.
The games of the circus, which fome call ‘* Circenfian
Games,’”’ were combats celebrated in the circus, in honour
of Confus, the god of councils; and_thence alfo called
** Confualia.”’
They are alfo called Roman games, ‘¢ Ludi Romani,”
either on account of their antiquity, as being coéval with
the Roman people, or becaufe eftablifhed by the Romans :
and the games held there, the great games, /udi magni, be-
caufe celebrated with more expence and magnificence than
others ; and becaufe held in honour of the great god Nep-
tune, who was their Confus. Thofe who fay they were
inftituted in honour of the fun, confound the pompa circenfis,
or proceffion of the circus, with the games. The games of
the circus were inftituted by Evander, and re-eftablifhed by
Romulus: the pomp, or proceffion, was only a part of the
games, making the prelude thereof; and conlilting of a
imple cavalcade of chariots.
Till the time of the elder Tarquin, they were held on an
ifland of the Tiber, and were called Roman games: after
that prince had built the circus, they took their name
therefrom, as being conftantly held there,
There were fix kinds of exercifes in the circus: the firft
was wreftling, and fighting with fwords, with ftaves, and
with pikes; the fecond was racing; the third faltatio,
dancing; the fourth, difci, quoits, arrows, and ceftus ; all
which were on foot: the fifth was horfe-courfing ; the
fixth, courfes of chariots, whether with two horfes or with
four.
In this laft exercife, the combatants were at firft divided
yto two fquadrons cr quadrils ; then into four ; each bear-
ing the names of the colours they wore; and they were
denominated albati, ruffati, prafini, and venatj. At firl!
there were only white and red ; then green was added, and
blue. Domitian added two more colours, but they did not
continue. It was Oenomanus who firlt invented this method
of diltinguifhing the quadrils by colours. Thefe four fae-
tions foon acquired a jegal eftablifhment - and their fanciful
colours were derived from the various appearances of nature
in the four feafons of the year; the red dog-ilar of fummer,
the fnows of winter, the deep fhades of autumn, and the
cheerful verdure of the fpring. Another interpretation pre-
ferred the elements to the feafons, and the ftruggle of the
green and blue was fuppofed to reprefent the conflict of the
earth and fea. Their refpeCiive victories announced either a
plentiful harveft, or a profperous navigation ; and the hofti-
* lity of the hufbandmen and mariners was fomewhat lefs ab-
furd than the blind ardour of the Roman people, who devoted
their lives and fortunes to the colour which they had efpoufed.
Such folly was difdained, and yet indulged by the wifelt
princes; but the names of Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, Verus,
Commodus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, were enrolled in the blue
or green factions of the circus. The follies of ancient Rome
were adopted by Conftantinople; and the fame faétions which
had agitated the circus, raged with redoubled fury in the
Vou. VIII. .
va
CUS;
hippodrome, Whilft a fecret attachment to the family or
fe&t of Anaflafius was imparted to the greens; the blues
were zealoufly devoted to the caufe of orthodoxy and Juf-
tinian.
The great Circenfian games confifted of a folemn pro-
ceffion, called pompa, which was terminated by various
facrifices upon the fpina, and a courfe of a hundred chariots
for the diverfion of the public.
The exhibition began by the pompa, which defcended
from the capitol, and, crofling the Forum Romanum, pro-
ceeded towards the Circus Maximus, through the flreet
called Velabrum; during this time it was unlawful for any
perfon to appear at the windows of the houfes. The pro-
ceffion being arrived at the circus, which was already filed
with {pe&tators, entered by the great gate; firft went the
magiftrates in their folemn coftume, they were followed
by a company of children of fenatorial and equeftrian fami-
lies divided into centuries, and marching in the fame order
that they obferved in their paleftric exercifes. After thefe
a hundred aurige difplayed their cars with two or four
horfes each car, being accompanied by a light borfeman.
Wreftlers and athlete followed, together with dancers and
players on mufical inftruments, who performed pyrrhic and
fatyric dances. ‘Then came another mufical choir, witk
thofe who carried the incenfers, and’ other inftruments
of facrifice, when the flamens impofed filence in their ufual
form, favete linguis, favete animis, upon which it was only
permitted to applaud by clapping hands, as the ftatues
of the divinities were carried by. The firft deity that ap-
peared was VAétory, to whom the Remans were fo much
indebted ; then followed Neptune, to whom the games of
the circus were particularly dedicated, and Mars, the father
of Romulus and Remus; the Sun and Moon, Minerva,
Ceres and Bacchus, Caftor and Pollux, Venus and Cupid,
with many others followed. In later ages, the ftatues of
deifed emperors and their wives were introduced into the
circenfian pomp. ‘The proceffion was terminated by the
viGtims deftined for the facrifices, preceded and followed
by the pontiffs, priefts, augurs, arufpices, flamens, and
other minifters of religion: then the facrifices being per-
formed with all the neceflary ceremonies, the perfons com-
poling the proceffion took their places on the feats of the
circus, and every thing was prepared for the races.
Each exhibition confiited of twenty-five courfes, and each
courfe of four chariots; thus the whole number of chariots
required was one hundred ; thefe were divided into’ four
factions, which were diftinguifhed by different colours,
white, red, green, and blue. For each courfe there were
drawn by lot the names of four charioteers, one of each
colour, together with the number of the carcere affigned to
each, that there might not be any complaint of partiality.
The chariots -had at firlt only two horfes, and were called
lize. In procefs of time there was added another horfe,
which -was called funarius, becaufe he was attached to
the car by arope; at length one more horfe was added, and
the car became a guadriga, which was the moft general prac-
tice. But fometimes the dire€tors of the games added
to each car a fifth horfe, with a rider; and in the infcrip~
tion relating to Diocles, there are even mentioned fix and
feven horfes abreaft. Such races muft have been perfonal
challenges between the moft diltinguithed charioteers, for
the regular courfes were performed with four horfes.
The light cars ufed in the Circenfian games had two
wheels, and were nearly balanced upon the axle; the front,
which was circular, had a kind of parapet, about the
height of the drive-knee: this parapet was gradually dimi-
Oo nifhed
CIR
nifhed on the fides, till it ended in a point, and the back of
the car was Icft open; thus the charioteer mounted be-
hind, and flood npon the flocr cf the chariot,
The horfes deflined for the Circenfian courfes were pre-
ferved entirely for this purpofe ; and the greateft care was
taken to maintain the vigour and purity of the race: their
keepers were called conditores gregis. It is remarkable, that
thete horfes, as appears by various baffo-relievos and mofaics,
had their tails cut fhort. As all the turns round the metz
Were made to the Jcft hand, the funarius horfe on that fide
became the leader, and was never changed. The horfes
were fo well accuitomed to the conteft, that they often ran
without the whip. Pliny relates, that once a charioteer,
having fellen from his car, the horfes performed the courfe
in the ufual manner, and gained the pelm.
The aurise were men accultomed to the employment,
who had no other occupation, They were generally flaves,
though fomctimes perions of rank and fortune exercifed
this art for their amusement. Nero frequently exhibited
himfelf as a charioteer in the public games. ‘The bufinefs
of an auriya required great addrefs, agility, and practice,
and demanded infinite pains to learn it perfeGly. They
were dreffed in the colour cf their fa@ion ; but their only
cloathing confilted of a light tunic, without fleeves, which
did not reach below the knees. They wore around helmet,
fafiened under the chin, to defend their heads in cafe of a ~
fall: the tunic was clofely and ftrongly girded with belts,
probably of leather, which covered the chelt and ftomach.
#in antique torfo at the Mufeo Pio-Clementino, gives a
very clear reprefentation of this part of the coftume. A
crooked knife {tuck among the belts was an ef@htial part of
their equipment ; for as the reins were faftened round the
middle of the driver, he would, if he happened to fall from
the chariot, have been expofed to the danger of being
dragged round the circus, if he had not had the means of
delivering himfclf by cutting the reins.
Now the charioteers and horfes, fhut up in the carcerez,
eagerly expeCted the moment of departure. In winter the
breath of the horfes was feen coming through the lattice of
the gates, and they were heard to beat with their hoofs the
hardened ground. ‘The pretor gave the firlt fignal, on
which the gates of the carcere were opened all at once by
means of fome machinery ; this fignal was different at differ-
ent times, anciently it was a lighted torch; in the time of
Nero a piece of white cloth throwa from above was the fig-
nal; at the fecond and lait fignal, the found of a trumpet,
a cable which croffed from one herma to another feil, the
chariots leit the carcere; and advanced towards the right fide
of the cireus. Vending to the fame centre by fo many radii,
the -chariots could not encounter till they entered into the
courfe; but from this time there was a continual frugele
and conflict among ihe cars to obtain the neareft place to
the fpina, and turn the geals as clofe as poffible. The
whole courfe confilted of feven turns, and he, who after
the feventh turn, arrived firft at the meta oppofite the car-
cere was the congucror. ‘Thus, the objec was not only to
run as faft as poffible, but to fhorten the way, by keeping
clofe to the fpina, and turning fhort round the meta, witl-
out, however, touching, ‘or even grazing, for the fmalleft
fhock would overturn the car. This accident, in Circen-
fian phrafe, was called a fhipwreck. The charioteers were per- -
mitted to clafh with and overturn their adverfaries, provided
it did not happen before they entered into the courfe, that
is, before they had paffed the fpace between the carcere
and the fir meta. It appears, that a white chalk line was
drawn acrofs the circus, to mark the beginning and termi-
nation of the courfe,
CL
If, in commencing the courfe, there was reafon to fulpe&
any trick, or foul play, it was lawful for the people to
require that it fhould be recommenced: this demand was
mate by fhaking their togas ; and when this ign was ge-
neral, the pretor was obliged to comply.
There were twenty-five courfes, as before obferved, and
the ufnal number of cars was four; there were, however,
exceptions from thefe rules. At the celebration of the fe-
cular games, Domitian, inltead of 25, gave too courfes in
one day; but the chariots, inftead of feven, made five
turns. Commodus frequently had fix cars rum at ance;
and on a fepulchral bas-relief at Foligne nine chariots are
reprefented in full career. The victor obtained a palm, and,
in later times, a crown. He was called Jravium, which.
term is apparently the origin of bravo, and brave, in modern
languages. ‘The fecond and third charioteers were not
without fome reward, but the fourth had only the difgrace
of being vanquifhed.
After the chariot races, the charioteers ran feat races in
the arena; and the athlete and wreitlers finifhed the exhi-
bition of the day.
The Roman people were exceffively attached to the
games of thecircus. To this purpofe is the verle of Ju-
venal, 7
*¢ — Atqne duas tantum res anxius optat,
Panem et Circenfes eh
Thefe words pancem et circenfis, formed the cry of the multi- —
tude, who frequently remained whole nights and days in the
circus, expofed to the weather, and without leaving their
places to take any refrefhment. At Conftantinopie this
paflion was more violent than ever, and the faGtions of the
circus endangered the empire. Bianconi ‘* Defcrizione del
Circo di Caracalla.” ‘+ Mofaique d’Italica.”
Ciacus, in Ornithology, a name by which Bellonius, Gef-
ner, and Aldrovandus diftinguifh the moor buzzard, Falco
eruginofus of Linnzus and later authors. The name circus
has been likewife applied to other birds of the falco tribe =
Briffon, for example, calls the Falco gallinarius, Circus ma-
gor, and the Gmelinian falco brafilienfis, or Bralilian kite,
Circus brafilienfis.
CIRE’, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Charente, and diftnét of Rochefort; 2%
learues N. of it.
CIRELLA, a town of Naples, in the province of Cala-
bria Citra, near which were formerly mines of gold, filver,
and lead, fome traces of which are now vilible; 8 miles.
E.S.E. of Scalea.
CIRENCESTER, or Crceter, a borough and market
town of Gloucefterfhire, England, was formerly the feat of
a Roman colony, and is fuppofed to have been the metropo-
lis of the Dobuni}, The circumttance of the jun@ion of the
three Roman roads, called the Fofs-way, the Irmin-ftreet,
and the Icknield-way, on this {pot, evinces its eligibility fora
Roman [tation: numerous ancient remains have at various
times been difcovered, and fcarcely a year elapfes, but fome
memorial of antiquity is found in the vicinity. ‘The ancient
city was inclofed by a wall and a ditch, the remains of which
“demonftrate the circumference to have been upwards of two
miles. It is fappofed that the fortifications were razed foon
after Henry 1V.’s reign; but that they were not wholly ob-
literated, appears from the following authorities. Leland
obferves that “aman may yet, walking on the baok of
Chume, evidently perceyve the compace of foundation of
towers fumtyme ftanding in the waul. And nere to the
place wher the right goodly clothing mylle was fet up a late
by the abbate, was broken down the ruine of an old tower,
towards
GIR
towards making of the mylle waulles, in the’which place was
fownd a quadrate ftone fawllen down afore, but broken in
many pieces, wherin was a Roman infcription, of the which
one fcantlie letterd that faw yt, told me that he might per-
ecryve PONT. MAX. Among divers coins found frequently
there, Dicclefian’s be mott fairett.”’?’ The abbot of Ciren-
eefter informed Leland that he had found in the ruins arched
ftones, feulptured with large Roman letters. Hearne ob-
ferves that coins with a figure holding a patera in the right
hand,anda pala branch in the left, were found here in his time;
and he had been informed of the difcovery of a pavement
before the year 1711, compofed of many coloured tcfferz.
Sir Robert Atkyns mentious a fubterraneous building, fifty
feet long, forty broad, and about four high, fupported by an
hundred pillars Curiowlly inlaid. Dr. Stukeley mections a
mofaic pavement dug up here in Sept. 17233 and adds, that
a vault was difeovered fixteen feet by feclve! fupported by
pillars of Roman brick, three feet fix inches high, oa which
was a {trong floor of terras; feveral other vaults adjoining,
were fhaded by cherry trees; and broken pillars, mouldings,
cornices with carved medallions, bafcs, capitals, &c. were
found icdifcriminately feattered. Thefe remains have been
recently afcertained to. belong to a Roman hypocauit. A
teflelated pavement, about fixteen feet fquare, was found in
1777, beneath a warchovfe in Dyer-itreet; another, and
more beautiful fragment, was difcovered in digging a cellar
in the fame ftreet; and the Bull-ring in the Querns is fup-
poled to have been an amphitheatre.
The caftle of Cirencefter is firft mentioned in hiftery as
being garrifoned by the earl cf Gloucefter for the emprefs
Maud againtt king Stephen, by whom it was taken. =
the reigo of Henry ITI. it was garrifoned by the barons
but being recovered by the king, he ordered its total pea
ition. The town, notwithitanding, appears to have been a
place of ftrength, and is celebrated for the fupprefliom of the
confpiracy of The nobles againtt Henry TV. Cirencefter was
formerly celebrated for its rich abbey, yack arefe froma de-
cayed college of prebenZaries of ancient Saxon foundation.
Rambaldus, dean of this college, end chancellor to Edward
the Confeffor, witnefled a graut, of thac monarch to the abbey
at Weitminfer. Leland mentions a ‘ fepulchre croile,” of
white marble, as remaining in the abbey church. This
building, as appears from Leland and William of Worcet!ler,
was of the Saxon ttyle of architefure, 280 fect in length,
and of proportionable dimenfions. At the diffolution, the
fite of the abbey was grantedto Roger Baling elq: on con-
dition that all Eke buildings within the precinG&is fhould be
pulled down and carried away; which was fo effeétually
executed, that the {pot oe by the church cannot now
be exattly afcertained. ‘he feat of Thomas Matter, efq.
now cailed the abbey, includes the fite of mofk of the monatftic
buiidings. The parifh church at Cirencefler, is one of the
moft magnificent parochial edttices inthe kingdom. It was
completed but a few years prior to the fuppreffion of the
abbey, yet the regular f yle of the fifteenth century prevails
in every part. The interior confilts of a nave, fide aifles, a
choir or chancel, and five chapels; at the wef end isa | iva
fome embattled tower, 134 feet high, ornamented with pin-
nacles and ftatues: aed on the fouth fide is a beautiful porch
richly decorated externally with grotefque figures, carved
niches, canopies, oval windows, fculptured cornices, and open-
worked battlements; and internally adorned by radiant
tracery, fpreading over the roof in eight circular fan- thaped
compartments, which rfe from fingle pillars and meet in the
centre, where the lozenges formed by the extremes of the
circles, are ornamented with quatrefoils. The porch is 38
feet in length, by 50 in height. ‘The infide of the church
C-I:R
contains two rows of cluftered. columns, five in cach ; which,
with two pilafters at each end, fopport the roof. ‘The wine
dows were formerly filed with painted glafs, but aconfiders°
able part has been mutilated or mi ifplaced. Of the chapels,
that on the north fide, dedicated to St. Catherine, is worthy
of particular notice, from the {culptures in the compartments
of the roof. In, Trinity chapel are two marble monuments,
to the memory of Allen, earl Bathurft, and his fou the lord
chancellor.
Cirencefter has feveral fchools: the moft ancient is the
free eal {chool, founded by bi hop Ruthail, who was a
native of this town, and pats counteilor to Henry VII.
Queen Mary ae 20% tothe endowments. Several pér-
fons cf eminence have received their education in this fehool.
Vbere are alfo a blue-coat fehoo!, and a yellow-coat {chool,
both ettablithed early in the eighteenth century. Among
other charitable inftitutions, are ‘three hofpitals : St. John’s,
founded by Henry I.; St. Lawrence’s, by Edith, lady of
the manor of W igaold, time unknown ; and St. Thomas’s,
by fir William Nottingham, attorney -general to Henry IV.
The manufatures of this town feem generally ina Hedline
ing ftate, with the exception of that for curricrs’ knives,
w! Rich are held in high efimation th iroughout Eurepe and
America, and are made by three or four honfes here, by one
at Gloucelter, and feareely any where elfein the kingdom.
There are alfo a clot! hing-hou fe, a {mail carpet manufactory,
and two breweries.
The markets, which are held on Monday and Friday, are
much frequented, and well fupplizd, c{pecially with corn and
meat. Great quantities of wool were formeriy brought from
Juckinghamfhire, D-rkthire, Northamptonthire, and Ox-
Foran: and fold at the Booth-hall, where large rooms were
provided for the TECEption 5 but the modern practice of
dealers travelling to make their puvchafe, has effectual! Hy de-
firoyed this markets ‘Three fairs are annually he:d, and two
mops, or flatute markets, on the. Mondays preceding and
following the tenth of Octcber. Great numbers of farmers
end others attend thefe markets to hire laboure “rs and fervants,
who wear, in their hat or bofom, badges of whip-cord, wool,
or cow-hair, thus diktinguithing themfelves.as candidates for
tiie offices of carter, (lepherd, dairy-maid. &c.
The diftriG called the hundred of Cirencefter included, at
the Domefdav {urvey, feven villages; but Henry 1V. made
the town a dilting: hund) ‘ed, as it “till tem - 8, excl luding the
abbey, almery, and Spiringate lane. He aifo made it ach _cor-
porate town, to be governed by a mavor, two conftabies,
&e.; but his charter was cancelled 37 Wiz. oe hundred
confifts of feven wards; the fleward ‘al the manor annually
appoints two high en flables and two petty conttables for
each ward, with the other neceflary officers. Reprefentatives
vere fent from this borough to a great council rith Ed-
ward IIT. ; bet the firlt regular return to pe arliament was
made tnder a grant ef 13 Bhiz. Diffcrert decifions ef the
Hote of Commons have confined the right of election to
the inhabitant houfeholders not receivin palms; the number
is about 5co
Vhe town confifls of four principal ; and feven f{maller
fircets, with feveral lanes, extending over an area of absut
txo miles in circutnference. The buildings are chicfly of
flone ; and the more celpecla’ ley Moudesmare generally de-
tached. “he ftreets, excepting the fouth fide, have a a gra-
dual activin fiom the centre to the extremitiks. The ca
pulation has mereafed but little fince the bey ginning cf th
laik century ; the inhabitants Sees fhe nearly eS
4900, and being returned under the aé& in the year 1Sor
ae 4730); the Wnnenor houfes 855. Cirencelter is fituated
89 mules W. from London. It is very near to the grand
Oo2 ridge
cItR
ridge of England; and not far from the famous Sapperton
tunnel, by which the Thames and Severn canal croffes it:
a fhort branch of this canal is conducted up to the town of
Cirencefter. See Cana.
Ricardus Corinienfis, or Richard of Cirencefter, fo cal’ed
from being a native of this town, was the compiler of the
eclebrated Itinerary, part of which, relative to England, was
publifhed under his name by Dr. Stukeley.
Oakley Grove, the feat of Henry earl Bathurft, lies on the
welt of Cirencefter. The manfion is only at a {mall diftance
from the town, the view of which is intercepted by a lofty
wall lined with perennial trees. It was built early in the lait
century; and, though very fpacious, is incre convenient
than grand. Lyfons’ Gloucefterfhire Antiquities. Rudder’s
Hiftory of Gloucefterihire. Rudge’s Hiftory of Ditto,
2 vols. Svo.
CIRENZA, a town of Naples, in the province of Ca-
labria Ultra, 12 miles N. of Girace.
CIREY, atown of France, in the department of the
Meurthe, and diltrist of Luneville, 8 miles E. of Blamont.
CIRIE, a town of Italy, and capital of a marquifate,
in the principality of Piedmont, comprehending the towns
of St. Maurice, Nolli, and Robafome, feated near the foot
of the Grecian Alps, in the Doria; 8 miles N.N.W. of Turin.
CIRKS, in Ornithology, the painted bunting of Pennant
and Latham, a fpecies of emberiza, which fee,
CIRKNITZ, in Geography, a {mall village of Carniola,
feated on a lake called the ‘ Cirknitz fea,’? furpounded
with fteep and rugged mountains; 14 miles S.S.W of Lay-
bach, and 165 S.S.W. of Vienna. In winter this lake is
very extenfive, and overflows a confiderable part of the ad-
jacent fields, which, in fummer, are quite dry, and fit for
tillage; whence it is commonly faid, that a perfon may fow
and reap, hunt and fifh, in this lake, within the {pace of a
year. When it is dry the rufhes, which it yields m great
abundance, are mowed for manure and litter for the caitle ;
and when it remains long dry, it produces a kind of grafs
which is ufed as fodder. The moft remarkable circumflance
attending this lake is, that it generally continues to ebb for
25 days; the water during that time running off by holes or
cavities, which are 13 in number, and are fo\many eddies
or whirlpools. Initances have occurred of its being dried
up, by the abforption of thefe eddies, three times in a
year. The lake abounds with fifth: and in {pring and au-
tumn it is frequented by large flocks of wild ducks. There
are three pleafant iflands in this lake, befides a kind of pen-
infula. It is fomewhat more than a German mile in length,
and about half as broad. Its greateft depth, exclufive of
the cavities or holes, is about 24 feet. Strabo calls it Lu-
gea palus, cither from the town of Lueg, which lies near
it, or from its deep and cavernous bed.
CIRL-BUNTING, in Ornithology.
Ciruus.
CIRLUS Sruurus, the foolifh bunting; L£mberizxa cia,
is fo named by Aldrovandus and Willoughby; the former
calls it likewife emberiza pratenfts.
CIRNA Mons, in Ancient Geography, Dghibbal [fol,
a mountain of Africa, S.W. of the Hipponites lake, and
5, leagues from the town of Hippozaritus. It is mentioned
by Ptolemy, and diftinguifhed by its round figure.
CIRO, in Geography, a town of Calabria, ftanding on
the fite of Crimiffa, a city founded by Philoétetes, the
friend and heir of Hercules. This is a very poor place,
though it contains about 6ooo inhabitants; it belongs to
Spinelli, prince of 'Tarfia, who monopolizes all the filk
made by his vaflals. The territory produces alfo very fine
oil and corn, ‘bad wine but good water.
CIRPHIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
See Emberiza
Core
the Phocide territory. Strabo places it near Mount Pate
naflus.
C{RQUINCON, in Zoology, the name under which
Buffon deferibes the weazel-headed armadillo, da/ypus 18-
cinfus of Linnzus, and tatu mujlelinus of Ray. ,
CIRRADIA, or Cirruania, in Ancient Geography, a
canton of India, onthe other fide of the'Ganges, according
to Ptolemy, who fays that it yielded‘the belt malabathrum.
M. d’Anville places it towards the 26th degree, on the courfe
of the river Catabeda.
CIRRHA, a maritime town of the Phocide territory,
feated on the gulf of Corinth, and ferving as a port to the
town of Delphi, and 60 itadia diftant from it. On an ad-
joining plain was an hippodrome, dedicated to Apollo,
Homer calls this town Criffla. We learn from FPanfanias,
lib. ii. c. 37, that Cirrha had a beautiful temple of Apollo,
Diana and Latona, in which were large flatues of thefe
deities, which belonged to the fchool of Athens.
CIRRHOSE, in Botany, a term applied to the leaves or
other parts of a plant, when they throw out cirrbi or ten-
drils, by which they cling to neighbouring plants or other
bodies.
CIRRI, Giovanni Barrista, in Biography, a native
of Italy, whofe inftrument was the violoncello, upon which
he was a more ufeful than fhining performer. He was a re-
gular bred mulician, a good contrapuntift, and wrote cor-
reGily for feveral inftruments befides his own. He refided
in England many years. His firft work was publifhed at
Verona in 1763, where he is ftyled profeffore di violoncello,
born at Forli. In 1785 he had publifhed in London, Paris,
and Florence, 17 different works, confifting of quartets,
trios, folos for his own inttrument, and pieces for the organ.
CIRRIS, in Ornithology, one of the fynonymous names
of the long-legged plover, charadrius himantopus. Cirris
is the name under which it is defcribed by old writers; it was
formerly confidered as appertaining to the ardea or heron
tribe, but is certainly by no means related to that genus.
The general plumage of this bird is white, with the wings
blackifh and gloffed with fhining green; the legs a very
beautiful red. The fpecies is occafionally found in Eng-
land. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.
CIRRUS, in Antiquity, an ornament added to the edges.
and borders of garments, much in the manner of fimbrie
or fringes, only that thefe were fingle and run along the
borders of the drefs; whereas the cirri were knotted toge-
ther, and hung down from the extremities of the robe.
Cirrus, in Botany, a tendnil or clafper, by whofe nu-
merous convolutious plants lay hold of other bodies for fup-
port. The name refers to the naturally curling locks of a
child after they have been once cut, called by the Romans
previoufly come, but afterwards cirri, moft probably from
xzipew, to foear. Some of the old botanifs ufed the name of
cirri for the lamina, and others for the fibrous crown of the
root, formed of the remains of leaf-ftalks in feveral plants,
as Meum athamanticum. Linneus, who firft applied this term
to tendrils, writes it cirrhus. Haller retained the old names
of capreolus and claviculus for the part in queftion. See Ca-
PREOLUS and CLAvicuLUsS :
Tendrils are enumerated by Linneus among thofe ap-
pendages to a plant which he denominates fu/era, or props,
and of which he reckons feven kinds. They are the only
one of the feyen to which the term he has chofen can, with
ftri& propriety, be applied. They ferve to fupport weal
and climbing {tems upon fuch as are ftrong and upright, and
they are moft abundant in annual ftems, Bryony and the
Vetch kind for inftance, which fpringing from {trong and
durable roots, thrive with great luxuriance during fummer,
decorating with their foliage, bloffoms and fruit, many,
otherwife
CIR
otherwife naked, ftems and branches; till, having perfe&ted
their feeds, they no longer encumber the face of nature, and
their living principle fhrinks, as it were, into its winter quar-
ters in the root. In the forefts of India and America the
climbers are often of a more fhrubby kind, and afcend to the
tops of the higheft trees, affifted frequently by twining ftems
as well as by the orggns in queftion.
Tendrils generally grow ftraight, and more or lefs hori-
zontally at firft, but their extremities foon affumea fpiral
fhape, and make a certain number of turns, which being ac-
complithed, they, in many inftances, perform about as many
more in the contrary dire€tion, and even afterwards refume
their original one, by which they have fo much the more
chance of catching hold of any neighbouring branches.
Some of them, as in Vicia and Lathyrus, are repeatedly
branched, rendering the chances ftill more in their favour ;
while others are perfe&tly fimple, and turn but in one direc-
tion, as thofe of Gloriofa fuperba and Flagellaria indica, which
are merely a {piral elongation of the points of their leaves,
hence denominated folia cirrofa. In many pinnated leaves,
particularly thofe of the Vetch tribe, a cirrus, either fimple
or branched, terminates the common foot-ftalk, the leaves
thus circumftanced being, of courfe, abruptly pinnated.
“When the cirrus is quite diftin@ from the leaves, it is ufually
axillary, as in the genus Paffflora ; fometimes it proceeds
‘from the flower-ftalk, as in Cardio/permum halicacabum, and
Annona hexapetala, Linn. Suppl. 270. ‘The extremity of the
flower-ftalk in the latter forms a hook, which embraces
the branch, and gathering great ftrength after the flower is
patt, fervesto fufpend the large and heavy fruit refembling a
bupch of grapes, for which purpofe the bafis or receptacle
of the flower does not perhaps poffefs fufficient firmnefs.
Profeffor Willdenow has an idea that cirri are, **in faa,
petioli without the leafy expanfion, but which, not having
“wafted their fap in the formation of leaves, have grown the
longer, and thus have become too thin and feeble to preferve
“their ftraight dire@tion.”? The obfervation of the legumi-
nous plants favours this hypothefis, the branches of whofe
tendrils aGually feem cach to have taken the place of a
leaflet. So alfo the Glorio/a fimplex, a plant obferved by Mil-
ler alone, and now generally fuppofed to have been a mere
variety of G. /uperba, deficient in the fpiral appendage to
its leaf, may be prefumed to have beftowed all its vigour in
the expanfion of the leaf itfelf, without accomplifhing more.
But the cirriin Paffiffora, Vitis, Bryonia, Cucumis, &c. are,
unqueftionably, diftin@ organs, which never aflume the forms
nor functions of leaves.
Willdenow further remarks, that ‘it appears as if the
diminifhed force of the current of air had fome influence up-
on the tendril, For each plant that fupports itfelf by
tendrils, when diftant from a wall, tree, or fhrub, fends out
all its tendrils towards that fide on which the plant is to at-
tach itfelf.” This feems tous not fatisfactory. If the fa&
“be true, for which we cannot vouch, it is rather to be ex-
plained by this ingenious writer’s preceding theory, that
part which, if fituated where it had received more air and
“light, would naturally have expanded into a leaf, being in
oppoiite circumi{tances contraéted into a tendril. We are
perfuaded, however, that, except poflibly in the above-men-
tioned leguminous plants, the cirrus and the leaves are organs
totally diftinet in their nature. ‘The latter are ftimulated
to expand by the aétion of light and air, and prefent them-
felves fo as to receive thofe ftimulants ; the former feem to
thrive moft from refiftance, and to court that refiftance,
turning with much more vigour round any extraneous body
than in a void fpace. So the tendrils of Hedera quinquefolia,
properly a fpecies of Vitis, when they ive the trunk of a
CIR
tree, or the even furface of a ftone, efpecially a fmooth flint,
no fooner fix upon it than their extremities dilate, clinging
with a fort of appetency to what feems to ftimulate them
to an extraordinary exertion. Much the fame thing may
be obferved in ourcommon ivy, Hedera helix.
Tendrils feldom afford good fpecific characters, being too
much alike in the fame genus to anfwer any fuch purpofe.
In the various climbing fpeciés of Virgin’s-bower, Clematis,
there are no real cirri, but the leaf-ftalks effeQiually perform
their funGions, efpecially in the beautiful C. cirrofa, where
thofe {talks are permanent, for a year at lealt, after their
leaves are fallen, and having all the appearance of naked
cirri, feem to have been taken for fuch by Linnzus.
Hence Jufficu was induced, in the Paris garden, to change
the name of this {pecies to pyrifolia; but the femblance of cirrt
is fufficient to juftify the original denomination, though the
Linnzan fpecific character requires correction. 5S.
Cirrus, Crier, in Jchthyology, the Linnean term applied
in general to the beard, or foft afpendicule which hang
about the mouth or jaws of fifhes; it is alfo occafionally
employed to exprefs the fkinny or flefhy appendages about
other partsof the body. See IchTHyoLocy.
CIRSELLIUM, in Botany, a genus formed by Gert-
ner, for fome fpecies of the Atradtylis of Linnzus, with the
following character. Calyx imbricated either with !pinous,
or with f{pinelefs feales. “Receptacle befet with briftly chaff.
Florets of the dife hermaphrodite; of the ray feminine,
{trap-fhaped; both fertile. Seeds uniform; down feathered.
He refers to it, Atraétylis cancellata and humilis, and doubts
whether A. gummifera, lancea, ovata, with Carthamus foli-
cifolius, ought not to be added.
CIRSIUM, in Botany, (Circium; Tourn.) a genus taken
up by Gertner, with the following charaéter. Calyx belly-
ing or; cylindrical, imbricated; fcales acuminate, either
with, or without prickles, but never with appendi-
cles. Florets all hermaphrodite. Receptacle chaffy ; /eeds
crowned witha feathery down 3. rays of the down filiform,
nearly equal, united intoa ring at the bafe. The Cirfium
and Cirfellium of this author differ only in the former being
without, and the latter with a ray.
CIRSOCELE, in Surgery, corruptly written CrrcocELE,
from zesos varix, and xian, tumor ; fomctimes called Her-
nia vartcofa, though improperly, as it has no affinity to a real
Heanta, which fee.
The cirfocele is an unequal and irregular enlargement of
the fpermatic veffels, near the teftis in which are felt, as
it were, hard ftrings or varicofe veins, ef the thicknefs of a
quill or even larger, involved together like a mais of worms,
and prefling down upon the tefticle. The diforder is moft
common in young plethoric men, and in thofe efpecially
who are unmarried. It is more troublefome than dangerous,
and feldom requires any other attention than wearing a bag~
trufs to fupport the part. é
The tumor is generally firft difcovered near the bottom of
the fcrotum ; in moft cafes it makes a gradual progrefs. At
its commencement, the patient perceives a fenfe of weight in
the ferotum; which, as the difeafe increafes, Lecomes more
fenfible, but diminifhes in its bulk upon the application of a
fufpenfory bandage, or when the patient lies upon his back.
When the tumor is fqueezed, the patient feels that pecu-
liar fenfation, which always is produced by preffure applied
tothe tefticle’ At length the tumor gradually enlarges up-
wards, approaches the abdominal ring, widens it, and alters
its fituation or form ; fo that nothing but a confufed irregu-
lar mafs can be difcovered upon examining this parts.
The cirfocele may be thus diftinguifhed from the omental
hernia, with which it has fome fimilarity in. its ater’
: ‘ itate :
Caix
{late : viz. The omental hernia defcends from the abdominal
ring downwards, whilft the cirfocele always commences at
the bottom of the {crotum, and increafes upwards. It alfo
comes on very gradually, and is not attended by thofe fymp-
toms which accompany the omental hernia in confequence
of the omentum dragging down the inteftines. The mafs
which forms the cirfoccle can never be pufhed into the ab-
Comen, whereas the protruded omentum frequently may be
returned. In the cirfocele, the telticle often diminifhes in
fize, and even waftes entirely away; wiarlfl m the omenta!
hernia, it is found to be perfe&t aud found. Finally, when
the tumor in ap omental hernia is preffed as aboye men-
tioned, the patient experiences no peculiar fenfation or pain ;
whilft in the cirfucele, pains are frequent even without ary
apparent carife.
The cirfeccle may be diftinguifhed from the hydrocele,
with which it has-alfo much fimilarity, by the foliowing
circumflances: Ina {imple hydroccle, the telticle and the
epidydymis are perfecily natural and found, whillt in the
ewfocele thefe parts are always found to have fome preter-
natural and irregular conformation: the tumor in the hydro-
cele is alfo of a more pyramidal figure, and when the patient
lies down or fiands up it yields to preffure, and rifes upwards;
and as {oon as the preflure is removed, recovers its former
fituation. Moreover in the hydrocele, the patient does not
feel pain in the fcrotum, or even in the tumor itf-lf, as in
the cirfocele, but merely in the region of the groin: the
more the hydrocele increaics, the more the telticie is con-
eealed, aud can only be felt <t the bottom; but when the
difeafe has attained its heigitt, it entirely difappears, as in
the cirfocele. Finaliy, the elatticity and fiu€tuation per-
ceived upon prefling the tumor between the fingers, are
fymptoms by which the hydrocele may readily be diltin-
guifhed from the cirfocele.
The cirfocele is frequently combined alfo with other dif-
eafes of the male organs of generatios, from which how-
ever it may readily be diftinguifhed.
The caufes of this difeafe are: hypochondrialis, ob-
ftrv€tions or irregularities cf the hemorrhoidal difcharge, im-
moderate la(civioufnefs, redundance of femen, &c. The
difeafe confifts in a tumefaciion of the fmall veffels
compoling the tefticle, which protrude out of the pro-
per membrane of the tetlicle, and mix themfelves with
thofe of the epidydymis. Frequently the difeafe is occa-
fioned by preflure on the upper part of the fpermatic chord
by a rupture-bandage, or a feirrhous tumor. (See the ar-
ticle Truss.) Sometimes it is occafioned merely by a relax-
ation of the veffels of the fpermatic cord; in which cafe a
fufpenfory bandage, the horizontal pefture, cold bathing,
and the external application of a folution of alum produce
beneficial effeéts, When thefe remedies do not entirely re-
move the tumor, they at leaft check its further progrefs.
The mode of cure ought properly to be regulated ac-
ording to the different caufes that have produced the dif-
eafe. Antiphlogiltic remedies are chiefly to be .employed.
(Sce Inrtammarion.) Above all, the patient fhould keep
ina horizontal polure, andufea fpare diet. In proportion
to the ftrength of the fubjeét, local bleeding mutt be em-
ployed, and fomctimes repeatedly. LEmollient and anodyne
glytters, as alfo gentle and cooling laxatives, are likewife
ferviceable. ‘The {crotum fhould be conftantly {upported by
a fufpenfion bandage ; and water cooled with ice may be
frequently dafhed over it, in order to rettore the tone of the
arts.
Some of the ancient furgeons have recommended tolay the
difeafed parts bare, andeither to tie or extirpate the tumefied
veins; but probably when obftrutions of the hemorrhoidal
2
CiR
veffels have caufed this difeafe, it might be cffeQual, without
laying bare the f{permatic chord itfelf, merely to apply
leeches under the abdominal ring, and thus preduce a topical
evacuation of blood. The edvantage of this practice is
the more to be expected, as it is known that the fpermatic
veins anaftomofe with the veins of the external furface.
Should all the remedies we employ be of .no effeé&t, we
are told there may be even danger of Gancer, and that caf-
tration mult follow; but this operation fhould not be
haltily performed, as we have never feen any fuch confe-
quences, and are inclined to doubt the propriety of this
advice in any cafe of imple cirfocele. (See Cancer.) The
doétrine of cirfeecle terminating in cancer, has particularly
been infifted on by the German furgeons.
CIRSOPHTHALMIA, from Kiera, varix, and oPSaarpstoe,
Ophthalmia varicofa, varicofitas zonjunétiva: a varicofe
dilataton of the veffels of the tunica conjun@tiva. In this
difeafe there appear red varicofe veffels dittended with blood
upon the tunica conjun@tiva of the eye: they are generally
in the form of bundles, uniting commonly near to one of the
angles of the eye, where they form a kind of trank, on which
account this cifeafe has fometimes been termed Ophthalmia
angilaris, At the point where the fmall veflels join, a fmall
tubercle is obferved, which is a@ually varicole ; fometimes
this ucbercle burits and is changed into a fmall treublefome
ulcer. From the angles of the eye thie veflels {pread them-
{elves further towards the cornea, and diverge more from
each other; fometimes feveral of them crefs the cornea, and
fenfibly impede vifion, or in fome inftances entirely obitruét
it. (See OpHTHALMIA.)
Thefe veffeis may now and then be made to difappear by
the long-continued external application of cold water, or a
folution of alum in water, a folution of white vitriol, or a
weak folution of pure kali, &c. The laft mentioned reme-
dies are to be applied feveral times a day, by means of a {mall
hair-pencil, or a few drops of them let fall inte the eye.
Mr. Janin recommends an oistment containing white prect-
pitate of mercury, &c. When the{mall pointat which the veflels
of the bunch unite, has already changed into a {mall ulcer,
the fame remedies are to be ufed as in other ulcers of the
conjunétiva: but when thefe remedies are infufficient, the
veffels mud be cut through with the point of a cataract knife
or lancet; and in order that the divided veffels may not re-
unite, they muft be cut completely through, and the inci-
fion repeated feveral times in the fame line, fo that it may pe-.
netrate quite through the conjunctiva coat, and the ends of
the veflels mult be removed trom each other w:th the point
of the knife. It is alfo proper that the incilion fhou'd be
made fomewhat longer than the breadth of the bunch, asim
that cafe, the ends of the veffels may be more ealily removed
from each other. Should the veffels re-appear after a few
days, the operation muit be repeated, their bleeding fhould
be promoted by bathing them with warm water, and we may
afterwards apply a folution of white vitriol, or fome other
aftringent remedy. .
CIRSOVOMY, from xigco:, varix, and rev, feco, thie ope-
ration for varices.’ This operation was formerly in ufe for eva-
cuating the contents of deep-ieated varices ; and is ftill fome-
times practifed. (See Varix.) The teguments over the va-
rix are cut open, and the varix feparated from the flcin and
neighbouring parts, by means of a probe or other blunt in-
ftrument ; after which the vein is tied above and below the
varix, in the fame manner as the artery in cafes of aneurifm.
Sce Anevaism.) The tumor, fituated between the two liga-
tures, feparates itfelf together with the ligatures in the courfe
of a few days; or we may divide it at firft, or only feparate
its anterior part with the fciffars. When the varix is fituared
near
CIR
near toa bone, it fs not neceffary to tie the vein; but as
foon as the integumeuts have been divided we may immedi-
ately extirpate the whole tumor, and flop the hemorrhage
by compreffton upon the bone. When the fkin, as fome-
times happens, adheres fo ftrongly to the varix that it cannot
be feparated, we muft cut ont the adhering portion. If
the operation has been performed by ligature, we muft wait
for the feparation of the threads, and then promote the union
of the wound. Now and then this operation has been fol-
lowed by inflammation, and even death!
CIRTA, or Cirrua; in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa in Numidia, or in the ealtern province of Algiers,
now called Conftantina, anciently the Mauritania Celarienfis.
It derived its name, according to Bochart, from Nmap
cartha, i.e. city ; which denotes that it was formerly a con-
fiderable place. It was feated on an emisence, about 48
miles from the fea, and became the capital of the kingdom
of Numidia, and the royal refidence. Its magnitude and
firength may be inferred from the extent of its ruins, and
from its particular fituation ; the greateft part of it beirg
built upon a peninfular promontory, inaccelflible on all fides,
except towards the S. W. where it was joined to the conti-
nent. This promontory was computed by Dr. Shaw (Trav.
fp: 60.) to be a good mile in circuit, lying a little inclined
to the fouthward, but towards the north it terminated ina
precipice, at leaft 100 fathoms perpendicular, from whence is
a beautiful landikip, over a great variety of vales, moun-
tains, and rivers, which lie to a great diftance befere it.
Eaftward the profpeét is bounded by an adjacent range of
rocks much higher than the city; but towards the S. E.
the country is more open; and in this direétion the penin-
fuJar promontory is feparated from the continent by a deep
narrow valley perpendicular on both fides, where the Rum-
‘mel or Ampifaga conveys its flream. The neck of land to
the S. W. where flood the principal gate of the city, is
about the breadth of half a furlong, being entirely covered
with broken walls, cilterns, and other ruins, which are con-
tinued quite down to the river; and carried on from thence
over a ftrip of plain ground, that runs parallel with the above-
mentioned valley. The prefent ¢ity has not the fame dimen-
fions, being confined to the peninfular promontory only.
Near the centre of the city there {till remain thofe capacious
cifterns which received the water brought thither from Phyf-
geah by an aquedudt, a great part of which fubfilts and is
very fumptuous ; they are about 20in number, and form an
area of 59 yards fquare. The gate confills of a beautiful
reddifh ftone, not inferior to marble, well polifhed and fhin-
ing 3 an eltar of pure white marble makes part of a neigh-
-bouring wali, and the fide in view prefents a well fhaped
fimpulum in a bold relief. The gate towards the S. E. re-
fembles the other, though fmaller, and lies open to a bridge
that was built over this part of the valley; the bridge is
much extolled ; the gallery and columns of the arches being
adorned with cornices and feftoons, ox-heads and garlands.
The key-ftones of the arches are charged with caducci and
other figures. Below the gallery, betwixt the two princi-
pal arches, 1s fecn in bold relief, well executed, the figure of
a lady treading upon two elephants, with a large efcallop
ghell for her canopy. Below the bridge the Rummel turns to-
‘wards the north, and runs near a quarter of a mile through
a rocky fubterraneous paflage, laid open in feveral places
for the convenience of drawing up the water, and-cleanfing
the channel. Tothe S. W. of the bridge is feen among
the ruins the greateft part ofa triumphal arch called ** Coffir
Goulah,”’ or the caftle of the giant, confifling of three arch-
es, the mouldings and frizes of which are curioufly em-
bellifhed with the figures of flowers, battle-axes, and other
cis
orraments, Under the great precipice without the pre-
cinGs of the city, are feveral fepulchral infcriptions, ene of
which is upon a “ Cippus” with the figure of a loaded beeve
in baffo relievo above it, and of a crab belowit, Beeves are
ftill ufed in Numidia as bealts of burden. The Rummel at
a {mall dikance fails in a large cafcade from its fubterraneous
cliannel, and above it lies the highett part of the city, from
whence criminals are precipitated into the river, as they ufed
to be in former times.
This place was very confiderable in the time of Syphax.
Strabo fays, that Micipfa eftablifhed in it a colony of Greek: ;
and it afterwards became fo flourifhing as to be able to raife
10,0¢0 horfe and 20,000 foot. After the conqueft of Nu-
midia by the Romans, Sittius Nucerinus revoleed againtt
the republic, made himfelf mafter of it, and gave it his name,
“€Cirta Sittianorym.”? Upon Cefar’s carrying his aris in-
to Africa, it revolted to the republic, which fent a colony
thither, and the city tock the name of “ Cirta Julia.”? ‘Phis
eity having been ruined A.D. 311 by the conquefts of the
tyrant Alexander, wasre eftablifhed by order of Conftantine
the Great, and affumed the name of ‘* Conftantina.?? Juf-
timan repaired its fortifications. The name of Conitantina
is {till preferved in the welt ; but the people of the country
call it Cucuntia. Count Caylus has engraved the veltizes of
an ancient tornb which are fill to be feen near this city.
Mem. de Lit: t. xxvi..p..334.
CIRTIPUR, in Geography, a city of Indiain the kingdom
of Nepal, feated on a hill of the fame name, containing about
Sceo honfes, about a league’s diftance from Catmandu.
The inhabitants of this town vigoroufly refilted the repeated
attacks of the king of Gorcha ; but, eftera fiege of feveral
months, the army of the enemy was treacheroufly intreduced
into the town ; and the people, on the faith of promifed am-
nefty, furrendered themfelves prifoners. In fhameful viola-
tion of this promife, an order was iffued to put the principal
inhabitants to death, and to cut off the nofes and lips of every
one, even infants, who were not found in the arms of their
mothers ; and it was likewife required that the nofes and lips
which had been cut off fhould be preferved, for the purpofe
of afcertaining how many fouls they were; and that the
name of the town fhould be changed into “ Nafkatapur,””
fignifying ‘* the town of cut-uofes.”? The order, it 13 faid,
was carried into execution with every mark of horror and
cruelty, none efcaping but thofe who could play on wind-
inftruments ; although father Michael Angelo, who, with
out knowing that fuch an inhuman fcene was exhibited, had
gone to the houfe of the perfon who had received ihe fa-
vage order, and interceded much in favour of the poor inha-
bitants, Many of them putan end to their lives in defpair ;
others applied to the Roman miffion for medicines ; ‘* aud it
was molt fhocking,”? fays father Giufeppe, prefeét of the
miffion, ‘* to fee fo many living people with their teeth and
nofesrefembling the fkulls of the deceafed.” Afiatic Ref.
vol. ii. p. 319.
CIS, a hill of Paleftine, in the tribe of Juda, fitu-
ated at the N.W. of the Dead Sea, at fome dillance from
the mouth of the brook Cedron.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps.
The word is formed from the prepofition cis, on this fide,
and Alpes ; which, though property confined to the moun-
tains feparating Italy and France, yet is ufed by authors
for any very high mountains —Thes Aufonius fpeaks of
the Alps of the Pyreneans, the Alpsof the Apennines, &c.
‘The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called
Lombard y into Cifalpine and Tranfulpine.
» That which was Ci/alpine, with regard to the Romans, is
Tranfalpine with regardto us. See Gauuta. i
Se
CIS ALPINE.
CisAupine, (rather Tranfalpine,or Peduan), or as it has
been fince denominated, the lrataan Republic, in Geography,
a new flate formed by the union of thofe governments which
had been denominated Cifpadane and Tranfpadane, from
their fituation on the right and left fides of the Po, created
by the French republic in the year 1796, firmly ettablifhed
in confequence of the peace of Campo Formio in 1797, by
the 8th article of that treaty, further re-eftablifhed by the
2th article of the treaty of Luneville in 1801, and acknow-
ledged by his majelty the emperor, the kings of Sardinia,
Spain, Switzerland, the pope, &c. It comprehends by the
Sth article of the treaty of Campo Formio, befide the whole
of Autftrian Lombardy, and part of the former republic of
Venice, to the eaft and fouth of the Legner, the Berga-
mefque, the Brefcian, the Cremonefque, the Modenefe, the
principality of Maffa and Carrara, and the three legations of
Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna. In a “ Geographical and
Statiltical Account of the Cifalpine Republic, &c.”? trani-
Jated from the German by Dr. Oppenheim, Svo. 1798, the
whole territorial dimenfions of the Cifalpine Republic are
itated to contain 3,567 {quare miles, and 3,447,384 fouls ;
VIZ,
Sq-Miles. Inhabitants”
. The Duchy of Milan - - Sir 1,116,892
. The Duchy of Mantua
The principalities of Catton 185
and Salferino - -
. The acquired provinces formerly
belonging to the Republic of
Venice, viz.the Bergamefco, the
Brefciano, and the territories of
Verona and Rodigo, fituated on
the right bank of the Adige, the
White Canal, the Tartaro, the
canal Polifella, andthe Po -
. The Duchy of Modena, with the
principalities of Mafla and Carrara
6. The lands obtained from the duke
of Parma, the duchy of Guattillo,
Sabionetta, and Bozzolla -
The three legations, Ferrara, Bo-
logna, and Romagna, formerly
Papal = = ¥ a
8. The territories of the Grifons, be-
Jonging to Worms, Cleves, and
the Valteline - - 324
g. The four (commonly called) Italian
Bailiwicks - - - -
207,331
> we H
666,c00
a
431 460,000
18,000
ey
775,801
100,000
103,000
Total = - 33447;,084
The conftitution of this republic was eftablifhed at a con-
fulta, affembled at Lyons in January 1802, when the name
of Travian republic was fubftituted for that of Ci/al-
pine, and the magiftracy was vefted in Buonaparte, the firit
conful of France, who attended on the occafion. This
conftitution declares the catholic religion, apoftolic and Ro-
man, to be the religion of the ftate; and though it has
merely the name of a republic, under the defpotic govern-
ment of Buonaparte, the fovereignty was pronounced to re-
fide in the whole body of the citizens. The territory of the
republic is divided into diftri€ts, departments, and communes.
The rights of citizenfhip belong to thofe who are born of
Cifalpine fathers, and refide in the republic. Strangers
holding landed property, or being concerned in commercial
or manufacturing eftablifhments, and who have refided feven
years, may be naturalized; and alfo perfons of eminent ta.
lents, by a fpecial aét of favour.
There are three eleGtoral colleges; the college of the
poffidenti, of the dotti, and of the commercanti. ‘They are
to meet once in two years at leaft, on the invitation of the
government, tc complete their number, to appoint the mem-
bers of the confulta, of the legiflative body, of the tribunal
of revifion and appeal, and the commiffaries of finance.
Their feffion is to continue fourteen days. ‘They are to deli-
berate, but not to difcufs. Their determinations are to be
by fecret ballot ; and one-third of the members conftitute a
houfe. The members of the colleges forfeit this right, rf,
by bankruptcy ; 2d, by abfence during three fuccefiive fef-
fions ; 3d, by accepting any employment under a foreign
government; 4th, by continuing in a foreign country fix
months after being recalled.
The college of poffidenti confifts of three hundred citi-
zens, chofen from fuch as poffefs an annual income, from
land, of Sooo livres at leaft. The place of its meeting, for
the firft ten years, is Milan. Every department may fend
members to this college in the proportion of one to thirty
thoufand inhabitants.
The college of the dotti confifts of two hundred citizens
chofen from amongtt the moft eminent in the arts, fciences,
and various branches of literature. Its place of meeting, for
the firft ten years, is Bologna.
The college of commercanti confifts of two hundred citi-
zens, alfo chofen (as the name imports) from among com-
mercial men.
The cenfurati is a committee of twenty-one members no-
minated by the colleges, of whom feventeen is a quorum.
Its fitting is only for ten days.
The government refides in the prefident, vice-prefident, a
confulta of ftate; in the minifters and legiflative body.
The prefident retains his office for ten years, and is re-eligi-
ble. With him all laws originate ; and he has the fole con-
du& of all diplomatic negociations. He is exclufively in.
velted with the whole executive power. He appoints the
minifters, the civil and diplomatic agents, the chiefs of the
army, &c. He nominates the vice-prefident, who is to re-
prefent him in his abfence. ‘The vice-prefident, once ap-
pointed, cannot be difmifled during the prefidency of him
by whom he was appointed. , The falary of the prefident is
500,009 livres of Milan, of the vice-prefident, 100,000.
The confulta of ftate confifts of eight perfons, above the
age of forty, eleted for life by the colleges ; one of its mem-
bers is to be minzifter of ftate for foreign affairs. ‘This con=
fulta is charged with every matter relative to foreign affairs.
Nothing comes, however, under their deliberation except
what the pretident choofes. Io cafe of a vacancy, the con-
fulta elects a new prefident, and cannot feparate till the
choiceismade. Their falarizs are 30,000 livres each.
The legiflative council cannot be compofed of lefs than
ten members, above the age of thirty. They are appointed
by the prefident, and may be difmiffed by him at the end of
three years. ‘They have a deliberative voice on the projeéts
propofed by the prelident, and are f{pecially,charged with
drawing up the proje@s of laws. ‘Their falary is 20,000
livres each.
The legiflative body is compofed of feventy-five members,
of above thirty years of age, chofen by each department ac-
cording to its population. One half is to be taken from
the colleges. One third goes out every two years. The
going out of the firft and fecond third to be determined by
lot. The government convokes and prorogues the legiflative
body ; but the feffion cannot be lefs than two months annu-
ally. ‘I'he falary of the members Gooo livres of Milan. “
¢
.
cIs
The tribunals, civil and military, are on the model of the
French. The judges are for life.
The members of the colleges, the cenfurati, the prefident,
vice-prefident, confuita of ftate, are not refponfible. The
rmainifters are refponfible.
The freedom of religious worfhip is declared ; and no im-
pediments are admitted to indultry and commerce, but thofe
founded in law. No armed body can deliberate. The pur-
chafers of national property are protected. The church is
to be maintained out of a portion of the national property.
The confulta may, at the end of three years, propofe any al-
teration in the conititution.
CISAMUS, or Cisamum, in Ancient Geography, a town
placed by Ptolemy in the northera part of the ifle of Crete,
and, according to Strabo, the port of the town of Aptera.
In the Notitia of Hierocles, it is an epifcopal town.
CISEAUK, or rather Ciseaux pu Minevur, in JYi/j-
tary Language, inftruments like chiffels,. which miners make
ufe of tor.loofening the earth, and trimming the fides of
their excavations, and which, to avoid being heard, they
flrike with the hand.
CISERUSA, or Crssexussa, in Ancient Geography, an
ifland of the /Eyean fea, near that of Cnidos. Pliny.
' CISIPADES, a people of Africa, who occupied the
weltern fide of the Greater Syrtis, according to Pliny.
CISLEU, in Chronology, the ninth month in the eccle-
fiaftical year, and the third in the civil or political year
among the Hebrews, containing 30 days: it anfwers to
art of our November and December. An annual falt is
obferved by the Jews tothis day on the 18th of this month,
in commemoration of the taking of Jerufalem by Nebuchad-
nezzar.
CISMAR, in Geagraphy, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Holltein, not far from the Baltic; 17 miles N.
of Travemunde. N. lat..54° 14’. E. long. 11° 2",
CISME. See Cuisme.
CISMONE, a river of the country of Tyrol, which runs
into the Brenta, near Kofel.
CISNER, Cravunius, in Biography, a learned German,
born in 1529. He fludied firlt at Heidelberg, and after-
wards at Strafburs, where he imbibed the Lutheran tenets
under Martin Bucer. At Wittemberg, he was made pro-
{flor extraordinary of moral philofophy. He afterwards
tudied the law in different citics in France, and took the
degree of doctor of laws at Pifa in 1559. He foon after
returned to Heidelberg, and was nominated profeflor of the
pandeéts, and counfellor to the elcétor-palatine. He died
in 1583. Cifner was author of many works, but the prin-
cipal was his ‘‘ Opufcula Hilt. et Polit. Phalog. dittributa
in Libros IV.” This colle&tion contains feveral curious
tra&ts on German hiltory, together with poems, orations,
and epiftles. ‘
~ CISPADANA, in Aacient Geography, an epithet ufualiy
annexed by the Romans to Gallia, when they wifhed to
denote, in Gallia Cifalpina, that part which was fituated,
with regard to Rome, on this fide of the Po, or Padus.
See GALtia.
CISPILUS, the name. according to Fetus, of one of the
fix hills of Rome, which formed the Efquiline mount.
Varro fays, that Cifpius had feven fummits near the temple
of Juno Lucina.
CISSA, an ifland of the Adviatic, according to Pliny,
and the Notitia Imperi. e ;
Cissa, Crissa, or Cressa, a town in the Thracian
Cherfonefus, upon the river J2gos, which no longer fub-
filted in the time of Pliny.
Cissa; a river of Afia, in Pontus Cappadocia, according
Vou. VIII.
Cs
to Ptolemy.—Alfo, a fountain of Greece, in the Pelopen-
nefus, placed by Paufanias near Mantinea.
eras a people placed by Diodorus Siculus in
Media.
CISS AERO, or Crsseron, a mountain of Paleftine.
CISSAMPELOS, in Botany, (xiozxpx:d0;, Diofc. vine
of ivy.) Linn. Gen. 1138. Schreb. 1555. Juff. 285:
(Caapeba, Plum. Gen. tab. 29. Pareire, Lam. and Poiret
in Encyc.) Clafsand ord. Disecia monadelphia. Nat. ord.
Sarmentacee, Linn, Aenifperme, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Male. Cal. perianth four-leaved ; leaves lan-
ceolate, obtufe, concave, fpreading, coloured. Gor. none.
Stam. filaments five, united, inferted into the nectary ; an-
thers fhort, four-lobed. Nedary fhorter than the calyx,
membranous, entirely ccloured, a little concave, wheel-
fhaped, occupying the centre of the flower. Female.
Calyx one-leafed, opening laterally in the fhape of an oval
fpathe, narrowed at its bafe, inferted into the lower part
of the germ. (Linneus confiders it asa bra€te.) Cor. one-
petalled, egg-fhaped, obtufe, convex, caducous, opening
laterally, half the length of the calyx, and placed in ‘its
coneavity, (neCtary, Linn. which he calls the lateral edge
of the ‘germ, dilated outwards.) Pi. germ roundifh, vil-
lous, fixed obliquely upon a fhort peduncle; ftyle upright,
awl-fhaped ; ftigma trifid. Peric. berry or drupe roundifh,
a hittle compreffed, with one feed. Seed wrinkled, com-
preffed, hard. Poiret.
Eff. Ch. Flowers dioicous. Male. Calyx four-leaved.
Corolla none. Stamens four, monadelphous, attached to
a neétareous difc at the centre of the flower. Female.
Calyx one-leafed. Stigmas three. Berry globular, with
one feed.
Sp. C. ciffampelos, pareira, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1.
(Clematis baccifera, Sloan. Jam. i. 200. Plum. Amer.
tab. 93. Convolvulus brafilianus, Rai Hitt. 1331. Caape-
ba, Marcg. Braf. 24. Pic. Braf. gy. @. C. feandens,
Browne Jam. 357. Caapeba folio orbiculari_ umbilicato,
et tomentofo, Plum. Gen. 33.) ‘* Leaves peltate, heart-
fhaped, emarginate, entire.’ Linn. 2. C. caapeba, Linn.
Spec. 2. Mart. 2. (Caapeba folio orbiculari non umbi-
licato, Plum. Gen.-33. Ie. 6. fig. 2.) * Leaves petioled
at the bafe, entire.”?. Linn. We have followed Lianeus
in keeping thefe two diltiné, eft-eming the mode of the in-
fertion of the petiole into the leaf a found f{pecific character.
Poiret, from a diligent comparifon of {pecimens in the hers
bariums of La Marck, Joflieu, and Commerfon, brought
fome from the Welt, and others from the Lait Indies,
makes them one {pecices, which he calls C. cocculus, uniung
with them under the fame trivial names, meni/permum coce
calus of Linneus and’ Gertner, which produces the
cocculus indicus of the fhops. See Coccurus indicus.
He gives the followng defcription of thefe united {pe-
cies, formed from the above-mentioned fpecimens. Stems
woody, farmentous, eylindrical, climbing, and twining,
a little ftrated, flightly villous. Leaves two or three
inches broad, alternate, petioled, almoft orbicular, heart-
fhaped, or fometimes entire at the bafe, obtufe, or flightly
emarginate at their tip, nsucronate, entire at the edges, green
on the upper {urface, cloathed underneath with more or lefs
of a fhort whitifh down, foft to the touch ; petioles from
one to two inches long, villous, cylindrical, with a remark-
able curvature near the bottom, inferted in many individu.
als into the leaves at a {mall diltance from the bafe, fo as
to make them appear peltate or orbicular (C. pareira, Linn.),
in others direétly into their lower edge (C. caapeba, Linn.),
Male flowers very {mall, panicled. Panicles lateral, hort,
peduncled, loofe, much branched, folitary or in pairs, fome-
Pp _ times
€qis
times by threes, and feldom more, fhorter than the petioles,
and fituated a little above their axils; ramifications of the
panicle villous, dichotomous, flender, almott capillary, form-
ing a kind of cyme, with very froall, villous braétes. Female
Jlowers in racemes, alt ygether different from the maies in their
mode of inflorefcence. Racemes elongated, narrow, folt,
tomentous, pendulous, often longer thaa the petioles, and
even than the Icaves, axillary, from one to three in an axil.
Braées vefembling the leaves, but {maller, alternate, orbicu-
Jar, mucronate, tomentous. lowers very {mall, axillar,
fafcicled. Fruit gibbous on one fide, flightly villous when
young, {mooth afterwards, about the fize of a hazel nut.
A native of the Eaft and Welt Indies. 3. C. fmilacena,
Linn. Sp. 3. Mart. 3. (Smilax lenis, Catef. Car. 1. tab. 5:.)
«* Leaves heart-fhaped, acute, angular.” Stems flcnder,
running up walls, andtwining about poltsand trees. Leaves
refembling thofe of common ivy. Lerries about the fize of
{mall peas, growing in clufters, red. Linnaeus never faw
the fru@ification complete. 4. C. fruticofa, Linn. jun.
Supp. 432. Mart.3. Thunb. ‘ Stem erect, fhrubby ;
leaves egy-(haped, petioled, entire.’”? A native of the Cape
of Good Hope. 5.-C. ovata, Poir.2. ‘* Leaves exg-
fhaped, obtufe, almoft entircly fmooth; racemes Slender,
elongated, pubefcent.””? Stems woody, cylindrical, flightly
ftriated. Branches numerous, alternate, climbing, a little
villous. Leaves about two inches long, from twelve to fif-
teen lines broad, alternate, petioled, mucronate, entire, firm,
finely veined, green, {mooth, and a little fhining above, with
a few fhort hairs along the nerves underneath ; petioles about
an inch long, flender, cylindrical, villous towards their upper
extremity. J/owers {mall ; racemes limple, lateral, folitary
or in pairs, fituated a little above the axils of the leaves;
brates villous, very narrow, almolt awl-(haped, very fhort,
alternate. Frui/ a dry berry or drupe, kidney-fhaped, orbi-
cular, {mooth, flightly compreffed at the fides, about the fize
ofa lentil. A native of the Eaft Indies; obferved by Son-
nerat, who fent fpecimens to La Marck. 6. C. /aurifolia,
Lam. 3. ‘‘ Leaves coriaceous, ovate-oblong, quite {mooth ;
fruit very large.?? Stems farmentous, fhrubby, {mooth,
ftriated, yellowith. Branches pendulous. Leaves alternate,
petioled, quite entire at their edges, with a ftrong lon-
gitudinal nerve underneath, narrowed, and obtufe at their
fummit, rounded at the bafe; petiole fhort, thick. Flowers
of the female in fhort, axillary racemes. Fruit oval, much
wrinkled, pulpy, dark brown when ripe. A native of Ame-
rica. Specimen fent to La Marck from the ifland of St.
Thomas by Richards. 7. C. capenfis, Poir. 4. (C. apentfis,
Linn. jun. ?) “ Leaves ovate-acute, flightly obtufe, fmooth ;
petioles much fhorter than the leaf.”” Stems woody, greyith.
Branches Nender, climbing. Leaves alternate, petioled,
elongated into a weak point, mucronate, entire, green, re-
ticulated, thickifh; petioles from two to four lines long.
Flowers panicled, about the fize of a pin’s head, nearly
fpherical, clothed with a cotteny down ; panicles {mall, axil-
Jary, tomentous, whitifh, much branched, a little longer than
the petioles. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Spe-
cimen fent to La Marck by Bergius. 8. C. Aumilis, Poir. 5.
*¢ Leaves fomewhat heart-fhaped ; the younger ones femi-
orbicular ; axils woolly; ftem low, fhrubby.” Stems not
more than from eight to ten inches high, flender, cylindri-
cal, ftriated, branched. Leaves alternate, petioled, obtufe,
mucronate, {mooth ; petiole flender, fcarcely half the length
of the leaves. Flowers whitifh, in {mall, tomentous, fafci-
cles. A native of the Cape of Good Hope; obferved by
Sonnerat, who fent {pecimens to La Marck.
Poiret obferves, that though the {pecies of Ciflampelos are
cis
tification, yet as both genera refembl2 each other in habit,
aud as the flowers of each are {fo {mall that they cannot be
eafily diffedted in a dried {pecimen, it is poffible that fome
fpecies of Menifpermum may have been referred to Cilfam-
pelos, and wice ver/a.
CISSE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Mau-
ritania Cxlarienfis, according to Piolemy. ‘The Itinerary
of Antonine calls it Cif, and makes it a Municipium; about
12 miles from Rufucurrium. Tt was epifcopal.
CISSENE, a mountain of Thrace.
CISSIA, a country of Alia, whofe capital was Sufa,
marked by Philoftratus at one journey from Babylon. Sus
fiana formed a part of Ciffia, and it is now called Chofiftan,
or Khofiftan, which fee. “Che ishabitants were called Ciffi,
CISSIL Montes, mountains of Afiatic Sarmatia, where.
was the fource of the river Imitys.
CISSINE, a town of Thrace, in the vicinity of the
mountain Ci/ine.
CISSINUS, a town of Afia in Perfia, mentioned by
ZEfchylus, and placed by Ortelius in the country called
Ciffia.
CISSITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
the ancients to that fpecies of the flinty efites, or cagle=
ftone, which is covered with the conmon white coat of the
flicts. Pliny mentions it as found principally about Captos,
and being externally of a white colour, and rattlng when
fhaken.
CISSOID, in Geometry, a curve of the fecond order,
firfk invented by Diocles ; whence it is peculiarly called the
ciflo'd of Diocles.
The genefis of the ciffoid may be thus conceived: to the
diameter A B (Plate Analyfis, fig. 1.) of the femicircle A
O B, draw an indefinite line, at right angles, B C: then,
draw the rightline A H, and make A M=14H, or HM
= AI; andin the other quadrant, LC = A N,orCN=
AL. Thes will the points M and L be in a curve line,
AM OL; which is the ciffoid of Dioclcs.
If the circle were completed, with the fame conftruGion
in the other femicircle, we fhould have another part of the
curve Amol. Sir Ifaac Newton refers this curve to the
clafs of defeGtive hyperbolas, being the 42d fpecies in his
«© Enumeratio Linearum tertii Ordinis.”? And in his ap-
pendix ** De Equationum ConflruGione Lineari,” at the
clofe of his ‘“¢ Arithmetica Univerfalis,” he gives another
elegant method of deferbing this curve, by the continual
motion of a f{quare ruler.
Properties of the Cisso1p.—From the genefis it follows :
1. That the curve has two infinite legs, AMOL, A
mol, meeting in acufp A, and tending continually towards
the indefinite line C B D, which is their common afymp-
tote.
2. That drawing the right lines P M and K J, perpendi-
cular to A B; we fhall have AP: KB:: AM:1H.
But A M=14;; confequently, A P = K B. And
therefore A K = PB; and PN= IK. ;
3. After the fame manner, it appears that the cifloid A
M O bifects the femicircle A O B.
4 Again, AK: K1I:: KI: KB from the nature of
the circle. Thatis, AK: PN:: PN:AP. And again,
AK:PN(KI1): AP: PM, by the property of timi-
lar triangles A KI, A PM; therefore, PN: AP: A
P: PM. Confequently, A K,PN, A P, and P M, are
four lines in continual proportion. Andif P N= v, A P
=x,PM=y; «=vy. And after the fame manner
it may be fhewn, that A P, PN, A K, and K L, are in
continual proportion. Or, if the diameter A B be = a,
ealily ditinguithed from thofe of menifpermum by the fruce Ahe abfcils A P = x, and P M the ordinate = y, as be-
a —
+ fore ;
Giris
fore; we fhall have x (A P):a@— sx (PB) :: 97: 2, or
x3 = a@ — x X 4%; which is the equation of the curve.
5- Hence, in the cifloid, the cube of the abfcifs A P is
equal to a folid arifing from the {quare of the femiordinate
P M, multiplied into the complement of the diameter of the
generating circle P B. Confequently, when the point P
falls on B, then x == a, and B C= ¥y;3 and y? = —.
Wherefore, o : 1 2: a?: 92; that is the value of y becomes
infinite; and, therefore, the cifloid A M O L, thongh it
continually approach B C, will never meet it.
6. Whence it appears, that B C is an afymptote of the
eiffoid.
7. The whole infinitely long ciffoidal fpace, contained be-
tweeen the infinite afymptote B C D, and the eurves L
OA ol, &c. of the cifloid, is equal to triple the generat-
ing circle AO BoA.
The ancients made ufe both of the conchoid and ciffoid,
for the finding of two mean continual proportionals between
two given right lines. ;
Sir Ifaac Newton, in his laft letter to M. Leibnitz, has
fhewn how to find aright line equa! to one of the legs of
this curve, by means of the hyperbola; but the inveltiga-
tion which he there fuppreffed, may be found in his Fluxions.
See more on this curve in Wallis’s Works, vol. 1. p. 545.
For the quadrature, fubnormal, and fubtangent of the
cilfoid, fee QUADRATURE, SUBTANGENT, &c.
Cissoip angle. See ANGLE.
CISSUS, in Botany, Diofe. from Kiecos, ivy. Linn.
Gen. 147. Schreb. 192. Juff. 267. Vent. 3. p. 168.
Lam. Ill. 228. Achit. Lam. Encyc. Clafs and order,
tetrandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Hederacee, Linn. Vites,
uff.
? Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, fhort, almoft entire,
or ob{curely four-toothed. Cor. Petals four, ovate-oblong,
fomewhat concave, a little fpreading ; neCtary, a rim fur-
rounding the germ. Stam. Filaments four, the length of the
corolla, inferted into the neGary ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?.
Germ fuperior, roundifh, retufe; ftyle the length of the
flamens ; fligma fimple, acute. Peric. Berry round or di-
dymous, retufe, fhining, furrounded at the bafe by the
calyx. Seeds, one or two (rarely three or four), boney,
roundifh, fomewhat angular.
Eff. Ch. Calyx nearly entire. Petals four. Berry one
or two-feeded, furrounded at the bafe by the calyx.
* Leaves fimple.
1. C. vitiginea, Linn. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. Encye. 1. Ill. 1612.
Willd. 1. (Arbufcula baccifera ; Pluk. Mart. 27. tab. 337.
fig. 2.) ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped, with about five lobes,
‘tomentous,”’ Linn. ‘ Leaves heatt-fhaped, repand-tooth-
ed, villous underneath,” Lam. A fhrub, with the habit
of avine. Stem farmentous. Branches thinly covered wich
afhort down. eaves two inches long, alternate, petioled.
Flowers in compound umbels, ore oppofite to each leaf,
longer than the petioles, very fmall, numerous, cottony on
the outfide ; peduncles of the univerfal and partial umbels,
unequal in length. Berries bluifh, pear-fhaped, about the
fize ofa pea. A native of the Ealt Indies, introduced into
England about 1772. 2. C. tomentofa, Lam. Ill. 1613.
(C. capenfis, Willd. 2. Vitis capenfis, Thunb. 2.) ‘ Leaves
generally pentagonal, obtufely-toothed, clothed underneath
with a ferruginous down.” Root perennial. Leaves fome-
what truncated at the bafe. A native of the Ifle of Bour-
bon. 3.C. angulaia, Lam. Il. 1614. ¢¢ Leaves general-
iy pentagonal, angularly lobed, cornulate, tomentous under-
neath.’ Anative of the Eaft Indies. 4. C. rotundifolia,
cis
Mart. 5. Lam. Ill. 1615. (Szlanthus rotundifolius, Fortk,
Egypt. tab. 4.) Leaves cordate-roundifh, toothed,
{mooth.”? #Voqwers ntmerous, in oppofite racemed umbels,
about four on each common peduncle and fimple ; pedunc-
les nearly the length of the leaves. A native of Arabia.
5. C. cordifolia, \.inn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 4. Lam. Encye. 2.
I!. 1616. Willd. 5. Burm. Amer. tab. 259. fig. 3. (Vitis,
Plum. gen. 18. Icon. 269. fig. 3.) Leaves heart-
fhaped, quite entire,” Linn.~ Moot perennial.
mentous, woody, clothed with a thort down, efpecially the
yourgér branches. Leaves terminated by a fhort point,
almoit entire, lightly angular, {mooth above, a little cottony
underneath, particuiarly on the nerves. lowers in com-
pound corymbs, oppofite to the leaves. Berries bluith,
{mall, almoft pear-fhaped, with a point at the fummit, one-
feeded. A native of South America. 6. C. ficyordes, Linn,
Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 6. Lam, Ill. 1617. Pl. 84. fig. 1. Willd.
7. (C. latifolia @ Lam. Encye. 3. Vitis, Plum. Ic. 259.
fig. 2. Bryonia; Sloan. Jam. 106. hit. tab. 144. fig. 1.)
‘- Leaves evg-fhaped, naked, fetaceous-ferrated,” Linn.
se Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, fmooth and even on both
fides, edged with mucronate teeth,” Lam. Root perennial.
Stem fomewhat woody, herbaceous at the top, climbing,
branched, marked with red fpots. Leaves petioled, alter-
nate, nerved, fomewhat fucculent.. F/ewers yellow ; petals
broader at the bafe, ega-fhaped, reflexed, deciduous ; an-
thers orange. Berry oblong, black. A native of Jamaica,
cultivated by Miller before 1768. The berries are fome-
times eaten by the negroes and natives. 7. C. latifolia,
Lam. Encyce. 3. Ul. 1618. Willd. 4. (Funis crepitans
major; Rumph. Amb. 5. tab. 164. fig. 1. Schunambu Valli;
Rheed. Mal. 7. tab. 11.) ‘* Leaves cordate-cvate, villous,
acuminate, fetaceous-ferrated ; branches tetragonal.’’ Stems
woody, knotty, farmentous, climbing up the neighbouring
trees. Leaves large, at leaft five inches broad, fometimes a
little three-lobed ; petioles near three inches long ; tendrils
large, oppofite to the leaves. //owers, according to Rheede,
{mall, whitifh ; flamens none; {tyle one. Hence La Marck
conje€tures this fpecies to be monoicovs. Berries black,
{mooth and fhining, fucculent. A native of woods in the
Eaft Indies and ifland of Madagafcar. 8. C. repanaa,
Willd. 3. Wahl. Symb. 3. p. 18. ‘* Leaves heart-fhaped, en-
tire, fometimes a little lobed, repand, fmooth on both fides.”
Root perennial. Stem cylindrical, zig-zag, jointed, tomen-
tous when young, afterwards fmooth. eaves pctivled,
fometimes terminated with a fhort obtufe point; ftipules
egg-fhaped, membranous, acute, onpofite, deciduous.
Flowers ina dichotomoufly branched umbel of three rays,
oppofite to the leaves. Berries pear-fhaped, the fize of a
pea, mucronate with the permanent ftyle. A native of the
Eaft Indies. 9. C. ovata, Lam. Iluft. 1619. Brown.
tab. 4. fig. 1, 2. ‘* Leaves egg-fhaped, acuminate, fpar-
ingly toothed, {mooth and even on both fides.”? A native
of Guadaloupe. ro. C. canefcens, Lam. Ill. 1620. ** Leaves
ovate-oblong, oblique, finely toothed, fomewhat tomentous,
grayifh.”” Refembling the preceding in the form of its
leaves. A native of Peru, obferved by Dombey. r1. C. um-
bellata, Mart.15. Lout. Cochin. 84. ‘* Leaves egg-
fhaped, quite entire; flowers in umbels.” Stem fhrubby,
twining, Jong, branched. Leaver oppotite,{mooth. Flowers
white, in compound terminal umbels; corolla bell-fhaped,
woolly within; calyx truncated. A native of China about
Canton. 12. C: guadrangularis, Linn. Mant. 39. Mart.
7. Lam. Encyc. 4. Ill. 1621. Willd. $. (Funis quadran-
gularis, Rump. Amb. 5. tab. 44. fig. 2. Planta baccifera
{candens, Pluk. Phyt. 310. fig. 6. Szlanthus quadrangu-
laris, Forfk. Defc. 33. lcon. tab. 2.) ‘Leaves toothed,
Pp2 ficfhy,
Stems far=
Cis
ficthy, ferrate-toorhed ; fem tetragonons, fomewhat fell
? Linn, ‘* Leaves fomewhat deltoid, f{errate-toothed,
naked; tem tetragonous, jointed, Acthy.’? Lam, Root
perennial, tuberous. Stem very long, chmbing, thickened,
contracted, fmoath and even, perennial, Leaves alternate,
petioled, f{mooth on both fides, acutely and remotely fer-
rated ; petioles cylindrical ; tendrils oppofite to the leaves.
A native of Arabia and the Eaft Indies; found alfo by
Loureiro near Mofambique in Africa, The inhabitants of
Bengal, and of the coalt of Coromande’, eat the branches
{tripped of their bark, and boiled or macerated in water.
* Leaves compound.
13. C. acida, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 8. Lam, Encye. 5-
Til. 1622. Willd. 9. (Scyos trifoliata, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed.
Irfiola, Brown. Jam. 147. Bryonia, Sloan. Jam. 106. bift-
y. tab..142. fig. 6. Bryonioides, Pluk. Alm. 71. tab.
152. fig. 2. Vitis, Plum. Sp. 18. tab. 259. fig. (38)
«© Leaves ternate, inverfely egz-fhaped, fmooth, flefhy.”?
Linn. Stem from three to five feet high, woody, and much
branches flender; tendrils fimple.
oe-fhaped.
A native of Jamaica, in woods near the coaft. ‘The
whole of the piant is acid. I4. C. trifoliata, Linn. Sp.
Fl. 5. Mart. 9. Willd. xr., (C- alata, Lam. Enc. 5 Il.
1623.. Jacq. Amer. tab. 182. fig. 10. Irfiola triphylla
feandens, Brown. Jam. 147. Bryonia, Usan, Jam. 106.
hid. rt. tab. 144. fig. 2.) ‘+ Leaves ternate, ferrated;
branches membranous-angular.”? Stem fomewhat fhrubby,
climbing, with five or fix angles, rooting, branched,
green; angles flightly winged. Branches herbaceous, lax.
Leaves on long pentangular petioles ; Ieaficts on fhort
peduncles, egg-fhaped, acute; the lateral oncs oblique,
ferrated, nerved, fmooth on both fides (tomentous under-
neath, Lam.) ftipules at the bale of the petioles round-
uth. Flowers in four-cleft umbels, bloed red, fmail.
Berry voundith, black, one-feeded. A native of Jamaica,
where it climbs high above the branches of the trees
upon the mountains. C. C. obtufifolia, Lam. Encyc.
7. Ill. 1625. ‘¢ Leaves ternate; leaflets inverfely egg-
thaped, obtufe, toothed, pubefcent.”” Nearly allied to the
preceding, and perhaps only a varicty. A native of the
Eaft Indies, obferved by Sonnerat. 16. C. cinerea, Lam.
Ill. 1624. ‘* Leaves ternate; leaficts pubefcent, toothed,
Jateral ones fomewhat heart-fhaped ; petioles cylindrical.
Perfectly diftin&t from the preceding. A native of the
Eaft Indies. Sonnerat. 17. C. cirrhofa, Willd. 10. (Vitis
cirrhofa, Thunb.) ‘‘ Leaves ternate, villous; leaflets egg-
fhaped, ferrated.” A native of the Cape of Good Hope.
18. C. carnofa, Lam. Encyc. 11. Ill. 1626. Willd. 14.
(Tfjori-valli, Rheed. Mal. 7. tab. g.) ‘* Leaves ternate,
ege-fhaped, obtule, ferrated, fmooth ; branches and pe-
tioles cylindrical.” Vahl. “ Leaves ternate; leaflets
ovate-acute, ferrated, naked; root thick.” Lam. Whole
plant {mooth. Branches {triated, cylindrical. Leaves pe-
tioled ; leaflets petioled, flefhy ; lateral ones {maller, an incl
long ; common petiole the length of the leaves. Flowers
fmall, reddifh brown, umbelled ; univerfal umbel with three
rays ; partial one with dichotomous divaricating branches ;
general peduncle longer than the leaf. Berries blackifh, a
little flattened above, with three or four feeds. A native
of the Eaft Indies. 18. C. microcarpa, Willd. 12.
(Vitis, Plum. lc. tab. 259. fig. 4.) ‘* Leaves ternate, ob-
long, ferrated, {mooth, membranous.” Branches angular,
but winged with a decurrent membrane as in C. trifo-
fiata. A native of the Welt Indies. 19. C. crenata,
15;
Cts
Mart, 10. Willd. 13. (Vitis trifolia,, Lian, Sp, Pl, Eos
lium cavffenis, Rumph, Amb.#5, tab. 166, fig. 2.)
« Leaves ternate; leaflets roundifh, crenate.”? Dranches,
petioles, younger leaves and peduncles villous, Yendrils
oppolite to the leaves, compound, Leaves petioled ; leafs
lets pstioled, an inch long; lateral ones {waller and nar-
rower on one fide ; the crenatures remote atid mucronate3
ftipules fmall, oblong, obtufe. L/oqwers in dichotomous
cymes; peduncles longer than the leaf and oppofi-e to it ;
calyx minute; petals arched; tlaments thorter than the co-
rolia. A native of the Ealt Indics. 20 C. obovata, Mart.
12. Willd. 15. Walh, Symb.3.p. 19. ‘* Leaves ternate3
leaflets inverfe}y egg-fhaped, quite extire, fmooth.”? Stem
climbing, fmooth. Tendrils oppolite to the leaves, and°of -
the fame leagth, bifid. Leaves petioled, alternate; leaflets
mucronate, membranous; lateral ones fmaller and feffile ;
middle one petioled, three times the lize of the others. Pe-
duncles axillary, folitary, longer than the leaves, fmooth,
trichotomous ;_ branchlets thres-flowered, flowers pedicelled.
Vahl. A native of the ifland of St. Crux and other parts
of the Weft Indies. 21. C. digitata, Lam. Ill. 1627. (Ss
lanthus d'gitatus, Forfk. Aigyp. tab. 3.) ‘* Leaves fingered,
eye a ferrated ; lower ones with five leaflets, upper
ones with three.’??. A native of Arabia. 2. C. penta»
phylla, Willd. 17. (Vitis pentaphylla, Thunb. Jap. 105.)
« Leaves quinate ; Icaflets undivided, ferrated.”? Stem her=
baceous, filiform, climbing, furrowed, fmooth. Leaves al-
ternate, petioled ; leaflets egg-fhaped, attenuated at the
bafe, acuminate, thin, fmooth ; lateral ones lefs, about an
inch long. Jf/ecvers very {mall, remote, in axillary racemes:
longer than thelcaf; petioles two inches long. ‘Phunb. A
native of Japan. 23. C. heptaphylla, Mart. 14. Retz.
Obf. 5. tab. 52. § Leaves with feven leaflets, ferrateds
hifpid.”? A farmentous, climbing fhrub. Branches pubef-
cent. endrils oppofite to the leaves, bifid. Leaves alter=-
nate, petioled; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acuminate. Flowers
{mall, panicled; panicles faftiziate. brachiate, peduneled,
oppofite to the leaves. Sent by Koenig from Calcutta.
24. C. pedata, Mart. 13. Lam. Enc. 10. Hl. 1628. Willd.
18. (Belutta-tsjori-villi, Reed. Mal. 7. tab. 10.) ‘Leaves
pedate, with nine leaflets ; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, fomewhat
toothed, pubefcent underneath.’ Stems cylindrical; villous.
Tendrils oppofite to the leaves, bifid. Leaves alternate, on
petioles three inches long ; leaflets from five to nine ; leaf-
lets petioled, green above, pubefcent undermeath, cottony
on the nerves and peticles. #/owers in axillary dichoto~
mous cymes, f{mall, pubefcent on the outlide. Berries
whitifh, round, a little flattened at the top, ending ina {mall
point. Sceds from one to four. A mative of the Eaft In-
dies. 25. C. japonica, Willd. 16. (Vitis japonica, Thunb.
Jap. 104.) ‘* Leaves pinnate, fomewhat pedate, {mooth ;
leaflets crenate, crenatures awned.?? A native of Japan.
26. C. orientalis, Lam. Ill. 1629. Pl. 84. fig. 2. ‘* Leaves.
fomewhat bipinnate ; leaflets egg-fhaped, ferrated ; ftem
rather fhrubby.”? The habit of vitis arborea, but larger,
the leaves lefs compound, and the leaflets larger. A native
of the Eat. 27. C. connivens, Lam. Ill. 1630, ‘* Leaves
fomewhat bipinnate ; leaflets egg-fhaped, rather obtufe,
fomewhat toothed ; petals connivent.’’ Allied to the pre-
ceding, but diftin@. Obferved by Commerfon in the ifland.
of Madagafear. 28. C. mappia, Lam. Hl. 1631. ‘ Leaves
fomewhat bipinnate, fmooth and eves ; leaflets egg. fhaped,
quite entire.’ Obferved by Commerfon in the Ifle of France.
Obf. The ciffus arborea of Fortkal is falvadora perlica.
Dryander in Linn, Tranf. vol. ii, p. 220.
Cissus, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Macedonia,
—Alfo a town of Thrace. The town and mountain are fi-
tuated,
crs
tated, according to Ortelius, toward the fea, near Thef-
falonica, .
CISSUSA, a fountain of Greece in Beeotia, placed by
Plutarch between the town of Thebes and that of Haliartes.
CISSYBIUM, in Antiquity, a drinking cup, molt in ufe
among country people. It was fo called, either becaufe it
was made of the wood of ivy, or was ufually crowned with
its leaves.
CISTATOME, in Strgery, more properly written
eyltatome, from xusis, the bladder, and 4.0, to cut. See
CystTatome.
CISTERCIANS, in Ecclefiafical Hiflory, an order
of religious reformed. from the Benedictines, which for-
merly took its rile from twenty-one zealous monks in the
monatiery of Molefme, in Burgundy; who, with their ab-
bot Robert, complaining that the rule of St. Benedi‘t was
not {trictly enough obferved, obtained permiffion of Hugh
archbifhop of Lyons, and legate of the holy fee, to fetrle
in a place called Cilteaux, in the diocefe of Chaions, five
miles from Dijon. ; .
In this retreat, which at that time was a miferable defert,
covered with brambles and thorns, Eudes duke of Bur-
gundy erected for them a houfe, into which they were ad-
mitted in 1098; endowing it with a confiderable revenue.
The bifhop of Chalons gave Robert the pattoral ftaff, in qua-
lity of abbot, and ereéted the new monattery into an abbey.
This order made a moft rapid and attonifhing progrefs ; it
was propagated through the greateft part of Europe in the
following century, and was not only enriched with the moft
Hberal and {piendid donations, but alfo acquired the form
and privileges of a {piritual republic, and exercifed a fort
of dominion over all the monaltic orders. In about 100
years after its firit eltablifhment it boalted of 1500 abbies,
and was become fo powerful, that it governed aimott all
Europe, both in fpirituals and temporals. Within this pe-
riod after their firit mfe, the monks of this order were dif
tinguifhed by the patronaze of St. Bernard, abbot of
Clairval, whence they obtained the title of ‘* Bernardin
monks ;” and, inthe year 1132, they were exempted from
the payment of tythes, and invefted with other privileges
and immunities by Innocent II. In 1152 this order had
no fewer than 509 convents, all dedicated to the Bicifed
Virgin. They came into England in the year 1128, and
had their firft houfe at Waverley in Surry. Before their
diffolution they had eighty-five houfes here.
CISTERN, is properly ufed for a fubterraneous refervoir
of rain-water.
The word, according to fome, comes from cis, and terram ;
i.e. in terram ; others derive it from ciffa, a dud, &c.
Earthen cilterns muft be made with good cement, to
retain the water. -And the bottom fhould be covered with
fand to {weeten and preferve it.
Authors mention a ciftern at Conftantinople, the vaults
whereof are {upported by two rows of pillars, 212 in each
row; each pillar being two feet in diameter. They are
planted circularly, and in radii tending to that in the centre.
Anciently there were cifterns all over the country in Pa-
leftine. There were fome likewife in cities and private
houfes. As the cities for the moft part were built on moun-
‘tains, and the rains fell regularly in Judea at two feafons of
the year only, in {pring and autumn, people were obliged
to keep water in cifterhs in the country, for the ufe of their
cattle ; and in cities for the conveniency of the inhabitants.
There are cifterns of very large dimenfions to be feen at
this day in Paleftine, fome of which are a hundred and fifty
paces long, and fifty-four wide. There is one to be feen at
Ramah of two and thirty paces inlength, and eight and
CES
twenty in width.. Wells and cilterns, fountains and ‘prings,
are generally confounded in the {cripture language.
Tf the farmers of England would fall into the method
ufed in Spain, and at Amfterdam, Venice, ard other
places, for faving the rain-water for the whole year, or at
Jeaft fo much of it as would be neceflary, in cilterns, they
would have always water for their cattle in the {: mmer
droughts, and many thoufand acres of land, now left ufe-
lefs, might be turned to proft.
The belt way of preferving the water for the fervice cf
the houfe, is in cifterns in the cellars, Thefe may be made-
with brick or itone, joined with plaifter of Paris, which will
keep out the wet very well; or with a kind of mortar made
of flacked fifted lime, with linfeed oi!, and tow or cotton.
A bed of good found clay may be laid at the bottom, and on
this the bricks for the floor, and then the walls may be
raifed in the fame manner, only leaving {paces behind them,
into which cl+y is to be rammed inthe hke manner. Thus
it will be a clay ciltern, faced with brick; and the bricks
will keep the clay meift, and prevent it from cracking,
though it be not full of water. ‘This will do in any tha-
dowy place, as well as in cellars ; and thus may a ciftern be
made in a garden, in fome fhadowy place, and covered
over, which may receive the water running from the walks,
and will retain it at hand, for the fervice of the garden, all
the year.
Where there is want of water for the cattle in the fields,
the way is to dig a pond in fome place into which there is a
defcent ; then cover the bottom and fides w:th a double
coat of tough clay, each fix inches thick, and each very
well rammed ; then to cover the bottom with large flones,
which will keep the clay moill, and prevent its cracking,
when not covered with water. But this is a tronbdlefome
thing ; for if there happen to be a crack in any part, it is
often found neceflary to go over the whole work again, be-
fore the pond will hold a drop of water.
Another method of making a pond hold water, is to
daub it over with clay and mortar mixed together, and then
with mortar alone. This has an advantage over the other
way, becaufe if any crack happen, 1t may be mended by a
cement of clean hair and tallow, mixed with flacked lime
and the yolks of eggs, well beat together. This applied to
the crack, will clofe it fafeiy, without neceflity of undoing
the whole work, as in the other cafe.
In chalky countries it is common to find a low place on
the downs, and, digging a hole by way ofa pit there, they
cover the bottom evenly with the chalk rubbifh, and when
it is wetted by the rain, they ram it well, and afterwards
drive cattle into it, and fold fheep in it; the confequence of
all fuch trampling is, that the bottom at length becomes fo
firm, that it holds the water perfectly well. By one or other
of thefe means, cifterns or refervoirs may be made in every
part of the country ; and our farmers, if they would care-
fully try one or the other of them, as their land molt re=
quired, would not have fo much to complain of from
drouzhts.
Cilterns are often of the greateft advantage in a place of
war, by holding large quantities of rain-water for the ufe
of the garrifon and inhabitants, when their wells or foun-
tains fail through the drought, or the courfes of their ordi-~
nary fupplies of water are diverted by an enemy.
Cistern-/ock, the fame with chamber or pound-lock, a
modern contrivance for raifing or letting down boats from
one canal to another, on a different level. See Canac and
Lock.
CISTERNA, in Geography, a town-.of Piedmont ; 12
miles E.S.E, of Turin, .
CisTERNAy
cis
Cisruewxa, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia fituated
in the Adramyttian gulf, im Myfia, according to Pliny.
abandoned
Strabo fp of it as a’ town that hed been
though it port, and he places it ont of the gulf on the
pr montory of Pyrrha. Mela, as well as Pliny, places it in
the at
CISTITENE, a {mall ifland of Afia Minor, with a town
of th e name, fituated on the coalt of Lycia, according
to Strabo and Ifocrates.
Cist-Hepatic. See Cyst-Hepatir.
Cisrt, in Potany, (Ciltoide; Vent.) one of the natural
orders of Jaffieu, with the following charaGters: Calyx five-
parted. Petals five. Stamens numerous. Germ fimple. Style
ore. Stigma one. Capfule many-feeded, either one-celled
and three valved, or many-celled and many-valved; valves
bearing the feeds in the middle ; receptacle either feptiform
feparating the cells, or linear and not prominent. Sveds
numerous, {mall. Stem fhrubby, or fomewhat fhrubby, or
herbaceous. Leaves generally oppofite, with or without
ftipules. Flowers, in {pikes or umbellar corymbs. Peri-
Jperm flefhy. Embryo {piral, or elfe the radicle fimply curved
upon thelobes. He includes under it the following genera ;
Ciflus, Helianthemum.both belonging to the eiltus of Linnexus,
Viola, Pirequeta, Piparea, and Tachibota, but obferves that the
la{t four are only allied to the cilti, differing from them in
‘having a determinate number of ftamens.
Ventenat has alfo the firft three fpecies, omitting, as
ufual, the genera taken up by Juffien, with their barbarous
names, and not very decided generic characters; but obferves
that they and Viola will probably form a new natural order,
intermediate between the ciftiand rutacex, differing from the
former, and approaching fome fpecies cf the latter in the
determined number of their ftamens, their fometimes three-
celled fruit, and their uncurved embryo.
CISTIS. See Cystis, and Hvyro-cistis.
CISTOCELE. See Cysrocr ve.
CI{STOIDES, in Botany. See Maternia.
CISTOPHORA, ancient filver coins, concerning the
origin and date of which antiquarians have been much di-
vided in opinion. M. Leblond, in a late ‘ Hiftory of
Ephefus,’”’ has affigned thefe circumftances with a great de-
gree of probability. Among thefe coins which were {truck
in fix towns of Afia, thofe of Ephefus are diftinguifhed
by numeral letters on the face, which are dates of years;
thefe were ftruck upon the arrival of every new Roman pro-
conful in Afia; and this was a right peculiar to the Ephe-
fians, on which they highly valued themfelves.
CISTOTOMY. See Cysroromy.
CISTIC. See Cystic.
CISTRUM. See Sistrum.
CISTULA Carorrric. See Catorrric.
CISTUS, in Botany, (Kiclos, Gr.; derivation uncertain),
Linn. Gen. 673. Schreb. 913. Gert. 483. Juffieu, 294.
Tourn. cl. 6. {. 4. gen. 10,. Helianthemum, ‘Tourn. Juff.
294. Gert. 454. Vent. vol.iii.p. 220. Clafs and order,
polyandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Rutacee, Linn. Cif, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. either three or five-leaved ; leaves round-
ifh, concave. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, flat, fpreading.
Stam. Filaments numerous, capillary, fhorter than the co-
rolla; anthers roundifh, {mall. P//?. Germ fuperior, round-
ifh ; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens; {tigma flat, or-
biculate. Peric. Capfule roundifh, furrounded by the ca-
Cis
lyx 5 three, five or ten-valved ; one, three, five, or ten-celled.
Secds {mall, numerous. ;
Eff. Ch. Calyx three or five-leaved ; leaves unequal.
Capfule fuperior, angular, many-feeded,
Obf. The ciftus end helianthemum of Tournefort, Juf-
ficu, Ventenat, and Gertner, certainly form one natural ge-
nus, as Linnwus has made them; but they may advantage-
onfly be feparated in two grand divifions, as La Marck has
diftbuted them. The ciftes of Tournefort, &c. has a
many-cel ed capiule, with as many valves as there are cells,
and feeds effixed to the axis, and a fpiral embryo. Thefe
are either fhrubs or underfhiubs ; the leaves cppofite and
without ftipules; flowers in umt.!s, with very unequal
calyx-leaves. either purple or white, commonly large and
f{pecious. Helianthemum has a one-celled, three-valved cap-
fule, with feeds fixed to the valves, and a curved embryo.
They are fhrubs, underfhrubs, cr herbaceous, their leaves
oppofite or rarely alternate, either with or without fipuless
their flowers in terminal {pikes or racemes, moft frequently
ycliow, {maller than thofe of Tournefort’s ciftus, but very
deciduous in both.
* Cif, Tournefort.
Without ftipules.
Capfule five or ten celled, with the fame number of valves.
1. C. capenfis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Willd. 1. Vahl.
Sym. 3. p.68. ‘ Arborefcent ; leaves ovate-lanceolate, pe-
tioled, three-nerved, finely toothed, naked on both fides.”
Branches cylindrical, with a few {eattered hairs, purplifh.
Leaves three inches long, remote, ciliated with long hairs.;
upper ones feffile, not connate at the bafe; lower ones atte-
nuated at the bafe into a very fhort petiole, acute, with about
three nerves, which become evanefcent towards the middle
of the leaf. Sowers yellow ; peduncles terminal, trifid ;
partial ones three-flowered ; calyx-leaves heart-fhaped, acu-
minate, hairy, finely toothed, ciliated, very hairy when
young. Vahl. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. La
Marck has not taken up this fpecies, and Ventenat doubts
whether its exiftence has been fufficiently afcertained ; but
Vahl’s defcription here given will, we prefume, eftablifh its
right to *€a local habitation and a name.” It is diltin-
guifhed by its leaves being finely toothed. 2. C. villous,
Mart.2. Lam.1. Willd. 2. (C. pilofus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2.
C. mas folio rotundo hirfutiffimo, Bauh. Pin. 464. Tourn.
259.) ‘* Arborefcent; leaves egg-fhaped, petioled, hairy.’?
Linn. Stem woody, much branched, forming a large, bufhy
head, three or four feet high. Branches cglindrical ; the
{maller ones villous, a little cottony and whitith. Leaves
flightly wrinkled, of a cinereous green colour above and
underneath, narrowed into a petiole towards their bafe.
Flowers of a fine red colour, near an inch and half in dia-
meter; peduncles an inch long or more, one-flowered. A
native of Spain and Italy. 3. C. creticus, Linn. 9. Mart. 9.
Lam. 2. Willd. 13. (C. ledon cretenfe, Bauh. Pin. 467, but
not all the fynonyms. C.ladanifera eretica, Tourn. Cor.
19.) ‘ Arborefcent; leaves f{patulate-ovate, petioled,
nervelefs, {cabrous; calyx-leaves lanceolate.” Linn. * Shrub-
by ; leaves fpatulate-ovate, petioled, wrinkled, hairy, undu-
lated at the edges; peduncles fhort, one-flowered ; calyx-
leaves mucronate, villous.”” Lam. Root hard, woody, white
within. reddifh without, with long hairy fibres. Stems com=
monly feveral, a foot and half high or more, fometimes an
inch thick, brown or greyifh, cracked. Branches reddifh-
brown ; young fhoots villous, whitifh-green. Leaves deep
green, oppolite, thickifh, narrowed into a petiole at their
bafe, an inch or more long, eight or nine lines long; pe-
tioles three or four lines long, very villous. /Yowers rofe-
purple,
Cast Us.
purple, with a yellow claw, terminal, on fhort peduncles ;
calyx five-leaved ; petals five, roundith, thin, rumpled. Cap-
Jule egy fhaped, obtufe, about five lines long, hard, brown,
furrounded with the leaves of the calyx, five-celled. Sveds
yed, angular. A native of the Levant; found by Tourmie-
fort in the ifle of Candy or Crete. Itis from this fhrub that
the officinal drug, ladanum, or, as it is fometimes {pelt, lab-
danum, is obtained ; a refinous fubltance fecreted from the
leaves and branches of the plant. Three forts have been de-
{eribed by authors, but only two are now to be met with in
the fhops. The beit and rareft is in dark ‘coloured mafies,
of the confiftence of a foft platter, and prowing {til fofter on
being handled. The other is in long rolls, coiled up, much
harder than the preceding and lefs dark. The foft kind has
an agreeable imell. and a lightly pungent bitterifh taite ; the
hard is much weaker, owing to its having a larger admix-
ture of fine fand, which in that examined by the French
Academy amounted to three-fourths of the mals. - But in-
dependently of defigned adulterations, it can fcarcely be col-
le€&ted pure; the duft blown from the loofe fands among
which it grows, being retained by the tenacious juice. It
was formerly employed internally as a pectoral and altringent
in catanhal affcGions, dyfenteries, and feveral other difeafes.
In England it !s now whoily confined to external ufe. It is en
jngredicnt in the ftemachic plafler, or empiattrum ladani, of
the London Pharm. It is alfo ufed in the way of fumigaticn,
on account of its pleafent fmell. Woodvil. Med. Bot. vol. ii.
p. 249. Tournefort faw fevea or cight country fellows im
tleir fhirts and drawers, and in the hottcft part of the day,
drawing over the plaut a kind of whip compoled of nume-
rous long leathern thongs, and colle@ing the refin, w hich is
afterwards feraped clean off with a knife, and made up into
cakes of different fizes for fale. In the time cf Diofcorides it
was carefully detached from the beards and thighs of goats
who had broufed upon the fhrub. 4. C. purgureus, Lam.
3- “ Shrubby; leaves lanceolate, acute at both ends,
wrinkled ; peduncles fhort, one-flowered.” A thrub four
feet high or more. Branches numerovs, a little villous,
ftraight, and rather upright. eaves two inches long or
more, about half an inch broad, a little undulated at the
edges. Flowers red, large, terminal ; petals with a brown-
ifh-purple {pot at their bafe ; calyx-leaves five, ege-fhaped,
mucronate, alittle villous. Cultivated at Paris by Cels, and
fuppofed to have been brought from the Levant. 5: (Ge
parvifiorus, Lam. Enc. 4. Willd 14. (C. mas ereticus, bre-
viori folio, parvo flore, Tourn. Cor.1g.) ‘* Shrubby ;
leaves petioled, egg-fhaped, acute, tomentous, peduncles vil-
lous, generally one-Alowered.”? Root an inch thick, hard, i-
vided into many long and thick fibres. Stems feveral, woody,
hranched. eaves oppolite, of a cinereous-green colour, re-
ticulated underneath with nerves, and generally channelled.
Flowers only an inch broad, rofe-coloured : petals fomewhat
heart-fhaped, yellowifh at the bafe; calyx-leaves five, mu-
cronate, villous on the hack. Found by Tournefort in the
ifle of Candy. 6. C. complicatus, Lam. Enc. 5. (C. folio
rotundiore, incano, quali complicato, ‘Tourn. Cor. 19.)
¢ Shrubby ; leaves pettoled, egg-fhaped, tomentous, almolt
donbled together; peduncles fhort, many-flowered.”? A
fmall tufted fhrub, without branches near the bale. Leaves
{mall, reticulated underneath, bent, growing aimo% double,
fo as to form a deep channel. /oqwers red ; common pe-
duncles from the forks of the upper branches fhort, bearine
three or four pedicelled flowers. Cap/ules very {mall, ege-
fhaped, brown, not angular. A native of the Levant. 7.
C.. incanus, Linn. 7 = Mart.8. Lam. 6. Willd. 12. But.
Mag.43. (C. mas angutftifolius, Bauh. Pin. 464. C. mas
fecundus, Cluf, Hilt. 1. p. 69. Lob. Ic. ii. p. 1119. C. mag
2 folio lonziore, Tourn. 289.) Arborefcent; leaves {pa-
tulate, tomentous, wrinkled ; lower ones fheathing the bafe,
connate.” Linn, Stem two feet high. Branches villous,
whitith towards the {ummit. Leaves oppofite, feffile, ob-
long, a little cottony on both fides, with three nerves at the
bale. Lowers purple, on fimple peduncles ; petals heart-
fiaped. A native of Spain and the fouth of France. 8.
C. breviorifolius, Mart. 52. (C. mas folio breviore, Bauh.
Pin. 464. C. mas 3. Cluf. Hilt.69.) « Shrubby; leaves
ovate-lanceolate, connate, hirfute, wrinkled ; peduacles
longer.’’ Stem three or four feet high. Leaves fhort?r and
greener than thofe of C. villofus and incanus. Flowers deep
purple, fmall. A native of Portugal. 9. C. lufitanicus,
Mart. 53. (C. mas Jufit. fol. ampliffimo incano, ‘Tourn. Inf.
259-) «* Shrubby; leaves exg-fhaped, obtufe, villous,
nerved, and wrinkled underneath ; flowers larger.”? Branches
white and hairy. Leaves larger and rounder than thofe of
he preceding {pecies, even on their upper fide, rough, and
full of veins underneath. Floavers light purple, very large.
A native of Portugal. 10. C. hifpanicus, Mart. 54. * Shrub-
by, villous; leaves lanceolate, green, connate; flowers fef-
file; calyxes acute.’? Stem not fo high as in either of the
three preceding {pecies, branched near the root ; branches
hairy, ere&t, with three or four terminal flowers, fitting clofe,
without peduncles. At each joint of the {tem there isa flender
branch, having three pairs of {mall leaves, of the fame fhape
with the others, and terminated by a finale flower. Flowers
deep purple. A native of Spain. 11.C.heterophyllus, Willd. 11,
Desfont. Fl. Atl.i. p. 417. tab. 11.“ Leaves ovate lanceo~
late, fheathed at the bafe, revolute at the edges; calyxes and
peduncles hirfute ; peduncles generally one-flowered.’? Stem
two fect high, much beanched. Younger branches cylin-
drical, villous, hoary. Leaves oppofite, firooth, and rather
even on their upper furface, paler underneath, nerved ;
nerves befet with very fhort hairs, on fhort connate petioles,
iowers vofe-coloured, large, terminal, one, two, three, or
four, peduncled ; peduncles with two fmal! leaves proceed=-
ing from a little kuot about their middle ; calyx five leaved ;
Jeaves nearly equal, two inner ones acute. Capfule voundith,
villous, five-ccHed. The fame plant has frequently its lower
leaves rovudith, and its upper one lanceolate, whence the
tuivial name. Nearly allied to C. incanus. A native of un-
enltivated hills about Algiers. .12. C. crifpusy Linn. Sp. Pi.
ir. Mart. ir. Lam. 7.. Willd. 18. (C. mas foliis
chamedrys, Bauh. Pin. 464. C. mas 5. Clof. Hitt. i.
p: 69. C. mas folits undutatis & crifpis, Tourn. Intt. 259.)
“ Arborefcent ; Ieaves Jeanceolate, pubefcent, three-nerved,
undulated.”, Linn. A {mall thrub. Svems feveral, a foot
and a half high, branched, a litttle decumbent at the bafe.
Branches alirtle cottony or woolly, with many loofe hairs.
Leaves {mahl, feSile, wemk'ed, whitifh on both fides. Flowers
purple, nearly {effile, three or four together at the fummit
of each branch, forming a head enveloped with floral
leaves 3 calyx-leaves lanceolate. A native of Portugal. 13.
C. albidus, Linn. 8. Mart.i0. Lam. 8 Willa. 15. (C..
mas, folio ob ongo incano, Bauh. Pin. 464. Tourn. Init.
259. C. mas 1, Clof. Hitt. i. p.68.) « Arborefeent ;
leaves ovate-lanceclate, tomentous, hoary, {eflile, flightly
three-nerved.”” Linn. Stem three or four feet high.
Branches tomentous, not hairy.. Leaves oppelite, flat.
Flowers purple, or rofe-coloured, large, {pacious ; peduncles
fearcely an inch long, terminal, cottony, one-flowered ;
petals not emarginate; calyxes cottony. A native of
Spain and the fouth of France. 14. C. fericeus, Mart. 60.
Willd 316. Vahl. Symb. i. p. 37. (C. latifolius magro
flore, Barrel. Ic. 1315.) ‘ Arborefcent; leaves egg-fhaped,
tomentous, three-nerved 5 lower ones petioled; upper ones
{ ffile 3
CLS 2 Ws.
file ; peduncles hairy.” «Stem two or three feet high.
Sivanches cylindrical, deufely tomentous, hoary-white., Leaves
very foft, obuufe; flat. Flowers purp'e, with a yellow {pot
in the middle; peduncle termina’, folitary, ercQ, befet with
Jong purplih hairs ; pedicels {preading towards the fummit ;
lower ones three-flowered ; upper ones one-flowered; calyx
cloathed with foit filky hairs; inner leaves of the calyx
three, egg-fhaped, quite fmooth on the infide ; outer ones
Jauceolatc ; filaments purple; anthers yellow. 15, C. 47-
bridus, Mavt. G1.> Willd. 17. Vabl. Symb. 3. p. 57-
« Arborefcent; leaves egg-fhaped, petiocd, hoary ; branches
fcaly ; pedunci-s clongated, hairy.”” Stem two or three
feethigh. Branches cylindrival, angular near the tip, hoary,
covered with yellowifi feales. Leaves half an inch long,
nerved, ealily broken. Flowers purple, in a terminal ra-
ceme; outer calyx-leaves caducous ; germ villous. A na-
live of Spain. 16. C. vaginatus, Mart. 57. Willd. 5.
Hort. Kew. ii, p. 232. Jacq. Hort. Schoenb. iii. p. 17-
tab. 282. (C. fymphytifolius, Lam. 9.) “ Shrubby 5
leaves peticled, oblong-lanceolate, villens on the upper
{nrface ; petioles fheathieg at the bafe, connate.” Lam.
« Arborelcent ; leaves oblong, hairy, reticularly wrinkled
vederneath ; petioles united at the bafe, fheathing, fer-
rowed.” Hort. Kew. Stem five or fix feet high.
Branches rough, .reddifs, grey, villous, white and al-
mott cottony near che top. Leaves oppofite, four or five
inches long, nearly two broad. ‘Floqers reddifh, large,
terminal ; ftameng yellow. A native of Africa. 17. C. cordi-
folius, Mart. 55. ‘* Shrubby, leaves oblong, heart-fhaped,
{mooth, petioles longer.” Stem four or five feet high.
Branches woody, flender, with a {mooth brown bark. /ow-
ers white, terminal, on long peduncles, cultivated by Miiler.
r1.C. fufiiculatus, Mart. 56. © Leaves in bundles.” Stem
about nine inches high. Leaves narrow and fine, growing in
clutters. lowers pale ftraw-ccloured, lateral and terminal,
on flender pecuncle ; petals fuling off in about two hours
after opening. A native of the Cape of Goed Hope; fent
to Miller from Holland by Dr. Adrian-Van Royen.
C. falvifolius. Lina. Sp. Pi. 10. Mart. 7. Lam. to. Willd.
io. C.femina, felio falvie; Bauh. Pin. 464. C.fzmina ;
Clas. Hitt. i. p. 70. Jacq. Coll: é..2. p. 120. tab. 8. Hall.
Helv. 1031. ‘ Arborcfeent ; leaves exg-fhaped, petioled,
hairy en both fides.”? Linn, © Shrubby ; leaves petioled,
ega-fhaped, wrinkled, fomewhat hairy ; peduncles long, one-
flowered.”? Linn. Stem from one and a haif to three feet
high, much branched, in fome varieties procumbent. Leaves
oppolite, obtufe, greenifh on the upper furface, with abun-
dance of very fhort hairs, whitifh, green, and almof cottony
underneath. F/owers white, fometimes pale yellow. Cap-
fules egg-fhaped, pentagonal, five-cell-d, ferrounded by the
calyx. Acnative of Italy, Switzerland, the fouth of France,
and Spain. There is a variety mentioned by La Marck, C.
Cobarienfis of Pourret, with leaves almoit heart-fhaped,
acute, lefs villous, much wrinkled, and vifcous, which may
be the ‘C. cordifolius, un. 17. Cuitivated by Miller, and in-
ferted in his diGionary, without any indication of its native
country. 20. C. populifolius. Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 3. Lam.
ir. Willd. 3. C. ledou foliis populi nigre major et minor ;
Bauh. Pin. 467. Tourn. 260. Ledon latifolium majus ct
minus; Clus. Hilt.i. p. 78. Lob. Ic. ii. p. 121.) ‘* Arbo-
refcent ; leaves heart-(haped, cven-furfaced, acuminate, peti-
oled.” Linn, ** Shrubby ; leaves petioled, heart-fhaped, acute,
veined underneath; peduncles braéteated, many-flowered,”?
Lam. Svem three or four feet high, branched, with a brown
evenbark. Branches brittle; younger ones, petiolesand pedun-
cles befet abundantly with loofe hairs. Leaves oppolite, ciliat-
edwhen young. //owers white, large; peduncles axillary, with
10.
three or four pairs of oblong bra&tes; petals not fpotted,
but flightly tained with purple at their edges; calyxes tri-
gonous before the flowers open ; calyx-leaves five, almoft
heart-fhaped, acute, the two inner ones coloured and tran{-
parent, Lam. A native of Portugal. 21. C. Jongifolius,
Lam. 12. Shrubby; leaves nearly feffile, ovate-lanceolate,
villous and undulated at the edges, veined underneath; pe-
duncles marny-flowered.”” Branches reddifh brawn; {mall
ones rendered harfk to the tcuch by lcofe hairs. Leaves op-
pofite, acute at both ends, greenifh on both ides; lower
ones on very theft petioles. Fisqwers white; axillary, from
two to five-flowered; calyx-leaves flightly vilious, a little
heart-fhaped, acute. Nearly allied,to the preceding, but
the leaves are almoft {effile, and not at all heart-fhaped. A
native of Spain. 22. C. /aurifolius, Linn. 4. Mart. 4. Lam.
13.. Willd. 4, (C. Jedon, foliis laurinis, Bauh. Pin. 467.
Tourn. 369. Ledon. +. Cluf. Hit. 1. p. 77.) Arboref-
cent; leaves oblong egg-fhaped, petioled, three-nerved,
fmooth on the upper furiace ; peticles connate at the bafe,””
Linn. ‘ Leaves ovate-lauceolate, petioled, three-netved,
{mooth above,-tomentous underneath ; petioles connate at
the bafe; peduncles naked, many-flowered,’ Lam. A
fhrub five or fix feet high. Branches brown, {maller ones
befet withmfine clofe-preficd hairs, not erect or loofe, as in
the preceding fpecies. Leaves oppofite; petioles villous,
fheathing. Iv/oqwers white, upper ones forn:ng an umbel ;
calyx-leaves three, egg-fhaped, mucronate, concave on the
infide, pubefcent on the out. A native of Spain. Lada-
num may be procured from it. 23. C. eyprius, Lam. 1:.
(Ledon. 3. cyprium; Cluf.. Hit. 1. p. 78.) Shrubby,
leaves petioled, lanceolate, fmooth above, tomentous, hoary
underneath; peduncles naked, with ahout three flowers;
flowers fpoctea.”? An intermediate fpecies between the
preceding and following, differing from the former in its narrow
eaves, and from the latter in its three or four-flowered pedun-
cles. A fhrub three orfour feet high, with a brown bark, emit-
ting in warm weather from its young branches, its petioles and
the upp-r furface of its branches, a vifcous humour like that of
the next fpecies, but rather lefs abundant. * Leaves oppolite,
three-rerved underneath. Flowers white, peduncles foli-
.ary, three inches Jong ; petals with a violet fpot near the
claw. Cap/fules fomewhat egg-fhaped, five-cclied. A native
of the ifle of Cyprus, where ladarum is colleéted from it.
24.C. ladaniferus. Linn. 5. Mert.5. Lam.15, Willd. 7.
Bot. Mag. tab. r12. (C. ladanitera hifpanica, i-licis folio,
flore candido.) “ Arborefcent; leaves lanceclate, even on
the upper furface ; petioles united at the bafe, fheathing ;””
Linn. ‘‘ Shrubby ; leaves nearly feffile, connate, lanceolate-
linear, fmooth above; tomentous underneath; peduncles
bra@eated, one-flowered ; capfulesten-celcd.”” Lams Stem
four or five feet high, branched. Leaves three inches long,
about half an inch broad. F/owers very large, two or three
inches in diameter, white, lateral, peduncles fim>le, furnifhed
with brates their whole length; braGes forming at their
bafe a loofe fheath, caducous; ttigma feffile. Cap/fules ten-
celled, ten-valved. There is a varicty with a purple or vio-
let fpot in the centre of the flower. Willdenow makes C.
undulatus and C. planus of Hortus Kewenfis varieties of
this fpecies. The former has undulate, the latter flat leaves.
A native.of Spain. As this is not the plant by which the
officinal ladanum is produced, the trivial name is not ftriétly
proper ; but as it has ebtained the fanétion of general ulage,
it is better to retain it, than to hazard the confufion which
mutt arife from changing every {pecific name which is not fo
appropriate as might be wilhed: care fhould be taken to dil-
tinguith ladanum trom laudanum, a well known invaluable
medicine from papaver fomniferum. 25. C. /edon, Lane i‘.
illd,
Cis YF 2S;
Willd. 6. (C. ladanifera monfpelienfium. Banh. Pin. 467.)
¢ Shrubby ; leaves nearly feffile, lanceolate, nerved, connate,
fmooth on the upper furface ; flcwers in corymbs, erect ;
peduncles and calyxes cloathed with filky hairs.’ A low
fhrub from one to two feet high. eaves oppofite, a little
fhining, dark green above, pale or whitifh underneath. F/ow-
ers white, with a yellowifh tint at their centre, of a moderate
fize, from three to five on each peduncle. A native of the
fouth of France about Narbonne. It exudes a vifcous mat-
ter in tolerable abundance, and, according to La Marck, is
the true ladaniferus of Montpelier, though not the mon{pe-
lienfis of Linneus. 26. C. hirfutus, Lam. 17. (C. laxus,
Hort. Kew. ii. p.233. Willd. 9. C. ledon hirfutumy Bauh.
Pin. 467. Tourn. 260. Ledon 4. Clof. Hilt.1. p. 78.)
© Shrubby ; leaves feffile, oblong, obtufe, hitfute ; peduncles
many-flowered ; capfules {mall, covered by the large pyrami-
dal calyx.”? A fhrub. Stem a foot and a half high.
Branches numerous, flexible, villous, whitifh. Leaves oppo-
fite, dark green, foft. Fvoqwers white ; peduncles befet with
ftrong hairs; capfules egg-fhaped, {mooth, five-valved, five-
celled.» A native of Spain. We have preferred La Marck’s
trivial name on account of its correfpondence with the fyno-
nyms of C. Bauhin and ‘Yournefort. 27. C. florentinus,
Lam. 18. (C. ladanifera florentina, Michael. Sherard.)
66 Shrubby ; leaves narrow, lanceolate, wrinkled, reticulated
underneath, nearly feflile ; peduncles villous, about three-
flowered.”” Branches brown, {mooth towards the bottom,
pubefcent near the top. Leaves an inch and half long, op-
pofite, a little cottony underneath, not three-nerved. /Yow-
ers white ; peduncles and calyxes befet with white, very fine,
almoft filky hairs. Suppofed to bea native of Italy, de-
feribed by La Marck froma fpecimen in the herbarium of
Jufficu. 28. C. mon/pelienfis, Linn. Sp. Pl.6. Mart. 6. Lam.1g.
Willd. 8. Gert. tab. 76. fig. 10. (C. ledon foliis olee, fed
angultioribus, Bauh. Pin. 467. Tourn, 260. Ledon. 5. Cluf.
Hitt.i. p. 79.) ‘¢ Shrubby ; leaves linear-lanceolate, feffile,
villous,on both fides, three-nerved; peduncles branched,
nearly unilateral.” Lam. Stem about three feet high,
branched. eaves dark green, vifcous. FYoqwers white ;
peduncles vilious. A native of the fouth of France. 29. C.
libanotis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Mart. 13. Lam.20, Willd. 22.
s¢ Arborefcent ; leaves linear, revolute ; flowers umbelled.”
Linn. ‘* Shrubby ; leaves linear, revolute at the edges ;
flowers fomewhat umbelled; calyx three-leaved.’? Lam. «.
‘leaves green on both fides.’’ C. ledon foliis anguftis,
Bauh. Pin. 467. Tourn. 260. Ledon 6 and g. Cluf. 8.
s¢ Leaves canefcent ; flowers {omewhat capitate.”? Ledon 7.
Clef. y. Leaves hoary underneath.”? Ledon. 8. Cluf. Svem
about two feet high. ranches cinereous ; young ones cot-
tony and whitifh near the top. Leaves feffile, narrow, revo-
lute like thofe of rofemary. //owers white or cream-co-
Joured, {mall. Cap/ules {mall, five-celled, five-valved. A na-
tive of Spain.
** Helianthema, Tourn.
Capfule three-valved, one or three-celled.
+ Without fipules. |
(1.) Stem woody.
30. C. umbellatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Mart.14. Lam. 21.
Willd. 23. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby, procumbent ; leaves op-
polite, linear; flowers umbelled.” Linn. Somewhat
fhrubby ; leaves oppotite, linear, revolute at the edges ; flow-
ers at the top of the peduncle umbelled.””? Lam. a. “ leaves
hoary underneath; ftem procumbent.” 6. * Leaves green-
ifh on both fides; ftem erect. (C. ledon, foliis thymi,
Bauh. Pin. 467. Helianthemum foliis thymi, floribus um-
beliatus, Tourn. 250. Ledon ro. Cluf.) Stem fearcely a
foothigh. JVowers white, numerous, partly lateral on the
Vou. VIII.
peduncle, partly terminal in “a kind of umbel; calyx three-
Jeaved. The branches of var. « are procumbent, flender.
regular, whitifh ; its /eaves rolled back at the edges like thofe
of C. libanotis, white underneath, green above, a little ciliat-
ed atthe edges. ‘The ftems of var. 2. are ere; its leaves
not white underneath, narrower, the edges more rolled back,
and fearcely ciliated when completely open. A native of
Spain and the fouth of France. 31. C. ocymoides, Mart. 66.
Lam. 22. Will. 36. Vahl Symb. 3. p. 68. (C. folio famp-
fuciincanos, Bauh. Pin. 465. Cluf. Hitt. i. p.72. Lob. Ic. ii.
p-114.. Helianthemum folio fampfuci, Tourn. 250.)
“* Leaves inverfely ego-fhaped, three-nerved; thofe of the
{mall branches hoary on both fides, reflexed at the tip; flow-
ers in racemes; peduncles and calyxes quite {mooth.”” Vahl.
« Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves petioled, keeled, hoary, very
{mall ; peduncles branched, umbel panicled.” Lam. Stemz
about a foot high. Branches flender, cinereous. Leaves
numerous, oppolite. J Yowers white, with a dark purple
fpot in the centre; peduncles long, flender. There is a va-
riety in which the leaves are whiter, and the branches abun-
dantly cloathed with rather long loofe hairs. C. fampfucifo-
ljus. Cav. Ic. tab. 366. A native of Spain. 32.C. halimifolius,
Linn. Sp. Pl. rz. Mart. 12. Lam. 23. Willd. 20. « Two
of the calyx leaves linear.” Linn. Shrubby; ob-
long-ovate; fomewhat acute, leffening into the petiole, hoary
on both fides; peduncles long, branched, fomewhat pani-
cled.”? Lam. Stem two or three feet high, much branched.
Branches forming a regular head. Leaves larger than thofe
of the preceding fpecies, but not more than feven or eight
lines long, and three or four lines broad, oppofite. Fluqvers
yellow, with a purple {pot in the centre. There isa variety
in which the leaves are obtufe and almoft rounded at the tip.
A native of Italy and Spain. 33. C. algarvenfis, Bot. Mag.
627. (C. lafianthus, Lam. 26. Helianthemum algarvienfe,
Tourn, Inf. 250.) Arborefcent; : ftem afcending; leaves
hoary, ovate-lanceolate; peduncles fomewhat panicled 3 ca-
lyxes three-leaved, acute, hirfute ? Bot. Mag. ‘* Somewhat
fhrubby; leaves oblong-obovate, keeled, tomentous, peduncles
fhort, about one-flowercd; calyxes very hirfute.’? Lam. Stems
a foot and half high, mach branched, Branches darkith grey,
cottony towards the fummit. eaves rather (mall, oppo-
fite, almoft feffile, obtufe, cottony on both fides, without
being white but only grey. F/owers yeliow, with a purple
fpot in the centre, terminating the {mall lateral branches, re-
markable for the long hairs with which the ontlide of the
petals is abundantly cloathed. Lam. Calyx-leaves three,
equal, acute. Bot. Mag. We have no doubt with regard
to the algarvenfis of Bot. Mag. and the lafianthus of La
Marck being the fame plant, though La Marck makes no
mention of the afcending item, and have preferred the former
trivial name, as it feems to haye the right of priority, on the
high authority of Tournefort, an authority which we prefume
La Marck will not be inclined to difpute. A native of Por-
tugal. 34. C. formofus, Willd. 19. Bot. Mag. 264. (C.
lafianthus, @. Lam.? Helianthemum humilius lufitanicum,
halimi folio nigrore, magno flore luteo, ‘Tourn. Init. 25¢.)
Leaves darkif grey. Peduncles a little branched. Lam.
lowers yellow, thrice as large as thofe of C. halimifolius ;
petals marked with a dark purple {pot a little aboye the claw;
peduncles and calyx cloathed with red hairs. Bot. Mag, We
have almoft as little doubt with refpect to the identity of Cur-
tis’s and La Marck’s plants. A native of Portugal. 35. C.
cheiranthoides, Lam. 24. C. halimifolius @,. Willd. (es fe.
mina portulace marine folio angultiore mucronato; Sauh.
Pin. 465. C. folio halimi 2. Cluf. 1, p. 71). ‘ Shrubby;
leaves tomentous, oblong-lanceolate, narrower at the bale; pe-
duncles fhort, about two-flowered.”? Stem three feet high,
Qq eaves
Gs 0?Ps.
Leaves oppofite, very white when young, a little three-
nerved underneath, about an inch long. Flowers yellow.
A native of Portugal. .36. C. atriplicifolius, Lam. 25. (C.
halimi folio, flore luteo amplo, maximus, hifpanicus, Barrel.
Ic. 292. Helianthemum hifpanicum, halimi folio ampliffimo
incano et nervofo; Tourn. 250). ‘ Shrubby; leaves pe-
tioled, egg-fhaped, undulated towards the baie, hoary on
both fides; flowers inracemes; peduncles and calyxes hifpid.””
Siem from four to fix feet high or more, upright. Branches
in a regular bead, whitith, cloathed with a very fhort cot-
tony down. Leaves oppolite, nerved underneath, about an
jach broad. Flowers yellow, not fpotted, numerous, more
than an inch in diameter, terminal, and from the forks of
the upper branches; peduncles from three to five inches
long; calyx-leaves three, ovate-acute concave ; fometimes
two exterior ones very {mall, narrow, acute: petals falling
cof foon after opening. Capfules even-furfaced, one-celled,
three-valved. A native of Spain, 37. C. elongatusy Mart.
65. Willd. 21. Vahl. Symb. t. p. 38. “ Arboreicent ; leaves
lanceolate, hoary ; peduncles elongated, two-leaved ; calyses
racemed, hirfute.”’ Stem a foot high or more, upright, much
brancaed. Branches faort ; younger ones tomentous, hoary,
befet with yellowith {cales. Leaves oppofite, veinlefs, hoary,
on both fides, flat; younger ones doubled together, fpread-
ing at the tip 5 petiole very fhort, with a few long hairs.
Flowers yellow, with a dufky {pot in the centre, nodding
before they opens peduncles terminal, half a foot long, ereat,
not hoary, hairy, efpecially near the bottom, with a pair of
feffile leaves towards the middle; pedicels towards the top of
the peduncle, remote, filiform, quite fimpie, commenly five,
with a bent joint at top; lower ones in pairs, the reft alter-
nate: calyx oblong, acuminate, {mooth within ; two leaves
caducous. A native of Spain. 38. C. involucratus, Lam.
27. (Helianthemum_ hifpanicum, halimifolio minimo ;
Tourn. Inf. 251.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves fmall, in-
clining to egg-fhaped, tomentous, feffile; peduncles very
fhort, lateral; flowers with leafy involucre. Stem about a
foot and half high, much branched. Branches flender, fili-
form, cottony, greyith. Leaves asfimall as thofe of C. ocy-
moides, n. 31, keeled, cinereous. Flowers {mall, folitary ;
calyx villous. A native of Portugal. 39. C. alyffoides,
Lam. 28. ‘ Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves oblong, egg-fhap-
ed, befet with fhort ftiff hairs; younger ones fomewhat
hoary ; older ones green: peduncles and calyxes hairy.” Stem
about a foot high, much branched. Branches fpreading,
flender, rough towards the fummit, with whitifh, rather
woolly, hairs. Leaves oppofite, narrowed towards the bafe,
fome obtufe, others rather acute, a lictle roughened on the
Surface by ftar-fhaped hairs, as in many fpecies of alyffum.
Flowers yellow, rather large; peduncles fhort, two or three
flowered, near the top of the branches, unopened flower-buds
bright purple at their fummit. A native of France and
Spain. It varies in the fize and fhape of the leaves. 40. C.
rofeus, Mart.22. Lam. 29. Jacq. Hort. vol. iti. tab. 65.
« Somewhat fhrubby, almoft without ftipules, procumbent:
leaves oppofite, petioled, oblong, revolute at the edges,
greenifh on both fides.”? Stem branched. Branches flender,
weak, almoft fmooth, greenifh, leafy near the top, two or
three pair of the upper leaves narrower, furnifhed with fti-
pules. Flowers rofe-coloured, in terminal racemes. 41. C.
alandicus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 20. Mart. 24. Lam. 30. Willd.
38. Jacq. Autt. 4. tab. 399. Hall. Helv. n. 1034. (C. he-
fianthemos flore parvo luteo, Bauh. Hitt. 2. p. 17. C. al-
peltris: Scop. Car. tab. 23. Chameciftus 2. Cluf. Hitt. 1.
Bigaie. Somewhat fhrubby, procumbent, leaves oppofite,
oblong, fmooth on both fides; petioles ciliated ;_ petals
emarginate.”? Linn, ‘ Leaves ciliated.” Lam, Stem imall,
woody, branched from its bafe. Branches flender,
reddifh, diverging. Leaves almoft feffile, fmall. t are
yellow, fmall, peduncled, terminal, in fhort almoft corym.
bous racemes. A native of the fouth of France, Switzer
land, Auftria, and the ifle of Eland. 42. C. marifolius,
Linn. 19. Mart. 21. Willd. 32. Eng. Bot. 396, (C. ae
tifolius, Lam. Var. @. y. C. hirfutus, Hudf. Flor. An
C. anglicus, Linn. Mant. 245. Lam. 33. Willd. 36. é.
canus, Jacq. Autt. 277. but not of Linnzus ; Helianthemum
alpinum, folio Pilofelle minoris Fuch6i, Bauh. Hift. vol. if
p- 19. H. ferpylli folio incano, flore minore luteo, inodoro,
Dill. Eleh. vol. i. tab. 145. fig. 173. Chameciftus liter
thymi durioris folio, Barrel. Ic. 44). ‘¢ Somewhat fhrubb :
leaves oppofite, petioled, oblong, tomentous indecent
Linn. Roots long, woody. Stem three or four inches high
woody , cylindrical, branched, decumbent at the bafe. Lay
{preading, flat, green above, hifpid with depreffed briftles.
Flowers yellow, rarely white, fmall, fcentlefs, in terminal
racemes ; racemes few-flowered, pubefcent, bracteated ; calyx
hairy, with feveral brown ribs; petals inverfely egg-fhaped
entire, {lightly undulated; germ egg-fhaped, fmooth with
three or four hairy lines; ftyle curved. A. native of Eng-
land, France, Spain, Italy, and Switzerland. 43. C. canus
Linn. 18. Mart. 19. Lam. 27. (C. myrtifolius var. #3
Lam. 31, Jacq. Autt. 3. tab. 277. Allion pedem. tab. 45.
fig. 3. Chameciltus folus myrti minoris incanis, Bauh. Fin
Tourn. 249. Chameciftus 3. Cluf. Hift. 1. p. 74). * Somes
what thrubby, procumbent; leaves oppofite, inverfely egg-
fhaped, villous, tomentous underneath; flowers fomewhat
umbelled.” Linn, ‘There is a variety with elliptic leaves
with a few fcattered white hairs on each fide, not tomentous
underneath ; calyxes always hirfute, in feffile terminal um-
bels. (Helianthemum, ferpylli folio villofo, flore pallido.
Barr. rar. tab. 366. H. alpinum ferpylli folio nigricante
et hirfuto. Seg. ver. 3. tab. 6. fig. 2). Old flems pro-
cumbent and naked; thofe which bear leaves and flowers
ere. Flowers deep yellow, from the axils of the upper
leaves; calyxes tomentous. Cap/ule egg-thaped, fomewhat
acute, trigonous, nearly fmooth, three-celled, three-valved
covered by the calyx. Szeds two or three in each cell, e e
fhaped, acute, angular. Jacq. A native of the fouth of
Europe. 44. C. italicus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Mart. 20
Lam. 32. Willd. 31. Helianthemum ferpylli folio villofo,
flore pallido, Italicum. Barr. Ic. tab. 366). ** Somewhat
fhrubby; leaves oppofite, hifpid ; lower ones egg-fhaped ;
upper ones lanceolate: branches {preading.” Stem about
{even inches high, erect. Branches oppofite, long, fpread-
ing, fomewhat deflexed, rufous, fomewhat ciliated ; lower
ones petioled, upper ones nearly feffile. Flowers pale
yellow, in a terminal raceme; calyxes hifpid; corollas
{carcely emarginate. A native of Italy. Linnzus fufpeéts
that it may be only a variety of the preceding fpecies. 45.
C. vinealis, Willd. 37. Hall. Helv. n. 1035. “ Somewhat
fhrubby, procumbent; leaves petioled, oblong, obtufe,
hoary-tomentous underneath; flowers in racemes.” It
widely differs fr6m C. marifolius in the form of its leaves,
procumbent branches, and whole habit ; and from C. celan-
dicus in its leaves, being white with down underneath. A
native of vineyards in Germany and Switzerland. 46. C.
echioides, Lam. 34. * Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves linear,
lanceolate, hairy on both fides, rather rough, feffile; ra-
cemes {mall, hairy, recurved at the top.”” Stem half a foot
high, ere€t, rough, with hairs, branctied from the bottom
almoft to the top. Leaves oppofite, acute, greyifh. Flowers
almott feffile, in'the axils of the braétes. A native of
Spain, defcribed by La Marck from a dried fpecimen in the
herbarium of Juffieu, 47. C. origanifolius, Lam. 35. Willd.
it
33>
CIs
33. Cavan. Te, 3, tab. 262. fig. 1. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby ;
leaves oppofite, petioled, exg-fhapped, hairy on both fides.”
Stems five or fix inches high, much branched. Leaves re-
fembling thofe of origanum, but much fmaller; defcribed
by La Marck from {pecimens without flowers preferved in
the herbaria of Juflicu and Ifnard. Flowers yellow, fearce-
ly longer.than the calyx, only half as large as thofe of C.
marifolius ; racemes from one fide of the ftem, in pairs, pe-
duncled, hairy like the ftem, Cavan. A native of Spain,
near Cape St. Vincent. 45. C. mollis, Willd. 34. Cavan,
Lemeenpep genes Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves roundifh-egg-
fhaped, obtufe petioled, flat, tomentous on both fides, foft.”
Stems half a foot lich, diffufe, red, tomentous, branched.
Leaves oppofite, fightly nerved. | F/oqwer's three times
as large as thofe of the preceding fpecies, in folitary ter-
migal racemes. A native of Spain. 49. C. dichotomus,
Willd. 35. Cavan. Ic. 3. tab. 263. fig. 1. ‘¢ Somewhat
fhrubby, dichotomous; leaves ege-fhapped, acute, {mooth,
revolute at the edges, oppofite, petioled; flowers in ra-
cemes.” Leaves {mall, like thofe of Thymus Piperella, on
fhort petioles. F/owers deep ycllow, fcarcely the fize of
thole of fpergula nodofa; racemes flender, few-flowered.
A native of Spain. 50. C. fumana, Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Mart.
18. Lam. 36. Willd. 26. (chamaciltus erice folio luteus hu-
milior; Bauh. Pn. 466. C. anguftifolius, Ibid. Hall. Helv.
n. 1032. C. minor, Barr. Ic. 286, and 2. 446. Helianthe-
mum tenuifolium glabrum, luteo flore, per humum fparfum,
J. Bauh. 2. p. 18. Tourn, 249.) ‘ Somewhat fhrubby, pro-
-cumbent ; leaves alternate, linear, fcabrous at the edges;
peduncles one-flowered,”’ Linn. Svem from five to eight
inches high, woody, more or lefs upright, twifted, branched.
Branches flender, diffufe, lower ones often procumbent.
Leaves refembling thofe of Antirrhinum Linaria, but {maller,
greenifh ; lower ones fhorter and ftiffer. F/oqwers yellow, on
a folitary peduncle; calyx {mooth, or cloathed with a very
fhort down, fometimes with a purple tint, five-lezved ; two
outer leaves very {mall, acute. Cap/ules three-celled, threes
valved. A native of dry ftony ground in Sweden, France,
and Switzerland. 41. C. a lycinus, Linn, Mant..565. Mart.
16. Willd. 25. (C. fumana @. Lam. Desfont. Fl. Atl. re
tab. 105. C. ericordes, Cavan. Ic. 2. tab, 172. Chameciftus
eric folio luteus elatior, Bauh. Pin. 466. Pluk. Alm. tab.
83. fig. 6.) “ Somewhat fhrubby, ere&; leaves linear ;
eduncles one-flowered ; calyxes three-leaved.”? Stem a
foot high. Branches oppofite, reddifh.” Leaves oppolite,
even-furfaced, obcufely keeled underneath. L/owers yellow;
peduncles terminal, folitary, {carcely longer than the leaves ;
calyx with three even-furfaced, equal leaves ; ftamens fix-
teen, very fhort, yellow, all fertile; pittil white ; ftigma
warty. Nearly allied to the preceding. A native of the
fouth of Europe. 52. C. feabro/us, Mart. 59. Willd. 28.
Hort. Kew. 2. p. 236. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves op-
pofite, egg-fhaped, hairy-{cabrous, three-nerved ; calyxes
three-leaved.’”’ Stems decumbent, cylindrical, thickly cloath-
ed with fhort ftellated hairs. Branches fhort. Leaves an
inch long, fomewhat petioled. //owers deep yellow, paler
in the centre, terminal, fomewhat panicled; calyx leaves
equal, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, pubefcent on the outfide,
with long ftellated hairs ; petals inverfely egg-fhaped, fome-
what retufe, twice the length of the calyx. A native of
Italy and Portugal. 53. C. cinereus, Willd. 29. Cavan. Ic.
2. tab. 141. ‘ Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves oppofite, egg-
fhaped, acute hoary ; calyxes obtule ; racemes panicled.”’
Nearly allied to the preceding, but diftinét. Leaves evident-
dy petioled, veined, Calyx five-leaved, three of the leaves
egg-thaped, obtufe, two linear; petals quite entire, Cavan.
54. C. fyriacus, Mart. 17. Mur. Syft. 493. Jacq. Collect,
TOYS
1. 98. (C. lavandula @. «© Fret, leaves lanceo-
late, revolute; flowers racemed. Leaves acute, quite en-
tire, nearly feffile, alternate, fomewhat villous, pale green.
Flowers yellow ; racemes- terminal and axillary from the
upper leaves, many-flowered, unilateral; calyx fomewhat
villous, pale green. Sent to Jacquin by Spielman in Laine
A native of the Levant. 55. C. devipes, Linn, Sp. Pl. rz.
Mart. 15. Lam. 37. Willd. 24. Jacq. Hort. 2. tab. 158.
Ger. Prov. tab. 14, Pluk. Alm. tab. 84. fig. 6. (Helian-
themum Maffilienfe Coridis, fol. Tourn. 250.) « Some-
what fhrubby, afcending ; leaves alternate, fafcicled, filiform,
{mooth ; peduncles racemed,”? Linn, Root woody, creep-
ing very much. Stems feveral, feven or eight inches long,
woody when old, herbaceous-when young, much branched.
Branches flender, glaucous, quite fmooth, except near the
flowers, where they are often cloathed with fhort feparate
hairs. Leaves very numerous, alternate, fetaceous-linear,
from three to five inches long, glaucous; with each leaf
come out two others, one-third fhorter ; between thefe,
from the axil, other leaves come ont fucceflively, fo as to
form a bunch fitting clofe to the branch. F/oqwers yellow,
on long peduncles, terminal, fcentlefs ; calyx leaves five;
three «iner ones broad egg-(haped, acute, wrinkled longi~
tudinally, variegated with white, green, and purple; petals
egg-thaped, a little longer than the petals. Cap/ule obtufely
trigonous, obf{curely grooved, {mooth, three-celled, three-
valved. Seeds two in each cell, egg-fhaped, convex on one
fide, ancular on the cther. A native of the fouth of France.
56. C. bra/filienfis, Lam. 38. (C. alternifolius, Willd. 30.
Vahl. Symp. 2. p. 38.) “* Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves al-
ternate, ovate-oblong, villous, feffile; peduncles one-flower-
ed,” Lam. Whole plant cloathed with rather long, white,
almoft filky hairs. Svem half a foot high or more, ereét, 2
httle zig-zag. Leaves villous on both fides, flat, quite en-
tire. Peduncles towards the top of the branch folitary, or
fometimes two or three together, one-flowered, in the axils
of the leaves of the lower branches, fpreadirg, twice the
length of the leaf. A native of Brazil.
2. Stem herbaceous.
57: _C. globularifolius, Lam. 39. Willd. go. (Helianthe-
mum Lufitanicum, globulariz folio; Tourn. 250.) Per-
ennial; ftem fimple, nearly naked; root-leaves petioled
fpatulate, obtufe.” Root thick, woody. Stem from four
to fix inches high, furnifhed with two or three diftant pairs
of fmall acute leaves. J’/owers terminal, ina fhort raceme.
A native of Portugal. 58 C. tuberaria, Linn. Sp. Pi. 21.
Mart. 25. Lam. 40, Willd. 41. Cavan, Ic. 1. tab. 67. (C.
folio plantaginis, Bauh. Pin. 465. Helianthemum planta-
ginis folio, perenne, Tourn. 25. Buxb. Cent. 3. tab. 63.
Tuberaria noftras, €t major mycofis, J. Bauh. 2. p. i2.)
* Perennial, root leaves egg-{haped, three-nerved, tomen-
tous; {tem leaves {mooth, lanceolate ; upper ones alternate,”
Linn. Stem half a foot high or more, commonly fimple,
Root.leaves {preading on the ground, white underneath ;
ftem-leaves feffile, dikant. F¥owers yehow, in a kind of
corymb ; two outer calyx-leaves fhorter, lanceolate ; three
inner Ones ovate-acuminate, concave: Capfule globular,
three-valved. Seeds ovate-comprefled, blackifh, fixed
to partitions oppofite to the valves. A native of Spain,
Italy, and the fouth of France, cultivated by Miller
. 5 on 4
in 1748. 59. C. plantagineus, Willd. 42. (C. ferratus,
Desfont. Fl, Atl. 1. 416. excluding the fynonym
from Cavarilles. C. lJanceolatus, Vahl. Symb. 2. p.
Lam. 54.)
3?
62?) ‘ Herbaceous; leaves lanceolate, lefiened at both
emds, three-nerved, hairy ; racemes without bra@es ;
petals finely toothed.” Willd. Inclining to fhrub-
Qq 2 by
CISTUS. .
by near the bottom, herbaceous above ; leaves lanceo-
Jate, three-nerved, hairy.”? Vahl. Stem a foot or a foot and
a half high, {prinkled with long ftrait hairs, Willd. ; branch-
ed at the bafe, Vahl. Branches quite fimple, a fhort fpan
long, afcending, {mooth at the bottom, tomentous at the
top, hoary their whole length, Vahl. Leaves two inches
long, feffile, gradually {maller towards the top, oppofite ;
two upper ones alternate, Vahl. Root-leaves oblong, acu-
minate, leffened into the petivle, three or five-nerved, hairy
ou both fides; the hairs on the under furface fimple, f{cat-
tered, clofe-prefled ; on the upper more copious, tlellated ;
flem-leaves oppofite, lanceolate, feflile, three nerved, an
inch and a half or two inches long, more hairy than the root-
leaves, Willd. Stipules only to the laft pair of leaves, Vahl.
and Willd.; half an inch long, linear, hairy, Willd.
Brades none, Vahl. and Willd. Raceme terminal, Vahl.
Racemes two at the top of the ftem, Willd. Flowers yel-
Jow, without acentral fpot, Willd. ; calyx five-leaved, Vahl.
Willd. A native of Crete and the north of Africa; found
by Vahl near Bizerta in Barbary. We have contraited
Willdenow’s and Vahl’s defcriptions, that our readers may
judze for themfelves with refpect to their identity. The
oaly material difference feems to be, that Willdenow’s plant
is annual: Vahl’s, perennial. 60. C. /erratus, Willd. 43.
Cavan. Ic. 2. tab. 175. fig. 1. ** Leaves oppofite, lancco-
late, three nerved, hairy, vifcous; root ones inverfely egg-
fhaped; racemes without braétes; petals ferrated.”” Stem
osly one-third the length of the preceding. Leaves obtufe.
Flowers yellow, with a large black central {pot. Ot. C.. bu-
pleurifolius, Lam. 41. ‘Stem branched ; ftennleaves lan-
ceolate, three-nerved, even furfaced, f{mooth;- upper ones
alternate ; flowers in corymbs.’? got three or four inches
long, fleuder, fibrous. Stem herbaceous, four inches high,
{mooth, leafy. Branches fimple, a little villous towards the
top. Root leaves oblong, leflened towards the bafe, flightly
three-nerved, befet with fhort hairs; ttem-leaves feffile, very
acute, even-furfaced, {mooth, fometimes, but rarely, fur-
nifhed with fome loofe hairs underneath, molt of them op-
polite, gradually diminifhing im fize towards the top.
Flowers in fhort peduncles, in a fmall clofe corymb. Com-
municated to La Marck by Vahl, who founditin Spain. It
feems to differ from his lanceolatus chiefly in its completely
herbaceous item, and its comparatively {mooth leaves. 62.
C. guttatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 22. Mart. 26. Lam. 42. Willd.
44. Curt. Flor. Lond. fafc. 6. tab. 33. Eng. Bot. tab.
544. (C. flore pallido, punicante macula iniignito, Bauh.
Piv. 465. Rai. Syn. 342. C. annuus flore guttato, J. Bauh.
Hik. vol. ii. p14. Helianthemum flore maculofo, Tourn.
250. Colum. Ecphr. tab. 77. fig. 1.) Leaves oppolite,
lanceolate, three-nerved; racemes nearly naked.””? Dr. Smith.
Rost annual, {mall, fibrous. Stem near a foot high, ered,
fimple or branched, {quare, hairy ; hairs white, fpreading.
Leaves rather obtufe, quite entire, hairy on both fides, fome-
what vifcid. Flowers yellow; racemes terminal, fimple,
unilateral, hairy, often without braétes, but fometimes with
folitary lanceolate ones at the bafe of the pedicels ; calyx
glandular, hairy; petals unequally crenate, with an elegant
purple {pot near the bafe; ftigma feffile. Cap/ule egg-fhap-
ed, three-celled. Seeds attached to the partitions, which
are fixed to the middle of the valves, Dr. Smith. La
Marck mentions two varicties; one {maller with linear-lanceo-
late leaves; the other larger with ovate-acute or ovate-lanceo-
Jate ttem-leaves. A. native of Italy, the fouth of France, and
the ifles of Jerfey and Man. 63. C. canadenfis, Linn. Sp. PI.
22. Mart.z7. Lam.43. Willd. 45. ** All the leaves al-
ternate, lanceolate ; {tem afcending.”” A native of Canada,
obferved by Kalm. 64. C. alternifolius, Mart. 63. Vahl.
Symb. 1. 38. Somewhat fhrubby; leaves alternate ; pe.
duncles lateral and terminal, generally folitary, ore-flower-
ed? Stem ere&t. Branches flender, villous, brown. Leaves
feffile, oblong, ereét, flat, quite entire, villous on both fides.
Flowers folitary towards the top, fometimes two or three
together in the axils of the leaves on the lower branches ;
peduncles fpreading, double the length of the leaf, villous,
a little thicker at the end, with two linear caducous leaves
at the top; calyxes egg-fhaped, acute, hirfute. A native
of Brazil. It has the calyx and inflorefcence of falicifolius
n. 103, but differs in being fhrubby. 65. C. medius, Mart.
so. Allion pedem, n. 1657. “ Leaves ovate-lanceolate,
wrinkled, petioled, finely toothed.”? Stems fhrubby, reddifh,
viicid. Leaves green. Flowers pale yellow ; peduncles
folitary, axillary and terminal. A native of the county of
Nice.
+ + With fipules.
66. C. fquamatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 27. Mart. 32. Lam, 44,
Willd. 5%. Barr. Ic. 327. Bocce. Muf. 2. tab. 64. fig. 3.
«Stem fomewhat fhrubby ; leaves covered with orbicular
feales.”? Linn. Stem fix or feven inches long, rather ereét,
tetragonous near the bottom. Leaves oval-lanceolate;
thickifh, petioled, oppofite, fome three together ; f{eales fil-
very, with a hollow point in the middie. Stipules extremely
{mall, acute, fhrivelling, feffile. Flowers yetlow, terminal,
in {mall racemes, on fhort thick-fet peduncles. A native of
dry hills in Spain. 67. C. /ippit, Linn. Mant. 245. Mart.
33- Lam. 45. Wille. 52. Vahl. Symb.n. 39. (C. ftipu=
Jatus, Forfk. Def. 100.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby, ere& ;
leaves alternate and oppofite, lanceolate, feabrous; {pikes
unilateral.”? Linn. Svem from four to fix inches high, cy-
lindrical, pubefeent, whitifh, bifid, or but little branched.
Branches white, alternate, often zig-zag. Leaves generally
alternate, petioled, oblong, obtule, pale green above, with
fhort hairs, whitifh and flightly cottony underneath. Svi-
pules {mall, narrow-lanceolate, oppofite, nearly the length of
the petioles. Lowers yellow ; racemes or {pikes fhort, fo-
htary, oppofite to the leaves, feillie, {carcely opening, but
appearing almoll like buds till the fruit opens ; petals {maller,
{carcely longer than the leaves of the calyx. Capfules
nearly globular, almo{t covered by the calyx. A native of
Egypt. 68. C. feffiliflorus, Willd. 53. Desfont. Fl. Atl.
I. p. 427. tab. 1060. ‘Somewhat fhrubby, ere; leaves
alternate and oppolite, linear, hoary, revolute at the margin;
{pikes unilateral.” Stem a foot or two feet high, ereét,
much-branched. eaves fomewhat pettoled; rather obtufe.
Stipules {mall, linear. FYowers yellow, a little longer than
the calyx, feffile. Braées minute, linear-lanceolate. Calyx
pubefcent. Cap/ule roundith, pubefcent, longer than the
calyx, Desfont. 69. C.. edlipticus, Wiild. 54. Desfont.
Fi. Atl 1. tab. 107. “Somewhat fhrubby, ereé& ; leaves
oppolite, elliptic, hoary, revolute at the edges; (pikes uni-
lateral.’? Stem a foot or two feet high, branched. Branches
pibefcent. Leaves on fhort petioles, cloathed on both fides
with very fhort and very denfe hairs. Stipules “growing by
fours, fmall, linear. Lowers yellow, {mail, fefile; petals
a little longer than the calyx. Capfule roundith, pu-
befcent, longer than the calyx. A native of the country
about Algiers. 70. C. canarienjis, Murray Syit. 499. Mart.
36. Lam. 46. Willd. 59. Jacq. Ic. 1. tab. 97. Jacq. Mife.
2. p. 339. ‘*Procumbent ; leaves fomewhat egg-fhaped,
alternate and oppofite ; racemes ere&t.” Jacq. ‘ Procum-
bent ; leaves oppofite and alternate, pubefcent, glaucous,
oblong-inverfely egg-fhaped, acute; racemes: unilateral.”
Willd. Root Hbrous. Stem fix or feven inches long, flender,
woody, branched, flightly pubefcent, reddifh biown near the |
bottom,
52
€wsrn ws
bottom. Branches alternate, whitifh and a little cottony to-
wards the top. Leaves petioled, pale green, almoft {mooth
above, pubefcent and reflexed at the edges underneath.
Stipules narrow, almott fetaceous, fhorter than the petioles,
hooked, villous, caducous. FYowers yellow, peduncled ;
racemes an inch and a half long; peduncles cottony, ca-
lyxes with projecting ftric. A native of the Canary
iflands. 71. C. ferpyllifolius, Linn. Sp. Pl. 30. Mart. 38.
Willd. 60. (Chamecittus repens ferpyJlifolia lutea, Bauh.
Pin. 466.) ‘‘ Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves oblong; calyxes
even-furfaced.”” A native of mountains in the fouth of
Europe. La Marck has omitted this {pecies. 72. C. visla-
ceus, Wailld.. 61. Cavan. Ic. 2. tab. 144. ‘* Somewhat
fhrubby, afcending ; leaves oppofite, fomewhat tomentous,
linear, obtufe, attenuated at the bafe, revolute at the edges ;
calyxes even-furfaced.” FYoqwers white, in long ereét ra-
cemes; calyxes of a reddifh violet colour. 73. C. linearis,
Willd. 62. Cavan. Ic. 3. tab. 216. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby,
ef{cending, alittle tomentous; leaveslinear, obtufe, petioled,
revolute at the edges; calyxes even-furfaced. Leaves pe-
tioled, not attenuated at the bafe, thrice the length of thofe of
the preceding fpecies. Sowers white ; the two {maller ca-
lyx-leaves acute, not obtufe; petals inverfely-egg-fhaped.
In thefe refpects, its white flowers excepted, and in its whole
habit, it differs from C, violaceus. A native of Spain. 74.
C. levis, Willd. 63. Cavan. Ic. 2. tab. 145. fig. 1. ‘* Some-
what fhrubby, ereét, leaves linear, feffile, imooth, revolute at
the edges, keeled; calyxes even-furfaced.”? Leaves acute at
the tip; lower ones crowded, fhorter; upper ones alittle {pread-
ing. Stipules \mear. Flowers deep yellow, longer than the
calyx: two fhorter calyx-leaves awl-thaped. A native of
Spain. 75. C. flri@us, Willd. 64. Cavan. Ic. ii. tab. 263.
fiz. 2.‘ Somewhat fhrubby, ere&i; leaves hoary, linear-
awl-fhaped, revolute at the edges; racemes unilateral; calyxes
fmooth.” Willd. Stem halfa foot high ; branches numerous,
oppotite, ftiff, and ftraight, cloathed with a fhort hoary down.
Leaves oppolite, nearly feflile, with a few hairs at the tip.
Flowers white, larger than the calyx ; calyx ftriated. 76. C.
Surrejanus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 28: Mart. 34. Lam.47. Wilid.
55. (C. helianthemum 3. Hudf. Flor, Ang. 233. Heli-
anthemum vulgare, petalis forum peranguftis, Dil. in Rai.
Synop. 341. Hort. Elth. tab. 145. fig. 174.) © ‘* Some-
what fhrubby ; leaves ovate-oblong, hairy underneath, dot-
ted; petals lanceolate. Stems proltrate, fimple, leafy, cy-
lindrical, cloathed with depreffed matted hairs. Leaves
petioled, obtufe, flat, quite entire, nearly naked above, hairy,
and ftudded with hollow points underneath, green on both
fides, not hoary. Svipules two, lanceolate, ciliated. Fizqwers
yellow, ere&t, racemes terminal, folitary, fimple, many-
flowered, recuryed, pubefcent, bra&teate ; calyx hairy, with
red nerves; petals very narrow, acute, generally longer,
but fometimes fhorter than the calyx. Cap/ule one celled,
or obfcurely three-celled. Dr. Smith. Found by Edward
du Bois near Croydon, in Surrey, whence Linneus formed
its trivial name. It does not appear to have been obferved
wild in any other fituation, either in or out of England. It
is diftinguifhed from C. helianthemum, to which it is nearly
allied, by the remarkable form ot its petals. 77. C. poly-
anthos, Willd. 56. Desfont. Flor. Atl.1. tab. 108. Some-
what fhrubby ; lower leaves hoary underneath; ftem ones
green on both fides, ciliated ; calyxes hifpid; racemes pa-
nicled. Svems a toot high, numerous, cylindrical, villous,
rough, with tubercles. Leaves oppofite, petioled, obtufe,
veined underneath; lower ones egg-fhaped, f{maller; upper
ones ovate-oblong, or lanceolate. Stipules four, petioled,
linear-lanceolate, rather obtufe, longer than the petiole.
Flowers yellow, {mall, longer than the calyx ; racemes erect,
“tomentous, fomewhat hoary.
drooping before the flowers open; peduncles filiform; pe-
dicels capillary ; bra¢tes linear, fhorter than the pedicels ;
calyx cloathed with numerous, white, foft, fpreading hairs.
Capfule {mall, villous at the tip. A native of the north of
Arica. 78. C. glaucus, Willd. 57. Cavan. Ic. ui. tab.
201. Somewhat fhrubby, afcending ; leaves tomentous,
glaucous, revolute at the edges; lower ones egg-fhaped,
upper ones lanceolate ; racemes unilateral.”? Petals yellow,
longer than the calyx, roundith, crenulate at the edges. A
native of Spain. 979. C. croceus, Willd. 75. Desfout.
Flor. Atl i. tab. r10o. Somewhat fhrubby, pubefcent,
cloathed with very fhort ftellated hairs; leaves elliptic,
obtufe.” A foot high. Sves numerous, erect, cylindrical,
Leaves oppolite, petioled,
fomewhat hoary underneath, revolute at the edges, pubel-
cent on both fides ; with clofe fet fhort ftellated hairs ; lower
ones fmailer, roundifh, middle ones-elliptic, obtufe; upper
ones lanceolate, fomewhat acute. Stipules four, awl-fhaped,
a little longer than the petiole. #/owers faffron-colouréd ;
racemes, before the flowers open, conyolute; braétes lanceo-
late, pubefcent, the length of the pedicels, calyxes pubef-
cent, angular, yellowith ; petals quite entire. Nearly allied
to the preceding, but diltin@. A native of Spain, and the
north of Africa. So. C. aummularius, Linn. Sp. Pi. 29.
Mart. 35. Lam. 48. Willd. 58. (Helianthemum ad
nummularia accidens, J. Bauh. Hitt.ii. p.20. Tourn. 249.
Ciftus humilis, f. chameciftus nummularie folio, Mag.
Monfp. 293.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby; lower leaves: orbi-
cular; upper ones exg-fhaped.”? Linn. Stems long, trail-
ing, much ‘branched. Leaves oppolite, petioled, fhightly
villous; lower ones whitifh underneath ; all of them green
onthe upperfurface. Stipules three, narrow, ereét, Lowers
large, white, iu terminal racemes. Found by Magnol on
Mount Capouladon near Montpelier. J. Bauhin received it
from Bail. 81. C. ciliatus, Willd. 70. Destont. Flor.
Atl. 1. tab. 109. ‘ Somewhat fhrubby, precumbent ;
branches tomentous; leaves narrow, lanceolate, villous;
calyxes membranous, with ciliated angles.”? Stems a foot
high, branched at the bafe. ranches fingle, cylindrical,
hoary. Leaves oppolite, on fhort petioles, hirfute on the
upper furface, canefcent and tomentous underneath, revolute
at the edges. Stipules four, linear, longer than the petiole.
Flowers rofe-coloured; racemes terminal, revolute before
the flowers open; braétes linear-lanceolate; two outer
leaves of the calyx fmali, linear. Cap/ule roundith, covered
by the calyx. A native of fandy hills in the north of
Africa, 82. C. angujftifolius, Marray Syit. Veg. p. soc.
Mart. 43. Willd. 71. Jacq. Hort. ii. tab. 53. “* Somewhat
fhrubby, diffufe ; leaves lanceolate ; calyxes hirfute.’”? Root
branched. Stem cylindrical, woody, branched from the bale ;
younger branches, leaves, ftipules and racemes flightly vii-
lous and hoary. Leaves oppofite, fomewhat acute, quite
entire, rough on.both fides, on fhort petioles. Lowers
ycliow, orange-coloured in the centre; racemes terminal,
many-flowered, erect ; pedicels bent back as the fruit ripens ;
ftipules and bractes deciduous; outer calyx-leaves linear ;
inner ones egg-fhaped, acute, nerved; petals cither quite
entire, or crenulate about the edge. Cap/ule hirfute,
egg-fhaped, Jacq. 83. Gy Aclianthemum, Linn. 33. Mart.
44. Lam. 49. Willd. 72. Curt. Flor. Lond. Fafe. 5.
tab. 36. Flor. Dan. tab. 101. Eng. Bot. 1321. (Cha-
meciltus. vulgaris, flore luteo, Baun. Pin. 405. Heltan-
themum vulgare, Tourn. 248. Gert. tab. 76. fig. 11.)
‘ Somewhat fhrubby ;. ftipules lanceolate ; leaves obleng,
revolute, fomewhat hairy.” Linn. + Somewhat fhrubby,
procumbent ; leaves oblong, revolute, boary underneath 5
calyxes fomewhat hisfute.? Lam, Stems generally fimple,
cylindrical,
Crs rvs.
Leaves fmall, various in fize,
obtule, on fhort petioles, entire green, and cloathed
with dimple hairs above ; white, downy, and hairy under-
neath. Stipules acute, green on both fides, ciliated. Flowers
bright yellow, in terminal racemes, on hairy peduncles ;
calyx coloured with hairy ribs; petals roundifh, obfcurely
crenate; ftamens the length of the flyle, ere&t; when
touched with a_pin or briltis, retiring from the ftyle, and
lying down in a {preading form upon the petals; but this
can be feen only in calm warm weather, and when the
flowers have not been ruffled by infects. Dr. Smith. A
native of England, and other parts of Europe, chiefly on a
calcareous foil, and flowering in July and Auguft. It
varies with paler and with white flowers. Willdenow makes
C. rofeus of La Marck with rofe-coloured flowers only a variety.
84. C. grandiflorus. Mart. 51. Scop. Carn. n. 645, tab. 25.
Allion. Ped. n. 4. (Heltanthemum alpinum, vulgari fimile,
foliis latioribus; Bauh.) ‘ Somewhat fhrubby ; leaves lan-
ceolate, villous on both fides, acuminate; ftipules longer than
the calyx.’”? Stem about fix inches long, villous. Leaves
an inch long. Flowers yellow, racemed; peduncles and
calyxes villous; outer calyx-leaves linear ; inner twice as
long ; petals almoft half an inch in length. Allioni douots
whether it be diflin& from the preceding fpecies; but Sco-
puli afferts that it differs in the whole appearance of the
flower, length of the racemes, and hardnefs of the leaves.
85. C. mutabilis, Mart. 45. Willd. 73. Jacq. Ic. 1. tab.
99. Mifc. 2. p.340. (C. hifpidusy, Lam. who fays it is
the effe& only of cultivation.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby, pro-
cumbent ; fipules lanceolate; leaves oblong, {fmooth, flat.”
Native country unknown. Flowers either pale yellow or
rofe-coloured. 86. C. hirtus, Linn. Sp. PL 34. Mart. 46.
Wilid. 76. Somewhat fhrubby, leaves egg-fhaped ; ca-
lyxes hifpid,” Linn. Stem ereé&t, much-branched. Leaves
very narrow, oppofite, revolute, bright green above, hoary
underneath. Flowers white, large, in {mall terminal ra-
cemes. A native of Spain and the fouth of France, culti-
vated by Miller in 1759. Profeflor Mertyn quotes C. rof-
marini foliis of Allioni asa fynonym; but the calyx of Al-
lioni’s plant is only whitifh, with nothing rough -or hairy
about it. It feems therefore to be a diltin@ fpecies. 87.
C. durbatus. Lam. $0. (C. pilofus 8, Willd. Helianthe-
man f. Ciflus humilis, flore fampfuci, capitulis valde hir-
futis; J. Baub. 2. p. 20. Tourn. 249.) “ Somewhat
fhrubby, erect; leaves egg fhaped, hairy, green on both
fides ; racemes hirfute-bearded.”? Leaves oppofite, petioled,
villous above and underneath. Flowers yellow, in terminal
racemes; lefs loofe than thofe of C. helianthemum. La-
marck fulpe€ts that this plant may be one and the fame
with the preceding, excluding the fynonyms quoted by Lin-
neus; but C. hirtus of Linnens, or at leaft of Miller, has
its leaves hoary underneath; whereas thofe of Lamarck’s
barbatus are green on both fides. 88. C. g/utinofus, Linn.
Mant. 246. Mart. 39. Lam. 51. Willd. 65. Cavan. Ic. 2.
tab. 145. fig. 2. (Chameciltus ineanus, tragorigani folio; Bar-
rel. Ic. 4.15. Helianthemum folio thymi incano; J. Bauh.
2.p.19 Tourn. 249.) ‘ Somewhat thrubby ; leaves li-
near, oppofite and alternate; peduncles villous, glutinous.”
Five or fix inches high. Stem. much branched from the
bottom. Branches rezular, pubefcent, vilcous. Leaves of
a cinercous green colour, {mall, fomewhat acute, revolute,
not much more than three lines long. Fiogers yellow,
fmall, in a looic terminal raceme. Cap/ules {mall, globular,
three-celled. Lam. A native of the fouth of Europe. 89.
©. thymifolius, Linn. Sp. Pi. 31. Mart. 40. Willd. 66. (C.
glutinoius 8. Lam. Chameciftus luteus, thymi folio, oli-
gauthes; Barrel. Ic. 444. Ciltus alpina humilis, foliis thymi
cylindrical, leafy, hairy.
elliptic,
minutiffimis ; Pluk. tab. 84. fig. 5.) ‘ Somewhat fhrubby,
procumbent ; leaves linear, oppofite, very fhort, cluftered.’?
Linn. A native of Spain and the fouth of France. go. C.
ferrugineus, Lam. 52. (C. minor thymi folio, fiore ferrugi-
neo; Burr. rar. tab. 285.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby; leaves
alternate, lanceolate, flat ; lower ones fomewhat linear ; pe-
duncles lateral, one-flowered.”? Root woody, long, rather
thick. Stems from five to cight inches long, fomewhat
woody, diffufed, leafy, pubefcent towards the top. Leaves
{mali, acute, greyifh green. Stipules two, oppolite, very
{mall, acuic. Flowers ferruginous or reddifh yellow, foli-
tary ; peduncles and calyxes pubefcent. Cap/i/es globular,
three-celled. A’ native of Spain. g1. C. arabicus, Linn.
Sp. Pi. 37. Mart. 49. Willd. 79. Desfon. Flor. Atl. 1. p.419.
Vahl. Symb. 2. tab. 35. (C. ferrugineus; @. Lam. ? Helt-
anthemum creticum, linariz folio, flore croceo; Tourn. Cor,
13.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby; leaves alternate, lanceolate,
flat, even-furfaced.”’ Linn. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby, pro-
cumbent ; leaves linear; thofe of the peduncles alternate,
thofe of the fmaller branches crowded.’? Wahl. Stem
branched from the bottom. Branches often a foot long, at
firft procumbent, afterwards afcending, flender, cylindrical,
fmooth; branchlets numerous, alternate, diltant, widely
{preading ; lower ones barren ; upper ones floriferous, quite
fimple, elongated, cinereous, pubefcent. Leaves of the
barren branchlets crowded, marked with two lines, declin-
ing, linear, ft:ffifh, without veins, rather obtufe ; upper ones
tomentofe-afh-coloured. Stipules minute, egg-fhaped. Leaves
of the floriferous branchlets broader, longer, pubefcent.
Stipules lanceolate. Flowers three or four in a terminal
raceme, without braétes ; pedicels diftant, hairy, and fome-
what vifcid towards the top, a little thicker under the
flower; calyx hairy, fomewhat vifcous; inner leaves three-
nerved, membranous between the nerves; onter ones lanceo-~
late. Vah!. Vahl’s plant came from Spain. According to
La Marck, Tournefort’s plant from the ifland of Candy
differs from the preceding fpecies only in being larger, lefs
pubefcent, with a little longer leaves; but he is dubious
whether it’ be C. arabicus of Linnrus. 92. C. racemofus,
Linn. Mant. 76. Mart. 42. Lam. 53. Willd. 69. Vahl.
Symb. 1. p. 39. Cavan. Ic. 2. tab. r40. (C. lavandule
folio, thyrfoides; Barr. ic. 293.) ‘* Somewhat fhrubby ;
leaves lanceolate-linear, tomentous underneath.” Linn.
« Somewhat fhrubby; leaves lanceolate-linear, tomentous
underneath ; raceyaes terminal, unilateral; calyxes even-
furfaced, angular. Lam. Svem nine or ten inches high.
Branches numerous, ere&t, very flender, whitifh, and flightly
cottony towards the top. Leaves oppofite, narrow, about
an inch long, revolute, cotteny and whitifh underneath,
green above, with a longitudinal furrow. Stipules awl-
fhaped. lowers in long, terminal, upright racemes. Lam. -
A native of Spain. 93. C. /avandulifolius, Mart. 64. Lam.
54. Wilid. 68. Vahl. Symb. 1. p. 39. Desfont. Fi. Atl. r.
p: 47. (C. folio {pice ; Bauh. Pin. 465. C. lavandule lati-
foliz folio. Barr. ic. 288. Good. Helianthemum lavandule
folio, Tourn. 249.) Somewhat fhrubby, ereé& ; leaves lan-
ceolate, revolute, fomewhat hoary ; racemes terminal, in--
curved ; flowers crowded.” Lam. Svem about a foot high,
woody. Branches oppofite, upright, whitifh near the top.
Leaves oppolite. Stipules four, {mall, villous, narrow, acute..
Flowers yellow, fmall; racemes terminal, a little branched, at
firft fhort and cnrved ; calyxes whitifh, a little cottony ; its
leaves bordered with white filky hairs. When not in flower,
the whole plant greatly refembles common lavender. A
native of Spain, the fouth of France, Tunis, and Syria.
According to La Marck, C. Syriacus of Jacquin and Mar-
tin, defcribed above, n. 54. is only a variety of this {pecies,
with
G BS+T°U. §&.
with larger, lefs revolute, and not lefs white leaves. Willd.
gives it as a fynonym, and not even a variety. 04. C. ap-
enninus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 35. Mart. 47. Willd. 77. (C.
Fifpidus 8. Lam. 55. Heltanthemum faxatile, foliis & cauli-
bus incanis oblongis, Apennini montis; Retz pug. tab. 8.
Dill. Elt.176. ‘ Shrubby, {preading ; leaves lanceolate,
hairy.”? Stem a foot high, branched. Leaves green and
rough, with hairs on the upper furface, hoary under-
neath. Flowers white. 95. C. hi/pidus, Lam. 55. (Cha-
meciftus folio thymi, incanus. Bauh. Pin. 466. Helianthe-
mum flore albo, folio angufto, hirfuto. J. Bauh. 2.
-17. Tourn. Inft. 248. “ Somewhat fhrubby, ere@ ;
an oblong, hairy on the upper furface, tomentous
underneath ; calyxes hairy-hifpid.”” Lam. Stems near a
foot high, diffufe, branched. Branches flender, whitifh, and
villous near the top. Leaves oppofite, revolute. FJocwers
white, in terminal racemes. A native of Italy and the
fouth of France, diftinguifhed fram the next fpeci-s by its
very hifpid calyxes. 96. C. pilofus, Linn. 32. Allion. ped.
n. 1672, tab. 45. fiz. 1,2. ‘* Somewhat fhrubby, rather
erect ; leaves linear, two-furrowed, underneath hoary ; ca-
lyxes fmooth and even.”? FYowers white ; bractes folitary,
at the fide of the pedicels. A native of Spain, Piedmont,
and the fouth of France; cultivated by Miller in 1759.
97. C. fetidus, Willd. 74. Jacq. ic. 1. tab. 98. Mifc. 2.
p- 341. Somewhat fhrubby, procumbent ; ttipules Jan-
ceolate ; leaves oblong, hirfute, fcabrous.” Flowers white.
The whole plant has the fcetid {mell of bryony. 98. C.
polifolius, Linn. Sp. Pl. 36. Mart. 48. Lam. 56. Willd. 78.
(C. humilis, Pluk. Alm. 107. tab. 23. fig. 6. Helianthe-
mum foliis poli montani ; Tourn. Inft. 249. Dell. Elt. tab.
145. fig. 172.) ‘ Somewhat fhrubby, procumbent, with
a itarlike pubefcence; leaves oblong, revolute, tementous-
hoary underneath.”” Dr. Smith. ‘The habit of C. helian-
themum, but very diftin&. Stems from five to eight inches
long, tomentous, with clofe-prefled hairs, Leaves green
above, with fcattered ftarlike hairs, white underneath, and
denfely cloathed with ftarlike down, marked with a very pro-
minent nerve. Flowers white ; calyx hairy, chiefly on the
nerves ; hairs bundled or ftarlike. Cap/ule obfoletely three-
celled. Dr. Smith. A native of England and France.
99. C. fplendens, Lam. 57. (Helianthemum album Ger-
manicum, Tabern. ic. 1002. Tourn. 248.) * Somewhat
fhrubby, erect ; leaves lanceolate, linear, green and fhining
above, hoary underneath ; calyxes {mooth and even,”
About a foot high. Stem branched from the bottom.
Branches very flender, cylindrical, fmooth, chiefly ereé.
Leaves oppolite, petioled, a little revolute, near an
inch long. lowers white, fmall, peduncled, in terminal
racemes; calyxes greenifh, with brown nerves; claws of
the petals and ftamens yellow. A native of Germany
and France.
(2.) Stem herbaceous.
100. C. pundatus, Willd. 46. ‘ Ere&, pubefcent ; ra-
ceme terminal; leaves oppofite, oblong; lower ones in-
verfely egg-fhaped.”” Koot annual. Stem about three
inches high. Branches ere&t, ftiff, oppofite, fimple,
fhorter than the ftem. Leaves opp: fite, petioled ; lower
ones obtufe; upper ones rather acute. S*ipules linear.
lanceolate. Flowers in an elongated, terminal raceme ;
peduncles one-flowered, ereét; braéte ovate-lanceolate,
{mall, not at the bafe, but about the middle of the
peduncle ; outer-calyx-leaves linear, fpreading. Detcribed
by Willdenow from a dried {pecimen ; native country un-
known, rot. C. /edifolius, Linn. Sp. Pl. 24. Mart. 28,
Lam. 58. Willd. 47. (C, ledi folio, Bauh, Pin, 465. Lob,
Ic, 2. 118. Helianthemum ledi folio, Tourn. 249.) “ Ere&
fmooth ; flowers folitary, nearly feflile, oppofite to the ter.
nate leaf.”? Linn. * Pubefcent; leaves lanceolate ; pedun-
cles ereét, fhorter than the calyx.”? Dr. Smith. "Root an-
nual, fimall, a little branched. Stem from fix to nine inches
high, rather ereét, generally fimple, fometimes branched
from the bottom, cylindrical, hirfute, leafy, few-flowered,
Leaves oppofite, petioled, obtufe, quite entire, narrowed at
the bafe, pubefcent on both fides. Stipules two, lanceolate
acute, three’ times fhorter than the leaf. Flyers yellow,
oppofite to the leaves, ereét, on fhort peduncles ; calyx-
leaves acuminate, nerved, hirfute ; petals fhorter than the
calyx, foon falling off. Capfule about the length of the ca-
lyx, fmooth, one-celled. “Dr. Smith. According to La
Marck, there are four ftipules, growing in pairs, and almoft
as large as the leaves near the top of the plant. A native of
England and France. 102. C. niloticus, Linn. Mant. 246
Mart. 30. Willd. 49. (C. ledifelius, 2, Lam.) « Ereét,
fomewhat tomentous; flowers in racemes, folitary, feffile,
oppofite to the leaves.”’ Root annual. Svem a foot hich.
fomewhat woody, cylindrical! Branches next the Motae
cending, fhorter than the ftem ; towards the top of the item
alternate, ereGt, few. Leaves oppolite, petioled, elliptic ,
{preading, fomewhat tomenteus, veined, longer than the
Joints of the flem. Stipules four, {word-fhaped, half the
length of the leaf, permarent. Flowers yellow; ina teg-
minal, erect, ftitf raceme, alternate, accompanied bya leaf and
two ftipules, fimilar to thofe of the item-leaves ; calyx five-
leaved, ere&t ; the three inner leaves three-nerved, acumi-
nate, two outer ones linear, fhorter, {preading, A native
of Egypt. Linn. La Marck afferts that it is merely a va-
riety of the preceding, only a little larger, and without any
pretentions to be received as a diltinet {pecies. 103. C. fali-
cifolins, Linn. Sp. Pi. 25. Mart.29. Lam. 59. Willd. 48
(C. folio falicis, Bauh. Pin. 465. Lob. Ic. ii. p-1 18. Heli,
anthemum falicis folio, Tourn. Inft.249. H. annuum hu
mile, foliis ovatis, flore fugaci, Sez. Ver. iii, tab. 6. f :
good.) ‘* Spreading, villous; flowers racemed, ereét a a
dicels horizontal.?”? Lunn. Root annual. Stem harcnal
from the bottom. Branches {preading, about five Inches
long, cylindrical, pubeicent. Leaves petioled, {mall, oppo
fite and alternate, oval-oblong, rather obtufe, fli rhtly ee
kled, cloathed with a fhort fomewhat woolly down. Flowers
{mall, pale yellow or whitith ; peduncles alternate iateral
and terminal, longer than the calyx, one-flowered, Vert md
fmaller than thofe of the preceding {pecies, {carcely ice rer
than the calyx. A native of Spain, Portugal, and the fouti
of France. 104. C. egyptiacus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Mart. 31
Lam. 60. Willd. so. Jacq. Obf 3. tab. 68. « Ere;
leaves linear-lanceolate, petioled ; calyxes inflated ence
than the corolla.”? Linn. Stem five or fix inches high ver
ender, generally fimple, but fometimes branched fon ee
bottom, pubefcent towards the ton. Leaves about an inch
long, oppofite, on fhort peduncles ; ending in a weak point
fmooth above, almoft imperceptibly villous underneath,
Flowers y-llowith, very fhort, peduncled, alternate, droop.
ing, In a terminal raceme; two outer calyx leaves ver
{mall, half open ; the three cthers co iverging into Srnifind
like an inflated, tranfparent bladder, remarkable for ate
frrong, ciliated, purplith nerves. Capfules encloied in the
calyx. A native of Egypt. In this now very extenfive in-
tricate genus, Linneus has thirty-feven {pecies in the Species
Plantarum, with the addition of fix others in the two ie
tiffas ; La Marck, fixty ; Profeffor Martyn, in his edition of
Miiler’s Digtronary. fixty-fix ; and Willdenow, feventy-nine,
Cistus indicus, Herm, Lugb. Rai. Hift. See Azacea
indica.
Cistus
G iyS7Tau 5.
Cistus virginiana, perclyment flore ampliori minus odorato,
Pluk. See Azarea audiflora.
Cistus virginiana, flore & odore perclyment, Pluk. Alm.
Catefby. See Azavea vifco/a.
Cisrus sumilis 2thiopicus, Pluk. Mant.
uniflora.
See Diosma
jolio majorane, Bauh. Pin. See Tereruium
“Cistus urtice folio, Sloan. Ray. See Turnera ulmi-
fold. ¢
~ Cistus chamerhododendros mariana laurifolia, Pluk. Aim.
See Karma latifolia.
Cistus fempervirens laurifolia, Pluk. Alm. See Katmia
angu/flifolta.
Cistus ledon foliis rofmarini ferrugineus, Bauh. Pin. See
Lepum palufre.
Cistus pumilus montis Baldi, J. Bauh. chamerhoden-
dros foliis confertis, Pluk. Alm. See RuopopENDRUM cha-
mecifius.
O1/. Ancient authors differ much from each other in their
application of the terms Ciffus and Ciftus. Ciffus, Kizcos,
in the Attic dialeét Kizzo;, is the proper Grecian name for
the common ivy, hedera helix of Linnezus. Theophrattus,
as might be expected, gives it in its Attic form, and fo clear-
ly defcribes it, as to leave no doubt of the plant intended.
Of the plants which conftitute fhe prefent Linnean genus
Ciffus, none of which are natives of Greece, he appears to
have had no knowledge. They refemble the common ivy in
nothing but in being climbers; and even in that fingle point
the refemblance is not complete, as they attach themfelves
to other bodies for fupport in a very different manner.
The word Kicso; occurs twice in our prefent copies of the
«© Hiftoria Plantarum, lib. 6. cap. 1.7” near the end, and
in immediate conneétion with it, cap. 2. at the beginning.
But the critics fuppofe, with great probability, that the text
is corrupt, and that the genuine reading is Kicvo;. For, to
fay nothing of the improbability, that the citizen of Athens
fhould depart from his native diale&, which he had elfe-
where conftantly preferved, there is a moral certainty
that he could not have meant the common ivy, ne lefs
from the place which he has affigned it in_ his
fyftem, than from the charaGers which he has attribut-
ed to it. He had already defcribed the common ivy,
xiocors, OT, as he {pells it, xi 70S, in that part of his work
which treats of trees ; an arrangement to which he was led by
its thick arboreons flem or trunk when it is grown
old. He is now proceeding to fhrubs and herbaceous plants,
xxh yup uiooe (lege wore) Duo Y2VN ObaubpBTs, TO PLY GOpEYy TO de Surv.
Tu TO pty pesiCoy Hab TKANPOTEDDY XAb AsmapwTEpOY Qurroy exetyy neck
50 aos exurropupilov, apePw Ce Cmorer exyprons (podass): arAny erotiw ob
« For there are two kinds of ciftus, one male, the
other female; the former having larger, firmer and more
fucculent leaves, and a porplifh flower; but both refembling
the wild rofe, though fmaller and without {cent.”” This
defcription cannot be applied to the common ivy, but cor-
refponds exaétly wich thofe f{pecies of ciitus which were
mott familiar to this venerable naturalift, and are both of
the ladaniferous kind. It is not a little furprifing that he
makes no mention of the ladanum itfelf. Diofcorides. has
amp'y fupplied the omiflion, and has given a particu-
lar account ofits medical properties, and of the man-
ner in which it was then colleéted. Bodzus a Stapel, in
his notes on Theophraftus, labours hard to prove that a differ-
ent pofition of the accent gives a different meaning to the
famie word ; and that Kizrzo; with the accent on the penul-
timate is the proper ciftus, on the laft fyllable the common ivy.
But after much learped difquifition, he appears to us to have
COT [2%
very honeltly left the fubje& jut as he found it, without
taking away or diminifhing any part of its difficulties. Diofco-
rides afcribes rofe-coloured flowers to what was then efteemed
the male, and white ones to the female ; and in this he fuf-
ficiently agrees with Theophraitus, except that the latter
has not noticed the colour of the flowers of the female. It
appears from Diofcorides, Lib. i. cap. 126, that in his time
xso]os was Called by fome xic$0s, xicSxpoy, or xi7Ioprv; thelalt two
diminutives, one of x:290s, the other of xz. From thefe
variations the confufion which prevails in fucceeding writers
feems to have rifen. Galencalls the ivy xIos, and the true
ciftus x:7$0;. Hefychius in his lexicondoes the fame. Kea9os
Gayo & ocppzy xas Onrv cozy. Kiosos escos Cure, nBaactnue nrscco=
pevov. The epithet <Asccouevoy can be referred only to the ivy, in
dire& oppofition to Theophraftus. Paulus Cégineta alfo ex-
prefsly aflerts that xsoos is the ivy. Pliny, the natural hiftoriar,
confounds the xizzos and xico; of the Greeks, confidering both
of them as fpecies of ivy, and pafling from one to the other,
as if they were the fame plant. See Lib. xvi. cap. 38. He
begins with flatiag from Theophraltus, that the ivy willnot
grow in India, and that Alexander, on account of its rarity,
and, in imitation of Bacchus, crowned his army with it, on
their triumphant return from thatcountry. He then adds,
without any intimation of a tranfition to another fubjeé,
‘*Duo genera ejus prima, ut rel’quarum mas et foemina.
Major traditur corpore, et folio duriori, etiam ac pinguiore,
et floread purpuram accedente. Utriu{que autem flos fimi-
lis eit rofe fylveltri, nifi quod caret odore.” This defcrip-
tion is taken from Theophraftus, and can be applied only to
ciftus. Tie was doubtlefs deceived by the corrupt reading ~
in the copies of that author ; but it is evident that in this in-
itance he wrote without any perfonal knowledge of the lat-
ter plant. He finally proceeds in the fame unbroken kind
of narrative, “* Species horum genera tres. Eft enim candi-
da et nigra edera, tertiaque que vocatur helix; and fo goes
on through the reft of the chapicr, defcribing the ciffus or
ivy. The Arabian writers are faid to have laboured under
the fame confufion of ideas. The earlier modern botanifts
partook of the embarraflment ; and we cannot wonder that
the difciples fhould be puzzled, when their revered matters
were thus perplexed.
Cisrus, in Gardening, comprehends different plants
of the rock-rofe, or fhrubby evergreen kind; of which
the fpecies chiefly cultivated are the poplar-leaved ciltus,
or rock-rofe ie populifolius) ; the bay-leaved gum ciftus
(C. laurefolius) ; the Spanifh gum-ciftus (C. ladaniferus) ;
the hoary rock-rofe, or rofe-ciftus (C. incanus) ; the fea purs
flain-leaved ciftus (C. halimifolius); the Montpelier gum-cif-
tus (C. monfpelienfis) ; the Cretan ladaniferous-ciltus (C.
creticus) ; the white-leaved ciftus (C. albidus); the curled-
leaved ciftus (C. crifpus) ; and the fage-leaved ciflus (C. /al-
vifolius), But there are others that may equally deferve
cultivation, Thefe are ail plants that rife to confiderable
height in the ftems, having a branching fhrubby growth.
Of the third fort there are varieties with large white flow-
ers, and a purple {pot in the middle of the petal, and with
entire white flowers. The fifth has alfo varieties with nu-
merous leaves and fulphur-coloured flowers, and with yellow
flowers, with purple {pots in their bafes. And in the fixth
there is a variety with olive-fhaped leaves, and fulphur co-
loured flowers.
Method of Culture-—Al\ thefe different forts are capable
of being either raifed by feeds or cuttings in the common
earth, or on hot-beds; but the feed-method is moftly pra@tifed,
as it produces the beft plants. The feeds fhould be fown in
the early [pring feafon ina warm border near half an inch
deep, and the plants will come up in fix weeks: or, to ren-
der-
Gr
der them more forward, in pots, and plunged in a moderate
hot-bed. When the plants are of fome growth, they fhould
have the full air admitted to them in the framesin mild wea-
ther, and frequent waterings, as well as occafional fhade
from the fun, while voung ; and when an inch or two high,
fome may be planted out feparately in {mall pots, others in.
rich borders, occafional fhade and water being given during
the fummer-months. In autumn the potted plants fhould be
removed to a frame, to have fhelter from froft. Thofe in
the full ground fhould alfo be carefully fhieided in frotty
weather with mats. In {pring, when the weather is fettled,
thofe remain'ng in the {eed-bed fhould be planted out, and
thofe in pots fhifted into larger ones, to be continued aao-
ther winter, and in the {pring following be planted where
they are to remain in the open ground.
When the latter method is pra@tifed, cuttings five or fix
inches long fhou'd be planted the {pring or fummer feafons
in beds of rich earth, occational fhade and water being given.
When well rooted, they fhould be removed into feparate pots;
but by being planted in pots in the {pring, and plunged in a
hot-bed, they are rendered much forwarder. In other re-
fpeéts they require the fame management as the feedling-
lants.
r They are all beautiful evergreen fhrubs, effe€ting a fine va-
riety at all feafons, both from their leaves being of different
fizures, fizes, and fhades of green and white, and their being
very profufe in moft elegant flowers, which, though of
fhort duration, there is a daily fucceflion of new ones for a
month or fix weeks on thefame plant ; and where the feveral
different {pecies are employed, they exhibit a conilant bloom
of near three months.
They are mottly of a fufficiently hardy nature to profper
in the epen ground in any dry foil ; and if they have a fhel-
tered fituation, it will be an advantage, as in open expofures
they are rather fubjeét to injury from very fevere trolts; for
which reafon a plant or two of each fort fhould be conftantly
potted, to have fhelter in winter in the green-houfe, or fome
ther fimilar place, where they are to be well protected in fe-
vere weather.
The fecond and fifth are the moft tender forts, and of
courfe demand more attention.
In fetting them out in fhrubbery borders and clumps, they
fhould be placed towards the fronts, in affemblage with other
choice fhrubs of fimilar growth. All the forts fhould be
fuffered to aflume their own natural growth, the ftrageling
branches being only cut in with a knife as there may be oc-
cafion.
CITADEL, or Cirraven, Fr. Citadelle, a diminutive
of the Itahan citfa, city, and denoting little city, in Forti-
Jfeation, a kind of fort, or {mall fortification, contifling of
four, five, or fix fides, with ba{tions, commonly joined to
towns, and fometimes ere€ted on commanding eminences
within them. It is diitinguifhed from a caftle by its having
battions.
When the inhabitants of any town or place in a country,
particularly if it be newly conquered, are difpofed to revolt,
citadels are built to overawe them, and prevent all attempts
_on their part to fhake off their dependence, as well as to
fecure the garrifon again{t any treachery, which they might
meditate, or enter into againtt them.
It frequently happens alfo, as in Italy, that when a town
is large and wealthy, has but few or no fortifications; and
when the fortifying of it regularly would be attended with
too great an expence, a citadel is built both to fecure it
againtt the attempts of an enemy, and to ferve as a place of
fafety for the effeéts of the inhabitants in time of danger.
As to the fituation of a citadel, if a town lies in a cleared
Vor. VIII.
Ae
and open country, it ought to be ecre&ed on the highcft
part of the ground, in order to overlook and command al!
the other parts, if poffible. If the town lies near a river or
lake, that is navigable, the citadel fhould be placed at the
entrance thereof, to prevent the approach of an enemy with
fhipping. And if the place is a fea-port, the citadel fhouid
be placed near the harbour, and in fuch a manner as to
command it throughout its whole extent, both for the pro-
tection of the fhipping in the fame, and for the fecurity ot
the town againft a bombardment.
Due attention fhould be paid in ere€ting a citadel to the
placing of ic in fuch a manner, that its works may look
along and {cour the principal ftreets of the town, in order to
fire on and difperfe the mob in cafe of any tumult, infur-
re€tion, or fedition, and alfo to prevent the approach of an
enemy that way, fhould the town be taken. An cpen
fpace, called an e/planade, feveral hundred yards broad,
fhould be left between the works of the citadel and thofe
of the town, for the purpofe of drawing up, muttering, and
exercifing the troops or garrifon on, and for preventing any
fecret or hidden approach, that might be carried on from
the town againit the citadel.
Citadels may be reCtangular, fquare, pentagonal, hexa-
gonal, or of any other figure. But the pentagonal is the
form moft commonly made ufe of. The hexagonal form is
generally confidered as too large for one, and as requiring too
great an expenditure for its utility, or the advantages to be
derived from it; whilft a work of the quadrangular, or
f{quare form, is regarded as too inconfiderable, and incapable
of making a fufficient defence. The citadels of Lifle,
Arras, Tournay, Amiens, are pentagons; thofe of Ment-
pellier, Bayonne, St. Martin de Ré, Havre de Grace, and
Cambray, are fquares; that of Perpignan is hexagonal ;
that of Metz is nearly rectangular; thofe of Belle Ifle and
Calais are quadrangular; that of Verdun is irregularly
heptagonal; that of Valenciennes is quite irregular. And
fometimes they are found in the form of a ftar-fort.
Sometimes a citadel is erected on a hill or eminence,
within the fortifications of a place. One fo fituated is
well calculated for keeping the inhabitants in awe, if its
garrifon be fufficiently provided with neceffaries for defend-
ing themfelves till reliéf can be fent tothem. But it is of
little ufe againft an enemy that once gets pofleflion of the
town itfelf.
The exterior fides of a citadel, when it is regular, are
generally each of them about 150 toifes, or fathoms. But
they may be more or lefs at pleafure, as occafion or the na-
ture of the ground requires.
The citadel fhould be fortified in a ftronger manner than
the town itfelf, to prevent the enemy’s attacking it firft,
and by means of it afterwards reducing the other. And
care fhould be taken to make the parts, where the citadel
joins the town, fufficiently {trong to prevent both of them
from: being attacked together.
There are, for the moft part, two gates to a citadel, the
one for a communication with the town, and the other with
the country. ‘The former ferves for the garrifon of the
place to retire into the citadel, in cafe of an infurre@tion or
fedition, or after the town has capitulated, and the latter for
receiving affiftance and fuccour, when either the town is
taken, or the citadel is blockaded by the inhabitants.
The citadel generally extends along, or takes up the two
fides of the fortification of the place that adjoin it, and
fhould be conftruéted in fuch a manner, that the ditch of
the place may be defended as direétly as poffible, either by
the faces of its baftions, or by thofe of its ravelins, and that
the enemy may have no advantage wherever they commence
Rr theis
Cif
their attacks; fo that if they attack the citadel in the firft
inftance, the attempt may occafion to them as much trouble
and lofs of time as their attacking of the town frit and the
citadel afterwards.
[ris but feldom that acitadel is joined to a town in fucha
naanner as to furnifh a direct defence for the ditch. This is
a material defect ; and, when it exilts, fhews that the citadel
is not properly joined to the works of the place. Among
others that might be mentioned, the citadels of Life,
Avras, Tournay, &c. are greatly deficient in this refped.
In addition to what has already been faid re{pecting
citadels, it may not be improper to obferve, that in an exten-
fively fortified place a citadel may be formed, by uniting
parts of its works themfelves, fuch as a couple of adjoining
baltions, by a good retrenchment with flanking defences.
Sack a one will be fufficient for keeping the inhabitants,
who may be difaffected to the government of the place, in
awe, and for preventing and fuppreffing infurreGtions. And
the expence of making it is very trifling, compared to that
of adding another fortification to that of the place. And
fuch additional works feldom add ftrength to the works of
a place in proportion to the expence of ere¢ting them.
CITADINESCA, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
fome writers to the Florentine marble, which is fuppofed
to reprefent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c. Thete sdeli-
neations are merely accidental, and are ufually much affilted
by the imagination, though the natural lines of a {tone
may fometimes luckily enough reprefent the ruins of fome
ancient building, or the courfe of a river. We have in
England a kind ofa {-ptaria, or ludus Helmontii, which has
fometimes delineations of this kind confiderably beautiful,
though very irregu’ar. The Florentine marble, as we fee
it wrought vp in the ornaments of cabinets, &c. owes a
great deal to the {ki!l of the workmen, who always pick out
the proper pieces from the mafs, and difpofe them in the
work fo as to make them reprefent what they pleafe.
CITAMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
placed by Ptolemy in Greater Armenia, near the Eu-
phrates.
CITERIUS, a mountain of Macedonia, according to
Prokmy. Strabo calls it Titarws, and fays that one of its
extremities touched Mount Olympus: :
CITATION, formed from cito, of cieo, I flir up, in
the Lcclefia/lical Court, a f{ummons to appear before an ec-
clefiattical judge, on fome affair relating to the church. —
In the civil and ordinary courts it is called /wmmoning.
The ecclefiatical courts proceed according to the courfe of
the civil and canon laws, by citation, libels, &c. A perfon
is not gencrally to be cited to appear out of the diocefe or pecu-
liar jurifdiGtipn in which he lives, unlefs it be by the archbifhop
in default of the ordinary ; where the ordinary is party to
the fuit, if cafes of appeal, &c. And by law a defendant
may be facd where he lives, though it be for fubtraéting
tythes in another diocefe, &c. 1 Nelf. 449, By the ftat.
23 Hen. VIII. c. 9. every archbifhop may cite any perfon
dwelling in any bifhop’s diocefe within his province for he=
refy, &c. if the bifhop or other ordinary confents; or if the
bifhop or ord:nary, or judge, omits to do his duty in punifh-
ing the offence. Where perfons are cited out of their dio-
cefe, and live out of the jurifdition of the bifhop, a pro-
hibition or confultation may be granted; but where perfongs
live in the diocefe, if when they are cited they do not ap-
ear, they are to be excommunicated, &c. The above fta-
ie was made to maintain the jurifdiction of inferior dio.
eefes, and if any perfon is cited out of the diocefe, &c,
where the civil or canon law doth not allow it, the party
aggrieved thall have double damages, If one defame ano-
Git
ther within the peculiar of the archbifhop he may be punifh-
ed there; although he dwell in any remote place ont of the
archbifhop’s peculiar. Godb. 190.
Cirarion is alfo ufed in {peaking of military and monaftie
as well as ecclefiaftical courts. Such a heretic was cited to
Rome, toa general council, “&e. {
Knights are cited to the g:neral chapters of their order.
King Edward I. of England was cited by order of Philip
IV. of France, to a court of his p-ers; the citation was
publifhed by the feigneur d’Arvablay, fenefchal of Perigerd
and Querci; and was pafted up by his order, on the
gates of the city of Libourne, which then belong-
ed to king Edward. And for default in nat appearing, all
his domains and effeéts in France were conficated.
Cirarion is alfo an allegation or quotation of fome law,
authority, or paffage.
CITELLUS, or Ciritius, in Zoslozy, the name of a
{mall quadruped of the marmot tribe, the ardoniys citillus oF
Schreber and Gmelin, and mus citi//us of Vailas. Cuitillus is
the old name under which Ray and Gefner deferibe this little
animal; Buffon calls it /e zizel and fe fouflik; Gildenftadt,
mus fuflica ; and Pennant, the ca/an or earle/s marmot.
The earlefs marmot, as its trivial appellation implies, is
{pecifically diftinguithed from the reft of the ardomys genus
by being deftitute of ears. the tail is villous, and body va-
riegated. The prevailing colour is brown {potted, or other-
wife diverfitied with white ; the under parts white, inclining
to yellowifh, the tail is of a brown colour above and ferru-
ginous beneath. The length is about ten inches and a half
including the tail, the body aaly, from the tip of the nofe
to the bafe of the tail, mzafuiingz fix inches. According ta
Pallas this an'mal varies, however, conliderably in fize as well
as colour, for he aflures us there are fome varieties {carcely
larger than the common water-rat, while others are nearly
equal in fize to the alpine marmot. The earlefs marmot ig
an inhabitant of feveral paris of Europe, being found in
Bohemia, Auttria, and Hungary, the fonthern part of
Roffia, from the banks of the Volga to India and Perfia;
through Siberia and Great Tartary to Kamtfchatka; it oc-
curs alfo in China and America.
The writings of Pallas afford us an interefting hiflory of
the manners of this little animal. He obferves that it de-
lights in dry hilly places, where the herbage is of fhort
growth, although it is fometimes found in woods; they
form fubterraneous burrows in which they depofit their win-
ter food, which conliits chiefly of grain, roots, or nuts, for
they do not appear to fleep during the winter feafon like fome
others of this genus. They breed in the {pring, and pro-
duce from five to eight at a litter; they are fometimes
feen in confiderable numbers bafking in the fun-fhine near
the entrances cf their burrows, and when diiturbed utter
the fame kind of fhrill whittle as the common marmot. In
a ftate of nature they are quarrelfome and ferocious among
themfelves, though they may be more readily tamed than
moft other animals. Vegetables are their principal food, but
they alfo prey on {mall birds and animals. ‘They are of an
extremely cleanly difpofition, and after feeding wath their
faces and lick their fur after the manner of cats. Like
other domefticated animals, they are fond of being carefled
and feed readily from the hand; their fleep, according to
Pallas, is extremely profound ; it commences early in the
evening and continues during the whole night, and even
during great part of the day, when the weather happens to
be cold or rainy.
Gmelin expreffes fome doubts whether this may not be
the mus panticus of Ariltotle and Pliny. Some other late
writers conceive that the zize/and the /u/lic of Buffon are
2 diftingt-
Gut
diftin&, and that of confequence the- hiftory of two
different animals has been erroneoufly confounded by thofe
who Cconfider them as varieties only of a fingle {pecies.
CITERTA, {mall figures which were made to {peak like
our puppets, and which were carried before a Roman gene-
ral on the day of his triumph. Thefe puppets uttered
every kind of ludicrous words to excite the laughter of the
people at the expence of the captives.
CITHAERON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Greece in Beeotia, near the city of Thebes. Pliny and
Mela fay that it was confecrated to the Mufes; and Plu-
tarch fays, that it was called ‘ Arterius,’? before it was
named Citheron.
CITHARA, in Ancient Mufic, a fringed inftrument, of
the harp or lute kind. he idea of producing found from
a ftring, afcribed to Apollo, was, according to Cenforinus,
De Die Nat. cap. 22. fuggefted to him by the twang of his
fitter Diana’s bow. ‘¥aAany is ftri@ly to twang a ftring, and
¥aryos the found which the bow-ftring produces at the
emiffion of the arrow. Euripides in Bacch. v. 782, ufes it
in that fenfe,
roswy xEek
FarrAuos vevexse
Who twang the nerve of each elaftic bow.
Father Montfaucon fays it is very difficult to determine in
what the lyre, cithara, chelys, pfaltery, and harp, differed
from each other ; as he had examined the reprefentations of
600 lyres and citharas in ancient fculpture, all which he
found without a neck, and the ftrings open as in the modern
harp, played by the fingers. Antiq. Expl. tom. iii. lib. 5.
cap. 3. But though ancient and modern authors ufually
confound thefeinftruments, yet a manifeft diftinction is made
by Arift. Quintil. in the following paflage, p. 101. After
difcnffing the charaters of wind-inflruments, he fays,
« Among the ftringed inftruments, you will find the lyre
of a charaGter analogous to mafculine, from the great depth or
gravity, and roughnefs of its tones; the /ambuca of a femi-
nine character, weak and delicate, and from its great acutene/s,
and the fmallnefs of its frings, tending to difolve and ener-
vate. Of the intermediate inftruments, the po/ypthongam
aed mott of the feminine; but the cithara differs not much
rom the majfculine charader of the lyre.’ Here is a {cale of
ftringed inftruments ; the /yre and /ambuca at the extremes:
the polypthongum and cithara between; the one next to the
Sambuca, the other next to the 4yre. He afterwards juft men-
tions that there were others between thefe. Now it is natu-
ral to infer, that as he conftantly attributes the manly cha-
racter to gravity of tone, thecithara was probably the more
acute inftrument of the two; lefs loud and roxgh, and ftrung
with f{maller ftrings. Concerning what ditference there
might be in the form and ftructure of the inftruments, he is
wholly filent. The paflage, however, is curious as far as it
goes, and decifive. ‘The cithara may perhaps have been as
different from the lyre, as a fingle harp from one that is
double ; and it feems to be clearly pointed out by this mul-
tiplicity of names that the Greeks had ¢zvo principal {pecies
of ftringed inftruments: one, like our harp, of full,com-
pafs, that refted on its bafe ;.the other more portable, and
flung over the fhoulder, like our {maller harp or guitar, or
like the ancient lyres reprefented in fculpture.
Tacitus, Annal. xvi. 4. among the rules of decorum ob-
ferved by public performers, to which Nero, he fays, ftrictly
fubmitted, mentions, * That he was not to fit down when
tired.’ Ne feffus refideret. It is remarkable that he calls
thefe rules, cithare leges, “the laws of the citharaj’? which
Git
feems to afford a pretty fair proof of its being of fuch a fize
and form as to admit of being played on landing.
The ufe of the phorminx in Homer leads rather to the
rough, manly, harp-like character. But a paflage in Or-
pheus (Argon 381.) feems to make phorminx the fame as
chelys, the lutiform inflrument of Mercury. It is there faid
of Chiron, that he ‘* fometimes ftrikes the cithara of Apollo;
fometimes the fhell-refounding phorminx of Mercury,””
» 2
AdAarots 0 av Poise xiQoreny PETC YECTW UEUTT UV,
TAvyveny Cogyeryym xzAuxAovoy Eguauyvos.
This paflage is curious; for though the Argonautics were
not written by Orpheus himfelf, they have all the appear-
ance of great antiquity.
The belly of a theorbo, or arch-lute, is ufually made in
the fheli-form, as if the idea of its origin had never been lofi ;
and the etymology of the word guitar feems naturally de-
ducible from cithara ; it is f{uppofed that the Roman C was
hard, like the modern K, and the Italian word chitarra 1s
manifettly derived from xi9xex, cithara.
In the hymn to Mercury, afcribed to Homer, Mercury
and Apollo are faid to play with the cithara uader their arms,
ver. 507. 60 UroAenoy xibeprCev, fub ulna Cithara ludebat,
‘ played with the Cithara wader his arm.” So in ver. 432.
irwrcuav, at his arm, fhould, according to the critics, be
Urwrenov, asit is afterwards. ‘This feems to point outa
guitar more than a harp; but the ancients had lyres, citharas.
and teftudos of as different fhapes from each other, as our
harp, f{pinet, virginal, and pizno-forte.
Thefe paffages in old authors are a kind of antique draw-
ings, far more fatisfaCtory than thofe of ancient fculpture 5
for we have feen the fyrinx, which had a regular feries of
notes afcending or defcending, reprefented with feven pipes,
four of one length, and three of another, which of courfe
would furnifh no more than two different founds. The
cymbals too, which were to be ftruck againft each other,
are placed in the hands of fome antique figures in fuch a
manner, that it is impoffible to bring them in contaét with
the neceffary degree of force, without amputating, or at lea{t
violently bruifing the thumbs of the performer. And it is
certain that artifts continue to figure inftruments in the molt
fimpl!e and coavenient form for their defigns, long after they
had been enlarged, improved, and reudered more compii-
cated. An inltance of this in our own country will confirm
the affertion. In the reign of George the Second a marble
flatue was ereéted to Handel, in Vauxhall gardens. The
mufician is reprefented playing upon a lyre. Now if this
ftatue fhould be preferved from the ravages of time and acci-
dent 12 or 1400 years, the antiquarians will naturally con-
clude that the inftrument upon which Handel acquired his
reputation was the lyre; though we are at prefent certain
that he never played on, or even faw a lyre, except in wood
or {tone.
In one of the ancient paintings at Portici, we faw a lyre
with a pipe or flute for the crots-bar, or bridge, at the top ;
whether this tube was uled as a wind in{trument to accom-
pany the lyre, or only a pitch-pipe, we know not; nor, within
the courfe of our inquires, has any example of fuch a junc-
tion occurred elfewhere.
CITHARZDIST, a performer on the cithara or lute.
CITHAREXYLUM, in Botany, (from x8epx, a harp,
and £vdcv, wood) fiddle-wood. Fr. Guittaren, or Bois de
Guittarre, Cotelet, Enc. Linn. gen. 760. Schreb. rorg.
Willd. 1158. Gert. 339. Jufl. 108. - Vent. vol. i. 320.
Lam. Ill. Pl. 545. Clals end omer, didynamia angio/per-
Rr2 mia,
Git
mia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate; Linn.
nacea, Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, campanulate, fhort,
toothed or truncated, permanent. Cor. one-petalled, fun-
nel-fhaped; tube longer than the calyx; border wheel-
fhaped, five-cleft ; fegments oblong, villous on the upper
furface, almoft equal. Stam. Filaments four in molt fpecies,
with the rudiment of a fifth from the middle of the tube,
fhorter than the tube, two of them fomewhat longer than
the others; anthers oblong, didymous, ere@t. Pi/?. Germ
f{uperior, roundifh ; ftyle filiform, the length of the ttamens ;
ftigma with an obtufe head. Peric. Drupe roundifh, flight-
ly compreffed, one-celled, containing two nuts, each nut
two-celled, egg-fhaped, hard. plano-convex, with an obfo-
Jete furrow on the back. Seeds, one in each cell of the nut,
but in one of the cells fometimes abortive.
Eff. Ch. Calyx toothed or truncate. Corolla funnel-
wheel-fhaped ; fegments villous above, nearly equal. Drupe
with two nuts; nuts two-celled.
Sp.1.C. cinereum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1. Willd.
1. Brown. Jam. 264. Pluk. Alm. tab. 162. fig. 1. (C. teres,
Jacq. Amer. tab. 118. Pict. tab. £78. Jafminum arboref-
cens racemofum foliis lauri, Plum. MSS. Burm. Amer. tab.
157. fig. 2.) ‘* Branches cylindrical; calyxes toothed,”
Linn. ‘¢ Branches cylindrical; leaves oblong, acuminate,
quite entire; racemes pendulous; calyxes toothed.” A
tree from fifteen to twenty feet high, not more than a foot
in diameter, with a handfome branched head. Branches
cinereous, {mooth. Leaves commonly oppofite, oblong-oval,
acuminate at both ends, entire, bright green, and flining on
the upper furface, a little veined underneath, with a few
hairs on the axils of the nerves; petioles yellowifh, with
two or three concave mellifluous glands near their infer-
tion juto the leaf.. Flowers white, numerous, f{mall, fweet-
{cented, on fhort peduncles, racemed ; racemes from feyen
to nine inches long, quite fimple, terminal, pendulous, fol1-
tary, or accompanied by two or three fmaller ones at the
bafe ; corollas bearded at the mouth. uit roundifh, fuc-
culent, fhining, foft, firft green, then red, finally black.
Jacq. and La Marck. According to the latter, the branches
in the plants cultivated at Paris are not cylindrical, as Lin-
neus defcribes them, but truly tetragonal. A native of
Jamaica, where it is called Old woman’s bitter ; and of
Martinico and St. Domingo, where it is called by the
French Bois Cotelet. 2. C. quadrangulare, Mur. Sy. 564.
Jac. Amer. 186. Hort. tab. 22. (C. cinereum 6 Lam.)
{t appears to be only a variety of the laft fpecies, as La
Marck confiders it, differing chiefly in having the berries
ved, or lefs black when ripe. The branches are round,
but made apparently quadrangular, by having four ribs
running down them. 3. C. caudatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2.
Mart. 2. Lam. 2. Willd. 2.? Brown. Jam. 265. tab. 28.
fig. 2. Swartz. Prod. 234. Branches cylindrical ; calyxes
truncate,” Linn. A fhrub tenor twelve feet high. Leaves
inverfely egg-fhaped, lefs acuminate than thofe of C. cine-
reus. Racemesterminal. Fruit {mall. A native of Jamaica.
Willdenow gives the caudatum of Swartz, as a fynonym of
auadrangulare ; but as Swartz’s plant has truncate calyxes,
we apprehend there can be no doubt of its being the cau-
datum of Linneus, and the plant defcribed by Browne,
which is exprefsly flated to have truncated calyxes. The C.
ere&tum of Swartz, Prod. g1. Jacq. Ic. Rar, 3. tab. sor.
quoted by Willdenow as a fynonym of caudatum, appears
to usa diltin& fpecies, with toothed calyxes. 4. C. villofum,
Mart. 4. Willd. 3. Jacq. lc. Rar. tab. 118. Colleét. 1. p.
72. Hort. Kew. 2. 349. “ Branches tetragonal ; leaves
verfely egg-fhaped, pubefcent underneath, fomewhat
Vitices, Ju. Pyre
Gut
toothed at the tip; racemes nodding.” A {mall tree,
about ten feet high. Truné and older branches round and
cinereous; younger branches quadrangular and green;
young fhoots villous. eaves three inches long, oppofite,
on fhort petioles, acute, firm, fomewhat rugged on the up-
per furface, extremely foft and villous on the under, with
an oblong deep-green glandular hole on each fide of the
petiole at the top. Flowers white, numerous, on fhort
peduncles, villous all ever, fweet-feented ; racemes half a
foot long, terminal, pendulous; calyx truncate; according
to Willdenow, obfoletely toothed, fo as to be almolt trun-
cate ; but in this as well as in his fpecific character of C.
caudatum, he feems biafled by a refolution to have a’ five-
toothed calyx part of the eflential charaéter of the genus.
A native of St. Domingo. 5. C. /ub/erratum, Willd. 4.
Swartz Ind. Occ. 2, p. 1043. Prod. gt. ‘* Branches te-
tragonous; leaves oblong, rigid, tran{parent at the tip,
fomewhat ferrated ; racemes rather erect, calyxes toothed.”
Leaves veined. Racemes tefminal, panicled. A native of
Hifpaniola. 6. C. melanocardium, Mart. 5. Willd. 6. Swartz.
Prod. gt. Flor. Ind. Occ. 2. p. 1046. Brown. Jam. 265.
(C. paniculatum, Gert.tab. 56.) ‘* Branches tetragonous ;
flowers panicled, tetrandrous; leaves fomewhat wrinkled,
veined underneath, a little feabrous.”? A tree forty or
fifty feet high, producing hard excellent timber ; bark thick,
whitifh, winding, hke the fibres of the wood, in a loofe
{piral form. Leaves ratherlong, flightly ferrated. FVoevers
in terminal panicled racemes, tetrandrous, and, as we prefumes
without the rudiment of a fifth ftamen. Drupes {mall, yei-
low, egg-fhaped, black, fmooth. Sveds oblong, a little
quadrangular, reddifh. A native of Jamaica.
Propagation and Culture. The fecond and fourth {pecies
are cultivated in England ; and as they do not produce feeds
in this climate, they are chiefly propagated by cuttings 5
but when feeds can be procured from the Well Indies, the
plants which proceed from them are much better. They
require the fame kind of treatment as other tropical plants.
CITHARISTA, Cerreste, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, at fome diitance from the fea,
in the fame gulf with “ Tauroentum,” about 4 of a mile
from each other. Veltiges of edifices ereted by the Romans
are full vifible.
Ciruyarista Portus, a harbour of Gallia Narbonnenfis,
now called the port of * Ceirefte.?
»CITHAKISTES Promontorium, Cape Lician, a pro=
montory belonging to Gaul, between Tauroentum and
Obbia.
CITHARISTIC, in Ancient Mufic, mufic and poetry
fitted to the accompaniment of the cithara.
CITHARIZUM, in Ancient Geography, a fortrefs of
Afia, in Attianena, a country of Greater Armenia.
CITHAROEDUS, in Antiquity, the fame with citha=
rifta. he citharoedi had the preference of all other mu-
ficians, from whom they were diftinguifhed by an embroi-
dered cloak, which was peculiar to them.
CITHENI Juca, in Ancient Geography, a name given by.
Pliry to mountains of Afia, which he places in Parthia, near
the country called Choara.
CITHIBEB, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Morocco, and province of T'edla.
CITHRUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in.
Theffaly.
CITILLUS. See Citrevuus.
CITIUM, Currt, in Ancient Geography, a town on the
fouthern coaft of the ifland of Cyprus, near the river Tetius,
N.E. of Amathus. Jofephus fays, that this city was built
by Cittim, the fon of Javan, and from him was called Citium, —
or,
Co GS
or, as Pliny has it, Cetium. Tt waa the birth-place of Zeno
the Stoic; and the place where Cimon the Athenian died,
after having reduced great part of the ifland. Citium was
epifcopal.—Alfo, the name of an ancient town of Mace-
donia.
CITIUS, a name given by Livy to a mountain of Greece,
which was fituated towards A&tolia.
CITIZEN, or Cittizen, a native or inhabitant of a
city, velted with the freedom and rights thereof.
The word comes from civis, which authors derive from
ceo, becavte the citizens live together; or rather from cieo, £
call together.
Augultus, upon numbering the Roman citizens, found
they amounted to upwards of four millions.
To make a good Roman citizen, there were three things
required : chat he was an inhabitant of Rome; that he were
inrolled in one of the thirty-five tribes; and that he were
capable of dignities. ‘Thofe flrangers to whom were grant-
ed the rights and privileges of Roman citizens, were pro-
perly only honorary citizens. By the Porcian law it was
ordained, that no citizen of Rome fhould be put to death.
It was alfo a privilege of the utmoft confequence to a Ro-
man citizen, to have none but the people for his judges.
Were it not for this, he would have been fubjeét in the pro-
vinces. to the arbitrary power of a proconful, or of a pro-
pretor.
The feventh law, de incolis, makesa great deal of differ-
ence between a citizen and a mere inhabitant. Birth alone
made a citizen, and intitled to all the privileges of burgefles;
time could not acquire it, but the emperor could beftow it ;
and it was often given to men and cities as a reward of
fome fpecial merit or fervices. It isnot improbable that the
citizenthip of St. Paul, mentioned inthe book of Ads (ch.
%x1. 37.39), was of this kind, fome of his anceftors having
obtained it for fervices they had done to the Roman
commonwealth in the wars. (See Grotius ad Aéts xxii, 28.)
This privilege was alfo ought, and that at a very great price,
as Dio Caflius informs us (1. Ix.). ** The Romans,’’ he
fays, “‘ having the preference above ftrangers, there were
many who begged the citizenthip of the emperor, and others
who bought it of Meffalina, or the freed-men. By which
means this privilege, which had been formerly bought at a
great price, became fo cheap, that many people would fay,
aman might be made a Roman citizen for a few pieces of
broken glafs,” UAW TXEUH TUVTET PLL ELEN
The Romans were anciently fo particularly careful to pre-
ferve even their common citizens from any mixture of fervile
blood, that they prohibited all marriages between them and
freed flaves, or their children. And it was decreed, as a
fpecial privilege and reward toone Hifpala, of libertine condi-
tion, for her difcovery of the impieties of the Bacchanalian
mytteries, that a citizen might take her to wife without any
difgrace and diminution of his rights. Thefe diftin&ions,
indeed, began to be difregarded towards the end of the re-
public, with refpe€t to the drdinary citizens, but were kept
up tothe laft with regard tothe fenate. See SenaTor.
In order to have a right to the title of citizen by birth at
Athens, it was fufficient to be born of a father and mother
who were both citizens; but the child of an Athenian, who
married a foreign woman, was entitled only to the condition
of his mother. This law was made by Pericles, and he exe-
cuted it with fo much rigour, that nearly 5000 perfons, ex-
cluded from the rank of citizens, were publicly fold by auc-
tion. At firft, when it wasneceffary to encourage the popu-
lation of Attica, the title of citizen was beftowed on every
perfon who came to fettle in that country. When that ne-
ceffity ceafed, Solon granted it only to thofe who fhould bring
CrirT
with them their families, or to perfons who, exiled for ever
from their country, came thither in fearch of a fecure afylum.
At length it was permitted to thofe who fhould render fer-
vices to the ftate. This honour was ardently fought even by
fovereigns, as long as the Athenians rigoroufly obferved the
laws to prevent its being too eafily obtained ; afterwards it
was held in lefs eftimation. According to Ariftotle, the
privilege of-citizen ought to be granted only to him, who,
free from every other care, dedicates himfelf entirely to the
fervice of his country; and hence it would follow, that the
name of citizen is imperfectly applicable to children and de-
crepit old men, and cannot appertain to artifans, labourers,
and freedmen. Among the advantages which eltablifh or
deftroy the equal:ty of citizens, Ariftotle mentions three
which merit fome confideration ; liberty, virtue, and riches.
{In all governments, he fays, individual citizens are and ought
to be in fubjection; and liberty, he adds, does not confift in
doing whatever we pleafe, as is maintained in certain demo-
cracies, but in only doing what is enjoined by the laws, which
fecure the independence of each individual ; and iz this point
of view all the citizens may enjoy equal liberty. As our
citizens, he fays, participate in the fovereign authority, they
fhould be all equally interefted to maintain it, and deeply
imbibe the fame love for their country ; and they will ke
more or lefs free, in proportion as they are more or lefs vir-
tuous. With refpect to riches, he obferves, that ancient
legiflators judged it neceflary, in the commencement of a re-
formation, <o divide property equally among all the citizens ;
but he maintains that a difference in riches may have place
among citizens ; but as. this difference can occafion none in
the diftribution of employments and honours, it will not de-
ftroy that equality which ought to fubfift among them.
They fhall be equal, becaufe they fhall only be fubject to the
laws: and they fhall be all equally occupied in the glorious
employment of contributing to the tranquillity and happi-
nefs of their country.. Arilt, de Republ. lib. 2
Citizens in Parliament. See Burcessss.
Citizens of London. See Lonvon.
CITOIS, Cirestus, Francis, in Biography, a learned
and ingenious phyfician of Poitiers in France. He ftudied
medicine at Montpellier, where he took his degree of doc-
tor in 1596; after practifing a few years in his native city
he went to Paris, and was {oon placed at the head of the
profeffion, being in high repute with cardinal Richlieu, and
made his phyfician. He diftinguifhed himfelf, among other
things, for his treatment of the Colica Pi€tonum, on which
he wrote a treatife, containing a portion of praéical know-
ledge, much {uperior to the ufual productions of that age.
«¢ De Novo, apud Piétones, Dolore Colico Bihofo,?? 1616,
Svo. It pafled through feveral editions. He thought the
difeafe either apprared for the firlt time in the year 15'72,
or was attended with fymptoms not noticed before; parti-
cularly with paralyfis of the extremities. He wrote an ac-
count of a girl, twelve years of age, who, after a fit of
ficknefs, by which fhe had been much reduced, loft the in-
clination and the power of. taking fuftenance of any kind ;
fhe had lived in this ftate three years, when Citois publifhed,
his.account. As the ftory was incredible, it was not with-
out opporents, which produced from Citois, ‘* Abftinentia
Puellz Confolantanee ab [fraelis Harveti Confutatione Vin-
dicata,”” 1602, 8vo. It was the next year tranflated into
Englifh, and publifhed in London. Citois, to fhew his perfec
belief of the fact, added to this edition ftories of long ab-
ftinence both in men and beafts. It appeared however to
have been a fraud, for the girl being removed from the care
of her mother, took milk, and afterwards broths and then
folid aliments. ‘* De tempeftivo Phlebotomiz ac Purga-
tionis
23245 Se
ciT
tionis ufu, adverfus Homophobos, in colletione Opufcu-
lorum,”’ Paris, 1639, 4to. He defends the ufe of bleeding
in the imall-pox, meafles, and in fevers of an inammatory
type; he ordered the operation to be.repeated fix or feven
times. He died at Poitiers, to which place he had retired
in 1652, being So years of age. Haller, Bib. Eloy. Dict.
Hit.
CITOLE, an old mufical inftrument, mentioned by
Gower, fuppofed to be derived from ciffel/a, a {mall cheft,
probably a kind of dulcimer.
CITOW, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Schlan; 10 miles S.E. of Raudnitz.
CITRARO, a town of Naples, in the province of Ca-
Jabria Citra, near the coaft of the Tufcan fea; 18 miles
W.of B:igrano.
CITREZ Mensa, called thyina by the Greeks, in
“Antiquity, tables made of the wood of the citrum-tree, very
beautiful, and greatly efteemed by the ancient Romans.
See Cirrum.
CITRIC Acip, Acid of Lemons, Zitronenfaure, Germ.
Lemon juice is one of the foureft and moft agreeable of ail
the vegetable acids. It is procured fimply by {queezing the
fruit and {training the juice through linen or any loofe fil-
ter. This juice forms a confiderable article of commerce
in Sicily, Italy, Majorca, and other parts of the Mcciter-
rantan. It is obtained by pecling the fruit, flicing it, and
putting it in a ftrong prefs with a cloth or hair ftrainer.
‘The juice, which comes out very turbid, is then placed for a
day in acool cellar and then itrained into jars with very
narrow necks, which are then well cemented up. A little
oil is often previoufly poured on the juice to keep it more
completely from the air. Thefe preifes are fometimes fo
large as to f{queeze fix thoufand lemons at once.
Lemon juice is a fluid of about the fpecific gravity of
1.034, and therefore heavier than water, compofed chiefly
of water, which holds in folution vegetable mucilage, ex-
tractive matter pofleffcd of fome aflringency, a little malic
acid, and laflly that peculiar acid which, from its being con-
tained more copiovfly in this fruit than in any other, is
called the citric acid. ‘The proportion of thefe ingredients
of courfe mutt vary as in all native vegetable juices, but on
an average (according to profeffor Proult), 576 grains of
the frefh juice lofe by evaporation 528 grains, which is
the watery part; of the remaining 48 grains about 30 are
the pure citric acid, and the reft is malic acid, mucilage,
and extra&. It is to the prefence of thefe two latter in-
gredients that we may attribute the change that takes place
in the juice by keeping, by which it becomes mouldy,
undergoes an imperfect fermentation, and, at lait, totally lofes
its acidity, and acquires a flat mufty tafte.
To prevent this deftrn€ion of the acid, for which
alone lemon juice is valuable, many methods of preferving
the juice have been devifed, all of which anfwer to a cer-
tain degree, but none of them completely ; and the only
way of keeping the acid for a great length of time is firit
to extra& it from the juice in the way which will be pre-
{ently defcribed, and to bring it to a folid ftate of cryttal-
lization.
Lemon juice is clarified partly by remaining perfectly at
reft in a cold cellar for a day or two. Mauch oi the mu-
cilage then fubtides, together with any accidental mixture
of the pulp of the fruit, and the juice poured off clear,
bottled, and carefully corked, will then keep for a confi-
Gerable time. It keeps better if boiled brifkly for a minute
or two before it is fet by to clarify, but this fomewhat im-
airs the flavour, and gives another which is lefs agreeable.
n the Mediterranean countries the juice is covered with oil,
Cit
which, by preventing the action of the air, affifts in pre-
ferving it; but after a while the juice beneath becomes
bitter, mouldy, and turbid, and befides acquires from the
oil a rank flavour.
Concentration of the juice by freezing is another method
which is fometimes ufed with corfiderable fuccefs. If the
mucilage is firft feparated as much as poffible by ftanding in
a cool place for a day or two, and the clear juice is then ex-
pofed to a-cold of from 23° to 26° Fahr.; the watery part
alone freezes, and the remaining unfrozen Hquor of courfe
contains the acid in a proeportionably condenfed ftate. By
continuing to remove the ice as it forms as long as it remains
taftelefs, when the adhering liquor is wafhed off, lemon-juice
may be concentrated to about one eighth of its original
bulk, and is then clear, intenfely four, and will keep for
fome years unaltered in a cool climate. Still, however,
much extract and fome mucilage remain in it, and therefore
in tropicel climates even this concentrated juice fpoils in no
very preat length of time. Befides, rhe procefsitieif is only
adapted for the winter feafon, and ia hot climates the juice
would generally be ipoiled before a fufficient cold for this
purpofe would occur.
Another mode of preferving this juice, often adopted, is,
to make certain additions to it, which leffer the tendency to
fermentation. Foriler found, during Cook’s voyage to the
fouth pole, that the juice, mixed with a fifth part of brandy
or rum, and put in very well-clofed cafks, kept good for
thirty-two months. Bragnatelli propofes to clarify the
frefh juice by alcohol. Freth lemon juice was mixed with
fome itrong alcohol and bottled ; in a few days a flimy mu-
cilage had fubfided, and the liquor after filtration contained
the purer juice and the alcohol. This laft may be recovered
by diftillation. But it is obvious that this is only a very
imperfc& clarification, fince this hquor, on evaporation to
drynefs, yields only a four gummy extra, and no cryftal-
lized acid. Some perfons are in the habit of adding ful-
phuric, or fome other nuneral acid to the juice, partly to pre-
ferve and partly to adulterate it. This does, mdeed, pre=
ferve the juice for a confiderable time; but unlefs the pure
chafer can depend on the quantity of addition made, he
might be expofed to ferious lofs and inconvenience, particu=
larly when the juice is ufed in calico-printing, as will be pre-
fently mentioned, along with the method of diflcovering
fuch adulteration.
A further method of preferving the juice, which is cer-
tainly the beft for hot climates, and can often be performed
in the large way at a moderate expence, is, by evaporating
it confiderably, and thus concentrating the acid in a {maller
compafs. The citric acid is lefs volatile than water, and
indeed eannot be made to rife at all in diftillation, ike vinegar,
without fuffering confiderable decompofition, and an atual
and great lofs of theacid. Hence when the freth juice, pre-
vioufly clarified by reft, is expofed to a gentle heat, never
exceeding the boiling point of water, mott of the mere wa-
ter which it contains flies off, and the juice may fafely be
infpiffated to the confiftence of thick fyrup, without much
lois of the acid, care being taken to avoid burning it. It
is then intenfely four, and will keep in bottles for many
years without alteration, and even retaining much of its
original flavour. ‘This infprflated juice, or rob of lemons, as
it is called, if intended for the table, may be immediately
roixed with dry white fugar, which 1s one of the beit pre-
{ervers from corruption, and it will then keep in clofed bot-
tles for any length of time unimpaired, and forms an excel-
leat and extemporaneous lemonade, by the addition fimply
of water, which is a very valuable ftore for fea-voyages.
In very hot countries this inpiflation may be begun and
carried
CHYBRI
carried on to a confiderable degree by the mere heat of the
un.
But the pure cifric acid cannot be obtained by any fimple
in{piffation, for its adhefion to the mucilage or extract of the
juice ts fo ftrong, that, however well it be previoufly clarified,
the actd will never ery{tallize by mere evaporation, but only
feparates in a four gummy mafs when all the water is diffi-
pated. To procure the pure eryltallized acid, a double pro-
cefs of chemical affinity is required; firft, to add fome earthy
fubftance with whichthe acidalone unites, and forms an infolu-
ble falt, to the exclufion of the extra& or mucilage; and next,
to difplace this acid from the earthy falt by means of another
acid of ftronger affinity to the earth than the citric, and
then this latter acid may be obtained pure by due evapora-
tion of the fupernatant liquor, ard cryftallizing. This very
ingenious procefs was difcovered by Scheele, and has been
fince followed, with flight variations, by every fucceeding
chemi. The earth which this admirable chemilt employed
was lime, in the form of cha!k, the fame that he had before
wfed in the preparation of the concrete acid of tartar.
The procefs given by Scheele is, in a few words, the fol-
lowing : Saturate boiling lemon juice with chalk in powder
added gradually, till all eff-rv. fcence ceafes. A grey info-
luble mafs fettles to the bottom, compofed of the citric acid
united with the lime, leaving the mucilage and other ingre-
dients of the lemon juice in the fupernatant liquor, which
may be thrown away, nd the citrat of lime is to be well
wafhed with co/d water till the latter comes away colourlefs.
Then, add to the prccipi:at: a qua:ti'y of fulphuric acid,
equal to the weight of cnak employe’, but previoufly di-
luted with about ten parts of water, boil the whole fora
few minutes, and a change of compofition takes place, the
fulphuric acid engaging the lime, and the citric acid pafing
into the fupernatant liquer. Strain off the latter, and eva-
porate it flowly to the confiftence of a thick fyrup, and by
ftanding for fome days, molt of the citric acid will feparate
in large cryftals. A {mall excefs of fulphuric acid is requi-
fite to enable the citric acid to cryfallize, which ctherwile
would only concrete into a gelatinous mafs.
Such is the procefs of this excellent chemilt, to which he
adds feveral valuable ob{fervations, which will prefently be
mentioned; but as the preparation of this acid is now be-
come of confiderable importance, it will be proper to com-
pare the feveral procziles and improvements propofed by
other chemitts, particularly by Dizé (fee ‘ Journal des
Phyfique,’’); by Weltrumb (fee Leonhardt in Macquer
Worterbuch, art. Citronenfaure) ; by profeffor Prout (fee
Journ. de Phyf.); by Kichter (Gren’s Handbuch), and
others.
In preparing the citric acid in the great way, M. Dizé
gives the following particulars: After the citrat of lime has
been decompofed by the fulphuric acid, cold water, affilted
by ftirring, 1s fufficient to wafh out all the citric acid adher-
ing to the fulphat of lime, which fhould therefore be em-
ployed, and thefe wathings added to the filtered liquor.
Much fulphat of lime, however, remains in the clear liquor,
which, in faét, is a mixture of citric acid, fulphuric acid,
and fuiphat of lime, and is of a clear light yellow. It may
be evaporated at a boiling heat, and as the bulk of fluid lef-
Lemon Juices Chalk. Citrat of Lime.
roo lbs. require 4.25lbs. which 7.51 Ibs,
tor 4.65 produce 8.0
—— faturation 6.25 20.0
Cry tal. Citric A.
6.25 . C20 + 9-375
C yA HD.
fens, the fulphat of lime falls down, fo that it fs of ufe to
fufpend the evaporation on¢e or twice for fome hours, to give
time for the fulphat of lime to feparate, which fhould be re-
moved. "lowards the end of the evaporation the liquor be-
comes blackifh, owing to the fulphuric acid remaining init,
becoming fo concentrated as to a& partly on the acid itlelf,
and partly, as this chemilt {uppofes, ona portion of the ori-
ginal extraétive matter which accompanies the citric acid,
In its combination with lime, and feparation from it, and
which appears to be the caufe of the difficulty found in
getting the whole of the acid to cryftailize. This acid is fo
very foluble that the evaporation mutt be pufhed to a very
thick {yrupy confiftence before it will cryftallize. The eryf-
tals are at firlt black and dirty ; by a fecond folution in cold
water, of which a {mall quantity will fuffice, filtration, and
evaporation, the cryftals are obtained yellow and more re-
gular; but a third operation of the kind feems neceffary to
bring them’ to be perfeCtly tranfparent and colourlefs. As
there is much watte in thefe operations, all the wafhings and
fouled parts fhould be referved for fubfequent purisica-
tion,
Scheele remarked, (and other chemifls have found the
fame,) that an excefs of fulphuric acid, beyond what the
lime requires for faturation, is neceflary in this procefs. M.
Dizé fuppofes the peculiar ufe of this excefs of acid to be
that of deftroying the {mall portion of extraCtive matter
that remains in the calcareous compound ; the exiftence of
which he endeavours to prove, by the proportions of in-
gredients required, compared with their products. He found
roolbs. of lemon juice to require for faturation 6.25 lbs.
of chall, and to produce as much a3 20 lbs. of citrat of lime.
On the other hand, he found the cryftallized citric acid
to require its own weight of chalk for faturation, and to
produce a quantity of citrat of lime equal to three-fourths
of the weight of the two ingredients, the lofs being chiefly
carbonic acid. Hence he concludes that too lbs of frefh
juice contain 6.25 lbs. of the pure acid (being equal in
weight to the chalk required), and that the citrat ot lime,
thence refulting, ought, if pure, to be no more than 9.378 Ibs.
being three-fourths of the fum of the weight of the chalk,
and the eftimated quantity of pure acid. But.as he finds it
to be really 20 lbs., even after wafhing, he fuppofes this great
difference to be made up by extractive matter precipitated
along with the citrat of lime, and adhering to it.
However, the experiments of other chemilts do not give
this difference, though they agree tolerably well in other
particulars. M. Dizé does not f{pecify the quantity of
ctyftallized acid a€tually obtained from a given quantity of
uice.
; Weftrumb faturated 4 lbs. of {trained lemon juice with
30z, of chalk, and obtained 5 oz. and 1 dram of citrat of
lime, which, decompefed by 23 drams of ftrong fulphuric
acid, diluted with ten times its bulk of water, gave, by due
evaporation, 24 oz. of cryftallized acid, and a little foul,
which loft one dram by a fecond cryftallization.
Profeffor Proult has examined the fame procefs, with at-
tention to the aétual quantities employed and obtained,
The whole of the above experiments may be given inthe fol-
lowing tabular form :
Citric Acid, Citric Acid,
yield 4.38lbs. and contains 4.74]bs. Prowl.
by 3.90 y — Weltrumb.
evaporation = eftimation 6.25 Dize.
Ditto.
With
CITRIC ACID.
With regard to the proportions given by Prouft, it is to
be obferved, that only 7.51 lbs. of -citrat of lime were ac-
tually precipitated ; but by evaporation of the liquor he ob-
tained about .541b. additional. The cryftallized acid was
obtained from a known quantity of the wathed citrat of
lime, fix ounces of the latter giving 34 0z. of the acid, and
hence 7.51 lbs. would yield 4.38 lbs., to which the additional
-54 lb. of citrat would add .3151b.; and a {mall portion of
vacid is alfo left-in the lalt liquor after all the cryftals have
beer removed, which the author eftimates at about ,4.th
of the quantity obtained, or about .o49 lb., which together
make a total of 4.74 of folid acid in too lbs. of the freth
uice.
q The quantity of fulphuric acid required for the decom-
pofition of the citrat is varioufly eftimated, but it fhould
not be lefs of the concentrated acid than a weight equal to
the chalk employed, of which latter rather more fhould be
cufed than will faturate the juice. If a portion of the fame
chalk is feparately faturated with the diluted {ulphuric acid
intended to be employed, and the refpeétive quantities noted,
it will bea ftill better guide for the quantity of fuiphuric acid
to be ufed in the fecond decompolition, obferving always that
a {mall exce/s of this acid 1s required. The clear liquor which
ftands above the citrat of lime in the firft procefs contains,
befides the mucilage and extra&t, a portion of malat of lime
in folution, which may be precipitated by alcohol if the
‘liquor is reduced by evaporation. A {mall portion of gallic
acid alfo appears in lemon juice, as it turns of a brown red
on the addition of a folution of iron, and exatly faturating
the liquor with an alkali.
To feparate the citric acid completely from the citrat of
lime by the fulphuric acid, it is better to boil the whole
for about ten minutes. ‘The difficulty of feparating’all the
fulphat of lime and extraét from the difengaged citric acid
in the procefs of cryttallization has been already mentioned.
This is affifted by adding a little alcohol towards the end of
the firlt evaporation, and fubfidence for fome hours, inter-
rupting the heat.
Richter gives another procefs for preparing the citric acid,
which is fimilar to that of Scheele for procuring the malic
acid. Itis the following : faturate lemon juice with petafh,
and then add a {olution of acetited lead, as long as any pre-
cipitate, which is very copious, continues to fall down.
This is chiefly citrat of lead. Wath it, and digeft with
dilute fulphuric acid, as in the former procefs, which unites
with the lead, and fets at liberty the citric acid; then eva-
porate the liquor to a thick confiftence, add a few drops of
nitric acid and cry ttallize.
The theory of this operation is the fame as in the former
procefs, fubitituting oxyd of lead for lime, but with this
difference, that the lemon juice mutt be previoufly faturated
with potafh, that the acetited lead may be decompofed by
the citrat of potath by doudle affinity ; and to prevent any
excefs of acid, by which the citrat of lead is readily diffolved,
though, without fuch excefs, it is hardly in any degree fo-
luble. However, when this acid is ufed for the table, it is
certainly better to prepare it by chalk in Scheele’s method,
than by fo dangerous a fub{tance as lead is, particularly in its
acid combinations.
Lemen juice, when fold out of the fruit, is fometimes
adulterated with the fulphuric acid. Thi may be detected
in the following way: puta little of it in a glafs, and add
a folution of acetited lead as long as any precipitate falls
down. This confifts of citrat of lead, mixed with fulphat
of lead, if any fulphuric acid was contained in the juice 5
and of thefe the former is immediately foluble in moderately
dilute nitric acid, but the latter not fo. Add, therefore,
a quantity of this acid, and if, on ftirring the mixture, the
precipitate entirely difappears, and the liquor becomes
clear, the lemon juice will be proved to contain no fulphuric
acid ; but if any of it remains, it will be a pretty fure indi-
cation of this acid.
Pure citric acid cryftallizes (according to Lowitz) in
alum-fhaped cryttals, confifting of two four-fided pyramids
joined bafe to bafe, or fometimes in rhomboidal prifms. Its
tatte is intenfely four, and, when diluted, very grateful to
the palate ; but it is fimply an acid tafte, and retains no-
thing of the aromatic fragrance of the frefh fruit. It is
very foluble, one ounce of diltilled water diffolving at a
moderate heat, 13.0z. of the cryltallized acid, and confider-
able cold is produced during the folution. Boiling water
diflolves twice its weight of the acid. Thefe cryttals are
not deliquefcent when pure. Diftilled, per 2, the produ&s
are an acid empyreumatic phlegm, carburetted hydrogeu
gas, and carbonic acid. It feems to be compofed of carbon
and hydrogen with oxygen in unknown proportions.
If this acid is boiled with a little nitric acid, much nitrous
gasis evolved, and the liquor yields by evaporation cryftals of
oxalic acid. A greater proportion of nitric acid converts
the whole into acetous acid, without giving any indicatious
of paffing through the intermediate flate of oxalic acid.
Thus, Wellrumb obtained jo grains of oxalic acid, by
treating 60 grains of citric acid with 200 grains of xitric
acid; with 300 grains of the latter, only 15 grains of
oxalic acid, and with 600 grains, not an atom.
Vauguelin afferts that this acid may be obtained by paff-
ing oxymuriatic acid gas through gum-arabic in water for a
confiderable time. 4
The domettic ufes of citric acid and lemon juice are well
known, but of late the concentrated juice and the cryftal-
lized acid have been employed very largely in calico-printing,
as difchargers of colour, in order to produce with more
clearnefs and effeét the white figured parts of coloured pat-
terns dyed with iron colours. It is not abfolutely neceflary
to crytlallize the acid for this purpofe, but only to concea-—
trateit. The mineral acids anfwer equally well as difcharg-
ers, but when fufificiently concentrated to do this effe€tu- .
ally, they injure the texture of the cotton. .
The citric acid being extremely expenfive, there may
fometimes be reafon to apprehend an adnlteration of it even
in the cryftallized ftate. The tartaric and oxalic acids re-
femble it the moft in fenfible properties, and fuch an adul-
teration could hardly be deteéted without chemical means.
‘The oxalic is fo expenfive, that it would not, we apprehend, be
worth while to employ it for this purpofe ; but the tartare-
ous is much cheaper. Any confiderable admixture of this
latter acid might be difcovered by the following fimple me-
thod: make a faturated folution of fulphat of pot-ath in
cold water, and add to it fome of a faturated folution of the
acid to be tried; if the tartareous acid is contained, the
mixture will depofit in a fhort time a number of minute
grains of tartar; but if it confifts only of citric acid, it will
remain clear.
Cirrats. Thefe are falts formed by the union of the
citric acid with alkaline, earthy, and metallic bafes. - Only
a few of them deferve particular notice. They are all de
compofed by heat, which burns off the acid.
Citrat of Pot-a/h. This has long been known in medi-
cine under the name of Réverius’s /alt. When uled medi-
cinally, it is prepared merely by faturating falt of tartar
with lemon juice. About 12 to 16 parts of the latter will
faturate one part of the common carbonat of pot-afh, or Lal
preparatum. ‘This.is fometimes taken in the a& of effervel-
cence; but when this is the intention, the cryftallized Se
Gk s
ciT
of pot-ah is by far preferable, on account of the large quantity
of carbonic acid which it contains. ‘To prepare it more
accurately, according to Vauquelin, 36 parts of the cryttal-
lized citric acid diffolved in water require for faturation 61
parts: of cryftallized carbonat of pot-afh. This falt cryf-
tallizes, though with difficulty, and is very deliquefcent ;
Yoo parts contain about 55.5 of acid and 44.5 of alkali. It
is decompofed by barytes and lime.
Citrat of Soda. ‘This is a very foluble and cryftallizable
falt. According to Vauquelin, 36 parts of citric acid
require 42 of dry carbonat of foda, fo that 100 parts of this
falt confifl of 60.7 of citric acid and 39.3 of foda,
Citrat of Ammonia. ‘Vhis {alt is employed in’ medicine as
wellas the citrat of pot-afh, and then is made extemporane-
oufly by faturating lemon juice with carbonat of ammonia.
When the folid acid is ufed, 34 parts of it will faturate 44 of
carboénat of ammonia. Hence :co parts of the falt, when
dry, willcontain 62 of acid and 38 of ammonia. It is very
foluble, and difficult of cryttallization.
Citrat of Barytes. Ths falt confiits of equal weights of
Citric acid and barytes. When barytic water is poured into
a folution of citric acid, a precipitate is formed which
is immediately re-diflolved. But when it approaches the p int
of faturation, the barytic citrat is depolited in quanuty,
at firfk pulverulent, afterwards in fine clufered cry ttaliine
needles.
Citrat of Magnefia. Vhirty-fix parts of the acid require
for faturation 40 parts of carbonate magnefia and tco parts
of the falt contain 333 of magnefia and 66 of real acid. This
cannot be eryftailized, but when nearly evaporated to dry-
nefs, the falt rifes in mufhroom-like knobs, white and opake.
Citrat of Lime. Vhis falt, from being the intermede whence
the acid is obtained from lemon juice, is by far the bett
known. Inits neutral state, it is but fparingly foluble in
water, and the folution has but little tafte. But any excefs
of acid renders it extremely foluble. An hundred parts of
citric acid mixed with water, and boiled, diflolve 50 parts of
citrat of lime. According to Vauquelin, 24 parts of the
acid are faturated by 18 of calcareous fpar. Hence roo
parts of the citrat of lime contain 37.34 of lime and 62.66 of
acid. Prouft found that 100 parts of the citrat wafhed and
dried left by calcination 31.5 of lime, and hence the remain-
ing 68.5 mult be acid and water. Dizé found that the acid
‘required an equal weight of chalk for faturation; hence, fup-
poling the chalk to contain 53 per cent. of lime, 100 parts
of the dry citrat, quite pure, will confift of 65.4 of acid and
34.6 of earth. This falt kept under water ina warm place
foon grows mouldy, the acid is decompofed, and the water
is covered with a cruft of carbonat of lime. Citrat of lime
is decompofed by the oxalic acid.
Metallic Citrats. Thefe have been but little examined.
This acid diffolves zinc and iron readily, and moft of the
other metallic oxyds with more or lefs. eafe. Theacid de-
compofes acetite of lead, and the citrat of lead is infoluble
in waier,
to the nitrat or acetite of this metal.
precipitate of a brick duft red.
The affinities of this acid appear to be in the following
order: barytes, lime, pot-afh, foda, ftrontian, magnefia,
ammoniac, and alumine. The comparative affinities of the
metallic oxyds have not yet been determined.
CITRIL, in Ornithology. See the next article.
CITRINELLA, in Ornithology, the citril finch, citri-
nella of Gefner, Versellina of Olina, and Venturon de Pro-
vence of Buffon. This bird bears fome refemblance to the
linnet, it is of a greenifh colour, with the back {potted with
brown, and the legs fleth-colour 5 its note is delightful, and
Vou. VIII.
The falt isa flaky
Citrat of mercury is formed by adding this acid _
L @el Rd E
itis for this reafon kept in cages in many parts of Italy.
See Faincitva citrinella. The common yellow-hammcr
is alfo named fpecifically citrinellz, but is of the emberiza
enus. See EmBeriza ciirinella.
CITRINUS, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a peculiar
{pecies of {prig cryftal, which is of a beautiful yellow.
Many of the common cryttals, when in the neighbourhood
of lead mines, are liable to be accidentally tinged yellow,
by an admixture of the particles of that metal; and all thefe,
whether finer or coarfer, have been too frequently confound-
ed together, under the name cifrine. It is never found co-
lourlels, like the other cryitals, but has a great variety of
tinges, from that of deeper ochres to a pale lemon-cojour.
It is very plentiful in the Welt Indies, and is found in fome
parts of Bohemia. Our jewellers have learnt from the French
and Italians, who are very fond of it, to call it céfrine, and
often cut ftones for rings out of it, particularly out of the py-
ramid, which is always finer than the column, and thefe, ater
they have paffed through two or three hands, are generally
miftaken for topazes.
CITRON, in Botany. See Citrus.
Cirron-water, a well known {trong water, or cordial,
which may be thus made: take of fine thin lemon-peel
eighteen ounces, of orange-peel nine ounces, perfect nutmegs
one quarter of a pound, alcohol perfect, that is, the finelt
and beft re€tified {pirit of wine, two gallons anda half ;
digeft in balneo marie for one night; draw off with a flow
fire; then add as much water as will juft make the mixture -
milky (which will be about feven quarts or two gallons) and
add alfo about two pounds of fine fugar-candy.
This compofition may be improved by freth elder flowers
hung in acloth in the head of the ftill, fprinkled with am-
bergrife in powder, or its effence. Otherwif2; citron-water
may be made, by taking dry yellow rinds of citrons three
pounds; two pounds of orarge-peel; three quarters of a
pound of bruifed nutmegs; ten and a half galions of clear
proof {pirit, and one gallon of water, digeftisg them with a
gentle heat, drawing off ten gallons in balneo mariz, and
dulcifying with fine fugar.
Citron-qood, the wood of an American tree, ealled by
the natives candle-wood, becaufe, being cut into fplinters,
it burns like a candle. The tree is frequent in the Lee-
ward Iflands, and grows to a confiderable fize ; the leaves
are like thofe of the “bay tree, but of a finer green; the
flower is fweet, and much like thofe of the orange; the
fruit fucceeding thefe is black, and of the fize of a pepper-
corn, The trunk is fo like the yellow faunders in colour,
that there was an opinion that it was the fame tree, and
much of it was imported into Europe, and fold as fuch ;
but they were foon found to be different, the true faunders
being of a {weet fcent, and but moderately heavy and re-
finous, but the citron-wood is confiderably heavy, very oily,
and of a itrong fmell. It is of no known ufe in medicine,
but is ufed in France and Germany by the turners, being
a firm fine-grained wood, and taking a fine polifh, and with
age becoming of a very beautiful brown.
CITRONVOGEL, in Ornithology, one of the fynony-
mous names of the crefted orivle, oriolus crifatus. Gmelin.
CITROSINA, in Botany, Bofc. Nouv. Di&. Flor.
Peruv. Pl. 29. Clafs and order, diacia icofandria.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth campanulate or pitcher fhaped ;
border four or eight-toothed. In the ma/e, filaments fromfeven
to fixty, petal-fhaped, ovate, flattened. In the female, germs
fuperior, from three to ten; ftyles tubular ; -{tigmas fimple.
Peric. Berry ege-fhaped, flefhy, umbilicate, covered by the
calyx and crowned with its border, one-celled, opening un-
egually, and with elafticity, for the difperfion of the feeds.
Ss Seeds
Gl Tur ae
Seeds from three to tea, egg-fhaped, offcous, half enveloped
in a flefhy aril. Seven fpecies, all fhrubs, with the {mell of
the citron, are mentioned in the Flora Peruvienfis. Bofc.
CITRULLUS, in Betany, J. Bauh. See Cucursira
citrullus.
CILRUM. The citree menfe have been fuppofed by
fome to be made of the citron tree, and by others of the
cedar; but it appears plainly that they were made of net-
ther, but of a wood peculiar for its finenefs, and very dif-
ferent from both. The ancient Greeks have dcfcribed the
ceder under the name xedp-, and the citron tree under the
name malus medica; and befide thefe, they have defcribed
another tree under the name of thya.
CITRUS, in Botany, (derivation unknown), Linn. Gen.
gor. Schreb. 1218. Willd. 1391. Gart. 705. Jufl. 261.
Vent. vol. iii. 155. Clafs and order, polyadelphia icofandria.
Nat. Ord. Bicornes, Linn. Aurantia, Jafl. He/peridee,
Vent. -
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, five-cleft, fmall, wi-
thering. Cor. Petals five, oblong, fpreading. Stam. Fi-
laments about twenty, forming a cylinder, united at the
bafe in feveral fets or brotherhoods, awl-fhaped, compreffed,
ere&t. Pi?. Germ fuperior, roundihh ; ftyle cylindrical, the
length of the ftamens. eric. Berry with a flefhy rind,
many-celled; cells feparated from each other by a thin
traniparent membrane, filled with a mucilaginous pulp, in
numerous feparate bladder-like veficles. Seeds, cartilagi-
nous, from one to four in each cell, attached to the interior
angle.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five.
twenty, polyadclphous. Berry many-celled.
Sp. 1. C. medica, Linn. Sp. Pl..1. Mart. 1. Poir. 1.
Willd. 1. (Malus medica, Bauh. Pin. 435.) ‘ Petioles
linear; leaves egg-fhaped, acuminate.”? Willd. Citron. Mil-
ler mentions two kinds of the proper citron, one {weet, with
a thick rough-rinded fruit, which he calls C. medica ; the
other four, with a rough knobbed-rinded fruit, which he
calis tuberofa. #. C. Limon. Common lemon. Black tab.
362. Brown. Jam. 309. n. 6. Sloau. Jam, 2. 178. Lam. ll-
luft. tab. 639. fig. 2. Woodv. Medical Botany, vol. ii. Pl.
184.) * Leaves ovates'anceolate, acuminate, fomewhat fer-
rated.”? Miller. y. C. acris. Lime. ‘‘ Leaves egg-fhaped,
entire; branches fomewhat entire.” Miller. Miller has
another variety which has ovate-lanceclate, fomewhat fer-
rated leaves, and the fruit in clufters. All thefe varieties
have linear petioles, and are therefore referred to one {pecies
by all botaniits : but as, in popular language, they are known
by- different names, it were to be wifhed that, upon minute in-
veltigation, they might be found to poffefs diltin@ f{pecific
chara@ers. The fruit of the proper citron is oblong, with
a very thick rind; that of the lemon oblong, with a nipple-
like protuberance at the end; and that of the lime egg-
fhaped, without the protuberance, with a very thin rind,
and about the fize of the egg of a bantam hen, not half fo
large as a lemon; but thefe charaéters are not quite con-
ftant. According to Miller, the bark of the citron is
{moother, and the wood lefs knotty, than that of the lemon.
In their wild ftate, fome of them are faid to attain to the
height of fixty feet ; in our greenhoufes they are neceffarily
reftrained to a more moderate fize. The citron is a native
of all the warmer regions of Afia. It was fir introduced
into Europe from Media, whence it obtained the name of
malus medica. It feems to have been brought into Italy
after the age of Virgil and Pliny, but before that of Palla-
dius, who cultivated it with fuccefs. Its fruit is feldom
eaten raw, but preferved as a fweet-meat, in which form it
Stamens about
is now fent to North America and Europe from the Weft
Indies, where it has long been propagated. The lemon is
alfo a native of the Eaft, but, as well as the orange, has long
been naturalized in the fouth of Europe. Its juice is much
ufed in England as an ingredient in the liquor called punch;
mixed with fugar and water, it affords a cooling beverage in
hot weather, and is alfo introduced at the table as a condiment.
to different kinds of meat. Its virtues as an antifcorbutic are
well known; and on that account it is now generally carried ©
on board fhips deltined for long voyages; but even when well
depurated of its mucilage, it is found to fpoil by long keep-
ing. To preferve it in purity, itis neceffary that it be brought
to a highly concentrated fate. See Citric acid. Its
rind is employed various ways in cookery, as a grateful aro-
matic bitter, not fo hot as that of the orange. The lime is
a native of the Eaft, but has long been cultivated in the
Welt Indies and the warmelt parts of North America, In
what are called the fea iflands of South Carolina and Georgia,
it is produced in great perfection. Its juice is efteemed a
much more grateful acid than that of the lemon, which is
therein ttle repute, and comparatively feldom feen. A plate
of limes is a conftant difh at entertainments in the Weft In-
dies and the fouthern flates of North America, and the
juice is {queezed into foups, turtle, &c. by the guefts. The
lime in Jamaica, according to Brown, is a bufhy fhrub fel-
dom lefs than twelve or fourteen feet high, and by its
{preading prickly branches affords an impenetrable fence to
the fugar cane plantations, Numerous varieties of all the
kinds have been produced by cultivation, but the enumera~
tion and defcription of thefe are more properly, within the
province of the gardener than of the botanift. From one
of them the perfume called BERGAmor is obtained, which is
faid to have derived its name from Bergamo in Italy, where
the variety was firft cultivated in Europe, and where it is
ftill preferved. 2. C. angulata, Willd. 2. (Limonellus an-
gulofus; Rumph. Amb. 2. tab. 32.) ‘* Petioles naked;
leaves egg-fhaped, acute; fruit angular.” Certainly a dif-
tint fpecies. Fruit {mall, glutinous, four or five-angled.
Peduncles folitary, axillary. Spines two, ftipular. Willd. 3.
C. madurenfis, Lam. 8. Lour. Flor. Cochin. p. 570. n. 4.
(Limonellus madurenfis, Rumph. Amb. vol. ii. tab. 37.)
«* Without thorns; branches diffufe, angular; petioles li-
near; fruit globular; flower very f{mall.”” A fhrub not
more than three feet high. Branches crooked, often with-
out {pines. Leaves large, egg-fhaped, rather acute, almott
entire, quite fmooth. Flowers near the extremities of the
branches, almoft folitary, {weet-fcented. Fruit globular,
fmall, even-furfaced, yellowifh green, half an inch or more
in diameter, eight or nine-celled, filled with a veficular bitter
pulp. A native of China and Cochinchina, where it is cul-
tivated for its beauty. 4. C. duxifolia, Poir. Encyc. 6.
« Leaves nearly fefhile, ovate-retufe; flowers in racemes,
very {mall.”? Braaches {preading, thorny ; thorns ftiff, ere,
yellowifh at the point. Leaves feattered, alternate, refem-
bling thofe of box, but twice as large, obtufe, often emargi-
nate, narrowed at the bafe, coriaceous, entire, nerved ; nerves
near together, ftrongly marked, parallel; petioles very fhort,
fimple. J/owers white, in {mall racemes near the extre-
mity of the branches. In its fhort ftiff branches, thorns,
and the form and firmnefs of its leaves, it has much of the
habit of rhamuus pyracantha. A native of China, defcribed
by Poiret from dried fpecimens without fruit, fent to La
Marck by Sonnerat. 5. C. margarita, Poir.g. Lour. Flor.
Cochin. p. 570.n. 5. ‘* Branches afcending, thorny ; pe-
tioles linear; berries five-celled, oblong?” A fhrub, four
feet high. Leaves lanceolate, quite entire. F/owers white,
I {weete
CET kh US.
fweet-{cented, fcattered on the branches, few together on a
common peduncle, yuit not more than eight lines long,
{mooth, yellowifh red, witha very thin rind, and a fweet
veficular pulp. A native of China, in the neighbourhood
of Canton, remarkable for the fmallnefs of its fruit. 6. C.
nobilis, Poir. 7. Lour. Flor. Cochin. p. 569. n. 3. Rumph.
Amb. tab. 34. ‘ Without thorns; branches afcending ;
petioles linear, ftiff and ftraight; fruit tubercled, fomewhat
comprefled.”” A tree ofa moderate fize. Leaves {cattered,
lanceolate, quite entire, dark green, fhining, very odorous.
Flowers white, fweet-fcented, in terminal racemes. Fruit
roundiih, a little compreffed, about nine-celled, red within
and without, abeut twice the fize of a China orange; rind
thick, fucculent, fweet. It has the fruit of an orange, but
the petioles of a citron or lemon, and feems a conneQing
fpecies between C. medica, and C. aurantium. Loureiro’s
defeription agrees exa€tly with Rumphius’s figure. A na-
tive of Cocchinchina, 7. C. auraniium, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2.
Mart. 2. Poir. 2. Wilid. 4. Lam. Ill. tab. 639. fig. 1.
orange. ‘ Petioles winged; leaves acuminate; item ar-
boreous,”’ Willd. « Seville or four orange (Vhurb. Flor.
Jap. p. 293. Lour. Flor. Cochin. p. 569. Rumph. Amb.
tab. 33. (malus aurantia major, Bauh. Pin. 436. Blackw.
tab. 349. Ferr. Help. tab. 377. &. China or {weet orange,
(malus aurantia cortice eduli, Bauh. Pin. 436. Ferr.
Fefper. tab. 433.) ‘ Leaves lanceolate, acute, fmooth,’’
Mil. A middle-fized tree, with a greenifh brown bark.
Branches generally fpinous. Leaves thick, fhining, {mooth,
ovate-lanceolate, alternate, not at all, or very little toothed ;
fprinkled with fmall, refinous, tranfparent tubercles, refem-
bling thofe in fome {pecies of hypericum. Flowers white,
very odorous, in fhort racemes towards the end of the
branches; filaments united at firlt by an entire membrane,
which afterwards becomes torn, and forms feveral fets of
ftamens. Fruit round, comprefled into the fhape of an ob-
late f{pheroid, yellow ; rind fiefhy, rather thick, containing
a number of veficles, filled with a volatile or effential oil,
which f{pirts out when the rind is preffed by the finger nail.
A native of the Eaft Indies, but naturalized in the fouth
of Europe, as well as in the Welt Indies, and the fouthern
part of North America. ‘The China orange flourifhes only
on the fea iflands of South Carolina and Georgia, interntin-
gled with the lemon and lime. The Seville orange is hardier,
and is found in the upper part of the country. Evelyn in-
forms us, that the firft China orange, which appeared in
Europe, was fent fora prefent to the old Conde Mellor,
then prime minifter to the king of Portugal; but of the
whole cafe fent to Lifbon, there was only one tree which lived,
and became the parent of all the flourifhing trees fince cul-
tivated by the gardeners. Bifhop Gibfon, in his additions to
Cambden’s “ Britannia,’’ fays, probably from Aubrey, that
the orange trees at Beddington in Surrey, introduced from
Italy by Sir Francis Carew, were the firft that were brought
to England ; that they were planted in the open ground,
under a moveable covert during the winter months; and
that they had been growing there more than a hundred
years, i.e. before 1595. ‘Thefe trees all perifhed in the
great froft of 1739-40. It has alfo been fuppofed to be a
native of the Hefperides, or Canary Iflands, and its fruit to
be the golden apples which the daughters of Hefperus
caufed to be fo ftri€tly guarded by a dragon. Under this
idea, Ventenat has changed the name of the natural order
to which it belongs, from Aurantia to Hefperidee. ‘There
are more varieties of this {pecies than of C. medica. Potret
enumerates and defcribes eighteen of the citron, eleven of
the lemon, and forty-four of the orange, all cultivated in
the Paris gardens; but obferves, that with refpcct to fome
of them, it is not eafy to determine whether they ought to
be referred to C. medica, or C. aurantium. The fmell of
the orange flower is almoft univerfally efteemed. Du Tour,
in “ Nouveau Diétionaire d’Hiftoire Naturelle,”? is quite
eloquent in its praife. ‘* The {cent of the orange flower,’’
expatiates that lively writer a la mode Francoife, ‘1s re-
garded as a ftandard of perfeétion in its kind. It has not,
like that of many flowers, a deceitful fweetnefs, which
pleafes only to injure. It is not faint, like the fcent of
jafmine or refeda ; it does not affect the head like narciffus
or tuberofe; it does not weaken the nerves, but rather
ftrengthens them; it isa falutary odour, which refrethes the
fenfes and enlivens the brain. In fine, it has no rival, and is
as falutary as it is delicious.”? Thefe flowers are much ufed
in perfumes and fcented waters, yielding their flavour by
infufion to re€tified {pirit, and in diftillation both to fpirit
and water. An oil diltilled from them is brought from Italy
under the name of oletim, or effentia neroli. The juice of
the fruit is a grateful liquor, which, by allaying heat, quench
ing thirft, and promoting various excretions, proves of con-
fiderable ufe in febrile and inflammatory difeafes. It is only
that of the Seville orange which has a place in the materia
medica of our Britifh pharmacopeizs; but that of the
China orange, having a larger quantity of faccharine mat-
ter, is more agreeable to the talte, and may be ufed more
freely. Thefe acids, by uniting with the bile, are faid to
take off its bitternefs; but if they are in greater quantity
than can be properly correéted by the bile prefent, they
feem, by fome union with that fluid, to acquire a purzative
quality, that gives a diarrhoea, and the coli: pains, that are
ready to accompany the operation of every purgative. The
outer yellow rind of the fruit is a grateful aromatic bitter;
by the union of thefe qualities, it warms the ftomach, pro-
motes appetite,'and gives tone and ftrength to the vifcera 5
but Dr. Cullen obferves, that its virtues are not. fufficiently
experienced, becaufe we employ it chicfly in its dried ftate,
and in too {mall a proportion, as we take with it part of
the white inert fubftance that compofes the inner rind.
Ig flavour is likewife fuppofed to be lefs perifhabie than
that of the lemon; hence the London college employ
orange-peel in the fpirituous bitter tinéture, which ts de-
“figned for keeping; whilft in the bitter watery effufion, le-
mon-pecl is preferred. A fyrup and diftilled water are for the
fame reafon prepared from the rind of oranges in pretcrence
to that of lemons. See Woodville’s “* Medical Botany.”
8. C. fufea, Poir. 10. Lour. Flor. Cochin. p. 571,n. 6.
Rumph. Amb. 2. tab. 33. ‘* Much branched, thorny ;
leaves lanceolate, egg-fhaped; petioles with heart-fhapcd
wings; berries globular, rough.”? A largetree. Branches nu-
merous, crooked, almoft ereG, furnifhed with long {tout {pines.
Leaves quite entire, dark-green, ftrong-feented. Flowers
white, not very odorous, in nearly terminal racemes. Fruit
greenifh brown, eight or nine celled, of a difagreeable, bit-
ter favour. A native of Cochin China, where it is one of
the molt common kinds. Poiret regards it as a mere variety
of C. aurantium, differing in its nearly ovate-leaves, and
the colour of its fruit. It feems moft allied to the Seville
orange. 9. C. humilis, Poir. 4, (C. aurantium, é Mart.)
Dwarf or nutmeg orange. “ Leaves egg-thaped; flowers
feffile.”” A low fhrub. Leaves {mall, growing in bun-
dles. Flowers near together, {weet-[cented. Poiret agrees
with Miller in regarding this as a diftin& {pecies. Proteffor
Martyn makes it a variety of C. aurantium. 10. C. ja-
ponica, Poir. 5. Mart. 4. Wilid. 3. Thunb. jap. 292.
Icon. Pl. 15. (Kin Kan. Kemp. amen. Sc1.) ‘ Petioles
winged ; leaves acute, flowers axillary, moft frequently fo-
litary ; ftem fhrubby.”” Svem fearcely a foot high, come
$s 2 prefled-
CITRUS.
preffed-angular, ere&t. Branches and Branchlets alternate,
comprefled-angular, fpineus, fmooth, ereét, green; fpines
folitary, axillary, ereét, f{preading. Leaves {cattered,
egg-fhaped, rather acute, quite entire, a little concave,
fmooth, deep green above, paler underneath. Flowers
fnowy-white, rarely two together, peduntled, nodding ;
peduncles a line long, fmooth, drooping ; calyx fmooth,
very fmall, five-toothed; petals oblong, a little concave,
fpreading; filaments nineteen, awl-fhaped, compreffed,
erect, in five fets, forming a cylinder fhorter than the co-
rolia, nearly equal, white; anthers oblong, minute, yellow;
germ roundifh, fmooth, ftyle cylindrical, a little fhorter
than the ftamens, greenifh white; ftigma globular, yellow,
ftriated. Fruit with a thick rind, about the fize of a
cherry, nine-celled, very fweet and grateful to the tafte.
Thunb. Poiret does not venture to pronounce it fpecifically
diftiné from the preceding. 11. C. decumana, Murray,
Syft. Veg. 580. Mart. 3. Poir. 3. Willd.5. (C. auran-
tium y; Linn. Sp. Pi. Limo decumanus; Rumph. Amb.
2. tab. 24. fig..2. Malus aurantia fruétu caput humanum
exceéente; Sloane Jam. 212. Hift. x. tab. 12. fig. 2, 3.
Thunb. Flor. Jap. 293. Lour. Cochin. 571.) Shaddock.
« Petioles winged; leaves obtufe, emarginate.” Mur.
* Leaves ovate-lanceolate, thick, fhining ; fruit very large,”
Mill. A middle-fized tree, with {preading, {fpinous branches.
Leaves egg-fhaped, a little acute, feldom obtufe, very fel-
dom emarginate, toothed, petioles with remarkably large
heart-fhaped wings. F/owers white, very odorous, in long
flightly tomentous racemes ; petals reflexed ; ftamens about
twenty, nearly the length of the petals, colleGted into a
many-cleft tube. /ruit eight inches in diameter, yellowifh
green, even-furfaced, twelve-celled or more, containing fome
ared, others a white pulp; the juice in fome fweet, in
others acid; rind very thick, of a difagreeable bitter fla-
vour, not efculent. Seeds egg-fhaped, fomewhat acute,
two or three in each cell. A native of China, Cochin-
China, Japan, and the Friendly Iflands. It derives its vul-
gar name froma captain Shaddock, who firft brought it
from the Eaft to the Weft Indies. In England it was cul-
tivated by Miller in 1739. Murray’s {pecific charaéter ap-)
pears to have been very carelefsly formed ; and it is rather ex-
traordinary that it fhould have been copied without alteration
. or addition by Martyn, Poiret, and Willdenow. 12. C.
trifoliata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart.5. Poir. 11. Willd. 6.
(Tf. f. Karatas bauna; Kempf. Amen. tab. 802. Thunb.
Fl. Jap. 294.) ‘Leaves ternate.” A fhrub. Stem near
fix feet high; branches alternate, comprefled-angular,
crooked, green, fhining, fpinous; {pines near an inch long,
alternate, dilated, and comprefled at the bafe, fpreading,
ftiff and fharp, yellow at the end. eaves diftant from
each other; leaflets oval, crenulate; petiole with a
erenulate wing. F/oqwers white, axillary, feffile, folitary ;
petals concave, roundifh, clawed; filaments not united at
the bafe, much longer than the petals. uit globular, the
fize of a fmall orange, feven-celled; pulp glutinous, with
an unpleafant fmell, and bad flavour. Seeds oval. A na-
tive of Japan, where it is employed for fences, which its
crooked thickfet branches and {tiff fharp thorns render im-
penetrable. Y
bf. Loureiro imagined that he found Kempfer’s Tfi. v.
Karatas, in Cochin China, and as his plant did not accord
with the generic chara@er of citrus, he formed for it a new
genus, which he has called ériphafia aurantiola ; but a bare
infpeétion of Kempfer’s figure is fuflicient to fhew that his
and Loureiro’s plant cannot be the fame. The Cochin-
China plant is probably /imonia trifoliata of Linneus.
Citrus, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the citron,
3
lemon, and orange tree kinds, of which the forts ufvally cul-
tivated are, the citron tree, (C. medica), the orange tree
(C. aurantium), and the fhaddock orange (C. decumana).
The firft, in its wild ftate, is a tree that grows to the
height of about eight feet, ere€t and prickly, with long re-
clining branches. ‘The leaves are ovate-oblong, alternate,
fubferrate, {mooth, pale green ; the flowers white, odori«
ferous, on many-flowered, terminating peduncles; the fruit
a berry, half a foot in length, ovate, with a protuberance_
at the tip, nine-celled or thereabouts; the. pulp white,
commonly acid; the rind yellow, thick, hardifh, odoriferous,
irregular. The fruit is efculent both in the raw-and pre-
ferved ftate. Itisanative of the warmer parts of Afia.
Of this fort, Martyn obferves, that there are feveral va-
rieties which are procured from Genoa, the great nurfery of
this as well as lemons and oranges ; the cultivators of them
there being, he fays, as fond of tatroducing a new variety
into their colle€tions as nurferymen are here of obtaining a
new pear, apple, or peach. ‘There are the citron tree with
fweet fruit; with four fruit; andthe common lemon, and the
lime. But the fir of the two latter varieties, or the lemon
tree, differs, according to the fame writer, from the orange,
both in the naked foot-ftalks of the leaves, and in the fhape
and colour of the fruit; while there is {carce any dillin@ion
between it and the citron.
li is obferved that the moft remarkable {ub-varieties cul-
tivated in this climate are, the {weet lemon, plain and varie-
gated; the pear-fhaped ; the imperial; the lemon called
Adam’s apple ; the furrowed fruited ; the childing ; and the
lemon with double flowers.
The fecond, or four lemon or lime, grows in its native
climate to the height of about eight feet, with a crooked
trunk and many diffufed branches, which have prickles on
them. It is a native of Afia, and common in the Welt
Indies.
There is another fub-variety, the {weet lime, which, the
fame writer fays, is generally a more upright tree, and bears
a fruit, which in fize and form feems to hold.a mean between
the lime andthe lemon. But thefe two laft fub-varieties are
but little cultivated in this country.
The fecond fpecies is a middle-fized evergreen tree,
having a greenifh brown bark, and dividing upwards into
a branchy regular head, the leaves broad lanceolated, and
the fruit fubglcobular, flat, of a golden colour. It is a na-
tive of India. Of this fort there are numerous varieties, _
but thofe moft known in garden cultureare, the Seville; the -
China ; the willow-leaved or Turkey ; the yellow and white
ftriped-leaved ; the curled-leaved ; the horned ; the double-
flowering ; the hermaphrodite; and the dwarf or nutmeg
orange. - The firft of which affords a large, rough-rinded,
four fruit, of excellent quality for culinary ufes. It isa
handfome grower, and the hardeft of the orange tribe, as it _
fhoots freely in this climate, producing large and beautiful -
leaves ; and flowers ftronger and more abundantly, and ge- _
nerally bears a greater quantity of fruit than any other fort,
and arrives to greater perfection.
The fecond has moderate-fized leaves, and a fmooth,
thin-rinded, {weet fruit; of which there are feveral fub-va-
rieties in warm countries, where they grow in the open
ground. And the willow-leaved orange tree has narrow ,
{pear-fhaped leaves, and a ftriped wiilow-leaved orange.
In re{pe& to the horned orange, it is a common-fized tree,
producing oblongifh fruit, which divide at the end, the rind
running out into divifions like horns. The hermaphrodite
orange is a common-fized tree, producing fruit partly like
an orange, and partly citron-fhaped. And the dwarf or
nutmeg orange has a low item, and fmall bufhy head,
: growing -
Cee US:
growing two or three feet high, with {mall oval leaves in
clulters, and numerous flowers in bunches, covering the
branches, fucceeded by very {mall fruit. When in flower it
is proper to be placed for ornament in rooms or other places,
which it perfumes with its fowers; but it requires care, and
is feldom ina perfe& ftate of growth in this climate.
It is faid that the ftriped and double-flowered varieties are
the moft curious and interefting.
‘The third {pecies is a tree above the middle fize, in its na-
tive place, having {preading prickly branches, the leaves
ovate, and the flowers white, very {weet-fcented, in co-
pious, upright, terminating bunches; the fruit {pheroidal,
of a greenifh yellow colour. Ii isa native of India, but in-
troduced into the Weift Indies by captain Shaddock.
And of this fort, according to Martyn, there are many
varieties, “* one of which, fuperior to the reft in the flavour
and f{mell of the fruit; has a{maller trunk, and fub-globular
fruit, five inches in diameter, yellow on the outtide, white
and very {weet within.”
Method of Culture. In regard to the method principally
practifed in this climate for raifing all thefe forts of trees,
it is that of budding them upon ftocks raifed from the feeds;
but they are likewife fometimes increafed by the operation of
inarching. And new varieties are conitantly raifed from the
feed of the different {pecies.
Method of vaifing new Varieties and Stocks. With this
view fome feed fhould be provided from the moft perfedily
ripened fruits of the different forts that are wanted, early in
the {pring, at which time it fhould be fown in pots filled
with good light earth, being covered to the depth of about
half an inch, plunging them ina tan hot-bed, giving them
flizht {prinklings of water and a free admiffion of air. When
the plants have attained a tolerably ftrong growth, which is
moftly in about eight or ten weeks, they fhould be gradually
hardened to bear the full air, in which they may be conti-
nued till the weather renders it neceflary to remove them in-
to the green houfe for proteétion during the winter.
With fome, however, in order to get them forward more
rapidly, it is the practice to prick them out fingly, when
about two inches in height, into other pots, and plunge them
into a fecond tan hot-bed, watering and giving them frefh
air occafionally, and gradually hardening them as in the
preceding manner. In this way thzy are faid to become
much larger plants the following year.
But in cafes where the firfl mode ts praétifed, the plants
fhould, in the following {pring, about the middle of March
or the beginning of the following month, be fhaken care-
fully out of the feed-pots, fo as to preferve the roots as en-
tire as poffible, and planted feparately in fmall pots, made
about half full with a compoft of mellow loamy earth, and
afterwards filled up with the fame fort, fo as to fupport the
plants well; fhade and water being occafionally given, till
they become perfectly eftablithed. It is the cuftom with
fome gardeners, in order to have the plants more forward, as
well as more ftraight and upright, to plunge the pots, as
foon as the plants have been placed in them, in a tan hot-
bed, covered by frames and glaffes, frefh air and water being
duly fupplied.
In thefe modes of management, the plants are capable of
furnifhing good ftocks for budding upon the fecond or third
year. And where two hot-beds are made ufe of, many of
them will be in a proper ftate for the purpofe the fecond
year, if proper care be taken of them. See Buppine.
It is obferved, that for the purpofe of ftocks, the citron,
Jemon, and Seville orange, are the beft, as being the ftrongett
fhooters, efpecially the laft.
Where any of the plants appear particularly handfome
and of a healthy growth, they may be let remain, for the
purpofe of affording new varieties ; but they are long in this
way of raifing them before they produce fruit; and when
that happens, there is great uncertainty of their poffefling
any valuable qualities. After the plants have been thus pro-
pagated, they only require the fame fort of management
as other exotics of the green-houfe kind, to be employed in
preferving them in ahealthy ftate.
Method of Budding them on the Stocks. Thefe plants,
when they have acquired twelve or fifteen inches growth,
and are about the thicknefs of a large goofe quill, or rather
more, are in a proper ftate for the purpofe. The buds
fhould be procured from found, plump, young fhoots, of
fuch trees as have a free growth, and are in a ftate of bears
ing, and the operation fhould be performed about Augutt,
upon ftocks of the fame kinds and varieties, the buds being
inferted from fix to ten or more inches from the bottom, in
proper parts of the ftocks, and only one bud in each of them,
See Buppine.
As foon as this has been done, the plants fhould be re-
moved into the green-houfe, a frame, or old tan hot-bed,
in order to guard them from the wet, aad promote the inof-
culation of the veffels, and the healing of the parts; due
fhade and air being occafionally given; and when the union
is perfectly accomplifhed, the ligatures be removed, to per-
mit the fwelling of the plants, without injury being done
by their pinching them.
There is nothing more neceflary afterwards, than the ap=
plication of proper fupplies of moifture and air, with fuit-
able proteétion from rain and all forts of dampnefs. When
the heads of the ftocks have been removed in the early part
of the following fpring, the buds begin to fhoot with vi-
gour, efpecially where the aid of a tan hot-bed can be had
recourfe to, The plants fhould now be enured by degrees
to the fullair, for the latter part of the fummer, and in the
autumn and winter have the prote¢tion of a green-houfe
given them.
Method of raifing by Inarching. When this mode is em-
ployed, which is now but feldom the cafe, as the budding
pra€tice is much more convenient, and the trees more orna-
mental, the young fhoots of the trees raifed in the above
modes, which are nearly of the fame fize as the ftocks, fhould
be joined with them in the early {pring months, fo as to con-
ftitute a fort of arch ; and in the latter end of fummer they
are moltly in a {tate to be taken off from the parent-tree. See
INARCHING.
By this mode, the trees may be raifed to a bearing ftate’ in
a very fhort time, as the young bearing branches may be
made ufe of forthe purpofe, by which a new bearing tree is
at once produced. And different forts may be conneéed,
and produced on the fame tree. But the trees furnifhed in
this way are never fo beautiful as thofe produced by that of
budding, in the manner deferibed above.
Method of Culture in the trained Trees. It is the cuftom,
in order tc have trees of this fort at once, to purchafe fuch
as are brought from Italy, &c. in chefts in the fpring.
They are of different fizes, and, when properly managed,
produce as good trees in two years, as thofe*raifed in the
above modes caninagreat many. It is neceflary to ob-
ferve,, that in choofing thefe trees, thofe which fhoot the
moft vigoroufly are moltly of the citron or fhaddock kind,
as the orange rarely grows with fuch luxuriance. The laft,
therefore, as being more valuable, fhould be attended to.
And as fome are only furnifhed with one bud, while others
have two, the latter fhould be preferred, as they will pro--
duce the moft regular headed plants in moft cafes.
And thefe trees, after having had their roots cleaned, trims
med,
Gea T
med,and well foaked in water for fome time, as wellas the ftems
and branches cleaned, fhould be planted feparately in tubs
or pots of futtable fizes, filled with earth of the fame fort as
mentioned above, watering them at the time, and plunging
them in the tan-bed of the fiove to the tops of the plants,
&c. They fhould continue in this fituation fone time, and
be well watered, both at the bottom and over their heads,
feade being given when neceflary, and a due proportion of
air when they begin to fhoot in the heads. Thefe fhould
likewife be cut occafionally, in order to induce them to
throw out lateral branches, and form full handfome heads,
air now being more freely admitted, to render the plants
hardy, and capable of being preferved in the green-houfe
during the following winter, being managed as other plants
of the exotic green-houfe kind. ;
General Method of Management in all the Soris. As it is
neceflary that thele trees fhould be moved into different fitu-
ations, itis mofily proper to have them in pots or large tubs;
and where there are fuitable glafs frames for proteGting them
in winter, afew may be planted out againf{t walls which
have flues that can be heated as there may be occafion.
None of the forts can be preferved in the open air except
during a few of the fummer months. ‘The management in
which cyfes is that of placing them in fome warm public fitu-
ation, at firft wathing their heads well with water, to remove
duft or other fubftances, fupplying them frequently with a
lictle water when the feafon is hot,and preferving the moifture
in the earth of the pots, by covering it with new cut-fhort
grafs. When they are removed to the green-houle, om the
approach of the autumn or winter, they fhould be depofited
in a rezular order, the largeft to the back parts, proper fup-
plies of frefh air and water being given when the weather is
{uitable, and duc protetion provided againk froft. tis oc-
cafionally neceifary alfo to water them over head, to remove
all forts of infects and other fubftances that may be upon
their leaves, when all the decayed parts fhould be wholly re-
moved and dreffed away. And as often as the earth in the
pots or tubs begirs to bind or become ftiff, it fhould be
loofened to the depth of a few inches; and in the {pring, it is
ufeful to remove a little of the furface, re-placing it by fuch
as Is fret, as by thefe means the plants thrive better and con-
tinue more healthy. It becomes neceflary in moft cafes to
fhift the plants mto larger pots or tubs of frefh earth every
{econd or third {pring, about April, removiag them with the
balls of earth entire, the outfide matted mouldy roots being
pared off clofe, and part of the old earth at the top, fides,
and bottom taken away ; then the tubs or pots being cleaned
out, or new larger oncs provided, fome erooked pieces of
tiles fhould be laid over the holes at bottom, and fome earth
put in, placing the treesin the potsor tubs, and filling them
up with more compolt, preffing it down on the fides, giving a
moderate watering at the tops, and retaining the plants in
the grean-houfe till the weather becomes fufficiently fine for
their being fet out. And fuch trees as have thin, ftraggling,
or irregular heads, fhould now be pruned, fo as to have the
branches moderately fhort, and to form better heads.
But it is advifed, that when they appear in an unhealthy
ftate, with weak fhoots, irregular heads, and {mall ill-colour-
ed leaves, they fhould be pruned pretty clofe, and fhifted in-
to entire frefh earth, the roots being foaked and wafhed well
with water. When they have been again planted, they
fhould have a little water-given immediately, and be plunged
in a bark hot-bed, to remain until July, when they will have
made {trong fhoots, and have formed new, full, and regular
heads in a handfome manner.
When fuch of the trees as arein pots have attained a large
fize, they fhould be fhifted into tubs hooped with iron hoops,
Ca
having ftrong hooked iron handles at the tops, to receive
poles to lift the trees by in removing them.
As there is often an abundance of flowers on thefe trees,
when they appear in June and the following months, it may
be proper to thin them a little by taking off the {malleft ;
and as the trees continue blowing and fetting fruit for fome
time, when a full crop is fet, it is of benefit to the trees and
fruit to gather off the fuperabundant blofloms as they are
formed on the trees.
And in planting trees of this kind in the full ground,
there muft be frame-ere€tions for the fupport of glafs or
other coverings, to defend the plants in inclement weather :
in thefe fituations, the trees, from their having full feope for
their roots, generally fhoct ftrong, and produce large fruit,
being trained within as wall or ftandard trees. But the walls
for this purpofe fhould have 2 fouthern afpe&t, and be in a
dry fituation ; and for the greater protection of the trees in
fevere frofts, there fhould be a fire-place with a flue carried
along a low wall in the front and ends, the trees being
planted in the full borders againft the back walls, and their
branclies trained to them five or fix inches diftance, air and
occafional water being given, as for thofe in the green-
houfe, and the glafles put on in nights in bad weather, the
flues being only made ufe of in fharp frofts, and then with
very moderate fires, fo as juft to prevent their injurious ef-
feéis.
Flaving managed them in this way during the autumn,
winter, and {pring feafons, they fhould about the beginning
of June have the glafies removed, and the borders raifed a
little where the foil is wet, and be flightly dug over two or
three times a year, neceflary fupplies of manure being given,
And for ftandard trees, a more capacious and lofty glafs
cavering fnould be ereéted againt the wall fomewhat in the
manner of hot-houfes, only higher, a border being made the
whole width and length, planting one or two rows of trees’
lengthways in it, fuffering them to run up as ftandards, only
giving a little pruning, juft to preferve regularity in their
heads.
With fome it is the cuftom to have for this nfe lofty
moveable glafs frames, fo that two or three rows of trees can
be planted in fome confpicuous part of the pleafure-ground,
the frames being taken wholly away in fummer, fo as to ap-
pear a little orange grove. And when the trees are well
protected by the glafles and other occafional coverings, &c.
in winter, they grow in this way to a much greater height
than thofe planted in tubs, or other methods. ie
It is neceffury to obferve, that the citron trees fhould have
warmer fituations than thofe of the orange kind during the
winter, and be retained in the houfe later in the fummer, at
which period they fhould alfo have rather more water given
them.
And the common lemon trees, as being more hardy than
the orange, fhould of courfe have more air in the winter fea-
fon, when the weather is fuitable for its being admitted.
CITTA, in Botany, Bofc. Nouv. Di&. Loureir. Flor.
Cochin. (Lobus littoralis, Rumph.) Clafs and order,
diadelphia decandria,
Gen. Ch. Ca/. bilabiate, humped, coloured, hifpid ;
upper lip entire ; lower lip three-cleft ; fegments awl-fhaped,
the middle one the longeft. Cor. papilionaceous; ftandard
almoft naked, humped at the bafe; wings oblong, connivent 3
keel recurved. Stam. Filaments ten, nine united at the
bafe, five alternate ones ‘larger; anthers oblong. Pi.
Germ fuperior, oblong, villous; ftyle filiform; ftigma
almoft round. eric. Legume oval, oblong, thick, com-
preffed, hifpid, hollowed externally into {quare cavities.
Seeds three, ae: compreffed, arilled. ;
Sp.
Lom i fy
Cit
Sp.C.—A climbing thrub. Leaves ternate, petioled ; faber of modern naturalifts. Pliny calls it xews s and hence
leaflets egg-fhaped, acute, quite entire, fmooth. Flowers
almoft black, {potted with white, in axillary corymbs. A
native of Cochin China.
Citra, in Medicine, xivre, is fynonymous with pica, a term
generally ufed to denominate a depraved appetite, which
craves for indigeftible fubltances, -fuch as chalk, earth, &c.
See Pica.
Citra CastTexvana, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the ftate of the church, and patrimony of St. Peter ; once
the fee of a bifhop united with Orta; 23 miles N. of
Rome.
Cirta pt Caste ro, a town of Italy, in the province
of Umbria, feated on the Tiber, the fee of a bifhop; con-
taining 10 churches, and a great number of convents; 23
miles $.W. of Urbino, and 97 N. of Rome.
CITTADELLA, a fea-port town of the ifland of
Minorca, with a good harbour, on the N.W. coat, fur-
rounded with walls and baftions; it contains two churches,
four convents, and 600 honfes. N. lat. 40° 2’. E. long.
4° 3—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Paduan; 19 miles
N.N.W. of Padua.—Alfo, a town of the Paduan, near the
Brenta, between Vicenza and Trevigno.
Citta Ducate, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra, founded in 1308, by Robert, duke of
Calabria, and almoft ruined by an earthquake in 1703; the
the fee of a bifhop; 18 miles W. of Aquila.
Citta Deva Pieve, a town of Italy, in the province
of Perugia; the fee of a bifhop; 18 miles W. of Perugia,
and 638 N. of Rome.
Citta Dex Sore, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Tufcany, built in the year 1565, by Cofmo I. duke of
Tufcany ; 16 miles S.S.W. of Ravenna.
Citta Nuova, a town of [itria; 7 miles S. of Umago.
CITTADINI, Prer-Francesco, called // Milanefe, in
Biography, a painter very much efteemed for his {mall
piétures. He was born at Milan inthe year 1626; but ata
very early period fettled in Bologna, where heis faid to have
been inftructed by Guido: he foon became admired for the
univerfality of his. genius, and the beauty and freedom of
his painting ; and it is thought he would have proved one
of the greateit artifts of his fchool, had he not fo entirely
devoted himfelf to painting in fmall. His little pictures,
whether reprefenting rural feafts, dances, fpectacles, or
land{capes, are equally admired; and his reprefentations of
fruit, flowers, and flill hfe, are confidered {uperior to thofe
of any of his Bolognefe cotemporaries. Many of his works
are in the collections at Bologna, where he died, in the year
1681. Lanzi, Storia Pittoriea. Orlandi. Crefpi.
Citrapin1, Carro, Gro. Batista, and Ancio. M1-
CHELE, three fons of Pier-Francefco Cittadini, were all of
them painters of fome note, in the ftyle of their father.
Carlo and Gio, Batifta, like him, excelled equally in figures
and in {till life; but Angiol Michele principally confined
himfelfto pi€tures of fruits and flowers. Carlo had two
fons, Garrano, a good land{cape painter, and Gio. Giro-
L4Mo, who, like his uncle Angiol Michele, fatisfied himfelf
with the more humble province of dead game, flowers, and
other ftill obje&ts. Gio. Batifta died in 1692. Gio. Giro-
lamo was living towards the latter part of the 15th century,
Lanzi. Orlandi. Crefpi.
CITTERN, or Gerern, corrupted from the Spanifh,
citara, a guitar, and citron, a guitar-make?.
CITTOWIANY, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ;
10 miles N. of Rofienne.
CITULA, in Jchthyology, the name given by Paulus
Jovianus, and others to the common dory, or doree, zeus
Artedi adopted the fame as a generic name for this and
feveral other fifhes of the fame natural family.
CITUS, is the name given by Salvian (aguat.) to the
cottus gobio of later naturalifts ; and river bull-bead of Eng-
lifh writers.
CITY, or Citry, Urbs, a large town inclofed with a
wall; or a town incorporated, which is or hath been the fee
of a bifhop.
It is hard to give any jut definition of a city; becaufe
cultom has referved the appellation of towns, to many places
which feem to have every thing requifite to conititute cities.
Formerly city, according to fome, was only underitood of
fuch towns as were bifhops’ fees: which diftinction feems
fill to holdin England, though no-where elfe. See Bisuoe
and Diocese.
According to Cowel, city, or civitas, is atown corporate,
which hath a bifhop and cathedral church, which is called
civitas, oppidum, and urbs ; civitas, becaufe it is governed by
jultice and order of magiftracy ; oppidum, as it contains a
great number of inhabitants; and wrds, becaufe it is in due
form begirt about with walls. But Crompton, in his Jurif-
diGions, where he reckons up the cities, omits Ely, although
it has a bifhop and a cathedral church, and inferts Weltmin-
{ter, though it hath not now a bifhop: and fir Edward Coke
makes Cambridge a city, and yet there is no mention of its
ever having been an epifcopal fee. It appears, indeed, by
the ftat. 35 Hen. VIII. c. 10, that Weltminfter had a
bifhop ; fince which time, in ftat. 17 Eliz. c. 5, it is deno-
minated a city or borough: and yotwithitanding the ob-
fervation of Coke with refpeét to Cambridge, in the ftat.
1r Hen. VII. c. 4, Cambridge is called merely a town. We
learn, however, from Burnet’s Reformation (Appendix ),
that Weftminiter retained the name of city, not becanfe it
had been a bifhop’s fee, but becaufe it was exprefsly created
fuch in the letters-patent by king Henry VIIL., erecting it
into a bifhopric. There was a fimilar claufe in favour of
the other five new created cities, viz. Chefler, Peterborough,
Oxford, Gloucefter, and Briftol. Mr. Hargrave, in his
Notes to 1 Inft. 110, proves, that althongh Weitminfter is a
city, and has fent citizens to parliament from the time of
Edward VI., it never was incorporated: and this is a f{trik-
ing inftance in contradiétion to the learned opinion there re-
ferred to; viz. that the king could not grant, within time of
memory, to any place the right of fending members to par-
liament, without firit creating that place a corporation.
Lord Coke feems anxious to rank Cambridge among the
cities ; and Mr. Woodefon, Jate Vinerian profeflor (fee his
Leétures, i. 302.), has produced a decifive authority that
cities and bifhop’s {ees had not originally any neceflary con-
neétion with each other. It is that of Ingulphus, who re-
lates, that at the great council aflembled in 1072, to fettle
the claim of precedence between the two archbithops, it was
decreed that bifhops’ fees fhould be transferred from towns
to citics. The above authority derives ftrong confirmation
from the fa@, that the fame diltin@iion was not paid to
bifhops’ fees in Ireland.
The term city hadits rife, among us, fince the Conquett ;
for in the time of the Saxons there were no cities, but all
great towns were called burghs. ‘Thus, London was called
London burgh ; as the capital of Scotland is now called
Edinburgh.
And for a long time after the Conqueft, city and burgh
were ufed promifcuoufly. Thus, in the charter of Leicefter,
that place is called both civitas and burgus ; which fhews that
lord Coke and other writers are miftaken, who tell us that
every city was, or is, a bifhop’s fee. Hence it fhould git
that
Cr O98 a
«hat though the term city fignifies with us fuch a town cor-
porate as hath ufually a bifhop and a cathedralehurch, yet it
is not always fo.
However, Chaffanzus, “ De Confuetud. Burgund.”’ fays,
France has within its territories roa cities; and gives his
reafon, becaufe it has fo many archbifhops and bifhops.
Cities and villages held formerly, in the time of the feudal
government, of fome great lord, on whom they depended for
protection ; and to whofe arbitrary juri{di@tion they were
fubject: and the inhabitants were deprived of the natural,
and moft unalienable rights of humanity.
They could not difpofe of the effeéts, acquired by their
own induitry, either by will, or by any deed executed during
their life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their
children, whilft they were minors. They were not permitted
to marry without purchafing the confent of the lord on whom
they depended. If once they commenced a law-fuit, they
were not allowed to terminate it by an accommodation, be-
caufe the lord in whofe court they pleaded would thus have
been deprived of the perquifites due to him in pafling fen-
tence. Services of various kinds, equally difgraceful and
oppreffive, were exacted from them without mercy or mo-
deration. The {pirit of induftry was checked in fome cities by
abfurd regulations, and in others by unreafonable exactions ;
nor would the narrow and oppreffive maxims of a military
ariltocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any degree of
height or vigour. But asfoon as the cities of Italy began
to turn their attention to commerce, and to conceive fome
idea of the advantages which they might derive from it,
they became impatient to fhake off the yoke of their info-
lent lords, and to eftablifh among themfelves fuch a free and
equal government as would render property fecure, and in-
duttry flourifhing. Concurring circum{tances encouraged
the inhabitants of fome of the Jtalian cities, towards the
beginning of the 11th century, to aflume new privileges, to
unite more clofely together, and to form themfelves into
bodies politic, governed by laws eftablifhed by common con-
fent. ‘Dhe rights which many cities acquired by bold or
fortunate ufurpation, others purchafed from the emperors,
who deemed themfelves gainers when they received large
fums for immunities which they were no longer able to with-
hold; and fome cities obtained them gratuitoufly from the:
generofity or facility of the princes on whom they depend-
ed. The great increafe of wealth, which the crufades
brought into Italy, occafioned a new kind of fermentation
and activity in the minds of the people, and excited fuch a
general paflion for liberty and independence, that before
the conclufion of the laft erufade, all the confiderable cities
in that country had either purchafed or extorted large im-
munities from the emperors. As foon as their liberties were
eftablifhed, and they began to feel their own importance,
they endeavoured to render themfelves mafters of the cer-
ritory round their walls; which, under the Romans, be-
longed to each town, but which under the prevalence of the
feudal policy had been feized and fhared among the con-
querors. The barons, to whom the circumjacent lands were
granted, erected their caltles almoft at the gates of the ci-
ties, and exercifed their jurifdiétion there. Many of the
cities in Italy attacked their troublefome neighbours, and dif-
poffefling them, annexed their territories to the communi-
tes, and thus acquired a very confiderable addition of pow-
er, Several inttances of this kind occur in the rith, and
the beginning of the 12th century. As increafing power
enlarged the profpects of ambition, the cities procceded to
attack feveral barons at a greater diftance, and compelled
them to become members of their communities; to take
zhe oath of fidelity to their magiftrates, to fubje@ their
lands to all burdens and taxes impofed by common confent,
to defend the communities againft all their enemies, and to
refide within the refpe€tive cities during a fpecified time in
each year. This ftate, into which fome nobles were com-
pelled to enter, others embraced from choice, with a view
to their fecurity and credit. Accordingly they voluntarily
became citizens of the towns to which their lands were
moft contiguous, and, abandoning their ancient cattles,
took up their refidence in the cities, at leaft for fome part
of the year. This privilege was deemed fo important, that
not only laymen, but ecciefiaftics of the highett rank, con-
detcended to be adopted as members of the great communi«
ties, in hopes of enjoying the fafety and digmity which that
conferred. Hence cities not only beeame more populous,
but were filled with inhabitants of better rank ; anda cuf-
tom which {till fubfifts in Italy, was then introduced, that
all families of diftinGtion refide more conttantly in the great
towns than is ufual in other parts of Europe. ;
Whilft cities were thus acquiring new dignity by the ac-
ceffion of fuch citizens, they became more {ulicitous to pre-
ferve their liberty and independence. ‘The emperors, as
fovereigns, had anciently a palace in almoft every great city
of Italy; in which they occafionally refided, and at this
time the troops that accompanied the; were quartered in
the houfes of the citizens. This, however, they deemed
both ignomirious and dangeroue, and they combined to re-
filt and abolith the pra€tice. With this view they required
the emperers to ereét them in the fuburbs. By degrees
thefe encroachments of the Italian cities alarmed-the em-
perors, and fcliemes were meditated for reftraining them.
In this enterprife Frederick Barbarofla engaged with great
ardour. Upon this the free cities of Italy joined tozether
in a general league, and ftood in their defence ; and after a
long conteft, carried on with: alternate fuccefs, a folemn .
treaty of peace was concluded at Conftance, A. D. 1183,
by which all the privileges and immunities granted by for-
mer emperors to the principal cities of Italy were confirmed
and ratitied. This treaty fecured very important privileges
to the confederate cities; and though a confiderable degree
of authority and jurifdiction was referved by it to the em-
pire, yet the cities perfevered fo vigoroufly in their efforts
for extending their immunities, and they enjoyed fuch fa-
vourable conjun@tures for this purpofe, that, before the-con-
clufion of the 13th century, moft of the great cities in Italy
had fhaken off ali marks of fubjeGtion to the empire, and
were become independent fovereign republics.
This innovation on the part of cities was not long known
in Italy, before it made its way into France, andalfo intoother
countries of Europe, from A. D. 1108 to A. D. 1137... In
lefs than two centuries, fervitude was abolifhed in moft of
the towns of France, and they became free corporations, in=
ftead of dependent villages, without jurifdiGion or privileges.
Much about the fame period, the great cities in Germany
began to acquire like immunities, and laid the foundation of
their fubfequent liberty and independence. The ancient
Germans, it fhould be recolleQed, had no cities. ‘hey con-
fidered it as a badge of fervitude to be obliged to inhabit a
city furrounded with walls. (Tacit. de Mor, Germ. c. 16.
Id. Hiltor. |. iv. c. 64.) The Romans built feveral cities
of note on the banks of the Rhine; but in all the extenfive
countries from that river to the coafts of the Baltic, there
was hardly one city previous to the gth century of the
Chriftian era. Under Charlemagne, and the emperors of
his family, feveral cities were founded in Germany, and men
became accuftomed to aflociate and live together in one place,
Charlemagne founded two archbifhoprics and nine bifhoprics
in the molt confiderable towns of Germany. His fucceffors
increafed .
Ca. TY:
increafed their number; and as bifhops fixed their refidence
in thefe cities, and performed religious funétions there, many
people were thus induced to fettle in them. However,
Henry, furnamed the Fowler, who began his reign A. D.
920, mult be confidered as the great founder of cities in
Germany; which he eftablifhed in order to counteratt the
incurfions of the Hungarians and other barbarous people.
He thus encouraged his fubje@ts to fettle in thefe cities,
furrounded with walls and towers, and by enjoining or per-
fuading fome of the nobility to fix their refidence in the
towns, he rendered the condition of citizens more honour-
able than it had-formerly-been. From this period the num-
ber of cities continued to increafe, and thus became more
populous and more wealthy. Various circumitances con-
tributed to their increafe. The eftablifhment of bifhoprics,
and alfo the building of cathedrals, induced many pecple
to fettle there. Befides, it became the cultom to hold coun-
cils and courts of judicature of every kind, ecclefiaftical as
well as civil, in cities. In the 11th century many flaves
were enfranchifed, and many of them fettled in cities.
Several mines were difcovered and wrought in different pro-
winces, which, drawing together a great concourfe of people,
gave rife to feveral cities. In the 13th century the cities
began to form leagues for their mutual defence, and for re-
preffing the diforders occafioned by the private wars among
the barons, as well as by their exactions. This rendered
the condition of thofe who inhabited cities more fecure than
that of any other order of men, and allured many to become
members of their communities.
Although the cities of Germany did not acquire liberty
at-fo early a period as’'thofe in France, they extended their
privileges much farther. All the imperial and free cities,
ef which the number is confiderable, acquired the full right
of being immediate, i.e. of being fubjeé&t to the empire alone,
and poffefling, within their own precinéts, all the rights of
complete and independent fovereignty. The practice of
eltablifhing cities, which was adopted in Italy, France, and
Germany, {pread quickly over other parts of Europe, and
prevailed in Spain, England, Scotland, and all the other
eudal kingdoms. It appears from Mariana, that in 1350,
28 cities had obtained a feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In
Aragon cities feem to have acquired at an early period exten-
five immunities, together with a fhare in the legiflature. In
3118, the citizens of Saragoffa had not only obtained po-
litical liberty, but were declared to be of equal rank with
the nobles of the fecond clafs ; and many other immunities
were conferred uponthem. In England, as we have already
obferved, the eftablifhment of communities or corporations
was pofterior. to the Conquelt; and the practice was bor-
rowed from France. Lord Lyttelton, however, fuggetts,
in his * Hiftory of Henry II. (vol. ii. p. 317.) that fome of
the towns in England were formed into corporations under
the Saxon kings, and that the charters granted by the kings
of the Norman race, were not charters of enfranchifement
from a {tate of flavery, but a confirmation of priVilezes which
they already enjoyed. However this be, the Englith cities
were very inconfiderable in the 12th century.
The inftitution of cities was interefting and beneficial. Its
influence on government, as well as manuers, was no lefs exten-
five than falutary. It was the means of releafing a great body
of the people from flavery, and of promoting the interefts of
general liberty and of general fecurity. 1t contributed alfo
to the revival of a fpirit of indultry ; to the profperity of
commerce ; to the increafe of population ; to the diffufion
of wealth, and toa greater degree of refinerment in the man-
ners, and in the habits of life. Together with this improve-
Vot. VIII.
ment in manners, a more regular kind of gevernment and
police was introduced, ftatutes and regulations became ne-
ceflary with the increafing populoufnefs of cities, and all
became fenfible that their common fafety depended on ob-
ferving them with exaGtnefs, and on punifhing fuch as vio-
lated them with vromptitude and vigour. Laws and fubordi-
nation, 28 well as polifhed manners, took their rife in cities, and
infenfibly diffufed themfelves through the reft of the focicty.
When the inhabitants of cities had obtained perfonal free-
dom and municipal jurifdi@tion, they foon acquired civil
liberty and political power. In procefs of time the repre-
fentatives of cities gained a place in the legiflature; and this
event had great influence on the form and genius of govern-
ment. It tempered the rigour of ariftocratical oppreffion,
with a proper mixture of popular liberty ; it fecured to the
great body of the people, hitherto unreprefented, ative and
powerful guardians of their rights and privileges; and it
eftablifhed an intermediate power between the king and
nobles, to which each had recourfe alternately, and which at
fome times oppofed the ufurpations of the former, and on
other occafions checked the encroachments of the latter.
After the inhabitants of towns had been declared free by the
charters of communities, the other part of the people which
refided in the country, and was employed in agriculture,
began to recover liberty by enfranchifment. Accordingly,
the enfranchifment of flaves became more frequent in France,
Italy, Germany, and England. In our own country more
efpecially, as the {pirit of liberty gained ground, the very
name and idea of perfonal fervitude, without any formal in-
terpofition of the legiflature to prohibit it, were totally
banifhed. _ Upon the whole we may obferve, with Dr. Ro-
bertfon, that the eftablifhment of communities contributed
more perhaps than any other caufe, to introduce regular
government, police, and arts, and to diffufe them over
Europe. Hilt. Ch. V. vol. i. pafim. See CHarrers of
Community.
City, Crviras, in {peaking of antiquity, fignifies a ftate,
or people, with all its dependencies, conftituting a particular
republic. Such are ftill feveral cities of the empire, and the
Swifs cantons. :
Though the ancient Gauls were, in effect, only one na-
tion; they were yet divided into feveral people,. which
formed as may different ftates: or, to fpeak with Czfar, as
many different civitates, cities. Defides that each city had
its peculiar affemblies, it fent deputies too, from time to
time, to the general aflemblies held on affairs relating to
their common interett.
Ciry is particularly ufed to exprefs the heart of the place.
At Paris they have the city and the uwniver/ity ; at London
we have the city and the /udurébs.
It has been obferved that large cities are more liable than
other places to peltilential and putrid diforders, which is
owing to the ftagnation and corruption of the air. ‘This
is always the cafe in thofe which are low and unprovided
with common fewers ; where the {treets are narrow and foul,
the houfes dirty, water fcarce, and jails and hofpitals
crowded ; alfo, when in fickly times the burials are within
the walls, or when dead animals and offals are left to rot in
the kennels, or on dunghills ; when drains are not provided
to carry off any large body of ftagnating water in the
neighbourhood ; when flefh-meats make the greateft part
of the diet, without a proper mixture of greens, bread, wine,
or fermented liquors ; from the ufe of old mouldy grain. In
proportion to the number of thefe and the like caufes con-
curring, a city will be more or lefs fubje& to peftilential
difeafes, or to receive the leaven of the true plague, brought
Tat inte
CLE.
into it by any merchandize. An excellent writer empha-
tically calls them the graves of the human fpecies. Sce
Bills of Morvauiry.
However, as great cities furnifh many materials for vitiating
the air, they likewife afford two confiderable antidotes ; the
firit aries from the circulation of the air, by means of the
con{tant motion of people and carriages, and of the draughts
made by fires ; the other depends on the great quantity of
an acid produced by fuel, the ftrongeft refifter of putre-
faction.
City, Advocate of the. See ApvocaTE.
City, Capital. See Capirar.
Ciries, College of. See Cortecs.
Cities, Fore. See Forest.
City, Freedom of a. See Freenom.
City, Honours of the. See Honours.
Cities, Jmperial. See IMPERIAL.
Cites, Municipal. See Muwicirat.
City, Provo of the. See Provost.
CIVES, in Botany and Gardening. See Atrium.
CIVET, a kind of perfume, bearing the name of the ani-
mal whence it is taken.
The word comes from the Arabic zilet or xebed, /cum,
froth.
The animal, commonly known by the name of the civet,
or civet-cat, is the “ Viverra civetta’? of Linnzus, the
«“ Meles fafciis et maculis albis, nigris et rufefcentibus
variegata”’ of Briffon, the “felis zibethi”” of Gefner, the
« civette?’ of Buffon, and the “ afh-coloured weefel, fpotted
with black, with chefnut-coloured mane, and dufky tail
fpotted towards the bafe’’ of Dr. Shaw. Its general
length, from nofe to tail, is fomewhat more than two feet,
and the tail meafures 14 inches. The ground-colour of
the body is yellowifh afh grey, marked with large blackifh
or dufky fpots, difpofed in longitudinal rows on each fide,
with fometimes a tinge of ferruginous ; the hair is coarle,
and along the top of the back ttands up, forming a fort of
mane; the head is of a lengthened or fharpifh form; with
fhort rounded ears; the eyes are of a bright fky-blue; the
tip of the nofe black ; the fides of the face, chin, breaft,
legs, and feet are black ; the remainder of the face, and part
of the fides of the neck, are of a yellowifh-white; from
each ear are three black ftripes, terminating at the throat
and fhoulders; the tail is generally black, but fometimes
marked with pale or whitifh fpots on each fide of the bafe.
Some naturalifts, and particularly Belon, will have it to be
the fame with the hyzna of the ancients, and calls it
* hyena odorifera.”” But Buffon obferves, that it has no-
thing in common with the hyena, except the fiffure or fac,
under the tail, and the mane along the neck and {pine. It
differs from the hyena in the figure and fize of the body,
being one-half fmaller. Its ears are fhort, and covered
with hair, while thofe of the hyena are long and naked.
Befides, it has fhorter limbs, aud five toes on each foot ;
but the legs of the hywna are long, and it has only four
toes on each foot. Neither does the civet dig the earth in
queft of dead bodies. ‘Thefe animals, therefore, are eafily
diftinguifhed. The civet is an animal of a wid difpcfition,
and lives in the ufual manner of others of this genus, preying
on birds, the {maller quadrupeds, &c. It is a native of
feveral parts of Africa and India; but not of America, as
fome have erroneovfly afferted; though it has been tranf-
ported thither from the Philippine iflands, and the coaft of
Guinea. This animal, as well as the ‘ sibet,’? though
originally natiyes of the warm climates of Africa and Afia,
are capable of fubfifting in temperate and even in cold
Civ
countries, provided they ave defended from the injuries of
the weather, and fed with fucculent nourifhment. Num-
bers of them are kept in Holland for the fake of procuring
and felling the perfume which they yield, called civet, and
fometimes erroneoufly confounded with mufk. There isa
confiderable traffic of civet from Baffora, Cahcut, and other
places, where the animal that produces it is bred; though
great part of the civet among us is furnifhed by the Dutch,
who rear a confiderable number of the animzls. That
which is obtained from Amfterdam is preferred to that
which comes from the Levant or India, becaufe the latter
is generally lefs pure. That brought from Guinea would
be the beit, if the negroes, as well as the Indians and Le-
vanters, did not adulterate it with the juices of plants, or
with labdanum, ftorax, and other balfamic and edoriferors
drugs. This perfume is gathered from time to time; and
itil! abounds in proportion as the animal is fed. Before any
of thefe animals were feen in Europe, or it had been ob-
ferved how the perfume had been gathered, the common.
opinion, founded on the relations of travellers, was, that it
was the {fweat of that animal, when irritated and provoked
into rage. To this effeét, it was faid, that the animal was
inclofed in an iron cage, and, after having been a long time
beaten with rods, they gathered witha {poon, through the bars
of the cage, and between the thighs of the animal, the fweat
or foam, which the rage andagitation had produced; and that,.
without this precaution, the animal would yield no perfume
at all; which is undoubtedly falfe. This fubftance is a
fecretion formed in a large double glandular receptacle,.
fituated at fome little diltance beneath the tail, and which
the animal empties fpontaneoufly. When the civet-cats
are kept in a ftate of confinement (as is ufually the cafe
with the perfumers at Amfterdam and other places), they
are placed, from time to time, in {trong weoden cages or
receptacles, fo con{truéted as to prevent the creature from
turning round and biting the perfon employed in colleGting~ -
the fecreted fubftance ; this operation is faid to be gene=
rally performed twice a week, and is done by feraping out
the civet with a {mall {patula or fpoon. The fubitance is
of a yellowifh colour, and of the confiltence of an unguent 5
of an extremely itrong, ard even unpleafant odour when
frefh, fo as fometimes to caufe giddinefs and head-ach ; but
becomes more agreeable by keeping, though this is denied
by the Drench academicians of the laft century ; the quan-
tity obtained each time amounts to about a dram, The
quantity fupplied depends much on the quality of the
nourifhment, and the appetite of the animal, which always
produces more in proportion to the goodnefs of its food.
Boiled flefh, eggs, rice, fmall animals, birds, young poultry,
and efpecially fifhes, are the beft kinds of food, and they
ought to be fo varied as to preferve the health and excite
the appetite. He requires very little water; and though
he drinks feldom, he difcharges urine frequently ; and in this
operation, the male is not to be diftinguifhed from the
female. When the fecreted fubftance becomes incommo-=
dious to the animal on account of its quantity, or when the
refervoirs are too full, it is provided with proper mufcles
for {queezing it out. The perfume of the animals is fo
ftrong that it infects all parts of the body: the hair and the
fkin are fo thoroughly penetrated with this odour, that they
retain it long after death ; and, during life, it is fo violent
as to be quite infupportable, efpecially if a perfon be fhut
up in the fame apartment with the animal. When heated
with rage, the odour becomes more highly exalted; and if
the animal be tormented till he fweats, the keeper collects
the {weat, which has likewife a ftrong feent, and ferves for
adulterating,
Gh y: ;
‘adulterating, or, at leaf, augmenting the quantity of the
perfume.
Befides the India and Dutch civet, there is alfo a
civet from Brafil, Guinea, &c. like that of India.
There is another animal, wz. the ‘ Viverra zibetha,”
(which fee) or zibet of Buffon, that agrees in difpofition
and manners with that above deferibed ; and which yields
a fecretion of perfume that is colleGied in the fame manner.
Crvet, though an article in the more ancient Materia
Medica, and though {tutl employed by the oriental phy-
ficians, is ufed with us chiefly in perfumes. It has a very
fragrant fmell, and a fub-acrid tafle ; it unites readily with
oils, both expreffed and diftiled; in watery or fpirituous
menttrua, it does not diffolve, but impregnates the fluids
ftrongly with its odour. It may, -however, be made to
unite with, or be foluble in water, by means of rubbing
with mucilages. Civet has been fumetimes ufed medici-
nally in a thicknefs of hearing ariting from cold; in which
cafe, a grain or two being put ina little cotton or wool,
and the ears ftopped with it, is fometimes of fervice.
Shaw’s Zool. vol. i. part 2. Buffon by Smelly, vol. y.
CIVIC Crown, among the Romans, was a garland made
of oak-leaves and acorns, or of ground oak, and was given as
a reward to fuch as had faved a citizen’s life in battle, or
refeued him after being taken prifoner. This crown was
highly efteemed ; and was given as an honovr to Angullus
Cezfar, who on that occafion caufed coms to be ftruck, in-
fcribed og civEs servAros. It was alfo given to Cicero,
after his difcovery of Catiline’s confpiracy. See Crown.
CIVIDAD pas Paimas, in Geography, a fea-port town
of the Grand Canary ifland, called alfo Canary, which fee.
Civivap Real. See Cuiara.—Alfo, the capital of the
province of Guaira, in the ealtern divifion of Paraguay.—
Alfo, a town of Spain, and capital of La Mancha, famous
for a manufaciure of leather gloves. It has three churches,
feven convents, and three hofpitals ; 7 miles from Toledo.
Civipan de los Reyes, a town of South America, in the
country of ‘Terra Firma, and province of St. Martha. The
heat is moderated in fummer by the eaft wind; but frequent
rains and chilling blafts from the mountains produce coughs
and fevers. The adjacent land is fertile, and abounds in
paftures. The inhabitants are numerous, warlike, and hi-
therto unfubdued.
Crivipap del Rey Felippe, a town built in 1585 on the
continent of South America, near the ftraits of Maghellan,
but foon abandoned.
Civipap del Rio del St. Pedro, atown of South America,
in Brafil, fituated at the mouth of the river St. Pedro.
S. lat. 32°. W.long. 34° 15’.
-Civipap Rodrigo, a town of Spain in Leon, feated on the
river Aguada, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Compotltella ;
built by Ferdinand II. as a rampart againft Portugal, from
which it is about 8 miles diftant ; 45 miles S.S.W. from
Salamanca. N. lat. 40° 52’. W. long. 6°15’ 24’.
CIVIERE, a {mall hand-barrow carried by two men,
and much ufed in the artillery, particularly at mortar batte-
ries,
CIVIL, Civinis, in its general fenfe, denotes fomething
that regards the policy, public good, or peace of the citizens,
or fubje&s of a ftate. In this fenfe we fay, civil govern-
ment, civil law, civil rights, civil war, &c.
Crit, ina Legal Senfe, is alfo applied to the ordinary
procedure in aneaction relating to fome pecuniary matter, or
intereft. In which fenfe it is oppofed to criminal.
Civin dion. See Action.
Civit Architefure. The hiftory of archite&ture, in a
Seneral fenfe, would require an account of all the modes of
Civ
building pratifed at different times amon the various nas
tions of the earth; but as it is not confiftent with the plan
of the prefent work to include in one treatife the entire con-
fideration cf any fcience, we fhall follow the fubdivifion
which the fubjeé naturally prefents, and treat of archite¢ture
as an ufeful andasa fineart. The former has been ah: eady con-
fidered under the article Buitpine ; and the prefent article
will be devoted to the inveftigation of the latter, in which we
fhall confine our attention to the architeGure of Greece, and
its imitators, the oaly ftyle of building which, proceeding on
a reafoned fy {tem of imitation, and regalar proportions, has a
title to be ranked among the fine arts.
Greece, which, after the decline of Egypt, became fo
eminent, pretended to no high antiquity, or remote origin,
Her hiltory reaches not many centuries back from that eva
which beheld her flourifhing in arts and letters beyond all
that the world had known before. The perfon to whom fhe
attributes the invention of the common conveniencies of life,
exited long after Egypt had become a powerful and en-
lightened kingdom. Promethevs, whofe fuppofed age is
not more than 1600 years prior to the Chrifttan epoche. is
introduced by /Efchylus, in his tragedy, as enumerating the
various benefits which he had conferred upon mankind:
among it the reft he taught them (he fays) to conftruét houfes
with bricks and timber; for till then they knew nothing of
building, but dwelt in holes and caverns.
This perfonage (like many others to whom the invention
of ufeful arts is attributed) is probably nothing more than fac+
titious: or perhaps the Grecks might defign, by this appel-
lation, to preferve the character, when they had forgotten
the name, of their benefectors. Prometheus, which fignifies
prudence, is a term jultly applicable to the fagacity of all
thofe who made the cifcoveries that are afcribed to that per-
fon. And the age which is affigned to him, the time when
he is {uppofed to have lived, whatever be reprefented under
his ftory, will determine the period which the Greeks ac-
knowledge for the origin of their civilization.
The priority cf Homer to all other Grecian authors, his
extenfive acquaintance with the arts, and his faithful and
animated defcription of the manners of his age, impart a fin-
gular value to whatever information be conveys upon thofe
topics. It may be amufing to collect, from his poems,
what was the ftate of architeCture at his time in that
country, where it was deftined, within a few generations
afterwards, to attain to a pitch of excellence unequalled
either in ancient or modern annals.
The houfes (the only fpecies of edifices of which Homer
has given any detail) had acourt in front, which was fenced
around, fometimes with ftone. An altar to the fupreme deity
(Jupiter) ttood in the middle of the court, and one or more
fides of it were ornamented with a portico, where it was a
cuftom to lodge the guefts. Dogs were kept here for a
guard to the houfe; and fometimes pictures of them were
placed here: here alfo were the ftables. This particular,
viz. the fituation of the ftables, was obferved by the Greeks
in later ages, when, as Vitruvius relates, they built their
houfes without any court in front. In the houfe itfelf the
ground-rooms were lofty, and fupported either by one or
more columns. ‘I'he upper ftory was appropriated to the
women; who were not, however, in that age, fecluded from
the common apartment, or the company of ftrangers. We
learn that the roofs of the houfes were flat, by an accident
which befel one of the companions of Ulyffes ; who having
got intoxicated at the houfe of Circé, fell from the roof and
was killed. From time immemorial the fame kind of roofs
has been common in the fouthern and ealtern countries, and
the fame kind of accidents has attended them: fo that the
yt Jews
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
Jews-had a law refpe&ing raofs, Deut. c. 22. v. 8, by which
they were obliged to furround the top of their houfes with a
baluftrade, to prevent men from falling off.
In the liad few particulars of archire€ture are to be
found. We read there little more than that Priam’s palace
contained 50 chambers; and that Paris lived in a feparate
houfe adjoming, whieh he had built for himfelf with the af-
fiftance of fome architects. It had a hall, a chamber, and
acourt. Butitis in the Odyfley, that interefting narra-
tive, and pleafing delineation of manners, that the architec-
ture cf Homer’s age is to be traced; and efpeciaily in the
palace (if it may be fo called) of Ulyffes. This edifice
was diftinguifhed from all the reft, in lis town of Ithaca,
by having the wall of the court built cf ftone with Seiyxo
(fome crowning ornament), and a gate with folding doors.
There appears to have been but one room or hall for the re-
ception of the company; the entrance to which was from
the court. It mutt have been of great dimenfions; for it
was not only large enough to entertain above 50 perfons at
f{eparate tables, but alfo ferved for feveral other purpofes.
The columns (if they were more than onc), that ttood
within it, feem to have been as much for ufe as ornament.
They were lofty ; and the room probably rofe to the height
of two itories. The floor was paved with ftone; but rather
fu:k than raifed above the-level of the natural foil; or, at
leaft, it was lower than the ftone threfhold at its entrance.
Two flaircafes led from the hall; one to the roof, as it fhould
feem, and the other to certain ftore-rooms, whither Ulydles
conveyed ‘away the armour from the hall, left the fuitors
fhould avail themfelves of it when he came to attack them.
The windows mult have been at a great height from the
floor; for the fuitors when they were affaulted and faw
themfelves without any means of defence, neither attempt-
ed to efcape out of them, nor to call for affiltance through
them ; notwithftanding that they propofed to raife the town
in their behalf ; but they knew no other way to do this than
by getting to the roof, and the-{taircafe which led to that
was guarded againft them. On the night before they were
flain they entertained themfelves with mufic and dancing;
when the hall was lighted up by fires made upon three
moveable hearths or braziers; and during that time Ulyfles,
in the charaéter and drefs of a beggar, attended in the
room, to fupply the cleft wood which was burnt upon them
foralight. The total neglect of cleanlinefs is a feature
which marks, as ftrongly as any, the condition, perhaps
the riot and licentioufnefs, of Ulyfles’ houfe. For to omit
other particulars, fuch as the dunghill lying by the path
way from the court-gate tothe hall-door, the hall itfelf was
the place where they killed, or at leaft cut up and dreft their
beaits ; and they held the feafts in the midft of the fkins and
offal. When, upon the difcovery of Ulyffes, the fuitors were
inclofed and deftroyed in the hall, the herald, who was
among them, faved his life by hiding himfelf under a fin,
that was newly taken off and left there ; and when one of
the fuitors defigned to infult Ulyffes while he was fitting at
meat near Telemachus, he found a bullock’s foot lying clofe
by him, which he took up and threw at his head.
Within about four centuries from this era of coarfe man-
ners in Greece did the fame people arrive at the highelt ex-
cellence in the polite arts that had ever been attained. And
though that fpace of time may appear fufficiently long for
the acquifition of any {cience, according to modern ideas, it
is to be remembered that thofe ages wanted our means of
communicating knowledge; for writing and books were then
almoft unknown. By what fteps they made fuch a progrefs
is not related; but that the varieties in architeéture, the
Tonic and Corinthian orders and all the ornaments, were in-
vented within the period, is juftly inferred from Homer’s
filence concerning them. Had architecture, at that time,
been diftinguifhed by its feveral orders, or decorated with an
entablature of carved work, we fhould have heard from the
Grecian, as we have from our own bard, of Doric frize
and cornice; for he evidently takes a delight in deferibmg all
the arts which then exifted, and he was fond of difplaying
his learning.
The progrefs of improvement in Grecian archite&ture ap-
pears to have occupied a period of about three centuries,
from the age of Solon and Pythagoras beginning with the
year, before Chrift, Goo, when the temples of Jupiter, at
Olympia and in the capitol of Rome, thofe at. Samos,
Priene, Ephefns, and Magnefia, were begun, to the time
when, under the adminiltration of Pericles, the ornamental
ftyle of Grecian architeéture attained its utmoft beauty and
perfection, in the temple of Minerva in the acropolis of
Athens, built after the model of that of Jupiter at Olym-
pia, and finally concluding this firit period with the comple-
tion of the temple of Diana at Ephefus, in the time of
Alexander, which, as Pliny informs us, had been 220 years
in building, one of the columns being the work of Scopas.
The ancient temple of Minerva,at Tegea in Arcadia,
having been dettroyed, a fecond edifice was ereéted under
the direction of Scopas, far exceeding in fplendour and
magnificence every building of the kind in the Peloponnefus.
In this ftru@ture the three Grecian orders of architeéture
were employed. Within the enclofure were galleries fup-
ported by Doric and Corinthian columns furrounding the
hypzthros or open area of the cella. On the outfide of
the temple were porticos of the Ionic order. The facades
were enriched with fculpture. (Paufanias, 1]. viii.) To
thefe examples may be added the temples in Sicily, as far
as Gelo or Hiero may have contributed to their conftruc-
tion, though many of them, as well as thole ef Paitum,
may poflibly have had an earlier date.
Of all the phenomena in the political hiftory of mankind,
there is none more curious and wonderful than the great
comparative degree of ftrength and power, both internal
and external, acquired by thofe little ftates whofe only ter-
ritory was a petty ifland, a narrow ilthmus, or a rocky
promontory, from which they fent out their piratical fleets
to every part of the Mediterranean, and planted colonies on
all its coafts, in defiance of the proud monarchs who ruled
the extenfive and populous plains of Afia and Egypt, or
the rude and hardy barbarians who inhabited the no lefs fer-
tile regions of Sicily and Italy. Not only the leading
ftates, fuch as Athens, Corinth, and Syracufe, but Pzf-
tum, Segefta, and Selinus, little obfcure republics, whofe
names alone can be gleaned from hiftory by the diligence of
the antiquary, have ere¢ted public works which would be
a confiderable enterprize for the greateft nations of modern
times. The portico of the great temple of Selinus in Si-
cily, which is one of fix {till remaining, though proftrate
and in ruins on the fite of that city, confitted of a double
periftile of eight columns in front and feventeen in depth,
each of which was ten feet diameter and fifty feet high. -
In confidering the buildings of antiquity, and particularly
of Greece, the firft circumitance that {trikes us is their ex-
treme fimplicity and even uniformity of plan; the temples of
Greece were invariably quadrilateral buildings, differing
only in fize, number of columns, and difpofitions of the
porticos, which either ornamented the front alone or. fur-
rounded every fide. Prior to the Macedonian conqueft all
the temples of Greece and its colonies, in Sicily and Italy,
appear to have been of one order, the Doric, and one ge-
neral form, though flightly varied in particular parts, as oc-
6 calional ~
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
caftonal convenience or local fafhion might chance to re-
quire. Their general form was an oblong fquare of fix co-
lumns by thirteen, or eight by feventcen, inclofing a walled
cell, fmall in propertion, which in fome inftances appears
to have been left open to the fy, and in others covered by
the roof which protected the whole building.
The fyftem of Grecian architeGture is founded on the
fimple principles of wooden conftru€tion ; a quadrangular
area is furrounded with trunks of trees placed perpendicu-
Jarly with regular intervals; thefe {upport lintels, upon
which reft the beams of the ceilizg, and an inclined roof
covers the whole. Such was the model in which, when
touched by the hand of tafte, the poft and lintel were tranf-
muted into the column and entablature, and the wooden
hut into the temple.
It appears probable that the earlieft Greek temples were
really of wood, fince fo many of them were confumed
during the invafion of Xerxes ; and that large and magnifi-
cent edifices were fometimes compofed principally of this
material, is rendered evident by the example of the temple
of Jerufalem, which was furrounded with columns of cedar.
But builders foon adopted the more noble and durable ma-
terial of flone, and though the general fyftem of architec-
ture was already eftablifhed, its forms received fome modifi-
cation by being thus, as it were, tranflated into a new lan-
guage.
A wooden lintel, from its fibrous texture, poffeffing con-
fiderable tenacity and ftrength, in proportion to its weight,
it was practicable to form very wide intercolumniation ;
thus we are told by Vitruvius, that the ancient Tufcan tem-
ples were conftruéted with wooden architraves. Stone, on
the other hand, of a granular compofition, and of great {pe-
cific gravity, would break by its own weight in a bearing
where a timber beam would be perfectly fecure. When,
therefore, porticos were erected of ftone, it was necedflary,
in order to enfure folidity, to contra& the diftance between
the columns to very narrow limits. A wooden edifice, never
fecure from the injuries of accident or violence, prefented
no motive for any great folidity in its conftruétion. But
in ftone it is poffible, as the energetic induftry of the ancient
Egyptians has fhewn, to defy the injuries of time, and
almott the violences of rapine. The archite&t who builds
in {tone may build for eternity, and this idea will give a mo-
tive for that grand and mafly folidity fo effential to the fub-
Time of architeGture. Thefe circumftances led to the per-
feGtion of the Grecian ftyle; the original model fecured
fimplicity of form and conttruétion, while a fuperior material
preferved ‘it from the meagrenels attendant on wooden
building.
Thus arofe the Doric, or; as it might be emphatically
called, the Grecian order, the firft born of architecture ; a
compofition which bears the authentic and charaGeriftic
marks of its legitimate origin in wooden conftruétion tranf-
ferred to ftone.
In contemplating a capital example of this order, as, for
inftance, the Parthenon of Athens, how is our admira-
tion excited at this nobleft as well as earlieft invention of the
building art. What robult folidity in the column—what
mafly grandeur in the entablature—what harmony in its fim-
plicity ; not deftitute of ornament, but poflefling that orna-
ment alone with which tafte refines and dignifies the concep-
tions. of vigorous genius. No foliage adds a vain and me-
retricious decoration, but the frieze bears the achievements
of heroes, while every part, confiftent in itfelf, and bearing
a juft relation to every other part, contributes to that har-
monious effeét which maintains the power of firlt impreffions
and effects with increafing admiration in the intelligent ob-
ferver. Other orders have elegance, have magnificence, but
fublimity is the property of the Doric alone.
Flating the fhafts of a column is a pra@tice never omitted
in any great and finifhed Grecian work, and which appears
to be mentioned by Homer, who, in defcribing the column
of Ulyffes’ hall, ufes the expreffion dSovgodoyn, or Jpear-
holder, which we conceive can only mean flutes or channels
cut in the fhaft. It therefore feems probable that this or-
nament had fome relation to the original type; perhaps the
furrowed trunk might fugeeft the idea; it is, however, a
beautiful decoration, which is applied with equal happinefs
to break the otherwife heavy mafs of a Doric fhaft, or. in
the other orders, to obviate an inconfilent plainnefs. The
invention of the Ionic and Corinthian orders enlarged the
bounds of architetural compofition, and completed its
powers of expreffion.
The Ionic order was, doubtlefs, invented in that country”
whofe name it bears, and where its beft models are ftill to be
found. Vitruvius fuppofes this order to have been founded
upon the imitation of the female form, as he alfo fuppofes
the proportions of the Doric order to have been fettled upon
thofe of men. ‘The Greeks in Ionia having formed the
Doric order according to the proportions of a man, followed
the fame traces to obtain a new ordér that fhould imitate
the gracefulnefs of women, and to that end they made a
flenderer column whofe thicknefs was only one-eighth part
of its height. To this order they gave a bafe by which
they defigned to reprefent a fhoe, and the capital had a
curling ornament, called a volute, faid to refemble the treffes
of the hair dropping to the right and left. The channels
and flutings of the fhaft were the plaits of the matron’s
garment. ‘Thus arofe the invention of two orders, one of
a mafculine appearance and unadorned, the other imitating
the fine proportions of the female fhape.
The hiftory of the origin of the Corinthian order, which
might poflibly be contrived either to give an intereft to the
invention or to difguife the fource from whence it came,
though fo often repeated and fo well known, may, neverthe-
lefs, be here told once more as a pleafing anecdote of ‘an-
cient manners. A young maiden of Corinth having died,
her mother or nurfe collected in a bafket the toys which fhe
had been fond of while alive, and carried them to: her
grave, where fhe left the bafket covered with a tile to pre-
ferve its contents from the weather. The bafket happened:
to be fet upon the root of an acanthus. The plant being
thus deprefled in the middle, its leaves and ftalk {pread out-
wards, and grew up around the fides of the baflcet till they
were bent down by the tle, which lay projeéting over its
top.
AR that time Callimachus, the fculptor, chanced to pafs
by the grave, and being pleafed with the agreeable appear-
ance of the foliage, and novelty of the form, he converted
it to the purpofes of architeCture ; and having made fome
columns of a more delicate proportion than had been ufed
before, he adopted the bafket and leaves of the acanthus for
the capital; and thus eftabliihed the fymmetry and orna-
ments of the Corinthian order.
The Egyptian capitals, which are ftill to be feen deco-
rated with palm and other leaves, throw great doubt upon
this ftory. Yet Callimachus might claim great merit from
the Corinthian capital, and even fome fhare of the invention.
He might be the firft who conceived the idea of {ubftituting
the leaf of the acanthus ; and certainly the capital was im-
proved in Greece, efpecially in the happy adjuftment of its
ftalks and foliage, and this too was probably due to Calli-
machus.
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
machus. It is unfortunate for the fame of that archite&,
that no relic of this order exifts in the city which gave
name to it. :
About the fame time that Grecian architecture was rifing
to eminence, the Tufcans, by whofe name one of the five
orders is {till diftinguifhed, began to fignalize themfelves in
Italy by their fuperior fkill in building. The tomb of Por-
fenna, king of Etruria, which he founded in the city of
Clufium, is recorded by Pliny (Nat. Hilt. b. 36) as a won-
derful, but idle, {pecimen -of their art. Their works at
Rome were lefs oftentatious, but-much-more important and
ufeful. In that city they were employed in conitrudting its
walls of hewn ftone, and in raifing-theCapitol. To them
alfo muft be attributed the cloaca maxima, that extraordi-
nary piece of architecture, which has always been ranked
with the chief monuments of Roman greatnefs, and which
remains to this day an -objeét of admiration. Rome was
fortified and adorned with tbefe ftruciures at an early period,
while fhe was advancing to power and dominion under the
government-of her kings. ‘he Tarquins, in whofe reigns
thefe great works were undertaken, were of Tufcan origin.
But while a ftyle of grandeur was difplayed in the public
edifices of that city, its private buildings were mean and
poor. The life and manners of an ancient Roman citizen
were not ofa nature to difpofe him to the ftudy of architec-
ture; and when the Gauls, in the 366th year of Rome,
facked and burnt it, they deitroyed but a parcel of forry
shuts. ~Neither was the city after their departure rebuilt in
any good or improved manner. Expedition alone feems to
have been required, but order and propriety altogether ne-
gle&ted. For Livy afferts (b. 5.) that, without flaying to
have the ftreets fet out, every perion feized upon the ground
which he found vacant, fo that in many parts they built their
houfes over the common fewers (cloace) ; and that the pub-
lic gave permiffion to dig ftones and cut timber at free colt,
and fupplied roofing, that is fhingles, for all thofe who would
give fecurity to complete their houfes within a year.
Their conne@tion with Greece afterwards introduced the
Romans to the knowledge of a more elegant flile of architec-
ture ; and long before the period when Vitruvius compofed
‘his treatife, they could boaft of many good architects, and
fome authors upon the fubje@t. Of thete, one of the earlieit
and the moft eminent was Coffutius. This artift was en-
gaged by king Anticchus about 200 years before the Chnif-
tian xra, in the temple of Jupiter Olympus, which Pifittra-
tus had begun; and then was feen the novel {peGtacle of a
Roman citizen conduGting the archite€ture of the principal
edifice in Athens.
We are not to conclude from hence that the art had fo
far declined in Greece as to need the afliftance of foreigners;
nor to eltimate its progrefs at Rome by the folitary inftance
of Coffutius. The Greeks, who might efteem the age of
Pericles as the period of their higheft excellence in architec-
ture, about that time pofleffed three orders, either invented
or improved by themfelves, which were refpe€tively applica-
ble to every {pecies of building where ftrength, or elegance,
or lightnefs was requifite. ‘The fpoils of the eaft enabled
them, under Alexander and his fucceffors, to increafe the
number, and enrich the ftile, of their edifices; but the influx
of that wealth was not fo abundant as to corrupt their tafte,
or fupply the extravagancies of luxury ; and archite@ure,
among that pecple, underwent little or no change for the
worfe. The Romans as yet cultivated few arts but that of
war. Greece, and afterwards Afia, had the misfortune to
fall under their dominion. ‘The conqueit of the firft gave
them fome talte for the fine arts; the pofleflion of the latter
furnifhed them with the means of indulgence. The return of
Sylla from the Mithridatic war was the ra which was mark-
ed by the firft excefs of architeturein Rome. It was then
that Scaurus, the fon-in-law of Sylla, raifed a temporary
theatre, with fuch extravagance of decoration, that Pliny
(Net. Hift. b. 36.), who charges him as the firft who cor-
rupted the Roman morals by luxury, affirms, ‘ that the ex<
ample was more pernicious to the city, than even the pro-
feription of Sylla.”’
About fifty years before this period, an edifice of marble
was ereGted in Rome, the earlieft of its kind; that edifice
wasatemple. The ufe of marble in private buildings was
yet hardly known there; within a little time, however, it
was introduced ; firlt, in door-cafes, then in columns: after-
wards Mamurfa, an inferior officer in Julius Czfar’s army,
incrufted his whole houfe with marbie, and his example led
the way to the ufe of marble in that manner with {till great-
er profufion. But Mamurfa will appear moderate and fober
if the expences and mode of his building be compared with
thofe which took place under the emperors. The extent,
the materials, the decorations of the Roman dwellings were
then fuch as almoft exceed the limits of credibility. An av-
thor of the age of Tiberius fays, “* The man thinks himfelf
confined in his habitation now whofe houfe is not zs large as
the farm of Cincinnatus was,”’ (viz.%4 ecres.) This is not
the language of one writer only; Pliny fays the like,
«© Thofe to whom the greatnefs of this empire is owing, had
not fe much fpace for their farm, as fome now have for their
cellars.’? The golden houfe of Nero was upon a fcale much
larger flill; it extended from the Palatine hill to the Efqui-
line. A defcription of it may be feen in the life of that
emperor by Suetonius. When this pile of unparalleled ex-
travagance was completed, Nero condefcended to exprefs
his approbation of ic, fo far as to fay, “* that at laft he had
got a houfe fit fora man to live in.” ‘
Auguttus diftinguifhed himfelf by his love for building,
It was his boait, that he. had left a city of marble which he
had found of brick. Inftigated by his example, and with a
defire to pay him court, his relations, his wealthy fubje&ts,
the governors of his provinces, princes, tributary or allied to
him, ail engaged in fome enterprize of architeGture ; and the
general tranquillity cf his reign was favourable to their ope+
rations ; fo that not only in Rome and Italy, but alfo in the
re{t of his wide empire, grand and fumptuous edifices were
ere&ted. The colonies too which he fent out diffufed a
knowledge of their architecture in the countries where they
fettled ; and Spain, Africa, and Germany exhibited to their
rude inhabitants many fabrics in the Greek and Roman ityle.
But none that courted the favour of Auguttus:by exten-
five and coltly buildings could, in that refpe&, be compared
with Herod the Great, king of Judea. The architectural
defigns of this monarch were conceived and executed upon a
{cale which furpaffed all others of his age. The re-building
of the temple of Jerufalem, though a magnificent and won-
derful undertaking, which occupied for eight years the la-
‘bour of ten thoufand artificers, was yet but a {mall part of
what he performed: other parts of his dominions were
adorned by him, not merely with fingle edifices, but with en-
tire cities. And if it be any excufe in an arbitrary governor,
who burdens his people with heavy exactions, that they are
expended liberally, it may be alleged in favour of Herod,
that he raifed many ftructures of great fplendor and utility.
The city and port of Cefarea, perhaps the chief of his enter-
prizes, was eminently fo. A full account of this, and a
long catalogue of his other buildings, will be found in Jofe-
phus, in the 16th book of his Antiquities of the Jews.
Whatever might be the efteem in which architeéts were
held at Rome, there is reafon to think that the profeflion
8 was”
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE,
was lucrative ; afufficient inducement to make praétition-
ers, And if we fhould hefitate to give full credit to the af-
fertion of Vitruvius, ‘ that many prefeffed to be architects
who wanted fufficient knowledge to be mafons,”” we may yet
believe that many were fo ignorant as to commit grofs er-
rors, and many fo difingenuous, as to follow the caprices of
their employer, rather than theirown better judgment. The
emperor Domitian, who was not of a temper to bear con-
troul, engaged much in architecture ; and the ruins of his
fuperb palace are ftill remaining. The ftyle of building is
good, though not without evident faults. Thefe, however,
are not attributed fo much to the archite@, as to the caprice
of the matter, of whofe bad tafte this fignal inftance is upon
record. Domitian had plundered the temple of Jupiter in
Athens of fome of its marble columns, and brought them to
Rome, to be ere&ted in the Capitol. Before they were fet
up, he cut them anew, and, by fo doing, he deitroyed their
ju proportion, and made them too flender. Such is the ac-
count and judgment of Plutarch. hat author. fays far-
ther, “© Whoever fhould admire the coftlinefs of the Capitol,
and afterwards furvey a portico in Domitian’s palace, or a
hall, or bath, or the apartments of his concubines, might
apply what Epicharmus obferved of a profufe man: * You
have not a talte, but an itch, for building ; and, like Midas,
you defire to make every thing about you gold and precious
ttones.” (Life of Poplicola.)
Soon after the time of this emperor flourifhed Apollodo-
rus, an architect, whofe merits and unfortunate end entitle
him to an honourable diflinQion among thofe of his pro-
fcffion.
He was a native of Damafcus, who, by his eminent ta-
Jents, recommended himfelf to the patronage of the emperor
‘Trajan. Under his direction was conftructed the celebrated
bridge over the Danube; a work furpafling, in its kind,
every thing that the architeéture of Greece or Rome had
produced. He executed many other confiderable buildings,
which were elleemed the bett of their age; and in all the
noble edifices that were raifed by Trajan he was employed,
or confulted, The ftately column in Rome, which is yet
ftanding entire, and diftinguifhed by the name of Trajan’s
pillar, is a monument of the abilities of Apoilodorus. But
while he enjoyed the favour of the reigning emperor, he
negleGted to ingratiate himfelf with the pretumptive heir.
Adrian was not only fond of archite€ture, but alfo made
fome pretenfions toa fill in that fcience, which, it is re-
ported, Apollodorus was fo impudent as to ridicule. When
the empire devolved to Adrian, he built, after a defign of
his owr, a temple dedicated to Rome and Virtue; whofe
ftatues, in a fitting pofture, were placed withjn the cell.
After the fabric was completed, he fent a reprefentation of
it to Apollodorus, as a tacit vindication of his architeétural
fill, and a proof of what he was able to perform. If the
emperor was a bad architeét, the architeét was certainly no
good courtier: for upon feeing the ftatues, fitting, as they
were, in the temple, (which, it feems, wanted much of its
due proportion in height) he faid, if the goddeffes fhould
ever attempt to ftand upon their feet they would affuredly
break their heads againft the ceiling. For this farcafm,
upon his difproportioned room, the. emperor took that un-
jultifiable revenge, into which the excefs of power may fome-
times betray the mildeft chara€ters: Apollodorus was fhort-
ly after put to death.
But, notwith{tanding this cruelty exercifed againit the beft
architect of his time, Adrian encouraged architeCture equally
with any of his predeceifors, and certainly more than all
thofe who fuccecded. him; nor docs antiquity record any
perfon whofe buildings are fo numerous and widely fpread,
Much of his reign was {pent in viliting the various provinces
of his empire: and throughout all the valt extent he raifed
monuments of architediure beyond the feale of ordinary
edifices. Such, in the fouth of Egypt, was the city of
Antinoopolis, and in the north of England, the wall of de-
fence, 80 miles long ; the ruins of which are ftill called after
his name. He rebuilt, or repaired, various ancient cities.
Athens was particularly diftinguifhed by his liberality ; where
he, at length, completed the temple of Olympian Jupiter:
more than 600 years had elapfed fince the commencement of
that renowned fabric. His villa at Tivoli (the extenfive
ruins of which are beheld with furprize), was the private re-
treat of this emperor, where he had combined, it 1s faid, the
different ftiles of architecture of every country which he had
vifited : another inftance of falfe talte, fomewhat refembling
what we have feen in England, by the introdu@tion of Italian
villas and Chinefe bridges.
Here, if it be afked concerning thefe flru&ures, fo many,
fo great, and fome of them fo excellent, after whofe defigns
they were built, or by whom they were conduGed in Egypt,
or Greece, or Italy, no fatisfactory anfwer can be given, For
while the munificence of the founder was recorded upon
every frontifpiece, and the name of Adrian was engraved up-
on the wallsin fo many places, that he was therefore deno-
minated the wail-flower, the memory of one architeé&t alone
has been preferved. Of all thofe who were employed in the
courfe of his reign, the name of Detrianus only is known,
a proof of the little confideration that was then paid to the
merit of archite@s.
The period of the Antonines, that golden age of Rome,
produced fome good works in architeéture, of which the co-
lumn yet ftandirg, commonly called Antonine’s, is one ex-
ample. But that period was followed by fuch uilettled
times, and defolating wars, that the arts never recovered from
the confufion which then filled the empire.
Several fucceeding emperors, as-Severus Alexander, and‘
particularly Diocletian, engaged in building, and encouraged -
that art, which, however, {peedily declined ; and with the
ereGtion of the valt palace of the Jaft mentioned prince at
Spalatro, may be placed the final corruption of good archi-
tecture in the Weltern empire.
The removal of the feat of empire to Conftantinople,
taking place after the fine arts had received their mortal
wound, that city was never illuttrated’by any public works
of a pure and noble tafte. ‘The numerous ftrutures of fufti--
nian, which fill two volumes of defeription in Procopius,
were more fignalized by their richnefs than their propor--
tions. The church of St. Sophia, though a grand effort of 7
conftru€tion, is of barbarous archite€ture ; the columns are
of no eftablifhed order or juft proportion, and the outfide is
heavy and deformed by buttrefies. ‘The fize and magnifis
cence of the pile however commanded general admiration,
and moved its founder, fuftinian, upon a view of it when Orit
completed, to exclaim, “ that he had furpaffed Solomon in
his temple.’’
The Romans borrowed their archite€ture from Greece,
but practifed it with fome peculiarities of manner and talte.
In reviewing the molt favoured period, and the beft examples.
of Roman architecture, we find, in addition to the’ fquare
plans of the Greeks, circular temples crowned with domes. .
The Corinthian was the favourite order at Rome, and as far
as exifting examples enable usto judge, the only order well:
undevitood and happily executed.
Thus practifing the art as imitators, and further removed
from the original type, with lefs feverity of tafle than the
Greeks, .
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
Greeks, the Romans formed a ftile of magnificence which
always pofleffed grandeur, and in their beft works was com-
bined with tafte and fimplicity.
In confidering the architeture of the period under con-
templation (viz. of Greece and the belt ages of Rome), one
circumf{tance remarkably attraéts attention: that while fuch
is the variety of general and particular proportions of the
forms of mouldings and members, that it is impoffible to
name any two examples of an order which agree in all re-
fpeGts, fo that it 1s evident that the fancy of each artift direét-
ed thefe particulars: this exuberant fancy was fo well re-
flrained within reafonable limits, that the whole colleGtion of
columns may be refolved into three charaéteriilic orders.
Having three expreffions, the ftrong, the elegant, and the
rich, they knew that this was all that architecture could fay
diflin@ly, and any intermediate fhade would but weaken
and confufe her language. The charaéter of the three or-
ders being firmly eflablifhed, and clearly marked by itrong
and general features, the details were ordered by the tafte of
each pradtitioner, and in thofe happy talte was the birth-
right of almoft every artilt.
Of what nature were the fyftems of archite€ture of the
Greeks, is a quefticn which naturally prefles on curiofity,
when we read of the written works of a long lift of archi-
te&ts, whofe names alone furvive, in the works of Vitruvius.
The authority of the laft mentioned author we are not in-
clined to rank very high, as his precepts are in general con-
tradiGtedby thofe extant; it may, however, be concluded from
his manner of te; cling the art, that the ancients proceeded
on very different principles in the execution of the orders
from the moderns: Thus Vitruvius direéts us to vary the
proportion of the members, according to the magnitude,
fituation, purpofe, and other circumftances of the building ;
while modern authors offer no rules of that kind, but pre-
feribe a certain fixed modulation of the parts of each order,
to be ufed in all edifices, however circumftanced; each au-
thor recommending fuch as his peculiar ftudies have caufed
to make a favourable impreffion on his mind. The columns
of areoftyle temples, fays Vitruvius, are eight diameters in
height; thofe of a diaftyle istercolumniation, eight and a
half; thofe of fyftyle, nine and a half ; of pyenoftyle, ten;
and of euttyle, eight and a half; and this he dire&ts with-
out any modification for the different orders, though, in a
fubfequent part of the work, each order has its particular
proportions affigned. Vhe colemns of public porticos are
dire&ted to be made half 2 diameter higher than_thofe in
temples. That the ancients were alfo guided .by minute
optical confiderations, is rendered probable by another paf-
fage re{pecting the diminution of columns, which is direét-
ed to be varied according to their altitude; thus, in a co-
lumn of fifteen feet high, the diameter at the bottom is to
be divided into fix parts, and five given to the diameter at
the top ; if the column is from forty to fifty feet in height,
the bottom diameter is to be divided into eight parts, and
feven given to the top. Several intermediate proportions
are mentioned, and if it is {till higher, the fame principle is
to be obferved. ‘The reafon affigned for this is, that asa
greater height caufes the cclumn to appear more ciminifh-
ed, this appearance is to be corre¢ted by an additional thick-
nefs, ‘* beauty being the province of the eye, which, if not
fatistied by the due proportion and augmentation of the
members, correcting apparent deficiencies with proper ad-
ditions, the afpeét will appear coarfe and difpleafing.”” The
columns at the angles of the porticos are alfo direGted to
be made —, part of a diameter thicker than the others, be-
caufe they being more furrounded by the air will appear
flenderer, This laft praGtice is confirmed by the example
of the temple of Minerva at Athens. In another part, Vi-
truvius gives an extraordinary direétion, for which it is not
eafy to conceive a reafon; that the columns of the fide
porticos of a temple fhould be fo placed, that the inner line
of the fhaft may be perpendicular, thus leaving all the dimi-
nution on the outfide. Columns thus formed are obferved
in the temple of Veita at Tivoli, and perhaps in no cther
antique example.
In examining the progrefs of Roman building, it will be -
found that the introduction of arches operared an effential
change in the forms and principles of architecture. This
was the nobleft improvement in the art of conftruétion, an
invention which enabled man to bridle the mighty river, te
raife in the fkies the felf-balanced pile, and cover with the
penfile vault the vait area of a temple of all the gods. But
it may be doubted, whether the arch, though enlarging the
powers of conftruction, has not in fact been injurious to
architeGture, confidered as a fine art. Grecian architec-
ture, as it has been before obferved, is founded on the
forms and proceedings of wooden conftruétion, by which
it acquired that ineftimable fimplicity which fatisfies the
judgment, and attraéts, with increafing admiration, the eye
of tafte. The arch, on the other hand, may be faid to be
the natural ftyle of ftone building, and thus this invention
introduced a new and inconfiftent principle of imitation,
caufing a confufion of ideas both in fyitem and practice. __
Some of the Roman buildings which exhibit marks of
the deterioration of tafte alluded to are the following.
Vcfpafian’s temple of Peace, where a vault of ground arches,
a figure in itfelf ugly and ignoble, is fupported at the fpring-
ing of each groin by a fingle Corinthian column, a fupport
as meagre and inadequate, in confideration of the vault, as
the application of it is contrary to fyftem. In the theatre
of Marcellus, and the Colifeum, we find feveral ftories of
arcades, while the intermediate piers are ornamented with
engaged columns; thus the order, inftead of forming an
effential part of the conftrvétion, is degraded to an idle and
oftentatious ornament. The Colifeum, though impofing,
from its mafs and general fimplicity of ‘form, is very defi-
cient in detail ; and the theatre of Marcellus, though ere@ted
in the Auguftanage, exhibits an example of the Doric order
entirely deprived of its charaGter- {tic grandeur. The tr-
umphal arches rather belong to fculpture than archite@ure,
and are therefore {carccly amenable to the rules of the latter
art, otherwife they would be liable to fimilar objeGtions>
Together with the other fine arts, though not exadly
with equal fteps, archite¢ture declined in the Roman empire;
while the principles of the art were negleGted or forgotten,
the execution progreffively barbarized. ‘The palace of Dio-
clean, at Spalatro, fhews the fenility of archite€ture; dif-
proportionate iutercolumniations, pediments of which the
horizontal cornices are fupprefled; arches {pringing imme-
diately from columns, fantaltic corbels, which, in defiance of
the rules of folidity, fupport columns; in thefe.abufes we
trace the final degradation of Grecian archite€ture.
Trom this time commences the age of f{poliation; impu-
dent compilers of fragments, the barbarous builders of that
period have but perpetuated their own ignominy. Con-
ftantine was the firft of thefe depredators; he ruined the
arch of Trajan to decorate his own with its appropriate or-
naments, and erected his bafilicas with-columns from the
maufoleum of Adrian. In this confufion of ideas and prac-
tice, we may obferve acertain{characterillic ftyle which marks
the age. The builders, deficient in fkill and ability, adopt-
ed acertain hafty and compendious mode of conittruétion,
which influenced the forms of architeture. The columns
which they had taken from other edifices, were placed with
; < wide-
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
wide intercolumniations; and therefore the original entabla-
tures became ufelefs; to thefe were fubftituted arches,
which, f{pringing from the capitals, fupported the fuperitruc-
tures. The ornamental parts, being either wholly or in part the
workmanfhip of former ages, prefented great incongrutties,
and difgraced the rude imitations of that period. ‘Tafte in
decoration and execution, was a quality wholly wanting ;
but yet, whether it were the example of antient edifices, the
want of fancy, or real judgment, the plans and general forms
‘preferved fomewhat of a grand and venerabe fimplicity.
‘The moft complete example remaining of this ftyle is to be
feen at Rome, in the church of Saint Paul, without the
walls; a building attributed to Conftantine, and which pre-
ferves fome antique columns of fingular beanty.
Thus the art lingered till the arrival of the Goths in
Italy, when it may be faid to have expired by a violent
death, efpecially in the repeated facking and burning of
Rome, which had for fo many ages been the miftrefs of the
univerfe.
Having thus traced the progrefs, decline, and extinflion
of Grecian architecture, our next tafk will be to defcribe
its revival in modern times, leaving the ftyles of building
prevalent in the middle ages to be treated of under the ar-
ticles of Norman, Saxon, and Goruic Architedure.
Brunellefchi, born in 1377, may be regarded as the
founder of modern architecture. After having exercifed his
talents in various arts, and formed his mind by the ftudy of
ancient authors, he undertook to revive the maxims of an-
cient architecture, and to difinter them from the ruins in
which they had been enveloped by time and barbarity. For
this purpofe he examined and meafured the ruins of Rome
with extreme diligence; he difcovered the orders, and having
recognized the rules of the art, was the firtt who made a
proper application of them in his works. He allied theory
to practice, and the profound ftudy of ancient monuments
led him to the true principles of fimple and folid con-
ftruGion.
The vaft cathedral of St. Maria dei Fiore, at Florence,
begun by Arnolfo Laffi in 1298, remained unfinifhed; the
original architeét had died only two years after the beginning
of the building; and to ereét a cupola which he had intended
as a termination of the edifice, was an undertaking beyond
the power of the builders of that age. It was ever regard-
ed as chimerical, and in a convocation architects from
various countries aflembled in 1420; the moft extravagant
plans were propofed without coming to any determination,
At length Brunellefchi was entruited with the enterprize,
and he executed it with that facility which, in cauling the
difficulties to difappear, is too apt to conceal the merit of
an original defign, which none could difcover, but all can
imitate.
The dome of St. Maria dei Fiore, which is only inferior
in fize to that of St. Peter’s, is of an o¢tangular fhape, with
a great elevation ; it is double, being formed by two vaults
which leave an interval between them. It was ereéted with-
out centering, and it is the only dome which is fupported
by the fpringing wall alone, without any kind of counter-
forts. :
This edifice, and many others which Brunellefchi erected,
did as much honour to the architeé&t as to the art, and
awakened in Italy a general tafte for the true principles of
archite€ture ; which was further confirmed by the fludy of
Vitruvius, whole writings began to excite the attention of
‘the learned.
Alberti, born in 1398, fucceeded to the talents and en-
terprizes of Brunellefchi, but his great reputation is princi-
ally founded upon his treatife «* De Re xdificatoria,” a
Vou. VIII.
profound and valuable work, which has acquired him the
title of the modern Vitruvius.
While the principles of conftru&tion were advancing 'to=
wards perfection, Bramante, following the example of Bru-
nellefchi in the fedulous ftudy of the remains of antiquity,
reftored to architecture the tafte and beauty which had been
fo long abfent from her works. Julius If. having formed
the projet of rebuilding the bafilica of St. Peter ona plan
of unequalled magnificence, entrufted the execution to Bra-
mante in 1513. This artift conceived the impofing idea of
raifing in the air a cupolaas large as that of the Pantheon,
or, as he expreffed it, of raifing the Pantheon upon the
Temple of Peace; and, in fat, we may trace a great re-
femblance to thefe two antique edifices in his plan. It is
to be lamented that this artilt did not poffefs the pra@tice as
well as the theory of his art, and the works which he began
with fuch carelefs rapidity at Sc. Peter’s have been almolt
obliterated by his fucceffors. This vaft undertaking was car-
ried on by Raphael, San Gallo, and Michael Angelo, to
whom the final defign of the edifice is principally due.
Under the great names of Vignola, Serlio, Palladio, and
Scamozzi, architecture continued to flourihh in the=16th
century. Thefe diftinguifhed artifts made the ancient edi-
fices of Rome their {chool, and all ferved their art by their
writings as wellas by their buildings.
The lift of good Italian architects clofes with Bernini, the
mott eminent artift of the 17th century. His contemporary,
Boromini, was the corruptor of architeGural tafte: of an un-
governed fancy, and tormented with envy of the talents and
fuccefs of Bernini, he abandoned every principle of pro-
priety in the wild purfuit of novelty, and buried the forms
of art under the molt abfurd and incredible caprices.
Pierre Lefcotis the firft French archite& who abandoned
the Gothic for the revived antique ftyle. He flourifhed in
the begioning of the 16th century. Philibert de Lorme,
of the fame age, contributed to the reftoration of the prin-
ciples ofarchiteGture. "Phis architeét had ftudied the Roman
antiquities, and was'a great writer as well as builder.
Francois Manfart, born in 1598, is perhaps the greateft
architeCtural genius that France has produced, but he is re-
proached with a want of ftability in hisideas, which caufed
him to make frequent alterations during the execution of his
works, and prevented him from being employed in fome of
the greateft undertakings of his age. "The Chateau de Mai-
fons, near St. Germain, is one of the chef-d’ceuvres of
Francois Manfart.
Jules-Hardouin Manfart, a nephew of the preceding, was
the chief archite€&t of Louis XIV. and executed the prin-
cipal works of that magnificent reign: the palace of Ver-
failles, St. Cyr, and, above all, the place and church of the
Invalids.
The facade of the Louvre, one of the moft beautiful ex-
amples of modern archite€ture, was the work of Claude
Perrault, who alfo diftinguifhed himfelf by feveral other
buildings, and a tranflation of Vitruvius.
Blondel, born in 1617, i3 celebrated for his knowledge of
the {ciences and the theory of architeGture. His moft cele-
brated building is the Porte St. Denis. The diitinguifhed
name of Soufflot, the architect of the church of St. Gene«
vieve, the prefent Pantheon of Paris, brings down the lift of
French archite&ts to our own times.
Gothic architeGture had declined in England during the
reign of Henry VIII.; and Inigo Jones, the reftorer of
ancient architecture, may be regarded as the greate{t as well
as the earlieft Englifh architect. He was born in 1572, and
died 1651. His works are too familiarly known to require
defcription in this place, but Greenwich, Whitehall, and
Uu Covent-
Civ
Covent-Garden, will for ever fecure him a name among the
moft eminent of his profeffion. It might have been fuffict-
ent to the fame of fir Chriftopher Wren to have ereéted the
fecond religious edifice of Europe, but innumerable other
monuments atteft his talent and fcientific fkill. Thefe two
diftinguifhed names form our lit of architectural worthies; of
the reft who, with various fuccefs. have purfued the art, none
can be faid to have attained any hiltorical eminence.
Civit Corporation. See CorPror4rion.
Civit Day. See Day.
Civiv Death, any thing that retrenches or cuts off a man
from civil fociety: as a condemnation to the gallies, per-
petual banifhment, condemnation te death, outlawry, and
excommunication ; all which make a man ceafe to be looked
on as a citizen.
The term is likewife applied to thofe who are no longer
capable of aéting in temporal concerns; as thofe who re-
nounce the world, who retire and make vows in a monattery,
&e.
Civit Fruits. See Fruits.
Civic Hiffory. See History.
Civin Injuries, or Private Wrongs, in Law, denote thofe
which are an infringement or privation of the private or
civil rights belonging to individuals, confidered as indivi-
duals; in contradiltin@lion to public wrongs, which are a
breach and violation of public rights and duties, which
afle&t the whole community, confidéred as a community,
and are diftinguifhed by the harfher appellation of crimes
and mifdemefnors, which fee.
Civit Law, Lex Civilis, is defined in the Inftitutes, to
be the laws peculiar to each city, or each people ; now more
properly diftinguifhed by the name of ‘ Municipal Law.”
But in the modern ufe, it properly implics the Roman law,
contained in the Jn/litutes, the Digeft, the Code, and the
Novels ; (which fee refpectively); otherwife called /ex
feripta, or the written law. The Roman law, at its com-
mencement, was very inconfiderable. Under the kings,
the people were governed by certain laws prepared
by the fenate, pafled by the kings, and confirmed in an
aflembly of the people. Romulus, Numa, and Servius Tal-
lus, are celebrated as the moft ancient legiflators ; and each
of them claims his peculiar part in the three-fold divilion of
jurifprudence. The laws of marriage, the education of
children, and the authority of parents, which may feem to
draw their origin from nature itfelf, are afcribed to the un-
tutored wifdom of Romulus. The law of nations, and of
religious worfhip, which Numa introduced, was derived
from his noéturnal converfe with the nymph Egeria. The
civil law is attributed to the experience of Servius; he
balanced the rights and fortunes of the feven clafles of
citizens ; and guarded, by fifty new regulations, the obfer-
vance of contraéts, and the punifhment of crimes. The itate,
which he had inclined towards a democracy, was changed
by the laft Tarquin into lawlefs defpotifm ; and when the
kingly office was abolifhed, the patricians engroffed the
bencfits of freedom.
Papirius, who flourifhed fomewhat before or after the
* Regifugium,” was the firft who made a collection of the
regal Jaws; which took its name from its author, and was
called jus Papirianum.
‘The republic, after abolifhing the regal government, dtill
retained the royal laws. For, though they were become
odious or obfolete, the myfterious depofit was filently pre-
ferved by the priefts and nobles; and, at the end of 60
years, the citizens of Rome {till complained that they were
ruled by the arbitrary fentence of the magiftrates. Never-
thelefs, the pofitive inftitutions of the kings had blended
themfelves with the public and private manners of the city.
“ory
To thefe they added the laws of the Twelve Tables, drawn
by the decemviri, from the laws of twelve of the principal
cities of Greece; and the more equitable among the laws
hitherto practifed at Rome. Sce Decemvirs and Twenve
TaBes.
During the time of the republic, and even under the
emperors, there were jurifconfulti; who, making public
profeffion of the ftudy of the law, were confulted on the
different fenfes of the laws, and gave an{wers to the quef-
tions propofed to them hereon; which were called re/ponfa
prudentum, and by Juftinian, the juri/prudentia media.
The law of the Twelve Tables was at length found fe
fevere, and ccnceived in fuch obfcure terms, that it was
judged proper to moderate, reitrain, and afcertain it, by
other laws, propofed to the fenate by the confuls, and
paffed at general affemblics of the people; according to
the practice that had obtained under the kings themfelves s
and thefe were called by way of emphafis /eges, or the Jaws.
Afterwards, the common people differed with the nobility,
and during their feceflion enacted laws of their own, which
were called plebi/cita; and, upon their fubfequent recon-
eiliation, thele were admitted and univerfally enforced. The
fenate was likewife intrulted with a legiflative authority ;
and new laws were made by them, and called /enatus confultay
and incorporated with the Roman civil law. ‘The pretors,
likewile, in the abfence of the confuls, had a power of fupe
plying and correcting the civil law of the Twelve Tables,
and of propofing edits, which, when approved by the
people, were incorporated into the civil law, under the title
of jus pretorium. And the ediles curules did alfo in fome
cales enact and eftablifh laws. Thefe feveral parts, which
have been enumerated, compofed the Roman civil law during
the republic.
In the time of Julius Cxfar, Offilius, a lawyer, began a
collection of the edi€ts of the pretors; but this was not
finifhed till the time of Adrian, by another lawyer ; who
alfo digeited the edits of the ediles curules, which were
made perpetual by the Cornelian law. Accordingly, the
defign which had been conceived by the genius of Cefar
was accomplifhed by Adrian; and the pretorfhip of Sal-
vius Julian, an eminent lawyer, was immortalized by the
compofition of the ‘ perpetual edi&.’”? ‘This well-digelted
code was ratified by the emperor and the fenate ; the long
divorce of law and equity was at length reconciled; and
inftead of the Twelve ‘Tables, the perpetual edict was fixed
as the invariable ftandard of civil jurifprudence. See
Epicr.
In the year of Rome 723, B.C. 31, the republic expired 5
and the whole power of the people was transferred to
Auguftus, who was contented to publifh his new laws in
the aflembly of the people; to kcep up fome image of
the republic by this formality. Tiberius abolifhed thefe
occafional affemblies, on pretence of their being too nume-
rous ; and in lieu thereof offered his laws to the fenate, who
never failed to confirm them; infomuch that the laws of
Tiberius and his fucceflors, who kept the fame meafures
with the fenate, were efteemed /enatus confulta. They were
alfo called imperial conflitutions, and fometimes plactta prin-
cipum. The refponfa prudenium, obtained from thole to
whom the emperors gave-commiflion, and to which ¢he
judges were obliged to conform, conftituted a part of the
jus fcriptum, or written law. ‘The imperial conjlitutions
were digelted into four codes, after they were become
very numerous under fucceeding emperors; their bulk
being fo great, or, as Livy expreffes it, (1. iii. c.
34.) ‘tam immenfus aliarum fuper alias _acervata-
rum legum cumulus,” that they were computed to he
many camels’ load by an author who preeeded a
I
CIVIL: LAW,
This was in part remedied by the collections of three
private lawyers, Gregorius, Hermogenes, and Papirius ;
and then by the emperor Theodofius the Younger, by
whofe orders a code was compiled, A. D. 438, being a
methodical colle€tion of all the imperial conftitutions then
in force; which Theodofian code was the only book of
civil law received as authentic in the weftern part of Europe
till many centuries after ; for Juftinian commanded only in
the eaftern remains of the empire.
Mr. Gibbon (Hift. Decl, and Fall of the Roman Empire,
vol. viii.) divides the interval of almoft 1000 years that
elapfed from the Twelve Tables to the reign of Juttinian,
into three periods, almoft equal in duration, and diltinguifhed
from each other by the mode of inflruction, and the cha-
raGter of the Civilians.
During the firft period, A.U.C. 303—648, pride and
ignorance contributed to confine within narrow limits the
fcience of the Roman law. On the public days of market
or aflembly, the mafters of the art were feen walking in
the forum, ready to impart needful advice to the meanelt of
their fellow-citizens, from whofe votes, on a future
eccafion, they might folicit a grateful return. As their
years and honours increafed, they feated themfelves at
home on a chair or throne, to expeét with patient gravity
the vifits of their clients, who, at the dawn of day, from
the town and country, began tothunder at their door. he
duties of focial life, and the incidents of judicial proceeding,
were the ordinary fubject of thefe confultations, and the
verbal, or written opinion of the ‘ jurfconfulti,” was
framed according to the rules of prudence and law. The
youths of their own order and family were permitted to
liften ; their children enjoyed the benefit of more private
leffons ; and the Mucian race was long renowned for the
hereditary knowledge of the civil law.
The fecond period, A.U.C. 648—958, the learned and
{plendid age of jurifprudence, may be extended from the
birth of Cicero to the reign of Severus Alexander. A
fyftem was formed, {chools were infticuted, books were
compofed, and both the living and the dead became fub-
fervient to the inftruétion of the ftudent. The “ tripartite”
of fElius Petus, furnamed Catus, or the Cunning, was
preferved as the oldeft work of jurifprudence. Cato the
cenfor derived fome additional fame from his legal ttudies,
and thofe of his fon; the kindred appellation of Mucius
Scevola was illuftrated by three fages of the law; but the
perfection of the fcience was afcribed to Servius Sulpicius,
their difciple, and the friend of Tully; and the long fuc-
ceffion, which fhone with equal luftre under the republic and
under the Czfars, is finally clofed by the refpefiable cha-
raters of Papinian, of Paul, and of Ulpian. Their names,
and the various titles of their productions, have been mi-
nutely preferved, and the example of Labeo may fuggelt
fome idea of their diligence and fecundity. ‘That eminent
lawyer of the Auguftan age, divided the year between the
city and country, between bufinefs and compolition; and
400 books are enumerated as the fruit of his retirement, Of
the colleGions of his rival Capito, the 259th book is ex-
prefsly quoted ; and few teachers could deliver their opinions
in lefs than roo volumes.
In the third period, A.U.C. 988 —1230, between the
reigns of Alexander and Juftinian, the oracles of jurifpru-
dence were almoft mute. The meafure of curiofity had been
filled ; the throne was occupied by tyrants and barbarians ;
theadtive fpirits were diverted by religious difputes, and the
profeffors of Rome, Conftantinople, and Berytus, were
humbly content to repeat the leffons of their more enlight-
ened predeceflors. From the flow advances and rapid decay
of thefe legal ftudies, it may be inferred, that they require a
ftate of peace and refinemert. From the multitude of vo-
Juminous civilians, who fill the intermediate {pace, it is evi-
dent, that fuch: ftudies may be purfued, and fuch works may
be performed, with a common fhare af judgment, experience,
andinduftry. The genius of Cicero and Virgil was more
fenfibly felt, as each revolving age had been found incapable
of producing a fimilar or a fecond; but the moft eminent
teachers of the law were affured of leaving difciples equal or
f{upericr to themfelves in merit and reputation.
In the 7th century of the city, the jurifprudence, which
had been grofsly adapted to the wants of the firlt Romans,
was polifhed and improved by the alliance of Grecian phi-
lofophy. The Scevolas had been taught by wfe and expe-
rience; but Servius Sulpicius was the firft civilian who etta-
blifhed his art on a certain and general theory. The logic
of Ariftotle aud the Stoics introduced the lizht of order and
eloquence.
After the example of Plato, Cicero, though he declined
the reputation of a profefled lawyer, compoled a republic ;
and for its ufe, a treatife of laws; in which he labours to
deduce from a celeftial origin the wifdom and juftice of the
Roman conftitation. Plato, Ariftotle, and Zeno, he repre-
fents as the only teachers who arm and initructa citizen fo:
the duties of focial life. Of thefe, the armour of the Stoics
was found to be of the firmeft temper; and it was chiefly
worn, both for ufe and ornament, in the {chools of jurif
prudence. Auguftus and Tiberius were the firft to adopt,
as an ufeful engine, the fcience of the civilians; and their
iervile labours accommodated the old fy#tem to the foirit and
views of defpotifm. Under the fair pretence of fecuring the
dignity of the art, the privilege of fubferibmg legal and va-
lid opinions was confined to the fages of fenatorian or equef-
trian rank, who had been previoufly approved by the judg-
ment of the prince; and this monopoly prevailed till Adrian
reftored the freedom of the profeffion to every citizen con-
{cious of his abilities and knowledge. The difcretion of the
pretor was now governed by the Jeffons of his teachers;
the judges were enjomed to obey the comment as well aa
the text of the law; and the ufe of codicils was a memo-
rable innovation, which Auguttus ratified by the advice of
the civilians. Two fages of the law, Ateivs Capito and
Antiftius Labeo, adorned the peace of the Auguitan age ;
and their refpeGtive {chools maintained their inveterate con-
fliG from the age of Auguftus to that of Adrian. (See
Capito and Cassiant.) The controverfies of the different
fe&ts were in a great meafure determined by the perpetual
edict. The lawyers of the age of the Antonines, like the
cotemporary philofophers, difclaimed the authority of a
matter, and adopted from every fy{tem the moft probable
doGtrines. An indulgent ediét of the younger Theodofius
excufed the judge from the labour of comparing and weighing
the arguments of different competitors. Vive. civilians,
Caius, Papinian, Paul, Ul!pian, arid Modeftinus, were etta-
blifhed as the oracles of jurifprudence; a majority was de-
cifive: but if their opinions were equally divided, a catting
vote was afcribed to the fuperior wifdom of Papinian.
When Juftinian afcended the throne, A.D. 527, the re-
formation of the Roman: jurifprudence was an arduous but
indifpenfable tafk. In the fpace of ten centuries, the in-
finite variety of laws and legal opinions had filled many
thoufand volumes, which no fortune could purchafe and uo
capacity could digeft. Books could not eafily be found ;
the fubje&s of the Greek provinces were ignorant of the
language that difpofed of their lives and properties; and
the barbarous diale& of the Latins was imperfedtly ttudied
in the academies of Berytus and Conttantinople. In thefe
Uu2 gircume
CIVIL LAW.
eircumfances, Juftivian, Guding the authority of the Roman
law almoft abolifhed in the Welt, by the declenfion of the
empire, refoived to make a general colleGtion of the whole
Roman jurifprudence, and committed the care thereof to
his chancellor Trebonian or Tribonian. '
Triborian was eminently qualified for the office. To the
literature of Greece he added the ufe of the Latin tongue ;
the Roman civilians were depofited not only in his brary
but in his mind; and he molt affiduoufly cultivated thofe
arts which opened the road of wealth and preferment. From
the bar of the pratorian prefeéts, he raifed himfelf to the
honours of quettor, of conful, and of mafter of the offices ;
the council of Juftinian liflencd to his eloquence and wil-
dom, and envy was mitigated by the gentlenefs end affabllity
of his manners. This minifter, aided by nine learned affo-
ciates, began, in the firft year of the reign of Juftinian, and
under his direGtion, to revife the ordinances of his predecef-
fors, as they were contained, fince the time of Adnan, in
the Gregorian, Hermogenian, and Theodofian codes; to
purge the errors and contradiGions, to retrench whatever
was obfolete or fuperfluous, and to fele& the wife and faiu-
tary laws beft adapted to the pra€tice of the tribunals and to
the ufe of his fubjeéts. The work was accomplifhed in 14
months, from A.D. 528, Feb. 13, to A.D. 529, April 7;
and the twelve books, or tables, which the new decemvirs
produced, might be defigned to imitate the labours of their
Roman predeceffors. The new ‘ Code” of Juftinian was
honoured with his name, and confirmed by his royal figna-
ture; authentic tranfcripts were multiplied by the pens of
notaries and fcribes ; they were tran{mitted to the magiltrates
of the European, the Afiatic, and afterwards the African
provinces; and the law of the empire was proclaimed in io-
jemn feftivals at the doors of churches. It ftill remained to
extraét the fpirit of jurifprudence from the decifions and
conjectures, the queftions and difputes of the Roman ci-
vilians. Seventeen lawyers, with Tribonian at their head,
were appointed by the emperor to exercife an abfolute jurif-
diGion over the works of their predeceffors; andthe ‘* Di-
geft,” or “ Pandetts,” were rapidly compoied in three
years, from A.D. 530, Dec. 15, to A.D. 533, Dec. 16.
From the library of ‘(ribenian, they chofe 40, the moft emi-
nent civilians of former times ; 2000 treatifes were comprifed
in an abridgment of 59 books; and it has been carefully re-
corded, that 3,000,0c0 of lines, or fentences, were reduced,
in this abftraG, to the moderate number of 150,000. The
edition of this great work was delayed a month after that
ofthe <“¢ Inftitutes ;”? and it feemed reafonable that the ele-
ments fhould precede the digeft of the Roman law. The
“« Inftitutes,” completed A.D. 533, Nov. 21, which com-
prife an ample fyftem reduced to a fhort and elementary trea-
tife, are comprehended in four books. (See InsriteTes.)
The “ Code,” the ** Pandeéts,”? and the “ Inftitutes,”
were declared to be the legitimate fyftem of civil jurif{pru-
dence ; they alone were admitted in the tribunals, and they
alone were taught in the academies of Rome, Conitantinople,
and Berytus. Juftinian addreffed to the fenate and provinces
his “ eternal oracles ;”’ and his pride, under the mafk of
piety, afcribed the confummation of this great defign to the
{upport and infpiration of the deity.
In order to maintain the text of the ‘ Pandeéts,”’ the
«¢ Tr ftitutes,”? and the ** Code,”’ the ufe of ciphers and ab-
breviations was rigoroufly profcribed; and as Juftinian re-
colle&ted, that the perpetual edi€& had been buried under
the weight of commentators, he denounced the punifhment
of forgery egain{t the rafh civilians who fhould prefume td
interpret or pervert the will of their fovereign. Six years,
however, had not clapfed from the publication of the
“ Code,’ before the verfatile emperor condemned the inte
perfeét attempt, by a new and more accurate edition of the
fame work (A. D..534, Nov. 16.); which he enriched
with 200 of his own laws, and 50 decifions of the darkeit
and moft intricate points of jurifprudence. Every year, or
according to Procopius, each day, of -his long reign, was
marked by fome legal innovation. Many of his aéts were
refcinded by himfelf; many were rejeGted by his fucceffors ;
many have been obliterated by time; but the number of
16 * edits,’ and 168 *¢ novels,”? (A. D. 534—565.) has
been admitted into the authentic body of the civil jurfpru--
dence. (See AuTHENTics and Novet.)
All thefe together, viz. the ‘* Code,” the “ Digeft,’”
the ‘* Inftitutes,’? and the ‘* Novels,”? form the Corpus juris
civilis, or body of the civil law, as reduced by order of Juf--
tinian.
For the fpace of about 300 years, this fyftem of law ob-:
tained without any innovation. But the new conftitutions,
made by the emperors from time to time, at length oceafion-
ing fome alterations; the emperor Balil, and Leo his fon,
compofed a new body of the Roman law, chiefly from the
Jufinian, in the Greek language; dividing it into feven
volumes, and 60 books; under the title of ‘ Bajfilica.’? -
From which time, Jultinian’s body had but little credit in
the Eaft; the Bafilica taking place of it.
In the Weft, the civil law had a different fortune ; for,.
though fome traces of its authority remained in Italy, yet it
was little known in Europe, till a copy_of Juttinian’s ** Di-
gelts’? was accidentaily found at Amalfi, in Italy, about the
year 1130; and this circumftance, together with the policy
of the Romifh ecclefiaftics, contributed to introduce it into
feveral natiens, and occafioned that inundation of voluminous
comments, with which this fyftem of law, more than any
other, is now loaded. :
It is true, however, it was never taught publicly till the
12th century; when the ftudy of it was introduced into fe-
veral univerlities abroad, particularly that of Bologna ; where’
exercifes were performed, le€tures read, and degrees con~
ferred in this faculty, as in other branches ef fcience; and
from hence it was carried by Irnerius’s difciples into other
countries, and in a little time was taught in all the univerfi-
ties.
Many nations, on the continent, juft then beginning to
recover from the convuifions confequent upon the overthrow
of the Roman empire, and fettling by degrees into peaceable
forms of government, adopted the civil law (being the belt
written fyftem then extant) as the bafis of their civil confti-
tution; blending and interweaving it among their own feudal
cultoms, in fome places with a more extenfive, in others a.
more confined authority.
It was firft brought over into England by Theobald, a
Norman abbot, who was elected to the fee ef Canterbury in
1138; and he appointed a profeffor, viz. Roger, firnamed
Vacarius, prior of Beck in Normandy, who opened a fchool _
in the univerfity of Oxford, to teach it to the people of this
country. Neverthelefs, it gained ground very flowly; king
Stephen, A. D. 1149, iflued a proclamation, prohibiting the
ftudy of it :. upon which Vacarius returned into Normandy, -
and was chofen abbot of Beck, And though the clergy -
were attached to it, the laity rather wifhed to preferve the
old conttitution.
A kind of perfecution was raifed againft the profeffors
and ftudents of the civil law, by the common lawyers and
ethers; but John of Salifbury fays, * that, by the bleffing »
of God, the more the ftudy of it was perfecuted, che more
it flourifhed.”?
The bishops and clergy, many of whom were foreigners, + _
applied
Civ
applied themfelves wholly to the ftudy of the civil and canon
Jaws, which now came to be infeparably interwoven with
each other; whereas the nobility and laity adhered with
equal pertinacity to the common law. Thefe two parties
manifetted a reciprocal jealoufy of what they were unac-
quainted with, and neither of them perhaps allowed (fays
judge Blackftone) the oppofite fyftem that real merit which
is abundantly to be found in each. This appears, on the
one hand, from the fpleen with which the monaftic- writers
{peak of our municipal laws upon all occafions ; and, on the
other, from the firm temper which the nobility fhewed at
the famous parliament of Merton. Stat. Merton. 20 Hen.
III. c.g. The fame jealoufy appears above a century
afterwards, (11 Ric. II.) when the nobility declared, with
a kind of prophetic fpirit, “ that the realm of England hath
never been unto this hour, neither by the confent of our
lord the king and the lords of parliament fhall it ever be,
ruled or governed by the civillaw.”” he clergy, however,
finding it impoffible to root out the municipal law, began
to withdraw themfelves by degrees from the temporal courts;
andto that end, very early in the reign of king Henry ITI.,
epifcopal inftitutions were publifhed, forbidding all ecclcf-
attics to appear as advocates in foro feculari: and wherever
they retired, and wherever their authority extended, they
difplayed the fame zeal to introduce the rules of the civil, in
exclufion of the municipal law. This appears in a particular
manner from the fpiritual courts of a!l denominations, from
the chancellor’s ceurts in both our univerfities, and from the
high court of chancery ; in all which the proceedings are to
this day in a courfe much conformed to the civil law ; for
_which no tolerable reafon can be affigned, unlefs that chefe
courts were all under the immediate dirction of the popifh
ecclefiaftics, among whom it was a point of religion to ex-
clude the municipal law ; pope Innocent IV. having forbid-
den the very reading of it by the clergy, becaufe its decifions
were not founded on the imperial conititutions, but merely
on the cuftoms of the laity. And if it be confidered, that
our univerfitics began about that period to recover their
prefent form of fcholaltic difcipline; that they were then,
and continued to be till the time of the reformation, entirely
under the influence of the popith clergy; (fir John Mafon
the firft proteftant, being alfo the firft lay chancellor of
Oxford), this will lead us to perceive the reafon why the
ftudy of the Roman laws was in thofe days of bigotry purfued
with fuch alacrity in thefe feats of learning; and why the
common law was entirely defpifed, and efteemed little better
than heretical. The ftruggle between the laws of England
and of Rome was continued through thereign of king Henry
I[.; theformer fupported by the {trength ot the temporal no-
bility, when the popifh clergy endeavoured to fupplant them
in favour of the latter. ‘This difpute was kept on foot till
the reign of Edward I.; when the laws of Engiand, under
the new difcipline introduced by that fkilful commander,
obtained a complete and permanent vidlory.
Before the reformation degrees were as frequent in the
canon Jaw as in the civil law. Many were graduates in
utroque jure or wtriufque juris. J.U. D. or juris utrinfque
dodor, 1s {till common in foreign univerfities. But Henry
VILL., in the 27th year of his reign, when he had renounced
the authority of the pope, iffued a mandate to the univer-
fity of Cambridge, to prohibit leGiures, and the granting of
degrees in canon law in that univerfity. It 1s probable
that, at the fame time, Oxford received a fimilar prohibition,
and that degrees in canon law have ever fince been dif-
continued in England. See Decree.
However, the zeal and influence of the clergy prevailed ;
and the civil law acquired great reputation from the reigu
CIV
of king Stephen to the reign of king Edward III. both in-
clufive. Henry II., who fucceeded Stephen, being a much
greater politician, was far from difcouraging the ftudy of the
civil law; which, in conjunction with that of the canon law,
prevailed very much in the univerfities, but {till more in the
cathedral fchools and monafteries. 2
Many tranferipts of Juftinian’s Inftitutes are to be found
in the writings of our ancient authors, particularly of Brac-
ton and Fleta; and judge Blackitone obferves, that the com-
mon law would have been loft and over-run by the civil, had
it not been for the incident of fixing the court of common
pleas in one certain fpot, and the forming the profeflion of
the municipal law into an aggregate body.
It is allowed, that the civil law contains all the principles
of natural equity ; and that nothing can be better calculated
to form good fenfe, and found judgment. Hence, though
in feveral countries it has no other authority but that of
reafon, and jultice, it is every-where referred to for autho-
rity.
It is notsreceived at this day in any nation without fome
alterations: and fometimes the feudal law is mixed with it,
or general and particular cuftoms; and often, ordinances and
{tatutes cut off a great part of it.
In Turkey the “ Bafilics”’ are only ufed. In Italy the ca-
non law and cuftoms have excluded a good part of it. In
Venice cuitom hath almoft an abfolute government. Jn the
Milanefe, the feudal law and particular cuftoms bear f{way..
In Naples and Sicily, the contlitutions and laws of
the Lombards are {aid to prevail. In Germany and Hol-
land, the civil law is efteemed to be the municipallaw: but
yet many parts of it are there grown obfolete ; and others
are altered, either by the canon law, or a different
ufage.
In Friezeland, it is obferved with more ftri€tnefs: but in
the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum, Lube-
cenfe, or Culmenfe, is preferred before it. In Denmark
and Sweden it hath fearce any authority at all. In France
only a part of it is received ; and that part is in fome places
as a cultomary law: and in thofe provinces neareft to Italy,
it is received as a municipal written law. In criminal
caufes, the civil law is more regarded m France; but the
manner of trial is regulated by ordinances and edidts.
The civil law, in Spain and Portugal, 1s connected with
the jus regium and cuftom. In Scotland, the ftatutes of
the federunt, part of the regi majeftatis, and their cuftoms,
controul the civil law.
In England, it is ufed in the ecclefiaftical courts ; in the
high court of admiralty ; in the court of chivalry ; and in
the courts of the two univerfities: yet in all thefe it is re-
{trained and direéted by the common law. See Canon
Law.
Civit Liberty. See Ligerry.
Civit Lif, the money allotted for the fupport of the
king’s houlehold, and for defraying certain neceflary charges
of government. See Kincand Revenue.
Civit Month. See Monru.
Civiz Obligation, See OBLIGATION.
Civit State, confiits of the nobility and commonalty,
exclufive of the clergy, and of the military and maritime
orders.
Civin Subjection, in Law, is a {pecies of compullfive
oblization, whereby an inferior is con{trained by a fuperior
to an action contrary to what his own reafon and inclination
would fuggelt; as when a legiflator eftablifhes iniquity by a
Jaw, and command: a fubjeét to do what is inconliitent with
religion or found morality. This excufe cannot be admitted
in foro conftientie, but obedience to the laws in being is a
fufficient
2
ts j
civ
fxfficient extenuation of civil guilt before the municipal tri-
bunal. Blackft. Com. vol. iv. p. 28.
Civit War. See War.
Civit Year, is the legal year, or civil ac¢ount of time,
which every government appoints to be ufed within its own
dominions. It is thus called in contradiitinétion to the natu-
ral year; wiich is meafured exaétly by the revolution of the
heavenly bodies. See Year.
CIVILIANS?’ College. See Coriece.
CIVILISATION, a law or judgment, which renders a
criminal procefs civil. Civilifation is performed by turning
the infermation into an inqueft, or vice verfa.
CrvirtsaTtion, in Political Economy, denotes the conver-
fion or transformation of a country or people from a favage
or barbarous {tate into a {tate formed by a due regard to the
principles and obligations, the habits and manners of focial
life, by the means of mental and moral inftru€tion, falutary
laws, and regular government.
CIVITA, or Civena, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the Breflan, feated on the Oglio, 25 miles W. of Brefcia.
Civita Aguana, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra; 15 miles E. of Aquila.
Civitas d Antina, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra; t2 miles S. of Celano.
Civitas Sorelle, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Citra; 19 miles N.N.E. of Molefe.
Crvita di Cajfcia, a town of Italy, in the ftate of the
Church, and province of Umbria; 5 miles S.W. from
Norcia.
Civita Cajflellana, See CasTELLama.
Civira di Chieti, See Cuiett.
Civira Lavinia, a town of Italy in the Campagna di
Roma; 4 miles from Veletri.
Civira Luparella, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Citra; 2 miles N. of Civita Borello.
Civira Mandonia, atown of Naples, in the proviace of
Calabria Citra; 15 miles N.N.£. of Bilignano.
Civitas a Marc, a town of Naples, in the province of
Capitanata; 13 miles E.S.E.of Termola.
Civira Nuova, a town of Italy, in the marquifate of
A\ncona, on the road from Loretto to Fermo; 7 miles from
the former and g from the latter. It is feated near the coaft
of the Adriatic or gulf of Venice, on a {mall river or creek.
N. lat. 43°16", E. long. 13° 46'.—Alfo a town of Iitria,
feated on the Adriatic fea, N.W. from Ancona, and 20
leagues E. of Venice, within a {mall creek or bay, on a pro-
minent part of the coaft, E. from Savori, N. lat. 45° 36’.
E. long. 14° 2’.
Civita di Penna, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abrezzo Ultra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Chieti;
1o miles.S.1E. of Veramo.
Civira Real, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra, 13 miles N.W. of Aquila.
Civira di St. Angelo, a town of Naples, in the province
of Abruzzo Ultra, feated ona mountain; 3 miles from Poto
di Salino.
Civira Tomaffa, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra; 6 miles S.W. of Aquila.
Civita Vecchia, or Maura, a town feated ona hill in
the centre of the ifland of Malta, flrongly fortified. It is
the fee of a bifhop, and contains, befides a large and band-
fome cathedral, feveral other churches and convents. From
the town may be feen the whole ifland, and fometimes the
coalts of Africa and Sicily.
Civira Vecchia, a fortified fea-port town of Italy, in
the tlate of the church and patrimony of St. Peter, fituated
in a bay of the Tufcan fea. Jhe port was enlarged and
civ
rendered commodious by Trajan; it is the beft in ftaly,
and was declared free by Benedi@& XIV. lt is the ufual
ftatton for the pope’s galleys. The air is unhealthy and the
water not good; 27 miles N.W. from Rome. N. lat,
42° 5'24", EE. long. 11° 46’ 15”. The alum-work, which
is fituated about an Italian mile N.W. from Tolfa, and fix
from Civita Vecchia, is reckoned by fome Italian hiftorians
to have/been the firft; however it is certainly the oldeft of
any that is carried on at prefent. The founder of it was
John di Caftro, a fon of the’ celebrated lawyer, Paul di
Caftro, (See Castro), who had an opportunity at Con-
ftantinople, where he traded in Italian cloths, and fold dye-
ftuffs, of making himfelf acquainted with the method of
boiling alum. Returning to his country upon the capture of
the city,he found at Tolfa a plant (the ilex aquifolium or holly),
which tndicated alum in the foil, and which he had obferved
in the aluminous diltriéts of Afia; and upon examining the
foil difcovered alum. Pope Pius II. availed himfelf of the
difcovery, which wag made, according to his account, about
the year 1460 or 1465, and this falt was afterwards manu-
faGured in great quantities, and fold to the Venetians,
the Florentines, and the Genoefe. See ALum.
CIVITALI, Marreo, in Biography, a fculptor and
architeét of fome eminence, who was born at Lucca, where,
amongft many other works, he conitructed in 1444 the
little temple, which contains the miraculous crucifix, m the
church of St, Martino, a ftatue of St. Sebaftian, and
another of the Madonna, which was placed at an angle of
the church, on the outfide; which works Vafari confiders
as no wife inferior to thofe of his mafter, Giacomo della
Quercia. But the greateft work of Civitali in feulpture, is
in the chapel of St. John the Baptilt at Geneva, where he
left fix admirable and highly finifhed ftatues of white mar-
ble, reprefenting Adam, Eve, Abraham, Abias, Zacha-
rias, and Elizabeth. Soprani.
CIVITARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Capitanata; 2 miles N.E. of Dragonera.
CIVITAS Eeuestrium, Novopunus, in Ancient
Geography, a place of Gallian Lyonnenfis, which had been
an epilcopal fee till the year 412 ; now Nions,
Civitas Nova, a town of Scythia.
CIVITATES Feperarz, were cities, which in con-
fequence of the alliance they had contrafed with the Ro-
man people, were obliged when required, although they
were governed by their own proper magiftrates, to furnifh a
contingent of auxiliary troops.
CIVITELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; 5 miles N.E. of Tarento.—Alfo, a
fortrefs of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra; 7
miles N. of Teramo.
CIVRAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Gironde ; 7 miles E. of Libourne.
CIVRAY, or Sivray, a town of Frence, and principal
place of a diftri@, in the department of the Vienne, feated
on the Charente ; 8 leagues S.W. of Poitiers. The place
contains 1484, and the canton 9728 inhabitants; the terri-
tory.includes 207% kiliometres, and 14 communes.
CIVRY, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Chateaudun ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Chateaudun.
CIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Lower Meefia,
which had its fource in the mountains of Thrace, and dif-
charged itfelf into the Danube. Euttathius fays, that a
town of the fame name was fituated near this river.
Civs, a town of Afia Minor in Bithynia, fituated on the
fea-coaft, at a {mall diftance from Nicwa. It had been epif-
copal.
CIZARA, .
CL.A
CIZARA, a town of Afia, in the Leffer Armenia,
placed by Ptolemy near the Euphrates,
CIZE’, in Geography, a valley of France, of which St,
Jean-Pié-de-port is the capital.
CIZYA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, into
which Euttathius was fent as an exile.
CKEBOE, in Geography, a town of Norway; 6 miles
5.S.E. of Drontheim.
CLACKLAND, a [mall ifland of Scotland, near the
eaft coaft of the ifland of Arran.
CLACK wool, to, is to cut off the fheep’s mark, which
makes it weigh lighter; as to force wool, fignifies to clip off
the upper and hairy part thereof ; and to bard it, is to cut
the head and neck from the refl of the fleece. Stat. 8 H. VI.
cap. 22.
CLACKMANNAN, in Geography, the principal town
of the county of Clackmannanfhire, ftands on an eminence
190 feet above the level of the Forth, which defcends gra-
dually on each fide of the town, but on the weltern, where
the ancient tower of Clackmannan is fituated, the ground
is broken, and difcovers vaft rocks of the moft romantic
forms, which give great intcreft to the admirable view from
the venerable ftru€ture juft mentioned, originally built by
king Robert Bruce, and for along time the refidence of the
Bruces. The town poflefles few attractions; and though
the principal itrcet is broad and convenient, yet the mean
appearance of many of the houfes gives an air of wretched-
nefs to the place, which feems confirmed by the ruinous flate
of the tolbooth and court-houfe, where the election fora
member of parliament is held, and at intervals the fheriff’s
court. The inhabitants are indebted to the river Devon for
their harbour, which enters the Forth at Clackmannan, and
to fir Lawrence Dundas for its improvement in 1772: the
mean depth of water is at prefent 20 feet at the mouth of
the harbour, and 10 at the fhipping-place. The town pays
feu duty to the proprietor of the eilate of the fame name,
on which it ftands. The population amounts to 640.
Clackmannan parifh is about fix miles in length, and
nearly five in breadth. Eight hundred acres of this parifh
are covered with natural woods, which are highly ufeful and
ornamental; the remainder of the land is arable, and very
produétive, with the exception of a {mall proportion that is
clay, and confequently wet. The gentlemen farmers of the
county formed a club, twenty years ago, for the exprefs
purpofe of introducing agricultural improvements, from
which great advantages have been derived ; nor are the na-
tives lets indebted to the Devon Tron Company, who have
furnifhed employment to numbers at their extenfive works,
ereGted on the eftate of lord Cathcart, near which is the new
and flourifhing village of Newtonfhaw. There are, befides, two
large diftilleries at Kilbagie and Kennet-Pans: at the latter
place is a commodious harbour. Coal, limeltone, and free-
jtone, are very plentiful throughout the parifh, which is in-
terfeéted by the rivers Ford and Devon. Population 2528,
in 1791.
CLACKMANNANSHIRE, a county of Scotland.
This difttiG, which is about nine miles in length, and not
exceeding eight in its greateft breadth, ts bounded on the
fouth and fouth-weit by Stirlingfhire and the frith of Forth,
and on the welt, north, and eaft, by Perthfhire. The coatt
is highly favourable to the fifherman and mariner, as it fur-
nifhes many e:cellent harbours for fhipping, and creeks for
the reception of boats. The furface rifes from the fhore,
.and forms the Ochil mountains, of which Bencleugh, in the
parifh of Tilly-coultry, is the higheft; the plain near the
Forth is extremely fertile, prodacing great crops of corn,
and abounding with rich paflures. Although the farmers
CLA
of this county have made confiderable improvements in agri»
culture, and are enabled to export a great deal of grain,
they turn their attention rather to raifing flocks and herds
than wheat, for which they have ftrong inducements in the
plentiful feed for fheep, furnifhed by nature on the fides of
the Ochil mountains. Thefe eminences contain valuable
ores of filver, lead, copper, cobalt, and antimony, befides
beautiful {pecimens of iron ore, agates, pebbles, and a few
topezes. In addition to thefe advantages, the ditlrict
abounds with coal throughout, freeftone, and granite, the
conveyance of which has lately been greatly facilitated by
the introdution of turnpike roads. here are four parifhes,
the county town, anda large village named Alloa in Clack-
mannanfhire, which, in conjiun@ion with the county of
Kinrofs, fends one member to parliament. ‘ The valued
rent is 26,482/, Scots, and the real land rent is about
14,200/. fterling.’”? The population, according to the enu-
meration returned to fir John Sinclair, was 8749. ‘The
principal manfions fituated within the county are Tullibody,
the refidence of the family of Abercromby ; Clackmannan,
that of Mr. Bruce of Kennet ; Shawpark and Alloa, the
former the feat of lord Cathcart, and the latter of the
Erfkines of Alloa.
CLACKNACARRY,a village in Invernefsfhire, in Scot-
land, about 14 mile N, of the town of Invernefs ; it is fituate
on the S.W. fide of loch Beauly, and at the eait end of the
intended Jnverne/s and Fort-Wiiliam, or Caledonian Canal,
the works of which are rapidly proceeding. he fpring-
tides here rife about 11 to Fg fect, neap tides 7 feet. In
1804, the excavation of the bafon and fea-lock at this place
were begun; an immenfe embankment was begun, which,
in May 1806, had extended 240 yards into the lock, or
two-thirds of its intended length, for inclofing the fite of
the fea-lock, which is therein to be built for the admiffion
of fhips and veffels as large as 32-gun frigates. _ A rail-way
has been formed for bringing earth from the hill on the weft
fide of the road from Invernefs to Beauly, and under which
it pafles, for completing the embankment in the fea above
mentioned : another rail-way has been laid, from the Rubble-
Stone Quarry in Clacknacarry to this embankment, and alfo
to the fecond lock on the canal, the mafonry of which is
now (1807) in a great meafure completed, Clacknacarry
may be expeéted hereafter to become a confiderable place
of trade, when this ftupendous and important canal of
communication between the eat and weit feas is com-
pleted.
CLADAUS, or Crapveus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Peloponnefus, in that part of the Elide called Tri-
phylia. It difcharges itfelf into the Alpheus; and Pau-
fanias fays, that the inhabitants of the Elide paid réligiouz
worfhip to this river.
CLADEUTERIA, in Antiquity, a feflival celebrated
at the time of pruning the vines. It was likewife called
bifbca.
CLADIUS, in Natural Hiflory, aname given by the an-
cients to the ftag or deer, when four years old; in this year,
or at theend of it, it was. called cerafles. ‘The Greeks had
names for all the years’ growth of this animal up to its per-
feGtion: in the firft year they called it nebrus ; in the fecond
pattalea ; in the third dicrotus 5 and-in the fourth cladius, or
cerafles towards the end of that year. ‘Ibis name the crea-
ture retained all its life afterwards, it being fuppofed at its
full maturity at that time. ?
CLADODES, in Botany, Bofe. Nouv. Dit. Lour.
Flor. Cochin, Clafs and order, monecia polyandria.
Gen. Ch. Cal. four-leaved ; leaves oval, concave. Cor.
none. fant, in the mal, filaments eight, membranous. 7/?.
i .<
-
CLA
in the female, germ fuperior, trigonous ; fligmas three, fef-
file, oblong. Peric. capfule nearly round, three-lobed, three-
celled, three-valved. Seeds one in each cell.
Sp. C.—A fhrub. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, fmooth,
wrinkled. Floqwers {mall, in terminal racemes. A native
of Cochinchina.
CLADONIA, a genus formed, by Hoffman, out of the
lichens of Linnzus. It is figured by him in Pl. 25. of his
Plantz lichenofe, and belongs to the Scyphiphora of Vente-
nat. See Licuen and ScyPpHIPHORA.
CLAESSEN, Aerr, or Avaert, in Biography, a
painter of fome eminence, born at Leyden in the year 1495.
At avery early period heevinced a ftrong inclination for paint-
ing. In 1516, he became the fcholar of Cornelius Engel-
brechtfen, and by his continued application fhortly ac-
quired proficency in his art. He chiefly employed his
talents in painting fubjeéts from the Old and New Telta-
ment, or other well known hiftories ; and rejeGted the allure-
ments of poetical fiGtions, or fabulous images. Though
his compofitions were good, his manner of painting was by
no nrans pleafing. At firit, his ftyle refembled that of his
matter, Engelbrechtfen ; but this he changed upon feeing
the works of John Schoorel: he imitated M. Hemfkerck
in the richnefs of architectural decoration.
Claeffen was as remarkable for his modefty as for his pro-
feffional merit ; and he could never be perfuaded to quit the
tranquil ebfcurity of his fituation for the honours which
his talents as an artift would have intitled him to. His facility
in compofing wasattoniihing ; and he made a vaft number of
drawings for the painters on glafs, for which he never received
a greater price than feven-pence each. The family Buy-
tenwegh, at Leyden, poffefled three pictures of this artitt,
which were full of expreffion. The firft was Chrift on the
Crofs, between the Two Thieves, with the Maries, and
other figures below. The fecond reprefents our Saviour
bearing the Crofs, followed by his difciples and a multitude
of people; and the third, Abraham conduGting his fon
Tfaac, loaded with wood, to the place of facrifice. H. Galt-
zius at Haerlem, had another piture of this artift, which he
highly efteemed. The fubje& was the paflage of the Red
Sea: the variety of the figures, and the fingularity of the
dreffes and turbans were furprifing.
The death of Aert Claeflen was occafioned by his falling
into a canal, where he was unfortunately drowned, in the
year 1564. Defcamps.
CLAGENFURT, in Geography, a town of Germany,
and capital of the duchy of Carinthia, feated on the Glan,
built ina {quare form, and furrounded with a good wall. It
has fix churches and three convents; a manufacture of
cloth, and a fociety for the promotion of agriculture and
ufeful arts; 50 miles N. of Triefte. N. lat. 46° 45’, E.
long. 14° 11’.
CLAGGAN Bay, a bay in the county of Galway, Ire-
land, fouth of Claggan point. It is of eafy accefs, has
clean, good holding ground, and pretty well fheltered, with
depth of water fufficient for the largeft fhips. M‘Kenzie.
CraccGan Point, a cape of Ireland on the weit coatt
of the county of Galway, long. 10° 4’ weft from Green-
wich, lat. 53° 34 N.
CLAIC, Fr. a hurdle, or fort of re€tangular wicker-
work. Hurdles ferve at fieges in lieu of blinds or mante-
lets, when there is a want of them, to cover a lodgment, a
fap, or a paflage of the ditch. They cover them with earthin
orderto guard them againit fire-works. "They make ufe of
pitched claics, or hurdles, with good effe& for making caufe-
ways in boggy or marfhy places, when the water is carried
off from them by drains.
t
CLA
CLAIM, in Law, a challenge of intereft in any thing
that is in poffcffion of another; at leaft Gut of a man’s own.
See Non-craim. d
There are divers forts of claims; as claim by charter,
by defcent, by acquifition, &c.
Claim is otherwife defined to be a challenge of the owner-
fhip or property which one hath not in poffeffion, but which
is detained from him by wrong. It is either verbal, when
a perfon by words claims or challenges the thing that
is not in his poffeffion, or it is by an ation brought,
&c.; and it relates fometimes to lands, and fome-
times to. goods and chattels: Where any thing is
wrongfully detained, this claim fhould be made; and
the perfon who makes it may thus avoid defcents of
lands, diffeifins, &c. and preferve his title, which would
otherwife be in danger of being loft. Co. Litt. 250. A man
who hath prejent right or title to enter, muft make a claim;
and in cafe of reverfions, &c. a perfon may make a claim,
when he hath right, but cannot enter on the lands; and
when he dares not make an entry on the land, for fear of
perfonal injury, he may approach as near as he can to the
land, and claim the fame; and this fhall be fufficient to velt
in him the feifin. 1 Inft. 250. If nothing hinders a
man, having rightto land, from entering or making his
claim ; he muft do it before he fhall be fued to be in poffef-
fion of it, or can grant it over to another; but where the
party who hath right is already in pofleffion, and where an
entry or claim cannot be made, iz is otherwife. 1 Rep. 157.
A claim may be made by the party himfelf, and fometimes
by his fervants or deputy; and a guardian in fecage, &c.
may make a claim, or enter in the name of the infant that
hath right, without any commandment. Co. Litt. 245.
Claim or entry fhould be made as foon as may be ; and by the
common law it is to be within a yearand a day after thedif-
feifin, &c.; and if the party who hath unjultly gained the
eftate, do afterwards occupy the land, in fome cafes an affife,
trefpafs, or forcible entry may be had againft him. Litt.
Se&. 426,430. Ifa fine is levied of lands, ftrangers to it
are to enter and make a claim within five years, or be
barred ; infants after their age, feme-coverts after the death
of their hufbands, &c. have the like claim, by ftat. 1.
ROTIL c. 7: is
Cxraim, Continual, a claim made from time to time, with-
in every year and day, to land, or other thing, which, on
fome accounts, cannot be attained without danger. -
Thus, if I am diffeifed of land, into which, though I
have aright, I do not enter for fear of being beaten; I am
to hold on my right of entry at my beft opportunity, by ap-
.proaching as near as I can, once every year, as long as I
live: and thus I leave the right of entry to my heir.
This claim, if it be repeated once in the fpace of every
year and day (whence it derives the name of continual
claim), has the fame effe& with, and in all refpe@s amounts
to, a legal entry. Litt. §. 419. 423. By ttat. 32 Hen.
VIII. c. 43. five years muft elapfe without entry or conti-
‘nual claim, in order that a defcent on the diffeifor’s death
fhould take away the entry of the diffeifee, or his heir; but
after the five years, the diffeifee muft make continual claim
as before the ftatute. And by ftat. 4 Ann. c. (6. §. 14.
no claim (orentry) fhall be of effe& to avoid a fine, unlefs
an action fhall be commenced thereon within a year, and pro-=
fecuted with effe&. :
Craim of liberty, a {uit or petition to the king in. the
court of Exchequer, to have liberties and franchifes confirms
ed there by the king’s attorney-general,
Cuaim, Falfe. See Fause.
Cram, Quit. See Quit.
= Qe CLAIN,
Cul f#
CLAIN, or Crane, in Geography, a {mall fair town on
the river Liffey, in the county of Kildare, Ireland, which
gives name to the barony. At an abbey here, the ruins of
which are itil feen, a fynod was held in 1162. It is 16
miles W. from Dublin.
Crary, a river of France, which pafles by Poitiers, and
runs into the Vienne; 3 miles S. of Chatellerault.
CLAIR, Jean Marie Le, in Biography, a French vio-
linift of great merit and celebrity for compotition, as well as
performance. Though contemporary with Rameau, his
melody and ftyle were fuperior to thofe of that eminent
theorift and opera compofer. The produdtions of Le Clair
manifeft original genius, as well as knowledge of harmony,
and the finger-board of his inftrument. His folos were
printed in England by Walch, and ufed to be frequently and
admirably played by Pinto.
Le Clair was born at Lyons, 1697, and died at Paris in
1764. His early inclinations led him to the art of dancing,
and he firit appeared on the ftage at Rouen as a dancer. By
a fingular chance, the famous Dupré was at that time the
leader of the orchefira at the Rouen theatre, as firft violin;
but both, difcontented with their talents, did juftice to each
other, and changed places: Dupré became the firft dancer
that ever exifted, and Le Clair foon opened a new path to
harmony.
Batitte and Guignon at that time enjoyed great reputa-
tion; but Le Clair eftablifhed his fame upon a more folid
foundation, by the manner in which he performed double
flops: a new ityle, at firft introduced by Batilte, but which
Le Clair brought to the higheft degree of perfetion.
Le Clair, ftill afpiring at greater perfection in his art, went
to Holland, and placed himfelf under the celebrated Loca-
telli, the greateft performer on the violin of his time ; and
returning to Paris, excited admiration in all who heard
him.
His folos, duets, trios, and concertos, were Jong in uni-
verfal favour, and ftill form the beft {chool for the violin in
France, as the works of Corelli do in Italy. His opera of
Syla and Glaucus had no extraordinary fuccefs ; there are
in it, however, many excellent parts, which have been in-
ferted in other operas, and are always heard with pleafure.
The fimplicity of Le Clair’s charaGter inclined him to
diflike the great world, and its turbulence, and determined
him to retire to a {mall houfe of his own in the fuburbs of
Paris: but in going home, after {upping in town, Oober
22d, 1764, he was affaflinated, without its ever being dif-
covered by whom, or for what.
Cxair, in Geography, a country of America, in the ter-
ritory N.W. of the Ohio ; laid out in April, 1790.
Cuair, Sr. a fort of America in the ftate of Ohio, fitu-
ated 25 miles N. of fort Hamilton, on a {mall creek which
falls into the Great Miami, and 21 miles S. of fort Jefferfon.
Cxrair, St. the name of a /ake lying about midway be-
tween lake Huron and lake Erie, about go miles in circum-
ference, and comprehending, according to the meafurement
of Mr. Hutchins, 89,500 acres. It receives the waters
of the three great lakes, Superior, Michigan, and Huron,
and difcharges them through the river or ftrait, called De-
troit, into lake Erie. This lake is of a circular form, and
navigable for large veflels, except a bar of fand towards the
middle, which prevents loaded veflels from paffing. The
cargoes of fuch as are freighted mult be taken out, carried
acro{s the bar in boats, and then re-fhipped. The fort of
Detroit is feated on the weftern bank of the river of the
fame name, about g miles below lake St. Clair.
eCrair, St. a town of France in the department of the
Channel, and chief place of acanton, in the diftri€& of St.
Vou. VIII.
GL A
LO; the place contains 644, and the canton 9547 inhabit
ants ; the ierritory includes 1274 kiliometres and 16 com-
munes.
CLAIRA, a town of France, in the department of the
Eaftern Pyrenees; 5 miles N.f. of Perpignan.
CLATIRAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne, advantazeoufly fituated in a valley on
the Drot, and containing about 3000 inhabitants; who
cultivate tobacco and corn, and make a great quantity of
wine and brandy; one league S.IE. of Tonnecins, and 44
N.W. of Agen.
CLAIRAUT, Avexis-Ciaupe, in Biography, a cele-
brated mathematician, was born at Paris in 1713, and, un-
der the inftructinn of his father, who was a teacher of ma-
thematics in that city, he madea furprifing proficiency ata
very early age in this department of fcience. When he was 4
years old, he had learned to read and write; at the age of
g and 10 years he appears to have been well acquainted with
algebra, geometry, and conic fections ; and between 12 and
13 he read a memoir to the Academy of Sciences, concern-
ing four geometrical curves of his own invention. At this
early period he feems to have laid the foundation of his
work on curves, having adouble curvature, which he finifh-
ed in 1729, before he had completed his 16th year. At
the age of 18, or in 1731, he was nominated adjuné& me-
chanician to the Academy ; in 1733 aflociate, and in 1735
penfioner. Few, if any, of the members of this learned
fociety contributed a greater number and varicty of ingen:-
ous papers on the fubjects of aftronomy, mathematics, optics,
&c. to its memoirs, from the year 1727 to 1762, than M.
Clairaut. His memoir ** De l’Orbite de la Lune dans le
Syfteme de Newton,’”? was communicated to the Academy
in 1743; and he profecuted the fubjeG in feveral fubfequent
memoirs and feparate publications. In 1750 the Academy
of Peterfburgh propofed a prize for the year 1752, on the
fubject of the lunar motions, with a view of alcertaining
«© whether all the inequalities that had been obferved in the
motion of the moon are conformable to the theory of New-
ton, and what is the true theory of thefe inequalities, by
means of which the place of the moon might be exactly de-
termined at any given moment?” Clairaut obtained this
prize, and his paper on the fubje€t was printed at Peterf-
burgh in that year in 4to. He alfo gained another prize
for his new lunar tables, publifhed in 1754, under the title
of * Tables de la Lune, calculées fuivant la Théorie de la
Gravitation univerfelle,’ Paris, 8vo. In 1765 he publifh-
ed anew edition of the piece which had gained the prize at
Peterfburgh in 1752, and alfonew ‘ Tables of the Moon,’
fomewhat different in form from thofe which he had prefent-
edtothe public in 1754. Inthe year 1756 M. D’Alem-
bert publifhed a new edition of his ‘ ‘l'ables,’”? which had
appeared in 1754, in his ‘* Recherches fur differens points
importans du Syftéme du Monde,”’ and which Le Monnier
had publifhed in his ¢¢ Inftitutions Aftronomiques.” sibout
this period commenced the difpute between Clairaut and
D’Alembert, concerning their refpective theories, which,
engaged the public attention for fome years; the papers of
Clairaut, relating to this controverfy, were communicated
to the public in the ‘ Journal des Savans” for 1758, 17595
1761 and 1762. Befides the various communications above-
mentioned, and others inferted in the Memoirs of the Aca-
demy, M. Clairaut publifhed the following works feparate-
ly, viz. * On Curves of adouble Curvature,” in 1730, gto. ;
« Elements of Geometry,” 1741, 8vo.; ‘ Theory of the
Figure of the Earth,”? 1743, 8vo. 5 “ Elements of Algebra,’’
1746, 8vo.; and ‘ ‘Tables of the Moon,” 1754, Sve.
Clairaut died, at the age of 52 wears, on the 17th of May
x 1765,
CLAIR-OBSCURE.
176s. Montucla, Hift. des Mathem. by De la Lande,
vol. iv.
CLAIRE, in Geozraphy, a town of France, in the de-
artment of the Lower Seine, 10 miles N. of Rouen.
CLAIR-OBSCURE, or Cutaro-Scuro, one of the
reat component parts of painting or drawing, is the art of
diftributing the lights and darks in a picture, in fuch a
manner as to give at once proper relief to the figures, the”
belt effet to the whole compofition, and the greateft de-
light to the eye.
Chiaro-feuro, the original word is Italian, and com-
pounded of chiara, light, and ofcura, dark.
Although the word chiaro-feuro is generally confidered
as fynonymous with light and fhade, yet it is proper to
obferve, that it is of a more extended fenfe; as it denotes
not only the lights and fhades of a picture, but alfo_ its
lights and darks, of what kind foever. In this latter fenfe
chiaro-feuro is fo nearly allied to colouring, that, for fome
centuries, it was not thought poffible to difunite them.
The engravers, from the earlicit period of their art tiil
the time of Rubens, never attempted more than to give
to each object in their engravings its proper lights and
fhades, leaving to painting alone the privilege of producing
effe& of chiarof{curo, by the oppofition of objects of
dark local colour to light ones. Thus, the effe& of chiaro-
feuro, fo forcible in the pi€ture, was weak and incomplete
in the print; the lights upon a piece of black drapery, or
any other dark-coloured objet, being left the fame as thofe
upon a white, or light-coloured objeét. But engravers at
prefent, by adopting a different principle, are enabled to
make the effet of their prints, fo far as relates to chiaro-
feuro, as rich and powerful as it is in the piciures they copy :
this is done by giving, befides the lights and fhades, the
relative lightnefs or darknefs of the local or proper colour of
each object in the picture, thereby producing what is called
by artilts the tone of the picture.
A thorough conception and knowledge of the chiaro-
fcuro is of the greatelt importance to the painter. It is
chiefly by the proper application of that branch of the art
that ke is enabled to make the various objeés in his piSture
appear to projet or recede, according to their relative
fituations or diltances ; and thus far the principles of it are
neceflary to the artift, ere he can hope to render his imitation
juft or intelligible. But, it being required in the works of
fine art, not only that truth fhould be told, or that beauty
fhould be reprefented, but likewife that the one and the
other fhould be made appear to every poflible advantage ; it
has, therefore, ever been the ftudy of great painters, not
only to give the due appearance of roundnefs, or projection
to the objeéts in their piGures, by proper lights and
thadows ; but likewife to unite or contraft the mafles of
light and dark, in fuch a manner as to give at once the
moft forcible impreffion to the imagination, and the mott
pleafing effect to the eye.
Chiaro-fcuro may, therefore, be faid to be of two kinds ;
that which is neceflary, and that which is expedient or orna-
rental.
The firft kind has been, in a greater or lefs degree, un-
derflood and praétifed from the revival of painting in the
thirteenth century ; and, in fhort, it was utterly impoflible
that any artift fhould have attempted to imitate on a plain
furface the appearances of round bodies, without difcovering
the neceflity of lights and fhades. However, even this,
which may be called natural chiaro-fcuro, was but very im-
perfeGtly underftood till the time of Mafaccio, near the
middle of the 15th century; the painters, prior to this
period, having had very little idea of what are called pro-
jeGting fhadows; fuch as are thrown upon one object, by
another intervening between it and the rays of light. In-
deed, in the pictures of molt of the old painters who pre-
ceded Lionardo da Vinci, the ground on which the figures
ftand, is made fo light on that fide where this projecting
fhadow fhould be thrown, that they frequently feem to
have only air to {upport them.
Lionardo da Vinci, towards the end of the 15th, and the
beginning of the 16th century, was the firlt who, in his
admirable writings, as well as in his pictures, treated the
fubje&t of chiaro-fcuro fcientifically ; but although the
few remaining works of his pencil have prodigious force,
rotundity, and foftnefs; yet the fyftem which he recom.
mends and generally adopted, of relieving the dark fide
of his figures by a light back-ground, and the light parts
by adark one, prevented that expanfion and breadth of
effeé&t which the great Coreggio foon after difcovered
could only be attained by a contrary mode of conduétt,
that of relieving one fhadow by another {till darker, and of
uniting feveral light obje&ts into one great mafs.
The condu& of Coreggio, with refpect to his lights and
fhadows, is worthy the moft attentive confideration ; and
there never, perhaps, was a painter who, independent of the
advantage, which he well knew how to take, of the occa-
fional oppofition of dark to lizht-coloured objeGts, pro-
duced fo fimple, fo grand an effet of chiaro-fcuro. His
figures, as well as the other objects in his pi€tures, are at
all times fo difpofed, as naturally to receive the light exa@ly
in thofe parts where it is moit wanted, and belt fuits the
efle&t of the whole; and yet this is done fo ficilfully, and
at the fame time with fuch an appearance of eafe, that
neither propriety nor grace of action feems in anywile to
be facrificed in the aftonifhing combination.
The principal painters of the Venetian fchool, Giorgione,
Titian, Baffan, Tintoret, and Paul Veronefe, were great
matters of effet ; but with them this effeét is more fre-
quently the refult of accordance or oppofition of the local
colours of the different obje&ts compofing their pictures,
than of any very ftudied or remarkably fkiliul difpofition of
the mafies of lights and fhadows.
Michelangiolo da Caravaggio, who flourifhed at the end
of the fixteenth century, and Guercino, who came foon after,
produced the moit powerful effeéts of chiaro-feuro, by means
widely different from thofe adopted by any of their prede-
ceffors: but though they rendered their pictures molt ftrik-
ing, by reafon of the very ftrong oppofitions of light and
fhadow, which they made almoft conftantly to pervade them,
beauty of form and expreffion was too frequently facrificed
to force; and we are taught this truth, that chiaro-feuro,
like many other parts of painting, cannot be carried beyond
certain limits, but at the expence, more or lefs, of the other
effentials of the art. :
Gerard Hunthorft, called by the Italians Gheraréo della
Notté, and Adam Elfhemer, produced altonithing efeéts of
chiaro-fcuro in their candle and moon-light pieces, which are
defervedly in the highelt eftimation with the lovers of paint-
ing ; whillt Rubens, with his all-commanding genius, grafped.
the various magic treafures of the pencil, and by uniting the
wide expanfive effe&t of Coreggio, the richly contrafted tints
of the Venetians and the force of Caravaggio, has only left
us to regret, that his magnificent inventions were not drawn
with the purity of Raffaele, or the corre€tnefs and grandeur
of Buonaroti.
If Rubens aftonifhes by his unbounded difplay. of light,
the parfimonious ufe made of it by Rembrant, 1s not lefs
captivating or furprifing. Rembrant confidered the lights
in his piftures as fo many gems, acquiring increafed ira
rom
CLAITR-OBSCURE
from their rarity ; and indeed the ftriking effect he has pro-
duced by the extraordinary means he adopted, happily fhews,
how vain the attempt to limit or reltrain by rules the work-
ings of genius in the human mind.
An attentive ftudy of the works of thefe preat mafters,
either in their pi€tures or prints, together with a conftant re-
ference to nature, is the furelt method of attaining a know-
ledge of the chiaro-fcuro ; but although, in this cafe, pre-
cept can in no wife fuperfede example, a few remarks may
be of ufe in dire@ing the fludent.
Effe@ts of chiaro-feuro are produced by combinations of
li¢hts, middle tints, and fhadows ; to which may be added,
as was before obferved, the oppofitions of dark coloured ob-
jects to light ones.
Lizht, as applicable to painting, may be confidered of
four kinds: firit, that proceediag without interruption, im-
mediately from the fun to the objet; this caufes very for-
cible and cutting fhadows, and ftrong reflected lights, from
one objet to another; but though the chiaro-fcuro thus
produced is moft brilliant and powerful, the means will {e]dom
be reforted to by thofe artilts who are unwilling to facrifice
beauty of form, or delicacy and truth of expreffion, to ghiter
and fplendour of effe&, unlefs indeed in landfcape, to which
the glow of fun-fhine alone gives life and animation.
The fecond kind of light is that produced when the rays
of the fun are interrupted by clouds ormilts: this is what
Lionardo da Vinci calls the univerfal lizht, and which he
particularly recommends, as it gives an clic& at once broad,
rich, fimple, and tranquil, and in no degree deftroying the
beauty either of forms or expreffion. In this cafe, the lights
and fhades are foftly and imperceptibly blended into each
other, and the refleGted lights are proportionally lefs difcern-
ible.
The third kind of light is that of the mcon, of a cold hue,
and infinitely lefs powerful than that of the fun. The ftill
effets of moon-light have never been more truly defcribed,
than by the exquifite and feeling pencil of Vanderneer, many
of whofe works in this way are beyond all price.
The fourth kind of light is fuch as proceeds from torches,
candles, or any cther artificial flame. This kind of ght
tinges the objcé& it illumines with its ewn yellow hue; its in-
fluence is but {mall, except upon objects near it, andthe fha-
dows are proportionally dark and extended.
Painters have, by combining the various properties of thefe
different forts of light, produced a fifth kind, which may be
termed ideal, or picturefque light ; thus’ Rubens, amongtt
others, has not unfrequently united in one picture the brilliant
illumination caufed by the dire& rays of the fun, and thofe
forcible reflections which in natureare only the confequence of
fuch powerful hight, with that foftnefs and repofe which the
more quiet, or what Da Vinci terms univerfal light, is alone
calculated to oceafion. Caravaggio and Spagnoletto icined
the deep fhadows of night to meridian brightnefs ; and many
of their extravagant followers who painted at Venice about
1640, acquired by their difmal and almolt midnight effeats,
the appellation of the ‘ Seita de tencbrofi,” the gloomy fe&
of painters.
However, when this ideal chiaro-feuro is ufed with difcre-
tion, and employed in fuch a manner as to co-operate with,
or increafe the expreflion of the piture, by its confurmity to
the charaCter of the fubje& reprefented ; more beautiful and
ttriking effeéts are the refult, than could have been occafion-
ed by the moft exact imitation of any real appearance in na-
ture. For it is ever to be remembered, that not the mere
imitation, but, as it were, the rivalfhip of nature, fhould be
the exalted aim of the artift whois ambitious of fhining in
the higher departments of painting, feulpture, or indeed any
of the fine arts.
The middle tint is occafioned by the rays of light ftriking
in a fide direction, or obliquely on the object; it is neither
light nor dark, but that beautiful medium by which the flil-
ful artift is enabled to blend, by imperceptible gradations,
the extremes of both. The management of the middle tints
is of the greateit importance, but can only be learned by fre-
quent examinations of the works of the greateft painters, and
an affiduous ftudy of nature,
With refpeé to fhadows, it has been before obferved, that
in nature tuey ever appear powerful and abrupt, in propor-
tion as the light is forcible ; and that in thefe cafes the re-
flected lights, caft by reverberation, from the enlightened
part of one object upon the fhaded fide of another object op-
pofite to it, are ftrong. Thefe refleGted lights, when well
managed, produce mott beautiful effeéts upon flefh and other
{emi-tranfparent bodics, and are frequently of great ufe in
harmonizing and uniting thofe mafles of light which would
otherwife have been broken into {mall parts, or difagreeable
forms ; befides which, a greater appearance of proje€tion can
fometimes be given by a refleG&ted light, than could have
been accomplithed by the introduction of the ftrongeft
fhadow.
The do&trine of reflections, and indced every thing that
relates to chiaro-fcuro, is clearly exemplified in the works of
Rubens, Jordaens, and Rembrant; but it is proper to ob-
ferve, that the former, both with refpeét to his effects of chi-
aro-icuro and colouring, fometimes ‘ o’erfteps the modelly
of nature.”’
The great merit of Rubens is moft confpicuous in his
large works, where the dillance interveni: g between the eye
of the {pe€tator and the picture effeciually blends and har-
monizes all the tints ; in his eafel piétures, the artisee by
which his effe€t is produced is generally tco apparent, his
tranfitions are too abrupt, and his refleclions mere powerful
than nature can jultify.
Shadows may perhaps be properly divided into two kinds;
firft, the fimple thadow ; fuch asis naturally occafioned upon
that fide of an object which is not turned towards the lumin2-
ry; and, {econdly, the proje@tng fhadow,whichtakes place up-
on that fide of an objeét which 1s turned towards the luminary,
in confequence of the intervention of fome other objet be-
tween itand the luminary. The projecting thadow is always
darker in its origin, than the fhaded fide of the intervening
body which occafioned it, and for this reafon: that fide of
an objeét upon which the projecting fhadow is thrown, being
turned towards the dark fide of the cbicét which cecafioned
it, can receive no rcefleGed hight; whereas the fhaded fide of
the intervening body which occafoued the projeéting fha-
dow can receive reflcGed light, being turned towerds the il-
luminated parts of other objets in the pictures
The knowledge of lights and fhades is nearly conmeétcd
with the fcience of perfpeGtive, and, in particular, when
buildings or other regularly formed objects are to be repre-
fented ; great benefit may be derived from the rules of Dr.
Brooke Taylor. See Pursrecrive.
It may here be neceflary to fay a few words refpeAtin
what are called by painters accidental or catching lights, on
accidental fhadows. The acedental lightis in feet generally
no other than a {mall portion of the common light, ftriking
as it were partially upon fome {mall object, or part of a large
objet, furrounded by large mafles of thadow. Fine effe&is
of this kind are to be obferved in the landfeapes of Reme
brant, where the {cene, generally in fhadow, or middle tint,
is partially illumined by the rays of the fun, ftriking shrouae
Xx 2 the
TC LAIR-OBSCURE.
the apertures of acloud. Parmagiano, in a pi€ture of the
marriage of St. Catharine, has produced avery beautiful and
ftriking effeét, by the introdution of a light which may be
juitly ityled accidental. The principal group, which is in a
room, is illumined from the left ; behind the Madonna is a
door opening into another room, where Old Jofeph receives
the light by means of a window opening to the right; thus
two contrary lights are introduced in the fame picture, and
yet without departing from the laws of nature. This elegant
work of genius was commented oa by Lomazzo, in his
‘* Treatife on Painting,”? and is now in the poffeffion of
William Morland, efg.
Another {pecies of accidental light, is occafioned by the
introduction of a fecond light in a piéture, differcit in kind
from the principal light. Thus, in the kitchen ‘cenes of
Baflan, Teniers, or Oftade, when a fire is introduced, in
fome part of the pi€ture, the compofition being otherwife
illumined by the light of day; this fire becomes an acct-
dental light; and the cafe is fimilar, when, in one corner of
a moonlight, the fifhermen are reprefented, by their warm
fire, mending their nets againft the morning’s dawn.
In the Frefco of Raffaele, in the Vatican, of St. Peter
delivered out of prifon, there are three diftin@ kinds of
light; the firft and principal light 1s occafioned by irradiation
from the angel, the fecond proceeds from a torch, and the
third from the moon. Such accidental lights, when fkilfully
and judicioufly introduced, never fail to produce a beautiful
and ftriking effeét; but they fhould never be admitted, ex-
cept in thofe fubjcéts which feem naturally to require, or to
allow of them.
With regard to what are called accidental thadows, it may
be fufficient to obferve, that if any difference exifts between
them, and projecting fhadows, it is this only, the accidental
fhadow is generally caufed by the intervention of a body, at
fome diltance from the objeét overfhadowed, and confe-
quently, the accidental fhadow is lefs powerful, and lefs
edgy, than the proje€ting fhadow. In landfcape, great
{cope is allowed in the introdu€tion of accidental fhadow, it
being eafily accounted for, by the fuppofition of clouds,
nountains, or other objects; but, in hiltorical painting, an
accidental fhadow fhould never be reforted to, unlefs the
caufe of that fhadow can be made apparent in the piture;
it is true that Sir Jofhua Reynolds, in one of his leGures,
{eems inclined to jultify the condu& of Paul Veronefe, when
in one inftance he departed from this rule; but, perhaps, a
notion inadvertently ftated, even by fo great an artilt, fhould
earry with it ttle weight, when oppofed to the opinions and
authorities of the moft celebrated painters of every age; the
circumftance is here mentioned, becaufe this f{uppofed licence
has been fo eagerly caught at, and fo frequently, we might
fay unneceflarily, reforted to, by painters of the prefent
day.
With re{pe&t to the knowledge of chiaro-feuro, pofcfled
by the ancients, we are but imperfe&ly informed; however,
if we can form any judgment from the paintings difcovered
at Herculaneum, and in the baths of Titus at Rome (which,
although, perhaps, not executed by the moft eminent artifs,
may neverthelefs be reafonably fuppofed to approach them
in point of merit, as much with refpeé& to chiaro-feuro, as to
the other parts of the art), this part of painting, as well as
perfpective, was but little underitood by them. Mr. Webbe,
however, in his ‘l’reatife on Painting, ftrenuoufly fupports
the antients on this queftion, but perhaps not upon fufficient
grounds; to him the reader is referred. Sce PaintinG
among? the Ancients.
Amongit the beft eftablifhed maxims, relating to chiaro-
fcuro, are the following:
That there fhould be one principal light in every piCture ;
that other lights may, and ought to be admitted, but that
they fhould at all times, be either lefs in quantity or lower in
tone, than the great principal light; that this principal
light fhould either be placed on the moft important object in
the piture, or be fo managed, as to conduct the eye of the
{peétator to that obje&t; that, independent of the forms of
the objects and groups themfelves, each mafs of light, and
dark, fhould in itfelf be of an agreeable fhape; and tliat
thefe maffes fhould be fo linked, as it were together, that no
body, either of light or dark, may appear like a fpot un-
conneéted with the reit.
One thing more fhou'd be obferved. Although, as has
been before faid, the fyicm of Lionardo da Vinci, of con-
{tantly oppofing a fhade ro a light, produces a poverty of
effe&t ; yet it gives a vcft and appearance of truth to a
picture, to introduce, in [ome {mall part of it, a figure, or
other object, relieved at once, by dark on a light ground.
For further informations refpeCting clair-obfcure, the
reader is referred to Sir Jofhua Reynolds’s Leétures, and to
his Notes on Mr. Mafon’s Tranflation of Du Frefnoy’s
elegant poem on painting ; where the fubje€&t, with the one
exception we have taken the liberty to make, is treated with
a perlpicuity, the refult of deep inveltigation and long pro-
feffional experience.
Although a knowledge of the chiaro-fcuro is generally
confidered as neceffary to the painter alone, yet the fine ef-
feéts produced by it are well worthy the confideration of the
{culptor and the architect. The fenlptor who, when modci-
ling his defign, avails himfelf not of the dire€tion or pecu-
liaritics of the light afforded by the fituation where his
group, his ftatue, or baffo-relievo is to be placed, lofes one
of the greatelt advantages afforded by his art. Michael
Angelo’s fine figure of Lorenzo da Medici in the fagrefty of
St. Lorenzo at Florence, and fome of Bernini’s monuments
in St. Peter’s at Rome, would forfeit half their claim to
our admiration if removed to a light different from that for
which they were compofed.
Obfervations of the fame tendency might be made refpe&-
ing architeGture ; the fine chiaro-{curo occafioned by the in-
tercolumniation, and the broad projecting pediments of the
temples of Peftum, and the church of Covent Garden, leave
the grande(t impreffions on the mind of every beholder. See
Scutprure aid ARCHITECTURE.
Cuiaro-Scuro, is alfo ufed to denote a fpecies of en-
graving, faid to have been dilcovered by Ugo di Carpi, an
Italian painter at the commencement of the 16th century ;
in which he was followed by Andrea Andriani of Mantua,
2nd others; but the Germans, and apparently with fome
reafon, difpute with the Italians the honor of the invention.
Thefe prints are produced by three diltinét impreffions from
the fame number of blocks of wood; the firit gives the
outline, the fecond, the middle tints, and the third, the
fhadows; fo that the print, when complete, refembles a
drawing in biftre upon a tinted paper, and touched with
white. -
Curaro-Scuro is likewife ufed to fignify thofe pi€tures
which are painted with different fhades of the fame colour
only. Of this clafs are the fine friezes, by Polidor, and
others, on the fagades of the palaces at Rome, and other’
cities of Italy; and the ingenious imitations of cameos
and baffo-relievos, with which fo many painters in diflem-
per have ornamented the interior of magnificent dwellings.
For the illuftration of this article fee the following
plates, viz. i E
1. The fimpie principles of Chiaro-Scuro illuftrated.
2. The condué of Correggio in the diltribution of his
mafies
CLA
maffes of light and fhade, exemplified in one of his compo-
fitions in the Duomo at Parma.
3. An example of Rubens.
4. A ditto of Rembrandt.
CLAIRVAUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Jura, and chief place of acanton in the diftrict
of Lons-le-Saulnier, 3 leagues S.E. of it. The place con.
tains r210, and the canton 7226 inhabitants; the territory
includes 160 kiliometres and 33 communes.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Aube, and diftrict of Bar-
fur-Aube, which took its name from an abbey built there in
the year 1115; 2 leagues S. of Bar-fur-Aube.
CLAIRVILLE, Sr. a fmall fettlement of America,
in the ftate of Ohio, and county of Belmont, 12 miles from
the river Ohio, on the poft road from Wheeling to Ken-
tucky.
CLAISE, a river of France, which runs into the Creufe
near La Haye.
CLAIX, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere, and diftri€& of Grenoble ; 4 miles fouth of Grenoble.
CLAKIS, in Ornithology, a name given by the people of
Lancafhire, and fome other places, to the BARNACLE, a
fmall fpecies of wild goofe; the nas erythropa, or Anas
cinerea, fronte alba, of Gmelin. It is found in Hudfon’s
Bay, and the N. part of Europe, and in winter in Eng
land.
CLAM, in Geography, a town of Germany in the arch-
duchy of Auftria, 1 mile W. of Gran.
Cram town. See Ecc harbour.
CLAMATOR, in Antiquity, was ufed to fignify a do-
meftic officer, whofe bufinefs was to call the guefts to
dinner.
CLAMEA admittenda in itinere per attornatum, in Law,
is a writ whereby the king commands the jutlice in eyre to
admit a perfon’s claim by an attorney, who, being employed
in the king’s fervice, cannot come in perfon, Reg. Crig.
19.
*eLLAMECY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Niévre, and principal’ place of a diftri&,
at the conflux of the Beuvron and the Yonne. The no-
minal bifhop of Bethlehem refided in the fauxbourgs of this
town; the fee having been fixed here from the time when
the Chriftians were expelled the Holy Land; his revenue
was {mall, and his diocefe limited to the place of his refi-
dence ; ri leagues N.N.E. of Nevers, and 7 fouth of Aux-
erre.
CLAMOR, or Crameur de Haro, a popular term in
the French laws, importing a complaint, or cry, whereby
any one implores the afhiftance of juilice again{t the opprei-
fion of another. ;
Cramor, fon, in Medicine, an intenfenefs of the voice,
or aloud outcry. This is fometimes the caufe of a rup-
ture of the veffels, and fometimes of a diforder, like an in-
flammation about the membranes of the fauces and mufcles;
which may be compared to that ulcerous and inflammatory
laffitude, which affef&ts the hands, legs, and loins, after ex-
ceffive hard labour ;- the {pirituous and humid particles being
exhaufted, and the fibres and membranes dried and contra¢t-
ed. Acclamor isfometimes alfo a fort of remedy, and pre-
feribed as fuch in order to: roufe perfons out of a lipothymy,
or {yncope.
Cramor bellicus. See CHarce and SHout:
CLAMPS, in Gunnery. See Car-/guares and Gannon.
Cramps, in Ship Building, are ftrakes of plank, in large
fhips, on the gun-deck, eight or nine inches thick, fayed
to the fides, to fupport the ends of the beams.
Cramp Aangingy may be fixed to any place in the fide of
*4CG-L:A
a fhip for faftening ropes to, in order to fufpend the ftages
for the workmen, &c.
Cramps, in a Ship, are alfo pieces of timber applied to a
matt, or yard, to flrengthen it, and prevent the wood from
burtfting.
Cram? is alfo a crooked iron plate, faftened to the after
end of the main cap of fnows, to fecure the try-fail matt.
Cramp, alfo denotes a little piece of wood, in form of a
wheel; ufed inftead of a pully in a mortice.
Cramp, is likewife the term for a pile of bricks built up
for burning.
Crame-nails, are fuch nails as are ufed to faften on clamps
in building and repairing of ships,
CLAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Magna Grecia, in the country of the Brutians. It is
placed by M. D’Anville S.W. of Confentia, and is the
modern Amamea.
CLAMPING, in Foinery, fc. When a piece of board
is fitted with the grain, to the end of another piece of board
crofs the grain; the firft board is faid to be clamped. Thus
the ends of large old tables were commonly clamped, to pre=
ferve them from warping.
CLAMPONNIER, or Craronnisr, in the Manege, a
long-jointed -horfe ; that is, one whofe patterns are long,
flender, and over-pliant. The word is obiclete, and is pro-
perly applicable only to the ox kind; for Jz clapouniere in
French, is in them what the pattern is ina horfe.
CLAN, a term ufed in Scotland to denote a number of
families of the fame name, under a feudal head or chief,
who protected them, and, in return for that protection, com-
manded their fervices as his followers, and led them to war,
and on military excurfions,
_ The divifion of the country into clans, had no {mall effe&
in rendering the nobles confiderable. ‘The nations which
overrun Europe, were originally divided into many fmall
tribes; and when they came to parcel out the lands which
they had conquered, it was natural for every chieftain to be-
ftow a portion, in the firft place, upon thofe of his own tribe
or family. Thefe all held their lands of him; and as the
fafety of each individual depended on the general union;
thefe {mall focieties clung together, and were diftinguithed
by fome common appellation, either patronymical or local,
long before the introduétion of furnames, or armorial enfigns.
But when thefe became common, the defcendants and reJa-
tions of every chieftain affumed the fame name and arms with
him; other vaflals were proud to imitate their example, and
by degrees they were communicated to all thofe who held of
the fame fuperior. Thus clanthips were formed; and in a
generation or two, that confangzuinity, which was at firlt in
agreat meafure imaginary, was believed to be real. An
artificial union was converted into a natural one; men will-
ingly followed a leader, whom they regarded both as the
{uperior of their lands, and the chief of their blood, and ferved
him not only with the fidelity of vaffals, but with the affec-
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we may ob-
ferve fuch unions as we have defcribed, imperfectly formed ;
but in Scotland, whether they were the productions of
chance, or the effect of policy, or introduced by an Irifh)
colony, and ftrengthened by carefully prelerving their ge-
nealogies, both genuine and fabulous, clanfhips were uni-
verfal. - Such a confederacy might be overcome, it’ could
not be broken; and no change of manners or of govern-
ment has been able, in fome parts of the kingdom, to dif-
folve affociations which are founded upon prejudices fo na-
tural to the human mind. How formidable were nobles at
the head of followers, who, counting that caufe jult and
honourable which their chief approved, were ever ready to
take
CLA
take the field at his command, and to facrifice their lives in
defence of his perfon, or of his fame? Againft fuch mena
king contended with great difadvantage; and that cold
fervice, which money purchafes, or authority extorts, was
not an equal match for their ardour and zeal. Roberifon’s
Hitt. Scotland, vol. i. p. 27, 28.
CLANBRASSIL, in Geography, the name of an old
territory in Ireland, part of the prefent county of Armagh,
which has been retained in the Irifh peerage. It is formed
of the Irifh word clann, (often called glen or glan), and the
family name of tie tribe that inhabited it:
CLANCARTRY, (fometimes called Clancare and
Glencare,) is a name formed like the preceding, from
M-Carthy more ni Carra, a very powerful nobleman in the
counties of Cork and Kerry, Ireland, whofe defcendant
was made an earl with this title by queen Elizabeth. It is
at prefent the title of the family of Trench.
CLANCULARIL, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, 2 {e& of
Anabaptitts who denied the neceifity of making an open
profeffion of the faith; and taught that a private one would
be fufficient. Thefe were called alfo Hortulani and Garden-
ers, from the places they chofe to affemble in, inftead of
churches.
CLANDESTINA, in Botany, Tourn.
RA Clandeflina.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done fecretly, and with-
out the knowledge of fome of the parties interefted in it;
or without the proper folemnities.
The word comes from the prepofition clam, of xAztw,
claudo, I fhut ; or rAcppx, furtum, theft.
Thus a marriage is {aid to be clandettine, when perform-
ed without the publication of banns, the confent of parents,
or the knowledge of the ordinary. The council of Trent,
and the I'rench ordoanances, annul all clandeftine marriages.
See MarriaGe.
CLANDON Co ttiertes, in Geography, are coal-pits
in Somerfetihire, to which a rail-way is condu€ted from the
Radftock line of the Somerfetfhire coal canal. See Canat.
CLANEBOYS, the name of two diftri€ts in Ireland, one
in the county of Antrim, and the other in that of Down,
which belonged to the O’ Neils, and are often mentioned in
Irifh hiftory. They are alfo called Clan-Hugh-boy, from
Hugh boy O‘Neil, the leader of the Sept when they con-
quered thefe territories on the death of William deBurgho,
earl of Ulfter, in 1333.» Leland—O*Brien.
CLANEUS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town
of Afia, in Galatia Salutaris; called alfo Clangis.
CLANGULA, in Ornithology, the Anas of Gmelin’s
Linneus: varied with black and white, with a tumid vio-
lacvous head, and a white {pot at the opening of the mouth;
the fmall reddifh-headed duck of Willughby and Ray;
the golden eye of Pennant and Latham; and the garrot of
Buffon. See Anas.
CLANIS, in Ancient Geography, La Chiana, a river of
Italy, in Etruria. This river, called by the Greeks Glanis,
was formed by the nnion of a great number of ftreams and
torrents which defcended from the mountains; and when
they became flagnant in their courfe, they produced {mall
lakes near Ciufium. ‘The river ran towards the Tiber.
Crasis, or Cranivs, a river of Italy in Campania. It
rofe in the mountain of Abella, apd difcharged itfelf into
the fea near Patria.—Alfo, a river of Spaia.
CLANMAURICE, in Geography, ‘a name given to one
of the baronies in Kerry, that originally belonged to Mau-
rice fon of Raymond 1: gros, a companion of Strongbow’s,
from whom are defcended the Fitzmaurices, earls of Kerry;
and the prefent marquis of Lanfdown.
2
See Latu-
CLA
CLANRICKARD, (originally Clanrichard) a terti-
tory in Connaught, belonging to one branch of the family
of Bourke, or Bourgho, the defcendant of which is at pre-
fent earl of Clarrickard. :
CranatcKarpb, Uviac, earl, and afterwards marquis of,
in Biography, was the moft refpeGed, moit powerful, and
molt effectual friend of Charles 1. and ihe government in
the welt at the beginning of the rebellion of 1641. He was
deputy to the marquis of Ormond, whom the king had ap-
pointed lord lieutenant, and after uncommon exertions in
the royal caufe, he was at Jat obliged to leave Ireland.
Lord Clanrickard wrote memoirs of the tranfaGions in
which he bore fo conf{picuous a part. Lord Clarendon re-
fers to thefe as giving fuch a full relation of all material cir-
cumftances as to render it unneceflary for himfelf to enter
into detail. Bifhop Nicholfon, however, in his hiftorical li-
brary, confiders the publication under the name of the me-
moirs, &c. of the marquis of Clanrickard as ‘a lean cellec-
tion of letters, warrants, orders, and other loofe and incohe-
rent {tate papers ;’? and blames the anonymous editor as
withing “to lay moft of the bloodfhed of thefe difmal times
at the door of the Englifh proteltants,’’? As the autheutie
city of the papers is not difputed, they will of courfe be ex-
amined by thofe who wifh to know the melancholy events
of that time. The marquis died in 1659 before the king’s
reftoration. Leland. Nicholfon,
CLANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gaul, in
the environs of Arelate, between Cabellio and Ernuginum,
Anton. Itin.—Alfo, a town of Gallia Lyonnenfis, on the
road from Caracotinum to Auguftobona, between Agre=
dinum and Auguftobona.
CLANWILLIAM, in Geography, the name of two
baronies in Ireland; one in the county of Limerick, and
the other in the county of Tipperary. The lait gives the
title of earl tothe noble family of Meade.
CLAP, in Surgery, a vulgar name for Gonorrhea, a
puriform difcharge from the urethra in men, and from the
vagina in females. See Birenxorryacia and Gonor-
rHG@A. Dr. Samuel Johnfon derives the word clap, from
the old French term c/apoir ; but we rather incline to believe
it is of Saxon or German origin ; die é/epperinn, in Germany
fignifies a lewd woman or prottitute.
Cxap-board, aboard cut, in order to make cafks or veflels,
Crar-net, in Birding, a fort of net contrived for the
taking of larks with the looking-zlafs, by the method call-
ed daring, or doring. The nets are {pread over an even
piece of ground, and the larks are invited into the place by
other larks faflened down, and by a looking-glafs compofed
of five pieces, and fixed in a frame, To that it is turned round
very {wiftly, backwards and forwards, by a cord pulled by
a perfon at a confiderable diflance behind a hedge. See
Dorinec.
CLAPHAM, in Geography, a village in Suffex, a reCtory
in the rape of Arundel, fituate near the edge of the clay and
fand covering the chalk of the South-Downs. The fitua-
tion of the fteeple of its church was determined in the go-
vernment trigonometrical furvey in 1792, by an obfervation
from Chanétonbury Ring ftation dillant 27,201 feet; and
another from Rook’s Hill ftation diftant 68,929 feet, and
bearing 75° 30’ 37” N.W. from the parallel to the meridian
of Dunnon ; whence are deduced, its latitude 50° 50’ 38” N,
and longitude from Greenwich 27’ 43” W. or 1™ 50°.9 in
time. .
CrapuAm-Common obfervatory, belonging to Mr. Caven-
difh ; the exaét ficuation of the tall pole or objects affixed
over this gentleman's tranfit-room, was determined in the gos
verutent trigonometrical furvey in 1787, by an obfervation
from -
CLA
from Hundred-Acres ftation diftant 43,351 feet, and bear-
ing 13° 45’ 28” S.W. from the parallel to the meridian of
Greenwich ; and another from Severndroog Tower diftant
47 295 feet ; whence are deduced its latitude 51° 27’ 13” N.
and longitude from Greenwich 8’ 40” W. or 34'.7 in time ;
alfo, that this obfervatory bears 26° 29’ 52’” W. from the S.
meridian of thecrofs on St. Paul’s cathedral, diftant 24,563
feet.
CLAR, or Crarr, in Metallurgy, bone afhes perfeily
calcined, and finely powdered, kept purpofely for the co-
vering of the infides of Coprets.
Car, Sr. in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers, and ehief place of a canton in the
diftriG@ of Leétoure; the place contains 1290 and the can-
ton 8509 inhabitants ; the territory includes 160 kiliometres
and 16 communes.
CLARA, a {mall poft town on the river Brofna, in the
King’s County, Ireland; 53 miles weft from Dublin.
Crara, La, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 18 miles
N.W. from Spirito Santo.
Cvara, or Mex, an ifland in the Indian Sea, near the
coaft of Siam; 25 miles long and 4 wide. N. lat. 11° 4/,
E. long. 97° 50’.
CLARAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrennées, and chief place of a canton in tlie dif-
trict of Pau; the place contains 233 and the canton 9194
inhabitants: the territory comprehends 125 kiliometres and
15 communes. i
CLARAMONT powder, the name ofa medicinal pow-
der, very famous in Venice, and fome other places, for its
virtues in ftopping hemorrhages of all kinds, and in the
cure of malignant fevers, It has its name from the perfon
who firft found out its virtues, and who has written a book
exprefsly about it. It isa white earth found near Baira,
not far from Palermo, and is thence called alfo by fome
writers, terra de Baira.
CLARATUMBA, in Geography, a town of Poland,
with a celebrated abbey, in the palatinate of Ciacovia; 4
miles E. of Cracow.
CLARE, acounty of Ireland in the province of Munf-
ter, fituated on the weftern coaft. It was anciently called
Thomond, which implies North Munfler, and was a king-
dom or principality under the O’Briens, defcendants of
Brien Boromhe, the king of Ireland, who was flain, fighting
againf{t the:Danes, in the battle of Clontarf, A.D. ror.
One of the family was acknowledged as king of Thomond
by Henry Lil. ; and Murrough O’Brien was made earl of
Thomond by Henry VIII. on refigning his old title of
prince, and receiving a new grant of his lands from that mo-
narch. Such agreements were then common, the petty
Irifh princes hoping thus to preferve their poffeffions, and
the Enghth fovercigns wifhing to conciliate them; but the
plas did not anfwer. ‘he title of Thomond has continued,
with fome fhort intervals, in the O’Brien family. Thomas
de Clare, fon of the earl of Gloucefter, having come to Ire-
land in 1276, and married a daughter of the earl of Defmond,
fettled in this county. Some accounts flate, that a large
portion of it was beftowed on him by Brien Inath, king of
‘Thomond, on condition of receiving affiltance to regain his
authority, which had been ufurped by another branch of the
family. Other accounts fay, that this diltri& was given to
De Clare by Edward J. ; and it is not unlikely that he pro-
cured from the latter a confirmation of the grant of the Trith
prince. This Thomas de Clare, and his fon or brother Ri-
chard, built fome caftles and an abbey, and from them the
county received its prefent name. Thomond, as its name
implies, had always been confdered as a part of Muniler ;
CLA
but when Connaught was divided into counties in 1562,
Clare was added to it. At that time each province had a
peculiar governor, called lord-prefident, and as the earis of
Thomond had poffeffions in other parts of Munfter, and
were moftly conneéted with it, they naturally wifhed Clare to
be part of that province, which, on petition, was eifeéted in
1602. Some have fuppofed that it ought to be reckoned
in Connaught, becauvfe it is on the fame fide of the Shan-
non; but the eafieft accefs to it was through Limerick, the
environs of which city extend into it, and its bifhopric is un~
der the primate of Muntter.
Clare is bounded on the north by the county of Galway,
on the eaft and fonth by the Shannon, which divides it from
the counties of Tipperary, Limerick, and Kerry, and on
the welt and north-welt by the Atlantic Ocean and the bay
of Galway. It extends from north to fouth 33 miles (42
Englith), and from eaft to weft 52 (66 Englifh), containing
470,200 acres (765,042 Englifh), or about 744 {quare miles
(1195 Englih). It is divided into nine baronies, and 79
parifhes, moft of which are in the united feesof Killaloe and
Kilfenora, Thefe 79 by unions, form only 30 bencfices,
and only 19 of them had churches, when Dr. Beaufort pib-
lifhed his memoir. The number of houfes in the official re-
turn of 1791 was 17,396, according to which the popula-
tion may be eftimated at 194,000. Three members reprefent
it in the Houfe of Commons, two of whom fit for the
county, and one for the borough of Ennis.
The county of Clare confifts of extenfive traéts of ground
of various quality ; much of fattening and meadow ground;
much of light lmeitone pafture, fit for rearing fhecp and
young cattle ; much arable land; extenfive bogs, and fome
mountain. ‘The lands called Corcafis, confifting of about
20,000 acres, along the Fergus and Shannon, are faid
by Mr. Young to be peculiarly fit for fattening bullocks,
4009 of which were then annually fattened on them; and
the ftore cattle of Clare are at prefent more numerous than
in the adjoining counties. The foil of the Corcaffes is de-
feribed by that intelligent traveller as either a rich black
loam, ora deep rich blue clay; whilft the higherlards are lime-
ftone or limeftone-gravel. The bogs near the Shannon are
valuable on account of the fupply of turf they furnifh for
the Limerick market ; and thofe in the interior, though they
do not fet fohigh, fupply fuel to the neighbouring inhabit-
ants. The wort grounds are the eaftern mountains, the pen-
infula north of the Shannon, and the barony of Burren. This
lait is exceedingly rocky, but its rocks are limeltone, and
fuch is the luxuriance of the palturage inter{perfed among
them, that thefe feemingly barren hills fupport a great num-
ber of cattle and very large flocks of fheep. The other
traéts of mountain are generally gritftone. Mr. Young
flates the average rent of the Corcafs lands at 20s., andthe
average rent of the whole county at 5s. per acre, in 1776.
An intelligent proprictor of part of the Corcafs lands has
informed the writer, that they now fet at from 3 guinezs to
5 guineas per acre ; and he fuppofes the average rent of the
whole county not lefs than 30s. Rape is fown in confi-
derable quantities in movntain or boggy grounds, both of
which are burned for it. Some of the rape {eed is preffed
into oil at mills near Killaloe, and the rape cakes fent to
England for manure; but the greater part is exported to
England, where it is preffed for the ufe of the woollen ma-
nufaturers in Yorkfhire. One houfe in Limerick thipped
the laft feafon (1805), near 5000 barrels of rape-feed,. value
above 10,000 pounds; but it is cultivated in the countizs of
Limerick and Tipperary as well as in Clare. Beans were
grown in large quantities, when Mr. Young was in Clare,
but the cultivation has been laid afide, as they are no longer
uied
CLA
ufed for bread by the peafantry. | Flax is fown in fmall
quantities for home confumption, but {pinning is not general,
and fcarcely a remnant of the manufacture of the excellent
Clare dowlafs now exilts. The only manufa€tures, indeed,
for which there is a market, are coarfe flannels and worfted
ftockings, which are chiefly fold at Enniftymon, on the
weftern coatt,
Mr. Young has fpoken in high terms of the cider orchards
of this county. Since he wrote, in a time of {carcity they
were very generally deftroyed ; but the price of cider being
much increafed, and the mode of making it much improved,
they are now attended to, and in good keeping. ‘The caca-
gee apple is peculiarly efteemed, but the trees being bad
bearers, it 1s fearce.
The whole weftern coaft of Clare does not afford one har-
bour in which fhips may lie in fafety, and its little ports on
the Shannon can never rival Limerick. ‘The only rivers
that deferve notice are the Shannon and Fergus. ‘The for-
mer of thefe, when it firft reaches the fhores of Clare, is ex-
panded into Lough Deirgheart ; but its breadth is contraét-
ed as it approaches Killaloe. Between Clare and Kerry the
breadth of this noble river varies from one mile to five. The
Fergus, the principal river rifing in Clare, is of no import-
tance, floops only being capable of navigating it. Its eftu-
ary, however, at its junGion with the Shannon, is very wide
and fullof iflands. “This river and feveral others in Clare,
dip under ground in fome part of their courfe.
There are in this county many turlachs, i. e. {pots which
at one time are lakes, and at another found fheep-walks.
Of thefe, that at Kilcorney, in Burren, is moft remarkable,
the waters iffuing, frequently more than once a year, from a
{pacious cave, and deluging the adjacent flats. There are
fome lakes, but none very confiderable.
The county town is Ennis on the Fergus, and it is the
only town of note in the county. The Ogham infeription
on Callan Mount, (fee Catzan), and feveral ruins, parti-
cularly thofe of Quin Abbey, (fee ArvsAtuts), and the
ifland of Inis Scattery, render this county interefting to
the antiquarian, whilft the plants and minerals with which
its mountains and ftony parts abound, make it equally de-
ferving the attention of the botanift and mineralogitt.
The following plants found in Clare, are reckoned, by
profeflor Wade, amongft the plante rariores of Ireland ; viz.
Iris feetidiffima, Afperula cynanchiea, Lyfimachia vulgaris,
Arbutus uva urfi, Butomus umbellatus, Sedum telephium,
Potentilla fruticofa, Rubus faxatilis, Dryas o€topetala, Men-
tha pulegium, Turrites hirfuta, Cardamine bellidifolia,
Cheiranthus finuatus, Gnaphalium dioicum, and Satyrium
hircinum. An intelligent botanift, who is employed by the
provott and fellows of Trinity College, Dublin, vifited Clare
in the autumn of ;805; but the refult of his refearches has
not yet been made public.
The mineralogy of Clare is very little known. Mr. Do-
nald Stewart, the itinerant mineralogift of the Dublin Society,
has, however, mentioned fome particulars. Lead ore is faid
to occur in various places ; in fome of which it was formerly
yaifed and {melted. Manganefe is abundant; and there are
different ores of iron, particularly micacious iron ore, or
eafingman, and red iron-{tone. Boate mentions iron-works,
belonging to Englifh merchants, in Clare, previous to the
rebellion of 1641. Thefe probably contributed to its being
fo bare of timber. At Doolin in Burren there has been
found a vein of purple fluor {par, fimilar to that brought in
ornaments from Derbyfhire. Some of the {pecimens have
cubic eryftals ; but the extent of the vein is not known, and
no attempt has been made to apply it to any ufeful pur-
pole. Beaufort, Young, &c. &c.
7
CLA
Crare, a poft-town of the covnty of Clare, Ireland, cn
the river Fergus, which is navigable to it for {mall veffels,
and about two miles S. from Ennis, which was alfo former-
ly called Clare. Between the two towns are the ruins of
Clare abbey. It 1s 114 miles S.W. from Dublin.
Crare, a river of the county of Galway, Ireland, flow-
ing into Lough Corrib. On this river icatrall fair-town of
the fame name, from which the barony of Clare is called.
Crarg, the name of a high rocky ifland belonging to the
county of Mayo, Ireland; fituated at the entrance of Clew
bay. It is about four miles long, but of very unequal
breadth; and it afferds good anchorage for fhips in mode-
rate weather. W. long. g° 49' from Greenwich. N. lat.
53° 49".
Care, an ifland lying fouth of the county of Cork,
Treland, on which is the moft fouthern point of Ireland,
generally known by the name of Cape Clear. This ifland,
in Smith’s time, contained about 400 families, which its
produce was fcarcely able-to fupport. The men are all
fifhermen, and they are good pilots. It is about three
miles long, and nearly one wide. W. long. 9? 23‘ from
Greenwich. N. lat. 51° 21’. Smith.
Crare, at prefent an unpaved and inconfiderable market
town in the county of Suffolk, England, was once a place
of importance, and contains the ruins of a ftrong cattle.
Gilbert de Clare, founded a Benedi¢tine monaftery here in
rogo, which was removed in 1124, by his fon Richard, to
Stoke, near Clare, after which, Edmund Mortimer, earl of
March, converted it into a college for fecular priefts, who
were governed by a dean, and fix prebendaries. Archbifhop
Parker was dean of this foundation in 1545, the date of its
diffolution. There was, befides, a priory of monks of the
order of St. Augutftine, founded probably by Richard de
Clare in 1248, who introduced that order into England : the
monattic buildings were recently inhabited by a farmer, and
the chapel is now a barn. . Exclufive of the founder, Joan
of Acres, Lionel, duke of Clarence, with his wife, and Ed-
ward Monthermer, earl of Gloucefter and Hereford, were
buried in the priory chapel. The large and handfome parifh
church is fuppofed to have been built by an abbot of Bury.
The civil and fpiritual courts are held at Clare, and it gave
the title of marquis to the dukes of Newcattle of the Holles
family, as it afterwards did to thofe of the Pelham. With-
out, and eaftward of the town, is a large barrow. There
are two annual fairs, the market day is Tuefday, and it is
56 miles N.E. from London.
Crare, a townfhip on St. Mary’s bay, in-Annapolis
county, Nova-Scotia. It has about 50 families, and con-
fifts df woodland and falt-marfh.
Crare. See St. Crair.
Crare, Nuas of St. in Ecclefiaftical Hifory, were founded
at Affife in Italy, about the year 1212, Thefe nuns ob-
ferved the rule of St. Francis, and wore habits of the fame
colour with thofe of the Francifcan friars; and hence were
called Minoreffes ; and their honfe, without Aldgate, the
Minories, where they were fettled when firft brought over
into England, about the year 1293. They had only three
houfes befides this.
CLAREMONT, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in Chefhire county and {tate of New Hamphhire, on the E.
fide of Conneicut river, oppofite to Afcutney mountain in
Vermont, and on the N. fide of Sugar river; 24 miles S,
of Dartmouth college, and 121 S.W. by W. of Portfmouth.
It was incorporated in 1764, and contains 1889 inhabitants.
Craremont, a county of America, in the ftate of S._
Carolina and diftri&t of Carden, containing 2479 white
inhabitants, and 2110 flaves. The county-town is Statefburg,
CLARENCE, »
CLA
CLARENCE. SeeCuiarenza.
CLARENCEUX King of Arms, in Heraldry, the fe-
cond officer in the college of arms. It is uncertain when
this office, which is held by patent under the great feal
during good behaviour, was firlt created. It is ftated by
fome authors to have been inftituted by Edward III., by
others, by Henry V.; who, they fay, preferring the herald
of his brother Thomas, duke of Clarence, conftable of the
army, created him a king of arms by the title of Clarenceux,
{in Latin Clarentius) and placed the fouth part of England
under his province. After Henry VI. it funk into the
office of a herald, but was again reftored to the rank of a
king of arms by Edward IV.
The official feal of Clarenceux is argent, a crofs gules,
on achief of the fecond a lion paffant guardant, crowned
with an imperial crown or, and is borne on the dexter fide
impaled with his paternal coat. ‘The badge, which is worn
pendant from a gold chain, is enamelled with the above
arms, furmounted by the crown of a king of arms on a
green ground on one fide, and on the reverfe, the royal arms
ona white ground. He wears a collar compofed of S.S.
of filver gilt. See Coruar.
The coronet of a king of arms is compofed of a plain
circle of gold, thereon 16 ftrawberry leaves, eight of which
are higher than the refit, and round the rim the motto * Mi-
ferere mei Deus fecundum magnam mifericordiam tuam.”
His tabard is of velvet, thereon embroidered the king’s
arms, emboffed in gold and filver.
CLARENDON, in Geography. See Cape Fear River.
Crarenpon, a county of America, lying in the Sumpter
diftri&t, in the ftate of S. Carolina, about 30 miles long and
30 broad, containing 2333 inhabitants.
CLARENDON, a townfhip of America, near the centre of
Rutland county, Vermont, watered by Otter creek, and its
tributary ftreams; 14 or 15 miles E. from- Fairhaven, and
44.N.E. from Bennington. It contains 1764 inhabitants.
On the S.E. fide of a mountain, in the welterly part of Cla-
rendon, is a curious cave, 24 feet in diameter at its mouth,
and nearly the fame through its whole length of 314 feet ;
but at this diftance from the mouth it opens into a {pactous
room, 20 feet long, 124 wide, and 18 or 20 feethigh. The
floor, fides, and roof appear to confift of a folid rock, which
is rough and uneven. ‘The water percolating through the
top has formed ftalaGtites of various forms, fome conical, and
others having the appearance of maflive columns. This room
communicates by a narrow paflage with others equally cu-
rious. Morfe.
CrarEnDon, a parifh of Jamaica, in the county of Mid-
dlefex, the low lands of which are favourable for plantation
of tobacco. In 1789 the number of fugar-plantations in
this parifh was 56, and that of negroes 10,150.
Ciarenpon Fort, a fort on the W. coalt of the ifland
of Barbadoes in St. James’s parifh; 13 mile S. from
Speight’s town.
CuarENnvDON, Conflitutions of, in Antiquity, a charter or
code of laws eftablifhed by the parliament at Clarendon
in Wiltfhire, A. D. 11645 fixteen articles of which related
particularly to ecciefiaftical matters, and were defigned by
king Henry II. to chéck the power of the pope and his
clergy, and to limit the total exemption which they claimed
from the fecular jurifdiction. The fubftance of them is as
follows: 1. All pleas between clergymen and laymen fhall
be tried in the king’s courts. 2. Churches in the king’s
gift fhall not be filled without his confent. 3. All clergy-
men, when accufed of any crime, fhall be tried in the king’s
courts; and when convicted, fhall not be protected from
punifhment by the church. 4. Clergymen ‘hall net go out
Vov. VIII.
CL. A
of the kingdom without the king’s leave. 5, 6, Regulate
the manner of proceedings in the ecclefiaftical courts. qs
None of the king’s minitters or vaffais fhall be excommu-
nicated without his knowledge. 8, Appeals from the arch-
bifhop to be made to the king. g. Pleas between a.clerk
anda layman, whether an eftate was in free-alms or a lay-
fee, to be tried in the king’s court by a jury. 10. One of
the king’s tenants might be interdicted, but not excom-
municated, without the confent of the civil judge of the
place. 11. All prelates, who hold baronies of the king,
fhall perform the fame fervices with other barons. 12. The
revenues of vacant fees and abbeys belong tothe king. The
election ef prelates fhall be with the king’s confent ;
and they fhall {wear fealty, and do homage to the king,
before their confecration. 13, 14, 15, Dire& the manner
of proceeding, in cafe any of the king’s barons fhall diffeife
any of the clergy of the lay-fees which they held under
them. 16. The fons of villains fhall not be ordained
withont the leave of their matters.
Thefe conttitutions were vehemently oppofed by Becket,
who, in a great meafure, prevented their falutary effets.
The king, however, by pafling fo many ecclefiaftical ordi-
nances in a national and civil aflembly, fully eftablifhed the
fuperiority of the legiflature above all papal decrees or
ipiritual canons, and gained a fignal victory over the eccle-
fiaftics. Apprehending that the bithops, though overawed by
the prefent combination of the crown and the barons, would.
take the firlt favourable opportunity of denying the autho-
rity, which had enaéted thefe conftitutioas; he refolved,
that they fhould all fet their feal to them, and make a pro-
mife to obferve them. None dared to oppofe his will, ex-
cept Becket, who obftinately withheld his affent. At
length, after much perfuafion, and when he found himfelf
deferted by all the world, even by his own brethren, he was
obliged to comply ; and he promifed ‘ legally, with good
faith, and without fraud or referve,’’ to obferve the con-
ftitutions ; and he took an oath tothat purpofe. The king,
thinking that he had now finally prevailed in this great en-
terprife, fent the conilitutions to pope Alexander III. who
then refided in France ; and he required that pontiff’s ratifi-
cation of them. But Alexander, who, notwithitanding the
mott important obligations to the king, plainly faw, that
thefe laws were calculated to eftablifh the indenendence of
England on the papacy, and of the royal power on the
clergy, condemned them in the ftrongeft terms; abrogated,
annulled, and rejected them. There were only fix articles,
of the lealt importance, which, for the fake of peace, he con-
fented to ratify. Becket repented of his affent, and redou-
bled his aufterities by way of punifhinent for his criminality ;
and he refufed to exercife any part of his archiepif-
copal function, till he fhould receive abfolution from the
pope which was readily granted him. See the article
Becker.
CLARET, Joan, in Biography, a Flemihh painter, who
lived about the year 1600, at Turin, where he painted
many altar-pi€iures in a very bold and matterly ftyle, little
inferior to thofe of his cotemporary and friend Gio. Antonio
Mulinari. Lanzi, Storia Pittorica.
Craret, or Clairet, pale red, a name which the French
give to {uch of their red wines as are not of a deep or high
colour. See Wine.
The word is a diminutive of clair, bright, tranfparent.
There are various accounts in the Phil. Tranf. of attempts
to improve the operation of tapping, by injecting the ab-
domen after the lymph is drawn off with claret and other
aftringents. Ibid. vol. xlix. part ii, N° 65. an. 1756.
Crarsr, Clarctum, in the Ancient Pharmacy, was a eng
Yy °
Gib A
of wine fweetened with fugar, and impregnated with aro-
matics; fometimes alfo called JZippocras, or vinum Hippo-
craticum ; becaule fuppofed to have been firlt prefcribed by
Hippocrates. It has its mame claret from its being clarified
by percolation through a flannel bag, called manica Hippo-
cratis.
Craret, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Hérault, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltri& of Montpellier ; 5 leagues N. of Montpellier. The
place contains 774, and the canton 1834 inhabitants: the
territory includes 1724 kiliometres, and 10 communes.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Alps, and diltrict of Silteron; rr miles N. of it.
Cearert, in Mufic. See Crarion.
CLARIA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Thrace,
placed by Pliny near the Danube.
CLARIAS, or Crarias Nilotica, in Ichthyology, the
name of a fith of the /i/urus kind, common in the Nile, and
brought to market at Memphis, and in many other parts of
Egypt, but of an infipid talte, and eaten only by the poorer
fort of people. The tail is broad and forked, and has ex-
ternally two horny appendages of a round figure, and a
hand’s breadth in length, in which it differs from all other
fifhes. Itis the /iurus clarias of Gmelin. See Sirurus.
Crartas is alfo the name given by Gronovius to the
Silurus anguillaris of Gmelin. See Buacx-ffa.
CLARICHORD. See Craviecnorp.
CLARIFICATION, is the feparation, by chemical
means, of any liquid from fubftances fufpended in it, and
rendering it turbid. If a difference can be made between
clarification and filtration, it is, that the latter is effected by
mere mechanical means, but the former either by heat or by
certain additions.
The liquors, fubjeéted to clarification, are generally folu-
tions’ of animal on vegetable matter, in which the particles
that produce the turbidnefs are fo-nearly of the fame fpecific
gravity with the Jiquor itfelf, that mere reft will not effet a
feparation. In thefe too the liquidis generally rendered thicker
than ufual by holding much mucilage in folution, which
further entangles the turbid matter, and prevents it from fink-
ing. Hence it is that vinous fermentation has fo powerful an
effe& as aclarifier (wine being much more limpid than the
grape, or other faecharine juice of which it is made), fince
this procefs always deftroys a portion of faccharine mucilage,
and generates alcohol, which is thin and limpid.
Coagulating fluids greatly affift clarification, when mixed
with any turbid liquor; the procefs of coazulation entangling
with it every thing which is fimply fufpended, and carrying
it either to the top, in the form of a thick feum, or to the
bottom, as a tough fediment, according to circumitances.
Thus, to clarify muddy cider, the liquor is beaten up with a
{mall quantity of frefh bullock’s blood, and fuffered to ftand
at relt for fome hours; after which the liquor above is as
clear as water, and almolt as colourlefs, and at the bottom of
the veffel is a thick, tough cake, confitting of the coagulated
blood, which has carried down with it a!l the matter which
rendered the cider turbid. Many albuminousand gelatinous
fubltances a& in the fame manner. Of thefe the belt known
is white of egg, which, when nfed for this purpofe, fhould be
beat up cold with the liquor to be clarified, and afterwards,
on applying a heat of about of 180°, the egg coagulates,
and carries up with it all the opake particles of the fluid, in
the form of a thick feum.
The firft procefs of fugar-baking is carried on in this way
either by white of egg or blood. The proportions required of
thefe are always very {mall, compared to the quantity of the
liquor to be clarified. 8
Cob A
Mere heat will clarify liquors, when the fubftance that
rendered them turbid is coazulable by heat; thus the juice
of cabbage, and many other green vegetables, when heated,
throw up a curdy green coagulum, and the remaining liquor
is limpid and colonrlefs.
Heat alfo affilts iv another way, in diminifhing the fpecific
gravity of liquors, which allows the coagulating matters
to colle in a denfer form, and thus to be more eafily fepa-
rable.
A -moft remarkable and unaccountable power is poffe fled
by newly burnt chatcoal, in clarifying all mucilaginous
liquids, as already mentioned under the article Carson.
Clarification is often found detrimental when ufed to pre-
pare vegetable decotions orinfulions for medicinal purpoles ;
and hence it is a much lefs frequent procefs in the Materia
Medica than formerly.
Thus, if fyrup of poppies be clarified till it becomes quite
limpid, it lefes almo‘t all its narcotic power, and 35, as a me~"
dicine, little better than fovple fyrup. (See alio the article
FIttTRation.) |
Sugar is clarified with the whites of eggs, and fugar beat
together with lime and with ox’s blood, and with other ma~
terials. See Sucar. ;
For malt liquors, particularly beer, there are various me-
thods of clearing ; the beft is by caiting into it fixed mitre +
fome add the quinteffence of malt and wine; whites of eggs
made into balls with a ht:le flourand ifmglafs: ofl, and quint-
eflence of barley, have: tie fame effect. It is exceedingly
cleared and ftrengthened by adding to it, during the time of
its fermentation, fome ardent fpirit.. See Art, Beer, and
Maur liquor. ;
CLARIFIERS, a name given to the copper pans or
cauldrons fixed in a boiling-houfe, and ufed for the purpofe
of clarifying fugar. See Sucar. z
CLARIGATIO, in Roman Antiquity; a ceremony that
always preceded a formal declaration of war. It was per-
formed in this manner; firft four heralds, crowned with yer-
vain, were fent to demand fatisfa&tion for the injuries done
to the Roman ftate. Thefe heralds, taking the gods to wite
nefs that their demands were juft, one of them, with a clear
voice, demanded reftitution within a limited time, commonly.
33 days; which being expired without any reftitution made,
then the paler patratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded
to the enemies’ frontiers, and declared war.
Craricario is alfo ufed for apprehending a man, and
holding him to bail. ‘Fhe Greeks called this aétion anDRO-
LEPSIA.
CLARIGATION, in the Law of Nations, denotes a
loud, clear call, or fummons made to an enemy, to demand
fatisfaGtion for fome injury received ; in defeG whereof, re-—
courfe will be had to reprifals.
Clarigation amounts to much the fame with what the
Greeks call osdpoan}ia. Though Naude ufes the word in a
fomewhat different manner. ‘ Reprifals,” fays he, * fig-
nify the fame as pignorationes Budeo, aut clarigationes Hermo-
lao: for, as to the Greek word androlepfia, st is equivalent”
to the Latin pigrorand: poteflas.””
CLARINET, the name of a mnfical inftrument, which
has not been known in this country till within about 50
years ago, and which is faid to have been mvented about
the clofe of the 17th century by John Chriftopher Denner,
a wind mufical inftrument maker of Leipfic. This initru-
ment has been found liable, by long ufe, to get out of tune by
the widening of the bore, which is a fault that cannot after-
wards be remedied. Meffrs. Goulding and Co. of Pall-Mall,
have lately obtained a patent for an improvement in the cons
firuétion of this inflrament. In order to prevent the incon-
venience
C.LA
venience above-mentioned, the parentees have conflruéed an
inftrament which is lined throughout with.a tinned brafs
tube, intended both to prevent the wood from decaying
and to improve the tone of fhe inftrument. Another incon-
venience arifing from the leathering of the keys, which was
apt to be out of order in marching regiments, is remedied
by lining the holes with a {oft metal pipe ground perfectly
flat upon the furface, to. which a ftopper is fcrewed, that
renders the pipe air-tight.
CLARINO, in the /talian Mufic, fiznifies a trumpet ;
thus, @ dvoi clarini, added to any compofition, denotes that
it was made for two trumpets. Sce Corner and [Rum-
PET.
* CLARION, prebably the c/arct of Lufcinius, a kind of
trumpet, whole tube is narrower, and its tone acuter and
fhriller, than the common trumpet.
Menage derives the word from the Italian clarino, of the
Latin claus, by reafon of the clearnefs of its found, Nicod
fays, the clarion, as now ufed among the Moors, and the
Po:tuguefe, who borrowed it from the Moors, ferved an-
ciently fora treble to feveral trumpets, which founded tenor
and bale. He adds, that it was only ufed among the caval-
ry and the marines.
Crarion, in Heraldry. Guillim fays clarions are a kind
ef old-fafhioned trumpets, others imagine they reprefent the
rudder of a fhip, and others a relt for a lance.
CRARISIA, in Botany, Bofe. Nouv. Di&. Flor. Peruv.
Pl. 28. Clafs and order, diecia diandria.
Gen. Ch. Male. Catkins filiform, imbricated. Cal. a
one-flowered f{cale, containing two ftamens. umale. Cal.
a very {mall fcale. Pf. Germ oval; ftyles two, awl-fhaped;
ftigmas two. Peric. Drupe oval. Seed one. ‘lwo fpecies,
both trees, are mentioned in the Flora Peruviana.
CLARISSIMI, among the Romans, a title of honour
belonging to the third rank of nobility under the emperors.
Sce SpectTaBILes.
CLARITAS Junta, in Ancient Geography, a\fo called
~ (Afiubi according to Pliny, a town of Spain, in Boetica.
- CLARIUM, a fortrefs of Greece, in the Peloponnefus,
fituate, according to Polybius, in the middle of the terri-
tory of Megalopolis.
~ CLARK -go0fz, in Ornithology, a {pecies of wild goofe
found in Zetland... Phil, Tranf. N° 473. fe&. 8.
CLARKE, Samuexr, in Biography, a minifter and
writer of confiderable re{peCtability, was born in 1599, at
Woollton in Warwickfhire. _He received his grammar edu-
cation at Coventry, whence he removed to Emanuel college,
Cambridge. When he had taken the degree of . bachelor of
arts, he left the univerfity, and after having acted for a fhort
period as private tutor in a gentleman’s family, he removed
to Chefhire, and afterwards to Warwickfhire, in which
counties he long officiated as a minifter with the greatelt
refpe@ and acceptance. On the publication of the et cetera
oath he was one of the deputies chofen by the minifters of
the diocefe of Worcefter to prefent a petition on their be-
hhalf tosthe king, Charles I., who was then at York. He
was nominated to prefent a petition on the fame fubjeét to.
the parliament; and in 1660 he prefented an addrefs of
thanks fromthe London minifters to Charles II.,.on his
declaration refpeGting ecclefiaftical affairs. He had this
year been chofen minifter of St. Bennet’s Fink in London,
and in 1661 we find him named among the commiffioners of
the Savoy for reforming the * Book of Common Prayer.”
At St. Bennet’s Fink he continued in the diligent exercife
sf his profeffion, until the publication of the fatal a of
uniformity, which turned him and about two thoufand
others out of their places, After this meafure had been
CLA
carried into effect, he did not altogether {eparate from the
eltablifhed church; but frequently attended its fervices both
asa hearer anda communicart. He died on tie 25th Dee
cember 1682. He wasa man of confiderable learning and
extenfive reading ; of plain, jimple, and unaffcéted manners;
of exemplary piety and moral purity of life. He was an
indefatigable {tudent, and a voluminous writer, as appears
by the number and the extent of his. publications. We
fall csotent ourfelves with naming the principal of ther
which were his * Martyrology,”? Lives of fundry Em:
nent Perfons,’”? “ Marrow of Ecclefiaftical Hiftory,”? and
“ Marrow of Divinity,’’ all printed in folio.
Mr. Clarke had a fon of his own name, who was ejected
from Grendon in Buckinghamfhire; he was the author of a
work iatitled ‘ Annotations on the Bible,’? which has
been highly fpoken of by Dr: Owen and Mr. Baxter. Clark’s
Narrative of his own Life. Calamy. Neal.
CuarKke, SAMUEL, an oriental fcholar of the firft. emi-
nence, was born at Brackley, in the county of Northamp-
ton; and in 1635, when he was in the fifteenth year of his
age, entered as a (tudent at Merton college, Oxford. ‘Three
years afterwards the city being garrifoned for the ufe of the
king, he was obliged to leave the uviverfity ; but in 1648,
after it had furrendered tothe parliament, he returned, fub-
mitted to the vifitors they bad appointed, and took the de-
gree of mafter of arts. The year following he was defigned
firft archi-typographus of the univerfity; to which was
added the grant of the fuperior beadlethip of civil law, He
kept a boarding {choo! at [flington about the year 1659,
and lent his affitance towards the publication of the ‘* Po-
lyglot Bible.”? In 1658, however, he returned to the uni-
verity, was elected archi-typographus, and fuperior beadle
of civil law, fituations which he continued to retain to the
end of his life. His works confift of ‘* Varie Lettiones, ct
Obfervationes inChaldaicam Paraphrafin,”’ which appeared in
the fixth volume of the “Polyglot Bible.”? ‘+ Scientia
Metrica, et Rhythmica; feu Tractatus de Profodia Ara-
bicaex Authoribus probatiflimis eruta.’? ‘Septimum Bibli-
orum Poiyglotorum volumen, cum Verfionibus antiquifim's,
non Chaldaica tantum, fed Syriacis, Aithiopicis, Copticis,
Arabicis, Perficis contextum.’”? He made a tranflation
from the original manufcript in the Cambridge public li-
brary, of ‘ Paraphraftes Chaldzeus in Libr. Paralipomenon,”
a work which the learned Cattell fays he confulted in com-
pofing his elaborate ‘‘ Lexicon Heptaglotton.’”? He review-
ed alfo, with great care, the Hebrew text, the Chaldee Pa-
raphrafe, and the Perfian Gofpels in the Polyglot Bible,
and tranflated the laft into Latin. There is, befides,
afcribed to him a Latin tranflation from the Hebrew, of a
work entitled ‘* Mafleceth Beraioth, Titulus Salmudicus,
in quo agitur de Benediétionibus, Precibus, et Gratiarum
AGionibus, adjeGta Verfione Latina. In ufum Studioforum
Literarum Talmudicarum in /Ede Chrifti.” He died near
Oxford onthe 27th of December 1669. Wood’s Athenz
Oxon.
CiarRKE, SAMUEL, a learned divine of the eftablifhed
church, was born at Norwich, in the month of October
1675; his father, Mr. Edward Clarke, was a gentleman
of high refpe4tability in that city, one of its aldermen, and
for fome years one of its reprefentatives in parliament. He
received-the firft part of his education at the free {chool of
his native town, where he made a rapid progrefs in the ac-
quifition of the learned languages, In the year 1691 he
entered a ftudent at Caius college, Cambridge, and foon dif-
tinguifhed -himfelf by his ardent defire of knowledge, and by
his unremitting diligence and fuccefs in the profecution of
his ftudies. The fyitem of Des Cartes was at this time in
Yyz2 high
CLARKE,
high efteem, and taught with much zeal and confidence at
the univerfities; but Mr. Clarke, even at this early age, had
too much acutenefs and penetration to miftake its fallacious
induétions for demonftration, or its hypothetical fancies for
found philofophy. He had feen and carefully perufed the
Principia of Newton, then juft publifhed ; and to his f{eruti-
nizing mind the mere rational fy{tem; the more clear, folid,
and conclufive reafonings of that great philofopher carried
irrefittible convi€tion. In the firfe ardour of his zeal for the
principles he had newly embraced, and’ without regarding
the deference which he knew to be due to the learning and
talents of his re{peGtable tutor, Mr. John Ellis, and to the
other profeffors of the univerfity, he performed a public
exercife, with a view to his firft degree, upon a queftion
taken from the Principia, in the difcuflion of which he
aftomifhed his auditory by the clearnefs of his perceptions,
and the folidity and force of his argumentation. Having
thus become, upon enlightened conviction, a convert to the
Newtonian fyftem, he dire&ted his thoughts to the beft
means of enfuring for it a more general reception. The
work then in common ufe as a text-book was Rohault’s
Syitem of Philofophy, upon Cartefian principles, which
was written in very corrupt and barbarous Latin. Mr.
Clarke, at the age of twenty-one, undertook the arduous,
but commendable, tafk of making a more pure and claffical
tranflation of it; and ke embraced this opportunity to dif-
feminate his own fyftem by fubjoining to the original text a
variety of fuch judicious and excellent notes as were calcu-
lated to lead the ftudent, infenfibly, to perceive the fallacy
of the author’s hypothefis. This plan produced its intend-
ed effe& ; Clarke’s edition of Rohault, which paffed through
four editions, continued for fome years the ftanding text-
book of the univerfity, until it undermined its own author-
ity, and gave way to the publications of Rutherforth and
Rowning, who were both avowedly the difciples of New-
ton. It being Mr. Clarke’s defign to take orders, he now
dire&ted his attention to the fubje@ts more immediately con-
neéted with the facred funétion. He began by ftudying the
feriptures of the Old and New Teftament in their original
languages, and by carefully perufing the writings of the
earlier Chriftian fathers, which contain much valuable mat-
ter relative to the principles and the evidences of Chriftian-
ity. Shortly after he had been ordained he was introduced
by Whifton to Dr. Moore, the bifhop of Norwich, who
wasa warm friend to literature, and a great patron of learned
men. Bifhop Moore was fo much pleafed with Mr. Clarke,
that on the collation of Whifton to the living of Lowettoffe,
in the year 1698, he appointed him to be his domettic
chaplain. In this fituation he remained twelve years, en-
joying every mark of the efteem and friendfhip of his learned
patron, and affociating with him on all occafions, rather
with the intimacy of a brother than the diftant referve of a
dependant. At his death, Dr. Moore evinced the confi-
deace he had in him by entrufting to his care the entire
management of his domeftic affairs; it were almoft fuper-
fluous to add that Mr. Clarke acquitted himfeif of his truft
with honour and fidelity.
In the year 1699 he may be faid to have commenced his
Viterary career, as a divine, by the publication of “ Three
Practical Effays on Baptifm, Confirmation and Repentance ;”
and alfo “ Kefleétions’”? on a work entitled « Amyntor,”
known to be the produétion of Mr. Toland, and which re-
lated to the writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the
Canon of the New Teftament. Thefe works of Mr.
Clarke, although not to be ranked with his fubfequent
publications in point of literary merit, difplay the author’s
I
piety to great advantage, and fhow him to have been deeply
verfed in the writings of the earlier chriftians. As he was
at this period intenfely engaged in a critical ftudy of the
{eriptures, he availed himfelf of the advantages he enjoyed,
in the uncontrouled difpo‘al of his time, and the free accefs
allowed him to the valuable library of his patron, to impart
the benefit of his labours to the public. In purfuance of
this defign he publified, in the year 1701, a Paraphrafe on
the Gofpel of St. Matthew, which was foon followed by
Paraphrafes on the Three Gofpels of Mark, Luke, and
John. Thefe are plain, judicious, and learned expofitions
on the original text; and, being, in a great degree, free
from the verbolity and circumlocution fo common in works
of a fimilar nature, may be read with great pleafure, and
with great advantage, by all who feek their real improves
ment in chriftian knowledge and pratice. Jt was originally
the intention of the author to have carried on his undere
taking through the whole of the bocks of the New Tefta-
ment, and he had made fome progrefs in the A@s of the
Apoftles, when other avocations, more urgent it fhould
feem, diverted him from his purpofe. Dr. Moore’s great
e(teem and partiality for Mr. Clarke made him folicitous to
advance him in his profeflion, by every means within his
power and influence. He prefented him with the reGory
of Drayton, near Norwich, and obtained for him a parifh
in that city, which together produced a confiderable ad-
dition to his income. At this time Mr. Clarke preached
without notes, a praétice in which, it is faid, he was pecus
liarly happy, and which he continued until he removed to
St. James’s, where his more polite auditory induced him to
read his difcourfes, and to compofe them with every poflible
attention to method and ftyle.
In the year 1704 Mr. Clarke’s increafing reputation pro-
cured for him the appointment to preach Mr. Boyle’s Lec-
ture, and he chofe for his fubjeét the Being and Attributes of
God. The general fatisfaction which he gave, on this
occafion, caufed him to be reappointed the year following
to the fame office, when he delivered a courfe of fermons on
the Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. Thefe
two courfes were afterwards printcd together, having been
previoufly compreffed and arranged into continued dif.
courfes, and paffed through feveral editions with fucceffive
additions and improvements. The mode of reafoning pur-
fued by Mr. Clarke, in proving the Being and Attributes of
God, from arguments @ priori, excited confiderable attention
on the appearance of his work, and led to much curious and
interefting difcuffion. It was alleged again{t him that fuck
reafoning was objectionable, as being too metaphyfical and
fubtil for the generality of mankind to comprehend, and as,
in mrany cafes, inconclufive and unfatisfa€tory to the moft
cultivated and enlightened minds. It is to be obferved,
however, in juftification of Mr. Clarke, that he has de-
clared he did not himfelf confider the arguments @ prior?
to be equally forcible and demonttrative with thofe which
might be drawn from the works of creation, on the evidence
of which he confidered that the belief in the exiftence of
»God muft ultimately reft. Neverthelefs he thought, that
as unbelievers had made great ufe of the arguments @ priori
on the other fide of the queftion, in fupport of their
atheiftical tenets, it were highly defirable and proper
that they fhould be met on their own ground, that the world
might fee, in the mat itriking point of view, the fallacy of
their deduétion, and that the being of God was proved,
almoft to demonftration, by the very mode of argumentation
employed by them to infer his non-exiftence. So far as this
Mr. Clarke’s explanation is fatisfactory; and mult be —
mitte
CLARKE.
mitted to hold him very free from meriting the wafpifh and
illiberal refle€tion caft upon his labours by Pope, in the fol-
lowing lines of his Dunciad :
«« Let others creep by timid fteps and flow,
On plain experience lay foundations low;
By common fenfe to common knowledge bred,
And laft to nature’s caufe through nature led.
We nobly take the high priori road,
And reafon downward tll we doubt of God.”
B. 4. line 455, &c.
Mr, Clarke has executed his undertaking with great
ability; and has deferved well of the friends of religion for
having fet this pa:ticular proof of the exiftence of God in
the cleareft light of which it will, perhaps, admit in the
prefent limited {phere of our knowledge and capacities.
He has difplayed, throughout the whole performance, a
clearne{s and accuracy of apprehenfion, a depth and folidity
of judgment, and a force and acutenefs of reafoning, which
give him a juft title to be ranked in the firft clafs of
metaphyficians. Mr. Clarke’s fecond treatife, on the Evi-
dences of Natural and Revealed Religion, was not more
fortunate than the other in efcaping animadverfion and con-
troverfy. The foundation, on which he built his fyftem,
was the eternal differences, relations, and fitnefles of things;
and as thofe terms frequently recur in his book, they be-
came, in a confiderable degree, fafhionable in the ethical
vocabulary of the day. Notwithftanding this, his hypo-
thefis was rejected by many; and it loft much of the autho-
rity it had gained on the promulgation of the more fenti-
mental notions of Lord Shaftfbury, afterwards more fylte-
matically treated by Profeffor Hutchefon, in his “ Inquiry
into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,’? in
which the principle of diftin@ moral inftinéts is propofed
and fupported. Mr. Clarke’s work is, however, as a whole,
ineftimably valuable, as containing the mott fatisfaétory
proofs of the divine origin, authority, and obligation of the
chriftian religion. It has had many able defenders, and
among others Dr. Price, who was himfelf a hott.
In the year 1706 Mr. Clarke’s patron fucceeded in his
wifh to remove him to London, where he thought he would
find a wider field of ufefulnefs for the exercife of his great
talents ; his intereft procured for him the rectory of St.
Bennett’s, Paul’s Wharf, where he continued for fome time
to officiate with the higheft reputation. In the courfe of
this year he publithed a letter addrefled to Mr. Dodwell; it
was in anfwer to a treatife which that gentleman had re-
cently publifhed to prove, among other things, that the
foul was not naturally immortal, but became fo at baptif{m.
Although Dr. Hoadly, in.his memoirs of Clarke, obferves
that this letter gave general fatisfaGtion, tt does not appear
to have enforced univerfal conviction even at that time; for
the philofophical part of the argument, on the materiality
of the human foul, wastaken up and ably defended by Mr.
Collins, and the difpute has been fubfequently revived by
feveral writers of ability and reputation. Mr. Clarke pub-
lifhed alfo this year an elegant Latin tranflation of fir Ifaac
Newton’s “ 'T'reatife on Optics,” which he had undertaken
at the folicitation of the author, and was, by this means,
inftrumental in difleminating the light which this great phi-
lofopher had thrown upon that fubjeét, among the learned
and inguilitive in other parts of Europe. Newton compli-
mented him for this favour with the fum of one hundred -
pounds for each of his five children.
The bifhop of Norwich having brought his friend to
London, now introduced him at court, and procured for him
from queen Anne, the appointment to be one of her mas
jefty’s chaplains in ordinary ; and the rectory of St. James
becoming thortly after vacant, fhe, at the bifhop’s requelt,
prefented it to Mr, Clarke. On this elevation to a fitua-
tion, where he would be attended by and be obliged to af-
fociate with the higheft charaétersin the ftate, it was deem-
ed defirable that he fhould take the degree of doétor in di-
vinity. With this view he repaired to Cambridge, where
he performed a public exercife which was long remembered,
and which, at the time, filled thofe who heard it with aftoe
nifhment and delight, by the erudition it difplayed, and the
eloquence and claffical purity of language with which it was
compofedand delivered. Mr. Clarke’s thefis was an elaborate
difquifition on the following quettion ; ** Nullum Fidei Chrif-
tiane Dogma, in S. Scripturis traditum, eft rete rationi
diffentaneum.”? “ No Article of the Chriftian Faith, de--
livered in the Sacred Scriptures, is contrary to right Rea-
fon;”” which he maintained in a moft matterly manner, again‘t
his acute and learned opponent, Dr. James, the regius
profeffor.
In the year 1712, Dr. Clarke appeared in a new charaéter,
and difplayed his tafte in philological erudition, by the publi-
cation of a moft {plendid edition of Czfar’s Commentaries in
folio, enriched with many judicious notes and correétions,.
and embellifhed with fome beautiful engravings. Mr. Addi-
fon fpeaks, in deferved commendation of this book in the
367th number of the Speétator, as a work that did honour
to the Englhifh prefs. Since that time it has continued torife
in value, and is now fold at very advanced prices. An oéta-
vo edition of it was afterwards publifhed. This year Dr.
Clarke involved himfelf in a protraéted, and, on many ac-
counts, painful controverfy by the publication of his
* Scripture Do@trine of the Trinity.”” An application was
made to him previous to its appearance by fome ofthe minif-
ters of queen Anne, to defire he would abandon his intentions,
or at leaft delay the publication; but he, much to his ho-
nour, difregarded their requeft, and boldly fubmitted his
opinions to the examination of the public. The method
purfued by him in treating fo tendera fubje&, was certainly
the moft candid and unobje€tionable that could weil be de-
vifed. The tirft part contains a ** Colletion and Explica-
tion of all the Texts in the New Teftament relating to the
Dodirine of the Trinity ;” in the fecond, “ The foregoing
Doétrine is fet forth at large, and explained in particular-
and diftiné&t Propofitions ;” and m the third-part, “ The,
principal Paflages in the Liturgy of the Church of Eng-
land relating to the Dottrine of the Trinity are confidered.’?
Nothing could be more fair than to try a doGtrine afferted
by its abettors to be exclulively a dottrine of revelation, by
the language and expreffions in which that revelation is con~
veyed, and by a fulland critical examination, collectively and
feparately, of all the paflages wherein it is fuppofed to be
taught. It is impofhble that any method can be more likely
to elicit the truth, and to point out to the ferious inquirer
what he ought to believe. But notwith{tanding Dr. Clarke’s
candid manuer of bringing the fubje& forward into difcuflion,
it occafioned a eontroverly, in which paflion and bigotry had
fer too large a fhare of influence. Dr. Hoadly remarks,
however, that the difpute lay at laft principally. between the
author and a writer (who was known to be Dr. Waterland),
whom he ftyles very fkilful in the management of a debate,
and very learned and well verfed in the writings of the
ancient fathers. But Dr. Clarke was not to be let off with
the fimple warfare of printed controverfy, in which, indeed,
he appeared to combat his adverfaries with manifeit fuperi-
ority in point of weapons and fkill. A complaint was for-
mally made ‘to the bifhops by the lower houfe of convoca-
tion, in 1714, of the heterodox opinions and dangerous
tendency
CLA R “HE.
tendency of the work in queftion ; and. at therequeft of the
upper houfe, they afterwards delivered in extracts from it
in proof of their charges. To thefe extraéts Dr. Clarke
wrote a reply ; but from fome caufe or other, not now to be
a{certained, it was not laid before the houfe. The bifhops
evinced on this occafion a very becoming fpirit of conciliation
and peace ; and erdeavoured to calmthe violence which was
fo confpicuous in the proceedings of their brethren of the
lower houfe. Dr. Clarke, we are told, was prevailed upon
to lay before the upper houfe a paper, which was regarded
as his fubmiffion, and which certainly cended to convey the
impreffion, thet he believed in the dotrine of the trinity in
the fenfe wherein it is cammonly-underftood. His declara-
tions are not, indeed, explicit; nor were they admitted by
the lower houfe as a fatisfaGiory exculpation from their
charges; but they were, neverthelefs, fuch as it ill became
fo great a man, fo learned an advocate, and fo liberal and en-
lightened a philofopher, to condefcend tomake. His friend
Whitton, who had a bolder fpirit, did not {cruple to cerfure
his conduét ; and, in jultice to Dr. Clarke, it muft be ob-
ferved, that he afterwards coiidemned it himfelf, and faw,
but too Jate, the error he had committed. He drew up a
paper in explanation of the former, which was given in to
the upper houfe of convocation; but the feafon was pailed,
and his enemies had caught the opportunity to triumph over
his failing. On the confideration of bis firfl paper the bi-
fhops, though much to the diffatisfaction of thofe who had
preferred it, difmified the complaint. It was fuppefed and
afferted by fome, particularly by chevalier Ramfay, that
Dr. Clarke after this changed his opinions refpeCting the
Trinity, and relinquished the fentiments maintained by him
in his Scripture DoGirine ;” but this charge has been dif-
proved by the ftrongeit evidence, and by the moit_ reputable
and competent authorities,—by Dr. Clarke’s own writ-
ings and emendations in the liturgy made but a fhort time
previous to his death,—by the teflimonies of his friend and
biographer doétor Hoadly,—and of his own fon Mr. Sa-
muel Clarke.
In the years 1715, 1716, Dr, Clarke engaged in an ami-
cable controverfy with the learned Leibnitz, on the abftrufe,
metaphyfical do€tvines of philofophical liberty and neceffity,
in which each of thefe able difputants difplayed all the
fill in argumentation and debate, of which they were re-
fpectively malters. The papers written on this occafion were
printed in the year 1717, and infcribed to the princefs of
Wales, afterwards queen Caroline, through whofe hands
they had all paffed, and whom Dr. Hoadly calls the witnefs
and judge of every ftep of the controverfy. Dr. Clarke, in
the year 1718, gave rife to a curious controverly refpeQing
apottolical and primitive doxologies, by introducing fome
alterations into thofe of the finging pfalms which had been
that yearreprinted for the ufe of hischurch. Thealteration
complained of coniifted in afcribing glory to God shrough
Chrift, inttead of paying egua/ honours to each of the three
perfons of the Trinity. On this occafion the bifhop of
London thought the fubjeét of fufficient importance to
publifh a paftoral letter to the clergy of his diocefe, to warn
them againft innovations, and to forbid them to ufe the new
doxologies. This lctter was anfwered by Whifton, and oc-
cafigned the publication of feveral pamphlets on both fides
of the queftion. Whifton, however, obferves, that the bi-
fhop of London, in the way of modern authority, was quite
too hard for Dr. Clarke in the way of primitive Chriftianity.
About this period Dr. Clarke was prefented to the ma‘ter-
thip of Whigfton Hofpital, a poft which he did not feruple
to accept, as it did not require him to renew his fub{cription,
and which was rendered doubly agreeable to him by the
bandfome manner in which it was conferred by Mr. Leche
mere, chancellor to the Duchy of Lancafter. In 1724 he
publithed feventeen fermons in an o€tavo volume, eleven of
which hed never beforebeen printed. Onthe death of firTfaac
Newton, the mafterfhip of the Mint, which by that event
became vacant, was offered to him; but being a fecular pre-
ferment, Dr. Clarke; with a very becoming refpe& to the
dignity of his chara@ter, and agreeably to the opinion of
his beft friends, declined to accept it. In the year 1728, he
publifhed in the Philofophical ‘TranfaGtions (No. 401),a
letter addrefled to Mr. Benj. Hoadly, on the velocity and
force of bodies in motion; which is an able vindication of
the doGtrine of fir Ifaac Newton on that Subject.
Dr. Clarke’s fphilological labours, as editor of Czfar’s
Commentaries, have already been noticed. In the year
1729, he gave new proofs of his refined tafte and critical
fill in the learned languages, by the publication of the 12
firft books of Homer’s Ihad, which he accompanied with an
elegant Latin verfion, and illuftrated with a number of very
learned and moft excellent notes and annotations. Homer,
we are told, was his favourite author; and he has adted to-
wards him in a manner worthy of his partiality, by ftripping
him of the ambiguities in which ignorance had involved his
meaning, and prefenting him to the learned worid in his na-
tive fimplicity and beauty. The twelve laft books were
publifhed in 1733 by Dr. Clarke’s fon ; from whom we learn
that Dr. Clarke had himfclf finifhed his annotations on the
three firft of them, and part of the fourth. . This work ftill
maintains its well-deferved reputation, and continues to be
received into our principal {chools. ;
In the midit of thefe various labours of public utility, Dr.
Clarke was interrupted and cut off in the full maturity and
ftreagth of bis intellectual powers, by a pleuritic indifpofi-
tion, by which he was attacked on the rith of May, 1739,
after he kad gone to Serjeants’ Inn to preach before the
judges. It baffled all medical aid, and, after fubjeGting him
to very acute fufferings, proved fatal to him on the 17th of
the fame month. Since his death his brother has publifhed
an “ Expofition of the Church Catechilm,”? which comprifed
the fubftance of a courfe of lectures which Dr. Clarke had
delivered on this fubje@ while minifter of St. James’s parifh.
He had carefully revifed them before his death, and left
them ready for publication. But his pofthumous publica-
tion of greateft importance is the colleGion of his fermons
in ten volumes, which were given to the public by the fame
re{pe€iable relation. As a writer of fermons, Dr. Clarke
had many excellencies. Whatever fubjcét he treats, his
matter is folid and important, his arrangement lucid and
comprehenfive, his illuftrations apt and impreffive, and his
language plain, perfpicuous, nervous and perfuafive. In his
explications of Scripture he is peculiarly happy; for if it be
objected to them in any inftance, that they are more elaborate ~
and circumtftantial than neceffary, their length will be found to
be amply compenfated by their intrinfic excellence and value.
Dr. Clarke’s charaGter as a writer on all the fubje€ts to
which he dire¢ted bis attention, ftands defervedly high.
His works, although they difplay no brilliancy of imagina-
tion or dazzling corufcations of genius, are a ftanding mo-
nument of a great and comprehenfive mind, which could
bring within its grafp all ufeful and ornamental learning, and
treat whatever fubjects came under its obfervation with equal
ability, accuraey, and precifion. In theology, in metaphy-
fics, in natural philofophy, and in claffical erudition, he has ~
eftablifhed a credit which will be as lafting as fcience itfelf.
His penetration was on all occafions lively and ftrong, his
memory retentive and faithful, and his judgment equally
perfect to dire& him in the application of its vatt { ae
o
CLARKE.
To thefe hich intelleQual endowments, Dr. Clarke joined a
mild. modeft, and unaffuming temper, the moft. amiabje
and affectionate difpofttion; fincere and elevated picty, and
te mof unimpeachable uprightnefs, and purity of conduct
and behaviour.
Hoadly’s Account of the Life, &c. of Dr. S. Clarke, pre-
fixed to his works. Whifton’s Hiftorical Memoirs of the
Life of Dr. Samuel Clarke, 8vo. Biog. Brit.
Ciarxe, WILLIAM, an eminent antiquary, was bora
at Haghmon abbey, in the county of Salop, in 1696.
The firft part of his education he received at the gram-
mar-fchool in Shrewfbury ; whence he removed to Cam-
bridge, and became a fellow of St. John’s, in that univer-
fity, in January 1716-17. His rifing reputation foon pro-
cured for him the fituation 6f domettic chaplain to Dr. Ott-
lev, bithop of St. David’s; and on that prelate’s death, in
1723, he was appointed domeftic chaplain to the duke of
Newcaltie. In this fituation he did not continue long; for
archbifhop Wake, from motives of perfonal refpeat, as well
asategard to the folicitation of Dr. Wotton, whofe daugh-
ter Mr. Clarke had married, prefented him to the rectory of
Buxted, in Suffex. It is remarkable that Mr. Clarke did
not take his bachelor’s degree before the year 1731, nor
that of mafter of arts before 1735. In 1738 he was made
prebendary and refidentiary of the cathedral church of Chi-
chefter. Mr. Clarke’s firft appearance asa writer was in a
preface to Dr. Wotton’s ** Leges Walliz, or the Ecclefiafti-
cal and Civil Laws of Howel Dda, and other Princes of
Wales.” It has been fuppofed, that a valuable “ Difcourfe
on the Commerce of the Romans,” re-printed by the jearned
Bowyer, with whom he was in the habit of correfpondinz,
in his ‘© Mifcellaneous Traéts,”? came from his pen. But
the work-on which Mr. Clarke’s character asan antiquary is
chiefly founded, is that on ‘* The Conneétion of the Roman,
Saxon, and Enelith Coins; deducing the Antiquities, Cuf-
toms, and Manners of each People to modern Times; par-
ticularly the Origin of Feudal Tenures and Parliaments; il-
luftrated throughout with critical and hiftorical Remarks on
various Authors, both facred and profane :”” it was publifh-
ed in 1767, in one lume in quarto, and dedicated to the
duke of Newcaftle. ‘This publication was occafioned prin-
cipally by the difcovery which Mr. Martin Folkes had lately
made of the old Saxon pound: it received fome improve-
ments from the fuzgettions of Arthur Onflow, efq., the {peak-
er, and was greatly indebted to Mr. Bowyer for fome notes,
a diflertation on the Roman fefterce, anda valuable index.
The work has been much efteemed by learned men, as eluci-
dating many obfcure, but interefting fubjeéts, conneéted
with the hnitory of this country. Mr. Clarke affited Mr.
Bowyer in tranflating ** Trapp’s Lectures on Poetry ;?? and
wrote feveral notes to the Englith verfion of * La Bleterie’s
Life of Julian.””? Several other writings were left by him in
manufeript, particularly fome fermons, and fome curi-
ous papers relating to the hiltory, &c. of the county of Suf-
fex. Although antiquities appear to have engroffed the
principal part of his attention, he is faid to have poffeffed a
tefte for poetry ; and fome lines of his, publifhed by his
friend Mr. Hayley, prove him to have had confiderable ta-
lent for epigrammatic compofition. In 1768 he refigned the
reCtory of Buxted to his fon Mr. Edward Clarke, and in
1770 he was prefented to the vicarage of Amport, and ap-
pointed chancellor of the diocefe of Chichefter: but he did
not long live to enjoy this promotion, being taken away by
death in OGtober 1771. In private lifeMr. Clarke was diftin-
guifhed by the mildnefs and amiablenels of his charaéter, and in
his public conduct, by his unremitting attention to his pro-
fcfiional duties. His fon, Mr, Edward Clarke, above-men-
pr
+
tioned, paffed ome time in Spain, in the capacity of chaplain
to the earl of Briftol, the Englifh ambaflador ; ‘and, on his
return, publithed feme ‘* Letters conceraing the Spanifh
Nation,” containing much ufeful information refpecting that
country. Biog. Brit.
Cuaake, Jeremian, an Enolith organift and ecclefiattical
compofer, had his education in the Chapel Royal, under Dr.
Blow, who feems to have had a paternal affeGtion for him.
In 1693 he refigned,- in his favour, the place of mafter of
the children and almoner of St. Paul’s, of which cathedral
Clarke was foon after likewife appointed organilt. In 1700
Dr. Blow and his pupil were appointed gentlemen extraor-
dinary in the King’s chapel; of which, in 1704, on the
death of Mr. Francis Piggot, they. were jointly admitted to
the place of organift.
The compofitions of Clarke are not numerous, as an un-
timely and melancholy end was put to his exiftence before
his genius-had been allowed time to expand.
Early in life he was fo unfortunate as to conceivea violent
and hopelefs paffion for a very beautiful lady of a rank far
fuperior to his.own ; and his fufferings, under thefe circum.
flances, became at length fo intolerable, that he refolved to
terminate them by fuictde. The late Mr. Samuel Wiley,
one of the lay-vicars of St. Paul’s, who was very intimate
with him, related the following extraordinary ftory.. ‘* Be-
ingat the houfe of a friend in the country, he found himfelf
fo miferable, that he fuddenly determined to return to Lon--
don; his friend obferving in his behaviour great marks of
dejeftion, furnifhed him with a horfe, and a fervant to attend
him. In his way to: town, a fit of melancholy and defpair
having feized him, he alighted, and giving his horfe to the
fervant, went into-a field, in the corner of which there was a
pond furrounded with trees, which pointed out to his choice
two Ways of getting rid of life; but not being more inclined
to the one than the other, he left it to the determinatioa of
chance ; and taking a piece of money out of his pocket, and.
tofling it in the air, determined to abide by its-decifion ; but
the money falling on its edge in the clay, feemed to prohibit
both thefe means of deftruction. His mind was too much
difordered to receive comfort, or take advantage of this de-
lay ; he therefore mounted his horfe and rode to. London,,
determined to find fome other means of getting rid of life.
Andin July,1707, not many weeks after his return, he fhot
himfelf in his own houfe in St. Paul’s churchi-yard ; the late
Mr. John Reading, organift of St. Dunftan’s church, a {cho-
lar of Dr. Blow, and matter of Mr. Stanley, intimately ac-
quainted with Clarke, happening to go by the door at the
inftant the piftol went off, upon entering the houfe, found
his friend and fellow-ftudent in theagonies of death.”
The anthems of this pathetic compofer, which Dr. Boyce
has printed, are not only more natural and pleafing than
thofe of his matter Dr. Blow, but wholly free from licen-
centious harmony and breach of rule. He is mild, placid,
and feemingly incapable of violence of any kind. In his frit
anthem (vol. ii.) which required cheerfulnefs and jubilation,
he does not appear in his true character, which is tender and
plaintive. ‘Che fubje& of the next is therefore better fuited
to the natural bias of his genius. There is indeed nothing
in this anthem which indicates a mafler of grand and fublime
conceptions ; but there are a clearnefs and accuracy in the
fcore, and melancholy calt of melody and harmony fuitable
to the words, which are likewife well accented, that cannot
fail to foothe and pleafe every appetite for mufic which is not
depraved.
His fall anthem, “* Praifethe Lord, O Jerufalem,” is ex-
tremely natural and agreeable, and as modern and graceful as
the gravity of the choral fervice will with propriety arty
aR
CLA
And in his verfe anthem, the movements in triple time are
as pathetic, and even elegant, as any mufic of the fame pe-
riod, ecclefiaftical or fecular, that was produced, either at
home or on thecontinent. ‘There isa very agreeable verfe
anthem of his compolition in a colleétion publifhed by Walth,
*\ The Lord is my ftrength and my fong,’”? with more fpirit
in it than we thought he could mufter. But the verfe, ‘* O
Lord, fend us now profperity,’”? ona ground-bafein Purcell’s
maaner, is extremely pleafing and ingenious. 'Tendernels
is, however, fo much his charaéteriftic, that he may well be
called the mufical Otway of his time.
CLARKE, Joun, an engraver, who refided at Edinburgh,
where he engraved the portraits of William Prince of Orange,
and the princefs Mary, in the form of a medallion; itis
dated 1690. Amongtt other portaits by him, are thofe of
Sir Matthew Hale and Andrew Marvell; befides which,
he engraved two fets of prints, called the Humours of
Harlequin and Columbine.
Strutt and Heinecken mention another John Clarke, who
lived in England at the fame period ; and two other en-
gravers, called William and Thomas Clarke. The latter
flourifhed in 1645.
Crarke, in Geography, a county of Kentucky, between
the head-waters of Mentucky and Licking rivers. Its
chief townis Wincheiter.
Crarxs,atown of America, in the ftate of Virginia, 9
miles N.W.of Richmond.
CLARKSBURG, the chief town of Harrifon county,
in Virginia; feated onthe E. fide of Monongahela river, 40
miles 5.W. of Morgan-town, and containing about 40
houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol.
CLARKSTOWN, atown of America, in the ftate of
New-York, and county ef Orange, lying on the W. fide of
the Tappan fea, at the diftance of 2 miles, and 29 miles from
the city of New-York; by the ftate cenfus of 1796, 224
of its inhabitants are electors. ;
CLARKSVILLE, the chief town of the diftri@, which,
till of late, was called Tenneflee county, in the ftate of Ten-
neffee, in America, pleafantly feated on the E. bank of
Cumberland river, and at the mouth of Red river, oppofite
to that of Muddy creek; containing about 30 houfes,a
court-houfe, and a gaol, and diftant 45 miles N.W. from
Nafhville, and g3o W. by S. from Philadelphia. N. lat.
36° 25’. W. long. 88° 57’.
Crarksvitve, a {mall fettlement of America, in the
N.W. territory, which contained in 1791 about 60 perfons.
It is fituated on the northern bank of the Ohio, oppofite
to Louifville, a mile below the Rapids, and 100 miles S.E.
of Port Vincent. Itis often flooded when the river is high,
and inhabited by people who cannot at prefent find a better
fituation.
CLARO-OBSCURO. See Crair-ob/cure.
CLAROS, in Ancient Geography, a wood and temple of
Apollo in Ionia, in the country of the Colophonians, ac-
cording to Strabo, who adds, that they were fituated before
the town of Colophon, and that they were confecrated to
Apollo, who had formerly an oracle there.—Alfo, a town
of Afia, in lonia—Alfo, a mountain of Afia Minor, in
Tonia, near the town of Colophon. Apollo is fuppofed by
fome to have derived from this place his appellation of
«© Clarian.””—Alfo, an ifland of the /Egean fea, fince call-
ed ‘ Calamo,” and the ** Calymna” of Pliny.
CLARTHY, m1 Geography, a river of Wales in the
county of Cardigan, which joins the Clarwen at the N.W-
extremity of the county of Brecknock.
CLARWEN, a river of Wales, which runs into the
Wye near Rhaiadr-Gwy.
CLA
CLARY, in Botany and Gardening. See Saryra.
Crary, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the north, and chief place*of a canton in the diftriét
of Cambray; the place contains 1494, and the canton
17,205 inhabitants ; the territory inclhides 1324 kiliometres,
and 17 communes.
Crary-water, is compofed of brandy, fugar, clary-
flowers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergris diffolved in
it. It helps digeftion, and is cardiac. ‘This water is ren-
dered either purgative or emetic, by adding refin of jalap
and feammony, or crocus metallorum. Some make clary-
water of brandy, juice of cherries, ftrawberries and goofe-
berries, fugar, cloves, white pepper, and coriander feeds;
infufed, fugared, and ftrained.
CLASMIUM, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus
of foffils, of the clafs of the Gyrpsums; the characters of
which are, that they are of a foft texture, and of a dull and
opake look, being compofed, like all the other gypfums,
of irregularly arranged flat particles.
The word is derived from xAzcpO-, a fragment, or fmall
particle, from the flaky {mall particles of which thefe bodies
are compofed. Of this genus there is only one known {pe-
cies ; this is of a tolerably regular and even {truéture, though
very coarfe and harfh tothe touch. It is common in Italy,
and is greatly efteemed there; we have of it alfo in fome
parts of Derbyfhire ; but with us it is not particularly re-
garded, but burnt among the reft. It neither gives fire
with fteel, nor ferments with agua fortis; but calcines readily
in the fire, and affords a very valuable plafter of Paris.
CLASP-nails. See Natts.
CLASPERS, in Botany, See Cirrus.
CLASS, Claffis, a diftribution of perfons or things, rang<
ed according to their merit, value, or nature. See Rank,
&e.
The word comes from c/affis, derived by fome from the
Greek xarew, congrege, convoco; a cla/s being nothing but a
multitude affembled apart.
Crassis particularly ufed for a diftin@tion among {cholars,
who are diftributed into feveral claffes or forms, according
to their capacities and attainments. :
Quintilian ufes the word c/afis in this fenfe, in the firft
book of his ** Inftitutiones.”” ,
Crass, in Botany, a term firlt employed by Gefner, afters
wards taken up by Tournefort, and finally eftablifhed by
Linnzus, to denote the primary divifion of plants into large
groups, each of which is to be fubdivided, by a regular
downward progreflion, into orders, or fetions, as they are
called by Tournefort, genera and fpecies, with occafional
intermediate fubdivifions, all fubordinate to the divifion
which ftands immediately above-them. So that the claffes
may be compared to the firlt layer of a truncated pyramid,
which increafes gradually as it receives the orders, genera,
and occafional intermediate fubdivifions, till at length it
terminates in an immenfe bafe, confifting entirely of fpecies,
A clafs is thus defined by Tournefort in the Ifagoge in Rem
Herbariam, prefixed to his ‘ Inftitutiones Rei Herbariz,”? -
p. 51: Claffis autem nomine intelligitur congeries generum,
quibus nota quedam communis adco propria eft, ut ab ome
nibus aliis generibus plantarum prorfus differant. ‘* A clafs
is a collection of genera, all poflefling fome peculiar common
characier, by which they may be readily diftinguifhed from
all other genera.” The definition given by Linnzus in his
* Philofophia Botanica,” p. 100, is more particular.
Claffis eft generum plurium convenientia in partibus, fruGi-
ficationis {ecundum principia nature et artis. ‘“ A clalsis
founded on the agreement of feveral genera with each other,
in the parts of fruétification, according to the principles of
nature
CLASSIFICATION,
nature and art.” Tournefort, following the fteps of Gef-
ner, had before determined, though he did not include it ia
his definition, that the divifion into clafles ought to depend,
either folely on the flower, or folely on the fruit; at the
fame time affigning the reafon why, in his own pratice, he
gave the preference to the former. Ifag. p. 65, 66. In
the formation of claffes, it is ef effential importance that
they fhould not be very numerous, and that their bound-
aries fhould be ftrongly and diftin@ly marked. See Cuas-
SIFICATION.
CLASSENDORYF, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz ; 5 miics N. of Kamnitz.
CLASSIC, Cuassicat, a term chiefly applied to
authors read in the claffes at fchools, and who are in great
authority there. In this fenfe, Aquinas, and the mafter
of the fentences, were claflic authors in the fchool-divinity ;
Anittotle, in philofophy ; Cicero and Virgil, in the huma-
nities. Aulus Gellius ranks among claffic authors, Cicero,
Cefar, Salluft, Virgil, Horace, &c.
The term claffic feems properly applicable only to authors
who lived in the time of the Roman republic, and the
Auguitan age, when the Latin was in its perfection.
It appears to have taken its rife hence, that an eftimate
of every perfon’s eftate being appointed by Servius Tullius,
he diyided the Roman peopie into fix bands, which he called
claffes. he eftate of thofe of the firft c/a/s was not to be
under two hundred pounds: and thefe, by way of eminence,
were called claffics, cla/fict.
Hence, allo, authors of the firft rank came to be called
claffics : all the rett were {aid to be infra claffim.
The firlt clafis, again, was fubdivided into centuries ;
muking fourfcore centuries of footmen, and eighteen of
horfemen. Each c/efis confifted, one half of the younger
fort, who were to make war abroad; and the other of old
men, who ftaid at home for the defence of the city.
CLASSICA Cotonia, in Ancient Geography, ove of the
names of a town in Gallia Narbonnenfis, called by Cefar
Forum Fulit.
CLASSICAL Learning may be underftood to fignify
fuch an acquaintance with the beft Latin and Greek writers,
as fhall enable the reader to perceive and admire the pecu-
liar beauty of their compofitions, and to adopt their diétion
and fentiment. The principal claffic Greek authors are,
Homer, Hefiod, Plato, Demofthenes, A2{chines, Kenophon,
Plutarch, Ifocrates, Epi€tetus, Lucian, Sophocles, Euri-
pides, Longinus, Theocritus, Anacreon, Pindar, Arifto-
phanes, &c. The chief Latin writers are, Cicero, Livy,
Cefar, Salluft, Virgil, Horace, Terence, Plautus, Juvenal,
Ovid, Pliny, Valerius Paterculus, Tacitus, &c.
CLASSICUM, in Ancient Military Language, the found
of a trumpet, or a trumpet itfelf. When the Romans
wifhed to give the fignal for combat, one man by order, and
in prefence of the general, founded with the trumpet. Seve-
ral others, on an elevated fituation, if there was one near
them, an{wered the fignal with the found of their trumpets ;
and at this fecond fignal, the trumpets of all the cohorts
founded at once.
CLASSIFICATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the
arrangement or affortment of various objects into thofe
feveral claffes, denoted by appellatives, which, in the {chools,
are called genera and /pecies. It is, fays the ingenious Dr,
Smith, (Differtation on the Origin of Languages, annexed
to his Theory of Moral Sentiments), an application of
the name of an individual to a great number of objects,
whofe refemblance naturally recals the idea of that indivi-
dual, and of the name which exprefles it, that feems origi-
nally to have given occafion te the formation of thofe
Vor. VIII.
claffes and affortments, which, in the fchools, are called
genera and fpecies; and for the origin of which Rouffeau
finds himfelf fo much at a lofs to account. What conftitutes
a /pecies is merely a number of objets, bearing a certain
degree of refemblance to one another; and, on that account,
denominated by a fingle appellation, which may be applied
to exprefs any one of them.
This clafiification of different objeG&ts, as profeffor Du-
gald Stewart accurately and fatisfaGtorily ftates it, (Ele-
ments of the Philofophy of the Human Mind, p. 155, &c.)
fuppofes a power of attending to fome of their qualities
or attributes without attending to the reft; for no two ob-
jects are to be found without fome fpecific difference ; and
no aflortment or arrangement can be formed among things
not perfeétly alike, but by lofing fight of their diftin-
guifhing peculiarities, and limiting the attention to thofe
attributes which belong to them in common. This power
of confidering certain qualities or attributes of an object
apart from the reft ; or the power, as the ingenious pro-
feffor chufes to detine it, which the underftanding has of
feparating the combinations which are prefented to it, is
diltinguifh-d) by logicians by the name of ‘ abftraGtion,’”®
which fee. Abftraétion, which fome philofophers have
fuppofed to form the characteriftical attribute of a rational
nature, is the ground-work of claffification ; and without
this faculty of the mind we fhould have been perfeétly in-
capable of general fpeculation, and all our knowledge muft
have been limited to individuals; while fome of the moft
ufeful branches of {cience, particularly the different branches
of mathematics, in which the very fubjects of our reafoning
are abftraétions of the underitanding, could never have poi
fibly had an exiftence.
CrassiricaTion of Animals for Comparative Anatomy.
The frit fyttematic arrangements of animals were founded
upon their external figure and molt obvious habits of life ;
confequently they were always imperfect, and often erro<
neous; thus, the divifion of animals into terreftrial, aerial,
and aquatic, although apparently natural, included, under
the fame title, individuals no way allied to each other, ex-
cept in the form of their bodies, and the clement they in~
habited : it is in this manner that the vulgar determine the
rank of animals at prefent ; thus, the whale tribe, and even
feals, are called fifhes, ard many mollufca and other marine
animals are very generally termed fifh.
In proportion to the cultivation ard advancement of the
fludy of zoology, it became neecffary to inftitute claffes
and orders founded upon Jefs obvious characters than the
general appearance or economy of the animals; for which
purpofe, the number and arrangement of the toes, teeth,
claws, beaks, fcales, and other’ obfcure or minute parts
were employed; and by thefe means the primary divifions
and fubdivifions of the animal kingdom were made more
numerous; the tranfition from them to the genera lefs
abrupt ; and the difcrimination of fpecies more ealy and
accurate.
It was on this plan that Liuneus proceeded in the
formation of his great fyftem, which has been fo much and fo
generally admired ; the chara@ers he chofe, however, were
confeffedly artificial; and as his objects chiefly feemed to
be the afcertainment and defcription of the {pecies, he often
difregarded natural order, and frequently violated it in the
mot palpable manner: his diflinétions are more efpecially
at variance with the anatomical {tra€ture of animals; even
where he propofed to form his fyftem upon this fourdation,
he frequently fell into error. .
In order to juttify our departure from a fyftem which
the naturalifts of this country have not yet rejected, it te ’
Za e
CLASSIFICATION.
he neceffary to point out fome of its more objeétionable
parts. Linnegus makes two grand divifions of animals, the
red and the white-blooded; and under the latter denomina-
tien, he includes many animals in whom no blood or cir-
ting fluid exits, and fome others whofe biood is really
red. he clafs of vermes, which molt people would expect
to fignify worms, contains all the inferior orders of animals,
except infects; thus afiembling together genera having as
little alliance to each other, with refpeé to form, habits, and
organization, as there exills between a quadruped and a fihh.
for example, what refemblance is there between a cuttle fith,
an earth-worm, and a hydatid ? or how can the common attri-
butes of worms, v/s. an unilocelar heart and cold white blood
be applied to them? The cuttle-fifh has three hearts, placed
at fome dillance from each other; its blood is tranfparent ;
the mate and female organs of generation exilt in feparate
individuals ; the animal is furnifhed with numerous external
organs, and poflcifes the fenfes of vilion and hearing, and
refides in the fua. “Che earth-worm has no heart ; its blood
is red ; has both male and female organs in the fame indi-
vidual ; can fearcely be faid to poflcfs any projecting exter-
nal parts; is deftitute of the fenfes of fight and hearing,
and is an inhabitant of the earth.
Lattly, the hydatid has neither blood nor circulating vef-
fe s; is without fex ; is unprovided with any organs of fenfe
or of motion, and lives in the interior of other animals.
The conftitution of the Linnean orders is not more na-
tural than that of the clafles. One of the moft remarkable
examples ef artificial arrangement prefents itfelf in the firft
order of mammalia ; in which we find man and the bat affo-
ciated together ; two animals, between whom there is no cir-
cumitance of agreement, except the fituation of their mam-
mz, which Linnzus makes an effential chara&ter of the
order.
The animal, to which man bears the greateft refemblance
with refpeét to external form, is the monkey; but from
which he is fo diftinguifhed by his mode of progreffion, that
he fhould be placed, even on that account, ,in a feparate
order, if not in a diftinét elafs.
The pohtion of the head, by which it is equipoifed upon
the vertebral column, the forward dire€tion of the eyes, the
want of a cervical ligament to affilt the mufcles of the neck
in fultaining the weight of the head, the capacity of the
cheft, which would interfere with the employment of the
f{uperior extremities, as feet, the fhape of the pelvis, and of
the cavity for receiving the head of the thigh bone, the
length of the mferior extremities, the {trength of the pofterior
muicles of the leg, and the projeGion of the heel, which in-
creafes their power, the pofition of the fole of the foot, the
conjunétion of the great toe with the others, and the original
thicknefs of the integuments of the bottom of-the feet, are
all peculiarities of the human body ; and concur to prove
that man was defigned by nature to waik ereét, whilit the
ftructure of the moit perfeétly formed monkey prevents the
animal’s fultaining the upright pofition for any length of
time without an effort, or without clinging to fome external
fupport.
Vhe mental chara@er, the inftin&ts, and the habits of the
human kind, are, however, fo very peculiar, and fo very im-
portant in their confequences, that in all fyftems of natural
arraogement, man ought to contlitute a clafs diftin& from
all other animals. Man alone is endowed with the faculty
of reafoning and a moral fentiment; for in thofe inftances
where animals have appeared to aét from judgment, it was
the refult of imitation, inflin&t, or a previous education.
Haman language is almoft always artificial, and formed by
convention, and mey be ufed as the figns of abftract ideas ;
whilt that of animals confifts of inftinétive cries or founds,
which commonly exprefs only immediate wants or fenfations,
No animal is capable of conitruéting tools or machinery for
the purpofe of diminifhing labour; whilft mankind perform
almoft all their a€tions with the aid of inftruments or
machines. [he mechanical powers of the human race have
a mott estenfive influence upon its natural hiftory : it is by
thefe that man is able to maintain his dominion over the
re{t of the creation, for no animal is naturally fo defencelets.
Born without weapons, and even any covering, he would
be incapable of refifting the attacks of rapacious animals, or
of fultaining the extreme effects of climate; it is alfo by
mechanical means that we are enabled to profit by our own
or others’ experiefce, and to tran{mit the inventions and dif-
coveries of one generation to another, which forms one of
the moft diftinguifhing charateriftics of mankind, and to
which they chiéfly owe their fuperiority over the brute
creation. The focial habits and fexual inftinéts of the
human fpecies are very different from thofe of animals; al-
mott all the works of man are produced by co-operation,
and fubordination amongft the agents; but animals com-
monly aét independently, and without controul; for even
where their initin€&ts lead them to conduét their labours in
concert, every individual performs its own tafk, without
receiving any iniiru@tions or commands from others, To
live in a ftate of organized fociety is, therefore, only na-
tural, and peculiar to the human kind.
» Inanimals the defires of the fexes occur at determined
feafons, at which times they are ungovernable, and to their
ratification commonly fucceeds a fentiment of averfion ;
whilft the intercourfe cf the fexes in the human fpecies is
not the effet of a periodic infin&, and is always regulated
by tafte, or fome other mental fentiment or confideration,
not immediately concerned in the performance of the pro-
creative act.
Many other circum{tances might be enumerated, as diftin-
guilhing attributes of the human kind, but the above have
been adduced as being more peculiarly clafliic charaéters, or
more properly belonging to natural hiftory ; and are fufficient
in themfelves to fhew the impropriety of arranging man
with other animals.
In fome other Linnean orders of mammalia, feveral of
the genera have no natural alliance to each other. Thus,
in the order dru/a, we meet with the elephant, the walrus,
the floth, and the anteaters, animals extremely different in
their form, organization, and all their habitudes. The
order /ere includes, with the real beafts of prey, the feal,
whofe mode of life is fo peculiar, and the hedge-hog, mole,
and fhrew, which are really fugitive animals; and in the
order bellue we find the hippopotamus, hog, and tapir,
whofe uncouth figure, flow, heavy gait, and general: eco-
nomy, plainly declare their relation to the elephant and
rhinoceros, with whom they fhould have been united, rather
than with fuch a fleet and finely proportioned quadruped as.
the horfe.
Although the orders which Linneus inftituted in birds
are more natural than thofe of mammalia, they are not
unexceptionable. The genus /anius perhaps more propertly
belongs to the pafférine tribe, than to the birds of prey. The
order pice is ungueltionably too extenfive, and contains
many genera, which, in their general form and modes of
life, ought to be placed amongft the pafferes. All the
orders of birds feem to require a further divifion ; and the
peculiarities in the ftru€ture and made of progreffion in the
ftruthious birds would point out the propriety of forming:
them into a diftin@& order. The appellations alfo of all the
orders may be thought to admit of improvement; but
2 where
ee A coer © AT TON,
where names do not lead to errors, with refpect to fact, it is
of little confeqence whether they be quite appropriate or
not.
The orders of the clafles, amphibia and fifhes, as they ap-
pear in the later editions of the Syftema Nature, are lefs
objeGtionable than any other part of the Linnean claffifica-
tion, and, confequently, have undergone lefs alterations by
modern naturalifts.
It is in the arrangement of the inferior orders of animals
that Linnzus appears to have been molt cenfurable. The
order of apterous infecs is compoled of genera differing fo
much from each other in anatomical ftructure, that they
have given rife to the formation of fome new clafles by
late naturalifts, The orders mollufea and teflacea, of the
clafs wvermes, are by far the worlt conceived parts of the
Linnean fyflem: under the denomination of maollu/ca, we
find fome animals that have all the external charadiers, as
well as anatomical ftruGure, of corms, properly fo called ;
others, which have fo many peculiarities of form and of
organization, that they almolt deferve to conttitute a diftiné
clafs ; and others again, which are fo fimple in their form-
ation, that they might be conlidered as the link between
the animal and the vegetable kingdoms. The feparation
of the teflaceous from the naked mollufca is a glaring im-
propriety, unlefs the objects of natural hiftory were merely
to defcribe the coverings or habitations of animals, without
regard to the real form, ftru€ture, and habits of the indi-
viduals they contain.
The number of the genera and {pecies of animals in every
clafs is infinitely increafed fince the days of Linneus,
which is partly the confequence of modern difcoveries, and
partly owing to a more accurate examination and compa-
rifon of the {fpecies which were already known.
At the fame time that we have thus ventured to cenfure,
without referve, the errors of Linnzus, we cannot forbear
acknowledging with admiration the talents, zeal, and in-
duftry which he exerted in the fervice of natural hiftory ; he
has not been furpaffed by any, as a patient and laborious
colle€tor of faéts, and few have fhewn more ability in the
arrangement of their materials. Had he but paid as much at-
tention to natural order, and the anatomy of animals, as he
did to artificial characters, his fyftem would have remained a
lafling monument of his indefatigable indu{try, and com-
prehenfive genius 5 and it would have been only left to fuc-
ceeding naturalilts to fill up his orders with fuch genera and
{pecies as later difcoveries might afford.
It is from accurate and enlarged views of the organiza-
tion of animals that almoft all the modern improvements
with refpe€t to the claflification of animals have arifen;
we cannot wonder, therefore, that we receive them almoit
entirely from the naturalifts of France and Germany, who
{tudy comparative anatomy with a degree of zeal and atten-
tion unknown in this country.
Of thofe who have contributed to the introdu@ion of a
natural method in zoology, we may enumerate Daubenton,
Vic d’azir, Blumenbach, Fabricius, Geoffroy, Cuvier, Brong-
niard, La Cepede, La Marck, Latreille, Dumeril, &c.
In compoling the following claffification of animals we
have made a free ufe of the works of the above writers, not
however, by fervilely copying them, but by adopting their
arrangement wherever we confidered it juft and natural. In
fome in{tances, when we thought it neceflary, we have ven-
tured to differ decidedly even from fuch celebrated autho-
rities, and in other cafes we have added fuch new divifions of
animals, as appeared to be required, more efpecially for the
convenience of anatomical defcription. ‘Whe claffification
of mammalia is nearly the fame as that propoted by Geof-
froy and Cuvier; we have, however, given different names to
feveral of the families, and have feparated the genus Laman-
tin from the feal and whale tribes, as differing from both in
form and in anatomical firn@ture. he clafs of birds is
formed upon the plan of that contained in Cuvier’s Tableau
Elementaire de VP Hiftoire naturelle, except that we have
made a diflinét order of the running birds, and have
tranfpofed fome of the other genera. In the arrangement
of reptiles we have followed-that of Brongniard end Dan-
din, with the intlitution of the additional family of amphibia,
including the firens which we have judged it proper to fepa-
rate from the frog kind, until it be determined whether they
are animals in a tadpole flate of exiftence or not. In the
clafs of fifhes we have adopted the fyflem of La Cepede, :
lately mod bed by Dumeril, in which are introduced the
genera of Bloch, La Cepede, Commerfon, &c. In
contt:tution of the mo!lufca, the latelt imp ients of Cuvier
have been admitted, who was the author of the clafs, and to
thefe we have added fome other fubdiv ‘ions, which appeared
to be both natural and confonant. he arrangement of
winged infects is the fame which Dumeril has formed from
the Linnean and Fabrician fyitems, but we have replaced
the two genera cancer and monoculas of Ienneus amongtt
the cpterous infects, although all the French naturalilts ha}
agreed that they fhould conftitute a diflinG& clafs to which
they gave the name of cruftacea. The eftabliihment of the
clafs cruitacea does not appear to reft upon good principles,
It was initituted upon the grounds of the animal compoling
it having divided blood veffels, and the prefumption of there
being no vafcular fyftem in the other families of infects,
There would feem, however, to be a regular gradation
from the heart and large arteries of cru(tacea to the dorfal
veffel of flying infe&ts. In fome that hold an intermediate
place, fuch, for example, as {piders, ramifications of the dor-
fal veffel can be detected; and analogy would lead us to
conclude that the dorfal veffel of Aying infeéts performs at
leaft fome of the funétions of the heart and principal arte-
ries of cruftacea, and that the large veins of the latter may
be fo much extended as at laft to occupy the entire cavity of
the body of the infect, and thus elude our obfervation. But
grantiag the opinion of the French naturalilts to be correct,
(which is not probable) that infes have no appayatus for
preparing the nutritious fluid previous to its converfioa into
the organic ftruGture of the animal, {till there are fo many
circumttances of refemblance between cruftaecous and other
infects, that they cannot with propriety be placed in fepa-
rate claffes; they have both the external fkeleton, both pol-
fefs a fimilar ttru€ture of the mulcles and the fame arrange-
ment of the nerves, they are alike furnifhed with antennz
and compound eyes, which exift in no other clafs of animals.
The Iateral pofition of the jaws, and the want of glandular
vifcera, which are fupplied by numerous tubes connected
with the alimentary canal, are alfo peculiarities of ftructure
only found in cruftaceous and other infects. After fully
confidering all the characters of the cruftacea of Cuvier we
have judged it belt to form thefe animals into two orders of
apterous infects, one of which is the true cru{tacea and
correfpond to the genus cancer (Linn.) and the other ts the
genus monoculus (Linn.) or the teltaceous infects of Muller.
We have alfo initituted fome other natural families of aj -
terous infeéts, one of which nearly an{wers to the arachnide.,
a clafs lately formed by fome of the French naturalilts upon
ftill lefs pretencé than that of cruttacea.
The divifion of worms into thofe refiding in the earth
or water, and thofe inhabiting the interior of other ani,
mals, is fo very obvious that it has been made by
moft naturalits; bat Ja Marck and Dumeri! have gone
ZL farthers
CLASSIF
farther, and have ranked inteftinal worms amongit z00-
phytes, which the fimplicity of their organization might
perhaps authorife ; but on account of their ufual form and
affinity which fome of the fpecies bear to the external
worms, we have been induced to ftil retain them in the clafs
of vermes.
The clafs of zoophytes is formed upon the plan generally
adopted by the French naturalilts: we have, however, made
fome more fubdivifions, efpecially of the zoatinia, or ra-
diated animals.
{tis not expeéted that the annexed claffification will meet
univerfal approbation from Englith readers; fome entertain
fo high a reverence for every thing belonging to Linneus,
that they will not hear of the Jeaft deviation from his fyf-
tem; not remembering that the nature of truth and error
is the fame, whether it be fan€tioned by authority or not.
Others may obje& to the introduction of fo many fubdivi-
fions of the clafles, and the employment of new terms, from an
apprehention that they will increafe the difficulties (already
too numerous) attending the ftudy of natural hiftory. To
thefe it may be obferved that the acquifition of every {peciesof
knowledge is facilitated by judicious fubdivifions and appro-
priate terms, and that all the obfcurity and confufion of na-
tural hiltory have arifen from the want of a proper nomencla-
ture. It has been long known that the fpecies are ealily dico=
vered after we are acquainted with the charaGters of the genus
to which they belong, and that the moft difficult part, both of
zoology and botany, is to attain a knowledge of the genera;
the obvious reafons for which are, that the paflage from the
ICATION.
genera to the f{pecies is fhort and eafy,. while the former are’
too much eftablifhed upon independent charafters, and are
not the branches of the orders, or the fubdivifion next above
them. The inftitution of fub-orders.is eminently calculated
to remove thefe difficulties ; and if they be con{tructed fo as
to form natural families, they greatly facilitate and extend
our acquaintance with the habits, manners, and economy of
animals, which are the true objects of natural hiltory,
To fully perceive the utility of fub-divifions and general
terms in zoology, we fhould fuppofe the fubje& in its two
extremes; one when all the names are individual, or at molt
fpecific ; the other where there are regular and natural gra~
dations from the clafs to the {pecies; in the firit cafe the
flrongeft memory would hardly embrace the number of in-
dividuals contained in one genus, while, in the other, the
whole animal kingdom might be furveyed with eafe; but it
is needlefs to dwell upon the convenience and neceflity of
arrangement in a {cience which effentially confifts in the ge<
neralization and comparifon of fats.
The improvements in the claffification of the fubjeéts of
natural hiftory, like the new chemical nomenclature, have
been treated in this country with contempt and derifion, and
like it, alfo, they will be flowly, yet univerfally acknow-
ledged. One reafon alone, if there exifted no other, would
juftify our adoption of the modern fyftem of claffification,
upon the prefent occafion: it is becaufe it is the moft con-
fonant with the anatomical f{truéture of animals, which we
have to defcribe, and in reference to which, alone, the fole
lowing tables are conflruéted.
VIEW of the CLASSES of ANIMALS.
warm blood, and heart
with two ventricles
A brain containing cavities;
ni ¢ +
an internal offeous fkeleton & bloods/aakl Heats
with one ventricle
}
Without a brain or internal
{ fkeleton
ANIMALS.
| Noarticulated members
CEASS I.
divided into digiti or toes, which are furnifhed
‘The Feet < having the parts correfponding to the toes. envel
degenerated into the form of fins, and employed for {wimming
f An articulated external fkeleton
CrassEs,
viviparous, and fuckle their young I. MAMMALIA.
yl and without mammz TL, ‘AVES:
having lungs, and wanting fins . III. REPTILIA.
ee gills andfins . . IV.' PISCES.
Pelco, 2 V. INSECTA.
{Simple nerves . . .. . VI. MOLLUSCA.
Knotted nerves! 5 sys < os VMs peo Vern
Without nerves att: . VIII, ZOOPHYTA.
MAMMALIA,
Orpers.
with claws ornails . . .
4. Dicirara.
oped in horny cafes or hoofs 2., UNGULATA.
rahe 3. PinnaTa,
DIGITATA.
Teeth
—
=>
of three forts; members
lefs than three io want
L
|
|
ls
CLASSIFICATION,
DIGITATA.—Firft Order of Mammatra.
SuB-GENERA,
. Orang.
« Sapajou.
Guenon.
. Macaque.
. Baboon.
. Alouate.
. Maki or Maucauce
« Indri.
. Lori.
. Galago.
. Tarfer.
. Sarigue.
. Dafyure.
. Phalanger.
« Weazleand Martin
. Otter.
. Mouffete.
. Dog.
. Hyena.
. Hedze Hog.
. Tenrec.
. Shrewmoufe.
» Defnan or Mufk
Shrew.
» Cheyfochlore.
. Scalope.
« Bear.
. Badger:
- Coati.
( Pithecus
FAMILIES, GENERA. Callitrix
Cercopithecus .
Simia » Ape Cynocephalus
Papio
bothhands Cebus.
and feet } Quapaumana | ee
S | Indri
A Lemur . . . Maki: Auoria.!
3 Galago .
aS Tarfius .
3 & eteene - Wonlat. : pe
B. ae }Pepimawa . « ¢Didelphis . . Opofum ; Phalngitte
6 Coefcoes.
2 Perameles - Peramele. Muhela
4 [ Muitela. . Weazel : { Las 4%
2 fon.che LDiciticrapa . < Viverra . . Cives. as
2 a aa |B sie aimee: Catia
g g Canis - Dog . + UHiyena 2 :
= gy ff Erinaceus . . Hedge Hog . . ees 3
S ] “Sorex ;
a Mygale . .
~ | onthe fole Sorex - » Shrew
ce of the briaxsronans Chryfochloris
ieee Talpa . Mole. Pepe:
[Tass
at
“Urfus Bb eB rata wine a Ne
united by. a mem-
brane in form of >CHEIROFTERA
a wing
the canine only;
leaping gait
* fp SsnticraDa
and canine EnENTATA .
incifors
only slow
motion
} TARDIGRADA »
Vefpertilio
Galeopithecus .
Phafcolomys
f Kangurus
| Hyftrix. .
Lepus
Cavia
Caftor
Hydromys.
Sciurus
Cheiromys
MINVITIB) cu (See Me RRGNY fe a. le i)
DAE 6
*“\ Procyon .
Rotosers aus
Ichneumon .
Pteropus
[ vretpentilio :
< Rinolophus .
; Phyllottoma
Flying Lemur. li
- Phafcolome. Mosion
. Kanguroo. Hyftrix
. Porcupine Gaendus ;
¢Lepus .»
. Hare . * { Lagomys
pie Hydrocherus.
. Beavers a wena
Pteromys
. Squirrel . 6 « { q
dye Ayes ott Sciurus .
dagafcar Squirrel. fAr&omys .
Ornitherincus » Duckdill.
Myrmecophaga nt-eater
eee
Dafypus
Bradypus
» Cape Ant-eater.
» Armadillo.
RY loth oh) we
Lemmus
Fiber ;
INSEE GN elis
Cricetus
Spalax . .
Dipus
Myoxus. .
Myrmecophag
Echidna. .
lias
. Megatherium
. Racoon.
. Kinkajou.
. Mangoujte.
i Rouffet.
« Common Bat.
- Rinolphus.
. Phylloftome.
. Nodilio.
. Porcupine.
- Coendu
Hare.
Pica.
Agouti.
« Polatouche,or Fiy-
ing Squirrel.
- Squirrel.
. Marmet.
. Campagnol.
. Ondatra.
. Rat.
. Hamfler.
Mole Rat.
. Ferboa.
. Dormcufee
Ani-eater.
Porcupine Ant-eater
» Pangolin or Scaby
» Megather.
UNG
Lizard.
CLASSIFICATION.
UNGULATA.—Second Order of MAMMALIA.
FAMILIES. GENERA. SuB-GENeRA,
Elephas . . + Elephant.
Mapwy Ais etl apine
Sisbiae He Hog.
three at leat . . . . Muypruncurata Hippopotamus. River Her/e.
Hyrax . . » Daman
Rhinoceros . . Rhinoceros hae Roy
amelus . Camel.
{ Camelus - + + Camel... Lama. . Peruvian Camel,
Mofchus. . + Chevrotin, or
two; the foot cs | reat hap lacy Cervus. Deer.
Hoofs
asif cleft in two parts Camelo-Pardalis Giraffe.
Antilope.
Capra . « « Goat.
Owsro sie). oncep.
Honma tise) ates
e only; the foot ap-
geek Pi (00 ag Sourrrpa . . Equus . . . Horfe.
PINNATA.—Third Order of Mamma ia.
FAMILIES, GENERA
with the toes united and turned N Ehocas -.y SguiewSeune
backwards for {wimming a Caehea Trichechus . . Mor/e.
concealed inthe tail . . . . . Cryproropa. . Manatus. . . Lamantin.
(Balena . . . Whale.
Balenoptera . Finned Whale.
Narwhalus . . Narqwal.
Anarnacus . . Anarnak.
Catodon . . Cachelot.
Phyfalus . . Phy/falu:.
| Peehws SR Bieter
Pofterior feet
completely obliterated, giving ae
animal the appearance of a fith Ceracea
Delphinus . . Dolphin.
Delphinapterus.
LHyperoodon . Grampus.
CLASS II. AVES.
Orpers,
two, and two anterior toes; tarfus fhort, and the limbs altogether conftru@ed for S
climbing. hy CANSORIZ,
Numberof pof- entirely free; bill and claws ftrong and fharp ; legs very mufcular, ) _
terior toes and fitted for grafping. : ante : } 7, AcciprTRinze
one, or none;
the antenar entirely by broad membranes; legs fhort, and ess fs Annee
backwards, and adapted for fwimming.
moderately lon
f and ftrong.
all at their bafe; tarfus 4 long; leg very
ftrong, and ie be, Cursoriz.
ted for running
very long, and cal-
culated for hs GRALLATORIZ,
the two external; tarfus wading
moderately long,
| and flender }3 . PAsserinx.
: 8 ha. Gatuinacez.
united
partially,
CURSORIZE.—Firft Order of Birps.
FAMILIES. Genera.
two . . Dinacryne .. . Struthio . . . Oftrich.
Rhea . . . - Tougou.
Number of anterior toes {
Caffluarius. . . Cafouary,
three . . Tripacryrm.
GAL-
CLASSIFICATION.
GALLINACEE.—Second Order of Birns.
FAmILieEs.
(ftraight, foft, and de-
{cending towards ths heouvaame
extremity
fitted for flight ;
bill
hard, horny, and fharp,
with the fuperior >ALECTRIDES
maudibule arched
es
The wings
very fhort; unfit for flying, body YOY. BeacuyereRs Didus
heavy
GENERA. Svus-ceNrua.
Columba . Pigeon.
Tetrao . Grous.
rTetrao .. .Grous’. « € Perdrix . . Partridge.
j Coturnix Quail.
Pavo. . . Peacock.
1, DM a
| Phafianus . Pheafant Rpeneaus Dae Gh
< : Sines * ‘1 Gallus . Cock.
Numida. Pintads.
Meleagris . Turkey.
Crax); - Curaffow.
Penelope . Guans.
Otus . . Buflard.
. Dodo.
PASSERINE —Third Order of Bis.as.
FAMILIES. GENERA. Sun-GeNneERA.
“Lanius . Shrike, (Tyrannus . . Tyrant Flycatcher.
Mufcicapa . Flycatcher. Mufeivora . Moucherolle.
£ Renan ive art eunditvomaite une Lop: Mafcicapa . Common Flycatchers
= BE ;
ia | Ampelis Cotinga or Chatterer.
ao) Tanagra Tanager.
Celle Wee . : Phytotoma . Plant-clipper.
“ ce seet DENTIROSTRES { Mowers - Moimot.
ee Bae Buceros . Hornill.
(ftraight, | Gracula . . Grakle.
elongats Corvus) «3 tyocw.
ed.com- ( PLENIROSTRES | Coracias . . Roller.
prefled Paradifea .. Bird of Paradi/e.
Gacicusit.) Cacique.
aN (frong fOriclus . « Cafcique or Oriole. { Tacr .. . LroopeOriole.
= and 4 Xanthornus . Carouze or Bonaaa
folid | Bird.
’ Sturnus . . Stare.
flightly | ( Loxia Grofsbeak.
| curved, € Go aos - | Cruci-roftra . Cro/sbill.
imere ce n(er an ae ‘Loxia. Grofsbeak. < Chloris . . Greenfinch.
| Leonie \ Pyrrhula Bullfinch.
Colius Coy.
zZ Fringilla ._. Sparrow.
= a a i,
S Fringilla . . Sparrow. eet Buea
| cS Emberiza . . Bunting. ‘UVidua . . Widow Bird.
Me Parus . . Titmoufe.
(fender, ) ont Pipra . . Manatin. (Silvia . . Warbler.
round (oT eesE ean) Alaoda.. «Lark. | Erithacus . Redbreaj.
bitoracil .. Wagtail. . . Ficedula . . Fig-cater.
és fz 3 Regulus . . Wren.
0 | LMotacilla . . Wagtail.
5 : Hirundo . Swallow.
a ot \ Hirundo . Swallow. . ; nes
| ‘S | PLANIROSTRES Caprimulgus. Gaatfucker. Apus . Martin.
2 4 f Sitta Nuthatch.
cs Certhia . . . Creeper.
1 : ; Trochylus . Humming Bird.
very, lone ' Trochylus . Humming Bird. «+ 4 Qythoxincus. Straight-billed PET ee
a 1 Texvinostars ming Bird.
and flenden Upupa . . . Hoopoe.
Merops, . Bee-cater.
Alcedo . King Fifhers
(Todus . . Todys SCANSORIA,
Bill
Biil
Number of the
CLASSIFICATION.
SCANSORIZ.—Fourth Order of Bizns.
FaMILizs. GENERA. Sus-crenerad
Galbula . Facamar.
narrow at the bafe, not denticulated CunuirosTREs oe pf al
Cuculus Cuckoo.
Crotophaga dni.
Turacus . Youraco.
Mufophaga
large at the bafe, or denticulated Levirostres Trogon Curucui.
Bucco . . Barbet.
Ramphaftos Toucan. - ae Scie
Pfittacus . Parrot . tae Silas
; ra. « « WWaccaw,
Pfittacula . . Parraket.
GRALLATORIZ.—Fifth Order of Birps.
FAMILIES. GENERA, SuB-GENERA.
f Hians Open-bill.
| Ardea * « eran.
JNO Gs . Heron . < Ciconia . Stork
ftrong, and like a knife Corrnsnosrass] Myla. | - Fabiru. Grus_ . ‘rane.
Tantalus Lis. Scopus - Umbre.
; eae Larrrosrres . . Platalea « . Spoonbill.
ote Recurviroftra . . <Avofet.
Charadrius. Plover. Tringa . . - Lapwing.
q Tringa . Lapwing . . { Toran » + Gambet.
eaoer audit Ae We Meee elec cei Phalarope. \Calidris . . Sandpiper.
Salone Woodcock Scolopax . . Woodcocke
P “* QNumenius . . Curlew.
Haematopus Oyfter-catcher.
. Rallus ail,
middle-fized and comprefled PaessirostreEs Fuli an Fulica . « Coot.
ee eee ere ite Gallinula . Water-hen.
(Parra eis Jacana.
Pfophia Trumpeter.
(horbemanehs Palamedea . Screamer.
Uikartandithick Brevirestres Cancroma Boat-bill.
Phenicopterus Flamingo.
ANSERINA.—Sixth Order of Binns.
FAMILIES: GEnepa. SuB-GRNERA?
Pelecanus. . Pelican.
Pelecanus Pelican... .) Phelacrocorax Cormorant,
four, or the pofterior toe concealed in Phaeton . Tropic-bird. ) Fregata. . Frigate.
2 the fame membrane with the others } Pinmireves Sula . - Booby.
“ Plotus. . Darter.
8 Anas. Duck.
5 ferrated . e + « « SERRIROSTRES Mergus . Merganfer.
= [ Sterna . Tern.
three: bill : Larus. Gull.
ae ; very long Lowncirennes ¢ Rhynchops Skimmer.
not denticu- Procellaria Petrel.
lated ; Diomedea dlbatro/s.
wanes Colymbus . Grebe.
Colymbus Grebe. . Under icc
very fhort Uria . ~ Guillemot.
aioe Banvirannes Al calc), formate atone { aie - « Puffin.
Pinguin . Penguin.
Aptenodyta Manchot.
I ACCI,
CLASSIFICATION.
ACCIPITRIN.Z.—Seventh Order of Birns.
FaMILigs. Genera. SuB Genera.
Vultur . . Vulture.
it} J Tah
rithe DICOLLES Vultur. . URE: 0: ie
without feathers Nu ICOLLE Vulture te epee Sarcoramphus.
lateral; head
nan Gypaetos . Griffon.
eee Aquila. . Eagle.
es a | Nifus . . Sbarrow-hawk.
Milvus . . Kite.
Faleo. . ._ Falcon.
LSecretarius Secretary.
Otus . ~ Hibou or Horned Cw!
Gali 4
Lwith feathers Prumicotres Falco. . Falcon. . "hie . . Buzzard.
The eyes
“~
in the front of the head ; head
large, fly wjthout noife Nyererosiz Strix .
L feek their food by night
Strix . . Common Owl.
Surnia. . Surnia.
CLASS Hl REPTILIA.
Oxrvders.
NASD aciclec’stawa of horn; without teeth ; a back fhell 1. CHELonaaA.
Gy NS ee tie ea with teeth); molback hell peo el can, 2s ‘SauRta.
SAG ith eee hod without feet ; often covered with f{cales 3- Opurpra.
Ne alban d Y (naked with two or four feet . . 2... 4. Barracuia.
CHELONIA:—Firft Order of Reprixes.
Famities. GENERa.
INUARINAG oes Chelonia . . . Turtle.
palmated*. . Gc Emys
RCAMMUUA ve ae =
The Feet L Chelus . . .) . . Matamata.
with claws . .»« ‘TERRESTRIA . + Teftudo . .°., Tortoife.
SAURIA.—Second Order of Rerrizes,
FAMILIES. GENERA.
(Crocodilus . . Crocodite.
Dracena.
Tupenamlus.
Ureplatus.
Lophyaus.
' Balilifeus . . Bafilife.
Tail mot commonly , Iguana... Quana.
very long, y Draco . . . Dragon.
= | Agama.
Jew . « Chameleon.
flattened fuperiorly,or,wpon the fide PuranicaupaTa
Gecko.
Stellio.
Analis.
Isacerta . . . dzand.
Scincus.
Ahalcides.
LSeps.
Vor. VIII. 3A OPHIDIA.
;
1
eae FOULG «ey VTL oe LERETICAUDARA
CLASSIFICATION,
OPHIDIA.—Third Order of Reprires. *
FamMicigs. Genera,
Cecilia.
Amphifbena.
the } Homopeamara - < Acrochordus.
Ophifaurus.
Anguis . . Snake.
king Nees 5 Water-ferpent,
naked, or equally covered with {cales under the
belly and thetalle 2% ss) = ak le
Platurus.
Crotalus.
- Scytale.
with feales above; plates under the belly and} FereropeaMara é Vices Viner
inte (a9 Te Gane: | Ee ea iG : Golubeet aes
Bea.
Erpeton.
Erix,
BATRACHIA.—Fourth Order of Rerrites,
concealed .
without ee
form of the aa | g
between that of a
ferpent and a fifh
eae gill covers, and
FaMILIEs. ; GENERA.
Pipa
fhort and thick, without tail; anterior feet fhort; both’ Axoura gh Bufo Tone: delw 2oad:
lungs and gills in the young ftate Rana. . . Frog.
Hyla . . . Tree Frog. |
: Triton.
Body elongated ; with a tail; feet in the young ftate Derovura . Saaeeaes
equal in length; both lungs eS Broreaceae
and gills during life AMPHIBIA . Giese
CLASS .IV.... PISCES.
SuB-CLASSES, Orvers.
ie membrane ; rages Tevaumaie
f with rancibe gills being complete pre
j ginous }carriLaciner. with gill covers, and i without membrane ;
Ree gill covers beng bs. “ELEUTHEROPOMATI,
Gills Ls Be
with membrane; refpir- t Be a :
Pe eee eee q ing through a fiflure § “* ~H1SMOPNES.
= RIE ORS EB COremeatan ery a ttiout membrane; re- T
= fpiring through hore b a5 - REMATCH ?
a) ieee membrane ; the
| a | Sonning all thar ( &: Houonmanguiary,
with gill covers, and pattajar de \ nh
without membrane;
| with offeous : L plicated breaft iho, STERNOPTYGES,
i fkeleton rarer Gills with membrane; gills
t | ; 8 hy. . CRYPTOBRANCHIATI.
{ 3. OPHICHTHOIDES,
TREMA,
GLASSIFICATION.
__ TREMATOPNES.—Firh Order of Fisnes.
Famicicesg, GeENeERa,
g fone; mouth round and at the end of the fnout Cxycrosromati . Petromyzon Lamprey.
E , _Gattrobranchus My xine.
= Torpedo . . Torpedo,
£ | IRENE Vs Mh Ray.
2 :
iF Wee ic +4 Rhinobatus.
> Lvery diftin&® ; mouth wide and tranfverfe . . . Praciostomary d Squatinus . Angel.
| Squalus. Shard.
Acdon.
CHISMOPNES.—Second Order of Fisnss.
GENERA.
theswullet } Batrachus . L'rog-fifb.
ron ne Be ope.
The pofterior pair of fins under } e Lophius Angler
the pectoral fins . . - + + Baliftes . File-fifh.
on the belly, behind the pectoral - + + Clumera . Sea monffer.
ELEUTHEROPOMATI.—Third Order of Fisnes,
GENERA,
: . without cirrhi . . Peoafus . . . . Pegafus.
; t bonis 5 S
Body oat bya mailed covering ; mouth { with cirrhi . , .° Acipenfer ~. .-. Sturgeon.
naked and unproteéted ; fnout as long as the body... 1. ‘Spatularia- . 7 03 Spatula-/i/b.
LTELEOBRANCHTATI.—Fourth Order of Fisurs.
FAmILies. y GENeray
} Apnyosromart Macrorhyncus. . Macrorhyncus.
ti Gentrifcus: 2 here Bellows-fifh,
Cyclopterus. . . Sucker.
, { Lepidogatterus . Lepidogaflerus,
under the peAoral; mouth
{ elongated like a fucker
) bebind the peétoral-ven-
l tral fins veined
(diflin&
} PLEcopreri
7 : ‘ Oftracion: {sya een Trunk ifh
Pofterior pair of fins 4 re - . . Letraodon.
y ‘ ; } Diodonys 2 gs ‘ Porcupine-fifh,
| wanting; fin covered with a coat at Osrropermat . < Spheroides. . Spherbides:
L armour or with offeous grains Greidesuec en Gatien
| Cephalus.. . . Sunzfifd.
(Sygnathus. . . Pipe-jifh.
HOLOBRANCHIATI.—Fifth Order of Fisues.
SuB-orpers.
bes yoy, | PAAPODESS
the gullet . . 2. Jucuzares.
Ldifting, under {ihe pectoral fins 3. THoractcr.
the belly . . 4. Appominaces.
poring caet tC
The inferior or ventral pair of fins <
APODES,
&>
>
bn
CLASSIFICATION.
APODES,—Firft Sub-order of Osszous Frsurs with perfec branchia.
FAaMILIEs. GENERA.
( Cecilia - Blind Eel,
Monopterus.
Leptecephalus . Morris.
‘ A Aftroblepus . . Ajrebleps.
. } Gymnotus . . Gymnote.
all exit : 5 : y Perorrert Toichiurus as Trichiure
‘Trichomyéterus.
Notoplerus.
Se
The other fins befides the ventral J i eet ae sue
Ammodytes . Land Eel. ~
Ophidium.
Xiphias . .
,{ Anarhichas .
Pantorrert < Comephorus.
Stromateus.
Rhombus.
Triurus
Odontognathus.
altogether, or partly wanting
« Sword Fife
. Wolf Fifo.
Triple Tail,
(Macrognathus.
“JUGULARES.—Second Sub-order of Osseous Fisnes with perfect branchiz.
Gene
(upon the neck; head thicker th.n the body —_ Callionymus
( Calliomorus.
Murenoides.
Uranotcopus .
} ‘Txachinus
Gadus . .
Batrachoides.
! Blennius .
Ohgonodus.
§ Kurtus
CChryfoftromus.
(elongated; apertures of the gills
Uateral . - ; c 2
Eody
uot compreffed . : .
THORACICI—Third {Sub-order of Osseous Fisnes with perfec branchie.
FAMILSES.
Chztodon
Acanthinion .
Chetodipterus
Pomacentrus
Pomadafys .
Pomacanthus
Holacanthus
Enoplefus
Glyphifodon
\ Acanthurus
Adfpifurns
Acanthapodus
Selene
i Argyreiofus
more high than Iong ; eyes g)
| ie ke uae Gallus
fron each fite Leprosomarts
Zeus .
- Chryfoitefus
| Capres
< § Pleureneétes
VAcherus.
“Lepidopus.
Cepola . .
| ‘Teniodes.
+ Boftrichus.
| Boftrichoides.
LGymnetrus.
Body very thin
on one fide HetrrosoMati
'
long, and in the form of a plate or band Perarosomatr
. Stargazer.
yeaen
- Dragenet,
- Cod.
« Blenny.
. Hunchback.
Genrra.
. Chatodon.
- Acanthinion.
+ Chetadiptei nse
. Pomacenirus.
« Poniadafys
. Pomacanthis.
- Holacanthus,
. Lnoplefus.
5 Glyph fodon,
4 ;
+ “tcantpurus.
- Afpifurus.
. Acanthapodus
¢
. Selene.
- Agyrciofus.
- Gallus.
« Dory.
- Chr xfoftefiise
. Caprés.
. Flounder.
« Band Fife.
THORACICr
CLASSIFICATION,
THORACICL—Third Sub-order of Ossrous Fisuns with perfec branchia (continued).
Lutjanus . . Lutjan.
Centrepomus . Centropomi.
Bodianus .. . Bodian.
Sciena,
Micropterus.
| Holocentrus-
kPerca . . . Persh.
[sia
fpinous o n=
ppulouscndes § AcaxrHoromart
ticulated
Ofphrenemus,
Trichopodus.
Monodaétylus.
Plectorhinchus.
| Pegonias.
Labrus.
Cheilinus.
Cheilodipterus.
Ophicephalus.
Helegymnofus.
Sparus . . . Spare.
Diplercdon.
without{pinesor
. L denticulation ¢ Lesorowars a
fimple
Miatula.
Coris.
flips flethy; gill covers Gomphefus.
|
| Cheilio.
[head < (Mollus . 0.0. Surmullei.
Scarus . . . Stare
jaws, projeCting and offeous . . . . . OsTEosromarTi $Eeienatie
Oftorhinchus,
Gobiefox.
Afpidophorus.
- . <& Atpidophoroides,
a | cots - » - Bull-Lead
remarkable } corpena.
from hav- } Coryphena .. Dorada
ing the | Hemipteronotus.
Coryphencides.
Tenianotus,
} Centr: lophus.
fEques.
Dactylopterus,
{pectoral fins with fomefeparate rays-or digittal procefles . Dacryrorz .. ae We iGiae
Periitedion.
(Scomber . . Mackarel.
Scomberoides.
Caranx.
Trachinotus.
Caranxomorus.
Cefio.
Czfiomorus.
+ + « ATRACTOSOMATE < Scomberomorus.
Gafterofteus . . Stickle back.
Centropodus,
Centronotus.
Lepifacanthus.
(round < Cephalacanthus,
ee nis Jef ec (ei (ads othe this, HOEPHACOTE
dorfalfinverylong . . . . os 2 e ¢ « © © Lopuionotr, I5
Bedy thick
a nr
(fuliform or thicket in the middle = | 6 gid =
Ifleophorus.
Nomatomus.
Gobius . . . Goty,
Gobioides.
Gobiomorus.
diftingt or free , ELrruTuEroropi } Gabi
Echeneis . . Remora.
anited . . . Pxrecoropi . e
(Ucylindrics; pe&toralfins . . . . «
ABDOMINALES,
©
CLASSIFICATION.
ABDOMINALES,—Fourth Sub-order of Osstovs Fisnes with perfett branchie.
Famities.. GENERA.
Fifularia
fat the extremity ofalongfnout . . SIPHONOSTOMATI { Aolsn
So'enoftomus,
Anableps. \
(eylindrics mouth . - Cobitis - » Leche,
Mifgurnus,
Fondulus.
not prolonged; lips not extended . . CrcinprosomaTr < Colubrina.
Amia.
Butyrinus.
| ! ripteronotus,
(Ompok.
‘Silurus .. .. . Siure
Macropteronatus,
Malapterurus.
Pimelodus. {
Doras. S
3 | Pogonathus,
the firlt only, or the. firit ray of the dorfal | Cataphractus.
fin, ftiff, fharp, and often denticulated a‘ Orroruornr . . . < Plotofus.
oe Sak F Macroramphofus,
free, diftinc&t
and ufed asa weapon Ageneiotus.
Centranodon.
Loricarta.
Hypeftomus.
Corydoras.
‘Lachyfurus.
Chalodaétylus.
many, flexible; the pectoral fins appearing
to be of two parts
i DIMEREDES Re
; * *)* )Polynemus . . Polyneme,
Polydaétylus. ,
Mugil .. . Mullet.
Mugiloides,
« ~ Chanos.
Mugilomorus.
Exocetus . . Flying Fifb.
(Argentina.
| Hydrargyra.
rays of the
pectoral fin
Atherina.
Stolephorus.
Buro.
(dorfal fins with Clupea . . . Herring.
unked; the
opercule
conic, or com- covered - with fcales ; mouth without 2? Teeersoraren
preffed; the teeth 5
Salmo. . . . Salmon
Ofimerus.
Corregonus.
Characinus.
Serrafalmus.
Elops . . « Scin Fifh,
Megalops. =
EfOK. | "4... cue eee
2 Synodaus ‘
ee
Lepifofteus.
Polypterus.
LScombrefox.
not remarka- | one of thedorfal
ble ' fins witha DERMOPTERI 4
fmooth ; offeous rays
the jaws
offeous,rays t GyYMNOPOMATI . Myftus.
Clupanodon. @
Gattero, elecus. «
Menet aca.) s
Dorfuarius.
4 Xyfter.
Cyprinus. . Carp,
Fl dae + »« «+ e SIAGONOTI. '. |
STERNOPTYGES.—Sixth Order of Frsues.
GENus. ‘
Contains only.) ee os) ee) Sternoptyx Pe RES
CRYPTOBRANCHIATI.—Seventh Order of Fisues.
GENERA,
diftin&; uponthe abdomen . . Mormyrus . . Mormyrus.
oo Cente ¢ . + + « + . « Stylophorus. . Stylophorus.
6 OPHICH)
VOLASSIFICA TION,
OPHICHTHOIDES.—Eighth Order of Fisues.
very plain
lateral ; the fingle fins { very apparent
entirely wanting
Aperture of the etn
under the gullet, being: af
CLASS'V.
double orifice
fingle orifice .
“INSECTA.
{none ;
Wings
covered storie ¥.
breathe by lamine or gills a a calcareous cruft; the fhape of the body
breathe by fpiracles and air tubes, or cells; ff.
Eabdoment'; -hisen |. sets
( with jaws ;
| without jaws; forming {
(two; neverihaye jaws .slgnehl |...
ufually witha horny fubftance, which has the
formyof {hells 3... 4.
diftm&, and larger
ee els than the thorax
venous.
aroftrum, not ceiled . .
atongue, ceiled . .
° . . . . . . . . .
i
CRUSTACEA.—Firft Order of Insects.
{ broad than long
fhort; corcelet more ¢
‘ FaMiLlEs.
CARCINOIDEA.
indiftin ; numerous feet aoe
{
of two kinds; the inferior folded { aaa
four ; mouth d ee one kind; the nervules fotiotases
.
NO sr
united to the corce-
long than broad
Genera.
Murenophis.
Gymnomurena,
Murenollenna.
Sphagebranchus.
Synbranchus.
Orvers.
t. CrRusTACcEA.
2. TESTACEA.
. Porypopa.
Hexapopa.
Ocropropa.
. CoLEOPTERA.
II. OrnTHOPTERA,
10. Nevroprera,
. HyMeNoPTERA,
. Hemiprera.
. LEPIDOPTERA.
Dirrera.
fix feet
eight feet
~
bor b
GENERA.
Calappa.
Hepatus.
Dromia.
Cancer.
Matuta.
Portunus.
Podopthalmus.
Oecypodi.
Porcellana,
Grapfus.
Pinnotheres,
f Ranina.
| Ovithyjia.
* Leucefia.
let; the tail
OxyrincaIA . «+ < Dorippe.
Maja.
Head
long in proportion to the
diftin@ and eonneéted to the corcelet by articulation <° .
body . . . Macrovra .
ARTHROCEPHALA
( Pagurus . Hermit.
Albunza.
Hippa.
Scyllarus.
Palinurus.
Galathea.
Aftacus
Penneus.
Palemon.
Crangon .
7
ie
e
|
- Crawfish.
» Shrimps
Squilla.
Plecanima.
Thalitrus.
Gammarus.
TESTACEA,.
CLASSIFICATION.
TEST ACEA.—Second Order of Insects.
FaMIcits. Genera,
Limulus.
Calygus.
Binoculus.
Ozelus.
fin form of abuckler . . AspripioTa
J
fa hell
{ compofed of two valves Ostracopa Depese
reas
Cyclops.
Polyphemus,
| Zoe.
{ Branchiopes.
f
The body covered fs
|
Lape
I.
an integument the fhape of the animal Gymyota
OCTOPODA.—Third' Order of Insects.
FamMuiss, GENERA.
fAranea. . . Spider.
Mygale. . . Mygale.
Scorpio. . . Scorpion.
3 Phrynus . . Pbrynus.
Metra Cone mee S Chelifer.
} Galiodes . . Gatleodes.
Jlead | Phalangium . Shepherd.
LHydracna . . Water fpider.
s\ Sucrasra s 2 » Acarusica =e peters
not diftinguifhable ; without antenne,
h \ ARANEIFORMIA
aving jaws
diftin& and fmall; pediform palpi;
no jaws; the mouth a fucker
POLY PODA.—Fourth Order of Insecrs.
FAMiLigs. Gunna.
f Scutigera.
Scolopendra . . Centipede.
too numerous to be eafily counted; body
Polyxenus.
much elongated } Loxcrronmra J eis oo 5) ig) pistes
| Polydefmus.
Glomeris.
{ Phyfodes.
fourteen ; ufually feveral pair of jaws, and ) J Onifcus.
four antenng; body ofanovaifigure JS Ovirormia. . cena
Feet
HEXAOPODA.
OQLASSTHEGA TION.
HEXAOPODA.—Fifth Order of Insects.
FAMILIES. Genera,
dl Lares 5 far AG here Pediculus Louf.
adhere to other anima a apaRaucinusic Bird Loufe.
not changed in form Podura . . Spring tail.
; é il furnifhed with fete : .
Animal in the youn eae ‘ SETICAUDATA. { Lit « Lepifma.
fate bast Lor brililes 5 an eS
(metamorphofed ; extraordinary powers of leaping Transrormia.. Pulex . . Flea,
DIPTERA.—Sisth Order of Insects.
FaMILIz£s. Genera,
Empis.
Bombilius.
Myopa.
Conops.
ah es Stomoxis.
Pears projecting from the head, long, and often Screnosromarad Aflus= co Oo Spree Fy.
ent Culex: 00s) 4, (Guan
Hippobofea . Horfe Fly.
Chingia.
Chry fopfis.
Tabanus . . Great Hlorfe Fly.
Stratyomis . . Armed Flys
Ceria.
Nemotelus,
Anthrax,
Bibio.
; Rhagio.
Sicus.
Hypoleon.
Cyrtus,
Syrphus.
Dolichopus.
Ceyx.
Tetanocerus.
Cerechetus.
Cofmius.
Thereva.
Echinomya.
(diktin@ Sargus.
Mulio.
Mufca.
| Senogater.
Diopfis?
Mipulay eta Crane Fly,
projecting in ne Ceratoplatus.
flat probofcis >Hypromia . . < Scatopfus.
L with palpi jj Pfychodes,
Hirtea.
—_
A fucker
and terminated | Sancosromars <
4
(flethy, retractile,
by two lips
concealed or want- A
Ling mouth 4
replaced by three points. . Astomata . . , Oeftrus . . . Gad Fly.
Vor, VILE, , 3B HEMIPTERA.
Elytra, or fuperior wings,
femi-coriaceous, crefled, and |
CLASSIFICATION.
HEMIPTERA.—Seventh Order of Insects.
(broad ; roftrum arifing from the an-
terior part of the head }
oe narrow ; tarfi ending in veficles
(roftrum appearing i
j rife from the neck
4 fimilar to the inferior wings, and not
crefled
|
a plain and extended
hard and coriaceous; antennz fhort ; and pofterior feet fitted ra
{wimming
FAMILIES. GENERA.
Pentatoma.
Scutellera.
Podicerus.
Houfe Bug, and
Some others.
i Cimex . . Bug.
FronTirosTRiA 4 Coreus.
Lygzus.
Gerris.
Hydrometra.
Reduvius.
Miris.
Ploiera,
Acanthia
Puysaropa . .. Thrips.
( Fulgora . . Fire Fly.
Small Grafs-
Tettigonia bopper.
Membracis.
CoLuirgOSsTRIA Flata.
Cicadella.
Premecopfis.
Cercopes. i
Delphax.
f Aphis .
. Plant Loujfe.
| Aleirodes.
Pranipennia . 2 Chermes . Gall Infed.
Coccus . . CochinealInfea.
Pfylla.
Ranatra . . Frog-hopper-
Nepa .« . Water-Scorpion,
Naucoris.
Sigara.
Notoneéta . Boat Fly.
REMITARSEA .
‘
HYMENOPTERA. -
Abdomen
feffile; a terebra projeGing from theanus of thefemales . . . - = >
CLASSI EGA TION,
‘ HYMENOPTERA.—Eighth Order of Inszors.
FaMILiéts
longer than the mandibules; abdomen on a fhort footitalk . , AprroRMIA -
c
peduncu- |
lated; the
f concave infertorly ; body metallic colour. . - Curysipa
, SERRICAUDATA » 35
Giner
Urocerus Taile id Wasp
Tenthredo Saw L/y
Oryflus.
Strex.
| Cymhex.
f Apis 40a
| Eucera.
} Nomada,
Andrena.
Hyleus.
| Bembex.
Chryfis . ;
re
es
Bee.
Golden Fly, 0:
Gilded a/p.
inferior 5
lip 5 ; Velps Wraps
face Dane be f Veipa . 5 Maj).
| g ( folded, antenne diffragted . oh fie ute as PENNIPLICATA . + Malar
a5) d . fe rylus,
5: not con- ( diffraGed or fililorm ; abdomen round . MyrmMecea . ~ Formica. . nf.
| £ cave; fu- | g Mutiilla.
. S Dri
& Lacie 4 5 round, conic ; \ { Bae abe
- L 8 = lve upon ANTHOPHILA . pai
« ; Agee. j Crates
o j c thirteen OWwers Mulinus.
D at moftt; I
= ; ) > ( Leucoptis.
|S | neither dif- | abdomen \ ae a | Chalcis.
lo fraCted nor | larged, larvee Divlolepis.
(he filiform; concealed in > NEoTTOCRYPTA. Bea
; ; apriae
| number of pep etaulees Cynips. » Gall Ply.
crefcences ee 4)
{ jornts 4 { Eulephas,
| vania.
17 to 30; de- iy Ichneumon Jchneumon.
‘fhroy other PEnromoriuta . Fenus.
! infeéts Ophion.
more than | cae
L thirteen, Weanee
4 to 173 pura Sphex . . Savage, or So-
row in the OxycreRa litary Wafp.
earth J Viphia.
Pompilus.
LEPIDOPTERA.—Ninth Order of Insects.
FAMILIES. GENERA.
A4 Papilio . Butterfly.
(at the extremity . . -. Bacuricornia < Hefperia.
\ Heteropterus.
(enlarged . oy Sphiox. Hawk Moth,
| in the middle like a fpindle * Fustcornia . . { Sti,
| Ly gen.
{ Bombix.
Antenne 4 filiform, often peGtinated Firrcornia . . < Coffus.
| \ He cpialus.
Lithofia.
(ee enlarged Crambus.
Noétua.
“ alana . Moth
| rceceenar eis) ca ORTICORNIA a ais ae
Tinea.
Allucita.
| Pterophorus.
3Bz NEU-
CLASSIFICATION:
NEUROPTERA.—Tenth Order of Insects.
FaMICcies.
Libellula .
covered by the inferior lip; wings extended } Govan ee { Beta
invrepole, .-) 7.4 size Agrion.
very viltble ( Perla.
Termes . Ticking Inft@.
Hemerobius Golder-eye.
projecting ; ; wings Sane the pods isa Secporrene | Senne
the infest reits S Myrmeleon Lion-ant.
The mouth Afcalaphus.
Panorpa Scorpion fy.
Raphidia.
| { Piocus.
Lhardly to be diftinguifhed ; no mandibles AGNATHA at Hee : rea 5
ORTHOPTERA.—Eleventh Order of Insects.
Fam Ligs. GENERA.
f Locufta . Locuft.
Acheta . Cricket.
Achrydium.
extremely long and ftrong, for leaping : GrvyiiirormiA ¢Gryllus. . Grafshopper.
Truxalis.
2, Trida@ylus.
2 UGryllo-talpa Mole-cricket.-
5 ad =
35 Mantis . Soothfayer.
= { five ; longer than broad Derormia. . { Piston Walking-leaf.
* | proportionate to the | corel} Phafma . SpeGre.
others; number of the ar- 4 broad, coveringthehead Buarta . . . Blatta . > Cockroach.
ticulations of the tarfus | three; abdomen terminated by Ranvier Forbouls orwies
L forceps
COLEOPTERA.—Twelfth Order of Insects.
GENERA.
. Dragonfly
Sus-orDERs.
Number of joints or pieces five to all the feet - = Ques ae
2. IVERSITARSEA.
in the pofterior tarfi four; the anterior or with {
lefs than five ; four 3. QUADRITARSEA,
three, and the fame to all the other feet 4. TRITARSEA.
QUINQUE-
.
CLASSIFICATION,
QUINQUETARSEA —Firft Sub-order of CoLrorrerous Insects.
FaMILiEs. GENERA.
(/Staphylinus .
Pederus.
Oxyporus.
Stenus,
“Anthia.
Cychrus,
Tachypus.
Carabus. +
Calofoma.
Brachinus.
Cicinde’a.
Colliurus.
Manticora.
Drypta.
Elaphrus.
Bembidion.
Olivina.
Scarites.
very fhort, not covering the belly; antenne moniliform . . . . . . . « . BREVIPENNIA. .
tae
(fimple ; prey upon
other animals in }CarNivora . .
the larva ftate
not denticulated ; v
tarfi
Omophron.
Dytiicus. .
Hyphydius.
Haliplus.
Gyrinus.
Atopa.
Celrio,
Elater.
Threfcus.
Bupreitis.
Trachys.
Anobium.
Ptelinus,
(fiat; the
antenna Q yfordeyimming . »« REMIPEDIA
t
fetaceous or fili- f :
form; body denticulated; corcelet or fternum pointed STERNOXxIA .'.
3 (round and elongated; their larv deftroy wood . . TeRepitia .
frm a eee RET
t
on
oer
Melafis.
‘Tillus.
Lymexylon,
Lucanus
long, cover-
ing the belly;
(antenne
at one fide,or ferrated SERRICORNIA .
Paffalus.
} Geotrupes.
Copris
Aphodius.
Jaminatediiesn \s) sre) paps
at the extremity . . Lametticornia
+ —___. Cntes
Wing fheaths
Cetonia.
club-fhaped . Crue
( Hitter.
round and folid . . . SOLIDICORNIA . . < Lethrus.
[ (Anthrenus.
Nicrophorus
‘
1
not Jamimated . .°. Sena
Nitidula.
| Elophorus.
'
Ulong, perfoliate . . . Cravicornia. Gaueridida!
Scaphidium.
Peltis.
Parnus.
Dermeftis.
Byrrhus.
Drillus.
Lycus.
Omalyfus.
foft; corcelet flat; antennz fillform, variable . - - . . . ss. , «« » » Moripennia.. Melyris.
Lampyris.
Malachius.
Telephorus,
Nothiophilus.
Ptinus. .
Synodendron.
Scarabeus ..
Melolontha .
Hydrophilus .
Elk Beet!
e.
Dung Bez
. Rove Bectle «
- Stag Beetle.
Platycerus . .
tle, :
Bull-comber.
May Beetle.
Interrer ’
. Hairy Beeile.
or Corh/i .
Carrier,
. Prote Or.
Diver.
DIVERSI-
CLASSIFICATION.
DIVERSITARSEA.—Second Sub-order of CoreoPTenovs INSECTS.
FAMILIES. GENERA.
afytes.
Sagria.
Anthicus.
Notoxus.
Meloe. .
Lytta . . . Blifering Fly.
Cerocoma.
Mylabris. *
, Apalus.
{Zenits.
{oft, flexible; antennz very variable; many blifter the fkin » « » WESIGATORIA -«
~Sitaris.
Oedemera.
narrow ANGUSTIPENNIA Neg
salar US i Ripiphorus.
Mordella.
| Anafpis.
\
Wing sheaths
filiform, often denticulated; wing
fheaths fees
Sinopzlpus.
pee inhabit woods . ORNEPHILA. .« eles
Pyrochroa.
(Hera.
Upis.
: ees
[elongated si avn thee LyGorHiLra . - june
light 5 4 Pedinus.
not confolidated ; Sanotrium.
antenne ending
inaclub
(hard antenne
(Boletopagus.
| Hypophizus.
rounded ; many live on Fu ! pees bas
fungi t UNGIVORA . - < Agathidium.
Diaperis.
Cnodulon.
Tetratoma.
moniliform; fu-
perior wings
Lor elytra <
Blaps.
Pimelia. >
Eurychora,
. Aus.
fo clofely applied to each other as to feem 5
b Ae : SoLIpIPENNIA . Scaurus.
ut one; the inferior or true wings di
wanting Lepidium
= Erodius.
Zaphofis
Tagenia
*
QuaDkI”
CLASSIFICATION,
QUADRITARSEA.—Third Sub-order of Corrorrerows INstcTs.
FAMILIES, GENERA,
Curculio . . Weevil. -
Attelabus.
Brentus.
Anthribus.
Brachycerus,
Rhinomacer.
Bruchus.
Oxyfterna.
Ramphus.
(Rhynchenus.
Boftrichus.
Clerus.
(cylindric TereTironmia . < Apate.
borne upon the fnout or prolongation of the front . . . . . ~~ » . Rosrricornia
Scolytus.
Necrobia.
clavatein general; body . .. | - | ~Colydium.
Lyétus.
Trogoffita,
ik Ips.
Mycetophagus,
Cucugus
(_Heterocerus.
eee
flat.) . PranirormMia .
Antenne
Lamia. ‘
Cerambix . Goat Chafer. -
Saperda.
Callidium.
Spondilis.
Rhagium. G
tura . . Wood Beetle. -
not fuftained upon ; ee aad -
L_ the roftrum and } (Melorchus . Garrion Later.
( Donacia.
| Caffida . . Tortoife Bectle.
Chryfomela.
Galeruca.
Altica . . Earth Flea.
Cryptocephalus,
Crioceris
Luperus.
Hifpa . . « Spinous Beetle.
Helodes.
Clythia.
Alurnus.
LErotylus.
i GLOBULICORNIA. . Paufus.
commonly fetaceous; larve liveinwood . . . . . LiGNivora .. <
Xin
filform ; commonly live in focicty upon the leaves of plants HeRBivora .
of two joints, of which the laft is extremely enlarged like
a ball and furnifhed with a hocked procefs
TRITARSEA.— Fourth Sub-order of CoLeopreRous INSECTS.
GENERA.
lave Vvillous, elongated =. . . Dafycerus.
long - me ta ee naked, perfoliate . . . Eumorphus.
nearly filifrm + Eudomychus.
Antenne <
Bee applied he-ving fheaths . . ccinella . . Lady bird,
(ee than the corcelet which is foe eRe MANE Coccinella ady bird
feparate fron. the wing fheaths . Scymuus.
SurpLemEenTARY Tasue fhewing the Orders to which thofe InfeQs belong, which are without wings; but which are
not the true ApTERa.
Orvers.
with elytra; jaws without the gala | CoLIOPTERA.
ray ({efflle . 5 ° {sh or without elytra; jaws ak Ovedornecae
with jaws; abdomen . vered with the galea
4 : pediculatedtarfi with . ‘five articulations : - Hymenoprera.
5 lefs than five articulations s . Nevrorrera.
=) | with a jointed fnout; claws of the turned round A ; 4 . DIPTERA.
{ without jaws tarfi 5 : : e not turned round. : . . Hemiptera.
fpiral tongue. ; : . fcaly body ; : 5 . LepiporTera.
5 CLASS
{truments of
Joccmotion
aero
Sexual organs
inftruments of locomo-
in the fame individual ;
tion
almok univerfally united
c
CLASSIFICATION,
CLASS VI. MOLLUSCA.
10) -
Mat ee ¢ ty 3 : - F ene sae
indiftin& or confounded with the reft of the body . . ACEPHALAs
CEPHALA.—Firkt Order of Mottusca.
(22 ) SuB-ORDeRs d GENERAs SuB-GENERA.
28 Sepia . . Cuttle fi/d.
: S25 | CNAGED RE Mea: Sica ste al Sepia . . Cuitle fifb. ies 7 ‘coe
L3c§ > CepHALOPODA 1 Argonauta . Paper Nautilus. LOGopus . Pulp.
| an 3y TesTACEGIS) ) i 0) tee Nautilus . Pear! Nautilus.
eas Spiru'a-. . Spirule.
ane “Pterotrachea Lirole.
( ee } { NAGED Wick. Sein Soeur J Clio . Cilio.
| , PETEROPODA | Neeseumaderma Pneumoderme.
R22 j \Tesraccous . »- -.+ « Hyalea. . Hyaline.
ans { Scylaa. Doris . . Sea lemon.
Woristace 3) sl eteyice Tritonia.
( Naxen; or the fell concealed Phyllidia. Eolia.
| by the fic fh 4 Thetis.
} | i Limax . . -Slug.
4 Tettacella.
| | joiserctuee
: ; . Ae Aplyfia . . Stinking Sea Snail.
|) eval | | Ce Mu trTivaLves Clgcae Fiffurella.
| 3 | Conical . ConivaLves Patella . . Limpet : Coidula Limpet.
“23 .
| a5 nears an (Halyotis . Sea care Calyptrea.
Dew! 1 Nerita. . . Sea Snail Seas
55-5 = Nautica.
aes a Turbo . . Perriwinkle.
baaan' v Turbo . . Perriwinkle Cyclottoma.
Lg J = Turritella Stairca/e-/bell.
| sell Vermetus. Pyramidella.
+2]
a Drochos Teed, Mgeonas
: 4 Solarium.
| : Bulla . . Dipperfnail. — ¢ Planorbis.
(es ee F : Snail.
Helig:uis «: Snailjbell 4 ~. 4laqe aan
Bulimus.
| Achatina,
Voluta.
; wali Mitra. Mitral volute.
USpiral eu oeeentaaiues 4 ei Colambella.
Voluta,.’.” =a aeaeamsh ss Marginella.
Ancilla.
(Oralee Oliva » « Olive frell.
Cyprza. Cowry or Porcelain Shell.
| Conus . +. Cone. ( Cerithium,
| Terebellum. Pleurotoma.
Fufus.
Murex . + = © Fafciolaria.
Pyrula.
Murex.
Turbinella.
Strombus,
Strombus : { Preoser :
Roftellaria. *
Caffidea . Helmet-/hell.
Harpa. © ;
~itr 7 Buccinum « Whelk.
Buccinum. . Whek « .« Terebrta.
Purpura . Purple fifo.
Naffa.
t ACEPHALA.
CEASSIFICATTYON.:
ACEPHALA.—Second Order of Morxusca.
Sus-orDERs. GENERA.
Afcidia.
[Naxzp . . {Sal
Thalia.
ce Sareea OE aE aac fOltrea « . Oyfler..
1
Lazarus.
Spondylus . Thoray-oyfler.
| Tsstaczous Placure. ie
Anomia.
| Peéten - . Scallop.
f Anodontites.
l Unio.
Lima.
Perna.
Avicula waves kerheve ct Yo
Mytilus. . Mufck.
Pinna.
Tellina.
Cardium . . Cockle .
| |
| |
|
Sexual organs
SUB-GENEK Ay
Oftrea . . Oyfer,
Pedum. uh
Sfrell.
Malleus . Hammer
ee. : Swallow-tail
Sheil.
Mytilus.
Modiolus.
Cardium. . Cockle.
Ifocardia.
2
9 Maétra.
3 { Liar
5
s body, called a We ee
= foot, fometimes | Wenciues
F ufed for crawl- > MonoropA . TFsTACEOUS 1 Wenys . é Cyclas.
g ing, but more | Paphia.
3 commonly for { Capfa.
=| fpinning J Donax. Candies.
s Chamaisiinay cet Ie r { Tiara
g Hippopus.
= Arca.
rae coe eg { Perot.
Nucula.
Solen... . . Razor-fbell . Re ee Razor-facll
: Mya,.. «. . Gaper.
Miyae vie. m, Gapers. { Glycine
Cyrtodaria. :
| Rea OOP HAMEE sues E MPI | | Piddock.
LTeredo . . Pipe-worm . ede + Pipe-wernt.
Terebratula,
two ciliated arms, Terebratula . . . 2. ee
rolledinto nip LBaacuorona. TEsTACEOUS 1 singul
ral form Orbicula.
nerasnnes horny Anatifa., . Barnacle-/ell.
articulated tentacula Cirropopa . TESTACEOUS 4 Palanus.
i; ranged in pairs
CLASS VII. VERMES.
Orpers.
ifible; inhabit the water or the earth .
f vifible;
Blood veflels and nerves not ico ; live in the interior of other animals
Vor. VIII. 3°C
1. Exorerich
2. Esorerict.
EXOTERICI.
Organs of refpiration
CLASSIFICATION.
EXOTERICI,—firf Sub-divifion of Worms. +
Suz-Oxrpers. GENERA
{ Aphrodita e Aphrodite.
Terebella.
Nereis.
| Serpula.
vifible externally . . DenoBRANCHIATI . . é * ¢ Penicillus.
Siliquaria.
Amphitrite.
{ Dentalium . Tooth/hell.
Nais.
[“S Shad the fides a SETEGIRI { Yaninicns . Common Worm.
oc aed Thalaffema.
Hirudo . Leech.
without fete upon He} CG | Fafciola . Fluke.
fides of the body LABRI'+ + 9 Planaria.
{-Gordius - Amminated Hair.
internal or concealed . ENponrRANCHIATI |
ESOTERICI.—Second Sub-divifion of Worms.
Sus-oRDERS, GENERAs
f Echinorincus.
| Afcaris.
| Heruca.
Caryophylleus.
Cucullanus.
Strongylus.
round and elongated; an alimentary tube the fhape of the body . . TERETIFORMES ¢ Uncinaria.
i | Tricocephalus,
rino.
Filaria.
Tentacularia.
Scolea.
Probofcidea.
Tenia.
Fafciola.
Ligula.
Linguatula.
veficular ; the young developed in the interior of the fac. « . Saccirormes . . Hydatis.
Figure
compreffed ; a marginal canal to contain the nutritious uid . . | PLaniFormes
CLASS VIII. ZOOPHYTA.
Orpers.
The parts of which, more e{pecially the internal organ arranged in a
radiated manner
A had of gelatinous fubftance, propagated by fhoots or branches, fo as to
y form compound animals
of various forma, fometimes even in the fame individual; generally in-
vifible to the naked eye; inhabit infufions and ftagnant waters }
}n. ACTINOIDEA.
ha. ComposiITA.
3. Inrusorta.
«
ACTINOIDEA.—Firft Order of ZoopnyrTes.
FAMILIES. GENERA. SuB-GENERA.
Echinus Urihin.
Echinus © Urchin Briffus _ Flower-like
ae Echinus.
with a prickly calcareous or 3 Spatagus Sea egg.
coriaceous integument } Ecuiwopermara Afterias . . Star-fj/h.
| Holothuria . Holothuria.
(Sipynculus . Sipuncule.
AGinia . . Sea Anemone.
Zoanthus . Animal flower.
tranfparent, gelatinous, and } iewavis a hank: ge
L oF faple onganmeign Rhizoftoma . Rhizofome.
3 COMPOSITA,
Body < often refembling in colours
H 5
and form fome flowers }Zoaxr LED
$25 animals ~
CISA S SF Te ATION.
COMPOSITA.—Second Order of Zoopuyres.
Hydra .
FAaMILiEs.
: eee .
( Flofcularia.
PAS a | Tubularia .
f (properly fo called) } Capfularia.
(Sertularia .
Cellularia.
{ Hints aht)s
unprotected ; able'to change from one place to another . Porypina
canine fubflance ; traverfesa horny
axis, and terminates in polypes upon
its branches
reous cells, without being coune@ed
polypes contained in horny or calca-
Escara
|
a
H
|
to a medullary axis Corallina
{ Antipathes
Gorgonia «
| furnifhed with a | a folid axis covered with fenfible {nb- corehum *
| habitation, into {tance, :
* ’
which they can 4 Pinnatula .
retreat; in almoft ¢
every uikaried: in-
capable of loco-
{ motion
containing hollows fom }Cenarorea aA
which the polypes proceed
Veretillum.
Umbellula
Tubipora .
Madrepora
Fungites,
Meancrites,
Altroites,
Porites.
Millepora .
{ Nullipora .
Alcyonium.
Spongia
?
polypes infide in cavities formed ina
YTHOPHYTA ..-
{tony axis or bafis fee e
LThe bafis fpongy, friable, or fibrous Sponcia.
INFUSORIA.—Third Order of Zooruyres.
FAMILIES.
Cercaria
Vorticella .
Himantopus
Brachionus
Trichoda .
Leucophras
Kerona
f furnifhed with different external organs, or members ORGANIFERA
Trichocerchus .
Colpoda
io a Se
Velrox. .
Proteus .
Monas .
¢ Baccillaria
Enchelis .
Body 1
without members . 4 5 5 F INORNATA. .
.
Cyclidium . .
Parmecium
Burfaria .
Gonium
3C3
GENERA.
GENERA.
Brachiaied Pulyp.
Fiower Polyp.
Tubular Coral-
line.
Seca Mofs.
Sea Mat.
Common Coralline.
Black Coral.
Gorgon.
Coral.
Fointed Coral.
feather Coral-
line.
Umbelliferous Co-
ralline.
Pipe Coral.
Madrepore.
Millepore.
Nullipore.
Sponge.
Cercaria.
Wheel Animal,
Urceolares.
Brachionus.
Trichoda.
Leucophra.
Kerona.
Trichocerchus.
Colpoda.
Velrio.
Velrox.
Proteus.
Monad.
Baccillaria,
Enchelis.
Cyclidium.
Parmecium.
B urfar id.
Gonium.
CLAsssrie
CLASSIFICATION,
Cuassipication, in Botany, is that procefs by which
plants are diltributed into claffes, to facilitate the ftudy of
them, and to fix them more firmly in the memory. Many
{chemes have been deviled for this purpofe, which have ge-
nerally obtained the name of methods. The framers of thefe
are diftinguifhed by Linnzus into heterodox and orthodox,
The heterodox are thole who have not founded their methods
on any of the parts of fructification. Of thefe the d/phabctarit
have arranged plants according to the alphabetic order of
their names; the Rhizotomi have taken for their guide the
ftruéture of the roots ; the Phylphili have attended folely
to the form of the leaves; the PhAyfiognomi, to the general
habit of the plant; the Chronici, to its time of flowering ;
the Topophili, to ‘its native place of growth ; the Empirict,
to its real or fuppofed medicinal virtucs ; and the Seplaflarit,
to the fituation which it occupies in pharmacopaias. ‘The
orthodox, in the contruction of their various methods, have
confined themfelves to fome of the parts of frugtifeation.
They have either formed fyftems profeffedly artificial, or
have attempted to make fome approximation to a method
perfeétly natural. Artificial fyitems unavoidably unite
plants ftrikingly different from each other, if they do but
poflefs, in common, that fingle character which has been fe-
leGted for the bafis of the fyftem. They have been founded
by different authers ‘on the fru't, the corolla, the calyx, and
the fexual, or eflential parts of the fructification. A method
which afpires to the elevated ftation of a natural one, ad-
mits into any particular clafs, only thofe plants which re-
femble each other in a great number of particulars, or in
fuch as are of the greateftimportance, and che lealt liable to
variation.
In thearticle Borany, we have-given a concife, hiftory of
the fcience, and of the improvements which have been gra-
dually made in its progrefs to its prefent advanced ftate.
We alfo laid before our readers a detailed account of the
fyftem of Linnzus, which we profeffedly follow in this de-
partment of our work, admitting only thofe occafional al-
terations which more »recent obfervations, andthe difcovery
of ava number of plants, unknown to the great Swedifh
naturalift, feem to render expedient.’ We ‘hall now, in ful-
filment of the engagement there made to the public, lay
before them a fynoptic view of the other principal methods
or fyftems, Linnzus, in his “ Philofophia Botanica,’’ has
arranged them according to the parts of fru@ification, which
form their diftinguifhing charagter, But it appears to us,
that a chronological order will be more advantageous, as it
will fet, in 'a-clearer point of view, the affiftance which each
author has derived from his predeceffors. We will only
beg leave tocarre@, en paffant, a material error in the fy-
noptic table of the Linpzan clailes. ‘The general character
of the fixteenth, feventeenth, eigthteenth, nineteenth, and
twentieth clafles, ought to ftand thus: ‘‘ Stamens.united in
fome of their parts, or attached.to the piltil.””
I. Cafalpinus’s method, publifhed in 1583.
Trees and §with the coren- fat the apex of the feed rz.
fhrubs eee embryo Lat the bafe of the feed 2.
feeds - ms Be
f with folitary {ber - a AS
capfules - - he
Under . feeds - - 6.
fhrubs and eetitEe. = Tesstules = A he
herbs with a triple ¢not bulbous - = 8.
| principle - bulbous - - On
| with four feeds : - - 5 toe
rs ihe = =) elke
TTader with ey Pighoreres, f. ace } 12.
fhrubs and © 4 eds aoa | with acommon flower 13,
herbs | (in follicles - = hE,
{ deftitute of both flower and fruit - 15,
Czfalpinus is the firft botanift who availed himfelf of the
hints thrown out by Gefner, and attempted a truly {cientific
arrangement of plants, founded on the parts of fructification.
On this account he will always be entitled to our grateful
refpe& 3 but we may alfo add, in concurrence. with La
Marck, that whatever may be the defcéts of his method,
much worfe have fince been fubmitted to the judgment of
the public, He is fliled by Linnzus a Fructift ; and would
have been completely fo, if he had formed his claffes with @
little more logical precifion, His eighth aad niath claffes
are properly one, with the common character of a three-
celled capfule, or, as he quaintly itiles it, a triple principle ;
the difference of their roots might baye given rife toa fub-
divifion, but fhould by no means have beea elevated to a
claffical diftin@ion. The fame may be faid of his eleventh,
twelfth, and thirteenth claffes. In the eleventh, the com-
pound flower is radiate, confifting of ligulate florets ia the
ray, and cf tubular ones in the difk; in the twelfth, it is with-
out a ray, and confifts entirely of ligulate florets; in the
thirteenth, it isalfo without a ray, but confilts entirely of
tubular florets. Thefe varieties in the form of the com-
pound flower, afford obvious and convenient fubdivifions ;
bat in all of them the claffical chara€ter is exa@tly the fame.
The grand imperfeGtion of this method, which it has in
common with mary fucceeding ones, is the feparation of
trees from herbaceous plants. Unable to relinquifh a di--
flinGtion as old as the age of Theophraftus, and become ve-
nerable from its antiquity ; at the fame time unwilling, as
it fhould feem, to give fimilar claffical charaGers to plants
of both his primary divifions, Czfalpinus has paffed over
what, at the firft view, is moft firiking in the fruit of trees,
and has taken his charafter of the two claffes from the fitua-
tion of the corculum, or rudiment of the future plant, as it
fprings cither from the apex, or from the bafe of the feed ;
differences which are always of difficult inveftigation, and
entirely beyond the reach of the common obferver. In this,
however, he has ftri€tly adhered to his leading principle as a
Fruditt.
Il.—Morifon’s method, firft publifhed at Paris, 1669, ina
Jfecond edition of Breyner’s Hortus Regius Bilefenfis.
Woody Plants. Trees - - ~ I.
Shrubs - - 2.
Under-fhrubs - - fe
Herbaceous Plants. Scandent or climbing 4.
Leguminous - Ge
Siliquofe - - 6.
"Tricapfular - he
Deriving their name
from the number aif 8.
capfules -
Cory mbiferous - Q.
Laétefcent or pappous 10.
Culmiferous - xT.
Umbelliferous - 2s
Tricoccous - ech
Galeatz or helmeted 14.
Many-capfuled - = 5s
Herbaceous
CLASSIFICATION.
Herbaceous Plants, Bacciferous - Pana hope
Capillary or ferns - 907.
Heteroclitz, i ne g
16.
to no clafy =
Morifon’s method is much inferior to that of Cafalpinus,
being farther removed from fimplicity, without approach-
ing at all nearer to a really natural arrangement. His three
claffes of woody plants are altogether unfcientific. His
fourth clafs, which he places among the herbaceous plants,
is a very heterogeneous aflemblage of genera, without any
refemblance to each other in the flower or fruit: and many
of them with truly woody ftems. His fifth, fixth, feventh,
eighth, thirteenth, fifteenth, and fixteenth are founded on
the fruit; the fourteenth on the form of the corolla; the
twelfth on the mode of inflorefcence; the eleventh on the
general habit; the ninth and tenth fhould be united ; as
they now [tand, it is impoffible to determine on what prin-
ciples they are feparated; the cighteenth includes the
moffes, ale, fungi, and corals.
IIl.—Ray’s fir/t method, publifbed in 1682, in a work en-
titled, <* Methodus- Plantarum Nova Synoptica, in Tabulis
exhibita.”’
Woody Plants. Trees - - Te
Shrubs. - - 2.
Herbaceous Plants. Imperfect - - ee
Without a flower - 4.
Capillary - - ie
Graffly - - 6.
With one naked feed - 72°
Unmbellate - - 8.
Verticillate - =) 19.
Rough-leaved - 10.
mt Stellate ap sive Te
Pome-bearing - iil
Berry-bearing mitt PNG
Many-podded - I4.
With one regular petal 15.
With one irregular petal 16,
Tetrapeta'ous, filiquofe 17.
Tetrapetalous, filiculofe 18.
Papilionaceous - 19.
Pentapetalous - 20.
Fromenta, or the dif-
erent kinds of corn, te
which afford food a aL,
men = =
Grafles - - 2D;
Grafs-leaved plants 23.
Bulbous - - 24.
Allied to the bulbous 25.
This method, like all the other produétions of its great
author, has uncommon merit. Its chief excellence arifes
from its being a nearer approximation to a natural arrange-
ment than the feientific world had then feen. For this
purpofe, though he paid particular attention to the fruit,
which he thought of primary importance, he judged it ex-
pedient fometimes to feek for claffical characters from other
parts of ayplant. The 7th, rath, 13th, and 14th clafles
or families are founded entirely on the fruit. Ray very
illogically calls them genera; fince he has, under each of
them, fubordinate genera, analogous to thofe of Linneus
and all modern botanilts. ‘The 17th and 1$th are charac-
terized partly from the fruit, and partly from the flower.
The roth, 16th, 9th and 2oth depend entirely on the
flawer;. the 8th and oth on the mode of inflorefcence ; the
1oth on the texture; and the r1th on the pofition of the
leaves; the 2tft and 22d on the general habit; the 24th
and 25th on the root.
Of the defe&ts of his fyfem no one was more fenfible than
himfelf. . Superior to the blind partiality which fo fondly
attaches moit authors to the offspring of their own brains,
he was always ready to give up what a fuller inveftigation
of the fubjeét led him to difapprove. -In faét, he never re-
duced this firft method to practice in ail its parts. Of this
we have {uflicient proof in the alterations introduced into the
“ Hiftoria Plantarum,?? publifhed four years afterwards in
1656; and in the additional ones inferted in the “ Synopfis
Stirpium Britannicarum,” the firft edition of which appeared
in €go. The moit glaring impropriety, in the original
fetch, is the feparation of corn from the other claffes.
This the author himfelf foon perceived, and in his letter to Ris
vinus, affixed to the fecond edition of his « Synopfis,”’ frankly
acknowledges. It-is accordingly correéted in all his fub-
fequent works. he 17th and 18th clafles divide one natural
family intotwo. his error alfo is found no where, but in
the delineation of his firft method. The third clafs con-
tains the fungi, lichens, and fubmarine plants; including
corallines and other organized bodies, then fuppofed to be
vegetables, but now univerfally affigned to the animal
kingdom. ‘The fourth clafs confilts of the proper moffes;
the fifth of the ferns; thefe, agreeing with each other in
having no confpicuous flower, he afterwards united; but the
alteration can f{carcely be called an improvement. Not
having had the good fortune to meet with the work, in
which this method was firft offered to the public, we are not
able to determine, with certainty, what he means by the
vague epithet graminex or grafly, of which there are no
traces to be found either in the ‘¢ Hilloria Plantarum” or the
“Synopfis;”’? but, from its fituation in the original arrange-
ment, compared with what occupies its place in thofe works,
we fufpeG& that he intended by it what he afterwards called
herbaceous plants, with an imperfect or ftamineous flower,
in which are included humulus-lupulus, or hop; cannabis,
_or hemp; urtica, or nettle; rumex, or dock ; po'ygonum,
&e. &c. Thefe have a fingle feed in each flower, and leaves
which, being generally entire, may, with fome grains of
allowance, be {tiled grafly. We are the more inclined to
adopt tis idea, becaufe we can f{carcely think it poffible,
that the found judgment of Ray fhould placethis hetero-
geneous mixture in the fame clafs with the compound flowers,
On this fuppofition itis not proper to make a fingle naked
feed, the diftinguifhing character of the next clafs. In fad
this charaGter was foon dropt, and the term compound
flowers fubftituted for it. In the “ Hiftoria Plantarum” and
“ Synopiis” thefe compound flowers are diftributed among
four diflim€ claffes; but this alfo we can by no means
think an improvement; they ought to have been only fub-
divilions.
1V.—Chrifopher Knaut’s method, publifhed in 1687.
Herbs with petals, and aflefhy
fruit - e
With membranous fruit. Monopetalous 2
Tetrapetalous,
witha regu- > 2,
lar flower J
Tetrapetalous,
with an ree 4.
gular flower
Pentapetalons
Hexapetalous
Polypetalous
Many-eapfuled:
Berry-bearing Ie
Foy Qh
el tees
Bert
CLASSIFICATION.
Herbs with naked fruit. Gymnofpermous 9.
Solid - Io.
; Pappous - mE
Herbs without petals. - Apetalous - 12,
Stamineous - 13,
Inconfpicuous — 14.
Imperfect - 15.
Woody plants. - - Trees - 16.
Shrubs. - - - Shrubs - is
This method is that of Ray, a little fimplified, and placed
in an inverted order. It has been applied only to the
plants which are found in the neighbourhood of the Saxon
Halle. There is an evident abfurdity in giving the epithet
apetalous to one divifion of apetalous plants in contradiitinc-
tion to the others. But moft theoretical botanifts, and,
indeed, naturalifts in general, betray a lamentable ignorance
of the rules of logic.
V.—Herman’s méthod, publifoed in 1687.
Herbs with petals and) one-feeded, Simple I.
Compound =
two-feeded, Stellate - ae
Umbellate - 4.
four-feeded, Rough-leaved 5
Verticillate 6.
many-feeded - - qe
With feeds in a pericarp, bulbous, three-capfular 8.
capfule Univafcular - 9.
Bivafcular - 10.
Trivafcular - 11%
uadrivafcular 12.
Juinquevat-
ae - } we
Siliquofe - 14.
Leguminous 15.
Many-capfuled 16.
Flefhy, bearing ber- } 4
Ij;
ries
Bearing pomes 18.
Without petals, calycled, apetalous = 19.
glumofe, ftamineous - 20.
naked, mufcofe - - 21.
Trees..incomplete...amentaceous - - = 22.
fruit flefhy, umbilicate = ~ 23.
not umbilicate - - 24.
not flefhy, dry == - - - 25.
This is an elegant arrangement, founded almoft entirely
on the fruit. We are weary of pointing it out, but the
difcerning reader will at once perceive a fimilar want of
logical precifion in the diltribution of the apetalous plants.
It woald have ftood better thus : -
Apetalous, flowers with a calyx - - 19.
with glumes, graffes = ©" 365
naked, moffes - SE Bike
The roth is a very multifarious clafs. The 21ft, though
only moffes are mentioned, muft include the whole of the
Linnzan cryptogamia. The arrangement would have been
more neat, and its author would have better fupported his
charaéter as a Fruduit, if he had not admitted the prefence
and abfence of a corolla into his primary divifion.. The
flowers, with only 2 calyx, would then have been difributed
among the preceding claffes, according to the nature of
their fruit; thofe with glumes would have been placed
among the plants with a fingle naked feed, and might with
propriety have been made a diftin& order; thofe with
naked flowers would have ftood in their proper place at the
foot of the feries. If the bulbous roots, which, as fuch,
are an embarraflment to every method, had been equally
dilregarded, Herman would have been completely a
Fru@ift.
VI—Rivinus’s method, publifbed in 1690.
Flowers perfect, fimple, regular. Monopetalous 1
Dipetalous 2
Tripetalous 3.
Tctrapetalous 4.
Pcntapetalous 5
- Hexapetalous 6
Polypetalous 7
compound; floretsregular - - :
florets regular and irregular 9.
florets trregular - 10.
irregular, Monopetalous 11.
Dipetalous 12.
‘Tripetalous 13.
Tetrapetalous 14.
Pentapetalous 15.
Hexapetalous 16.
Polypetalous 17.
Flowers imperfe& - = - - 18.
Rivinus has the honour of being the firft Corolliit. His
method is very fimple, and apparently eafy; but as it is
entirely artificial, it has the difadvantage of difturbing na-
tural affinities, and will occafion great perplexity to the
botanical ftudent who attempts to reduce it to pra¢tice.
He was alfo the firft who perceived that the diftin@ion of
plants into trees, fhrubs, under-fhrubs, and herbaceous, is not
ftri@ly fupported by nature, and that, in a botanical point
of view, it is of noufe. In our prefent advanced ftate of
knowledge, it cannot but be furprifing, that Ray was not
convinced by the ftrong, and as they appear to us, unan-
{werable arguments addreffed to him by Rivinus, in a letter
printed in the fecond edition of the ‘* Synopfis ;”” and that
he perfevered to the laft in keeping the trees and fhrubs
feparare, although he found himfelf compelled by incontro-
vertible faéts to unite the under-fhrubs with the herbaceous
plants. In vain did Rivinus urge that the production or
non-produ@iion of buds, by which Ray diltinguifhed the
fhrubs from the under-fhrubs, was by no means a certain
charaéteriftic, and that nature does not warrant their fepa-
ration: our great naturalift perfiited in his opinion with
invincible obitinacy. The hiftory of fcience fcarcely af-
fords a more ftriking inftance of the influence of prefcriptive
authority and long prevailing habit, om a mind uncommonly
enlightened, poffeffed of vigorous powers, and particularly
eminent for the acutenefs of its penetration. It is a confo-
lation to {uch of us as cannot avoid feeling for the honour
of our illuitrious countryman, that Tournefort, his great
antagonift, was equally blind. Both of them were in this
refpe& fo accuftomed to darknefs, that they could not en-
dure the light of day.
VIl.—Tournes ~
——
CLASSIFICATION.
Vil.—Tournefor?’s method, publifhed in 1694.
Herbaceous plants and under-fhrubs. Petalled. Simple. Monopetalous. Regular. - Bell-thaped 1G
Funnel-fhaped 2.
Irregular. Perfonate 3.
Labiate 4e
Pelypetalous. Regular, Cruciform Go
Rofaceous 6.
Umbelliferous 7
Caryophylleous 8.
Liliaceous 9:
{rregular. Papilionaceous 10.
Anomalous Tlie
Compound. . - - Flofeulous Tas
Semiflofeulous 13.
Radiate Riis
Apetalous, - - - Apetalous 15.
Without flowers 16.
Without flowers
and fruit 07.
Trees and fhrubs. - - Apetalous - - - = Apetalous 18.
Amentaceous 19.
Petalled. Monopetalous. - - =n2o%
Polypetalous. Regular. Rofaceous Die
Papilionaceous 22.
Tournefort was profeffedly a Corollift, and feldom forfook
his favourite principle. In the conftruction of his 7th, gth,
and 17th claffes he has called in the aid of the fruit; and
in the 19th has had recourfe to the mode of inflorefcence ;
but, in all the reft, the corolla, as it is either prefent or ab-
fent, is the fole object of his attention ; confidering alfo that
his fy{tem is truly artificial, he has broken natural families
and united with them difcordant plants much lefs than might
have been expected. His 4th, sth, 7th, oth, roth, 12th,
r3th, and 14th claffes are natural aflemblages, with the ex-
ception of a few plants of a very different general chara¢ter,
which he has been induced to annex to fome of them on ac-
count of the form of the corolla. ‘Thus, for inftance, in
his fifth clafs he has inferted chelidonium, epimedium, and
potamogeton, which belong to widely different families, and
in which the. corolla itfelf is but imperfectly cruciform. It
may be objected to the firlt clafs, that it not only makes
fad havock among natural affinities, but alfo contains
plants with very differently formed corollas. No one
would fuppofe a priori, that the fhape of the flowers of
campanula, convolvulus, tithymalus, (euphorbia, Linn.)
glaux, rufcus, malva, and galium can be properly ex-
prefled by the fame word. It is alfo impoffible to
draw a decifive line of diftinétion between this clafs and the
next. ‘he bell-fhaped and funnel-fhaped flowers approach
each other fo nearly that, independent of theirinterference with
each other in regard to natural affinities, they cannot be fci-
entifically feparated. ‘The fixth clafs is a motley colle€tion
diftinguifhed by very different prominent characters; and
as La Marck obferves, is of fo difproportionate a magni-
tude, that it includes nearly one-fourth of the perfect plants.
The ninth clafs does not properly fit the place affigned it in
the fyftem, fince all its genera are not polypetalous, nor
have they all regular corollas. The eleventh clafs is a re-
ceptacle for vagrants, colleéted together from all quarters, and
for whom a legal fettlement cannot be found This,
however, is an imperfection common to moft artificial
fy tems.
But whatever may be the defects of this celebrated me-
thod, it cannot be denied the praife of uncommon excel-
lence. It is juflly the boaft of every fcientific Frenchman,
and, making due allowance for the time in which it was
formed, can fearcely be too much admired. Its fe&tions or
orders are taken from the fituation of the germen; when itis
inferior, in Tournefort’s idea, calyx abit in frudum ; the ca-
lyx finally becomes the fruit; when it is fuperior, pi/fillum
abit in frudum ; the piftil finally becomes the fruit.
The celebrity of this fyftem has induced us to give a fe-
ries of figures to illuftrate its general principles, as had former-
ly been done in the folio edition. And from the well-known
excellence of the artilts employed, we flatter ourfelves that
it will be thought by our general readers as ornamental to
our work asit will be inftruive to thofe who with to fludy
the fubje&. In all the figures, the letter a denotes the
flower, 2 the fruit,"and ¢the feeds. The numbers, prefixed
to each, point out the plants. which have been feleCted as
moft known, and beft calculated to exhibit the particular
charaGers of the plants contained in each clafs. Of thefe it
may be neceffary to give the following explanation. Cl. 5.
Cruciform, fig. +. Raphaniftrum; Tour. (Raphanus Ra-
phaniftrum ; Linn.) Jointed Charlock. 2. Burfa. pattoris;
Tourn. (Thlafpi Burfa Paftoris; Linn.) Shepherd’s purfe, &c,
VII.—Ray’s
CLASSIFICATION.
VIUI.—Ray’s fecond method, publifoed in 1703.
Herbaceous plants and under-
fhrubs, not bearing buds.
Perfe&, Dicotyledonous.
Flower compound
Trees and fhrubs bearing buds,
} Imperfect, or without vifible lowers.
Submarine - 2
~
Funguses - -
Mofles - -
Capillary - -
with an appendix of anomalous
plants.
Stamineous 7. e. Apetalous,
with or without a calyx 5
Planipetalous, la&tefcent = 6.
Difcoid with a pappous feed 7.
- 8
9
pa
Corymbiferous
Capitate - -
Flower fimple
with one naked feed. Monofpermous - 10.
with two-neked feeds. Umbelliferous - - It
Stellate - - - 12
with four naked feeds Rough-leaved - =, 13>
Verticillate - =h Eas
with many naked feeds. Polyfpermous - = Tie
feeds covered witha pulp. Pomiferous = = 16.
Bacciferous = - GE
in feveral diftinG veffels. | Multifiliquous - 8.
in a fingle veffel. Monopetalous and Dipetalous 19.
Siliquofe . - ay 20:
with an appendix of anomalous
plants.
Leguminous = rhage sc
Pentapetalous - - 22,
Grafs-Jeaved,
bearing flowers Bulbous or not bulbofe 23.
without proper flowers. . . Stamineous graffes . 24.,
Anomalous one Br 455
Monocotyledenous, with arundaceous leaves. Palms - - -, 26.
Dicotyledonous, flowers remote from thefruit. Apetalous.
Coniferous - 27.
Not coniferous - 28.
Flowers contiguous to the fruit.
Fruit . . . Umbilicated - 29.
Not umbilicated - 30.
Dry, not filiquofe - E be,
Siliquofe - ey hae
Papilionaceous - - 33-
Anomalous - - 34.
Lioneus tells us that Ray began with being a Frudtift,
and finally became a Corolliit. But on acomparifon of his
two methods, as they are contrafted with each other by
Linneus himfelf in his ‘ Philofophia Botanica,’”? the ob-
fervation fcarcely appears to be well-founded. In both his
methods, Ray drew the charaCter of his primary divifions,
fometimes from the fruit, fometimes from the flower, and
f{ometimes from other parts of the plant, as each of them
in its turn feemed to himfelf to afford the moft ftrongly
marked diltin@ions. It is poffible that, irritated by Tourne-
fort’s numerous criticif{ms, he might feel a with to outdo. his
rival in his own way ; but this with, if it ever really exiftéd,
does not appear to have materially affected his general
views.
In the fecond method, the fubmarine plants and the fungi
eorrefpond with the imperfe@tz, conftituting a fingle clafs in
the firit. The mufci of the one, and the flore carentes of the
other, are the fame. Thefe and the capillares, which had been
united in the “ Hiftoria Plantarum”? and the “* Synopfis,”’ are
again very properly feparated, We have already hazarded
2
a conjecture that the apetale of the fecond method are the
graminez of the firft. The planipetalz, difcoide, corymbi-
fere, and capitate of the former are all included in the gym-
nomonofperme of thelatter. The tenth clafs of the fecond
method, confifting of flowers with a folitary feed, has nothing
equivalent to it in the firft. It was profefledly formed to ac-
commodate a few plants which have no other common cha-
ra&ter, and for which the author could not find another con-
yenient place. It contains valeriana, dentellaria (plumbago,
Linn.), limonium ({ftatice, Linn.), mirabilis peruviana, linaria
adulterina (thefium linophyllum, Lina.), pafferina tragi
(ftellera, Linn.), agrimonia, and pimpinella fanguiforba (po-
terium, Linn.) This motley colleétion firft appears as a dif-
tin clafs in the ** Synopfis,” with the addition of thali@rum
and fumaria- In the ‘¢ Hiftoria Plantarum,”’ and probably in.
the firlt method, it was blended with the umbellate. The
umbellatz, verticillate, afperifoliz, ftellate, pomiferz, bac-
cifere, multifilique, leguminofe, and pentapetale, have a
place in both methods. The fifteenth clafs of the new me-
thod, or polyfperme, firft appears as a diftin& clafs in the
‘* Hiltoria
CLASSIFICA TLON.
¢¢ Hiftoria Piantarum.” Tt there contains ranunculus, ane-
mone, adonis, helleborus, malva, &c. geumand potentilla. In
the new method, alifma, fagittaria, tormentilla, {pirea fili-
pendula, and clematis, are added, and the malvaceous plants
removed to the 19th clafs, or monopetale. Linueus has
made a profs miflake in fuppofing that Ray intended the di-
tripctaie to form a diitin& -clafs. In faét, the dipetale in
the new method are an anomalous appendage to the mono-
petale. Alifma and fagittaria, which are tripetalous, are
placed in the roth -clafs. The 21lt of the fecond method
very properly unites the 17th and 18th of the frit. ‘The
23d clafs contains the -bulbofe and cther liliaceous plants,
with the additron of the bulbofis affinés,; which, with much
gréater propricty, had been kept feparatein the firft method.
Thefe confit of the crchidee and fcitaminer. “The 23d,
with equal impropriety, unites the gramina and graminifoliz,
which term {cparate clailes in the firft method. The 25th
clefs, or avomale, is peculiar to the new method; but the
outlines of it firlt appeared, though with contiderable varia-
tion, in the ** Hiftoria Plantarum.’’ he 26th, or arundina-
cee, confitts of the palme, which here appear for the firft
time ina profefled method; they had already been noticed by
Ray in the “ Hittoria Plantarum,” but are entirely omitted
by Tournefort. The arrangement of the other trees, ac-
cording to the difference of their fruétifcation, which feems
to have been entirely negle&ted in the firft method, appears
with confiderable advantage in the fecond; but it does not
materially differ from what had already been done by Tourne-
fort, as well as by himfelf in his intermediate publications.
The chief glory of the fecond method arifes from its
taking the lead in diftributing plants according to the num-
ber of their cotyledons. This, indeed, no one would fuf-
pect from the tabular view of it, as it ftands in the ** Phiiufo-
phia Botanica ;” nor does it appear in Ray’s own table of
contents, which Linnzus has very carélefsly tranferibed, and
unwarrantably abridged. But the diltinétion is clearly point-
ed out and explained in the work itfelf, into which, one
would think, Linneus had never looked. ‘* Floriferas di-
videmus”’ is the perfpicuous language of Ray, ‘in dicotyledo-
nes, quarum femina fata binis foliis anomalis, feminalibus
distis, que cotyledonum ufum preftant, @ terra exeunt, vel
in binos faltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos fupra terram
foliorum fpecie non efferant ; & monocotyledones, que nec
folia feminalia bina efferunt, nec lobos binos condunt. Hee
divifio ad arbores etiam extendi potelt; tiquidem palme &
congeneres hoc refpe€tu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus
differant qno monocotyledones a reliquis herbis.”? It is with
peculiar fatisfa€tion that we thus do juitice to our great Britifh
naturalift, and reftore to him the honour of which he has
in a great meafure been deprived. We readily acknowledge
that we are proud of being able to call him our countryman,
for he was in all re{pe€ls as good as he was great. How far
we may be unduly biaffed by natural patriotic feelings, it is
not in our power to determine: but, while our prefent con-
victions continue, we cannot allow a decided pre-emineace
to Tournefort. Both of them, indifputably, poffeffed fuper-
eminent excellence, and we cannot but lament that they were
not better friends. But irritabile genus is a chara@ter, which
might have been extended by the poet much beyond his own
fraternity.
1X.—Boerhaave’s method, publified in 1710.
Herbs. Imperfed. - -
Dicotyledonous, with many naked feeds. ;
with four naked feeds.
with two naked feeds.
with one naked feed.
with one capfule. ~ -
with two capfules.- ~
t with three capfules. -
3 2 - Submarine. - 1.
Terreftrial.- = 2,
Capillary. - - 3.
Gymnopoly-
{permous. — -
Verticillate. -
Rough-leaved.
Tetrapetalous. 1
Umbelliferous.
Stellate. - -
Simple. - =
[esl
TAH OO CON Hanbo nt
Planipetalous. 2
Radiate. -
Naked. - , «=
©
Capitate. - -
Monangiz. -
Diangie - -
Drianpies v= 17.
|
with four capfules. - - Tetrangie. - 15.
with five capfules. - - Pentangiz. 19.
with many capfules. - Polyangiz. - 20.
- with many filiques. - Miultifilique. 21.
Siliquofe. = - = ~ = 22
Tetrapetalous cruciform. - - ee 235
Leguminous, - - - - 24.
Bacciferous. = =o = - a 234
Pomiferous. = « - = - 20,
Apetalous. - ae = - Se ye
Monocotyledonous. BraGeate. - - Se i I)
Apetalous. - =~ - ~) 205
Trees, Monocotyledonous. - - SG Sogo in a) ney gO!
Dicotyledonous. _Apetalous. - - - - aig te
Amentaceous.- \~ - - oe aX,
Monopetalous, - - = =e 38
Rofaceous. - - - = 34.
Vox. VIII. 3D Boerhaave
CLASSIFICATION,
Boerhaave is faid to have combined the fecond method of
Ray with thofe of Herman and Tournefort. With the
former he diftinguifhes the monocotyledones from the dico-
tyledones; but is more indebted to Herman than to
Tournefort. His prevailing ebay raéter is certainly that of a
Frnétift. His method was employed only in arranging the
plants in the botanic garden at Leyden, and does not ap-
pear to have excited that attention which might have been
expeGted from the extenfive medical fame of its excellent
author. Its greateft defect is the want of fimplicity.
X. Chriftian Knaut’s method, publifbed in 1716.
Monopetalous. - - Uniform. Th The latter is nothitg but a difpute about the meaning of a
Difform. Be term. Every one is acquainted with the integument of thofe
Aggregate. - - Uniform. 3. feeds ufually {tiled naked. The only difpute is, whether
Difform. 4. it fhould be confidered as part of the feed itfelf, or as pro-
Uni-difform: 5. perly its pericarp. Ina ftri€tly philofophical point of view,
Dipetalous. = Bhi Uniform. 0. the lattcr opinion may be right; but to the praétical botanift
Difform. a. the former has a manifeft we, and ought not to be entirely
Tripetalous, - - Uniform. 8. difcarded.
Difform, 9.
XI. Pontedera’s Method, publifoed in 4920.
Uncertain. . - - - - - - - - : - - I.
Certain. Without buds Without flowers. - - 5 5 = 3 A 2.
With flowers. Imperfe, - - - - - ce
Perfect. Monopetalous, fimple. Anomalous. 4
Labiate. se
Campaniform. 0.
P Hypocrateriform, 7.
Rotate. 8.
Funnel-fhaped. Q.
Conglobate. - Flofculous. ‘10.
Ligulate. Tie
Radiate. D2...
Polypetalous. - Anomalous. aiae
Papilicnaceous. 14.
Liliaceous. US
Caryophylleous 106.
Cruciform. Ey
Rofaceous. 18.
Umbellate. 19.
With buds. Flowers imperfect. - - - . Filamentous. 20.
Apetalous. Dis
Perfect. Monopetalous. - Anomalous. gay
Campaniform. 236
Rotate. 246
Funnel-fhaped. 25.
Polypetalous - Papilionaceous. 26,
Pontedera was purely a Corallift, and profeffed to combine
the method of Tournefort with that of Rivinus. But he
followed Ray in diftinguifhing trees and fhrubs from under-
Tetrapetalous > . Uniform, 10,
Difform, Wie
Pentapetalous. - Uniform. 12.
Difform. 13.
Hexapetalous. - - Uniform. Ta;
Difform. 15.
Polypetalous. - - Uniform. 16.
Difform. 17.
_ Chriftian Knaut isa fturdy Corallift. He pofitively de-
nies the exiftence of any apetalous flower, and of any naked
feed. The former pofition is clearly contraditted by faéts,
Rofaccous, 2
fhrubs and herbaceous plants, by their producing, or not pros
ducing buds,
XII. Magnol’s
CLASSIFICATION.
XII. AMagnol’s method, publifoed in 1720.
Herbs. Calyxexternal. Includingaflower. Unknown.
Supporting a flower.
Calyx internal only.
Calyx external and internal.
Trees. Calyx external only.
: Calyx internal only.
Calyx external and internal.
Magnol was a Calycift ; but he included under the term
calyx both the perianth and the pericarp.
by Linnzus to be a Calycrft combined with the Fruati
Stamincous.
Monopetalous.
Polypetalous.
Compound.
Monopetalous.
Polypetalous.
Monopetalous.
Di-tripetalous.
Tetrapetalous.
Polypetalous.
-i -
Io.
rN
12:
ie
14.
iis
Hence he is {aid
n
1S,
XIII. Linneus’s fexual method was introduced to the
world in the firlt fketch of his ‘ Syftema Nature,’ pub-
and farther developed and improved in the
fubfequent editions of that work, and alfo in the ‘* Philofo-
phia Botanica,” and the ‘* Genera Plantarum.”’ Fora parti-
cular account of this renowned fy{ftem, fee Borany ; and for
a critical examination of its excellencies and defeéts, chiefly
re{pecting its prefervation or violation of natural affinities,
fee the names of its claffes, Monandria, &c.
lifhed in 17353
Calyx fpathaceous. -
None.
Glumofe. 4
Calyx common. An ament.
Calyx proper.
Flowers incon{picuous.
An involucre.
A perianth.
Fruit three-celled,
Fruit various.
Stony.
XV. Royen’s method, publifoed in 17 40
XIV. Ludwig's methad, publifhed in 1937.
Perfe& flowers. Petalous. Regular. Simple. Monopetalous.
Imperfect flowers.
Ludwig combined the very different methods of Rivinus
Irregular.
Compound florets regular.
Regular and irregular.
Irregular.
Monopetalous.
with a perianth.
<Apetalous, furnifhed
Dipetalous.
Tripetalous.
‘Tetrapetalous.
Pentapetafous.
Hexapetalous.
Polypetalous.
Dipcetalous.
Trtpetalous.
on
Tetrapetalous
Pcntapetalous.
Hexapetalous.
Dubious.
Stamineous.
Amentaceous. 3
Powdery.
comr Ol BO NM
So
20
and Linnzus. His principal divifions are accordingly found-
ed on the regularity and the number of the petals; his fub-
ordinate ones on the number of the ftamens and piftils. It is
obvious, at firlt fight, that his method muft be altogether
artificial.
- Monocotyledonous.
Anthe
Anthe
Polycotyledonous.
rs connate.
rs diftinét.
Seeds folitary.
Calyx and corolla, one abfent. - :
both prefent, Anthers on the germen.
on the perianth.
Herbaceous
This is a happy effay towards a natural method founded
on the cotyledons, the calyx, the corolla, the ftamens, and
the fruit.
It manifefts an attentive and deep invettigation of
the fubje&t; and is inferior to feveral which fucceeded it
only through its want of fimplicity. Linnzus gave it the
preference both to that of Haller and of Wachendorf, if we
may form a judgment from the adverbs with which he quali-
fies them.
Naturalem methodum in cotyledonibus, calyce,
fexu, aliifque Royenus pulchre, Hallerus erudite, Wachendor«
fius grace quefiverunt.
two longer.
four longer.
united into one.
united into two.
not more than the divi-
fions of the corolla.
twice as many.
much more numerous. Polyanthcrous.
Palms.
XVI. Haller’s Method, publifoed in 1742.
Fungi (fungufes)
Mufci ( moffes)
Epiphyllofperme (ferns)
Apetalz (without petals)
Gramina (grafles)
Graminibus affines
(allied to the graffes)
Monocotyledones petaloides (monocotyledonous plants
with petals)
2 Drz
is
Lilies. af
Graffes. 3
sAmentaceous. 4.
Umbellate. ie
Compound. 6.
Aggregate. a
Teens é
Incomplete. 9.
Fru@iflorous. 10.
Calyciflorous. bie
Ringent. liz.
Siliquofe. 13.
Columniferous. 14.
Leguminous. I5.
Oligantherous. 16.
Diplofantherous. 17.
18.
Crytantherous. 19.
Lithophytes. 20,
= - rte
- - 2s
-~ = 3 <
‘bed Be et
- . 5.
- - 6.
5 a3
Polyftemones
CLASSIFICATION.
Polyftemones ({tamens much more numerous than the
petals) - - = BS
Diplofemones (famens twice as many as the petals) 9:
Seoftemones (famens equal in number to the petals) —_—10.
Mejoflemones (itamens fewer than thé petals) - Live
Staminibus fefguialteris (ftamens half as many more as
the petals) - - - 12
Staminibus fefquitertiis (Ramens one-third more than
the petals) - - - 13
Quatuor ringentes (four-ringent ) - - : 14.
Congregate (aggregate and compound) - - 15.
Whatever merit this method may poffefs in other refpects,
and netwithftanding the indifputable abjlities and well merit-
ed reputation of its author, we cannot but regard it as a feeb!e
attempt towardsa natural one. It unites plants which nature
has decidedly feparated, and feparates others which ought to
be united. The Sth clafs, for inltance, in which the fta-
mens are much more numerous than the petals, mult include
the icofandria, and polyandria of Linnzus, plats of widely
different families: while ribes, which, in a natural arrange-
meat, clearly belongs to icofandria, mult here be referred
to the tenth, on account of the equal number of its ftamens
and petals.
XVI. Wachendorf’s method, publifbed in 1747.
Gymnofperme (with naked feeds) E - o! I
Homojodiperianthe (with two equal perianths) OI Gone e5-
Anomojodiperianthe (with two unequal perianths) - 3.
Pollapleftemonopetal (with more ftamens than petals) 4.
Anifoftemonopetaliz (itamens and petals unequal in
length) - - - - - - Shales hel
Cylindrobafioftemones (filaments united into a cylin-
der at the bafe) - - - - 6.
7
8
Dimacroftemones ({tamens two long and two fhort) -
‘Yetramacroftemones ({tamens four long and two fhort)
Diftemonopleranthere (tilaments united at the bafe
into two bodies) - 2 . 9.
Eleutheranthere (anthers free, as in aggregate flowers)
Cylindranthere (anthers united intoa cyliuder) - - 11.
Monoperianthz (without petals) = = = 12.
Monophythanthz (monoicous) : = = 13.
Diphythanthe (dioicous) - = e 14.
Acalyces (without a calyx) = 2 - 15.
Calycine (with a calyx and one cotyledon) SS aE
Spathacee (calyx a {pathe) - - : = 17.
Glumofz (graifes) - : 2 2 18.
Cryptanthe (flowers concealed) - 9
- - 19.
We agree with Linneus in thinking that the fefquipe-
dalian Greek names, of this method, are its moft diftinguifh-
ing charaéteriftic. To the honour of a natural method, it has
few pretenfions. Lucidus ordo is not one of its excellencies.
XVIII. Linneus’s fragments of a natural method, publifhed
in 1751
1 Piperite. 2. Palme.
5, Enfate. 6. Tripetalodex.
3. Scitamina. 4. Orchidex.
7. Deoudate. 8. Spatha-
to. Liliacez.
cez. 9. Coronariz. 11. Muricate. 12.
Coadunata. 13. Calamariz. 14. Gramina. 15. Conife-
re. 16. Amentacez. 17. Nucamentacer. 18. Aggre-
gate. 19. Dumofe. 20 Scabride. 21. Compofiti. 22.
Umbellatz. 23. Multifilique. 24. Bicornes. 25. Sepi-
ariz. 26. Culminer, 27. Vaginales. 25. Corydales.
29. Contorti. 30. Rheades. 31. Putaminea, 32. Cam-
panacei. 33. Luride. 34. Columniferz. 35. Senticofz.
36. Comofe; 37. Pomacer. 38. Drupacer, 39. Ar-
buitiva. 40, Calycantheme. 41. Hefperidee. 42. Ca-
ryophyllei, 43. Afperifoliz. 44. Stellate. 45. Cucur-
bitacee. 46. Succulente. 47. Tricocer. 48. Inundas
te. 49. Sarmentacee. 50. T'rihilate. 51. Precie. 52,
Rotacex. “53. Ho'oracez. 54. Vepreculez. 55. Papilio-
nacew. 56. Lomentacez. 57. Siliquofe. 58. Verticil-
late. 59. Perfonatz. So. Perforatz. 61. Statuminate. 62.
Candelares. 63. Cymofe. 64. Filices. 65. Mufci. 66. Al-
ge. 67. Fungi. 68. Vage, natural order not determined.
In 1764 Linneus delivered a courfe of leG@ures on thefe
natural orders, of which a MS. copy was taken bythe ce-
lebrated Entomologift J. C. Fabricius. In 1771, at the re-
quelt of his favonrite pupil Gifeke, he delivered another
courfe, the fubitance of which has been publifhed by Gifeke
fince the death of Linneus. In this lalt courfe, the relative
fituation of the natural orders is greatly changed, with feve-
ral omiffions and additions. ‘They row ftand thus: r. Pal.
mex. 2. Piperite. 3. Calamariez. 4. Gramina, 5. Tri-
petaloidee. 6. Enfate. 7. Orchidez.
g- Spathacee. 10. Coronariz. 11. Sarmentofe.
Holoracer, 13. Succulent. 14. Gruinales.
date. 16. Calyciflore. 17. Calyeantheme.
nes. 19. Hefperider. 20. Rotacez.
Caryophylleez. 23. ‘Trihilate.
taminee. 26. Multiiilique.
29. Campanacez.
12s
15. Inun-
18. Bicor.
21. Preciz. 22s
24. Corydales., 25. Pu-
27. Rheadee. 28. Luride.
30. Contorte, 31. Veprecule. 32.
Fapilionacee. 33. Lomentacez. 34. Cucurbitacee. Bes
Senticofe. 36. Pomacez. 37. Columnifer. 38, Tri-
coccz. 309. Siliquofe. 40. Perfonate. 41. Afperifolie.
42. Verticillate. 43. Dumofe. 44. Sepiarie. 45. Um-
bellate. 46. Hederacez. 47. Stellate. 48. Aggrepa-
te. 49. Compofite. 50. Amentacez. 51. Coniferz.
52. Coadunate. 53. Scabride. 54. Mifcellanez. 55.
Filices.. 56..Mufci. 57. Alga. 58. Fungi.
In this enumeration, N° 7, 10, 11, 175 26, 27536, 395
39, 60, 61, 62, and 63, of the former one are omitted.
N° 14,16, 46, and 54 are added. For a more particular
account of thefe orders, fee their refpective names.
XIX. Linneus’s calycine method, publifoed in 1751.
Calyx, a {pathe - = Chae
a glume - - - -
an ament = - - -
an involucre, whether prefent or not,
provided its place be there -
a perianth many-flowered - ~
one-flowered, double
fingle receptacle dif-
fufed within it, and
attached to its fides - Flowering 7
crowning the germen §
enclofing the germen;
differing in form from
thecorolla-<, -sin~
different in different
flowers of the fame
plant)=- 5, =
Spathaceous 1.
Graffes 2
Amentaceous 3,
Umbellate 4.
Common
Anomalous 9.
- Difform 10.
uniform, with the co-
roa = = =~ Cadueous) =a.
perfilling, circumference
equal, one-petailed - + = = 12,
with more than one petal - = = 13,
circumference unequal with
gne petal. =. = Sey me Oa
with more petals - 2 = + = 15,
Perianth or corolla falling off, when the flo-
refcence is perfeGed - Incomplete 16..
when the fruit is perfe&ted-Apetalous 17.
naked - - - - =) awe
Linneus —
8. Scitaminee. |
- Double a
&
CLASSIFICATION.
Linneus did not profefs to have conftruGted this method
with a view to practical ufe, but only that ftudents might
become well acquainted with all the primary fpecics, differ-
ences, and properties of the calyx. With this view he has
broken the natural families without fcruple.
"XX. Bernard Huffer’ s method, firft pracifed in 1759.
Acotyledonous - - - Te
aimee Stamensinfertedunderthe piftil. Hypogynous 2.
about the piftil. Perigynous. 3.
upon the piltil. Epigynous, 4.
Dicotyledonous. . - - Hypogynous. 5.
Perigynous. 6.
Epigynous. 7.
This method, founded on the relative fituation of the fta-
mens with refpeét to the piltil, was employed in arranging
the plants in the royal botanic garden at T'rianon, under the
patronage of Louis XV. but was not formally publifhed to
the world. It contains the germ of the more elaborate me-
thod, fince formed by his well-known nephew, the prefent
Anthony Laurence Juffieu.
XXL—Gledit{ch’s method, publifued in 1764.
Stamens on the receptacle. - Thalamoftemonis. 1.
on the corolla. - Petaloftemonis. 2s
on the calyx. - Calycoftemunis. 3
onthe ftyle. - Styloftemonis. 4.
inconfpicuous. : Cryptoftemonis. 5
Gleditfch had evidently acquired fome imperfeét idea of
the principle on which Bernard Jufficu arranged the plants
in the garden of Trianon. Willdenow, in his «¢ Elements
of Botany,”’ erroneoufly gives him the honour of being the
fir who attempted an arrangement, founded on the fitua-
tion of the ftamens. His orders are taken from the number
of the ftamens.
XXIL.—Crantz’s method, publifhed in.1766..
Cryptanthous. - - - - Biupe
Incomplete. - - - - 2.
Compound. - : - - 3.
Grafles. = = “ e 4.
Palms. - - - - Re
Liliaceous. 2 - - - 6.
Ringent. - - - - We
Papilionaceous. - - - - 8.
Cruciform. - - - - Q-
Umbelliferous. - - - - 10.
Columniferous. - - = - Ile
Calycifiorous, i.e. ftamens and corolla, when prefent,
inferted in the calyx. - - - 12.
FruGiferons, 7. e. fruit beneath the flower. ced aa
With few ftamens. - - - 14.
With many ftamens. - - - Tbe
Molt of the claffes in this method are natural ones.
XXILI.—Wernifcheck’s method, publifbed in 1766,
“Monopetalous.. Simple. ‘Two-lipped. - fe
Four-cleft. - 2.
Five-cleft. - - 3.
Six-cleft. = eG 4.
Anomalous. - - 5.
Compound. ‘Tubular. - - 6.
Ligulate. - - ie
Radiate. . - 8.
Polypetalous, “ - Petals, 2, 4, and 8. - Qe
4, cruciform. - I0«
g-and6. - «= Tie
Sandio,. = = Iie
Umbellate. - - 13:
Papilionaceous, - Ide
Stamens more than 10. I5e
Columniferous. 5 1Ce
Bevis. 65 ; ’ Calyx taking the place ie a,
s a corolla. = t
Rude, or none. cm 18.
Giumous, graffes. aie Ti@y
Clandettine. = - 20,
Wernifcheck is a Corollift, and, with the exception of his
r3th, 15ch, and 16th clafles, has ftritly adhered to his
principle. His arrangement is jultly entitled to the praife
of perf{picuity and elegance.
XXIV.—Laurence Fuffien’s method, firft publifoed in 1774.
Acotyledononous. Cotyledons not exifting, ete
{picuous. a
Monocotyledonous. - - Stamens Hypogynous. 2.
Perigynous. 3.
Epigynous. a.
Dicotyledonous..W:thoutacorolla. Stamens Hypogynous. 5.
Perigynous.. 6.
Epigynous. 7.
Corolla monopetalous. | Hypogynous.-8..
erlgynous. Qe
Epigynous.
Anthers united. IO.
Dittina. rive
Anthers Epigynous. 12.
Hypogynous13.
Perigynous. 14.
Apetalous. Monoicous or Dioicous.. 15.
Undetermined. - - 10.
This celebrated method is a much nearer approximation
to a natural one, than any which had ever been before con-
ceived; but it can be reported only as ina fate of progrefs,
and cannot jultly boaft of perfection. In fome points of
view it is ftill artificia!.. Its unrivalled excellence, however,
inconteftibly entitles it to gn examination in full detail. But,
as its very able author has been long employed in preparing
anew edition, with confiderable alterations, we fhall refer
our readers to the article Narurat Orders, hoping that,
before that part of our work goes to the prefs, we fhall be
able to lay before them his gradual advances towards a truly
natural arrangement, with his lateft ideas on the fubje@.
XXV.—La Marck’s method, publifhed in 1786.
Polypetalous.._
1. Polypetalous. Thalamiferous. = He Is
Calyciflorous. - = 2.
Fru@tiflorous. = = 3.
2. Monopetalous,. Fruétiflorous. - = 4e
Calyciflorous - - IA
Thalamiferous angiofpermous. 6
gymnofpermous, ™.
3..Compound. Diking. - - 8.
Syngenefious tubular. i Q-
ligulate. - TO.
4. Incomplete. Thalamiflorous. - = Il.
Calyciflorous. - = 12.
Diclynous. - » 13.
Gynandrous. - - 14.
5. One-lobed. Fractiflorous. - - pear,
Thalamiferous. - - 16.
6, .Cryptogamows, - - = a 17,
CLA
The fix daffes of this very elegant method are founded
on the prefence or abfence of the corolla, with other charac-
ters of that organ, and have the fingular advantage of de-
f{cending, in a regular and con{picuous gradation, from thofe
plants to which the author of nature has given, what may
be calied the mot numerous and the higheft endowments, to
thofe whichare but one degree removed fromthe mineral king -
dom. The firft clafs La Marck confiders as the maximum of
vegetable organization; moft of its genera have a calyx, a
polypetalous corolla, a great number of {tamens, and often
many pittils. It contains almoit ail the plants which poflefs
a remarkable irritability, as mimofa pudica, &c. hedyfarum
gyrans, oxalis feafitiva, dionza mufcipula, the different
fpecies of drofera, &c. and may be contidered as holding
the fame rank in the vegetable creation as the Linnean clafs
mammalia does among the animal tribes. The fecond clafs is
one degree lower. - There is rarely found in it an indefinite
number of ftamens and piltils in the fame flower. Its fta-
mens very feldom exceed ten, and in about two thirds of «ts
genera are not more than five. Nearly all of them are at-
tached to the corolla; whereas in the preceding clafs, they
are generally inferted into the calyx or the receptacle. The
lively imagination of the French naturalift is pleafed with
tracing out its analogy to the animal clafs aves. :
The third clafs betrays a {till greater diminution either in
the number or perfection of the effential organs. The pro-
per flowers are almoft all unprovided with a feparate calyx,
have only one naked feed, and are in many cafes abortive, in
fome entirely deftitute of a piftil. In a fcale of comparative
elevation, they are on a level with the amph.bia.
The fourth clafs conitantly wants fome of the parts which
conttitute a complete flower. The plants arranged under it
have generally only a calyx, or nothing but {cales which im-
perfeétly futain the office of a calyx. Its flowers are moit
commonly fmall, without beauty, and difficult to inveiligate.
Its ftamens and piftils are, moreover, frequently feparate
from each other in diftiné flowers, and in fome cafes are not
found onthe fame plant. In point of relative completenefs,
it may be fuppofed to occupy a ftation fimilar to that of the
piles: ' :
The fifth clafs has, in feveral refpe€ts, a ftill inferior cha-
rater. Its feeds have only one lobe or cotyledon, and
farnifh a fmaller quantity. of nutritive matter to the rifing
plumula. The fuil-zrown plants are, in confequence, con-
dtitutionally weaker, have frequently hollow {lems, and are
more eafily crufhed or broken.
The fixth cilafs is the minimum of vegetable excellence
and dignity. Its plants have a fimpler organization ; and,
in the greater number of them, neither {tamens nor piftils
have been difcovered. Conneéted with the preceding one
by the affinity of the ferns to the palms, it defcends to the
lowelt degradation of organized matter. The algw and the
fungi can be compared only with the corallines, madrepores,
cc. and like themcan barely be faid to live. A more par-
ticular account of the fubdivifions of this method, and of its
9+ natural families, will be found under the names of its
claffes.
XXIV.—Moench’s method, publifbed in 1794.
1. Thalamoftemon. Stamens on the receptacle
2. Petaloftemon. - - on the corolla.
3. Parapetaloltemon. - _ on leaves fimilar to petals.
4. Calycoftemon. - | - on the calyx.
«. Allagoftemum. - . eee on the calyx
vn and petals,
6. Styloftemum. - + onthe ftyle.
CLA
4 Stigmatoemum. - -
on the ftigma.
8. Cryptoftemon, - "
not vifible. |
This method profeflcs to be an improvement of that con-
ftructed by Gleditfch. Its author appears to have been as
much indebted to Laurence, as his predeceffor was to Ber-
nard Juffieu. We rather wonder at his temerity in off-ring
it tothe world, after the ‘* Genera Plantarum feeundum Or-
dines naturales dilpofita’”? had been fo widely circulated
and fo generally admired. He has taken his orders from the
difference in the fruit. But as fome of his claffes are very
large, he has found it neceffary to make fubdivifions, in
which he has had recourfe to other parts of the flower.
Adanfon, in 1763, publifhed what he calls a natural me-
thod, im which he has included all parts of a plaut, without
exception, from the root to the embryo of the future off-
{pring. It contains 55 orders; but in forming them he has
eltablifhed no charaéter fuiliciently fin.ple or precife to ren-
der them at all intelligible, without labouring through his
tedious verbofe details. His defcription of the 434 or legu-
minous plants, for in{tance, fills eleven pages of his onginal
work, without a poflibility of compreffling it into a narrower
compafs; and, after all, the mott attentive itudent will be
in danger of confounding the characters of one order with
thofe of another. We hall, therefore, difmifs it without
further notice. It would take up more room than it is
worth. A fimilar objetion, though not in quite an equal
degree, may be made to the recent method of De Necker.
For:an account of Gertner’s method founded on the
fruit, which was drawn up without an idea of its being ap-
plied to any praétical purpofe, but merely as an illuftration
of his fubje&t, fee Fruit.
CLASSIS Procinera, in Ancient Military Language.
This name or appellation was given by the Romans to either
a fleet or an army ranged or drawn up in order of battle
and ready to engage.
CLASSIT A, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia in
Affyria, who occupied the borders of the river Lycus, ac-
cording to Pliny. Hardouin fuppofes that the Cilici were
fo called, by way of diftin@ion, from the Cilici who inha-
bited the mountains.
CLASSIUS, a river of Gallia Narbonnenfis.
CLASSIDIUM, a town of Italy, in Liguria, according
to Polybius, ora village placed by Livy in Gallia Cifalpina ;
near which Viridomarus, king of the Gauls, was vanquifhed
in fingle combat by M. Marcellus. ;
CLASTON, a town of Spain, in Beetica, according to
Strabo. Cafaubon calls it Caftulo.
CLATERNA, a town of Italy, in Gallia Cifalpina.
Pliny gives it the title of a colony, Ptolemy annexes to it the
appellation of ‘Logata,’? and the Itinerary of Antonine
places it 30 miles from ‘ Forum Corneli,” (Imola); M.
D’Anville marks it S.E. of Bononia.
CLATHRI, in Antiquity, bars of iron, or wood, ufed in
fecuring doors and windows.
There was a goddefs that prefided over clathri, called
Clathra. ‘
CLATHRUS, in Botany, (xA25p0%, a lattice, 129.) Linn.
Gen. Mich. 93. Bulliard 10. Perfoon. 41. Mart, Lam.
Clafs and order, cryptogamia:fungi. \ ”
Gen. Ch. Fungus roundifh, confifting of a reticulated, lat-—
ticed, hollow body; the ramifications conne&ted on every
fide. Linn. ‘ Volva membranous ; pileus roundifh, feffile,
Jatticed with analtomofing branches ; juice flowing.”? Per-
foon. ‘ Seeds enclofed in the fubitance of the branches.”
Bulliard.
Sp. 1. C. cancellatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1, Lam. Pl. 887.
Bul.
4
CLA
Bal. Pl. 441, Bolton Pl. 93. Ag. 1. Sowerby so. (C. ruber,
Mich, tab. 93. Boletus purpureus & flavefcens, Tourn. 5 OI.
Fungus rotundus cancellatus,-Bauh. Pin. 375. Barrel. ic.
1263, and 1265. * Branches numerous.” = W. Vola,
buriting at its f{ummit into feveral fegments, and affording a
paflage to the latticed pileus. Branches very porous, con-
taining a gelatinous fubltance, which diflolves into a very
fetid fluid, and thus difcharges the féeds. - The plant varies
in being either of a purple or yellow:fh colour. A’ native of
England and other parts of Europe. 2. C. carolinianus,
Bote. Dict. d’Hittoire Naturelle, Pl. 26, B. ‘* Branches
four, analtomoling only at the top.” Bofe. A native of
Carolina. Clathrus denudatus, nudus, & recutitus. Linn.
See Tricuia.
Craturus.is alfo the name of a {pecies of rurzo, in the
order of fefacea, belonging the clafs of worms.
CLATTE, in Heraldry, a term borrowed from the
French to exprefs irregular lines, found in old paintings and
engravings of arms not reducible to any other proper lines of
heraldry, as the ingrailed, the indented, or the like.
CLAVA Hercutis,in Botany, fee ZanrHoxyitum.
CLAVARIA, from c/ava, a club.) Linn. gen. 1332.
Jaf. 15. Vent. vol. ii. 18, Clafs and order, eryptogamia
fungi. ‘
Gen.Ch. ‘ Fungus, with an even furface, oblong.’
© Uniform ; upright, club-fhaped ; {ceds emitted from every
part of its furface.” Withering.
* Stem with a head.
Sp. 1. C. gyrans, With. Bolt. 112. 1. Batfch. 164.
Willd. 7. 18. * Stem bair-like; head club fhaped, termi.
nating, longifh, tapering at each end.” Stem about half an
inch long, riding froma {mall bulb, very fleuder, pellucid,
crooked at the bottom, twifting and untwilting as the air
is moitt or dry. Head whitifh. On rotten ttraw and leaves in
woods and moift places. Scp.O&. 2. C. phacorhiza, With.
A flender, fimple, undulating thread, terminating rather
bluntly at the apex. ‘The fubitance at the bafe fomewhat
refemblesa bean or feed, fplitting to protrude a young plant.
Sometimes the head is larger, and refembles a bodkin or
knitting needle. 3. C. gracilis, Bolt. tab. iti. fig. 1. Sow-
erb. 232. Stemhalf an inch long, fmooth, flender, pellucid.
Head enlarging, almoft imperceptibly from the ftem, more
than an inch long, dufky white, cf a wax-like appearance,
terminating more or lefs acutely, differing in colour and tex-
ture from tke ftem. Found in fhady places in garden ground
that has been lately dug. 4. C. acuta, Sowerb. 333. (C.
piltillaris, Bolt. 110. fig. 2, 3, 4.) Generally growing foli-
tary, and varying much in fize. Root compoted of a few
fhort fibres. S¢em cylindrical, partly tranfparent, about the
length of the head. Head always tharply conical, fomewhat
opaque and mealy. 5. C. pha/phorea, Sowerb. too. (Rhiz-
omorpha fragilis, Roth. Crypt. minus~ nota. 7-Himantia
umbrina, Perfoon Meth. Fung. 73. Agaricum nigrum reti-
culatum compretium, Mich. Gen. 125. tab. 66. fiz. 3. Fun-
gus niger compreffus, varie divaricatus et implexus toter
lignum & corticem. Rai. Syn. 15 Sometimes parafitic be-
tween the wood and- bark of trecs. ‘he plant figured by
Mr. Sowerby was found in a wine-cellar in little St. Helens,
London, creeping among faw-duft and bottles, and com-
municated to him by Mr. B. M. Forfter. When frefh it
was remarkably lumious*in the dark at the ends of the
fhocts, where a very {lender head is formed: but Mr. Forf-
ter doubted whether this phofphoric appearance was natu-
ral to the plant, or owing to fome vinous moilture imbibed
by it. 6. C. fliformis, Sowerb, 357. fig. 4. Stem branched,
hairy. Headsterminating the branches, very {lender,refembling
CLA
thofe of the preceding fpecies but fmaller. Not uncommon
among dead leaves, when thickly ftrewed on the ground,
It is compefed of fibrille not unlike Byflus barbata Eng.
Bot. tab. 701; butin drying fhrivels up almoft to nothing,
7. C. tenuis, Sowerb, 386. fig. 5. Reiembling a little black
hair, thickening upwards. Found on bits of rotting wood
in a coal cellar in damp weather. 8. C. herbarum, Sowerb.
353. Perfoon Comment. de Fung. Clavef. tab. iii. fig. A?
Like C. ophiogloffoides in miniature, but {moother and ct a
more uniform colour, very fmall, with a diflin& head, which
finally becomes fhrivelled and twifted. Growing on. dead
flalks. 9. C. obiufa. Very fmail. Paratitic on fern-ftalks
in autumn, either on the upright growing plant, or its
decaying remains. Head larger in Preportion to the ftem
than in moft of the preceding {pecies; either fmooth or gras
nulated like a fpheria; in the latter cafe, the ftem, when
magnifed, is a little hairy. In both varieties the head is
folid, of a fomewhat friable texture, becoming a little horny
in drying. 10. C. minutia, Sowerby, 291. Very minute.
Head orange-coloured. Found on the brates of dipfacus
pilofus. 10. C. coccinea, Sowerb. 294. '(Tremella pur-
purea; Hudf.? Splreria tremelloides, With.). Seldom
without a ftem, though apparently feffile, as may. ealily be
perceived by a perpendicular {-Gion. Head {carlet. . Ex-
tremely common on rotcen {ticks ia damp weather in autumn,
12. C. polymorpha, Sower. 276. Bafe fomewhat brown,
and harder than the reft of the plant, which is of a waxy
texture, differing much in fhape, and generally hollow. Often
to be feen on decaying elm leaves in Kentington gardens.
13. C. parofitica, With. Willd. Berol..7..17. (Splveria’
parafitica, Woodw. “ Parafitic, club-fhaped, black, quite
fimple; ftem cylindrical; head oblong-cylindrical, obtufe,
coated with minute papill.”” Wilid. “This fingular fungus
is always fixed to a lycoperdon., It refembles C. ophioglof-
foides, but has a fofter fubftance, and fooner decays. Rout
confilting of many long, wiry, brown fibres, with which it
entwines and covers the furface of the tuber, but never
penetrates its fubftance. Siem flender, about-an inch long...
Head about half an inch long, oval, covered with minute
{pherie. Found on a heath near Norwich and fent to Mr.
Woodward by Mr. Pitchford. 14. C. cylindrica, Bull.
tab. 463. fig. 1. Sowerb. 90. Whole plant of a wax-like:
friable texture. Stem cylindrical. Head clongated, in fome
plants pear-fhaped. Found by Mr. Sowerby, in autumn,
in a field between Stoke Newington and Horntey. 15. C.
ephiphylia, With. Dickf. Fafe. 3. tab. 9. fig. 10. Sowerb.
293. (C. phallcides, Bull. 463.. ‘ Club-fhaped, quite en<
tire; head blunt, ho'low, red, orange or faffron-coloured,”
two or three inches high. Svem cylindrical, whitifh or pale
yellow. Head: roundith, or oblong-egg=ihaped, fometimes
refembling that. ofan agaric. In -bogs-and on half rotten
dead leaves; in peat: holes on Romba!lds Moor, Yorkthire,
and in a deep running ftream near Twobridge Wells. 16.
C. capitata, With. (Spheria agaricitolia, Bolt. tab. 130,
Flor. Dan. tab. 540.) ‘Stem yellow.. cylindricaly head
egg-thaped, cheltuut coloured, dotted,” Root black, {pongy,
furrounded with a thick volva which is of the fame fubitanee:
with the ftem. This volva is encloied im another, which jg
dry, hufky, of a brownifh green colour, attached to the
inner one by a few radical fibres. Svem, while young, folid
and f{mieoth, when old, fiftular, furrowed) a littic twilteds :
in both ftates, foft, pliable, and ealily {pitting into: yellow
fhining filaments. Aftersbeing fhut up iD a tin box all
night, a {mall gelatinous, drop was obferved, by Bolton, in
very pore on the furface of the head; after an expofure to
the warm funfhine for about an hour, the gelacirous par-
ticles Cri¢d up, and a whice powder was copioully difcharsed,
7 Found
CLA WA Ber AY
und in Ramfden Wood, near Halifas, in Yorkfhire.
. C. fpatulata, With. Schmid. tab. 50. Flor. Dan.
558. (Helvella (patulata; Sower. 35. H. clavata, Scheef.
tab. 149. Dickf. 1. fafc. p.19: H. feritoria, Bolt. tab. 97.)
Battledore clavaria. Root a hard fibrous knob, a little
thicker than the bottom of the ftem. Svem, while young, cy-
iindrical, folid, foft, pliable, filvery white. As it advances in
age, it becomes a little wrinkled on the furface, twifted, and
fometimes torn, efpeciaily near the root. Head like the
large end of a battledore for flriking a fhuttlecock; at firft
confiting of two equal membranes of a pale yellow colcur,
plain, united by their whole inner furface, refembling a
{mail bladder with the two fides preffed together; as it ad-
vances in growth, the two fides become wrinkled, and
brauching veins begin to originate in that part of the ftem
which runs into the head; at lalt the fides feparate, and the
head becomes inflated; when opened, nothing is found in it
but a few downy, capillary filaments. Ina ftate of perfe&
maturity, the head, on being touched, throws up its feeds
in form of 2 fmoke, which rife with an elaftic force, and
glitter in the-funfhine like particles of filver. A very di-
iin fpecies, but its genus not eafi'y determined ; it being
almoft equally allied to peziza helvella, lycoperdon, and cla-
varia. Firft difcovered, by the late exccllent Mr. Crowe,
in the plantations of Coltefy, near Norwich; found, by
Bolton, in the plantations about. Fixby-Hall, near Halifax.
18. C. ferruginca, Sowerb. 84. Stem a little rough on the
upper part. Head refembling that of a {mail agaric, infide
fomewhat pithy. Found under the fhade of firs in planta-
tions, near Nerwich. 19. C. militaris, Linn. Sp. 2.
Lam. .2. Lam. Ili. tab. 588. fig. 5. ‘*Club-fhaped, very
entire; head either fealy or granulated. Var. 1 Scheff.
2yo. (Spheria militans, Bolt. 128.). Head fealy, about
four inches high, near two in diameter at the thicker part,
folid, orange-brown. In fhady woods. Var. 2. Schmid.
5. fig. 2,3. Waill. Paris, tab. 7. fig. 4. Flor. Dan. tab.
657- fig. t. (Spheria militaris, Sowerb. 60.) Head
granulated, orange brown or chocolate-coloureds much
more flender than in the preceding fpecies, folid, yellow
within, fometimes bifid at the apex. Var. 3. Buil. 496. 1.
Buxb. 4. 66.2. ‘ Head granulated, yellow.” Stemabout
an inch high, flender, tapering upwards, gradually thicken-
ing to form the head. ead an inch or an inch and half
long, two or three tenths of an inch in diameter, thickeft in
the middle, blunt at the end; in moift woods and bogs in
autumn. La Marck fuppofes this fpecies to be only a
variety of C, piitillaris; but he feems to be acquainted only
with the firlt variety. 20. C. ardenia, Sowerb. 215.
Woolly at the bafe. Sem tomentous at the bottom, cylin-
drical, hollow. Head dilating upwards. In the younger
plants the head is fomewhat pointed and covered with a
lightith mealy powder. In a more advanced ftate it be-
comes truncated, and covered with a browner powder;
{plitting longitudinally in decay. Found by lady Arden,
Nov. 29, 1798, in Nook-Park, near Epfom. It grows on
rotten hazel flicks, fpringing from the under fide, half an
inch or more under the earth, among decaying foliage. Its
whole duration feems to be about a week.
F¢
17
65
** Siem without a head, nearly undivided.
21. C. herculanea, With. Var. 1. Bull. 244. Sowerb.
277. (C. piftillaris, @. Linn. 3. Hudf.) ‘ Undivided,
club-fhaped, folid, not granvlated.’? The largeft of the
genus; about three inches high, one or two in diameter
towards the top, in the larger {pecimens much refembling
“the fhape of a pear, dull orange-coloured, beautifully white,
and foft within. Found in Windfor foreft. 22. C. ver-
miculata, Lightf. 1037. »Sowerb. 253. (C. ‘piftilfaris,
Hudf. 638.) © ** Worm-fhaped,. ochreleucous.” Lishtf.
About two inches high, generally thickeft in the middl,
often longitudmally wrinkled, varying from a ftraw-colour
to an orange. 23. C. tuberofa, Sowerb. 199., Root tube-
rous. Stem tubular, pointed, growing on fticks, forcing its
way through the bark: 24. C. fujfiformis, Sowerb. 234.
(C. pifiilaris, Bolt. ro?) Spindle-fhaped, tapering to a
point. Subitance friable when frefh, pithy, moft firm in the
external part. -25. C. rugofa, Lam. Ill. 888. fig. 2.
Sowerb. 235. (C. piltilaris, Lightf.?) Subfance more
tender than in the preceding, and moftly hollow, yellow,
tipped with orange; young fpecimens fimple, blunt at the
end ; old ones lactniated in the upper part.
Obf. The lait fiye {pecies are all included under C. pifiil-'
Jaris of Linnezus and Hudfon. Withering has divided
them into two, with feveral varieties under each, mak-
ing a folid ftem the p¥incipal charaGter of his herculanea ;
and a hollow one of his piftilaris; but, as the fame
plant appears to vary in this refpe@, in different ftages
of its prowth, it can fearcely be thought a proper fpe-
e:fic ditinGion. We have followed Sowerby in making five
fpecies, which appear to be fufficiently diitin@, and which
may include the numerous varieties of different authors.
26. C. tuberculata, With. Scheff. 289. “Scemlefs,
nearly of equal thicknefs, pale orange, whole furface
ftudded with tubercles’? About an inch and a quarter
hizh, a quarter of an inch in diamcter, rather flatted, fome-—
times flyhtly cloven at the tep; tubercies deep orange,
broadeft at the bafe, pointed, and tranfparert at the tp ;
interltices Billed with a whitifh, cobweb-like fubilance.
Grows on the ground, but rare, Aug. 27. C. elueloides,
With. Dickf. Fafe. i. p 21. Wulfen in Jacq. Mife. Autt,
tab. xii. fig. 3. (Eivelacarsea, Scheff. tab. 164.) ‘* Grows
ing in tufts, quite Ample, very thick, united at the bafe, ins
verfely pyramidal, &riated.? Two inches high, one in
diameter ; when young flefhy ; when older woody, branch-
ed, comps ficd, fomewhat funnel-fhaped, truncated; margin
plaited, curled, brown, with a tinge of purple withont,
whitifh, or yellowif within. Woods on the ground,
about the trunks of trees, Aug. and Sept. 28. C. ophio-
glofvides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. am. 3. Wail. Pavis, tab. 7.
fig. 3. Mich. Gen. tab. 87. fig. 4. Schaff. tab. 237.
Flor. Dan. tab. 1076. fig. 2. Schmid. 25. Bull. 372.
Bolt. 111. fiz.2. Sowerb. 83. (Mufcus clavatus, Pluk.
tab. 47. fig. 3.) * Club-fhaped, quite entire, compreffed,
blunt.”?, About two inches high, near half an inch in dia-
meter in the broadelt part ; always whoily black on the
outfide, white within; when young, folid and fmooth 5
when older, hollow, thrunk, deprefied, furrowed or wrinkled.
In moift paflures, Sept. O&. 29. C. /utea, Lam. 4. Mich.
Gen. tab. 87. fig. 5. Hall. Helv. n. 2207. “ Hora-
fhaped, quite fimple, fmooth.”? From fix to nine-lines
long, gold-coloured, flender, hollow, a little pointed at the
top, curved, tender. Found by La Marck in the neigh-
bourhood of Rouen. There is a variety a little larger,
growing in tufts, figured by Mich. tab. 87. fig. 11. (C.
cefpitofa, Jacq. Mile. ii. tab. 12. fig. 22) 30. C. jim-
briata, With. “ Undivided, hollow, clofed, and pointed,
or open and fringed at the end’ Whole plant covered
with a greyifh powder. Near half an inch high, about the
thicknefs of a pin, greenifh at the bottom, white above,
tapering. Found by Dr. Withering among mofs, O@.
31. C. cornea, Withering. Batfch 28. 161. Sowerb. 40.
(C. aculeiformis, Bull. 463-4. Sibth.) * Red orange; fim-
ple or cloven, nearly cylindrical, obtufe, gelatinous, folid.’?
Scarcely a quarter of an inch high, often flicking together _
6
from
—— ——
Cl Aev ACK Sa A.
from their pluinous fubfance, though horny and brittle
when dry. With. from Batf{eh. Sowerby’s figure does
not perteétly accord with Withering’s defcription, though
both make the fame reference to Bulliard. In Sowerby’s
figure, the ftem appears flatter, deeply laciniated, and fome-
times cloven almoft to the bafe into three or more feg-
meutse
*** Stem branched.
32. C. elegans, With. Bolt. tab. 115. (C. coralloides,
Var. Bull. 496—Sowerb. 278.) “ White, fometimes
branched, upright.”” . Four or five inches high. Root hard,
brown, fibrous. Stem fometimes fimple,club-fhaped, wrinkled,
longitudinally furrowed; fometimes a little branched;
all the divifions obtufe. In both ftates, while frefh and
growing, of a pure filvery white, and, if viewed between
the eye and the light, refembling the fineft virgin wax.
In decay it changes to a pale brown colour, and foon dil-
appears. Sept. Withering thinks Bolton right in keeping
it diftinct from C. coralloides, as it conneéts the unbranched
with the branched fpecies. 33. C. corallzides, Linn. Sp.
Pl. 6. Lam. 7. With. “Tourn. 332-6. Barr. 1259,
1260, 1261, 1262. Scheefi. 170, 172, 174, 175; 170,
177+:295, 290, 287. Bull. 222, 354, 358, 496. Lam.
Lil. 888. fiz. 3. Bolt. tab. r13. Sowerb. 278. (Fun-
goides ramofum maximum, braflice cauliflore facie et
magnitudine. Dill. in Rai. Syn. ed. iil. p. 16, communi-
cated by Dr. Richardfon, who, in 1703, found plants which
weighed two or three pounds. They grew in a meadow at
Bierly-hall near Bradford, Yorkfhire.) ‘* Branches crowded,
much divided and fubdivided, unequal’? It varies much in
colour, being either white, grey, purple, yellow, or olive-
coloured ; but may always be diftinguifhed from C. pillil-
Jaris, by growing from one baie, and being much branched.
It is fometimes as larsé as a cauliflower. The whole
fpecies is efteemed on the continent one of the belt of the
fungous tribe for the table, and, is eaten by the Germans
under the name of Ziegenbart. Dr. Withering aflures us,
from his own experience, that the white and grey varieties
may be eaten with fafety. 34. C. fa/ligiata, Linn. Sp.
Ply. Lam. 6. Bull.358, D. E. “Bolt. tab. 112. fig. 2.
and tab. 113. fig. 6. (Fungoides coralliforme luteum
feiidum et minus ramofum, Dill. in Rai. Syn. ed. 3.
p- 479. tab. 24. fiz. 5.) ‘* Yellow; branches crowded,
of equal height.”” Bulliard is inclined to think it only a
variety of coralloides. But, according to Mr. Woodward,
it differs from that fpecies in having feveral ftems very
flightly conneéted at the bafe, which are cither fimple, or
little branched, approaching very near to C. piftillaris, but
{pecifically diftin&t from both, In the young plants figured
by Bolton in tab. t12. fig. 2, the tops of the branches are
entire, and truncated; in the older ones, tab. 113, C.
pointed teeth fhoot out, which gradually become larger,
and fometimes branched.
O&. 35. C. coriacea, Willd. Bull. tab. 452. fig: 2.
‘* Branches flattifh, grooved, fringed at the end, grey, chang-
ing to black brown ;” about two inches high, of a 1oft but
elaftic fubftance.~ It differs from C. coralloides, and C. faf-
tigiata, in the longitudinal grooves. Found by Dr. Sib-
thorpe in Shotover plantations, Oxfordfhire, O&. 36. C.
mufeoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 8 Lam. 5. With. Bolt.
tab. 114. Sowerbd. 157. (C. corniculata, Scheeff. tab. 173.
Fungus parvus luteus ramofus, Rai. Syn. tab. 24. fig. 7.)
« Pale yellow, repeatedly branched, taper-pointed, un-
equal.” From two to five inches high. It agrees with C.
faltigiata, in being nearly diftinct at the bafe, and with C.
coralloides, in being always much branched, but differs
Vor. VIII.
Strahan and Pretton,
niger, Mich, gen. tab. 54> fig. 4./)
Woods and paftures, Auz.>
from both ia having the extremities of the branches fharp=
pointed. Branches feveral times dichotomous ; terminating
forks fometimes of unequal length; fometimes diverging
at their origin, and converging near the point. Luxu-
riant f{pecimens are the fize of a man’s fit; the
branches much {welled at the divarications, and much en-
tangled together, but all united at the bafe, Bolt. Heaths
and dry woods, O&. 37. C. /aciniata, With. Bull. 415. 1.
Jacq. Mifc. 14. 1. Scheeff. 291. Sowerb. 158. (C. de-
formis, Var. 8. y. Lam. Encyc. Vaill. tab. 8. fig. 2, 3.
La Marck’s Var. « of his deformis is C. cornutus, Scheff.
tab. 289.) ‘* Flat, thin, membranous, jagged, and fringed
at the top.” From one to two inches high, irregular in
fhape, much rooted in the earth, fpreading elegantly in all
dire@ions, and feeming to depend on the contiguous herbage
for fupport. Stems uniting at the bottom, purplifh brown,
covered with a fine mealy white, which eafily rubs off;
branches often like an expanded hand, hitifh, or yellowifh-
brown; the ends jagged, fet with feveral pointed projections,
and tipped with reddifh brown, Aug. 38. C. anthocephala,
With. Sibth. Bull. 452. 1. Sowerb. 156. <<‘ Fan-fhaped,
lobed, rufty red ; ftem thort, cylindrical, hairy.”” Ofa tough
woody texture, nearly two inches high. Stem expanding
upwards into feveral fegments, which are {colloped at the
end, and paler than the reft of the plant. O&. 39. C. Ay-
poxylon, Linn. Sp. Pi. 5. Lam. tc. With. (C. carnuta
Bull. 180, Sphecia hypoxylon, Sowerb. 55. Spheria digi-
tata, &c. Bolt. tab. 129. a,b,c, d. Coralloides ramofa,
nigra, comprefla, apicibus albis, Tourn. 565. Lichen aga-
ricus nigricans, Mich. gen. tab. 55. fig. 1.) ‘* Branches
refembling horns, compreffed.”” Very woolly when yourg,
and very black, rather woody, white, and fibrous within,
fometimes fingle, or occafionally forked, with the extremities
more or lefs acuite; fometimes with the fummits compreffed,
palmated, or digitated, and covered with a white farinaceous
powder, which continues on them from October to March.
40. C. digitata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Lam, 11. With, Scheff.
tab. 328. Sowerby. 69. (Spheria digitata, Woodv.
Bolt. tab. 129. fig. 2. f. Bul’. tab. 220. Agaricus digita-
tus niger, Tourn. 562, Wichen agaricus terreltris, digitatus
‘‘ Branched, woody,
black’ Linn. “ Thick, folid, conical, rough,’? With. Sub-
ftance like cork, tending to a cylindrical figure, from one to
two inches high, from a quarter to three quarters of an inch
in diameter, fometimes rather branched, white at the top
while young. Seeds lodged in little cells near the furface,
which cells are not vifible till the hairs fail off. Bull. Dr.
Waller, in fome curious obfervations communicated to Dr.
Withering by the Rev. Mr. Dickenfon, has given it as his
opinion, that the plants deferibed by Linnaeus under the
names of C hypoxylon, C. digitata, and C. ophiogloffoides,
are bat one fpecies, which he propofes to call C. villofa.
Ascording to him, C. hypoxylon is the mofl common ap-
pearance of the male plant; C. digitata of the female; and
C. ophiogloffoides is’a varicty of the female. ‘The female
plant begins to fpring at the fame time and in the fame
place with the male, 7.e. about the end of September, and
generally in thady woods, but rifes only to half its height.
They grow always in clufters together, but never proceed
from the fame root. After the male plant has fhed its pol-
len in November, it begins to decay, and ir the {pring en-
tirely difappears: whereas the female plant continues to grow
vigoroufly till about the middle of April, when the feeds
being ripe, the head burfts in feveral places and falls of.
Thefe faéts, if fufliciently afcertained, fatisfactorily fhew the
diflin@tion of the fexes. With regard to C. digitata, Dr.
Waller obferves, that Linneus has mifunderftood the term
25 digitatue,
CLA
digitatus, as applied by Tournefort, Vaillant, and oihers, ta
two varieties of the plant, not becaufe they are fingered
like the human hand, but becaufe their fingle head, in figure
and fize, has fome refemblance to a human finger, In oppo-
fition to this ttatement, it is, however, neceffary to add, that
Mr. Sowerby has obferved, that C. digitsta commences its
growth very early in the {pring, and ripens its feed-veflels
ancually in autumn. It is allo worthy of notice, that Mr.
Woodward, a very diligent and accurate obferver, could
never perceive any appearance of fpherules en C. ophioglof-
foides. 41. C. cupreffiforme, With. (Spheria digitata,
Bolt. tab. 129. fiz. g.) “ But little branched ; head cont-
cal, fupported on a ftem.”? Mr, Woodward thinks this plant
effentia:ly different from the preceding one. Stem about
half an inch high, fimple, or only once divided. Head zbout
the fame length, refembling a cyprefs tree in miniature.
On decayed wood. 42. C. tomentefa, “Lam. 10.
«< Branched, coriaceous, cloathed with a reddith brown pu-
befecrce; little branches fomewhat palmated at the top.”
Growing in expanded tufts; not more than an inch high.
Pubefcence fhort, cottony, with the appearance of veivet.
fiafily diftinguifhed from every other known fpecies. In
habit refembling coralloides ramefum ex rufo carneum pla-
tyceron of Micheli, (tab. 85. fig. 3.) which is, perhaps, a
variety. Found by La Marck in a mine at Schemnitz, in
Hungary, on the wood which fupported the roofs of the,
galleries. 43. C. furinofa, With. Dick{. Fafc. 2. p. 25-
Sowerb. 308. (Ramaria farinofa, Holm in nov. aét. dan.
1. fig. 6.) ‘ White, mealy; branch-s fhort, truncated,
ererulate.” Solitary. Stem upright, fomewhat angular, a
little compreffled ; branches unequal, thicker towards the
end. When the white meal is rubbed off, the plant appears
yellow. Woods, on the chryfalis of infefts. 44. C. byfoides,
Sowerb. 335. ‘ Small, delicately white.’? Stems branch-
ed, forming irregular intricate tufts, refembling a byflus, or
rathera minute coral. Found on old ftumps of trees.
Mr. Woodward and other recent botaniits have removed
fome of thefe {pecies to fpharia, in confequence of their
agreement with that genus in the ftruéture of their feed-
veflels. But Schmidel has demonftrated a fimilar ftruciure
in ftill other fpecies of clavaria, and ona more accurate ex-
amination of the plants in a ftate of compleat maturity, it
may probably be found in all; fo that the two genera mult
on this ground be united into one. But the difference in
their general habit is fo great, that Withering has thought
it beft to keep them diftin&. For a fimilar reafon we have
retained C. hypoxylon, &c. in the prefent genus where Lin-
neus placed them; convinced that, though a new ar-
rangement will hereafter be neceflary, we are not as yet in
poffeffion of fufficient knowledge to eftablifh one on a fo-
lid foundation. La Marck has retained all the Lin-
nwan fpecies of clavaria, with the addition of three others ;
but Poiret, his fucceffor in the botanical part of the Ency-
clopedie Methodique, has removed militavis, bypoxylon, and
digitata to {pheria.
Juffien has given the following charatter of his clavaria :
*© Somewhat flefhy, growing cither on the ground, or on
other plants ; either club-fhaped, fimple, oblong, or branch-
ed like corals; the little branches {welling at the tip, with
projections refembling nipples.”” By this definition he has
excluded the firft five fpecies of Linnzus, viz. piltillaris,
militaris, ophiogloffoides, digitata, and hypoxylon. Thete,
under the generic name of hypoxylon, he has removed to
the order of alge, and affociated with the lichens. Ven-
tenat has not adopted this new genus.
CLAVARIUM, in Ancient Military Language, an allow-
ance tocommop Roman foldiers for purchafing fhoes and
CLA
boots, or harnefs for the legs (called cdlige), and which
were fet full of nails, They raifed freqnent mutinies, de-
manding largetfes of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAVATA-VestTimMENTA, in Antiquity, habits adorned.
with purple clavi, which were either broad or narrow. See
Cravus,
CLAUDE, Joux, in Biography, a highly eclebrated
French Proteflant divine, was born at Suavetat, in the Age-
nois, in the year 1613 or 1619. THis early education was
conducted by his father, who was alfo a minilfer, and a man
of learning ; he was afterwards fent to finith his ftudies in
philofophy and theology at Montauban, where he was or-
dained in 1645. «After having fucceffively ferved two
churches of inferior confequence in the country, each for a.
fhort period, he accepted an invitation from the church of
Nifmes, which was elteemed one ef the firft in the Protefkant
interett in France. ‘There was a Proteftant college at this
city, and Mr. Claude employed his leifure time in dejiveringe
a private courfe of theological lectures to the ftudents, whe
gladly availed themfelves of the affiltance of his great learn-
ing and abilities. He had pafled eight years in this fitua-
tion, agreeably and ufcfully employed, and univerfally res
{pected by all who had the happinefs of his acquaintance,
when a circum/tance occurred which obliged him to remove.
He had the misfortune to oppofe the efforts of a man who
had been gained over by the court, or catholic party, to
bring back the Proteftants to the Roman communion; and
an order of council was in-confequence iffued to forbid him
to officiate any longer in Languedoc. On receiving this
prohibition he went to Paris, in hopes of being able to get
it refcinded ; he remained there fix months, but could not
fucceed in the object of his journey. During his flay at
Paris, he was prevailed upon by maddm De Turenne to write
an anf{wer toa work which had juit been peblifhed by Meflrs.
De Port-Royal, ** On the Perpetu'ty of the Roman Ca-
tholic Faith refpecting the Euchariit,’? which was princi-
pally defigned to convert her hufband, marfhal Turenne, to
the court tenets. Mr. Ciaude’s anfwer led to a controverly
of fome leagth, in which he appeared with great advaniage ;
but it was not probable he could fucceed in the firft object
of his undertaking, the prefervation of marfhal Turenne to
the Protettant intereft, when other inducements, more power-=
ful in the eflimation of a courticr than religious feruples,
weighed on the other fide. From Paris, Mr. Claude went
to Montauban, the place of his education, where he accepted
the charge of a church. After he had refided here four
years, the Port-royalilts difcovered, by the bafeft artifices,
that he was preparing an anfwer to their elaborate vindica-
tion of the original publication on the ‘ Perpetuity,”? and
made intereft to obtain another order of council to forbid
him the exercife of his profeffion at Montauban. This oc-
cafioned him another journey to Paris, where he remained
nine months, with as little fuccefs as had attended his firft
application on a fimilar errand. At this time, 1666, he re-
ceived a moft flattering invitation from the reformed church
of Paris, which aflembled at Charenton, and accepted the
charge of being one of its paitos. Charenton being the me-
tropolitan church of the French Proteitants, Mr. Claude
had an opportunity of exercifing his talents with the greateft
advantage to their caufe, and on many occaftons rendered
them effential fervices by his publications, and by his excel-
lent condué at fynods and confiftories. His firft publica-
tion in his new fituation comprifed two additional tra&s
againft the work of the Port-royalifts on the Eucharilt. After
this, Dr. Nicole publifhed an attack upon the Proteitants,
in a work entitled, ‘* Well-grounded Prejudices againft the
Calvinifte;? which drew from Mr. Claude an an{wer in two
2 vohimes .
CLA
volumes quarto, entitled, “ A Defence of the Reformation,”
which has been regarded as the ableft work ever publifhed
on the fubje&t. He printed alfo fome fermons, under the
title ef * The Parable of the Wedding Feaft.” At the
requeft of mademoifelle de Duras, who was a member of his
church, he had, in 1678, a long private conference with Bof-
fuct, the bifhop of Condom, afterwards of Meaux, which
vas conducted cn both fides with all the talents thefe able
adverfaries cou'd call forth. Of this difputation Boffuet
firtt publifhed an account, in which he confidered himielf as
the victor; but Claude afterwards publifked his replies,
claiming, with equal confidence, the honour of the day ashis
own. In 1682 he publifhed anonymoufly a {mall work, en-
titled, ** Confiderations on the Circular Letters of the AL
fembly of the Clergy of France of the Year 1682.” The
letters to which it was a reply had been written and circu-
lated by the Catholic clergy with the view of bringing back
the Proteftants to their communion. Shortly after this,
CJaude publifhed another {mall picce of a more praétical
kind, ‘ On Preparation for the Lord’s Supper.’? Thus did
he aGtively employ himfelf in the caufe of the Reformation,
until the clergy fucceeded in the great meafure which they
had long laboured to effect, the revocation of the edict of
Nantz. This fatal decree was regiftered in parliament, and
received the fanétion of law, on the 22d of December 165°.
The longeft period which was granted to the Proteftant
clergy to quit France was fifteen days ; but fo eager were the
exwlting bilhops to get fairly rid of their old adverfary, that
an exception was made to the cafe of Claude, who received
{pecial orders to depart the kingdom in twenty-four hours!
On the 23d cf December, therefore, in compliance with this
injunGion, he fet out for the Hague, where his fonwasminilter
of the Walloon church. He was received on his arrival
with the greateft kindnefs by perfons of the highett diltinc-
tion; particularly by the prince of Orange, who granted
him a penfion for his maintenance. He enjoyed the bounty
of his benefactor, however, only fora fhort period; as he died,
afcer a fhort illnefs, in January 1687. During his refidence
at the Hague, he publifhed a work, entitled, “* The Com-
plaints of the Proteltants of rance ;” which was defigned
to expofe the conduct of the bifhops of France in their per-
fecution of his party. It was well received by the friends of
the reformation on the continent; but was, of courfe, exe-
crated in France, and in England was ordered by James II.
to be burnt by the common hangman. After his death, his
fon, Mr. Ifaac Claude, publifhed his poflhumous works in
five yo.umes Svo.
Mr. Claude did not poficfs many requilites for a public
fpeaker. Elis perfon was bad, and his voice deficient in thofe
qualities which are calculated to impart the charms of me-
lody and perfuafive fafcination to the eloquence of public
difcourfe. His ftyle and language, although not diltin-
guifhed by clegance, were, neverthelefs, correct, vigorous,
and animated; and if they were not adapted to amule the
fancy and captivate the feclings, feldom failed to convince
the underitanding and improve the heart. His writings
prove him to have poficifed a large fhare of learning, and
jullly claim for him the highett reputation as a controver-
fiat, To this it muft be adéed, that his private life was
truly excellent ; he had imbibed the genuine fpirit of the
religion he taught; and manfelled, in the whole of his con-
Gust, a picty and devotion, a charity and benevolence, an
integrity and uprightuefs of charaéter, which reflect the
highe!t luflre on his name and memory. Bayle. Nouveau
Dict. Hiflorique, Paris 1804. Robinfon’s Life of Claude.
CLAUDE, Le Jeunz, or Cravpin, in Biography,
the molt renowned Trench mulfician of his time, was a m-
CLA
tive of Valenciennes. He was an early follower of Calvin;
but flourifhed fomewhat later than Goudimel, with whom
he is often confounded; both having the name of Claude,
both being Hugonots, both great muficians, and both in
high favour with the Calvinifts for fetting Clement Marot’s
mutical tranflation of the Pfalms to mufic for their temple
worthip, which rendered both fo obnoxious to the Catholics
that one of them was maflacred on St. Bartholomew’s day,
1572, and the other narrowly efcaped.
Concerning the miftaken identity of thefe muficians,
Bayle has cleared up that point with his ufual accuracy ;
and proved from indifpu‘able authority, that Le Jeune was
living and in the higheft public favour, even at court,
though a Hugonot, many years after the fatal feaft of St.
Bartholomew, particularly in 1582, when the wonders which
he is faid to have performed by his mufical art at the wedding
of the duke de Joyeufe are recorded. The works of Claude le
Jeane confited chiefly of mifcellaneous fongs, and pfalms;
de melanges, des chanfons, des pfeaumes, of which he publifh-
ed many books. His ‘* Melanges’? confit of fongs and
motets, in French, Italian, and Latin. His fongs are
chiefly French, and in many parts like the madrigals of
Italy. Of his pfalms in fimple counterparts of three and
four parts, we have examined three fevera! editions, printed
in different forms and in different countries; and as far as
counterpart is concerned we find them admirable. Few of
the melodies, we believe, were of his invention, but were
the produStions of the firft German reformers; they how-
ever went through more editions perhaps than any mufical
work fince the invention cf printing.
Craupe, Craupa, or Craupius, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, an ifland of the Cretan fea, mentioned by Ptolemy,
and inthe As of the Apoltles, (ch. xxvii. 16.) and lying
S. of Crete. In Pliny’s time it hada city called Gaulos.
This ifland is fuppofed to be the modern ifle of Gozo
Craupe, Sr., in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diitri¢t in the department of Jura; the
place contains 3579, and the canton 14,722 inhabitants,
the territory comprehends 3823 kiliometres and 32 com,
munes.
Craupr, Sr., a town of France in the department of
Charente, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of
Confolens; the place contains 2008 and the caaton 12,28y
inhabitants ; the territory includes 295 kilometres and 17
communes.
CLAUDENDA curia. See Curia.
CLAUDENS falpebras, in Anatomy, a name.given by
Spigelius, and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the
face, called by Albinus and Winflow, miujfculus orbicularis
palpebrarum, and by others /phinder palpebraram.
CLAUDER, Gasrten, in Biography, pay liciaa to the
elector of Saxony and member of the Imperal Academy
at Vienna, was born at Altenbourg, in the year 1633.
After being inftruéied in the Greek and Latin languages,
in which he is faid to have made great proficiency, he was
{ent, at the age of eighteen, to Jena, to be initiated in the
different branches of medicine, which he fludied under the
profeffors Rolfinck, Moebius, and Schenck. He then
went to Leipfic, Holland, and England, converfing, ia
each place, with the moft eminent of the profeffors. Re-
turning by Leipfic, he took his degree of door in medi-
cine in 1662. He was a frequent corre{pondent of the
Acad. Nat..Curiof. and furnifhed them witha great varicty
of obfervations, which appear in their collections. In a
man who died after almoit inceflant vomiting, the fomach,
omentum, and part of the duodenum, were found in the ca-
vity of the thorax. One patient took thirty, ani at lengti
3E2 fifty
CLA
fifty grains of folid opium each day, and continued the
practice eighteen months, without fuffering any inconvenience,
He gave the hyofcyamus in dyfentery with fuccefs. For the
titles and accounts of the remaining differtations, fee Hal-
ler’s Bib. Med. His feparate publications are ‘* Differtatio
de Tingtura Univerfali, vulgo Lapis Philofophorum dicta,”
Altemb. 1678, gto. ‘ Methodus balfamandi Corpora hu-
mana, aliaque majora, fine Evifceratione et Seétione, huc-
ufque folita.”” Altem.1679, qto. The preparation ufed by
him was fuppofed to be fimilar to that employed by De
Bils, of which he had heard (fee the article Bins, Der, in
Vol. iv. of the Cyclopedia,); it proved equally incfhi-
cient. Differtatio de Cinnabari nativa Hengarica, in
majorem effitaciam fixata et exaltata.”” Jena, 1054, 4to.
The cinnabar was expofed to the flame of a lamp for the
fpace of cight or nine months ; it was then expofed to other
degrees of heat for about four months longer ; at the end
of this procefs it was fuppofed to have acquired a {pecific
power over the lues venerea. In this alfo he was unfuccefsful,
and we only learn from it that he had an alive mind, and
was defirous of doing fomething beneficial to humanity, and
which might tranfmit his name, with credit, to polterity. He
alfo left “ Praxeos Medice Monumenta generalia,”’ which
was publifhed at Chemnitz, 1729, 8vo. He died Jan. 9,
1691. His nephew, Frederic William Clauder, fucceeded
him in his poft of phyfician to the ele€tor of Saxony. He
was alfo eleCted member of the Imperial Academy, and,
like his uncle, fent fome obfervations which were publifhed
inthe ‘Colletanea”’ Haller, Bib. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.
‘CLAUDIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Norica,
according to Pliny ; named Claudivivm by Ptolemy. Clu-
verius fuppofes it to be Claufen in Bavaria, and Hardouin
refers it to Clagenfurt in Carinthia.
Cravoia Regio, acountry of Afia Minor, in the vicinity
of the town of Miletus. Diod. Sic.
Cravupia Via, a Roman road, in Italy; commencing at
the bridge Milvius and joining the Flamiman high-way.
Craupie Ague, two fountains of Italy, in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome. Suetonius.
CLAUDIAN, Craunius Cravupranus, in Biogra-
phy,,an eminent Latin poet, flourifhed in the fourth cen-
tury under the emperors Theodofius, and his fons Arcadius
and Honorius. Like the epic bard of Greece, various ci-
ties have contended for the honour of having given him
birth. It has been maintained by fome that he was a native
of Florence, by others, of Gaul, while a third party have
fuppofed him to have been a Spaniard ; but the moft proba-
ble and beft authenticated accounts, among which may per-
haps be placed his own teftimony, affert that he was born at
ornear Alexandria in Egypt. He was greatly in favour with
the celebrated general Stilicho; and enjoyed all the benefit of
the extenfive patronage of that commander while he retained
his influence and authority in the government of the empire.
He was made a tribune and notary, and had, at one time, fo
highly ingratiated himfelf into public efteem, that the fenate
ordered a ftatue to be ere€&ted in honour of him, in the
forum of Trajan, with an infcription expreflive of their
high opinion of his accomphfhments and praGtical merit.
Serena, the wife of Stilicho, procured for him, by her ex-
tenfive intereft, a moft advantageous marriage with a
wealthy lady of Africa. When his patron was put to
death, Claudian confidering that the favourites of a dif-
graced minilter are generally objects of enmity or fufpicion
to his faccefsful and triumphant adverfaries, haftily quitted
the court. Little is known of his fubfequent hiftory ; but
it has been fuppofed that he paffed the remainder of his days
im retirement ; it does not appear, however, that he was de-
CLA
prived of any of his dignities. From fome pieces which have
beeninferted by ignorant editors among his poems, it has been
thought by fome that he was a convert to Chriftianity ; but
there are the ftrongeft reafons to prove that he was a poly-
theift and idolater to the laft. Orofius, particularly, calls
him “‘ an obftinate pagan ;”” and his own works abound
with paflages which imply that he was a votary of the po-
pular fuperttitions of Pagan Rome, Lardner, neverthelefs,
quotes him as bearing a remarkable teftimony to the viGtory
of the Chriftian emperor Thecdofius in Gaul, and which
was decided in his favour by a florm fo extraofdinary in its
effe€ts upon the army of bis adverfariesas to have been re«
garded even by Claudian hymfelf as a proof of divine in-
terpofition.
Claudian juftty holds a diftinguifhed rank as a poet.
During the decline of Roman literature, be alone has left to
potterity, fpecimens of compofition which may be rega-ded
as worthy of the Augultan age, for the purity and cleflic
elegance of their ftyle and language. He is by many
efteemed the poet who approached neareft to Virgil in the
dignity and harmonious flow of his verfification. Fabricius
ftyles him * poeta floridus et amoeniflimi ingenii.’ His
poems, however, difplay great inequalities of genius; for
although be fometimes aftonifhes by the boldeit flights of
imagination, and bears away his readers by the fire and ani-
mation of his language, he often flags in the midf of his
fineft_ paflages, and, in his longer poems efpecially, gene-
rally falls off before he reaches the conclufion. His writ-
ings are numerous; the principal of his pieces are, a fevere
fatire which he wrote againft Ruffinus and Eutropius, who
were the rivals of his patron Stilicho; his poems in honour
of Hororius and of Stilicho; his ‘ Rape of Proferpine,’?
the commencement of an epic poem which he never finifhed ;
his ‘* Idylliums and Epigrams.’? The moft valuable edi-
tions of his works are thofe of Barthius and Heinfius; Del-
phin, Gefner, 1759; and Burman, 1760. Suidas, Fabricius,
Tirabofchi, Tillemont.
CLAUDIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Syria, near the Euphrates.
CLAUDIAS, a town of Afia, in Armenia Minor;
fuppofed to be the fame with Clandias, ra-Cloudich, in
Comagene, on the right bank of the Euphrates, N.E. of
Juliopolis, and S.S.E. of the place where the Euphrates.
croffes the Taurus. :
CLAUDICATION, in Surgery. See Lameness.
CLAUDIO, ‘Lorrenese, or Craupe Lorraine, ie
Biography. See Gattis. ;
CLAUDIOMERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in the country of the
Artabri.
CLAUDIOPOLIS, a town of Afia Minor in Bithynia,
called alfo Bithynium by Dion Caffius and Ptolemy; it is
placed on the river Sangar and named Bithynia by Paufa-
nias.—Alfo, a town of Afia in Ifauria, according to.
Ammianus Marcellinus, who fays that the emperor Clau-
dius fent thither a colony. It- had been epifeepal.—aAlfo,
an ancient town of Afia in the Honoriade, aceording to the
book of the Authentics. It had been epifcopal according
to Hierocies, who diftingnifhes it from that of Ifauria.—
Alfo, an ancient town of Afia, in Cataonia, a country of
Armenia Minor, according to Ptolemy. Pliny places it in
Cappadocia. It was probably the fame with the Clandio-
polis of Ifauria. Thefe towns derived their names from
Claudius Cxfar, fon of Drufus, who eftablifhed, colonies in
various parts of the empire.—Alfo, a town of Galatia, at a
{mall diltance from the river Halys. It was formerly called
Adrapta, Ptolemy calls it the new Clodiopolis, or Neo-. _
I Clodiopolis..
CLAUDIUS.
Clodiopolis.—Alfo, a town of Armenia Minor, near the
Euphrates, fuppofed to be the fame with Claudias.
CLAUDIUS, Tiserius Crauptus Drausus Cxsar,
in Biography, the fifth of the emperors of Rome, was born
at Lyons in Gaul, about ten years before the birth of Chritt.
He was the fon of Nero Claudius Drufus, and Antonia;
defcended on his father’s fide from Livia, the wife of Auguf-
tus, and on that of his mother, from M. Antony and Oc-
tavia, the fifter of Auguftus: he was alfo the nephew of
Tiberius, the brother of Germanicus, and the uncle of his
predeceffor in the empire, Caligula. Having loft his father
while he was in his infancy, the care of his education was
committed to a preceptor, of whofe cruel treatment he after-
wards loudly complained. Under the tuition of this peda-
gogue he made confiderable proficiency in feveral branches
of learning, and acquired a competent knowledge of the
Greek language {o as to be able to write and {peak it with
facility ; but being all his life time fubjected to a great
variety of bodily diforders, his judgment and mental powers
were fo greatly impaired and enfeebled, that he was not
deemed capable of undertaking any public trutt in the go-
vernment of the empire. His relations in general rated his
abilities very low; even his mother and fifter, from whom
fome tendernefs at leaft was due to his weakneifes ; and
they were not {paring of their ridicule and declarations of
contempt whenever his name happened to become the fubjeé
of converfation. During the reigns of Auguftus and 'Tibe-
rius he was fuffered to remain in the condition of a private
citizen; but when his nephew Caligula obtained the impe-
rial purple, he was dignified with the rank of fenator, and
made the colleacue of the emperor in his firft confulfhip.
Dering this period he occafionally prefided inftead of Cali-
gula at the public games, and was frequently greeted by the
acclamations of the aflembly as the brother of their favourite
‘Germanicus. He was, however, much more commonly the
object of contempt than of public efteem; the dometlics
whofe duty it was to attend upon him as their matter,
treating him at their pleafure with the grofleft indignities.
After {nffering foch various mortifications, in which his life
-was not unfrequently expofed to imminent danger, a circum-
ftance, which to the thoughtlefs mind may bear the appear-
auce of accident, diverted the courfe of events, and raifed
him tothe throne of the Cefars. At the time Caligula was
aflaffinated, Claudius was in the palace, but was fo terrified
and alarmed at the event, that he retreated to an adjoining
balcony, and concealed himfelf in the hangings of a door-
way. A foldier, who was roaming for fpoil, obferving his
feet, dragged him from his retreat, but had no fooner recog-
nized his perfon, than he fell on his knees, folicited his par-
don, andaddreffled him under the title of emperor. This
man, whofe name was Gratus, was foon joined by other fol-
diers, equally difpofed, from their attachment to the me-
mory of Germanicus, to ferve his brother; they placed the
terrified emperor in a chair, conveyed himto the camp ful
of confternation and fears for his life, and lodged him within
the ramparts for the night. On the following morning
(January 25th, AD 41. AU. 794.), the foldiers formally
eltablithed him at the head of the empire, by {wearing allegi-
ance to him as their lawful fovereign ; for which, it is faid,
he promifed to reward them liberally at a future period. ‘The
fenate, when they found themfelves delivered from the fan-
guinary defpotifm of Caligula, made fome attempts to re-
ftore the ancient conftitution of the commonwealth ; but not
being fufficiently prompt in their decifions, nor cordial in
their co-operation, they were obliged to abandon their
fcheme, and fubmit to the governor whom the military had
een pleafed to invelt with the inigniaof power, Claudius
“unfortunate objeG@ts of her fufpicion and vengeance.
began his reign with feveral aéts of lenity, moderation, and
jultice. He publifhed a proclamation of pafdon to all who-
had in any manner oppofed his elevation to the throne, or
who had been concerned in the late confpiracy againft Cali-
gula, fuch perfons only excepted as had been aétually ex-
gaged in his affaffination; and it has been thought that he
was urged to the condemnation and punifhment even of
thofe by apprehenfions that his own life was not fecure againft
their dagoers. The laws which were at that time in force
concerning treafon, he abolifhed,as too tyrannice! and fevere,,
and releafed fuch perfons as had been imprifoned on account
of them by Caligula and Tibevius ; he abolifhed feveral op-
preflive impotts which had been extorted by thofe emperors
from the people ; and whatever property they had unlaw-
fully taken from their fubje@s, he reftored to the parties
themfelves, if alive, orelfe to their defcendants. In all thefe
proceedings he conduéted himfelf with fincular modefty and
propriety. He did not appear at all clated by the popula-
rity which they acquired him, nor would he confent to ae-
cept the honours which the fenate had decreed him as @
teitimony of their attachment and gratitude. ‘Thefe were,
however, but the tranfient efforts of a charatter radically
feeble and debafed, too deficient in firmnefs and energy to
preferve an uniformity of virtue, or maintain a folid popula-
rity, in a turbulent and licentious age. His natural
imbecility of intelle€&t, while it rendered his perfonal
condué in the government feeble and contradiGtory, made
him an eafy dupe and obfequious flave to the bolder fpirit of
his wife, Meffalina, of infamous notoricty, and of his ambi
tious and daring freed-men and favourites, Pallas, Califtus,
and Narciffus. Their policy was to keep his mind in a fate
of conftant alarm, to infpire him with diltroft and fufpicion
of all who were obnoxious to themfelves, and whofe rank
or influence in the ftate might render them | formidable
opponents to their {chemes of aggrandifement and blood ;
and, under feigned pretences of difaffe€tion and treafonable
defigns, to obtain from him the imperial fan@tion for their
unblufhing enormities of profcription, banifhment, and mur-
der. It may be faid, that while he wore the purple, the
{ceptre was in other hands; and of the many acts of his
reign, {mall indeed is the proportion of thofe which can with
hiftorical propriety be attributed to the uncontrouled dic-
tates of his own mind. At the inftigation of the licentious
and fanguinary Meffalina, Julia, the niece of the emperor,
and other women of diftin€tion, who were falfely accufed,
were put to death ; and Seneca, among other of her vidtims,
panifhed to Corfica. To the fame influence, fupported by
the power of her willing minifters, Nareiffus and his fellow
freed-men, we may alfo fafely refer the frequent execution of
Roman fenators, and of Roman knights, to the almoft incre-
dible number of three hundred and upwards, who became the
At
length, however, fhe fell a facrifice to the unreftrained ime
pulfes of her licentious paffions. She became enamoured of
Cains Silius, ayoung Roman of noble birth and remarkable
beauty. In order the more fecurely to carry on her adul-
terous connections, fhe caufed him to be divorced from his.
wife, whom Tacitus calls “a lady of elevated rank,” and in-
veigled him into her toils by the flattering promifes of royal
favour, aod. by holding out no very equivocal hopes of future
elevation to imperial honours.
It is, perhaps, fearcely poffible to find, even in the annals of
declining Rome, a greater montfter of depravity than this wo-
man, or one whofe charafer is blackened with darker fhades
of criminality. Inflamed by her guilty paffion, fhe broke
through every reftraint of decency ; frequented the honfe of
her paramour in the moft open and undifguifed manner, load-
ed
Cal AY Di TAS:
-ed-him with the richeft prefents, and publicly treated him
in every refpect asif he had been her hufband and the empe-
ror of Rome... The hiftorical {tudent almoft doubts the evi-
dence of fa¢is, whenit is added refpeGting her, that, daring
beyond all example in iniquity, fhe had the fhamelefseffront-
ery to marry this objeét of her brutal luft. She availed her-
{lf cf the abfence of Claudius at Oftia, to put this final feal
to her wickednefs, and to ftamp her character with indelible
infamy. Claudius. remajned long a flranger to her pra@tices
and to his own difsrace, and would probably have become
the victim of the adulterous parties, had vot Narciffus, ra-
ther fearmg their powcr than abhorring their guilt, taken
meafures to apprize him of his danger, and eventually to ef-
fect their downfall and punifhment. So infenfible was the
difhonoured emperor of the {tain which had been inflicted
upon his character, that it is doubtful whether he would
have punifhed the defilers of his bed, had he not been urged,
and repeatedly impelled to it by Narciflus, who, availing
himfelf of an involuntary confent extorted from him with
great difficulty, difpatched a tribune to the gardens of Iun-
culius, where Meffalina had retired in defpair, to put her to
death. Nothing can give amore degrading idea of the eha-
ra€ter of Claudius than the account which Tacitus gives of
this tranfeGion. He was enjoying the luxuries of his table
when the intelligence was communicated to him of the death
of the emprefs ; he received it without emotion, and did
not fuffer her fate, interefling as it was in many important
points of view, to interrupt his pleafures. He was alike in-
fenfible to the feelings which fuch an event might naturally
shave been fuppofed to awake in the breaft of a hufband,
and to the lamentations of his children at the lofs of their
mother. After the downfall and death of Meffal'na, Agrip-
pina, the niece of Claudius, artfully availed herfelf of the ad-
vantages of accefs to his perfon which her near relationthip
gave her, to ingratiate herfelf into favour with him, and
ultimately fo completely fugceeded in her plan, as to induce
him to take her for his wife. A vote to recommend, to le-
galize and juftify this inceltuous union, fo contrary to the
Roman cuitoms, as well as revolting to human nature, was
previoufly obtained from the ferate, who pleaded for the
marriage as an event which promifed to be'of the greateft
benefit to the flate. As Meffalina had rendered herfelf un-
popular by her various ats of tyranny, Agrippina thonght
it advifeable to reverfe, as the firlt a& of her power, one of
the proceedings which had giver mott offence to refleGing
m_n, by recalling Seneca, whom her predeceffor had caulcd
to be banifhed ; but perhaps her real motive in this affair wes
to pive Domitius, her fon by a former marriage, the advan-
tape of his inftruciion, in order to raife him to the empire,
as fhe afterwards cid, to the prejudice of Britannicus, the
fon and legitimate heir of Claudius. From the proceedings of
the government, it foon appeared that Claudius had only
exchanged one miltrefs for another. As he had formerly been
the dupe and the flave of Meffalina, ‘fo was he now the tool
and the vaflal of Agrippina. Her whole ambition was to
obtain the future fovereignty for her own fon, and to this all
the efforts of her craft and power were dire&ted. Whoever
was confidered as hoftile to her views, was foon removed from
the fituation where he might have the means to embar-
rafs her proceedings, and none were admitted to offices of
trult and honour but fuch as were fubfervient to hex will and
devoted to her canfe. As fome of her meafures, refulting
from extreme anxiety, were profecuted with too little difgnite
and precaution, Claudius was privately apprifed ot their
dangeroys and threatening nature. In the paroxy{m of ter-
ror, which never failed to alarm him, when he had reafon to
fufpect treafonable defigns again{t his life, he gave vent to
his feelings in expreflions of threatening import, which foon
reached the ears of Agrippina. She no fooner learned his
fentiments than fhe fully apprehended her danger. She faw
that flrong meafures mutt be purfued before her obje& could
be fecured, and that the utmoft promptnefs was neceffary
in the execution of them. ‘To rid herfelf therefore of every
caufe of alarm, and of every chance of oppofition, fhe took
an early opportunity of admiuiltering poifon to him im a fa-
vourite luxury of his tafte. This had the intended effect,
and proved fatal to him, A. D. 54, inthe 64th year of his
age, after having worn the imperial purple 14 years.
When the imbecility of his charaéier is confidered, no
perfonal military achievements of importance can be expect
ed to have added giory to his reign. But though the
throne of the Cz[ars was occupied by a being fearcely human
in refpe& to mental capacity, the empire was not without
military commanders to fupport the dignity of the Roman
name. In Germany, Corbulo and Galba led the Roman
legions to viétory and conqueft ; while Plantius carned the
Roman cagle triumphantly through many of the fertile pro-
vinces of Britain. At the time this general was purfuing
his conquefts, Ciaudius himfelf, defirous of obtaing the no-
minal honours of a triumph, pafled over into Britain, and
after witnefling fome of the fuccefles of his troops returned
to Rome, to decorate his brow with the honours which had
been hardly earned by the valour of his generals and their
brave followers. Plavtins was fucceeded by Otlorius, who
profecuted the fuceees of his predeceffor, and varquifhed
the brave and noble Caractacus. Claudius, however,
though he could hardly flatter himfelf with the hope of high
diftingtions as a military man, was ambitious of literary re-
putation. Several compofitions of hisin the Greck end La-
tin languages are mentioned by Roman writers; but he fig-
nalized himfelf principally by his attempt to improve the Ro-
men alphabet. He added three letters to thofe already in
ufe, which were adopted pretty generally dering his reign,
but his fucceffors do not appear to have been convinced of
their utility, as they were not ufed after his death. His
reign did not, however, pafs without fome public works
of national importance. ‘Lhe better to provide the city of
Rome with grain from foreign markets in years of f{carcity,
he formed a port at Oftia, at the mouth of the-Tiber. He
cut a vrand canal with the view of draining the water of the
Tucine lake, and recovering the land which it inundated for
the purpofes of agriculture. This was an undertaking of
altonifhing difficulty, which employed for eleven years nearly
thirty thoufand labourers 3, it did not, however, fully fuc-
ceed, nor produce a benefit at all adequate to the immenfe
expence beftowed upon it. But perhaps Rome was mott
indebted to this emperor for completing an aqueduct of ftu-
pendous magnitude, which had been begun by Caius, by
which the city was fupplied with the delightful waters which
iffued from the fprings of the neighbouring hills. The cha-.
rater of Clandius was a itrange mixture of good and bad qua-
lities, The former, however, loft their effeét in his conduct
from the want of energy and firmnefs of mind to aét in con-
formity to their di€tates; and the latter, operating with
equal blindnefs and i:difcrimination, led him, in the adminit-
tration of the empire, to the mo{t wanton acts of cruelty,
and the moft barbarous meafures of tyranny and oppreflion.
His puerile attempts to adminilter jultice in-perfon, feemed
only to defeat the very end he aimed to fecure, and to ren-
der him ridiculous in the eyes of an indignant public; and ~«
his impotent endeavours to crufh the immediate objects of
his fulpicion and hatred, inttead of effecting their deltruc-
tion, moft commonly recoiled with accumulated force
againtt himfelf, and rendered him the object of mpg tane
rather
4
: CLAUDIUS,
rather than the difpenfer of deftruAtion and death. But it
is ufelefs to dwell upon a charafter which has nothing in it
worthy of the notice of pofterity. He died lamented by
none,—defpifed by all ; and was fucceeded by Domitius, the
fon of Agrippina, whois better known under the name of
Nero, Svetonius. Tacitus. Tillemont.
Cyiaupius, M. Avre ius, (fometimes called CLlaupius
[1.) was a native of Illyricum, and moft probably a perfor of
mean and ob{cure parentage. He was early diltinguifhed
for his military talents, and, after having gained the appro-
bation and confidence cf the emperor, the {cnate and the
people of Rome, was promoted by Decius to the chief
command of ihe Illyrian frontier, and of the troops which
-were ftationed in Thrace and the neighbouring provinces.
At this period the barbarians of the north were frequent
in their incurfions into the Roman territories, and afforded
the Roman legions full employment to repel their attacks.
Oa the fide of Tilyricum Claudius had te contend with the
Goths; and by his {kill and bravery obtained a victory
ever them, for which the fenate decreed him the honour
ef a ftatue. The emperor Gallienus viewed his fuccefs aad
popularity with a different eye; but, dreading a rupture
with a man who, by his great fervices in fupporting the tot-
tering fabric of the ftate againft thole powerful enemies
who were affailing its foundations, and who ultimately
effeGed its ruin, was regarded with juit efteem by all
ranks of citizens, he thought it belt to temporize, and to
difguife his real feelings by rich and munificent prefents,
which were intended to lure the mind of Claudius to a
belief that it was the fincere wifh of the emperor to cultivate
his friendfhip. Gallienus, during the fiege of Milan, where
Aureolus, an impoltor, and his defperate followers, had
fhut themfelves up, was treacheroufly killed by fome of
his own officers ; and Claudius, though at the time abfent
on ‘duty at another poft, has not efcaped fulpicion of being
privy to the con{piracy. Perhaps, however, his fubfequent
elevation is the only circumftance which can be faid to give
a colour of probability to fo foul an imputation. — It is faid,
that when Gallienus found that his wound was likely to
prove mortal, he nominated Claudius his fucceffor, and
ftrongly recommended him to the choice of the foldiers and
the fenate. The confent of the latter was eafily obtained,
for he was already their favourite ; and the concurrence of
the former was fecured without much difficulty by large
promifes of reward. Claudius was, therefore, invelted with
the imperial purple, A. D. 268, and as nearly as can be
judged in the fifty-fourth year of his age. He profecuted
the fiege of Milian with redoubled vigour, and foon com-
pelled Aureolus to furrender at difcretion, and fubmit to
the fatal doom which the army adjudged to be his due.
His unfortunate adverfary was, however, executed con-
trary to his wifhes. Claudius, on coming to the throne,
found limfelf placed in a fituation crowded with difficulties,
and with dangers of the moft threatening kind. The
emperors whom he was called to fucceed, abandoned to the
debilitating luxuries and pleafures of the age, had neglected
the difcipline of the troops, and relaxed in the maintenance
of that regular fubordination which had in former times
trained them up to be the conquerors and the matters of the
world ; and had» by this means weakened the barviers of
the empire, which were now every where aflailed by the
moft formidable and determined enemies. The firft care
of Claudius was to corre&t, as far as circumftances would
admit, the error of his predeceffors; to controul the licen-
tioufnefs of the military, and to impart to them the energy
and bravery as well asthe name of Roman foldiers. Having,
jn fome mealure, fucceeded in his undertaking by the judi-
cious ufe of his influence over them, he prepared to put
their valour to the fevereft teft. The Gothic nations on
the fhores of the Euxine had affembled a. formidable arma~
ment near the Niefter, where, from two to four thoufand
tran{ports were prepared to conyey them towards the Grecian
provinces. After various viciffitudes, in which, from want
of nautical fkill, and from the unpropitioufnefs of the
weather, they fuffered very extenfive loffes, a body of
them, faid to amount to the almoft incredible number
of tiree hundred and twenty thoufand, landed near mount
Athos, and Jaid fiege to the city of Theflalonica.
Claudius, on the firlt intelligence of their invafion,
marched with all poflible expedition to check their
progrefs. and avert the defolation with which they threat-
ened the empire. While on his way, he addreffed a letter
to the fenate, which is ftill extant, expreflive of the great
difadvantages under which he would have to combat his
formidable adverfaries, from his want of arms of almolt
every defcription, and, more than ali, from the imbecile
and pofillanimous fpirit with which the depravity of the
times had infected the legions which attended him. It
difplays, however, a brave, determined, and dignified”
courage in himfelf, by which he appeared prepared to con-
tend for vittory with unbending*refolution, and to enjoy
the honour of congueft, or to fubmit to defeat without
defpondency. He firlt engaged the Goths at Naiffus, in
Dardania. His troops, overpowered by numbers, began to
give way; but a detachment, which bad been puipofely
ftationed in fome of the defiles of the mountains, ilued
forth in the critical moment, attacked the enemy in the
rear, in{fpired their countrymen with new courage, and ulti-
mately caufed the barbarian hordes to fly in diforder, and to
leave behind them fifty theufand of their number dead
upon the field of battle.
Claudius delayed not to profecute the advantages he had
almoft unexpe@edly obtained ; but his progrefs was, never-
thelefs, an arduous ftruggle againit the defperate efforts of a
determined foe. The Goths rallied their troops; and,
while they retreated towards Macedonia, refolutely con-
tended for every inch of ground over which they had to
pafs. Their army was, however, at length deftroyed,
through the fupertor fill of Claudius, and his intimate ac-
quaintance with the country; and his foldiers obtained a
rich booty of cattle and flaves as the reward of their toils.
The few that efcaped the {word of the vaft multitude
which, but a fhort time before, had {pread like locufls over
the fhores of Greece, took refuge in the precipitous retreats
of mount Hemus, where want, and the inclemency of
winter, foon leffened their number, and completed their
wretchednefs. By this fignal and fplendid vitory Claudius
merited the higheft reward from his countrymen. It was,
indeed, fcarcely poffible to over-rate his fervices, fince he
contributed moft ¢flentially to fupport the falling greatnefs
of the empire, and to fave it from finking at once beneath
the power of enemies, who, like a mighty torrent, were
rolling towards it, and threatening it with inftant and com-
plete dcfolation and ruin. He did not live, however, to
enjoy the glories of the triumph, nor to receive the plaudit
he had fo well deferved. He fell a vi€tim at Sirmium to
the peflilence which had broken out among the Gothic
fugitives, after a reign of two years, which, for its length,
may vie in fplendour with any that are recorded in the
page of hiftory. He was fucceeded by Aurelian, one of
his generals, who afterwards proved himfelf worthy of the
pattiality to which he owed his elevation. Crevier,
Gibbon. sc
Cravpius, Arpius, a Sabine by. birth, whofe original
name
CLAUDIUS.
name was Atta, or Aetius Claufus. He was a man of fome
confequence in his own country, but conceiving himfelf to
be ill ufed by a faétious party who were endeavouring to ftir
up a war againit the Romans, he removed (about A.U. 254,
B.C. 500.) with a large body of his partizans to Rome;
where he was well received, and admitted into the patrician
order. On this occafion he changed his name to Appius
Claudius, and became the founder of one of the moft illuftri-
ous of the Roman families. He was ele&ed conful with
Publius Servilius A.U. 259. B.C. 495., and became the re-
folute opponent of the common people in their turbulent de-
mands to be relieved from the operation of the laws then in
force againft debtors. He withitood them with firmnefs
and with fome feverity, and by that means gained the efteem
and confidence of the fenate; while his colleague, who want-
ed his energy and decifion of charater, by purfuing half
meatures with them, forfeited the refpe& of both parties.
He afterwards fhewed the fame fpirit of hoftility to the ple-
beians, in his oppofition to the Agrarian law; and on all pub-
lic occefions:{tood forward the mof determined fepporter
of the power and authority of the patricians. The imperfec-
tion of the hiftorical documents of this early age prevent our
being able to ftate the time of his death.
Craupivs, Appius, was the fon of the preceding, and
equally diftinguithed for his fupercilious contempt of the
plebeians, and his refolute hoftility to all the public meafures
which originated with them. Volero, one of the tribuues of
the people, propofed a new Jaw for determining the election
of their magiftrates, which went very much to reftri& the
power which the patricians had before pofleffed on fuch oc-
cafions. The fenate, therefore, to maintain their former in-
fluence, obtained the confulfhip fr Claudius (A.U. 283.
BC. 471), who they knew would not be wasting in exer-
tions to {upport their caufe ; and gave him for a colleague,
Titus Quintius, a man of milder temper and more concilia-
tory difpofitions. Notwithftandiag, however, all that Claudius
could do, the law of Volero paff-d, and he had the mortifi-
cation to find himfelf defeated by men whom he defpifed.
He vented his {pleen in inveétives againft the fenate, and at-
tributed his failure to their cowardice in withholding from
him the «fliitance and fupport it was in their power te have
rendered him. While thefe diffentions were embroiling the
citizens of Rome in fevere-contefts againit each other, their
attention was called to the hoftile menaces of external foes.
The AEquans and Volfcians had availed themfelves of thefe
divilions to take the field, and had invaded the Roman terri-
tories. Quintius was difpatched againft the Zquans, and
Claudius againft the Volfcians. He was no fooner invefted
with the command, than he gave full vent to the ill-wiil and
hatred which burned in his breatt, by treating the foldiers
with the mot unjuftifiablé harfhnefs ‘and feverity ; and his
conduét had the natural effe€&t of rendering more inveterate
the averfion in which he was before held by them. This he
foon had a painful opportunity of knowing ; for when his
troops had drawn near the enemy, and it became neceflary
for him to lead them to battle, they threw down their arms
in difgult, and fied with the utmof precipitation towards the
city, difgracefully abandoning their ftandards to an enemy
whom they might eafily have vanquifhed. For this defertion
of duty, and flagrant violation of difcipline and fubordina-
tion, they were however afterwards punithed by their incenf-
ed general ; fome he beheaded, others he caufed to be beaten
with rods, and the remaiader he punifhed by decimating
them, and inflicting the penalty on every tenth man, who
was felected. by lot. In the year following frefh contefts
arofe between Claudius and the people. Having been par-
ticularly ative in his oppofition to the Agrarian law, a pro-
Livii Hitt. lib. ii.
fecution was infituted againft him by the tribunes, and he
was compelled to appear before the tribunal of his determin-
ed foes. He held their perfecution of him however in fove-
reigncontempt. He refufed to put on the humiliating drefs
which it was ufual for an accufed perfon to wear during his
trial, and unawed by the dangers which threatened him, he
pleaded his caufe with the fame boldnefs of demeanour, the
fame unbending ftubbornnefs of foirit, and the fame bitternefs
and violence of expreflion, which characterized his prdceed-
ings and harangues when he was armed with the confular au-
thority ; and itis faid by his hittorian, Livy, ‘* that the
people confeffed themfelves more awed: by the culprit than
they had been by the conful.”” The impreffion which his firm-
nefs made on his accufers and judges caufed the trial to be
adjourned to a future day; but before that day arrived, he
was feized by a diforder which foon terminated in*his death.
He was buried with honours fuitable to his rank and charac-
ter; and in liflening to the encomiums pronounced over his
grave, the multitudes who attended, and who but a fhort
time before were bent upon his deftruGtion, convinced of their
jultnefs, forgot their enmity i the admiration of his virtues.
‘Livii Hitt. lib) ii.
Craupius, Apprus, the Decemvir, has been thought to
be the fon of the laft-mentioned of the fame name, and was
the Grit perfon ele&ed to that office (A.U. 303. B.C. 451.)
on the changeiof the canftitution of the commonwealth. He
inherited from his anceitors all that averfion to the common
people, for which they had been remarkable; but bemg
ambitious of popular honours, he changed his tone, and be-
came, before his ecleSion to the decemvirate. their warm
advocate and friend. His favoer with the common people
enabled him to procure the office a fecond time, and to
choofe, as his colleagues, men of the moft worthlefs cha-
raGers. who were not likely to thwart him in any of his
{chemes, whatever might be their iniquity. With the con-
currence of this faétion, he ruled the commonwealth with a
rod of irou, and contrived, under various pretences, to ex-.
tend the period of his office beyond the year, the regular -
term of its duration ; and from the numerous partizans which
he had acquired among the plebeians, and the young and
diffipated part of the nobility, would probably have refifted
with fuccefs every attempt to effe& his downfall, or to con-
trol his power, had not a circumftance happened which at
once laid bare the bafe iniquity of his charatter, and roufed
the generous indignation of an infulted people. During thé
abfence of the other decemvirs in the army, and when, ace
cording to the laws, he poffefled fupreme power, he be-
came enamoured of a young and beautiful woman, of the
name of Virginia, whofe father, Virginius, was a centurion
inthe army. Having in vain practifed every infidious art,
and tried every vile expedient to fubdue her virtue, he de-
termined upon a device as daring as it was abominable to
gratify his luft. He inftrn&ed one of his creatures, Mar-
cus Claudius, to claim her as his flave, who had been clan-
celtinely taken from him, and at all events to obtain poffef-
fion of her perfon, and detain her in cuftody until he, as fu-
preme judge, fhauld think proper to decide the fuit. The
abfence of her father on duty with the army, left him no
room to doubt but by this means his purpofe might be fe-
cured. According te this fcheme, Marcus embraced an_
early opportunity, and feized the devoted girl in the public
forum; but his conduét exciting the indignation of the
populace, who were not inclined to credit his tale, or ace
knowledge his claim, he found it moft prudent not to ufe
violence, but to fummon her before the tribunal of Claudius,
where he well knew what fentence to anticipate. Claudius,
that his defigns might be in fome meafure difguifed, confent-
ed
cla
ed to put off his decifion onthe cafe till the morrow, to give
time for her father to attend in her behalf; but, at the fame
time, to accomplifh his purpofe, he ordered that fhe fhould
inthe interim remain under the care of Marcus. On paffing
this decree, Icilius, a young man to whom fhe had been be-
trothed, alarmed at the danger which threatened the object
of his affeGtion, addreffed Claudius in the bittereft terms of
reproach, expoted his evil intentions, and fo wrought upon
the feelings of the populace, that the decemvir found him-
felf reluctantly obliged to put off the execution of his defign
one day longer. To-this, however, he fupmitted the more rea-
dily, becaufe he did not think Virginius would-be able to reach
the city time enough to prevent the decree he meant to pafs.
But Icilius was too deeply interelted in the event. to lofe his
caufe through vrocraltination. He difpatched meffengers to
the camp even before Appius had quitted the judgment feat,
and early on the morrow the anxious father was in the city.
He proceeded to the forum, attended by his daughter, and
feveral matrons, all clothed im mourniny, to denote their
diltrefs ; and on his wav interefted all men in his behalf, by
the greatnefs of his aflidtion, and the danger which threat-
ened his child. Claudius was already in waiting, and the
claimant no fooner began to plead, than he interrupted him,
and peremptorily decreed, that Virgima fhould be held
in flavery, until he fhould finally decide her cafe. At this
dreadful fentence every heart was petrified with horror; but
Claudius, who alone beheld unmoved the agcnizing fpec-
tacle, commanded the armed men with whom he had crowd-
ed the forum, to difperfe the populace, who had clofed
round Virginius to fupport him. They retired, however,
of their own accord; ard the diltreffed father beheld him-
felf deferted and forfaken, hopelefs of afliltance to prote&
his daughter from violence and from fhame. Suppreffing
for a moment the tumultuous feelings of indignation which
busned within him, he addreffed Claudius in fupplicating
tones, praying permiflion to withdraw a little to make fome
inquiries of Virginia’s nurfe on the fubje@t in difpute. He
accordingly retired a fhort way towards the butchers’ fheds,
and, burlting with grief and defpair, feized a knife and
plunged it imto his daughter’s heart. «* Thus, my Virginia,”
faid he, “ the only way in my power, do I fecure thy free-
dom!’? Then, turning to Claudius, ‘* Appius,” he ex-
claimed, ‘* with this blood 1 devote thine head to deftruc-
tion!”? He then rufhed from the crowd in defperation,
clearing his way with the knife, which he ftill held in his
hand. Icilius caught up the body of his efpoufed bride,
and held it up to the view of the aftouifhed multitude, and,
by his pathetic expoftulation, fired them with honeft indig-
nation and abhorrence of the monfter who had been the real
caufe of the dreadful deed. Virginius had now reached the
camp, andinterefted the great body of his brethren in arms
in his diftrefs. They unanimoufly agreed to avenge his
wrongs, and inftantly marched in a body to Rome. They
demanded that the power of the decemviri, which they had
fo grofsly abufed, fhould be abolifhed; and the fenate,
dreading farther mifchief, thought properto comply. The
old conttitution being ettablifhed, Virginius inttituted a pro-
fecution again{t Claudius for malverfation, ard caufed him
to be committed to prifon, where, unable to bear the morti-
fications of his fituation, and tke 7ifgrace which had over-
taken him, he put a period to his exiftence. Livii Hitt.
lib. iii.
Craupius, Appius, commonly called Cecus, or the
Blind, was a defcendant of the preceding, and much
efteemed for his abilities, and for the public works com-
pleted under his care and diref&tion. He is mentioned
as being cenfor, A.U. 442. B.C. 312. with Caius Plau-
Vou. VIII.
CoA -
tius for his colleague. Caius, difyufted with fome proceed «
ings regarding the choice of fenators, refigned his office, and
Claudius undertook its duties alone. He has perpetuated
his memory by the great road which he caufed to be made
from Rome to Capua, a diftance of r40 miles ; and alfo by
an aqueduct which was finifhed in his cenforfhip, and which
brought a plentiful fupply of water 7 miles to Rome. (See
Appian Aguapucr, and Appian Way.) He introduced
an innovation into the order of the priefts employed at the
altar of Hercules, which gave great offence, by taking it
from the Potitian family, who claimed it as their hereditary
right, and configning it to perfons of meaner birth, and even
to emancipated flaves. The abhorrence in which this tranf-
action was viewed by the Romans, may be eltimated by the
language in which it is fpoken of by Livy, who gravely
ftates, that it was followed by very fatal confequences to the
defcendants of the Potitian family, and attributes to the
wrath of the gods on the occafion’ the blindnefs with which
Claudius was affiéted in his old age. In the year of Rome
446,'B.C. 308, he was created conful, with Lucius Voe
lumnius for his colleague, and was elefted to that office a
fecond time, with the fame affitant, A.U. 455, B.C. 298.
Soon after this eleCtion he was fent towards Etruria, to mect
the combined armies of the Samnites and Etrufcans, who
threatened the Roman frontier. His engagsements with
them were a feries of {ucceffive difafters, in which he lof his
credit with his troops for military fkill. Claudius was fo
greatly mortified at his defeats, thatit was with the greateft
reluétance he would feem to admit his inadequacy to com-
bat the enemy, by admitting his colleague to bring in his
forces to his aflitance. When, however, he had fubmitted
to this, and the armies were again engaged, he is {aid to have
difplayed the highett degree of perfonal bravery, and to
have contributed very greatly to the fuccefsful iffue of the
engagement. ‘The time of his death is not mentioned.
Livii Hitt. lib. ix. x.
CLaupivus isa name common to feveral other perfons wha
are occafioually mentioned in the Roman hiltory; but none
of them are of fufficient importance to demand particular
biographical notice ina work of this nature.
Craupivus, in Ancient Geography. See Craune.
Craupius Mons, a range of mountains in Pannonia,
which feparated the territory of the Taurifci from that of the
Scordifii. Pliny.
CLAVE, in Block-Making, a tool 14 inches high, made
of elm, and fupported by 4 legs; the top 6 feet long, 2 or
3 feet wide, and 8 inches thick at each end, and only 4
inches thick in the middle, in which the fhells are fet up
with wedges for making the fheave-holes.
CLAVECIN, Fr. in Mufic, a harpfichord.
Cravecin oculaire, an ocular harplichord. Father Caf-
tel, an ingenious and whimfical Jefuit, who was a geome-
trictan and a great mechanic, paffionately fond of mufic,
finding in fir [faac Newton’s * Optics,” that he compared
the feven prifmatic colours to the feptenary or feven notes
that lead to the odtave in mufic, imagined it poffible to
excite the fame fenfations of pleafure to the eye by the me-
lody and harmony of colours, as the common harptichord
produces to the ear by a feries or combination of founds.
He fuppofed that there was in nature a primitive and
fundamental found, and called that found C; and that there
was likewife in nature a principal and original colour, or key-
note, among colours, which was the bafe and fundamental
of all other colours, and that this was the primitive colour
blue. And further, as there are in mufic three tones or ef-
fential founds dependent on the primitive found C, which
compofe the perfect or common se CEG; or Sth, sop
a F an
CLA
and 12th of the fundamental C; there are likewife three
original colours dependent on blue, that are not com-
pounded of any other colours, but are diftiné and original :
thefe are blue, yellow, and red. Blue is the key-note, red
the 5th, and yellow the 3d or roth.
There are in mufic five tones, and two femitones, C D
EGA, and FB. There are likewife five primitive whole
colours, blue, green, yellow, red, and violet, and two femi-
tonic colours, orange and purple. The fale of mufic is there-
fore CDEF GAB, and the fcale of colours, blue, green,
yellow, orange, red, indigo, and violet ; and as the whole
tones in mulic are divided into half notes by flats and fharps,
fo the colours may be fhaded off by the neighbouring ce-
lours, and) rendered demi-blue, demi-yellow, &c. going
threugh the whole mulical fyitem, and compoling colours
upon the original feptenary to fuit all kinds of modulation.
It wasfo early as the year 1725, that Pere Caltel announced
his idea of an ocular harpfichord, and wrote an ingenious paper
or memoire on the fubject, in the “¢ Journal des Savans,”’ to
which he long contributed ; Diderot likewife drew up a
defcription of the new inftrament, and the celebrated Ger-
man mufician, Tilemaun of Hamburgh, undertook to compofe
for it. A pamphlet on the fubject was publifhed in London
about the year 1750. preparatory to an exhibition, and great
expectations were raifed in the credulousall over Europe.
Fere Cattel in his youth chiefly attached himfelf to geo-
metry, and publifhed many traéts that were elteemed for
their originality. His ftyle was lively, free, natural, fimple,
and fenumentally energetic; but without method, and fo -
vifionary and whimfical, that he often touched and affected
his readers at the fame time that he made them laugh ; and
it was by this means that he amuled and perfuaded. His
projet of a clavecin oculaire, wpon trial, was found ridiculous
and impratticable, and was foon forgotten. He died in
the year 1757, at the age of 68 ; and in 1763 there was pub-
lithed a colle&tion of the bons mots, fallies, and fingularities
of Pere Caftel. ;
CLAVELLATI Cinergs. See Cineres.
CLAVENNA, in Ancient Geography, a town which
belonged to the Helvetians, placed by the Itinerary of
Antonine 10 miles from Larius lacus, or the lake of Como.
CLAVERACK, in Geography, a pott town of America,
in the {tate of New York and county of Columbia, plea-
fantly fituated on a large plain, about 24 miles eaft of Hud-
fon city, near acreek of the fame name. It contains about
60 houfes, a Dutch church, acourt-houfe, anda gaol. By
the cenfus of 1791, the townthip contained 3262 inhabitants,
including 320 flaves. By the flate cenfus of 1796, it had
12 electors. It is diftant 231 miles from Philadelphia.
CLAVES infule, a term ufed in the Ifle of Man, where
all ambiguous and weighty cafes are referred to twelve per-
fons, whom they call claves in/ile, i. e. the keys of the ifland.
CLAVICHORD, ia Mu/ic, a keyed inttrument, long
known, and {till much ufedin Germany. Its form is that
of a {mall piano forte ; it has no quills, jacks, or hammers.
The ftrings are all muffled with flips of red cloth, and the
tone is produced by little brafs wedges, placed at the ends
of the keys, which, when put down, prefs againft the mid-
dle of the ftrings, acting as a bridge to each. When this
inftrament is touched by a great matter, it is capable of
great expreflion, though of a melancholy kind, fomething
like the edect of the oldclofe-fhake on the violin. We had
in 1772, the extreme pleafure of hearing the incomparable
Emanuel Bach touch his favourite clavichord at Hamburgh ;
when he threw away fuch thoughts and execution in his toccate
or preludes, as alone would have fet up a young profeffor,
and have eftablifhed the character of a great mufician.
Euasa
In pathetic and flow paflages on this inflrament, whenever
he had a long note to colour, he abfolutely produced the ef-
fet of a cry of forrow and complaint, fuch as could only
be effeted on the clavichord, and perhaps by himfelf,
The antiquity of this keyed inftrament in Germany is very
great among modern matical inventions; as there is a de-
{cription anda reprefentation of it cut in wood, in the Latin
* Mufurgia”’ of Ottomarus Lulcinius, printed at Strafburg
in 1530. Dutwe find mention made of it, as a common in-
{trument, in England, under the name of clarichord, by Ta-
verner, ftill more early.
CLAVICITHERIUM. Sce Crrote.
CLAVICLE, Clavicula, in Anatomy, one of the bones
of the fhoulder, conneéting the acromion procefs of the
{capula with the firlt bone of the iternum. See SKELETON.
Cuavicis, radure and Diflocation of. See Fracture
and DisiocatTion. ‘
CLAVICULUS, in Bofany, an old term for a tendril.
See Cirrus. Linneus has thill retained it in the name of
fumaria claviculata, a plant whole leaf-{talks end in branched
cirri; while he has calied a neighbouring fpecies, capreolata,
the leaf-italks of which themfeives perform the fame office,
without any fech branching terminations. This is an effere
tial difference between the two f{pecies, which their names
do not indicate.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in Antiquity, a mufical inflru-
ment with thirty ftrings, im a perpendicular fituation,
Modern writers apply the name to our harplichords.
CLAVIER, French, implies, in Mujfic, what we mean
by the complete fet of keys on the organ, barpfichord,
pianoforte, virginal, clavichord, and fpinet. When it is
{aid of a performer on any of thefe inftruments, gu?i /uit
bien fon clavier, it implies that he has a good method of
fingering, underitands modulation, and has a neat and clean
execution: as we fay in England of a great player on
the violin, that he knows the finger-board well, ;
CLAVIJA, in Botany, Bofc. Nouv. Di&. Flor. Peruy.
P). 39. Clafs and order, polygamia diecia.
Gen. Ch. Cal, five-leaved ; leaves nearly round. Cor.
wheel-fhaped ; mouth clofed with five oblong projections ;
border five-cleft; fegments almoit*reund. In the male
flower, tube membranous, ten-toothed, covering the abor-
tive germ. Siam. five. In the female, tube none. Stam.
five, barren. Pf. Germ fupertor, egg-fhaped ; ttigma fef-
file, umbilicated. Peric. Berry globular, one-celled, Sted
folitary, uniform, very hard, enveloped in the pulp, and
feated on a flefhy receptacle. ‘he hermaphrodite and male
flowers are on different plants. Tour fpecies, all fhrubs, are
found in Peru. Bofe. ‘
CLAVIOL, a mufical inftrument, faid in the True Bri-
ton, Auguit g 1802, to be conitrnéted by a Mr. Hawkins
of New York. By the defeription in this paper, it feems
much to refemble the lyrichord of Plintus, that was exhi-
bited for two or three years in the middle of the laft century ;
the tones of which were produced by wheels refined, which
in their revolution ated as fo many fiddle bows; the
ftrings being brought into conta&t with the wheel by the
prefiure of the fingers on the key. One peculiarity in the
lyrichord was, that the ltrings were tuned by weights. The
bafes were very fine, but the treble fereamed intolerably.
Pilnius was a German, and the firit who attempted to make
large pianofortes in England.
The inftrument called a claviol by Mr. Hawkins, “ pro-
duces its effects from bowel ftrings, by a refined horfe-hair
bow, and is played with finger keys, like the barpfichord.
The tones of this inftrument are ftated to poflefs the fweet-
nefs of the armonica, the richnefs of the violin, and the .
grandeur
CEA
grandeur of the organ.” We have never heard or feen this
inftrument, and have not difcovered that any one has been
fent to England; and only give this account of it as an ad-
vertifement. If its perfeétions are not exaggerated its in-
vention would be a va'uable difcovery. :
CLAVIS, a Latin word, fometimes ufed in Englifh
writers for a key.
CLAVIUS, CurisropHer, in Biography, a German
Jefuit, was born at Bamberg, ith Germany, in 1537, and
became a very ftudious mathematician, and a voluminous
writer. His works containing a complete courfe of mathe-
matics, and confifting chiefly of elementary treatifes and
commentaries on Euclid and others, without any original
Inventions, amount to five large folio volumes. Pope
Gregory fent for him to Rome for the purpofe of affifting
other Jearned perfons in the reformation of the calendar ;
and he afterwards engaged in the defence of it againft
Scaliger, Vieta, and others, by whom it was attacked.
He died at Rome, Feb. 6th, 1612, at the age of 75 years.
CLAVO, in Geography, a town of Corlica; 8 miles
E.S:E. of Ajaccio.
CLAUS, a town of Germany, in the county of Bre-
gentz; one mile N.N.E. of Bregentz.
CLAUSE, an article, or particular ftipulation in a con-
tract ; a charge or condition in a teflament, &c.
We fay, a derogatory claufe, penal claufe, faving claufe,
codicillary claufe, &c.
CLAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
Tyrolefe; 6 miles S.W. of Brixen.—Alfo, a town of
Germany, inthe circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleGorate
of Treves; 5 miles S. of Wittick.
CLAUSENA, in Botany, Lam. Encyc... Juff. 430.
Burm. Fl. Ind. 87. Clafs and order, o@andria monogynia.
Nat. ord. Uncertain, Juff.
. Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, fhort, rather flat, four-tooth-
ed. Cor. Petals four, round, feffile. Stam. Filaments
eight, fhorter than the corolla, awl-fhaped, thickened, and
hollow at the bafe ; anthers round, verfatile. Pi/, Germ
fuperior, roundifh; ftyle cylindrical, fhorter than the
ftamens ; ftigma fimple.
Sp. C. excaveta, Lam. Il. Pl. 310. A fhrub. Leaves
alternate, winged ; leaflets numerous, petioled, oval-oblong,
flizhtly crenulate, pubelcent. f/owers in a panicled ra-
ceme. Fruit unknown. A native of the ifland of Java.
CLAUSENBURG. See Corosoar.
~CLAUSENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Albion or England, marked in the Itinerary of Antonine,
on the route from Regnum to Londinium, between Reg-
nuin and Venta Belgarum, 20 miles from the former, and
10 from the latter. It is fuppofed to have been Old
Southampton. Dion Caffius fays, that this town had been
celebrated before the reign of Claudius, and that it had been
the refidence of Dunobelin.
CLAUSIT extremum diem. See Diz.
CLAUSTHAL, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Gruben-
hagen, cositainiang 800 houles, 2 churches, an houfe of or-
phans, a public fchcol, a fmall garrifon, anda mint for
coining money, and having near it filver mines; 15 miles S.
of Gofler.
CLAUSTRAL Prior. See Prior.
CLAUSULA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Illyria,
according to Livy, who fays that it watered the town of
Seodra, on the eaftern fide.
CLAUSUM /fregit, in Law, an a&tion of trefpafs; thus
ealled, becaufe the writ demands the perfon fummoned to
anfwer to guare claufum fregit, of the plaintiff, why he eom-
miticd fuchatre{pals? See Carsas,
Ope Faye
CLAUSZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria, 177 miles S.S.W. of Steyr.
CLAUSZNITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and territory of Erzgebirg ; 14 miles $.S.E.
of Freyberg.
CLAUTINATII, in Ancient Geography, one of the
molt turbulent people of Vindelicia, according to Strabo.
They are fuppofed to have occupied both banks of the Inn,
near its junétion with the Danube.
CLAVUM Veneris, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the qwater-/ily, or nymphea.
CLAVUS, in Antiquity, a band, or fillet of purple, wora
on the breait by the Roman fenators and knights, more or
lefs broad, according to the dignity of the perfon; from the
proportions of which arofe the difference of tunica anguflicla-
via, and /aticlavia. See Tunica. This ornament, according
to fome, was called clavus, nail, as being ftudded with little
round plates of gold, or filver, like the heads of nails.
Cantelius maintains, that the clavus confifted of a kind of
purple flowers, fewed upon the ftuff; or interwoven with it:
Others will have them to be the buttons or clafps by which
the tunic was held together. Some again fuppofe that the
latus clavus was nothing but a tunic bordered with purple.
Scaliger is of opinion, that the clavi did not belong to the
velt, but hung down from the neck, like chains and orna-
ments of that nature. MRubenius maintains, that the clavi
were merely purple lines or ftreaks in the middle of the gar-
ment; and that they did not receive the name of clavi in
allufion to the heads of nails, to which, as he thinks, they
bore no refemblance, but that they were fo called from their
being of a different colour from the reft of the garment; for
the Romans, he fays, ufed to inlay their cups, and other
precious utenfils, with ftuds of gold, or other ornamental
materials. ‘Vhefe, from their likenefs to nail-heads, they
called in general clavi. Hence it was natural to ufe the fame
word for denoting thefe lines of purple, or other colours,
which were different from the reit of the garment, as thofe
claviwere of a different colour and figure from the veffels
which they adorned. M. Dacier (in Horat. 1. ii. fat. 5)
fay8, that the clavi were purple galoons, with which they
bordered the fore-part of the tunic, on both fides, ina place
where it cametogether. The broad galoons, he fays, made
the laticlavium, and the narrow the anguiticlavium. As to
the name of clavi, he thinks the ancients gave it to any thing
that was made with a defign to be put upon another.
Cravus annalis. So rude and illiterate were the Ro-
mans towards the rife of their ftate, that the driving or
fixing of a nail was the only method they had of keeping a
regifter of time; for which reafon it was called c/avus
annalis. ‘There was an ancient law, ordaining the chief
pretor to fix a nail every year on the ides of Septem-
ber; it wes driven into the right fide of the temple of Jupiter
Opt. Max. towards Minerva’s temple.
This cuftom of keeping an accoupt of time, by means of
fixing nails, was not peculiar to the Romans, for the Etru-
rians likewife ufed to drive nails into the temple of their god-
defs Nortia, with the fame view ; and from them it is faid
to have paffed to Rome. Liv. lib. vii. cap. 3. We learnalfo
from Livy (1. viii. c. 18.) that the Romans recurred to the
ceremony of driving a nail into the temple in order to ftop the
progrefs of a plague that raged at Rome A.U.C. 389. B.C.
365. ‘The fame ceremony was again employed about thirty
years after, by way of remedy againfl a itrange alienation of
mind, which was confidered as the caufe of the multiplication
of crimes in the city.
Cravus, in Medicine, See CEPHALALGIA.
-Cravus Ayfericus, a term introduced by Sydenham to
denote a fevere pain of the head, which is peculiar to
Bra hyflerical
CLA Y.
Ayferical women. The pain is circumfcribed, and is faid to
refemble the fenfation, which a nail driven into the head
might be fuppofed to occafion ; hence the term clavus, a nail,
was adopted. The cure of this fpecies of head-ache, mutt
depend upon the removal or palliation of the original difeafe,
byfleria, of which itis afymptom. See Hysteria. See
alfo CEPHALALGIA,
Cravus, in Surgery, See Corn.
CLAWEDOK, in Geography, a river of North Wales
in the county of Denbigh, which runs into the Clwyd, four
miles N. of Ruthyn.
CLAWING, or Crawinc-of, in Sea language, fignifies
the act of deating or turning to windward from a lee-fhore,
fo as to e{cape the danger of fhipwreck.
CLAWS, among Zaologifis, denote the fharp pointed
nails, with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and birds
are furnifhed.
Craws, Elks’. See Exx.
Craws is alfo ufed for a clofe or fmall meafure of land.
CLAY. In common language, any earth which poffeffes
fufficient ductility when kneaded up with water to be
fafhioned like palte by the hand, or the potter’s lathe, is
called a clay. In Mineralogy, however, the term has a
fomewhat more extended application, comprehending not only
the proper ductile clays, but certain other mineral fubftances
which bear a {trong analogy tothem. They may be con-
veniently arranged under the five following fub-fpecies.
1. Subf{p. Pure clay.—Reinethon Erde, Germ.—Lac Lune
of fome authors.
Its colour is frow-white or yellowifh-white. It occurs
in {mall kidney-fhaped pieces. It is without luftre ; its
fracture is fine earthy ; it 1s opake ; ftains the fingers flightly ;
adheres feebly to the tongue; is fine but meagre to the
touch ; is very light, foft, and eafily frangible. Its com-
ponent parts, according toa recent analyfis by Fourcroy, are,
45 alumine
24 fulphated lime
27 water
4 lime and filex.
Ico
Tt has hitherto been found only at Halle in Saxony,
where it occurs very near the furface, aad accompanied by
gypfum.
~ 2. Subfp. Porcelain clay.—Porzellauerde, Germ.
Its colour is reddifh-white, pafling to yellowifh and grey-
ith-white. It occurs in mafs and difleminated. It {tains
the fingers; is for the moit part flightly coherent, pafling
iato dufty ; is fine but meagre to the touch; flightly ad-
heres to the tongue, and is but of Jittle {pecitic gravity.
A fpecimen, analyfed by Vauquelin, afforded the follow-
ing refult :
55 filex
27. ~~ alumine
0.5 oxyd of iron
2 lime
14 water
98.5
When perfe&ly pure, it is nearly, if not entirely, fufible
ja the greateft heat of a porcelain furnace.
«It forms beds in geifs, and not unfrequently occurs in
granite, occupying the place of the felfpar: indeed, it may
readily be traced through various {tates of induration into
true felfpar; hence it has been confidered.by fome as decom-
poled fel{par, and.by others as unformed or imperfect felfpar..
The clay employed in the manufaéture of the Berlin
porcelain, is procured from the diflriét of Magdeburg ; the
beft French porcelain clay (the fubjeét of the above analyfis)
is dug near Limoges ; and the belt Englifh porcelain clay
is procured from Cornwall: th’s latter is naturally mixed
with quartz and mica, forming a granite, from both of which
it is feparated by wafhing.
3. Sub{p. Common clay.—Potter’s clay.—Pipe clay.
Its colour is very various ; when greyifh-white it is called
pipe clay ; it allo occurs greenifh-grey, paffing into verdegris-
green; {moke-grey, pafling into yellowifh-brown ; reddifh-
brown and brownith-red ; or, laltly, bluifh-grey, pafling in-
to blackifh-blue. It occurs maffive, or fine flaty, formin
veins or beds; thefe latter, often of great extent and thick-
nefs. Its fracture is earthy, pafling into uneven or imper-
fe&tly conchoidal. It is generally fmooth, and fomewhat
undiuousto the touch; adheres pretty ftrongly to the tongue,
is foft and ealily frangible.
When in veins, it generally occurs in primitive mountains,
accompanying metaliic ores ; when in beds, it is ufually found
in alluvial land, covered by or refting on gravel. ;
It confilts effentially of alumine and filex, but generally
contains, beiides, a variable proportion of oxyd of iron. Cars
bonated lime, too, is by no means an unfrequent ingredient,
and when this abounds, the clay paflesinto marl. See Mari.
4. Subfp. ~ Lndurated clay .—Clay-fone.
Its colours are greenifh-grey, bluifh, afh, fmoke, and
pearl-grey, or brownifh-red. It occurs in mafs; is opake
and without luftre. Its fra€ture is fine grained earthy, pafl-
ing into flaty, fplintering, and imperfectly conchoidal. It ad-
heres but flightly to the tongue; is foft and eafily frangible.
When put into water, it falls to pieces by degrees, but
even then poffeffes very little duGtility. It occurs in rock
maffes, in veins and beds, and forms the bafis of clay por~
pkyry. It paffes, on the one hand, into potter’s clay, and,
on the other, into jafper.
5. Subfp. Shale.
Its colour is fmoke-grey, yellowith, afh, or bluifh-grey, or
greyifh-black. It occurs in mafs. It is dull, but when
mixed with mica is ghmmering. Its fracure is flaty, ap-
proaching fometimes to earthy. It is opake, foft, and
eafily frangible; it is meagre to the touch, adheres flightly
to the tengue. Sp. gr. about 2.6.
It occurs in the independent coal formation, alfo in the.
mott recent floetz trap and alluvial formations.
It generally breaks down when put into water, and by
expofure to the weather it decompofes into a very unétuous
and tenacious clay.
Of the above fub-fpecies, the firft, on account of its rarity,
is made noufe of. The fecond is the bafis of the European
orcelains, for which it is well adapted, on account of its
difficult fufibility, and its hardnefs and compactnefs of tex-
ture when baked ; it is even lefs fufible than felfpar, from
‘the decompofition of which, in particular cafes, it certainly
originates: but felfpar contains a very notable proportion of
pot-afh, which difappears during its decompofition, being
probably wafhed away ; and to this, no doubt, is owing the
greater infufibility of the clay.
The method of afcertaining the goodnefs of porcelain
clay is to knead it into a mafs with water, and after having
dried it very gradually and thoroughly, to expofe it toa full
white heat ina muffle; if, after being thus baked, its colour
is a pure white, if its texture is compaét and porcellanous,
and it exhibits no figns of fufion, it may be confidered as of
the very beft quality: but as it generally contains a variable
proportion of iron, foits colour will exhibit more or lefs of a)
reddifh-yellow tinge; and as this prevails, fo the value of _
the clay will be materially impaired. A flight afhery tinge»
may
CLAY.
may be got rid of in the manufaure, by the addition of a
little fmalt ; but the ware thus acquires a bluifh tinge, which,
though not very perceptible alone, is fufficiently obvious when
compared with porcelain made of pure unfophifticated clay,
The common clays, or thofe that belong to the third fub-
fpecies, may be divided, with regard to their utility, into the
three claffes of unGQuous, meagre, and calcareous.
The un@tuons contains, in general, more alumine than the
meagre, and the filiceous ingredient is in finer grains: when
burnt, it adheres ftrongly to the tongue, but its texture is
not vifibly porous. When containing little or no oxyd of
iron, it burns to a very good white colour, and i3 very in-
fufible ; pipes are made of it, and it forms the bafis of the
white Staffordfhire ware. If it contains oxyd of iron, or
pyrites, fufficient to colour it red when baked (as is ufually
the cafe), it becomes much more fufible, and can only be
employed in manufaéturing the coarfer kinds of pottery.
Meagre clay is {uch as when dry does not take a polifh
from rubbing it with the nail: it feels gritty between the
teeth, and the fand which it contains is in vifible grains.
When burnt without addition, it has a coarfe granular tex-
ture, and is employed in the manufaCture of bricks and tiles.
Calcareous clay cffervefces with acids, is unétuous to the
touch, and always contains iron enough to give it a red co-
lour when baked. It is much more feiidle than any of the pre-
ceding, and is-only employed in brick-making: by judicious
burning it may be made to aflume a femi-vitreous texture,
and bricks thus made are very durable.
Any of the urctuous or megre clays, that are very infu-
fible and contain but little iron, may be employed in making
crucibles, and other fimilar chemical veffels, that are required
to ftand a powerful heat.
Cray, in Agriculture, a foft, earthy fubftance, of an unc-
tuous and tenacious quality, and which is f und in a native
ftate in different fituations. It has been remarked by Dr.
Fordyce, to forma tenacious mafs when mixed with water,
which hardens upon drying, and does not diffufe fo readily
in water again as fand; and that if a mals of it be heated red
hot, it becomes hard, and burns toa brick, refembling cry{-
talline earth in its properties. It is alfo found that foap-
earth agrees in its properties with clay, of which it is a {pe-
cies, only it is much more diffufible in water, feparates from
it with greater difficulty, is of a {moother texture, and has
finer particles. It is a fubfance that by culture becomes
more diffufible in water. The earth or foil confifts chiefly
of {trata of fubftances, in which the clay and cry {talline earth
are fometimes found pure, but more commonly there is a
mixture of the two; and it is feldomer that pure clay is
found than pure fand. It has been remarked by Lord Dun-
donald, that this kind of matter forms nct only a large per-
tion of the furface-foil of moft countries, but it is allo found
in the mineral {tratato animmenfe depth; that argillaceous
matter, or clay, is no where found pure, but is more or lefs
adulterated with other earths, and with different materi-
als, fuch as mineral, vegetable, and animal fubttances. And
that the pureft clay contains upwards of fixty per cent. of
filiceous matter, or fand.
It is the earth moft retentive of moiflure, by which it be-
comes ductile and tenacious, and lofes thefe properties by
the ation of fire, or by being burnt. According to Mr.
Kirwan, it is of various colours, as white, grey, brownifh red,
brownifh black, yellow, or bluifh; it feels fmooth, and
fomewhat un@tuous ; if moift, it adheres to the fingers, and
if {ufficiently fo, it becomes tough and ductile. If dry, it
adheres-more or lefs tothe tongue ; if thrown into water, it
gradually diffufes itfelf through it, and flowly feparates from
it. It does not vfually effervefce with acids, unlefs a {trong
heat be applied, or that it contains a few calcareous parti-
cles, or magnefia, It confifts of argill and fine fand ufually
of the filiceous kind, in various proportions, and more or lefs
ferruginous matter. he argill, according to him, forms
generally from 20 to 75 percent. of the whole mafs ; the fand
and calx of iron the remainder. Thefe are perfectly fepara-
ble by boiling in {trong vitriolic acid. ;
ft is remarked by Dr. Darwin, in his ** Philofophy of
Agriculture and Gardening,” that the too great adhefion of
the particles of argillaceous earth, or clay, renders it, i
its pure ftate, unfit for vegetation; as the tender fibrils of
roots can with difficulty penetrate it; whence it becomes
much improved for the purpofes of agriculture, when it is
mixed with calcareous earth and with filiceous fand, as in
marl. It is commonly believed, he alfo fays, that lumps of
clay become meliorated by being expofed tc froft in its moif
ftate, which, by expanding the water which it contains, by
converting it into ice, is {uppofed to leave the particles of
the clay further from each other. This, however, he fays,
feems in general to be a miftaken idea, fince, if the act of
freezing feems to occur, as noticed by Mr. Kirwan in his
“Mineralogy,” vol. i. p.g, who obferves, that clay, in its ufual
ttate of drynefs, can abforb two and a half times its weight of
water without fuffering any to drop out, and retains it in the
open air more pertinacioufly than other earths, fqueezing out
its water, and thus parting with more of it than other earths.
This curious circumftance, that water as it cryftallizes de-
trudes the clay which is diffufed in it, correfponds, he re-
marks, with other faéts of congelation. Thus when wine,
or vinegar, or common falt and water are thus expofed to
frofty air, the alcohol, the acetous acid, the marine falt, and
the calx of copper, are all of them detruded from the aque-
ous cryftals, and retreat to the central part of the fluid, or
to that lalt frozen, or into numerous cells furrounded with
partitions of ice, as he has frequently obferved ; whence it
appears, that wet clay is in general rendered more folid. and
tenacious by being frozen, as well as when it is dried, and its
moilture exhaled by too warm a fun, and by both thofe cir-
cumftances becomes lefs adapted to the perpofes of agricul-
ture. In molt claysa kind of effervefcence occurs, after
they are turned over and thrown on heaps, and thus acquire»
air into their interftices, which renders them much fitter for
the purpofes of vitritcation, ard thus forwards the proceffes.
of the brick-kiln and pottery. ‘This greater facility to vi-
trify, is probably effeed by the union of oxygen with the
iron, which mott clays contain ; as oxydes of lead and man-
ganefe are ufed in the more perfeét vitrifications. When the
clay abounds with vitriolic acid, fo as to be converted into
alum, it becomes very unfriendly to vegetation.
Tt has been found in praétice, that vaft improvement in
many of the lighter forts of foil may be effected by the ufe
or application of clay upon them. And Mr. Rodwell hag
experienced great improvement from it on the poorer forts
of fandy foils, which are very loofe, and even on black fands.
See CrayinG of Land.
It-has alfo been remarked by Mr. Young, in fpeaking of
marl, that when that fubftance ‘isnot to be had, clay in
many placesisto be found at a moderate depth. This ma-
nure has,’’ he fays, ‘* few of the properties by which marl ts
to be known, but yet it works wonderful improvements on
many foils. In fome light lands it has been preferred by
many good farmers to indifferent forts of marl; and this pre-
ference has been the refult of attentive experience. But,”
continues he, ‘* the great point concerning clay, is not fo
much the comparifon with marl, as the ufe of it where no
marl is to be had. Onall light fandy foils it fhould’be ufed
with aconfidence of fuccefs ; for the precedents of its good
effeGs are fo numerous, that we cannot have adoubt of its ex-
cellence. About fixty or feventy loads an acre, at the fame
expente
Gh A
expence as of marl, will work an improvement g eat enough
to fhew how much miltaken thofe men are who think no-
thing but the fineft marls worthy of attention ; and upon
heavier foils, as wet loams, brick earths,jupon clay, and loofe
hollow foils, that want a firmer texture, clay is an excellent
manure; but there are vaft tra€ts of fuch land that cover
very fine veins of clay, and yet farmers know nothing of the
ule of it. It is much to be regrettcd,”” he thinks, “ that
their landlords do not give them a julter idea, by being at
the expence of claying fome {mall fields until the benefit of
the improvement becomes confpicuous.””
Crayr-Balls, in Mineralogy, are the name by which,
in fome places, the {tony nodulous foffils called Ludus Hel-
moniti are known. Thefe are ufually reckoned among the
extraneous foffils, and are found of various fizes from four or
five inches to almoft as many feet in diameter; they are
ufually flattened irregularly, and appear externally, like
maffes of foft matter kneaded or moulded imperfe&ly toge-
the:; their internal fub‘tance is cracked, apparently by the
fhrinking of their fubtiance in drying or hardening, and the
joints or fepta are more or lefs coated or filled with fpar,
often of a waxen colour, whence this foffil is fometimes called
Septaria, or Waxen-vein. Clay-balls are found in many of
the Britifh clay ftrata, and are ufually lodged therein with
the utmoft regularity, like pavement, often touching each
other, as is the cafe with two remarkable layers of this foffil
near the top of the clay on which London ftands. Inthe
eutting of the Grand-Jun&tion canal from Paddington to-
wards Uxbridge, and the Croydon canal from Deptford to-
wards Croydon, thefe layers were cut through and expofed
in a very complete manner for examination, for great di-
ftances together; they are funk through in all the wells
near London, where the clay ftratum is complete, or where
none of its upper part is abraded or wafhed away. Some-
times a {mall fpring of water ouzes out of thefe layers of
clay-balls, and the fame is found to poffefs mineral qualities,
and they are, we believe, the fource of moft or all of the
mineral {prings in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis.
When expofed to the air, rain, &c. clay-balls foon fplit,
and fall into an ochry powder, and at length mix with the
foil; but the fpar occupying the fepta is fometimes very
durable, and remains entire after the fubftance of the ball is
mouldered away. An important ufe wasa few years ago
difcovered for thefe curious nodules, in the manufacture of a
cement for water-works and ftuccoing of buildings, for
which Mefirs. Parker and Co. of Bankfide, London, have a
patent; they call it Roman cement, and the fame is now
largely ufed in the conftruétion of the walls of docks, refer-
voirs, &c. and for imitating ftone-work in buildings; the
new door-cales to the Treafury-Chambers, in Whitehall, are
a {pecimen of the valuable qualities of this cement, the fame
DANIDE been applied, in very thick layers at once, during an
jntenfe froft a few winters ago, and yet it fet immediately,
and ftands the weather as perfeétly as the beft ftone. The
front of the Houfe of Lords, and many other buildings in
Weltminfter, are now covering with this cement, under the
direction of Mr. James Wyatt, who has applied it with effe&t
on the new palace at Kew, and in fome additions and re-
pairs at Windfor Caftle. It is not certain that all the
clay-bells, lodged in the different clay ftrata, are exadlly
fimilar in their compofition, or adapted to the manufac-
ture of cement; where, however, they can be had in plenty,
it may be worth the while of the owners of the foil to
procure their analyfis and trial. See Lupus Hetmontu.
Cray Cajflle, in Geography, is fituate about a mile
§.W. from Youghal, in the county of Cork, Ireland,
where the pieces of the bank that break off and are wathed
down by the fea, are by degrees petrified into a hard frm
‘grit.
CLA
This is compofed of a mixture of Sne fand, andsa
yellow clay tempered by the fea water which beats againlt
the hill, Wood and feveral other things davbed over with
this clay are petrified on the fpor. Snzth fays, there 1s a
fimilar petrification at Harwich in England. Smith’s Cork.
Cray-Farms, in Agriculture, fuch as have the lands either
wholly or in a great part of a clayey quality. There are
many extenfive tra¢is in different parts of the kingdom
where this fort of land prevails, and which have been often
cultivated to much difadvantage from the want of a due
mode of cropping, and their not having of courfe a {uf-
ficient proportion of green winter food for the {upport of the
requifite number of live ftock, and the raifing of the necef-
fary quantity of manure. It has been fuggefted that.thefe
inconveniences may be fully cbyiated by having recourfe to
the cabbage hufbandry. See Casgace and Farm.
Cuay Hill, or Cort-Heap, in Geography,-a_ re-
markable eminence on the fouth weit branch of the grand
ridge of England, about twe miles W. of Warminfter, and
near the edge of the Chalk ftrata. The fituation of the
barrow or tumulus on the top of this hili was determined in
the government trigonometrical furvey in 1794, by an
obfervation from Beacon-Hill tlation, diftant 117,216 feet,
and bearing 85° 54” 8” S.E. from the parallel to the
meridian of Dunnofe; and another from Wingreen ftation
diltant 84,554 feet;-whence is deduced its latitude 51° 12‘
13”, and its longitude from Greenwich 2° 13/ 25":8 W-or8"
53°-7 in time.
Criay-Mili, a machine ufed by the brick-makers near
London for tempering their clay. In Plate XII. Mechanics,
are reprefented two of thefe machines. In £g.10, which is the
molt common, A B is an upright fhaft turning on a pivot
at the lower end, which works in a brafs focket let intoa
-piece of wood lying on the ground ; the upper end has a
fimilar pivot, the brafs is fixed in the interleCtion of tuo
beams, CD, of the frame; thefe beams are fupported by:
four uprights at their ends, which are firmly fixed in the
ground; the whole is braced together fo asto form a very
tteady frame for the fhaft A B to turn round in. E,F,G, H,
are four arms mortifed in the fhaft fomcwhat below the mid-
dle, fupported by braces from the upper part of the fhaft,
and conneétcd together by four braces in the form of a fquare;
the two arms, E, I, are longer than the other two, and have
hooks, by which the horfes draw, faftened to them. They
have alfo each twoirons, a4, ab, attached to them, whofe
lower ends work at the fides of a circular trough or ditch,
KK, which is concentric with the fhaft AB, and walled
with bricks. The ends of the levers, G, H, carry harrows,
L, M, (fg. 11.) working in the fametrough; thele harrows
are fometimes fixed to the arms, as at G, by three itruts,
and fometimes they are conneéted with the levers by four
chains, and loaded with heavy weights, as at H, and better
explained in the following figure.
When the machine is in ufe, a quantity of clay is thrown
into the circulartrouzh, KK, which 1s about ong-fourth
filled with water by a pump, the trough from which is laid
under the horfe-walk. The horfes are then put to the ends
of the levers, E,F, and fet in motion ; as they turn the ma-
chine round, the harrows, L, M, drag the c#y round, in the
trough, and by agitating it in the water, foon diffolve part of
the clay, forming it into the confiitence of thick mud; as the
horfes continue to work and more water is added, the whole
maf{s is thoroughly incorporated ; a Muice, N, is then opened
which allows the clay to run out into fhallow pits, which are
dug in the ground at fome diltance round the mill, and a
little below its level; in thefe pits the clay is fuffered to re-
main until the greater part of the water is evaporated ; it is
then dug out and carried to the brick-maker, The pump
or
CLA
for fupplying the mill, is in general worked by a man, but in
the machine before us, it is worked by the mill; at the upper
end of the fhaft, AB, fg. 10.a wheel, P, is fixed, which has
wooden projections nailed to it; thefe take the end ofa lever,
Q, moving onan iron bar, d,as a enter; the weight of the
lever is fapported by a friction-wheel running on an hori-
zontal bar R, fixed to the frame-work above; the lever, Q,
has a rod, S, jointed toit near its end, which is fupported
by a frame, T’, faftened to one of the upright polts, the end
of this rod is jointed to one arm of a bent lever, the other
arm of which has the pump-rod of the pump, O, hooked to it.
As the horfes turn the wheel its teeth move the end of the
lever Q with it and raife the pump-rod; when the tooth
quits the end of the lever the weight of the pump-rod pulls
back the lever to its original pofition, ready for the next
ftroke; by this contrivance a conftant fupply of water is
eafily procured, and, by preventing the defcent of the
pump-rod, the pump-work is topped when there is water
enough. ‘Theiron bars, a4, ab, are intended to remove
the clay which may get tothe fides of the trough KK, and
by that means efcape the harrows.
The machine reprefented by jg.er1, though not fo com-
mon, is much more fimple in its conftruGion. A isa ftout
pott firmly fixed inthe ground; it is hooped at top, and
Nias a brafs focket in the centre to receive the. point of an
iron pin, a, which goes through the interfeGtion of two
levers, EF, GH; this pin has a caft-iron plate, 4, faftened
to it, that is bolted to the lever, fo as to conne& them toge-
ther. 1, 1,I,1, are four braces to ftrengthen the crofs.
O,0,0,0, are four other braces which carrya circular ring, R,
andthe wholeis ftrengthened by four long fcrew boits d, d,d. d;
this ring fits the po!t loofely, and when the borfe turns the
machine it moves as fteadily as the former machine; the har-
rows and the circular trough are the fame. The two pre-
ceding machines are ufed, in thofe places where the clay ufed
by the brick-makers 1s not very clean, but has many {tones
and other extraneous matter among it, asthey fink to the
bottom of the circular trough, and remain there when the
clay is drawn off. Where the clay is naturally fufficiently
pure, aud requires culy to be tempered, a different machine is
ufed; it confi'ts of a cylindric tub about three feet diameter
ard tour feet high, in thecentre of whiclis a verttcal {pin-
dle, the lower end working in a brafs focket at the bottom
of the tub, the upper end turns in a collar fupported by
two irom bars nailed to the fides of the tub; at the top of
the {pindle, above this collar, a long lever is fixed for the
horfe to turn the fpindle by ; the upright fpindle has fx or
eight arms fixed perpendicularly to it in different planes, work-
ing within the tub; thefe arms have {pikes projecting from
their upper and under fides, the tub has a {mall trap door in
the fide, near the bottom, which can be kept clofed by a
hafp; the clay 1s thrown in at the top of the tub, and the
horfe made to turn the fpindle, the arms and the {pikes fixe
to it, cut the clay in every direétion and mix it thoroughly,
water being added in the proper quantity. When itis fufh-
ciently ground the door at the bottom of the tub is opened,
and, asthe horfe turns, the clay is thrown out, and carried
to the brick-maker.
Cuay-Stone. See Cray indurated.
Cray Strata, in Mineralogy. 'Vhe recurrence of -clayey
ftrata, in the finking of deep wells, and fhafts for mines, in
Evezland, is more common than thofe of any other matter;
and fince the difcoveries, and meritorious Jabour of Mr.
William Smith, on the ftratification of thefe iflands, have
been known among the circle of his friends, opportunities
have offered, of afcertaining the peculiarities of the organic
remains moft commonly lodged in thefe firata. In the fouth-
eaftern part of England, or uppermoft parts of the feries
CL A
of Brittth ftrata, thefe are, cornua ammonii, belempites,
corallines, or coralloids, entrochi, gryphites, bituminous wood,
&c.3 at the fame time that ludus helmontii, iron-ore,. or
ochre, pyrites, felenite, or gypfum, mica, &c. are not un-
frequently found lodged in thefe clay ftrata.
The uppermoft, or firft clay ftratum (or rather affemblage
of clay ftrata) in the Britifh feries, is that on which the
metropolis of the Britifh empire and its environs ftand; its
upper part is red, and very tenacious when wet, forming
perhaps one of the wortt ftrata for cultivation, in England ;
which, but for the great population thereon, and confequent
opportunities of obtaining manure, fora feries of ages back,
would probably, to the prefent day, have been in a fimilar
ftate to the wafles or commors, with which the vicinity of
London has been fo often reproached. Near the top of this
{tratum, there are two remarkable layers of clay-balls, or
ludus helmontii, as obferved under the article Cray-Ball,
and lower down, pyrites, and other foffils ; a layer or ftratum
of fand, containing black particles, occurs near the bottom
of the London clay ftrata, which, in the finking of wells, is
fometimes found nearly dry, and at others produccs a {pring of
unpalatable water. Beneath the London clay ftrata, a thick
fand {tratum is found, refting upon the chalk ftrata, and, by
means of the numerous and large cracks and fiffures in
the chalt, the fand is fupplied with a mol powerfully
pent or confined f{pring, which often rifes near 250 feet, on
the finking ofa well, through the clay ftrata above mentioned,
and runs over the furface, as in Mr. Vulliaumy’s well, near
Kenfington Gravel-pits, deferibed in the ‘* Philofophical
‘Tranfactions”’ for 1797, and many others in and near
London, which have been funk within a few years patt.
Near the bottom of the London clay ftrata, there are layers,
or trata, of {mooth, flat, and round chert pebbles, of uni-
form fizes, which do-not appear to be worn or rounded
fragments of a chert rock, but nodules, many of them con-
fifting of concentric layers, originaily formed, of the particu-
lar fizes in which we now find them.
The next clayey ftratum in the Britifh feries, is found be-
neath the chalk ftrata; from its white colour, it is denomi-
nated chalk-marl in many places; when overflowed, and
kept wet, by fprings from the edge of the chalk {lrata, as
at the foot of the chalk hills N. of Dunftable, this chalk-
marl is very tenacious and barren; but where its out-crop
is dry, as on the fouth fide of the North Downs, near Rye-
gate, Goditone, &c. or the-north fide of the South Downs,
as at Clayton, Plumpton, &c. its furface forms very good
Jand, particularly for wheat ; while the inner parts of it are,
in fach fituations, difpofed to harden into a fubftance al-
moft like flone, in thin lamine. Cornua-ammonn, fhark’s
teeth, and a curious variety of extraneous foflils, are found in
this chalk marl, of which we hope that the publication of
Mr. Smith’s intended work, will enable us to give a more
detailed account, under the head of each foffil, as we arrive at
the fame in the progrefs of our work.
The next confiderable aflemblage of clay Arata which we
meet with in the Britifh feries, has a remarkable ftratum of
red potter’s-clay on its furface, on which there is a variety
of tile and pottery kilns in Suffex, beneath which a whitifh:
tenacious clay is found, and therein a thin ftratum of lime-
ftone, called Suffex marble, in many places where it is ufed,
particularly in the flender grouped pillars of Gothic buildings,
like Weltminfter Abbey ; this thin and curious ftratum of
lime-ftone, confiits almoft entirely of a congeries of turbinated,
or perriwinkle-like thells, of very. uniform fizes ; in fome {pe-
cimens thefe are all {maller than peafe, and in others they are
of the ordinary fize of perriwinkles ; whether thefe are the
produce of different beds in the fame ftratum, or whether
athicknefs of clay feparates them, we have not yet been able
3 ta
CLA
to afcertain. This fubje& we mult, for the reafon above
{tated, refume on future occafions.
The mott ufual vegetable produ@tions found upon clay
ftrata, are of the following genera; viz, in wet fituations,
carex, juncus, fcheenus, aira, orchis, carduus, poterium,
falix, &c. while, in dry fituations, the following prevail, wiz.
primula, arum, rhinanthus, orchis, poa, rofa, rubus, prunus,
acer, quercus, &c.
CLAYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a can-
ton inthe diitrict of Meaux, leagues W. of it. The
place contains 1007, and the cantun 10,725 inhabitants ;
the territory includes 195 kilicmetres, and 25 communes
CLAYES, in Fortification, are wattles made with ftakes,
interwoven with oziers, &c. to cover lodgments.
CLAYETTE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of
a canton, in the diltriG& of Charolles, 34 leagues E.N.E.
of Marcigny. The plece contains 1089, and the canton
10,857 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 2024 kilio-
metres and 17 communes.
CLAYEY Lanp, in Agriculture, that fort of lands in
which the clayey ingredient is more or lefs abundant, and
which differs very materially in proportion to the nature and
qualities of the clay, as well as the quantity in which it
enters into their competition; fome being extremely fterile
and unproductive, while others are capable of affording an
abundant produce of d:ffcrent kinds of vegetable crops.
According to the obfervations of the very intelligent and
able author of the “ Treatife on the ConneGicn of Agri-
culture with Chemiftry,” there is no clayey land or foil that
is pure and free from fand; and there are but few clays that
are free from a mixture of calcareous matter, magnelia, ve-
getable and animal matters, mineral oil, and other mineral or
metallic fubllances; fome clays are ofa much more unétuous,
and, as it were, greafy nature than others. They do not differ
more in this refpect, than they doin the appearance they
aflume, when fubmitted to a moderate degree of heat. Thole
clays which are the moit unétuousand greafy to the touch,
are, by calcination, changed to a black colour. This mutt
be owing, either to their containing animal or vegetable
matter, although, previous to calcination, it efcapes obferva-
tion ; or, the inflammable matter in the clay may exilt in the
{tate of acolourlefs mineral oil, adhering obitinately to the
clay, and not capable of being feparated from it by water,
with which oil can hold no uvion; yet capable of being
changed into a black carbonaceous matter by the aGtion of
fire. A due mixture of clay, ferves the important purpofes
of retaining in the foil the attenuated vegetable and animal
inbitances, as alfo the mineral oil. Of this defcription are
thofe clays, or clayey loams, which have been depciited by
the fea, or muddy itreams, containing a coufiderable pro-
portion of the exuvie, or remains of animal and vegetable
bodies, in an extreme degree of attenuation. Such lands as
thefe are the moft permanently ferti e, and, where the climate
is favourable, produce the hcavielt and belt filled grain. He
further ftates, that foils, formed by depofiture, for the molt
part contain a fufficient quantity of calcarccus matter. Ad-
ding lime to fuch lads may prove injurious, by its expend-
ing, taking up, or otherwife altering the arrangement and
combination of the animal and vegetable matters, which
fhould carefully be preferved for fucceeding crops. Under
any circumftances, lime fhould, he thinks, be given to fuch
foils but {paringly. But there are clayey foils containing
little or no animal, vegetable, or bituminous matter, and
which are equally deficient of calcareous matter, confift-
ing only of clay, fand, and the earth of iron. To improve
aud sender fertile a foil of this defcription, is truly an Her-
4
22
CLA
culean tak, and wiil feldom repay the induftry of the culti-
vator, unlefs fituated in the neighbourhood of a town, where
more dung may be procured than can be fpared from the
farm in its contiguity. A foil of this nature can receive
little or no benefit by the application of lime, as it contains
nothing for the lime to act upon or combine with. When
under fuch circumitances, that dung, or fuch like manure,
cannot be procured, a preparation of peat, with a very mo.
derate proportion of lime, feems to be the next beft appli-
cation. A foil of poor lean clay, fuch as above deferibed,
will, he fays, require S tons of lime, and 45 tons of peat,
for one dreffing. Doing things partially can never anfwer ;
this quantity is the leaft that ought to be applied; a much
greater may be given, if the articles can be cheaply and
eafily procured. In this the farmer mutt be regulated, in a
great meafure, by his ability in doing, or extent of his
capital. His primary objed, in this cafe, fhould be to pro-
mote the growth of patture graffes, becaufe the land or
{cil at firft will be in no heart to produce crops of grain ;
and, fecond!y, becaule the promoting of the growth of fuch
graffes, and judicioufly depafturing and folding, is the fureit
way of improving fuch lands. After the grafs has taken.
hold of the ground, and is beginning to carry a tolerably
thick fward, its thickuefs and quality may be greatly ime
proved, by fame one or more of the top-dr fiings, or preparas
tions, recommended under that head. See Tor-DressinGs.
It is evident that clayey lands are therefore as different in
their natures as in their colours. Some of them are fo
obftinate that it is {carcely poffible to fubduethem. Others
are fo foft and un¢iuous, as to be eafily reduced to a
proper {tate for nourifhing plants; while others, again,
are fo hungry, as to abforb in a fhort time whatever kind
of manure is applied, without either materially altering
the nature of the land or foil, or improving the crops.
Clay being, as has been feen, a folid compact body, and its
particles adhering firmly together, it does not ealily admit
water, although capable of receiving a large quantity, nor
does it part with it but by flow degrees. When dry it is
hard and denfe; and the more rapidly water is drained off
or exhaled, the harder it becomes, frequently opening into
{mall chafms or rents, when fuddenly dried. As clay, from
its tenacious quality, retains water longer than any other
foil, the roots of the plants, in a rainy feafon, are frequently
f{oaked in water for a confiderable time, and the plants them-
felves, if not entirely deftroyed, are fo chilled and weakened as
to produce very indifferent crops. On the other hand, from
the natural clofenefs of its texture, added to the circumftance
of its hardening very quickly and to a great degree when the
moilture is fuddenly extra€ted, the plants in a dry feafon are
prevented from extending their roots in fearch of nutriment
while the dews and lizht fummer fhowers, fo effential to the
growth of all vegetables, and which eafily penetrate the
more friable foils, are repelled by the clay, and again ex-
haled by the influence of the fun. From this account of
the nature and properties of all clayey lands or foils, it is
fcarcely neceffary to mention the great importance of keep-
ing them as dry as poflible at all feafons, efpecially during
winter. When that is properly attended to, the farmer has
it in his power to plough and fow on the firlt return of fa-
vourable weather in the fpring, as thereby, in a great mea _
fure, he avoids the rifk of his crops fuffering either from
heavy falls of rain, or a long continued feafon of dry wea-
ther, particularly the latter, for when a clayey foil is re-
duced to a proper ftate by the harrows and rollers, after
the feed is fown, it very feldom happens that the crop fuf-
tains any material injury from the want of rain during the
remainder of the feafon. But although the nature and pro.
perties of clayey lands be fuch as above defcribed, yet, by
induftry,
CuAY EY
indaftry, and the application ef fuch manures as are beit cal-
culated for correéting their bad qualities, and for bringing
thofe mof favourable to vegetation into e€tion, this fort of
land is often made to produce abundant crops, of many dif-
ferent kinds.
But ciavey lands, of whatever kind they may be, the au-
thor of the “ Synopfis of Hufbandry” thinks ‘ require a
more laborious exertion to reduce them to a finenefs necef-
fary for the purpofe of hufbandry than any other foils, and
are diltinewiked under-various names, ariling from the colour;
but the intrinfie good cr ill quality of this foil depends not
on thefe vague ditzinG@ions, but on the propertion of fand
intermixed with it; and where th's ingredient is happily
blended with the clay, and where the foil is of a reafonable
depth, and the fpriags do not rife too near the furface ;
when thefe feveral good qualities are united, there are few
foils more kindiy for the feveral purpofes of hufbandry ; and
though in their cultivation the clays may require a greater
ftrength both of horfes and tackle than any other, yet, on
many accounts, they defervedly claim the preference either toa
chalk, gravel, cr fand.”’? Of this kind, he obferves, are thelands
in the wealds of Kent and Suffex ;.and he knows of no part
of the kingdom where the feveral purpofes of hufbandry are
more effeGually anfwered than in thefe counties: the fize
and fatnefs of the bealts evince the fertility of their pafture,
whiltt the luxeriancy of its feveral growths of hops and corn
proclaim the fuperior goodnefs of the arable Jand ; and the
large f{preading oaks are a demonitrable proof that it is
kindly tothe growth of timber. but there are other kinds
of clayey foils which, being by nature fo Ltiff and tenacious
as not to be meliorated either by tillage or manure, bid defi-
ance to the moft flailful plan of hufbandry, and can never be
brought to yield a fufficient quantity of earth to beat the
feed, unlefs in a feafon the moft propitious; and even with
every» advantage that can attend it, this ground will fail to
produce a crop by any means adequate to the pains and ex-
pence required in working it ; fo thatit demands fome judg-
ment to difcriminate the various kinds of clays, which,
though they all rank under the fame general denomination,
do yet differ moit effentially in their propertics. Thofe of
the more fterile kind are rarely of any conliderable depth,
having a bed of gravel for the under ftratum, and ave gene-
rally within a near proximity to the fprings; for this
kind of land being always overcharged with wet, or parch-
ed with drought, and therefore fubjeé& to accidents which
it is feldom in the power of the hufbandman to forefee or
prevent, is, on thefe accounts, inferior to moft others:
whilft clays of the firft denomination are defervedly ranked,
as has been obferved, emong the molt fertile foils. To de-
termine the goodnefs of a clayey foil, one fhould have re-
courfe, he fays, to the appearance of the trees, corn, and
other vegetables: the profperous growth of the trees and
hedes, the fourifhing tate of the corn, and the verdure of
the meadow-land, are favourable omens; whilft the ftunted
appearance of the trees, thin crops of corn, and fhort grafs,
are plain indications of the poverty of the foil.
“ Tn the bufisefs of tilling this kind of land, the renter will
aQ wifely,”? he fays, “in providing himfelf with ftout and
able horles, {trong ploughs, and other inftruments of huf-
bandry; and his hinds, likewife, ought to be thofe of the
moftt fturdy breeds. Of the many different kinds of ploughs
now in ulz, there are none better adapted for working
thefe ftubborn grounds than thofe commonly diftinguifhed
by the name of {wit z-ploughs: thefe are conftru&ted with-
out wheels, and the horfes draw fingly, following each
other in the furrow, in both which refpeéts this plough
claims the preference to wheel-ploughs, where the horfes,
Vat. VIII.
LAND.
by going a-breaft, tread the ground much more than in the
former inftance; though in Kent the farmers ufually work
their {tiff land with the common turn-re(t, or, as it is vul-
garly called, turn-rife plough, which is made far more
weighty than the Hertfordthire or any other wheel-plough; and,
from the circumftance of turning the reft at the end of every
furrow, is not chargeable with the defe@ before mentioned,
of fubje&ting the frefh ploughed ground to be trodden by
the horfes. [a fome counties they till their ftuf lands with
a foot-plongh, which, by means of the iron that is let into
the beam, and relts in the furrow, works with more {teadi-
nefs than the fwiag-plough, but in the other parts of its
conflruction nearly refembles the laft-mentioned inftrument.
As mot of the ill qualities attending the foil originate in
its adhefive nature, every art fhould be made ufe of to me-
horate and pulverife the fubborn cleds, fo as to reduce them
to that degree of finenels neceflary for the purpofe of ve-
getation.””
** And in the praGice of winter-fallowing a clayey foil,
let,” fays he, “ the ground that is propofed to be fown with
oats or beans in the fpring, be fallowed up as foon as pofii-
ble after the wheat feafon is finifhed, and be careful that the
lands may not be made over-large ; perhaps five bouts or.
wents may be a proper fize, fo that each land may meafure’
about half a rod over; but this is to be determined by the
nature of the foil and the locality of the ficuat'on. It has
been fhewn already, that clays differ eflentially from each
other, and hence it feems of confequence, at the fallowing
of thofe which are of the wet, fpewy kind, to lay the
ridges in fuch manner that they may be leaft incommoded
by the winter rains; whereas, in thofe of a moderate tex-
ture, and which are lefs inc ined to moifture, this caution is
not neceflary,-but to guard againft the contingency of moif-
ture during the winter, by laying the land as dry as poffible,
is a point to be attempted by ail poflible means on every dif-
ferent defcription of this foil. ‘The ground having been
thus fallowed at aa early feafon, and having partaken of the
benefit of the winter froits, will generally work kindly to-
wards the middle of February, which is the proper time for
planting beans on clays. For oats, perhaps, three plough-
ings may be required, provided the feafon be favourable for
performing them ; for, in a very wet fpring, it may be more
prudent to difpenfe with one ploughing, and to tow after the
firft flirring in April; but if the weather be kindly, it will
be advifable, when the bean feafon is finifhed, to ftir fuch
ground as is intended for oats; ard this fallow, having en-
joyed the benefit of the March winds, will work well at the
fecond {tirring in April, the proper time for fowing oats on
Riff lands. The ground having been thus managed, will
come in for beans the next year, or be in a ftate of tillage
proper to fow with clover, which generally fuceeds well
when cultivated on thefe foils ; and ficids which were put in
with beans, if the ground bein goed heart, will come in for ai
wheat feafon at the following autumn. nd this fhews how
neceflary it is for a farmer to look forward, in order that his
land may not only be well prepared for the growth of the
prefent crop, but be in readinels for the reception of a differs
ent grain in the following years.”
In fallowing for wheat in clayey lands, it has been already
obferved, he adds, that ‘* wheat might very properly fuc-
ceed a crop of beans on thefe foils, a method which is ge-
nerally purfued in Kent and Suffex ; but where the land is
of a very ftiff nature, it is abfolutely neceflary to give it a
fummer fallow once in four or five years or oftner, according
toits goodnefs, by which method its adhefion is deftroyed
and the pores are opened for the admiffion of the fun, air,
rains and dew, all of which abound with fuch principles as
3G may
Ci Et Al Wi. BLY
may contribute, in a high degree, towards the melioration and
fertility of the foil. The proper time to fallow for wheat,
ena clay, is inthe month of April, as foon as the lent fea-
fon is fnifhed ; and if the weather will permit, the {tirring
fhould be effected in May, and this is fometimes ail that can
be done to the field till afrerthe rains in Augutt ; for, fhould
a dry time happen in June, it will be impracticable to
work the land, it having been rendered fo hard as to preclude
the entrance of the plough, or if this can be effcéted, the
furface will, in this cafe, break up in fuch large clods, and
withal fo fhallow, as to render the tillage of little worth ;
but fhould the weather permit, it will be proper to give the
ground a fecond ftirring in June, and to lay the fields in
ridges ; for in fuch form the foil will more conveniently
imbibe the various influences of the atmofphere, than ia
broader lands. The number of ploughings throughout the
fummer depends fo much upon contingencies, that no ftated
rule can be laid down upon that head; for if the weather
be either too wet, or tending to the contrary extreme, this
work of the moreobftinate kind of clays will be wholly im-
practicable, and on this account, the farmer is frequently
difappointed of a wheat feafon ; but on clays which are lefs
adhefive, and where the land has been conduGed in a huf-
bandlike manner for a feries of years, there is not fo much
hazard of being thrown out at the wheat feafon; and a time
generally offers for fowing the corn between the latter end of
Augult and the beginning of October, which is the late{t
term to which the fowing of this grain ought to be pro-
traéted on thefe heavy lands. If the weather fhall have
been kindiy throughout the fummer, the land will have been
ftirred at leaft twice during that period: and thus with the
fallowing, and the laft ploughing at feed time, the ground
will have been four times ploughed, which will moft
probably have reduced it to a degree of finenefs proper
for the reception of the wheat, after which the field fhould
be fufficiently harrowed, fo as to cover the corn to a proper
depth.”
And it is obferved, by the practical author of the “ Pre-
fent Stateof Hufbandry,”’ that ‘‘ the manures moft proper to
be applied to thefe lands, are lime, chalk, fea-fand, and
afhes. It appears. he fays, from the accounts given by
thofe chemilts who have analized thefe fubltances, that they
are admirably calculated to correét the ftubborn denfity of
clay, fo as to render it more eafily reducible by the plough ;
to open its pores, fo that it may more readily imbibe and
tran{mit water ; and that they operate es a powerful ftimulus,
and fome way or other difpofe whatever principles in clayey
foils are friendly to vegetation, to exert themfelves. Long
and eftablifhed praétice confirms this obfervation ; lime, for
inftance, has been applied to thefe foils for many years in the
counties of Durham, Gloucefter, Hereford, Montgomery,
Berwick, Stirling, Perth, and many other diltricts where
fuch foils prevail. Chalk is ufed both in its natural and
calcined flates, in Hertford, Middlefex, Effex, Kent,
Wilts, and other fouthern counties. Sea-fand is employed
as a manure in Cornwall, Devon, Pembroke, Anglefey,
C€aernarvon, and alfo in feveral diftrif&ts in Scotland. Coal-
athes, in the neighbourhood of London, are laid with
attonifhing fuccefs on clayey-foils, whence brick earth has
been taken. Peat afhes have produced wonderful effects in
Berkfhire ; and afhes of both kindsare ufed to great advant-
age, as a top-dreffing on the ftrong foils, in all thofe coun-
ties where that praCtice is eftablifhed. Befides thefe manures,
compotts, efpecially when formed chiefly of light fandy, or
gravelly earths, with lime and chalk, are alfo applied to clay
foils with fuccefs in many parts o fEngland. Few compotts
being made on the better cultivated clayey {oilsin Scotland,
AMD
the common method is to lay on farm yard durg. the fame
feafon in which a field is limed ; by adopting this praétice
the lime is found to operate more rapidly, and at the fame
time more powerfully.”
It has been remarked by Jord Dundonald, that ‘ there is
a great extent of poor clayey land or foil, fimilar to that
which has been mentioned, in many parts of the north of
England and in Scotland for the moit part lying at a con-
fiderable height above the level of the fea ; and frequently ir
the vicinity of peat mofles in the county of Lanark, or
Clydefdale, he fays, there are computed to be 42,000 acres
of peat-mofs totally unimproved, producing nothing itfelf
nor contributing in any way to the fertility of the adjacent
poor lands, which are as deftitute of vegetable matter, as the
mofs contains afuperabundance. It requires a much longer
time, anda much greater application of dung and vegetable
matters, than would be generally believed, before poor lands
of this defcription can be rendered highly fertile, and made
in all refpeéts, fimilar to landthat has been long, or for ages
under cultivation. Ten times the quantity of peat, or
vegetable matter, recommended to be given at once, or 480
tons would fcarcely bring poor barren land tothe colour of
rich black mould, known in Scotland by the name of infield-
land, and to which, for ages, the dung of the farm has been
exclufively applicd. Experiments made with an intimate
mixture of poor lean clay and peat warrant this affertion ;
here purpofely ftated, he fays, that the over fanguine cul-
tivator or improver of ground may not imagine, that with a
fummer fallow, and a dunging or dreffing or two, he may be
enabled to complete fo arduous a tafk. Land is always re-
quiring a fupply of manure, and repays, in general, more
abundantly for the laft expence when brought toan advanced
{tate of cultivation, than for that which at firft is incurred.
Both feed and labour are thereby faved, and good crops,
with much more certainty, are to be depended upon.”
‘© Paring and burning the {ward of fome clayey foils, he
thinks, may be pra¢tifed with advantage, as the burnt clay
will diminifh the fliffnefs of the foil, and render it more
pervious to water. ‘This may be {till more economically
effected, and in other refpeéts, with lefs injury to the foil,
by half burning the clay, in clamps or in kilns: a preference
which can however only be given in fituations where fuel
can at a cheap rate be procured for this purpofe.” See
Burnt Clay.
Mr. Donaldfon fays, that, ‘* while it may be admitted,
that, by the application of fuch manures and proper culti-
vation, clayey lands are made to produce, occafionally,
luxuriant crops; to every perfon acquainted with thefe
foils, it muft be obvious, that the crops are, upon the
whole, more precarious and uncertain than thofe on deep
fertile loams, and other fimilar foils or forts of land.
And the natural produce of clay-lands, with regard to:
weeds, is rufhes, goofe-grafs, or wild tanfey, large daifies,
thiftles, docks, May-weed, poppies, and other coarfe herb-
age of a fimilar kind.”
The following is the method of improvement that was
employed in the bringing of a tract of ninety-three acres of
clayey-land which had remained long in an uncultivated
{tate into a proper condition, in order to lay it to grafs, as.
practifed by Mr. Beit, and flated in the fourth volume of
«© Communications to the Board of Agriculture.” ‘*' Thefe
lands,’’ fays he, ‘ fince the memory of man, were let at
18/. per annum: from this fum they increafed, owing to
the advance of the times, to 22/. 5s. which is the moit
they were ever let for.” In the year 1788, he began on.a
field of eight acres, by employing fome men to take up
brambles, furze, and other natural incumbrances, with
which:
which two parts in three of that field were covered; in the
winter he had it under-ground drained. This, he thinks,
is the firft ftep which a farmer ought to take, before he
converts his land to tillage. He laid the top turf on two
fhoulders, about fixteen inches deep, leaving a channel open
under, which got the land very dry, and fo it continues.
The expence of draining, when he firft began, was about
30s. an acre, but now it is near gos. In December, 1790,
he ploughed the whole of this field, and in the February
following, fpread about ten tons of well-mixed dung and
earth over every acre. In April he fowed it with flax ;
this is a crop that reqnires, (particularly in {trong land,
which this is, being on a ftrone clay, with fome {pots of
flinty gravel), in its early part, at leaft twelve hours .rain in
every week. Unfortunately for him, he had not half rain
enough; confequently, that crop failed. He then made as
good a fallow, as the nature of the land and the feafon
would permit. At Michaelmas, 1791, he fowed it with
wheat, which produced abont eighteen buthels (fingle Win-
chefter) per acre. As foon as the ground was cleared of
the wheat, it wes ploughed and fown to vetches, of which
he had a great crop; he fed thefe off with fheep in the
fpring, 1793, and the ground which they cleared by day
they lay on at might. After the vetches were ail eaten, he
mace a very good fallow, and, in September, drefled it over
with ten hogfheads of lime (which cot 1s. 6d. per hogf-
head), per acre, which he had, in the month of May, mixed
with the head-lands well together. About Michaelmas,
he fowed it with wheat again, and had too great a burden;
for, in the month of May, 1794, he was objiged to have a
man with a keen reap-hook, to cut off all the luxuriant
blades, the ear not having made its appearance. » This pre-
caution, however, did not fully anfwer his purpofe, for a
great part of the crop was thrown; notwithitanding, he
had full twenty-five bufhels per acre. He then made a
fallow, and, in the {pring 1795, fowed the field with white
oats and grafs-{eeds of different forts, viz. rye-grafs, cow-
grafs, Dutch clover and hop. ‘The oats were very thick
and long; i) confequence of which, the grafs-plants in
fome places did not thrive; for, in fpots of five or fix
feet {quare, there was no appearance of any. He had cight
quarters of oats per acre. He fed the grafs with theep the
years 1796, 1797, and till Augult, 1798, when he again
ploughed it, and dragged in fome vetches. He had a great
crop, and, in the {pring 1799, fed it eff with theep, folding
them on the ground as they eat the vetches. When this
was done, he made a fallow, as good as a wet fummer
would admit of, and fowed it to wheat again, ac the ufval
feafon, without any additional manure, and had about
twelve bufhels per acre, a good crop fer this year, fome
Jands in the netghbourhoed not producing more than fix
or feven. The acre in this county is cultomary meafure,
not ftatute.
It is added, that, from finding this land drained fo well,
he has, every winter, drained a little, as fait as he could get
the land cleanfed ; and la{t-winter he completed the whole
ninety-three acres. He has drained a great many acres of
land befides thefe, and has had it done in the fame manner,
which aniwers extremely well. Twenty acres of the above,
ninety-three he has kept in pafture, having, in the {pace of
five or fix years, drefled tt over twice with about fifteen
tons per acre each time. His manure confilts of dung,
earth, foap-afhes, and the ferapings of turnpike roads: this
latter article anfwers remarkably well on a ftreng clay foil.
The whole of thefe ninety-three acres are on fuch a foil,
with fome gravel. During the fummer, it 1s neceffary to
turn it twice, in order thati t may be well mixed ; and, by
Cis At MOET YY y Ar Ny, Ds
doing this, it is brought to-a fine mould; when f{pread or
the lands, once brufhing over with fome thorns makes it
foon difappear. The above twenty acres are at this time
worth 255. per acre. In November, 1795, he began
ploughing. another piece of ground of fourteen acres.
From the manner in which this piece of ground lay, his
fervant could not throw it plain, (it being left, the laft time
it was ploughed, in fix-furrowed ridges), fo as to bring it
with any advantage to a crop in the fpring. In April,
1796, he ploughed it acrofs; after this, worked it well
with drags and harrows. Finding this would not do
(owing to the turf not being fufficiently rotten, which he
accounts for, by lying in-a rough open {tate all the winter),
he fet fome men to hack it over: and, harrowing it well
with four horfes abrealt, it became tolerably fine, with the
exception only of the rufh and fedge, of which there was a
great abundance. The weather being dry, he employed
twelve or fifteen women and boys beating over thefe ruth
and fedge roots, in order to get them out of the earth, fome
men going after them with three-pronged forks, throwing
them in heaps and burning them. By doing this, he raifeda
great quanuty of afhes, which he {pread over the land, and,
as foon as fufficiently cold, he harrowed in fome turnip feed,
which came up very well; but the land being of a clofe
ftiff nature, they did not get larger than about the fize of
a cricket-ball ; he had them hoed, otherwife they would not,
in his opinion, have grown to that fize. He kept 450
fheep upon them, witha little hay, a month and a few days.
In the month of May, previous to this, he put on the head-
lands 140 hogfheads of lime, which he caufed to be well-
turned and mixed,- and, as the fheep ate the turnips, this
was carried and fpread on the land. The latter end of
OGober it was fown with wheat, and produced a good
crop, averaging better than twenty bufhels per acre.
As foon as the wheat was carried off, it was ploughed and
fown to vetches (a greater burden than Jands of the value of
40s.an acre could produce ;) and in the {pring 1795, he fed
them cff with fheep, folding them by night, where they
fed by day. He always mzkes it a pvint, as foon as the
fheep have cleared a day’s work for the plough, to plough
the land; by doing this, he preferves the manure of the
fheep from the fun, and turns in what vetches were left,
which, in his opinion, are equal, if not fuperior, to the
droppings of the fheep. He has obferved, that where the
greateft quantity has been left and ploughed in, that part
of the ground generally works much lighter at feed-time ;
and that, at harveft, the wheat is fuperior. ‘This may not
do fo well on alight fandy loam. He finifhed.fowing this
field to wheat (the fecond time) by Michaelmas, 1798.
He was obliged in May to cut off all the tops of it (as he
did in the other field), in order to keep it ftanding. When
harveit came, he had fixty tithing per acre, which produced
no more than 3-0 buihels, and about two pecks in the whole
field. If the kern had been fuch as it was the year before,
he fhou'd, he believes, have had thirty bufhels per acre,
Laft year it was fown to barley and grafe-feeds. As the
barley is not threfhed, he cannot exactly ftate the quantity
grown, but, from appearance, it was judged to be about
twenty buihels per acre: a good cop for this country laft
feafon ; the grafs plants look yemarkably well, and confit of
the following forts :—rye-grals one peck, cow-grafs 6 lbs.,
Dutch clover 2 !bs.; this he allowed for every acre. It is
cultomary, he fays, for the tenant to be at the expence of
the grafs-[ceds. “The hop-grafs did not anfwer in the other
field ; it is his opinion that the foil is too heavy and clofe
for it. He very much difappraves of mowing the firft year
after laying down, particularly on ftrong lands.
3G2 Tle
C.h AS ¥ ELY
He further ftates, that, in November, 1795, he
ploughed another field, of eleven acres, and threw it very
plain. As foon as it was finifhed ploughing, he had it rolled
with a heavy roller, that it might be as clofe as pofflible all
the winter, in order to rot the fpine or turf the better.
In the early part of April he dragged in fome black oats;
fhortly after they were up, an eatterly wind (to which the
field lay quite expofed) ftruck them very yellow, exaétly hke
ftraw, and the ground being fo very poor, they never re-
covered it. The ground lay in this ttate till September,
when it was ploughed acrofs, and fo it remained till the
March following. The froft having opened it, and by
dragging and harrowing it well, he brought it to be tole-
rably fine. In May he dreffed it over with 20 hogfheads of
lime per acre, (which was well mixed with the head-lands
in April), then ploughed it as thin as poflible, and fowed
fome turnip-feed, which came up very well, but did rot
flourifh, owing, in his opinion, as he has before obferved, to
the foil being too ftift and heavy for turnips. At Michael-
mas, 1795, it was fown to wheat without any other manure.
The crop produced him nineteen bufhels peracre. As foon
as the wheat was carried off the land, he fowed it to
vetches (which he is convinced is the belt artificial fowing
on {trong lands), and he had a very good crop, which he fed
off with fheep in the fame manner as before deferibed; and
laft Michaelmas it was fown the fecond time to wheat with-
out any additional manure; at prefent it is impoffible for
plants to look better. He intends taking three crops from
this field, as he did from the laft, and then to lay it down
for three years. He thinks no land fhould have more than
three crops of corn without reit; at the fame time fowing
between thofe crops, fome forts of artificials, for fheep-
feed, which will keep the land clean and in good condition.
The foil will digtate to the farmer what fort of artificials to
fow for his advantage. He has, at this time, another field
of ten acres in fallow, which has been ploughed thefe twelve
months. He intends purfuing exaétly the fame method
with this and the remaining thirty aeres, as he has done with
the former, and when finifhed, hohas no donbt bunt that
the ninety-three acres will be worth one hundred pounds
per.annum.
The great advantage of adopting proper modes, in bring-
ing lands of this nature into the itate of good grafs, or ward,
is here fhownin a very ftriking manner; and it is rendered
fill more evident in the practice detailed below.
In refpe& to the breaking up and re-laying clayey land
to the ftate of {ward, Mr. Amos has obferved in the fame
volume of ‘Communications,’ that it is the molt ob-
durate and unmanageable foil which the farmer has to en-
counter, the too great adhefion of its particles rendering it
unfit for vegetation, but which may be in fome degree cor-
reG&ted by lime, fand, athes, long dung, marle; by fre-
quently expofing frefh furfaces of it to the influence of the
fun and atmofphere; by planting on it fucculent plants, as
beans, red clover, &c.; which having top reots not only
render the mofs lefs cohefive thereby, but alfo add to it
much carbon. And that as the lower leaves of the denfe
foliage of thefe vigorous vegetables alfo give out much
carbonic acid by their refpiration in the fhade; which,
perpetually fiiking down upon the furface of the foil, fup-
plics it with carbon, which renders it more nutritive to cther
vegetables, which may afterwards grow upon it. ‘The
mode difplayed at fig. 1.in Plate X. on Agriculture, anfwers
the purpofe in the moft effe€tual manner, as fhown by the
fettion of a 12 feet ridge.
But in breaking up grafs land of this kind of foil,
great attention fhould be paid to ploughing the furrows, fo
LAND.
as to expofe the greatelt furface poffible to the influence’ of
the fun and atmofphere, and to furnifh the greatelt quan-
tity of mould for covering the feed.
It is fuppofed that furrows nine inches broad and three
inches and a half thick are the belt proportioned fize. He
is however truly fenfible that no certain ftandard can be
fixed for the breadth and width of the furrows; that muft
entirely depend upon the depth of the foil. By limiting the
breadth and thicknefs of the furrow as above, he only means
that thofe proportioas fhould neither be much exceeded nor
abated where the flaple of the foil will permit.
“In regard to the firt crop, as the fize of the ridxes is
already formed upon all grafs iands, nothing can be done,
but to plough the ridges in the manner defcribed, early in
February. As foon as the weather permits, in the laft
week of February, or on the Arlt or fecond week in March,
to fo. five bufhels of good oats upon every acre; then to
harrow the land only juft enough to cover the feed; after-
wards to let the whole be water furrowed, and the drains
opened, fo that no water may ftand upon the land.
Nothing more is wanted to be done till the latter end of
May or beginning of June, when the crop fhould be Well
weeded.
And for the fecond crop, the land fhould be gone over
‘early in November'to fee that no water flands upon it,
and that the water furrows and crofs grips or drains are
kept clear and open. And as foon in February, as the
weather and condition of the foil will permit, to drill tea
pecks of beans upon every acre, twenty-feven inches between
each row and three inches deep; then to harrow the ridges
twice or thrice with /winging trees as long as the ridges are
broad, to which as many harrows fhould be tied as will
cover them, and the horfes walk in the open furrows. But
as {con as the beans are fairly above ground, they fhould be
rolled and harrowed; fome time in May be horfe-hoed, by
ploughing a furrow off from the beans on each fide, making
a ridge in the intervals between the rows. ‘The beans will
then itand upon a ridge of abont tix or eight inches wide,
which muit be well hand-hoed. - In about a week after; the
earth mutt be returned again to the beans in the rows, In
about two weeks more the double mould-board plough
fhould be ufed to feour'up the middle of the intervals, wd
to lay the earth clofer to the beans. If any more weeds
appear they mut be pulled up by the hand. And as foon
as the ground is cleared of the beans, the land fhould be
feued the crofs way of the ridges, then harrowed once er
twice, and the weeds colleGed in heaps and burnt.
*< And early fowing fhonld be practifed, as the mildew is
more injurious to late crops than forward ones, owing to the
great dampnefs of the ground in autumn.
“¢ For the third crop, after having feufifed, and cleanfed the
ground well, it muft then be plenghed up in’ the manner
denoted above, four inches deep if the flaple will permit.
And when the feed is to be drilled «the ridges fhould be
harrowcd twice or thrice in a place, thenten prcks of wheat
drilled upon every acre, and finifhed by harrowing the land
once ; the lefs harrowing the better, provided there is depth
of mould fof permitting the feed tobe drilled two inches
and ahalf deep. But when the feed is to be fown broad
cait, it fhonld be fown after the land is ploughed, at the rate
of twélve pecks to the acre; harrowing the land jaft enough
to cover the feed; then water furrow it, and afterwards grip
or drain: it completely in both cafes.”
Where “the ftems and foliage of the wheat are too
vigorous, it may be advantageous to eat it down with fheep
the Iatter end of March, or beginning of April, and after-
wards to harrow it the length way and to roll it the crofs _
way
0.
CLA
way of the ridges. And about the latter end of May
the wheat fhould be brealt or horfe-hoed if drilled; if fown
broad caft, the weeding muft be done by hand; the fame
operations fhould be performed a fecond time in the month
of June.”
For the “ fourth, or fallow crop, the land fhould be
ploughed ‘acrofs into ridges four inches and a half deep,
early in November, and afterwards well water-furrowed, and
gripped or drained completely. The field-will then he in
detp open furrows and high narrow ridges, and confequently
be expofed to the largeft extent of fuperficics that is poffi-
ble, which is the fine gua non of ploughing fuch land.
Sometimes in February, as foon as the feafon and weather
will permit, che ridges mutt be {plit down the middle and re-
verfed, fo that the whole furface-foil may be equally expofed
to the influence of the fun and atmofphere. And about the
beginning of April, the ridges fhonld be crawn down by
the break or drag-harrow going acrofs them once or twice ;
after lying in this {tate fome time, the land fhould get a
clean ploughing four inches deep the latter end of the fame
month. About the middle of May is the laft time to lay on
the auxiliary earths, viz. four chaldrons of lime, or fix chal-
drons of chalk, or fifty tons of calcareous marl, or four chal-
drons of afhes, or twenty cubic yards of tanners’ bark, or Sfty
tons of fand, or fifty tons of peat-earth, &c. upon every acre;
then drag-harrow the land both length and croflways to in-
corporate the whole intimately together. If the land is very
rough, it may be reduced a little either by the {pike-roller,
er a heavyifh plain one, toa roundifh clod ; but it fhould not
by any means be made too fine. When long dung is the in-
tended manure, it fhould not be laid on till after.the fecond
clean ploughing has been given, which fhould be done the
later end of -May in both cafes: after the middle of June,
the dung may be laid on after the rate of ten or twelve tons
to the acre; the land in cither cafe muft then be ploughed
into ridges of from nine to twelve feet wide, and gathered
up in the manner deferibed above ; then fow half a peck of
cole-feed upon every acre, if fown broad catt, or a quarter of
a peck, if drilled ; and then harrow the whole once. If any
weeds {pring up, they mutt be hand-hoed, whether the feed
has been drilled or fown broad-catt.
«The cole fhould be eaten off in the month of September ;
then plough the land immediately after the cole has been
eaten oft three inches and a half deep, referving the furrows,
which muit be left clear and open for the fake of draining
the land in winter; open alfo all the crofs grips or drains
completely, fo that no water may be fuffered to ftand upon
the land; for to all improvements draining is the firit Lep. As
foon as the weather permits, in April, the land mutt be
ploughed, for the laft time, into three inches deep furrows,
which mutt be referved again; reduce the furface to a very
fine tilth, by harrowing and rolling it completely for the re-
ception of the fceds. ‘I’hen upon every acre he adviles the
fowing the follawing feeds :”
“ Of artificial Grafs-feeds.
Cow clover, - - - - 8 pounds.
White ditto, - - - - - Io ditto.
Trefoul, - - ene ca - 4. ditto.
< OF natural Grafs-feeds.
Sweet fcented vernal grafs, - - + peck.
Meadow foxtail grafs, - - - 1 ditto.
Rough-ftalked meadow grafs, - - 1 ditto.
Meadow fefcue grafs, = 4 KB 4 ditto.
Rye grafs, - - = - - 2 ditto.”
CL A
This “ compofition and proportion of feeds are the mo
fuitable for clayey or moift foils, and will form in two or
three years a molt excellent meadow, as all the plants fown
are {trong and hardy perennials. After the feeds have been
all fown, the land fhould be buth-harrowed once, the length
way of the ridges, and then rolled acrofs.”? ,
sind ‘the next thing to be done,” he fays, * is carefully
to open all the water-furrows. with a double mould-board
plough, four inches deep, no width at bottom, but eight
inches wide at top... Then open all the crofs grips or main
drains in the manner exprefled” at fg. 2. in the fame plate.
‘ epunards roll the whoie down the crofs way of the
ands.’”
By the above management,
keep one-third more ftock than it
did for feveral years. But, after a certain period of time,
the grafles degenerate, and the pallure returns to its original
ftate, which, he fays, fhews the neceflity of converting grafs
land into tillage, and of Jaying down fach lands with grals-
feed alternately.”
Cravey Loam, that fort of loam which contains a large
proportion of clay in its compofition, It is a fort of land
that isof the more {tiff kind, but which is highly produétive
when properly cultivated. It abounds much in many dif-
tris. See Loam and Sort.
Cravey Marl, that fort of marle which has much of
the clayey ingredient in its compolitien. See Mart.
Cravey Soi/, that fort which ts principally con{tituted of
clayey materials, Extenfive diltri¢ts are. met with in which
the foil is chiefly of this fort. Sce Sor.
CLAYING or Lann, the p-ocefs of applying this fort
of material on Jand, which, in mauy cafes, is found extremely
beneficial in affording = better texture and corfiftence. In
the county of Norfolk the term claying is often improperly
applied to the praétice of matling.
In many fituations, where marl is not to be had, clay may
often be found at no great depth below the furface, and may
be had recourfe to with the greateft benefit on the more licht
poor forts of land. See Sort. ¥
The application of it is a bufinefs that may proceed dur-
ing molt of the fummer as well as the autumnal months, and
often in the winter, with much propriety and convenience +
but it is cenitantly the molt advantageoufly laid on before
the commencement of the winter frofts, as in that way it is
more perfectly reduced and incorporated with theland. The
manner of performing the work is fimilar to that made ufe of
for marl. See Marine. -
Cuayine of Sugar, See Sucar.
CLAYONAGE,. in the Military Art, hurdles for cover-
ing the wooden work of a gallery for the paflageof-the ditch,
and for fecuring the people employed in carrying on the faps
againit the fire of the belieged when itis dangerous.
CLAYTON, Tromas, in Biography, toak his degree of
doctor in medicine at Oxford towards the end of the feven-
teenth
- CLA
teerth -century, and foon after went to Virginia, from
whence ‘he correfponded with the Royal Society. Several
of his communications, treating of the cu'tvre and different
foecies of the nicotiana (tobacco), are pubhfhed in numbers
201, 4, 5, and 6, of the * Philofopnical Tranfa&tions,” and
in number 454 is an ample account of medicinal plants which
he had difcovered yrowing in that country. Hailer fuppofes
‘that the ** Flora Virginica exhibens plantas quas T. Clayton
in Virginia obfervavit et collegit,’? was compofed from papers
le*t by fim. Tt was publilhed by Gronovius, at Leyden, in
17 43, Svo., and again in gto. inr762._ Haller. Bib. Bot:
Crayton, Rospert.a Jearned prelate of the church of
Ireland, was born iv the capital of that kingdom, in 1695.
He wasthe fon of Dr. Clayton, minifter of St. Michael in
‘that city, and dean of Kildare. He received his claffical
education at Weltminiter fchool; whence he removed to
Trinity college, Dublin, of which he was fome time after
clected a fellow. The date of his firit degrees, and of his
ordination, are not known, but he became doétor in divinity
in 1729. On his father’s death, coming into poffeffion of a
handfome fortune, he confcientioufly refigned his fellowfhip
without any profpe& of compenfation by church preferment;
a mealure, it mult be confefled, not very ufual among mem-
bers of Univerfities, But this fcrupulous generofity of dif-
polition appears to have been a prominent feature of Dr.
Clayton’s charaéter; for on his marriage in 1728, he pre-
fented the fortune which he received with his wife to her
filter ; and made a better pr vifion for his own filters than
had been done by his father, by doubling the legacies which
he had I-ft them. It was this beneficent temper that led
principa ly to his advancement in his profeffion. During a
temporary refidence in London, fhortly after his marriage, a
perfon applicd to-him for pecuniary relief, whofe cafe was
recommended by Dr. Samucl Clarke. Dr. Clayton, enter-
ing fully into the fituation of the petitioner, prefented him
with a donation of three hundred pounds. This mesificent
act procured him the acquaintance and the friendfhip of Dr.
Clarke ; and it is thought that this intimacy contributed to
the heterodoxy which Dr. Clayton afterwards manifefted with
regard to many of the doGtrines of hischurch. Dr.Clarke took
an early. opportunity to introduce his friend to queen Caroline,
who had already, from the report of his beneficence, enter-
tained a favourable opinion of his charaéter, which was
greatly ftrengthened and confirmed by the kind offices of
lady Sundoa, a relation of Dr. Clayton by marriage, and
at that time a great favourite at court. Under thefe very
favourable aufpices, which Dr. Clayton’s perfonal merit
grodually fecured for him, he obtained the queen’s recom-
mendation to the lord lieutenant for the firit vacant bifhopric
in Ireland, and in confequence was prefented to the fee of
Kiliala im January 1729—39. In November 1735 he was
tranflated to Cork, and to Clogher in 1745. Thus
fir Clayton had been diftingutfhed rather as the polite gcn-
tleman than the erndite feholar and divine; and from his
long filence in the literary world, even after his elevation in
the church, and his unaffuming diffidence upon topics,of
learned difguifitio>, fo low was the common opinion of his
abilities, that the firlt publication which appeared under his
name, ** An Introduction to the Hitlory of the Jews,” was
generally attributed to fomecther hand. This ungrounded
prejudice was, however, foon removed by unquetlionable
evidence that he poffefied talents of a fuperior kind. In
$747 he publithed in 4to. an elaborate work, entitled, “The
Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, with fome
Conjeétures in Relation to Egypt,” &c. In 1749, he pur-
fued his biblical difquifitions, by publifhing <*A Drffertation
on Prophecy,” waich was followed in 1751 by “ An im-
6
ag
ih ine! Se © pis
partial Enquiry into the Time of the Coming of the Mef-
fiah, in two Letters ro an eminent Jew.” In tne courfe of
this year was publifhed, in oGtavo, “An Effay on Spirit,
wherein the Doctrine of the Trinity is conlidered in the
Lizht of Reafon and Nature, as well as in the Light in
which it was held by the ancient Hebrews, &c.”? . This
work, as may naturally be fuppofed from its title, excited
much attention. _ In confequence of the bifhop of Clogher
having prefixed a dedication to it, addrefled to the primate
of [reland, and fubfcribed with his name, he was univer-
fally confidered as the author, and all the odium which it
excited by the fuppofed herefy of its tenets, was thrown
upon him, fo as to place an infeparable bar in his way to
farther ecclefiaftical promotion. In fact, however, the bi-
fhop was only its folter father, the work having been written,
as afterwards appeared, by a young clergyman of his dio-
cefe, who was too ftrongly apprehenfive of the confequences
to bring it forward under his own name. The alarm f{pread
by this publication among the clergy may be eltimated by
the number of pamphlets to which it gave occalion. The
controverfy to which it prompted was not, however, marked
by any difplay of fuperior talent an, erudition. Dr. Clay-
ton next appeared before the public in a work univerfally al-
lowed to be his legitimate production; it was entitled, **A
Vindication of the Hifteries of the Oidand New Teftament,
in Anfwer to the Objections of the late lord Bolingbroke,
in two Letters to a young Nobleman.”” It was publifhed
in oGtavo, 1752. This was on'y the firf part of an exten-
five defign, which Dr. Clayton afterwards profecuted ; for
in 1754, he publithed ‘A fecond Part, wherein the Mofai-
cal Hiitory of the Creation and Deluge is philofophically
explained, the Errors of the prefent Theory of the Tides
detected and reCtificd, &e.””? There is much inenuity and
learning difplayed in thefe works; but many of the remarks
difcover a deficiency of judgment, and a mind too much
{wayed by hypothetical fancies. In the interval between
the publication of thefe two pieces, Dr. Clayton publifhed
a tranflation of <*A Journal from Grand Cairo to Mount
Sinai and back again; froma Manufcript written by the
Prefetto of Egypt, in Company with the Mifiionaries de
propaganda Fide at Grand Cairo. To whieh are added,
fome Remarks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics and the My-
thology of the ancient Heathens.’ ‘The principal obje& of
the bifhop in the tranflation and publication of this work,
was to recommend to the attention of the Society of Anti-
quaries certain ancient infcriptions which are mentioned in
it, as exilting in a part of the wildernefs of Sinai, known
by the name of the Written Mountains, and from which his
lordfhip conceived that it might be poffible to recover the
ancient Hebrew charaéter. ‘Whe fociety did not, however,
fecond his views, notwichitanding bis munificent offer of af-
fittance to defray the expences which might attend the expe-
riment. Nor do his lordthip’s conjectures appear to have
been well founded, for when Mr. Edward Wortley Monta-
gue afterwards vilited the very fpot where fuch important
dfeoveries were expected to be made, he was grievoufly dit-
appointed by finding the infcriptions intermixed every where
with reprefentations of human figures, which clearly de-
monftrated that they were not the work of any of the de-
fcerdants of Jacob. The bifhop publifhed, in 1755, a core
re{pondence which had paffed between him aud Mr. Wil-
liam Penn on the fubject of baptifm. The next year wzs
marked by a bold attempt on the part of his lordfhip to in-
troduce {ome material mnovation into the liturgy of the ef-
tablifhed church. He had in his writings expreffed his dif-
approhation of the Athanafian and Nicene creeds; and,
prompted by his wifh to have them expunged, he determin-
ed
CLA
ed to bring the matter to a fair difcuffion, by introducing
the fubje&t in the form of a motion to the Irifh Houfe of
Lords, which he did on the 2d of Feétruary, 1756, by
moving, That thofe creeds fhould, for the future, be left out
of the liturgy of the Church of Ireland.. The fpeechs
which he delivered on this occafion was afterwards publithed,
and paffed through feveral editions. Dr. Clayton’s condua&
and fentiments on this occafion gave very general offence to
his ecclefiattical mrethren, and created him a holt of power-
ful enemies. Great, however, as was the outcry raifed
againft him, no fteps of a public nature were taken to ar-
raigu his conduct, until the appearance of the third part cf
the * Vindication of the Hittory of the Old and New
Teftament” in 1757, in which, unappalled by the formid-
able afpect of his adverfaries, he purfued his {peculations
even farther than he had before done. ut his prefent at-
tack was deemed by h's more orthodox ecclefialtical fupe-
riors and brethren to be of fo hoftile a complexton, that
they came toa refolution to make his proceedings the fubjc¢t
of legal inquiry. Under their influence, his majelty,
George the Second, direfted the duke of Bedford, then
lord lieutenant of Ireland, to inflitute a profecution againtt
the bifhop of Clogher. Agreeably to this, a day was fixed
for a general meeting of the Irifh prelates at the houle of the
primate, and Dr. Clayton was fummoned to attend. Be-
fore, however, the time arrived, an end was put to their
malicious proceedings, by the death of the venerable obje&
of their enmity and perfecution. The thought that he was
abandoned by the king, from whom, as placed above the in-
fluence of the paltry animofities by which his fubjects may
often be divided, he had hoped for fhelter and proteétion in
the gathering ftorm, joined to his repugnance, to have pafled
againtt him a verdiét of cenfure or deprivation, 1s thought
to have affected his {pirits fo deeply, as to bring on an obiti-
nate nervous fever, of which he died, February 26th, 1758,
in the 64th year of his age. Biog. Brit.
Crayton, Tuomas, an Englifh mufician, and one of the
royal band in the reign of king Wiliamiand queen Mary,
who having been in Italy, had not only perfuaded him{clf,
but had the addrefs to perfuade others, that he was equal to
the taflk of reforming our talte in mufic, and eflablithing
operas in our own language, not inferior to thofe which
were then fo much admired on the Continent. And the firft
mutical drama that was wholly performed after the Italian
manner, in recitative for the dialogue or narrative parts, and
meafured melody for the airs, was * Arfinoe Queen of Cy-
prus,” tranflated from an Italian opera of the tame name,
written by Stanzani of Bologna, for that theatre, in 1677,
and revived at Venice 1678. And the Englifh verlion
of this opera, fet. by Clayton, was our firft attempt at a
mulical drama after the manner of the Italians, with recita-
tive in the dialogue, inftead of declamation. In the com-
pofer’s. preface to the printed copy of the words, he
Jays, that “‘the defign of this entertainment being to
introduce the Italian manner of mulic on the Englith
flage, which has not been before attempted, I was obliged
to have an Italian opera tranflated : in which the words,
however mean in feveral places, fuiced much better with
that manner of: mufic, than others more poetical would
do. The ftyle of this mufic is to exprefs the paffions, which
is the foul of mufic ; and though the voices are not equal to
the Italian, yet IT have engaged the belt that were to be
found in England ;-and I have not been wanting, to the ut-
molt of my diligence, in the inftruéting of them. The mu-
fic being recitative, may not, at firlt, meet with that general
acception, as is to be hoped for, ‘from the audience’s bein
ketter-acquainted with it: but if this attempt. fhall be a
‘A O N.
means of bringing this manner of mufic to be ufed in my
native country, [ fhall think my ftudy and pains very well
employed,’” ;
The fingers were all Englifh, confifting of Meffrs. Hughes,
Leveridge, and Cook ; with Mrs. Tofts, Mrs. Crofs, and
Mr. Lyndfey. This opera was firlt performed at Drury-
jane, January 16th, by fubfeription ; the pit and boxes were
referved for fubferibers, the reit of thie theatre was open as
ufual, at the f ibfeription mufic. ~ Inthe Daily Courant, Ar-
ftnoe is called ‘a new opera, after the Itahan manner, all
fung, being fet by mater Clayton, with dancing and finging
before and after the opera, by fignora F. Margarita de
PEpine.”? This finging was probably in Italian.
Clayton is fuppofed to have brought from Italy a collec-
tion of the favourite opera atrs of the time, from which he
pillaged paflages and adapted them to Englih words; but
this 1s doing the mufic of Arfinoe too much honour. In
the title-page of the mufic, printed by Walfh, we are aflured
that it was wholly compofed by Mr. Thomas Clayton; and
in juftice to the mafters of Italy-at that time, it may be al-
lowed to be his own, as nothing fo mean in melody and in-
correét in counterpoint was likely to have been produced
by any of the reigning compofers of that time. For not
only the common rules of mufical compofition are violated
in every fong, but the profody and accents of our language.
The tranflation is wretched ; but it is rendered much more
abfurd by the manner in which it is fet to mufic. Indeed,
the Englifh muft have hungered and thirfted extremely after
dramatic mufic at this time, to be attraéted and amufed by
fuch trafh. It is fcarcely credible, that in the courfe of the
firft year this miferable performance, which neither deferved
the name of a drama by its poetry, nor an ofera by its muiic,
fhould fuftain twenty-four reprefentations, aud the fecond year-
eleven.
But fuch was now the paffion for this exotic {pecies of
amufement, even in its lifping infant ftate, that the perfpica-
cious critic and zealous patriot, Mr. Addifon, condefcended
to write an opera for the fame Englifh fingers as had been
employed in Artinoe. Mr. Addifon, though he had vilited
Italy, and was always ambitious of being thought a judge of
mulic, difcovers, whenever he mentions the fubject, a total
want of fenfibility as well as knowledge in the art. But this
admirable writer and refpcCtable cntic in topics within his:
competence, never manifelted a greater want of tafte and in-
telligence in mufic than when he employed Clayton to fet
his opera of Rofamord. Indeed, it feems as if nothing but
the groffeft ignorance, or defect of ear, could be impofed
upon by the pretenlions of fo fnallow and contempuble a
compofer. But, to judges of mufic, nothing more need be
faid of Mr. Addifon’s abilities to decide concerning the
comparative degrees of national excellence in the art, avd the
merit of particular matters, than his predilection for the pro-~
ductions of Clayton, and infenfibility to the force and ori-
ginality of Handel’s compofitions in Rinaldo, with which
every real judge and lover of mufic feem to have been.capti-
vated.
Phis opera, in {pite of all its poetical merit, and the par-
tiality of aconfiderable part of the nation for Engliih mufic
and Englith finging, as well as fervent with to eftablifh this
elegant {pecies of mufic in our own country without the af
fittance of foreigners, after fupporting with great difficulty:
only three reprefentations, was laid afide and never again
performed to the fame mufic.
In the year 1733, this Enghith drama was fet, a3.a coup
d’effai, by Mr.‘Vnomas Aug. Arne, afterwards Dr. Arne,
and performed at the little theatre in the Haymarket ; in
which. his fitter Mifs Arne, afterwards Mrs. Cates ie
orme
cg Oa
formed the part of Rofamond; that admirable attrefs ap-
pearing firft on the ftage in this character asa finger. The
three following airs were admirably fet, and remained long
in favour: * No, no, ’tis decreed,””—“ Was ever nymphlike
Rofamond,” and ‘ Rife glory, rife.’? See Opera and Ap-
DISON.
CLAYTONIA, in Botany, (named from John Clayton,
who colle&ed plants, chiefly in Virginia, for Gronevius,
which were publifhed by him in his * Flora Virginica.)
Linn. Gen. 287. Schreb. 402. Gert. 745. Juff. 314. Vent.
3. 260. Lam. Ill. 394. Clafs and Order, pentanc'ria mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Succulcnte, Linn. Portulacee, Juil. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. two-leaved, perfiiting ; leaves egg-fhaped,
rather acute, oppofite. Cor. Petals five, egg-fhaped or
oblong, obtufe, narrowed at the bafe, longerthan the calyx.
Stam. Yilaments five, awl-fhaped, a litile fhorter than the
corolla, affixed to the claws of the petals ; anthers oblong,
incumbent. Pi/. Germ fuperior, roundish; ftyle fimple,
the length of the ftamens; fligma trifid. eric. Capfule
egz-thaped, one-celled, three: valved, included in the.calyx.
Seeds three, roundifh.
‘Eff. Ch. Calyx two-celled. Petals five. Stigma three-
cleft. Capfule one-celled, three-valved, three-feeded.
Sp. 1.°C. virginica, Linn. Sp. 1. Mart..a. Lam. 2. Pl.
144. fig. 1. Willd. 1. Gron. Virz. 25. Bot. Mag. g+t.
(Ornithegalo affinis virginiana; Pluk. Alm. tab. 102. fig.
ge Rudb. Filyf. 2. p. 139. fiz. 6.) ‘* Leaves linear-lanceo-
late, petals entire.”? Root {mall, tuberous. Stems about
three inches high, flender. Root-/eaves narrow-linear, almoit
gramiocous. ~Sfem-/eaves generally two, oppofite, linear,
green, fmooth, a little flehhy. Flowers white, {potted or
fireaked with red on the intide, in a loofe terminal raceme.
A native of Virginia, flowering in April. There isa variety
with lanceolate leaves, and acutifh calyxes. 2. C. lirica,
Linn, Sp. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 2. Wiild. 2. Gmel. Sib. 4.
p- Sq. Gert. tab. 129. fig. 3. (Limnia, Licn. AG. Up.
1749. tab. 5. At. Holm. 1746. tab. 5.) ‘* Leaves nerved,
root and ftem ones egg-fhaped ; petioles trifid,”? Willd. Root
tuberous. Stem declining. Rast-leaves petioled, quite
fmooth. Stem-/eaves two, oppolite, fefiile. Flowers red,
racemes two, unilateral, one of them two-leaved. A native
of Siberia. 3. C. perfoliata, Willd. 3. Donn. Hort. Cant.
p» 25. ‘© Leaves without nerves, root ones rhomb-egg-
fhaped, ftem ones fomewhat connate ; flowers umbel-verti-
cillate; petals entire,” Willd. oot annual. Stem four or
five inches high, ereGi. Root-/eaves petioled, fomewhat
flethy. Stem ones two, oppolite ; either rhomb-egg-fhaped,
attenuated, cohering ; or egg-fhaped, connate on one iide,
emarginate on the other. Jowers white; two or three
about the middle of the ftem, peduncled, each of them fup-
ported by a [mail oblong braéte ; fix or eightina terminal um-
be}, peduneled, without braGes. A native of North America,
C. portulacaria. See Porturacaria.
CLAZOMENA, in Aacient Geography, a town of Alia
Minor, and one of the 12 Ionian cities fituated in Lydia.
Herodotus, who mentions it, afiigns it in one place to Ionia,
and in another to Lydia. ‘The ancient city ftood on@he
continent, and was fortified by the Ionians at a great expence,
in order to put a ftop to the Perfian conquefts. But, after
the defeat of Creefus, and the furrender of Sardis, the in-
hnibitants: were fo terrified, that they abandoned the city,
ani withdrew, with all their effets, to one of the neigh-
bouring iflands, where they built the city of Clazomenz, fo
often mentioned in the Roman hiftory. Paufanias (Achaic.
c. 3-) informs us, that Alexander joimed it to the continent
by acaufeway 250-paces long; whence Strabo, Pliny, Pto-
lemy, and moft of the ancient geographers, count it among
ce
sie ye
the cities on the continent. The Romans, according ta
Livy, (lib. xxxvili. c. 39.) always treated the inhabitants with —
great kindnefs, apprized of the importance of this city to
their conqueits in Afia; for they not only declared them a
free people, but put them in poffeffion of the ifland of Dry-
mofa, and often quarrelled with the princesof Afia on their
account. Auguitus repaired and embellifhed their city with.
many magnificent buildings; whence, en fome medals, ke
is ftyled the founder of Clazomenz, though this city was
undoubtedly founded by the Ionian:, and from the beginning
wasone of the Ionian confederacy. Some antiquarians take
Clazomenz for the ancient city of Grynium, which gave
the epithet of Grynzus to Apoilo; for, in ancient times,
Apollo had a famcus temple in the vicinity of Ciazomenz.
Cybele was likewife one of their chicf deities, and alfo
Diana, as we learn from feveral ancient medals and m{crip-.
tions. The Clazomenians held out againft the Lydians,
after molt of the other cities of Ionia were reduced by Aly-
attes. who befieged, but could not mafter Clazomenz. The
Perfians gained poffcflion of it in the time of Darius Hyflaf-
pis, and fuch was its importance in their eftimation, chat,
they would not part with it at the famous peace of Antal-
cides. Alexander reinflated them, in their ancient liberty.
and privileges ; which were enlarged by the Romans, whom,
they affiited on all occafions with great fidelity. Cilazo-
mene anciently derived great profit irom its oils) On one
occafion its iahabitants had recourfe to a iiugular contri-
vance for reftering their finances. After a war that had
exhaulted the public treafury, they, found themfelves indebt-.
ed to the difbanded foldiers to the amount, of 20 talents
(4,5007); which, being unable to raife, they paid them,,
during fome years, iatereft, which they fixed at 5 per cent,
They afterwards ftruck copper money, to which they af-
fixed the fame value as if it were filver. The rich confented.
to take it: the debt was liquidated, and the revenues of the
{tate adminiltered with economy, enabled them gradually
to call in the adulterated com circulated in commerce. ‘The
ancient Clazomene was the native place of Anaxagoras.
On or near the ruins of this illuftrious city, was built the.
prefent Dourlak, or Vouwta, af{mall town, fituated on the
fouth coa{t of the gulf of Smyrna. ,
CLEAN Lough, in Geography, a {mall lake of the county,
of Leitrim, Ireland, which is confidered as the fountain of
the noble river Shannon. This lake is not four miles dif
tant from the river Bonnet, which carries boats into Lough.
Gilly, and thence into Sligo bay. Perhaps, fays Dr. Beau-
fort, the day may come, when the {pirit of enterprize and
commerce will open itfelf a paflage by this channel.—Beau-
fort. ,
CLEANDRIA, ia Aacient Geography, a place of Afia,
Minor, in the Troade, where Strabo places the fource of
the Rhodius. ;
CLEANTHES, in Biggraphy, a foic philofopher, and a
difciple of Zeno, was born in the year 339 B.C. and died in
240 B.C. He wrote many pieces, none of which are come
down to us, except his ** Hymn to Jupiter,” and a few
fragments ; the feveral editions of which have been eny-
merated, with the various readings, and critical remarks, by
the learned reviewer of Butler’s edition of ** Marcus Mu-
furus,” &c. containing this hymn, and other fragments,
(Monthly. Review, enlarged, vol. xxv, p. 18, &e.) It was
firft publifhed by Fulvius Urfinus, in 1568 ; then by Henry,
Stephens, in his ‘ Poefis Philofophica,” in 1573; after=
wards by Cudworth, in his “ IntelleGiual fyltem,” fol,
1673; again in Mofheim’s Latin tranflation of Cudworth,,
in 1733; a fifth time in the third diflertation added to
Daniel Sccundum Septuaginta, Rom. fol. 1773; a fixth
time .-
cHre
time in the 2d edition of Mofheim’s tranflation of Cudworth,
publifhed after his death, Leyd. Bat. fol. 1773; again in
Brunck*s ‘¢ Analeéta,” in 1776, andafterwards by Brunck,
in his edition of the ‘* Gnomici Poete ;?? a ninth time in
the © Ecloge Phyfice”? of John Stobzeus, publifhed at
Gottingen, 8vo. m7g2, by A. H. Heeren. . It has alfo
heen tranflated into German, Latin, and Engh. For the
Englih tranflation by Mr. Weft, at the defire of a friend,
who was pleafed to find fuch juft fentiments of the deity
in a Heathen, and fo much poetry in’ a philofopher; fee
«© Odes of Pindar,” &c. vol. it,
CLEANTHES, one of tie firft inventors of painting m Co-
tinth. Fre ts faid fo have learned the art from Ardices, his
countryman, and was one’ of thofe painters who were ftyled
monochromatiits, becaufe their art extended no farther than
to draw the fimple outline of the figure, and fill it up with
one colour only, Strabo, however, defcribes fome laree
compofitions of this maller, Winkelman. Orlandi. Della
Valle, Vite d’ Pitt. Ant.
CLEAR, in Building, is fometimes ufed among the
workmen for the infide work of a houfe, &c.
Crear, in Sea Language, is applied to the weather, when
it 18 fairand open; to the coaft, when the navigation is not
interrupted by rocks, &c. to the cordage, cables, &c. when
they are difentangled fo as'to be ready for immediate fervice.
In thefe fenfes it is oppofed to foul.
Crear, Cape, in Geography, in the ifland of Clare fouth
of the counry of Cork, the moft fouthern point of land in
Ireland. N. Jat. 51° 19’. Wa long. 9° 25%.
Crear Jake, a lake jn the N.W. partof North America,
connected with the Athabafca lake by the river Hay. and
with the Peace river by the river Pine. See ATHABASCA.
CLEARE, Sr. a village in Cornwall, being a vicarage in
the Well Hundred; the fituation of the fteeple of its church
was determined in the government trigonometrical furvey
in 1796, by an obfervation from Bindown ftation, diflant
35,256 feet; and another from Kitt Hill ftaticn difant
42,93 x feet, and bearing 74° 42’ 9” N.E. from the parallel
to the meridian of Butterton {tation ; whence is deduced its
latitude 50° 29’ 16” N. and its longitude from Greenwich
4, 97! 207.6 W. or r7™ 49°.4. in time. In 1777 the Lit
keard canal wasin contemplation to terminate at Bark-Mill
bridge in this parifh, for brisging up lime and fea fand for
manures, coals, &c. and exporting corn, &c.3 but the fame
has not been carried into effe@. See Cana.
CLEARER, a tool ufed in Rope-making, fimilar to the
hatcheli, but with finer teeth, as the hemp 1s always finifhed
on it for linen and twines for fail-makers, &c.
CLEARING, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied,
in threfhing corn, to fignify a heap large enough to be win-
nowed.
Crearinc the Anchor and the Haw/e.
and Hawse.
Crearine of Land, in Agriculture, the removing of fuch
obftacles and impediments as retard or prevent its cultivation
and improvement. See Removing Ob/frudions to ViLuacE.
Cirarine of Liquors. See CLARIFICATION. .
CLEAS, in Agriculture, a proviticial word, fignifying the
hoofs or claws of cattle, flieep, hogs, &c.
CLEATS, in Ship building, are pieces of wood of differ-
ent fhapes, ufed for various purpofes in maft-making, block-
making, and rigging. Thofe ufed for flopping of fhores are
commonly made of elm, fimilar to wedges, but only taper
from one fide; thofe for ftopping of rigging are haunched
on the back with a hollow, from one-third of the length,
the thin end being fhaped with a duck’s bill ; thefe are made
of oak; but, for maft-heads, of elm. Cleats ufed in block-
Vox. VIII.
See Ancnor
C Lik
making are made of oak plank or board, and when fawed
to different fhapes for the purpofes to which they are to be
applied, they are made {mooth, and finifhed with gouges,
chiffels, and rafps. In rigging they are ufed for ftops, and
ropes are faftened to them. Arm or fling cleats are nailed
on each fide of the flings of the lower yard, and have an
arm at one end, which lies over the {traps of the jeer-blocks,
to prevent their being chaffed ; thefe are made of elm-plank,
in length one and @ quarter of the diameter of the yard, in-
breadth one-fourth of the length, and in thicknefs two-thirds
of the breadth ; the fhoulder is one-third of the léneth of the
cleat, and hollowed on the back from the fhoulder to the end.
Belaying-cleats are Shaped like range-cleats, but fmaller; they
have two arms pr horns, and are nailed through the middle
to the mafts, or elfewhere, and’ to them ropes are belayed.
Comb-cleats ave mate of afh, or elm, board ; they are femi-
circular, avith their backs rounded fo as to refemble a cock’s
comb, and they have one or more hollow cavities gouged in
the niddle for the purpofe of confinmg a rope to one place,
Ranse-cleats to which are belayed tacks and fheets, are
from three to feven inches thick, and in length feven times
the thicknefs. ‘The arms are each one third of the length,
and made round; the middle, between the two arms, is left
f{quare, twice the thicknefs im breadth, through which it is
bolted or faftened; the back is curved in the length, that
the arms may-rife from the infide ftraight. Shroud cleats are
fimilar to belaying-clcats, with the addition of an infide
piece, out of the fame folid, long enough to have a fcore
on each fide of the middle part of the cleat, to contain the
feizinas which falten it to the fhroud ; the infide is hoilow-
ed to ft the fhroud, aud another feore cut acrofs the mid-
dle of the cleat for the middle feizing; the fcores are
rounded on the outfide edges, and cut deep enough to bury:
the feizing, in order to prevent its being worn when the
rope is belayed. Sling-c/eats are made of elm-plank, ia
length one and a quarter of the diameter of the yard, in
breadth one-fourth of the length, and in thicknefs two-
thirds of the breadth. The fhoulder is to be one-third of
the length of the cleat, and hollowed on the back from the
fhoulder to the end; thefe are ufed as ftops to the ttraps of
jeer-blocks, &c. to the lower yards. Stop-cleats are made of
ok plank or board, of all lengths under twelve inches; the
largeit are commonly for gammoning bow/prits and as {tops
to {tav collars. The breadth is one-fourth of the length,
the thicknefs two-thirds of the breadth, and they are hol-
Jowed on the back. Thofe for lafhings on the maft-heads
are made of elm, three times the thicknefs in breadth, and
one anda half of the breadth in length. Stop cleats are
nailed to the yard-arms, to prevent the flipping of the rig-
ging and the gammoning, &e. Thumb-cleats are fimilar in
fhape to arm-cleats, but are much fmaller ; they are nailed
up vertically to hang any thing on; or horizontally, as
flop-c'cats. Cleats are nailed wherever they are wanted
with more or fewer nails, according to the itrain they.
refift.
CLEAVERS, or Cuivers, in Botany.
Aparine.
CLEBUCZ, in Geography, a town of European Turs
key, in Dalmatia; 11 miles 8.S.E. of Mofter.
CLEBURG, atown of Germany with a caftle, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, and duchy of Deux Ponts,
which gives name to a branch of the Palatine family ;, 28
miles $.S.W. of Deux Ponts.
CLEBURY. See Creonury.
CLECHE!, or Crecuy, a French term in Feraldry,.
fignifying any ordinary or bearing that is pierced throughout,
i. e. when the whole figure is fo much perforated that the
3H chief
See Garium
CLE
rehief fubRance is taken from it, and nethisg remains vifible
but the edges. "
CLECY, in Geography, atown of France in the depart-
‘ment of Calvados, and diltri@ of Falaife ; coutaining about
i7oo inhabitants; 32 leagues W. of Falaife.
CLEDAGH, the name of feveral riversin Wales; one
runs into the Ufk in Monmouthfhire ; another runs trto the
viver of Neath, 5 miles N. of Neath in Glamorganfhire ; a
third runs into the Muthvey, 2 miles E. of Langadock in
Caermarthenthire ; and a fourth runs into the Clethy m
Pembrokethire.
CLEDAGNVAGH, ariver of Wales, which runs into
the Uik, about a mile W. of Abergavenny.
CLEDEN, a town of France, ta the department of Fi-
nifterre, and diftrict of Quimper; 2 leagues W. of Pont-
croix.—Alfo, a town in the fame department, and diftrict
of Morlais; 14 league W. of St. Pol-de Ieon.—Alfo, a
town in the fame department and dillrict of Chateanlun; 5
miles SW. of Carbaix.
CLEDGE, a name given by miners to the upper part of
the ttratum of fuller’s earth.
CLEDGY, iv Asriculture, a term applied to fuch kinds
of land as are ftiff, iLubborn, and cf a hard tenacious quality,
from the mixture of clay in them.
CLEDHEW EN, a river of Wales, which runs into the
Daorgiedy, in Peo brokehhire.
CLEDONISM, Creposismus, a kind of divination in
ufe among the ancients.
The word is formed from xAnw, which fignifies two
ings, tumor, a report, acd as, a bird: in the firft fenfe
J yim should denote a kind of divination drawn from
avoids occafionally uttered. Cicero obferves, that the
Pythagoreans made cbfervation not only of the words of the
gods, but of thofe of men; and accordingly, believed the
pronouncing of certain words, v. g. incendium, at a meal,
unhappy. Thus, infead of prifon, they ufed the word
damicilium 3 and to avoid erinnyes, furie:, faid eumenides.
Ia the fecond fenfe, cledont{m fkould feem to be a divina-
tion drawn from birds; the fame with ornithomantia.
CLEEF, Joas, or Joosr Van, in Biography, a painter,
native of Antwerp, who enjoyed the reputation of being one
of the bit colourits of his time. The period of his birth
is not ksown, but it appears that he entered into the com-
pany of painters at Antwerp, in the year 1511.
Soon after the marriage of Philip of Spain to Mary
queen of England, he came to London; but feeing fome
pictures of Titian preferred to his own, he became frantic
with rage and difappointment, and fram that time was
nick-named Jooft the Madman.
by him at the church of Notre Dame at Antwerp, which
is faid to have poffefled much of the purity of the Roman
{chool of paiuting ; the fubje& was S. Cofmo and Damiano.
‘The period when this artift died is unknown. Defcamps.
Heinecken. Pilkington.
Creer, Henprick, Henry, Martin, and Wittem
Van, three brothers, painters of Antwerp; the firlt, Hen-
prick, excelled in landfeape, and having {pent many years
ja ftudying at Reme, publifhed upon his return many views
of the ruins of ancieat temples exifting in that city. He
was received into the company of painters at Antwerp in
1533, and died in1589. Marvin, the fecond brother, was
the difciple of Francis Floris, and was admired for his
hilttory pieces with {mall figures. Many land{cape painters,
and among ft others Gillis Coninxloo employed him to paint
the figures in their landfcapes. He became one of the
very
compapy of painters at Antwerp in 1551, and died aged 50.
Witcem, the other brother, excelled in large figure paint-
ing, but died young. Martin had four fons, all painters,
There was an altar pifture _
CLeE
Gills, Marin, George, and Nicolas. The firkt painted well
in {mall, but died young; the fecond lived a long time in
Spain, and afterwards went to the Indies: Nicclas was
{till living at Antwerp in the time of Van Mander, in the
year 1604. According to Strett and Heinecken, Henry
and Martia Van Cicef engraved a few pieces. Defcamps,
Heinecken .
Crier, Joun Van, a Flemifh painter of confiderable
note, was bern at Venloo, in 1646, and having difcovered,
when young, a fireng inclination for the art, was placed
ender the tuition of Gentile, an hiftorical painter at
Beuffels, with whom, however, he remained but a fhort
time; he then became a difciple of Gafpar de Crayer, ta
whom he was fo much attached, that he coztinued with
him until his death; when he was judged. capable to put
the lait bard to fome defigns left unfinifhed by Gafpar,
particularly the cantoons for the tapeltry intended for
Lewss XIV.
He had a manner peculiar to himfelf, and in compofitioa
and defign far furpafled his mafter, though he fell fhort of
him in colouring.- His pencil was bold and flowing:
his piGures, though full of figures, are free from confufion ;
and he thoroughly underftced the iatroduion of architec-
tural decoration,
‘ie painted the principal alear-pieces of Ghent, many of
which are deferibed by his hiftorian, Defcamps. Amongft
the molt celebrated is a large piCture at the cherch of
St. James, reprefenting Chrilt delivering the Souls out of
Prifos ; and another in the church of a convent, where the
Nens are relieving thofe affli€icd with the Plague; the
Virgin and Child, S. Auftin, S.° Catherine, and other
faints, are {cen in the fky. This arti died in the year
1716, aged 7o. Defcamps.
CLEENISH, in Geography, a {mall ifland in Louch
Erne, county of Fermanagh, Ireland, about three miles
from Ennifkilen.
CLEES, Les, or Les Escreegs, a town of Swifferland,
in the canton of Berne, feated on the Orbe, in the road to
France; 8 miles S.W. of Yverdun.
CLEETA, in Biography, an ancient Greek archite&
and {culptor. He built the Palezftra, or large court near
Olympius, ufed for the horfe and chariot races at the
celebrated Olympic games, which were held in this place at
the clofe of every olympiad, that is every fifth year. It
was magnificently decorated with porticoes and other orna-
ments, and the author was fo proud of his performance,
that he introduced the following infcription under one of
the flatues which he had made at Athens; ‘“ Cleeta, the
fon of Ariltocles, who invented the Paleftra of Olympius,
did this.” Milizia. Mem. degli Arch.
CLEF, (from clavis, Lat. and x3, Gr. a key), a chara€ter
in DJu/ie to denote what part of the general feale the founds
before which it is placed are to be fung or played. Pre-
vious to the time of pope Gregory, to whom the fquare
and lozenge notes ufed in canto fermo are afcribed, and
which are now belt known by the name of Gregorian notes,
there were various methods of pointing out the clevation and
depreflion of the voice in chanting the mafs, not only be.
fore the time-table was formed, but even before lines and
{paces were ufed. Thefe indications of change of voice were
placed over the words long before a fingle line afcertained
the difference of their fituation. This was followed by a 2d,
a 3d, and a 4th line, to which, with the fpaces, canto fer-
mo, in Roman miffals, is ftill limited.
The names and examples of all the firft chara&ters ufed
for the modulation of voice may be feen in the General
Hiftory of Mufic, vol. ii. from p. 33 to 55.
After lines had increafed to 8, in the 1oth century, ay
: i Vere >
Gig
the {paces were ufed, not for the notes, but fyllables, the
notes being placed in a kind of frame, on the left fide, one
to each fyllable of the words. After this an alphabetic
charaGter was placed at the beginning of each line, capitals
for the grave founds, and minuicules for the acute. ‘lo this
kind of notation points fucceeded. Padre Martini has given
three examples of only one line, to regulate the pots ufed
as notes over the words, a-red line for the key of F, and
a yellow one for that of C. This feems the origin of clefs,
which are only Gothic letters corrupted:
Vincenzio Galilei (Dial. della Muf. Ant. e Mod. p. 36.)
fays, that a little before the time of Guido the points were
placed on feven lites only, without ufing the {paces ; per-
haps in imitation of the feven {trings of the ancient lyre.
Few, however, of thefe methods of notation feem to have
been generally received in contemporary miffals, after the
Greek characters were difufed; for in the MS. fpecimens
which we have feen, the marks placed over the words, in the
middle ages, previous to the time of Guido, often appear
arbitrary, and to have been adopted only in fome particular
church, convent, or fraternity.
The finging clefs, or claves fignate of the middle ages,
were nothing butac, ag, oran I, placed on one of the four
lines ufed in canto fermo, as thus, --—€—
es
Having traced the origin of clefs from ancient MSS., and
the progreflive improvements in fimplifying them in propor-
tion as the mufical art became more complicated, we fhall
wafte no time or paper in deferibing new fchemes of notation,
and expedients for diminifhing or augmenting the number of
clefs in prefent ufe,. but proceed to exhibit their form and ex-
plain their practical ufe in the moft precife and clear maaner
we are able, without deviating from the method in which they
E E Cc Cc Cc Cc
Cele E
have long been taught by the moft learned, intelligent, and
experienced muficians, who haye fubmitted to the drudgery
of inftru€ting, not only pupils who receive pleafure from
the fill of others, and wifh to entertain themfelves, but
even thofe on whom it is forced, and who having neither ear
nor inclination for mufic, dread the fight of a matter, and re-
gard him in no betterlight than a perfecutor.
The tenor clef. that ftumbling block to the idle and liftlefs,
would be as legible as the treble or bafe, if learned in the
fame manner, and the pupils wereaccuftomed to play favourite
airs in ali kinds of tenor clefs, and tranfpofe by them early
in their ftudies. The printing new editions of old authors
of organ and harpfichord picces. without the admiffion of
tenor clefs, is a mischievous indulgence, which having pre-
cluded the trouble of learning thefe clefs, renders all the old.
editions of the beft authors of the laft century unintelligible ;
as it does all the mufic in {core written or printed abroad ;
all vocal mufic from Italy, and -harpfichord leffons from Ger-
many compofed 20 or 30 years ago; all the works of: Se-
baftian Bach, and the early productions of his admirable fon,
Emanuel, for the harpfichord, of which the treble or right-
hand part is in the foprano clef, er tenor on the firft line.
Thefe, however excellent, are become totally obfolete and
legible to all but regular bred profeffors, in our country only.
Three clefs, removeable from. time to time, include the
whole fyem of mufical founds. Thefe are denominated
Base, Lenor, and TREBLE.
It is to be remembered that thefe feveral clefs are always
placed on a line at the beginning of the five-line ftaff, never
ona fpace; and though removeable, always retaining the
power of giving the name of F, C, or G, to whatever line
they are removed: asthe bafe clef makes every line on which
it is placed F'; the tenor C5 andthe treble G.
Now as thefe clefs have different appellations to difinguifh them from each other, we fhall give a gammut of thofe
Teaft in ufe, as a kind of diGionary, with equivalent founds in the two well-known clefs of G and F, to explain them.
and is 3 notes higher than the common bafe clef on the 4th
Hine.
~The tenor clef on the sth line is equivalent to the bafe
ih
The bafe clef on the 3d line is called the baritono clef. ———ta{-~———
\ ee =a
: : s ‘ 1D mea (Ct basse
clef on the 3d. line, and in old, mulic, thefe two clefs are ufed = B & 2 wun Fl tle ‘i —
promifcuoufly. > ea ae -o--e
(22 ee ate ie
founds 5 notes higher than the bafe.
CHD i et, (G eA Ba Cc.) 7c
Alto tenore, or high tenor clef on the 4th line, cM oe — ==
OS = =
Contralte,
CLE
Coutralio, or counter-tenor clef on the 3d lise, 7 notes
lower than the creble, and 7 notes higher than the bafe.
The mezzo /oprano, or fecond treble clef on the 2d line, is
5 notes lower than the treble.
This clef is now feldom ufed; but in Purcell’s time the alo
viola, or inftrumental-tenor part, was written in the mezzo
foprano clef, which was the cuftom in France till the middle
of the laft century.
Soprano, or {upreme clef, in which all treble voice-parts
are compofed in Italy and Germany, is the tenor clef on the
firft line, and renders every found a 3d lower than the treble.
Dr. Pepufch, after giving his pupils a regular feale in-each
clef, made them familiarize themfelves to the changes which
they occafioned in the names of the notes and in their fitua-
tion on the ftaff, by written exercifes, giving them a feries
of 8 or more notes on the fame line or fpace, and obliging
them to find aclef for every note which will make it afcend
or defcend one degree, as thus:
This method was recommended by Mr. Galliard, in his
tranflation of * Tofi’s Obfervations-on florid Song,”’ Pl. No.
2. p. 17. pointing out its utility in tranfpofition. But he
was not the firlt who fuggefted this expedient ; we find it
in “Cerone della Mufiea,” p. 515. a work in Spanifh, pub-
lifhed at Venice 1614. See Transposirion.
Rouffeau (Dit. de Muf.) has adopted the fame method,
Pape ae
eH
De ub ae ab as
=
2.
Sore Ta cess
GB Se 0 sion EE OT
A Be Ciel) iy SFhsG ie 4D wy Coeeage
Eos esate
and given in Plate A, fig. 4 and 8, the two following ex~-
amples,
Notes afcending by 3ds.
2-
c
Crier de moufquet, de carabine, de piftolct, a’ arquebufe a
rouet, the (panner or lock of a mufgquet, carabine, &c.
CLEFMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Marne; and chief:place.of a canton
in the diftri& of Chaumont ; 17 miles S.of Bourmont. The
place contains 580, and the canton 6996 inhabitants; the
territory includes 180 kiliometres and 21 communes.
CLEFS, a town of France, in the department of the
Maine and Loire, and diltri&t of Baugé, 2 leagues N. of it.
Crers d’une ville ou place de guerre, the keys of all the gates
ofa ftrong place, asa fort, citadel, cattle, town, or city of war,
which an officer is charged with carrying every evening after
the
CLES
the fhutting of the gates, to ‘the governor, or the perfon
who commands in his abfence.. The magazines, which con-
tain pieces of artillery, are locked under three keys; one of
which is carried to the commandant of the place, the fecond
to the commiffary of artillery, and the third remains in the
hands of the perfon who has charge of the magazine.
CLEFT, in Graftings. See ENGRAFTING:
CLEFTS, or Cracks, in the heels of horfes, are occa-
fioned by hard labour, unwholefome food, want of exercife,
and wafhing them when hot. ‘They are cured by cutting off
the hair, and anointing with the oil of hemp-feed or linfeed,
and keeping them clean.
CLEGG, Joun, in Biography, a pupil of Dubourg on
the violin, who travelled ito Italy with Lord Ferrers, where
he improved himfelf fo much, that, on his return in 7723, he
excelled in force and execution every performer in England,
till the year 1742, when he had fo deranged his faculues by
intenfe ftudy and practice, that he was canfined in the hof-
pital of Bedlam ; where, during intervals of fanity, he was
allowed the ufe of his inftrument ; and it was longa fafhion-
able, though inhuman, amvfement, to vifit him there, among
other lunatics, in hopes of being entertained by his fiddle or
his folly. He was long the fubject of praife, and regarded
as a young man of fuch fuperior genius and abilities, that no
one who had ever heard him would allow that he was
equalled by any performer, on the fame inftrument, in
Europe.
CLEGHORN, Georeer, a diftinguifhed praCtitioner
in medicine, was born at Granton, near Edinburgh,: in
Becember 1716. © Shewing early an inclination to the
ftudy of medicine he was fent to Edinburgh, and placed
under the tuition of Dr. Alexander Monroe. While there
he became acquainted with Dr. Fothergill, by whom he was
materially affifted in his ftudies. In the year 1736 he was
appointed furgeon to the 22d regiment of foot, then ftation-
edin the ifland of Minorea, where he continued thirteen
years. During his refidence in this ifland, he employed his
leifyre time in diffeGting monkeys and other animals, with
which the place abounded; he alfo examined andacquired a
knowledge of the plants and other natural produétions of
the country. In thefe purfuits he was much affifted by cor-
refponding with Dr. Fothergill, who procured and fent him
the neceflary books, accompanied with hints, fuggefting the
obje&ts molt deferving his attention. In 1749 he quitted
Minorea, and went to Ireland, and the year following he
came to London, and publifhed his ‘* Treatife on the Dif-
eafes of Minorca,” Svo. the refult of his obfervations during
his long refidence in the ifland. The workis valuable, con-
taining accounts of the air and foil, with defcriptions of the
medicinal plants. Then follow accounts of the difeafes molt
frequent in the country, with the methods he found moft ef-
ficacious in combating them. He now went to Dublin,
and commenced lecturer inanatomy, in which he acquired
{uch celebrity, that in 1754 he was appointed profefior in
that {cience by the univerfity. In 1774 he was made ho-
norary member of the Col'ege of Phyficians in Dublin. He
was alfo one of the origina’ members of the Academy for
promoting Arts and Sciences in that city; and, about the
fame time, he had the honour of being nominated fellow of
the Royal Medical Socicty at Paris. As Dr. Cleghorn had
no family, he fent for the widow of his brother, with
nine children, whom he adopted, and treated as his own.
He died December 1789. Lettfom’s Memoirs of Medi-
cme.
CLEGUEREE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton in
the diltri& of Pontivy, twoleagues N.W. of it. ‘The place
Contains 3793, and the canton 14,964 inhabitants; the ‘ter-
ritory comprehends 187% kiliometres and g communes.
CLEIDES, or Cues infule, in Ancient Geography,
{mall iflands of the Mediterranean, Jying'to the eaft. of the
ifland of Cyprus, and very near it. Straboireckons two, and
Pliny four. The promontory near thefe iflands had the fame
name, according to Herodotus, :
CLEIDION, in Antiquity, the fame with c/avicula.
CLAvicuLs.
CLEIDGMASTOIDEUS, in Anatomy, aname given
by Albinus to that part of the flerno-cleido-maftoideus,
which arifes from the clavicle, and is deferibed by him as a
diflin& mufcle. See SrERNO-CLEIDO-MASFOIDEUS.
CLELBY River, in Geography, one of the ftreams
which fall into Milford Haven in South Wales, navigable up
to Cannilter ‘bridge near Narberth. See Cana.
CLELLES, a town of France, in the department of the
Tfere, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Gre-
noble ; the place contains 631, and the canton 3811 inhe-
bitants ; the territory includes 1624 kiliometres and 9 com-
munes.
CLEMA, in Antiquity, a fpecies of vine, a twig of which
was the enfign of a centurion’s office.
CLEMATIS, in Botany, (from xAnux, riticula, farmens
tum, becaufe it climbs trees, by means of its pliant twigs,
like thofe of the vine), Linn. Gen. 696. Schreb. g50.
Willd. 1083. ‘Gert. 456, Juff. 232. Vent. 3.55. Clafs
and order, polyandria polygynia. Nat. ord. Multifilique,
Linn. Ranunculacee, Jufl. Vent.
Gen. (Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals four, rarely five, fix
or eight, oblong, lax, pubefcent. Stam. Filaments nu-
merous, awl-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla ; anthers ad-
nate to the filaments. iff, Germs from four to twenty,
roundifh, compreffed ; ftyles awl-fhaped, longer than the
ftamens. Peric. none. Seeds numerous, roundifh, com-
preffed, tailed with the long permanent ftyle in various
forms.
Eff. Ch. Calyx none.
tailed.
Obf. +. Gertner calls the external integument of the feed
a capfule; but acknowledges at the fame time, that, as
there is no vifible umbilical cord, the feed may not impre-
perly-be ftyled naked:
Obf. 2. Ia Marck afferts that there is no real generic dif-
tinétion between clematis and atragene; and that Linnzus
abfurdly calls the fame part of the frudiification corolla in
one, and ca/yx inthe other. According to him, what Lin-
nzus took for petals in atragene are only enlarged and often
barren filaments of the exterior ftamens; a circumftance
which occurs in feveral acknowledged fpecies of clematis,
and in fome of nymphza.
* Stems climbing.
1. C. cirrhofa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 7. Mart. 1. Lam. 9.
Willd. 1. (Clematitis peregrina, foliis pyri incifis, Bauh.
Pin. 300. Petiv. Gaz. tab. 126. fig.1. ‘Tourn. Inft. 293.
C. altera betica, Cluf. Hift. 1. p. 123. C. cretica foliis
nune fingularibus nunc ternis, Tourn. Cor. 20.) Ever-green
virgin’s bower. ‘Cirrhofe ; leaves fimple.” Linn. ‘* Leaves
generally fimple-; {tem cirrhofe ; peduncles lateral, calycled
under the flower.” Lam. Stem weody, refembling that of
the vine, tenor twelve feet high, fending out branches from
every joint, which render it a thick bufhy plant. Branches
cylindrical, leafy, attaching themfelves to neighbouring ob-
je@s by means of a kind of cirri, which are, in fa&, only
the permanent petioles of fallen leaves, none of them ae
found on the young fhoots, Zeaves.on the fame plant bot
fimple and ternate ; thofe on the woody part of the a
3 an
See
Petals four, five or fix. Seeds
CLEMASIs
-and'on the branches of two years growth, fimple, petioled,
egg-fhaped, toothed, a little refembling thofe of the pear
tree, but fmaller; growing on the knots, often feveral to-
wether, in the axils of the cirri; thofe.on the young fhoots
common'y ternate, oppofite. petioled; leaflets exg-Mhaped,
a littie cut or crenulate, {mooth, green, fhining. Flowers
white ; peduncles fearcely an inch long, lateral, axillary,
one-flowered 3 pecals large, elliptical, pubefcent on the
outlide; calycle, or rather involuere, one-leafed, concave,
two-lobed, fituated two or three lines. below the corolla.
Seeds with a plumofe or filky tail. A native of Andalufia
and the ifland of Candia, but is f{ufficiently hardy to bear
the cold of our winters without injury, ‘There are plants
in Chelfea garden which have ftood more than fifty years in
the open air without proteétion from the feverity of the
weather, It is ufed as a covering for arbours and other trel-
lis-work, which it completely covers with its thick foliage,
and adorns with its large flowers. Gerard, by whom it was
cu'tivated in 1595, calls ix “ Travellers’ joy of Cardia ;”
Johnfon, ‘* Spanifh traveller’s joy ;” and Parkinfon,
‘*Spanith wild climber.” 2.C. florida, Willd. 2. Hort.
Kew. 2. p. 258. Thunb. Jap. 240. Bot. Mag. S894.
ss Leaves twice compound ; leafl-ts binate and ternate ; pe-
tals egg-fhaped.”? Root perennial. vem ftriated, purple,
entirely fmooth. eaves oppofite, pinne feflile, egg-fhaned,
acute, entire, or very rarely cut, villous, Flowers yellowihh,
large, {preading, axillary, folitary, peduncled ; peduncle vil-
lous, one-flowered, longer than the leaves ; petals egg-fhap-
ed, acuminate: {tamens linear-lanceolate, purplifh, unequal,
half the length of the corolla, Thunb. <A native of Japan.
3. C.. viticella, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart.2. Lam.12. Willd.
3- Bot. Mag. 565. (C’ematitis cerulea vel purpurea repens,
Bauh. Pin. 300. fl re pleno, 301. Tourn. 294.).
«* Leaves compound, and twice compound ; leaflets egg-
fhaped, quite entire.” Linn. ‘ Leaves compound, and
twice compound ; petals margined, dilated at the tip, fpread-
ing.” Lam. Root perennial. Stems flender, weak, branch-
ed, leafy, with many joints. Leaflets from nine to fifteen,
ovate-acute, {mooth, entire, fometimes with one or two
lobes ;: upper ones fimple or ternate. Fiowers blue, obfo-
lete~purple, bright purple or red, peduncled ; petals border-
ed on-each fide by. a thin, whitifh, pubefcent membrane,
which grows broader near the tip, and makes them appear
wedge-fhaped.; ftamens.fmall ; filaments fhort; ftyles quite
fmooth. A native of Spaia and Italy in hedges. Four va-
Meties are cultivated in the nurferies : fingle blue, fingle pur-
ple, fingle red, and double purple. The latter-is efteemed
the moft ornamental, and continues the longeft in flower,
opening its flowers in June or July, and retaining them to
the endof Augult. There is another variety, but not much
elteemed, with white flowers, only three or four feet high,
which Miller received from mount Baldo. 4. C. viorza,
Jsinn. Sp. P). 2. Mart. 3. Lam. 13. Wilid.4. (F.am-
mula fcandens, flore violaceo c!aufo, Dill. Elth. tab. 118.
fig. 144.) Leathery-flowered virgin’s bower. ‘ Leaves
compound and twice compound ; fome of the leaflets trifid.”
Linn. ‘ Leaves compound and twice compound; petals
coriaceous, acute, half shut.” Lam. Root perennial. Svems
three or four feet high, cylindrical, ftriated.. Leaves oppo-
fite, petioled ; leaficts from nine to twelve, three on/each
pinna, generally entire, a few trifid, ovate-acute, green and:
$mooth on the upper furface, veined and paler underneath.
Flowers purple or bluith violet, axillary, folitary ; peduncles
Tong, with a pair of fimple leaves in the middle; petals with
a whitifh, cottony border, fmaller than that of the preceding
Species ; anthers terminated with a tuft of hairs. Seeds
with. long. plumofe tails.. A_native of Virginia and Carolina,
5. C. crifpa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 4. Lam. 14. Willd,
5. Dill. Elth. tab. 73. fig. 84. -Curled virgin’s bower..
“* Leaves fimple and ternate ; leaflets entire or three-lobed.”?
Linn. ‘Leaves compound, and twice compound ; leaflets.
Janceolate ; petals half-thut, fomewhat curled at the fides 5.
margin membrarous, undulated, wrinkled.”? Lam. Root
perennial. Stems weak, faftening themfelves to the neigh-
bouring plants by the twining petioles of theirleaves. Leaf-
lets from nine to fifteen, narrower than thofe of the preceding
fpecies. Flowers large;.reddifh, folitary ; peduncles fhort ;
petals lefs thick than thofe of C. viorna, with many longitu,
dinal furrows ; anchers hairy at the fummit. Tails of the
feeds thick, awl-{haped, not plumofe, but pubefcent with
fhort clofe-prefled hairs, A native of Carolina. Thun.
berg defcribes a Japanefe plant under the fame name, with
a {tem ftriated, zig-zag, {mooth ; leaves five-nerved, petioled,
acute, fmooth; and flowers in a:compound, trichotomous
panicle; but its mode of inflorefcence muft furely determine
it to bea diftin&t fpecies. 6.C.calvcina, Mart.16. Wiild. 6.
Hort. Kew. 2. 259. Wahl. Symb. 2. 75, Bot. Mag. 959.
(C. balearica, Lam. to.). Minorca virgin’s bower, ‘ Involu;
cre calycine, approximating ; leaves ternate, middle one
three-parted.”” Hort. Kew. ‘‘ Leaves compound, finely la,
ciniated ; flowers calycled, lateral; petals {potted within.’?
Lam. Root perennial. Stem-fxfeet-highor more, branched,
leafy. Leaves oppofite, green, f{mooth, continuing nearly
all the year; petioles tripartite, remaining after the leaves,
and difcharging the office of tendrils, Figwers white, large,
folitary, axillary ; peduncles two inches long; involucre
one-leafed, bell-(heped, two-lobed, changing fometimes into
a pair of leaves; petals elliptic-oblong, nerved, pubefcent
on the outfide ;. {prinkled on the inhde with fmall, red,
longifh {pots ; filaments a little enlarged at their bafe; an-
thers fmali;. ftyles plumofe and filvery. A native of Mi-
norca, flowering in autumn, and. often in winter when the
feafon is mild. 7. C. orientalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 5,
Lam. 5. Willd. 7. (Clematitis orientalis apii folio, Tourn.
Cor. 20. Flammula, Dill. Elth. tab. 119. fig. 145.)s
‘¢ Leaves compound ;. leaflets. cut, angular, labed, wedge-
fhaped; petals villous on the infide.’”? Linn. ‘* Leaves'com=
pound; leaflcts wedge-fhaped, three-lobed, fomewhat toothed,
acuminate; petals villous on the infide.”? Willd. Root peren-
nial. Stems from four to eizhi feethigh, ftriated, leafy. Leaves
glaucous. /Yoqwers yellowifh, with. a tinge of ruffet on
the’ outfide; pecals laaceolate, almoft {mooth on the
outfide, in fhort panicles on tripartite peduncles. Tails of
the feeds plumofe,. flky. As native of the Levant. . 8. C,
glauca, Wilid. 8.. Willd. Arb. tab. 54. fig. 1*.. “ Leaves
compound; leafiets egg-fhaped, fometimes lobed, obtufe,
mucronate; petals fmooth within fide, pubefcent at the
edge.’ Perfeétly diftin&t from the preceding in its whole
habit, as well as.in the particulars exprefled in the fpecific
charaGter. 9. C. hexapetala, Linn. Jun. Supp. 271. Fork,
Prod. n. 230. ‘ Leaves compound ; leaflets egg-fhaped,
ferrated ; peduncles two-leaved; corolla fpreading,: with
fix petals.’?’ Root perennial.
peduncles branching, trichotemous. A native of New Zea-
land. 10. C. ¢triflora, Wiild. 10..Vahl. Symb. 3. p. 74,
(C. mauritiana, Lam. 6.) ‘* Leaves ternate ;. leaflets egg-
fhaped, mucronate; peduncles three-flowered.’? Wahl.
“© Leaves ternate; leaflets fomewhat heart-fhaped, ferrated ;
tail of the feeds very long, plumofe.”” Lam. Roof peren-
nial. Stems flightly ftriated. “ F/owers whitifh; peduncles
lateral, oppofite, axillary near the end of the fhort pendant
branches = petals oblong, villous on both fides. Seeds
purple, villous. A native of the iflands of Bourbon and
Madagafcar, in woods. ‘The natives of Madagafear make,
a.Cata>-
Flowers yellowifh, dioicous ;_
SCL ERMVAVT a1 iS.
a cataplafin of the leaves, and employ it as a cure for the
tooth-ache. The cataplafm is carefully wrapped up in
eight or ten folds of lmnen, and applied externally to the
check of the patient. If fuffered to touch the ficin, it will
produce a biifter. 11. C. virginiana, Linn. Sp. Pl. 6.
Mart. 7. Lam. 7. Willd. rr. Piuk. Mant. tab. 389. fig. 4.
(C. Fioridenfis flore albo odoratifimo; Aibin. Anat. tab.
¥. C. aquatica trifoliata; Gron. Virg. n. 270.) ‘ Leaves
ternate ; leaflets heart-fhaped, fomewhat lobed and angular ;
flowers dioicous.”? Root perennial. Stems rumerous, fix
feethigh, or more. Leaves fmooth, dark green on the up-
per furface, almoft three-nerved underneath ; veins branch-
ed, reticulated. JVowers white, in fhort panicles, refem-
bling umbels; peduncles once or twice ternate; petals vil-
lous on the outfide, naked and veined within. The female
flower has ftamens, but the anther is deftitute of pollen. 12.
C. japonica, Mart. 9. Lam. 16. Willd. 12. Thunb. Jap.
eac. “ Leaves ternate; leaflets elliptic-ovate, ferrated ;
flowers cylindrical.” Root perennial. Stem filiform, ftria-
ted, purple, villous. Leaves petioled, ternate, growing
feveral from each joint; petiole three inches loug, capillary,
loofe; leaflets an inch long, on thort petioles, acuminate,
uniformly ferrated from the middle to the tip, nerved, vil-
lous, the terminating one largett. #Vowers purple, folitary,
lateral, peduncled; peduncles the length of the leaflets.
A native of Japan, flowering in Auguft and September.
13. C. trifoliata, Willd. 13. Thunb.in ‘ Linnean Tranfac-
tions,” vol. ii, p. 337. (Scandens, Flor. Jap. n. 43.)
«© Leaves oppolite, cernate, {mooth; leafl.ts ege-‘haped,
repand-toothed.”’ A native of Japan. 14.C. dioica, Linn.
Sp. 5. Mart. 10. Lam. 8. Willd. 14. Sloan. fam. 84. Hitt,
tab. 128. fig. 1. ‘* Leaves ternate, quite entire; flowers
divicous.”’ Root perennial. Stems flender, tough, tea or
twelve feet high. Leaves coming out on each fide of the
ftem ; leaflets large, egg-fhaped, with three or five longitu-
Ginal nerves. JV/owers white ; peduncles on the joints clofe
to the petioles, one on each fide, long, naked, horizontal,
extending beyond the leaves, before they divide and branch ;
branching into three or four pairs of fubordinate peduncles,
thefe dividing again into three fmaller, each of which fup-
ports a fingle flower. The lowett pair of primary peduncles
extends four or five inches, the others gradually diminifhing to
the top, and forming a pyramidal thyrfe of flowers; petals
narrow, refexed; {tamens erect. Miller, A native of South
America. La Marck doubts whether it be fpecifically
diftin& from C. virginiana, but from Miller’s defcription,
the inflorefcence is clearly different. Loureiro found a plant
in Cochin China, which he fuppofed to be the fame as the
C. dioica of Linneus. It has about eighty feeds difpofed
in ahead, which are obtulely three cornered, and comprefled,
with a very long tail, fringed with many white hairs. But
its identity may jultly be doubted. Its inflorefcence feems to
approach nearer that of C. virginiana. 15. C. americana,
Mart. 17. ‘* Leaves ternate; leaflets cordate-acuminate,
quite entire ; flowers in corymbs.’’ oot perennial. Stems
ftrong, twenty feet high, or more, faitening themfelves by
their clafpers to the neighbouring trees, /Zoqers white 5
peduncles axillary, long, naked, branching. Seeds finely
feathered. Sent to Miller from Campeachy, by Dr.
Houfton. 16. C. indevifa, Willd. 15. (C. integrifolia,
Forft. Prod. n. 231.) ‘* Leaves ternate; leaflets egg-
fhaped, quite entire, mucronate; peduncles axillary, pani-
cled, two-leaved.” A native of New Zealand. 17. C.
paniculata, Willd. 16. Thunb. in “ Linnzan Tranfaétions,”
2.337. (C. crifpa, Thunb. Jap. 239.) “ Leaves quinate-
pinnated ; leaflets heart-fhaped, eyg-fhaped, entire.” Rost
perennial. Svem zig-zag, ftriated, fmooth, Branches al-
ternate. caver petioled; leaflets petioled, acute, undivids
ed, fmooth; lewer ones the largeft; petioles zig-zag.
Flowers white, axillary; peduncles thrice-ternate-panicled,
filiform. A native of Japan. 18. C. chizenfis; Mart. 18.
Willd 18. Retz. Obf. 2. tab..2. ‘ Leaves quinate-pin-
nated ; leaflets lanceolate.”’? Root perennial. Stems tetras
gonous, weak, fo us to want fupport, {carcely climbing.
Leafiets petioled, the pairs remote from each other. Soqwers
pale purple, fmall, oppolite, axillary; peduncles three, or
five-flowered ; lateral pedicels with a pair of {mall braties,
far removed from the flower ; end one naked ; petals jinear-
lanceolate, inner edge marked with a tomentous line. Tail
of the piftils {carcely fhorter than the anthers. Retz. A
native of China. 1g. C. finenfs, Lour. Cochin. 345. 3.
“ Leaves quinare; leaflets ovate-lancenlate, nearly feffile.’*
Stems round, very long, branched, climbing. FVoqwers red
purple; peduncles axillary, many-flowered ; corolla {pread-
ing. Sees three to tive. Common in China. Profeffor
Martyn juftly remarks, that this plant feems fpecifically
diltinc: fromthe preceding. 29. C. minor, Mart. 2t. Lour.
Cochiech. 345. ‘ Leaves quinate; leaflets conical, three~
nerved ; peduncles very long.” Sem fomewhat fhrubby,
not very long, cylindrical, flender, climbing, branched.
Leaflets {mall, bluntifa at the end, quite entire, {mooth,
flowers white, axillary, feveral together; petals oblong,
ttriated ; flamens about forty, unequal; ftyles four, hairy,
a little longer than the corolla. A native of the fuburbs
of Cantonin China. 21. C. vitalba, Linn. Sp. Pl. 8. Mart.
t1. Lam. 1. Willd. 17. Gert. tab. 74. fig. 3. Curt. Lond.
Fafc. 4. tab. 37. Jacq. Auft. tab. 308. Eng. Bot. tab.
612. (C. fylveltris latifoha, Bauh. Pin. 3009. Viorna, Ger.
em. 886.) Common virgin’s bower, Traveller’s joy, or Oid
man’s beard. Leaves pinnated; leaflets heart-fhaped 5
petioles twining.” @. C. Caradentis. ‘+ Leaves broader ;
leaflets growing by threes.”? Root perennial. Stems branch-
ed, leafy, furrowed, twining round other plants by means
of the twifted petioles of the fallen leaves. Leaves oppofite,
unequally pinnated ; leaflets ‘growing by fives, petioled,
eey-thaped, acute, either estire, or irregularly cut, rather
fmooth. Flowers white, {weet-fceated ; panicles axillary,
dichctomous, pubefcent, with {mall bracteal leaves ; petals
coriaceous, villous ou both fides. Seeds with long plumofe
tails, which adorn the hedyes in autumn, and during great
part of the winter. Dr. Smith. Sveds about twenty, mem-
branous, flender, redcifh; ona {mall villous, fomewhat glo-
bular receptacle. Gert. The recent leaves, when rubbed
on the fkin, produce blifters, and are faid to be ufed by beg-
gars, to give the appearance of foul ulcers on different parts
of the body or limbs, for the fake of exciting compaffion.
But thefe ulcers, though large, are never deep, and are very
little troublefome, being eafily removed at -pleafure, by an
application of beet-leaves, to preferve them from the in-
fluence of the atmofpheric air. A native of England, and
the fouth of Europe, chiefly on a calcareous foil, Though
not enumerated by. Meffrs. Dawfon, Turner, and Dilwyn,
among the rare plants in their ** Botanift?s Guide ;”’ it ts
certainly very local. We have never obferved it north of
Alconbury hill, on the great north road; nor of North-
ampton, on the middle one. Where it terminates on the
Chelter road, we cannot exactly afcertain, but fuppofe it
mutt difappear nearly in a continuation of the fame line, not
having met with it in Warwickfhire, or any of the counties
farther north, onthat fideof England. In the ** Botanitt’s
Guide through the Counties of Northumberland and Dur-
ham,”? it is mentioned as growing only on the Ballaft hills
of St. Anthony’s, and Willington Quay, in Northumber-
land, where no one will fuppofe it indizenons. Icys, we
: . believe,
E€LEMATIS,
believe, a total flranger to the grést limeftone tra&s in
Yorkfhire, and the bifhoprick of Durham; nor was it
found by Lightfoot in Scotland. The pith of the ftems is
fo porous, that if one end of a piece, cut off between the
knots, be fet on fre; fmoke may be copiovfly drawn into
the mouth fromthe other. This, we well remember, was a
favourite amufement of our boyifh days,in the neighbourhood
of Northampton, when we knew the plant by no other name
than that of tobacco-pipe tree. Variety 8 is a native of
Canada. 22. C. fammula; Linn, Sp. Pl. g. Mart. 12. Lam.
4. Willd.19. (Clematitis five flammnla repens, Bauh. Pin.
300. Tourn. Inft. 293. Rat. Hilt. 621), ‘* Lower leaves
pinnated,, twining, laciniate ; upper ones fimple, quite entire,
lanceolate.” Lion. ‘* Leaves twice pinnated; pinne ge-
nerally three-leaved; leaflets {mall, egg-fhaped, ra cly
lobed.” Lam. Root perennial. Stems numerous, about two
feet long, rather creeping than climbing, flender, {triated,
leafy. Flowers white, imall, fweet-feented, in a kind of
terminal panicle ; peduncles once or oftener divided ina ter-
nate manner; with fmall, oppolite, ciliated bra€tes under
their diviions, Seeds few, with a plumofe tail.
* * Stems ered.
23. C. maritima, Linn. Sp. 10. Mart. 13. Lam. 3. Willd.
20, (C.maritima repens; Banh. Pin. 300. Prodr. 135.
Tourn. 294. Allion: Nic. 122.) * Leaves pinnated, linear ;
ftems fimpie, hexagonal.” Linn. Root perennial. Stems a
foot and half high, flender, ttriated, decumbent near the
bottom, afterwards afcending, or quite erect. Leaves op-
polite ; leaflets linear, narrow; clothed with fhort. hairs,
fomewhat rigid, nearly feflile, generally undivided, fometimes
bifid or trifd, Magnol and Ray make it a variety of C.
flammula; but Linnzus thinks it more nearly allied to C.
reéta, and perhaps only changed by difference of fituation.
AX native of the fea coaft in the fouth of France and the
neighbourhood of Venice. 24. C. angu/lifolia. Willd. 21.
Jecq. Ic. Rar. 1. Tab. 104. (C. hexapetala, Pail. Itin. 3.
AXpp. no. 96. tab. Q. fig. 2. Atragene; Gm. Sib. iv. p.
194.) ‘* Leaves pinnated ; leaflets lanceolate; obtufe ; low-
er ones tripartite ; items fimple, ftriated, ereé ; corollas po-
lypetalous.”? Willd. oot perennial. Flowers white ; pe-
tals fix or eight. Anative of Siberia and Auftria. 25. C.
rea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 11. Mart. 14. Lam. 2. Willd, 22. Jacq.
Asuft. tab. 297. | Hall. Helv. n. 1144. Wood. 21. Med.
Bot. tab.62. (Flammula reéta; Bauh. Pin. 300, Ciema-
titis five flammula furrecta alba, Tourn. Inft. 294.) * Leaves
pinnated ; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, quite entire; ftem ere ;
flower pentapetalous and tetrapetalous.’? Linn. Svems three
feet high, leafy, f{triated, herbaceous, greenifh or reddith,
Leaves large, oppolite ; leaflets from five to nine, pubefcent
underneath, petioled. Yowers white ; in upright, {tiff, ter-
minal umbels; peduncles feveral times ternate ; petals ob-
long; obtufe, fomewhat villous, a little longer than the fta-
mens. Seeds few, dark brown, fmooth, orbicular, much
comprefled ; tails long, yellowifh, plumofe. A native of
uncultivated hillsin the fouth of France, Spain, Switzerland,
Auttria, Hungary, and Tartary. This, like fome of the other
{pecies of this genus, is extremely acrid, on which account
it was called flammula by the old botanifts, and has obtained
a place in the Edinburgh difpenfatory. It had Jong been
mentioned asan external remedy, but was firft recommended
by baron Stoerck of Vienna in 1769, asan ufeful internal
medicine 1n inveterate fyphilitic difeafes, and ulcers proceed-
ing from other caufes, cancers, &c. He employed the leaves
and flowers, as well as anextraét made from the former ; but
he chiefly ufed an infufion of two or three drams of the
leaves in a pint of bojling water, of which he gave four
oynees three times a day, and applied the powdered leaves
as an efcharotic to the ulcers. Unhappily the phy ficians of
this country have not found it equally efficacious, See
Woodville’s Medical Botany. 26. C. ochralenca, Mart. 19.
Willd.23. Hort. Kew. 2. p. 260. Pluk. Mant. tab. 379.
fig. 5. ‘* Leaves fimple, egg-fhaped, pubefeent, quite en-
tire; flowers erc&.’? A low unbranched fhrub. S¥em pu-
befcent. Leaves oppofite, fefiile, ftrongly nerved. ower
terminating, ingle, pale yellow. A: native of North Ame-
rica. 27. C. integrifoltay Linn.Sp. Pl. 12. Mart. 15. Lam,
15. Wiild. 24. Jacq. Ault. tab. 363. Bot. Mag.65. (C.
nutans, Crantz. Aut. p.124. C. inclinata, Scop. Carn. ps
668. Clematitis carulea ereéta. Banh. Pin. 300. Tourn,
Inft.294.) Leaves fimple, feffile, ovate-lanceolate , flow-
ers drooping.’”? Linn. Root perennial. Stems a foot and
half or two feet high, annual, ere, fimple, fometimes wih
two branches near the top, angular, flriated, almoft {mooth,
leafy. Leaves oppofite, quite entire, pubefcent at thar
edges. Jowers blue, large, folitary, terminal, feentlels ;
petals large, lanceolate, acute, waved, thick, fpreading very
much. (half open, Lam.) ; filaments very pale yellow;
villous, twice the length of the petals. Seeds roundifhy
compreffed, fowewhat villous, witha long plumofe tail. Av
native of Germany, Auftria, Carniola, Hungary, and Tar-
tary; flowering from June to Augult. Cultivated by Ge-
rard in 1596; and now not uncommon in the nurferies
about London.» Forfter, Flor. Auf. n. 231. has given the
fame name toa very different plant from New Zealand with
ternate leaves ; the leaflets ovate, entire, mucronate ; the pe-
duncles axillary, panicled, two-leaved.
C. alpina, Lam. geranifolia, Bauh. Pin. Pluk.
Monf. —— Mill. Ic. tab. 284. See ArRaGEens
alpina.
C. zeylanica, Herm. See ATRAGENE xeylanica.
C. indica fpinofa foliis luteis, Bauh. Pin. See SrRicuNnos
colubrina.
C. minor et major, Bauh. Pin.
minor.
C. arberca americana, Pluk. See Puumerta alba.
C. pentaphylla, pediculis alatis, Plum. See Pauiiinra
alata. ;
C. indica, folio bifido, arbores tranfcendens, Rai. Supp. See
Bavuinis fcandens.
C. angulofo folio, aceris fruéu, Plum.
BanisTeria angulofa.
C. quadrifolia flore digitalis luteo, Plum. ——— myrfinites
Americana tetraphyllos, Pluk. See Bicwonia unguis.
C. americana filiquofa tetrathylles,; Dod. —— tetraphylle
Americana, Bocce. Lan. Rai See Bicnonsa capreolata.
C. peruana, Piuk. See BrGNonia peruviana.
C. indica alia, Plum. murucuia, Morif. See Passi«
FLORA pallida.
C. indica latifolia, Plum. Rai. See Passirrora malic
Sormis.
C. indica, frudu citriformi, Plum, Rai. See Passirvora
laurifolia.
C. indica polyanthus, Plum. Rai. See Passiprora multis
See Vinca major ef
Rai. Supp. See
fi ora.
C. indica, flore clavato fuaverubente, Plum. Rai. See
Fasstrrora rubra.
C. indica, flore puniceo, Plum. Rai.
murucuia.
C. paffionalis triphyllos, Mor. See Passircora /utea.
C. indica, folio hederaceo major, et folio augufto trifidoy
Pum. See Passirrora /uberofa.
C. indica, flore minimo pallida, Plum. See PassiFrora
hirfuta. :
C. indica hirfuta fetida, Plum. See Passiriora fetida.
C. trifolia,
See PassirtorA
G IFk
C. trifolia, Bauh. Pin. Morif.
Raia.
Cy. quinguefolia, Rob. See Passterora ecrulea.
C. indica polyphyila major, Plum. Rai. See Passirrora
Jferrata.
C. indica polyphylla, fore crifpato, Plum. Rai.
SLFLORA pedata.
C. baccifera glabra et villofa, Plum. Sloan.
_PELOS pareira.
C. indica perfice foliis, Bauh. Pin. 304.
XYLON Jerpentinum,
Crematis, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
flowery, perennial, and fhrubby kinds of hardy growth; of
which che fpecies chiefly cultivated are ; the purple virgin’s
bower, (C. vilicella) ; the leathery-flowered virgin’s bower,
(C. viorna) ; the oriental virgin’s bower, (C. orientalis); the
virginian virgin’s bower, (C. virginiana); the curled leaved
virgin’s bower, (C. cri/pa); the evergreen virgin’s bower,
(C. cirrhofa); the fweet-fcented virgin’s bower, (C. flammu-
fa); the upright virgin’s bower, (C. ercéa); the entire-
leaved virgin’s bower, (C. integrifolia). They have all
climbing flender ftems and branches, except the two
laft, in which they are upright with numerous flowers. Of
the firit fort there are varieties with fingle blue, fingle pur-
ple, fingle red, and double purple flowers, in cultivation.
* And of the eighth fort there is a variety with only two
or three pairs of leaflets, which are narrower and {land far-
ther afunder, having fhorter flalks and larzer flowers.
Method of Culture —TVhe firft or purple virgin’s bower,
and the.different varieties, as weil as the fix following forts,
are capable of being readily increafed by layers, and fome
of them even by cuttings of the young fhoots, planted out
in the fpring or fummer mouths, but the firft is the molt
ufual method.
In this the layers fhould be made from the fhoot's of the
preceding or the fame year, and be laid down in the fum-
mer before they become woody, as in this way they fueceed
with greater certainty. he branches fhould have their tops
left a few inches out of the earth, a little water being giver
at the time. When they are become well rooted, as in the
foliowing autumn or fpring, they may be taken off and
planted out where they are to remain, or in the nurfery, to
remain till they have attained fome growth.
The fhoots of the evergreen fort may however -be laid
down at any feafon, but the above is the beft. Ic is alfo
capable of beinz raifed from cuttings of the young fhoots
planted out in either the {pring or furhmer months in pots
of good earth, plunging them in a very moderate hot-bed.
‘The fuckers from the roots may likewife be taken off and
be planted out in the fame manner as the layers, when
they will often produce good plants, and in a fhort time.
The two laft forts are capable of being readily increafed by
parting the roots, and planting them out either in the au-
tumn or the early fpring months, in a bed of good mould.
In this way every part which has fibres preferved at the
bottom, and a bud in the upper part, will readily take root
and become a plant. And thefe forts; as wellas fome of
the others, may alfo be propagated by fowing the feeds
either where the plants are to remain, or in a {pot of good
mould in the early autumn or {pring feafon, in the latter
cafe removing the plants into their proper fituations, when of
‘feflicient growth. In this mode the plants are, however,
fonger in arriving at the flowering ftate. The roots may be
divided every two or three years, according to the number
of divifions that areto be made. Where the foil is dry the
plants fhould be new planted in the autumn; but in the
eontrary circumitances, in the fpring, in order to make
Vor, Vill.
See PAssiFLora incar-
See Pas-
See Cissam-
See Opnto-
ELE
them flower ftrong and in a perfect manner. All thefe
plants are of a hardy growth, ard capable of fucceeding
in almoft any fort of foil. The climbing forts require pro-
per fupport, to prevent their trailing upon the ground, and
are well adapted for ornamenting naked walls, arbours or
other fimilar places, as well as for running upon trees or
fhrubs in particular fituations. And the two laft forts are
well fuited for ornament in the clumps and borders of plez-
fure-grounds, to be fet out fingly or in ailemblage with other
plants of fimilar growths.
CLEMATITIS, in Botany, Bauh. Pin. Tourn.
€LemMatis.
Cremaritis novum genus, Pluk. See Evpatrorium
feandens. The older botaaits were accuftomed te call a!moit
every climber either clematis or clcmatitis.
CLEMENCY, in Antiquity, a deified perfonage, to
whom an altar was ereéted at Athens, by the kindred of
Hercules, and to whom a temple was dedicated by order of
the Roman fenate, after the death of Julius Cefar, on fome
of whofe denarii this goddefs appears. She -is defcribed by
the poets asthe guardian of the world, and exhibited, hold-
ing a branch of laurel or olive, and alfo a {pear, fhewing
that gentlenefs and pity ought principally to diftinguith vic-
torious warriors. The Greeks and Romans gave the name of
Afylum to the temples that were ereéted to this goddefs.
According to Mr. Spence, “ the diftinguifhing charaGer of
Clemency, both in ber ftatues and in the poets is, the mild-
nefs of her countenance ; fhe has an olive branch in her
hand asa mark of her peaceful and gentle temper.”? The
term ‘clemency’ in common language, denotes a remiflion
of feverity towards offenders, and particularly on the part of
princes or perfons invelted with high authority. In praife of
clemency joined with power, it is obferved, that the exercife of
itis not only the privilege, the honour, and the duty of a
prince, but that it alfo contributes to his perfonal fecurity and
that of his dominions more effe€tually than all his garrifous,
forts, and guards; that the prince is truly royal who mafters
himfelf, looks upon all injuries as below him, and governs by
equity and reafon, and not by paffion and caprice. Many
remarkable inftances occur both in the Grecian and Roman
hiftory, in which clemency was exercifed with great honour
and correfponding advantage.
The council of Thirty, eftablifhed at Athens by Lyfan-
der, commitied the moft execrable cruelties; but they were
overthrown by ‘Vhrafybulus, who, after the recall of the
exiles propofed the celebrated amnelty, by which the citi-
zens engaged upon oath that all pa{t tranfa€tions fhould be
buried in oblivion. The government was re-eftablifhed upon
its ancient foundation, the Jaws reltored to their priitine
vigour, and magiltrates eleéted with the ufual forms. This,
fays Rollin, (Ane. Hitt. vol. ni. p. 309.) is one of the
fineft events in ancient hiltory, worthy of the Athenian le-
nity and benevolence, and has ferved as a model to fuccef-
five ages in good government. Never had tyranny beer
more cruel and bloody than that from which the Athenians
had been refeued.~ very houfe was in mourning; every
family bewailed the lofs of fome relation. Jt had been a
feries of public robbery and rapine, in which licence and
‘impunity had avthorifed all manner of crimes. The people
feemed to have a right to demand the blood of all accom-
plices in fuch notorious malverfations, and even the intereft
of the ftate to autnorife fuch a claim, that by exemplary
feverities fuch enormous crimes might be prevented for the
future. But Vhrafybulus rifing above thofe fentiments,
from the fuperiority of his more extenfive genius, and the
views of a more difcerning and profound policy, forefaw,
that by giving way to the punithment of the guilty eternal
3 I feeds
See
CLE
feeds of difcord and enmity would remain, to weaken the
republic by domettic divilfions, which it was neceffary to
unite againft the common enemy, and occafion the lofs to
the flate of a great number of citizens, who might render
it important fervices from the view itfelf of making amends
for palt mifbehaviour. Such a conduct, continues Rollin,
after great troubles in a Rate, has always feemed, with the
ableit politicians, the moft certain and ready means to re-
flore’ the public peace and’ tranquillity. Another inftance
occurs in the hiftory of Paufanias, one of the kings of
Sparta, when et the head of the Grecian army. After the
victory of Platwa, as Herodotus relates the fa&, (Lib. v:)
one of the principal citizens of Aegina advifed him to re-
venge upon tke body of Mardonius the death of fo many
brave Spartans as were flain at Thermopyle, and the un-
worthy treatment which bis uncle Leonidas had met with
from Merxes and Mardonius, who fixed his body to a gib-
bet. ‘“ Would you advife me then, fays he, to imitate the
barbarians in the the thing we hate? If the efteem of the
people of ZEgina is to be bought at fo dear a rate, I fhall
be content with pleafing the Lacedemonians, who fet a
value upon virtue and merit. As to Leonidas and bis com-
panions, they are without doubt fufficiently revenzed by the
blood of fo many thoufand Perfians as have been flain in the
battle.?? In this battle out of 3c¢0,000 men commanded by
Mardonius, fearcely 40,000 efcaped.
When two patricians, adverting to the hiftory of Rome,
confpired-againft itis the Roman emperor, (Suet. c. 9.)
they were difcovered, convicted, aud fentenced to death by
the fenate. But the clemency of Titus diétated a very dif-
ferent conduG. Having fent for them, he privately admo-
nifhed them, that in vain they afpired to the empire, which
was given by deitiny ; exhorting them to be fatisfied with
the rank in which Providence had placed them, and offering
them any thing elfe which it was in his power to beftow.
At the fame time he difpatched a meffenger to the mother
of one of them, who was then at a great diftance, and
deeply concerned about the fate of her fon, to aflure her,
that her fon was not only alive, but forgiven. Another in-
ftance is recorded by Zefimus (ii. 674). When Licinius
had raifed an aimy of 130,000 men, he endeavoured to wrelt
the government out of the hands of his brother-in-law, Con-
ftantine, the emperor. But his army having been defeated,
he fled to Nicomedia, whither he was purfued by Conttan-
tine, who immediately invelted the place. , On the fecond
day of the fiege, the emperor’s fifter intreated him with
tears to forgive her hufband, and grant him at leat his life,
Conftantine was prevailed upon to comply with her requelt;
and the next day, Licinius, finding no way of efcape, pre-
fented himfelf before the conqueror, and throwing himfeif
at his feet, yiclded to him the purple and the other enfigns
of fovereignty. Conftantine received him in a friendly man-
ner, entertained him at his table, and afterwards fent him
to Theffalonica, affuring him, that he fhould live unmoleft-
ed as long as he raifed no new difturbances. Another in-
france occurs in the conduét of Cicero, when Rome was
divided into two fa@tions upon the occafion of the death of
Czfar, who had been killed by the coofpirators ; recolleGing
the celebrated amnefty of Thrafybulus above-mentioned,
he propofed, after the example of the Athenians, to bury
all that had paffed in eternal oblivion.
In a maoner fomewhat fimilar, cardinal Mazarine obferved
to don Lewis Dé Haro, prime minifter of Spain, that this
gentle and humane conduct in France had prevented the
troubles and revolts of that kingdom from having any fatal
confequences, aod “that the king had not loft a foot of
land by them to that day ;”? whereas ** the inflexible feverity
of the Spaniards was the occafion that the fubjects of that
CLE
monarchy, whenever they threw off the mafk, never returns
ed to their obedience but by force of arms; which fuffici-
ently appears, (fays he) in the example of the Hollanders,
who are in the peaceable poffeffion of many provinces, that
not an age ago were the patrimony of the king of
Spain.”
Montefquieu cbferves (Spirit of Laws, vol. i. 1p. 134.)
that clemency is the peculiar charaéteriftic of monarchs. Ia
monarchies great mien are governed ny honour, which fre-
quently requires what the law forbids, and they are fo much
punifhed by dilgrace, by the Jofs (though often imaginary )
of their fortune, credit, acquaintances, and pleafures, that
rigour in refpe& tothem is needlefs. It can lead only to di-
velt the fubjeéts of the affection they have for the perfon of
their prince, and of the refpeét they ought to have for pub-
lic pofts and employments. So many are the advantages
which monarchs gain by clemency, fuch love, fuch glory at-
tend it, that it is generally a point of haopinefs with them
to have an opportunity of esxercifing it.
However, when there is.danger in the exercife of cle-
mency, the danger is vifible: it is an eafy matter to diftin-
guifh it from that imbecility which expofes the princes to
contempt, and to the very incapacity of punifhing. The
emperor Maurice formed a refolution never to {pill the
blood of his fubje&ts. Acaftafius punifhed no crimesat all.
Ifaac Angelus made an oath that no one fhould be put to
death during his reign. Thefe Greek emperors had for-
gotten that it was not for nothing that they were entruited
with the fword.
CLEMENS non Papa, in Bisgraphy, an excellent Ne-
therlandith mufical compefer, principal maeftro di cappella
to the emperor Charles V. Ludovico Guicciardine tells us,
that this mufician was dead when he wrote his “¢ Defeription
of the Low Countries,” 1556. Seven becks of his motets
in four parts (‘‘ Cantionum Sacrarum’’) were publihed after
his deceafe, at Louvain, 1567, as was his ‘* Miffa Defuncto-~
rum,’? 1580. | We have fonnd no better mufic of the kind,
than that of this compofer ; his ftyle is clear, his harmony
pure, and every fubject of fugue or imitation fimple and na-
tural. In each of the great number of his works that we
have fcored, there is always fome excellence ; the laft, how-
ever, that is feen, always appears the beft. The feverak
parts, in his French fongs, fing better, and the compofition
is, in general, more plealing, and iike the beft productions
ofa much better period, than any of the fongs in the col-
lcGtions to which he was a contributor, that were publifhed
at Louvain about the middie of the fixteeth century, under
the title of ‘* Livres des Chanfons a 4 Parties.””
Cremens Romanus, Si. Cuemint, one of the apoftolical
fathers, and firft bifhop of Rame of that name, was a na-
tive of that city, as fome have faid; cn mount Coelius, his
father’s name being Fauftinus and his mether’s Mattidia ;
but thefe particulars are uncertain. Some have aifferted,
that he was a Jew, or of Jewifh extraction, alleging a pai-
fage in his epiftle to the Corinthians, in which he calls Ja-
cob our father; but fuch an expreffion, it has been faid, is
not unufval even among thofe who had been converted from
Paganifm to Chriftianity. Nothing is more natural than for
Chriftians to {peak as if they were Abraham’s children; as
if the law, and the prophets, and the patriarchs, belonged
to them as well asto the Jews. (Sce Jortin’s Remarks on
Eccl. Hitt. vol. i. p. 336, &c.). It is generaily allowed,
that he had been. acquainted with apoftles and apoftolical
men; and that he was the Clement, to whom St. Paul bears
teftimony (Phil. iv. 3.), and whom he mentions among others
of his ‘*fellow-labourers, whofe names are in the book of
life.” Some, indeed, fuch are Mr. Wolif of Hamburgh, -
and Dr. Wall, have thought, that the Clement mentioned
in
CUE MENS.
in this paflage wasa different perfon, and that he was a Phi-
lippian and not a Roman. To the arguments allered by
thefe writers, Dr. Lardner replies, that Clement, bifhop of
Rome, was well acquainted with fome of our Lord’s apof-
tles, whether he be the perfon mentioned by St. Paul or
not. This learned writer, whofe judgment in every cafe of
this kind challenges great deference, fays, that he fees no
proof that Clement mentioned by the apoltle was a Phi-
lippian; and if Paul’s calling Clement his helper or * fel-
low-labourer,”’ in his epiftle to the Philippians, is a proof
that Clement had laboured with him at Philippi, his faluta-
tion of Aquila and Prifcilla, in the epiltie to the Romans
(xvi. 3.), would prove that they had been the apoftle’s
“¢ helpers”’ at Rome, before he had been there. He adds,
Dr. Wall’s argument from the age of Clement has no weight
at all; becaufe there is no great diftance between the fup-
pofed times of his and St. John’s death; and yet St. John
had been an apoitle of Chrift fome while before Paul was
converted. Clement therefore, bifhop of Rome, without
_ any inconfiftency, may be fuppofed to have been a compa-
nion and fellow-labourer of Paul at feveral places, and yet
Aive to about the end of the firft century. Some difference
ef opinion has prevailed concerning the time when Clement
obtained the bifhopric of Rome. Bifhop Pearfon fuppofes,
that Clement was bifhop of Rome from the year of our
Lord 69 or 7o to the year 83, ‘the fecond of Domitian.
Pagi is of opinion, that Clement fucceeded Linus in 61,
and occupied the fee of Rome till 77, when he abdicated,
and died long after a martyrin the year tco. ‘Thofe learned
men, who place the bifhepric of Clement fo early, or who
fuppofe that he might have written his epiitle to the Corin-
thiaas before he was bithop, (as Dodwell,) ufually place it
before the deftrudtion of Jerufalem. Others fuppole, that
this epiftle was written fhortly after the end of the perfecu-
tion under Nero, between the 64th and 7oth year of Chri.
Le Clerc places it inthe year 69, and Dodwell in 64. Du
Pin, Tillemont, and others think, that he was not bishop
tillthe year 91 or 93. ‘This was the opinion of Dr. Cave,
when he wrote his Apoftolici (wid. Life of St. Clement, § 4.)
but he altered it afterwards. This, fays Dr. Lardner, is
the more common opinion, and is agreeable to the fentiments
of Ireneus, Eufebius, and others, the moft ancient Chrif-
tian writers. Irenzus makes Clement the third in fucceffion
after the apoftles. Eufebius alfo fays, that in the 2d year
-of Titus, A.D. 79, Linus, bifhop of the church of
Rome, when -he had governed it 12 years, delivered it to
Anencletus; and in the r2th year of the reign of Domitian,
A.D. 92, Anencletus, having been bifhop of the church of
Rome 12 years, was fucceeded by. Clement, whom the apof-.
tle mentions in his epiltle to the Philippians. In another
place Eufebius fays, that in the beginning of Trajan’s reign
Clement {till governed the church of Rome, who was the
“third in that fucceffion, after Paul and Peter; for Linus
was the firlt, and after him Anencletus; and he afterwards
fays, that Clement died in the gd year of Trajan, (that is,
A.D. 100); having been bifhop 9 years. St. Jerom agrees
with Eufebius; and he obferves, that it was indeed the more
common opinion of the Latins, that Clement was next alter
Peter, but he does not followthem. Tertullian, the molt
ancient Latin father remaining, though not fo ancient as Ire-
neus, fays, that Clement was ordained by Peter. But in
this particular Tertullian might be miltaken ; and the teitt-
mony of Irenzus, confirmed by Eufcbids, is much more va-
luable than his. Dr. Lardner has fuggelted feveral methods
of reconciling Tertullian with others. According to the
mott credible teftimonies, Clement’s bifhopric of Rome mult
have commenced in the year gi org2. Some have fup-
pofed that our. Clement was of the family of the Cxfars
and that he fuffered matyrdom. But both thefe fuppofitions
feem to be originally owing to his having been confounded
with * Flavius Clemens,”’ the conful; who was a near rela-
tion of Domitian, and was put to death by him on account
of his attachnicnt to Chriltianity. That Clement was no
martyr is fairly concluded from the filence of Irenzeus, Ter-
tullias, Enfebins, and others; who could not have omitted
this circumfance, if there had been any ground for it.
The * Epitle” of Clement, ftill extant, appears to have
been written in the name of the whole church of Reme to
the church of Corinth, and therefore it is called at one time
the epiftle of Clement, and at another the epiltle of the
Romans, to the Corinthians.
The main defizn of it is to compofe fome diffenfions, which
fubfifted in the church-of Corinth about their fpiritual guides
and governors ; which diffenfions had been excited by a few
turbulent and felffh perfons | Clement recommends not only
concord and harmony, but lovein general, humility, and all
the virtues of a good life, and ieveral of the great articles
and principles of religion. ‘Ihe {tyle of it is clear and fim-
ple. It is called by the ancients an excellent and ufeful,
“or great and admirable epiltle; and thovgh Photius, upon
feveral
the whole, commendsit, yet he fays that 1t contains
things liable to ceafure, or, in modern langsage, that it
is a Socinian epiltle. It fhould be recolleQed, however,'tnat
Photius is apt to cenfure the writers, who did not come up
to the orthodoxy of his time. Meverthelefs, the epiftle
deferves the commendations that have been beltowed upon it.
It is not indeed entire, fome pages being deficient in the
MS. of it; and as we have only one MS. of it remaining,
it cannot be altogether fo corre, asif we had a number of
copies to compare together,
4Xs to the precife time when it was written, there has
been fome difference of opimion.. It appears from expref-
fions that oceur in it, to have been written after fome
persecution, or at the conclusion of it; either the per-
fecution of Nero about 64, or that of Domitian in 94,
or g5- Several paflazes {eem to intimate, that it was
written after the latter, and not fo foon as that of Nera.
Irenzeus fays, that in the time of Clement, when many were
alive, who had been taught by the apoftles and when there
was no {mall diflenfion among the brethren of Corinth, the
church at Rome fent a molt excellent letter to the Corinthi-
ans, perfuading them to peace among themfelves, &c. Eu-
febius alfo bears teltimony to the excellence of this epittle,
and to the diffenfion at Corinth which occationed it; and he
adds, that this epiltle has been formerly, and is full publicly
read in many churches. St. Jerom allo fays, that Clement
wrotea very ufeful epiltle in the name of the church of Rome
to the church of Corinth, which in fone places is read pub=
licly. Upon the whole we may conclude, with Dr. Lardner,
that this epiftle was written at the latter end of the reign of
Domitian, in the year 95, or rather 96. In this epiltle
there is but one book of the New Veftament exprefsly named,
which is the firf epiltle of St. Paul to the Corinthians, and
which, it is faid, was written by theapoltle Paul. It con-
tains frequent references and allufions to the Scriptures both
of the Old and New Tellament. Words of our bleffed
Lord, found in the gofpels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke,
are recommended with ahigh degrecof refpect, though with-
out the names of the Evangelits, “Lnere are alfo f{uppoled
allufions to the Acts of the Apottles, the epillle of Paul to
the Romans, both the epilties to the Corinthians, the epittles
to the Galatians, Ephetians, Philippians, Coloffians, the firfk
to the Theffalonians, firlt and fecond to Timothy, the epif-
tle to Titus, the epiltle to the Hebrews, the epiltle of James,
sil2 : and
,
: CLEMENS.
and the firt and fetond of Peter; but all without any name,
or fo much as a mark of citation. Mill allows, that it
appears from this epiftle, that Clement had in his hands not
only our firft three gofpels, but alfo the A&ts of the Apoftles,
and the epiftle to the Romans, both the epiitles-to the
Corinthians, and the epiftle.to the Hebrews: and the
teltimony thus given to the antiquity, genuinenefs, or au-
thority, of the books of the New Teftament, is to be
etteemed not only the teltimony of Clement, but likewife of
the church of Rome in his time. Moreover, it ought to be
allowed, that the Corinthians likewife, to whom this epiftle
was fent, were acquainted with, and highly refpeéted, the
books quoted, or alluded to. In this epiltle there are
not any quotations or references to any of the apocryphal
gofpels, as they are called. ‘ Nor do I remember,” fays
Dr. Lardner, ‘* that any of the paffages of the gofpel ac-
cording to the Hebrews, or that according to the Egyptians,
which have been colleéted by learned men from the writings
of the ancient Chriltians, are taken cut of this epiflle.”
The epiltle of which we have given the above account, is
the only piece of Clement, which can be relied on as genuine.
The fecond epiftle, which fome have been inclined to own as,
fuch, is exprefsly rejected by Photius ; and Grabe has obferv-
ed, that Dionyfius, bifhop of Corinth, in the fecond century,
mentions only one epiltle of Clement; that Clement of
Alexandria and Origen, who have quoted the firft, never take
any notice of the fecond; nor yet Irenzus, who has par-
ticularly mentioned the firlt, and could not well have omitted
to mention the other alfo, if he had known any thing of it.
From ail thefe ‘circumftances Grabe concludes with great
probability, that this piece was not written before the mid-
dle of the third century. As to the Conftitutions, and
Recognitions, afcribed to Clement; fee thefe articles.
Cave’s Hift. Lit. t. i. p. 28. Jones’s Canon, vol. i. Lard-
ner’s Works, vol. il.
Cremens, Tirus Fravius, Cremens ALEexAn-
prinus, or St. Ciement of Alexandria, was born and
educated, :as fome fay, at Athens, or, according to others,
at Alexandria, where he refided’a confiderable time, after
his return from his travels through Greece, Calabria, Italy,
the Eait, Palettine, and Egypt. Eufebius ivtimates that he
was originally a heathen. He flourifhed in the latter part of
the {ccond, and the beginning of the third century, in the
reign of Severus and bis fon Antoninus Caracalla; that is,
between the years 192 and 217. Du Pin fuppofes, that
he lived to the time of -Heliogabalus, and that he did not
die before the year 220 ; but it is the more general opinion,
that he died fooner. Several of the ancients give him
the title of Prefbyter: and he was likewife prefident of the
catechetical fchool of Alexandria, having fucceeded Pan-
trnus. in this office, when he went to Ethicpia, about the
year 190. Sidetes, indeed, is of a different opinion, and
fays that Pantcenus was the fucceffor of Clement, and that
Clement was the fucceffor and difciple of Athenagoras.
Dodwell has adopted this opinion, though it is contradiGed
by the more credible tettimonies of Eufebius, ferom, and
Photius. It is very probable, however, that upon the pub-
lication of the ediéts of Severus againft the Chriftians, in the
roth year of his reign, A.D. 202, Clement was obliged to
refizn this office and to retire from Alexandria. The place
and time of his death are not afeertained ; but he probably
died at Alexandria, whither he returned from his peregrina-
tions to Jerufalem, Antioch, &c. in the reign of Antoninus
Caracalla. Among the eminent men who proceeded from
the fchool of Clement, we may mention Origen, Alexander,
bithop of Jernfalem, and Hippolytus. Clement.wrote a great
number of books, of which Eulebius aud Jerom have given
catalogues, and they are alfo enumerated by Fabricius and:
Cave. The works which now remain, are ‘* Protrepticum,’’
or an Exhortation to the Gentiles; ** Pedazogus,” or the
Inftruétor, in three books; the ‘* Stromata,”’ or Various D {-
courfes, in eight books; and a-fmall treatife entitled,
©© Who isthe rich Man that may be faved.”” The Stromata
were written after the death cf Commodus, in the reign of
Severus, as Eufebius has obferved from a paffage in the
work itfelf. Dodwell was of opinion, that all the works of
Clement, which are remaining, were written between the
beginning of the year 193 and the year 195. Belide thefe, ©
Esfebius frequently mentions another book of Clement,
called ** Hypotapofes,”? or Infivations, which is loft. But
we have in Greek two {mall pieccs, one called ** an Epitome
of the Writings of Theodotus and the Oriental Doétrine ;””
the other ‘* Extra€ts from the Prophets ;” both which are
generally fuppofed to be coileéted out of the lot book cf
Inftitutions, or to be fragments of it. here is ikewife in
Latin a fmall treatife or fragment, called ** Adumbrations’”
on fome of the Catholic epiltles, which, if it be Clement’s,
was probably traflated from che fame work called “ Inflitu-
tions,”’ as we learn from Enfebins and others, containing fhort
explications of many books both of the Old and New
Tecftament. Many of the ancients fpeak in high terms of
the excellent charaCter and dillinguithed learning of Clement,
Many teftimonies to this purpofe, colleéted from Eufebius,
Alexander bifhop of Jerufalem, St. Jerom, &c. may be fee
prefixed to the Oxford or Fotter’s edition of St, Clement’s
works, in 2 vols. folio, 1715.
In the writings of Clement we have a very valuable tefti-
mony to the four gofpels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, St.
Luke, and St. John, all which were owned and received?
by him ; and he has alfo preferved a tradition concernins
the order in which they were written, which he had received?
from profelytes of more ancient times. Wehave alfo an af-
furance of the genuinencfs of the genealogies in the firit
chapter of St. Matthew and the third chapter of St. Luke 3.
which he had alfo received from more ancient prefbyters:
«* This teflimony to the firlt chapter of St. Matthew’s gof=
pel is fo rong,” fays Dr. Lardner, ‘* that it feems to put
the antiquity and genuinenefs of it out of queftion.”” Clee
ment’s account of the occafion of writing St. Mark’s gofper _
agrees with that of Papias and Irenwus, which informs us
that this gofpel contains the fubltance of Peter’s preaching,
and that it was compofed by one who had been long a com-
panion and follower of Peter, and who retained in his memory
the things that had been fpoken by that apofile: Clement
fuppofes that St. fohn, who wrote la&, had feen and ap-
proved the other three gofpels. He owns the A&s of the
Apollles, and afcribes it to Luke as the author, who is {aid
to have likewife tranflated the epiftle to the Hebrews. He
alfo admits all the fourteen epiftles of Paul, except the epifile
of Philemon; but his omitting to mention this epifile might
be owing to its brevity. He alfo quotes the firlt epiftle of
Peter, the firft and fecond epiftles of John, the epiitle of
Jude, and the book of Revelation ; but we have in Clement
no quotatiors from the epiltle of James, the fecond of Peter,
or the third of J:hn, norany evidence that thefe were owned
by him. The epiftle of Barnabas, that of Clement of Rome,
and the fhepherd of Hermas, are quoted by Clement with
higher marks of refpe@ than ochers, as they are deferving of
it on account of their early age, and their authors’ acquaint-
ance with the apoltles or apoitelical men. But he affords
us no evidence that he had the fame refpect for them which
he had for the gofpels and the epiltles of the-apottles:
There are alfo other books, called apocryphal, which are
cited by Clement ; fuch are the Gofpels according to the
Hebrews,>
ss tCaLoE
Hebrews, and according to the Egyptians; the Preaching
of Paer, the Revelation of Peter, and the Acts of Peter,
and the Traditions of Matthias. But there is no fufficient
reafon for fuppofing, that St. Clement received as ‘* Scrip~
ture,”? in the higheit fenfe of the word, any Chriftian wiit-
ings, befides the books of the New Teftament, now com-
monly received by us. ‘ Cave’s Hilt. Lit, t.i. p. 88, &c.
Tab. Bib. Gree, t.y. p.102, &c. Lardner’s Works,
vol. ii. p. 206 — 243.
CLEMENT, a name affumed by feveral of the bifhops
of Rome. Of Clement I. we have already given an account
under the article CLemens Romanus.
Clement II. was the name-aflumed by Suiger, a native of
Saxony, and bifhop of Bamberg, upon his elevation to the
pontifical throne, in 1046, in order to fupply the vacancy
occafioned by the death of Gregory VI. On the day of
his eleGlion he crowned Henry emperor, and his queen
Agnes emprefs; and in a council fpeedily affembled at
Rome, he iffued feveral canons againit fimony, which had
prevailed almoft univerfally all'over the Weft. In this
council he fettled a difpute between the archbifhops of Ra-
venna and Milan concerning precedency ; determining, by
his apottolical authority, in favour of the former, whom he
ordered always to fit on his right hand, unlefs the emperor
fhould be prefent, and, in that cafe, to fit at his left. This
pope died at Rome on the oth of Ottober 1047, after a
pontificate of g months and 15 days; and his remairs were
tnterred at Bamberg.’ St. Wiborada, a virgin martyred by
the Hungarians in 925, was canonized by this pope, and
the day of her death appointed as an annual feftival.
Clement 111. was Paul, cardinal bifhop of Paleftrina, and a
native of Rome, who, being eleGed at Pifa on the 19th of
December, 1187, as fucceffor to Gregory VITI. was crowned
the next day under this name. Soon after his eleGion, he
exerted himielf in terminating a conteft that had fubfiltcd
for 50 years between the pope andthe Roman people. Ac-
eordingiy an agreement wes concluded, in 1158, after feve-
ral previous conferences, upon the following terms: wiz.
that the pope fhould be invelted with the fovereignty of
Rome :—that the office of patrician fhould be abo‘ifhed, and
a prefect with more limited power appointed in his room:
—that fenators fhould be created annually, with the appro-
bation and by the authority of the pope, who fhould take
an oath of allegiance to his holinefs, and promife to aflift
him when required :—that St. Peter’s church and its reve-
nues fhould be reftored to the apottolic fee :—that the tolls
and all other public revenues fhould be at the difpofal of the
pope, on condition that he expended one-third of them for
the ufe of the Roman people :—that the fenate and the peo-
ple fhould reverence the majefty and maintain the honour and
dignity of the high pontiff :—that the Roman pontiff fhould
bellow the ufual gifts and largeffes upon the fenators,
judges, advocates, and other officers of the fenate :—that he
fhould pay yearly a certaim fum for the reparation of the walls
of the city :—and that he fhould allow the walls of Tufcu-
lum to be razed to the ground, and affift the Romans in that
undertaking. The papal dominion over Rome being thus
eltablifhed, Clement fet out from Pifa for Rome without de-
lay, and was cordially received by the fenate, the nobility,
and the people. ‘he pope, having fecnred his fovercignty,
zealoufly engaged in the profecntion cf the holy war, and
left no attempt untried for inducing all Chniftran princes
to unite ina new crufade. His active efforts were crowned
with fingular {uccefs not only in Ftaly but in Germany,
France, and England; and heavy taxes were impofed in
order to defray the expence of the intended expedition. In
England, particularly, a tenth was exacted of all revenues,
MENT.
of all moveables and chattels. Having thus provided a large
fum of money, a war in the eaft was carried on, though with
little fuccefs, by Richard, the fon and fucceffor of Henry II.,
after the death of his father in 1189. Clement, having com.
promifed the difference that fubfilted between William king of
Scotland and the apoftolic fee, and exempted the church of
Scotland from all fubmiffion to the Englifth church, and
having enjoyed the fatisfaGtion of hearing that the kings of
Trance and England had departed for the Holy Land at the
head of two numerous armies, was humbled and grieved by
the unexpected news of the death of the emperor Frederic,
who, after having adjulted all his differences with the apo-
ttolic fee, had taken the crofs, and obtained many fignal ad-
vantages over the infidels. Whiift he was purfuing thefe
advantages, he fell from his horfe in croffing a river, and
loft his life before his affiftants could afford him any affiltance.
The pope did not long furvive this diftreffing intelligence.
He died on the 27th of March in the following year, wiz.
11g, and, being greatly beloved by the Romans, was
buried with extraordinary pomp in the Lateran church.
Before his death, he canonized Otto, bifhop of Bamberg,.
the firft who preached the gofpel to the Pomeranians, and
tephen de Mureto, founder of the order of the Grandi-
montenfes.
Clement 1V. fucceeded Urban IV. in 1265. His family
name was Guido, and he was a pative of St. Gilles on the
Rhone, in the province of Narbonne. In his youth he fol-
lowed the military profeffion, and afterwards applied him-
felf to the ftudy of the law, with fucf affiduity and fuccefs,
that he was reckoned one of the be{t civilians of his time.
Upen the death of his wife he entered into holy orders ;
and after feveral gradations of eccleliaftical preferment, he
was created by Urban 1V. in 1261, cardinal bifhop of
Sabina; and in 1263, hé was fent, under the character cf
the pope’s legate @ /etere, into England, to mediate a recon-
ciation between the king and his barors, who were then at
cpen war. | ut, being forbidden to enter the kingdom, he
ftopped at Boulogne, and, fummoning thither fome of the
Englith bifhops, he folemnly excommunicated, in their pre-
fence, all who fhould thenceforth difturb the public peace
of the kingdom, and ordered the bifhops to pmblifh that
fentence, and to fee it executed. In his return to Italy, he re-
ceived the news of his eleGiion to the papacy > and having ar-
rived fafe at Perugia, he was there, or, as fome fay, at Viterbo,
confecrated and crowned, afluming the name of Clement,
becaufe he was born on St. Cicment’s day. Inftead of
following the example of other popes, who had enriched
and agerandized their families at the expence of the church,
he gave his relations to underitand, that they muft expect
nothing from him as pope, but content themfelves with the
wealth and the rank which they poflefled before his promotion.
Clement is faid to have abhorred plurality of benefices, as a
moft feandalous abufe ; and he obliged even hits own nephew,
who had three, to refign two of them, allowing him to choofe
which of the three he pleafed. The charaéter of Clement was,
in many refpeéts, unexceptionable ; neverthelefs, in confor-
mity to the conduét of his predecefiors, he made it the whole
bufinefs of his pontificate, utterly to extirpate the family of
Frederic, to drive Manfred from the kingdom of Sicily, and
fettle Charles of Anjou upon the throne. Charles was ac-
cordingly invetted with the kingdom of Sicily by four car-
dinals appointed by the pope; but under fo many condi-
tions annexed to the invettiture, that he became, in effect,
a tributary of the apoftolic fee. Onthe 6th of January,
1266, Charles was folemnly crowned in the church of St.
Peter, as king of Sicily on this and the other fide of the
Pharos, or the ftraits of Meflina; and hence probably ori-
ginatec
CLEMENT.
ginated the modern title of king of both Sicilics. His wife,
Beatrix, who had long panted for a crown, received it at
the fame time. Charles, however, was obliged to conteft
the pofleffion of the kingdom, firft againft, Manfred, who
was defeated and flain ia battle, and afterwards again{t Con-
rad, .or Conradin, who was invited by the dufcontented
barons to poftefs himfelf of his paternal and hereditary king-
dom, which the pope had unjuttly wrefted from him, and
conferred upon one who bad not the leaft fhadow of right to
it. Coaradin, in defiance of the citations and menaces of the
pope, entered Italy; and at Rome he was received by the
fenate, the nobility, and the people, with the greatelt demon-
itrations of joy. ‘Ihefe meafures fo enraged the pope, that
he thundered out the fentence of excommurication againft
Conradin, aid all who fhould affitt him, “accompanied with
menaced forfeitures, and with a declaration, that Conradin
himfelf was incapable of holding any kingdom, ficf, or dig-
nity whatever. The Romans, however, protected Con-
radin, and fupplied his army, as long as he remained in their
city, with ali neceilaries, at their cwn expence. One of his
geucrals having gained a victory in Sicily, Conradin was
proclaimed king in all the chief cities cf the ifland, and the
Sicilians every where declared for him. However, Conyvadina
havins heard of the victory, left Rome in order to engage
Sharles ; and the two armies having met atthe lake of Ce-
lano, engaged in a combat, which proved ‘difaflrons to Cor-
radin, and terminated in a complete victory on the part of
Charles. The cunfequence of this event was an order iffued
by Charles, that all the cities which had declared for Con-
radin, fhould be given up to be plundercd, and then laid in
afhes. ‘Lhe citizens who had taken part with the rebels,
as they were called, were either put to a cruel death, or
contined for life. Conradin himfelf was publicly executed,
and feveral of his partizans, of diftinguifhed rank, fhared the
fame fate. Clement, however, did not live to hear of thefe
barbarous executions. He died at- Viterbo, in the latter
end of November 1268 ; whereas Conradis was not beheaded
til! OSober 1269. Clement, exclufively of his condué in
the events above related, and his implacable and unprovoked
enmity to Conradin and his family, purfued a conduct that
merited commendation. He relieved poverty and diftrefs,
rewarded virtue and merit, and left his relations at his death
in the fame ravk and condition they were in when he firft
afcended the pontifical throne. Several learned treatifes
upon the canons, and canon law, are afcribed to Clement.
But fome of thele were undoubtedly written by one Guido
Papa, who has been miftaken for pope Clement, whofe
name, before his promotion, was Guido. The life of Cle-
ment has been elegantly written by the Jefuit, Clauaius
Clemens, and was printed at Lyons in 1629.
Clement V. was eleGied the fucceffor of Benedi& XL.,
after a conteft in the conclave of cardinals which lafted pear
a year, in the year 1305. He was the fon of Berald de
Got, a nobleman of Aquitain, and, by favour of Bonifaée
VILI. preferred in 1299 to the archbilhopric of Bourdeaux.
The ceremony of his coronation was performed at Lyans,
whither he fummoned the cardinals; and, on his return
from the church of St. Juftus to his palace, with the crown
on his head, his horfe was led part of the way by the king
of France. on foot, and afterwards by Charles de Valois
and the duke of Brittany, likewile oa foot. Burt the fall
of a wall during the proce ffiov, which killed feveral perfons
of diftin&tion, and caufed the crewn to fall from the head
of the pope, excited a great alarm among the people, and
gave occafion to the Italian writers to obferve, that fuch
were the aulpices under which the holy fee was tranflated
from Italy to Fiance, from Rome to Avignon, where it re-
mained for an interval of morethan yo years, The firkt and
*chicf care of Clement, after his elevation, was to fulfil his
engagements to the French king, thus recompenfing him
for the effeGtual fervice which he had rendered in promoting
his election. Befides the creation of 10 cardinals, all of
whom were Frenchmen, and the reftoration of the two
Colonnas to the cardinalate, from which they had been
degraded; he granted to the king the tenths of all the
ecclefiaftical revenues in his kingdom, for the fpace of 5
years ; and he reveked aed annulled a law, which declared,
that the kingdem of Trance, and of courfe all other king-
doms, are fubje& to the fee of Rome in temporals, as well
as fpirituals. In the year 13c9, the pope transferred his
feeto Avignon, which was at that time fubject to Charles;
king of Sicily ; and in 1311 he fummored a general council
at Vienne, in order to determine with regard co the knights
templars, who were charged with many enormous crimes,
to procure immediate relicf and fupply for the Chriftians in
the Holy Land, to reform the manners of the ecclehaltics,
and to refiore the decayed difcipline of the church. The
profectticn againft the knights templars was carried on in
different countries under the authority of the pope, and
the order was fuppreffed by him in a private confittory in
the year 1312. See Knicurs Temrrars. At the third
{cffion of this council, an order was aflued for preaching a
new crpfade throvgh all Chiiffian countries, and great in-
dulgences were granted to all who fhould engage init. Ino
the fare feffion, the do@rines of the Beguardi and Beguines
were condemned; and the conftitution of Gregory K. re-
lating to the conclave, confirmed by Celetline V. aud Boni-
face VIII., was confirmed anew by this council; and it was
further ordained, that no cardinal, under any pretence of
excommun'cation, fufpenfion, or interdiét whatever, fhould
be excluded from the eleGion. In the year 1313, after the
breaking up of this council, Celetline V. was canonized by
the pope. Among the laft aéts of his pontificate, were the
coronation of Henry VII. as emperor, and the creation ef
Robert king of Sicily, a fenator of Rome, and a vicar of the
empire. Soon after thefe events Clement died, ata place
called Requemaure, in the dioccfe of Nifmes, in his way to
Bourdeaux, his native place, on the 20th of April 1314,
(or as others fay,1316) when he had held the fee from the day
of his eleGion, on the 5thof June 1305, 8 years, 10 months,
and 15 days. She ambition of this pontiff was unbounded ;
ard ke e€&ed during his whole pontificate as a mere tool of
the French king, to whom he had owed his promotion.
Clement wrote many conllitutions relating to dificrent fub-
jes, and ordered them to be diftinguifhed by the title of
“© Vhe Seventh book of the Decretals.?? Since his time
they have been known by the name of ‘* The Clementines ;’””
they were approved by the council of Vienne, and publifh-
ed by Clement at Montil, not long before his death, that is,
on the 21ft of March, 1314. As he was prevented by his
illnefs and death, that feon enfued, from fending them to
the univerfities ; they remained in a manner fufpended till
the year 1317, when his fucceflor, John XXII, fent au-
thentic copics of them to all the univerfities, ordering them’
not only to be taught in the {chools, but to be quoted, as
{landing laws, in the courts of juftice. See Canon Law,
Clement V1, fucceeded Benedi& XII. and was crowned.
on the 1¢th of May 1342. His family name was Peter
Roger. He was born in 1292, in the diocefe of Limoges,
aud embraced a religious life among the Benedi&tines at the
age of ro years; having ftudied at Paris, and being admitted
by the univerfity of that city, at the age of 30, to the degree
of mafter or dogtor in divinity, he rofe through feveral
{ubordinate gradations of preferment to that of cardinal
4 ; prefbyter
CLEMENT.
prefbyter of St. Nereus and Achilleus, to which rank he was
advanced in 1338 by pope Benedié&t XII. Soon after his
election he created 10 new cardinals, among whom was his
brother Hugh Roger, who refufed the pontificate upon the
death of Innocent VI. The Romans congratulated him
on his elevation to the papal fee by a folemn embaffy,
and requefted that he would refide at Rome, ard order the
jubilee to be celebrated every 5oth year. They alfo con-
ferred upon him, as Peter Roger, the fupreme magiltracy,
but not as pope, leaft his predeceffors fhould claim it.
One of the deputies on this cccafion was the celebrated
Petrarch, who was very favourably received. Although he
declined for the prefent complying with their requelt of
refidence at Rome, he ordered a jubilee according to their
defire. Differences having fubfilted for a long time between
the emperor Lewis and the apoflolic fee, an embally was
fent by the emperor to the pope in the {econd year of his
pontificate, propofing an accommodation and requefting
abfolution. Clement received the embafladors in a very
haughty manner, and having advifled with h's cardinals,
propofed, as the only terms of abfolution, that he fhould own
himfelf guilty of the hereftes, with which he was charged,
and abjure them all; that he fhould furrender the title of
king or emperor, refign the government of the empire, and
not refume it without the permiflion of the apottolic fee;
that he fhould fubmit to the abfolute difpofal of the pope
himfelf, his children; and all his hereditary dominions and
eftates; and that he should acknowledge the empire-to be in
the gift of the apoftolic fee. Thefe articles, however
humiliating to’ the emperor, were agreed to by the ambaf-
fadors; and the emperor, aftonifhed at the extravagant
demands of the pope, refolved to improve them to his own
advantage. Accordingly he fent copies of them to all the
princes and ftates of the empire, ard convoked a diet at
Frankfort for the purpofe of deliberating, concerning the
moft proper means of defeating the ambitious views and
effeGually refifting the encroachments of the pope. At
this diet it was agreed, that thefe terms of conciliation
fhould be rejeGed by the German flates and princes. ‘The
pope, incenfed at their -refulal, confirmed all the fentences
that had been pronounced again{t the emperor by his pre-
deceffor pope John, or himfelf, and ordered the electors to
proceed immediately to the ele€tion of a new king of the
Romans: Lewis of Bavaria having forfeited, ‘¢as an avowed
and impenitent heretic,” all right to that title and to the
imperial crown, and to every other kind of dignity. This
order was accompanied with the recommendation of Charles
duke of Moravia, the fon of Joho king of Bohemia, after he
had previonfly ftipulated the conditions on which his interett
was to be employed in advancingi the duke to the lmperic]
throne. The ele€tors complied; Charles was clected; and
the eleGtion was ratitied by the pope’s bull, ifflued Nov. 6th,
1346. About this time a revolution happened in the
kingdom of Naples, which was occafioned by the murder of
the king, in confequence of which the kingdom was invaded
by the king of Hungary, the brother of the deceafed
fovereign. Upon this invafien queen Joan retired from the
kingdom and repaired to Avignon in order to plead her
caufe before the pope and the cardinals. ‘This fhe did with
fuch effe&, that Clement difpatched an apoltolic legate into
Hungary to negotiate a reconcihation between Joan and her
hufband, Lewis of Taranto, and the Hungarian king. In
the meanwhile the Neapolitan nobility, who had become
weary of the government of the Hungarians, invited joan
back to her own kingdom; who, in order to furnifh: herfelf
with money for defraying the charges of her expedition, fold
Avignon to the pope for 80 theufand florins of gold. The
bargain was confirmed by Charles, who had been lately
elected king of the Romans, and alfo renounced all the right
claimed by the empire over that city and its territory. The
bull containing this renunciation is dated Nov. 1, 1348.
In this year 2 very dreadful plague raged over all Europes
and in this general ealamity Clement was liberal and ative
in affording the fufferers neceflary and feafonable relicf. In
349, a new fect arofe called the “ Flagellants;”? but, being
threatened excommunication by the pope, they were very
foon extirpated. On oceafion of the jubilee, which took
place in the year 1350, Rome was crowded with pilgrims;
and the number that thronged th'ther was fo great, that one
would have thought, fays Petrarch, who was prefent, that
the plague which had almoft unpeopled the world, had not
fo much as thinned it. Vhe pope diltinguijhed himfelf by
his a€tive endeavours in reftraining the exactions. and opprel-
fions which the pilgrims fuffered from the cruelty and
avarice of the Romans, In Germany many of the prirces
and cities refufed to acknowledge Charles, who had beenim-
pofed upon them by theinterference and influence of the pope;
and a¢tualiy proceeded to elect another emperor in his room.
After fome unfuccefsful efforts for this purpofe, the
Germans, tired out with a long war, ehofe rather to
fubmit to Charles than to involve their courtry in new
troubles by new eleCtions. In 1351, Clement undertook the
defence of the mendicant friars, that had been eminently
ufeful during the plague, and to whom many had left their
ellates in recompence of their fervices, againft the fecular
clergy, who complained to the pope of their having dege-
nerated from their original inflitution, and demanded the
entire fuppreflion of that order. At the clofe of this year
Clement was taken dangeroufly ill, and the cardinals, appre-
hending the event of his death, prevailed upon him to
mitigate the rigour of the conftitution of Gregory X. with
refpeét to the conclave. (See Concraye.) During the
fame’ malady he iflued another conftitution, Importing that if
in difputing, preaching or teaching, either before or fince
his promotion to the apottolic fee, he had advanced any
thing contrary to the catholic doGtrine, as to good morals,
he retracted it, and fubmitted the whole to the judgment of
his predeceflors; and hence we perceive that he entertained
but an indifferent opinion of his own infalhbility. Having
in the following year difpatched a tegate into Sicily to
crown Joan queen of Jerufalem and Sicily, and her hufband
Lewis king, Clement, towards the clofe of the year, was
feized with a fever, which terminated his life on the 6th of
December, after he had held the Roman fee, from the day
of his coronation, ro years fix months and 18 days. This
pope was fond of pomp and grandeur, andlived more like a
monarch than a bishop. It was his favourite obje&t to
agerandize his family, and enrich his relations, feveral of
whom he furnifhed with eftates in Pranee, and others of
them he made cardinals, though they were under the {ti-
pulated age, or led feandalous lives. In his promotions, it is
faid, that he paid Intle refpe€&t to learning or virtue.
Petrarch fpeaks of him as poflefiing an uncommon memory,
io that he never forgot any thing he had read or heard, asa
perfon of very great learning, and as ro lefs eloquent than
learned. He is faid, by fome of his biographers, to have
preached frequently, and to have cempofed many excellent
fermons. The oniy writings cf Clement, extant in print,
area treatife on ecclefiaftical power, fome {peeches, letters,
decretals, and a book upon the canonization of St. Ivo;
which took place in 1347. Among other aéts of hie
pontificate he granted to the kings of Frauce the privilege
of receiving the facrament in both kinds, whenever they
pleafed; he appointed Lewis, earl of Clermont, defcended
from
CLEMEN T.
from the royal families of France and ‘Caftile, king of the
Fortunate iflands, now the Canaries, which were difcovered
in his time, for which grant he obliged Lewis and his heirs
to pay yearly 400 florins of gold to him and his fucceffors,
as an acknowledgement of their holding their kingdom cf
the apoftolic fee; he difpofed of fome rich benefices in
England to foreigners, which in 1343 occaftoned a quarrel
between him and Edward III.; he embellifhed, at a great
expence, the pontifical palace at Avignon; and, exclutively
of other charities, he founded at Ronkes and richly en-
dowed a college, called the ** Pope’s College,” or the college
of *Ciementine Priefts.? — -
Clement VIL. was the name affumed by the cardinal
de Medici, who fucceeded Adrian VI., Nov. 28, in the year
_ 1523. This choice, after a contett in the conclave which
laited fifty days, was pniverfally approved. High expecta-
tions were formed of a pope, whofe great talents, and long
experience in bulinefs, feemed to qualify him no lefs for de-
fending the fpiritual irterelts of the church, expofed to 1m-
minent dangers by the progrefs of Luther’s opinions, than for
conducting its political operations with the prudence requi-
fite at fuch a dificult junGure ; and who, befides thefe ad-
vantages, rendered the ecclefiaftical ftate more refpectable
by having in his hands the government of Florence, together
with the wealth of the family of Medici. By this eleétion
the ambitious ‘views of cardinal Wolfley, who afpired to the
papal throne, were a fecond time di ifappointed ; notwith-
ftanding the intereft employed in his favour by Henry VIII.
with the emperor Charles V., and the attivity of Wolfley
himfelf, who inftru€ted his agents at Rome to fpare neither
spromifes nor bribes in order to gain bis end. "Lhe cardinal,
after all ‘his expectations and endeay ours, had the mortifica-
tion to fee a pope elected of fuch an age, and of fo vigorousa
conttitution, thathe could derive little comfert from the chance
of fucceeding him. Wolfey was extremely indignant.on the
occafion ; and though Clement endeavoured to foothe hs vin-
diiive nature by granting him acommiilion to be legate in
England during life, with fuch ampie powers as veftedin him
almoft the whole papal jurifdiétion in that kingdom, the in-
jury he had received entirely diffolved the tie, which had
united him to Charles, and from that moment he meditated
revenge. However he had art enough to difguife his re-
fentment ; and he abounded on every occafion, private as
well as public, in declarations of his high fatisfattion with
Clement’s promotion. Clement had fearcely taken fecure
pollefiion of the pontifical chair, before ambafladors were
fent to im both by the emperor and the king of France,
then at war in the Milavefe, to engage him in their interelt,
‘The pope, however, itiftead of taking a decifive part with
either of the Seeenalic parties, laboured with the zcal
which became his chara€ter, to bring about a reconciliation ;
but his endeavours were ineffectual.
with greater vigour than ever, and the French were expelled
both out of the Milanefe and the republic of Genoa ; but
Francis, the king of France, having gained confiderab‘e ad-
vantages over the Imperialiits, who aah invaded Provence and
laid fiege to Marfeilles both by fea and land, and compelled
them to abandon his dominions, crofled the Alps at mount
Cenis, and advancing rapidly into the duchy of Milan,
made himfelf mafter of that capital, and laid fiege to Pavia.
‘The pope, who already confidered the French as fuperior in
ltaly, became impatient to difengage himfelf from his con-
neétious with the emperor, of whofe defigns he was extreme-
ly jealous, and to enter into terms of friendfhip with Francis.
He laboured hard to bring about a peace that would fecure
Francis in pofleffion of his new conquetts; and as Charles, who
was always inflexible in the profecution of his fchemés, reject-
The war was purfued.
ed the propofition with difdain, and with bitter cxclamations
againft the pope, by whofe perfuafion, while cardinal de Mes
dici, he had been induced to invade the Milanefe ; Clement
immediately concluded a treaty of neutrality with the king
of France, m which the republic of Florence was included.
Whilft the fiege of Pavia was flowly carried on, the Imperial-
ifts attacked the French with a very powerful force, defeat-
ed them in what is called the battle of Pavia (Feb. 24,
1525) with great flaughter, and took the king prifoner.
This victory excited the greatelt alarm among the Italian
ftates, and Clement, inftead of purfuing the meafures which
he had concerted with the Venetians for fecuring the liberty
_of Italy, either intimidated by threats or allured by promifes,
entered into a feparate treaty with Charles, bindicg himfelf te
advance a confiderable fum in return for certain emoluments
which he was to receive. The money was inltantly paid;
Charles afterwards refufed to ratify the treaty ; and the pope
remained expofed at once to infamy and nidicule; to the
former, becaufe he had defetted the public caufe for his pri-
vate interelt ; to the latter, becaufe he had been a lofer by
that unworthy a€tion. In the year 1526, an alliance was
concluded between the pope, the Venetians, and Sforza,
duke of Milan, for the fecurity and liberty of Italy. The
king of France, who had been releafed from captivity, and
Henry VIII., king of England, acceded to it. ‘The latter
was declared protector of this league, which they dignified
with the name of *holy,”’ becaufe the pope was at the head
of it; and inorder to allure them more effectually, a princi-
pality in the kingdom of Naples, of 30,000 dueats yearly
revenue, was to be fettled on him, and lands te the value of
10,0c0 ducats on his favorrite Wolfley. Clement, as foon as
this Jeazue was corcluded, by the plenitude of his papal
power, abfolwed Francis trom the oath which he had taken
to obferve the treaty of Madrid, which had been the ftipulat-
ed condition of his releafe ; but the difcovery of Frascis’s in-
tentions to clude this treaty filled the emperor with a variery
of difquieting thoughts, and he determined to infift on the
ftridt execution of it. As foon alfo as he had received an ac-
count of the holy league, he exclaimed again{t Franeis, as a
prince void of faith and of honour; nor did he lefs complain of
Clement, whom he {olicited in vain to abandon his new allies.
He, moreover, threatened him not only with all the vengeance
which the power of an emperor could infli€, but by appeal-
ing toa general council, called up before him all the terrors
arifing from the authority of thefe aflemblies, fo formidable
to the papal fee. At the fame time he exerted himfelf with
‘unufual vigonr, in order to fend fupplies not only of men, bat
of money, which was itill more needed, into Italy! The
Colonuas, who retained thew attachment to the Imperial in-
tercit, and who, by placing themfelves under the proteétion
of the emperor, prelerved the quiet polficflion of their own ter=
ritories and privileges, took an active part againit the confe-)
deracy, and particularly againit the pope ; and after for fome
time amuling and deluding him, marched to Rome, andmade
themtelves mafters of the city. Clement, terrified at the dan-
ger that threatened him, afhamed of his own credulity, and
deferted by almoft every perfon, fled with precipitation inte
the caitle of St. Angelo, which was immediately invefted.
Altera general plunder of the Vatican, the church of Sc.
Peter, and the houfes of the pope’s minifters and fervants,
Clement, deprived of every thing neceffary for {ubfiftence or
defence, was {oon obliged to demand a capitulation ; and the
Imperial ambaffador, Moncada, with the havghtinefs of a
conqueror, preferibed conditions, which it was not in his
power to rejc&. The chief of thefe was, that Clement
{hould not only grant a full pardon to the Colonnas, but re-
ceive them into favour, and immediately withdraw all tie
. 8
troops -
CrL EY aE Net.
troops in his pay from the army of theconfederates in Lom-
bardy.
The Colonnas, who talixed of nothing lefs than depofing
Clement, and of placing Pompeo, their kinfman, in the
‘vacant chair of St. Peter, exclaimed loudly. againit a treaty,
which left them at the mercy of a pontiff juftly incenfed
againft them, But Moncada, attentive merely to his maf-
ter’s intereft, paid little regard to their complaints, and by
this fortunate meafure, broke intirely the power of the
confederates. Clement, regardlefs of the treaty with Mon-
cada, desraded the cardinal Colonna, excommunicated the
reft of the family,: feized their places of tlrenoth, and waft-
ed their lands with ail the cruelty excited by a recent in-
jury. After this he-turaed his arms againft Naples, and as
‘his operations were aided by the French fleet, he made
fome progrefs towards the conqueft of that kingdom; the
viceroy being no lefs deftitute than the other Imperial gene-
rals of the money requifite for a vigorous defence. The
Colonnas and the other friends of the emperor foon retali-
ated on the pope; for the duke of Bourbon who com-
manded the Imperial army, wanting money to pay his
troops and to purchafe provifions for their fubfiltence, de-
termined to force his way into the State of the Church,
and to let his army live upon plunder. However, he con-
cealed his intentions fo fuccefsfully, that Clement, though
alarmed, could not difcover whether Rome or Florence
would be the firft objet of his depredation; and he -was
therefore kept for fome time in a flate of difquieting fufpenee.
Thus circumftanced, the pope concludes an agreement with
annoy, viceroy of Naples, March 15, 1527, comprehending
the following principal articles, wiz. that a fufpenfion of
‘arms fhould take place between the pontifical and Imperial
‘troops for eight months; that Clement fhould advance
60,000 crowns towards fatisfying the demands of the [m-
perial army ; that the Colonnas fhould be abfolved from
cenfure, and their former dignities and poffeffions be reftored
to them ; and that the viceroy fhould come to Rome, and
prevent Bourbon from approaching nearer to that city, or
‘to Florence. On thistreaty Clement fixed his reliance; a
reliance which Guicciardini afcribes wholly to an infatua-
tion which thofe who are doomed to ruin cannot avoid.
“annoy having thus detached Clement from the confederacy,
wifhed to turn Bourbon’s arms againft the Venetians; but
Bourbon had other {chemes to accomplifh, Although he
received a meflage from the viceroy he paid no regard to it,
but continued to ravage the eccletiallical territories, and to
“advance towards Florence. Upon this Clement renewed
his application to Lannoy, and intreated and conjured him
‘to put a ftop to Bourbon’s progrefs. annoy made fome
“aneffe€tual efforts for this purpofe ; but Bourbon’s foldiers,
having heard of the truce, raged and threatened, demand-
ing the accomplifhment of the promifes in which they had
confided. Whilt every perfon in Rome perceived the ap-
proaching and irrefiftible ftorm, Clement alone, relying on
‘feme. ambiguous and deceitiul profeffions which Bourbon
made of his.inclination towards peace, funk back into his
‘former fecurity. Bourbon being under a neceflity of chang-
ing his rout towards Florence by the arrival of the duke
@’Urbino’s army, determined-to attack and plunder Rome.
The refolution was bold, and the execution of it no lefs
rapid. Clement was rouzed from his fecurity ; and though,
under his feeble condu@; all was confternation, diforder,
-and irrefolution, yet he colleéted fuch of his difbanded fol-
diers as {tillremained in the city; he armed the artificers of
Rome, and the footmen and train-bearers of the cardinals ;
he repaired the breaches in the walls; he began to ereét
new works; he excommunicated Bourbog and all his troops,
Vou. VIII. .
branding the Germans with the name of Lutherans, and the
Spaniards with that of Moors. Thus prepared, he deter-
mined to wait the approach of an enemy whom he might
eafily have avoided by atimely retreat. Bourbon advanced
with {peed, and encamped in the plains of Rome on the
evening of the 5thof May. Having animated his {cldiers
by prefenting to their view the palaces and churches of the
eapital of the Chriftian consmonwealth, imto which the
wealth of all Europe had flowed during many centuries,
without having been viclated by any hoftile hand, he com-
menced the affault carly on the next morning, and at the
head of his troops he led them to feale the wa'ls. They
were at firft received with a fortitude equal to their own ;
and whilit Bourbon’s troops were ready to give way, their
leader threw himfelf from his horfe, fezed a fealing ladder
from one of the foldiers, and as he began to mount it, a
mufket ball from the ramparts gave him a deadly wound,
which, at the moment of expiring, he endeavoured to con-
ceal from his troops. As foon as this fatal event was known
to the army, it feemed to animate them with new valour;
the name of Bourbon refounded along the line, accompa-
nied with the cry of blood and revenge. The veterans on
the walis were overpowered, the enemy rufhed on with in-
credible violence, and the city was taken. During the
combat, Clement was employed at the altar of St. Peter’s
in offcring up to heaven unavailing prayers for victory. But
as foon as he heard that his troops began to give way, he
fled with precipitation ; and inftead of making his efcape,
fuch was his infatuation, he fhut himfelf up, with thirteen
cardinals and others, in the caftle of St. Angelo, which he
had before found to be an infecure retreat. The mifery and
horror of the fcene that followed may be more eafily con-
ceived than defcribed. The pillage and cruelty that were
exercifed on this occation exceeded thofe of the Huns,
Vandals, or Goths, in the sth and 6th centuries. The
booty in ready morey alone amounted to a million of ducats;
and what they railed by ranfomsand exactions far exceeded
that fum. Clement himfelf, deprived of every refource,
and reduced to fuch extremity of famine as to feed on
affes? ficfh, was obiiged to capitulate on {rch conditions as
the conguerors were pleafed to preferibe. He agreed to pay
400,000 ducats to the army; to furrender to the em-
peror all the places of {trength belonging to the church ;
and, befides giving hotlages, to remain a prifoner himfelf
until the chief articles were performed. The emperor
feigned gricf for the plunder of Rome, and the captivity
of thepontiff; but it was, without doubt, mere hypocrify.
The concern felt by the kings of France and England on
this occafion was more fincere; though perhaps not altoge-
ther difinterefted. Francis and Henry, alarmed at the pro-
grefs of the Imperial arms in Italy, had, even before the
taking of Rome, entered into a clofer aliiance ; this alliance
was now cemented by the conimon defire of refcuing the
pope out of the emperor’s hands, a meafure no lefs political
than it appeared to be pious. With this view they per-
ceived the neceffity of abandoning their defigns in the Low
Countries, and of rendering Italy the feat of war, that they
might thus deliver Rome and fet Clement at liberty. Wol-
fey neglected no meafure that could incenfe his malter again{t
the emperor. Befides thefe confiderations of a public na-
ture, Henry was influenced by a more private and felfifl
motive; becaufe he had begun about this-time to form his
fcheme of divorcing Catharine of Arragon, towards the
execution of which he knew that the fanction of papal au-
thority would be neceflary ; and he was therefore defirous
of acquiring as much merit as poffible with Clement, by ap-
pearing to be the chief inftrument of his deliverance,
3. Ta
CAT RV's.
Tn the mean while, whilft the two kings were negociating
“their new alliance, the pepe, unable to fulfil the conditions
of his capitulation, remained a prifoner. The.Florentines,
‘as feon as they heard of his captivity, ran to arms in a
tumultuous manner; expelled the cardinal de’ Cortona,
who governed their city in the pope’s name; defaced the
arms of the Medici; demolifhed the flatues of Leo and
Clement 3 and declaring themfelves a free ftate, re-e{tablith-
ed their ancient popular government. The Venetians,
taking advantage of the calamity of their ally the pope,
{eized Ravenna, and other places belonging to the church,
under pretext of keeping them in depofit. The dukes of
Urbizo and Ferrara likewife laid hold on part of the fpoils
of the unfertunate pontiff, whoin they confidered as irre-
trievebly ruined. At length, however, the prozrefs of the
confederates in Italy and other political confiderations in-
duced the emperor to concert meafures for fetting the pope
at liberty. As he wanted a large fupply of money, he
thought of the refource which prefented itfelf in the
ranfom of Clement. The pope himlelf had contrived to
difarm the refentment of cardinal Colonna, and he had alfo
by favours and promifes gained Moroné, chancellor of
Milan ; and by the addrefs and influence of thefe two men
the treaty for his liberty was the mere fpeedily concluded,
upon the following conditions. He was obliged to ad-
vance 100,000 crowns for the ufe of the army, to pay the
fame fum at the diflance of a fortnight, and at the end
cf three months 150,000 more. «He engaged not to
take part in the war againft Charles, either in Lombardy
‘or Naples; he granted him a crufade, and a tenth of eccle-
fiaftical revenues in Spzin ; and he not only gave hofages,
bat put the emperor in poffeflion of feveral towns, as a
fecurity for the performance of thefe articles. Having
raifed the firlt moiety by a fale of ecclefiaitical dignities
and benefices, and other expedients equally uncanonical, a
day was fixed for his releafe.. But Clement, impatient to
be free, after a confinement-of fix months, and indulging the
fufpicion and diftruit natural to the unfortunate, was fo
fearful of frefh obttacles on the part of the Imperialifts,
that he difguifed himfelf the preceding night in the habit
of a merchant, and made his efcape undifcovered. Before
next morning he arrived at Orvieto, and from thence wrote
a letter of thanks to Lautrec, the commander of the Freach
troops, as the chief iu{trament of procuring him liberty.
Afterwards Clement, though he always acknowledged his
being indebted to Francis for the recovery of his liberty,
and often complained of the emperor’s cruel treatment, was
not influenced by gratitude, nor was he fwayed by the
defire of revenge. Whillt he amufed Francis with promifes,
~he fecretly negociated with Charles; and in June 1529, he
had the addrefs and diligence to get the ftart of his allies,
by concluding, at Barcelona, a particular treaty for him-
felf. The terms were more favourable than Clement could
have reafon to expeé&t. Among other articles, the emperor
engaged to reftore all the territories belonging to the eccle-
fiatical ftates ; to re-eftablifh the dominion of the Medici ia
Florence ; to give his natural dinghter in marriage to
Alexander, the head of that family ; and to put it in the
pope’s power to decide concerning the fate of Sforza, and
the poffcfiion of the Milanefe. In return for thefe ample
concefiions, Clement gave the emperor the inveltiture of
Naples, without the referve of any tribute, but the prefent
of a white teed in acknowledgment of his fovereignty ; ab-
folved all who had been concerned in aflaulting and plunder-
ing Rome; and permitted Charles and his brother Ferdi-
naud to levy the fourth of the- ecclefiaftical revenues
throughout their dominions. The diffenfions already men-
-convocation of fuch an affembly.
tioned betsveen the pope and the emiperor proved extremely
favourable to the progrefs of Lutheranifm. Charles, exal=
perated by the conduct of Clement, and fully employed in
oppofing the league which he had formed again{t them, had
little inclination and Icfs leifare to take any meafures for
{uppreffing the new opinions in Germany. Ina dict of the
empire held at Spires, June 25, 1526, the ftate of religion
came to be confidered, and all that the emperor required of
the princes was, ‘that they would wait patiently, and
without encouraging innovations, for the meeting of a
general council which he had demanded of the pope. They
acquiefced ; but to his advice, concerning the difcourage-
ment of innovations, they paid fo little regard, that even
during the meeting of the dict at Spires, the diyines who
attended the eletor of Saxony and landgrave of Heffe-Cak
fel thither, preached publicly, and adminiftered the facra<
ments, according to the rites of the reformed church. The
emperor’s own example emboldened the Germans to treat the
papal authority with littlereverence. A manifelto again
the pope, little inferior in virulence to the inveétives of
Luther himfelf, was induftrionfly difperfed over Germany ;
and being eagerly read by perfons of all ranks, much
more than counterbalanced ‘the efic€t of all Charles's
dec’arations againit the new opinions. (See Luter aad
Rerormation.) Soon after the conclulion of the pope’s
treaty with Charles, they had an interview at Bologna.
Oa this occafion the emperor, at the head of 20,0co
veteran foldiers, able to give law to ail Italy, kneeled
down to kifs the feet of that very pope whom he had
fo lately detained a prifoner. After the re-eftabliihment
of ‘the authority of the -Medici at Florence in_ 1530,
the publication of the peace at Bologna, and the ceremony
of his coronation as king of Lombardy and emperor of the
Romans, which the pope performed with the accultomed
formalities, Charles prepared for his journey into Germany.
During the long refidence of the emperer aud pope at
Bologna, they held many conferences concerning the molt
effetual means of extirpating the herelies which had fprung
up in Germany. Clement difluaded the emperor from con-
vening a general council; Charles, on the contrary, thought
the convocation ef a council no improper expedient for re-
conciling the Proteftants; hut promifed, that if thefe
gentler arts failed of fuccefs, he then would exert himfelf
with vigaur in reducing thofe ftulsborn enemies of the
Catholic faith. -For the meafures which he purfued, fee
Reroamation, Aucustan Confefion, and AucGsBuRG.
Charles, in h‘s way to Spain in 1532, had another inter-
view with the pope at Bologna, On this occafion they
differed with regard to the expediency of calling a general
council. Charles urged the falutary effe&ts of fuch a
meafure, whilt Clement, by all the. artifices in his power,
attempted to delay, in hopes of thus entirely defeating, the
Belides the negotiation
with Clement about calling a council, the emperor carried
on another, of greater importance in his eflimation, for fe-
curing the peace eftablifhed in Italy. With this view he
propofed that the Italian itates fhould enter into a league of
defence again all invaders, and that, when danger occurred,
an army fhould be raifed and maintained at the common
charge. The propofal was not unacceptable to Clement ;
accordingly a league was concluded; and ail the Italian
ftates, the Venetians excepted, acceded to it. At this
interview, the emperor is {aid to have propofed a match be-
tween Sforza, the duke of Milan, end Catharine de Medici
the daughter of the pope’s coufin Laurence de Medici ;
but this match was rejected by the pope; and another was
negotiated by Francis and Clement between Henry, the
king -
CV EM Ea. T.
king of France’s fecond fon, duke of Orleans, and Catharine,
Clement was fo highly pleafed with an honour which added
fach Juftre and dignity to the houfe of Medici, that he
offered to grant Catharine the inveiliture of confiderable
territories in Italy by way of portion; he feemed ready to
fupport Francis in profecuting his ancient claims in that
country: and confented to a perfonal interview with that
monarch, Charles’s jealoufy was excited by this propofed
literview, and he could not bear that Clement, after he had
twice condefcended to vilit him in his own territories, fhould
confer fuch a diflinG@ion on his rival, as to venture on a
voyage by fea, at an unfavourable feafon, in order to pay
court to Francis in the French dominions. But the pope’s
rafhnefs to accomplifh the match overcame all {cruples of
pride, or fear, or jealoufy, by which he was likely to. be in-
fluenced on any other occafion. ‘The interwew, notwith-
flanding feveral artifices of the emperor to prevent it, took
place at Marfeilles with extraordimary pomp, and demon-
itrations of mutual confidence; and the marriage, which
the ambition and abilities of Catharine (See Caruarine)
rendered in the fequel as fatal to France, as it was then
thought difhonourable, was confummated. The pope and
Francis, however, were fo careful-to avoid giving any caufe
of offence to the emperor, that no treaty was concluded be-
tween them; and even in the marriage-articles Catharine
renounced all claims and pretenffonsin Italy, except to the
duchy of Urbino. Whilft Clement was carrying on thefe
negotiations and forming a conne&tion with Francis, which
gave fo great offence to the emperor, fuch were the artifice
and duplicity of his charaéter, that he fuffered the latter to
dire& all his proceedings with regard to the king of England.
Henry’s fuit for a divorce from Catharine of Arragon (See
that article), had now ccntinued fix years, during which
period the pope negotiated, promifed, retratted, and con-
cluded nothing. Cranmer’s fentence anouiled the king’s
marriage with Catharine; her daughter was declared ille-
gitimate; and Aone Boleyn acknowledged queen of Eng-
Jand. Henry, difpleafed with the conduct of Clement,
began to make innovations in the church, of which he had
formerly been fuch a zealous defender. Clement, who had
already feen fo many provinces and kingdoms revolt from
the holy fee, became apprehenfive left England fhould follow
their example, and partly from his folicitude to prevent that
evil, and partly in comp!iance with the French king’s folici-
tations, he determined to give Heary fuch fatisiaétion as
might fill retain him within the bofom of the church. But
the violence of the cardinals, devoted to the emperor, did
mot allow the pope leifure for executing this prudent refo-
Jution, and hurried him, with a precipitation fatal to the
Roman fee, to iffue a bull, ref{cinding Cranmer’s fentence,
enforcing Henry’s marriage with Catharine, and declaring
him excommunicated, if, within a time {pecified, de did not
abandon the wife he had taken, and return to her whom he
had deferted. The confequence of this meafure is well
known. Henry was enraged; his fubjeéts concurred in his
indignation; an aét of parliament was pafled, abolifhing the
papal power and jurifdi@ion in England; by another ad,
the king was declared fupreme head of the church; and all
the authority of which the popes were deprived was velted
in him. A fhort delay might have prevented the unhappy
confequences to the fee of Rome of Clement’s precipitance.
Soon after his fentence againit Henry, he fell into a languith--
ing diltemper; which terminated his life after he had lived
56 years 4 months, on the 25th of September, 1534, and
his pontificate, after a duration of 10 years, 19 months,
and 7 days; the moft unfortunate, both whilit it con-
tinued and in its effeéts, that the church had. known, for
‘pares, promifing to examine the points in difpute.
many ages. ‘Fle died hated by the court, fufpefed by the
princes, and generally reputed a man of no faith, and
uatura.ly averfe from doing any mana good office. He was
grave, circumf{pec in all his a€tions, much mafter of him-
felf, a great diflembler, and endowed with excellent parts;
and uncommon penetration. But the extreme timidity to
which he was fubjeét after his imprifonment feldom allowed
him to make a free ufe of his own judgment. Durisg his
pontificate he created 31 cardinals; but none, his nephew
Hyppolitus de Medici excepted, of his own choice ; the reft
he raifed to that dignity, again{t his wiil, to gratify thofe,
who recommended them, efpeciaily the emperor and the king
of France. Bower’s Hilt. of the Popes, vol. vii. Robert-
fon’s Hilt. ch. v. vols. i. and iit.
Clement VILL. was the name aflumed by Hippolito Aldo-
brandini, cardinal of St. Pancras, a Florentine, when he
fucceeded Innocent IX. in the fee of Rome. He was
chofen Jan. 30, 1592, and crowned on the 2d of February
fcllowing. -His pontificate is chiefly remarkable for the
three following events; the converfion, abfolution, and re~-
conciliation of Henry IV. of Francein 1595; the reverfion
of the dechy of Ferrara to the apoftolic fee, upon the death
of duke Alphonfus. II, in i597; and the peace, concluded
at Vervins in 1598, between lrance and Spain, by the media-
tion of Clement. The famous coniroverfy between the
Jefuits and Dominicans, concerning grace, free-will, and
predeitination, arofe in the time of this pope, and was likely to
produce fatal divifions in the church. This controverly
was carried on with great afperity and violence till the year
1594, when Clement impofed filence on the contending
For
this purpofe he appointed a particular congregation, called
** De Auxiuis”” or of aids; but as nothing had been de-
termined by this body in 1602, the pope refolved to pre-
fide at it in perfon, and he accordingly heard both parties
with the greate(t attention and patience. But.as each ably
defended the caufe with great zeal and dexterity, Clement,
not chufing to exercife his infallibility, left he fhould difoblige
one or other of the two molt learned orders of the church,
left the final decifion of the points in difpute to his fucceflor.
He died March 3, 1605, after having prefided in the fee
13 years, one month, and three days. This pope has been
reprefented by cotemporary writers as a man of uncommon
abilities and of great prudence. It was by the urgent
interference of this pope, that the Jefuits, who had been
expelled Trance upon the murder of Henry III. were re-
fiored in 1603 by his fucceflor Henry. 1V.. Bower vol. vii.
fofheim E. H. vol. v.
Clement 1X. and Clement X. were ele&ted fucceffively to
the papacy in the years 1667 and 1670; but they weré
concerned in few-tranfactions that deferve to be tran{fmitted
to potterity. The former was of the family. of Rofpigliof,
and feveral inftances of his condu@ are recorded that do him
honour, and prove his diflike of nepotifm, and his love of
peace and juitice. His pontificate commenced in 1667 and
terminated. in 1670; that of his fucceflor clofed in 1676.
Mofheim.
Clement XX. was the name. affumed by Jchn Francis
Albani, when he was raifed to the head of the Roman
church in the year: 1700. He furpaffed in. learning the
whole college of cerdinais, and was inferior to none of the
preceding pontifis in fagacity, lenity, and.a defire,. at lealt,
to govern well; but he was very far from oppofing, with a
proper degree of vigour and refolution, the inveterate cor-
ruptions and fuperititious cbfervances of the church over
which he prelided; onthe contrary, he inconfiderately
aimed. at, what he thought, the honour aud.advantage of
BASIE! the «
CLE
the church (that is, the glory and intereft of its pontiff),
by meafares that proved detrimental to both, and thus
fhewed, bya ftriking example, that popes, even of the belt
fort, may fall imperceptibly into the greateit miftakes, and
commit the moft pernicious blunders, through an imprudent
zeal for extending their jurifdiGion, and augmenting the
influence and luftre of their ftation. His pontificate clofed
ini721. Mofheim.
Clement X11, began his pontificate in 1730, and termi-
nated it in 1740.
Clement X11. was elevated to the papacy in 1758, and
held it till the year 1765.
Clement XIV. commenced his pontifical office in 1769,
and clofed it in 1775.
Cement, Joun, received his education at Oxford, where
he made fuch progrefs in the knowledge of the Greek and
Latin languages, as to. attract the notice of fir Thomas
Move, who tock him into his family to mftrué his children.
By the recommendation ef fir Thomas, he was invited to
fettle in Corpus Chrifli college, Oxford, and appointed pro-
feffor in rhetoric, in ‘the year 1519,-and foon after, to fuc-
ceed to Linacre in the Greek profefforfhip. It may not be
improper to mention, that the firft two public teachers of
the Greck language at Oxford were phylicians, for Clement,
probably incited by the fame acquired by his predeceffor,
applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of medicine, which he
praéctifed with fuccefs. He was foon after made fellow of
the Royal College of phyficians, lately eftablifhed in Lon-
don. In 1529, he was ordered by his fovereign, Henry
VIIL. to attend cardinal Wolfey, who was dangeroufly ill
at Efher; but the malady of that great flatefman was not
removeable by medicine. On the acceflion of king Edward
VI., Clement, with 2 few other catholics, was excepted
from the general pardon granted by that prince ; he therefore
went to Mechlin. What drew on him this fevere treatment
is not known, unlefsit was his rigid attachment to the’Romifh
religion, which he imbibed while refiding in the houfe of his
patron fir Thomas More. On the death of Edward he re-
turned to England, and refumed the practice of medicine in
a part of Effex, near Londoa. In this place he continued
during the reign of queen Mary. On her demife he again
migrated to Mechlin, where he died July 1, 1572. Of his
medical knowledge h= has left no memorial, his only works
being fome tranflations of pieces of divinity, and a book of
Latin epigrams and other verfes, now little known. Aukin’s
Biog. Sketches of Medicine.
CLEMENT, Juzian, a celebrated accoucheur, who contri-
buted largely towards the improvement of the art of mid-
wifery, was a native of Arles, in the department of the
Rhone. It was there he received the rudiments of his edu-
cation ; but he was at an early age fent to Paris, and placed
under the dire&tion of James la Fevre, who then enjoyed
confiderable reputation for his flcill in the practice of furgery,
particularly that branch of it which teaches the method of
delivering womenin difficult labours. In time he fucceeded
to the practice of Le Fevre, whofe daughter he had married.
in December, 1663, he was called to affift the duchefs de
la Valiere; but as it was not ufual at that time to employ
men in this office, except in cafes of difficulty or danger,
the duchefs is faid to have removed to a private houfe,
and even to have received him in a mafk, fo that he
was not apprifed of the quality of the lady he was at-
tending. His fuccefs in this cafe was fo agreeable to the
king, Lewis XIV., that he was appointed accoucheur to
the princeffes of France, with a contiderable pention. This
circumftance, and his being employéd in the fubfequent
labours of the duchefs, and of many of the principal ladies
CLE
about the court, added greatly to his popularity, and had a
powerful influence in introducing the cuftom, which foon
became general, of employing men to attend women in
child-birth, inttead ef one of their own fex. Clement foon
faw the abfurdity of treating iving-in women as difeafed
perfons, and introduced feveral falutary regulations for the
women and chidren, particularly thofe of abridging the
time of confinement of the women, and allowing a freer in-
treduétion of air into the room than had been before per-
mitted. He alfo fimplified and improved the method of
turning the foetus, in certain cafes of wrong, prefentation,
and firit fuggeiied the propriety of breaking the membranes
early in labour, in cafes of hemorrhage, which was after-
wards fo fuccefsfully pra€afed by his pupil and affiftant,
Puzos. The reputation of Clement became by thefe means,
and by the general fuccefs of his pra¢tice, fo great, that he
was fent for to Madrid, to attend the queen of Spain, in
three fucceflive pregnancies, the lait im the year 1720,
About the year 1684, he was honoured by his fovereign
and patron with letters of noblefle, with the condition at-
tached to them, that he fhou!d continue to practife mid-
wifery as long as his health and age fhould permit. He
died on the 7th of October, 1729, being So years of ages
Effais Hiftonques fur Art des Accouchmens, par M. Sue
le jeune.
Ciement, Conffitutions of. See Apoflolical Constirus
Tions, and Clemens Romanus.
Crement, Recogzitions of. See Recocnirions, and
Cremens Romanus.
Cuizmenrs’ firait, in Geography, a branch of the ‘great
ftrait, that lies between Banca and Billiton in the Eaft
Indian ocean, being the ‘* Eatt Paffage,’? between Middle
or Paflace ifland and Billiton. {t is fo called from captain
Clements, the commander of a fleet of Indiamen, who is the
firft known navigator who attempted this paflage in 1781,
and ftruck out this new track to the fhips of his own
nation. The name of ‘* Ciements’ Strait”’ diftingutthes it
fiom the “ Weft Paffage,”? or ‘ Gafpar’s Strait.” See
Banca. ‘ ;
Ciremtnts’ Danes, Sr. a parifh in the liberties of
Weitimintter and county of Middlefex, which adjoins to the
city of London: the fituation of its church iteeple, in the
Strand, was determined in the government Trigonometrical
Survey,’’ in 1788, by an obfervation from Argyle Street
obfervatory, diflant 6,074 feet ; and another from Prim-
rofe-hill flation, diftant 14,391 feet: whence is deduced its
bearing from the crofs on the dome of St. Paul’s cathedral
85° 57’ 37” W. of the fouth meridian, and diftance 3,592
feet. This fteeple contains a fingular clock with four dials,
which {trikes the hours, fir’ on one of the great bells, and
then repeats the fame on a {maller bell; it repeats the
quarters, aad chimes the old hundredth pfalm at 12, 5, and
o'clock. , ‘
CLEMENTE, Prospero, in Biography, a Modenefe
fculptor, who, according to Vafari, poflefled confiderable
talents. In the Duomo of Reggio is a monument of white
marble by this mafter, erected to the memory of bifhop
Rangone, who is reprefented in a fitting pofture as large as
life, with the accompanyment of two little angels beautifully
executed. There 1s another monument by him at the
Duomo of Parma, raifed in 1548 tothe memory of Bernardo
degli Uberli of Florence, who was a cardinal, and bifhop of
Parma. Wafari ediz. di Bologna, tom. iii. p.11. Or-
landi.
CrLemente, SAN, Don Barroromeo Dt.
Garra.
CLEMENTI, in Geography, a town of
See Letra
European
Turkey, -
€LeE
Turkey, in the province of Albania; 44 miles N. of
Dulcigno. y
CLEMENTINA, or Cremenrine Homies, in
Lcelefiaftical Hiflory, ave 19 homilies in Greek, publifhed by
Cotelerius, with two letters prefixed ; one of them written
in the name of Peter, the other in the name of Clement, to
James bifhop of Jerufalem ; in which laft letter they are en-
titled ‘« Clement’s Epitome of the Preaching and Travels of
Peter.” But it may be queflioned, fays Dr. Lardner,
whether one or both of thefe letters do not belong to the
« Recognitions.” Photius feems to favour this fuppofition ;
at leat, in his time, they were both prefixed to fome editions
of the “ Recognitions.”? The 19th Homily is imperfect at the
end; and there is wanting another whole homily to com-
plete the number of twenty. Le Clerc thinks thefe
Clementine Homilies were compofed by an Ebionite in the
fecond century. Montiaucon fuppofes that they were forged
at a muclr later period, and that they were not mentioned
by any author, till long after the age of St. Athanafius.
This is one of his arguments, viz. that the Synopfis, in
which the Clementines are mentioned, was not compoled by
that father. Grabefays, that the Clementines fpoken of in
that Synopfis, re not the fame with our Clementiae Homilies,
which is very probable ;—thofe Ciementines mentioned in
the Synopfis not being the Clementine Homilies, but the
Clementine Epitome, publifhed by Cotelerius at the end
of the Homilics. Although thefe Clementine Homilies
are ancient, they were not cited by the name of Ciemen-
tines; but were reckoned either another edition ef the
Recognitions, or called the “ Travels of Peter,’? or
the *¢ Difputation of Peter and Appion.”? There is
a great agreement between thefe Homilies and. the
Recognitions, in feveral particulars. Dr. Lardner inclines
to the opinion, that the Clementine Homilies were the ori-
ginal or firlt edition, and the Recognitions an improvement
of them, becaufe they appear more finiflied and artificial.
This work is not improbably the fame with that cen{fured by
Eufebius under the title of “ Dialogues of Feter and
Appion.”? The whole work is prolix; and inthe ath, 5th,
and 6th Homilies is a hiftory of Appion, and of a difpute
with him. If this be the work of an Ebionite, as is gene-
rally fuppofed, and feems not improbable, it may be argued,
that when the author wrote, the four gofpels were owned
by that feét, or at leatl by fome branch of it ; for though
there may be fome interpolations in thefe Homilies, there is
no reafon to think that any texts have beenadded. Aithough
neither of thefe books, viz. the Homilies and Recognitions,
be of any facred authority, they may both be of fome ufe ;
and deferve to be particularly examined. From what has
been faid it is probable, that the Clementine Homilies, and
allo the book of Recognitions, which Mr Whitton has
recommended to us “¢ as certainly to be efteemed in the next
degree to that of the really facred books of the New Telta-
ment,”? are the work of an Ebionite; and therefore if there
is in ‘it (fays Dr. Lardner) any Arianifm, it has been in-
terpolated. As to the ** Clementine Epitome,” already
mentioned, it feems to be the work of a later age; and to
have been compofed out of the Recognitions and Homilies,
and perhaps fome other works, leaving out fome things, and
adding ethers. To this Clementine Epitome, or fome
fimilar piece, the author of the Synopfis, afcribed to Atha-
nafius, refers, when, among the contradicted or apocryphal
books of the New Teftament, fuch as the Travels of St.
Peter, the Gofpel according to St. Thomas, and fome others,
he mentions the *¢ Clementines,”’ ** out of which,” he fays,
« thofe things have been feleéted which are true and divine-
ly infpired.”” This is probably the book of which Nicepho-
CLE
rus {peaks, as being in his time approved by the church
Bat in the compofition of it, not only thofe things were
feleQed which are true and right in the ancient Clementines,
but feveral other things were added. ‘Che hand of an
Ebionite in the Clementine Homilies js generally acknow-
ledged by learned moderns. But that there was no good
foundation, in the moft early antiquity, for fuppofing St.
Clement to be the author of any of thofe pieces, may be
concluded from Eufebius. Moreover, it is notorious that
the Clementine Epitome was compofed by an orthodox
chriftian. But it. may be faid in favour of the Catholics,
that none of them appear to have had any hand in any of
thefe Clementines during the firt three centuries. It may
be alfo added, that it was known the Clementine Epitome
was not an original piece ; and that it was not pretended to
bereally written by Clement, bet was allowed to confift of
things feleGted out of fome other work or works, Lardner’s
works, vol. it.
CLEMENTINE, a term ufed among the Augufting,
who apply it to a perfon, who, after having been nine years
afuperior, ceafes to be fo, and becomes a private monk,
under the command of a fuperior. ‘
The word has its rife hence, that pope Clement, by a
bull, prohibited any fuperior among the Auguftins from
continuing above nine years in his office.
_,CLEMENTINES, the name of a party which took its
rife in Europe in the 14th century on the following occafion.
After the pope had refided many years at Avignon, Gre-
gory XI. was perfuaded to return to Rome; and upon bis
death, which happened in 1380, the Romans, refolute to
fix, for the future, the feat of the papacy in Italy,
befieged the cardinals in the conclave, and compelled
them, though they were moftly Frenchmen, to ele&
Urban VE., an Italian, into that high dignity. The
French cardinals, as foon as they recovered their liberty,
fled from Rome, and protefting again{t the forced ele@tion;
chee Robert, fon of the count of Geneva, who took the
name of Clement VII. and retided at Avignon. All the
kingdoms of Chriftendom, according to their feveral inter:
efts and inclinations, were divided between thele two pontiffs.
The court of France adhered to Clement, and was follow-
ed by its ailies, the king of Caftile, and the king of Scot-
land: England, of courfe, was thrown into the other party,
and declared for Urban. Thus the appellations of * Cle-
mentines”” and Urbanits” diftraéted Europe for feveral
years ; and each party damned the other as Schifmatics, and
as rebels “to the true vicar of Chrilt. This circumftance
contributed in fome degree to weaken the papal authority ;
but had not fo great an effect as might naturally be imagin-
ed. Though any king could eafily at firft make his king-
dom embrace the party of one pope or the other, or even
keep it fome time in fufpence between them, he could not
fo eafily transfer his obedience at pleafure. The people at-
tached themfelves to their own party, as to a religious
opinion, and conceived an extreme abhorrence to thofe of
the oppofite party, whom they regarded as little better than
Saracens or infidels. Crufades were even undertaken in this
quarrel ; and the zealous bifhop of Norwich in particular
led over, in 1382, near 60,000 bigots into Flanders, againtt
the Clementines ; but, after lofing a great part of his fol-
lowers, he returned with difgrace into England.
CLEMENTINES, in the Canon Law, are the conftitutions
of pope Clement V. and the canons of. the council of
Vienne. See Canon /aw, and CLemenr V.
CLEMENTINES, in Geography, a tribe of Hungarians, fo
called from their leader, whe emigrated in’ 1463, from Als
banla,
GLE
bania, and arrived in 1737, through Servia at Sclavonia.
‘They are difperfed in two villazes.
CLEMENTINUS, Cremenr, in Biography, a learned
phylician of Amelia, near Spoleto in Italy, was in great
credit towards the end of the 413th and the beginning of the
y4th centuries. He was one of the reltorers of medicine,
and was well verfed in the works of Hippocrates, and the
reft of the fathers in that fcience. He taught philofophy
atid mathematics for fome years at Padua, and appears to
have imbibed the principles of altrology, with which his
medical works are tinged. From Padua he was called to
Rome, where he was appointed phyfician to Pope Leo X.
whom he outlived only 2 fhort time. The work by which
heis known is intitled, “* Clementia Medicine, five de Pre-
ceptis Medicine, et de Arte Medica, Rome 1512, fol.’
Ailtruc fays there was an earlier edition of this work, viz.
in 1505. It was reprinted in 1535. He treats of tempera-
ments and humours, of the pulle and urine, as: indicating
Gifeefe; of fevers, the plague, &c. , He fuppofed the Ines
venerea, which made its firft appearance in his time, was
occafioned by the predominance of the conftellation Scorpio.
Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Diet. Hitt.
CLEMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Loiret, 9 leagues S.W. of Gieno. See
alfo CLEFMONT.
CLENCH-nails. See Nats.
CLENCHING, in Sea Language, denotes making faft the
point of a bolt or nail, on a ring or rove of iron, by batter—
ing the point and making it fpread. The cable is fattened
or clenched to the ring of the anchor. :
CLENZE, Lewer, in Geography,a town of Germany,
in the circle of Lower Saxony, and- principality of Lune-
burg-Zell; $ milesS.W. of Luckow.
CLEOBULUS, in Biography, one. of the feven wife
men of Greece, or, as fome have called him, tyrant of
Rhodes, wes born at Lindus, in the ifle of Rhodes, or,.as
fome will have it, in Caria. He invited Solon to comerand
live with him, when Pififtratus had ufurped the fovereignty
of Athens. He flourifhed in the 54th Olympiad, about
564 years B.C.
CLEOBURY Mortimer, or Creesury, in Geography,
a {mall market-town of Shropfhire, England, is fituated at
the befe of a mountain, called the Clee-hills. Thefe abound
with iron-ore, lime, and coal, the latter of which is found in
avein 5 feet thick. "The church is a large, handfome build-
ing; and near it is the fite of an ancient caftle, which was
built by Hugh de Mortimer, and deftroyed in the time of
Henry II. Here is a free fchool, founded by fir Lacon
William Child. 4
On Cleebury hill is an ancient encampment, another at
Titterftone Clee, and another on the Urchin.
Here are a fmall weckly market on Thurfday, and three
annval fairs. Cleobury is £37 miles N.W. from London,
and about 17 S. of Shrewfbury. Camden’s Britannia, vol.
it, 1789.
CLEOFANTE, in Biography,an ancient painter, a native
of Corinth, where he 1s faid, by Pliny, to have firft attempt-
ed to imitate in his fignres the colour of the flefh, by means
of bricks pounded. He flourifhed before the 40th Olym-
piad, and accompanied Demeratus, the father cf Tarquinius
Prifeus, to Rome; when flying from the anger of Cipfelus,
prince of Corinth, he took refuge in Ttaly.
There-exifted at Lanuvio, in the time of Pliny, a pi@ure
of Atalanta, and another of Helen, by this mafler, both of
which were welldrawn, Winkelman, Orlandi.
CLEOME, in Botany, (from Kaus, claudo, a name
adopted by Linneus, from Theod. Prifcianus, called
alfo OGtavius, or Octavianus Pyilcianus, a medical writer of
CLE
the fourth century). Linn, Gen. 826, Schreb.. 1099. Wilds’
1249. Gert. 479. Jufl. 243. Vent.-3. 118. (Sinapiitrum,
Tourn. 116.) Clafs and ordery tedradynamia /filiquofa.
Nat. Ord. uncertain, Linn. Philof. Botan. Putaminee, Linn.
Prelec. Capparides, Juff. Vent.
Gen. Cn. Cal. Perianth four-leaved, very {mall, fpreading,
the lower leaf more open than the others, caducous. Cor.
Petals generally four, afcending and fpreading, two inter-
mediate ones {maller, andnearer together. Stam. Filaments
varying in number, in different fpecies, from fix to more
than twenty ; awl-fhaped, declining ; in fome fpecies placed
near the petals, on the common receptacle; in others at-
tached to a pedicel which Supports the germ; anthers lateral,
afeending. Pi/?. Germ either icffile, or fupported by a pe-
dicel, differing’ very much .in length in» diiferent f{pecies;
generally furrounded by three neCtariferous glands, one
under each of three upper calyx leaves; ftyle,.in mott
fpecies, none; ftigma capitate. eric. Silique pedicelled,
or nearly feffile, oblong, cylindrical, one-celled, two-valved:
Seeds numerous, kidney-fhaped; attached to the inner
fide of a filiform, circular, or elliptic receptacle placed be-
tween the valves.
Ef. Ch. Three ne@ariferous glands; one under eack
divifion of the valves. Petals all afcending. Sulique one-
celled, two-valved, ’
This is a very anomalous genus, and imperfeCily accords
with the other genera of the Linnean clafs tetradynamia,
which form a completely natural family. ‘Tournefort had
before clafied it among his plants with cruciform flowers;
under the generic name of finapiftrum ; but had placed it
with chelidonium and epimedium, as having, like them, a
one-celled capfule or filique. Linnzus, though he could
not find a better {tation for it than at the tail of his clafs,
tetradynamia, did not venture to pronounce it of the fame
natural family. In the ‘ Philofophia Botanica,” it ap-
pears among the vage, or plante incerte fedis; in the
« PreleGtions,”” publifhed after his death by Gifecke, it
flands in the natural order of putaminex, which corref{ponds
with the capparides of Juffieu and Ventenat. A few of
the {pecies at prefent admitted into the genus, are equally
at variance with the effential character, nor is it, perhaps,
poflible to form one, which willinclude all of them. In the
general chara&ter, we have thought it expedient to make
confiderable alterations.
Species. 1. C. juncea, Linn. jun. Supp. 309. Mart. 5.
Poifet. 22. Willd. 1. Sparm..in AG. Upfal. Nov. vol. ii.
p. 192. Stem fhrubby, leafiefs ; flowers in lateral co-
rymbs, eight-ftamened, gynandrous; ftamens and pedicel
elongated; filique linear, tomentous.’? Svem from one to
two feet high, fcarcely the thicknefs of a goofe-quill.
Branches rigid, like {pines, generally acute, greenifh, cylin-
drical, fpreading, fmoothifh. Leaves none; but, initead of
them, minute fcales, coming out here and there on the ftem-
and branches. Sowers dirty yellow; common peduncle’
very fhort; partial ones from half an inch to an inch long,
filiform, fomewhat woolly, yellowifh. Calyx-deaves rather.
~fpreading, fomewhat orbicular, concave; two outer onesa
litle larger than the others, fmooth within, fomewhat rough,
with crowded glands on the outfide, and edged with others
which are fupported by pedicels; corolla none, Ne@ary
fhort, tubular, two-lipped, faftened by the fide to. the bale
of the pedicel; upper lip very fhort, fomewhat helmet-
fhaped, fometimes entire, fometimes toothed; lower lip
more prominent, afcending, either fharpifh and entire, or
truncate-toothed ; tube with a depreffion or channel on the
outfide, and at the top; pedicel jengthened out to an inch.
and half, the whole tubular, a third of its upper part fta-_
miniferous ; ftigmaoblong. Seeds blackifh, orbicular, fome- -
what, -
i
~~
Cr LyEr Own
what compreffed, and each, as it were, in its proper cell.
Sparm. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, found near
the Black river by Dr. Sparman. 2. C. heptaphyl/a, Linn,
Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Poir. 1. Willd 2. (Sinapiftrum, Tourn,
Borm. -Zeyl. 215. 3. Herm. Lugd. 564. Sloan. Jam. 1.
194. 4. Pentaphyllum, Moris. hilt. 2. 288. 2.) ¢* Ilowers
gynandrous ; leaves with about feven leaflets; ftem prickly.’
Root annual. Stem from three to five feet high, herbaccous,
uptight, angularly grooved, branched; branches fpreading,
grooved, vifcid, villous. Leaves alternate, {cattered, {preed-
ing, digitate ; common petioles ercét, cylindrical, ftreaked,
hirfute, vifcid : leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, nerved, pubcf-
cent, {pringing fiom a centre at their bafe ; prickles in pairs
at the bafe of the petioles, oppofite, thick, fhort, yellow, very
pungent. Flowers white, or ficth-coloured, in long locle
terminal fpikes; peduncles two inches long, pubefcent, cy-
lindrical ; bra€&e, one at the bafe of each peduncle, and half
furrounding it, heart oralmoft crefcent-{thaped, feflile, entire,
pubefcent, white; calyx-leaves Jinear-lanceolate, acute,
{preading, convex, pubefcent; two of them a little longer
than the others; petals with claws, oblong, concave, en-
tire; filaments fix, longer than the corolla, patulous,
attached to the pedicel of the germ, red-purple; anthers
long, erect, linear, brown; germ linear, quadrangular,
green; fligma obtufe, black, Siligue five inches long,
thick, tapering, pendulous. A native of Jamaica, whence
4t was fent to Miller by Dr. Houfton. It is fuppofed to
be a native alfo of Egypt and the Eaft Indies. 3. C. pens
taphylla, Linn: Sp. Pl. 3. Mart.3. Poir. 2. Willd. 3.
Jacq: Hort. tab. 24. Lam. Ill. tab. 576. fig. t. Loureiro
Cochin. 482. (Laganfa rubra, Rumph. Amb. tab. 96. fig.
2, Sinapillrum, Herm. Lugd. 564. Sloan. Jam. 80. Hit.
a. 294. Rai. Hift. S99. | Papaver, Pluk. Alm. 280.
Quinquefotium lupini folio, Bauh. Pin. 326. Capa-veela,
Rheed. Mal. 9. tab. 24.) ‘“ Flowers gynandrous ; leaves
quirate; item without prickles.” Root-annual. Stem
about two feet high, herbaceous, upright ; branches {pread-
ing, villous. Leaves on long, flender, villous petioles ;
leaflets roundifh, acute, finely ferrated, on fhort petioles ;
floral leaves ternate, inverfely egg-fhaped, obtufe. quite
entire; the loweit on fhort petioles, thereft feffile. Jvowers
white or flcfh-coloured, in a long terminal raceme or fpike ;
peduncles axillary, folitary, one-flowered, fpreading ; calyx-
leaves lanceolate ; petals rounded, open; with long filiform
claws; flamens fix, attached to the pedicel of the germ
about the middle, equal, {preading ; pedicel of the germ
Jong, flender, purple. Si/igues three inches long, rough
with rigid, blunt, very fhort cairs, wrinkled or dotted. Seeds
kidney-thaped, in fix rows. We have blended the defcrip-
tion of Jacquin and Loureiro, as there feems no doubt with
trefpe&t tothe identity of their refpective plants. A native
of the Eaft and Weft Indies, Cochinchina, Guinea, and
Syria. 4. C. triphyl/a, Linn, Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 4. Poir. 3.
Willd. 4.» (Sinapiftrem, Herm. Lugd. tab. 565.).
* Flowers gynendrous; leaves ternate; {tem without pric-
kles.”? Root annual, Stem about two feet high, herbaceous,
upright, aimoft fmooth, branched. Leaves on long petioles ;
leaflets almoft {eflile, oval, lanceolate ; the middle one larger
‘than the two others, Voqvers flefh-coloured, in a fhort ter-
‘minal {pike ; peduncles long, folitary ; floral leaves lanceo-
late, acute, terminated by a fhort point, flightly ciliated at
their edges: filaments fhort, Rraight ; ftigma flattened. S7-
liques four inches long, oblong, obtufe at the fummit. A
native of the Halt and Weft Indies, O//. Linneus, judg-
ing from a fimilarity of habit, and a conformity in feveral
‘ftriking characters, was inclined to think that the laft three
‘are rather varieties than diltingt fpecies. He alfo calls them
gynandrous, confidering the pedicel of the germ as a proper
ityle, and founding his cpinion, we prefume, on the analogy
of pafliflora; but we cannot think that either one or the
other has a right to be termed gynandrous. Vhe pedicel
does not appear to, us to perform the office of a f i
refpect whatever, any more than that which fupp
germ in the genus euphorbia. 5.C pungens, Will
Berol. Anovals of Botany. 1. 567. ‘$* Leaves quinate ; ite
prickly”? Leaves vifcid. Flowers fleth-coloured- A na
tive of South America. 6: C. polygama, Liun. Sp. PL. 8.
Mart. 6.. Poir. 4. Willd. 5. (Sinapiltrum, Sloan. Jam.
So. Hitt. r.tab. ray. fig. 1.).. ‘ Upper flowers mafeuiine,
tetrandrous ; leaves ternate; leaflets feflile, fomewhat prick=
ly at the edges.’ Stem not above twenty or twenty-five
inches high, alittle branched, ere@, almoft {mooth. Leac:
on long, petioles ; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, alittle rough at
their edges. JVowers in a long raceme ; the lowedt fertile ;
the reft minute, male germ feffile within thecalyx. A native
of Jamaica, in moift bottoms. 7. C. icofandra, Lian. Sp.
Pl. 5. Mart. 9. Poir. 5. Willd: 6. Lour. Cochin. 483-
(Sinapiftrum, Burm. Zeyl. tab.gg. Laganfaall+, Rumph.
Amb. tab. 06. fig. 3.) ‘* Flowers icofi-tetrandrous ; leaves
quinate.”” Root annual. © Stem two feet high, herbaceous,
erect, ttriated, vilcid-villous, without prickles; branches af.
cending. - Leaflets ovate-lanceolate, feffile, quite entire, a
little rough. /owers yellowith, in folivary axillary {pikes
along the branches; calyx campanulate ; leaves four, lanceo-
late, caducous; petals twice the length of the calyx, fpread-
ing, ovate-oblong, ‘almoft equal; {tamens trom eighteen to
twenty-two; filaments fhort, awl-fhaped, equal, p'aced on
a flattith receptacle ; anthers awl-fhaped, recurved ; germ
fefile, oblong, termmated by a fhort ftyle and obtufe ftigma.
Silique long, awl-fhaped, obliquely ftriated, without nectari«
ferous glands at its bafe. Sveds kidney-{haped. A native
of cultivated ground in China and Cochinchina. The whole
plant, except the petals and ftamens, is cloathed, with viferd
hairs. It has anacrid, hottifh tafte, fimilar to that of muf-
tard, and is eaten by the natives in fallads mixed with other
herbs. 8. C. vifcofa, Linn. Sp. Pi.6. Mart. 10. Poir 6.
Willd. 7. (Sinapiltruam, Mart. Cent. tab. 25. Aria-veela,
Rheed. Mal. 9g. tab. 23?) ‘* Flowers dodecandrous ; leaves
quinate and ternate.”? Root annual. Svem two or three feet
high, upright, {liff, almoft woody, angular, cloathed with
vifcid hairs, branched. Leaves alternate, on long petioles ;
leaflets oval, fomewhat rhomboid, flightly petioled. Flowers
yellow, fmaller than thofe of the preceding f{pecies, axillary
and folitary along the branches, with a terminal raceme; ca-
lyx-leaves erect at the bottom, {preading a little at the top,
all expanding regularly, lanceolate, equal ; petals lanceolate.
ovate; two lower ones more divaricated than the others ;
ftamens from eight or nine to thirteen, placedon the recep-
tacle, unequal ; germ feffile. Si/igue about two inches long,
very villous, vilcid, flender, longitudinaily ftriated, termi-
nated by a flizma on.a fhort ftyle. A native of Malabar
and the ifland of Ceylon. 9. C. dodecandria, Linn. 7. Mayr.
ii. Poir.7. Walld.$. (Sinapittram, Burm. Zeyh. 216,
tah. roo, fig. 1.) <‘* Flowers dadecandrous; leaves term
nate.” Roof annual, long. Stemabout half a foot hizsh;
fometimes erect, fimple; fometimes almoft creeping, with
decumbent branches, flightly villous, fomewhat vifejd.
Leaves tmall, petioled ; leaflets fmooth, elliptical, quite en-
tire, feffile. Moers white, axillary, folitary ; upper ones
abortive ; calyx nearly as long as the corolla, purple ; petais
emarginate ; ftamens from ten to fourteen, placed on the re-
ceptacle. Siliques feflile, {mooth, comprefled, ereé&, almoft
tranfparent, f{pindle-fhaped, a little inflated. Seeds very
{mall, {moath, fhining, brown, convex on.one fide, concave
5 ne
CLE
on the other, nearly kidney-fhaped. A native of the Eaft
Indies. There ig a plant cultivated in the botanic garden
at Paris, under the name of C. canadenfis, which greatly re-
fembles this fpecies. It is, however, larger in all its parts,
and more branched; its filiques are alfo villous, at leaft
when young, and all its flowers fertile. It has an unplea-
fant bituminous {mell. In other refpeéts it agrees with C.
dodecandria. 10. C. félina, Linn. jun. Supp. 300. Mart.8.
Poir. 20. Willd. ro. ‘ Polyandrous, hifpid; leaves ter-
nate, flrigofe, wedge-fhaped ; flowers axillary, folitary. pe-
duncled; filiqnes linear, comprefied.” Leaves fomewhat
retufe. lowers red, {mall, angular. Si/iques fhort. {mocth.
This diminutive plant is fingular in its hifpid leaves; the
hairs much dilated at the bafe, very {tiff, preffed clofe to the
leaves, and pointing towards their extremity, fo as to give it
fomewhat of the roughnefs of 2 cat’s tongue. Found in
Ceylon, by Koenig. 11. C. chelidonii, Linn. jun. Supp.
goo. Mart. 7. Poir. 20. Willd. 10. ‘ Polyandrous, hir-
{ute ; leaflets five or feven, wedge-fhaped, feabrous; racemes
terminal; filiques filiform.” Leaves on long petioles, digitate;
leaflets aciite. P/owers red, refembling thofe of chelidonium
hybridum ; calyx three or five-leaved, flrigofe ; pecals five ;
ftamens yeilow. ~ Siligue quite {mooth. It has clearly. a
great affinity to chelidonium. Poiret obfetves, that a moré
accurate inveftigation is neceflary before its real genus can
be determined. A native of the Eaft Indies, found by Koe-
nig near Tanfchaur. 12. C. gigantea, Linn. Mant. 430.
Mart. 12. Poir. 8. Willd. 11. Jacq. Obf. 4. p. 1. tab.
76. ‘Flowers hexandrous; leaflets in fevens ; {tem with-
out prickles.” Root perennial. Stem from fix to twelve feet
high, ere&t, puibefcent, always green ; branches fimple, dif-
fufe, fearred. Leaves alternate, petioled ; petioles longer
than the leaves ; leaflets quite entire, lanceolate, pubefcent,
filky on the upper furface, acute, feffile. Flowers greenifh ;
raceme terminal, ereét, near two feet long ; peduncles glu-
tinous, longer than the flowers, without brates ; calyx-
leaves linear, ciliated, fpreading, caducous ; petals oblong,
obtufe, undulated, clofely cohering, except in front, where
the ftamens appear; claws diftin@, the length of the
petals ; filaments inclining, longer than the petals, attached
to the receptacle; anthers erect, oblong, yellow; germ
pedicelled ; pedicel the length of the ftamens; ftigma
feffile, obtufe; receptacle globular, exuding a fweet li-
quor at the bafe of the claws. It isa beautiful plant, but
has a ftrong difagreeable fmell, and very cauftic tafte. A
native of Cayenne: introduced into Englend by Dr. Fo-
thergil in 1774. 13. C, aculeata, Linn. Syit. Nat. iii.
p- 232. Mart. 13. Por. g. Wijld. 12. - ** Flowers
hexdndrous ; leaves ternate, quite entire ; fipules fpinefcent ;
fihques feffile.” Stem herbaceous. Leaves elliptic-lanceo-
jate, on long petioles ; leaflets lanceolate, acute, fomewhat
ciliated and thorny at the edges, almoft fmooth, on very
fhort petioles; ftypules two, very fhort, recurved, citron-
colourcd, pale yellow, {mail, folitary, peduncled ; bra&tes at
the bafe of the peduncles, fimple ; calyx-leaves acute, lan-
ceolate, tomentous, whitifh, caducous ; claws of the petals
bong, almoft filiform; ftamens fhorter than the corolla, placed
onthe receptacle; germ feflile. Siligue cylindrical, befet with
fine white hairs. Obferved in America by Zoega. 14. C.
Jpinofa, Linn. Sp. Pl.g. Mart. 14. Poir.10. Willd. 13.
jacq. Amer. 190. 3. Pi&. 93. Swartz. Obf. 252. Brown
Jam. 273. n.i. (Tarieraga, Marcgr. Braf. 33. tab. 34.)
* Flowers hexandrous ; leaflets feven or five ; ftem thorny ;
filiques peduncled.” Root annual. Stems five or fix feet
high, ercét, villous, branched. Leaves alternate, on long
petioles; leaflets entire, lanceolate, nerved, almoft wrinkled,
tightly vilcid-pubefcent, edged with fhort hairs, only three
OME.
towards the extremity of the branches; fpines two at the
bafe of each petiole, oppofite, fhort, recurved, acute, yel-
lowifh. Flowers white, in along terminal raceme; peduncles.
folitary, one-flowered ; braGes fhorter than the peduncles ;
heart-ihaped, feflile, obtufe, approximating, nerved, pubef-
cent ; calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, fpreading, con-
cave, as long as the claws of the petals; petals oblong, en-
tire, with elongated claws, and a roundifh gland at the bafe
of each ; ffamens unequally placed on the receptacle; fila-
ments nearly equal, {preading, filiform, longer than the
corolla, purple ; anthers ere&t, long, twe-celled, yellow;
pedicel of the germ filiform, twice the length of the corolla.
Silique three or four inches long, cylindrical, torulofe, pus
befcent, vifcid, terminated by the obtufe ftigma. Seeds
numerous, oblong. A native of the Weft Indies.. Sent
from the Havannah to Miller by Dr. Houfton in 1731.
15. C. ferrata, Linn. Sp. Pl. to. Mart. 15. Poir. rr.
Willd. 14. Jacq. Amer. tab. 190. fig.43. ‘‘ Flowers hexan-
drous; leaves ternate; leaflets linear-lanceolate, ferrated.??
Root annual. Stem two feet high, ere& ; branches loofe, fim-
ple. Leaves petioled ; leaflets almof equal ; the middle one
on a fhort petiole. F/owers white; ftamens tetradynamous:
Siligue about three inches long, cylindrical. A native of
moift woods in South America, about Carthagena. 16. C.
ornithopoides, “inn, Sp. Pl. 12. Mart. 16. Poir. 12.
Willd. 15. (Sinapiftrum, Tourn. Cor. p.17. Dill Elth.
tab. 266. fiz. 345. Buxb. Cent. i. tab. 9.) figs 72.)
“¢ Flowers hexandrous; leaves ternate; leaflets oval-lan-
ceolate.”” Root annual. Stem abont two fect high, pale
green, cloathed with fhort, itiffifh hairs. Leaves ftrong=
fcented, on rough petioles; leaflets of a pale glaucous
colour on both fides, common!y bent back, {mooth in ap-
pearance, but roughrh to the touch, edged with numerous
fhort hairs, on very fhert peduncles. Flowers pale yellow,.
fmall, axillary; calyx-leaves very fmall. ovate, concave;
ftamens placed on the receptacle, inclining, fearcely longer
than the petals; anthers {mail, faffron-colonred; ‘germ
feffile. Sifigues two inches long, flender, a little hirfute,
appearing jointed when ripe, like the legume of ornithopus-
Obferved in the Levant by Tourrefort, and at Pern by
Buxbaum. Cultivated in England by Dr. James Sherard.
in 1732. 17. C. violacea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Mart: 175
Poir. 13. Willd. 16. Gert. tab. 76.' fig. 6. Tam, Tih
tab. 567. ‘fig. 3. ‘ Flowers hexandtous; leaves ternate
and fimple; leaflets lanceolate-linear, quite entire. Rooé.
annual, Stem ere&t, fometimes crooked: branches diffufe.
Leaves on long petioles; leaflets nearly equal, obtufe,
ciliated at their edges. #/owers. violet-coloured, folitary, in
a loofe fpike; calyx-leaves yellow, with purplifh tips,
fhort, ovate, concave; the two upper petals purple-violet,_
with {mall yellcw fpots; the two others of an uniform
colour, heart-fhaped, clawed, flightly crenulate, ftamens in=.
clining, attached to the receptacle; anthers violet; germ.
feffile, longer than the ftamens ; receptacle furnifhed, above -
the infertion of the ftamens, with three yellowith glands, _
Poir. - Peric. a filiquofe capfule on a very fhort pe-
dicel, oblong, obtufe, compreffed, villous. Seeds twelve or
more, fomewhat globular, with a fmall pit on each fide,
acuminate towards the navel, {mooth, of a rufty red colour, ,
Gert. The whole plant is pubefcent and vifeid. A.
native of Spain and Portugal. 18. C. arabica, Linn. Sp.
Pl. rz. Mart. 18. Poir. 14. Willd. 17. Linn. Decad. iit:
tab. 8. (Smapiflrum, Shaw. Afr. fig. 557.) ‘* Flowers
hexandrous; leaves ternate; leaflets lanceolate, obtufe;
feeds hirfute”’ Root annual. Stem about two feet high,
herbaceous, vifcid, rough with hairs; branches diffufe.
Leaves alternate petioled ; petioles as long as the leaves, —
x hifpid,
GLE
hifpid, vifcid; leaflcts feffile, {eabrous underneath, lanceo-
Jate, obtufe, finely toothed. Flowers yellow, tinged with
purple at the fummit, twice as larze as the ealyx ; flamens
incliniog, a little longer than the corolla, placed on the
receptacle ; germ feffile. Silique almoft tranfparent, a little
curved at the fummit, fomewhat inflated, obtufe, fhort ;
peduncle inclining. Seeds globular, kidney-fhaped, very
hifpid, with ere&t whitifh hairs. A native of Arabia. 19.
C. tenella, Linn. jun. Supp. 300. Mart. 22. Poir. 22.
Villd. 18. Retz. Obf. 4. 28. n.g1. ‘ Flowers hexan-
drous; Jeaves ternate; leaflets filiform, linear.”? Root an-
nual. Stem about feven inches high, upright, branched.
Leaflets ieffile, the length of the petals. Siliques linear,
Linn. jun. Flowers yellow, on folitary peduncles, Retz.
A native of the Eaft Indies. 20. C. angufiifolia, Poir. 19.
Forfkal, Flor. Arab. p. 120. (C. filifolia, Mart. 23.
Willd. ro.) Leaflets in fevens and threes, filiform.”
Root annual. Stem a foot high or more, cylindrical branch-
ed, Forfk. Stem ere&t, weak, herbaceous, ftriated ; dotted
towards the fummit, with elevated minute, feattered points,
Vahl. Leaves alternate, digitate; petiole two inches long ;
leaflets feven, flat, linear, fmooth, rather thick; three
linear ones at the bafe of the peduncles, fuftaining the office
of braétes, Forfk. Leaves petioled; petioles fhorter than
the leaves; lower leaflets in fevens, upper ones ternate,
Vahl. Flowers yellow, with a violet bafe in terminal ra-
cenes; peduncles half an inch long, ftraight, {preading,
cylindrical, folitary, one-flowered ; calyx-leaves equal; pe-
tals all united in their upper part; outer ones larger,
nearly oval; the two inner ones only half the length of
the others, cblong, linear; flamens fix; filaments violet-
coloured, diminifhing in lize by pairs; the two lower pairs
taper at the fummit, with black and ycllow ere& anthers 5
the ftamens of the upper pair yellow, barren, with a club-
fhaped fummit; rudiment of the anther globular, yellow,
{mall, {ffile‘at the top of the filamest. Silique two inches
long, at firft ereét, afterwards pendulous. Seeds fmooth,
Foifk. Siique pedicelled, attenuated at the tip, Vahl. A
native of Egypt and Arabia. 21. C. guianenfis, Poir. 18.
Willd. 20. Aubl. Guian. ii. p. 675. tab. 273. “ Flowers
hexandrous; leaves fimple, hnear-filiform, feffile.? Root
annual. Stem a foot high, branched from the bottom.
Leaves green, alternate, very narrow, acute. J/owers yel-
low, axillary, folitary, on long flender peduncles; calyx-
leaves fmall, long, acute; petals oval, ending in a point,
leaning to ove fide; ttamens inferted into the receptacle ;
filament yellow, flender, the length of the piftil; anthers
arrow-fhaped, attached to the filament by their middle ;
germ long, inflated, a little curved, green; feparated
from the petals, and leaning to the. oppofite fide;
fligma obtufe, Silique long, {mooth, a little in-
flated. Seeds {mall, roundifh. A native of Guiana, on the
fea-coaft. 22 C. monophylla, Linn. Sp. Pl.14. Mart. 19.
Poir.15. Wolid.2t. (Sinapiftruam, Burm. Zey. tab. 100.
fir. 2. t{jeru-vela, Rhecd. Mal. 9. p. 63. tab. 34.
papaver, Pluk. Alm. p. 280.) ** Flowers hexand:ous ;
leaves fimple, ovete-lanceolate, petioled.”? Root annual.
Stem a foot and halt hgh, herbaceous, ereé, ftriated, vil-
lous, branched near the top. Leaves alternate, long, nar-
row, entire, fomewhat villous, vifcid, ending in a point,
finely toothed ; petioles fhorter than the leaves. Ficqwers
yellow, foliiary, peduncled at the extremity of the branches ;
calyx-leaves {mall, hnear, villous; flamens placed on the
receptacle, the length of the petals; anthers greenifh-blue ;
germ fefile. Si/ique Jender, cylindrical, fomewhat villous,
timated, ending ina point. A native of the Ealt Indies,
23.C. capenfis, Linn, Sp, Pl. ty, Mart. 2% Poir. 16, Willd.
Vor. VAIL.
GEE
22. (C.juncea, Berg. Plant. cap. 1642) Flowers hex-
androus ; leaves fimple, feflile, linear-lanceolate ; ftem angu-
lar.’ Stem fimple, {iff and upright, refembling that of an
epilobium. Leaves like thofe of the common broom, {lff,
{mooth. FYowers corymbed, as in epilobium. Linn. Ber-
gius defcribes his plant thus: Stem more than a foot high,
herbaceous, ereét, cylindrical, {triated, {mooth ; branches al-
ternate, fimple, long, upright. Leaves an inch long, alter-
nate, {mooth, obtufe, flefhy. /owers yellow, tinged with
purple, in thin racemes; peduncles alternate, one-flowered ;
calyx-leaves ovate, rather acute, f{mall, equal, permanent ;
petals wedge-thaped, obtufe, ereét, cqual, feveral times
longer than. the calyx ; claws yellowihh, thort, linear; fila-
ments fhort, awl-fhaped; germ {c file, almoft heart-fhaped, com-
preffed; ityle very fhort, thickened, compreffed, permanent 5
itigma obtufe. Si/igue, when young, heart-fhaped, rough with
{trong points, two-celled, two-valved. Seeds orbicular, flat, one
in each cell. Bergius did not fee the fruit in a {tate of matu-
rity. The real genus of the plant does not appear to have
been fatisfa€torily afcertained. A native of the Eaft Indies
and the Cape of Good Hope. 24. C. precumbens, Linn. Sp.
Pl.16. Mart. 21. Poir.17. Willd. 23. Jacq. Amer. 1&9.
tab. 120. Swartz. Obf. p.254. (Sinapis, Brown Jam. 273.
2. Leucoium, Sloan. Hift. 1. tab. 123.) * Flowers hexan-
drous ; leaves fimple, lynceolate, petioled ; {tems procum-
bent.’”? Root perennial, {pindle. thaped, ftriking deep inte
the earth. Svem aimoit woody, branched from the bottom;
branches {preading on the ground, finally afcending and di-
viding into {maller ones, {mooth. Leaves alternate, fmooth,
quite entire, acute. £Yowers yellow, turning to orange or
red, axillary, folitary; peduncles one-flowered, purple;
calyx-leaves five, lanceolate, concave, acute, open, equal;
petals oblong, expanding, twice the length of the calyx;
itamens equal, the length of the petals; anthers blackifh,
ovate, revolute, two-celled ; germ on a very fhort pedicel,
acuminate, compreffed; ftyle awl-fhaped ; ftigma obtufe.
Siligue pedicelled, ere€t, cylindrical, fomewhat torulofe.
Seeds echinate, black. No neétariferous glands have been
obferved. A native of the Wett Indies.
Propagation and Culture. Mott of the {pecies being natives
of very warm climates, will not thrive in England without
artificial heat. They are raifed from feeds fown in the
{pring, and require the fame treatment as other tropical
plants.
CLeomeE fruticofa, Linn. See Capasa indica.
CLEOMENES, in Biography, the fon of Apollodorus
the Athenian, is engraved in the Greek charaéters on the
bafe of the celebrated ftatue of the Venus de Medicis. The
name is by many, however, fuppofed a fpurious introdution
of the fifteenth or fixteenth centuries. Carlo Dati. Or-
landi.
CLEoMENES, the name of feveral kings of Lacedemon.
The molt celebrated of thefe was the lait or Cleomenes III.
He afcended the Spartan throne on the death of his father
Leonidas, in the 2d year of the 136th olympiad, 235 years
B.C.; and in the commencement of his reign, though he
was then very young, he found himfelf obliged to exert both
his condu& and his courage. Aratus, at thes head of the
Achzans, had formed a projeét of uniting all the ftates of
Peloponnefus in a league ; and foon after the death of Leo-
nidas, defpiling the youth of Cleomenes, he determined to
try the diipofition of the Spartans, who had not acceded to
this league, and with this view he invaded the Arcadians,
who were their neighbours and friends, and lived under
their protection. When the Ephori heard of this aggref-
fion, they ordered Cleomenes to take the field, and to {ecize
ona pats into Laconia, which was then in the hands of the
gL allies
GLE
allies of the Achewans. Having performed this fervice, he
afterwards difappointed Aratus in his defign of feizing Pe-
geaend Orchemanium. Upon the retreat of the Achzan
general, the young king fent a taunting meflage to him; but
the old ftatelman, deriding his youth, aflked Democritus, a
Spartan exile, who lived with him, ‘“ What fort of a perfon
this Cleomenes was?? ‘“ Why, my friend,” replied the
Spartan, “ [ will anfwer you in few words; if you have
av thing to do againit the Lacedzmonians, let me advife
vou to begin before this young eagle’s talons are grown.”
Such was the difparity in number between the troops of
Cleomenes, which amounted to no more than 5090, and
thofe of the Achzans, confitting of 20,030 foot-and 1c0o
horfe, that Cleomenes, having compelled the enemy to re-
treat, reminded his fellow-citizens of an expreffion ufed by
one of their ancient kings, who faid, * That the Lacedae-
monians never inguired after the number of their enemies,
but where they were.”? In the courfe:of the war, however,
Aratus, by his great fkill, obtained fome advantages over
the Spartans; but the reputation of Cleomenes for courage
and military virtues was fuch, that the people of Sparta
feemed to acquire a new foirit from the martial prowefs of
their fovereign.” The Ephori, dreading the rifing fame and
correfponding influence of Cleomenzs, wifhed to put an
end to the war: the king perceived thetr delign; and in
order to counteract it, he determived to fupprefs the Ephoni,
and thus to fequre his own power, and ar the fame time to
reftore the glory of his country. For this purpofe he con-
trived, by money,.to engage the Ephori in a war, and to
give him the command of their army. Cleomenes, having
tucceeded in this meafure, took with him into the field thofe
perfons. whom he had the greateft reafon to fulpe@ ; and
having performed feveral aéts of valour, he matched his army
witha rapidity which harafled it, and induced many to be
left behind in Arcadia; and with the reft he advanced
flowly towards Lacedemon. As he approached the place,
he difpatched a {mal] party, who, furprifing the Ephori at
fupper, jnftantly killed four of them, and would alfo have
flain the fifth, if he had not feigned himfelf dead, and thus
gained an opportunity of retiring to a temple, where he re-
mained uninjured.
On the next morning Cleomenes went into the forum, and
caufed all the feats of the Ephorito be removed, except one,
which he referved for himfelf, and then artfully apologized
to the people for his condu&. He perfuaded them, that
it was neceflary to reftore the inftitutions of Lycurgus; and
affured them, that notwithitanding the violence to which he
had been obliged to recur for the accomplifhment of this
purpofe, he was determined, for the future, to pay a rick
regard to thelaws, though the prefent occafon, and his per-
fonal fafety, required him to profcribe 80 citizens. He was
the firft who delivered up his whole fubitance to the public
ftock, and his example was followed by h's father-in-law,
and other friends. In affigning the lands, he gave fhares to
all whom he had banifhed, promiling to -recal them as foon
as the public fafety would admit of it; and immediately
aiter he rellored the old Laconic mode of educating youth,
of eating in public, and performing their exercifes together;
he alfo railed a confiderable body of troops, and difciplined ®
and armed them in a new manner. In order to manifeft
his abhorrence of tyranny, and to prevent any offence from
his purfuing thefe meafures by his own authority, he afloci-
ated his brother Euclides in the kingdom, declaring, that
for the future, there fhould. be always two kings in Sparta,
according to ancient cuftom, and that he would not ereét a
monarchy, in order to tranfmit it to pofterity. Befides, in
erder further to ingratiate himfelf with the people, and to
ELE
eftablih his own popularity and power, he adopted a courfe
of life; which was not in any refpeét more expenfive than
that of the meaneft citizen. In his houfe he had no purple
furniture, no canopies, or cloths of ftate, no fuperb chairs,
nor couches for indulging eafe, but every thing about him
was diltinguifhed by its plainnefs and fimplicity. When
any perfon offered petitions, he very readily recetved them 5
converfed fycely with thofe.that had eafy accefs to him; ree
dreffed all injuries that were committed by others, and dd no
injury himfelf; and at the fame time his virtue was altogether
free from affectation or aufterity. Having thus eftablifhed his
intereft with the people, notwith{tanding the alterations he
had introduced, he marched with a body of troops into the
territories of the Achzans, and gained feveral important
advantages over Aratus. _Neverthelefs he did not avail him-
felf of his victories, in opprefling any of the cities which he
acquired, but reftored their hberty, and, when occefion
offered, recalled their ancient inhabitants. The Achzans,
difcouraged by his fucceff s, -were difpofed to accede to any
terms which he propofed ; and Cleomenes, witha generofity
that feldom attends very decifive conquelts, merely defired to
be acknowledged general of the Greeks, fipulating at the
fame time, to dcliver up his prifoners without ranfom, and
to reltore the cities which he had taken. Lerna was ap-
pointed as the place -f treaty, and the Achzans were will-
ing to acquiefce ; but in his way thither, Cleomenes fell into
a fever, whfich rendered it neceflary for him to adjourn the
mecting to another time and place. Aratus feized the ad-
vantage offered to him by this delay, and concerted mea-
fures for preventing his advancement to the dignity after
which he afpired, and to which his ment gave him a juft
claim. After his recovery, he proceeded towards Argos,
where the Achzans heid their affembly ; but, as he ap-
proached it, Aratus difpacched a meflenger to inform him,
that he mutt either enter the city aloge, or be content to
treat without the place. ‘This meflage he confidered as an
act of hoftility, and he foon after declared war. Encouraged
by the difcontent and divifions that prevailed among the
Acheans, he took Pellene by furprife, and expelled the
Achxan garrifon; and, after taking poffcflion of other
places, he furprifed Argos, and raifed himfelf to a greater
degree.of power than any of his predeceffors had pofleffed,
and his city to a greater pre-eminence than fhe had ever
held in Greece. He wifhed, however, to treat with Aratus,
and to engage his friendfhip; but the Achzan general,
having determined to deftroy the Spartan greatnefs, was
invineible. In the courfe of the war, Cleomenes, with a
force inferior to that of the enemy, who had called Anti-
gonus to his afliftance, defended the far greater part of Pe-
lopomneius, till Argos was betrayed; even then he exerted
himfelf, and, when overpowered by numbers, made a moft
glorious retreat. At this time he received from Sparta the
intelligenee of the death of his wife, to whom he was affec-
tionately attached; but he bore the affiGive news with
fortitude, aud refumed the furG€tions cf a monarch and a
general, without fuffering his private concerns to interfere
with the conduét of public effairs. . Ptolemy offered him
his friendfhip ; but impofed a condition which much
afiected him, and that was his fending his mother, Cratefi-
clia, and his fon, as hoftages. Whilit he was unable to com-
municate this demand to his mother, and hefitating to ex-
plain himfelf, the langhingly faid, ‘* Well, was it this which
you were afraid of imparting ? Why do you not put me oa
fhip-board, and fend this carcafe where it may be fervice-
abie to Sparta, before age has wafted it unprofitably here 2?”
Before the embarked, fhe retired with her fon into the tem-
ple of Neptune, gohere, while he wept, fhe tenderly embraced
him, -
—
‘or
CLE
him, and faid, “ Come, king of Sparta, let us dry our
tears, that no fions of grief may appear when we go out,
nor any token of weaknefs unworthy your dignity, or the ’
honour of our country, fince our aGtions are all that are
within our power, and events belong wholly to providence.”
Afterwards writing to Cleomenes from Egypt, fhe addrefled
him in thefe words: King of Sparta, do what is worthy of
your country, and what may redound to its advantage; nor,
for the fake of an old woman, and a little child, ‘ftand in
fear of what Ptolemy may do.”? In the profecution of the
war, Cleomenes difplayed his condu& and valour; and
though unequally matched again{ft the number and difcipline
of his enemies, he kept the war out of Laconia, took the
city of Megalopolis, which was larger than Sparta, in the
midit of the armies of king Antigonus; and then generoufly
offered to reftore it untouched to its citizens; but when
they rejected his offer, he abandoned it to the plundér of
his folciers. He afterwards haraffed the territory of Argos,
and, as the ftate of his army required fpeedy aétion, he pro-
voked Antigonus to engage, whillt he had the advantage
of the ground ; however, this cautious and fkilful officer de-
clined a conteft till a more proper opportunity offered. At
length the two armies engaged at Sellaha, where Cleomenes
was defeated with very great flaughter. After the termination
of this difaftrous battle, he retired to Sparta ; and, after fome
deliberation, in which he manifefted dittrefling anxiety, He
determined to retire to Egypt. In the execution of his
purpofe, he embarked at Gythium, and paffed over to Pro-
Jemy Euergetes, who entertained him honourably while he
lived ; but his fon, indulging fufpicion of him, deprived him
of his hberty ; an outrage which Cleomenes after fome time
refented, fo that he, with 12 friends, forced the piace where
he was confined ; but afterwards finding it impracticable to
efcape, they flew each other. ‘hus died Cleomenes, in the
firlt year of the r4oth Olympiad, 220 years B.C. after hav-
ing reigned 16 years over Sparta. Ptolemy Philopater,
actuated by a fpirit of brutal revenge, caufed his body to
be hanged on a crofs, and ordered his mother, children, and
all the women who attended them, to be put to death.
When that unhappy princefs was brought to the place of
execution, the only favour fhe afked was, that fhe might die
before her children. But they began with them, a tor-
ment more grievous to the affectionate parent than death
itfelf; after which fhe prefented her neck to the executioner,
merely faying, ‘Ah! my dear children, to what a place did
you come!” With Cleomenes ended the Herculean race
of Spartan kings, if we except the fhort reign of Agefipolis,
his fucceffor. Plut. in Cleom. apud opera T. i. p. 795.
Polyb. lib. ii, Anc. Un. Hift. vol. v. Rollin’s Anc. Hilt.
vol. v. !
CLEON, an Athenian general, who rofe from obfenrity
to the command of the armies of the ftate, by his intrigues
and eloquence. He was rafh and obftinate, and was killed
at Amphipolis, in a battle with Brafidas, the Spartan ge-
neral, B.C. 422.—There was alfo a famous ftatuary of this
name; alfo a poet, who wrote a poem on the Argonauts;
alfo an orator of Halhicarnaflus, who compofed an oration
for Lyfander, in which he intimated the propriety of
making the kingdom of Sparta elective; and a Magnefian,
who wrote fome commentaries, in which he {peaks of por-
tentous events, &c. )
CLEON A, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of
Macedonia, on a peninfula of Mount Athos, between Thyf-
fus and Acro-Athos, according to Thucydides and Pliny.
It was a colony of Chalcidians, according to Heraclides.—
Alfo, the laft town of the Argolide on the fide of Corinth.
In the time cf Paufanias, it had a temple and ftatue of Mi-
CLE
nerva. Homer applied to it the epithet of Eudiipexs, which
fuggelts the idea of a fine city.—Alfo, an ancient town of
Greece, in the Phocide, near Hyampolis, according to Plus
tarch.—Alfo, an ancient town of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
according to Pliny, who diftinguifhes it from that of
Achaia. ; :
CLEONEO, Cimong,. in Biography, a very ancient
painter of Greece, who is faid to have firft attempted to
give a variety to the actions of his figures, by making them
look up or down, or fore-fhortening them as the fubje& re-
quired; befides which he defcribed the joints and the veins
of his figures better than any of his predeceffors, and imi-
tated the folds of drapery with fome fuccefs. Borghini.
Della Valle. Vite dei Pitt. Ant.
CLEONIA, in Botany, xAcwvaay or xrAwux, Theophrat.
lib. 7. cap. 4. Diofe. lib. i. in Append. cap. 27. Cleone-
um, Plin. lib. xix. cap. 5.) Linn. Gen. 736. Schreb. ggt«
Gert. 407. Clafs and ordet, didynamia gymnofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Liabiate, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. periatth one-leafed, tubular, angular,
two-lipped; upper lip flattifh, broad, thres-toothed; lower
lip two-parted, fhort. Cor. one-petalled, ringent ; upper
hip ftraight, bifid, keeled; lower lip trifid, middle fegment
two-lobed; fide ones fpreading. Sram. Filaments four,
forked at the end; the two lower longeft; anthers feated on
the lateral branch of one of the filaments, croffed in’
pairs. Pi/}. Germ four-parted; ftyle filiform, the length
of the ftamens; ftigmas four; fetaceous, equal; Linn:
Four-cleft, Gert. Peric. none, except the permanent ca=
lyx clofed with hairs. Seeds four, ‘nearly columnar, fmooth.
Eff. Ch. Filaments forked, with an anther at the end of
each lateral branch; {tigma four-cleft.
Sp. C. /ujitanica, Linn. Sp. Mart. Willd. Gert. tab. 66;
fiz. 7. Dest. Atl. 2. p. 32. (Brunella odorata, Lam. Jul:
Vent. Prunella odorata lufitanica; Barr. Ic. 561. Chino-
podium lufitanicum fpicatum et verticillatum, Tourn. Inft:
145.) Root annual. Stem fix or eight inches high, ere&t, very
villous, a little branched towards the top. Leaves elongated,
narrowed at the bafe, obtufe at the end, {trongly toothed ;
upper ones pinnatifid; bra€tes deeply laciniated, narrow;
acute, ciliated. F/owers violet-coloured or bluish, large,
in a terminal hifpid fpike; upper lip of the calyx large,
flightly three-toothed, each of the teeth bearing a feeble
{pine ; lower one narrow, deeply bifid, fimilarly {pinous ; an-
thers crefted at the back. La Marck never obferved the
filaments fpinous as defcribed by Linnzus. Sveds roundith,
turgidly lenticular, mucronate at the bafe, rufefcent, with
a white umbilicus, fhaped like the letter y. A native of
Spain and Portugal. It differs little from prunella, except
in its four-cleft ttigma, and laciniated bractes; characters
which La Marck, Juffieu, and Ventenat have not thought
fufficient to conftitute a generic diftinGtion.
CLEOPATRA, in Biography, the name of feveral
princefles and queens of Egypt. Of thefe we thall fele&
Creoparaa III., queen of Ezypt, the’ eldett daughter
of Ptolemy Auletes, who gave his crown to het and het
brother Prolemy (Dionyfius II.) and ordered by his will, that
they fhould marry together, according to the cuftom of that
houfe, and govern jointly. And becaufe they were both
very young, the daughter, who was the eldett, being only
{7 years of age, he left them under the tuition of the
Roman fenate. She afcended the throne in the fe¢ond year
of the 182d olympiad, the 703d year of Rome, and the
gift year before Chrilt. ‘Little is known of the beginning
of Cleopatra’s aiid her brother’s’ reign. Ptolemy, being a
minor, under the tuition of Pothinus, an ‘eunuch; and
Achillas, commander in chief of the Egyptian forces, thefe
3 L2 twe
CL. ByOeP A, oe aa.
two-minilters engroffed the whole power to themfelves, and
in the king’s name, deprived Cleopatra of her fhare in the
fovereigaty left her by the will of her father. Thus injured,
fhe retired into Syria, and having raifed in that country and
in Paleftine a confiderable army, led it into Egypt, in order
to affert her right by military force. Ptolemy alfo, having
colleéted all the forces in his power, took the field and
marched againtt his filter. Both armies encamped between
Pelufium and Mount Cafius; but declined hazarding an en-
gagement. At this conjuncture of the difference between
the brother and fier, Pompey, whom the people had ap-
pointed. guardian to the young king, after his defeat at
Phartlalia, fought an afylum in Egypt, but on his arrival off
Pelufium, he was bafely murdered by the council of the
reigning minilters and that of Theodotus, a rhetorician, who
was the king’s preceptor. In the mean time Cefar, in his
purfuit of Pompey, arrived at Alexandria, and there hear-
ing of his death, caufed him to be interred with all the ufual
folemnities. Dumng his detention in this city by the Ete-
fian winds, he folicited the payment of the money due to
him from Auletes, and took cognizance of the difference
fubiifting between Ptolemy and his fifter Cleopatra. The ri-
gour with which the money was exacted for the payment of
Auletes’ debt, and the haughty manner in which Cefar con-
duéted himfelf in arbitrating between Ptolemy and his fifter,
incenfed the Egyptians againft him; but their indignation
was appeafed by conceffion and explanation on the part of
the Roman, and the caufe being brought before his tribu-
nal, advocates were appointed to ftate the refpeétive claims
of the brother and filter. Cleopatra, in the mean while,
jultly apprehending that female youth and beauty would
make an impreffion upon Cefar in her favour, determined on
an attempt to-attach him firft to her perfon and then to her
caufe. Having obtained leave to appear before Czfar, or
as Plutarch fays, having been invited to plead her own
caufe in his prefence, fhe concerted meafures for being fe-
cretly conveyed into his apartment; and for this purpofe
caufed herfelf to be tied up ina mattra{fs, and carried thi-
ther through the ftreets of Alexandria on the back of Apol-
lodorus. Cafar applauded the ftratagem, and when Cleo-
patra prefented herfelf, he was charmed with her perfon and
detained her all night. Such was her influence over him,
that he next morning fent for Ptolemy, and preffed him to
receive his filer upon her own terms. When the young
prince found that Cefar, inftead of being an impartial judge,
was become the advocate of Cleopatra, and that fhe had
taken up her abode in that part of the palace where the
Roman lodged, his indignation was rouled, and running
through the ftreets of Alexandria in a frantic manner, he
excited an infurreétion of the populace again{t Celar.- The
Roman, however, contrived to repel the attack that was
made upon his palace and to appeafe the tumult, by fhewing
himfelf from a balcony to the evraged multitude, and pro-
miling to do whatever they fhould think fit to fuggeft. On
the following day he convened a general aflembly of the
pzople, and as guardian and arbitrator, he decreed that Pto-
lemy and Cleopatra fhould reign jointly in Egypt, agreeably
to their father’s will, which he had caufed to be publicly
read. Czlat’s decree gave general fatisfaction; but Po-
thinus, whofe intereft and power were likely to be materially
affected by it, infpired the people with new jealoufies, and
fuggelted to them that it was part of the plan of the Roman
diGtator, however difguifed, to place Cleopatra alone on the
throne. The reports to this purpofe which he induttrioufly
circulated excited a frefh dilturbance among the populace,
and meafures were adopted for expelling Czfar from the
city. The conteft on both fides was active and violent ; but
feribe.
Cefar prevailed. Having fecured theperfon of the kinz,
and caufed Pothinus to be put to death, he gained feveral
victories over the Egyptians; and after his lalt vi€tory, on
occafion of which 20,000 Egyptians were flain, 12,000
taken prifoners, and Ptolemy drowned in the Nile inhis at-
tempt to efcape, Czfar returned to Alexandria, and entering
the city without oppofition, beftowed the crown on Cleopa-
tra, obliging her to marry Ptolemy, her younger brother,
at that time no more than 11 years of age. When this ob-
ject was accomplifhed, Cefar was roufed from the lethargy
into which he had been lulled by Cleopatra’s charms, by
the fuccefs of Pharnaces, king of the C:mmerian Bofpho-
rus, in thé recovery of his father’s dominions; and accord-
ingly he left part of his forces in Egypt to protcét Cleopa-
tra, and with the reft marched into Syris. Cleopatra re-
mained undifturbed in the poffeffion of the crown, but dread-
ing the interference of her brother, when he attained his
15th year, at which age, according to the laws of the
country, he was to fhare the royal authority as well as the
name, fhe caufed him te be poifoned, in the fourth ycar of
his reign, and from that time fhe became the fole fovereign
of Egypt. After the death of Czfar, when the triumvirate
was formed, Cleopatra declared kerfelf in its favour; and
being delivered from all apprehenfions of an invafion, fhe
failed with a numerous fleet to join Antony and Oavianus;
but was prevented by illnefs from profecuting her defign
and obliged to return to Egypt, after having loft a great
‘number of her fhips by a ftorm.
Antony, after the battle of Philippi, having received in-
formation that Cleopatra, or fome of her governors, had fent
fuccours to Caflius againit Dolabella, fummoned her to ap-
pear before him at ‘Tarius in Cilicia. The queen, con-
fiding in the power of her charms, already experienced,
flattered herfelf that, at the age of 25 years, when the
improvement of her underftanding would render her con-
verfation no lels agreeable than her perfon, fhe fhould be
able to captivate Antony. Having provided herfelf with
rich prefents, large fums of money, and magnificent habits
and ornaments, fhe embarked in a ftately galley, attended
with the reft of her fleet, and croffing the fea of Pamphylia,
and entering the Cydnus, arrived at Tarfus, where Antony
waited her arrival. Her gailey was all over gilt, the fails
were of purple, and the oars plated with filver. The queen
appeared under a canopy of cloth of gold, railed on
the deck, in an attire and attitude refembling thofe in
which Venus was generally painted, furrounded by a great
number of comely youths fanning her like Cupids, and
beautiful virgins, reprefenting, fome of them the Nereids, and
others the Graces. ‘The dales and hills echoed, as fhe failed
up the river, with the melodious founds of various inftru-
ments, with which the oars keeping time, increafed the har-
mony. The perfumes, that were burnt on the deck in
great abundance, diffufed their odours on each fide of the
river to a .confiderable diftance, and filled the air with
fragrance. As the drew near the city, curiofity induced
crowds of citizens to abandon their houfes and occupations,
and to go out to meet her; and Antony, who was diftni-
buting juftice in the forum, found himfelf deferted. Upon
her landing, Antony invited her to fupper; but the queen,
obferving the decorum ufual on thefe occali-ns, declined
accepting his invitation, and requelted a vilit from him in
the tent, which would be foon pitched on the banks of the
river. Antony inftantly complied, and was entertained
with a magnificence which no words can adequately de-
Ar this firft interview, he was no lefs charmed by
her converfation than by her form and features; and fuch
was the afcendant which fhe had gained over him, that it
was -
Gi DrEvO,P4 A; DER Ay
‘was not in his power to refufe her any thing the afked,
however repugnant to the laws of jultice, humanity, or re-
ligion. At her reqnett alfailins were difpatched to murder
her fiter Arfinoe ; and in order to increafe and perp-tuate
her influence over the deluded Antony, fhe fpent immenfe
fums of money in the entertainments fhe prepared for him
and the chief officers of hisarmy. Onone occafion, the pre-
fented him with a vaft number of gold cups, enriched with
jewels, which he admired ; and on another, fhe gave him all
the gold and filver plate which had been ufed during a fump-
tuous banquet. At one of thefe entertainments the queen
had ear-rings confilting of two of the fineft and largcft pearls
that ever had been feen, each valued at 52,5007. of
our money.- One of thefe fhe caufed to be diffolved in
vinegar, aud then {wallowed it, in order to fhew in what low
eftimation fhe held fuch teys, and how much fhe could
{pend in one draught. She was alfo preparing to difpofe
of the other in the fame way, when Plancus {topped her,
and faved the pearl, which was afterwards carried to Rome
by Auguitus, and being cut in two by his orders, it ferved
for pendants to the Venus of the Julian family. (Pliny,
]. xxxui. cap. 3.) For a further account of the conne@tion
between Antony and Cleopatra, fee the article Anrony.
This connection infpired her with the hope of becoming one
day queen of Rome ; for we are told by Dio Caffius and
Eutropius, that her ufual oath was, “as I hope to give
law in the capitol.’ When Antony and Cleopatra fepa-
rated after the difaflrous battle of AGium, the former
went to Libya, and the queen failed to Alexandria. Fear-
ing, however, that fhe might not be received by her fub-
jeGts, if her misfortunes were known, fhe entered the har-
bour with crowns on the prows of her fhips, as if fhe had
obtained fome fignal victory. This artifice fucceeded ;
and having gained admiffion into her capital, fhe put to
death all who were averfe to her, in order to prevent the
tumults, which fhe apprehended they might occafion, when
the truedtate of their affairs fhould be known. Antony,
who arrived in Egypt foon after the queen, by whom he
was infatuated, was altonifhed to hear of a very extraordi-
nary undertaking in w’'ch fhe was engaged. As fhe ex-
peéted OGiavianus to puriue her into Egypt, in order to
avoid falling into his hands, fhe concertcd meafures for the
tranfportation of her thips from the Mediterranean into the
Red Sea, over the ifthmus, cf 70 miles, which lay between
them, Tihefe fhips were to be jomed to thofe in the Red
Sea, and all her treafures on board of them, fhe deter-
mined to feek fome place of fettlement, out of the reach
of the enemy. But the Arabians on the coaft difconcerted
her plan, by burning all her fhips; and the was, therefore,
forced to abandon her enterprife. After the death of
Antony, Cleopatra was taken, having been prevented from
Gifpatching herfelf with a dagger, which fhe always car-
ried about with her for this purpofe; and being intro-
duced to Oétavianus on his arrival at Alexandria, obtained
the only favour fhe afked, which was leave to bury Antony.
She afterwards made an attempt to captivate and delude
Od@taviazus; but her efforts were inefic€tual, for after fhe
had done fpeaking, he returned her this laconic anfwer,
«< Woman, be of good cheer ; no harm fhall be done you !”?
Cleopatra obferved hiscoldnefs and indifference, but diflembled
the concern which they occalioned ; and exprefling her grati-
tude for the favour he had conferred upon her, fhe put into
his hand an inventory of all her moveables, jewels, and re-
venues, which fhe defigned for his ufe. When Seleucus re-
proached her for having concealed part of her moft valuable
cfle&s, fhe flew at him in a violent rage, and gave him
feyeral blows in the face. Then turning to O@tavianus, fhe
faid, “Is it not very hard, fince you have condefcended to
vifit me in my prefent condition, that one of my own fer-
vants fhould thus infult me in your prefence? I have, it is
true, referved fome jewels, not to adorn my own perfon,
but as a prefent intended for your filter OGavia, and wife
Livia, that by their interceflicn you may be induced to treat
an unfortunate -prifoner with more favour and kindnefs.?’
O€4tavianus, apprehending from this converfation that fhe
had no thoughts of deftroying herfelf, defired her to difpofe
of the jewels fhe had referved according to her own withes,
and affured her that fhe fhould be treated with a greater
degree of kindnefs and generofity than fhe expected.
Cleopatra, however, was not deccived by thefe prof: finns.
She had no doubt of Otavianus’s intention to make her
{erve as an ornament to his triumph; and fhe determined
to avoid that ignominy by a voluntary death. ‘To prevent
it fhe was con{tantly watched by Epaphroditus; but in
hopes of obtaining a fit opportunity for executing her pur-
pole, fhe obtained leave to pay her laft tribute of refpeét to
the tomb of Antony. She bathed it with her tears, covered
it with flowers, and with many fighs and lamentations
performed the ceremosies that were cuilomary among the
Jegyptians on fuch oceafions. After her return, a meffenger
was deputed by Cornelius Dolabella, who was the intimate
friend of O€tavianus, and who, neverthelefs, being in love
with Cleopatra, had promifed to give her timely notice of
his defigus refpe€ting her, in order to inform her, that,
within three days, fhe and her children would be put on
board a veffel that was in the harbour, and conveyed by fea
to Rome. Upon this intimation, fhe ordered a {plendid
entertainment to be prepared, and having invited fome of
her friends appeared more cheerful than ufual during the
fealt. Rifing fuddenly from table, fhe delivered to Epa-
phroditus a fealed letter for OGavianus, requefting that it
might be immediately conveyed into his own hands. Hav-
ing thus contrived to get him out of the way, fhe withdrew
to her apartment, attended by two of her women, and having
dreffed herfelf in her royal robes, fhe lay down on the
bed, and afked for a bafket of figs, which one ‘of her
faithful fervants had brought her in the difguife of a peafant.
Among the figs was concealed an afp, the poifon of which:
was fuch that thofe who were bitten by it fell immediately
into a kind of lethargy, and died without any pain or un-
eafinefs. (On this fubje&t fee the article Asp.) The
purport of her letter to OGavianus was that he would.
permit her to be buried in the fame tomb with Antony.
Conceiving from this requeft that fhe meant to lay violent
hands on herfelf, he difpatched fome of his friends in hafte
to prevent it, if poffible. Upon their entrance into the
apartment of Cleopatra, they found her lying dead on a
golten bed in her royal robes; one of her maids likewife
being dead at her feet, and the other ready to expire.
Otavianus, as foon as he heard the news, loft no time in
ufing all poffible means for her recovery ; but they were
altogether ineffectual. Thus deprived of the chief glory
and ornament of his triumph, he, however, granted her laft
requelt, and commanded that fhe fhould be buried with all
poffible pomp in the fame tomb with Antony.
«© Aufa et jacentem: vifere regiam
Vultu fereno fortis, et afperas
Tradtare ferpentes, ut atrum
Corpore combiberet venenum,
Deliberata morte ferocior :
Sevis liburnis fcilicet invidens,
Privata deduci fuperbo
Non humilis mulier triumpho,”?
Hor. Od.
CLE
“ Not the dark palace of the realms below
Can awe the furious purpofe of her foul ;
almly fhe looks from her fuperior woe,
Tat can both death, and fear control ;
Provokes the ferpent’s fting, his rage difdains,
And joys to feel the poifon in her veins.
nvidious to the viétor’s fancy’d pride,
She will not from her own defcend,
Difgrac’d, a vulgar captive, by his fide,
His pompous triumph to attend ;
But fiercely flies to death, and bids her forrows end.”
Thus died Cleopatra, at 39 years of age, after fhe had
reizned, from the death of he- father, 22. years. She
was a woman of extraordinary talents, and of boundlefs
ambition. She is faid to have been well acquainted with
Greek and Latin, and to have fpoken with eafe and readi-
nefs many other languages, converfing with the Ethiopians,
Troglodites, Jews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, and Perfians,
without an interpreter. In the midft of the career of am-
bition and licentious pleafure which fhe purfued, fhe re-
tained a tafte for polite literature, and erected in the place
where the famous library of Alexandria ftood, a new one,
not inferior to the former; enriching it with the 200,900
volumes of the library of Pergamus, with which An-
tony had prefented her. With her termizated the family
of Prolemy Lagus, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy,
after it had ruled over Egypt, from the death of Alexander,
204 years, or as others affirm, 293 years and three months.
From this time Egypt was reduced to a Roman province,
and governed by a pretor fent thither from Rome. Anc.
Un. Hitt. vol. viii. Rollin’s Anc. Hift. vol. vii.
Creopatra’s Needles, in Ancient Archite@ure, are two
obelifks towards the eaftern part of the palace of Alexandna,
in Egypt; they are conttru€ed of Thebaic ftone, and
covered with hieroglyphics; one is overturned, broken, and
lying under the fand; the other is on its pedeftal. Thefe
two obelifks, each of them of a fingle ftone, are about 60
fect high, by 7 feet fquare at the bafe.
CLEOPATRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt,
feated on the canal which paffes frem the Nile to the Red
Sea. See ARSINOE.
CLEOPHORA, in Botany, (from xdco:, /plendor, and
Gopns, ferens, denoting a tree with a {plendid {padix), Geert.
yor. (Latania, Juff. p. 39. Comerf. MSS.) Nat. Ord.
Palme.
Gen. Ch. Male and female flowers on different plants.
Male. Calyx common, fpathe many-leaved ; }caves imbricat-
ed; fpadix branched; branches fomewhat cylindrical, di-
gitate-cleft at the top ; clefts having the form of an Amen-
tum, covered with {mall imbricated one-flowered fca'es.
Cal. proper fix-parted ; outer fegments [maller. Stam. fix-
teen, united at the bafe. Fem. Spatha... Spadix. Calyx
fix-leaved. Berry (or drupe) globular, one-celled, contain-
ing three pyrenes or ftones. ;
Sp. C. Jontaroides, Gert. tab. 120. fig. 1. ‘* Leaves
palmate-pinnatifid ; petiole without prickles.” Berry
obfoletely trigonous, {mooth ; rind coriaceous, thin, brit-
tle, and almoft cruftaceous when old; pulp fucculent,
fugacious, drying into membranous {coriz, adhering
to the pyrenes or ftones, without any veflige of fbres
or partitions ; officles, or ttones, three, cruitaceous, thin,
convex and obfoletely flriated on one fide, angular, and
{mcothifh on the other. Seeds one in each officle, fome-
what elliptical, thick, very finely and irregularly ftriaced,
pulverulent, fomewhat convex on one fide; obfoletely
angwar on she other, ending beneath in a fhort point, mark-
2
CLE
ed above alittle behind the apex, with a fmall papilla which
covers the embryo. Gert. A native of the Ifle of France.
CLEOSTRATUS, in Biography, an ancient mathema-
ticlan and altronomer of Tenedos, who flourifhed about
533 years B.C. and firft formed, as it is faid, the figns of
the zodiac, and reformed the Grecian calendar.
CLEPSYDRA, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Pe-
loponnefus, in Mcffenia, placed by Paufanias and Appian in
mount Ithome.
Crepsypra, fo called from xarrza, furripio, and ‘due,
agua, was an horological inftrument of great antiquity,
among the Egyptians and other ealtern nations, probably
before fun-dials were invented ; thongh the name of the
original inventor is not handed down to us; the conftruc-
tion has been varied in different ages and countries, accord-
isg to the variation of the different modes of reckoning
time, but one principle is the bafis of all the forms it has
undergone, namely, the conftant dropping, or running of
water through a fmall aperture, out of one veflel into
another. At firlt the indication of time was effected by
marks corre{ponding to either the diminution of the fluid ia -
the containing veffel, during the time of emptying, or to the
increafe of the fluid in the receiving veflel during its time of
filling ; but it was foon found, that the efcape of the water
was much more rapid out of the containing veffel, when it
was full, than when it was nearly empty, owing to the dif.
ference of preffures at different beights of the furface; this
irregularity in the dropping, prefented an obitacle which re-
quired much ingenuity to correét. In our account of the
different conftreétions of clepfydra, we will clafs them un-
der the two heads of ancient and modern.
Ancient Clepfydre.—According to M. Vitruvius Pollio,
the firft improver of the ancient cleplydra, or water-clock,
was Ctefibius of Alexandria, the fon of a barber, who, about
245 years before Chrift, fpent much time in devifing me-
chanical contrivances for removing not only the obftacle in
queftion, but alfo another equally formidable ove, which
arofe from the daily inequality of the Egyptian hours. As
one-twelfth part of the time elapfed from fun-rife to fun-
fetting on any day, was called an ‘our of that day ; and as
one-twel{th part of the time that paffed from fun-fetting to
fun-rife, was called an hour of the nizht; notonly did the hours
of day differ from the hours of night, but from one ancther,
at all times, except at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes 3
hence it became neceffary, either to make the water fall ir-
regularly into a receiving veflel, with equidiftant hour-marks,
or to have varying hour-marks for a regular efflux ; the firlt
of thefe methods (which probably preceded that of Cte fibius)
was thus eff: ¢ted, viz. 1.A conical holiow veflel, A, was in-
verted, or placed like a funnel in afrane CC (Plate 1. fig.
1. of Horology) there being a very {mall aperture at the
apex of the cone, and another folid cone, B, every way fimi-
lar as to dimenfions, was plunged into the hoilow one, when
filled with water to a greater or a {mailer depth, according-
ly as the cfilux was wanted to be more or lels rapid, and then
adjufling marks, correfponding to every day and night in the
year, were put on a long: item D, inferted into the broad
end of the folid cone B, and kept in its pofition by the
frame, as reprefented in the figure, to fhow how much the
inner cone was to be depreffed or eievated, to accelerate or
retard the iffue of the fluid for the correfpondinz time; H
was the fpout which fupplied a conflant influx of water,
and I the wafte pipe, c: nnected with the top of the conical
veffel, which carried off tke fuperfluous water; hence the
conllant influx of water preferved an unvarying height of
the furface from the aperture, which aperture was varied at
pleafure, by the elevation or depreffion of the inner cone ;
ifn
CLEPSYDR.A.
ifnow we luppofe the fubjacent veffel to be a cube, cylinder,
-or any other regular figure, and equidiftant hour- marks to
be properly made on its fide, the furface of the water, or an
index borne by it om a piece of cork, would, as it rofe, in-
dicate the hours correfponding to thofe marks.
The imperfections of this clepfydra were thefe: 1. It
sleet two daily nvanual adjultments, one in the morning,
and the other in the evening and, 2. It made no allowance
‘or the variation of fluidity, in different degrees of tempera-
ture, which, it is afferted (but perhaps without proof),
greatly influenced the ifochronifm of the drops. As an im-
provement, or rather appendage, to this con!trudtion of the
clepfydra, a bar, E Ef, with rack-work at the upper end, as
fhewn by the dotted lines, was{made to float on the furface
of the lower veflel by means oftan affixed piece of cork, F,
fo that as the cork and its bar rofe in the veffel, the teeth of
the bar turned a {mall wheel, G, fixed to the upper part of
the frame by a cock, on the arbor of which wheel a hand was
put, which revolved and indicated the hours on a fixed dial-
plate. This addition, however, did not render the inftrument
a more accurate meafure of time, but only indicated the
hours, fuch as they were, in an improved manner. It may
be worthy of remark here, that water was at once the regu-
lator and the maintaining power of the inftrument before us ;
the interval between two fececeffive drops was to the clepfy-
dra what one vibration of the pendulum is toa eleck, or one
ofcillation of the balance is to a watch; and the floating of
the indented bar was in place of a weight or {pring to move
the wheel to which the hand was attached ; confequently it
might be faid to be an horological machine of the fimplett
conitruction poffible. - The adjuftment of the two cones was
regulated by the latitude of the place, owing to the manner
in which the hours were divided ; at Alexandria, for inftance,
the greatett and leaft velocity of the drops were required to
be to each other as 70 to 50, the longelt and fhorteft hours
in that latitude being rcfpeCtively 1" 10” and 50” of equable
time; and in higher latitudes the difparity is {till greater.
2. The next attempt to improve the clepfydia was by
conftru€ting it fo that its aperture was adjufted, = the year
advanced, by the putting of an index to the fun’s place in an
ecliptic circle ; which attempt, of courfe, rendered the inftru-
ment more complex. Perrault conceives the parts to have
been thus adapted, according to the defcription given of it
by M. Vitruvius Pollio, in his bouk * De Archite&ura”
(cap. ix. lib. ix.).
Fig.2. of Plate 1. reprefents an ancient clepfydra with an
horary circle and a variable aperture: A isa refervoir, to
the top of which is attached a water-pipe, not {cen inthe
drawing, to preferve an equal preffure by carrying off the
fuperil-ious water; B is a pipe projeting from the refervoir
into the upper part of the drum, MN, on the front of
which drum the ecliptic circle is marked; ODL is a
{maller inner drum, which revolves on a tubed arbor, F, and
which is reprefented as drawn ont of its place ; this fimall
drum has a thorough groove, ad, varying in: breadth all
round it, like a hoop tapering throughout from the broadett
part both ways to its oppofite point, and is of fuch a diame-
ter that the middle of the groove juit reaches to, and coin-
cides with, a perforation under the tube, B, at the upper
part of the great drum, fo that, as the little drum, which
carries the diurnal index, LL, and no&turnal index, O, oppo-
fite to the former, is turned round by hand, the variation
in the breadth of the groove occaficns a corref{ponding varia-
tion in the velocity of the efflux of water, by making a larger
‘or fmaller aperture, accordingly 2s the fun’s place is more or
kefs advanced in the ecliptic, the largeft aperture being when
the diurnal index is at the beginning of Capricorn; a little
«
‘
bafon or funnel attached to the upper part of the fixed tube
or hollow arbor, F, (not vifible), receives the water in its fall’
within the drum, and tranfmits it through the faid tube by
G into the receiving veffel, H, in which is floated the piece
of cork, I; this floating-piece is connected, by achain, with
the ccunterpoife, K, after it is folded round the arbor, P,
which carries the hour-hand of the dial-plate ; confequently,
as the water rifes in the veffcl, H, the piece, I, is railed, and
its counterpoife, KK, at the fame time falling gives motion to
the arbor and hour-hand, and the hours are longer or fhorter
according to the breadth of the groove which is at any time
under the perforation of the tube, B, 7. e. according to the
place in the ecliptic to which the proper index is put.
This clepfydra, like the preceding one, compofed of two
cones, requires two manual adjuftments, one in the morning
on the other in the evening, and makes no allowance for
1e (fuppefed) variation of fluidity occaliened by the differ-
ent itates of the weather; and the variation in the breadth
of the groove or flict, it Fh prefumed, was more plaufible in
theory, than feafible in pra€tice; the contrivance, however,
Was Ingenious, and befpoke the inventor’s acquaintance with
altronomy.
3- ‘The next improvement in the ancient clepfydra was
probably that of Ctehbius, which was an artomaton, or felf-
adjufting machine, and is reprefented by SB 3s bites ac-
cording to Perrault and Ferd. Bert! noud, exhibits the inte-
rior conftruGtion of this machine; A is the end of a tube
ever which an image ftands, which is connected with a full
refervoir, and from the eyes of which, confidered as invariable
apertures, the water continual! 'y flows or drops ina regulated
manner into it; this tube © conveys the water from M towards
B into the top of a Jong regular vefkl, BC DF, which it
gradually fills, and ae the cork, Dd, with its attached
light pillar, CD; on the top of this pillar is furmounted
another ima; ze holding an index which points to the divifions
on the large Be clinin above. Now, when the water rifes in
the veffel that contains the cork. tt alfo rifes in the {mall tube,
FB, which conftitutes ove leg of a fyphon, F BE, that is
conneGed with the bottom of the cubic veffel ; confequently,
when the index has mounted to the uppermolt divifon on
the large column of hour lines, confilting of twice twelve,
the water flows over the bent part, B, of the fyphon, and
immediately empties the veffel into one of the fix troughs or
divifions of the water-wheel, IX, which is thus turned one=
fixth part of a revolution, during which time the image falls
with its index to the bottom of the column, to be’ready for
the next day. This portion of the mechanifm would have
been fufficient to conititute the machine, if the hours had
been cenfidered as of equal length throughout the year, but
the Egyptian mode of dividing and reckoning time made it
requilite ‘that the hour lines fhould flope out of an horizontal
dire&tion on the furface of the column, fo as to make vanable
{paces, and alfo that the column fhould revolve once in a
year, to prefent all the variations of {pace to the index. ‘This
annual motion of the column 1s faid to be effeGed by wheels
work in the following mauner:—on the arbor of the water-
wheel, K, is fixed the pinion, N, of fix leaves, which impels
: 6
the contrate-wheel, I, of 60 teeth in 6 x =e days,
6
then on the perperdicular arbor of I is another pinion, H,
of ten leaves, which drives the wheel, G, of 61 teeth round
A 6t aad.
in 60 xX — = 366 days, and along with it the, horary
10
column, into which its arbor is inferted at IL. Qn the bot
tom of the column is marked an ecliptic ctrele; and. 12 per-
pendicular lines drawn lengthwife down the @olumn divide
C_ it EY Pgs
it into the -re{peGive figns, which are ferviceable for afcer-
taining the requifite flope of the hour lines in any month.
The writer of this article, however, fufpe&ts, that the above
train of wheel-work is only what Perrault, the tranflator of
Vitruvius, fuppofed to be that of Ctefibius; for, on referring
to the original account of Vitruvitis, the year in which the
column revolved is ftated to be 365 days, a period which
might be effected thus :
ie the water-whecl have only five compartinents inftead
of fix, and let an endlefs {crew be cut on its arbor to impel
a wheel of 73 teeth, with a perpendicular arbor, to be inferted
into the column of hours, which will, by fuch a fimple con-
ftru@ion, revolve in 5 x a = 365 days, agreeably to the
original account.
The clepfydra, in one of its earlier forms, was ufed as an
aflronomical inftrument, by the help of which the equator
was divided into twelve equal parts, before the matl:ematical
divifion of a circle was underftood ; it was deemed of more
value than a fun-dial, on account of its dividirg the hours of
the night as well as of the day. It was introduced into
Greece by Plato, and into Rome by P. Cornelius Scipio
Nafica, about 157 years before Chirift.
Pliny fays (lib. xxxvii.) that Pompey brought a valuable
one among his fpoils from the Ea#ern nations; and Czfar
is faid to have met with an inftrument of this kind in Eng-
land, by the help of which he obferved that the fummer
nights of this climate are fhorter than they are in Italy.
The ufe which Pompey made of his inftrnment was to limit
the fpeeches of the Roman orators; which Cicero alludes to
when he fays “ latrare ad clepfydram.”
4. Befides the ancient clepfydra, above defcribed, F. Ber-
thoud mentions another (Hiftoire de la Mefure du Temps,
tom. I. p. 20.), which was called the anaphoric, on the dial-
plate of which were projected the circles of the {phere, in-
cluding the parallels of the fun’s altitude, with the femi-
diurnal and femi-no@urnal arcs, to which an adjuftable bead,
as the fun’s reprefentative, pointed as an index to fhew the
hours, parallels, &c. as the dial-plate revolved daily by
means of wheel-work, which was impelled by water. It
does not {cem certain at what period this inftrument was in-
vented and ufed; but Berthoud thinks that tables of the
fun’s motion muft have exilted previoufly to its invention,
and alfo a knowledge of projeGtions of the {phere on a plane
furface, whence he fixes the date pofterior to the time of
Hipparchus, who, according to Pliny, died about 125 years
B.C. The name anaphoric is evidently derived from ana-
phora, which was the fecond houfe in the heavens, according
to the doctrine of aftrology, which prevailed about the time
here fpecified.
In Athenzus,lib. iv. p. 174, we have a hiftory and deferip-
tion of an ancient inftrument. He tells us that it was invented
in the time of the fecond Ptolemy Euergetes, by Ctefibius,
a native of Alexandria, and by profeffion a barber: or ra-
ther, that it was improved by him, for Plato furnifhed the
frit idea of the hydraulic organ, by inventing a night-clock,
which was a clepfydra, or water-clock, that played upon
flutes the hours of the night at atime when they could not
be feen on the index.
The anecdote in Atheneus concerning the mechanical
amuicinents of the great ideal philofopher, is curious.
What a condefcenfion in the divine Plato to floop to the in-
vention of any thing ufeful! This mufical clock muft have
been wholly played by mechanifm.
In deferibing it, Atheneus fays, it refembled in appear-
ance a round altar ; but was not to be rauked with ftrged
YDR A.
buit wind inftruments, compofed of pipes; the orifices of
which being towards the water, when it was agitated, pro-
duced from the pipes, by its fall, a foft and pleafing found.
Modern Clepfydra.—The modern method of dividing the
natural day into 24 folar hours of equal length, has ren-
dered the preceding conftruGtions of the clepfydra ufelefs
for fome centuries back ; and, notwithitanding the fcience of
hydroftatics is much better underitood by the modern than
it was by the ancient pnilofopher, fo that a feale of altitudes
correfponding to the variable velocities of the eflux of a
fluid out of a given aperture can be afcertained by calcula-
tion for a containing veffel of any capacity or figure, yet,
fince the happy inventions of the balance and pendulum,
as regulators of watches and clocks, horological machines,
aGuated by the motion of water, have become fo rare, as to
be confidered as objeéts only of curiofity.
Beckmann, in his “¢ Hiftory of Inventions,”’ vol. 1. p. 136.
attributes the contrivance and introduétion of a water-clock
to fome time between 1643 and 1663, and gives nearly the
fame brief account of one as we meet with in * Bion, on
Mathematical Inftruments,’? and aifo in “* Ozanam’s Re-
creations,” edited by Dr. Hutton, the laft of which authors
faid, in the year 1693, that the firft water-clock brought
to Paris about that time was from Burgundy. He alfo fays,
that father Timothy, a Barnabite, had given the machine
all the excclience it was capable of, by conftruéting it fo
as to make it go a month at one winding up, and to exhibit
not only the hours on a dial-plate, but allo che fun’s place,
day of the month, and fettivals throughout the year.
How thefe and fimilar particulars might be indicated,
will be eafily apprehended frem the following defeription,
which is agreeable to the accounts given of a water-clock
of the 17th century by the authors already named.
1. In fig. 1, of Plate 1. of Horolagy, A BC Dis an ob-
long frame of wood, to the upper part of which two cords,
Aa and B4, are fixed at their fuperior extremities, and at
their inferior, to the metallic arbor, ad, of the drum, E,
which contains diftilled water; this water is confined in
cells fo peculiarly conftructed, that they regulate the velo-
city with which the drum fhall defcend by the force of
gravity from the top to the bottom of the frame, and the
ends of the arbor indicate the hours marked on the vertical
plane of the frame during the time of defcent. An ob-
ferver, who knows not the nature of the interior cells of
the drum, is furprifed to fee that its weight does not make
it run down rapidly, when mounted to the top of the frame
by merely folding the ftrings round the arbor, there being
apparently no mechanical impediment to the natural aétion
of gravity. To explain how this phenomenon is produced,
we mutt refer to fig. 2, which is a {e€tion of the drum at
right angles to its arbor; this circular plane we will fup-
pofe to be fix inches, which is about the ufual fize, in
diameter, and to reprefent the inner furface of either of the
two ends cf the drum, which may be made of any of the
unoxidable metals; then, if we conceive feven metallic par-
titions, Ff, Gg, HA, li, K&, Ld, and Mm, to be clofeiy
foldercd to both ends ef the drum, in the floping direétion
indicated by the figure, where the black lines are equidiftant
tangents to the {mall dotted circle of an inch and half
diameter at the points f, g. 4, &c.; it is evident, that any
{mall quantity of waiter introduced into the drum would
fall into two, or at molt three, of the lower compartments,
and would remain there uatil fome external force fhould
alter the pofition of the drum, fuppofing in this cafe the
cords tied falt to the arbor; but we have faid that they are
wound round the circumference of an arbor, that has a
fenfible diameter, fuppofe one-eighth of an inch ; aaa td
they .
CE 2 Bis DR A.
they are removed one-fixteenth of aninch, or upwards, if we
take their thicknefs into the account, from the centre of the
drum, which would alfo be its centre of gravity, if it were
empty, on which account it would, in that cafe, revolve to
the left, in the direction F G H downwards, from the cord
being at the remote fide of the centre, as reprefented by
N O; but conceive the water to be included now and then,
it would be elevated to the right, till its weight became
a counterpoife to the gravity of the heavier fide of ths drum,
in which fituation all motion would ceafe, and the drum
would remain, fufpended, indeed, by the cords, but in a
{tate of equilibrio. Conceive again a {mall hole perforated
in the partition preffzd upon by the water near the circum-
ference of the large circle, and alfo at the points I’, G, H,
I, K, L, M, and the confequence wiil be, that the water
will firft force its way flowly through the perforation at K,
from the more elevated to the lower compartment, which
effe& will diminifh its power as a counterpoife, and give
fuch an advantage to the heavy fide, F GH, of the drum,
confidered as empty, as wiil occafion a fmall degree of
motion towards the left, and confequently carry the water
once more towards the right; but now the water paffes
through the perforation of the next partition alfo at I, and
produces again the fame effeé&t, as has been defcribed with
refpe& to K, and will continue to do fo, at the fucceflive
perforations, till all the compartments have been filled and
emptied by means of thefe perforations, in fucceflion, which
kind of motion of the drum, contrary to that of the water,
it is now not difficult to conceive will be pretty regular, if
all the partitions are perforated exaétly alike. The dif-
ference of the preflures of the water in cells, nearly full
and nearly empty, will occafion fome little deviation from
regularity ; but thefe will be periodic, and muft be allowed
for in the hour divifions, which ought to be made by a
comparifon of the fpaces fallen through, with the time in-
dicated by a clock or watch. About nine ounces of
diftiiled water will fuffice for a clepfydra of fix inches
diameter, and two inches depth, and the velocity of the fall
may be limited, either by varying the quantity of water, or
by hanging a {mall metallic cup F, to receive weights, by a
cord wound in a dire€tion contrary to the cords of fufpen-
fion, to act as a counterpoife in aid of the water, if the fall
be too rapid, or vice ver/a.
It is abfolutely neceflary that the arbor fhould fit the
central fquare hole fo well as to prevent the cfeape of
water from the drum, otherwife the inftrument wou!d con-
tinue to gain velocity, till at length it would no longer
afford a true indication of time.
Sometimes a cord, cd, with a weight, P, is made to pafs
round a pulley fixed to an arbor at the top of the frame, with
a noofe pafling over the axis near a, as is feen in the fame
figure, which arbor, projeéting through a dial-plate or face,
turns round and carries a hand to indicate the hours like an
ordinary clock ; when this conftruétion is preferred, it is an
indifpenfable requifite that the circumference of the pulley’s
groove be exa@tly of the fame dimentions as the fall of the
drum in 12 or 24 hours, accordingly as the dial is divided.
This clepfydra, it is faid, goes fafter in fummer than in
winter, which is owing to the drum being relatively heavier
in rarefied than in denfe air; we can hardly fuppofe that
any alteration in the fluidity of the water, as formerly fup-
pofed, would make any diiference. ‘The minute hand and
alfo the ftriking part of a common clock might afily be
fuperadded to this clepfydra.
2. Another form,and that a very fimple one, of the modern
clepfydra has derived its origin from that law in hydroftatics
by which the eflux of water out of an orificeis influenced under
Vor. VIII.
different preffures, or whichiatke fame thing, at different depths
from the furface, the velocity being dire€tly as the {quare root
of the height of the furface from the aperture. If a glafs
veflel, like that in fig. 3, therefore be taken, out of which
all the water will flow in exaétly 12 hours, from a_ fmall
aperture in,its lower extremity, the whole height muft be
divided, or fuypofed to be divided, into the {quare of 12
or 144 equal parts, of which parts 11 X II, or 121 meafur-
ed from the bottom, or 23 meafured from the top, will give
the divifion for the hour 11, 10 X 10 or 100 from the bot-
tom will give the line for 10, 81 for g, 64 for 8, and fo on
down to the bottom, as reprefented in the figure; which
{cale is in the inverted proportion of that according to which
heavy bodies fall in free {pace by the fole force of gravity.
If, inftead of the veffel itfelf being divided by hour-lines
as above direéted, the {tem of a floating piece like an hy-
drometer were to have a fimilar fcale kept in a 7 erpendicular
dire€tion, by pafling through the central hole of a cap or cover
of the veflel, the indication of time would be made on the
{tem ai the furface of the cap, which conftruction would
admit of the veflel being of wood or meta).
3- But fuch a figure might be given to the containing
veffel as would require the dividing marks to be equi-diftant,
which Dr. Hutton, in his recent edition of ** Ozanam’s Re-
creations,’’ has aflerted to be a paraboloid, or veffel, form-
ed by the circumvolution of a parabola of the fourth degree,
the method of defcribing which, he has given thus:
Let ABS, Plate Ll. fiz. 4, be a common parabola, the
axis of which is PS, and the fummit S. Draw, in any
manner, the line, RwT, parallel to that axis, and then draw
any ordinate of the parabola A P> interfeéting RT in R;
make PQ a mean proportional be tween P Rand PA, and
let pg be a mean proportional allo between pr and pa; and
foon. The curve paffing through all the points Q gq, &c.
will be the one required, which, being made the mould fora
veffel to be caft by, will produce an inftrument, which,
when perforated at the apex, will have the fingular property
of equalizing the fcale, fo as to correfpond to equal times
while the water is running out. Mr. Varignon has given a
geometrical and general method of determining the feale for
aclepfydra, whatever may be the fhape and magnitude of the
veflel. (See ‘Memoires de l’Academié Royale des Sci-
ences,’’ p. 78, 1699.)
4. Another method of making a water-clock with equi-dif-
tant hour lines in any regular veflel, is effeéted more fimply
than in the preceding one, by means of the fyphon fixed faft
in the centre of a broad piece of cork, which is floated in any
regular veffel, as the cylindrical one at fig. 5, for as the
power of a fyphon to empty any veflel filled with water de-
pends upon the difference of atmofpheric preffures at the
furface of the water and at the orifice of the longer leg, it
is clear that while the fhorter leg finks with the furface of
the water in the veffel during its time of emptying, the re-
lative preflures, depending on the diltance from the furface
of the water to the orifice of the lower leg, will continue
unaltered in any {tate of the atmofphere ; hence equal por-
tions of water will be difcharged in equal times ; and a hight
cock cemented on the lower orifice would afford a means of
adjuiting its aperture to the fize of any veflel that may be
fixed upon ; or otherwife a fecond receiving veffel may be
divided into equal {paces for the hours, which would in this
cafe be indicated by the furface of the rifing water.
Befides the preceding methods of meafuring time by
means of water, there are others nearly fimilar, fuch as the
double jet d’eau, which, like the fand-glafs that may be
claffed with thefe, requires to be inverted as foon as empty,
and it is eafy to conceive a variety of ways of apply-
3M ing
CLE
ing any liquid to anfiver the purpofe of meafuring pretty
nearly a given number of hours, but we do not learn that
the moit accurate of the clepfydra 1s comparable to an or-
dinary clock, though it has been afferted, that Amontons
conttruéted one in fo accurate.a manner, that he hoped to
find it ufeful in afcertaining the longitude at fea by means
of its accuracy 3 we regret that it is not in our power at
prefent to procure the pamphlet in which the account of it
was publifhed. « Remarques & Experiences Phyfiques fur
Ja Conftruétion dune nouvelle Clepfydre,”’ &c. Paris. Jom-
bert. 1695.
5. We fhall conclude our account of thefe horological in-
ftruments with detailing the conftru@ion and aétion of a
clepfydra, publifhed in the 44th volume of the Philofophical
TranfaGiions by the Hon. Mr. Charles Hamilton.
AB and CD are two fimilar oblong veffels attached toa
frame of wood, which may eafily be conceived to furreund
Ggure 6, which fhews only the interior mechanifm ; ad and
¢daretwo columns of wood fo floating in water, that their
counterpoiles, F and G, jut keep their fuperior ends equal
with the furface of the water ‘by means’ of conneGing
chains paffing over the pulley f,and another hid by the dial
plate; the former of thefe pullies, f) has a click which
puthes the ratchet on the barrel, 2. when the counterpoife, F,
falls, but flips eafily ever the flopes of the tecth when the
faid counterpoite rifes; the latter pulley has alfo a fimilar
click aéting in like manner, with a fecond ratchet at the op-
polite end of the barrel, z, which ratchetis alfo hid in the
drawing, fo that whichever of the two counterpoifes fhall
at any time be falling, the barrel, 7, will move forwards in the
fame direGtion; and carry the minute hand along with it on
the dial-plate; the hour hand goes round by means of dial-
work, as in an ordinary clock or watch, where a diminttion
of velocity is effected by two wheels and two pinions. The
ation is thus produced by means of five fyphons and two
balances,
The water enters with an unvaried influx, drawn froma
refervoir, by afyphon of {mall bore, the longer Jer of which
1s feen at J, into the middle of what may be called a horizon-
tal trough, fupported like a balance by a fulcrum at K, in
fuch a manner, that cither end of the balance may be elevated
accordingly as the long veflels A B and CD require to be
alternately filled; near the top of each of thefe veffels is in-
ferted a long fyphon or tantalus, 7 and m, the lower legs of
which reach down to'two {mall cylindrical veffels, n and o,
which are poifed by asother balanceat the fulcrum p; thefe cy-
lindrical veflels have, in ike manner, each a {mall fyphon, gand
7; laftly, afilken thread tied to the upper end of the cylinder,
#,15 carried up rounda {mall pulley taft to the frame at s, and
is fattened to the end of the trough under it, and a fimilar
thread is faftened in like manner to the cylinder 0, and end of
the trough under the {mall pulley ¢ Now it is eafy to con-
ceive, that when the veffel, A B, is filled to nearly the head
of the tantalus /, the bore of which is larger than of the
feeding fyphon J, the water will be difcharged into the cy-
indrical vafe #, which confequently will preponderate, and
by means of the filken chord elevate the end of the trough
higher tham the horizontal line, and make its eppofite end
under the {nail pulley, ¢, to be depretied, which will therefore
condué the water mto the other long veficl CD; during
tbis action the counterpoife, F, rifes, and its puiley./, produces
no effect on the ratchet by reafon of the click, 4, tliding over
the floping fides of its teeth, but the count rpoife, G, falls,
aud the click of its pulley (not feen) puthes the fecond
ratclet forwards in the direGion ef the fgures of the face
Lediks Tile te:
When CD is nearly full, the long Syphon, m, begins to
8
CLE
difcharge its water ; makes the cylindrical vafe, o, prepondee
rate, and again’elevates by means of its filken ftring the end
of the trough under the {mail pulley ¢, and depreffes the op-
pofite end to fill the veffel, A B, again, during which time
the click, 4, of the pulley, & aéts with its ratchet ; and thus
the alternate increafe and decreafe of the water in the two
veffels are continued without interruption, fo long as the
feeding fyphon continues to fupply a fufficient quantity of
pure water. We think, however, that the mechanifm is
nearly as complex as that of a clock itfelf, and cenfequently
fhould prefer a water-clock, fuch as that made by Perrault
in the year 1699, where a pendulum is ufed as the regulator,
and water only as the firft mover. For the account, fee
“Machines Approuvées,” tome i. p. 30.
The fame Perrault a!fo made a water-clock with a balance
and ftriking part, an account of which is given in the volume
of “ Machines Appronvées,” which we have juft referred
to; and in the feventh volume of the fame work, is a de-
fcription of a regulator going by water, invented by Pe-
ronnier, and improved by Le Roy, the fon, in 1746. (See
Peet Be een
Crepsypra is alfo ufed for an hour-glafs of fand.
Cuepsypra 1s alfo applicd to a chemical veffel perforated
in the fame manner.
CLERAC, in Geography. See Craiac.
CLERC, Joun Le, in Bicgraphy, an eminent fcholars
and’ critic, was born at Geneva-in the month of March
1657- He was placed at a grammar fchool when on!
eight years old, and foon diltinguifhed himfelf by his abilities
and by his ciofe application to his ftudies; he attracted
particular notice by the ftrength of his memory, and his
great facility in Latin poetical compofition. His talent for
poetry he did not however cultivate much beyond the com-
pofition of f{chool exercifes: He devoted while young a
very large fhare of attention to the principal writers of
Greece and Rome, which he read with much care and
critical obfervation. When fixteen years old he fludied
philofopby, natural and moral, under Chouet, who was pro-
feffor of philofophy at Geneva, and taught the fyftem of
Des Cartes. After remaining under the tuition of this
matter for two years he devoted a year to the ttudy of the
Hebrew language, under the inftruétion of the reverend
James Gallatin, his maternal uncle. His fordnefs for books
kept pace with his improving capacity for reading them with
advantage; and he feldom fuffered any to efcape perufal
that promifed to repay his time and labour. His diligence
and affiduity in this particular, at this period, prepared the
way for that laborious application and various and extenfive
reading which afterwards fo remarkably diflinguifhed him in
the annals of literature. “At the age of nineteen he entered
ona courfe of theological itudies, which he continued for
two years, under Meftrezat, Turretin, and Tronchin. He
read much on the controverfies then agitated in that.part of
Europe, and carefully ftudied) the {eriptures in the origmal
languages, with the afliltance of the belt commentators then
extant, among whom Grotius held a pre-eminent. rank.
Having lot bis father in 1676 he became defirous of vititing
France, and accordingly in 1678 he went to Grenoble and
there undertook the education of a fon of M. Sarafin de la
Pierre. Here he became acquainted with father Lamy the
learned author of the ** Apparatus Rituus,” and other works
of erudition, who was prieft of the oratory. By the end
of the*flar he returned to Geneva, where he was ordained,
after having’ paffed the cuftomary examinations with great
applaufe. Not having attached himfelf to any church, he
availed himfelf of his hberty to revifit Grenoble, and thence
in 1680 went to Saumur. Vhe works of Curcelleus having
been.
Yellament, compofée par M. Rich. Simon.”’
Ghee
been read by him during his firft relidence at Grenoble, he
now availed himfelf of an opportunity to perufe attentively
the writings of Epifcopius, which confirmed him in a theo-
logical fyftem very different from that impofed upon the
belicf of caudidates for the miniflry in his native country.
He here read alfo the Old Teltament in the Polyglot Bible,
making copious notes es he proceeded, which laid the
foundation of the biblical annotations which he afterwards
profecuted with fo much fuccefs. The change in his fenti-
ments having determined him to quit Geneva altogether, he
returned inthe autumn of 1631 from Saumur to Greroble;
the following year vifited Paris, and. thence proceeded to
London, where he arrived in the fpring of 1682. One
object he hadin view in vidting England was to acquire a
fuflicient knowledge of the language to introduce him to an
acquaintance with the literature of the country, which, with
his ufual facility, ne foon accomplithed During his refi-
dence in London he preached frequently at the Walloon
church, in French, ‘and for fix months regularly ferved the
Savoy-on Sundays. As the climate of England difagreed
with his conftitution, he paffed over to Holland in 1683 with
the celebrated apoftate Italian monk Gregorio Leti, whofe
daughter he afterwards marri-d. He took an early oppor-
tunity to pay his refpcéts to Limborch at Amfterdam, who
gave him the information he fought refpecting the principles
and the condition of the Remonttrants, with whom he was
greatly difpofed to unite. Overcome by the importunities
of his family he once more vifited Geneva, but on account
of his religious opinions, and the freedom with which he
avowed and defended them, he returned aga’n in the courfe of
the fame year. He row refolved to make Hollacd his per-
manent relidence, and affociated with the Remontftrants,
occafionally officiating at their churches; but his popularity
exciting the jealoufy of fome of the Walloon minilters,
they procured an order from the magiftrates to forbid him
any more to preach. In the following year, however,
1694; he preached before a fynod of the Remonftrants at
Rotterdam, and was by them appointed profcflor of Hebrew,
Belles Lettres, and Phiiofophy to their college at Amfterdam,
a fituation which he continued to fill until incapacitated for
the difcharge of its arduous duties by the malady which led
to his diffolution. In 1691 he married the daughter of
Gregorio Leti, as noticed above, by whom he had four
children, who all died in infancy. "The fubfequent years of
his life exhibit a wonderful picture of laborious application
and unabating indultry, devoted to literary purluits, which
is abundantly exemplified in the number of his publications,
and the depth and variety of erudition difplayed in them.
We fhall fubjoin a brief account of fuch of them as are molt
entitled to notice. His firlt publication appeared anony-
moufly at Saumur in 1679, under the title of ‘ Liberii de
Sanéto Amore Epiftole heologice,” in which he advo-
cated the caufe of religious toleration and freedom of in-
quiry, and maintained fome opinions refpecting the doétrine
of the ‘Trinity, and other articles of faith, which mutt have
been deemed highly heretical by the majority of divines in
that age. In 1655 he publithed his « Sentimens de quelques
Theologicns de Hollande fur ? Hifloire critique du Vieux
In this work
Le Clere delivers fome very free thoughts refpeéting the
fcriptures, avowing his opinion that the Pentateuch was not
written by Mofes, but compiled from a varicty of more
ancient writings, and combating the commonly received
notion of the infpiration of the facred writers as unfounded
and erroneous. The freedom of his remarks having excited
much prejudice agaiult him, and given rife to mifreprefen-
tation, he publifhed a defence of it in 1686, in which he
CHL
explains himfelf and flares his fentiments in the moft clear
and explicit language. This year formed a remarkable wra
in his life by the commencement of his ‘ Bibliothéques,” a
feries of papers comprifing critical analyfes and reviews of
the moft remarkable publications of the time, inter{perfed
with a variety of original effays and difquifitions on fuch
topics as excited the chief attentisn of Hterary men. The
firtt which appeared was the ** Bibliot! éque Univerfelle et
Hiltorique.”” It was continued to the year 1693, and com-
pleted in 26 fmall volumes clofely printed. In this work Le
Clere wes confiderably indebted to the labours of M. dé la
Crofe, and M. Bernard, who fupplied him with a confider-
able proportion of the papers. *¢ Le Bibliothéque Choiii-’?
followed in 1703, and was publifhed at intervals until the
year 1713, when it was concluded in 28 volumes, corref-
ponding in fize to the former work. To this fucceeded
“ Bibliothéque Ancienne et Moderne,” which was publithed
from 1714 to 1727 in 29 fimilar volumes. .Thefe works
contain a great mafs of very valuable materials, cf critical
difquifitions and bibliographical notices and memoirs, and
well deferve a place in the library of every literary man.
The public are indebted to them for the documents from
which Dr. Jortin priscipally compoted his Jife of Erafmus.
In 1690 Le Clere publifhed a letter to Mr. Jutieu on his
treatment of Epifcopius in his * Pi@ure of Socinianifm,”
which is a fpecics of apology for that learned divine. Two
years afterwards he publifhed his * Logica, feu Ars Ratio-
cinandi”” and his ** Ontolozia et Paeumatologia’”; to thefe
he added in 1695 his ‘* Natural Philofophy,” when he pubs
lifhed them in an uniform edition in four volumes oSavo
under the general title of ‘Opera Philofophica.” _ “This
publication has been well received, and gone through five
editions. In 1693 appeared his verfion of the book of
Genefis with critical notes, which was followed in 1666 by
the other books of the Pentateuch. Thefe were afterwards
enlarged by additional notes, and in the year 1735 reached
a fourth edition in folio. His “ Ars Critica,”? firft appeared
in 1697, in 3 volumes r2mo. and was reprinted in the
fame form in 1712, and 1730. This is a moft uleful and
valuable publication to all who wifh to ftudy ancient writ-
ings with critical accuracy and profit. He publifhed in
1695, and again in 1714 ‘¢ La Vie de Cardinal du Richelieu;??
and in 1696 an excellent work in odtavo under the title of
«Traité de l’Incredulité,” defigned chiefly to expofe the
folly of infidelity; it was reprinted in 1714. In 1698 he
printed a compendium of Un‘verfal Hiftory in Latin, in one
volume o€tavo; the fame year produced his valuable tranfla-
tion into Latin of the New Teftament, with Hammond’s
Annotations, in two volumes in folio. He enriched his
edition with a great number of additional critical and expla-
natory notes. ‘* Parrhafiana,”? ou Penfées diverfes jfur de
Matieres de Critique, d’Hiftoire, de Morale, et de Politique,”
appeared anonymoufly in one volume in 1699, and again in
two volumes in 1702. Although interfperfed with many
good remarks, this has been regarded as a very hafty and
incorrect performance. In 1699 he publifhed alfo his
‘Harmonia [vangelica,” in Greek and Latin, with feveral
notes and diflertations, which drew upon him the charge of
favouring the opinions of Socinus. This was followed in
1703 bya tranflation of the New Teftament into French, in
two volumes 4to. with notes, which again expofed him to
the attacks of the Catholic and Calviniftic clergy. In
1708 he proceeded with his Latin verfion of the Old
Teflament, and printed the Hiftorical Books from Jofhua
to Efther. ‘Hittoria Literaria Il. primorum a Chrifto
feculorum,’? publifhed in 4to. 41716, and “ Hiftoire de°
Provinces Unies des Pays Bas,” in three volumes in folio,
3 Miz from
OLE
from. 1560 to 1723, the firit volume of which appeared in
1723, and the others in 1728, are the laft we fhall mention
of the original works of Le Clerc. But befides his own
writings, he publifhed feveral other works in the capacity of
editor, many of them of coniiderale fize and extent.
Among the principal of them may be mentioned Cotelerius’s
“Patres Apoltolici,” two volumes folio; an edition of
Moreri’s Diétionary, in four volumes folio; the works of
Erafmus in 10 volumes folio, 17073 ‘‘ Grotius de Veritate
Relig. Chrilti,” which he accompanied with fome valuable
notes; the fragments of Menanderand Philemoz, which had
to fubmit to the formidable ordeal of Bentley; ‘ Livit Hitt.”’
in 10 volumes, in oftavo, 1710 ; and “ A#{chinis Dial. IT1.”
Gr. & Latin, $vo, 1711. This catalogue might ealily be
{welled out to greater length; we thall, however, clofe it
here. he lift we have given will be read with aftonifh-
ment, as prefenting fuch an example of literary induftry as
oceurs hardly once in an age. Le Clere continued this
laborious courfe of writing, conneéted alfo with regular
attention to the duties of his office asa tutor, until the year
1728, when a paralytic attack f{ufpended his purfuits, by
materially impairing his intelle€tual powers. In 1732 a
fecond attack deprived him of fpeech and reduced him to a
ftate little better than idiocy, in which he continued to the
time of his death, which took place in 1736, in the 79th
year of hisage. Moreri. Gen. Dit. Gen. Biog.
Crerc, Gasritt, Le, phyfician in ordinary to Lewis
XIV. and author of feveral efteemed medical works, pub-
lied in 1684, in 12mo., ‘* L’Ecole du Chirurgien ;”
and, in 1694, ‘* La Chirurgie complette,’ which was
dedicated to M. Fagon. This has been many times. re-
printed, and is an excellent manual of the art. It contains,
in the opinion of Boerhaave and Haller, the completeft and
moft corre&t anatomy of the bones that had at that time been
publifhed. He alfo publifhed, in 1700, ‘* Appareil com-
mode de jeunes Chirurgiens, Paris, avec Figures,’? 1zmo.;
and the following year,-‘ Catalogue des Drogues,”’ alfo
t2mo. ‘* a Medicine aifee, contenant plufieurs Remedes
faciles et experimentes pour toutes Sortes de Maladies,’’
2 vols. 12mo. This has alfo been feveral times reprinted.
Boerhaave Meth. Studii. Haller Bib. Med.
Crerc, Nicnoras, phyfician to the duke of Orleans,
which poft he quitted, on being invited to take the place of
infpetor of the hofpital at Mofcow, where he refided feveral
years, and was in great eftimation. In 1754 he was elected
member of the Imperial Academy at Peterfburg, and about
the fame time honorary member of the Academy of Belles
Lettres and Arts at Rouen. His works are “ Medicus
veri Amator ad Apollinee“Artis Alumnos,” Mofche, 1764,
8vo.; containing a valuable colleétion of obfervations on epi-
demical difeafes, particularly on the epidemic that raged
in the greater part of the Ruffian empire in the year
1760. Effai fur les Maladies contagieufes du Betail,
avec les moyens de les prevenir, et d’y remedier efficace-
ment,” Paris, 1766, 12mo. The only efficacious remedy
was found to be feparating and killing fuch animals as
were perceived to have taken the infeétion. ‘ Hiftoire
Naturelle de ’ Homme confideré dans l’Etat de Maladie,
ou Ja Medicine rapellée a fa premiere Simplicité,”’ Paris,
1767. His next and laft work, on contagion, was printed,
in 1771, at Peterfburg, foon after which he quitted Ruffia,
and retired to Befangon, where he continued to the time of
his death, which happened two or three years after. Eloy.
Di&. Hik,
Crerc, Joun Le, a painter and engraver who was born
at Nancy, in Lorraine, in 1587; he fludied, however, many
CLE
years in Italy, under the tuition of Carlo Saraceno; and
imitated the {tyle of his mafter with wonderful addrefs.
He made feveral excellent etchings from the pitures of
Saraceno, and other matters; and died at the place of his
nativity in the year 1633. Felibien. Strutt. Pilkington.
Crirrc, Sepastien Lr, an artift of very confiderable
reputation and ability ; well known by the prodicious num-
ber of prints (chiefly of {mall figures), which he etched
from his own defigns. He was born at Metz, in Lorraine, in
the year 1637, and was probably of the fame family with
John Le Clerc; it is faid that he learned the firft principles
of drawing from his father. His firft prints were executed
entirely with the graver; the earlieft, a head of Chrift, is
dated 1655. Upon his arrival at Paris, he was much en-
couraged by Le Brun, and fometime afterwards obtained a
penfion from the king, and an apartment in the Gobelins ;
in addition to which he received the honour of kaigthood
from pope Clement XI. He was a member of the Acade~
my of Painters at Paris, arid there died, at the age of 77,
in the year 1714.
Le Clerc had great fertility of invention, and defizned
all kinds of fubjeéts, whether of hiftory, landfoape, or
animals, with equal fpirit and facility. His manner of
etching is neat and at the fame time free, and often bears
great refemblance to the ftyle of Callot. The number of
the plates which he executed is faid to exceed three thou-
fand. Charles Ant. de Jombert has publithed a catalogue
of them, together with his life. Strutt. Heinecken.
Crerc, Sesastien Le, fon of of the preceding artift,
was born in the year 1677. He ftudied hiltorical painting
under Bon Boulogne, and became a painter of fome note, if we
ean judge from the number of prints engraved from his
works. There is an altar picture by him at the abbey-
chureh at Paris, reprefenting the death of Ananias. He
was made a member of the Royal Academy of Paris, in
1704, and died, aged 86, in the year 1763.
Heinecken, in his Dictionary, mentions feveral other in-
ferior artifts of the name of Le Clerc, Heinecken. M. Pa-
pillon de la Ferté.
CLERCK, Cuarves, a learned man, and member of
the Academy of Sciences, at Upfal, who publifhed ‘ Ico-
nes Infe€torum variorum, &c.”, Holmiae, 1750, Gr. in 4to.
with 55 plates. Not haying been able to find a perfon who
could colour thefe infeGts to his fatisfa@tion, he determined
to undertake the laborious taflk himfelf; but he had fearcely
coloured ten copies of his work when he died. Heinecken.
CLE’RES, in Geography, a town of Franee, in the de-
partment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltrit of Rouen. The place contains 455, and the
canton 11,124 inhabitants: the territory includes 1672 kili-
ometres and 33 communes.
CLEREVAUX, a town of France, in the department
of the Aveiron, and diftri@ of Rhodez, or Rodés, 8 miles
N.W. of it.
CLERFF. See Crervaux.
CLERGOUX, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze, and diftriG of Tulles, 6 miles N.E. of it.
CLERGY, Crerus, the affembly or body of clerks, or
ecclefialtics ; in contradiftinGion to the laity. This diltine-
tion of the whole Chnitian commonwealth into clergy and
laity, which gradually became univerfal, took its rife among
thofe paftors, who, at an early period, took care to improve
the refpeét of the lower ranks, by widening the ciftance be-
tween their own orderand the condition of their Chriftian
brethren. Although it had been unknown among the Greeks
and Romans, it was familiar to many nations of antiquity ;
and
CLERGY.
and the priefts of India, of Perfia,of Affyria, of Judza, of
Ethiopia, of Egypt, and of Gaul, derived, or profefled to
derive from a celeltial origin, the temporal power and potf-
feffions which they had acquired. In the Chriftian world it
originated from the circumitance above-mentioned, and
feems to have kept pace with the progrefs of ecclefiaftical
authority. Some have thought that they can difcover traces
of this difinGion in a very early age of the Chriltian church,
and that it is fan&ioaed by the authority of {cripture.
Others conceive that it had its rife at a later period, when
the defire of fpiritual and fecular pre-eminence and corref-
ponding dominion had perverted the minds of the profeflors
and teachers of Chriftianity, and when the intereft of the
church was interwoven with that of the ftate. The terms
exprefling this diftinGtion, are derived from two Greek
words, xAngo:, lot or inheritance, and A«o:, people; and
this diftinGtion of clerus and /aicus, it is faid, was ettablithed
before the time of Tertullian, towards the clofe of the
fecond century. The diitin@ion itfelf was intended, as
fome have faid, to fuggelt, that the former, that is, the paf-
tors or clergy, for they appropriated the term xAngos to
themfelves, were fele€&ted and contradiftinguifhed from the
multitude, as being, in the prefent world, by way of emi-
nence, God’s “ peculixnm’’, or fpecial inheritance. In fup-
port of this claim they allege, that God is, in the Old Tef-
tament, faid to be the inheritance of the Levites, becaufe a
determinate fhare of the facrifices and offerings made to
God, was in part to ferve them inftead of an eltate in land,
fuch as was given to each of the other tribes. But it has
been argued, on the other hand, that the tribe of Levi is
no where called God’s inheritance, though that expreffion
is repeatedly ufed, with re{pect to the whole nation. Con-
cerning the whole nation of Ifrael, Mofes; who was him-
felf a Levite, fays, in an addrefs to God, (Deut. ix. 29.)
«« They are thy people, and thine inheritance, which thou
broughtelt out by thy mighty power.’? The words in the
Septuayint, deferve our particular attention. ~Ousoi Axoz 72
xah uAneos ce 8s eEnyoyec ex yng. Atyurle ev tnicxus ce TH mEyeAD.
The fame perfonsare, in the fame fentence, declared to be
both the Azo; andthe xAanzos. What, fays the canonift, at
once laymen and clergy? That is certainly abfurd; the cha-
racters are incompatible; yet it did not then appear fo to
Mofes. Nor would it be thought reafonable or jult, that
what was allowed to be the privilege and the glory of every
Ifraclite, under the more fervile eftablifhment of Mofes,
fhould, under the more liberal difpenfation of the gofpel,
be difclaimed by all thofe difciples of Jefus, who have not
been admitted into the facred order, which they, for this
reafon, have cailed clerical. As tothe ufe of the term in
the New Teflament, one paflaze, as the perfons to whom
we nowrefer argue,and only one, occurs,inwhich itis applied
io aati (See 1 Peter, v. 3.) The words in the original are,
BY
thus rendered in our verfion, “ Neither as beiag lords over
God’s heritage, but being enfamples to the flock.”? They
are part of a charge given to the prefbyters, or pattors, re-
lating to their care of the people committed to them, who
are called God’s flock, which they are commanded to feed,
of which they are to take the overfight, not the maltery,
and to which they are to ferve as patterns. ‘The fame per-
fons, therefore, who both in this and in the preceding verfe,
are ftyled rrosszov, the flock, under the direction of God’s
minifters, the fhepherds, are alfo called xAngo, his inherit-
ance, over whom their paflors are commanded not to do-
mineer, The diftinGion above-mentioned, it is faid, ftands in
dire& contradi@tion both to the letter and to the fenfe of the
unerting ftandard of feripture. Some expolitors, however,
; 4
ws xUebEVOIES THY KAVQWV, AAAG TUTTO’ YEVO|LEVOL TS wOlwybe 5
render the term «Anes, in this paffage, the church’s pollef-
fions; but this explication, as others fay, ill fuits the con-
text, and annihilates the contrat between an imperions man-
ner and an engaging pattern, and f{uppofes an awkward ellip-
fis in the words themfelves. Befides, itisafked, what were
the church’s pofleflions in thofe days? Was fhe fo
early veited with lands and hereditaments, for it is to fuch
only that the term Axcos, when denoting property or poffef-
fion, is applied? Or, lave thofe interpreters been dreaming
of the truly golden age of pope Gregory VII., when the
patrimonies of fome metropolitical and patriarchal fees were
indeed like dukedoms and principalities, and the grand hie-
rarch himfelf could difpofe of kingdoms and empires? In
the apoltolic times, on the contrary, the church’s patrimony
confilted moltly, as we may fay, in perfecution and calum-
ny, hatred and derifion, agreeably to the predi&tion of
our Lord. Some have aferibed the origin of the diftinc-
tion we are now conlidering, to Clemens Romanus, who, in
his epiltle to the Corinthians, contradiftingmifhes Asixo: (the
laics), among the Jews, from the high-prieft, the prietts,
and the Levites. This, however, is introdueed by him when
{peaking of the Jewith priefthood, and not of the Chriftian
miniltry ; nor does it ftand in oppofition to any one general
term, fuch as xAxeos, or xAngixor 3 but after mentioning thefe
different orders, he ufes the term Azixo, to include, under
one comprehenfive name, all that were not {pecially com-
prifed under any of the former; and, in this refpect, it ex-
aétly correfponds to the application fometimes made of the
Latin word “ popularis.”” Accordingly it may, with equal
propriety, be contralted with men in office ef any kind
whatever. Thus, in {peaking of civil government, it may
be oppofed to ezxove, to denote the people as diftinguifhed
from the magiltrates; or, in {peaking of an army, to
sexinyety to denote the foldiers as diftinguifhed from the
commanders or officers. It is further ad ed, that the way
in which Clement employs the term does not imply, that
he confitered it as in itfelf exclufive of the priefthood and
Levitical tribe, to which the term aziz is oppofed in that
paflage. ‘They are here indeed excluded, becaufe feparately
named, but not from the import of the word. ‘Thus in
Aéts xv. 32, three orders are plainly mentioned and dittin-
guifhed, apoftles or extraordinary minifters, elders or fixed
pattors, and the church or chriltian people. Does this mode of
expreffion imply, that the name church does not properly
comprehend the paltors as well as the people. The import
of the expreffion feems to be no more than this. The
apoflles and elders, with all the Chriftian brethren, who
come not under either of thefe denominations.” Thus alfo,
in the paflage cited from the epiltle of Peter, where the
rescfavicens are oppofed to the xAnaxs, not as though the for-
mer conttituted no part of God’s heritage, or in modern
phrafe, the clergy ; they only do not conititute that part, of
which they are here commanded to take the charge. In
like manner Clement’s mention of aziz, after {peaking of
the feveral orders of the Jewihh prielthood, imports neither
more nor lefs than if he had faid, ‘* And all the Jewith
people.”
The diltinG@ion of the whole church into clergy and laity,
whenfoever it originated, was extended much farther than
the original intention of thofe who adopted it. In the
time of Cyprian, about the middle of the third ceatury, we
find, that, in general, all things relating to the government
and policy of the church were performed by the joint confent
and adminiftration of the clergy and laity. ‘Thus Cyprian
fays (Epit.6. § 5. cited by the author of the Enquiry in-
to the Conftitution, &c. of the Primitive Church, p. 106.),
“ he did nothing without the knowledge and confent of hia
people.””
Ci DRG Ye
people.’”? Again (Epift. 55. § 21.), “ when any letters came
from foreign churches, they were received and read before
the whole church, and (Epilt. 58. § 2.) the whole church
agreed upon common letters to be fent to. other churches,””
In later ages, after the church had been in fome degree in-
corporated with the ftate, or an alliance had been formed
between them, with a view to their mutual advantage and
fapport, the diftinGion of clergy and laity became an object
of much greater importance ; and it has been faid, that the
former availed themfelves of it, without always confulting the
benefit of the latter. Inftances to this purpofe might eafily be
adduced from the church of Rome, in the period of its fuil
fplendour and power. ‘he laity were not always treated with
due attention and re{pe& by thofe of the other denomination.
The fehoolmen, and they belonged to the clerical body,
thought it was doing the laymen too much honour to derive
the name from Azos, populus. It fuited their notions better
to deduce it from A««:, /apis, a flone. Vhe following {peci-
men of the mode of reafoning adopted by fome celebrated
dogiors, and cited by Altensfaig m his ‘ Lexicon Theolo-
gicum,” may poflibly amufe fome of our readers. *¢ Capitnr
clericus pro viro doéto, {cientifico, perito, {cientia pleno,
repleto et experto. E contra, laicus capitur pro viro indocto,
imperito, infipiente, et lapideo. Unde laicus dicetur a Azaz
Grace, quodeit lapis Latine. It fic omnis clericus, i quan-
tum clericus, eft laudabilis ; laicus vero, in quantum laicus, eft
vituperandus. Cierici quoque a toto genere de jure proponun-
tur, et debent preponi laicis.”” Cardinal Bona alfo delivers
his fentiments 1n relation to the care that ought to be taken
by the clergy, that laymen may not be allowed to do them-
felves harm by ftudying the profounder parts of f{eripture,
which their ftupidity is utterly incapable of comprehending :
and though he doesnot abfolutely prohibit their reading fome
of the plainer books of feripture, he indulges them more frecly
in the ufe of books containing the hiftories, lives, and legends
of the faints, and holy meditations, See on this fubject
Campbell’s Ecclefiaflical Hiftory, vol. i.
In more modern times,and more efpecially in countrieswhere
the reformation has contributed to enlighten the minds and to
miliorate the difpofiticns both of the clergy and the laity, the
diftinGion that {till fubfifts, for the convenient arrangement
and diftribution of the people, is not likely to produce any of
th: difadvantages that refulted from it in the darker ages.
The clergy in the fist century were dillinguifhed by the
title of prefbyters or bifhops; and fome maintain that they
are of equal rank and authority. But towards the clofe of
the fecond century, a nection prevailing, that the minilters
of the Chriftian church fucceeded to the character, rights,
and privileges of the Jewilh prieithood, this produced a fub-
ordination of rank among them, ‘The bifhops aflumed a
rank and character fimilar to thofe of the Jewihh high-prieft,
the prefbyters reprefented the pricfts, and the deacons the
Levites: This diftin@tion was {till farther promoted to-
wards the end of the third century, and a new fet of eccle-
fiaftical officers was eflablifhed, fuch as fub-deacons, aco-
lythi, door-keepers, readers, exorcilts, &c. The powers
of the clergy were confiderably extended under the pa-
tronage of Conftantine the Great, about the clofe of the
fourth century.
The clergy were anciently divided into three orders; viz.
priefts, deacons, and inferior clerks; and each order had its
chief: the arch-prieft was the head of the firft order, the
arch-deacon of the fecond, and the dean of the third.
Under the name of clergy, were alfo formerly comprifed
all the officers of juitice ; as being fuppofed to be men of
letters.
In the Romith church there are two kinds of clergy 5 the
one regular, comprehending all the religious of both fexes,
as abbots, monks, priors, &c.; the other /cw/ar, compre-
hending all the ecclefiaftics that do not make the monaltic
vows. Among the reformed, there are none but thofe of
the latter. The Roman clergy forms a monarchical ftate,
under the pope, as its fupreme head.
In England, the term clergy comprehends all perfons in’
holy: orders, and alfo in ecclefiaftical offices; wiz. arch-
bifhops, bifhops, deans and chaptets, arch-deacons, rural
deans, parfons, who are either re€tors or vicars, and curates ;
to which number we may alfo add, parifh clerks, who
formerly frequently were, and ftil! fometimes are, in orders.
See each of the articles above enumerated. .
This venerable body of men, being feparated and fet apart
from the rett of the people, in order to attend the mere
clofely to the fervice of Almighty God, have feveral privi-
leges allowed them by our municipal laws, and thofe privi-
leges were formerly much greater than they have been fince
the reformation, at which time they were abridged on account
of the ill ufe which the popith clergy had endeavoured to
make ofthem. Tor asthe laws exempted them from a'moft
every perfonal duty, they attempted to obtain for themfelves
a total-exemption from every fecular tie; and as it has hep-
pened in other cafes, by extending their claims too far, they
either loft or ceafed to enjey thofe lrberties which of right
belonged to them. The perfonal exemptions, however,
for the moft part are ftill continued. A clergyman cannot
be compelled to ferve on ajury, nor to appear at a court-leet
or view of frank-pledge; which almoft every other perfon
is obliged to do. 2 Inft 4. But ifa layman is fummored on
a jury, and before the trial takes orders, he fhall, notwith-
ftanding, appear and be fworn. 4 Leon. Neither can he be
chofen to any temporal office, as bailiff, reeve, conftable,
or the like, in regard of his own continualattendance on the
facred fuuétions. Finch. L. 58. During his attendance on
divine fervice, he is privileged from arretts in civil fuits. Stat.
50 Edw. I1l.c.5. 1 Ric. Il. c.26. In cafesalfo of felony,
a clerk in orders fhall have the benefit cf his clergy, without
being branded in the hand; and may likewife have it more-than
once; in both which particulars he is diflinguifhed from a
layman. 2 Inft. 637. Stat. 4 Hen. VII. c. 13. and 1 Edw.
Vi.c. 12. Asthey have their peculiar privileges, they have
alfo their difabilities, on account of their {piritual avocations.
Ciergymen, as fome have maintained, are incapable of fitting
in the Houfe of Commons, (fee Partiamenr); and by
ftat. 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. they are not (in general) allow-
ed to take any lands or tenements to farm, on pain of 10/.
per month, and total avoidance of the leafe; unlefs where
they have not {uflicient glebe; and the land is taken for the
neceflary expences of their houfehold. Stat. §. 8.; nor, on
the like penalty, are they allowed to keep any tan-houfe or
brew-houfe ; nor to engage in any manner of trade, nor to
fell any merchandize, under forfeiture of the treble value,
which prohibition is confonant to the canon law. Dy the
ftatute called « Articuli Cleri,”’? 9 Ed. IT. ft. 1. ¢. 3.5 if
any perfon lay violent hands on a clerk, the amends for the
peace broken (1) fhall be before the king (that is by inaict-
ment), and the aflailant may (2) alfo be fued before the
bifhop, that excommunication er bodily penance may be im-
pofed ; which if the offender will redeem by money, it may
(3) be fued for before the bifhop. Sce Arricres of the
Clergy and Barrery. ,
Though the clergy formerly claimed an exemption from
all fecular jurifdi&tion, yet’Matt. Paris tells us, that Wil-
liam the Conqueror fubjected the bifhops and abbeys who
held per daronitm, and who, till thea, had been exempt from
all fecular fervice; and ordered they fhould be no longer free
fro.
HERG ¥.
‘from military fervices, To this purpofe he preferibed arbi-
trarily what number of foldiers every abbey and bifhopric
fhouid provide, to ferve him and his fucceffors in time of
war, and laid up the regifters of ecciefiaftical fervitude in his
treafury. But, in effect, the clergy were not exempt from
all-fecular fervice til] then ; as being bound by the laws of king
Edgar to obey the fecular magittrate in fome things ; viz.
upon an expedition to the wars, and in contributing to the
building and repairing of bridges, &c. See Trinopa ne-
ceffitas.
The privileges of the Englith clergy, confirmed to them
by Magna Charta, and by the ancient ftatutes, are very
confiderable: their goods are to pay no toll in fairs or mar-
kets ; they are exempt from all offices but their own; from
the king’s carriages, pofts, &c. from appearing at fheriffs’
tourns or frank-pledges; and are not to be fined or amerced,
according to their fpiritual, but the:r temporal means. A
clergyman acknowledging a ftatute, his body is not to be
imprifoned ; if hey be convig&ted of a crime for which the
benefit of clergy is allowed, he fhall not, as we have before
obferved, be burnt in the hand. See Benefit of Currcy.
The clergy, by common law, are not to be burdened in
the general charges with the laity; nor to be troubled or
incumbered, unlefs exprefsly named, and charged by the
ftatute; for general words. do not afieét them. Thus, if a
hundred be fued for a robbery, the miniiter {hail not con-
tribute; though the words are gentes demorazies: neither
are they affefled to the highway, to the watch, &c. But
thefe privileges are in a great meafure jot; the clergy
being included under general words in later flatutes: io
that they are liable to all public charges impofed by aé of
parliament, where they are not particularly excepted.
Befides the exemptions and privileges above ftated, their
bodies are not to be taken on {tatutes-merchant, or ftaple,
&c.; for the writ to take the body of che conufor is ‘+ Si
laicus fit ;”? and if the fheriff, or any other officer, arreft a
clergyman upon any fuch procefs, it is faid that an action
of falfe imprifonment lies ayainft him that does it; or the
clergyman arrefted may have a ‘ fuperfedeas’” out of
Chancery. 2 Inft. 4. In action of trelpafs, account, &c.
againtt a perfon in holy orders, wherein procefs of *capias’’
lies, if the fheriff return that the defendant is ‘ Clericus
beneficiatus nullum habens laicum feodum ubi fummoneri
poteft:” in this cafe the plaintiff cannot have a *‘ capias’’ to
arreft his body; but a writ fhould be addreffed to the
bifhop, compelling him to appear: neverthelcfs, when exe-
cution is obtained, a fequeftration of the profits of his bene-
fice may. be had.
The vevenues of the clergy were anciently more confiderable
thanat prefent. Etheiwolph, in 855, gave them the tythe of
ail goods, and the tenth of all the lands in England; free
from all fecular fervices, taxes. &c. Whe charter whereby this
was given them, was confirmed by feveral of his fucceffors ;
Edmund, Edgar, Echelred, Alfred, and William the Con-
queror; the laft-of whom, finding the bifhoprics fo rich,
erected them all into baronies; each barony containing
thirteen knights’ fees at leaft. Dut fince the Reformation,
the bifhoprics are much impaired. See Bisnop.
The revenues. of the inferior clergy, in the general,
are {mall; a third part of the beit benefices being
anciently, by the pope’s grant, appropriated to monaf
teries; upon the diflolution whereof they became lay-fees.
Indeed, an addition was made, 2 Anne; the whole re-
venue. of firit-fruits and tenths being then granted, to raife
a fund for the augmentation of the maintenance of the
poor clergy : purfuant to which, a corporation was formed,
by the name of governors of the bounty cf queen Anne,
for the augmentation of the maintenance of the poor clerzy 3
to whom the faid revenues were conveyed in truft, &c.
See Aucmentation. For a ftatement of the number
and revenues of the clergy of the eftablifhed churches of
England and Scotland; fee Cuurcu of England, and
Cuurcu of Scotland.
Currey, articles of the. See Articies.
Crercy, prociors of the. See Procrors.
Crrrcy, Privilegium Clericale, or Benefit of Clergy, de-
notes an ancient privilege of the church, confifting im this,
that places confecrated to religious duties were exempted
from criminal arrefts, whence proceeded fan@tuaries; and
that the perfons of clergymen were exempted from criminal
procefs before the fecular judges in particular cafes. "his,
at firft, was an indulgence granted by the civil govern-
ment, or Chriftian princes, from a pious regard to the
church in its infant flate; but as the clergy increafed in
wealth, power, honour, number, and intereit, that which
was firft obfained by favour, was afterwards claimed as an
inherent, indefeafible, and jure divino right: and the clergy
endeavoured to extend the exemption not only to almoft all
kinds of crimes, but toa variety of perfons, befides thole
who were properly of their own order, In England,
though this privilege was allowed in fome capital cafes, it was
not univerfally admitted. The method of granting it was
fettled in the reign of Henry WI. which required, that the
prifoner fhould firft be arragened, and then. claim his benefit
of clergy, by way of declinatory plea, or, after convidtion,
by way of arrefi. of judgment; which latter mode is mott
ufually pratifed. This privilege was originally confined to
thofe who had the haditum & tonfuram clericalem: but in
procefs of time every one was accounted a clerk, and ad-
mitted to this benefit, who could read, though neither ini-
tiated in holy orders, nor trimmed with the clerical tonfure ;
fo that, after the invention of printing, and the diffemination
of learning, this became a very comprehenfive tett, including
laymen as well as divines ; and, therefore, the ftat..4 Hen.
VII. cap. 13, diltinguifhes between lay feholars, and clerks
in holy orders; and direéts that the former thoald net
claim this privilege more than once, and, in order to their
being afterwards known, that they fhould be burnt witha
hot tron in the brawn of the left thumb. This difinGion
between learned laymen, and real clerks in orders,- was
abolifhed, for a time, by 28 Hen. VIII. cap. 1. and 32
Hen. VIII. cap. 3, but 1s held (Hob. 294. 2 Hal. P.C.
375-) to have been virtually reitored by 1 Ed. WI. cep. 12,
in confequence of which ftatute, peers of the realm, and
lords of parliament, having place and voice in parliament,
were entitled to the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to
that of clergy, for the firit offence, though they could not
read, and for all offences then clergyable. to commoners,
and alfo for the crimes of houfe-breaking, highway robbery,
horfe-ftealing, and robbing of churches. When thofe, ad-
mitted to the privilege of their clergy, the laity after burn-
ing, and before it, the real clergy, were thus difcharged
from the fentence of the law in the king’s court, they
were delivered over to the ordinary for canonical purgation.
But this purgation having given occafion toa {fcandalous
proftitution of oaths, and other abufes, it became neceflary,
when the reformation was thoroughly eftablthed, to abo!fha
ceremony fo vain and impious. Accordingly, it was enacted
by, flat. 18 Eliz. cap. 7, that all fuch perfons, inftead of
being committed to the ordinary, fhould be delivered out af
prifen, provided the judge does not think fit to continue
them in goal for a limited time, not exceeding a year.
Further alterations were made in the law re{pecting this pri-
vilege, by 21 Jac. L. cap. 6, which allowed, that women
convicted
CHERGY.
convitted of fimple larcenies underthe value cf 105. fhould
not properly havethe benefit of clergy, for they were not
called upon ‘te read; but be burned in the hand, and
whipped, flocked, or imprifcned for any time not exceeding
a year. See Branpinc. And a fimilar indulgence by
3 and 4 W. and M. cap.g, and 4 and 5 W.and M. cap. 24,
was extended to all women guilty of any clergyable felony ;
who were allowed once to claim the benefit of the /latute,
‘in like manner as men might claim the benefit of clergy, and
‘to be difcharged upon being burned in the hand, and im-
prifoned for any time not exceeding a year. The punifh-
ment of burning in the hand being found ineffeGtual, was
alfo changed by ftatute 10 and 11 W. III. c. 23, into
burning in the moft vifible part of the left cheek, neareft
the nofe; but {uch an indelible ftizma being found by
experience to render offenders defperate, this provifion was
repealed about feven years afterwards, by flat. 5 Ann. c. 6.;
and till that period, all women, all peers of parliament,
and peereffes, and all male commoners who could read, were
difcharged in all clergyable felonies ; the males abfolutely,
if clerks in orders; and other commoners, both male and
female, upon branding, and peers and peerefies without
branding, for the firlt offence; all, however, except peers
and peereffes, liable to imprifonment, as before mentioned ;
and thofe men who could not read, if under the degree of
peerage, were hanged. By 5 Anne, cap. 6, the benefit of
clergy was indifcriminately granted to all who had a right
to afl it, without the condition of reading. It was further
enacted by the fame ftatute, thut when any perfon is ecn-
victed of any theft or larceny, and burned in the hand for
the fame, according to the ancient law, he fhall alfo, at
the difcretion of the judge, be committed to the houfe
of correction, or public workhoufe, to be there k-pt
to hard labour fer any time not lefs than fix montis,
and not exceeding two years; with a power of iniflit-
ing a double confinemest in cafe of the party’s ef-
cape from the firft. Again, by 4 Geo. I. cap. 11, ard
6 Geo. I. cap. 23, it is enacted, that when any perfons fhall
be convitted of larceny, either grand or petit, or any felo-
nious ftealing or taking of money, or goods and chattels,
either fron the perfon or the houfe of another, or in any
other manner, and who by the law fhall be entitled to the
benefit of clergy, and liable only to the penalties of brand-
ing or whipping, the court in their difcretion may direét
fuch offenders, inftead of burning or whipping, to be
tranfported to America, (or, by ftat. ry Geo. IIT. c. 74,
to any other parts beyond the feas), for feven years; and if
they return within that time, it fhall be felony without be-
nefit of clergy. or other particulars, fee Branpinc, and
TRANSPORTATION.
ft appears, from the above account, that the perfons to
whom this privilege now extends, are clerks in orders, with-
out branding, and of courfe without any tranfportation,
fine, or whipping; lords of parliament and peers of the
realm, and alfo peereffes, for the firft offence ; and all com-
moners, not in orders, whether male or female, for clergy-
able felonies, upon being burnt in the hand, whipped, or
fined, or imprifoned, at the difcretion of the judge, in the
common gaol, the houfe of correétion, one of the peniten-
tiary houfes, or in the places of labour for the benefit of
fome navigation; and in cafe of larceny, on being tranf-
ported for feven years, or fuffering the punifhment more
lately fubitituted in the room of tranfportation.
It is a privilege peculiar only to the clergy, that fentence
of death can never be paffed upon them for any number of
man-laughters, bigamies, fimple larcenics, or other clergy-
able offences; but a layman, even a peer, may be oufted of
clergy, and will be fubjeét to the judgment cf death, upor
a fecond conviction of a clergyable offence. Thus, if a
laymas has been once convicted of man-flaughter, upon pro-
duGiion of the convicton, he may fuffer death for bigamy, or
any other clergyable felony ; which would not therefore be a
capital crime to another perfon not fo circumftanced.
It hath been faid, that Jews, and other infidels and here-
tics, were not capable of the benefit of clergy, till after
the fatute 5 Ann. c. 6., as being under a legal incapacity
for orders. 2 Hal. P. C. 373. 2 Hawk. P. C. 33. §.5. Forft.
306. But judge Blackttone much queftions, whether this
was ever ruled for law, fince the re-introduction of the Jews
into England, in the time of Oliver Cromwell. For, if
that were the cafe, the Jews are fill in the fame predica-
ment, which every day’s experience will contradict ; the
ftatute of queen Anne having certainly made no alteration
in this re{peét ; it only difpenfing with the neceflity of read-
ing in thofe perfons, who,-in cafe they could read, were
before the aé& entitled to the benefit of their clergy.
A perfon, having once had benefit of clergy, fhall not be
outted of his clergy, by the bare mark in his hand, or by a
parol averment, without the record teftifying it, or a tranf-
cript thereof, according to the following ftatutes: 2 H.H.
373- By flat. 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 14. the clerk
of the crown, or of the peace, or of the affife, fhall certity
atran{cript briefly of the tenor of the indi€&ment, out-
lawry, or conviétion, and attainder, into the King’s Bench
in 40 days; and the clerk of the crown, when the judges
of affife, or juftices of the peace, write to him ter the
pames of fuch perfons, fhall certify the fame, with the
caufes of the conviGiion or attainder. Another method is
given by the flat. 3 W. and M. cap. 9. §.7.; which ena@s,
that the clerk of the crown, clerk of the peace, or clerk
of affife, where a perfon admitted to clergy under that a&
fhall be convicted, fhall at the requeft of the profecutor, or
any other on the king’s behalf, certify a tranfcript briefly
and in few words, containing the effet and tenor of the in-
dictment and conviction, of his having the benefit of clergy,
and the addition of the party, and the certainty of the te-
lony and conviétion, to the judges where fuch perfon hall
be indiéted for any fubfequent offence. It feems alfo, that
if the party deny that he is the fame perfon, iffue mult be
joined upon it, and it mult be found upon trial that he is the
fame perfon, before he can be outted of clergy. 2 H. H. 373.
Againit the defendant’s prayer of clergy, the profecutor
may file a ** counter-plea ;” alleging fome ta¢t, which in law
deprives the defendant of the privilege he claims. Itisa
good counter-plea to the prayer of clergy, that the offender
is not entitled to the benefit of the ftatute, becaufe he was
before convited of an offence, and thereupon prayed the
benefit of the ftatute, which was allowed to him; alleging
the truth of the fa& and praying the judgment of the court,
that he may die according to law; which faét is tu be tricd
by the record in purfuance of the ftatute 34 and 35 Hen.
VIII. c.14. Staunf. 135. Divers other counter-pleas, by which
an offender may be deprived of clergy, may alfo be framed
from a confideration of the ferfons to whom it is allowed or
denied by the common law ; and of the circumflances under
which that allowance or denial of it has been placed by di-
vers ftatutes. Ib. 138. The ufe of this counter-plea has,
however, long become obfolete, and out of ufe. But the
daring practices of fome money-coiners occafioned its re-
vival ; and in 1783, on occafion of the conviétion of money-
coiners, a counter-plea of record was filed on the part of the
profecution ; alleging that the convicts had been before al-
6 lowed
CGC L°E RtG@ Y.
lowed the benefit of the ftatute, &c.; and they were there-
by oufted of their clergy. Leach’s Hawk. P. C. ii. ¢. 33.
/19. n. \
‘ The privilege of clergy was not indulged at the common
Jaw, either in high treafon, or petit larceny, or in avy mere
mifdemeanors ; and therefore it may be laid down as a rule,
that it was allowable only in petit treafon, and in capital fe-
Jonies ; which, for the moft part, became Jegally entitled to
this indulgence by the ftatute ‘de clero,” 25 Edw. III.
dt. 3. c. 4., which provides, that clerks convicted for treafons
or felonies, touching other perfons than the king himfelf or
his. royal majefty, fhall have the privilege of holy church.
But it was not allowed in all felonies; in fome of which ir
was denied even by the common law, wiz. ‘infidiatio vi-
arum,”’ or lying in wait for‘one on the high-way ; <* depo-
pulatio agrorum,’’ or deftroying and ravaging a country (2
Hal, P. C. 333.) 3 and ‘ combuftio domorum,” or arfon,
that is, the burning of houfes ; all which are a kind of hottile
aé&ts, and in fome degree border upon treafon. Moreover,
all thefe crimes, together with petit treafon, and many other
atts of felony, are oulted of clergy by particular ads of
parliament. All the ftatutes for excluding clergy are merely
the reftoration of the law to the fame rigour of capital pu-
nifhment in the firft offence, that was exerted before the
‘¢ privilegium clericale”’ was at all indulged ; and which it ftill
exerts upon a fecond offence in almolt all kinds of felonies,
unlefs committed by clerks in a€tual orders. But fo tender
is the law of inflicting capital punifhment in the firlt inftance
for any inferior felony, that notwithftanding by the marine
law, declared in itatute 28 Hen. VIII. c.15. the benefit
of clergy is not allowed in any cafe whatfoever; yet, when
offences are committed within the admiralty-jurifdiction,
which would be clergyable if committed by land, the con-
ftant courfe is to acquit and difcharge the prifoner. Moor.
756. Foft. 288. It is not necelfary, that the ordinary
fhould demand the benefit of the clergy for a clerk ; nor is
there any neceffity that the prifoner himfelf fhould demand
it, where it fufficiently appears to the court, that he hath a
right to it, in refpect of his being in orders, &c. In which
cafe, if the prifoner does not demand it, it 1s left to the dif-
cretion of the judge, either toallow, or not allow it to him.
2 Hawk. P.C. c.33. §. t12. Clergy may be demanded
after judzment given again{t a perfon, whether of death, &c.
and even und-r the gallows, if a proper judge be there, who
has power to allow it. 2 Hawk. P.C. c.33. §. 111.
Upon the whole we may obferve in relation to this fub-
ject: 1. That in all felonics, whether newly created or by
common law, clergy is now allowable, unlefs taken away by
exprefs words of an at of parliament. 2 Hal. P.C. 330.
2, Vhat, where clergy 1s taken away from the principal,
it is not of courfe taken away from the acceffory, unlefs he
be alfo particularly included in the words of the itatute.
2 Hawk. P.C. 342. 3. That, when the benefit of clergy
is taken away from the offence, (as in cafe of murder, bug-
gery, robbery, rape, and burglary), a principal in the fecond
degree, being prefent, aiding and abetting the crime, is as
well excluded from his clergy as he that is principal in the
firft deeree but, 4. That, where it is only taken away from
the perjon committing the offence, (asin the cafe of ftabbing,
or committing larceny in a dwelling-houfe, or privately from
the perfon), his aiders and abettors are not excluded;
through the tendernefs of the law, which hath determined
that fuch ftatutes fhall be taken hteraily. 1 Hal. P.C. 529.
Fofter, 356, 357.
As to the confequences to the party of allowing him this
benefit of clergy, they are fuch as affect his prefent interett
and future credit and capacity; as having been once a felon,
Vor. VIII.
but now purged from that guilt by the privilege of clergy ;
which operates as a kind of {tatute-pardon. It may be ob=
ferved, 1. That, by his convition, he forfeits all his goods
to the king; which, being once veited in the crown, fhall
not afterwards be -reftored to the offender. 2 Hal. P C.
388. 2. That, after conviGion, and till he receives the
judgment of the law, by branding or fome of its fubltirutes,
orelfe is pardoned by the king, he is to allintents and pur-
poles a felon, and fubjeé to all the difabilities and other ins
cidents of a felon, 3 P. Wms. 487. 3. That, after burn-
ing, orjts fubftitute, or pardon, he is difcharged for ever of
that, and all other felonies before committed, within the be-
nefit of clergy; but not of felonies from which fuch benefit
1s excluded ; and this by ftatutes 8 Eliz.c. 4. and 18 Eliz.
c.7. 4. That by the burning, or its fubftitute, cr the par-
don of it, heis reftored to all capacities and credits, and the
poffeffion of his lands, as if he had. never been convicted.
2 Hal. P.C. 389. 5 Rep.1ro. 5. That what is faid with
regard to the advantages of commoners and laymen, fubfe-
quent to the burning in the hand, is equally applicable to
all peers and clergymen, although never branded at all, or
{ubjeted to other punifhment in its ftead. For they have
the fame privileges, without any burning or any fubltitute
for it, which others are entitled to after it. 2 Hal, P.C.
389, 390. Blackit. Comm. vol. iv.
Crercy, Corporation of the Sons of the, a benevolent in-
flitution, which feems to have originated in the time of the
U{urpation, when a fermon was preached at St. Patl’s, Nov.
8, 1658, to the fons of minifters folemnly affembled; the
defign of which was to promote charitable contributions in
favour of the fons of the clergy. Whether or not fermons
of this kind were annual before the Reftoration, we are not
able to afcertain ; however, afterwards, a charter was grants
ed, bearing date July 1, 1678, by which a body politic and
corporate was conttituted, under the name of ** The Gover-
nors of the Charity for the Relief of the poor Widows and
Children of Clergymen,” with licence to poffefs ary eftates
not exceeding the yearly value of zo00/, Upon the ac-
ceffion of a gift by Dr. ‘Thomas Turner, amounting to about
13,0090/. the governors obtained, Dec. 16, 1714, an augmen-
tation of the jaid grant, by a licence to poffefs the yearly
value of 3coo/. over and above all charges and reprifes, as
alfo over and above the faid 2000 /. per annum. To promote
the ufeful and laudable purpofe of this inftitution, a fermon
was preached at the anniverfary meeting of the fons of
clergymen in the church of St. Mary le Bow, Nov. le
1678, by Dr. T. Sprat, afterwards bifhop of Rocheiter, in
which it appears, that thofe fervices had been cuftomary be-
fore they were encouraged by a royal eftablifhment. ‘Uhefe
{crmons continued to be preached at Bow church till the
year 1697, when Dr. George Stanhope preached his fer-
mon for the benefit of this charity at the cathedral church
of St. Paul, at whieh time it is fuppofed the thought was
firft fuggelted ofa grand mufical performance in aid of the
charity. ‘he annual feait of the fons of the clergy ap-
pears to be prior to their mcorporation ; for in the London
Gazette of Nov. 22, 1677, the annual fealt of the fons of
the clergy was advertifed to be held at Merchant Taylors
Hall, on Thurfday the 29th of November following. Since
the year 1697, there has been conftantly an annual fermon,
and alfo a grand mutfical fervice at the cathedral church of
St. Paul, for promoting the ends of this charity. The molt
eminent divines of the church have preached on thefe occa-
fions, and the mufical performance has acquired celebrity
from the concurrence of eminent perfons of the profeffion,
For many years paft it has been the praétice of ‘the ftewards
of the corporation, to have at St. Paul’s on the Tuefday
3N preceding
CLE
preceding the day of the fermon, what ts called a rehearfal
of the performance, and alfo a colleStion for the charity,
The corporation is under the management of a prefident
(the archbifhop of Canterbury), a vice-prefident, three
treafurers, and a numerous court of affiftants.
The fociety for maintaining, educating, and apprenticing
poor orphan children of clerzymen, was inftituted in 1749,
and is under the dircétion of a prefident (bifhop of Lon-
don), a vice pr-fident. a treafurer, and fecretary.
CLERI, in Ancient Geography a peop'e of Afia Minor,
in the Leffer M fia. mentioned by Dio io us Siculus.
CLERICAL Crown. See Crown.
Crerican Title. See Titre.
CLERICI, Tommaso, in Biography, an hiforical paint-
er of Geno>. He was born in 1637, and became the
difciple of Francifco Merano, called il Paggio; and, though
he died of the plague in the 21ft yearof his age, ano 1657,
yet the progrefs he had made in the art was {fo great, that
the four altar pi€tures remaining of his band, in the church
and facrifty of the Nunziata del Guaftato, at Genoa, have
at all times been much admired. One of thefe reprefents
the three archanzels, Michael, Gabricl, and Raphael; the
fecond, the Virgin Mary, with the image of St. Dominick ;
the third, amartyrdom of faints; and the lait, a number of
Francifcan friars following Chrift, who is bearing his crofs,
Soprani. Orlandi.
Crerict non eligantur in officio. See Quop Clerici.
CLERICIS regis, non-re/identia pro. See Non-refiden-
tia.
CLERICO admittendo. See ApmitrtexDo Clerico.
Crerico capto per flatutum mercatorum, is a writ for the
delivery of aclesk out of prifon, who is imprifoned upon
the breach of a ftatute-merchant. Reg. Orig. 147.
CieRico convido comm'ffo gaole in defedtu ordinarit delibe-
rando, is a writ for the delivery of a clerk to his ordinary,
that was formerly convicted of felony ; by reafon his ordi-
nary did not~challenze him according to the privilege of
clerks. Reg. Qig. 60.
Crerico intra facros ordinis conflitulo non eligendo in officium,
jsa writ directed to the bailiffs, &c. that have thruft a baili-
wick or bead!efhip upon one in holy orders, charging them
to releafe him. Reg. Orig. 143.
CLERIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
depirtment of the Drome, and diftneat of Valence, 5 miles
N.W. of Romans.
CLERINCE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
EBraclaw; 44 miles S.S.W. of Braclaw.
CLERISSEAU, Cuartrs Louis, in Biography, an
artift who was born at Paris 1718, and is well known by his
beautiful pictures in water colours, reprefenting the ruins
. and piturefque views of Italy, where he long fludied. He
was, upon his return, made a member of the Royal Acade-
my at Paris, and, fome time after, he received a fimilar ho~
nour in Enzland, the Royal Academy of London being
jaf then inttituted.
Several prints have been engraved from his works, and,
amongft others, an excellent fet of thirteen large views of
ancient buildings, by Domenico Cunego of Rome. Hein:
ecken.
CLERK, Dawiet te, a celebrated: phyfician, and Jearn-
ed writer on the hiftory and praétice of medicine, was born
at Geneva, Feb. the 4th, 1652. He was the fon of Ste-
phen le Clerk, profeffor in the Greck language, and from
him received the’rudiments of his knowledge, as well as his
taite for refearch into antiquity, by which he became in time
fo famous. | Having completed his {chool education, he
went, in facceflion-to Montpellier, Paris, and Valence, where
CLE
he took his degree of door in medicine, in 1672. He now
rcturned to Geneva, and foon found himfelf in confiderable
practice, which he attended to with zeal, until the year
1704, when, being appointed one of the members of the
council of ftate, he entirely renouneed pra@ice, that he
might have leifure to fill the honourable poft to which ke
had been raifed, and to corre&t and complete tlie various
works in which he had been eng+ged, and which had given
him a diftinguifhed rack among the principal literary cha-
racters of hisage. He died June 8th, 1725, leaving two
fons, James, who had been educated to medicine, and James
Theedore, who was minilter of the gofpel, and profeffor of
the Oriental Languages. He had publith-d, in conjun@ion
with James Mangets, ‘ Biblioth. Anatomiea,’? 2 vols. faliay.
in 1655; but the work for which he is principally celcbrat>
ed, is his ‘* Hiftoire de la Medicine, ou 1’on voit Origine
et le Progres de cette art de Siecle, en Stecle:”” A work
of immenfe erudition, in which are depicted the opinions,
or theories of medicine, which have prevailed from the earlieit
period to the time of Galen.’ The fir part, which brought
the hiflory of medicine only to the time of Hippocrates, was
publifh<d in one volume, 8vo. 1696. Tinding this approved,
he produced the work completed in one volume, 4to. In 1702.
This was reprinted in 17233; ard again. with additions, and
much improved, in 1729. ‘T’o this edition he added a plan
of a continuation of the hiftory, to the middle of the 17th
century, but which his age and avocations prevented his
completing. Friend, who pays the author the higheft com-
pliments on the completion of the work, which it amply
deferves, is very fevere in his cenfure of this plen. But he
would furely have fpared his reproof, if he had attended to
the apology made by the author, who was wcll acquainted
with its defeG&s. Friend wrote acontinuation of thehiltorys
and in fo excellent a manner, as to leave little reafon to regret
that it had oot been finifhed hy Le Clerk. “ Hiftoria natu,
ralis et medica latorunm Lumbricorum intra Hominem et Ani-
malia nafcentium,’”? Geneve, 1715, gto. which cortains al
that is known on the tubje€t of thofe pernicious reptiles.
A little before he died, he tranflated, Senebier fays, the firlt
« Satyr of Perfius’”? into the French language; but this has
not been printed. Haller, Bib. Med. Senebier, Hif-
toire Literaire de Geneve. ~
Crerx, Crericus, a word formerly ufed to. fignify a,
learned man, or man of letters. Forthe etymology of the
term, fee Clergy:
‘Fhus, Pafquier obferves, the officers of the counts (co-
mites) were anciently created under the title of clerks of ace
compis ; and fecretaries of ftate were called clerks. of the
fecrets. So, Clericus domini regis, in the time of Edward I
was rendcred in Enghith, the ding’s fecretary, or clerk: of his -
council.
The term.was. applied indifferently to. alt who made any
profefiion of learning, cr who knew how to-manage the. pen 3.
though, originally, it was appropriated to ecclefiaitics.
As the nobility and gentry were ufually. brought: up to.
the exercife of arms; there were none but theclergy left te.
cultivate the fe'ences ;. hence, as the clergy alene. made an
profcffion of letters, a very. learned man came to be.called a,
great clerk, anda ftvpid ignorant man, a bad cler&s.
Ronfard, in his old language, ufes the word femininely,
clergeffe, for alearned- woman. ‘+ Mais trop-plus.eff a crain=
dre une feme clergeffe.””
Crerk (in general). is ufed. as fynonymous with. céergy-
man for all thofe of the ecclefiaftical flate, who are in holy
orders, of any degree, or kind, fromthe deacon, to the
prelate.
Yet, in its utmo'’t latitude, the word clerk alfo includes
CHANTORS,
CLE
CHANTORS, ACOLYTHI, EXxoRcIST#, and osrraril.
The word, however, has been anciently ufed for a fecular
prieft, in oppofition to a religious or regular. Paroch.
Antiq. 171. The canons excommunicate all thofe who
lay hards ona clerk. A council held in Africa prohibited
the appointing any clerk to bea tutor, guardian, or curator,
by teftament. The council of Elvira enjoins continence on
all clerks, bifhops, priefls, or deacons, on pain of being
{tripped of their clericature.
Curkk, acephalous, in the fixth century, was a name
given to thofe clerks who feparated from the bifhop, and
chofe not to live any longer in community with him; in
contradiftinGion to
CLERKs, canonic, who continue to live with the bifhop,
according to the canons.
Cuerk, In the way of trade and bufinefs, is one who ex-
ercifes any fun@ion with the pen.
The Clergy, in the early ages, engroffed almoft every
kind of learning to themfelves; and they were peculharly
remarkable for their proficiency in the ftudy of the law.
Thus William of Malmfbury charaerifes them faon after
the corquelt, ‘* Nullusclericus nifi cavfidicus.”? The judges,
therefore, were ufual!y created out of the facred order; and
all the inferior offices were fupplied by the lower clergy,
which has occafioned their fuceffors to be denominated
clerks to this day. Accordingly, this title is given to
feveral officers of this k’nd in the royal palace, the courts
of jultice, revenue, army, navy, &c. The priucipal of
thefe are as follow :
Cuerk of the Ags, is an officer of the navy, who receives
and enters the commiffions, contra&ts, warrants, &c. of the
lord hizh admiral; and regitters the ats and ordivances of
the lords commiffioners of the admiralty, and commiffioners
ofthe navy. Stat.22 & 23 Car. II. c. rr.
Creek of Affidavits, inthe court of chancery, an offirec
who files all affidavits made ufe of in ccurt.
Crerx of Aff/e, is herthat writcth all things judicially
done by the jultices of affife, in their circuits.
This office is affociated to the judge in commiffions of
affife, to take affifes, &c. He hall not be counfel with any
perfon inthe circuit. Stat. 33 Hen. VIII. c.24. §'5. He
certifies the names of felons conviét. See Benefit of CLercy.
Hes punifhable for concealing, &e. any indictment, recog-
nizance, fine, or forfeiture. See ftat. 22 & 23 Car. I]. c.
22. § 9. 3 Geo. I. c. 15. 9.12. Heis to take only 2s.
for drawing an indiGment, and nothing if defeQive. 10 &
11 W III. c. 23. §. 7,8. Theclerk of affife is fineable for
falfely recording appearances of perfons returned on a jury.
6) (Gi JUL GRD Me ee
Crerk of the Bails. See Bais. clerk of the.
Crerk of the Check or Cheque. See CHECK.
Crerk ofthe Clofet, is a divine, otherwile called confe/for
to his Majefly ; whofe office is to attend at the king’s nght
hand during divine fervice, to refolve all doubts concern-
ing fpiritual matters, to ‘wait on the king in his private
oratory, &c.
CierK controller of the king’s houfe, an officer in the
king’s court, that hath authority to allow or difallow
charges and demands of purfuivants, meffengers of the
green-cloth, &c. He hath likewife the overfight of all defeéts
and mifcarriages of any of the inferior cfficers; and he hath
a right to fit in the counting-houfe with the fuperior officers,
viz. the lord-fteward, treafurer, controller, and cofferer of
the houfhold, for correGing any diforders. There are two
officers of this kind. See ftat. 33 Hen. VIII]. c. 12.
Crerx of the Crown, in the king’s bench court, an officer
whofe bufjnefs is to frame, read, and record all indiétments
C'L'E
againtt traitors, felons, and other offenders there arraigned >
or indiéted of any public crime. i
Wher divers perfons are jointly indiéted, the clerk of the
crown fhall take for them ail but one fee, vis 25. Stat. 2
Hen. 1V.c. ro. Heis otherwife denominated cleré of the
crowneoffice, and exhibits informations, by order of the court,
for divers offences. See INFORMATION.
Creek of the Crown, nm chancery, is an officer, who, by
him{clf, or deputy, is continually to attend the lord-chan-
cellor, or lord-keeper, to write or propofe fpecial matters of
{tate. by commiflion, or the like, either immediately from his
majelty’s orders, or by order of nis courcil; as well ordinary
as extraordinary, viz. commiffions of licutenancy. of juftices
of affile, oyer and terminer, gaol delivery, and of the peace,
with their writs of affociation, &c. Ail general pardons,
upon grants of them at the king’s coronation, or in parlia-
ment, where he fits in the lords’ honfe in parliament time ;
the writs of parliament, with the names of the knights, ci-
tizens, and burgcffes, are alfo returned into his office, and
filed; befides which, he has the making of fpecial par~
dons, and writs of execution upon bords of ftatute ttaple
forfeited, which was annexed to this office in the reign of
queen Mary, in confideration of his chargeable attendance.
Crexk of the Declarations, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, that files ali declarations in caufes there depending,
after they are engrofled, &c.
Crexk of the Deliveries, 1s an officer in the Tower of
London, who takes indenturgs for ail flores iffued thence.
Crerx of the Errors, in the court of common pleas, tran-
feribes, avd certifies into the king’s bench, the tenor of the
records of the caufe, or aétion, upen which the wnt of er-
ror, made by the curfitor, is brought there, to be heard and
determined.
Crerk of the Errors. in the king’s berch, tranfcribys and
certifies the records of fuch caufes in that court into the ex-
chequer; if the caufe, or aétion, is by bill: if by original,
the iord chief jultice certifies the record into the houfe of
peers in parliament, by taking the tranfeript from the clerk
of errors, and delivering it to the lord chancellor, there to
be determined, according to the itats.,27 Eliz. c. 8. and 31
Eliz. c. x. :
CrerK of the Errors, in the exchequer, tranfcribes the
records certified thither out of the king’s bench; and pre-
pares them for judgment in the court of exchequcr, to be
given by the juftices of the common-pleas, and barons,
there. Stats. 16 Car, II. c. 2. o2b Car Ile. 4:
Crerx of the Effins, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the effoin-ro!ls, or enters efloins. He alfo provides
parchment, cuts it irto rolls, marks the number on them;
delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and receives them
again when written, binds and makes up the bundles of
every term, which he does as fervant of the chief juttice.
The chief jullice of C. B. is at the charge of the parchment
of all the rolls, for which he is allowed: as is alfo the chief
juftice of B. R. befides the penny for the feal of every writ
of privilege and outlawry, the feventh penny taken for the
feal of every writ in court under the green wax, or petit
feal: the faid lord chief juftices havicg annexed to their
offices or places the cultody of the faid feals belonging to
each court. See Essoin.
Cierx of the Ejireats, belongs to the exchequer; and,
every term, reccives the eftreats out of the lord-treafurer’s
remembrancer’s office, and writcth them out to be levied for
the king. He alfo maketh fchedules of {uch (ums eltreated
as are to be difcharged. See Estrear.
Crrrks of the Green Cloth. See Green-Crory.
Cuerk of the Hamper, or Hanaper, is an officer in chan.
aN 2 cery,
CILTED
cery, whofe bufinefs is to receive all money due to the king
for the feals of charters, patents, commiffions, and writs :
ac alfo fees due to the offizers for inrolling and examining the
fame. He is obliged to attend on the Jord-chancellor, or
lord-keeper, daily, in term-time; and at all times of feal-
ing; having with him leather bags, wherein are put all
charters, &c. After they are fealed, thofe bags, being
fealed with the lord-chancellor’s private feal, are delivered to
the controller of the hanaper, who, upon receipt of them,
enters the effe&t of them in a book, &c. This hanaper re-
prefents what the Romans called “ ffcum,” which contained
the emperor’s treafure; and the exchequer was arciently fo
called, becaufe * in eo reconderentur hanapi et feutre cete-
raque vafa qux in cenfum et tribntum perfolvi folebant;”? or
perhaps, becaufe the yearly tribute which princes received
was in hampers or large veffels full of money. There being
an arrear of 10,590/. 12s. 11d. of feveral ancient fees and
falaries, &c. payable out of this office; and there being a
remainder of 13,698/. 1s. 11d. of the fix-penny ftamp duty
oa writs granted for the relief of the fuitors of the court of
chancery; it was enaéted by the ftat. 23 Geo. IT. c. 25.
that thereout the 10,590/. 12s. 11d. fhould be paid to the
creditors of this office :—that the faid duty fhould be made
perpetual; and out of it 3000/. per annum fhould be paid
to the “clerk of the hanaper :’’—that the refidue of the
13,698/. ts. 11d. fhould be laid out in government fecuri-
ties, and the intereft paid to the “ clerk of the hanaper,”’
who fhould pay 1,200/. to the mailer of the rolls :—and
that in cafe the revenue of this office fo augmented, fhould
be more than fufficient to pay all fees, falaries, &c. the clerk
fhould account for the furplus.
Crerx of the Inrollments of Fines and Recoveries, in the
court of common pleas, is an officer under the three elder
judges of that court, and removeable at their pleafure, who
inrols and exemplifies all fines end recoveries, and returns
writs of entry, &c. See InrotiMeENnr.
Crerk of the Furies, is an officer belonging to the court
of common-pleas, who makes out the writs called Aabeas
corpus, and di/fringas, for the appearance of juries, either in
that court or at the affifes; after the panel is returned upon
the wenire facias. He alfo enters into the rolls the awarding
of thefe writs; and makes all the continuances, from the
going out of the habeas corpora until the verdi& is given.
See Jury.
Cuerk of the Market, isan officer of the kinz’s honfe,
whole duty is to take charge of the king’s meafures; and to
keep flandards of them, that is, examples cf all the meafures
that ought to be ufed through the land; as of eils, yards,
quarts, gallons, &c.; and of weights, buthels, &c.; and to
{ee that all weights and meafures in every place be an{wer-
able to the fa'd flandard. With regard to this officer’s
duty there are divers ftatutes, as 13 Ric. IL. cap. 4, and 16
Ric. IL. cap. 3, by which every clerk of the market is to
have weights and meafures with him when he makes affay of
weights, &c. marked according to the ftandard; and to feal
wei; hts aud meafures, under penalties. [he that. 16 Car:
I.c. 19, enaéts, that clerks of the market ef the king’s or
prince’s houfehold thail only execute their offices within the
verge; and head-officers are to a& in corporations, &¢.
The clerks of markets have generally power to hold a court,
for which purpofe they may iffue out procefs_to fheriffs and
bailiffs to bring a jury before them; and give a charge, take
prefentments of fuch as keep or ufe falle weights and mea-
fures; and may fet a fine upon the offenders, &c. 4 Init.
274. But if they take any other fee or reward than what is
allowed by flatute, &c. or impofe any fines without legal
trials or otherwife mi{Uemean themfelves; they fhall forfeit
~
/
GLE
5/. for the firft offence; 10/ for the fecond} and 20/. fox
the third offence; on conviétion before a juitice of peace,
&e. The “ Court of the clerk of the market” is incident
to every fair and market in the kingdem, to punifh mifde-
meanours therein; as a court of ‘ pie-powdre’’ is to deter=
mine all difoutes relating to private or civil property. It
is the mott inferior court of criminal junf{diGion im the
kingdom. Biackit. Comevol. iv. Sce ftats. 22°Car. IT:
c.$. 23,Car. II. c. 12, and Weicuts and Measures:
CrrrKk Marfbal of the king’s houfe, feems to be an
officer who attends the marfhal in his court, and records alk
his proceedings. See Marswar. ;
Crerx of the Nichils, or Nihils, is an officer in the ex-
chequer. who makes a rol! of all fuch fums as are athilled by
the fheriffs upon their eltreats of green-wax; and delivers
the fame into the lord treafurer’s remembrancer’s office, 'to
have execution done upon them for the king. Stat. 5 Ric.
If. co13. See Nruri. . >
Cierx of the Ordnance, is an officer in the Tower, who
regifters all orders relating to the king’s ordnance. See
ORDNANCE.
Crerx of the Outlawrics, is an officer belonging to the
court of common-pleas; being a deputy to the king’s attor-
ney-general, for making out the writs of capias utlegatumy
after ontlawry; and the king’s attorney’s nameis to every
one of thofe writs.
Crirrk of the Poper- Office, is an officer of the king’s bench,
who makes up the paper-books of fpecial pleadings and de-
murrers in that court.
Crerk of the Papers, an officer in the court of common-
pleas, who keeps the papers of the warden of the Fleer,
enters commitments and difcharges of prifoners, delivers out
day-rules, &c. i :
Crerk of the Parcels, an officer of the exchequer. See:
Parcer-Makers.
Crerk ofa Parifh. See Parisn Clerk.
Crerx ofthe Parliament Rolls, isan officer who records.all
things done in parhament; and engrofles them fairly into:
parchment rolls for the better prefervation of them to pofte-
rity. Of thefe there are two; one of the houfe of lords, and.
the other of the houfe of commons.
CLERK of the Patents, or letters patent under the great:feals
an office created 18 Jac. 1. See 2aTenr.
Creek of the Peace, is an officer belonging to the feffion.
of the peace, whofe duty is at the feffion to read the indiét-
ments, to inrol the aés, and draw the procefics; to inrol!
proclamations of rates for fervants’ wages; to inrol tke dif-
charge of apprentices; to keep the counterpart of the in-
centure of armour, to preferve the regilter-bock of licences
given to badgers of corz, of perfons licenfed to kill game,
to regilter the eftates of -papitts and of others not taking the
oaths, &c. He alfo certifies into the king’s bench tranieripts
of indi&ments, outlawries, attainders, and conviétions, had
before the jultices of the peace within the time limited: by
ftatute. He is appointed by the cu/los retulorum of the
county, and liable to be difcharzed tor mifdemeznour by.
the jullices of peace in quarter-{effions, See flats. 37 Hen.
VILL. cir. 1 W.& M. c. 21. The following is the form of
the oath preferibed by the latter ftatute, to be taken by the,
clerk of the peace, in open feffions, before he enters on his:
office:
“1 C. P. do fwear, that I have not (paid) nor will pay
any fum or tums of money, or other reward whatfoever,
nor given any bond er other affurance to pay any money,
fee, or profit, dire@ly or indirectly, to any perfon or per-
fons whomfoever for (my) nomination or appointment.
So help me God,” |
He>
Gry’
He is alfo to take the oaths of allegiance, fupremacy,
and abjuration, and perform fuch requifites as other perfons
who. qualify for offices. By ftat. 22 Geo. Il. ¢. 46. § 14,
No clerk of the peace, or his deputy, fhall a& as folicitor,
attorney, or agent at the fcflions where he acts as clerk or
deputy, on penalty’ of 50/, with treble coils. If the juftices
of the peace fhould difcharge this officer for mifeondud,
the cuftos rotulorum is to chufe another, refident in the
county, or on his default the feffions may appoint one:—
the place is not to be fold, on pain of forteiting double the
value of the fum given by each party, and difability to
enjoy their refpective offices, &c. Stat. 1 W. & M. Sef.
Tecate
Cuexx of the Pells, belongs to the exchequer; his bufinefs
is, to’enter every teller’s bill into a parchment roll, called
pellis receptorum; and alfo to make another roll of payments,
called pellis exitunm, wherein he fets down by what warrant
the money was paid. 22 and 33 Car. If. c.22. This
officer is appointed for life, by a conftitution under the hands
and feals of the commiffioners.of the Treafury, to exercife
his office either by himfelf or his deputy. In confequence
of this privilege, it has not been ufnal, for many years, for
the clerk of the pe'ls to execute any part of the bufinefs
himfelf; the-deputy tranfacts the whole, and receives and
accounts with his principal for all the profits that belonz
to him.
CrErx of the Petty Bag, is aw officer in chancery, whereof
there are three; the mafter of the rolls bring the chief.
Their office is to record the return of all inquifitions out of
every county, all liveries granted in_the court of wards, all
ofter les mains; to make all patents of cullomers, gaugers,
comptrollers, and au'nagers; congé d’elires for the creations
of bithops; fummonfes of the nobility and burgeffes to par-
liament; commiffions direfied to the knights and others, of
every fhire, for affefling of fubfidies and taxes; writs for
nomination of collectors for the fifteenths; and all traverfes
upon any office, bill, or otherwife; and to receive the money
due to the king for the fame. See Perry-Bug.
Crerk of the Pipe, an officer in the exchequer, who hav-
ing the accounts of debts due to the king, delivered and
drawn out of the remembrancer’s offices, charges them down
in the great roll, and is cailed ‘*Cierk of the Pipe,” from
the fhape of that roll, which is put together like a pipe;
he alfo writes out warrants to the fheriffs to levy the faid
debts upon the goods and chattels of the debtors; and if
they have no goods, then he draws them down to the lord
treafurer’s remembrancer, to write eltreats againit their lands
The ancient revenue of the crown ftands in charge to him,
and he fees the fame anfwered by the farmers and fheriffs; he
makes a charge to all fheriffs of their fummons of the pipe, and
green wax, and takes care it be anfwered in their accounts.
He hath alfo the drawing and engrofling of all leafes of the
king’s lands; having a fecondary and feyeral clerks under
him. In the reign of king Hen. VI. this officer was-called
“Togroflator magni, rotull.’” See flat. 33 Hen. VIII.
¢.22. Sce Pire-Office.
Crerk of the Pleas, is an officer in the exchequer, in whofe
office the officers of the court, upon fpecial privilege be-
longing to them, ought to fue,, and be fued, in any
adion,
The clerk of the pleas has under him many clerks, who
are attornies in all fuits commenced or depending in the court
of exchequer. 4
Crexxs ofthe Privy-feal, are four officers who attend the
lord-keeper of the privy-feal, or, if there be none fuch, the
principal fecretary of ftate; and write, or make out, all
things fent by warrant from thefignet to the privy-feal, and
to be pafled to. the great feal; as alfo to make out privy-feals
Cj Li E
upon any fpecial occafion of the king’s affairs ; as for loan
of money or the like.
He that is now ealled * Lord Privy-Seal.’? feems to have
been in ancient times called ‘© Clerk of the Privy-Seal,’? and
yet to have been reckoned in the number of the great offi-
cers of the realm. Stats. 12 R. IT. c. 11. 27 Hen. VIII.
Coline
Creek of the Remembrance, an officer in the exchequer,
who is to fit again{t the clerk of the pipe, to fee the dif-
larges made in the pipe, &c. Stat, 37 Ed. IIL. c. 4.
The clerk of the pipe and remembrancer thali be [worn to
make a {chedule of perfons difcharged 1n their offices. Stat.
SiC MM tsl Taye, Tihs
Crerk of the Rolls, in chancery, an officer who fearches
for, and copies deeds, officys, &c.
Crerk of the Rules, in the court of king’s bench, an offi-
cer who draws up and enters all the rules and orders made in
court, and gives rules of courfe in divers writs. This officer
is mentioned in {tat. 22 and 23 Car. IT. c. 22.
Cierkx of the Sewers, is an officer belonging to the com-
miffioners of the fewers, who writes down all things they do
by virtue of their commiffion, and the authority given them
by 13 El.cap. 9. See Sewers. ij
Crerk of a/aip, is an officer appointed to take care that
nothing be {quandered or fpent. needle fsly. ;
He is obliged to kecp-aregiiter, or journal, containing an
exa&t inventory of every thing in the loading of the veffel ;
as therigging, apparel, arms, provifions, ammunition, mer-
chandizes ; as alfo the names of the paflengers, if there be
any; the freight agreed on; a lit of the crew, -their age,
quality, wages; the bargains, purchafcs, fales, or ex-
changes the fhip makes from its departure; the confump-
tion of proyifion ; and, in fhort, every. thing relating to the
expence of the voyage. He alfo regifters the confultations
of the captains, pilots, &c. He alfo does the office of a
regifter in all criminal proceffes; and of a notary, to make
and keep the wills of thofe who die in the voyage; takes
inventories of their effe€ts, &c. The clerk is not allowed
to quit the veffel during the voyage, on forfeiture of all his
wages, &c. In fimall veffels, the mafter, or pilot, does
the office of clerk.
Cuerk of the Signet, is an officer continually attending on
the king’s principal fecretary ; who has cullody of the
privy-fiznet, as well for fealtng the king’s private letters,
as for fuch grants as pafs his majelty’s hands by bills figned.
Of thefe there are four, who attend in their turn, and
have their diet at the fecretary’s table.
The fees of the clerk of the fignet and privy-fcal are
limited particularly by flatute, with a penalty annexed for
taking any thing more, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 11.
Cierk of the King’s Silver, is an oficer belonging to the
common-pleas ; to whom every fine is brought, after it has
paffed the office of the cu/fos brevium > and by whom the ef-
fe&t of the writ of covenant is entered into a paper-book ;
according to which note, all the fines of that term are alfo
recorded in the rolls of the court. After the king’s filver is
entered, it is accounted a fine in law, and not before. See
Fine. See alfo QurEen Gol.
CLERK of the Superjedeas, is an officerin the court of com-
mon-pleas, who makes out writs of fuperfedeas (upon the
defendant’s appearing to the exigent on an outlawry) where-
by the fheriff is forbidden to return the exigent.
CLERK of the Treafury, an officer of the common-pleas
who has charge of the records. of the court, and makes
out all the records of ni/i prius, and has the fees due for all
fearches and the certifying of records.into the king’s bench,
when a writ of error is brought. Healfo makes out all writs
of /uperfedeas de non moleffanda, which are granted-for the de-
fendants
1
C2) (
GLE
fendants while the writ of error is depending: ard all ex-
emplifications of records, being in the trea‘ury.
He is the fervant of the chef juflice, and removeable at
pleafure ; whereas all other officers of the court are for life,
There is a fecondary, or under-clerk of the treafury, for
éffitance; who hath fome fees and allowances; and likewife
an under-keeper, that always keeps one key of the treafury
door, and the chief c’erk of the fecondary, another; fo
that the one cannot come in without the other.
Crerx ofthe King’s great Wardrobe, keeps an account or
inventory, in writing, of all things belonging to the king’s
wardrobe. Stat. 1 Ed. [V.c.1. -Sce Warprose.
Crerk of the Warrants, is an officer belong:nz to the
court of common-pleas, who enters ali warrants of attorney
for plantiff ard defendant in fuits; and inr Is all deeds in
indentures of bargain and fale, which are acknowledged in
the court, or b fore any judges out of the court; and it is
his office to effrzat into the exchequer all iffues, fines, and
amerciaments, which grow due to the king in that court,
for which he has a {tanding fee or allowance.
Crerxs, Regular, a general denomination, comprehend-
ing feveral diftinct religious orders, 4nd affumed to denote a
rcformation attempted to be introduced among them. See
Vueatins and Faruers
Crexns, Regulir, of the Company of Fefus.
SUITS.
Crerxs, Regular, of St. Maieul.
ma/qud.
Creeks, Regular, of St. Paul.
Crerks, Mifprifton of.
Crerx, riding. See Rivinc.
Ccerxs, Six. See Srx.
Creeks, Apofolic, in Ecclefaflical Hifory.
ATES.
CLERKE, Cuartzs, in Biography, a celebrated Eng-
lth navigator, was bred up to the navy from his youth, and
during the war which began in 1756 ferved in various
actions; particularly in that between the Bellona and
Courageux, where, being ftationed in the mizen-top, he
was carried over board with the maft, but was taken
u» without having received any hurt. He accompanied
commodore Byron in his firft voyage round the world
in the {lation of a midfhipman; and in the year 1768
he again civcumnavizated the globe as mafter’s mate and
lieutenant on board the Endeavour. Soon after his return in
775, he was appointed mafier and commander. In cap-
tain Cook’s lait voyage, M-. Clerke was captain of the
Difcovery, and upon the difaftrous death of that celebrated
officer he fucceeded to the chief command ; but did not long
enjoy that new dignity. Having manifefted fymptoms of a
confumption before he left England, the difeafe not only
continued during his whole voyage, but was aggravated by
long refidence in cold northern climates. Such, however,
was the ardour of his mind in the profecution of the fervice
to which he was devoted, that declining to avail himfelf of
the only chance for prolonging life by returning to a warmer
climate, he perfifted in his endeavours to explore a paflage
between the Afiatic and American continents, until all his
officers were unanimous in their opinion that it was impraéti-
cable. Retaining his {pirics and manifefting fingular firmnefs
and equanimity during the progrefs of his difeafe, his life
was at length prematurely terminated on the 22d of Aug.
1779, in the 38th year of his age, within view of the coalt
of Kamfchatka. Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. iii p. 281.
Crerxe’s Harbour, otherwife called Port Clerke, in Geo-
graphy, lies to the S. of Pickerfgill’s cove, in Chriftmas found
(which fee), andis much larger than the cove. On the N. of
fome low rocks lying off a point on Shag ifland is the entrance
I
See Jx-
See Fatuers of So-
See BarNaBITEs,
Sec Misrrision.
See Jesu-
_ York, and 212 from Philadelphia.
‘GLE
into Port Clerke at W. by S. 12 mile, with fiom 12 to 24
fathoms. Here may be procured both waod and frefh ®
water, which are two very effential articles in fuch a climate.
To the fouthward of this port abovt a mile, a large
ifland appears to cover another bay from S. and S.E.
winds. ,
Crerxe’s iflands, are two iflands, fituated in the north
Pacific ocean, on the weltern lide of the American con-
tinent. At a diltance they appear to be of contiderable
extent, ard to contain feveral hills conne@ted by land, but
{eeming to form a group of iflands. Near the eaft point isa
fmall iflind, having upon it 3 elevated rocks. N. lat. 63°
15’. W. long. r90° 30’.
Ccerke’s rocks, are lituated on the coat of fouth Georgia,
in about 55° 5’.S. lat. and 34° 4/ W. long. 12 leagues S.
75° E. from Cooper’s ifland.
CLERMONT, a county of America, io the ftate of Ohio,
bounded N. on Warren county, S. on the Ohio, E. on
Adams, and W. on Hamilton county. Its extent from N.
to S. is 30 miles, and from E. to W. 23 miles. By the
cenfus of 1803 it contained 755 inhabitants; it has one fe-
nator in the ftate leziflature and one reprefentative.
Ciexmont, a palt-town of America, in Columbia
county, and the ftate of New York; 117 miles N. of New
The townthip contains
867 inhabitants, including 113 flaves.
Crermonr, a town of America, in New Hampfhire, on _
the eaft bank of the river Conneéticut, between Dartmouth |
aod Cnarlelton,
Crermoxt, or Crermont en Beauvaifis, a town of
France, and priacipal place ofa diltrit in the department of
the Orfe, feated on an eminence near the Brefche ; 74 pofts ”
N. of Paris. The place contains 1995, and the canton 10,465
inhabitants: the territory includes 145 kiliometres and 18
communes. 4
CvLermonT, a city of France, and capital of the depart-
ment of Puy-de-Ddme ; before the revolution the capital of
Auvergne, and the fee of a bifhop, fuff-agan of Bourges : feat-~
ed on a [mall eminence at the foot of a lofty mountain. The
piace, comprehending the N. S. and S. E. cantons, contains
24,478, and the 3 cantons 35,485 inhabitants: the territory
of the firft canten includes 52% kiliometres and 5 communes ;
that of the fecond 674 kiliometres and 2 communes: and
that of the third 120 kiliometres and 3 communes. The
commerce of this city confifts in corn, wine, wool, woollen ©
ftuffs, tammies ferges, linen, lace, &c.
Near this place are fome mineral f{prings, and the water
of a brook, which paffes through one of the fauxbourgs,
petrified a wooden bridge to perfe& ftone, fo that carriages ©
can pafs over it. A council was held here in the year 1095,
to determine on the crufade againft the infidels in the Holy —
Land, during the pontificate of Urban II. It is called Cler-
mont- Ferrand from the town of Montferrand being united to
it, and forming one of its fauxbourgs ; diftaut 233 polts W.
from Lyons, and 463 8. from Paris. N. lat. 45° 46! 44”.
Ejilong. 3° 51 2M ;
CLeRmonrT, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Lo-
déve, 20 miles W. of Montpellier. The place contains
5430, and the canton 11,440 inhabitants: the territory in- ~
cludes 1674 kiliometres and 15 communes. ‘The chief
trade confilts in wool and cattle, with manufaétures of cloth
and hats for exportation. .
Cvermonr, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Ver-
dun ; feated on an eminence furrounded with woods and
paftures; 4 leagues W.S.W. of Verdua. The place
contains 1598, and the canton 9660 inhabitants: the terri-
tory
CLE
tory includes 207% kiliometres and 17 communes, N, lat,
49° 7". E, long. 4°, -
(CLERMONT, a town of France, in the department of the
Dot and Garonne; 3 leagues W. of Agen.
CLERMONT, a town of France, in the department of tle
Sarthe, 1 leazue N.E. of La Fléche.
Crernmont Afanufcript, Codex Claromontanus or Regius
2245, in Biblical Literature, is a Greek-Latin copy of St.
Paul’s Epiltles, found in the monaftery of Clermont en
Beauyailis in France, and ufed by Beza, together with the
Cambridge MS, in preparing his edition of the New Tetta-
ment,
Wetftein charges Beza with a miftake in regard to its hav-
ing been preferved at Clermont, and fays that he confounded
it with the Cambrige MS. He conj:Gtures that it was brought
into Switzerland from the monaltery of Cluny which the
Swifs plundered, and that Beza defignedly concealed the
manner in which it came into his pofleffion. But this re-
fleGtion on the part of Wetitein is thought to be partial and
unjuft; as Beza, who had procured it either by purchafe
or gift, and thus refcued it from deftruGion, might have
openly avowed the fact, without incurring the charge of
literary theft, or being in danger of having it redemanded.
From the hands of Beza it came into the Putean library, a
library which derived its name from the family of Du Puy ;
the proprietor being Jacques du Puy, who was librarian to
the king of France, and died in 1656. Du Puy bequeathed it
with all his other MSS. to the Royal Library at Paris, where
it is cow preferved and marked Cod. Gree. 107 ; and it is
noted D in the fecond part of Wetflein’s New Teftament.
This copy is written on vellum in Greek and Latin, with fome
mutilations. According to the accounts of Wetfein and Sa-
batier, thirty-fix leaves were cut out of it, in the beginning of
the laft century, probably. by John Aymon, a noted Iiterary
thief, who robbed both the royal and private hbraries ; and
thefe leaves were fold in England; but they were fent back
by lord Oxford in 1729. The MS. is therefore aga'n com-
plete, as there fails only the covering, in which the ftolen
fheets had been inclofed, which is kept in the Britifh Mu-
feum, and filled with the letters that paffed cn the occafion,
asa monument of this infamous theft.
This manulcript, like other codices Graco-Latini, has been
accufed of having a Greek text that has been altered from
the Latin. Wetftcia has produced feveral examples, of un-
equal weight, in fupport of this charge. Neverthelefs, though
perhaps the charge is not wholly unfounded, it harmonizes
with other ancient verfions, more efpeciaily the Syriac; and
as no one can fuppofe, that this MS. has been corrupted
from them all, no other caufe of coincidence can be affigned
befides its high antiquity. From feveral examples, pro-
duced by Michaelis in confequence of having examined only
a few chapters, it may be concluded, that the fufpicion of
its having been altered throughout fromthe Latin is un-
grounded, Mill contended that the Codex Claromontanus
was the fecond part of the Cantabrigtenfis: but Wetftein
has [ufficiently confuted this opinion, and fhewn that the
former is by no means conneled with the latter, as appears
from the difference of their form, their orthography, and
the nature of the vellum on which they are written. This
has hkewife been confirmed byeGriefbach in his “ Symbolz
Criticz,’? who has examined both MSS
Beza was the firft who made ufe of the Clermont MS. ;
it was afterwards collated by Morinus, with a view of dif-
covering readings in fupport of the Vulgate ; more copious
extracts were pivenin the London Polyglot, which Mul
transferred to his Greek Teflament ; and Wetitein has twice
CLE
collated it himfelf in 1715 and 1716. The Latin verfion
publithed by Sabatier was taken from this manufeript and
the Sangermanenfis, a
With regard to the antiquity of this MS. Sabatier ett
Mates it at 1200 years; and it is fuppofed by Montfaucon
to have been written in the qth century. He has deferibed
it in his © Paleographia Gieca,”’ p- 217), endin the plate
fronting this page he has given a fac-fimie of its characters.
Though written in Uncial letters, it has accents and marks
of afpiration, of which Montfaucon says; ‘ fecunda manu,
ut videtur, nec diu, ut creditur, poft defcriptum codicem:
adjeSti.funt.’? The marks of alpiration, however, are not
of the modern femicircular form. This MS. was probably
written in the wet of Europe, not only becaufe it has
a Latin tranflation, but beeaufe the epittle to the He-
brews is written at the end; and in the catalocue of
the books of the New Teltament placed after the epiftle
to Philemon, no mention is made of the epiftle to
the Hebrews. To this may be added, that neither Si-
mon nor Wetftein has noted that this epittle is written even
by a later hand, and was therefore wholly excluded from
the canon by the original writer of the manufcript. Confe-
quently, as the epittle to the Hebrews was, dunng a confi-
derable time, rejected by the Church of Rome, but not by
the Greek Church, it is certain, that the Codex Claromon-
tanus was written in acountry, that was under the dominion
of the former. Michaelis’s Introd. to the New Teftament
by Marth, vols. it. and iti. See CamprincE Mannfcript.
In the above-mentioned catalogue the Latin order of the
gofpels is likewife obferved, viz. Matthew, Joha, Mark,
Luke, which furnifhes additional evidence that it was write
ten by a member of the Latin church.
CLERODENDRUM, in Botany, (from xdneor, lot or
foriune, and d:ideov, a tree; fortunate tree). Linn. Gen. 7£q,
Schreb. 1057. Willd. 1202, Gart. 340. Julf. 196. Vent.
2.316. (Peragu, Encyc. Meth) Clafs and order, d-
dynamia angiofperme. Nat. ord. Lerfonaie, Taina. Vitices,
Jull. Pyrenacee, Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, campanulate ; feg-
ments five, cvate-acute, broader than the tube of the co-
rolla, permanent. Cor. monopetalous, irregular; tube
long, flender; border regularly cleft, upper fegments: more
decply divided. Filaments four, filiform, much longer than
the corotla, afcending and widely {preading through its two
upper fiffures ; authers fimple. Pi, Germ roundith; ttyle
the length of the filaments ; ftizma fimple. Peric. Berry,
or rather drupe, enclofed by the inflated calyx, one-celled,
with four ftones, (pyrenes, Gert.) often feparating into four-
partsin the ftate of maturity ; flones or pyrenes one-cellee,
each containing a fingle kernel or feed.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five cleft, campanulate. Tube of the-
corolla flender; border five-cleft, equal. Stamens very.long,
proje@ting through the two upper fiffures of the corolla,
widely fpreading. Berry or drupe one-célled ;. tones four,
each with a fingle feed,
Obf- There is a great refemblance in the general habit and
feveral prominent charaGters between the {pecies of this genus
and thofe of volkameria. It differs from the lattet in having
a fimple, not a bifid ftigma, and one-feeded, not two-feed-
ed ftones.. The number of kernels or feeds is, however, in
both genera exaétly the fame.
Sp. 1. C. infortunaium, Linn. Sp, Pl. 1, Mart. 1. Poir.
1, Willd. 1, Gert. tab. 57, fig. 1. Lam. Ll. tab. 544.
Lour. 387. (Peragu, Rheed. Hort. Mal. 2. tab. 25.)
“ Leaves heart-fhaped, tomentous.”” A fhrub about three
feet high, (feven fect, Lour.) Roots fibrous, yellow or red-
aif.
CLE
dith. Stems cylindrical nearthe bottom, quadrangular above
with a deep groove on each of the fides, cloathed with a ruf-
fetdown. Leaves oppoiite, without ftipules, cordate acute,
entire, nerved ; their upper furface deep green, with a few
very thort, fine, {cattered hairs ; their under furface cloathed
with a thick, clofe, ruffet down. Flowers yellowith white,
(bright fearlet, Lour.) in a terminal pyramidal panicle;
each peduncle terminated by one or two pedicelled flowers.
Fruit blackifh when ripe. A native of fandy places on the
coatt of Malabar and other parts of the Eaft Indies. 2. C.
fortunatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart.2. Poir. 2. Wiild. 2.
Ofveck. It. tab. 11. ‘* Leaves lanceolate, quite entire.”
A fhrub. Stems cylindrical, flightly hoary, Leaves two
or three inches long, more than an inch broad, oppolite,
petioled, naked, nerved, a little decurrent along the petioles;
petioles a third of the length of the leaves, rather cylindri-
cal near the bafe, friated and almoft flat above. /Voqwers
yvellowith white, axillary, in {mall corymbs; common pe-
duncles an inch long, narrow, fearcely pubefcent, dividing
into fhort branched bifurcations, each fupporting a fingle
flower; calyx much expanding, deeply divided ; fegments
ovate, acute, {mooth, permanent; tube of the corolla
fearcely longer than the calyx ; filaments nearly twice the
length of the corolla, capillary; anthers oval, very {mall ;
piltil fhorter than the ftamens. A native of the ifland of
Java and other partsof the Eaft Indies. 3. C. calamitofum,
Lino. Mant. go. Mart. 4. Poir. 3. Willd: 3. (Volka-
meria alternifolium, Burm. Ind. tab. 44??) *“* Leaves
oval, fomewhat toothed, naked.” Stem ereét, woody.
Leaves oppofite, petioled; petioles one-third of their length.
Flowers {maller than thofe of the preceding {pecies, axillary,
in a {preading panicle. Avnativeof Java. 4. C. phlomoides,
Linn. jun. Suppl. 292. Mart. 3. Poir. 4. Willd. 4. Vahl.
Symb. 2. (Volk=meria multiflora, Burm. tab. 45. fig. r ).
« Leaves egg fhaped, entire, toothed and angular; pedun-
cles axillary, with about three flowers.”? A hoary fhrub.
Stems woody, whitifh, pubefcent, nearly cylindrical.
Leaves oppofite, petioled, acute, thick, tomentous, yel-
lowithh white on both fides, entire near the bafe, toothed and
almoft angular from the middle to the fummit, nearly as
broad as long ; petioles about half an inch long, a little
fhorter than the leaves. FVoqwers white, forming altogether
a {preading panicle; branches axillary, from the upper
leaves; peduncles tomentous, white, nearly: the length of
the leaves; braétes ovate, acute, entire, tomentous, white ;
calyx campanulate, divided nearly to the middle ; fegments
open, lanceolate, very acute; tube of the corolla at lealt
three times longer than the corolla, flender, enlarged near
its orifice; divifions of the border five, fhort, ovate, a little
reflexed ; ftamens half as long again as the corolla, lefs
{preading than in the other fpecies. A native of the Fait
Indies ; found by Koenig and Sonnerat. 5. C. wmbellatum,
Poir. 5. ** Leaves coriaceous, egg-fhaped, fhining, quite
entire ; flowers fomewhat umbelled.”” A fhrub. Svems
tetragonous, quite fmooth, ftriated, reddifh or purple.
Leaves oppotite, petioled, quite fmooth, very acute, about
three inches long, one inch broad; petioles very fhort.
Flowers veddith, in a terminal four-rayed umbel ;_ peduncles
twice bichotomous or trichotomous, with one flower at the
ends of the lait divifions; calyx pubefcent, tubular, cleft to
the middle ; fegments narrow, linear ; tube of the corolla
more than an inch long, flender; lobes of the border rather
large ; filaments twice the length of the corolla, purple. A
native of Africa; found by Smeathman; defcribed from a
fingle branch in the herbarium of La Marck. 6. C. /gua-
matim, Mart. 7. Poir. 6. Willd. 5. Vahl. Symb, 2. p.
CLE
44. Leaves heart-fhaped, obfcurely angular; branches
of the panicle dichotomous, f{mooth.’? Stems frutefcent
ere&t ; branches {mooth, tetragonous, with a groove on each
fide. Leaves from three to five inches long, from two to
four broad, witha deep finus at their bafe, oppofite, acute,
entire, or fometimes ob{curely toothed, three or five-nerved,
tender, fmooth; pale green underneath, and covered with
minute, roundifh, umbilicated fcales; deeper green above,
and cloathed with a few {mall very fhort hairs; petioles at
firft villous, afterwards fmooth, at leaft as long as the leaves.
Flowers in a large, terminal, fpreading, {mooth, panicle;
peduncles deeply furrowed, thrice dichotomous, fometimes
trichotomoes at the fecond divifion; pedicels one-flowered,
filiform ; lower braS&es oppofite, petioled, oppofite, heart-
fhaped, flightly villous; upper ones feilile, narrow, awl-
fhaped; calyx deeply divided; fegments quite fmooth, a
litt.e coloured, oval, acute, permanent; tube of the corolla
flender, three times the length of the calyx ; divifions of the
border lanceolate, acute; ftamens projecting two irches out
of the corolla; piftil of the fame length. A native of the
Eaft Indies. Specimens fent by Sonnerat are preferved
in the Herbarium of La Marck, fro: which Vahl formed
his {pecitic charaéter and defcription. Porret, who examin-
ed the fame {pecimens, was induced by appearances to fufpe&
that the {uppofed fcales on the under furface of the leaves
are really either a kermes, or fome kind of parafitic fungus,
allied to ecidium. If this fufpicion bz well founded, the
plant is mifnamed, and lofes the moft prominent part of its
{pecific charaéter. 7. C, trichotcmum, Mart. 6. Poir. 7. _
Willd. 6. Thunb. Jap. 256. (Sco kufits, vulgo kufagei,
Kampf. Amen. 827. Ic. Sele. tab. 22.) ‘* Leaves
lobed and undivided, broad-egg-fhaped, quite entire; pani-
cle trichotomous.’’ Stems frutefcent ; branches fmooth, te-
tragonous, with a deep furrow.on each fide. Leaves oppofite,
petioled ; lower ones larger, three-lobed ; upper ones undi-
vided ; uppermoft very {mall; all acuminate, {mooth, entire,
nerved, deep green above, paler underneath ; petioles flightly
pubefcent, fhorter than the leaves. Flowers white, in a
very large panicle, without braétes ; peduncles and pedicels
{mooth, compreffed at the divifion ; calyx inflated, contraét-
ed above, with five angles, fhrivelling but permanent, much
wider and fhorter than the corolla, fmooth ; fegments keeled,
acute, ere€t ; tube of the corolla an inch long, filiform, a
little bent; divilions of the border oblong, obtufe, fpread-
ing; filaments inferted into the tube of the corolla within
the throat, whitifh, divaricated at the bottom ; anthers cor-
date-ovate; germ fuperior, tetragonous, {mooth; ftyle longer
than the {tamens; fligma fimple, truncated, uit an almolt
globular capfule, {mooth, with four furrows, four-celled,
four-valved. Sveds {mooth, one in each cell. A native of
Japan. The leaves have a ftrone poifonous fmell like man-
dragora. OL/ The fruit of this {pecies, as defcribed by
Thunberg, is altogether at variance with the eflential generic
Charaéter. 8. C. diverfifolium, Mart. S. Poir. S. Willd.
7. Vahl. Symb. 2 75. Leaves entire and three-lobed,
egg-lhaped; branches of the panicle dichotomous, villous;
pedicels racemed.”? Stems woody ; branches tetragonous,
with a furrow on each fide, villous at the top. Leaves from
fix to eight inches long, five or fix broad, oppolite, peti-
oled, fmooth, deep green above, covered underneath with
{cales fimilar to thofe of C. fquamatum; lower leaves very
large, five-lobed, enlarged at the bafe ; lobes acute, middle
one much longer, acuminate ; upper leaves {maller, narrow-
ed at the bafe, three-lobed ; two lateral lobes fhort, rather
acute; terminal leaves f{mall, entire, lanceolate, feffile, or
narrowed into a petiole. //owers in a large terminal Pe
cle
CrLvE
cle eight or ten inches long, villous in allits ramifications
common peduncles oppofite, expanding, once or twice di-
chotomous, terminated by fimple racemes; calyx pubef-
cert, with oblong acute fegments; tube of the corolla
about an inch long, flightly pubefcent, two-lipped; up-
per lip bifid, with ere& linear divifions; lower one threc-
Jobed, the two lateral Jobes fhorter than that in the middle ;
filaments nearly twice the length of the corolla. A native
of the Eaft Indies. Defcription formed by Vahl from fpe-
cimens communicated to La Marck by Sonnerat. 9. C. pa-
niculatum, Linn. Mant. 90. Mart. 5. Poir. g. Willd. 8.
Vahl. Symb. 2. 74. Leaves lobed, ferrated; panicles
very large.” Linn. ‘ Leaves five-lobed, toothed, {mooth;
panicle brachiate ; axils woolly.’ Vahl. Stems frutefcent ;
branches fmooth, tetragonous, deeply furrowed on each
fide, purple. caves five or fix inches long, oppofite, pe-
tioled, heart-fhaped; lobes unequal, lanceolate, acute,
edged with remote {mall tecth ; petioles:cylindrical, ftriated,
about the fize of a pigeon’s quill; axils garnifhed with long
curling whitifh hairs. FYowers in a valt, much branched,
expanding panicle, which is about fix inches long ; pedun-
cles oppofite, {mooth, many times dichotomous ; pedicels
capillary, one-flowered ; fegments of the calyx lanceolate,
fmooth; corolla about an inch long; tube filiform, divifions
of the border oblong. A native of the Eaft Indies.
CLERODENDRUM jruticofum /pinofum, Brown. Jam.
VorKamerta aculeata.
CLEROMANCY, derived from XANGOS, lot, and PARIT ELC,
divination, a kind of divination performed by the throwing
of dice, or little bones; and obferving the points or marks
turned up.
At Bura, a city of Achaia, was atemple, and a cele-
brated oracle of Hercules; where fuch as confulted the
oracle, after praying to the idol, threw four dics, the points
whereof being well fcanned by the priefl, he was fuppofed
to draw an anfwer from them.
Something of this kind feems to have been practifed
with regardto Jonah. See Jonah, i. 7.
CLERORUM, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal fee of
Afia. in Phrygia Salutaris. :
CLEROTI, among the Athenians, a kind of public
arbitrators. See Dixzrerx.
CLERVAL, in Geography, atown of Trance, in the
department of the Doubs, and chicf place of a canton, in
the dittrift of Baume; 7 leagues N.E. of Befancon. The
place contains 1113, and tke canton goo5 inhabitants: the
territory includes 217% kiliometres, and 25 communes.
CLERVAUT, a town of France, in the department of
the Vienne; 3 miles N. of Chatellerault.
CLERVAUX, a town of France, in the department of
the Foréts, and chief place of a canton, in the ditlrict of
Dieekirch ; the place contains 525, and the canton 6763
inhabitants: the territory includes 2624 kiliometres, and
ro communes.
CLERY, atown of France, in the department of the
Somme, and diftri&t of Péerone; 1 league N.W. of it.
Criery, Notre-Dame de, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Orleans; 7 miles S.W. of Orleans. ‘The place
contains 2224, and the canton 4473 inhabitants: the ter-
titory includes 125 kiliometres, and 4 communes.
CLESSIDES, in’ Biography, an ancient painter, who,
imagining himfelf flighted by Stratonice, painted a fatyrical
reprefentation of that queen, ia the arms of a fifherman,
with whom, it was whifpered, fhe was enamoured; hung
it up to public yiew in the port of Ephefus, and then took
to his oars’and got away. The picture was admirable ;
Vor. VIII.
See
CLE
and Stratonice, valuing the art more than her own reputa~
tion, would not fuffer it to be removed. Orlandi. Della
Valle, Vite dei Pitt. Ant.
CLETEBENT, in Ancient Geography, a people. of
Arabia Felix, fituated near the .Red Sca, between the
Sabzans and Minzans.
CLETCH, in Rural Economy, a term, fignifying a young
brood, as of chickens, &c.
CLETHARRO, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Ptolemy in Arabia Petraa.
CLETHRA, ia Botany, (xAnfpx,'Theoph. lib.i. cap. 14,
which Gaza tranflates a/nus, alder. HH. Stephens derives it
from zAsw, claudo, to clofe or fhut up, referring probably
to the fituation of the feeds in the female catkin of the
alder.) Linn. Gen. 553. Schreb. 751. Willd. 872.
Gert. 383. Jufl. 160. Vent. ii. 462. Clafs and order,
decandria monogynia. Nat. ord. SBicornes, Linn. Vent.
Erica, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Ferianth one-leafed, five-cleft, (five-
leaved, Gert.) ; fegments concave, egg-fhaped, ereét, per-
manent. Cor. Petals five, longer than the calyx, cb!ang,
enlarged towards the fummit, half-expauding, obtufe. Stam.
T'laments ten, a little longer than the petals, awl-{haped ;
anthers forked. Pi?. Germ fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle per-
manent; ftigma triid. Peric. Capfule roundifh, enclofed
in the calyx, three-celled, three-valved ; partitions contrary
to the valves. Sveds fix or eight in each cell, attached to
an angular receptacle, which is finally deciduous.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five. Stigma trifid.
Capfule three celled, three-valved.
Sp. 1. C. alnifolia, alder-leaved clethra, Lian. Sp. Pl. r.
Mart. 1. Lam. 1. Willd. 1, »Gert. i. tab. 63. Lam,
Ill. Pl. 369. fig. 1. (Alnifolia americana, Pluk. Alm.
tab. rr5. fig. 1,2. Catefo. Car. i. tab. 66.) ** Shrub-
by; Jeaves obovate-lanceolate, ferrated, fmooth on both
fides; racemes fimple, in form of fpikes.” outs fpread-
ing. Stems from eight to ten feet high; branches
diffufe, cylindrical, pubefeent near the fummit. Leaves
about three inches long, an inch and quarter broad
in the middle, alternate; on fhort petioles, nerved.
Ilowers white, numerous, in terminal racemes; braétes
linear, fhorter than the flowers, caducous. A native of
Virginia and Carolina, in moift ground, and on the banks of
2. C. tomentofa, Lam. 2. (C.alnifolia, 6. Hort.
« Leaves tomentous, hoary underneath.”? Smaller
Peduneles, calyxes, and braétes
very villous. Sewers white. A. native of Virginia and
Carolina. 3. Cy paniculata, Hort. Kew.ii. p. 73. Mat. 24
Willd. 2. ** Shrubby ; leaves lanceolate, naked on both,
fides ; flowers panicled, bra¢teate.” Panicle not compofed
of racemes, narrow, elongated ; peduncles prbelcent, white.
A native of North America, flowering from Augult to
OGober. 4. C. arborea.
rivulets.
Kew.)
than the preceding {pecies,
«* Leaves oblong, acuminate,
ferrated, fmooth; racemes panicled; flowers . without
bra@es;. peduncles hirfute’”? A tree. Calyxes obtufe.
Receptacles of the feeds not folitary at the bale of each cell,
as in C. alnifolia, but fixed laterally at the top of a thore
three-fided central column, with which the partitions are in
conta. A native of Madeira: introduced by Maffon in
1754. 5. C. tinifolia, Mart. 4. Wilid. 4... Pour. Sub.
Tinier. , Swartz. Prod. 74... Ind. Occid ii p. 845. (Ti
nus occidentalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 530. Volkameria arborea,,
Brown. Jam, 214. tab. 21. fig. 12... Baccifera arbor caly-
culata, Sloan. Jam. ii. tab. 198. fig. 2, but not the de-
{cription.) ‘* Leaves oblong, quite entire, hoary under-
neath ; racemes panicled ; flowers without bractes, pedun-:
cles tomentous.”? A fhrub, with the habit of the other
30 fpecies
que
foecies of ‘clethra, twelve or fourteen fect high ; branches
{preading. Leaves alternate, petioled, fmooth, and green
on their upper furface, acute, narrowed at the bale. J /oqwers
in axillary and terminal racemes; calyx a little pubefcent,
with five equal fegments ; petals five, a little enlarged, con-
nivent at the bafe ; {lamens ten ; filaments free, not project-
ing; ftigma trifd. Fruit a capfule refembling a berry, or
rather a drupe, {mooth, roundifh, three-celled, three-valved.
A native of Jamaica.
Ob/. Linneus, who was imperfe&ly acquainted with the
fruGification, made it a diltinét genus, and placed it in his
clafs Enneandria. Juffieu, without venturing to alter this
difpofition, conjeCtured that its fuppofed berry would prove
a capfule, and that the plant muft be affociated with clethra.
Subfequent obfervations have confirmed his opinion.
Crerura, in Gardening, contains a plant of the
hardy deciduous flowering fhrubby kind; of which the
fpecies is alder-leaved clethra (C. aluifolia), which is a fhrub
that has the roots {preading far on every fide, and fending
yp many items, from eight or ten to fourteen feet high,
which are covered with a greyifh bark, and. divide into
many round alternate branches. The leaves are about
three inches long, and an inch and a quarter broad in the
middle; of a deep green on their upper fide, anda whitifh
green underneath, alternate, and on very fhort petioles.
The flowers are on Joofe {pikes from four or five inches toa
{pan long; the peta's are white. They appear in July,
and, when the feafon is mld, fome fpiles are produced in
O&tober. It is a native of North America.
Method of Culture. It is capable of being increafed by
feeds, layers, and fuckers.
The feeds procured from America fhould be fown in pots
of light mould, and removed into the fhade during fummer,
and theltered in winter, as fometimes the plants do not
come up till the fecond {pring after they have been fown.
And the layers fhould be made from the young fhoots in
autumn, and water given them tke following fummer ; and
in the autumn after, or when well rooted, they fhou!d be
taken off and planted out in feparate pots, or in the places
where they are to remain.
In the laft mode, the fuckers from the roots may be re-
moved in the autumn, or early {pring months, fibres being
preferved to them as much as poflible, and be planted out in
pots, or other places where they are to remain.
This is a very ornamental thrub, particularly during the
time of its bloom, but fhould have a rather moitt fituation.
CLETHRITES /apis, a name given by the ancients to
fuch pieces of foffile wood as fhewed a grain refembling that
of the wood of the alder.
CLETHY, in Geography, a river of South Wales,
which rifes in Pembrokefhire, about 5 miles S.E. of New-
port, and joins the Dungledy, 4 miles N. of. Pembroke.
CLETON, a river of Wales, which runs into the Dee,
two miles below Bala, in Merionethhhire.
CLETTER, a river of Wales, in Cardiganfhire, which
runs into the Dovy, a few miles below Machynlleth.
CLEVELAND, a diftri& of England, in the county
of York, on the borders of Durham. \
CLeveLAND, a pleafant {mall town of America, in the
ftate of Ohio, and county of Trumbull, favourably fituated
on the borders of lake Erie, at the mouth of Cayahoga
river.
CLEVES, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft.
phalia, and eapital of a duchy to which it gives name; but
frace the French revolution, the principal’ place of a diftrict
in the department of the Roer; the place contains 4243,
and the eanton $353 inhabitants; and the territory includes
IDS
5
Cc Lt
16 communes. It is fituated on the river Kermifdal, about
two miles from the Rhine, on the brow of a hill, furrounded
with walls, but not much fortified, and confilts of feveral
irregular ftreets. ‘The land about the town is very well
cultivated, which is owing to the abolition of the great
land-holders. About half a mile from the town isa very
pleafant park, with a clofe avenue of noble plane trees; and
near this agreeable fpot is a mineral fpring, which in fum-
mer is much frequented. The Dutch language and coins are
current here, as well as the High German. The Roman
Catholics, the Lutherans, the Calvinifts, and the Mennon-
ites, have their re{peétive churches, and the Jews have a fy-
nagogue. In the fame department, ia the diftridt of
Cleves, and about the diftance of five miles from the
Rhine, isthe town of Calcar: the place contaiming 1304,
and the canton 9345 inhabitants, and the territory including
22 communes. See Carcar.
Cleves is about ro miles E.S.E. of Nimmeguen. N. lat.
51°) So! along: is S50! 7
Creves, Duchy of, forming, fince the revolution, a part
of the French department of Roer, is a principality of
Germany, which belonged to the king of Piuffia, and is
bounded on the north by Overyflel and the bifhoprick, of
Muntter, on the eat by the formerand the county of Rech-
Inghaufen, on the fouth by thecounty of Mark and duchy
of Berg, and on the weft by Guelderland and Brabant. It
is about 50 miles in length, and 13 in breadth; the air is
very healihy, but the foil is unequal. On the eminence are
feen fields, woods, and extenfive forefts, bordered by towns.
and villages; and on the banks of the Rhine, which rans
through this country, are extenfive fine paltures, which
feed a great number of cattle. The produce is corn, to-
bacco, and all forts of vegetables. Game is plentiful, and
the rivers abound with all forts of fifh. The manufaGtures.
of fill, cloth, linen, lace, pipes, &c. are very confiderable.
The whole country contains 22 towns, the principal of
which are Cleves, Calcar, Nieder-Wefel, Duifburg, Xan-
ton, Rees, and Emmerich, in which perfons of all religious
fe€ts are allowed freedom of worfhip. The population, ac-
cording to the eftimate of Hoeck (edit. 1801), amounts to
100,c0o perfons. The principal rivers are the Rhine,
Meufe, Ruhr, Emfer, Lippe, and the Iffel. he revenues
of Cleves and Mark are faid to have amounted to a million
of crowns; and the king of Pruffia, as duke of Cleves, was
accuftomed to pay towards the charges of the empire 1208
florins, and to the Imperial chamber 676 crowns. See
Roer.
Curves, a town of America, in the fate of Virginia;
two miles north of Port Royal. }
CLEUSIS, in Ancient Geography, a river which ran
from north to fouth, between Mela and the lake Benacus.
CLEVUM, or Greyum, a town of Great Britain,.
which, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, lay on the
reute from Ifca or Caerleon to Calleva or Silchefter, between
Ariconium near Rofs, and Duroconovium or Cirencetter..
It was the prefent city of Gloucetter.
.CLEVVY, in Agriculture, a term fometimes provincially
applied to a fort of draft-iron of a plough.
CLEW-ay, in Geography, a large bay om the weft
coa{t of Ireland, in the county of Mayo, which has been
fometimes called Newport bay. It is twelve miles from
ealt to weft, and from five to feven miles from north to
fouth. At the bottom it is crowded with {mall iflands, be-
tween fome of which there is deep and fafe anchorage. It
is fheltered on the north and fouth by the mountains of Bur-
rifhoole and Morifk, and defended from weltern ftorms by
the high and rocky ifland of Clare. There are two {ma
ports
CLE
ports on this bay, Newport Prat and Weftport, which will
be mentioned in their proper places. ‘The entrance S. of
Clare Ifland i in about 5 iia 40’. N. lat, and the whole bay
is between 9° 27’ and g° 46! long. W. from Greenwich.
Beaufort, M’ Kenzie.
Crew, or Cus, of the fail of a frip, is the lower cor-
ner of it which reaches down to that earing where the tacks
and fheets are faftened; fo that when a failis made goring,
or floping by degrees, the is {aid to have a great clews: and
a fhip is faid to havea great clew, when fhe has a very long
yard, and fo has much canvas in her fails.
Crew garnet, a rope fattened to the clew of the fail,
and from thence running ina block feized to the middle
of the main and fore- -yard. Its ufe is to haul up the clew
of the fail clofe to the middle of the yard, in order to ita
being furled. Hence to clew, or clue up, is to haul up ele
clews of a fail to its yard by means of the clew-lines.
Crew-line is the fame to the top-fails, top-gallant- foils,
and {prit-fails, that the clew-garnet is to the main-fail “te
fore-fail, and has the very fame’ufe. In a gult of wind
when a top-fail is to be taken in, they fir haul home the jee
clew-line, and by that means the fail ts taken in much eafier. -
CLEYER, Anpnrew, M.D., in Biography, was born
at Caffel, near the Rhine, the beginning of the 17th cen-
tury. His difpofition leading him to the itudy of medicine,
and natural hiltory, after being initiated in the knowledge
of pharmacy and furgery, he accepted the office of phyli-
cian to the Dutch fettlement at Batavia, in the ifland of
Java, where he appears to have refided feveral years. He
had been previoufly ele@ted a member of the Imperial Aca-
demy, whofe TranfaCtions he enriched with numerons curious
and interefting communications, the titles of which follow:
«* An Account of Hydatids, found in a Human Stomach,”
« Of the Cuftom of the Indians, of taking Opium,” “ut
ad venerem fe excitent.””. They think opium, taken in the
quantity of a drachm in the day, has the power of pro-
longing life. In Java, he fays, the elephantiafis meade its
firit appearance about twenty years before he arrived in the
ifland; from his defcription of the difeafe, it appears to
have been the yaws. He defcribes 289 plants growing in
the ifland, with the ules they are put to by the natives;
particularly the moxa, ginfeng, and the tea-plant; of the
greater part of which there are engravings, elegantly,
Haller fays, but not very accurately, drawn. His publi-
cationsare, ‘“¢ Specimen Medicine Sinice, five Opufcula Me-
dica ad Mentem Sinectfium.’’ Franecf. 1680, 4to. It
confilts of feveral treatifes on the pulfe, as defcribed by the
Chinefe; of the indications of difeafe, taken from the
pulfe, colour ef the tongue, &c. he obfervations on the
medicine of the Chinefe, in part tranflated from their
books, was the work of William Tex Rhyne, who was
alfo refident in Java, and who complains that they were
pubiifhed without his knowledge. Haller Bib. Med. Anat.
Chir. Bot.
CLEYERA, in Botany, Thunb. See Ternstremia.
CLEYN, or Crenn, Francis ve, in Biography, wasa
native of Roftock, in Germany ; having an inclination to-
wards the fine arts, he went to Rome, where he ftudied four
years. He afterwards came to England, and was employ-
ed by James J. to make defigns for ornamental tapettries.
His talent lay chiefly in painting friezes, and other grotefque
decorations, in which he introduced fea-nymphs, tr.tons, and
cupids ; with fuflicient grace of defign and freedom of exe-
cution. Several paintings by him of this defcription {till
exift at Holland houfe ; and feveral of them were engraved
by himfelf and others. He died in .London, in the year
1658, Pilkington. Strutt.
Gp rot
CLIBADIUM, in Botany, (KrBodiov, Diofcor.) Linn.
Gen. 1329. Schreb. 1430. Willd. 1670. Jufl. rot. Clals
and order, menacia pentandria. Nat. Ord. Corymbiferz, Juli.
Gen. Ch. Cal. common imbricated ; feales ezg-{haped; '
acute. ~ Cor. Florets tubular, fannel: -fhaped, five-cleft;
male florets in the difk, numerous, pedicelled ; female enes
in the ray, three or four. Stam. in the males; filaments
five, very fhort, capillary ; anthers oblong, approximating,
but-not united. Pi. in the males abortive ; Seabees
fmail, fuperior ; Ryle filiform ; {tigma fimple ; in the females,
germ roundifh, inferior ; ftyle filiform; ftigma bifid. Perte,
common none, except the permanent, cals ured calyx ; pro-
per, to the males, nane; to the females, a roundith, ambibe
cated drupe, with a yellow vifcid juice. Seeds one in each.
drupe, heart-fhaped, compreffed.
Leif. Ch. Common calyx imbricated.
male florets approximating,
or four. Dyupe umbilicated.
Sp. C. furinamenfe, Linn. Mant. p. 294. Mart. Poir.
Willd. (C. feetidum;. Allemand MSS.) Leaves oppolite,
pelioled, eze-fhaped, acuminate, acutely crenate, fcabrous,
Flowers white; peduncles oppofite; common: calyx violet~
Anthers of the
not united ; female florets three
coloured, when ripe. Drupe green. A native of Surinam.
CLIBANARII. See Carapuracti or CaTarurac-
TARIT.
CLIBANUS, in Ancient Geography, y, atown cf Afia Mi-
nor, in the interior of Ifauria, accord! ng to Pliny.—Alfo a
mountain of Italy, in Magna Grecia, in the vicinity of the
Lacinian promontory. Pliny.
CLICH, a fabre in ufe among the Turks. It is curved
and very large. They have arate fabre, which cuts with
one fide or edge only, and has folid iron alo: "g the back of
it. This is called gadara, and is lefs curved than the clich,
They have alfo a third kind of fabre, which is flraight,
rounded, and fharp at the end, and cuts with both edges.
It is called palas.
CLICHY /a Garenne, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Paris; one league W.N.W. of Paris.
CLEDE or TRNeH TES in dacient Military Language, a
long piece of wood or ftrong plank, held in its pofition “by a
counter-weight, which, when loofened from the fame,lets fly
a great weight of Rones into beficged fortrefles. Theie
machines were in ufe under Charlemagne.
CLIDES infule. See CieipEs.
CLIDOMANCY, from xAzis, a key, and porreio, divina-
tion, a {pecies of divination performed by means of keys.
See DaryLiomancy.
CLIE, Le, in Geography, a lake of Upper Canada,
about 38 miles long, and 30 broad; the waters of which
communicate with thofe of lake Huron. N. lat. 44° 20’.
W.long. 80°.
CLIENT, Cuiswns, among the Romans, a citizen who
put himfelf under the proteGtion of fome great man, who, in
that relation, was called his patron, patronus.
The patron affifted his client with his protection, intereft,
and eftate, advifed him in points of law, managed his fuits,
took care of him as of his own child, and to the utmoft
of his power, contributed to fecure his peace and happi-
nefs: and the client gave his vote for his patron, when he
fought any office for himfelf, or his friends. Clients owed
refpe&t to their patrons, as thefe reciprocally owed them
their protection.
This right of patronage was appointed by Romulus, to
unite the rich and poor together, in fuch manner, as that
one might live without contempt, and the other without
envy. ‘This patronage was a tie as effeGtnal as any confan-
guinity or alliances and had a wonderfub-'efleét towards
302 jhain-
GL!
maintaining union and concord among the people for an in<
terval of 600 years; during which time we find no diffen-
fions or jealoufies between the patrons and their clients,
even in-the times of the republic, when the populace fre-
quently mutinied againit thofe who were the molt powerful
in the city. But the condition of a client, in courfe of time,
became little elfe but a moderate kinid of flavery.
By degrees, the cuflom extended itfelf beyond Rome ;
and not only families, but cities, and éntire provinces, even
out of Italy, followed the example. Thus Sicily, v. gr.
put itfelf under the clientela, or prote@ion of Marcellus.
Lazius and Budeus refer the origin of fiefs and tenures
to the patrons and clients of ancient Rome: but the differ-
ence is pretty confiderable between the relation of vaflals
and their lords, and that of clients and their patrons.. Sce
Wassat.
The clients, befide the refpe& they boré their patrons,
and the vote they gave them, were obliged to affill them in
all affairs: and even to pay their ranfom, if they fhould be
taken prifoners in war, in cafe they were not able to do it of
themfelves ; to contribute to the portions of their daughters,
and to defray, in part, the charges of their public employ-
ments. They werenever to accufe each other, or take
contrary fides ; and if either of them wasconvidted of having
violated this law, the crime was equal to that of treafon, and
any one was allowed to kill the offender with impunity.
Cuten® is now ufed fora party ina law-fuit, who has
turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfellcr, or foli-
citor, and who puts himfelf under their prote€tion and de-
fence. Clients are fo called from their refemblance to thofe
above-mentioned, who, were dependant upon the ancient
Roman orators. Thole, indeed, practifed gratis, fur honour
merely, or at mott for the fake of gaining influence: and fo like-
wifeit is eftablifhed with us (Davis, pref. 22.1 Chan. Rep. 38),
that a counfel can maintain no aGtion for his fees; which are
given, not as locatio vel condudio, but as guiddam honorarium ;
not as a falary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which acoun-
Jellor cannot demand without doing wrong to his reputation:
(Davis, 23) ; as is alfo laid down with regard to advocates in
the civil law, (Ff. rz. 6. 1.), whofe honorarium was dire&t-
ed by a decree of the fenate not to exceed in any cafe
30,090 felterces, or about S8o/. of Englith moneys (Tac.
Ann. i. 11.) And, in order to encourage due freedom of
Speech in the lawful defence of their clients, aud at the
fame time to give a check to the unfeemly licentioufnefs of
proititute aud tiiberal men, (a few of whom may fometimes
infinuate themfelves even into the molt honourable profef-
fions), it hath been holden that a counfel. is not anfwerable
for aay matter by him fpoken, relative to the caufein hand,
and fuggetted in his client’s inftrutions ; although it fhould
reflect upon the reputation of another, and even prove ab-
folutely groundlefs : but if he mentions an untruth of his
own invention, or even upon inftruétions, if it be impertinent
to the caule in hand, he is then liable to an aGtion from the
party injured. (Cro. Jac. go.) And counfel guilty of deceit
or collution are punifhable by the ftatute Weitm. 1 (3 Edw.
1. c. 28.} with imprifonment for a year and a day, and per-
petual filence in the courts :-—a punifhment {ti!l fometimes in-
fitted for grofs mifdcmeanors in pra@tice. (Raym. 376.)
Blackit. Com. B. 111.
Cuien7s. Gentlemen, who ferved in the French armies
under thie pennon of a chevalier, under the banner of a ban-
neret, or under that of the advowée of fome abbey.
CLIFF, Cuirr-Recis, or Kine’s-Cuirr, in Geo-
graphy, a town of England, in the county of Northampton,
with a weekly market on Tuefdays; 8 miles S. of Stamford,
and 88. N. of London, i
2
ciLiA
Cuirr, avillage in Kent, in the lath of Aylesford, fituate
at the edge of the marfhes which border on the Tharnes
river, near the top of the chalk flrata. The fituation of the
fteeple of itschurch was determined is the government trigo- _
nometrical furvey in 1799, by an obfervation from» Gad’s-
hill {lation diftant 19,967 feet ; and another from Gravefend
{tation diftant 30,549 feet, and bearing 70° 49’ 7” S.W. from
the parallel to the meridian of Greenwich obfervatory :
whence is deduced its latitude 51° 27’ 43” N. and its longi-
tude 29' 50” E.
CLIFFORD, Georce, in Biography, the third earl of
Cumberland; a nobleman diltinguifhed for his fkill and en-
terprize in naval expeditions, was born at Brougham callie
in Weltmoreland inthe year 1558. He received his college
education at Peterhoufe, Cambridge, under Whitgilt, whe
was afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury. The bent of his
purfuits at this period was the ftudy of mathematics, by
which he was afterwards eminently qualified for the feveral
great. expeditions in which he engaged. He was likewife
much addiéted to athletic exercifes, and is faid to have ex-
celled all his contemporaries in tilts, tournaments, end field
fports. The firft public bufinefs in which we find him en-
gaged, was in 1586, when as a peer of the realm he fat in
judgment upon Mary queen of Scots. In the fame year he
hited out a fmall fleet, conifting of four veffels, for the
South-fea, with a view either to martime difcoyeries, or
mor¢ probably that he might diftirguith himfelf in injuring
the enemies of his fovereign: his operations were, however,
in this inftance, chiefly confined to the ealtern coat of South
America, and he returned with little fuccefs. In the year
1588, the earl of Comberland was among the number of
thofe who fignalized themfelves by the deftruGion of the
famous armada intended for the ruin of this country. The
valour which he exhibited on’ this highly interefting and ims
portant occafion fo far recommended him to the queen, that
as a reward fhe gave him a commiffion to proceed to the
South-feas, and lent him a veffel of her own for his-admiral
fhip. In this and fome fubfequent expeditions during three
following years, he was generally unfortunate. Not dif-
couraged, however, by the want of that fuccefs which he
had anticipated; he undertook, in 1592, another expedition
with a fleet of his own: he-firft proceeded ‘to the Azores, _
where, in conjun@tion with fome other Eughfh ships, they
attacked the Santa Cruz, a rich carrack, which the Spaniards
fet on fire, after they had put the moft valuable part of its
cargo on fhore; but the Englith landed, and made themfelves
matters of it and of the town. The fhare of the prize-money
which fhould have fallen to the earl of Cumberland, in this
expedition, would have beeu very confiderable, but from a
feries of unfortunate occurrences it was reduced to 36,000/.
In 1593, he made another cruize, and took many valuable
prizes: and in 1595 he built a veflcl of 900 tons burden,
which was the largett that had been fent to fea by any Eng-
hth fubjeG ; he at the fame time fitted out three fmell ones,
witha view of undertaking another expedition in which he
was difappointed by the queen’s mandate: his fiips, how-
ever, purfued their voyage under a different commander, and
were fuccefsful in capturing a number of veffcls, fome of
which were richly laden. His laft and moft confiderable
expedition was in 1598, when he commanded nineteen fhips;
of thefe the principal one was his own great fhip, to which
the queen had given the name of ** The Scourge of Ma-
lice.’ With this fleet he proceeded tothe Welt Indies: he
firlt touched at the Canaries, and then, after muttering all
his force at the Virgin ifles, he failed to Porto Rico, the ca-
pital of which he attacked and captured, with its flrong fort
of Mora, This town being reckoned the key of the nee
ndia
CLI
India iflands, anda paffage to all the wealth on the continent
of America, the noble earl refolved to keep pofleflion of it.
For this purpofe he fent-away the inhabitants to Carthagena,
though he afferts that he was offered property to the amount
of half a million fterling, to abandon this ftep. “This expe-
dition, though in many refpedts highly fuccelsful, proved in
the end very difalrous. Before his return he loit more
than 7oo men, either by difeafe or the fword, befides feveral
of his veflels by fhipwreck. The chara@er of the earl of
Cumberland’s expeditions, of which he made eleven, will
not bear to be feverely fcrutinized; they were rather of a
predatory nature than calculated to improve the noble fei-
ence of navigation. No difcoveries are recorded to render
his name illuftrious asa philofopher, and no very important
victories that could givg him jult pretenfions to the ttle of
hero, by which he was, in his own, and fome fucceeding
ages, defiynated. His adventures were neverthelefs of con-
fiderable importance to the pation, as well by exciting and
fupporting a ({pirit of maritime enterprize, as by injuring and
reducing‘the power of Spain. By thefe eleven voyages, and
by building fhips, horfe-racing, tilting, and other expenlive
exercifes, this nobleman is faid to have walted more of his
eftate than any. of his anceltors. It ought not to be omitted
that in the year 1592, he was eleéted knight of the garter :
and in 1601, he was one of thofe who were fent with forces to
reduce the earkof Effex to obedience. It appears alfo that
he fat upon the earl’s trial and made a feeble oppofition to
the fentence pafled on him: faying, ‘ that if he thought it
would have availed, he would have demanded more time to
deliberate on the fubject ; that he deemed it fomewhat too
fevere, and that any commander in chief might eafily incur
a fimilar penalty.”? ‘* But, however,’? added he, ‘ in con-
fidence of her majefty’s mercy, I agree with the ret.” "The
earl of Cumberland died at the Savoy in OGaber 1605, and
was buried at Skipton, Yorkfhire, where a fine monument
was afterwards erected to his memory. He married Marga-
ret, the third daughter of the earl of Bedford, by whom he
had two fons, who died young, and a daughter, who was the
cel-brated countefs of Dorfet, Pembroke, and Montgomery.
Biog. Brit. Hume’s Hilt.
CLIFFORTIA, in Botany, (named by Eichredt in ho-
_nour of George Clifford, a merchant at Amfterdam, the
friend and patron of Linneus, a catalogue of whofe garden
was publifhed by him at Amfterdam in 1737, in a, {plendid
folio, under the title of ‘ Hortus Cliffortianus”), Linn.
Gen. 1133. Schreb. 1550. Juff. 337. Vent. 3. 334. Clafs
and order, diacia polyandria. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn.
Rofacee, Jufl. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Jal. Cal. Perianth three-leaved (three-cleft,
Juff. Vent.) leaves egy-fhaped, acute, coriaceous, fpreading,
deciduous. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments about thirty,
capillary, erect, the length of the calyx; anthers didymous,
oblong, obtufe, erect, comprefled. Lemale. Cal. Perianth
three-leaved, equal, erect, fupericr, permanent ; leaves acute,
lanceolate. Cor. none. iff. Germ oblong, inferior ;
ftyles two, filiform, long, plumofe ; ftigmas fimple. — Peric.
Capfule oblong, nearly cylindrical, crowned with the calyx,
two-celled. Seeds linear, one in each cell.
EA. Ch. Male. Calyx three-leaved. Cor. none. Sta-
mens about thirty. Sem. Calyx three-leaved, fnperior.
Cor. none. Capfnle two-celled. Seeds one in each cell.
Allthe known fpecies are perennial fhrubs from the Cape
of Good Hope, and have either ternate or limple leaves.
y * Leaves fimple.
Sp. 1. C. odorata, Linn. jun. Supp. 431. Mart. 1. Lam.
8. ‘ Leaves egg-fhaped, ferrated, ribbed, villous under-
neath,’”? A fhrub, about three feet high, erect, but little
CLI
branched; branehes fimple, fomewhat pubefcent. Leaves
alternate, on fhort petioles, obtufe, refembling thofe of
mint; nearly an inch and half Jong, an inch broad 3 ftipules
at the bale of the leaf, membranous, femibilid, aeute ; villons
as well as the petioles, withering. JVoqwers axillary, {effile.
The younger Linneus had feen only a plant with male
flowers, which agreed with the other fpecies, though the
habit of the plant is different. ound by Thunberg. 2.
C. ilicifolia, Linn. Sp. Plia. Mart. 2. Lam. 41. Il. Pi.
$27. hg. r.> Dill. Elth. tab. 31. fig. 35. ‘ Leaves fome-
what heart-fhaped, toothed.’? A fhrab, two or three feet,
high, quite f{mooth ; branches alternate, d:ffufe, covered with
fort, fheathing, two-pomted ftipules. Leaves {mall, alter-
nate, biennial, continuing green all the year, cartilaginous
about theedge, placed near together, truncate-heart-fhaped,
or roundifh, a little embracing the ftem, jointed on the
hinder edge of the fheathing flipule, fmooth, nerved, edged
with rather diftant fpinous teeth. //owers green, lateral,
axillary, folitary, feffile. Cultivated in Chelfea garden, 1714,
flowering in June, July, and Augult. 3. C. cordifolia, Lam.
2. Leaves heart-fhaped, quite entire, embracing the
{tem ; upper ones toothed.’? Nearly allied to the preced-
Ing ; communicated to La Marck. by Sonnerat. 4. C.
rufcifolia, Lion. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart.3. Lam. 3. Lil. Pl. 827.
fig. 2. (Frutex exthiopicus, &c. Pluk. Alm. 159. tab. 297.
fig. 2.) ** Leaves lanceolate, quite entire’? A fhrub,
about two feet high, thickly branched; branches alternate,
compound, afcending, afh-coloured, and fmooth near the
bottom, brown and tomentous above ; little branches fhort,
covered with lanceolate, acuminate, fheathing ftipules, leafy
only at the end.« Leaves fmall, numerous, growing clofe
together, {eflile, terminated by a fharp, and fometimes bifid
fpine, fmooth and fhining above, nerved and villous under-
neath. Mlowers at the ends of the little branches, in round-
ith fpikes, intrenched in the leaves; bractes {maller than the
leaves, involving each flower, trifd, hirfute on the outfide,
{fpinous, with,a fharp membranous hairy leaflet near the baie,
on each fide; germ egg-fhaped, obtuie, alternated at the
bale, rather gibbous, ftreaked and angular. Introduced by
Maffon in 1786; communicated alfo to La Marck by
Maffon. 5. C. graminca, Linn. jun. Supp. 429. Mart. 5.
Lam. 0. “ Leaves enfiform, flightly ferrated ; petioles
dilated, terminated by two flipule-fhaped awns.’? A fhrub.
Stems fevera', two feet high, fcarcely branching, {triated,
covered with leaves. Leaves growing near together, ere&,
convolute, {mooth, ftriated, acute ; petioles broad, conneétcd
with the leaves by a joint; the edyes elongated into awl-
fhaped, ereét divifions. Found by Thunberg. 6. C. fer-
ruginca, Linn. jun. Supp. 429. Mart. 4. (C. berberidifolia,
Lam. 9g.) ‘ Leaves lanceolate, fetaccous-ferrated,”” Lann.
jun. ‘© Stem {mooth ; brasches elternate, very fhort, leafy ;
leaves fomewhat lanceolate, fetaceous-ferrated, crowded,’’
Lam. Stems like thofe of knot-grafs, filiform, ufually
prottrate, even furface, and branching ; branches fhort, fer-
ruginons, herbaceous. Leaves alternate, on fhort peticles,
{triated, acute, naked; f{erraturcs fetaceous, unarmed; fli-
pules two-cleft, ferruginous, fearious. Flowers axillary,
feffile, trifid; fiiaments capillary, long; anthers egg-fhaped.
La Marck doubts whether this be the fame plant with his
berberidifolia, as there is no’ mention of the crowded leaves,
and the abundant hairs on the f{tipulavy fheaths, which ap-
pear in his fpecimens. Found by Sparman. 7. C. palygo-
nifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 6. Lam. 4. ‘ Leaves linear,
hairy.” An under-fhrub, about a foot high, much branch-
ed, villous ; branches flender, cylindrical, pubefcent, leafy.
Leaves very fmall, linear, acute, quite entire, but undulated,
apparently in alternate falcicles, but really growing three
together
: LOG Fa |
together upon each {mall fheath. Cap/ules of an even fur-
face, {maller than grains of wheat. 8. C. filifolia, Linn. jun.
430. Mart. 7. Lam. 17. ‘* Leaves filiform, triquetrous,
{mooth, quite entire.” Found by Thunberg. 9. C. tere-
tifulia, Linn. jun. Supp. 430. Mart. 17. Lam. 18. “ Leaves
fafcicled, cylindrical, incurved, fmooth, entire.”? 10. C.
ericefolia, Linn. jun. Supp. 430. ~ Mart. 18. Lam. 19.
«© Leaves fafcicled, cylindrical, furrowed, fmooth.” The
Jaft three fpecies greatly refemble cach other. They were
all found by Thunberg, and were introduced into Englard
by Maffon, 1787. 11. C. cuneata; Hort. Kew. 3. 413.
Mart. 19. ‘* Leaves wedge-fhaped, ferrated at the end.”
Introduced by Maffon, 1737.
* *® Leaves compound.
12. C. crenata, Linn. jun. 430. Mart. 8. Lam. 12.
s¢ Leaves binate, orbicular; crenulate.’? Leaves alternate,
feffile, {mooth, the fize of a finger-nail. #Yowers axillary,
folitary, trifid. Found by Thunberg. 13. C. pulchella,
Linn. jun. Supp. 430. Mart. 19. Lam.13. * Leaves
binate, orbicular, quite entire.’ Leaves conrivent, forming
a cavity which proteéts the flowers, beautifully adorned on
the outfide with radiating nerves. Fousd by Thunberg.
14. C. trifoliata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. ro. Lam. 5. (myri-
ca, Hort. Cliff. 456.6. Thymelez forte afhnis; Pluk.
Alm. 367. tab. 319. fig. 4.) ** Leaves ternate; interme-
diate leaflet three-toothed.’?? Stems flender, woody, pro-
cumbcnt, filky, with hairs, fending out flender branches on
every fide. Leaves feffile, hairy; fide leaflets lanceolate ;
middle one broader. F/ocvers axillary, on fhort peduncles.
There is a variety with fmaller, Hnear-lanceolate leaflets.
Cultivated by Miller befcre 1759; flowering in July and
Auguft. 15. C. farmentofa, Linn. Mant. 299. Mart. rv.
Lam. 6. ‘* Leaves ternate, linear, villous.”? Stem four
feet hizh, thrubby, filiform, farmentous; branches alternate,
fhort, fimple, cylindrical, pubefcent. Leaves alternate, al-
moft f{cflile, nearly equal, very narrow, unarmed ; petiole
fhort, ttipular,; membranous, dilated, emarszinate, naked.
Flowers white, axiilary, folitary. {efiile. 16. C. frebilifera,
Murray, Syit. 893. (cedrus conifera; Pluk. Alm. 91. tab.
275. fig. 2.) ‘ Leaves ternate, linear, acute, even-furfaced.”
A threb. Branches flender, cylindrical, a
feflile, carinated, on a fhort fheathing petiole; flipuler
fheaths permanent, after the leaves have fallen, nearly egg-
thaped, {carious, with two teeth, fmooth. The fefhile, la-
teral, fealy, ege-fhaped cones which occur on the branches,
are fuppofed by Linnzus to be gal.s, and not frait. Juflicu
doubts, whether it be really achfiortia. La Marck’s fpeci-
mens are befet with cones of dificrent fizes, without any
appearance of fru@tification. 17. C. obcordata, Linn. jen.
Supp. 429. Mart.13. Lam. 11. ‘ Leaves ternate; leaf-
Jets roundifh, middle one inverfely heart-fhaped.” An
ere, low firub, with diltich braaches. Leaves {mall, feffile,
inverfely ege-fhaped, nervelefs, very obtufe, quite entire,
{mooth, refembling thofe of purflane (peplis), often binate.
Flowers axillary, {effile, not longer than the leaves. 1S. C.
ternata, Linx, Supp. 430. Mart. :4. Lam.16. “ Leaves
ternate ; leaflets entire, hairy.” A fhrub, very diftin& from
the other fpecies. Leaflets {mall, ovate-lanceolate. Found
by Thunberg. 19. C. juniperina, Linn. jun. 430. Mart. 15.
Lam. 15. “ Leaves ternate, triquetrous, awl-fhaped,
crowded.” A fhrub, with the habit of a juniper, three
feet high, much branched. caves on a broadifh, very
fhort, {carcely perceptible peduncle ; leaflets acerofe, linear,
channelled, mucronate, fomewhat ferrated. Flowers axillary,
feffile. 20. C. falcata, Linn. jun. Supp. 431. Mart. 16.
Lam. 14. © Leaves ternate, linear, falcate, fmooth.”? A
fhrub, about'a foot high, ereét, branched, {tiff and ftraight.
CL
Leaves refembling thofe of C; farmentofa, but fmooth, often
three from each bud ; leaflets rather acute, incurved. Found
by Thunberg.
Propagation and culture. . ilicifolia is eafily propagated
by cuttings in any of the fummer months. Thefe fhould be
planted in {mall pots, filled with light earth ; when they have
taken root, they fhould be gradually expofed to the open
air, and when they have gained fome ftrength, may be
tranfplanted feparately into {mall pots, and placed with other
hardy kinds of exotic plants, ina fheltered fituation, till OGto-
ber; they fhould then be placed under a common hot-bed
frame, or removed into the green-houfe, but fhould enjoy
the free air, whenever the feafon is mild. When the plants
advance in height, their ftem and branches will require fup-
port, they will then thrive with the fame treatment as
myrtles, and other hardy greer-houfe plants, but muft have
little water in winter, C. trifoliata is equally hardy. C.
rufcifolia is more tender, and more difficult to propagate.
CLIFT, in the Manege, a deficiency in the new, foft,
and rough uneven hoof that grows in horfes feet, upon the
hoof eait. It is aifo called chind, crack, or chop, and by the
French avalure. Sce Crerr. ; ;
Cuirts, intimber. See Timserr.
CLIFTON, Francis, in Biography, doGor in medicine,
received his education in the unive:fity ef Oxford, which
completed, he came to London, and about the year 1730,
he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyticians, and
foon after of the Royal Society. In 1732 he publifhed
“The State of Phyfic, ancient and modern, briefly con-
fidered, with a Plan for improving it,” Svo. The firlt pare
of the volume contains a compendium of the hiftory of
phyfic, written in the manner of Friend’s hiftory, but not
equally corre&t. He fhews 2 marked partiality for empirics,
among{t whom he places Hippocrates, and cenfures Galen,
for attempting to found his pra€tice on ratiocination. He
propofes a law, obliging phyficians and furgeows to keep
regilters of the cafes they attend, which are to be fent to an
inftitution, to be formed for the purpofe. The accounts
are to contain fimply deferiptions of the difcafes with the
remedies employed in their cure. He had before, viz. in
1731, publifked, “ A plainand fure Way of praQifing Phy-
fic,’ 8vo. He recommends the ufe of the warm-bath in the
f{mall-pox, and condemns the practice of giving perges in
that complaint, which had been recommended by Dr.
Friend. He alfo tranflated “* Hippocrates de Acre, Aquis
et Locis,” with tke title of Hippocrates en air, water, and
fituations, upon epidemical difeafes, and npon prognoftics
in acute cafes, illu‘trated with notes, and edded a tranflation
from Thucydides, of the account of the plague at Athens,
8vo.1734. Boerhaave Methodus Studii Medici.
Cuirron, in Geography, a village of Gloucetterfhire, fa-
mous for its medicinal fprings, called “ Brilto} hot-wells,”
{uppofed to be one of the pleafanteft villages in the king-
dem; 1 mile from Briftol. See Bersrou. :
The fituation of a wied-mill in a confpicuous place in this
parifi, fometimes called Clifden wind-mill, was determined
it the government trigonometrical furvey in 1797, by an
obfervation from Dundry ftation, diftant 12,860 feet, and
bearing 9° 52’ 5c” S.W. from the parallel to the meridian of
Black-down flation; and another from Lanfdown ftation,
diftant 51,725 feet ; whence is deduced its latitude 51° 25!
53” N. and its longitude from Greenwich 2° 37’ 26” W. or
1o™ 29°.7 in time.
Cuitton, a village near the fouth-eaftern extremity of
the weft-riding of Yorkfhire, in the bundred of Strafford ;
which parifh will probably be hereafter often noted, on ac-
count of a remarkable eminence therein, called Beacon Hill,
on
ee
C.-T
on which a ftation was chofen in 1S01, in the government
trisonometrical furvey, and where, in 1802, the curions ze-
nith-fePor, (fee that article), the laft work of that celebrated
artilt Mr. Jeffe Ramfden, was ufed for determining the la-
titude of this flation, as the northernmof point in the te-
re{trial arc of the meridian, of whofe meafurement a detaited
account has been publifhed by major William Mudge in the
Philofophical TranfaGions for 18¢3; being the firlt attempt
at the meafurement of an arc of the meridian in Britain of
any confiderable length, fince the days’ cf our countryman
Norwood, about the year 1635. Clifton {tation was chofen,
on account of its falling almolt exaétly on the meridian of
the ftation at Dunnofe, in the Ifle of Wizht, which had
been fixed on, as the fouth end of the Britith meridional arc
to be meafured; and alfo on account of the fen called the
Iflz of Axholme, in Lincolnfhire, lying within full view of
tis ation, and prefenting an eligible fituation for meafuring
a bafe of verification ; and whereox, in the part called Mil
terton-carr, a line 26342.7 feet in length, terminated by
points called Mifterton north and fouth ftations, was meafur-
edin June and July, 1801, on the level furface of the fen,
by means of the curious {teel chains and apparatus of Ramf-
den’s conltruétion, which were ufed ia the re-meafurement
of the firt bafe on Hounflow-heath in 17913 this Mitterton
Bafe being fituate about 35 feet above the level of half tide
in the ocean, at the mouth of the Humber river.
In Angult 1801, one of Ramfden’s great theodolites (fee
that article) was ereGted on Clifton ttation, the horizontal
angles between Milterton north and Mitterton fouth ttations,
Gringley ttation and Heatherfedze, or Lords’-feat {tation,
refpectively, were repeatedly obferved ; and thirteen obferva-
tions of the pole-{tar, when at its createft elongations from
the meridian, were carefully made; whence, Gringley ftation
was found to bear 76° 17/25” S.E. from the meridian of
Clifton ftation, diltant by calculation 75,068 feet ; Mitter-
ton north and fouth ftations, and Heatherledge ftation being
64,462, 73,322, and 92,227 feet refpectively diflant. Phe
fpire of Loughton en le Morthen church being found to
bear only r° 56'S” W. of the fouth meridian of Clifton
ftation, the fpindle of its weathercock was made ufe of as
a meridian mark, for adjufting the zenith-feGtor, when the
fame was erected on the 19th of July, 1802, on a fpot 35
feet fouth of the ftation at Clifton, by fetting off that arc
onthe azimuth circle of the inftrument ; between the above
date and the rothof Auguit, the following zenith diftances
of ftars were carefully obferved as they paffed the meridian,
wiz, 15 of 8 Draconis, the mean of which gave 1° o/ 17.84
$.3 15 of y Draconis, which gave 1° 56’ 26’.64 S.; 9 of
45 @ Draconis, which gave 3° 26'22".92 N.; 11 of 46¢
Draconis, which gave 1° 53’ 6.24 N.3 9 of 51 Draconis,
which gave o° 21’ 38’.12 N.; 6 of » Draconis, which gave
1° 16! 38”.20 N.; 3 of 16 Draconis, wich gave 0° 7’ 51".25
S.; 14 of 1 xCygni, which gave 0° 27’ 0’.32°S. 3:12 -of
to + Cygni, which gave 2° 8% 42.22 S.; one of y Urfe,
which gave r° 20 13”.53 N.; 5 of » Urfe, which gave 3°
9! 6’.98S.; 5 of ¢ Urie, which gave 2° 30’ 10".37N.; 8
of 85 1 Herculis, which gave 7° 20’ 24”.98 S.3 4.0f 52 Her-
culis, which gave 7° 7° 25.52 S.; 6 of + Herculis, which
gave 6° 40’ 1’.29 S.3 5 af a Perfei, which pave 4° 18’
36".02 S.; and 5 of Capella, which gave 7° 40' 25.66 S.
Comparing thefe, with ro of thefe itars’ zenith diftances,
ebferved by help of this zenith-feGtor at Greenwich royal
obfervatory (for the remaining flar, 15+ Herculis, feems
either to have been miftaken in the obfervation for fome other
{mall ftar, or its z.d. to have been wrong obferved near 1’)
we get 1° 55’ 52” for the difference of latitude between.
Clo
Greenwich and Cliften; whence, the latitude of Clifton
{tation is found: 53° 27’ 32", and its longitude appears to be
1° 12! 93".6 W. of Greenwich. The elevation of Cliftoa
ftation above the level of the feais not given, but we are
told that from thence the apparent depreifion of Gringley
{tation was 18’ 47", and the apparent clevation of THeather-
fedge flation 29’ 12”. The fingular refult of the meafure-
ment of the different pares of the arc between Dunnofe and
Clifton, wherein the lengths of degrees decreafe inftead of
inerealing, as they ought to do ov a flattened ellipfoid, pre-
fents matter of curious invefligation, and may, perhaps,
furnif fome data for afcertaining the arrangement of the
gravitating maflesof which the earth is compofed. We wih
that the zenith-fector were ufed at more of the intermediate
{tations, in order to difcover more exaGly the law of decreaie
in the Britith degrees, 3
CLIKAPOTIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volhynia;: 72 miles E. of Lucko:
CLIMA, in Ancient Geography, a term ufed under the
Lower Empire fora divifion of provinces,
Cuma A; if
ifeopal fee. of Acfia, in Pheenicia,
near mount Libanus, under the metropolis of Edefia, ——
Anatolis, an epifeopal fee ef Afia, in Arabia. ——— Anvritiness
a place of Affa, in’ the Fourth Armenia. - Ajlianice; a
place uf Afiain the fame province. Bilabiie nfis,a place of
the fame province. Digcfines, a piace in the fame pro-
vince. Gablanim, or Galanis, an epifcopal fee of Afia,
under the metropolis of Seythopolis. ——— Garenes, an epif-
copal fee of Afia, in the 4th Armenia. Imbrudorum, an
epiicopal fee of Afia, in the Pheenicia of Libarus, under the
metropolis of Edeffa. Maglidorum, an epifcopal place
in Afia, in the Phoenicia of Libanus, under the metropolis
of Edefia. Mamnuzxurarum, an epilcopal fee of Afia, in
the 4th Armenia. Mefticon, one of the five towns of
the prefeGure of Thrace. Orientalium et Occidentaiiuia,
an epifcopal fee of Arabia. Orsziantces, an epilcopul fee
of Afia, in the 4th Armenia. Sophenes, an epifcopal
place of Afia,.in the fame province.
CLIMACA,, a place in the ifland of Eubcea, mentioned
by Hefychius.
CLIMACIDES, among the Greeks, were women fer-
vants who affilted their miltrefies to get on horfeback, by
ferving as fleps for them to afcend by.
CLIMACTERIC,. duns Cruimactericus, a critical
year, or period, in a man’s age, wherein, according te
a{troloyers, there is fome very notable alteration to happen in
the body; and a perfon is expofed to great danger of death.
The word comes from xAwzxrnp, or HAIPLOHT EphNOSy of Am HE y
xripocnos, feala; q.d. by a feale, or ladder.
The firlt climaGeric is, according to fome, the feventh:
year of a man’s life; the reft are multiples of the firlt, as
14, 21, 49, 56, 63, and 84; which two laft are called the
grand climaéterics, and the dangers here are fuppofed more
Imminent.
The opinion has a great deal of antiquity on its fide.
Aulus Gellius fays, it was borrowed from the Chaldeans;
who might probably receive it from Pythagoras, whofe
philofophy turned much on numbers; and who imagined an.
extraordinary virtue in the number 7.
Marc. Ficinus gives us the foundation of the opinion:. he
tells us, there is a year afligned for each planet to rule over
the body of man, each in his turn: now Saturn being the
moft maleficent planet of all, every feventh year, which
falls to his lot, becomes very dangerous; efpecially thole
of 63 and 84, when the perfon is already advanced in
years.
rizr, AN &
Some:
CLI
Some hold, according to this doGtrine, every feventh year
an eftablithed climacteric; but others only allow the title to
thofe produced by the ‘multiplication of the climaéerical
{pace by an odd number, 3, 5,7, 9, &c. Others obferve
every ninth ycar as a clima@eric.
Hevelius has a volume under the title of Annus Climac-
tericus, deferibing the lofs he fultained in the burning of his
obfervatory, &c. which it feems happened in his firlt grand
CHUMACCTIC.
Suetonius fays, Auguftus congratulated his nephew upon
his having pafied his orft grand climaéteric, whereof he was
very appreheniive.
Some pretend that the clima@teric years are alfo fatal to
pelitical bodics; which perhaps may be granted, when it Is
proved that they are fo to natural ones.
Authors on this fubjeGt, are Plato, Cicero, Macrobius,
Aulus Gellius, among the ancients; Argol, Magirus, and
Salmafius, among the moderxs. And St. Angultine, St.
Ambrofe, Beda, and Boetius, countenance the opinion.
CLIMATARCHA, Kupzragyast, were governors of
rovinces to the Greek emperors.
CLIMATE, Crima, or Ciime, in Geography, a part of
the furface of the earth, bounded by two circles parailel to
the equator, and of fuch a breadth, as that the longeit day
in the parallel near the pole exceeds the longeft day in that
next the equator by fome certain f{pace; wiz. half an hour,
an hour, or a month.
The word comes from xAiza, inclinamentum, an inclination;
becaufe the difference of climates arifes from the different in-
clination or obliquity of the {phere.
The beginning of the climate is the parallel cirele wherein
the day is the fhorteft; and the end of it is that wherein the
day is the longeft. The climates therefore are reckoned from
the equator to the pole; and are fo many bands, or zones,
terminated by lines parallel to the equator: though, in
ftri€tnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of one
zone. Each climate only differs from its contiguous ones,
in that the longeft day in fummer is longer or fhorter, e.g. by
half an hour, in the one place than in the other.
Ass the climates commence at the €quator, the firft climate,
at its beginning, has its longeft day precifely twelve hours
long; at its end, twelve hours and an half; the fecond,
which begins «there the firft ends, viz. at erckee hours and
an half, ends at thirteen hours; and fo of the reft, as far as
the polar circles, where thofe, which the geographers call
hour-climates terminate, and month climates commence. .
As an hour-climate is a {pace comprifed between two
parallels of the equator, in the firft of which the longeft
day exceeds that in the latter by half an hour; fo the montd
Cc.
climate is a {pace terminated betweentwo circles parallel
to the polar circles, whofe longeft day is longer or fhorter.
than that of its contiguous one by a month, or thirty
days.
The ancients, who confined the climates to what they.
imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only allowed of.
feven. The middle of the firft northern climate they made
to pafs through Meroe; the fecond through Syene; the
third through Alexandria; the fourth through Rhodes; the
fifth through Rome; or, according to others, through the
Hellefpont; the fixth through the m« uth of the Boryfthenes;
and the feventh through ‘the Riphzan mountains. The
fouthern part of the earth being then very httle known;
the fouthern climates received their names from the northern
ones, to which they did in fuch a manner correfpond, that
they were as far diftant from the equator fouthward as the
others were northward. The moderns, who have failed.
farther toward the poles, make thirty climates on each
fide: and in regard the obliquity of the fphere makes a
littie difference in-the length of the longeft day; inftead of
half 2n hour, fome of them only make the difference of
climates a quarter.
A parailel is faid to pafs through the middle of a climate,
when the longelt day in that parallel differs a quarter of an
hour from the longeft day in either of the extreme parallels
that bound the climate; this parallel does not divide the
climate into two equgl parts, but the part neareft to the
equator is larger than the other ; becaufe the farther we go,
from the equator, the lefs increafe of latitude will be fuf-
ficient to increafe the length of the longeft day, a quarter
of an hour; in the middle parallel of the firlt climate the,
longeft day is 13 hours; in the middle of the fecond.
climate, 13 hours and a half; in the middle of the third,
14 hours, &c. We may obferve that every climate has
three parallels, which mark the beginning, the middle, and
the end of it; and that the parallel which marks the end of
every preceding climate is the beginning of that whichis im-
mediately fubfequent. Some of the ancients divide the earth
by thefe paraileis, and fometimes by a parallel, they do not
mean a mere linear circle, but a {pace of fome breadth ;
in which fenfe a parallel 1 is the fame as half a climate, a
fhews the difference of a quarter of an hour in the length of
the longelt day.
In fixing the climates, there ordinarily is no regard had
to the refraction. :
Varenius gives us a table of thirty climates ; but ane
any regard to the refraction. Ricciolus furnifhes a. more.
accurate one, wherein the refraétions are allowed for: an
abftraét of which follows :
A Table of Climates.
é
N. Lat. S. Lat. ee
Middle of | Longett | siude. [Climates:| MOTB | Latitude. [asec | Latitude, eat eine eee ean
I ea 30| 7 go 18 | VIII. | 16" «oi 45° 95) XV hie 295 308
IL 13 0} 15 36 a IX 17. 0} 53 46) XVI 62 58 60
IIL, | 43.30] 2 8} X |18 of 57 44/] XVII 93 37 89
UV 4. pA OW 2 Ont Ay |e OL I9- O| Go 39} XVIII 124 117 120
Vv 14. ~30| 35.35 | XIL }20 0o}62. 4) KIX 156 148 150
VJ, - .25- So}.40 a XIII |} 22 0f65 10) XX 188 180 178
VIL |. 15. 30] 44-42] XIV |24 0/65 54
GI AMA TY. B.
Vulgarly, the term climate is beftowed on any country
or region differing from another, either in refpe& of the fea-
fons, the quzlity of the foil, or even the mauners of the inha-
bitants; without any regard to the length of the longeft day.
Abnifeda, an Arabic author, diftinguifhes the firft kind
of climates by the term real climates ; and the latter by that
‘of apparent climates.
The temperature of any climate, although it fhould {eem
to depend principally on latitude, or diftance from the
equator, and the confequent more vertical or more oblique
incidence of the rays of the fun, is, neverthelefs, very mate-
tially affected by a variety of collateral circumftances; fuch
as the fituation, whether it be high or low, the nature of
the foil, the extent of the continent, the vicinity of moun-
‘tains, forefls, marfhes, lakes, and feas, and the dire&tion of
the winds. The influence of thefe is, however, on various
accounts lef» confiderable in the greater part of the ancient
continent than in that of America, where the rigour of the
frigid zone extends over half of that which fheuld be tem-
perate by its pofition; and where lands, fituated in the
fame parallel with the moft fertile and beft cultivated pro-
vinces in Europe, are chilled with perpetual frofts, which
almott deftroy the power of vegetation. Thus, Newfound-
land, part of Nova Scotia, and Canada, he in the fame
paraliel with France ; and yet, in every part of thefe the
water of the rivers is frozen during winter to the thicknefs
of feveral feet; the earth is covered with fnow as deep;
almoit all the birds fly during that feafon, from a climate
-where they could not live. The country of the Efquimaux,
part of Labrador, and the countries on the fouth of Hud-
fon’s bay, are in the fame parallel with Great Britain ; and
yet. in ail thefe the cold is fo intenfe, that even the induftry
‘of the Europeans has not attempted cultivation. As we
‘proceed to thofe parts of America, which lie in the fame
parallel with provinces of Afia and Africa, poffefling
genial warmth, eminently favourable to life and vegetation,
the dominion of cold prevails, and winter, during its fhort
period, often reigns with extreme feverity, In advancing
along the American continent into the torrid zone, the excefs
of its fervour will be found in a confiderable degree mitigated
by the cold of this continent. While the negro on the coatt
of Africa is feorched with unremitting heat, the inhabitant
of Peru breathes a mild and temperate air, and is fhaded under
a canopy of grey clouds, which intercepts the fierce beams of
the fun, without obftructing his friendly influence. Along
the eaftern coaft of America, the climate, though more
dAimilar to that of the torrid zone in other parts of the
earth, is, neverthelefs, coniiderably milder than in thofe
countries of Afia and Africa which lie in the fame latitude.
Tf, from the fouthern tropic, we continue our progrefs to
the extremity of the American continent, we meet with
frozen feas, and countries that are barren and fcarcely
habitable for cold, fooner than in the north. M. de Paw,
in his ‘“ Recherches Philofophiques fur les Americains,’”’
cited by Dr. Robertfon, (Hilt. Amer. vol.ii. p. 472.) fup-
pofes, that the difference in heat between America and the
old continent is equal to 12 degrees, and that a place 30°
from the equator, in the latter, is as warm as one fituated
18° from it in the former. Dr. Mitchell alfo, after obfer-
vations carried on during jo years, contends, that the dif.
ference is equal to 14.0r 15 degrees of latitude ; or that
it is as hot in the countries of the old continent at 29 or 30
degrees, as in the countries of the new continent, which
are at 15 degrees. The abbé Clavizero, in his ** Hiitory of
Mexico,” (p. 263.) difputes thefe fais ; and he fays, that
as there are many countries in America more cold than
‘others of the old continent equi-diffant from the equator,
there ‘are alfo others more hot. Agra, the capital of
Vout. VIII.
Mogul, and the port of Loretto in California, are nearly in
the fame latitude, and ftill the heat of that Afiatic city is
not comparable to that of the American port. Hie, the
capital of Cochin-China, and Acapulco, are almoft equi-
diftant from the equator, and yet the air of Hue is cool, in
comparifon of that of Acapulco. M. de Paw has alfo
affirmed, that in the centre of the torrid zone the liquor of
the thermometer does not rife to fo great a height as it
does in Paris in the greateft heat of fummer; to which
Clavigero replies, that if that were true, the difference be-
tween the American and European climates would not be
only 12°,.as M. de Paw would make it, but 49°. that is, as
much as the diference of latitude between the centre of the
torrid zone and Paris. It is true, fays the abbé, that ac-
cording to the obfervations made in Quito, compared with
thofe made mm Paris, the heat of that «quinoGtial city never
equals that of Paris in the fummer ; but it is equally certain
that, according to the obfervations made by the fame
academicians with thefame thermometers, inthecity of Cartha-
gena, which is not the centre of the torrid zone, but ten de-
grees from it, the ufual heat of this city is equal to the
greatett heat of Paris, agreeably to thetcftimony of Ulloa, one
of theobfervers. We {hall here add, as the refults of obferva-
tiotis of M. de Paw, that the climate of America is not fo va-
niousas that of Eurcpe; and, of courfe, that the inhabitants
of the New World are not, like thofe of the greater part
of Europe, obliged to endure the alternate extremes of excef-
five cold and intolerable heat. p
Thofe who maintain that the climate of America ts ex.
tremely different from that of the ancient continent enume-
rate a variety of caufes that have combined to produce this
difference. Although the utmoft extent of America to-
wards the north be not yet difcovered, it is allowed that it
advances much nearer tothe pole than either Europe or
Afia. The latter have large feas to the north, which are
-open during part of the year; and even when covered with
ice, the wind that blows over them is lefs intenfely cold than
that which blows over land in the fame high latitudes. But
in America the land ftretches from the river St. Lawrence
towards the pole, and {preads out immenfely to the wet.
A chain of enormous mountains, covered with {now and ice,
runs through ail this dreary region. The wind, in pefling
over fuch an extent of high and frozen land, acquires a
piercing keennefs, which it retains in its progrefs through
warmer climates, and is not entirely mitigated until it reach
the gulf of Mexico. Over all the continent of North
America, a north-wefterly wind and exceflive cold are fyno-
nymous terms. Even in the moft fultry weather, the mo-
ment that the wind veers to that quarter, its penetrating in-
fluence is felt in a tranfition from heat to cold, no lefs vio-
lent than fudden. ‘To this powerful caufe we may afcribe
the extraordinary dominion of cold, and its violent inroads
into the fouthern provinces in that part of the globe.
Befides, in that portion of the American continent which
lies between the tropics, the wind blows in an invariable
direGtion from eaft to weft. As this wind holds its courfe
acrofs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries
which ftrétch along the weftern fhore of Africa, inflamed
with all the fiery particles which it hath colle€ted from the
fultry plains of Afia, and the burning fands in the African
deferts. Accordingly, the coalt of Africa is the region of
the earth which feels the moft fervent heat, an@is expofed
to the unmitigated ardour of the torrid zone; But this
fame wind which brings fuch an accefiion of warmth to the
countries lying between the river of Senegal and Cafraria,
traverfes the Atlantic ocean, before it reaches the American
fhore. In its paflage over tlis vaft body of water it is
cooled, and is felt as a refrefhing gale along the coatt of
30k Bratt}
CLEMATE
Brafil and Guiana, rendering thefe countries, which are
reckoned among the warmeft in America, temperate, when
compared with thofe which lie oppofite to them in Africa.
“As this wind advances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets
with immenfe plains, covered with impenetrable forefts, or
oceupicd by large rivers, marfhes, and ftagnating waters,
where it can recover no confiderable degree of heat. At
Jength it arrives at the Andes, which run from north to
fouth throngh the whole continent. In paffing’over thefe
elevated and frozen fummits, it is fo thoroughly cooled,
that the greater part of the countries beyond them fcarcely
feels the ardour to which they feem expofed by their fitus-
tion. Acofta appears to have been the firft philofopher, who
endeavoured to account for the different degrees of heat in
the old and new continents, by the agency of the winds
which blow in each. M. de Buffon has adopted this theory
and embellifhed it by his defcriptive eloquence ; it has alfo
been illuftrated by later writers, in their inquiries concerning
the temperature of various climates, as we fhall find in the
fequel of this article. Profeffor Robifon furnifhed the ele-
gant and popular hiftorian of America with a variety of ob-
fervations, elucidating this theory. ‘To this purpofe he
obferves, that, when a cold wind blows over-land, it muft in
its paflage rob the furface of fome of its heat; and thus the
coldnefs of the wind is abated. But continuing to blow in
the fame dire€tion, it will, by degrees, pafs over a furface
already cooled, and lofe no degree of its keennefs; and ad-
vancing overa large tra& of land, it will occafion the feve-
rity of intenfe froft. If the fame wind be fuppofed to blow
over an extenfive and deep fea, the fuperficial water muft be
immediately cooled to a certain degree, and the wind pro-
portionably warmed. But the fuperficial and colder water
becoming fpevifically heavier than the warmer water below
it, defcends; the warmer fupplics its place, which, being
cooled in its turn, continues to warm the air which pafles
over it, or to diminifh its cold. This change of the fuper-
ficial water, (and fucceflive afcent of that which is warmer,
and confequent fucceffive abatement of coldnefs in the air, )
is aided by the agitation caufed in the fea by the mechanical °
action of the wind, and alfo by the motion of the tides.
By this procefs, the rigour of the wind will continue to
decreafe until the whole water is fo far cooled, that the
water on the furface is no longer removed from the ation of
the wind, faft enongh to hinder it from being arrefted by
froft. Whenever the furface freezes, the wind is no longer
warmed by the water from below, and it goes on with undi-
minifhed cold. ‘Thefe principles ferve to explain the feveri-
ty of winter frofts in extenfive continents; their mildnefs in
{mall iflands; and the fuperor rigour of winter in thofe
parts of North America, with which we are beft acquaint-
ed. Inthe N.W. parts of Europe, the feverity of winter
is mitigated by the weft winds, which ufvally blow in the
months of November, December, and part of January.
On the other hand, when a warm wind blows over land, it
heats the furface, which mutt therefore ceafe to abate the
fervour of the wind. But, the fame wind, blowing over
water, agitates it, brings up the colder water from below,
and thus is continually lofing fome of itsown heat. After
all, the great power of the fea to mitigate the heat of the
wind or air pafling over it, proceeds from the following
circumflance ; that on account of the tranfparency of the
fea its furface cannot be heated to a great degree by the
fun’s rays; whereas the ground, fubjected to their influence,
very foon acquires great heat. When, therefore, the wind
blows over a torrid continent, it is foon raifed to a heat al-
mott intolerable; but during its paflage over an extenfive
ocean, it is gradually cooled; fo that on its arrival at the
fartheik fhore, it is again fit for refpiration. ‘Thefe princi-
ples will account for the fultry heat of large continents in
the torrid zone; for the mild climates of iflands in the fame
latitude; and for the fuperior warmth in fummer which
large continents, fituated in the temperate or colder zones
of the earth enjoy, when compared with that of iflands.
The heat of a climate depends not only upon the immediate
eff:& of the fun’s rays, but on their continued operation, on
the effet which they have formerly produced, and which
remains for fome time in the ground. ‘Thus the day is
warmelt about two in the afternoon, the fummer warmelt
about the middle of July, and the winter coldett about the
middle of January. ,
The temperate climate in the equatorial parts of America
is greatly owing to the forefts which cover the country, and
hinder the fun-beams from heating che ground; the ground,
not being heated, cannot heat the air; and the leaves, which
receive the rays intercepted from the ground, have not a
mafs of matter fufficient to abforb heat enough for the pur-
pofe. ‘Befides, it is a known fact, that the vegetative
power of a plant occafions a perfpiration from the leaves,
in proportion to the heat to which they are expofed ; and
from the nature of evaporation, this perfpiration preduces a
cold in the leaf proportional to the perfpiration. Thus the
effet of the leaf in heating the air in conta with it is pro-
digioufly diminifhed. Sce alfo Dr. Williamfon’s Obferva-
tions on the effc@ts of the agency of winds in reference to
the temperature of different climates, in the frft volume of
the * Tranfa@ions of the American Philofophical Society,”
p. 272, &c. Fora further account of the caufes that pro.
duce a change in the temperature of the air; fee the article
Temperature of the ATMOSPHERE.
But td return from this digreffion-on the effet of winds:
We may obferve that in the other provinces of America,
from Terra Firma weftward to the Mexican empire, the
heat of the climate is tempered, in fome places, by the ele-
vation of the land above the fea; in others, by their extraor-
dinary humidity ; and in all, by the enormous mountains
fcattered over this part. ‘The iflands of America, in the
torrid zone, are either {mall or mountainous, and are fanned
alternately by refrefhing fea and land breezes.
The caufes of the extraordinary cold that prevails to-
wards the fouthern limits of America, and in the feas
beyond it, cannot be afcertainedin a manner equally fatif-
fattory. It was long fuppofed, that a vaft continent, dif-
tinguifhed by the name of * Terra Auftralis Incognita,”?
lay between the fouthern extremity of America and the
AntarGtic pole. The fame principles which account for
the extraordinary degree of cold in the northern regions of
America were adopted in order to explain that which is felt
at Cape Horn, and the adjacent countries. The immenfe
extent of the fouthern continent, and the large rivers which
it poured into the the ocean, wereadmitted by philofophers
as caufes fufficient to cccafion the unufual fenfation of cold,
and the ftill more uncommon appearances of frozen feas in
that region of the globe. But as fuch a continent is ima-
ginary, and the fpace fuppofedto be occupied by it is
an open fea, mew conjectures mutt be formed with refpect
to the caufes of a temperature of climate, fo extremely
different from that which we experience in countries re-
moved at the fame diftance from the oppofite pole. Of the
extraordinary degree of cold, that occurs in fouthera
latitudes, many inftances are recorded. In lat. 48°
fome French voyagers, in 1739, found iflands of floating ice ;
anda confiderable degree of cold was experienced in lat. 44°.
Dr. Halley found ice in lat. 59°. Commodore Byron, in lat.
50° 33/ S. of the coalt of Patagonia, on the 15th of Decem-
ber, nearly midfummer in that part of the globe, compares
the climate to that of England in the middle of winter.
When
CLUM A'T E.
When Mr. (fir Jofeph) Banks and his companions landed
on Terra del Fuego, in the bay of Good Suceefs, lat. 55°,
Janu. 16 correfponding to July in our hemifphcre, two of
his attendants died in one night of extreme cold, ‘and the
whole party was in great danger of perifhing. On the 14th of
March the mountains were covered with fnow. Capt. Cook,
in his voyage towards the S. pole, exprcffes his furprife,
that-an ifland of no greater extent than 70 leagues in
circuit, between the latitudes of 54° and 55°, fh: uld in the
very height of f{ummer be ina manner wholly covered many
fathoms deep with frozen fnow; but more efpecially the
S.W. coalt. The very fummits, he tays, of the lofty
mountains were cafed with [row and ice; but the quantity
that lay in the valliesis incredible; and at the bottom
of the bays, the coaft was terminated by a wall of ice of
confiderable height. The moft obvious and probable caule
of the fuperior degree of cold, towards the fouthern extre-
mity of America, feems to be the form of the continent there.
Its breadth graduaily decreafes as it ftretches from St.
Antonio fouthwards, and from the bay of St. Julian to the
ftraits of Magellan its dimenfions are much contraéted.
On the ealt and weil fides, it is wafhed by the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans. From its fouthern point an open fea
probably extends to the Antarétic pole. In whichever of
thefe directions the wind blows, it is cooled before it ap-
proaches the Magellanic regions, in pafling over a great
body of water ; nor isthe jand there of fuch extent that it
can recover any confiderable degree of heat in its _progrefs
over it. Thefe circumftances concur in rendering the tem-
perature of the air in this diftri@ of America more fimilar
to that of an infular than to that of a continental climate,
and hinders it from acquiring the fame degree of fummer
heat, with places in Europe and A fia, ina correfponding nor-
thern latitude. The north wind is the only one that reaches
this part of America, after blowing over a great continent ;
and this wind, though it blows overland, does not bring to
the fouthern extremity of America, which is properly the
termination of the immenfe ridge of the Andes, an increafe
of heat, colleéted in its paflage over torrid regions; but
before it arrives there, it muft have {wept along the fummits.
of the Andes, and comes impregnated with the cold of
that frozen region. _Belides, though the idea of a fouthern
continent in that region of the globe which it was fup-
pofed to occupy is abandoned, it neverthelefs appears
from Capt. Cook’s difcoveries, that there is a large tract of
Jand near the fouth pole, which is the fource of moft of the
ice {pread over thetvalt fouthern ocean. Whether, fays
Dr. Robertfon, the influence of this remote frozen conti-
nent may reach the fouthern extremity of America, and
zffe& its climate, is an inquiry not unworthy of atten-
tion. See Icz iffands.
Having conlidered the variety of temperature to which
different climates are fubjeét, we fhall next proceed to evince
the change to which they have been fubject in different in-
tervals of time, and to fpecify the moft obvious caufes of
this change. This is a fubje& to which various authors,
both ancient and modern, have directed their attention ;
among thefe we may mention M. de Buffon, Hume, the
Abbé du Bos, M. Pelloutier, the Hon. Daines Barrington,
Dr. Williamfon of America, and Dr. Robertfon; but they
have generally written on the fubjeét in a curfory manner.
' The moft complete differtation which we have feen, is that
of the Abbé Mann, in the 6th volume of the ‘ Tranfac-
tions of the EleGtoral Academy of Sciences at Manheim.”
. The firft part of this elaborate differtation is employed in de-
. monttrating the fa&t, that a change of temperature and foil
has a€lually taken place in the climates of Europe; and the
fecond part contains an inquiry into the phyfical caufes of
this change. The firlt teflimony to the faét ts that of He~
rodotus, who informs us, more than once, that in the Eu-
ropean part of Scythia, in the Palus Meotis, the winter
continued eight months every year with almolt infupportable
feverity ; and that the countries farther northwards were on
that account uninhabitable; and he adds, that the other four
months, called fummer, were alfo exceedingly cold. In this
country, which hes between the 44th and soth degree of N.
latitude, nothing of the like kind has taken place for a long
time. Cefar, Virgil, Dioderus Siculus, Ovid, Strabo,
Pomponins Mela, Seneca, Petronius, Pliny the naturalift,
Statius, Herodian, and Juftin, all fpeak to the fame pur-
pofe of the infupportable cold of the winter in different’ parts
lying in the fame latitude of from 44 to 50 degrees between
Gaul and the Euxine fea. ‘The deicriptions they concur in
giving are {uch as would at prefent fuit thofe countries which
lie between 56 degrees of latitude and the polar circle; and
in fome refpects they feem to exceed the cold of the winter
in Sweden and Norway. Indeed, their defcriptions of the
climate of the middle part of Europe could at prefent be
realized only in Lapland, Siberia, and thofe regions of Ame-
rica that lie to the north of Hudfon’s bay, where the ftate
of the climate is the fame with that which was found 2000
years ago on the banks of the Rhine and the Danube, the
Palus Mzotis, the Dnieper, and the Don. The firft effect
of the winter’s cold in that whole part of Europe between
the 44th and soth degrees of latitude, uniformly mentioned
by the ancients, is, that all the feas, lakes, and rivers con-
tained in thofe diltriéts were continually frozen, fo that armies
of barbarians, Scythians and’ Sarmatians, paffed with their
horfes, waggons, and baggage over the ice, in order to plun-
der the more fouthern countries. ‘This is exprefsly aflerted
by Herodotus, Virgil, Ovid, and Strabo, of the European
part of Scythia, Dacia, and Thrace, all of them countries
which lay ina northern and weftern direGtion from the Palus
Meotis and the Euxine fea. The fame thing is afferted by
Diodorus Siculus, Seneca, Puiny the younger, Florus, He-
rodian, Ammianus Marcellinus, Fernandez the Goth, and
Xiphilinus the abridger of Dio Caffius, in regard to the ri-
vers and lakes of Pannonia, Germany, and Gaul. In the
treatife on rivers, afcribed to Plutarch, it is faid, that the
Thermodon, a Scythian river, froze even in fummer ; a cir-
cumttance which never happens at prefent with regard to the
rivers of Siberia, Lapland, and Greenland, Ovid tells us,
that he himfelf paffed over the Pontus Euxinus on the ice,
and that oxen and carriages pafled over it. Plutarch fays,
that the preffure of this enormous mafs of ice againft the
fides of fhips frozen into it, crufhed them to pieces; and he
mentions an inftance of a Roman fhip which had experienced
the fame fate inthe Danube. Strabo and Virgil {peak of
brafs vefiels that burft by the expanfive force of the ice;
and we are affured by Virgil and Ovid, that the people in
Thrace and on the Danube cut the wine with axes, and di-
{tributed it in folid portions.
“ Udaqne confiftunt formam fervantia teltz
Vina, nec haulta meri, fed data frufta, bikunt.’”
Ovid. lib. iii. el. 10.
They likewife add, that men’s hair and beards were often
covered with ice.
* Ceduntque fecuribus humida vina.—
Stiriaque impexis indurant horrida barbis.”’
Virgil, Georg. 1. iii.
*¢ Sxpe fonant moti glacie pendente capilli,
Et nitet inducto candida barba gelu.’”’
a.P ip
3
Ovid.
If
Ciiylee arty E3
If we compare this defeription with the prefent ftate of
France, Germany, Hungary, Romania, Tranfylvania, Wal-
Jachia, Moldavia, Bulgaria, Leffer ‘Tartary, Podolia, and
the Ukraine, it will be found that the prefent temperature
of thefe countrizs has no refemblance to what it was 20c0
years ago. Moreover, Herodotus, Pomponius Mela, and
Pliny the elder, fpeak of the European part of Scythia as
if its atmofphere were continually filled with fnow and fogs,
which prevented the view of the neareit objeéts, and ob{cured
the light of day. Diodorus Siculus {peaks of Celto-Seythia
as covered with fnow in the wintertime; and this relation is
confirmed: by Florus and. Petronius. Virgil, fpeaking of
Thrace and the countries on both fides of the Danube, fays,
that a-continual winter prevailed in them; and that the frow
lay upon the ground fometimes to the depth of 7 ells. Ovid
fays that at Tomi, lat. 444°, placed by Dr. We'ls, in his
maps of Ancient Geography,in the 44th degrec of N. latitude,
the {now continued 2 years without being melted by the fan
orrain. Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, and Ovid, when they
{peak of Gaul, Germany, and Thrace, cake notice of the
prodigious force of the wind which prevailed in thefe coun-
tries in thefe umes, and during the preceding: centuries.
Thefe winds raifed even ftones and men from the earth ; car-
ried away the roofs of honfes; tore up trees by the roots,
and overturned turrets and houfes. Varro, Diodorus Sicu-
lus, Ovid, Pomponius Mela, Seneca, Petronius, Pliny the
elder, Tacitus, Appian, Dio Caffius, and Herodian, all agree
in faying that the feverity of the climate and weather, which
in their time prevailed in Gaul, Germany. Pannonia, Thrace,
Moefia, and Dacia, would hardly allow the cuiture of vines,
olives, or any kicd of fruit trees: and that, in cultivating
them, it was neceflary to cover them with dung, or with
earth, to preferve them throughont the winter. It is ob-
ferved by Herodotus, Strabo, and Tacitus, that the oxen
in the European part of Scythia and the country of the
Celto-Scythians had no horns, or horns exceedingly {mall ;
which they alcribed to the feverity of the cold and climate.
Strabo, as a proof of the great cold which prevailed in the
country now called the Ukraine, obferves, that it produced
no aflzs ;—animals, fays he, that cannot endure the cold ;
and he adds, that the horfes there are extremely {mall, Pau-
fanias exprefsly fays, that in Thrace there were in his time
bears and wild {wine of a white colour. Such animals are
found at prefent only in the remotett parts of the north, on
the other fide of the polar circle. Virgil, Ovid, and Pom-
ponius Mela, inform us, that the inhabitants of the Euro-
pean part of Scythia and Thrace lived, during the whole
winter, under the earth, asthe Laplanders do at prefent ;
that they burnt large logs of wood to keep themfelves warm ;
that they never went abroad without being wrapped in fkins ;
and that they left no part of the body uncovered but the
mouth and eyes.
As a farther evidence of a change of climate, it has been
alleged, that the rein-deer, from which the favage of the
north derives the belt comforts of his dreary life, is of a
conftitution that {upports,-and even requires the mofi intenfe
cold. He is found in the rocks of Spitzberg, within 10
cegrees of the pole; he feems to delight in the fnows of
Lapland and Siberia; but, at prefent, he cannot fubfitt,
much lefs multiply, in any country to the fouth of the Bal-
tic; whereas in the time of Cafar (vid. De Bell. Gallic. vi.
23, &c.) the reindeer, as well as the clk and the wild
bull, was a native of the Hercynian foreft, which then over-
fhadowed a great part of Germany and Poland.
With a view of afcertaining the boundaries of the north-
ern countries, which the ancients deemed defolate and uninha-
~bitable on account of the great intenfity of the cold, we
icern from Herodotus, that beyond the Melanchlini, a Sar~
matian people, fo called from their black hair, there were
only lakes, morafles and unoccupied diftriGs as far as was
then known; and we learn aifo from Ovid, that on the other
fide of the Cimmerian Bofphorus, the Tanais, and the Scy-
thian morafles, a cold prevailed which rendered the country
uninhabitable. ‘Strabo repeatedly fays, that all the lands
towards the north of the tribes, who lived on the banks of
the Tanais and the Boryfthenes, were uninhabitable on ac-
count of the feverity of the cold. This river, as far as it “has
been traced, does not lie beyond the 55th degree of lati-
tude ; and therefore it is on the fame parallel with the north-
ern parts of England and Germany, the middle of Lithus
ania, and the middle of Ruffia. Strabo alfo fays, that the
whele northern part of Britain was very thinly peopled on
account of the cold, and that he believed ail the countries
lying beyond it to be uninhabited. As no part of Great
Britain extends beyond the Goth degree of north Jatitude, _
that parallel muft include all Norway, almoft the whole of
Sweden, and the half of Roffia. Thefe countries, therefore,
in the time of Strabo, that is, about the period of Auguttus; -
were confidered as uninhabited. The ancients, in general,
fpeak of all the lands which lay beyond the 55th degree of >
N. lautude as filled with lakes, moraffes, ice, {now, and fogs,
almoft like thofe countries to the north of Hudfon’s Bay:
From the authorities above cited, we derive fufficient evi-
dence of the exceflive feverity which prevailed 2000 years .
ago in the climate of thofe countries of Europe, lying be.
tween 44° and 50° N. lat. and of the difference between the
fiate of their temperature in that period amd’the prefent. .
The more northern lends, which the ancients, on account
of their infupportable cold, confidered as. uninhabitable 5.”
Iceland, Norway, Lapland, and the northern part of Ruffia,
and Siberia; are habitable, and a€tually inhabited, though
eaceflively cold. The ancients alfo fpeak of effcéts pros_
duced by the cold of winter in Italy, Greece, Leffer Afia, .
&c. which at prefent are certainly unknown. The foil of
the latter countries, as well as that of the ancient Affyria,
Chaldza, Paleftine, the Roman part of Africa, and Spain,_
is at prefent remarkably ftony, and burnt up with heat. We
know, however, that Spain in particular, about 1800 years
ago, was exceedingly rich and fruitful, and abounded with ©
all forts of provifions, which are no longer to be found in set
The change of the foil and fertility in all the countries bor=
dering on the Mediterranean Sea, and which formed the
greateft and moit beautiful part of the Roman empire, is ad-
mitted as a certain faét, by all thofe who have fpoken of their-
former and-prefent ftate. 4
Upon the whole it may be affirmed as en unqueftionable
truth, that the foil’ and temperature of all the lands
from Spain to India, and from the ridge of mount Atlas to
Lapland and the remote parts of the north, have, in the
courfe of ages, fince the period of the oldett hiftorical mo=
numents {till extant to the prefent time, been gradually
fubjeG&ted to a complete change, from. the an degree
of moifture and cold, to a great degree of dryne sand warmth,
The effe& has been conitant and uniform, and muft there
fore. be traced to a correfponding caufe. Dr’ Williamfo
(ubi fupra) afferts, that the climate of Ameri becom
ing continually milder ; and he confirms the:
number of fads. This effect, indeed, is dire&tly to
the hypothelis of the celebrated naturalift, Buffon, re pecting
the theory of the earth and planets, who afferts, that they
have been continualiy lofing warmth, fince they were frit in ~
a ftate of fufion, and are becoming always colder; fo that
they will at length be incapable of keeping alive any animal
or vegetable production. All hiftorical and phyfical monue
ments, however, prove the contrary.
It is not merely in modern times, and fince the improve-
ment
a
CLEDLAMGATTIED
ment of natural philofophy, that this change of temperature
and foil has been noticed. A great number of places, well
known and defcribed by the ancients, in Paleitine, Syria,
Leffler: Afia, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Barbary, exhibit
proofs of the changes which have taken plage in the foil and
temperature in the courfe of time. Their prefent dry and
barren ftate is well known, and feems to be irremediable.
Columella is the frft author who {peaks of vines in Gaul;
and he fays that the Sabinesand the Romans i the preced-
ing century ‘had procured, amid{t the devaftation of war,
more abundant crops than had been procured in his time dur-
ing a ftate of perfect peace. With regard to the changes
of climate his obfervation is remarkable.‘ I find,”’ fays he,
“that it is the opinion of many.ref{peétable authors, that
the quality and ftate of the atmofphere became changed in
the courfe of a long feries of ages: for Saferna, in that work
whieh he has left on agriculture, infers that the ftate of the
atmofphere is changed, becaufe certain diftri€ts, which for-
merly were incapable of producing vines and olives on ac-
count of the continued feverity of the winter, now yield
abundant vintages and plenty of oil, by the climate having
become milder and warmer.””
Many different caufes have been alleged in order to ac-
count for thofe alterations of climate which we have
above recited. Of thefe {ome are only accidental, and have
taken place in different countries at very different pe-
riods ; while in others fome of them have not occurred
at all Among thefe the principal are the draining of
Jakes and moraffes, the extirpation of forefts, and the cul-
tivation of land. All the ancient writers. who fpeak of the
countries of Europe beyond 50° N. lat. reprefent them as
filled with lakes and moraffes, and covered with immenfe fo-
refts, almo!t as America, in various parts of it, is at prefent.
But of late years the people of America have been employed
in extirpating the forefts, draining the marthes, and cult:vat-
ing the land ; anditis well known that the climate there is
become milder and more temperate. In the fame manner the
inhabitants of all the northern parts of Europe have for a
thoufand or two thoufand years employed themfelves in the
improvement of thefoil; and thus they have contributed to
ameliorate the climate, not only in the countries that were
thus cultivated, but even in neighbouring regions expofed to
the effects of their atmofphere. In the fouthern parts of
Europe there alfo exifted a great number of lakes and mo-
rafles, which muft have rendered the air exceedingly cold
and moilt, and confequently unhealthful; but in later pe-
riods few of thefe have remained, if we except fuch as may
ftill be found in Sweden and Norway; though the places
where they exited, both in England and on the continent,
in Gaul, Germany, and the European Sarmatia, may {till be
diftinily perceived. It is well known, that in the time of
Julius Cefar, and even long after, almoft the whole of Ger-
many and Sarmatia was covered with immenfe forefts. The
Hercynian foreft in particular was fixty days’ journey in
length, commencing in Belgic Gaul near the fea and extend-
ing through Germany and Poland. Thefe forefts which
covered the mountains and plains, and the lakes. or marfhes
which occurred in almott every valley, muft have vitiated the
air; and it is obvious that a very confiderable change mutt
have been produced by clearing the woods and draining off
the ftagnant waters. Large and thick woods prevent the
folar beams from penetrating into the foil, and warming it;
whilft their fallen leaves and branches vot on the ground and
occafion a thick cruft which impedes the efcape and diffufion
of the internal heat. ‘They alfo concentrate the cold and
moift vapours, render them putrid,. and corrupt the whole
atmofphere. ‘This we find from the account of Dr, William;
fon to have been particularly the cafe in the middle colonies
of North America ; and the confequences were bilious and
intermittent fevers in fummer and autumn, and inflammatory
fevers in winter. But when thefe countries were cleared
and cultivated, and the land was rendered more open and
dry, the prevalence of fuch fatal difeafes was reftrained and
diminifhed. The cafe muft formerly have been the fame in
Europe under the like circumftances, and fimilar caufes muft
have contributed to render its climate milder ang more falu-
brious. ‘The progrefs of cultivation and of agricultural im-
provements, was, however, in a great degree obftrudted by
the difpofitions and habits of the Celts and Sarmatians, who
were the firft occupiers of all the European countries, which
lay tothe north of Italy and Greece. Like the other bar-
barous people that defcended from them under different
names, and over-ran the Roman empire in the 5th and 6th
centuries, they defpifed agriculture, and cultivated only land
fufficient to fupply the wants of the current year. They
fubfilted chiefly by hunting and by feeding on the flcth of
domeftic animals which they reared in great numbers; and
attention to thefe objets was regarded by them as much
more dignified and important than the cultivation of land.
This error has been fufficiently deteGted and expofed by the
practice of more modern times ; as it has been found that the
culture of the earth, by breaking and foftening its furface,
has thus rendered it capable of imbibing the rays of the fun
in fummer, and of aff rding a paflage to the internal heat in
winter, and accordingly contributed to preferve a continual
equilibrium between the heat of the earth and that of the at-
mofphere. The contrary takes'place in all uncultivated coun-
tries, efpecially when they are moift and covered with wood.
It cannot juftly be queftioned that the gradual draining of
the ftagnant water in Celto-Scythia and European Sarma-
tia, together with the deflru@tion of their large forefts and
the general cultivation of the fields in thefe countries, muft
have had an influence, not only on the ftate of their own cli-
mate, but alfo on the atmofphere of Greece and Italy.
Thofe cutting north-winds which converted every thing into
ice, and of which the Greeks and the Romans complain fo
much, have ina great meafure ceafed, Since the principal
eaufes that produced them no longer exift. As long as
Germany, Pannonia, Dacia, Moefia, and Thrace remained
uncultivated and covered with immenfe forefts, their atmof-
phere was extremely cold, thick, and heavy, and had acon-
fiderable influence on that of Italy ‘and Greece, in which,
becaufe they were more open and warm countries, the at-
mofphere was confequently far lighter. The exertions of
this Muid to recover its equilibrium were the caufes of the
cutting north-winds, of which the Greeks and the Romans
complained fo much. But when the whole of Celto-Scy-
thia and Sarmatia became more open and better cultivated,
their atmofpbere mult have come nearer to an equilibrium
with that of Greece and Italy, and confequently thofe
{treams of air fromthe north muft have decreafed in the fame
proportion, ‘lhisis acircumitance which muit have contri-
buted to moderate the climate of Greece and of Italy, and
to render it much milder than it was about 1800 or 2000
years ago: and to fuch a degree that, if there had been no
other caufe, we could no longer wonder at, orentertain a
doubt of, the effeéts of the cold which the ancients remark-
ed in their time, and which are not obferved at prefent.
The honourable Daines Barrington (See Phil. Tranf. vol.
58.) having fhewn by the authorities which we have already
cited, contrafted againft thofe of modern travellers, that the
climate of Tomus or Tomi, fuppofed to be the fame with
the prefent' Temefware, whither Ovid was banifhed, has un-
dergone a very confiderable change, urges this fac againft
the
CLIDLAMTATTVED
the common obfervation, that the cultivation of a country
will rendér the climate more temperate: “ becaufe,”’ he fays,
¢ the adjacent country is now in the fame ftate that it was in
thetime of Ovid.”? He adds, * that Italy was better cultivat-
ed in the Auguftan age than it is now, which fhould confe-
quently have made the temperature of the air more warm
than it is now experienced to be. Virgil, in his ‘© Georgics,”
is conftantly advifing precautions againlt {now and ice in the
management of cattle; and fpeaking of Calabria, the molt
fouthern part of Italy, he exprefles himfeif with regard to
the rivers being frozen, as what was commonly to be expect-
ed. It appears alfo from the 6th fatire of Juvenal, that the
Yyber’s being commonly frozen in winter, fupplied the la-
dics of Rome witha very extraordinary inftance of implicit
deference to the commands of the Egyptian priefts in the
performance of their ablutions.
«© Hybernum fraGta giacie defcendet in amnem,
Ter matutino Tyberi mergetur —’
Tn farther proof of the faét, that the Italian rivers were
conitantly frozen over, a paflage is cited from /Elian (De
Animal. lib. xiv. cap. 29.), which confilts of inftruétions
how to catch eels, whilft the water 1s covered with ice;
whereas, if we may believe the concurrent accounts of mo-
dern travellers, it would be almoft as ridiculous to advife a
method of catching fifhin the rivers of Italy, which depend-
ed entirely upon their being commonly frozen over, as it
would be to give fuch directions to an inhabitant of Jamaica.
Many paflages of Horace fuppofe the ftreets of Rome full
of {now and ice. The winters are now unquettionably
much more temperate at Rome than formerly. At prefent
the Tyber no more freezes at Rome, than the Nile at Cairo.
Indeed, the Romans term the winter very rigorous, if the
{now lie two days; and, if one {ee for 48 hours a few icicles
hang from a fountain that has a north expofure. To the
facts above-mentioned, it may be fuflicient to refer to what
has been already obferved with regard to the influence of the
winds ; or to allege, that the cultivation of a country, though
one, isnot the only caufe of the amelioration of its climate.
If it fhould be faid, that as the cold of winter decreafes, by
the operation of the caufes now reeited, the heat of fummer
ought to increafe in the fame proportion; the abbé Mann
admits the faét, and thinks it demonttrable by many monu-
ments, hiftorical as well as phyiical, that the fum-total of
the mean fummer heat 1s greater than it was formerly, and
that it continually increafes, though at long intervals, and in
an imperceptible manner. With refpect to that {tifling heat
which ts occafionally experienced even in Lapland, he thinks
that it is leflened by all the caufes which diminifh the cold
of winter. Experience teaches us, that the thinner, purer,
and more elaftic the air is, the lefs, in the fame proportion,
is the intenfity of the fummer heat; and, on the contrary,
the thicker the atmofphere is, and the more it is filled with
ftagnant and concentrated vapours, the heat is more intenfe
and more fiifing. For this reafon it is always cooler on
the fummits of high mountains, while a {tifling and infupport-
able heat prevails in the neighbouring plains, efpecially when
they are {urrounded with wood. This is always obferved in
the favannahs of America. Dr. Williamfon concurs in this
opinion, and obferves, that when the extenfive country of
North America becomes enurely open, when its woods are
cut down, and its plains cultivated, the feverity of the winter
cold willnot only decreafe, but the ftifling uuhealthful heat
of the iummer will be moderated. ‘lhe quantity of fnow,
ice, and moifture, is already evidently Icffened ; and many
plants, which could not be cultivated there formerly, now
thrive and fucceed. The abbe Mann alleges another, and,
in his cllimation, principal cause of the amelioration of clt-
mate, the agency of which is general and uniform, that is,
anunion of the two diftin& principles, moisture and heat.
The principle of heat, he fays, increafed continually ia the
courfe of time, fo as to overcome the oppofite principles of
moifture and cold, renders, by thefe means, the earth drier
and fuller of ftones, and confequently increafes the fam of
the degree of heat. Without this principle, it is his opi-
nion, that we can never find fufficient grounds for the won-
derful changes which have taken place in the nature of the
foil of al! thofe lands which border on the Mediterranean fea,
which formed the ancient empire of Rome, from Syria to
India, and which at prefent are all become uncommonly fruit-
ful, dry, and ftony. The mere negle& of agriculture could
never have produced thefe effects, and muit have been at-
tended rather with effeG&s of a contrary nature.
That the difference of climate has a very confiderable in-
fluence on the produdtions of the foi!, and on the animals of
every {pecies, that occupy particular diftri€ts of the globe,
is a fact that has been very generally acknowledged. But
the extent and degree of this influence are fubjeé&ts, with
regard to which different writers have expreffed very differ-
ent fentiments. Dr. Robertfon adopts the general ideas
of count de Butfon, and M. de Paw, on this fubjeé ; and in
its relation to America, obferves, that the uncultivated
ftate of the New World affected not only the temperature
of the air, but the qualities of its productions. The princi-
ple of life, he fays, feems to have been lefs active and vigor-
ous there than in the ancient continent. So that, notwith-
ftanding the vaft extent of America and the variety of its
climates, the different fpecies of animals peculiar to it are
much fewer in proportion than thofe of the other hemifphere.
Of 200 different kinds of animals, according to Buffon,
fpread over the face of the earth, only about one-third ex
ilted in America at the time of its difcovery. Befides, na-
ture, itis faid, was not only lefs prolific in the new world,
but fhe appears to have been likewife lefs vigorous in her
productions. The animals originally belonging to this quarter
ot the globe appear to be of an inferior race, neither fo ro-
butt nor fo fierce, as thofe of the other continent. The
fame qualities in the climate of America, which {tinted the
growth, and enfeebled the fpirit of its native animals, have
proved pernicious to fuch as have migrated into it voluntarily
from the other continent, or have been tranfported thither
by the Europeans. Molt of the domeftic animals with
which the Europeans ftored the provinces in which they
fettled, have degenerated with refpe& either to bulk or
quality, in a country whofe temperature and foil feem to be
lefs favourable to the flrength and perfection of the animal
creation. It is further alleged, that the fame caufes which
checked the growth and the vigour of the more noble ani-
mals, have favoured the propagation and increafe of reptiles
and infects, which multiply falter, perhaps, in America than
in other parts, and grow of a more monftrous bulk. The
birds, alfo, of the new world, are not diltinguifhed by qua-
lities fo confpicuous and charaéteriftical, as thofe which have
been obferved in its quadrupeds ; fo that fuch as are peculiar
to America nearly refemble thofe with which mankind were
acquainted in fimilar regions of the ancient hemifphere.
The American birds of the torrid zone, like thoie of the
fame climate in Afia and Africa, are decked in plumage,
which dazzles the eye with the vivid beauty of 1's colours ;
neverthelefs, nature. fatisfied with clothing them tn this gay
deef{s, has denied moft of them that melody of found, and
variety of notes, which catch and delight the ear, In fome
diftrié&ts of America, the unwholcfome temperature of the
air feems to be unfavourable even to this part of the crea-
tion. The number of birds is lefs than in osher countries,
and
CrbirloMyArTyE:
and the traveller is truck with the amazing folitude and
filence of its forefts. Moreover, although the foil, in a con-
tinent fo extenfive as America, mult of courfe be extremely
various 5 yet it may be obferved in general, that moilture
and cold, which predominate fo remarkably in all parts of
America, mult have great influence on its nature and pro-
ductions ; and, therefore, chilled by intenfe cold, the ground
never acquires warmth fufficient to ripen the fruits, which
are found in the correfponding parts of the other continent.
Allowing, however, for the diverfity that occurs in a conti-
nent fo extenfive, the foil of America is naturally as rich
and fertile as in any part of the earth.
In order to account for the condition and charaéter of the
Americans, fome philofophers (as count de Buffon) have
maintained, that that part of the globe, occupied by them,
had but lately emerged from the fea, and become fit for the
refidence of man; that every thing in it bore marks of a
recent original; and thst its inhabitants lately called into
exiftence, and ftill at the beginning of ther carecr, were
unworthy to be compared with the people of a more ancient
and improved continent. Ochers (c. ¢. M. de Paw) have
imagined, that, under the influence of an unkindly climate,
which checks and enervates the principle of life, man never
attained in America the perfection which belongs to his
nature, but remained an animal of an inferior order, defective
in the vigour of his bodily frame, and deititute of fenfibility,
as weil as of force, in the operations of his mind. In oppo-
fition to both thefe, other philofophers (as M. Roufleau)
have fuppofed, that man arrives at his higheft dignity and
excellence long before he reaches a ftate of refinement;
and, in the rude fimplicity of favage life, difplays an cleva-
tion of ientiment, and independence of mind, and a warmth
of attachment, for which it is vain to {earch among the
members of polifhed focieties. Accordingly the rude man-
ners of the-Americans have been propofed as models to the
re(t of the fpecies. Dr. Robertfon, in his judicious and
elaborate inveftigation of this interetling fubjeét, cautions
thofe who inquire concerning either the bodily or mental
qualities of particular races of men, from being mifled by
the common or feducing error of afcribing to a fingle caufe
thofe charaéteriftic peculiarities, which are the effe&t of the
combined operations of many caufes. Some philofophers
of great eminence, he fays, finding that the climate and foil
of America diffcr, in fo many reipef&is, from thofe of the
other hemifpbere, have laid hold on this as fufficient to
account for what is peculiar m the conftitution of its inha-
bitants. Accordingly they reft on phyfical caufes alone,
and confider the feeble frame and languid defire of the
Americans as confequences of the temperament of that
portion of the globe which they occupy. But he thinks
that the influences of political and moral caufes ought not to
have been overlooked. ‘Thefe operate with no lefs effet
than that on which many philofophers relt as a full expla-
nation of the fingular appearances that are difcernible in the
bodily conftitutions and mental qualities of the inhabitants of
the New Wor!d. However, in contemplating the inha-
bitants of a country fo widely extended as America, great
attention fhould be paid to the diverfity of climates uader
which they are placed. The American provinces are of
fach different temperament, that this alone is fufficient to
coattitute a diftin@ion between their inhabitants. In every
part of the earth where man exilts, the power of climate
operates, with decifive influence, upon his condition and cha-
racter; and in thofe countries which approach near to the
extremes of heat or coid, this influence is fo con{picuous as
to ftrike every beholder, Whether we confider man, fays
Dr. Robertfon, merely as an animal, or as a being endowed
3
with rational powers, which fit him for attivity and fpecu-
lation, we fhall find that he has un formly. attained the
greatelt perfe@ion of which his nature is capable, in the
temperate regions of the globe. ‘There his conflitution is
moit vigorous, his organs moft acute, and his form moft
beautiful. ‘There, too, he poffefles a fuperior extent of
capacity, greater fertility of imagination, more enterprifing
courage, and a-fenfibility-of heart which gives birth to
paffions, not only ardent, but perfevering. In this favourite
fituation he has difplayed the utmoit efforts of his genius,
in iterature, in policy, in commerce, in war, and in all the
arts which improve or embeliih life. (See Fergufon’s Effay
on the Hiftory of Civil Society, part iil. c.i.) his pow-
erful operation of climate is felt molt fenfibly by rude
nations, and produces greater effets than in focieties more
polithed. ‘The talents of civilized men are continually ex-
erted in rendering their corftitution more comfortable; ard
by their ingenuity and inventions, they can, in a great
mealure, fupply the defe€ts, and guard againit the incon-
veniences, of any climate. But the improvident favaze is
affeled by every circumftance peculiar to his fituation. He
takes no precaution either to mitigate or to improve it.
Like a plant or an animal, he is formed by the climate
under which he is placed, and feels the full force of its in-
fluence. his natural diftinGion between the inhabitants of
the temperate and torrid zones is fignally exemplified among
the rude nations of America. Thofe of the former clafe
comprehend the North Americans from the river St. Law-
rence to the gulf of Mexico, together with the people ot
Chili, and a few fmall tribes towards the extremity of the
fonthern continent. In this elafs, the human {pecies ap-
pears manifeftly to be more perfect; the natives are more
robuit, more active, more intelligent, and more courageous;
and they poffefs, in the moft eminent degree, that force of
mind, and love of independence, which are the chief virtues
of man ina favage fate. To the other clafs belong all the
inhabitants of the iflands, and thofe fettled in the various
provinces which extend from the ifthmus of Darien almott
to the fouthern confines of Brafil, along the eaft fide of the
Andes; and over thefe the Europeans have molt completely
eflablifhed their dominion, whilit the others have defended
their hberty againit them with perfevering fortitude. It is
allowed, however, that moral and political caufes affe&t the
difpofition and character of individuals, as well as nations,
fill more powerfully than the influence of climate. Ac-
cordingly, fome tribes have been found in various parts of
the tornd zone, who poflefs courage, high fpirit, and the
love of independence, in a degree hardly inferior to the
natives of more temperate climates. Upon the whole, it is
not by attending to any fingle caufe or principle, however
powerful and extenfive its influence may appear, that we
can explain the aétions, or account for the character of men.
Even the law of climate, more univerfal, perhaps, in its
operation than any that affeCts the human {pecies, cannot be
applied in judging of their condu@, without many excep-
tions. (Robertfon’s Hitt. Amer. book iv.)
Clavigero, in his “* Hiftory of Mexico,” has defended the
climate and foil of America apain{ft the obje@ions of count
de Buffon and M. de Paw. He begins with fhewing that
the lakes and marihes, which thefe writers have confidered as
traces of a general inundation, are merely the effects of the
great rivers, innumerable fountains, and very plentiful rains
of Ametica, Whoever has obferved, he fays, the ftupen-
dous elevation of the inland countries of America, will not
ealily perfuade bimfelf that the water could nfe fo as to
cover them without inundating Europe. To the proof
alleged by M. de Paw of the overflow of the foil by Eee
rom
CcCLIM
from the veins of metals which are found near the furface of
' ‘th, he replies chat this phenomenon may much more
or by fuppofing that fome violent
y be accou:
eruptions of fubterraneous. fires, which appear manifeft in
the many volcanoes of the Cordilleras, deftroyed the furface
of fome foils, and left the veins of metals almoft naked.
The difcovery of marine bodies, heaped up together in fome
inland places of America, if it fhould prove the pretended
inundation, would prove ftill more ftrongly a greater inun-
dation of the old continent, in which they are much more
abundant. Ass to the extinétion or deftruétion of ‘the great
quadrupeds of America, which M. de Paw fays are the firft
to perifh in water, and which, as he fuppofes, perifhed ia this
imaginary inundation, Clavigero thinks it aftonifhing that
elephants and camels, which are fo fwift in their metion,
fhould perith, and that the floth, which is fo flow, and‘unable
to move, fhould have efcaped. Although we fhould admit
tnat fuch quadrupeds have formerly exifted in America, we
are not obliged’to believe that their deftruGion has been
éccafioned by the fuppofed ‘nundation, becaufe it might be
afcribed to other very different caufes. After examising
and refuting fome other arguments of M. de Buffon, Clavi-
gero-denies the reality of the inundation, which thefe writers
fuppofe ; more efpeciallv as there has been no record or tra-
dition among the Americans of any other inundation than
that univerfal deluge which is mentioned in feripture.
Againit the charges of Meffrs. Buffon and'de Paw, who
reprefent the foil of America as barren, and its whole terri-
tory as compofed of inacceffible mountains, impenetrable
woods and wattes, watry plains and marfhes, the Mexican
hiftorian alleges the teftimony of Acofta, who obferves,
that if there be any land in the world to which the name of
Paradife may be applied, it is that of America, and he ad-
duces the multitude, variety, and excellence of its vegetable
pr dudtions, and particularly thofe of Mexico and Peru, as
an evidence of the fertilhty of its lands.
Clavizero, after a variety of obfervations on the ample
fupply of vegetables furnifhed by the different climates of
Ameriea, proceeds to examine one of the principal argu-
ments urged by Buffon and de Paw in proof of the poverty
of the foil and malignity of the climate of America, which
is the degencracy of animals, both fuch as are natives and
fuch as are tranfported thither from the ancient continent.
The firft ground of difparagement'to America, in the judg-
thent of Count de Buffon, is the {mall number of its qua-
drupeds, compared with thofe of the old continent. He
reckons (as we have already obferved) 200 fpecies of
qusdrupeds hitherto” difcovered ‘over the whole globe,
éf which 130 belong to the old continent, and only
jo to the new world. To this argument it is re-
plied, that the extent of America is one-third part of the
whole carth, and that it appears to have one-third part, or
its due proportion, of “all. the fpecies of quadrupeds. But
it is difficult to afcertain the true number of fpecies, and to
afiign to each its proper proportion ; and therefore all reafon-
ing on this topic mult be in a degree vague and inconclufive.
In the enumeration and arrangement of the natural hiftorian
himfelf, there is a confiderable degree of confufionand felfcon-
tradiction. But it is alleged, that all the animals of America
are of a much fmaller fze than they are in Europe; but no ar-
gument can be fairly deduced from this circumi{tance againft
the foil or climate of America; becaufe according to princi-
ples cftablifhed by Buffon himfelf, the larger kinds of animals
are peculiar to intemperate climes, ard the fmaller to climes
Which are mild and temperate: and if the advantages of
climate are to be deduced from the fze of quadrupeds, one
might jultly fav, that the climate of Africa and the fouth
of Alia is much better than that of Europe. But the fact,
I
AT Ee
in its unlimited extent, is not true, and has been contradi@ey
even by Buffon himfelf. It has been alfo faid that the ani-
mals of South America, which are thole that properly belong
to the new continent, are almof all deprived of tufks, horns,
and tails; that they are deformed in figure, their limbs being
difproportionate, and ill fet ; and that fome of them, as the
ant-killers and floths, are of fo miferable a nature, that they
have hardly ability to move and eat: However, it would
be difficult to prove that any irregularity in the conformation
of different animals 1s owing to the climate of Amenca, or
‘that it is peculiar to that country. What our philofophers
have faid with refpe& to the lefs ferocity of American
wild beafts; inftead of affifting them to prove the malig-
nity of that climate, ferves only, on the principle exprefsly
itated by Buffon himfelf, to demonftrate its mildnefs and
bounty. “A decreafe of ferocity, therefore, cannot be juitly
pleaded asa proof of degeneracy occafioned by the malignity
of the-climate. But if the American quadrupeds are fmaller
in fize, more ungraceful in form, and more pufillanimous in
their nature than thofe of the old continent, this circum-
ftance would not afford a certain argument of the ma-
lignity of the American climate, becaufe the fame de-
generacy is not manifeft in the reptiles and birds of
America. It has been faid, with regard to American
birds, that, though they are fuperior in beauty of plu-
mage, they are exceeded in excellence of fong by thofe
of Europe. This feét, however, has been contradiéted ;
and it has been afferted that the fong of the nightingale is
more melodious, more varied, and more durable in America
than in Europe. The centzontli or polyglot is preferred even
to the nightingale, with refpeét to the fingular fweetnefs of
its fong, the prodigious variety of its notes, and the talent
it poflefles of counterfeiting the different tones of the birds
and quadrupeds which it -hears. A’s a further proof of the
degeneracy of quadrupeds in America, it has been faid that -
all the animals tranfported from Europe to America, fuch
as horfes, affes, bulls, fheep, goats, hogs, and dogs, are con-
fiderably {maller there than they arein Europe, and, as Buffon
fays, without one fingle exception. If we feek for the proof
of thisuniverfalaffertion, we fhall find noother, fays Clavigero,
in the whole hiftory of that philefopher than that cows,
fheep, goats, hogs, and dogs, are {maller in pene
they are in France. The Mexican hiftorian proceeds to ex-
amine and refute the charge of degeneracy in the human
fpecies occafioned by the malignity of the climate. Accord-
ingly he maintains, that the Americans, in general, are
neither more diminutive in ftature, nor more deformed and
feeble, nor more fubjeét to difeafe than the Europeans; and
where any inftances occur to the contrary, he attributes them
taincidental caufes and not to the influence of the climate.
After an inveftigation of the corporeal qualities of theAme-
ricans, he produces a variety of atteftations and arguments
in favour of their mental powers and attainments. Although
fome miflionaries, aftonifhed equally at their flownefs of com=
prehenfion, and at their infenfibility, have pronounced them
to be a race of men fo brutifh, as to be incapable of under-
ftanding the firlt principles of religion, Clavigero contends,
that their teftimony cannot be trufted. He correéts fome
miftakes of Dr. Robertfon on this fubjeé&t, and particularly
his mifapprehenfion of a decree iffued by a council at Lima
in 1552, which excluded the Indians from the eucharift on
account of their incapacity, and alfo of a bull of Paul HT.
iffued in 1537, which is faid to have declared them to be
rational creatures, intitled to all the privileges of chriftians ;
whereas, he fays, it was merely intended to certify their
right to all the privileges of men, and thus to condemn their
oppreffors. “ We have had intimate commerce with the
Americans,” fays the hiftorian of Mexico, ‘ have 7 for
ome
‘
their courage there can be no queftion.
CL M
fome years in a feminary deftined for their inftruction, faw
the erection and progrefs of the royal colleze of Guadaloupe,
founded in Mexico, by a Mexican fefuit, for the education
of Indian children, had afterwards fete Indians among our
pupils, had particular knowledge of many American rectors,
many nobles, and numerous artilts ; attentivery obferved their
character, their genius, their difpofition, and manner of
thinking ; and have examined befides with the utmoft dili-
gence their hiftory, their religion, their government, their
Jaws, and their cuftoms: and after fuch long experience and
ftudy of them, from which we imagine ourfelves enabled to
decide without danger of erting,-we declaré to M. de Paw,
ana toall Europe, that the mental qualities of the Americans
are not the leaft inferior to thofe of the Europeans, that they
are capable of all, even the mot abitra& fciences, and that
if equal care was taken of their education, if they were
brought up from childhood under good mafters, were pro-
teGted and {limulated by rewards, we fhould fee rife among
the Americans, philofophers, mathematicians, and divines
who world rival the frit in Europe. But it is:a little difi-
cult, not to fay impoflible, to mike great progrefs in the
{ciences in the midit of a life of male y, fervitude, and op-
preffion.” He adds, “the whole ancient hiftory of the
Mexicans and Peruvians evinces to us, that they knew how
to think and order their ideas, that they are fufceptible of
all the paffions and impreffions of humanity, and that the
Europeans have had no other advantage over them than that
of having been better inftru&ted. The civil government of
the ancient Americans, their laws, and their arts, evidently
demonttrate they {uffered no want of genius. Their wars
fhew us that their fouls are not infenfible to the excitements
of love, as count de Buffon and M. de Paw think;”’ and of
For other particusars
with regard to their general chara¢ter, culloms, Iiterattre,
&c. &c. we muit refer to the ** Differcations’? annexed to
Clavigero’s Hiltory of Mexico.
Montefquicu i in his * Spirit of Laws,” (Book xiv. xvii.
examines the influence of different climates on the bodily
conftitution of individuals, and on the manners, chara¢ters,
government, laws, and religion of different nations. The cha-
raéter of the mind, fays this writer, and the paffions of the
heart are extremely different in different climates; andthe
laws, ought to be relative both to the difference of thefe
aflions, “and to the difference of thofe charaters.
In cold conntries people are mere vigorous 3 and fepeno-
rity of flrength produces a great many effects 5 v. g. ara
er boldnefs, that is, more courage 5 a greater fenle of fupe-
iority, that is, lefs defire of revenge; a greater opinion of
fecurity, that is, more franknels, 19a) fufpicion, policy and
cunning. On the other hand, the inhabitants cf warm
countries are more feeble and timorous, and poffefs a amore
exquifite fenfibility ; fo that as chmates are diltinguifhed by
degrees of latitude, they might alfo be diftinguithed in fome
meafure, by degrees of fenfib: lity. The heat of the climate,
he fays, may be fo exceflive as to deprive the body of all
vigour and ttrength. hen the faintnefs is communicated
to the mind ; there is no curiofity, no noble enterprize, no
generous fentiment ; the inclinations are all paffive ; indo-
lence conftitutes the utmolt happinefs ; no puntfhment hardly
is fo fevere as the a&tion of the foul; and flavery is more
f{upportable than the force and vigour of mind neecflary for
human conduct. Hence the Indians are naturally a cow-
ardly people 5 and even the children of the E suropeans, born’
in the Indies, lofe the courage peculiar to their own'climate.
This celebrated writer, reflecting on what the Greeks and Ro-
“mans have faid of Afiatie effeminacy, aud the accounts given
by travellers of the ndolence of the Indians, is of opinion,
Vor. VIII.
Auk ya
that this indolence forms the diftinguihing
thofe countries. Purfuing his inquiries into
caufe of this general faét, and finding, that all thefe nations
inhabit what are called ‘© hot countnies,”’ he has attributed
the caufe of theirindolence to heat ; and amine the faci as
a principle, has laid it down as an axiom, that the inhabitants
of hot countries mult neceffarily be indolent, inert of body,
and from ea likewife inert of mind and charaéter. He
proceeds even {till farther, remarking, that unlimited mo-
narchy is is al ufual form of government among thelfe na-
tious ; aud confidert g defpoti{m as the effet of the fupiie-
nels of a people, he conclates that defpo ytifm is as much the
natural government of thefe sesh ie as-neceflary as
the climate under which they’ live. ‘his fyftem’ has been
received with great applaufe in Bnet nay, even through-
out Europ:, and the opinion of Montefquieu is
among the molt numerous clafs of reafoners, an authority
from which it is prefumptuous to differ; A late wr
(Volney ) has conte this opinicu, and fuggelted feveral
objeSions againtt it. The doétrine,’’ he fays, (Travels ta
Egypt and Syria, vol. it.) “ of the general indolence of the
oriental and fouthern nations, 1s founded on that opinion of
Affiatic effeminacy originally tranfmitted to us by the Greeks
and Romans; but what are the fa&s on which that was
built ?7?—<* Admitting the facts as we receive them from
hiftory, were the Affy:ians, whofe ambition and wars during
500 years threw Afia into confufion; the Medes, who
fhook oft their yoke, and difpoffeffcd them; the Perfians,
who, under Cyrus, within the {pace of 30 years, extended
their conqvelts from the Indus to the Mediterranean ; were
thefe mnert and indolent people? May we not oppofe to this
fyftem the Phenicians, who, for fo many centuries, were in
poffeflion of the commerce of the whole ancient world: the
Palmyrenians, of whofe induftry we poffefs fuch ftupendous
monuments ; the Carduchi of Xenophon, who braved the
power of the ‘* preat king,”? in the very heart of his em-
pire: the Parthians, thofe unconquerable rivals of Rome;
and even the Jews, who, limited to a little Hate, never ceafed
to ftruggle, for a thoufand years, againit the molt powerful
empires? If the men of thefe nations were inert, what is
activity ? If they were ative, where then is the influence of
climate ? Why in the fame countries where fo much energy
wes difplayed in former times, do we at prefent find fuch
profound indolence? Why are the modern Greeks fo de-
bafed amidit the very ruins of Sparta and Athens, and in
the fields of Marathon and Thermopyle ? Willit be alleged,
that the climate has changed ? Where are the proofs? Sup-
pofing this true, it mult have changed by irregular fits; the
dlimate of (Periia malt havevaltered greatly trom Cyrus to
Xerxes; that of Athens from Aristides to Demetrius Pha-
lereus ; and that of Rome from Scipio to Sylla, and from
Sylla to Tiberius. he climate of the AAS BIS muft
have chanyed fince the days of Albuquerque; ard that of
the Turks fince bij If indolencé be peculiar to
the fouthern countries, how are we to account fora Car-
thage! in Africa, Rome in Italy, and the Buccaneers at St.
Doming 0? Why do we meet with the Malays in Indi ia, and
the Bedouins in Arabia? Why, too, at the fame period,
and under the fame {ky, do we find a Sybaris near crepeiia:
a Capua in the vicinity of Rome, and a Sardis contiguous to
Miletus? Whence is it, that we fee, under our own
aud in Europe itfelf. northern governments 2s languid as
thole of the fouth ?) Why, in our own country, are the’ fou-
thern more aétive than the northern provinces? If the fame
effets are obfervable under directly coutrary circum(tances,
and different effeéts under the fume circumitances, what
becomes of thefe pretended principles? What is this
3 Q- influ-
character. of
the common
become,
cer
eves,
C'Lel MA THE:
inflzence of climate? and what is to be underftood by acti-
vity ? Is it only to be accorded to warlike nations ? and was
Sparta when not engaged in war to be efteemed inert ? What
do we mean by hot countries? Where are we to draw the
line of cold and temperate ? Let the partizans of Montefquieu
afcertain this, that we may henceforward be enabled to de-
termine the quantity of energy in a nation by the tempera-
ture, and at what degree of the thermometer we are to fix
its aptitude to flavery or freedom. But a phyfical obferva-
tion has been called in to corroborate this pofition ; and we
are told that heat abates our ftrength ; we are more indolent
in fummer than in winter: the inhabitants of hot countries,
therefore, muft be indolent. Let us fuppofe this true.
Whence isit then, that, under the fame influence of climate,
the tyrant poffefles more energy to opprefs than the people
to defend themfelves ? But, is it not evident that we reafon
like the inhabitants of a country where co!d is more preva-
lent than heat? Were a fimilar thefis to be maintained in
Egypt and Africa, it would there-be faid, that cold prevents
motion, and obitruéts the circulation? The truth is, that
our fenfations are relative to our habits, and that bodies af-
fume a temperament analogous to the climate in which they
live ; fo that they are only affeG&ted by the extremes of the
ordinary medium. We hate {weating ; the Egyptian loves
it, and dreads nothing fo muchas a failure of perfpiration.
Thus, whether we refer to hiltorical or natural taGs, the
fyttem of Montefquieu, fo fpecious at firit fight, turns out,
when examined, to be a mere paradox, which has owed its
fuccefs only to the impreffion made by the novelty of the
{ubjeét, at the time the ‘* Spirit of Laws’? appeared, and
the indireét flattery it offered to thofe nations by which it
was fo favourably received.”
The author then proceeds to inveftigate the origin and
motives of ativityin man; and concludes, that ail action,
whether of body or mind, has its fource in our neceflities,
and augments as they increafe. Accordingly we may follow
its gradations from the rudeft beginnings in the mott favage
{tate of man, when hunger and thirft awaken the firlt
exertions of the foul and body, to the ftate of the mott
mature improvement. In fuch a progrefs, asin the primary
caufe, it mult be acknowledged, that a€tivity has little or
no connection with heat ; only the inhabitants of the north
being reputed to ftand more in need of nourifhment than
thofe of the fouth, it may be alleged, that they mult con-
fequently be poflefled of more aGtivity ; but this difference
in neceflary wants has very narrow limits. The facility of
obtaining a great quantity of food, which is perhaps the
primary caule of voracioufnefs, depends lefs, efpecially in
a favage {tate, on climate than on the nature of the fo:l, and
its richnefs or poverty in pafturage, in forefts, and in lakes ;
and confequently in game, fifh, and fruits; circumitances
which are found indifferently under every parallel. Hence
it appears, that the nature of the foil has a real influence
on activity ; and we mutt perceive, that, in the focial as in
the favage ftate, acountry, in which the means of fubfiftence
are fomewhat difficult to be procured, will have more active
and more indultrious inhabitants; while in another, where
nature has lavifhed every thing, the people will be indolent:
and inaétive. This is perfectly conformable to hiftorical
fact ; for we always find the conquering nations poor, and
iffuing from lands either barren, or difficult of cultivation ;
while the conquered people are inhabitants of fertile and opu-
lent countries. Thefe needy conquerors, eltablifhed among
rich nations, fhortly lofe their energy, and become effemi-
nate, Such was the cafe with the Perfians, who, under
Cyrus, defcended from the Elymais into the fertile fields
watered by the Euphrates; fueh were the Macedonians
under Alexander, when tranfplanted from mount Rhodope
to the plains of Afia; fuchthe Tartars of Gengis-khan,
when fettled in China and Bengal; and fuch the Arabs fo
victorious under Mahomet, after the conqueft of Spain and
Egypt. Itis not, therefore, as inhabitants of hot, but as
inhabitants of rich countries, that nations are inclined to
indolence ; and this maxim is exa¢tly conformable with
what we obferve in fociety in general, fince we fee there is
always leaft aGivity among the more opulenc claffes; but as
this fatiety and poverty do not exilt for all the individuals
of a nation, we muft recur to reafons more general and
more efficacious, than the nature of the foil. ‘ I mean,’®
fays M. Volney, ‘¢ the focial inflitutions, called Gowern-
ment and Religion.” Thefe are the true fources and regula-
tors of the aGivity or indolence of individuals and nations.
Thefe are the cflicient caufes, which, as they extend or
limit the natural or fuperfluous wants, limit or extend the
activity of all men. A proof that their influence operates
in fpite of the difference of climate and foil is, that Tyre,
Carthage, and Aiexandria, formerly poff:ffed the fame in-,
duftry as London, Paris, and Amfterdam; that the
Buccaneers and the Malayans, have dilplayed equa! turbu-
lence and courage with the Normans; and that the Ruffians
and Polazders have the apathy and indifference of the Hin-
doos and the Negroes. Butas civil and religions inftitutions
are perpetually varied and changed by the paflions of men,
their influence changes and varies in very fhort intervals of
time. Hence it isthat the Romans, commanded by Scipios
refembled fo little thefe governed by Tiberius; and that
the Greeks of the age of Ariitides and Themiitocles were
fo unlike thofe of the time of Conftantine. Let us examine
what paffes within ourfelves. Do we not experience, that our
activity has lefs dependence on phyfical caules, than the
actual circumftances of the fociety of which we are mem-
bers? Are our defires excited by neceflary or fuperfluous
wants; both our bodies and minds are animated with new
life ; pafion in{pires us with an activity ardent as our defires,
and perfevering as our hopes. Are thefe hopes difappoiated 5.
defire decays, aétivity languifhes, and difcouragement
induces apathy and indolence. ‘This explains why our
activity varies with our conditions, our fituations, and the.
different periods of our life. Why dues the man, who was
ative in his youth, become indelent in his old age? why
is there more activity in capital and commercial cities, than
in towns without commerce and in the country? To
awaken aétivity, there mult be objects of delire, and to
maintain it, the hope of arriving at enjoyment. If thefe
two effentials are wanting, there is an end to individual
and national aétivity. Such is the condition of the Onentals
in general.—What fhould induce them to move, if no mo-.
tion procures them the hope of an enjoyment equivalent to,
the trouble they muft take? How can they be otherwile.
than indolent in their moft imple habits, if their focial in-
{titutions render it a fort of neceffity ?) The moft inteiligent
obferver of antiquity, after having made the fame re-
mark on the Afiatics of his time, has afligned the fame
reafon.
** As to the effeminacy and incolence of the Afiatics (fays
Hippocrates, De Aére, Locis, et Aquis), if they are lefs war-
like and more gentle in their manners than the Europeans,
no doubt the nature of their climate. more temperate than
ours, contributes greatly to this difference. Bat we mutt ~
not forget the form ef their governments, which are all def-
potic, and fubje& to the arbitrary will of their kings. Men
who are hot permitted the enjoyment of their natural nghts, ~
but whofe paffions are perpetually under the guidance of
their matters, will never be found courageous in battle. te
them
GUEpIyMpA tlre:
them the rifks and advantages of war are by no means equal.
Obliged to forfake their friends, their country, their fami-
lies; to fupport cruel fatigues, and even deaih itfelf, what
is the recompence of fo many facrifices? Danger and death.
Their matters alone enjoy the booty and the {poils they have
purchafed with their blood. But let them combat in their
own caufe, and reap the reward of their victory, or feel the
fhame of their defeat, they will no longer be deficient in
courage; and the truth of this is frfficiently proved by both
the Greeks and Barbarians, who, in thofe countries, live
under their own laws, and are free; for they are more con-
rageous than any other race of men.’’? Upon the whole, M.
Volney obferves, as a fa& which cannot be difputed, that
6* the moral character of nations, taken from that of in-
dividuals, chiefly depends on the focial ftate in which they
live; fince it is true, that our aGtions are governed by our
eivil and rehgious Jaws; and fince our habits are no more
than a repetition of thofe ations, and our chara&er only the
difpofition to aét in fuch a manner, under fuch circum-
flances, it evidently follows, that thefe mult eflentially depend
on the nature of the government and religion.”
Cuimare for plants. See TEMPERATURE.
CuimaTe, in Agriculture, a certain tract or fpace on the
furface of the earth, varying in the ftate or temperature of
the air. _ It has been {tated by Mr. Donaldfon, that ‘it is
the Grft natural advantage of every country ; that which is
abfolutely requifite for enimal, as well as vegetable life ;
that without which, {cil and cultivation wiil avail little; for
although foil may be improved with complete fuccefs, cli-
mate cannot to any very confiderable extent. It is well
known that, befides the particular fituation of a country on
the globe, other circumitances combine in forming its cli-
‘mate ; fuch as its elevation, proximity to/oceans, feas, moun-
tains, marfhes, foil, and the like ; upon fuch natural caules,
the climate of this country, he fays, depends; and from
thefe receives its character. (See the preceding article.)
There are three diftin&t chara¢terift'cs of our climate, that
cannot efcape the obfervation of thofe who have made it an
object of attention, and from which its advantages or dif-
advantages mult appear: rt, its mildnefs; 2d, its variable-
nefs ; and 3d, the productions dependent on it.”
With regard to the firft, it is remarked, that ‘“ from the
high degree of north latitude in which this country is placed,
one would not, at firft, he fays, fuppofe that its air fhould
be naturally mild; yet, on being compared with the tempe-
rature of other countries in the fame parallel of latitude, it
is certainly entitled to this character. The city of Mofcow,
about half a degree fouth of Edinburgh, is very diff-rent in
point of climate. Inthe former city, fo rigorous is the
winter, that it is not uncommon for people to perith by
cold; the lips, nofes, ears, and fingers, of the inhabitants,
are frequently froit-bit ; and water, thrown from a window,
falls on the ground in ice; fuch fevere effects of cold may
be {aid to be unexperienced in thelatter city, or in any part
of the ifland. ‘lhe ifland of Newfoundland, a diftant
branch of the Britith empire, lies in a lower latitude than
England, and yet the extreme colds in winter, and the ex-
ceflive heats in f{ummer, render it very difagreeable to the
inhabitants. The fame holds in regard to Canada, though
ficuated in the 48th degree of north latitude : the climate,
in point of mildnefs, is not equal to that cf the mother
country. Nay, in point of milduefs, Britain excels lands
on the continent, which one would think fhould have natu-
rally enjoyed a fofter climate. We hear, with furprife, of
_the great falls of {now, the fevere and long-continued frofts,
the iudden tranfition from thefe to fultry heats, exceflive
rains, deftrudtive hurricanes, and tremendous thunder-ftorms,
lightenings, and earthquakes, which feourge thofe countries,
whofe inhabitants we are ready to envy, on account of their
favourable climate ; while, unconfcious of our own happi-
nefs in this refpeét, we little think, that, in geneval, we
breathe a purer air, untainted by noxious vapours, and hery
particles, that engender difeafe and death. In winter, too,
our bodies are feldom fo cramped with cold, or, in fummer,
fo relaxed by heat, as to unfit us for paftime or labour.
This fingular felicity of this ifland, as to climate, may be
accounted for from its conneGtion with the ocean. That
immenfe body, from being always in movion, from never
freezing, and from conttantly inhaling the rays of the fun,
poff-fl-s a confiderable degree of natural warmth. Of con-
fequence, the vapours exhaled from the fea, by the action of
the fun, and which neceffarily partake of the fame warmth,
when they neingle with our atmefphere, muft foften the
coldnefs of the air. his is effeCted more efpecially by the
fouth-weit winds, which are prevelent in this country.
Thefe, by the time they have croffed the Atlantic, and
reached our coafls, muft be charged with thofe nutritive
principles and genial vapours, which, being impregnated with
the colder air of this ifland, defcend in gentle dews and
rains, that fertilize the fol. The fame hold:, though not
in an equal degree, in regard to the wind that blows from the
north, though colder than the weft wind, in as much as it
proceeds from countries nearer the pole; yet, in pefling
over the ocean it imbibes a portion of its warmth; and,
when it reaches the country, is comparatively warmer than
when croffing the frozen mountains of the north. Hence,
the reafon why fnow feldom lies above a few days on lands
adjacent to the fea-coalt; hence, too, the influence of fea-
breezes, operating with other internal caufes, namely, the
natural fertility and warmth of the foil, the extenfive woods
and plantations, with thofe canals and rivers that carry off
{uperfluous water, the high {tate of cultivation, the many
cities, towns, villagys, houfes, and animals, all combine in
tempering the climate of this ifland; infomuch, that it can-
not be faid that, in any part of the ifland, high lands ex-
cepted, the climate is fo intemperate as to prevent grafs
growing, grain ripening, or the inhabitants from enjoying
the comforts of life. Upon the whole, it appears, that a
happy concurrence of circumftances renders the climate of
this country milder than that of other countries, which,
from their local fituation on the globe, might be expected
to enjoy a more detireable temperature.”
In confidering the fecond diftinétion of climate, he re-
marks, that, ‘like the ocean that encompafles the ifland,
our climate has been reprefented as inconftant, unfettled, va-
rying in the {pace of a few hours, from dry to moift, from
heat to cold, from clear to cloudy, and from the mott plea-
fant ferenity to all the violence of tempelt. He mutt, in-
deed, (he fays), be an enthufiaflic admirer of the climate.of
Great Britain, who can give it a preference in point of uni-
form {fteadinefs to the climates of fome continental Countries.
It muft be admitted, that Britain does not enjoy that per-
manency of clear air and warm weather, nor that agreeable
viciflitude of feafons peculiar to fome kingdoms ; nor is this
poifible, without the fubverfion of thofe laws which regu-
late feafons and their changes. Upon the principles already
laid down, it is obvious, that the ifland of Great Britain,
walfhed upon three fides by immenfe bodies of water, mult
necflarily be affected thereby ; and it is impoffible that its cli-
mate fhould be fo uniformly fteady as that of other countries,
fituated in the centre of a vaft continent, and fheltered by
ranges of mountains from the frequent inclemencies of winds
and waves. To fuch natural caufes mutt be aferibed the fud-
den and frequent variations of our climate, felt at times fo
3Q2 I
uncemfortably
Cc LIM
uncomfortably by the natives; and which draw from thofe
habituated to more conitant climes heavy complaints againit
our atmofphicre. Tnefe irregularities: of climate, however
difagreeable, (he fays), lay a foundation for advantages more
fubttantial than any that refult from a more pieafant and
flcady temperature of the air. Ft is not in countries where
the feafons of heat and cold, wind and rain, are periodical,
or where the greatelt regularity of climate takes place, that
mankind are molt vigorous, or the fruits ef the earth molt
perfect. There is a famerefs of climate as well as of ‘other
things that is prejedicial to man. Befides, the air, from
being leng aéted vpen by heat or cold, moifture or drynefs,
is put into a ftate no lefs unrmendly to veyetable than animal
But in Britain, the air, from being refined and
tribes.
guickened by the frequent changes it undergees, is in
little danger of being affeQed by fuch canfés. In fpring,
it mult be admitted, that the ceuntry is frequently drenched
with rain, and the feed-time, of courfe, interrupted. But,
exceffive as the rains fometimes are, their bad cfic€ts are ge-
nerally prevented by the keen fharp winds and dry air that
quickly follow, infomuch, that a few days after it cannot
be known that fuch weather had prevailed. It accordingly
{eldom happens in Britain, that the a€tive hufbandman is
prevented by the inconitancy of the weather, from
ploughing the land and fowing the feed in feafon. Seldom
is that feed kilied in the earth, or when fprung withered in
its tender blade, either by untimely-froft or inclement winds.
In fummer, the verdure of our hills and Juxuriancy of our
crops are feldom blafted by a long continuance of dry,
{corching weather, or immoderate falls of ram. Sunfhine
and fhade, genial warmth and moifture, fucceed in grateful
variety, and render our fummer no lefs delightful to man
than friendly to vegetaticn. The climate in harveft refem-
bles that of fpring, the weather fuddenly thifting from ripen-
ing fhowers and mild funfhine to heavy clouds and fudden
burlts of rain, that feem to threaten the promifed harvett.
Yet often when the heart of the hufbandman is ready to def-
pond, he beholds the feafon return in all its beauty, and has
reafon to acknowledge with gratitude the truth, that feed-
time and harveit have not failed.
¥rom autumn to the end of the year, the climate’ of
Britain, is, he fays, moft variable, and its incontlancy is
the more ungrateful from the advanced period of the feafon.
Then the days, as well as nights, are liable to frequent
ehanges, veering between froitand thaw, fnow and rain,
clearnefs and fogs; while often obfcure and joylefs rains
defcend, which deform the face of nature, and deprefs the
ipirit of man; yet it fhould be remembered, that thefe rains
fall at a period when the fruits of the year are fecured, when
nature repofes (with the hufbavdman) after labeur, and
when, from the fhortnefs of the day, little can be done
without, and men are difpofed to enjoy comfortable fociety
within doors. Philofophers alfo maintain, that our rains
an confequence of proceeding more immediately from the
ocean, are more pure, and more impregnated with falts,
than the rains which fall in moft other countries; and though
fometimes falling in prodigious quantities, yet tend to fer-
tilize the foil. ‘he climate of Britain in winter partakes
of the fame variablenefs that diftinguifhes it in other feafons.
Sometimes the weather is open and mild; at other times
froft fets in, and is fucceeded by heavy falls of fnow which
cover, for weeks, the furface of the earth. However much
the inhabitants may then fuffer from the inclemency of cold,
it is generally underltood that the effets of froft and fnow
are, upon the whole, friendly to vegetation. Froft, by ex-
paoding the water or moiflure contained in the foil, feparates
the particles of earth from each other, and thus renders the
AST Bs
foil more loofz, tender, and friable, than it would have
otherwife been. This holds efpecially in regard to tough
clay, upon which frolt a€ts with a falutary effect, by reducing
its ftubborna nature and rendering it more fit for vegetation.
‘The fnows fo frequent in Britain during winter, tend in various
ways to fertilize the foil. Our winter fnows, by covering
the roots of vegetables, fuch as rye, wheat, &c. preferve
them from the killing colds of the atmofphere. By fnow
covering the furface of the earth, its heat is cherifhed.
Upon the principles of thofe who make oil the food of
plants, fnow muft neceffarily, be thinks, be a great fertil-
izer of the foil, from the oily particles it contains. Befides,
fnow, when it meits, moiftens and feparates the fo'l which
had been bound up by the froft, and, as its water tends to
putrefaction, it mult, independently of the nitrous particles
with whith it is fuppofed to be impregnated, be greatly in
favour of vegetation. In fine, fays he, if the climate of
Britain be lefs agreeable than fome others, it has more ya-
riety.” See Snow. 3
In regard to the influence of climate on the produGtions
of the country, it is fuppofed that it is ** from thefe the
excellence or the defects of climate muft be afcertained.
Thefe are evidences to which a fafe appeal may be mace.
They are not, like natural caufes, liable to be mittaken or |
mifreprefented, but are open to the infpeGtion ofall. The
produttions dependent on climate, are plants, flowers, trees,
grain of all kinds, nay animals, fuch as men, horfes,
cattle, fheep, &c. Upon a fair comparifon of thefe with
fimilar produGions of other climates, a juft eftimate of the
excellence of the climate may be formed. It is true, the
author fays, that there are fruits of varions kinds that can-
not arrive at maturity in Britain. Some natives of the tor-
rid zone, when imported here, quickly languifh and die ;
others, when introduced with much foftering care, may
thrive fora feafon, yet from the influence of the air are
foon ftinted in their growth, and degenerate. But fuch
fruits in general contribute only in a {mall degree to the fub-
fiftence of thofe who enjoy them, ard may be regarded ra-
ther as luxuries than neceffaries of life. Wheat, barley, oats,
peas, beans, rye, cattle, fheep, fwine, poultry, &c. are the
great articles which conftitute the food of man; and thefe our
climate is calculated to produce inplenty and perfection. Upon
the whole, from the comparative mildnefs of our climate,
from its varieties, by no means unfriendly to vegetation and
the perfeGiion of fruits, and from the produGtions which de-
pend on it; it appears that in regard to this firft and great
natural advantage of -a country, Great Britain has been
favoured in a contiderable degree.”
With refpe&t to the climate of Middlefex, it has been
fuggetted by Mr. Middleton, that ‘ the temperature of the
atmofphere, except, perhaps, fo far as the influence of the
London fires extends, is nearly the fame through the whole
county, there being no fituation fo much elevated as to pro-
duce the cold and thin air that we find in mountainous coun-
tries. In general it is healthy, owing to the greater part of
the foil being naturally dry ; and the more moift fituations,
being well drained, are confequently free from thofe un-
healthy vapours which ufually arife from ftagnant waters. -
The fires of London, in which are confumed about
600,000 chaldrons of coals annually, have a fenfible effet
on the climate in its neighbourhood, by drying and warming
the atmofpherical air; which, being thus rarefied by heat,
conftantly paffes upwards and makes way for a frefh fupply to
come in from every fide. The molt ftationary winds ate
from the fouth-weft and the north-eaft; all others are vari-
able and unfettled, Thofe from the fouth-weit are fuppofed
to blow nearly 6,ths of the year,’ and thofe from the aa
eat
CLI
eaft about ;Sths. The varying winds blow from‘all the other
points of the compafs about the other one-twelfth. Perhaps,
he adds, it would be moreaccurate to fay that winds from va-
rious points at and nearly the fouth-welt blow about 25,
north-eaft 20, and, from the reft of the circle, nearly feven
weeks in every year. The winds feldom blow with fo much
force in this diltri@& as to fhake the grain out of the ripe ears
of the ftanding corn. The greatelt falls of rain generally comé
from the fouth, and are moft certain when the wind has
paffed through the ea to the fouth. In the {pring-months
the damps on low grounds are fometimes congealed by cold,
when there is nv fuch appearance on the hills, and thereby
fome of the young fhoots of the more tender fhrubs and
plants are deftroyed in the former, when no injury hap-
pens to thofe in the latter fituation. So great have
been the extremes of heat and cold at fome particular times,
that on the 16th of July, 1793, the thermometer rofe as
high as 834°, and on the 24th of January 1795, it fell
down to fix degrees below 0; though this, perhaps, is the
greateft difference in re{peét of climate ever obferved in this
kingdom ; happily, however, it never continues more than a
day or two at fuch extremes. The falubrity of any difti@
is certainly affeGted, in a great degree, by the ftate of the
foil and fhape of the furface of fuch diftri& ; and hence it
follows, that the natural climate of moft or all countries
may, unquettionably, be confiderably improved by ufing the
means belt calculated to procure an equable degree of thel-
ter, drynefs, and morfture; all which may be effected in
bleak, dry, and comparatively barren fituations, by dividing
them into {mall inclotures with broad hedge-rows and planta-
tions, in belts of feveral yards wide; and in low flat fitua-
tions, by draining off the ftagnant water, by enlarging
the inclofures, thinning and clipping the hedge-rows; in
fome inftances by grubbing up not only thefe hedge-rows
but alfo copfes, woods, and plantations; thus removing
every obflruétion to a free circulation of air. This will ne-
ceflarily abforb and carry off theredundant moifture, and con-
fequently render the climate falubrious and comfortable.
Indeed too much attention cannot, he fays, poflibly be
paid, in cafes of inclofures, plantations, &c. to the grand
articles of drainage and fhelter, and alfo to the nature and
fituation of the foil; as by a proper regard to thefe objeéis,
not only the healthinefs of the climate, with refpect to
animals, will be promoted, but the fruitfulnefs of the foil
will be incréafed in a degree not otherwife to be expeéted.”’
It has been fuily fhown that much: advantage may, in
many cales of the culture of the foil, be derived from an
intimate acquaintance with the nature of the climate, efpe-
cially as, in the improved ftate of the art of agriculture,
many of its operations are beftowed upon fuch plants as are
exotic to the fituation in which they are cultivated. The
want of the knowledge of properly adapting the manage-
ment of different articles of culture to the changes of
climate has been often produGtive of difappointment and
failure in fuch cafesas might otherwife havebeen of great be-
nefit and importance to mankind. Daily experience fully
fhows that the vegetable produétions of one climate may,
by proper attention, be readily naturalized in another. The
advances of. agriculture, in this way, lave been great, but
much {till remains to be effected, which a better knowledge
of the nature of climate may have the tendency of greatly
facilitating and bringing forward.
CLIMATURE, a word. fometimes employed in much
the fame way with climate. It isa term frequently made
ufe of by fome agricultural writers, as Mr. Marfhall, in his
« Rural Economies of the different Counties of the
Kingdom.”
CL 1
CLIMAX, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
in Pifidia, near the town of Selga. It advances towards the
fea of Pamphylia, leaving only a narrow paflage, through
which Alexander on foot conducted his army, according to
Plutarch and Strabo.—Alfo, a mountain of Afia in Phe-
nicia, placed by Strabo between the river Adonis and the
town of Biblos.—Alfo, a mountain of Arabia Felix, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.—Alfo, a caitle of Afia, in the mari-
time part of Galatia.—Alfo; a place of Pcloponnefus, in
Arcadia, near the’town of Mantinea, according to Paufa-
nias.— Alfo, a place of Africa, in the nome of Libya, be-
tween Pednopum and Siropum, according to Ptolemy.
Ciimax, or gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure, whereby the
difcourfe afcends, as it.were.by degrees.” Such is that of
Cicero to Catiline: ‘* Nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas;
quod ego non audiam, quod etiam non videam, planeque
fentiam;”? “thou doft nothing, movelt nothing, thinkelt
nothing ; but I hear it, nay fee it, and perfectly underftand
it.’ hus, the fame Cicero to Atticus : ** Si dormis, ex-
pergifcere ; fi ftas, ingredere; fi ingrederis, curre; fi curris,
advola.”’ See ANTICLIMax.
CLIMBER, in Botany See Cremartis.’
CLIMBERRIS, or Aucusta, in Ancient Geography,
formed from Climberrum, and called by Mela Elimberris, the
capital of the Aufci in Gaul.
CLIMBERTUM, or Giinizeraum, aplace of Gaul,
between Laétura and Belfino.
CLIMBING Puayrs, in Gardening, are {uch plants as
afcend either f{pirally ronnd fupports, or by means of clafpers
and tendrils. They are either herbaceous or woody ; and
which, according to their mode of climbing, may be de-
nominated taining climbers, cirrhous climbers, and para/itic
climbers.
The firft fort includes all fuch as have winding ftalks, and
twilt about any neighbouring fupport, fuch as {carlet kidney=-
beans, hops, and {ome fort of honeyfuckle.
The fecond kind comprehends all {uch as afcend by means of ©
fpiral ftrings, iffuing from the fides of the ftalks and branches,
or from the foot-ftalks of the leaves, and even from the leaves
themfelves, twifting about any thing they meet with, by
which their ftalks are fupported and arrive at their proper
height, fuch as moft of the pea tribe, cucumber, vine,
paflion-flower, and various others.
And the lait plants are alfo of the fame kind, but their
clafpers plant themfelves as roots in the bark of the plants on
which they afcend, or in the crevices of walls or pales, there-
by fupporting themfelves, and mounting to their tops, as the
ivy, Virginia creeper, radicant bignonia, and feveral others.
Some of thefe forts of plants, both of the herbaceous. and
fhrubby kinds, are very ornamental. ‘The principal! of the
herbaceous kind are, the everlafting-pea, painted-lady-pea,
{carlet and white kidnéy-bean, na{turtium, gourd, hop-
plant, fearlet convolyulus, &c. but there are.many others.
The chief of the fhrubby kinds, or fuch as have perens
nial ftalks, are, the radicant and ever-green bignonia, climb-
ing celaftrus, different {pecies and varieties of virgin’s-
bower, kidney-bean-tree of Carolina, ivy, Virginia creeper,
many forts of honeyfuckle, paifion-flower, many varieties
of periwinkle, the vine, &c. but there are feveral others.
Many of the herbaceous climbers are very ornamental,
and may be introduced ‘in large borders, placing fticks for
their fupport. The more tall growing forts may alfo be
employed to run over arbours or rural feats in pleafure-
grounds, and other fimilar purpofes.
The fhrubby forts are moft of them proper furniture for
fhrubberies of confiderable extent, in which they may be
employed in different ways; fome being difperfed in the
clumps
CLI ;
clumps, detached from other plants, placing tall, flrong
{ticks for their {upport ; others placed in large borders and
the boundaries of lawns, &c.; and fome near hardy trees
and large fhrubs, to climb about their ftems, or interweave
in their branches and tops ; in the ornamenting of naked or
unfightly walls and other high buildings; and in decorating
and torming rural arbours, where there is any kind of open-
work for the branches to climb upon. They are likewife
yery ufeful, as they fhoot very rapidly, and foon cover fuch
dilagreeable objects.
Thefe forts fhould, many of them, be kept properly
cut during the autumn and early fpring months; thet
they may not fpread out too much, and injure other plants
that are near them,
CLIMIA of the Arabs. See Kuimra.
CLINA, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Afia Mi-
nor, in the Leffer Mytia; near the town of Cyzicus.
CLINCH, in Geography, a mountain of America, in the
ftate of Tenneflee, which divides the waters of Holiton and
Clinch rivers.
Cuincu, or PELEson, a river of America in the ftate of
Tenneffee, being a navigable branch of the Tenneflee river ;
it rifes in Virginia, and, after its entrance into the [tate of
Tcnneffee, it receives Powel’s and Poplar’s creek, and Emery’s
river, befides other ftreams. Its courfe is S.W. and S.W.
by W. through Powel’s valley, an excellent tract of country,
abounding with finefprings. Its mouth, which is 150 yards
wide, lies 35 miles below Knoxville, and 60 above the Hi-
waflee. Itis boatable upwards of 100 miles.
Cuincu of a cable, in Sea Language, is that part of it
which is bent about the ring of the anchor, and then feized
or made fait.
Infide clinch is when the end of a cable is paffed through
the hawfe-hole, and reeved through the ring of the anchor;
then pafled round the ftanding part, through the bight, and
a circle, which is called the “ clinch,’”? formed of the fame
fize as the ring of the anchor; a throat and end-band are
then clapped on oppofite each other, and a feizing of fpun-
yarn clofe tothe end. All other infide clinches are itopped,
fimilar to the bends of this clinchy with {mall rope or {pun-
yarn.
. Outfide clinch only differs from an infide clinch, by paffing
the end on the outfide, and not through the bight, for the
more readily cafting it off.
Cuincu dolts, ina fhip, are fuch as are clinched, or clench-
ed, with a rivetting hammer at thofe ends which come
through. See CLencuine.
CLINCHER-work, or Cuinxer-built, the difpofition
of the planks in the fide of any veffel, by which the lower
edge of every plank overlays the next under it, like the
{lates on the top of a houfe.
This term is. applied to boats that are covered with feather-
edged boards lapping over each other; fuch are generally
fharp-heads and {terns.
CLINCHAMPS, in Geography, a town of France in
the department of the Calvados; 5 miles S. of Caen.
CLINCHING, in Sea Language, a kind of flight calking
ufed about the ports, on a profpe& of foul weatl:er; it is
done by driving a little oakum into their feams, that the
water may not come in at them.
CLING, in Geography, a town and caftle of Germany,
in the circle of Bavaria, 4 miles E.N.E. of Wafferburg.
CLINGEN, or Kuiincen, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Schwartzburg ; 16
miles N. of Erfurt.
CLINIAS, in Biography, a Pythagorean philofopher and
mulician, who flourifhed 524 years before Chrift. As he
cLi
was of a very choleric difpofition, he is faid to have af-
fuaged his paffion by his lyre.
CLINIC, xsxos, formed from xAnn, a bed, a term ap-
plied by fome Church-hiflorians to thofe among the ancients
who received baptifm on their death bed. It was the
doétrine of many of the fathers, that baptifm abfolutcly
wafhed away all previous fins, and that there was no atone-
ment for fins committed after baptifm. On this account
many deferred that facrament till they were arrived at the
laft ftaze of life, and were pretty fafe from the danger of
finning any more; and fuch were called clinici.
Magnus, in the third century, made a doubt whether or
not clinics were truly baptized, in regard the ceremony was
only performed by afpertion, inftead of immerfion; he con-
fulted St. Chryfoltom onthe point, who replied to him, that
the facrament does not wafh away fin after the manner of a
corporal bath ; and fhews from feripture that afperfion is fuf-
cient. See Baptism.
Curntc, or Cuinicav, 1s an epithet applied, in Afedr-
cine, to every thing which relates to the treatment and ob-
fervation of difeafes, at the bedfide of the fick. Hence
the terms clinical practice, clinical IeQure, &c. Clinical
le&tures, or thofe letures which are given upon the cafes of
difezfe, the progrefs of which has been daily obferved and
regiftered at the bedfide of the patient, confitute the molt
valuable mode of teaching the art of medicine.
CLINKERS, among Brick Makers. See Brick.
CLINO, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Theflaly; 22 miles W. of Zeiton.—
Alfo, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Trent; 22
miles W.N.W. of Trent.
CLINOIDES, in Anatomy, an epithet given to the four
{mall procefles of the os spHENOIDES, one of the bones of
the cranium; fo called, fay fome, from their refembling
the feet of a bed.
The word is formed of the Greek xAwn, a bed, and sido,
form; either from the refemblance which the three bones
bear to the feet of a bed; or from the cavity they form,
which refembles a bed itfelf. :
Thefe together form a little cavity, from its fhape called
fella turcia, or equina; wherein is placed the pituitary
gland. :
CLINOPODIUM, in Botany, (xAsvowrodtor, Diofc. Beds-
foot, fo called from the flowers growing in whorls one above
another, like the old-fafhtoned, turned feet of beds.) Tourn.
92. Linn. Gen. 725. Schreb. 980. Willd. 1115. Jufl. 1156
Vent. vol. ii. p. 342. Clafs and order, didynamia gymnofper-
mia. Nat. ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Juil. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, cylindrical, flightly curv.
ed,two-lipped; upper lip wider, trifid, acute, reflexed, lower lip
divided, flender, infiexed. Cor. one-petalled, labiate ; tube a
little longer than the calyx, gradually widened into the throat;
upper lip ere&t, concave, obtufe, emarginate ; lower lip trifid,
obtufe, middle fegment wider, emarginate. Grades numerous,
about the length of the calyx, forming an involucre beneath
the whorl orhead. Stam. filamerts four, two longer cover-
ed by the upper lip; anthers roundifh. Pf. Germ fupe-
rior, four-parted ; ftyle filiform, ftigmafimple, acute, com-
prefled. Peric. none. Seeds four, naked, attached to the
bottom of the permanent calyx, which bccomes a little ex-
panded below, and contraéted near the orifice.
Eff. Ch. Braétes numerous, forming an involucre under
the whorl or head.
Sp. 1. C. vulgare, Linn. Sp. PJ. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1.
Willd. 1. Flor Dan. tab. 930. Lam. Il. Pl. 511, fig. 1.
Eng. Bot. 1401. (C. origano fimile; Bauh. Pin. 224.
Tourn, 195- Acinos; Lob. Ic. 504. Wild baiil. «* Whorls-
8 hairy ;
1
hairy; braétes briftle-fhaped; pedicels branched; leaves
flightly ferrated.”” Root perennial, fibrous or fomewhat
creeping. Stems fomewhat undulated, but not regularly
zig-zag. Leaves petioled, egg-fhaped, rather obtufe, a
little hairy, with veins regularly fringed. #Vowers purplifh
rofe-coloured, whorled, whorls terminal and axillary, few
many-flowered ; pedicels hairy; braétes hairy, fhorter than
the calyx ; calyx ribbed, hairy ; two lower teeth longeft and
moft prominent ; corolla twice as long as the calyx, hand-
fome, with two hairy knobs at the orifice; fegyments of the
lower lip rounded. ‘The whole herb is aromatic, with a
faint thyme-like odour. Dr. Smith. A native of England
and other parts of Europe, on the borders of woods and in
dry hilly fituations ; flowering injJune. here is a variety
raifed by feeds from Canada which differs only in having
flowers much {maller. Two other varieties were fent to
Miller from Carolina by Dr. Dale; the firft, which he calls
Aumile, isnot more than half the fize of the European fort,
dividing into many long fide-branches; leaves {maller and
rougher ; whorls more numerous, with longer braétes ;
flowering in June and July. The fecond, which he calls
carolinianum, has {tems almoft round, the joints four or five
inches afunder, with two oblong leaves at each, hairy on
their under fide, on fhort petioles; at the bottom of thefe
there is a flender branch on each fide, half an inch long,
having two or four {mall leaves fhaped hke the others. The
flowers are white, in {mall whorls, ftanding thinly ; braG@es
longer than the calyxes. [t flowersin Augutt. 2. C. egyp-
tiacum, Lam. 2. Willd. 2. (C. vulgare @, Lian. Sp. PI.
3. Mill.) ‘ Whorls axillary, diftant leaves nearly entire,
with a {mooth furface.”” Lam. Nearly allied to the preced-
ing, but conttantly {maller, lefs villous and more branched.
Root perennial, Leaves ovate, acute, a little ciliated at the
edge, with a tint of violet when young. F/oqwers pale red,
or flefh coloured ; whorls fmall, loofe, hifpid. A native of
Egvpt. Deferibed by La Marck from ~a living plant.
Willdenow, who profeffes allo to defcribe from a living
plant, afferts that the flowers cre never in whorls, but al-
ways in terminal heads. 3. C. incanum, Linn. Sp. Pl. ».
Mart.2. Lam. 3. Willd. 3. (C. menthe folio, incanum;
Dill. Elth. 87. tab. 74. fig. 55. C. majus virginianum ;
Monif. Hitt. 3. p. 374. Scot. 11. tab. 8. fig. 4. C. Ser-
pentaria dicta; Pluk. Mant. 51. tab. 344. fig. 7.) “ Leaves
tomentous underneath ; whorls flatted ; brates lanceolate.’?
Root perennial. Stems two or three feet high, ere&t, ob-
tufely quadrangular, clothed with a fhort whitifh pubef-
cence, branched*near the top. Leaves oppofite, petioled,
acutcly egg-fhaped, toothed, green above, whitifh under-
neath, refembling thofe of mint; thofe next the flowers al-
mott always hoary. /Yowers pale red, fprinkied with pur-
ple fpots, in two or three axillary whorls near the top of the
flem ; upper lip fhort, entire. A native of Maryland, Vir-
ginia, and Carolina, flowering in Auguft.
C. africanum procumbens ; Pluk. See ANTHOSPERMUM
ciliare.
C. alpinum; Pon. Bald.
Pin. Pluk. See Barrsta alpina.
C. amarici folic; Pluk. See Nerera virginica.
C. angu/flifolium non ramofum; Pluk. Morif, See Ma-
NARDA Ctlluta.
alpinum hirfutum; Bauh.
C. anguflifoium virginianum; Pluk. See Monaapa
pundatd. : ;
C. arvenfe ecymi facie; Bauh. Pin. See Tuymus
acinos.
C. afiaticum; Lour. See Hypris afiatica.
C. auflriacum; Rom, See Taymus alpinus.
C. capitatum ; Swartz, Brown. See Hypris capitata,
OWE Gre |
C chamedrys ; Vahl. See Hyeris chamedrys.
C. creticum ; Alp. See Sarureia Greca.
C. fiflulofium pumilum; Pluk. See ZizipHora capitata.
_C. floré albo ramofius ; Morif. Hit. See Nerera vir-
ginica, ;
C. foltis lanceolatis, capitulis terminalibus ; Hort. Cliff.
See Nerera virginica.
C. foliis fanceolatis acuminatis ; Cap. Term. See Tux-
MUS VITEUUCUS .
C. foliis ovatis acutis Jerratis ; Tall.
alpinus.
C. foliis ovatis dentatis ; Hall. See Tuymus acinos.
(Gs Sruticofum ; Forfk. See Putomis meluccoides.
See THymus
C. Ayffopi latioribus fohis; Pluk. See Puromis Rey
lanica.
C. lufitanicum fpicatum et verticillatum; Tourn. See
Creonta lufitanica.
C. majus virginiana ; Morif. See Monarva Sfulofa.
C. martinicenfe; Jacq. See Puromis marticin afis.
C. minus exoticum; Pink. See Sarurria Greca.
C. montanum; Banh. Pin. Boce. See Tuymus alpinus.
C. orientale, origant folio; Tourn. See Sarureia
Greca.
C. parvum finicum; Pluk. See Comeres alternifolia.
C. perenne pulegii odore ; Bocce. See Tuymus patavinus.
C. pulegii angujlo rigidoque folio; Pluk. Sce Tuymus
VITSINICUS .
C rugofum; Linn. See Hyrrtis radiata.
C. fupinum incanum; Anem. See Zizip Hora acinoides.
C. virginianum anguftifolium; Morif. See Monarpa
puntata, :
C. vulgare; Lob. See Tuymus acinus.
CLINOVO, or Kuruno, in Geography, a town of
Turkith Dalmatia, generally ufed as a place of rendezvous
in a time of war, anda depdt of arms and provifions ; 30
miles E.N.E. of Spalatro.
CLINTON, the moft northern county of the ftate of
New York in America, bounded on the N. by Canada, E,
by the deepelt waters of lake Champlain, which lire fepa-
rates it from Vermont, and S. by the county of Wathing-
ton: feated on the Jake Champlain and lake George, or
lying about midway between Quebec and New York, at
the diftance from each of about 230 to 240 miles. It is di-
vided into 5 townfhips, viz. Plattiburg, the capital, Crown-
point, Willfborough, Champlain, and Peru. The length
from N. to 8. is about 96 miles, and the breadth from E. to
W., including the line upon the lake, is 36 miles. In
1796 the number of inhabitants was eftimated at 6coo,
af whom 624 were intitled to be eletors. The lands are
generally of an excellent quality, and produce abundance of
the various grains cultivated in cther parts of the ftate. The
inhabitants manufacture earthen ware, pot and pear] afhes,
in large quantities, which they export to New York or Que-
bec. heir wool is excellent ; their beef and pork inferior
to none; and the price of ftall-fed beef in Montreal, 60
miles from Plattfburg, is fuch as to induce the farmers to
drive their cattle to that market. The foreis fupply them
with fugar and molafles, and the foil is well adapted to the
culture of hemp. ‘he land carriage from any part of the
country, in tranfporting their produce to New York, does
not exceed 18 miles, the carrying place at Ticonderoga is
14 mile ; and from Fort George at the S. end of the lake
of that name, to Fort Edward, the diftance is but 14 miles ;
after which there are fome fmall ob{tru@tions that are to be
removed by the northern canal. From this country to
uebec are annually fent large rafts; the rapids at St. John’s
asd Chamblee being the only interruptions in the naviga-
tion 5
Sipe Fig |
tion; and thefe are not fo great, but, at fome feafons, bat-
teanx with Go bufhels of falt ‘can afcend them. Salt is fold
here ac half a dollar per bufhel. The rivers which water this
} Boquet: the firtt of which
» with fpears, and imall fcoop nets.
is ufually caught here from May to November 5, it fupplies
excellent flied provilion, and every cottager, by {pending
an hour in the eveniag, may obtain a fufiicient quantity for
his family. In this.c ducks, geeie, pigeons, and other
kinds of birds are pi ii.
Cuinton, a townihip in Dutchefs county, New-York,
Situated above Poughkcepfie, which is large and thriving.
[t contains 4697 inhabitants, including 167 flaves, and 666
are eleGters. - Alfoa fettlement in Tioga county, New York,
bounded by Fayette on the N., Warren on the S. Green on
the W., and Franklin in Otfego county on the EX. At the
N.E. corner Unadilla river joins the Sufquehannah, and the
confluent ttream runs §.W. to Warren.—Alfo, a plantation
in Lincoln .county, and diftri& of Maine, 27 miles from
Halloweli— Alfa, a parifh in the townthip of Paris, 7 miles
from Whiteftown, which is a wealthy, pleafant, flourifhing
fettlement, containing feveralhand{ome houfes, anewly erc&ted
Prefbyterian meeting-boufe, a convenient {chool-houfe, and
an edifice for an academy delightfuily fituated.
Cutnton’s Harbour, lies on the N.W. coaft of N. Ameri-
ca, having its entrance in N. lat. 52° 12’. W. long. 136°.,
fo called by captain Gray after governor Clinton of New
York.
SLIO, in Mytholocy, one of the Mufes, daughter of Ju-
piter and Mnemofyne, the goddefs of memory, who prefided
over hiltory. The name is derived from xAzos, glory, or from
xreav, to celebrate. In the portraits of Apollo and the Mu-
f{es, dug out of Herculancum, Clio appears feated, and her
head is crowned with laurels. In her left hand fhe holds
an open volume, in which fhe is reading. On the outfide is
written KLEIQ ICTOPIAN, Clio the Hifforian; though it
fhould rather be tranflated, Clio invented Hiflory. At her
feet are fix other rol!s, or antique volumes, inclofed in a cy-
lindrical cafe. Sht is fometimes_reprefented with a lute in
one hand, and in the other a WS cum, or quill, Mr.
Spence givés the following account of her “‘ Clio prefided
over the nobleft kind of poetry ; her office was to celebrate
the actions of departed heroes; who, therefore, has a roll,
or book, in her hand, or elfe the longer holds a pipe, as in the
relievo of the Mufesin the Juftiniani palace at Rome. Horace,
in {peaking of this pipe, feems to give it the fhrillnefs of the
trompet, and, indeed, it is fhaped much in the fame manner
with the trumpet, which the modern artilts give to their
figure of Fame. As Pindar, and feveral of the other old
Lyric poets, dealt fo much in celebrating the aétions of de-
parted beroes, this Mufe may, perliaps, have been fometimes
reprefented with a lyre too; though I do not remember
to have feen any inftance of it in the remains of the old ar-
tilts.
muft prefide over any thing written in heroic verfe; and
his miltake, for it feems to be one, may be ealily accounted
for, from theirs looking formetly on every thing in hexame-
ters as an epic poem.” See Muses.
Cx10, in Zoology, the name of a genus of worms, belong-
ing to the order of mollufca: the body of which is oblong,
and formed for fwimming, and furnilhed with two oppofite
alz of a membranaceous [iructure : it has three tentacula, be-
fides two in the mouth. Gmelin enumerates 6 fpecies, viz
Caudata, Pyramidata, Retufa, Borealis, Helicina, or {nail
Mime-filh, and Linacina: all of which are found im the
ocean
Statius makes her defcerd io lower offices, as if fhe.
ae Fs |
CEIP, in Rural Ecoucmy,. a.word. wfed: to fignify. hhear-
ing fheep. And it allo fignifies the produce of wool, 2s the
clip of any year implies the quantity that is afforded in it.
See Suzepr and Shearing af SHEEP.
CLIPPING, the act of fhearing fhecp. This fort of
bulinefs was formerly done in a lonsitudinal dirc@ion, but
a later improvement is that of executing it in a circular me-
thod, It alfo fignifics a fheep-fhearing. See Suzer and
Shearing of SHEE.
Cuippeinc the Coin. See Coin.
CLISOBORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Iadia,
placed by Arriau among the principal towns of the Surcle-
uians. Pimy fays that the myer Jomanes pafled between
this town and Methora.
CLISSA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Dalmatia, taken
from the Turks by the Venetians in 1684: 10 miles N. of
Spalatro. y ;
CLISSON, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Loire, and chief p'ace of a canton, in the diftridt of
Nantes, feated on the Sevfe; 5 leagues S.E. of Nantes.
The place contains 1178, and the canton 6139 inhabitants :
the territory includes 140 kiliometres and 7 communes.
N. lat. 47° 5’. W. long. 1° 237.
CLIST, a river of England, which runs into the Ex, a
little below Exeter. 2
CLISTHENES, in Biography. an Athenian magiftrate,
who flourifhed 510 years B.C. and introduced the mode of
banifhing by Ofiraci/m ; which fee.
CLIVA, in Anciznt Geography, a town of Afia Minor
in Bithynia, according to Ptolemy; fituated towards the
N.E. of Amattris.—Alfo, a place of Greece fituated, accor-
ding to Livy, near mount Atio3, in Macedonia,—Alfo,
the furname of the inhabitants of Cilicia Campeftris, ac-
cording to ‘Tacitus; who fays that they occupied the parts
near the fea, and mount Taurus, in that diltri&t of Afia,
which was fubje& to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia.
When this king compelled them to pay tribute, thcy retired
to mount Taurus, where they maintained themfelves under
their chief Trofobor againlt the troops which he fent againft
them. ’
CLITERIUM, or Crirorivum, according to Pliny, a
town of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia.
CLITERNIA Laginatum, a town of Italy belong-
ing to the Trentari, L. of Larinum, according to Pliny
and Mela. ]
CLITERNUM, a town of Italy, fituated in the country
of the Equiculi, according to Ptolemy. Pliny calls the in-
habitants Cliternini. Fs es
CLITHEROE, in Geography, a borough and market
town of Lancafhire, England, itands on the verge of that
county, where it joins with Yorkshire, and is diftinguithed
by its bold and infulated rock of limeilone crowned with
the keep of an ancient caftie, At the northern extremity
of the town, is an old manfion called the Alleys, which was
formerly the manor-houf=, and was furrounded by a deep
moat. The town of Clitheroe is an ancient borough by
prefcription, and made its firft return of members in the frit
year ot Elizabeth. The right of eleGion is veiled in a pe-
culiar kind of burgage-tenure, and the number of eleétors
is forty-two. Here are a weekly market on Satyrday, and
three annual fairs, ‘The tewnfhip contains g19 howfes, with
1368 inhabitants, and is 217 miles north of London. Whit-
aker’s hiftory of Whelley, 4to.
CLITIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul, fuppofed
by fome to have been the Ciain.
CLITOMACHUS, in Biography, a native of calcu
who, fond of learning in his early years, vifited Carthage “
6 the
<< lc el relr.rt“ i‘ CC;
Cabt
the purpofe of attending the fchools of the philofophers,
At Athens he became the difciple of Carneades, and fuc-
ceeded him in the chair of the New Academy. By dili-
gent ftudy he made himfelf mafter of the fyftems of the
other fchools; but profefled the doétrine of fufpenfion of
affent, as it had been taught by his predeceflor. Cicero
fays, that he wrote 400 books upon philofophical fubjeéte.
At an advanced age he was feized with a lethargy ; but
when hein fome degree recovered his faculties, he faid, “ the
love of life fhall deceive me no longer,’? and laid violent
hands upon himfelf. He held the office of preceptor in
the Academy from the death of Carneades for 30 years,
or till the 17oth Olympiad, 100 years B.C... According to
Cicero, he taught, that there is novcertain criterion by which
to judge of the truth of thofe reports which we- receive
from the fenfes ; and that, therefore, a wife man wil! cither
wholly fufpend his affent, or decline giving a peremptory
opinion; but that, neverthelefs, men are ftrongly impelled
by nature to follow probability. His moral doctrine etta-
blifhed a natural allianee between pleafure and virtue. He
was a profefiled enemy to rhetoric, and thought that no
place fhould be allowed, in fociety, to fo dangerous an art.
Brucker’s Hilt. of Philof. by Enfeld, vol. i. p. 253.
CLITON, or Criror,in Ancient Geography, a river of
Greece, in the Peloponnefns, Jt ran through Arcadia, and
affed near the town of Clitor, according to Paufanias.
CLITONES;, the eldeft, and all the fons of kings. This
word is often met with in our ancient authors.
CLITOR, in Ancient Geography, atown of the Pclopon-
nefus, in Arcadia, feated on a river of the fame name, S.W.
of Luffi; about Go ftadia from the fprings of the river La-
don. Paufanias fays that Clitor, a very powerful fovereign,
built it, and gave it his own name. ‘Uhe principal temples
ofthis town were thofe of Ceres, Aif{culapius, and Caftor
and Pollux. Thefe two laft were denominated there ‘ the
great gods ;’? and their ftatues were in bronze.
CLITORIA, in Botany, (from: xAsw, claudo, includo, ex-
prefiing the manner in which the effential organs of fructi-
fication are enclofed or fhut up in the keel and wings of the
corolla. Whatever may have been in the thoughts of Pe
tiver, by whom the name was firlt introduced into botany ;
or of the illuftrious naturalifts, by whom it has fince been
continued, reformed, or fanétioned, we cannot refrain from
entering our decided proteit again{t every attempt to aflo-
ciate it dire@ly with an anatomical term, to which, though
derived from the fame Greek theme, it has in faét only a
very remote, fa€titious analogy. It is greatly to be lament-
ed, that a fondnefs for thefe grofs allufions fhould ever have
been indulged by any, who, in all other refpeéts, have de-
ferved highly of natural fcience, and whofe {plendid talents
fhould have rendered them far feperior to {uch grovelling
ideas, By this condu& they have done all in their power
to pollute a fludy, which is, perhaps. more than all others,
fuited to the lovelieft part of the human race, and which,
without concealing any efiential part of the fexual fyftem, may
eafily be fo conducted, as not to excite an unpleaiant fenfa-
tion in the moft delicate female mind. Wedonot mean to
exempt from the full feverity of this cenfure: our great
matter, Linneus, himfelf ; for when, not only the purity of
moral feeling, but alfo the commén decorum of polifhed life,
is infringed, the nullius in verba of the poet will, we trutt, be
uniformly our principle and our praétice.) Linn. Gen. S6g.
Schreb. 1183. Willd. 1352. Gert. 866. Jufl.357. Vent.
3. 404. (ternate, Tourn.) ‘Clafs and order, diadelphia de-
candria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminoje, Juli.
Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, erect, tubular, five:
toothed, permanem, Cor. papilionaceous; flandard very
Vor. VII, .
CLA
large, ftraight, flightly emarginate, obtufe, covering the
other petals; wings oblong, fhorter than the ffandard,
ftraight, obtufe; keel fhorter than the wings, curved like a
fickle. Svam. nine, united, one feparate ; anthers fimple.
Pift, Germ very long, fuperior, oblong ; ftyle afcending ;
figma obtufe. Peric. Legume very long, linear, generally
comprefled, two-valved, terminated by an awl-fhaped point.
Seeds numerous, kidney-fhaped. Corolla re{upinate, or in-
verted. ‘
Eff, Ch. Standard very large, covering the wings.
Sp. 1. C. ternatea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 1.. Lam. 1.
Willd. 1. Lam. Ill. tab. Gog. Gert. tab. 149. fig. 3. (Pha-
feolus indicus ; Comm, Hort..1. p. 47. tab. 24. Flos clitori-
des ternatenfium; Breyn. Cent. 76. tab..31. Flos ceruleus,
Rumph, Amb. 5. p..56. tab. 31. Ternatea, Tourn. AG.
1706. p. 84.) Leaves pinnated ; leaflets inverfely heart-
fhaped ;: invelucre two-leaved, roundifh,?? Lam. « Leaves
quinate-pinnated ; peduncles axillary, one-Aowered,”? Willd.
Root perennial. Svem- four or five feet high, herbaceous,
twining, flender, branched. Leaves. alternate, unequally
winged ; leaflets five or feven, veined underneath ; with two
briftle-fiaped ttipules at the bafe of each pair of leaflets. and
two awl-fhaped ones at the origin of. the common petioles.
Flowers large, blue, with a yellowith fpot at their centre,
generally folitary, on fhort peduncles. Legumes three or
four inches long, narrow, lenticular-compreffed, without
knots, or rifings above the feeds, terminated by the longifh
awl-thaped flyle, divided tranfverfely into many cells; par-
titions thin, formed from the internal white celiular mem-«
brane of the valves. Seeds folitary, from feven to twelve,
ovate kidney-fhaped, truncated at ene end, rather comprefled,
fomewhat gibbous on both fides, fmooth, cheftnut-brown,
Lam, and Gert. A nativeof the Fatt Indies and Cochin-
china; but the feeds were firtt brought to Europe from
Ternate, one of the Molucca iflands. “There is a variety,
figured by Rheed. Mal. 8. p. 69. tab. 38. with white
flowers, and obtufer leaflets, in which the flowers generally
grow from three to five together, in {mall axiilary racemes.
There is alfo.a blue variety, with double flowers, an exu-
berance not common jn this clafs of plants. 2. C. etero-
phylla, Lam. 2. Desfont. Annals of Botany, vol-i. p. 124.
Ventenat Jard. de Celf. tab. 26. ‘© Leaves pinnated:;
leaflets quinate ; fome rounder, fome lanceoiate, fome linear,”
Lam. Stem above fix feet long; branched, chmbmg, fili-
form, flightly pubefcent. - Licaves alternate, lower ones
ternate, middle and upper ones pinnated with an odd leaflet ;
leaflets from feven to nine, {mall, {mooth, oppofite, ternin-
ated by abriftle-fhaped appendage, not unfrequently emar-
ginate; tipules awl-fhaped. Flowers azure blue, re{upi-
nate, axillary, folitary, pendalous ; peduncles a quarter of
an inch-long, very flender, f:ghtly tumid at the fummit;
bractes four; two lower; two others fuperior, forming a
kind of involuecre to the calyx, very {mall, acute; calyx tubu-
lar, fomewhat widened upwards, marked with five fmall
prominent lines, terminated by five egg fhaped, acute teeth,
the three upper ones the largeft; ftandard elongated, ftreak~
ed, convex outwards, emanginate at the tip, longer than
the wings ; wings brought clofe together, obtufe, with a
very flender claw ; keel not fharp, formed by two contig uous
petals, each borne on a pedicel ; ftyle fomewhat geniculate ;
{tigma pubefcent, obtufe. Leguue about two inches long,
linear, {mooth, fleek, flattened ; pendulous, many-feeded,
ending in a point; valves twifting {pirally after they have
opened. Seeds from eight to ten, comprefled. Desfont. A
native of the Batt Indies, found by Sonnerat ; and of the ifle
of France, whence it was introduced into the French gardens
byfeeds brought by M. Coffigny. 3. C. mudtifora, Willd. 2.
Swartz. Prod. ro6. « Leaves pinnated; pairs of leaflets
gR , many,
CLti
many, filky underneath; racemes exillary, many-flowered.””
Root perennial. A native of St. Domingo. 4. C. Brafil-
iana, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 3. Wiild. 3. (Pianta
leguminofa brafiliana, Breyn. Cent. 78. tab. 32.) ** Leaves
ternate ; calyxes folitary, campanulate.”” Linn. Stem five or
fix feet high, twining. Leaves alternate on long petioles;
leaflets ovate-oblong, flightly veined, rather hard. Flowers
large, purple, axillary, folitary. peduncled;. ftardard much
broader, and wings larger than in C. ternate; leaflets forming
the involucre of the calyx two, oval, oppofite, membranous ;
braétes on the peduncle of the fame fhape. A native of
Beafil. There is-a variety with doub'e flowers raifed by
Miller from feeds fent from India, but now loft in the Enz-
lith gardens. 5. C. calearigcra, Salifo. in Paradifus Londi-
nenfis, tab, 51. (C. virginiana, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 3.
Lam. 4. Willd. 4. Brown. Jam. 298- Swartz. Obf. p.
282. Clitorius alter trifoliatus, Clayton in Gron. Fl. Virg.
ed. 1. p. 73. ———Feenum grecum phafeloides, Pluk.
Alm. p.175. Phyt. tab. go. fig. 1.) ‘* Leaves ternate;
calyxes in pairs, campanulate.” Lam. ‘‘ Leaflets in one
pair, terminated by an odd one; ftandard {welling at the
back into a folid {pur, which prefles upon the claw.”” Sahfb.
Root perennial. Siem about three teet high, twining, flen-
der, hairy. Leaflets egg-fhaped, -hairy, efpecisl'y near the
margin. Flowers in fhort Spikes or racemes, feldom more
than two-flowered; bre@es friated; calyx much fhorter
than in other clitorias, fearcely comprefied. Standard ex-
ternally of a dull yellow colour, pubefcent; internally lilac,
with a yellow midcle variegated with red ftreaks, fmooth,
furuifhed’ with a folid four jutt above the claw; wings
and keel pale lilac, adhering clofely together; nectary
very large, like a ruffle. Legume narrow with pro-
minent futures. Seeds brown, with a greyifh cloud in the
middle. A native of Virginia and the Weit Indies. There
is a variety, with narrow elongated leaves ; and another with
ovate oblong ones figured by Dillenius. .Hort. Elth. vol. 1
tab. 76 Mr. Salifbury obferves, that though the leaves of
this and the foilowing f{pecies are faid by Linnexs to be ter-
nate, they zre truly pinnated ; for though confitling only
of a fingle pair of facts befile the odd one, the two are
placed upon the common petiole. Notwithitanding eur ge-
neral unwillingnefs to change trivial names, we have been
judaced to adopt Mr. Salifbury’s as clearly exprefling a cha-
ra¢ter peculiar to the {pecies. 6. C. mariana, Linn. Sp. Pl.
4. Mart. 4. Lam. 5. Willd. 5. (Clitorius marianus, Petiv.
Sicc. 243. n. 55. Gron. virg. p. 3.) ‘¢ Leaves ternate 5
calyxes cylindrical.” Linn. Stem about five feet high,
twining, week. Leaflets narrower than in the preceding
fpecies, gravifh underneath. FVeqwers axiliary, of a pale blue
colour within, whitith without; ftandard large. Legumes
long. pointed, a littie inflated. Seeds roundith. A native
of Norh America. 7. C. falcata, Lam. 6. (Phafeolus,
Plum. MSS.) ‘ Leaves ternate; peduncles long, with
about'three flowers; legumes narrow, fickle fhaped.”? Stems
twining, flender, very long. Leaves alternate; leaflets
ovate, of a pleafant green colcur, refembling the leaves of
the orange tree. Ficawers large, bluifh or purple violet ;
calyx oblong, almoft funnel-thaped, with five acute fegments,
and an involucre refembling another calyx at the bafe,
Legumes narrow, compreffed, with {cveral apparent articula-
tions. ‘Seeds kidney-fhaped, fhining, white with a rsd umbi-
licus. Plum: MSS. -A native of St..Domingo. 8. C. ga-
da@ia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 5. Lam. 7; Willd. 6. Brown.
Jam. 298. tab. 32. fig. 2. (Phafeolus, Sloane Jam.1. p. 182.
tab. 114, fiz. 4.) ‘¢ Leaves ternate ; raceme erect; flowers
pendulous. Stem about fix feet high, twining, weak,
Leafiets eliptic-oblong, obtufe, foimetimes emarginate.
Flowers veddihh ; calyx fhort, campanulate, four-toothed ;
cui
corolla a little papilionaceous; all the petals cblong, narrow 3
Randard a little larger than the others. Legume fender,
cylindrical, pointed. A native of Jamaica, milky in all its
parts. This fpecies differs from all the preceding in. the
form and dilpofition of its flowers, which rather diverge from
the generic character.
Criroria foliis pinnaits, caule decumbente.
Gren. Virg. See GaLeGa virginiana.
Propagation and Culture. A\\ the {pecies are annual in
England, fo that unlels the feeds ripen they are loft, till they
can be renewed by frefh feeds from their native climate.
The feeds fhould be fown in a good hot-bed early in tne
fpring, and the plants, when two inches high, fhould be
tranfplanted into pots, aud treated like other fi nilar exotics,
As they have climbing falks, they wil foon grow too tall
for the common kot-bed, they mult therefore. be removed
into the ftove. and plunged into the bark. opp
CLITORIDIS mufculus; in Anatomy, a name given by
Verheyen to the mufcle of the female pudenda, ufually called
eredor cliforidis. Lhis is the only mulcle that is proper to
this part ; the other, called the inferior clitoridis, beifg pro-
perly a /phinGer vaging, or, as Albinus calls it, con/lridor
cunii.
CLITORIS, one of the external organs of generatioa in
the female fex. See Generation, Organs of.
CLITORIUS, in Botany. See Crivoria.
CLITOW, in Geography, a town of Boheisia in the cir-
cle of Pilfen, celebrated for its rch filver mines.
CLITUMNO,a river of Italy, whitch paffes by Speleto,
and joins the Tepino between that town and Perugia, an-
ciently Clittemnaus. ‘Tne Cutumnus, according to) Pliny,
(1. vill. ep. S.)-was a fountain with many ves between Hif-
peilum and Spol<t'un, from which at a {mall diftance arofe
a large and ravigable river. Near it-was an ancient and
much revered temple, in which the god Clitumnus was
placed, in a Roman habit, and where he iffued oracles which
manifeited the prefence and power of the divinity. Round
him were arranged feveral {mall chapels, fome of which had
fou tains and fprings; for Clitumnus was the father of
many other rivulets which join him. A. bridge feparated
the facred part of his waters from the profane; above this
bridge people were aliowed only to pafs in beats; but be»
low it they were permitted to bathe. ‘I'his river flowed into
the Tinia, now Tupino, and both together into the Tiber.
It was famous, according to Virgil, (Georg. 1. xi. v. 1447.)
for its milk-white flocks and herds.
CLILUS, in Biography, an intimate friend of Alexander
the Great; the brother of his nurfe, who followed him in
his conquelts, and preferved his life by cutting off the hand
of Rofaces, when he lifted up an axe to kil hm at the paf-
fage of the Granicus. Clitus, to whom Alexander was af-
feciionately attached, being invited to fupper with the prince,
and heated with wine, inveighed againit adopting the cultoms
of the Perfians, and degraded the exploits of Alexander, in
o-der to magnify thofe of Philip, his father. Alexander was
fo enraged that he ftruck him to death with a dart; but foon
recolleciing himfelf, he regretted the lofs of his friend with
{uch gricf, as to fait three days and to form a purpofe of
ftarving himfelf to death: but, by the intercefiton of his
friends, he was difluaded from executing his purpofe. Chic
tus was buried by Alexander in a very pompous manner.
CLIVE, Rosert, baron Prassey, a celebrated Eng-
hith general, was born in the year 1725, at Styche, in Shrop-
fhire. During the years devoted to education he exhibited
no tafte for literature, but was charaéterifed for adaring and
adventurous {pirit, almoft incapable of reflraint, and deititute
of fear. When he was about 18 years of age, his father
Hort. Ciiff.
obtained for him the place of writer in the Eait India Com. _
pany’s
a
C.LdI
pany’sfervice, and he arrived at Madrasin the year 1744. In
1746 Madras furrendered to the French, and all the com-
pany’s fervants were made prifoners. The French com-
mander in chief refufing to ratify the terms of the capitula-
tion, the Brtifh coniidered themfelves jultified in breaking
their parole ; and among others, Mr. Clive, difguifed as a
Moor, made his efeape. Shortly after, he entered into the
military fervice, for which his temper aod mind were wel
adapted, ‘and in which he difplayed great talents. He ob-
tained, in the year 1747, anenfign’s commiffion in the Com-
any’s fervice, and behaved with great valour at the fiege of
Eich. He quickly obtained the rank of lieutenant,
and in an attack upon fort Devi Cotah, he folicited the
command of the forlorn hope, though out of his turn.
His requeft was granted, and, at the head of about 30
Britihh troops and 750 Sepoys, he advanced to iftorm
the breach. The Sepoys tinftantly fled, but the lieu-
tefant and his handful of men puthed on, and had fearcely
arrived at the breach, when the enemy rufhed upon them
with fo much fury, that three only, with their commander,
efcaped inftant deftruction. The whole column of Euro-
pean troops then advanced to the attack, licutenant Clive
ftill in the frft divifion, and the fort was reduced. Peace
immediately followed. He returned tothe civil efablifhment,
and was foon appointed to the office of comm*flary to the
troops. In 1751, Clive refumed the military character,
with a captain’s commiffion, and in this capacity he was
employed to attack the city of Arcot, having under his
command 210 Europeans, and about 500 Sepoys. Such
were the refolution, fecrecy, and difpatch, with which he
conduéted the enterprife, that the enemy knew nothing of
his motions until he was in poff-ffion of the capital, which
furrendered without a blow. ‘The inhabitants, expecting to
be plundered, offered him a large fum to fpare the city, but
they derived their fecurity from the generofity of the con-
queror.. He refufed the proffered ranfom, declaring that
thofe who chofe to remain in the city fhould be protected, and
that the others might retire with all their effects, excepting
provifions, for which he promifed to pay the full value. By
this wife condu& he fo conciliated the affeCtions of the peo-
ple, that they became his fteady friends, and fupplied him
with exaé intelligence of the enemy’s defigns. The town
was foon invefled by Raja Saib, at the head of a nume-
rous army, and the operations of the ficge were conducted
by European engineers, but when they came to make their
general affault, they were repulied in every quarter with
great lofs, and obliged to raife the fiege with the utmoft
precipitation. On this relief captain Clive took the field,
and was uniformly fuccefsful over tne enemy. After he had
fubdued all the force oppofed to him, he returned to Ma-
dras, and from thence in 1753 he embarked for England.
He was received with every demonitration of refpect and
gratitude by the Eaft India Company, who prefcnted him
with a very valuable {word richly fet with diamonds. His
{tay in England was but fhort, and he returned to India
governor of St. David’s, with the rank of lieutenant-colo-
nel in the king’s fervice. After performing fome important
fervices, he went to Madras in order to take the command of
a fuccour to be fent to Bengal, where the nabob Dowlah
had declared war again{t the Englifh, deftroyed their facto-
ries, and taken Calcutta. At this city and period the horrid
tragedy of the black-hole was a€ted. See CarcuTra.
Admiral Watfon and colonel Clive determined to revenge
the cruelcies infli@ed on their countrymen at Calcutta. The
admiral with his fleet: proceeded up the river on the 25th of
December, and on the next day colonel Clive landed, and, with
the affittance of the fquadron, foon reduced and took pof-
feffion of the town. Clive then took the field with his
Ci vet
foree of yoo Europeans and 1200 Sepoys, and entrenched
himfelf a few miles diftant from Calcutta. The nabob im-
mediately marched with an immenfe army, confilling of
20,000 horfe and 30,000 foot, befides cannon and elephants,
and encamped near Calcutta. Propofals of peace were fent
to the Eaftern prince ; thefe being contemptuoufly rejected,
colonel Clive determined to attack the nabob’s camp, which
he did with fo much fuccefs, as to oblige the nabob to fue
for peace; this was granted him upon terms highly adven.
ageous to the interelts of the Company. After the con-
clufion cf the treaty, the Enetifh, commanders proceeded
to the attack of the French fortrefs and faGiory of Chan-
dernagore, the redu€tion of which filled the nabcb with
new appreherfioas, and he threatened to join the French,
The mutual injuries infli&ted and fufteined between Sou-Ra-
jah-Dowlah and the Britifh being of fuch a nature as to
leave no room toxhope for a continued peace, colonel Clive
conceived the projeét of dethroning the nabob. In this
f{cheme he had engaged Meer-Jaflier, a difcontented courtier,
whohad retired from the palace to his refidence inthe country,
from whence he tranfmitted difpatches to colonel Clive,
urging him to begin his march to Moorfhedahad. ‘The co-
lonel immediately put the whole army in motion, and with
a firm reliance 6n his own talents, and on the valour of
his troops, crofling the Ganges, he advanced to Plafley,
within a day’s march of the capital, where he found t'ie na-
bob encamped with a force cf 70,coo men, in all the pomp
of oriental magnificence. The number of elephants with
their fearlet houfings;—the rich embroidery of their tents
and ftandards ;—and the martial {ptendour of their cavalry,
parading over the field with their drawn {words glittering in
the fun,—made a grand and awful, but very intercfting ap-
pearance. The nabob, onthe firlt intelligence of the march
of the Englith army, eagerly courted the fupport and affitt-
ance of Meer-Jaffier, who took a folemn oath upon the Ko-
ran that he would be his faithful, foldier. Though the
army of the Eaftern fovereign was potted on an eminence,
colonel Clive advanced at the head of his troops, confilting
of only about gooo men, with great intrepidity to the at-
tack. Such were the diftruft and defpondency prevailing
through the Afiatic army, that fearcely any reliftance was
made; and with a trifling lofs, in comparifon, of about
jo men, a molt decilfive vi€tory was gained; the camp, ar-
tillery, and ftores of the enemy falling into the hands of the
victors. eer Jafficr, who commanded the left wing of the
nabob’s army, took no part wha‘ever in the ation, but at
the clofe of the day he came overto the Britifh, he con-
quered nabob fled to his capital, where he was betrayed and
put to death. Colonel Clive now entered Moorfhedabad as
conqueror at the famous battle of Piafley. The inhabitants
of the city were fufficiently numerous to have deftroyed the
Englifh army with miffile weapons only, but they were fo
intimidated by the fuperior valour of their enemies, that
they offered the commander large fums to fecure their pro~
perty, which he did not accept, confidering himfelf bound
to protect them without a bribe. Forthe Company, he re-
ceived of Meer-Jaffier, whom he had raifed to the vacant
throne, a crore of rupees, amounting to more than a million
{terling, as an indemnification for their loffes at Calcutta.
He alfo ceded to the company a confiderable territory in the
vicinity of the city. In confequence of the battle of Plaf-
{cy, colonel Clive was made governor, of Bengal. Shortly
after this the great mogul conferred on_ governor Clive the
title of omrah of the empire, and he received a grant from
Meer-Jaffier of lands, to fupport his new dignity, worth
about 27,090/ per annum. Having railed the Eaft India
Company’s affairs from almoft the brink of ruin, to a highly
profperous ftate, and having ee become great in wealth,
3Re2 in
by} 2
t
cLo
in rank, and ineelcbrity, the governor returned to his nae
tive country in 1760. * The following year he was created
an Trifh peer by the title of lord Clive, baron of Plafley.
Owing to new diforders in Ind.s, and fuch changes as led
tne direétors to tremble for the fafery of their acquired
territories in that country, they again applied to lord Clive
to accept the prefidency of Bengal, and the command of
the troops in that province. In 1764 his lordfhip embarked
for India, having been firft created knight of the Bath.
With him were affociated four friends, whofe powers were
fo extenfive, that they furpafled and fuperfeded every other
authority in the Company’s fettlements. Before the arrival
of lord Clive, affairs had taken fuch a turn, that the ealy
tafk devolved upon him of fettling terms with the country
powers, which he rendered’ very advantageous to the Com-
pany, who had now the difpofal of all the revenues of Ben-
gal, Bahar, and Oriffa, deduéting only abdut three hundred
thoufand pounds for the ufe of the emperor. Lord Clive
then fet about the more arduous undertaking of reforming
the abufes among the Company’s fervants; he put the army
eftablifhment upon a better footing, and introduced fome
good regulations into the conduct of the private trade,
which, neverthelefs, were not fo itriG as to prevent oppref-
fions among the natives. ;
In 1767, lord Clive returned to England, having contri-
buted to the profperity of the company in a moit unexam-
pled manner. Six years after tl
his, a refolution was moved
in the Houle of Commons to the following purport, viz.
«© That in the acquifition of his wealth, lord Clive had
abufed the powers with which he had been entrufted.” By
the affitance of Mr. Wedderburne, afterwards lord Lough-
borough, he defended himfelf againft all the charges brought
againlt him, which at one time put ona very ferious afpedt ;
at length the original motion was rejected, and it was refolv-
ed, “That lord Clive had rendered great and meritorious
fervices to his country.””? Though he thus efcaped a public
profecution, he, from this time, fell ‘a prey to the molt
gloomy depreffion of fpirits, which, it has been coniidently
faid, refulted from therecollestion of his mifconduét in In-
dia, and which neither the wealth @ecumulated for his own
ufe, nor the profperity which he. obtained for his em-
ployers, could ward off. At length, at the age only of 50,
in November 1774, he put an end to his own life, leaving
behind him five children and a widow, the fitter of Dr.
Mafkelyne, the prefent aftronemer-royal.
Lord Clive was of a referved temper, but ‘among particu-
Jar friends he was cheerful and even jocular; andin domeltic
life he was kind and amiable. He had, as we have feen, the
fine talent of infpirins confidence into thofe under his com-
mand ;—hence he was charatterifed by the great lord Chat-
ham ‘* the heaven-born general, who, with httle experience,
furpaffed all the officers of histime.” He reprefented the
town of Shrewfbury ia parliament from 1769 to 1774, but
rarely fpoke in the houfe, though upon particular occalions
he difplayed great powers of elocuticn. By his will he be-
queated 70,000/. to the invalids in the Company’s fervice.
CLIVERS, in Botany. See Garium parine.
CLOACA, formed from vga, L wefo away, among
the Ancients, was a fubterranecous. aqueduct, or common
fewer, for the reception and difcharge of the filth of a city
or houfe. Targuinius Prifeus is faid (Liv.1. 35.) to have
been the firft who contrived cloace in ancient Rome, which
extended under the whole city, and feparated into various
branches. Lhe arches which fopported the ftreets and build-
ings were {9 high (being in fome places upwards of 100
fect), and fo broad, that, as Procopius fays, a man on horfe-
back might eafily ride through them, even in the ordinary
CLO
courfe of the channel, and a wain loaded with hay might
pafs, and veffels fail in them. Hence Pliny calls them
(xxxvi. 13.) ‘ Operum omninm dictu maximum, fuf-
foffis montibus, atque urbe penfili fubterque navigata.’?’
The principal fewer, aow exiting, with which the reft coms
mutnicated was called **cloaca maxima,’? and was princi-
pally the work of Tarquinius Superbus (Liv. i. 56.).
This was formed of larze blocks of ffone joined together’
without any cement, and covered with a triple vault come
pofed of three ranks of vouffoirs bonded with one another..
It began in the Forum Romanum, meafured 300 paces in
length, and about fifteen feet in width, being in feveral
places divided into three parts, forming 2 caufeway on each:
fide, and a'channel in the middle; and emptied nfelf bes
tween the temple of Veita and the Pons Senatorins. The
cloace were at firft carried through the ftreets; but
through the want of regularity in rebuilding the city, after
it was burnt by the Gauls, they in many plaves pafled under
private houfes. There were as many principal cloacz as hills.
In the ftreets, at proper diftances, were openings for the ad-
miffion of dirty water, or any other filth, which perfons were
appointed always to remove, and alfo to keep the cloace
clean. ‘This wasthe more eafily effcted hy means of the”
declivity of the ground, and the plenty of water with which
the cicy was fupplied. In the time of the republic, about
400 years after the completion of the original drains, they
were repaired by Cato the cenfor, and his colleague, Vales
rius Flaccus, who conftruéted feveral new cloace in thofe
parts of the city to which the old channels did not extend, as.
upon the Aventine, at an expence, according to Dionyfius
of Halicarnaffus, of rooo talents. Agrippa diltinguifhed.
himlelf during his edilefhip, by conttruéting cloace fo
long and numerous as to occalion the obfervation of Pliny
above-mentioned. : ;
The care and infpeGion of the cloace, which conftituted.
one of the diftinguifh-d and molt celebrated monuments of
Rome, on account of the grandeur and utility of the work,.
as well as the enormous. expence that attended it,
belonged to the cenfors and the ediles till the time
of Auguftus, who appointed “ curatores cloacarum” on
purpofe ; and a tax called * cloacarium”’ was impofed for-
keeping them in repair. The “ fervitus cloace’? was
the right of conveying a private common fewer through.
the property of a neighbour into the “ cloaca maxes
ima” of Tarquin. ‘The Romans had alfo their Cloacina, or
goddefs, who prefided over the cloace.
Croaca, 19 Comparative Anatomy, imports that-canal in.
birds throngh which the ezg defcends from the ovary in its-
exit. In this it is remarkable, that the part which is next
the ovary is jagged, like the morfus diaboli, and flu€tuates in
the abdomen witHout any attachment to the ovary,; hence
anatomifts have been fomewhat puzzled to comprehend by
what means the egg fallsinto the ovary. See Ecc.
CLOAK Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.W, coalt:
of America, that feparates Queen Charlotte’s ifles from.
North iffand ; the middle of the entrance of which is fituated.
in N. lat. 64° ro’. W. long. 133° 20. ;
CLOATHING ¢he balflers, in Rigging of Ships, Genotea:
laying feveral thickoeffés of worn canvas well tarred over
them, to make an eafy bed for the fhrouds. ‘ >
CLOATHS, or Crotues, See Hazir. By flat. 6,
Geo. I. c.23, the wilful and malicious tearing, cutting,
fpoiling, burning, or defacing of the garments or clothes of
any perfon pafling in the ftreets or highways, with intent fo.
to do, is felony. This was occafioned by the infolence of
certain weavers and others, who, upon the introdu€tion of
fome Indian fafhions prejudicial to their own manufattures,
L made:
cLoO
made it their practice to deface them, either by open out-
rage, or by privily cutting, or cafting aquafortis in the ftreets
upon fuch as wore them.
CLOCHE Swette a la Taxe Militaire, From the mo-
ment a place that has ftood the fire of cannon is taken, the
inhabitants are obliged to re-purchafe with money the bells
of the churches and divers utenfils of copper and other me-
tals. The fum arifing from this belongs to the command-
ing officer of artillery, who neverthelefs frequently retains but
acertain part of the faid fum, leaving the remainder thereof
to be divided in juit proportions among the officers under his
command. This at leait wied to be the cafe.
CLOCK, Craas, or Nicuoras, in Biography, a painter
and engraver, native of Leyden, and fcholar of Francis Flo-
ris. Amongft his engravings, which are fomething in the
ftile of Cornclius Cort, though coarfer in their execution,
may be noticed a large print reprefenting the judgment of
Midas, from Carlo Van Mandere, dated 158g, and the four
Elements, half figures, dated 1597, which are probably from
his own defigns. Heinecken. Strutt.
-Cuock, in Horclogy, isa machine which meafures, fub-
divides, and indicates the fucceflive portions of time with a
degree of accuracy that has defervedly given it the. prefer-
ence over the clepfydra, and brought it into general ufe for
civil, domettic, philofophical, and altronomical purpofes ; it
is conftructed of various materials, and after different mo-
dels, to accommedate the views of various individuals ; its
value, therefore, varies from three half-crowns to one hun-
dred pounds and upwards; but though every houfeholder
almoft is now in poifeffion of a clock, few individuals, com-
paratively {peaking, know either the theory of its a€tion, or
the fubferviency of the feparate parts of its.mechanifm to
produce their deftined cfle&t; and yet, no inftrument has
been more the object of ingenuity, or the fubject of feience,
for two or three fucceffive centuries, than the machine in
queftion, before it attained its prefent moft improved con-
itruction. Its name is derived either from'the German die
gloke or die kicke, a clock, or from the French /a cloche, a
bell, againft which it ufually ftrikes the hour indicated.
In tracing the records of antiquity for the origin of the
firft horological machine, that had a fufpended gravitating
body as a maintaiming power, and a regulator of fome de-
termined fhape and dimenfions to check its velocity at {mall
equidiitant intervals, different authors have fixed upon differ-
ent ingenious men as its inventor, and have quoted with
fome.contidence pafiages from the more ancient writers in
confirmation of their refpeCtive opinions: hence Archime-
des and Poffidonius before the Chriftian zra, Boethius in the
fifth century, or about the commencement of the fixth, Pa-
cificus about the middle of the ninth, Gerbert at the end of
the tenth, Wallingford near the beginning of the four-
teenth, and Dondi at the end of the fourteenth, have
feverally been afferted to have been the firft contrivers of
aclock. The difficulty of afcertaining the exact period
when a regulated machine for meafuring time without the
affiftance of water was firft invented, arifes from this confi-
deration, which has not-been fufficiently attended to; viz.
the appellation horologium has by ancient writers been indif-
criminately applied to all inftruments that had any thing to
do with hours, whether regulated or not, fuch as fun-dials,
clepfydrz, and inftruments fos merely reprefenting the mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies, like our orreries and planeta-
ria ; and, laftly, clocks, or machines with a bell, to ftrike the
hours, placedin the fteeple (Je clocher), of fome abbey.
The {phere of Archimedes, made two hundred years be-
fore Chrilt, as mentioned by Claudian, was evidently an in-
ftrument with a maintaining power, but without a regulator,
and therefore would not mealure time in any other way than
CLO
asa planetarium, turned by a handle, meafures, or rather exe
hibits, the refpeétive velocities of the planetary bodies. The
fame may be faid of the {phere of Poflidonius eighty years
before Chriit, as mentioned by Cicero (De Natura Deorum),
notwithftanding the deference which is due to the opinion
of Dr. Derham.
When Bernardus Saccus (Hift. Ticin. lib. vii. c. 17.)
a(cribes the invention of clocks to Boethius in the year 510s
he pafles over that part of the quotation from Caffiodorus,
which fays, ‘ that the hours were determined gu/tis aguarum,
by drops of water ;” hence his horologium was evidently
nothing more than aclepfydra. ‘The authority upon which
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, has been deemed the inven-.
tor of clocks in the year 850, is the fubjoined portion of
his epitaph ;
‘* Horologium no@urnum nullus ante viderat,
Eninveuit argumentum et primus fundaverat ;
Horologioque carmen {phere cceli optimum
Plura alia graviaque prudens invenit.”
Profeflor Hamberger, in a paper read to the Society at
Gottingen in 1758, (vide Beckmann, vol.i. page 419, &
feq.) has given reafons for believing this «© Horologium
noéturnum,’? as it is called in oppofition to a fun-dial, or
horologium ciurnum, to have been a clepfydra, notwith-
fianding the * nullus ante viderat,” for it was in the ninth
century that Hildemar, fpeaking of the Monks, in regard
to their obferving the hours, fays, ‘* he who wifhes to do this
properly mutt have’ ** horologium aquz,” which is confider-
ed as a proof that clocks did not then exit. (Commentar.
iw Reg. S. Bened. cap. 8.) On the contrary, Bailly in his
“¢ Hiltory of Modern Aftronomy” (vol. i. p.. 321.) afferts,
that Paciticus was the inventor of a clock going by means of
a fufpended weight, an efcapement, and a balance ; if this
information be accurate, no doubt he was the frit whois
known to- have made a clock; but F. Berthoud (Hittoire
de la Mefure du Tems, tom. i. p. 49.) very properly obferves,
that the celebrated author has adduced ne authority for the
affertion he has ufed, and that he believes it to be inaccurate.
With refpect to Gerbert, who was made pope Silvcfter IT:
in the year 999, Dithmar (Chron. lib. vi. p. 83. fol. 1530.)
believes that his horologium was only a fun-dial which he
made at Magdeburg; his words are ‘© Gerbertus, a
finibus fuis expulfus, Ottonen petit imperatorem, et cum
eo diu converlatus, in Magdeburg horologium fecit, illud
reéte conttituens, confiderata per fittulam quadam ftella. nau-
tarum duce.”? Here no wheels or weights are mentioned,
but, on the contrary, his obfervation only of the pole-ftar,
which affiited him in fixing the horologium or dial; _nay,-in
Gerbert’s book * De Aftrolabio” he cxplains the method of
ere€ting dials for all Jatitudes, but fays nothing of any othet
kind of horologia. ‘To what has been above remarked,
concerning the different fignifications of the word horolo-
gium, may be added what is faid by the anonymous author
of the life of William Abbot of Hirfhan, who lived in the
eleventh century, oz. ‘‘ naturale horologium ad exemplum
celeftis hemilpherii excogitafle,” which expreffion aliudes to
fome piece of aftronomical mechanifm at that time invented ;
and according to the account of Trithemius refpecting the
horologium made in 1232, and fent by the fultan of Egypt
to the emperor Frederic II. (Chron. Hirfaug. ad..h. a.) as
well as from Leland’s defcription of Richard Wallingford’s
horologium, called Albion, (all by one) made in 1326, thefe
mutt haye been inftruments clafling rather with our orreries.
than our clocks ; for the motions of all the heavenly bodies
appear to have been conducted by the maintaining power,
whatever it was, without any controlling or regulating
mechanifm. (Vide Tanneri Biblioth. Brit. Hibern. p. 629.)
It may be further remarked here, that the words, ‘ horolo-
gin.
,
CLOCK.
gium dirigere,”? ‘¢ ordinare,”? temperare,”? &c., which de-
note the office of the fécriftan, in the writings of the faid
William Abbot of Hirfhau, evidently allude to the adjuft-
ments of the clepfydra. Hence it may be fairly inferred,
that no one of the preceding contrivers of horologia was alone
the inventor of a regulated clock: the invention was, no
doubt, of monattic origin, or, at leaft, intended firft for
monatti¢ purpofes, when the {tated periods of prayer required
the attendance of the monks by night as well as by day.
That the horologium of Dondt, however, was a clock can
admit of but little doubt ; it was conftru&ed at Padua about
the end of the fourteenth century, by orderof Hubert, prince
of Carara ; and the defcription given of it by Petrus Paulus
Verzgerius (in Vit. Princip. Carrar.ap. Murator. tom xvi. p.
171.) is this; ‘“* Horologium quo per ‘diem et noétem
quatuor et viginti horarum fpatia {ponte fua defignarentur,
in fumma turri contiituendum curavit.”? This fpontaneous
defignation of 24 hours of day and night, by an horologium,
placed on the fummit. of a turret or fteeple, correfponds
exaGtly to our church-clock ; but till it remains uncertain
whether or not Dondi, who was afterwards called Horolo-
gius, was the original inventor. About the middle of the
fourteenth century feems then to be the time that affords the
firft certain evidence of the exiltence of a clock, or regulated
horological machine, notwith{tanding the frequent mention
of horofogia in preceding ages, as applied to other horologi-
cal inftruments; and the following are fome of the earlieft
authentic notices that hiitory has recorded on the prefent
fubject.
1. In the ** Chronica Mifcella Bononienfis” (in Muratori.
tom. xviii. p. 444.) itis faid that the firft clock at Bologna
was fixed up in the year 1356. -
2. About the year 1364, Henry de Wyck or Henri
de Vic, a German artiit, placed a clock in the tower of
Charles V.’s palace. (Vide Moreri. Di&tion. art. Horloge du
Palais.)
3. In Rymer’s Federa is mentioned the prote@ion of
Edward III. to three Dutchmen, Orlogiers, who were in-
vited from Delf into England in the year 1368, from which
time we may probably date the introduction of clock-work
into England.
4. Conradus Dafypodius has given an account of a clock
ereCied at Strefburg about the year 1370.
5- According to Froiffard, Courtray had a clock about
the fame period, which was carried away by the duke of
Burgundy in the year 1382.
6. Lehmann fays that at Spire was a clock in the year
1395.
7. Nuremberg had a clock in 1462, Auxerre in 1483,
and Venice in 1497; andit appears from a letter of Ambro-
fius Camaldulenfis (lib.xv. Epiit. 4.) to Nicolaus of Florence
that clocks began to be common in private familes on the
continent, about the end of the fifteenth century. (Beck-
mann.) It is probable therefore, that clocks began to be
general in England too about the fame period, for we find
jn Chaucer, who was born in 1328, and died, as is fuppofed,
jn 1400, the following diftich: viz.
© Full fickerer was his crowing is his loge,
As is aclock, or any Abbey-orloge.”
The honourable Daines Barrington (Archeologia, vol. v.
Pp: 415.) isindeed difpofed to believe that clocks were in ufe
at the beginning of the fourteenth century, aud quotes the
following paflage, as a proof, from the Italian poet Dante,
who was born in 1265 and died in 1321.
“€ Indi come horologio che ne chiami,
Nel hora che la fpofa d’Idio furge
Amattinar lo {pofo, perche l’ami.’””
But we have feen that clepfydre were called horologia,
which had alfo fometimes ftriking mechanifm ; therefore the
paflage'before us will apply with equal propriety to that in-
ftrument. The fame author alfo fuppofes that the clock-
houfe, near Weflminfter Hall, was furnifhed with a clock in
the fixteenth year of Edward I., or in 1288 (vide Selden’s
Preface to Hengham), out of a fine impofed on Radulphus
de Hengham, chief juftice of the king’s bench, but there
appears to be more of conjeGture than proof in the detail.
From the teftimonies which have been here adduced refpe&-
ing the origin of aclock, the conclufion to be drawn is, that
this machine is neither of fo ancient a date as fome writers
fuppofe, nor yet among thofe more recent inventions which
are placed in' the laft two centuries ; and that the inventor is
not certainly known. Fer. Berthoud, who has written more
volumes on the {nubj-& of clock-work than any other man,
concludes his refearches with a belief, founded in ftrong pro-
bability, that a clock, fuch as that of Henry de Wick, is
not the invention of any one man, but an affemblage of fuc-
ccflive inventions, each of which is worthy of a feparate con-
triver : for inftance—r. Wheel-work was known in the time
of Archimedes ; 2. the weight applied “as a maintaining
power had at firft a fly, moit likely fimiar to that of a
kitchen jack; 3. the ratchet wheel and click, for winding
ap a heavy weight without detaching the teeth of the great
wheel, was found the next indifpenfable contrivance; 4. the
rerulation of the fly, depending on the ftate of the air, was
abandoned, and a balance fubitituted; 5. an efcapement
confequently became necefiary, which, in conjun@ion with
the balance, conftituted a more regular check upon the ten=
dency which a falling weight has to accelerate its velocity,
than a fly ufed as a regulator could of itfelf be; 6. the ap-
plication of a dial-place and hand, to indicate the hours, was
the confequence of the regularity introduced into the going
part of the mechanifm ; and, laltly, the ftriking portion, to
proclaim at a diltance, without the aid of a watching-man,
the hour that was indicated, completed the lift of inventions.
Such a fucceflion of ingenious contrivances, introduced by
different men, to improve upon the firft rude inftrument, is
perfeGly analogous to the fucceffive improvements which the
prefent clock has experienced, at different periods, fince
Henry de Wick’s clock was conftruted, which is the moit
ancient one of which we have a particular defcription.
Defeription of the Ancient Clock made ty Henry de Wick.
Going Part.—Fig. 1, of Plate VIII. of Horalogy, repre-
fents, im profile, the movement of this clock, and fig. 2,
the front view of the fame initrument: A is a weight, fufe
pended by a chord, which is folded round a metallic barrel
B, the arbor, aa, of which has its ends or pivots, 5, 4, peff=
ing through {mail circular holes in the plates CC and DD,
which, in this ancient clock, were of iron, the former being
bent at right angles at the ends, and fcrewed to the latter,
inftead of having pillars; thefe plates, when thus attached,
conftitute what is called the frame.
The aGtion of gravity of the weight, A, has a natural
tendency to fall towards the earth, and to carry, along with
it the whole mechanifm, but the frame being fixed firmly on
a fupport is fu(tained in its place; inftead, therefore, of all
the mechanifm being pulled from its fituation, the barrel, B,
is pulled round to allow the cord to efcape, and would
move with an accelerated velocity, according to the laws of
falling bodies, if it had not the wheel, F, with inclined teeth,
belt {een in fig. 5, pinned to it, which is called the ratchet
wheel, and which has its motion {topped by the {mall point-
ed piece of metal, c, called a click, inferting its pointed end
into a [pace between two teeth, and kept to its Bae y a
; ender
Ci: OC. Ke
; : : we
flender fpring, ¢. This fpring and alfo the click are {crewed
to the wheel G, as may be feen in figs, 1, 2, and 5, which
is not fattened to the arbor of the barrel, confequently, when
the weight pulls downwards, the ratchet whee! pufhes the
click, and with it the wheel G, but when the weight is
taken off, and-the ratchet wheel turned backwards, the
wheel, G,. keep3 its pofition, by reafon of the click fliding
eafily along the floping fides of the ratchet wheel, which it
is allowed to do by being made to move freely on its ferew
as a ftud; this contrivance for moving the wheel, G, when
the weight falls, and for leaving it at reft when the waght
is raifed, is the mechanifm both for winding.up the weight,
which is called the maintaining power, and alfo for tranf-
mitting this power to the wheel, G, when wound up: buat,
as the fufpended weight of this palace clock, of Charles V.
of France, was too heavy to be wound up by the ftrength
of one man, the wheel Q, figs. 1 and 2, was fixed on the
fame arbor with the barrel, and the pinion, », was applied to
it, to be turned by a handle or key taking hold of its {quare
arbor at P, which additional wheel and pinion formed a kind
of crane for elevating the weight, and the click held it in
any ftate of elevation.
The wheel, GG, having the motion of the barrel com-
municated to it by means of the click, tranfmitted it to the
pinion, ¢, fig. 1, and confequently to the wheel, HH,
riveted on the fame arbor ff; this wheel, HA, again tranf-
‘mitted the motion received to a lantern pinion, ¢, and con-
fequentiy to the wheel, IT, fixed on its arbor, which was
called the crown wheel or efcapement wheel (roue de ren-
contre): this laft wheel by giving the pallets or fhort levers,
“h,i, each a pufh alternately by two teeth, at oppofite fides
‘of its circumference, and moving in oppefite direftions,
one forward ard the other’ backward, gave ‘a vibratory
‘motion to the vertical arbor, K, moving on two pivots, 7,2;
aud as the regulator or balance was fixed on this arbor, it was
thus made to vibrate backwards and forwards at every puth
of the crown wheel upon the pallets, which alternate mo-
tions of the balance were called vibrations or ofcillations,
aid their frequency was regulated by the {mall weights, m,
m, better feen in fiz. 2, placed at their correfponding dif-
tances on the arms, L, L, of the balance, by means of little
equidiftant notches: if the vibrations were too quick the
nomentum of the balance was increafed by removing the
fmall fulpended weights farther from the centre of moti-n,
and wice verfa. As the balance was neceflarily heavy to
counterpoife a large maintaining power, a flender cord, M,
was fufpended from a {mall cock, T, placed on the large
cock, 5, that preferved the perpendicular direGtion of the
arbor K, which cord bore the principal weight of the bal-
ance, and fuffered it to vibrate without the whole friGion
which its weight would have occafioned on the lower pivot.
—The pallets were placed at about go° from each other
on the arbor or verve of the balance, fo that when one of
them was parting with its tooth of the crown wheel, the
other was in a fituation to receive the oppofite one im-
mediately ; this a€tion of the crown wheel upon the pallets,
which efcaped the teeth alternately, was called, and is ftill
denominated, the efcapement, or by abbreviation, ’feapement
of the clock; it is by means of it that the large weight
is prevented from falling with rapidity to the ground, by
receiving a check at every impulfe of the wheel of efcapement
on one or other of the two pallets; and the interval between
two fucceflive impulfes was regulated by the time of a vibra-
tion of the balance, which period we have feen was adjult-
able. Thus the whole duration of a vibration’ was the
meafure of time, and the wheels and pinions were employed,
firft to tran{mit the maintaining power in order to overcome
the obftacles to motion which the balance met with from
friction and refillance of the air; and fecondly to number
the vibrations and indicate them in a vifible form by a hand,
O, fig. 2, on a dial plate, not given inthe fizeres, as they
amounted to hours. The former of thefe offices of the
wheel-work we have already deferibed without attending to
the numbers of the teeth into which the wheels and pinions
were divided; but to comprehend the nature of the latter
office, this confideration mult be taken into the account.
The efcapement wheel, II, has one tooth completely
efcaping the pallets at two vibrations of the balance, which
we will {uppofe adjufted to be exaétly equal to as many
feconds of time; then on, this fuppofition, the efcapement
wheel of 30 teeth will make one entire revolution in 60%, or
one minute, as will alfo its pinion, g, of 8, by reafon of its
being faft on the fame arbor; but as this pinion ads with
the wheel, HH, of 60 teeth, only 8 of thofe teeth will
pafs the pinion in every miaute, therefore as often as S are
contained in 60, fo many minutes will this wheel take to
revolve in, which are 74; its pinion, ec, of 8 alfo revolves in
7% Minutes, on account of being on the fame arbor, which
pinion acts with the great wheel GG, fo that eight of irs
teeth pafs in 74 minutes; but its number is 64, or eight
times eight, tt therefore revolves in eight times 7% minutes,
i. e. in one hour exaétly : hence as often as the cord is wound
round the barrel, fo many hours will fuch a clock continue
to go after winding. Now as the wheel, GG, revolves
once in every hour, it is evident that the pinion, d, on its
arbor, which projeAs through the frame, will turn round
alfo in anhour. Its number of teeth is 8; therefore 8 x 12
= 96 is the number of teeth of the dial wheel, NN, which
goes round along with the hand, 0, placed on its arbor, in
12 hours. Thus while thé train, as it is called, of whecis
and pinions is tran{mitting the power of the fulpended
weight forwards to the balance, it is alfo counting back
again the number of vibrations to conftitute an hour, and
pointing out on the dial plate, by the addition of a hand,
each fucceffive hour, as the vibrations accumulate. Should
it be afked here, why a large weight is neceffary to a€tuate
the wheel-work, the anfwer is, that the power of it is
gradually diminifhed as it approaches the regulator accord-
ing to that law of dynamics, by which the force is known
to be equal, whether a large weight moves with a {mall
velocity, or a {mall weight with a proportionate great
velocity, if there were no friG@ion in the train, one fixtieth
part of the weight, hung ona fimilar barrel placed on the
crown wheel, would have the fame eff:@ on the balance, as
the large weight itfelf in its prefent fituation on the heur
arbor; but then it would want winding up fixty times in
the fame period in which it requires only once winding up
with a large weight falling with diminifhed velocity ; fo that
convenience was the obj<¢t to be attained in fixing wpoua
large maintaining power.
Clock Part, or Striking Part.—TVhe ftriking, or what is
properly called the clock part of the antique piece of me-
chanifm, which we are defcribing, is, perhaps, the moft
ancient of any which is tranfmitted to us, and which there-
fore deferves a particular detail, efpecially as the ordinary
Dutch clocks retain very nearly the fame con{truétion to
this day.. We cannot give a better idea of this portion of
the inftrument, than by tranflating F. Berthoud’s account
of it, from his ‘* Hiftoire de la Mefure du Temps,” as we
have done, with fome verbal deviations, in our defcription of
the going part.
In Plate VIII. figs. 3 and 4 reprefent the wheel-work of the
flriking part, adopted in Erenry de Wick’s clock: A and
B, fig. 3, are the principal plates, or rather bars of iron ;
Cand D, the conneGting parts inftead of pillars; the weight
F, fufpended by the cord, that furrounds the cylinder G,
7 ab
cLocxy
is the maintaining power; and this cylinder has a rachet
wheel fixed to it, like that ing. 5, in he going part, and
conncéted with a click faftened to the wheel, H, jigs. 3 and
4. for the purpofe of winding up the weight ; for perform-
ing which, a handle is put on the {quare arbor of the pinion
a, which aéts with the remontoir wheel, I, faftened to the
Wheel H has eight pins projecting from its plane
, &c. which pins lift fucccflively a hammer that ftrikes
againft the bell, which parts are not reprefented in the
plate, but their principle may be readily conceived from
the defeription, which we fhall hereafter give, of the ftriking
pert of a modern clock. Wheel H drives the pinion d
fixed on the fame arbor with the wheel K, which again
drives the pinion e, on the projecting arbor of which is fixed
the fly L, the office of which fy 1s to regulate the interval
between each blow of the hammer, which it does by means
of the refiftance that its revolving wings, or fanners, meet
with from the air.
The manner in which the refpe€tive number of blows of
the hammer for each hour js regulated, is an mgenious in-
vention, and is thus effe&ted ; the arbor of the firft wheel,
H, is made to proje& through the frame, fo as to take a
pinion, /, of eight leaves, to diive the wheel M of 78 teeth,
which number is equal to r + 2 + 3 &c. + 12, or whole
number of ftrokes in.a2 hours. On the wheel M is fixed
another wheel, N, figs. 3 and 4, cailed the count wheel, which
has 12 notches on the edge, at unequal diftances, viz. at
oar 7g 7e? KE. OF the circumference, correfponding to the
hours 4, 2, 3, &c. to regulate the number of ftrokes at each
hour. fig. 4, is a detent fixed on the arbor R of jg. 3,
with its claw refting on the edge of the count-wheel N ;
to which arbor a lever, T, is alfo fixed, reaching to the pins
of the 12 hour wheel N of fig..2, and likewife a fhorter
lever, V, within the frame directly above afingle tooth, 9, on
the arbor of the Ay L. ‘Now as the 12 hour wheel revolves
by the going part, one of its pins catching the end of the
lever T at every hour deprefles it, and at the fame time raifes
the claw or catch of the detent from the notch of the count-
wheel, and alfo the {hort lever V from its tooth 0, by reafon
of the detent, and two levers, being all faft to the fame
common arbor R.; the weight Fm this fituation, makes the
wheels run on till another notch:of the count-wheel comes
to the claw of the detent Q, whemit again falls by the gravity
of the load P, placed alio on the fame common arbor R,
and filling the notch {tops the count-wheel ; at the fame time,
the {mall lever V falls in the way of the tooth o of the fly,
and arrefts the motion of the wheels within the frame; foon
after which the fly alfo comes to reft, partly by the refift-
ance of the air, and partly by a {pring prefling on the end
of its arbor, round which it can revolve in a detached ftate,
like the fly of the chime mechanifm, which we have before
defcribed —The number of ftrokes which the hammer makes
when raifed by the pins d, c, kc. depends on the diftance be-
tween the two notches of the count-wheel, on which the
claw of the detent reits at the time. The fame procefs is
repeated every time that one of the pins of the 12 hour
wheel, depreffes the end of the lever I, and detaches there-
by the claw of the detent and tooth o of the fly arbor, fo as
to permit the weight F to actuate the wheel-work for the
limited time of ftriking.
We are not informed what are the numbers of teeth in the
wheel-work of the itnking part contained within the frame,
nor is it of much importance, as this movement has no other
ufe, than that of regulating the refpeétive velocities of the
fly and pin wheel H, that raifes the hammer; but when the
wheel M has 78 teeth, as we have stated, it is necefiary that
the pinion f, that drives it, fhould have juft as many leaves
as there are pins on. the wheel H ; otherwife one tooth of
cylinder.
the wheel M would not correfpond to one Aroke of the hanta
mer againft the bell, which 1s a neceflary condition; the -
pinion f therefore has eight leaves, correfponding to the
eight litting pins of the wheel H, and 78 ftrokes are given
in a progreflion increafing by unity, during each twelve
hours, after equal hourly intervals of filence.
Hiiflory of the fucceffive Improvements in Clocks.
The preceding aceount of Henry de Wick’s rude clock
mutt have prepared the reader for a defeription of the fuccef-
five alterations and improvements-which ingenious mechani-
cians and artifts have devifed in the clock during the laft two
centuries ; for it muft have occurred to him in the perufal,
that large iron wheels continually expofed to the oxiding in-
fluence of the atmofpheric air, in which unequal and ill
fhapen teeth were cut with the inaccuracy of a manual ope-
ration, were by no means calculated to tranfmit the main«
taining power with perfect regularity to the balance, fup-
poling it to have been a good regulator; but when it is furs
ther confidered; that the alternate dire pufhes of the ba-
lance-wheel againft the pallets muft have preduced jerks, and
deftroyed or greatly difturbed the regularity of this moft ef-
fential part of the mechanifm, great accuracy was not to be
expected in the indication of time ; fo that, as we fee, even
minutes were deemed too {mall portions of time to be indis
cated by fuch a machine. We find, notwith{tanding, that
fo early as the year 1484, Walther made ufe of a balance-
cluck for heavenly obfervations, as did the landgrave of Heffe
after him; and fuch feems to have been the utility of the
clock, thus early, for aftronomical purpofes, that Gemma
Frifius propofed a portable one to be ufed at fea for afcer-
taining the longitude by fo foon as the year 1530. About
the year. 1560 Tycho Brahé was in poffeffion of four
clocks, which indicated hours, minutes, and feconds, the
largett.of which had only three wheels, one of which was
three feet in diameter, and had r2oo teeth in it; a proof
that clock-work was then in a very imperfeét flate. Tycho
however obferved, that there was an irregularity in the going
of his clocks, which depended upon the changes in the at~
mo(phere; but he does not appear tc have known how fuch
efieé&t was produced. In the year 1577 Moeftlin had a
clock fo conftru€ted as to make juft 2525 beats in an Hour,
146 0f which were counted during the fun’s paflage over a
meridian, or azimuth line, and determined his diameterto be
34 13", fo that the fcience of allronomy began thus early
to be promoted by the afliltance of clock-work; and as
clocks firft promoted the ttudy of aftronomy, it will be feen
by and.bye that afironomy in its turn gave nfe to fome of
the moft effential improvements in clock-work, and that, as
the arts dnd fciences were more aad more cultivated, im-
provements in clock-work kept pace with them, and ems
ployed the talents of the moit ingenious men of each fuc-
ceeding age. )
One of the fir additions to the mechanifm we have be-
fore defcribed was what we call an alarum or larum, ftill ufed
in the Dutch wooden clocks, which contrivance took its
origin from the circumftance of prayers being ufed at ftated
periods in monatteries by night as well as by day ; the fer-
vors of devotion were not found always unfettered by fleep
at the hour proclaimed by the bell, an invention confe-
quently became neceflary to roufe the fleepy prieft to his
duty by a continued ringing in his ftunned ears: for a des
{cription of which mechanifm we mutt refer to the article
Thirty-hours Crock with a Larum. i
It is not quite certain at what time exaGtly the bulky fize
of the ancient clock was reduced to a ftate of portability,
which mutt have conftituted a real improvement, as the main
{pring mult have been invented previoufly ; the TEI.
ae
Gyn @ Crk
ef which fora large heavy body, as a fir mover, conftitut=
ed afecond wra in horology, from which we may date the
origin of the fufee, or mechanifm for equalizing the variable
power of a coiled fpring; and from which our modern
watches and chronometers of great value derive both their
form and principle.
F Berthoud (Hittoire de la Mefure du Temps, i. 79.)
fuppofes that a portable clock muft have been invented fome
time before the year 1544, which was that in which the
Corporation of Matter Clock-makers at Paris had a flatute
enaéted in ther favour by Francis I. to this purpofe, viz.
s* No one, of whatever ftation, if he be not admitted a mal-
ter, fhall make, or caufe to be made, clocks, alarums, watch-
es, large or fmall, oreny other machine for meafuring time,
within the faid town, city, and precin@ of Paris, on pain of
forfeiture of the faid works, and of arbitrary penalty, &c.”
This ttatute, however, inftead of proving the origin of part-
abie clocks, only proves that in the year 1544 they had
begun to be commonly made in France, and probably had
been introduced from Germany, which country, no doubt,
was the nurfe as well as mother of herology. Indeed we
have lately been favoured with the fight and examination of
a portable clock, at prefent in the poffeflion of Mr. Peckitt
of No. 50, Old Compton ftreet, which, from an in{cription
engraven in the Bohemian language, appears to be much older
than the ftatute above quoted: it was made in the year 1525
by Jacob Lech of Prague, and differs in its conftreGion from
De Wick’s clock, in that it has a fpiral {pring, with a fufee
of foft metal, and a ferew inflead of notches at the ends of
the double levers of the balance, with tapped weights of lead
for the adjultment to time, with the addition of fome wheel-
work, to fhew the motions of the fun and moon, in an en-
graven ecliptic, and alfo a contrivance to ftrike one at every
hour. The wheels are of iron, and retain certain punched
marks of divilion which prove that they have been cut with a
file by hand; and the levers being fait to the arbor or verge
of the pallets, will vibrate either ina horizontal or vertical
pofition. A catgut was originally the band of the fufee ; but
the introduétion of a modern metallic chain unfortunately
has deftroyed nearly three out of the eight fpiral threads at
the fmaller end, fo that inftead of going 48 hours, viz.
(8 x 6"), the remaining five threads will allow the
piece to go only 30 hours, or 5% x 6°, which it now
does, thouch irregularly, with vibrations of nearly one fecond
each by eftimation. Beckmann, in his “ Hiftory of Inven-
tions,’ mentions this clock as having been the property of
Mr. Fergufon, at whofe fale the prefent proprictor purchaied
it in the year 1777, and he intends, we underitand, to be-
queath it to the Britifh Mufeum, where, so doubt, it will be
confidered as a great curiofity. On examination of the wheel-
728, 182i) 902:
6". %
of a day = 27° 8" for a periodic revolution, and the fun’s
Oe = (9788
36 6. 216
trains prove that planetary mechanifm in clocks had at that
period made no great progrefs towards perfection.
work, we found the moon’s train to be
= 368 days, the inaccuracies of which
But the portable clock of which we have here given a fhort
motice, we have reafon to believe, was not among the firlt
that were made, for at firlt the {piral {pring was folded in a
box, the arbor of which had the great wheel on it, and the
irregularity of its ation was in fome meafure equalized by a
fecondfpring, which, being difpofed in acertain curve, op-
pofed the principal {pring when wound up, and a@ed in the
fame direétion with it when its intenfity began toremit; this
iece of mechanifm, which was a German invention, preced-
Vou. VIII.
ed the invention of the fufee, and was called fiack freed.
Berthoud has given a drawing and defcription of a portable
clock, probably by Gourdain, without a fufce ; and fome of
the modern French watch-makers have probably borrowed
from it their idea of making a watch go well without a fu-
fee. For the fhape and ute of which equalizer of irregular
pewer, fee the article Fusre.
When the fize and weight of a clock were reduced, the
quantity of friGion was fo diminifhed, as to allow the
thread of fufpenfion, on the verge of the balance, to be
abandoned, which circumftance gave rife to a new pofition
of the balance, the verge of which was now placed horizon-
tally upon its pivots, which were a litle flattened, fo that
the weight might be fupported by its edge; and this cou-
trivance was called the évife edge {ufpenfion, a fpecies which
F, Berthoud bas pronounced fuperior to the fufpenfion with
a flender {pring, to which the Englith artifts are much more
partial, though it does not appear that their partiality is
founded on any thing hike impartial experiment.
Such was the ftate of clock-work when Galileo, the cele-
brated philofopher and mathematician to the duke of Flo-
rence, obferved, that two lamps, or other heavy bodics,
fulpended by ftrings of the fame length, made their vibra-
tions ia long or fhort arcs, very nearly, if not exadtly, in the
fame fpace of time; this ifochronal property he publifhed
at Paris in a treatife, called “ L’Ufage du Cadron on de
V’Horloge phyfique univerfelle,”? in the year 1639, which
explained, in 15 chapters, its ufe in philofophy, allronomy,
muiic, phyfic, &c. and though he never applied the pen-
dulum as a regulator to fuperfede the balance in clocks, yet
we may date from his difcovery a third era in clock-work,
namely, the origin of the pendulum clock, which continues
in ufe in our day; the idea of the ifochronifm of a detached
pendulum at leaft was his, and the invettigation of the law,
by which bodies fall in free {pace, was applied by him to
determine the lengths of two pendulums, that fhall vibrate
in times that are in a given ratio to each other.
It has been a fubjeét of great contention, who had the
honour to be the firft artift, or mechanician, who applied a
pendulum to clock-work ; without pretending to decide the
conteft, which, at this diftance of time, can be determined
only by hiftorical evidence, we will briefly lay before the
public the pretenfions of different men to this invention, and
leave the reader to judge, from fuch faéts as we have been
able to colle€t on the fubje@. Bernard, one of the profef-
fors of aftronomy at Oxford in the laft century, has afferted,
that the Arabians, befides having clepfydra and f{un-dials,
made ule of pendulums in aftronomy long before this period,
as we know Riccioli, ‘Tycho Brahe, Langrenus, Vendelin,
Merfenne, Kircher, Hevelius, Mouton, and Galileo himfelf,
did ina detached flate; but we do not find that any of
them ufed it in conjunétion with wheel-work. According
to Becker (Bailly’s Hilt. of Modern Attron.), Jute Birge,
a native of Switzerland, in the year 1552, and who was
Rothman’s fucceffor at the obfervatory at Caffel, from 1590
to 1597, was the firft who applied a pendulum to a clock,
which application, however, he never publifhed to the world,
that we can learn, and which, therefore, if the faét be true,
never benelited the world.
According to profeffor Venturi (Effai fur les Onvrages
phytico-mathematiques de Leonard de Vinci), Sanétorius
applied a pendulum to cluck-work fome time before the
year 1625, in which he publifhed his “© Commentarii in
Avicennam,” and defcribed feveral inftruments which he
had explained to his auditors 13 years before, in his leGtures
read at Padua.
Vincentio Galilei, fon of the famous Galileo, is alfo faia
3 $ (Exper,
CLOCK.
(Exper. de Acad. del Cimento) toshave made a pen-
dulxm clock, fugg:fted by his father’s difcovery, fo early as
the year 1649, at Venice; but Chriftian Huygens, the
juitly celebrated mathematician and philofopher of Zuyli-
chem, contefted the honour of priority of the application
with him, which conteit gave rife to that excellent treatife
on clock-work, « De Horologio Ofcillatorio,’? which. laid
the foundation of moft of the fubdfequent improvements in
horometrical machines, and in which it appears indubitably,
that he made, or directed the making of, a pendulum clock
before the year 1558. From comparing what has been
adduced by thefe two contending mechanicians, an impartial
reafoner is led to conclade, that Vincentio Galilei may
have applied, ina rough mechanical way, not made general-
ly kaown, fuch a pendulum to clock-work as proved no
mean fubititute for the balance ; but that Huygens applied
it in a more f{cientific and mafterly manner, and probably
without any knowledge of what his opponent had previoufly
done; hence the honour of the invention, as it has been
called, has been generally attributed to Huygens.
But whilft we have ftudioufly aveided entering into a
minute difeuffion of all the proofs that have been adduced
in favour of each of thefe foreigners, to fubftantiate their
refpeétive claims to originality of projeé&t, with refpect to
the pendulum, we fhould aét in oppofition to our feelings
as Englifhmen, as well as to. our profedfions of impartiality,
if we did not here avail ourfelves of fome docements that
have recently fallen into ovr hands, which bear the marks
of authenticity, and from which it appears, that neither
Vincentio Galilei, nor yet Huygens, was the firft who
adapted a pendulum to a clock, but that an artift in London,
named Richard Harris, invented and made a pendulum
clock about eight years before either of them dated their
claims; an engraven plate, bearing date “ Great Roffel
Street, Dec. 21, 1793,’ is at this time hanging in the
vellry room of St. Paul’s church, Covent Garden, of which
the annexed isa verbal copy, vz.
‘The (new) turret clock, and bells of this church,
were made A.D. 1797, by Thomas Grignon, of Great
Roffel Street, Covent Garden, the fon znd fucce flor of Tho-
mas Grignon, who, A.D. 1740, brought to perfection
what the celebrated Tompion and Graham never effected,
wiz. the horizontal principle in watches, and the dead-beat
in clocks, which dead-beat is a part of the mechani{m of
the turret clock. Thomas Grignon, fenior, made the
time piece in the pediment at the eait end of this panth
church, deftroyed by fre A.I). 1795. The clock fixed in
the turret of the faid (late) church, was the firft long pen-
dulum clock in Europe, invented and made by Richard
Harris of London, A. D. 1641; although the honour of
the invention was affumed by Vincenzio Galili, A.D.
1649, and alfo by Huygens in 1657. ‘This plate is here
affixed by Thomas Grignon of this parifh, the fon of the
above Thomas Grignon, as a true memorial of praife to
thofe two fkiiful mechanicians, his father and Richard
Harris, who, to the honour of England, embodied their
ideas in fubftantial forms thatare mott ufeful to mankind.”
In order that the reader may judge for himfelf, what de-
gree of credit is to be attached to the preceding memonal,
the writer of the prefent article pledges his honour to the
public, that the following extraét, which, on inquiry, is Mr.
Grignon’s authority for attributing the invention of the
pendulum to Richard Harris, is copied verbatim froma
manufcript marginal note, written in page 12 of an old
book, at prefegt in his poffeffion, called ‘* Effayes of Na-
tural Experiments made in the Academie del Cimento, un-
ser the proteétion of the molt ferene prince Leopol, of
Tufcany, written in Italian by the Cecretory of that acades
my, and tranflated by Richard Wailer, F.R.S. London,
1684.”
(Copy of the Extraéd.)
“ The great clock belonging to Covent-Garden, has a
long pendulum, and was made by Richard Harris of Lone
don, in the year 1641, which was eight years before Vincen-
zio Galilei put his father’s obfervations into practice, as ap-
pears by the date 1649.
“The ingenious Mr. Huygens applied the pendulum to a
clock in the year 1657, and attributed the invention to hims
felf, which created a difpute between him and Vincent Gae
lileo ; this laft affirming that he had put it in praétice in
1649; aud the reafon of Richard Harris’s not appearing,
(which would have decided the controverfy,) in all probabr-
lity was, that he being only a private workman was entirely
unacquainted with any difpute which might happen between
Vincent Galileo and Mr. Haygens; or he might be dead
before the difpute arofe, it being fixteen years after he made
the faid church clock.”
The manuf{cript of which this is an exa& copy bears
every mark of the antiquity afcribed to it by the prefent
Mr. Grignon, who is reputed to be a man of veracity, and
who moft pofitively afferts it to be his father’s hand-writ- |
ing, as indeed it appears to be, when compared with fome
other of his papers which we have feen. It may not
be foreign to the fubje& to add here, that the late Mr.
Grignon, who died on Apmil 4, 1784, aged 71, wasa good
mathematician as well as an ex¢elient workman, and was pa-
tronized by Archibald, duke of Argyle. He was an inti-
mate friend of James Fergufon and other fcientific men of his
time, and one of the firft members of the Society of Arts in
London, to which fociety he prefented a regulator in the
ycar 1759, which is yet in one of the rooms at the Adelphi,
and which has the improved dead-beat efcapement, and very
high numbers in the wheel-work to avoid friction, which was
another idea ot his own. The peculiar properties of this
clock, however, feem not to have been noticed by, or even
perhaps known to any of the prefent members of that nu-
merous fociety, fo as to become an objec of particular at-
tention. Mr. Grignon, notwithitanding, affures us, that it
will keep the fame time whether its maintaining power be
four or twelve pounds, which property he afcribes princi-
pally to his father’s improvement of Graham’s dead-beat
efcapement. .
From th!s account of Hfarris’s clock, we confefs our-
felves difpofed to contradi& the generally received opinion,
afferted by other authors, that Fromantil, the Dutchman,
was the firll who made pendulum-clocks in England fo late
as the year 1662; one of which was given by bifhop Ward
to Grefham College, Oxford. Indeed Dr. Hooke, as preat
a genius as any we have mentioned, made a pendulum-clock,
we find, in 1658, for Dr. Wilkins, afterwards bifhop of
Chefter, which was prior to Fromantil’s: clocks, and fome
authors have been dif pofed to make him the inventor of the
pendulum as a regulator.
The pendulum being once applied to clock-movements, was
found to be a regulator fo much fuperior to the old balance,
that Gemma Fnifius’s idea of making a marine or nautical
time-piece was attempted to be realized by the ingenicus
Huygens, of which attempt we have already fpoken under
the word CHRoNOMETER, where we ent ered into a detail of
the merits and conttruction of various pieces of mechan-
ifm uied for the determination of a fhip’s longitude. It may
not be improper, however, to fay further of Huygens’ ma-
rine-ciock, that its pendulum vibrated more flowly as it ap.
proached ©
OE
—~
CLO O-&
proached the equator, proving, as Picard has fince aflerted
from experiments made in 1669, the fhape of the earth to be
that of an oblate fpheroid. But Huygens, whofe induttry
wes equalled only by his ingenuity, foon difcovered that the
ifochronal property afcribed to the pendulum by Galileo,
was only true in circulararcs, when thelength of the are of
vibraticn remained the fame; tor that long circular ares re-
quired fomewhat more time for a vibration than {hort ones,
fo that variations in the maintaining power produced varia-
tions in the time indicated, by altering the length of the
ares of vibration. This difcovery prefented a ferious diffi-
culty, and gave rife to one of the molt ingenious contrivances
ever introduced in the mechanifm of a clock, though prac-
tical experience foon proved it to be of little or no ule;
we mean the contrivance of two cycloidal checks at the
point of fulpenfion confidered as evolutes of a cycloid, round
which the thread by which the pendulum was fulpended was
bent, and occafioned, as we have before noticed under the word
CuHronomerter, the ball to move in the involute of the
faid curve, which Huygens firtt demonftrated to be itfelf a
eycloid, poffefiing theoretically this peculiar property, amonatt
others, that a heavy body defcending along it from any
given point therein, will defcend to the loweft part inthe
fame time that any other heavy body will fall from any other
hizher or lower point thereof; whence it was concluded,
that a pendulum, vibrating in fech a curve, would regulate
a clock inthe beft poffible manner with any maintaining
power whatever. [he idea-was truly ingenious, and the
mechaniim equaily fo, as we have faid, in theory; nay, the
pendulum really moved ina cycloid by this contrivance, but
then the alternate pufhes of the balance-wheel againtt the
pallets were communicated by means of an intermediate lever,
called the fork, (which was another invention of our author)
to the pendulum, which additional force fo greatly difturbed
the natural power of gravity, that the pendulum attached
to clock-work was no longer poffeffed of the ifochronal pro-
perty which it poffeffes when moving in a cycloid in a de-
tached ftate, with all its weight collected in one point, as
the theory fuppofes; befides, the moiiture of the atmof-
phere affeted the pendulum’s ftring of fufpenfion, and
what had not been obferved fufficiently at that time, the
metallic rod itfelf elonyated with heat, fo that the cycloidal
cheeks were at length found to be of no benefit as an auxili-
ary to the natural pendulum, and have therefore been aban-
doned.
After the length of a fecond’s pendulum was afcertained
by Huygens to be 3 feet 52 lines, old French meafure, and
after he had propofed it as an univerfa] ftandard of meafure,
we find that aftronomers began to afcertain the right afcen-
fion of the ftars by it, and alfo the equation of time, that
Hipparchus had {poken of long before, which application
made it neceflary that there fhould be fome contrivance for
wmJing up the maintaining power of the clock during the
time that it continued to go, otherwife the quantity of the
earth’s rotation, that might take place during the aét of
winding up, muft have been a!lowed for by conjecture ;
hence the endlefs chain with a detached ratchet, was invent-
ed for this purpofe by Huygens, which is ftill in ule, we
believe, in fome tew aftronomical clocks. The fame author
was probably the contriver of our prefent dial-work, for
changing the hour into 60 minutes by the addition of an-
other hand at the centre of the clock-face; and a circular
pendulum was hkewife invented and applied, as he fays,
with fuccefs to fome of his clocks, the principle of which was,
that as the bali of the pendulum revolved in an horizontal cir-
cle, when fufpended by a vertical axis, the centrifugal force
and power of gravity fo counteracted each other, as to pros
duce an equable motion, while the arbor revolved without an
efcapement. We are not informed why this pendulum has
not been imitated. ,
The next invention worthy of notice in clock-work, was
the mechanifm of repetition, by means of whith the clack is
made to obey the pull of a perfon in bed, who, from any
caufe, may wilh to know the hour which was lat (ruck;
this ingenious contrivance, ina great meafure, has fuper-
feded the ufe of the Rriking-work with the count-wheel;
and’was the invention of Barlow, a London clock-maker,
about the latter end of thereign of Charles If. viz. in the
year 1676.
The noife which this curious piece of mechanifm made in
the world, fet feveral ingenious artilts to making repeating
apparatus, paricularly Quare, in London, and Julien Le
Roy, Collier, Largay, and Thiout, on the Continent (Ma-
chines approuveés, tomes v. and vi.). Nearly about the fame
period, we find that the comparifon of the earth’s rotation
with the repular motion of a pendultm clock, produced a
defire to indicate not only mean but equaled time on the
dial-plate, by various contrivances, which, by the bye, were
by no means calculated to improve the regularity of the yo-
ing part, but only added to the complexity of the machine,
and introduced unneceffary and variable friGion. We know
not certainly who was the firlt to execute the equation work,
but, according to Sully, an Enelith clock-maker, who {ettled
at Paris (Regle artificiclie du Temps, ed..1717), the firit
equation clock which is recorded, was fent from London to
Charles I]. king of Spain, before 1699. This contrivance,
which was more curious than ufeful, caufed a great number
of attempts to produce the fame effet; father Alexander,
a Benedictine, prefented a projet of this kind to the Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, in 1698: Le Bon, a Parifian
cleck-maker, prefented another, which was much admired,
to the fame fociety, in 1717; which was alfo done by Julien
Le Roy, in the fame year, at Paris; and to thefe names we
may add thofe of Thiout, a curate of St. Cyr, Duchefne,
Knegfeiflen, Enderlin, L’Admiraud, Paflemant, Rivaz,
Berthoud, and others, who have beftowed much time on a
fubject which requires only the infpeGtion of an equation
table, and which, therefore, our Englifh:artifts now think
an expentive trifle, fcarcely worth their notice, any further
than as a matter of curiofity.
The equation mechanifm naturally led to the practice of
making clocks to go a month, three months, and even a
year, with one winding up; likewife to the introduGtion of
mechanifm to fhow the fun and moon’s nifing, culminating,
and fet:ing. and planetary motions in general. Indeed Cronce
Finée, mathematician to the French kings, Francis I. and
Henry II., had made a planetary clock fo early as 15533
concerning which, and the theory of the planetary motions,
he pubhihed a Treatife, at Paris, in 15573 and the anto-
maton of Huygens, made in 1703, was properly a planeta-
ry clock, and one of a very ingenions con{truction.
We come next to an important improvement, which, like
mott other real improvements in the art of meafuring: time
accurately, belongs to the Enzlith, we mean the introduc-
tion of the anchor pallets, which, even Berthond confefles,
was a coitrivance of Clement, a London clock-maker, in
the year 1680 (fee Smith’s Horological Difquifitions, Lon-
don, 1698); the advantage of this efcapement, with an
horizonal arbor for the {wing-wheel, as it is called, over that
of the crown-wheel efcapement, is, that it will admit the
efcape to take place with a {mall angle of vibration, fo as to
prevent the maintaining power from aéting on the pallets a
long time by a direét pufh; as was the cafe with the crown-
whiccl efcapement ; befider, a fhort are of vibration in a cir-
35 2 cle
GCLoOcK
cle is fo like a cycloid at the loweft point, that a fhort arc,
with a heavy ball on the pendulum, foon began to be adopts
ed generally, tothe exclufion of the cycloidal cheeks, which,
had they poffeffed their theoretic property in practice, would
now have been of little value with a vibration in fhort ares,
even if the fufpenfion thread had been ftrong enough to bear
a heavy weight, and at the fame time fufliciently flexible.
This change in the clock efcapement introduced the cuftom
of fufpending the pendulum from a cock, by means of a
piece of watch fpring, which was another important inven-
tion of Clement, according to Smith’s authority. It may
be proper to obferve here, that the truly ingenious Dr. Hooke
too claimed the reputation of being the inventor of the an-
chor efcapement, and affirmed, fays Sully, that he had fhown
to the Royal Society a pendulum with a fim'lar efcapement,
foon after the fire of London, in the year 1666, as we have
feen, when we treated of Chronometers, that he alfo con-
tefted with Huygens and Hantefeuille the honour of having
been the inventor of the balance-{pring of watches.
But whether Clement or Hooke were the inventor of the
anchor efcapement, it was foon found that a clock of this
conftruGtion gained time confiderably by an addition to the
maintaining power, or, which may be confidered as the fame
thing, by diminifhing the weight of the pendulum bail, the
caufe of which is the recoil, or retrograde motion, occafioned
in the fwing wheel, which, oppofing the natural vibration,
fhortened the are inthe afcent; the feconds pendulum, with
this efcapement, was called for the firlt time, the royal
pendulum.
Such was the ftate of clock mechanifm, and fuch were the
alterations and improvements therein, at the conclufion of the
feventeenth century, or veginning of the eighteenth, which
period conttitutes a fowth epoch in the hiftory of clock-
_ making. The expanfion of metals by heat had been known
ever fince the year 1648, but the ingenuity of art had not
yet devifed a remedy for the alternate elongation and con-
traétion of the pendulum rod in fummer and winter refpect-
ively, though the ufe of the clock in aftronomy imperioufly
demanded fome compenfation: this/honour fell to the lot of
our celebrated George Graham, who, in the year 1715,
fucceeded in his attempt to preferve the diltance from the
point of fufpenficn to the centre of ofcillation of a pendu-
lum unaltered, notwithitanding it was expofed to all the va-
riations of temperature incident to our climate; the com-
penfation was produced, as will be more particularly deferibed
under the word Penputum, by means of mercury enclofed
in a cylindrical clafs veffel, guarded by a frame, and fubfti-
tuted for the ball of a metallic pendulum rod, fo that while
the rod of metal, conttituting the verge of the pendulum,
lengthened downwards, the column of mercury lengthened
upwards, which was an original and truly ingenious idea.
Pendulums of this conftruétion, when well adjulted, have
been found to meafure time with a degree of accuracy far
beyond what the former pendulum had any pretenfions to,
for a continued length of time: the principal objection to
its general adoption was its liability to break in carriage, or
by other accident :—but Graham, feeling the force of this
objection, took a wide view of the fubjeét, and, looking
round for other refources, fuggeited the idea of uling the
oppolite expanfions of different metals as a means of com-
penfation in a pendulum, which idea was tmmediately adept-
ed by Harrifon, at that time an obfcure carpenter in Lin-
colnfhire, at a village cailed Barton; who, overcoming all
the difficulties attending his retired fituation, which is the
property of a great genius, aftonifhed the world by the pro-
duction of the grid-iron pendulum ; a pendulum which is not
liable to the objection of want = portability, and which has
till lately been generally adopted in aftronomical clocks of
the beft conftruction. For its defeription we mult again
refer to the article Penputum.. Sul, however, a better
efcapement than the common anchor efcapemetit was want-
ing ; for it was not fufficient to have obtained an invariable
pendulum in point of effeCtive length, while its natural ifos
chronal property, arifing from gravity alone, continued to
be greatly dilturbed ; viz. while alternate additions and fubs
tractions of force were derived, and that often unequally,
through the medium of the train of wheel-work to the
efcapement, from the maintaining power firil, and thence
improperly modified to the penduinn itfelf. Accordingly,
we find Graham, about this time, becoming the inventor of
the dead-beat efcapement, and alfo Harrifon of a filent
efcapement, which will go without oil; both of which are
{pecimens of great originality of contrivance, as will be feen
when we come.to deferibe them in their proper place: the
former of them has proved itfelf of fuch great utility, that
it has been adopted in the generallity of regulators or clocks
for aitronomical obfervations, in conjunction with Harrifon’s
grid-iron pendulum, moving with a heavy ball in a {mall are
of vibration: of this kind is the clock at the Royal Obferv-
atory, at Greenwich, of the aceuracy of which it has been
affirmed, that it feldom gains or lofes, on an average, more
than one fecond of time in five days. To avoid the wearing
out of the parts moft in ation, and the influence of fri€tion,
the beft clocks of this conftruétion, like the one we have
jult mentioned, have pallet wheels of hardened and polithed
{tcel with pallets of ruby or agate, which require little or no
oil: this kind of fubfance, we belicve, was firft ufed in
time-pieces by a Frenchman, De Baufre, about the year
1704. The pivot holes alfo are fometimes buthed with jew-
els, to avoid the produétion of verdigris, and the clammi-
nefs of thickening oil; but the confequent additional ex
pence feems to be hardly compenfated by fuck a refinement
as the laft.
Harrifon was alfo, as we have feen before, the inventor of
the auxiliary {pring and additional ratchet on the barrel ars
bor, which is a much neater way of making the clock go
during winding, than that of Huygens by means of an
endlefs chain, or of the forcing elaitic bolt, which has been
made to {lip into a tooth of one of the wheels, and to pufk
it forwards during the at of winding and for fome minutes
after.
We might now fuppofe that the clock has arrived. at its
ne plus ultra, with relpeét to further improvements, ‘but fill
we find fo many fucceffive alterations, if not improvements,
in the efcapement, and mode of compenfating the pendulum’s
expanfion, that to notice all the fanciful minutiz that have
been magnified into importance by cifferent modern artilts,
would be to write a long volume on the fubje@. We will,
however, ont of the great variety of horological coutrivances
in this century, felect thofe which have originality and uti-
lity to recommend them to public notice, and pafs in filences
for the prefent, over the inventions of chimes, organs»
cuckows, planetary motions, atmofpherical winding-up,
mercurial mover, &c. &c. as objects of fancy more than of
real ufe in clock-work. (For the two laft fee “ Machines.
Approveés.””) Among the contrivers of detached and uther
clock efcapements, as will hereafter be feen under this words
we may place Grignon, Mudge, Cummins, Nicholfon, &c. in
London; and on the Continent Julien le Roy, Peter le Roy,
Sully, Du Tertre, De Bethune, Le Paute, Amant, Ro-
bin, Berthoud, &e. all of whom have merited commend.
ation for ingenious contrivances in their conitru€tion of this
mott f{eientific part of the clock. The principal inventors.
of compenfation pendulums, (which will be defcribed under
the
GLO C.K,
the word PrenpuiumM,) after Graham and Harrifon, have
been, in France, Regnauld, Deparcienx, Julien le Roy,
Caflini, and Berthoud; and in England, Ejlicot, Cummins,
Nicholfon, and Troughton, the laft of whom has very re-
cently made {uch a difpofition of the grid-iron pendulum, by
means of concentric tubes of brafs containing withia them
the rods of iron, as gives it the appearance of an ordinary
finple pendulum rod; and his accurate mode of adjutting for
temperature by a delicate fpirit-level pyrometer, lately in-
vented, bids fair for introducing this elegant pendulum into
general ufe in clocks which profefs to be accurate ; indeed,
we know, that many pendulums of this conftruction have
already been made for obfervatories both public and private.
We might mention here various curious as well as ufeful
engines, tools, pyrometrical, and other inftruments, which
owe their origin to the fucceffive improvements in clock-
work, but we think the fubjeét of fufficient importance to
demand a feparate account of thefe. We muft not, how-
ever, pafsin filence over fome other real improvements con-
ncéted with the pendulum, one of which is, fixing the ball
at the centre of ofcillation, inftead of fupporting it by a
tapped nut at the lower extremity, the latter of which me-
thods is only ufeful when a fimple fubftance, fuch as metal,
wood, glafs, sec. is ufed for a rod; for in thefe cafes a {pe-
cies of compenfation is effeed by the upward expanfion of
the ball; in fome of which cafes a pin, paffing through a
oint of the ball between the centre and lower extremity,
will be ftill better. In thofe conftruGtions where the ball it-
felf is not eafily adjultable, a fecond light ball is made to
{crew up and down a projecting piece of the rod below the
heavy ball, to adjutt for time, and fometimes a micrometer-
ferew is adapted for meafuring the quantity of the adjult-
ment; this is an idea, no doubt, borrowed from Huygens,
whofe clock had a fecond adjuftable weight on the body of
the rod to anfwer the fame purpofe, which circumftance we
omitted to mention before. The improved fufpenfions, how-
ever, have rendered thefe fecondary balls in many clocks fu-
perfluous, which requiring the clock to be {topped for their
adjuftment were inconvenient; in thefe fufpenfions the ad-
jultment for rate is made by a micrometer-fcrew at the
cock or top of the pendulum, even while going, to which
mechaniim alfo is added a lateral adjuftment for putting the
pendulum into beat, inftead of bending the fork as is prac-
tifed in ordinary clocks. Laftly, the modern prattice of
fixing the cock to the folid wall or other fteady fituation,
and allowing the pendulum to find its own perpendicular
line before it be fixed in that fituation, is among the real im-
provements of this art, and cannot be too much recommend-
ed. But, nowithftanding all thefe, and doubtlefs other im-
provements in the art of clockemaking, one defideratum yet
remains to be difcovered ; viz. a fimple fubftance that is not
expanfidle by heat, for the rod of the pendulum ; we think
that pyrometrical experiments, on different fubftances of na-
ture and combinations of art, have not yet been {uflicientiy
extended, and we beg leave to fuggeft an opinion, for which
we are indebted to Mr. Troughton, that tobacco-pipe-clay,
or the compofition of Wedgewood’s thermometer, if pro-
erly baked, may prove on trial to aiford a very fimple rod,
at lealt for a halffeconds pendulum ; particularly if a metals
lic cap, cemented or otherwife faltened to its upper extre-
mity, fhould be furnifhed with a knife-edge fufpention,
which the celebrated Berthoud, as we have faid, affirms has
jefs friction than the flip of watch fpring ; but if the latter
‘be preferred, we prefume the compenfation for it, and alfo
for the argillaceous rod, if it fhould require any, may be
made by pinning the ball a little below the centre to the
lower extremity of the rod, and then the adjuftment for.
‘
time may beas nfual at the cock, with lateral fcrews to clofe
the flit when the adjuftment is complete. From the experi-
ments which we have made with wooden pendulums, we find
that they are more affeéted by moifture than by heat, and are
therefore not to be depended on.
Turret Clock of the Royal Palace at Flampton Court.
After having given a hiltory of the principal improvements
made from time to time in clock-work, we propofe to de-
{eribe, individually, fo many clocks of different conftructioas,
in fucceffive order, as will enable the reader to form a com-
petent judgment of their properties and relative merits,
which office we undertake with the more pleafure when we
refle& that the Englith language is yet without a book de-
fcriptive of the various conitructions of a machine, which,
in one form or other, is now in the poffeflion of almoit every
houfe keeper.
According to Dr. Derham, the oldeft Englith clock exe
tant is ina turret of the royal palace at Hampton, cone
{tru€ted in the year 1540, which time was in the reign of king
Henry VIII. by a maker whofe initials are N.O. When
we confider that this clock contains mechanifm for reprefent-
ing the motions of fome of the heavenly bodies, and that the
celebrated Copernicus was living at the time of itsdate, and:
had not publifhed his book «* On the Revolutions of the
Celeftial Orbs ;?? when we refle&t alfo, that more than a
century elapfed after this time before the pendulum was
applied as the regulator of clocks, thefe confiderations ap-
pear fufficiently interefting, to induce a minute examination -
of the wheel-work of this ancient clock, particularly of that’
part of it which conftitutes its celeftial mechanifm.
Fig. 1, of Plate X. is the calliper of the wheel-work*
which produces the celeftial motions, taken from Dr. Der-
ham’s * Artificial Clock-maker,’’ publifhed in 1714 (third
edition), whofe account we will firft copy in his own words, +
and then make fome obfervations on the value of the wheel-
work. ‘The Hampton Court clock, fays the Doétor,
‘© fhews the time of the day, and.the motion of the fam and
moon, through all the degrees of the zodiac, together with
the matters depending thereon, as the day of the month,
the fun’s and moon’s places in the zodiac, moon’s fouth-
ing,” &c.
«To thew how completely (for that age) the wheel-work
is laid under the moving part of the dial-plate, T have given
the calliper thereof, which reprefents the feveral wheels
and pinions only which lie under the dial-plate, and drive
the feveral motions in this manner. In the centre of all,
both the dial-plate and its whcel-work are placed on a
fixed arbor, which hath a pinion on the end of it, which
drives both the folar and lunar motions, by means-of a large
wheel of 288 teeth turning round upon it once in-24 hours,
which large wheel is drawn round by-a-pinion of 12, fixed
on the arbor of the great wheel within the clock, which
turneth round once in au hovr. The wheel 288 thus turn-
ing round in 24 hours, carries about with it the wheel 37, and
its pinion of 7 leaves, as alfo the other prickt (dotted) wheel,
and its pinion, on the other fide. The pinion 7, of the wheel
37, drives another wheel of 45 teeth, which carries round the
moon’s ring or circle. On the oppofite fide the aforefaid
pinion 8 drives round the prickt wheel, whofe pinion drives
a wheel of 29 teeth, whofe pinion, of 12 leaves, drives
round the wheel 132 that carries the fun and the zodiacal
matters.”
«© Thefe were the numbers of the wheel-work (continues
the Doétor) remaining in the year 17113 but the prickt
wheel and pinion were taken out formerly by fome ignorant
workman that was not able otherwife. to amend the clock ;
bat
Q5
CrLoOec Ks
but were fupplied, and the whole movement repaired lately,
by that fcilfal artift, Mr. Lang. Bradley, in Fenchurch
Street, London.” (p. 121, 122.)
This defeription gives a clear idea how the movements
were a@uated; but the numbers of the dotted wheel and
pinion being unknown, leave the folar movement incomplete,
Sas
ry x =a x
nalcombination of wheels and pinions for the annual mo-
tion unfortunately cannot be with certainty known; though
there is no difficulty in afcertaining a wheel and pinion to
be fubftituted, to complete the wheel-work for either a folar
or a civil year.
The wheel-work for a lunation, however, is entire, name-
31. AD a 1665
ar iy 56
equal to 294 17" 34™ 17°14, which is too long a period by 4*
50",14°.31. This excels, in the fhort {pace of one lunation,
it will be remarked, is very confiderable; and it wili be inferred
from hence, either that a fynodical revolution of the moon
was not at that time well afcertained in England, or that the
inventor of the altronomical movement was unable to calcu-
Jate numbers more accurate to reprefent it by wheel-work.
We are of opinion, notwithftanding, that neither of thefe
was the cafe, and our reafon for fuch an opinion is founded
in thefe three confiderations; firh, great ingenuity 1s {hewn
in the difpofition of the wheel-work, fo great indeed, that
it will be feen hereafter, that Mr. Fergufon has evidently
copied it in the dial-work of his principal aftronomical clock ;
fecondly, the calculations have evidently been made for a
lunar day, and not for a lunation, becaufe the moon’s age
is indicated by the difference between the folar and Junar
apparent daily motions, that is, by the folar hand pointing
to the moveable lunar dial-plate, and not by a lunar index
pointing to a graduated fixed plate; and, thirdly, the
Jength of the lunar day was not afcertained with accuracy
by any means fo remotely asa lunation, on account of a
deception that exifled in the determination. Let us examine
thefe confiderations a little more clofely ; as the large wheel
of 288, which revolves in the {pace of 24 hours, carries both
the folar and lunar movements along with it, except the
pinion of 8, which remains always immoveable in the centre,
it follows, that, becaufe this great wheel revolves from weft
to eaft, the wheel of 37 borne by it, and connected with the
fixed pinion, will revolve in the fame direétion the {pace of
§ teeth out of 37 in every 24 hours; alfo the pinion of 7,
fixed on the centre of the wheel 37, will, by the fame con-
neGtion, be carried 3, of 7 teeth in the fame time, but the
fecoud wheel of 45 will revolve in a contrary direGtion, or
from eaft to weft in each 24 hours, the fpace ~%, of ,% parts
of a folar day, which, reduced into a fimple fraction, 1s TiS
of 24 hours, or 4.432432, &c. minutes, fo that the falling
back of the wheel of 45 in every revolution of the large
wheel occafions the moon’s daily {pace on the dial-plate to
be equal to 48.432432 minutes om the contiguous folar face
of 24 hours, and, if we divide the whole of 24 hours, or
1440 minutes, by this quantity, we fhall have 35.343332
2g 17" 34" 17°14 for the lunation, as before. |
In order now to fee how large the day’s fpace for the
moon’s age ought to be on the moon’s plate, we mutt di-
vide 1440, the minutes in a day, by 29.53058, the days in
a lunation, and the quotient 48.76301 will be the number
of the minutes that the moon’s plate ought to lofe, with
refpe& to the folar index, in a natural day, which quantity
differs from what the wheel-work effected only 33057, or
very nearly 1d of a minute’s motion in every 24 hours, which
would be deemed very inconfiderable at a time when the
132 2 oe
thus —-, fo that the exa&i value of this origi-
12
ly; of 24 hours, which will be found to be
clock itfelf muft have been without fuch 4 regulator as would’
make it go truly for any lensth of time ; the inventor, there-
fore mignt not think it neceffary to caleulate a more accurate
movement.
j But there might be another carfe of error in the calcula-
tion arifing from the affumed data; it appears, as we have
intimated, that for a confiderable time after the period in’
quettion, though the length of a lunation was known pretty
accurately, yet the length of an exact lunar day was not’
properly apprehended ; even Benjamin Martin among other’
altronomical writers ({nftitution of Clock-work, vol. ii. p.
412.), who had lunar tables before him, has inconfiderately
but erroneoufly afferted, that the moon paffes the meridian
on each day at a mean rate about 48.2 minutes later than
on the preceding day; it is true, indeed, that the difference
between the fun’s and moon’s daily mean motions in the
ecliptic is 12° 11’ 27”, which fpace anfwers very nearly to
482 of time, but then, as we have already feen, this is the
diftance between thefe two heavenly bodies at the end of
a folar day after new moon, and not at the inftant when
the moon tranfits the meridian the firft time after, as has’
been falfely concluded ; for during the time that the earth is’
revolving on its axis the {pace of 12° 11’ 27” or 483 minutes’
of time, the moon continues her advance from the fun, and gets’
as much farther as correfponds to 1.643 minutes more; and
laftly another {mall advance is made whillt the earth is revoly-’
ing this laft fpace ; and fo on till the moon is found on the’
meridian : the aggregate of the moon’s daily advance from
the fun and of all the fucceffive proportional parts may be -
thus afcertained at one operation ; becaufe a fynodical revolu-
tion of the moon is performed in 29.53058 days, and becaufe
the moon paffes the meridian lefs frequent:y by once than
the fun does in that time, let 1440 be divided by 28.530585
and the refult will give the Junar day equal §0™.472 or 50
minutes and 28.32 fecoads. Mr. Fergufon, however, has
difcriminated between a lunar day, and the time anfwering
to the moon’s daily motion added to a folar day, one
being a corrected and the other an incorre&t period ; in
confequence of which we tind the annexed note in page 116
of his *¢ Tables and Tra&ts,”’ viz. “ It is generally believed
that the moon revolves from the meridian to the meridian
again in 24 hours 45 minutes, but that is a miftake: for if
fhe did, there would be 30 complete days from change to
change.”
We repeat, therefore, that a mifapprehenfion of this nature
was very likely to be produétive of an error in the calcula-
tion of a movement which was intended to reprefent the
moon’s meridian paffages: and let it be recolle&ted, that
what has been here faid refpeGiing the two lunar periods
48".76301, and 50".472, will be ferviceable in afcertaining
the moon’s age and the tides at any place; the former,
being the moon’s daily motion in folar time, applies to cal-
culations of the moon’s age; and the latter, being the exaé&t
leneth of a lunar day, applies to the afcertaining of the
tides, which diitmétion, we think, is not generally
made.
After the writer of the prefent article had made the pre-
ceding calculations and obfervations en the original con-
ftraGion of the aftronomical clock at Hampton Court, he
felt an inclination to infpe& the prefent clock, that he
might know what the folar movement is, which Bred@ey is
faid to have fubftituted, when a wheel and pinion of the
original movement were loft; accordingly, on’ the 8th of
May 1802 he émbraced an opportunity which occurred, of
gaining perm'flion to afcend to the lofty fituation in which
this clock is placed, which enterprize was attended with
fome perfonal danger ; but it proved on a minute and care- -
2 ful
. CLL! OFC)
fol examination, that the whole of both the annual and
lunar movements are different from the original ones recorded
by Dr. Derham,
- 59, 45
‘The lunar movement is Cems n20 days and the annual
— 365 exactly.
TES
one aene as The prefent central
pfoion is a double one confiting of a to and a 12, fixed as
the former one of 8 1s deferibed to have been, and pinned
together; they are made of box, as are alfo the p:nions of
4 and g, to prevent their cankering, or oxiding, as it is now
called, and both the trams are arranged as already deferibed.
The wheel of 42 is made of brafs; but the reit, being very
Jarge, are made of iron, The great wheel of 288, which
conneéts the clock-werk with the aftronomical movements,
appears to be the only portion of the original work, both
by its marks of antiquity and the number of its teeth,
which are cut on the inner edge of its circular part ; there
are two crofs bars riveted to this indented rim to carry the
heavenly movements, and as there is no counterpoile to thefe,
it was fufpected at the time that their rifing and falling weight
would alternately accelerate and retard the yoing of the
clock, which is conneéted with it by means of an horizontal
arbor about 3 yards long by eftimation: accordingly, oa
inquiry, it turned out that the time of the day indicated is
-f{ometimes 5 minutes or more too back, and again as much too
forward on the fame day, every, day, which circumftance had
not before been accounted for. Indeed our author had made
a memorandum, before he faw this clock, merely from con-
fidering its con{ftruGion in Dr. Derham’s account, that molt
probably this would be the cafe, unlefs there fhould be fome
counterpoife.
The infeription “* L. Bradly, 1711,’? was marked on the
frame of the going part of the clock, which has evidently
been new, either all of it at that time, or fome part of it
fince, fo that what the original regulator was, does not
appear, nor are the initials ‘¢ N. O.”? to be found at prefent.
There are three barrels and weights, one for the going part
which has a very heavy long pendulum; one for the ftrik-
ing part; and one for ftyiking the quarters: the prefent efcape-
ment isa pair of pallets acting alternately into pins projeét-
ing from the plane of a wheel with an horizontal arbor, which
kind is now pretty common in England, and, according to
Berthoud, was invented by M. Amant, a clock-maker of
Paris, late in the eighteenth century. (See Escapr-
MENT.) : ;
- In Grofe’s Antiquities it is faid that this clock, confidered
as an altronomical clock, was invented by Tompion; but
this account cannot betrue, becaufe that famous artilt lived
in Dr. Derham’s time, a century and half after the original
conftrudtion ; he may in all probability have been employed
in making fome of the alterations either in the altronomical
or going part, which circumilance has given rife to this
account.
The hand and divided circles are in the following order
on the face, viz.
1. or inmoit {mall circlk—twice XII for (’s fouthing :
2. Moon’s age 293:
3. Ecliptic with figns and days of the month :
4. Sun and hour hand revolving in 24 hours :
5. 24 hours marked I. I]. &c.
The moon’s phafe is fhewn by a circular hole cut on the
hour index covering more orlefs of a blackened plate placed
under it on the lunar cial.
The going and ftriking parts of the clock before us
have nothing particular in them to require our further
notice. '
A Thirty-hours Clock, with a’ Larum and Count-wheel flriking
Work.
An ordinary 30-hours houfchold clock has ufually a fe-
conds pendulum, 39.14 inches long, in the latitude of Lon-
don, as meafured from the point of fufpenfion to the centre
of ofcillation, according to a mean of five determinations,
and is contained in a cafe of wood of correfponding length
refting on the floor of the room where it is placed ; its going
and {triking parts are a€tuated by two feparate ponderous
bodies, the cords or chains of which go refpectively round
two diftinét pullies, with pins inferted into their grooves, to
hold the cords or chains from flipping in a detached flate,
without taking the pullies along with them ; and in the a@
of winding up every morning, or every evening, as may be
the cultom, each ponderous body, ufed for a&tuating the
wheel work, is drawn up feparately and fucceffively ; the
ftriking mechanifm in molt of the modern clocks is of the
kind deferibed hereafter and feen in Plate XII. known by
the name of the rack and fnail ftriking part; but as the
older clocks and fome few of the modern ones are made
with the count-wheel ftriking mechanifm, we propofe to
deferibe, in the firft place, 2 clock with ftriking mechanifm
of this kind in its moft improved ftate, together with an
alarum, or ’larum, for roufing a perfon from fleep at a given
hour, and alfo a fimple method of making the clock go
while it 1s under winding. Plate 1X. of Herology fhows a per=
fpeétive view of a clock of this kind in fg. 1, where the co-
vering parts are removed, fo as to allow an exhibition of all
the parts of the mechani{m in their refpeCtive fituations,
which, we believe, has never been properly done before,
The frame of this clock is nearly a cube made of fix plates
of brafs, with four pillars at the corners conneéting the top
and bottom plates, and the bell is mounted over the frame,
as reprefented in the figure; there are befides, within the
frame, two pair of crofs bars of brafs, one pair holding the
going part, and the other holding, feparately from the
going part, the ftriking part of the mechanifm; all which
are too plainly feen to require particular reference to the
drawing. In a common 30-hours clock that indicates fe.
conds, the centre wheel arbor ufually carries the minute
hand, and revolves in an heur, and with pinions of 8 this
wheel has 64 teeth, and the fecord wheel 60, with a fwing
wheel of 30; but with pinions of 6 the centre wheel has
49 teeth, andthe fecond wheel only 45, with a fimilar fwing
wheel for the common anchor pallets ; but the clock before
us docs not fhew feconds, and confequentiy has higher num-
bers in its train, and a pendulum fhorter than a feconds pen-
dalum: the firft wheel, a, on which the pulley for winding
up the going part is fixed faft without a ratchet in this con-
ftruétion, for a reafon to be explained by and bye, is af-
fumed as revolving in two hours in order that the fall of the
{ufpended weight may not be fo great as it would have been
if it had revolved once in an hour; this firft wheel of the
train has So teeth, and drives the pinion of 8 on the arbor
of the fecond wheel, 4, which has a!fo So teeth, impelling a
fecond pinion of 8 on the arbor of the fwing wheel, c,
which has 45-tceth; the {wing wheel therefore makes 10@
80
k 80 : si
revolutions (= x =) while the firft wheel revolves once;
8
i. e. it revolves once in 50 minutes, and therefore is not pro.
per for carrying a feconds hand; but the 45 teeth of the
{wing wheel do not all completely efcape the pallets of the
anchor
cLOCK
anchor in lefs than go (45 x 2) vibrations of the pendulum;
chence 50 X 90 = 4500 are the vibrations per hour, and as
the lengths of all pendulums are inverfely to each other as
the {quares of their vibrations per hour, the pendulum be-
fore us mutt neceffarily be 20 iaches long, for as the fquare
of 4500: the {quare of 3600 :: 30°°*14 : 20, very nearly.
The pallets are of the recoil kind (fee Escapement), and
have an arbor of great length, with a crank in the middle of
it nearly, to avoid the fly of the Amking part which comes
through an aperture in the top plate; the inner end of the
pallets arbor has its pivot inferted into a piece of metal, d,
on the top plate, and the outer end of the fame has its pivot
pafling through a cock, e, on the fame plate, which cock
alfo bears the pendulum by a flip of watch main-{pring ;
the pendelum receives its impulfe from the cratch, not feen,
attached to the protruding portion of the faid pivot. What
we have fo far deferibed conftitutes what is called the going
part, fomctimes alfo called the watch part of the clock,
from its watching the lapfe of time. The firft wheel, a,
which revolves ouce in two hours, is not placed in the cen-
tre, bat a little below, and has its ftrong arbor pafing
through the crofs partition bar, {f, of the interior frame
work, and receiving a wheel of 40 teeth, and alfo a pinion,
h, of ten leaves, which are attached together and inferted
on this arbor by friGion ; the wheel of 40, which, we have
feen, revolves in two hours, drives a concealed pinion with a
long tube, cailed the canson pinion, the place and fize
of which are afcertained by dots at 2; on the tube of this
pinion, which has 20 teeth, and which therefore revolves in
an hour, is placed the minute hand, 2, the end of the tube
being {quared to admit the fquare aperture of the hand ; the
pinion of ten leaves, which alfo revolves in two hours, drives
the wheel, 7, of 60 teeth in twelve hours, the tube of
which admits on its circular part the hour hand, m, which
: 60 :
confequently revolves in 12 hours ( 2K =); this work
is denominated the dial-work, being that which regulates the
relative velocities of the two hands as feen in fig. 3. ‘I'he
next portion that offers itfelf for defeription is the larum
portion, which has an immediate conneétion with the dial-
work, and has the time of its going off limited thereby.
On the tube of the 12-hours wheel, i, is placed Joofe, or at
leaft fo tight only as friction wili fix it, the {mall plate, 0,
pointed to by the tail of the hour hand, m, which {mall
late has 12 hours engraven on it, and a pin inferted into
it behind, which comes in the way of the lever p every 12
hours; this pin is putintoa certain fituation with re{pe& to
the hour of 12, and the end of the lever, p, alfo, in order
‘that the pin may catch the faid lever at a certain hour placed
under the tail of the hour hand at any time previoufly to
the hour intended; the confequence is, that when the 12-
hour wheel has revolved far enough to prefent the pin of the
{mall ’larum dial borne by it to the end of the lever f, this
lever is elevated a little, and as its arbor, g, has its pivots
running in the interior frame work of the going part, a fe-
cond lever, r, on the fame common arbor, is alfo at the fame
time elevated from the pin, ¢, of an efcapement crown wheel,
s, better feen detached in fg. 2, at which inftant the {mall
weight of the ’larum pulls the pulley on the back of the ef-
eapement wheel, s, of the ’larum, and gives it a rotatory mo-
tion as long as the weight continues to fall. The efcape-
ment wheel here mentioned has coarfe teeth of the ferrated
kind, which a with two pallets on the perpendicular arbor
», in the fame way that the pallets of a common watch ac,
except that the latter are on a horizontal arbor, and have
their frequency regulated by the vibrations of the balance ;
whereas here there is no regulator, but the pallets go and
come alternately as faft as the impelling weight can force
them to moye; os the top of the perpcndicular arbor of
thefe paileis is fixed a hammer with two faces within the bell,
reprefented by dots, which moving backwerd and forward
from one interior fide of the bell to the other, with the force
commuricated to the pallets by the pallet -wheel, make a reite-
rated noife, the intenfity and continuance of which are fuf.
ficient to difturb the repofe of a found fleeper. When the
weight has drawn up ail the cord, it is only neceflary to pull
it up again, and the lever, r, a¢ts as a detent with the pir,
t, of the pallet-wheel, till the pin of the larum dial, fet to
any given hour, fhall again detach it, when the fame conti-
nued noife will be refumed.
The laft portion of the clock isthe ftriking portion, which
alfo has a cenneétion with the dial-work; the wheel, g,
which revolves in the fpace of two hours, has two pins at
the diftance of a femicircle trom each other, behind rhe
wheel as feen in the fipure; one or the otherof thefe two
pins at the end of each hour feifes the end 1 of a tail piece
attached to the long horizontal arbor 2 3, which reaches the
whole depth of the two internal frames ; this long arbor has
another bar 4, or detent, which reaches far enough to fall in
the way of a pin in the wheel 7, or warning wheel, fo as to
arreft the motion of the ftriking movement when in its
quiefcent pofition. Parallel to the Jong arbor, and above
it, is another but fhorter arbor 5, turning by its pivots tn
the interior frame of the ftriking part; this fhort arbor 5
has a bent lever 6 by which it may be raifed by the contact
of the detent 4 of the long arbor 2 3, and alfo two catches
or detents 7 and 8, all fixed at right angles to the axis of
motion; the detent 7 falls into a notch made ina hoo
placed faft to the wheel marked 13, thence calicd the hoop-
wheel or detent-wheel fometimes, which revolves once at
every blow of the hammer, and the fecond catch 8 falls
fucceffively into 12 notches cut at unequal diftances on the
edge of plate rr, called the locking plate, which is fixed
faft to the wheel marked 12, called the count-wheel, be-
caufe its teeth count the ftroke-{paces between the notches
of the locking-plate that are placed refpedtively at +4, 7
=,» &c. of the circumference of the plate from cac
other, as explained when we defcribed the ancient clock
of Henry de Wick. The wheel 9, firft aQuated by
the cord or chain paffing round the third pulley faflened
to it, has 12 pins for raifing the tail-piece 10, of the
hammer, the arbor, 4, of which is feen in the figure;
the fpring of the hammer tail is concealed from view, but
the fhaft of the har.mer is feen pafling through an opening
in the top plate at 16, and the head cf the hammer is re-
prefented within the bell, where it ftrikes, by a dotted defign
above 16. The pin-wheel or firiking- wheel g has 60 teeth,
and drivesa pinion of ro leaves.on the arbor of the hoop-
wheel 13, behind the crofs piece of the frame work; the
hoop-wheel has 70 teeth driving a pinion of 7 leaves on the
remote end of the arbor of the warning wheel 7,0f 56 teeth;
which wheel again impels the pinion 14, of 7 leaves, on the
arbor of the fly, one half of which is feen through an
opening in the top plate at15. On that end of the arbor
of the pin-wheel which paffes through the back part of the
frame-work is inferted a pinion of 12 leaves, called the
pinion of report, driving the counting wheel 12 of 78 teeth.
The aGion of the ftriking part is thus :— > '
One of the pins in the two-hour wheel, g, firft lifts thetail
1, of the long lever 2 3, and with it che detent 4, the warn-
ing wheel 7 1s not yet at liberty, but begins to revolve the
inttant that this detent has raifed the curved arm 6 over it,
which arm raifes with it both the catches or detents 7 “aad
8, that leave the hoop-wheel 13, and alfo the count-wheel
32, under -
Cul'@ KS
y2, under the command of the fufpended weight ; the mo-
tion of the wheel 7, however, does not proceed far till its
detent 4 is raifed into the way of its pin, and the motion
of it is arrefted; the noife of this temporary motion of
wheel 7 is called the warning, and the wheel itfelf the
warning-wheel ; prefently the pin of the 2-hours wheel, 2,
drops from the end of the tail r of the arbor 2 3, and this
tail as well as detent 4 refume their quiefcent pofition ;
during the temporary motion of the warning wheel 7, the
hoop-wheel, and alfo the locking-plate attached tothe count-
wheel, had moved far enough to take the notches from the
claws of their refpe€tive catches or detents 7 and 8, the
moment, therefore, that the detent 4 takes its quiefcent
pofition, the warning-wheel is again at liberty, as are alfo
the hoop-whee) and count-wheel; the whole movement,
confequently, now proceeds, and the pin-whecl raifes the
hammer tail as often as the pins meet with it, until the
detent 8 mects with a notch to receive it into the locking-
plate, at which inftant all motion is at an end, and the
detent 7 of the hoop falls alfo into its notch, and holds the
whole movement firmly in a quiefcent ftate, till the fecond
pin of wheel g again detaches the detents, and renews the
fame procefs; which happens at the conclufion of every
hour.
From this account of the movement of the ftriking part,
and of the other auxiliary parts of this mechanifm, it is eafy
to apprehend the reafon of the numbers of teeth fixed upon
in their different wheels and pinions; for firft, becaufe there
are 12 pinsin the ftriking or pin wheel, it is neceflary that
the pinion of report on the fame protruding arbor fhould
have 12 leaves, in order that every tooth of the count-wheel,
which counts a froke of the hammer, fhould have its mo-
tion correfponding with that of the pins refpectively ; but
in twelve hours there are 78 ftrokes, therefore 78 teeth in
the count-wheel, one of which meafures the firft interval
on the locking plate ; two of which the fecond; three, the
third, and fo on till the laft fpace between the notches is
meafured by twelve teeth of this wheel; again, as the pin-
wheel has 60 teeth and twelve pins, each pin is removed
60 ;
from the next == 5 teeth ; if the hoop-wheel, or detent-
wheel were neceflarily obliged to have an exaét revolution
at every ftroke of the hammer, the pinion on its arbor driven
by the pin-wheel mutt neceffarily have five leaves only ; but
when the teeth are not laid very deep into one another, the
lay will allow the hoop-wheel to have only one revolution
in two flrokes, which is the cafe before us, where the pinion
has ten leaves; the pin-wheel, however, might very well
have had 96 teeth, and the pinion in queltion 8 leaves, and
then there would have been an entire revolution of the hoop-
wheel at each firoke. We have feen that the count-wheel
revolves once in £2 hours and that the pin-wheel revolves in
78 of this time, or makes 63 turns; but if the number of
pins had been 13, and the pinion of report alfo 13, the time
of a revolution of thefe would have been 78 of 12 hours,
or one in two hours, which is the cafe with the great wheel
of the going part, and the two movements would, in that
cafe, have been more uniform with re{peét to the calcula-
tions of continuance. It is of but little importance what
the numbers of teeth be in the two remaining pinions and
warning wheel, as they only regulate the velocity of the fly,
provided the teeth are numerous enough to a& without
much friétion.
_ As we mean not to introduce any other clock with the
count-wheel mechanifm after the prefent one, it may be
proper to notice here, that when this kind of ftriking work
Vor. VILL.
is ufed in an eight-days clock, or other clock of longer con-
tinuance than 30 hours, another wheel and pinion, called in
fuch cafe the great wheel and its pinion, mutt be. placed on
the end of the barrel, or fufee, accordingly as a weight or
{pring is ufed for the maintaining power; and the number of
teech of this additional wheel will depend partly on the
number of leaves of the pinion and partly on the number of
coils of the cord or chain on the barrel, or fufee, as the
cafe may be; which never can be difficult to determine when
it is known in what time the pin-wheel revolves, and what
the continuance of the clock isrequired to be; for-inftance,
if the pin-wheel revolves with 13 pins in two hours, 2% will
be the wheel and pinion to. make the barrel or fufee turn
oncein 12 hours, and 16 turns will be fufficient for a con-
tinuance of eight days.
‘The manner in which the clock in queftion may be placed
to go well, is fhown in fy. 3, where A isa bracket fixed to
a folid wall, to hold the trame containing the works, which
are here fuppofed to be without a cafe; the face or dial
requires no explanation after what we have fa'd of the {mall
innermott circle or 7larum dial; nor have we any particular
remarks to make on the pendulum, or its rod, in this clock,
which profefles not to meafure time alike under the varia-
tions of atmofpheric temperature ; but the manner in which
one fufpended weight impels both the going and ftriking
movements, the former even while winding, is ingenious and
deferves attention. Huygens long ago propofed and indeed
actually ufed an endlefs cord with a detached ratchet, fo ap-
plied that one half of the weight continued always to impel
the going movement of his clock, and a detached ratchet
gathered up the expended portion of the cord once in 24
hours. (See Crocx-work.) The prefent contrivance is
evideritly borrowed from his invention, but its application
ferves two diftin& purpofes, one half of the weight impels
the going part, and the other half the ftriking part of our
prefent clock, in the manner following ;—The pulley of the
going part we have faid is fixed faft to the arbor of the
great wheel and always revolves along with it, but the
pulley of the ftriking part, like the pulley of the ’larum,
has a rachet formed of a click taking hold of one of the
croffes of the pin-wheel, fo that it will move back without
this wheel, but not forwards; the cord, which has its ends
nicely united, goes over both pullies, firlt over the ftriking
pulley, as Huygens’s does over the detachedratchet,and down
the loweft plate of the clock frame; it then paffes under
the running pulley, a, which has the weight hung to it, and
up again over the going pulley; thirdly, it comes down
again through the ring of lead 4, which is only a dead
weight to ftretch the cord over the pulley of the ftriking
part; and, fourthly, afcends again over the ftriking pulley,
where the ends meet; the clock is wound up by pulling the
cord, c, downwards, till the principal weight is raifed to the
bottom of the bracket, while one of the cords of the
running pulley continues to act with half of the whole
weight on the pulley'of the going part the whole time; fo
that this power, when duly drawn up, is not only equiva-
lent to both the movements, but is perpetual, as well as
invariable in its intenfity.
Eight-days portable Clock with repeating Mechani/m,
A portable eight-days clock differs from an ordinary 24~
hours clock principally in five refpects: in the firit place,
it is aQuated by a fpring; fecondly, it has a fhorter pendu-
lum; thirdly, it has confequently a higher train; fourthly, it
requires a fufee; and, lattly, it has frequently a crown-wheek
efcapement; in fhort, it may be confidered as a watch on an
BVT . enlarged
CL Ox
enlarged fcale, except that it has ufually the ftriking me-
shanifm, which is introduced in the repeating watches oaly.
In the clock, which we propofe here to defcribe, we have
fubftimuted the fwing-wheel with an ifochronal efcapement,°
for the crown-wheel efcapement, which we are of opinion
ought to be banifhed from all clocks and watches entirely,
as being too much the flave of the maintaining power. It
will not be neceflary to render our defcription of the clock
before us very long, as we mean to make it the fubje@ of
analyfis under our {nbfequent article CLock-movement.
Plate X1. of Horology prefents a perfpetive view of a’
portable eight-days clock, defigned and callipered agreeably
to the numbers. and direétions given in the article juft
mentioned, which conftruétion we have preferred defcribing
here, in order that the reader may there fee our reafons for
every part of the mechanifm, if he wifhes for fuch explana-
tion: let it however be underftood, that we by no means
hold out the prefent clock as a model for others to follow,
but give it as one of the hundred different varieties or
more that might be devifed to anfwer the fame purpole.
Plate X11. exhibits the dial-work and ftriking part, in-
chiding the repeating mechanifm of the fame clock, which
we fhall defcribe in its turn.
Fig. 1, of Plate XI. expofes to view the interior face of
the back or pillar plate A A A A, and the wheel-work
contained within the frame; B, B, B, B, B, are five pillars
{crewed into the back plate, and tapped at their projeGting
ends to receive five fixing fcrews, when the front plate-is
put in its place to complete the frame: there are two barrels
with main-[prings, C and D, of which C is for the going
part, and is clofed with its cap; but D, which is the barrel
for the ftriking part, is left open, to fhow the coils of the
main-fpring contained in it. ‘There are alfo two fofees,
E and F, attached to their refpective great wheels; E the
fufee of the going part, and F that of the ftriking part.
G is the centre or hour wheel of 64 teeth placed partly
behind the great wheel of 96, by which its pinion of & is
aetaio)
aGtuated; hence the fulee revolves in ae of an hour, or once
in 12 hours, fo that the 16 fpiral grooves, filled by the
gut, allow the continuance to be juft eight days. The
f{econd wheel H, of 60 teeth, has its pinion of eight impelled
by the centre wheel, and in its turn impels the pinion of .8
on the arbor of the third wheel of the train, I, which is
here alfo the efcapement wheel; the revolutions therefore
of the arbor of wheel 1 are = x = = 60, whilethe hour-
wheel revolves once; confequently this arbor, which re-
volves in 4, of an hour, is proper for carrying the feconds-
hand round in a minute. The efcapement-wheel has 60
teeth, and the pendulum vibrates twice in every fecond; but
one tooth does not efcape the pallets of the anchor K,
uatil two vibrations have been completed; confequently 60
teeth efcape, i. ec. the efcapement-wheel makes one revolu-
tion in 120 vibrations, or in the {pace of one minute: hence
the clock before us indicates half-feconds. The fquare
ends of the two fulees are oppofite two holes in the clock-
face, at each fide of the centre of the circles of indication,
(which are too well known to need defcription), but a
little below it, and the fame handle fits both fquares: L is
a jointed lever fixed to the interior fide of the front plate
called the guard-gut, or fimply the guard, the ufe of which
is to prevent the chain or gut from doing more than juft fill
the fixteen grooves of the fufee in winding; M is a [pring
alfo falt to the interior fide of the front plate, which preffes
the lever Litowards the middle of the fulee, and keeps
it there till the chain or gut, meeting with it, drives it back
again, in the a@ of winding, fo far till the claw o is pre-
fented to the beak or catch of the end piece N, which then
{tops the further motion of the fufee and limits the quantum
of chain to be wound up. hefe pieces LL. and M con-
ftituting the guard, being attached to the front plate, are
taken off with it, when the frame is difmounted, but we
have put them into their places in a detached ftate in our
figure, to fhow more evidently the nature of their office. O
is the arbor of the warning piece, which will be defcribed in
its place prefently. The wheels P, Q, and R, with their
refpective pinions, conftitute the movement of the ftriking
part, and the fanner S regulates the velocity with which
they move. The wheel P has eight pins which lift the
crofs piece #, of the arbor T, eight times in each revolution
of the wheel P; thefe elevations of the piece ¢ occafion fo
many portions of a revolution of the arbor T, which arbor
has its pivot projeGting to V, behind the frame, and carrying
on its fquared projeétion the hammer V, fg. 2; the hammer
is confequently raifed every time a pin of wheel P moves
the piece ¢; W is a long and ftrong fpring, called the
hammer-tail-{pring, attached to the back plate of the frame,
and prefling with its upper extremity under the crofs pin,
paffing through a hole in the arbor T, near the face of the
back plate; fo that when the hammer is raifed at any time,
the {pring W urges it back again with a {mart blow, and
makes it {trike the bell behind the frame, which is concealed
from the fight in our figure; but left the blow fhould be too
ftrong, a counter fpring, U, is fixed to the contiguous pillar,
which breaks the violence of the blew, and makes the
hammer return {martly to its place when the blow is made;
this {fpring, U, alfo ferves as a guard, in cafe a ftroke of the
hammer fhould be made when the bell is taken off at any
time. ‘The fufee F is provided with a guard fimilar to that
of the fufee E; and the vane of the fly or fanner S is kept _
to the arbor, on which it is placed, by the fridtion of a
prefling fpring, fo that it will go round either with or with- ~
out the arbor, the latter of which is the cafe only after the
ftriking has-ceafed, till the momentum of the fly has been
annihilated by the reliftance of the air.
_ Fig. 3, is a portion of the top of the exterior face of the
back plate of the frame, conftituting the fufpenfion of the
pendulum: a is a bridge, or double cock, in which the
projecting pivot-of the pailet’s arbor is fupported; 4 is a
{mall cock over this, or may form a part of the fame, the
protruding part of which is flit with a faw, to allow the flip
of watch main-fpring, ff, to pafs; by which the pendulum
rod is fufpended; and cisa thumb-fcrew to clofe the flit,
and clamp the piece of {pring when the true length of the
pendulum is afcertained ; the upper end of the fpring, f f, is
borne by the bearing piece d above the frame, to which it is
ufually made faft by a pin pafling through the piece d, and a
hole in a piece of brafs pinned to the extreme end of the
{pring ; the apparatus for raifing and lowering the piece dis
better feen in Plate XII. to which the reader is now defired
to turn for the remainder of the defcription; only let him
bear in mind that the effeétive length of the pendulum is
meafured from the inferior edge of cock 4, in Plate XI. to
the centre of ofcillation of the bob, and that the quantum
of this meafure is adjufted by the elevation or depreffion of
the piece d, while the flit of the ftationary cock 3 is not
clofed by the thumb-{crew cs which adjuftment may be made
while the clock is going, provided the flit be again clofed_ by
the thumb-fcrew, otherwife the effeCtive length of the pen-
dulum will be meafured from the piece , and will remain
the fame whether this picce be raifed or depreffed.
; . The
“thie MCC aca,
* The bearing piece d, Plate XII. is the remete end of a
tranfverfe lever, ¢ d, moveable like the telefeopic tube of a
tranfit-inftrument on two pivots, a 4, of an axis fupported by
two {mall cocks, a and 4, clearly feen in the figure, fo that
when the pivots are {trong and without play in their holes, it
is evident that the end d can have no lateral fhake, provided
the bar ¢ d has no {pring, i.e. provided it be ftrong ; alfo when
the interior end c is fixed with refpeQl to elevation, the ex-
terior bearing end mult be alfo fixed ; the contrivance there-
fore for elevating or deprefling the end din the body of the
clock cafe at any time may be as well applied to the end
¢ in the front of the frame; for a depreflion of one end
of the lever c d always produces a correfponding: elevation
of the other, and ice werfz, fuppofing the axis exa@ly in
the middle ; but when the axis is out of the middle of the
lever, an elevation or depreffion of either end isin proportion
to its diftance from the axis of motion dire@tly. At cisa
circular plate of brafs, better feen detached in fig. 4, called
the rife and fall, with an arbor fquared at the projecting
extremity, oppolite a perforation on the face or dial of the
clock,. to receive a key-of regulation; this circular plate,
which is pivoted jato the cock # attached to the front plate
of the frame, has a f{piral aperture throuzh which a round
pin inthe end of the lever, cd, paffes fo as juft to go in
without fhake ; hence, whenever the plate-e is turned by the
key ove entire revolution, the pin of the lever, which paffes
through the fpiral aperture, afcends or defcends from one
end of the fpiral to the other, and at the fame time deprefles
or raifes the bearing end, d, a proportionable quantity and
with it the bob of the pendulum, as may now be eafily ap-
prehended; the condition, therefore, with refpe& to the
regulation, is, that one turn of the plate, ¢, fhail effect as
great a chanse in the length of the pendulum, as hall be
requifite to bring the clock to a true rate, or keep it fo when
adjutted, where the pendulum has a compenfation for tem-
perature, or is made of a fubftance that alters its dimenfions
but little with the variations of temperature of the atmof-
phere. In ordinary clocks of this con{truétion, with a fimple
metallic red for the pendulum, the flit may ke fo nearly clof-
ed at ail times as juit to allow the thin {pring of fufpention
to pafs, in which cafe the frequent adjuftments for rate may
be made without opening the cafe; but when the pendulum
is of any of the beft compenfating kinds, it will be better to
clofe the flit by the thamb ferew cin Plate X1. after the ad-
juitment for rate is completed. »
Thofe parts of Plate XI. which are vifible in Plate XII.
are marked with the fame letters over again, and therefore
need not be again defcribed, but will be of fervice to eluci-
date the relative pofitions of thofe parts, now that the frame
is exhibited as mounted. We will begin our defeription of
the ftriking and repeating work, with the arbor of the
centre wheel, G, the end of which is feen within at the
projeGting end of the f{quared part of the tube, or cannon,
of the pinion feen in fig. 2, called the cannon pinion; the
tube of this pinion is put tight on the arbor of the hour
wheel, which we have alfo named the centre wheel, and has
a {pring placed on the hour wheel arbor, prefling its pof-
terior furface fo as to force it forwards againtt the crofs-pin
that keeps the hands on; this action of the {pring eccafions
fo much friction, that though the tube is carried round by
the hour arbor, yet it is capable of being moved round, by
its hand placed on the fquare end, independently of this
arbor, for the purpofe of fetting the hand to the requifite
minute in the divided circle of 60 f{paces, ufually figured
with the Arabic characters: the cannon pinion, as it is
called, has 4o teeth, and impels a fimilar pinion, g, round
alfo in an hour ; this pinion, g, which is called the pinion of
report, has a pinion of 6 on its arbor, and is pivoted into
the cock, 4, fo that the {mall pinion of 6 alfo revolves in an
hour; this pinion of 6 again impels the wheel z of 72 teeth
in 72 of an hour, #.¢. in 12 Hours; this 12-hour wheel had
alfo a tube, furrounding the tube of the cannon pinion, bat
in fuch a way, that a third tube, attached to the bridge, &,
and fcen in a detached ftate in fig. 3, is interpofed between
the faid two tubes of the cannon pinion and 12 hour wheel4
the ufe of which third fixed tube, is to prevent the fr Gion
that would neceflarily take place, if the {two revolving tubes
had been in contaét, and had preffed on one another, while
their velocities are fo each other as 12 to 1: on the exte-
rior tube of the 12-hour wheel, the hour hand is inferted,
which indicates the hour among the Roman figures; and it
is obvious that whenever the minute hand carries the cannon
pinion round, the pinion of report, g, alfo moves the fame
quantity, and by means of the {mall pinion of 6, the wheel #
at'the fame time muft move ; of the fame fpace, and confe-
quently the two hands are fo conneéted, that one cannot
move without the other, fuppofing them both to be faft to
their refpeétive tubes; but the hour hand is put on the
round part of its tube, and kept to it by mere friion, and
therefore may be put to any hour without carrying the mi-
nute hand round many revolutions ; and yet when once placs
ed right, it preferves its relative velocity, as though it were
more firmly attached to its tube. I is the arbor of the
feconds-hand, which we have feen revolves in a minute, and
which meafures the r2oth part in its divided {mall circle, on
the face of the clock, at fo mary vibrations of the pendulum,
or at fo many half-feconds. To the 12-hour wheel, 7, is
pinned faft an indented f{piral piece of metal, called the {nail,
the fhell of which it refembles in fome meafure, which frail
confequently revolves likewife in 12 hours; the indentations
appear to the eye to be irregular, as to their relative extents,
60° ;
but each fubtends an angle of 30° (2) fo that one indent-
ation, whether near to the centre of motion, orremofe from
it, is exactly the meafure of an hour’s motion of the 12-hour
wheel. The fteel piece, mn, 1s called a rack from the teeth”
on the crofs-piece, m, the lower crefs-piece of which is
called the rack-tail; this rack is moveable on a pin or ttud
at the lower angular point, near which the horfe-fhoe {pring,
o, called the rack-tail-{pring, prefles to keep a pin on the
remote end of this tail, again{t that indentation of the {nail;
which happens to be contiguous to it; this pin is hid fron
the fight, but the place may be feen on the extremity of the
tail where it is inferted. On the lever between mand a, is
a bend to prevent its touching the winding arbor F of the
fufee, belonging to the flriking part; afo at mis a flrong
fteel pin, projecting from the rack. Above the rack is a
horizontal tteel bar, p g r, moveable round a ftud at +, which
is called the hawk’s-bill, from the bill or angular piece at
q, that catches the teeth of the rack. "The piece s is fixed
to the protrudirg pivot of wheel Q. Plate XI. near its
lower extremity, and revolving with it gathers up a
tooth of the rack at each revolution, on which account
it is called the gathering pallet, the. catch of the hawk’s
bill liaving a contrary flope, gives way in the mean time, and
comes back again by its own gravity. ‘The pinion of the
pin-wheel, P, whch has 64 teeth and eight pins, has eight
leaves, and therefore revolves once every time that the ham-
mer of the bell is lifted; but we have faid that its gathenng
pallet takes up a tooth of the rack at each revolution of its
arbor, confequently a tooth of the rack is gathered up at
every ftroke of the hammer, when the ftriking part is in
motion. The angular piece, ¢vv, moveable round an arbor,
denoted by O, in Plate XI. is called the cwarning-piece ; its
gpa Uap lower
Cxk..0' CK,
lower end; v, falls in. the way of a pin in the fmall hour-
wheel, g, and its bent end, ¢, pafles through an aperture, w,
in-the front plate of the frame, and is prefented to the pin
in one.of the crofles ofthe wheel X, of the ftriking movement
within the plate, fo as to reftrain the motion of this move-
ment when in its quiefcent fituation, The action of the
different parts may be thus explained ; whenever the hawk’s-
Lill, g, is lifted from the teeth of the rack, the fpring, o,
prefling ayainit a pin near its tail, makes ic fall back till it
meets with fome obitacle to arrelt its motion, that obftacle
would be the pin, x, in the front plate, if there were no
other interpofed before it had fallen fo far back, but if the
fhail is in any other polition than that, wherein its. nearelt
indentation towards the centre is contiguous to the pin of
the rack-tail, the tail-pin of the rack will fall upon the edge
of the fnail before the rack has fallen back to the pin, x,
and all the teeth of the rack will not pafs the catch of the
hawk’s-bill in this cafe, but juft fo many as there are indent-
ations or fleps counted from the remote angular point of the
fail to the ftep on which the tail pin refts; in the prefent
polition, in the plate, the tail-pin is refting on the ftep fix of
the {nail, which denotes that fix ftrokes will be given by the
hammer, or that fix teéth of the rack are to be gathered up
by as many revolutions of the hawk’s-bill; but we fee that
only five teeth remain to be gathered up of the rack; hence
we know that the clock has {truck one out of fix, and is in
the act of ftriking ; accordingly, we fee that the pin in the
hour-wheel, g, has jul raifed the warning-piece and permitted
it togo again; the clock will therefore now continue to ftrike
till the upperend of the gathering pallet, s, falls on the pro-
jecting pin, m, of the rack, which will be as foon as the laft
tooth of the rack is drawn up to the hawk’s-bil, in which
fituation the wheel, Q, cannot revolve any farther till an-
other hour has elapfed. After another hour is pat, the pin of
the wheel, g, will elevate the warning.piece, v, the bent end,
t, of which will firlt be raifed out of the way of the pin of the
wheel R, and the fly will run on a revolution or two, witha
whittling noife, i.e. the clock will give warning ; but the
end, p, of the hawk’s-bill has not yet been raifed far enough
by the preflure of the end, ¢, of thé warning-piece, to make
the catch, g, clear the teeth of the rack, therefore the rack
cannot yet fall back; prefently, however, the hawk’s-bill is
lifted high enough by the pin of the pinion of report, g,
which has a flow motion; the rack falls back till its tail-pin
reits on flep feven nearer the centre, which has now arrived
at the pomt of conta, and therefore feven teeth of the
rack pais the catch, g, in the fall of the rack, and the hour
of feven is now {truck before the tail of the gathering pallet,
s, falls again on the pin, m, of the rack, and ttops the ftrik-
ing ; at the fame time the bend of the warning-picce catches
the pin of the wheel R, and ftops the fly ; and in this way
any number of hours will be ftruck by the hammer on the
bell that the fnail regulates, which we have fa'd revolves
once in every 12 hours; and ifany other caufe than the pia
of the hour-wheel, g, fhould lift the warning-piece within the
hour, counting from warning to warning, the fame number
of ttrokes will be repeated, though it fhould be a hundred
timesor more. ‘To convert this {triking mechanifm into re-
peating mechanifm, therefore, it is only neceffary to place a
lever, y,to revolve round a ftud on the front plate of the frame
at the point y, with a flender {pring, x, over it to bring it back
toits original fituation, when the end placed under the warn-
ing-piece is eleyated by deprefliog the exterior end, which
may bedone by pulling a ftring down which is tied to a hole
in this end, as reprefented in the figure; and as often as the
{tring is pulled, fo often will the clock repeat the flrokes of
the current hour. ‘There is yet remaining the three arme&
piece, 123, undefcribed, called frike or filent, the ule of
which is explained by its name; this pieceis differently made
in different clocks ; in the clock before us it is moveable on
a focket, riveted to the end, 3, of one of its arms, round a
ftud in the front plate of the frame, and as the focket has
{earcely any fhake, the other two ends, 1 and 2, move al-
ways in the fame plane; at the end marked 1, isa pin pro-
jecting above the upper circumference of the face or dial of
the clock, fo that it may be moved to the right or left at
pleafure, when the glafs-door is open; the end marked 2,
has a flope, like.a wedge, on that fide which is next to the
plane of the frame-plate, and the end of the arbor, O, in.
Pilate X1. of the warning-piece, projects fo far as to touch
the inclined plane; this arbor of the warning-piece has
fome fhake, in the dire€tion of its length, within the
frame, and its pofterior pivot pafles between the prongs of a
forked fpring, X, which, refting again{t the fhoulder of the.
pivot, puthes it clofe to the interior fide of the front plate
of the frame, where a fimilar fhoulder ftops it; when the
pin, at 1, is pufhed tothe right, the wedge of the end, 2,
pufhes the ‘arbor back, notwithitanding the forked {pring,
X, jult defcribed, and the end, v, of the warning-piece,
being carried with its arbor nearer to the frame than it ether-
wile would be, fallsin the way of the pin of the hour-wheel,
g, and the clock confequently ftrikes the hour regulated by
the {nail; but when the pin, at 1, of the ftrike or filent, is
pufhed to the left, the end, 2, is withdrawn from the pivot
of the arbor on which the warning-piece is faft, the fpring,
X, in the frame pushes it ferward fo far, that the end, z,
of this warning-piece is clear of the pin of the hour-wheel,
g, which wheel therefore continues to revolve from hour to
hour in a {tate completely detached from the mechanifm of
the ftriking part, which we have been defcribing. Sometimes
there is a hand moveable in a {mall circle in the dial, which
anfwers the fame purpofe as the pm at 1; (See Crock.
work,) but this is generally the cafe when there is no circle
for the feconds, or when there is fome other cirele to which
it is intended to correfpond, for the fake of uniformity, which
is generally attended to in the dial-work of every clock,
Laitly, the four holes in the front plate denoted by the
letters Z,Z, Z, Z, are the holes in which the pillars of the
dial, or face, are inferted and pinned within the frame b
metal.ic pins going acrofs the ends that pafs through the
plate of the frame; fo that the face is thus irmly attached
to the frame, and then the frame to the cafe, which preferves
the wheel-work from duft, and the touch of fuch perfons as
might otherwife fatisfy their curiofity at the expence of fome
of the. more delicate parts of the workmanfhip. Indced,
many of the ornamental portable clocks have cafes of glafs,
with various devices, fuch as are calculated to recommend
them to the fancy rather than the judgment of their pur-
chafers, who wifh to adorn thereby their chimney-pieces.
the formation of thefe ornamental cafes, fpar of different
colours, or moulu, and various other fuperb materials are
ufed, agreeably to the talte of the artift who is employed in
fuch manufaétory. ;
A portable clock, fuch as we have here defcribed, is eafily
converted into a clock with a long cafe, and a f{ufpended
weight for the maintaining power, by fubftituting acylindrical
barrel for the fufee on the arbor of the great wheel, on which
barrel the chain is wound, inftead of being made to fur-
round the fufee; for, as a fufpended load aéts at all times
with the fame power, it is neceflary that the barrel fhould
have the fame diameter at every part of it. Of this con-
{truction are the eight days houfehold clocks in Bone.
ue,
In”
CoLVOC -K.” -'
ufe. Alfo by introducing a’ wheel’and pinion between the
great and centre wheels, the clock may be maJe to go a
month or more, and by introducing two fuch wheels and
pinions, it may be made to go a year at one winding up,
with a maintaining power proportionably great.
Eight-days portable Clock, with Chines and repeating Me-
chanifm.
Under our article Cuimes, we gave a defcription of the
chime-barrel, hammers, and bells of a chime-clock, in a de-
tached ftate, but referred to our prefent article for their
conneStion with the ftriking part of the clock, which could
not there be fufficiently explained; as we have now fhown
the mannerin which the modern ftriking part 1s conftruéted,
and have alfo explained the nature of its action, we propofe
to refume the fubjeé&t of chimes, for the explaining of which
in the be(t manner, we have thought it neceflary to defcribe
here at full length, a portable chime-clock with a fhort pen-
dulum, for which purpofe we have introduced two feparate
views in Plates XVI.and XVIL. of Horology, which, we trutt,
will enable us to make all the mechanif{m, complex as it may
appear, fufficiently intelligible to any one who has read and
underitands the ftru&ture of the eight-days clock that has
been jutt deferibed. Plate XVI. is a reprefentation of the
three movements of a chime-clock, when the front plate of
the frame is taken off, the eye being placed perpendicularly
over the mechanifm when viewed ; we have retained the fame
letters of reference as we ufed in Plate XI., as far as they will
go, and have fupplied the deficiency from the Greek alphabet,
which are ufed for the movement of the chimes, fo that the
reader will fee, by:a coup d’ocil, the arrangement of the
movements, even without the help of a delcription, if he re-
colle@ts the parts of the clock defcribed in Plate XI. A, A,
A; A, ftand at the four corners of the back plate of the frame,
on the interior furface; B, B, B, B, are the places of the four
pillars; C the {pring barrel of the going part; D that of
the ftriking part, and « that of the chime portion ; Eis the
great wheel and fufee of the going part, F thofe of the ftrik-
ing part, and @ thofe of the chime part; N in each the
catch of the guards re{pectively ; G, H, and I, are the wheels
which, with their refpective pinions, con{titute the train of
the going part, of which H is the contrate wheel, and I
the balance wheel, with its lower pivot relting on the {mall
cock or-potence K; the pallets cannot be well feen in this
plate, but are vifible in Plate XVII.; P, Q, and R, are the
wheels of the ftriking movement, having each a pinion on
its arbor, and S is the pinion of the fly feen at S in Plate
XVII. Thewheel P has the eight pins for lifting the
hammer, the arbor and levers of which are at T; the ar-
bor of Q carries as before the gathering pallet.for drawing
up the rack of the ftnking part, and R has the pin for
catching the bent end of the warning piece; W is the ham-
mer tail fpring, and U the counter {pring, which are fome-
what differently placed here from what they are in Plate
X1., but a& in a fimilar manner. ‘The wheels marked with
the Greek charaéters 4, 3, ¢, é, are thole of the chime move-
ment, with their refpective pfnions; 3 is the wheel on the
arbor or axis of the barrel, which has the lifting pins for
moving the hammer tails when they ftrike the bells, as has
been already explained under our article Cuimes of a clock ;
§ is placed near the hammers, son the bell of {malleft dia-
meter, and x at the {prings which bring the hammers back
after-each blow, and hold them ina fituation to be caught
by the pins of the revolving barrel.
_ Let us turn now to Plate XVII., where we have a per-
{pe€tive view of the whole frame and mechanifm before the
front plate, with the fame letters of reference, as far as they
go, asin Plate XII., and alfo as in Plate XVI., and where
the Arabic figures are put to the mechanifm of the chimes
that conneéts them with both the going and {triking parts
of the clock. In this plate, which is intended to explair
the ordinary chime-work of a clock, the parts of the me-
chanifm which effeét this purpofe are fo difpofed as to be
nearly all feen in their refpective places of action. A, A, are
p'aced on the back plate of the frame; B, B, B, B, are the
four pillars of the frame ; C, D,and «, arethree ratchet wheels
for adjufting and preferving the intenfities of their refpective
main-{prings, and are placed before the front plate on the
f{quares of their barrel arbors, as in any other portable or
{pring clock; E, F, and, are the arbors of the three fufees
for the key that winds them up; L and Lare the parts of
the two guards which are attached to the front plate, on
the interior fide, out of fight, the fituation and aétion of.
which were explained under Plate XI, and the end of the
third guard is hid by the {nail, K is the bridge of the
dial-work, concealed from fight, fuch as is feen at the bot-
tom of Plate KIL., in fig. 3; I is the crown-wheel and
pallets, tothe verges of which the crutch of the pendulum
is fattened behind the frame; and S/is the fly of the ftriking
part, held by a {mall {pring croffing the middle of its arbor
near S, by fimple fri@ion. The cannon pinion is hid from
fight behind the 12-hour wheel 7, but the pinion that .
ats with it, of the fame number of teeth, is feen at
g, which is called the pinion of report, and has a pinion
of 6 on its arbor pivoted into the cock /, and driving the
12-hour wheel of 72 teeth, as in the preceding clock ;
the fnail, however, of the ftriking part, isnot here on the 12-
hour wheel as before, but is attached toa ftar, or wheel with
12 pointed tecth, at /, one of which tecth is actuated each
hour by a pin in the cannon pivion, and the foot, f, with a
flender fpring, ¢, prefling againft its leg, the heel of which
is placed between the two nearett teeth of the itar, not only
prevents their backward or forward motion during the
lapfe of each hour, but alfo yielding to the impulfe given
by the pin of the cannon-pinion at the end of each hour, al-
lows the tooth to pafs the heel, and then returns to its origi-
nal fituation by the force of the {pring ¢, at the fame time
pufhing on the fter the exact fpace of one interval, fo that
when the {tar -moves at all, it muft neceffarily move juft one
twelfth part, and remain in that fituation together with its
fnail, for the {pace of a whole hour before it is moved
again, which is an eflential condition where the ftriking
part repeats the hour; otherwife the following inftead of
the preceding hour might be flruck by the clock during
each latter half-hour of the day. ‘Whe tail of the warning
piece does not here reach to the pin in the pinion of report
as in our former ftriking work, expiained in Plate X11., but
has the chime-mechanifm interpefed; in confequence of
which arrangement the chimes play firft, and then fet the
clock a ftriking when they have ceafed, at the end of every
hour; for this purpofe two feparate racks with their refpect-
ive {prings, catches, and gathering pallets, &c. are necel«
fary in this machine, which may have their refpective offices
thus explained: The pinion of report, g, goes round in an
hour, as we have feen before, and has 4 pins which raife the
crofs lever, 1, of the hammer, 1,2, every quarter of an
hour, a little before its completion ; at the fame time that
the crofs lever, +, is lowered, the end, 2, of the hammer is
depreffed, and its tail-piece in contaét with the {pring, 3, is
raifed; by reafon of its being placed behind the flud which
ig at the centre of motion; the {pring, 3, confequently
is raifed alfo from its ftate of reft, fo that when the pin of
the pinion of report lets go the lever, 1, this fpring, 3;
prefling back the hammer-tail, makes its-head, 2, ftrkea
projedting
CLOCK,
projeGing pin near the claw of the detent or catch, 7, after
which it falls back again by its own weight; this ftroke of
the lammer is powerful enough to drive the. claw of catch
7 from the teeth of the chime-rack, 4, which therefore im-
mediately falls back, by the force of its fpring, 6, preffing
on its projecting end beyond the fiud,- round which its mo-
uon is performed, until its tail, 5, falls on the neareft of the
four fteps of the fmall {nail of the quarters attached to the
pision of report ; in this fall as many teeth of the chime-
rack pals the claw of the catch as there are fteps in the
{mall {nail, counted from its remote angular point to the end
of the tail-piece of this rack ; the greateft fall of the rack is
the fpace of fourteeth, when its tail refts on the ftep neareft
the centre of the {nail for the firft quarter of an hour, and
when its lever falls back againft the pin, 11, in the front
plate of the frame ; in the mean time the fepporting bar, 8,
moveable on a ftud near its lower extremity, having been
forced back by the long tail of the gathering pallet, ro, of
the chime movement, now returns by the ation of its fpring,
9, prefiing its tail-picce blow the centre of motion, and pre-
fents its head toa {econd pin in thé catch, 7, nearer its centre of
motion, contiguous to the figure 7, fo that when the catch, fig
falls back by its own weight after it has beenflruck by theham-
Ter, 2, its fecoud pia falls on the head of the fupport, 5,
where it remains until the rack of the chimes has its tail
placed on the ftep of the {mall fnail; the chime movement,
being at liberty as foon as the tail of the gathering pallet,
10, falls from a pin behind the chime-racks, not feen in the
Grawing, runs on, and prefently the faid tail of the pailet
pulhing again{t the inner fide of the fupport, 8, difengages
the fecond pia of the catch 7, the claw of which now falls
again Into the teeth of the rack, and holds the rack while
the pallet has drawn it home again, i. ¢. till the tail of this
pallet falls on the concealed pin on the back of the chime-
rack, the chime-barrel in the mean time revolving and raifing
the hammer-tails of the eight concentric bells fixed on a
common arbor at 1, and fupported by a bar attached to the
frout plate of the frame, ‘This procefs is repeated three
times at the quarters 1, 2, and 3but when the houris com-
pleted nearly, the fourth procefs does not flop here; for as
the chime-{nail now permits the rack belonging to it to fall
back by its {pring, 6, the fpace of four teeth, the pin in the
left hand end of this rack ftrikes the tail, p>» of the hawk’s-
bill, ¢ rp, moveable on a flud at +, and thus raifes the catch-
or bill, g, from the teeth of the firiking rack, which now
falls back as far as its {nail, 4, will allow its tail,.2, to come
towards its centre; when the hawk’s-bill is lifted in this
manner it pufhes up the bent end, 4, of the warning-piece
from the pia of the wheel, R, in the frame, (Plate XVI.)
and the fly makes two or three revolutions or more, which
motion produces the noife of warning, but the little {pring,
13, immediately pufhes the warning-piece down again into
the way of the pin of wheel R, the motion of which is thus
prefeutly flopped: the chimes of the hour are now going
on while the four teeth of its rack are in the act of being
drawn home, and when the fourth tooth of this rack is
brought back, the chime-pallet fails on the concealed pin of
the rack behind it, and nearly at the fame time the pin of
the rack in front, which puthed down the tail, p, of the
hawk’s-bill, now raifes the tail, v, of the warning-piece, ¢v,
and confequently depreflcs the end, #, of the fame fo tar,
that the pia of the wheel R is again free, and the ftriking
of the clock gues on as in the ufual firtking part, till the
hour regulated by the 12-hour {nail is counted by the pro-
pst number of frokes ; after which the tail of the gathering
pallet, s, of the hours falls onits refting pin behind che hour
rack, mu;_it being a matter of no importance on which
face of the rack this pinis fixed; nor yet on which fide of the
bill, g, the gathering pallet is.placed, provided there be the |
proper number of teeth in the rack to be drawn up by the
pallet. ‘The four holes, a, 5, c, d, are to receive the four pil-
lars of the dial; the horizontal lever, y, taking the pin of
the catch 7, may have its tail, z, pulled by a ftring coming
through the cafe, to make the chimes repeat, and the hour
alfo at any time during the firlt quarter after itriking ; and,
Jaftly, the pin of the lever 14 15, or ftrike and filent, by
being pufhed to the right or left, will bring the heel of the
part 15 to a pin in the middle of the hammer lever, 2, or
remove it therefrom accordingly as the chimes and ftriking
are to be in ufe, or the contrary. After what we have al.
ready faid about trains, we think it not neceflary to parti-
cularife the numbers of teeth in the wheel-work.
A Clock without Dial-work, by Dr. Franklin.
When clocks had begun to be common, and a variety of
complicated contrivances had been introduced into the dif-
ferent conftru€ticns, it was-at length deemed defirable to
fimplify the mechanifm; and various attempts have been’
made to conftruét a clock with as few wheels and pinions as
poffible. The late Dr. Franklin, and the late Mr. J. Fergu-
fon both fucceeded in diminifhing the ufual number of wheels
and pinions to three of the former and two of the latter,
notwithitanding hours, minutes, and feconds, were all indi=’
cated by their contrivances; we propofe to defcribe them ia’
fucceffion, and fha!l begin with Dr. Franklin’s firft, as being
prior in point of time. Fig. 1, of Plate SVE of Hore-
logy, will explain fo much of Dr. Franklin’s clock, in quef-
tion, as is neceflary for conveying a fuitable idea of its con-
ftrudion. The face, or dial-plate, is perfectly reprefented,
and the dotted circles denote the wheels and pinions in the
frame behind the face, on a fuppofition that the face and
front plate of the frame are tranfparent ; which mode of re+ _
prefentation not only places every wheel and pinion in its own’
place, but fhows their refpective diameters as well as if a
fecond figure had been ufed for this purpofe, as has hitherto
been ufual, when this clock has been deferibed by other
writers. The great wheel, A, of 160 teeth, goes round,
by means of the cord with a fufpended weight furrounding
a pulley attached to it, in four hours; this wheel drives
a pinion, B, of ten leaves, in {195 of four hours, or one
quarter of an hour; on the arbor of this pinion is the fecond
wheel, C, of r20 teeth, a@uating a fecond pinion, D, of:
8, in ,$, of a quarter of an hour, which is one minute, and
together with it, on the fame arbor, the third wheel, E, of*
go teeth, in the fame time; this third wheel is. the ufual
{wing-wheel of an ordinary 30-hours clock, and hasa feconds
pendulum, fufpended in the ufual way from a cock, by a+
piece of the main-fpring ef a watch. Thefe are all the wheels
and pinions made ufe of in the clock. The face is occupied
by a fpiral line, as feen in the figure, and has the hours de-
noted by the Roman characters, which count from XII, in
the order I, II, IIL, &c. as the {piral goes, placed at inter~
vals of a quadrant from ezch other ; thefe hours, #5 well as
the 6o minutes, placed four times over in a furrounding cir-
cle and denoted by the Arabic chara@ters, are pointed to by
a hand, P, placed by fri€tion on the round part ef the pro-
truding arbor of the great wheel, A, that revolves in four
hours. In the prefent fituation of this hand, the time indi-
cated is forty minutes paft one of the three hours which it
has laft paffed. viz. XII, TIMI, or VIII, and it is prefumed
that a miftake of four hours can hardly happen whenever the
clock is examined. The fmall hand at D indicates feconds
in the ufual way, and therefore requires no explanation.
There can be no doubt but that a clock thus conftructed will
meaiure time as well as any other clock with a fimilar pen-
dulum, provided it be well made. The objections a
ave
CULO) Ck,
have been alleged againft this conftrudtion are, that it is pof-
fible a perfon awaking in the night, and examining fuch a
clock, may miftake his time four hours very eafily ; and that
that it will require being drawn up by its cord once every
day, unlefs, indeed, the fall of its fufpended weight fhould
be made much greater than is ufual, or even convenient, in
the generality of houfes. Che writer of the prefent article
had fome years ago aclock, con{truéted nearly fimilar to the
prefent one, but its great wheel revolved once in every three
hours, which allowed larger minute {paces in the furrcund-
ing circle, and required an additional fpiral line; for the
Roman figures were four deep at each third part of the cir-
cle; its ule was to keep in motion the fy(tem of Jupiter and _
his four fatellites, which it did very well; an endlefs cord,
with a detached ratchet, being applied to produce continual
motion during winding as well as at other times. We do not
learn, however, that Dr. I'ranklin’s clock has been frequent-
ly copied.
A Clock with only three Wheels and two Pinions, by Mr.
F. Fergufon
We have faid that Mr. J. Fergufon alfo contrived a
clock to fhow hours, minutes, and feconds, with only three
wheels and’ two pivions; his principal object was to
obviate the objeAions we have ftated to Dr. Franklin’s
clock ; jig. 2 of Plate XVIII. gives adimilar reprefentation
of Mr. Fergufon’s clock, as fig. 1 does of Dr. Franklin’s :
the great wheel, A, of 120, revolves in 12 hours attached
to the pulley, round which the cord of the weight is
ftretched ; this wheel drives the pinion, B, of 19 leaves, in
wes of 12 hours, or in an exact hour, which is the value
of this fraGtion; the fecond wheel C, which revolves alfo
in an hour, and which has alfo 120 teeth, drives the fecond
pinion D, of 6 leaves, in >$5 of an hour, or in three
minutes; confequently the pallet-wheel of go teeth, placed
onthe arbor of this latter pinion, revolves alfo in three
minutes; the pallets of the anchor efcapement, which act
with this wheel, give an impulfe to a feconds pendulum at
each vibration, as is ufual when the {wing-wheel has only 30
teeth. The hours are marked in Roman charaters, on a
circular plate that is inferted by friction, on the arbor of
the 12-hour or great wheel, about thrée of which hour
figures appear always through an aperture cut through the
dial below the pinion B: and a fleur-de-lis, defigned on the
dial, ferves as a hand to point to the hour to be indicated.
We fee no reafon why a circle, a little fmaller than the
plate of the hours, might not have been marked with the
Roman charaéters on the dial itfelf, within the circle of
minutes, witha hand placed on the arbor of the 12-hour
wheel to point to it as ufual, which method is certainly
more fimple, inafmuch as that the circular fmail plate
would have been difpenfed with and alfo the aperture in the
gial. There is alfo another circular plate, divided into. 60
three times over, and marked with the Arabic figures,
placed by fri€tion on the arbor of the three minute or pal-
let-wheel F, which is pointed to by another fleur-de-lis on
the dial, as feen through another aperture of one third of a
circle inlength ; this large plate, borne by the pivots of the
pallet-wheel, muft have been very injurious to the perform-
ance of the clock before us, where the power is diminifhed
in the ratio of 720: 3, fuppofing the pallet wheel no bigger
in diameter than the pulley, and that independently of tric-
tion; the inertia of fo much matter as the feconds plate
mutt contain, to be overcome at the return of each vibration,
mult have required a large maintaining power; an objeGion
of which the inventor himfelf acknowledges the exiltence ;
this objection, however, might very eafily have been obviated,
‘8
for a circle as larze as the divided plate might have been
drawn on the upper half of the dial, and would have ad-
mitted of fimilar divifions and figures to which a hand,
borne by the pallet-wheel arbor, would have pointed, and
indicated the feconds as truly as they are at prefent.
he inventor, not aware of fo fimple a refource, propofes
to get rid of the force of the objeGion by omitting the
feconds altogether, as being of no real fervice except in
aftronomical clocks; but why attempt the introduGtion of
feconds at all, when fludying fimplicity, if they are of no
ule?) Mr. Fergufon has alfo allowed another obje@tion to
his conftruetion, from which Dr. Franklin’s was exempt,
namely, that when the minete hand is at any time adjufted,
it does not alter the hour plate, which muit have a feparate
reCtification, for effeéting which conveniently he had 12
holes drilled in the {mall 12-hour plate at equal diftances, to
receive the end of a pin whenever the hour-plate required
adjuftment ; the feconds plate muft alfo have been fubje& to
a fimilar inconvenience. Mr, Fergufon has himfelf candidly
ftated one other objeétion to his clock, that feems to afford
a better proof of his candour than of his judgment in clock-
work, which is, that he fuppofes the total are of vibration
of the pendulum mutt be too {mail with fuch diminutive
teeth as the highly numbered pallet-wheel afforded, and
feems to have thought that a large are is better than a {mall
one, by reafon of the greater momentum of the pendulum,
notwith{tanding he mentions a cycloidal arcas that in which
all lengths are equally ifochronal: the fa& however is, as is
now univerfally allowed and proved in praétice, that a {mall
arc near the pointof the pendulum’s quiefcence approximates
the neareit of any other part of a circular vibration to a
cycloidal one, and that the momentum, which is not ac-
quired by velocity, may and ought te be made up by the
weight of the ball, moving in nearly as {mall an are
as the efcapement will admit, to fuftain a continuance of the
vibration.
A Clock for exhibiting the apparent daily Motions of the Sun
and Moon, and State of the Tides, &c. by Mr. J. Fergu-
Jon
Among the other ingenious contrivances, defcribed in
Mr. Fergufon’s “ Seleé& mechanical Exercifes,”’ is the clock
of which we have jult given the title, the fimplicity of
which has recommended it to the notice of various writers
and compilers of di€tionaries, and induces us to give it a
place in our colleftion. Fig. 3, of Plate XVIII. isa re-
duced copy of the dial of the clock under our prefent confi-
deration, jig. 4. the dial-work, or wheels and pinion con-
nected with the going part ef a common 30-hours, or eight
days clock, and regulating the motions of the different
hands, plates, and contrivances for reprefenting the ebbing
and flowing of the tide at any gtven place. ‘The pinion of
1Q leaves, in fig. 4, is attached to an arbor which revolves in
eight hours, by its connection with the wheel-work within
the frame, which revolution may be effeted_ by a wheel of
64, taking into ‘a pinion of eight leaves on the centre wheel
arbor; then, asthree times eight are 24, three times rg are
573 the wheel of 57 confequently revolves in 24 hours,
with its centre in the centre of the dial; a fecond wheel of
59 teeth (wiz. 295 x 2) is alfo adtuated by the fame pi-
Arete ke 3 : c
nion of 39 in a of 8 hours, which time is 24” 50™ 526,
i
or 24" yo™ 31°.53; this wheel is of precifelly the fame diame-
ter as the wheel of 57 teeth ; and thefe two wheels, which
are all that are neceflary for producing the relative alpeéts
on the dial, may be called, that of 57 the /olar, and
Sh that
CLtO CK.
that of 59 teeth the Junar wheel, ‘The lunar wheel, which
lies next to the clock frame, has a folid arbor, but the folar
wheel, which covers’ it, has a tube juft fitting this arbor,
and turning on it without fhake; the tube is fhorter than the
arbor and carries the {mall circular plate reprefented by fig. 5,
that has the 24 hours in Roman characters, and within
thefe the 29% days fpaces of the moon’s age-in Arabic
ficures; all equally divided; the attached piece, S, is the
fun’s reprefentative, which thus revolves from the upper
XII. in fiz. 3, 10 the fame again in 24 folar hours. On
the face of this {mall revolving dial is put a darkened ring,
gradually increafing in breadth half way round, and as gra-
dually decreafing the other half way. Over this revolv-
ing plate of 24 hours and 294 days is placed another {mall
plate (marked twice with the words igh water, and as
often with the words /ow water, alfo with mioon’s age, &c.
as feen in fy. 3.) upon the arbor of the lunar wheel, fo as
to be adjuttable on its round part by friction merely ; this
lunar plate has an aperture near its circumference, through
which appear about five hours on the folar hour plate,
and alfo a fmall circular hole, within the former, as it re-
gards the centre of motion; this plate has, moreover, the
fgure of an ellipfe darkened on it, which is nearly covered
by a {maller circular plate, with concentric circles, borne
by a fupporting wire attached to it at one end, and at the
other, when bent a little, to the principal dial-plate near
the lower XII., as feen in the figure. The ufe of the
fmall circular hole in the lunar plate is to fhow the
phafe of the moon in any part of its fynodic revolution ;
for when in the fituation TF, fig. 5, as it regards the folar
plate, no part of the darkened ring appears ; which pheno-
menon denotes full moon a little fhort of the fifteenth day’s
age; when itis at N, the dark part of the folar plate or ring
covers it entirely at 294 days age, which pofition denotes
hew moon, and at go® trom thefe fituations at both fides,
one half is dark and the other half light, which afpeés de-
note the quadratures. ‘The fun, S, attached to the folar
plate is the index for folar time marked on the large hour
circle of the principal dial, and the moon, M, pointing to the
fame, indicates the 24th parts of the earth’s rotations, as
they relate to the moon, which may be called fo many lunar
hours ; 24 of which by this mechanifm, we have feen, is up-
wards of 50% folar minutes longer than 24 folar hours.
From the {mall circle of the moon is carried a ftraight wire
over the hours of -the folar plate, to indicate the
mean time of the moon’s mean paflage over the meri-
dian on any day of her age; and at the {pace of 24 hours
behind is another fimilar one, to point out the time of a
mean high water at London Bridge, which might be fet to
a diltance, behind or before, correfponding to any other
place on the globe, that has two tides in fomewhat leis than
25 hours. The ftationary {mall plate in the centre is in-
tended to reprefent the earth, and the dot, L, between the
fiftieth and fixtieth parallel of latitude, reprefents London,
with refpeé&t to which place the pofition of the ellipfe or
tide-picce is altering its pofition vifibly every hour, agree-
ably to the words marked on the lunar plate. On the back
of this lunar plate is likewife another ellipfe of folid brafs D,
placed concentrically, which, revolving with it, lifts the lever
E, moveable on a {tud at F, when either of the ends comes
in contaG@ ; but when the fides are prefented the faid lever falls
below the horizontal pofition; when this lever, F, is thus
raifed and lowered, twice in each lunar day, it carries with
it the attached plate, H, above it, when kept in a perpendi-
cular pofigon by the four fri€tion rollers, R, R, R, R, which
plate has the fea painted on it, as feen in fig 3, over the
dial at H. The reprefentation of the phanomena depend-
ing on the relative pofitions of the fun and moon thus fim-
ply effected, affords a pleafing object for the eye at a trifling
expence ;, but we are not to expect great accuracy when
we confider how many equations are required to reduce
the mean places of thofe two luminaries, particularly of the
latter, to the true apparent places. Mr. Fergufon made
this mechanifm fo as to be capable of being aétuated by a
watch on the fufee arbor of which a pinion of 20 was placed
to drive a wheel of 40 round, on the arbor of which yo
was fixed the pinion of 19 that has been defcribed as re-
volving in § hours, which it would do in this cafe, provided
the fufee itfelf revolve, as is ufual in common watches, in
the {pace of four hours. E
There is, however, an inaccuracy in the numbers of the
wheel-work adopted in the dial-work of, this clock, which
would render it too imperfect to be ufed for a:confiderable
length of time without anew reification, even provided the
motions of the funand moon, or, more properly ipeaking,
of the earth and moor, were quite equable, as the conitruc-
tion fuppofes, which inaccuracy may thus be exp'ained 5
as the pinion of 19 drives both the wheels of 57 and 59,
when the former has performed a revolution in a folar day,
the latter falls two teeth {hort of arevolution, which it com-
pletes not until two teeth of the fecond revolution of the
wheel 57 have been agzin impelled, fo that in every 24
hours the little moon lofes 4, of its revolution, which is a
part of a relative retrograde motion, as it regards any point,
for inftance the upper hour XII. in the folar plate; fo that
as often as 2 are contained in 59, fo many day-fpaces muft
there be on the folar plate, figured in a retrograde direGtion,
as the figures regard the principal plate; but the value of
52 is 294 exa&tly, which number of days meafures the lu-
nation according to thefe wheels exa&tly; there is, therefore,
a monthly error of 44" 3° almoft, which will amount to
nearly an entire day in the fhort {pace of abovt 32 lunations.
But there is, moreover, a practical obje€tion to the two
wheels, 57 and 59, being both driven by the fame pinion of
19, which is, that being of the fame diameter, the diftance
between their teeth is not the fame in both, one being 3),
and the other 3, of a femicircle, feppofing their teeth and
{paces to be refpeGtively equal to one another, but if both
wheels are cut in the cutting-engine by the fame cutter, the
inequality will fall in the teeth entirely ; in either cafe the
ation of one of the wheels mut be bad if the other is pro-
perly proportioned, and periodic jerks will be the confe-
quence, which, in wheel-work going by a clock or watch
movement, ought to be avoided. Whether or not Mr. Fer-
gufon had the dial of the Hampton-Court clock in his eye
when he contrived the fimple mechanifm of this clock, we
will not undertake to affirm, but we think it extremely pro-
bable that he had, particularly as he has copied the pofition”
of the annual train in another of his clocks, as we fhall have
occafion to fhew, under our article Diau-wor%. Being in
the habit of calculating numbers proper for reprefenting
given periods of time in clocks, watches, orreries, &c. we
have turned our thoughts towards the improvement of this
clock, as well as of other pieces of mechanifm, fo far as
relates to accuracy, and beg.leave to lay before the reader
the alteration that has occurred to us, for rendering the
clock before us more perfect than it is in the} ftate we have
defcribed it.
When defcribing the Hampton-Court clock we endea-
voured to prove that when the moon’s age is indicated by
the difference of the velocities of the two hands, moving in
the fame direGtion, and reprefenting the fun and moon, the
latter ought to pafs the XII. o’clock point, on each day
50.473 nearly later than on the preceding day; but by
7 Te
es
Cub, O.6.8:
Mr. Fergufon’s calculations we fee the daily retrogradation
is 50.526, andthe difference .053 amounts to an entire
day’s motion in a little more than g52 days, or fomewhat
upwards of 32 lunations, as we have ftated. What there-
fore we, want, in this cafe, is a couple of divilible numbers
that fhall be to each other very nearly in the ratio of 24" to
24" 50".473, which numbers, by a peculiar arithmetical
procefs, become familiar to us by practice, we have deter-
mined to be 2368 :'2451. ‘Thefé are the neareft poflible
numbers that can be got without afcending higher in the
feale oF continual ratios, and are luckily capable of reduc-
tion into compofite numbers thus ; 2368 taken as a product
is equal to 74 x 32 and 2451 = 57 X 43; therefore the
Eee!
train will be the wheel-work required ; the folar
4
wheel of 74 teeth being made to revolve with a tube as an
arbor in 24 hours, by the clock-movement, mu‘ impel the
wheel of 43 placed on a ftud, or otherwife on the front
plate of the frame, at one fide of it, and this wheel of 43
muft have the next driver, 32, pinned to it, to impel the
Jaft wheel, 57, orlunar wheei, placed on a folid arbor, con-
centrically behind the folar wheel, according to Mr. Fergu-
fon’s potition, and the dials and other defigns of the clock
face may remain precifely as defcribed; fo that inftead of
the pinion cf 19 impelling two unequal wheels at once, we
fhall have a pair of {mall wheels pinned together, one im-
pelled by, and the other impelling its fellow, where the mo-
tion muft be taken from an arbor of 12 hours, carrying a
wheel of 37 to actuate the 74 in 24 hours, inttead of from
one of eight hours, as Mr. Fergufon propofed ; which mode
is equally praéticable. Asa proof of the accuracy of our
calculation, we have by direct proportion as 2368: 2451::
24": 24" 50".4720729, &c.; hence the deviation from the
data is here only .o000271 of a minute in each lunar day,
which will not amount to an error of an entire day in lefs
than 1,862,472 fuch days, and therefore may be aflumed’as
no bad fubititute for the truth itfel?; feeing the clock will
‘never be expected to go fo long without cleaning or ftop-
page from fome external caufe.
Should it occur to the reader that 32 Junacions conflitute
a period long enough for the clock of Mr. Fergufon to go,
before a new rectification, we bey leave to fuggelt to him,
that in the fpace of a lunar day there are two tides and two
ebbs, confcquently an error of three-quarters of an hour in
each lunation will place the tide-plate, H, three hours
wrong in the fpace of about four months, and in nearly
eight months an high-water will be changed into low-water,
and the reverfe in the next eiyht months, which is certain'y
an indifpenfable error.
_ That the clock-maker may not be at a lofs how to apply
the remedy we have propofcd for the inaccuracy of Mr.
Vergufon’s folar aud lunar wheels, we fhall conclude our
defeription of the clock before us with an account cf the
exact dimenfions of the parts propofed to be fubftituted.
Tf we take the wheel of communication of 37 teeth at 12
per inch, meafured at ihe pitch line, its geometrical diame-
ter wili be .98 or %3, of an inch, and its praCtical diameter,
with the addendum for the ends of the teeth, 1.04, as may
be feen by infpcétion in our Vable of Diameters, under the
article CrocK-making ; the wheel of 74 being double wiil
have its geometrical diameter cqual to 1.96, and its practical
one 2.02; the fellow of this lait or folar wheel has its geo-
metrical diameter by the fame proportion, 1.14, and its prac-
tical one 1.20; the diltance of the ftud from the centre of
motion of the folar and lunar wheels, mult neceflanly be
the fum of the geometrical radii of thefe two lait wheels,
Vou. VIII.
namely 1.96 41.14. > 2] which is = 1.55; again the fum
of the geometrical radii of the remaining two wheels, 32
and 57, muft be alfo equal to 1.55, in order that. the cen-
tres of motion of the folar and lunar wheels may exaGly
coincide ; but a wheel of a geometrical diameter, equal to
1.55 X 2] or 3.10 inches and of 32 + 57\| or 89 teeth, will
have only-about:9 teeth per inch, according to our table, and
the practical diameters of wheels 32 and 57, by the fame,
will be refpeCtively 1.21 and 2.1. The calliper fuitable for
thefe proportions and dimenfions is given, of half their fulll
lize, in fig. 2, of Plate X. which needs no further explana-
tion, except that the wheels, 43 and 32, are fo nearly of a
fize that one circle reprefents both, as piuned together, and
revolving with a contemporary motion round a ftud or fcrew
in their centre, going into the front plate of the clock-
frame. The {mall wheel of 32 as deeper into the teeth of
its feilow than the 43, by reafon of having larger teeth than
the other, though the wheel is of the fame fize.
Equation Clock by Enderlin, JSkewing alfo the relative Situations
of the Sun and Moon, &e.
In our hiftory of the fucceffive improvements in clocks,
we have mentioned the names of various ingenious men
who contrived mechanifm for exhibiting on the dial of a
clock both mean and apparent time, and confequently the
equation of time, which is the difference between thefe ;
to give drawings and defcriptions of all the different methods
of producing fuch an effe&, would be like throwing ammu-
nition at a dead mark ; but to gratify the wifhes of the curi-
ous, in a certain degree, we propofe to fele& a clock of this
kind, made on the continent by Enderlin, which appears to
us co merit a defcription better than moft of the ethers.
Fig. 1, of Plate XXIV. of Horology, exhibits the plan of
the mechanifm which conflitutes the equation-portion of
Enderlia’s clock (See Traitéde Thiout, p.252, P/. XXV.)
and jig. 2, 18 an exa& reprefertation of the dial and
hands; we will begin with fig. 1, or pofterior plane of the
dial, where the motion is communicated from the wheels
within the frame, and proceed, in the order of the communi-
cation cf this moticn, through the dificrent parts of this
figure. The fmall wheel Q, of 24 teeth, borrows its mo-
tion from the movement of the {triking part, in order that
the going part may not be impeded by cumberfome addi-
tions; this wheel is not reprefented as a contrate wheel in
the original, which we have copied on a reduced feale, but
would act better if it were; it impcls the {mall wheel R, of
32 tecth, with a vertical arbor, held to its pofition by a {mall
cock, 1, on the frout plate of the frame, which arbor has a
bend and compound joint, below T, and a fecoud fimilar
cock above, that keeps the lower half of the arbor in its po-
fition, while the upper and lower ends, or pivots, bear in
their refpective cocks, which it is not neceflary to infert in
the figure; this arbor has a fingle endlefs {crew, S, on the
middle of the inclined half, aétuating a large wheel. A, of
487 teeth, and alfo a pinion a, of 24 leaves, at the lower
extremity, actuating a finall wheel V, of 32 teeth, and
making this revolve, we are told, in 24 hours. Tom thefe
data we can now calculate the periods of the other wheels
that have been mentioned; if V revolves in 24 hours, a re-
volves in 24 of that time, namely, in 18 hours, and with it
the bent arbor R TS a; alfo the {mall wheel, Q, revolves
in 24 of 15 hours, or in 13" 30™, by means of its connection
with the flriking part, which may eafily be effe€ted by pro-
per numbers in the teeth of the conneéting wheel and pinion ;
Ifkewife the large wheel A, of 487 teeth, revolves in 487 of
18", which time reduced, is 8766 hours, or 365° 6°; this
3 le wheel,
ECLock.
wheel, therefore, is called the annual wheel. The wheel X,
with 62 inclined teeth, and the wheel Z, with oo teeth, re-
volve feparately round one common centre 5, and are impel-
led, the former by a fingle tooth on the 24 hours arbor of the
{mall wheel V, and the latter by another fingle endlefs fcrew
Y; this ferew Y has a pinion 6, of 21 leaves, on its upper end,
impelled by the pinion aof 24 in 24 of 1S hours, which period
is sg’ 1” 30” or the fum of two lunations, where each is 29"
12" 45"; whecl X, we have faid, has 62 teeth, one of which
is impelled every 24 hours, therefore an entire revolution of
this wheel, if the motion were continued, would be perform-
ed in 62 days; butit will be feen by and bye, that it never
is permitted to make more than one half of a revolution, and
frequently not fo much, before it is made to retrograde at one
jump to its original firuation, from which it had been moved
by the fingle tooth or pallet at V. Into the plane of the
annual wheel A, are inferted 12 pins, at fuch diftances from
each other, ina concentric circle, as are determined by the
number of days in the correfponding months, which are fup-
pofed to lie refpeétively between the faid pins, fo as to re-
gulate the interpofed fpaces. ‘Thefe pins might be deno-
minated the pins of January, February, &c. in fucceffion,
as they follow one another at the regulated diftances of
34., #5, Ke. On the centre of the faid annual wheel, is
alfo fixed the centre of a piece of metal, B, fhaped by an ob»
long curve, continually varying its radius of curvature half
round, and in a fimilar way back again, which curve is
denominated the eguation curve, from the office it has to per-
form, which we will recur to prefently. Round the centre
5 of the two wheels X and Z, is moveable the lever 5 6,
with a claw at 6, and a tail 5 3, refling ona pin in the click
2 78, which click is moveable round a point at 7; a fecond
iever 10, has alfo its tail refting by a pin at 3, on the tail-
piece of the click, while its inclined end ro falls in the way
ofthe pins of the months in the annual wheel, by means of
the preffure of a flender {pring near the centre of its motion.
The effet produced by thefe levers and click may be thus
defcribed ; the pallet at V continues, by its daily motion,
to gather up a tooth of X every 24 hours, and the click 2,
fliding over the inclined fide of the contiguous tooth, lays
hold of it when palt, and keeps it faft till the next day, when
the fame operation is repeated, the two levers in the mean
time remaining quiefcent ; this daily procefs goes on till one
of the month pins of the annual wheel, meeting with the
end of the lever 10, depreffes it; at the time this occur-
rence takes place, the tail of this lever puthes, by means of
its pin of contaét, the tail 3 of the click back, and with it
the fang of the click, which now quits the tooth it before
held; the wheel X being now detached from the click and
pallet V, and having a piece of watch main-fpring coiled
yound its centre, one end attached to it and the other to a
ftud, is pulled fuddenly back to the fitnation in which it was
before it was gathered up by the pallet; and the hand D, jig. 2,
being connected with this wheel, returns with it and recom-
mences its motion from the beginning of the graduations of
the double femicircle A B C, which is divided on the middle
Kune, but figured alternately above and below, to prevent’
the figures from being crowded. The femicircle at D in
fig. 2, is divided into 294 equal fpacés; anda portion of the
dial is cut away, as reprefented by the dark portion, and
full phafe of the moon, which conftitute a portion of the
front face of wheel Z, of 90 teeth, which wheel we have faid
revolves half round in 29° 12" 45" this dark lunar plate
has a mark as an index over the moon, which difappears the
moment that a fimilar one at the oppofite point of the
plate’s circumference begins to appear ; alfo another moon,
at prefent hid from fight, begins to appear at one day’s
{pace of her age, as focn as the prefent one difappears
at the fpace 293, and fo on alternately throughout
the year. The graduations of the moon’s age aré on the
privcipal dial. ‘Vhe anterior plane of the annual wheel has
the fun’s place in the ecliptic, the months, with their diyi-
fions into days, and fun’s rifing and fetting in time corre-
{ponding to each day, marked on it, which readings appear
through the blackened apertures of the dial, above the
double femicircle of the days indicated by the hand D, and
under the hoursand minutes of the large circle, as reprefent-
ed in fig. 2. :
When the wheel X, in fg. 1, has returned to its original
fituation, the pallet at V goes on, and when it has made
half of a revolution it meets with the end of the lever 6,
and prefling againft it, difengages the tail 3 from the click
2, which prevented this click from falling into a notch of
the wheel X, while this wheel retrograded ; but now the click
re{umes its office, and the wheel of the months proceeds by
a daily progrefs of one tooth: in the prefent fituation of
the different hands and of the annual wheel, the day is the
5th of November, the moon’s age almoft 15, being full
moon, the fun-rife, 7" 5", A.M. fun-fet, 4" 54™, P.M.
and che fun’s place 12° in Scorpio. ‘The annual wheel, we
have feen, revolves in 3654 days exadtly, ‘therefore the
fra€tional portion of a day will amount to unity every fourth
year, and will require that February fhould have 29 days in
each leap year; a provifion is here made for effecting this
purpofe which fhews confiderable ingenwity; a piece of
brats of the fhape of 15 16 17 18, reprefented by dots
chiefly, becaufe nearly hid behind the annual wheel, as now
viewed in fig. 1, is moveable on the point 15, and has marked
on the concealed flat pare the 4 years fucceffively, viz. leap
year, and 1, 2, and 3, after, which are brought annually in
{ucceffion to the aperture of the dial above VI. in fg. 2, by
the annual wheel: the procefs is thus ; the ftar 20 with eight
angular points, has two of its points carried forwards by pins
in the annual wheel, one of which aéts on the night of the
laft day of December, afd the other in ordinary years at the
end of the 28th of February; the ftar has a metallic leg,
called by the French un /autoir, prefled bya flender {pring
in fuch a way, that the heel falls into a notch of the ftar,
the ufe of which is, to limit the quantity the ftar fhall move
if it is moved at all; for when any following point of the
ftar forces the Jeg forwards till it paffes the heel, the {pring
then pufhes the heel in again, and forces the faid point
forwards a little farther, till it flops under the foot, and
till the next following point of the {tar refts againft the back
part of the leg where the motion is arrefted: a fnail with
four {teps is faft to the ftar, and regulates the pofition of the
piece 15 1617 18 by fupporting the end £8 of this piece,
which projects towards the {nail; hence it is eafy to appre~
hend, that numbers 1, 2, 3, or leap year, will appear in the
aperture of the dial, accordingly as ftep 1, ftep 2, &c. of
the {nail is prefented to the relting point 18 of the plate
with the four years marked on its anterior face. "This con-
trivance, however, does not yet account for the 29th of
February every fourth year: the additional mechanifm for
this purpofe is the rack without teeth, marked 11, moveable
on the centre of the annual wheel, but under it in fg. t,
with a concealed {pring (dotted) prefling againft its conceal-
ed and dotted bar, fo as to make it reft on a fecond {nail be-
hind the ftar; for as the lever 10 for the monthly pins is car-
ried by this rack, the faid lever may be made to meet the
pins or recede from them, or any one of them, the quantity
correfponding toa day, or more if it were required ; thus the
concealed fnail, which has a contrary {piral, removes the pia
anfwering to the laft day of February fo far from the corref-
ponding
CLO
ponding pin in the annual wheel, that the hand D, in fy. 2,
has arrived atthe 29th divifion or day-fpace, before the chick
is detached by the lever 10, and thus February has 29 days
every fourth year. It may. be proper to obferve here, that
the fourth ftep of the fnail feen on the ftarhas an inclined
plane to allow the end 18 of the four years plate to afcend it
without being fet falt, after a revolution has been completed.
Hitherto we have faid nothing about the equation portion
wufnally but improperly defcribed firlt, which we have defer-
red becaufe it depends on the motion of the annual wheel.
On the point D, in fg. 1, the rack, E,’ moves,’ while its
tail, C, refts on che circumference of the equation curve, as It
makes its annual revolution; at O is 2 {mall box with a
{pring, which keeps the cord. 15 always ftvetched ; this cord
furrounds a pulley.on the plane of a concealed wheel N,
under K, but not attached to it, with which wheel, N, the
rack afts ard is kept always refting on the equation curve in
every fituation of the annual-wheel ; the pmion, I, revolves by
the going part of the clock in Go minutesy and carries the
equable hand of the minutes, now pointing to 46 minutes in
Jig. 2; by the pinion I, which has 30 leaves, the wheel K
of So. teeth is driven ; which imits tarn drives another pinion,
AL, of zoleaves ; fo that L revoives inan hour as though it
aed immediately with L; to Lis attached a wheel, H, of 48
teeth, which actuates a fimilar wheel, I, and this again a third
Aimilar wheel, G, the tube of which furrounds the arbor of I,
cand carriesthe hand with a-little fun on its pointing to 30"
in the dial, fig. 2,.which hand moves irregularly, and may be
called the equation hand ; its irregularity is thus produced ; the
-wheel N, below K, is pinned to a bar whichis not feen, but
which bears the wheel H, and pinion L; andasthe teeth of the
rack are a€ting with the wheel N, the concealed bar, here
fpoken of,is made to move alternately towards I and 15, as the
radius of the equation varies during the year; this motion
‘of the bearing bar makes the pinion L fometimes advance,
and fometimes retrograde a few teeth, independently of the
motion it receives from the revolution of K, and this addi-
tional motion, produced by the rack to the bar on which L
welts, is allo communicated to the wheel H in confequence of
ats connection with L, and hence to both the fimilar wheels
connected with it, F and G, the latter of which gives the
Said addition and retrogradation alternately to the equation
hand borne by.it. “Che motion conltituting the equation, here
fpoken of, would be produced if the wheel K didnot revolve
at all, and therefore is derived entirely from the equation
curve, which curve has its fhape afeertained from a table of the
equation of time. In the pofition of the two minute hands
the diflance between them is 16", which is the quantity of
equation fubtractive at the end of the firlt week of November.
‘The pinion of fix or eight leaves atrached to Fy drives the
hour wheel of 72 or g teeth not given here, which bears on
ats tube the hour hand pointing between IL. and III. which
jhand therefore participates of the equated motion, and cer-
refponds to the equation minute hand ; the minute hand. for
mean time is ufed to fhew, by its diitance from the other hand,
the quantity of the equation at any giventime. The feconds
are for mean time, and therefore correfpond with the minute
hand of meantime. Between tre {mail wheel Q, which we
have feen revolves in 24 hours, and the dial, is aimall circular
dial- plate feen through an aperture below.0™ in fig. 2, the ufe
of which is, to regulate the annual wheel, by a key inferted in
the hole at 40" on the {quare of the arbor of the wheel Q,
agreeably to the hour ct the day indicated by the clock,
otherwile the monthly pins might ‘not happen to detach the
click of the ratchet-wheel that carries the month hand, D,
at the exact termination of the month. ‘Laftiy, between
the wheels I and G, is placed a {mall fpiral! {pring, to pre-
CE.
vent a fhake in the hand carvied by G, which the play in the
teeth might otherwife. have occafioned.. This mechanifm,
as we have faid, is very ingenious, and moit of the other
equation clocks have a fimilar equation curve, without an
allowance for leap year.
We have recently underftood that Quare, of London,
was the firft inventor of aa equation clock, but we do not
vouch for our authority.
An Aflronomical Clock, by Mr. Thos. Reid of Edinburgh.
It has been ufual, ameng horological writers, to call all
thofe clocks irdiferiminately gffrenomical, which are ufed in
obfervatories for afcertaining the right afcenfions of the tars,
whether the time indicated 1s folar or fidereal, and-alfo thofe
clocks which reprefent the motions of fome-or all of the
heavenly bodies, by appropriate wheel-work {uperadded to
the ufual train: thefe two kinds of clocks, however, are of a
very oppofite nature, one of them rcjeGiing every appendage
that does not contribute to accuracy in the meafurement of
time, under all the changes of atmo!pheric temperature, and
the other being loaded with cumberfome additional meche»
nifm, calculated to produce great irregularities of motion in
the going train, befides being deftitute of compenfation
mechanif{m for the effeéts of heat and cold. They are; in-
deed, equally the produce of much ingenuity ; but one is
contrived and executed with the greateft care for ufe, while
the other is defigned, calculated, and conftru@ed for mere
curiofity : one is as {uperior in its meafurement of time to a
common clock, asa chronometer is to an ordinary watch ;
but the other may be confidered, in general, as holding a
rank, in this refpe€l, as much below a common clock : we
feel ourfelves, therefore, jultified in giving diftinguifhing
names to two machines, which, however they may be clafled
in one genus, are of very different fpecies; the clock which
is ufed in aftronomical obfervations we fhall call an affrono-
mical clock ; but the clock which exhibits the relative polfi-
tions of the heavenly bodies, or of any of them, we {hall call
a planetary clock ; of which kind is that which we have
partially defcribed as being in the palace at Hampton Court,
and of which kind are molt of Mr. J. Fergufon’s morecom=
plex clocks. Sometimes clocks are made on the principle
to which we propofe to give the appellation of aftro-
nomical, which yet are not ufed in obfervatories, but kept
at the clock-makers, with the view cf being made a {tandard
by which to judge of the rate of other clocks and watches
not yet brought to time; thefe are ufually denominated re-
gulators, but when they have good compenfating pendulums
and the belt efcapements, they differ not from aftronomical
clocks in any thing but the name, which is borrowed from
the ufe to which they are put of regulating the time by which
the common clocks are to have their rate of going adjufted.
We might have prefented the public with a great variety
of altronomical clocks, each differing from the others in fome
particular peculiar to itfelf ; but if we give the defcriptions of
a couple, all the other cont{truétions, or the greateft part of
them, will be eafily apprehended from our articles Escarr-
MENT and Penputum, which are as’ much the characteriftic
parts of an aftronomical clock, as the efcapement and ba-
lance are of a chronometer, which machine has’been already
defcribed. i
Plate XXII. of Horology, exhibits; in different points of
view, an altronomical clock, made by Mr. Thomas Reid, of
Edinburgh, of which his brother; who refides in’ Clerkenwell,
London, obligingly permitted our draftfman to take the
requilite drawings for rendering’ all the effential parts intel.
gible. /ig. 1, is a view of the movement, with the ‘eye
placed perpendicularly over it, and the front plate of the
Ue: . °° frame
CLOCK.
frame taken off; and fir. 2, is the whole frame detached
from the cafe and viewed laterally, which pofition may be
conlidered as a feétion, the other being the plan of the
works; thefe two figures are laid down on a {cale of one
third of the original fize; jig. 3, is an enlarged repre-
fentation of the pallets and efcapement wheel, ona feale of
one half the real fize, and in a detached late ; fig. 4, fhows
the back of the great wheel of 120 teeth, together with
the fmall ratchet and auxiliary fpring and detent ina de-
tached {tate, of one third the real fize; jig. 5, exhibits the
gridiron, or compenfating pendulum, with its cock and other
parts of fufpenfion, of one eighth part of the real fize ; and
Jig./6, gives an enlarged view of the part that receives the
crutch immediately above the fuperior end of the gridiron
portion of the pendulum; we fhall deferibe thefe fix
ficures in the order by which we have here enumerated
them.
A A, in figs. 1 and 2, ftand at the fuperior end of the
frame plates, above the pillars, which are omitted in the {e-
cond fiyure, that the efcapement wheel may not be concealed
thereby ; B, in both figures, is the cylindrical barrel for the
cord C, of the weight, which conftitutes the maintaining
power ; the wheels and pinions are denoted by the numbers
of their teeth thus; 120 is the great wheel revolving in
twelve hours; 10 is the pinion driven by it on the central
arbor ; the {malleft, 96, is the centre wheel; 12, the pinion
on the fecond wheel-arbor, which arbor hag alfo the fecond
wheel of the train, marked go, impelling ancther pinion of 12
on the arbor of the third or efcapement wheel of 30 teeth ;
the other two wheels of 96 each, revolving alike in 12 hours,
are inftead of dial-work. , The {mall ratchet wheel has 40
teeth, and the large one or perpetual ratchet zco, that the
teeth of its circumference may be numerous enough to catch
the detent G, figs. 1 and 4, without allowing the intenfity
of the auxiliary {pring, H, to be remitted; but the exact
number of teeth is of ne importance, provided they be both
numerous and {trong enough to anfwer the defired purpofe ;
the number is here mentioned to fhow that the wheel has
been cut in an engine which divided it into 200 equal ferrated
teeth. ‘The fpring, which is herea fubftitute for the main-
taining power, during the time of winding up the clock,
has its extreme ends brought nearer together than
was the cafe with the auxiliary fpring of the chrono-
meters which we have above defcribed, but the office per-
formed is precif:ly the fame, the only difference is in the
mode of application ; here one end of the auxiliary {pring is
attached to the great wheel, and the other prefling again{t
the fide of one of the crofles of the great ratchet, or perpe-
tual ratchet, and when the two ends of the {pring are
brought nearly together, their effort to feparate becomes a
temporary fubftitute for the maintaining power. The hour
hand revolves in 12 hours along with the arbor of the great
wheel of 120 teeth, on which it is placed by fimple friction
without a fquare; the long hand E, fg. 2, fhows minutes
from the arbor of the centre wheel, ona circle of 60 fur-
rounding ail the hands; and the third hand I, fhows feconds
on the arbor of the pallet wheel ; this hand has a very {mall
recoil on account of the faces of the pallets not being por-
tions of concentric circles. The pallets have each a piece of
agate to fuperfede the ufe of oil, and are of the ifochronal
kind, a€ting with teeth of a peculiar fhape, both of which
will be more particularly deferibed under the article Escarr-
MENT: the two agates are retained in the hollow parts of
the anchor of the pallets by three {crews applying to each,
two of whichare vifiblein each pallet in the enlarged fig. 3 5
and the two vertical lines below the wheel of this figure re-
prefent, one of them, the pofition of the pendulum correfpond-
ing to the prefent fituationof the pallets; and the other, which
is drawn a little afide, the fituation of the fame at the infant
of efcaping ; which with other particulars of this efcape-
ment will be more minutely detailed hereafter, according to
our recent reference. The frame is mounted by four pillars,
fituated near the four corners of che two plates, at the [:nall
circles in fig. 1; and is firmly attached to the bracket or
bearing piece L, fig. 2, at the Juperior part of the cafe, by
the conneéting cocks, K and K, {crewed both to the frame
and piece L. Though there is no dial-work in this clock,
yet there are four little cocks, @, 4, c, and d, on the front
plate of the frame, the ufe of which is to make the wheels
and pinions fall as nearly as can be at the middle of their
re{pective arbors, fo that there may not be more preffure at
one pivot than at the oppofite one of any arbor; a refinement
which few other makers have attended to in their conitruc-
tions. The French clock-makers have given an appropriate
name to each end of the arbor, depending on the diflance of
the pivot from the wheel it bears, one end being called the
tige, and the other the ¢igeron. The author of this con-
{truction attaches, and very properly, fome importance to the
polition in which the great wheel and cord of fufpenfion are
placed, with refpect to the centre pinion; it may be feen
from an infpedtion of fz. 1, that the weight fufpended by
the cord C, refting on the ating tooth of the great wheel,
does not prefs fo much on the pivots as it would do if placed
at the oppofite fide of the barrel: for in one cafe the preflure
on the pivots may be faid to be halved, but in the other
doubled ; {uppofing the barrel and wheel to be to each other
as 1: 2; belides, an uniformity of appearance is thus pre-
ferved in the three circles of the dial, which, we have not be-
fore faid, is attached to the frame by pillars, two of which
are feen in fig. 2, at e and f.
The pivots of all the arbors are madecylindrical, and a&
in conical holes in the cocks before, and in the plate be-
hind, which holes have the fmaller ends continued
through the metal, at the back faces of which is prefented
the conical point of a piece of fleel, to each fixed to the
cock in fuch a way, that a drop of fine oil lies between it
and the pivot, detained by its cohefive attraétion in the form
of a {fpherule: this contrivance keeps the oil in its place bet-
ter than counterfunk holes would do, and preferves it from
impurities longer; the iteel pieces at the pivots entering the
pillar plate, are feen at g, 4, and 7.
Fig. 4, requires no further explanation than we have given
of the great wheel and perpetual ratchet in fig. 1, except
that the under-fide is here prefented to view, and that the
fame letters of reference apply to both figures. Fig. 5, is
a reprefentation of the gridiron pendulum, which we have
faid was invented by J. Harrifon; the dimenfions in the
drawing are on a {eale of one eighth of the real fize of all
the parts. The two obtufe angled cocks, a and a, braced
with crofs pieces near the top are firmly attached to the
bearing part or bracket, L, in fg. 1, which has a portion
taken out between Land L, in fg. 5, for the pendulum to
vibrate in, but which cannot be ieen in the pofition in fg. 1,
where the cocks are ona larger {cale, and where one of them
is hid by the other, which appears as a ftraight vertical piece
of metal above M; which M denotes the edge of the pens
dulum in this figure: on the fuperior ends of the two cocks
is made an angular notch called a Y, the top of which it re-
fembles, in which the pivots of a tranverfe piece of fteel, 5,
re(t ; this tranfverfe piece has a central {quare hole that re-
ceives a little rod by which the pendulum is fufpended by a
flip of watch main-fpring, tapered a little downwards; the
three pins, one above the tranf{verfe piece, 4, and the other two
at the oppofite ends of the flip of {pring, may all be feen in
the figure without more particular reference; the rod attached
tothe upper end of the gridiron is of fteel, and has an oblong
hole
CLOCK.
hole with a pair of agates fixed in it, fo as to form the
fides of the oblong hole, feen on a larger fcale in a de-
tached flate in fg. 6; the ufe of this long aperture is to re-
ceive the pin of the crutch, carried by the arbor of the pal-
Jets, as feen at N, infg.2. By this method of fufpending
a pendulum, the ball has liberty to find its own perpendicular
fituation without twifting the flender {pring of f{ufpenfion,
and the tranfverfe piece, 4, having fhoulders to keep it ftcady
within the frame compofed of the cocks, @ and a, prevents
any motion or fhake that might otherwife be occafioned by
the vibrations of a heavy pendulum ; alfo the pendulum may
be put into exact beat, by forming the fhoulders of the
tran{verfe piece, J, fo exactly at.each fide of the centre, that
the crutch may not require to be bent; andif a flight de-
viation from true beat be obferved when the cocks are
mounted fro tempore, a flight lateral motion in them, before
final fixing, will re€tify the beat; or the pofition of the
agates of the crutch pin might be reforted to for adjufting a
very minute deviation from true beat ; or, laftly, an adjuftment
of the bearing part, L, might be recurred to ; but we think
it isof importance not to alter the central fituation of the ob-
long aperture where the crutch-pin ats, left this pin fhould
not imprefs its force to a point perpendicularly over the cen-
tre of gravity of the pendulum, and fhould thereby produce
a vacillation in the vibrations, which would be injurious to
the exactitude of their obedience to the laws of gravity.
The compenfation for heat and cold, and adjuftments for time
and temperature of this gridiron pendulum, may be explain-
ed thus; as we have not room to put in the letters of reference
between the bars of the gridiron portion, we propofe to call
the rod attached to the {pring of fufpenfion 1, which is the
middle rod of the nine parallel ones; the two contiguous
rods, one at each fide of N°. 1, we fhall defignate by the
figures 2 and 2, refpectively ; the two next in order to the
right and left from N°. 1, we fhall call 3 and 3 ; in like
manner the two next at each fide, correfponding to each
other, we fhall name 4 and 4; and the two extreme ones, 5
and 5, refpetively ; this mode of defcription will fhorten
the circumlocution we muit otherwife have been obliged to
ufe: N°. 1, we have already faid, is a fteel rod proceeding
downwards from the point of fufpenfion; it has a fhort
crofs-piece, to which are faftened the inferior ends of the
rods, 2 and 2, which are of brafs, and confequently more
expanfible than fteel; thefe rods, which may be confidered as
one fo far as relates to their expanfion, proceed upwards to
another crofs-piece fomewhat longer than the firlt, to which
their upper ends are faltened: again another pair of rods, 3
and 3, of fteel are faftened to this fecond crofs-piece near its
extremities, fo as to include the three former rods, and de-
{cend down paft the ends of the firftcrofs- piece intoa third crofs-
piece, below the firft, to which third piece they are united :
this third piece alfo fupports another pair of brafs rods, 4
and 4, which afcend to the uppermoit or fourth crofs-piece
of the gridiron, to which they are alfo attached ; and, laftly,
another pair of fteel rods attached to the extreme ends of
this fourth crofs-piece, fo as to include all the former ones,
defcend to the joweft or fifth crofs-piece, to which they are
attached, and by which the gridiron frame is completed.
The effect of the expanfion of the defcending rod, 1, 1s to
lower the firlt crofs-piece ; but the effect of the expanfion of
the two afcending rods, 2 and 2, is to clevate the fecond
crofs-piece more; the effect produced by the pair, 3 and 3,
aa this effeét relates to the third crofs-piece, is fimilar to the
effet of rod i, on the firft crofs-piece; alfo the effet of the
pair of brafs rods, 4 and 4, on the fourth crofs-picce, is fimi-
Jar to that of bar 2 and 2, on the fecond crofs-piece; and,
lattly, the effect of the pair, 5 and 5, of ftcel bars on the
height of the “fth or laft crofs-piece, is analogous to the
effe&t produced by the pair, 3 and 3, on the third crofs-
piece, as above defcribed: the total effects of the defcending
and afcending bars are ftated to be thus in the clock
before us: viz.
Expanfion downwards by rod 1, =
Dosa - by rods 3 and 3, = I
Do. - - by rods 5and5,= 1
Total
2
a
Expanfion upwards by rods 2 and 2, = 1.56
Do. = - by rods 4 and 4, = 1.56
Wotaly=)3 02
Hence the difference between the total elevation and total
depreflion of the ball, which is fufpended by the loweft
crofs-piece, is 32, which quantity of excefs of the afcend-
ing bars is taken as an equivalent for the downward expanfion
of the fpring of fufpenfion, and that part of the fteel rod, 1,
which is above the gridiron portion ; and if this quantity on
trial fhould be found to be an exaét balance, the compenfa-
tion of the pendulum will be perfe, and the centre of ofcil-
lation of the whole pendulum will continue unchanged as it
regards the point of fufpenfion under all the variations of
temperature. Whenever it is found that the calculation for
the refpeétive lengths of the expanfion bars bas been erro-
neous, or the materials imperfect, the adjuitment for tempe-
rature mut be made by altering the fituation of the firft
crofs-piece, fo as to lengthen or fhorten the pair of brafs bars,
2 and 2, as they regard the {teel bar 1; it is better to make
the brafs fomewhat too long than too fhort forthe fteel bars,
becaufe this crofs- piece can be raifed when it cannot be lower-
ed beyond a certain limit depending on tne proximity of
the third crofs-piece ; and if that limit fhould be found too
circumfcribed, the crofs-piece above, which has four bars
faft to it, mutt neceffarily be lowered, which will be
attended with fome trouble.
The adjuftment for time is made by means of a nut with
a milled head, under the ball of the pendulum, the focket
of which rut, is tapped to fuit the thread of the fhort rod
attached to the loweft crofs-piece of the gridiron frame by
which the ball is borne, fo that the ball reits not with its in-
ferior edge on the nut itfelf as in ordinary clocks, but has a
pin in its centre which refts on the upper end of the nut’s
focket, and which flides in a flit made in the bearing rod
above and below, as well as at the centre of the ball for the
falce of allowing: an afcending and defcending motion of the
inferted pin borne by the central.hole of the ball. The ufe:
of this contrivance is to prevent any effect on the pendulum
produced in gencral by the upward expanfion of the ball
itfelf, for the ball being circular, will in this cate expand
from the bearing pin in the centre, alike upwards and
downwards, as well as in a lateral direction to the nght
and left. Stri&ly fpeaking, however, the bearing pin to
have its true fituation for preventing all effect from the ex-
panfion of a large ball, ought to be placed in {uch a fituation’
as fhall have a regard to the centre of ofciliation of the pen-
duium conjointly with the weight and dimenfions of the ball,
which, in fo complex a pendulum, conftitutes a difficult pro-
blem to folve in all the variety of cates hkely to ante in
practice.
This pendulum has a weight of 9 pounds, and the clock
goes eight days with a weight of 16; pounds, falling 4 feet
10 inches in this {pace of time. ae
é
CL
We are informed by Mr. Reid’s brother, that the arc of
efcapement in’each excurfion is two degrees, and that the
remaming portion of the faid excurfion is one deyree ; hence
the whole arc of vibration is juft 6° with the vicight already
mentioned. The peculiar property of this efcapement, as
wi'l be feen in another place, is, whatever be the main-
taining power, or the total arc of vibration, the partial re-
coil which it has renders all the vibrations ifochranal.
It is fearcely neceffary to add, that an aftronomical clock,
like achronometer, cught to have ali its adjuftments made
with great care, in order that {ome dependence may be
placed on its rate of going under all circum ftances.
An 5 Oa Clock, with Troushion’s Pendulum.
Each aftronomical clock hasufually fome part or part. pecu-
har to itfelf; the clock, which we are now about to defcribe,
differs from the preceding one in various particulars, but
principally in the ftru@ture of its efcapement, pendulum,
f{ufpenfion, and. pivot holss. Plate XXIII. explains the
works. and Plate XXVII. the peudulum and fufpenfion of
the clock before us: we will firit’ deferibe 2’/ate XXIII.
#ig.1,1s a view of the movement, with the front plate re-
moved, and the eye perpendicularly over the centre, which
therefore may be called the plan of the movement; jig. 2, is
a fection, or fide view of the frame, containing the move-
ment, a part of the {ufpenfion and pendulum, and the dial-
work, face, and-hands; fig. 3. is a front view of the front
plate of the frame, as feen with the hands and dial off; and
jig. 4, isthe ef{capement-wheel and pallets of the dead beat
kind. In figs. 1 and 2, A is the great wheel with 120
teeth, anda perpetual ratchet of the fame number of teeth,
fimilar to the one defcribed in the going fufee of Brock-
bank’s chronometer, which great wheel impels the centre
pinion, a, of twelve leaves in an hour; the arbor of this pinion
carries the minute hand, or large hand feenin fg. 3, moving
from the centre of the dial; B is the centre-wheel, of 96
teeth; on the fame arbor; drivingthe pinion, J, of 12 leaves ;
and C is the fecond wheei of the train, with go teeth, urging
the pinion c, of 12 leaves,on the arbor of the pallet or efcape-
ment-wheel Dy which, as ufual, has go teeth ; this wheel re-
12 + AE :
— of an hour, which 1s exa&tly one minute,
wiire
volves in — X
go
and therefore carries the hand of the feconds, or {mall hand,
fecn in fix. 3, above the minute hand. Fora particular ac-
eount of the dead-beat efcapement, we beg leave to refer to
the article Escaprment, a defcription of which in this
piace would lead us out of our purpofe; ¢ and fare two
cocks onthe pillar-plate or back plate, into which the arbor,
i of the guard-gut, 4, is pivoted ; and ¢ is the {pring of the
guard: below D; in fig. 2, is the arbor of the detent of
the perpetual] ratchet ; and below g in the fame figure is the
arbor of the {mall dial-plate, and its wheel £, feen on the
frame in jig. 3, by a frant view; this wheel-has 192 teeth,
and borrows its motion from a pinion of 8 leayes on the ar-
bor of the centre wheel, thefe numbers of teeth being to cach
other as 24 to 1; they are theonly dial-work this clock has
got; the dial-wheel might have had a hand like the centre
wheel, but it would have had its motion retrograde, on which
account alight plate, equally poiled, and neatly engraved, is
put on behind the principal dial inftead of it, and the
hours are read through a circular aperture made in the large
dial, and a fleur-de-lis on the front of this large dial ferves
as a ftationary hand for indicating the hour on the revolving
plate, which makesa revolution in a day. At /,on the ar-
bor of the centre wheel, behind the dial, isa lever for coun-
terpoifing the minute hand, which, being long, of courfe has a
fenfible weight, that would aé& alternately with and againit
the maintaining power as reduced at this arbor, if there were
O Gk.
no fuch counterpoife. The four black circles, at the forr
corners of fig. 1, are the four pillars pointing to the eye, and
near the centre wheel is the filth ; their correfpending cuter
ends are feen in fimtlar fituations, with their fattening fcrews
in fig. 3 3 the other four black circles, within the pillars ia
Jig. 3, ave the holes for receiving the pillars of the large dial,
or face of the clock, two of which pilars, m and n, are feen
in fig. 2, and alfo the edge of the dial of. The freme is
{crewed to E, the bearing part of the cefe, by two {crews
pailing through this piece and entering the lower pillars of
the frame, one cf which {crews is feen in fig. 2, at F, and
the other is on the oppofite fide. The pivots of the pallet’s
verge, of the pallet-wheel arbor, and of the fecond-wheel ar-
bor, all ran in jewelled holes in the {mall cocks, 1, 2, and 3,
re{pectively in figs. 2 and 3, andthe picce 4,in fig. 3, covers
the end of the detent-arbor pivot. This cleck, which was
made by the Brockbanks, and which is the property of Mr.
Ed. ‘Troughton, is finifhed in a very fuperior ftile of work-
manfhip ; and though for many years it has been regulated
by a pendulum compofed of a glafs tube aud bulb containing
quicktilver, which was Troughton’s improvement on Gra-
ham’s quickfilver pendulum, yet its performance has at leait
equalled, if not furpafled, in accuracy and fteadinefs of rate,
the going of any other clock that has been conitiuéted ; if
we may credit the report of an individual every way qualified
to judge not only of its abfolute but comparative excellence :
the pendulum, however, which is here made a part of this
clock, is of recent invention, and we have great reafon to be-
lieve will fhortly fuperfede all the other compenfation pendu-
lums that have preceded it, on account of its poffeiling the fol-
lowing properties almotk exclufiyely : firft,ithas allthe advan-
tages of oppolite expantions which the common gridiron
pendulum.poficfles ; fecondly, the arrangement of the metal-
he parts gives it the fimplicity in appearance of a fingle rod,
as well as a diminifhed refiftance of the air in its vibrations ;
thirdly, it has great {trength without much weight above the
ball; fourthly, its centre of ofcillation, compared with the
centre of the ball, or with the centre of gravity, may confe-
quently be very nearly determined; fifthly, the motions of
the compenfating parts upwardsand downwards are not effeét-
ed by jerks, but are progreflive and fteady, while yet the parts
are fufiiciently braced to preferve their relative fituations and
figures; fixthly, the compenfation nat only includes the
{piing of fufpenfion, and 1s acjuftable for temperature, but
has its adjuftment for temperature made, independently of
the rate of going, by a new pyrometer of great fenfibility,
and free from the niual objections againit pyrometers ; fe-
venthly, it is capable of being put into beat without altering
the thape of the crutch, or of any other part ; and, laftly, it
is capable of adjultment for rate even while going. It would
have been more confiftent with our general plan to have
given an account of the pendulum in queition under the word
Penpuxum, butas that article is a remote one, the reader
will doubtlefs have no objection to have the defeription
here. The common gridiron pendulum has already been
defcribed in our preceding feétion, ard its mode of compen-
fation explained ; therefore we need not ufe much circumlo-
cution in our prefent detail. fig. 1, of Plate XXVII. of
Horology, thews afront view of the pendulumas fufpended
by a board or piug attached to a folid wall; and fg. 2 is a
fide view of the lane: jig. 3, which reprefents pretty nearly
the common gridiron pendulum, is a reprefentation of the
compound part of the pendulum with the rods placed tothe
right and left of the central one, for the fake of being all feen,
inlkead of being arranged round it, asthey ought to be agree-
ably to the circular feétion below, which is the true arrange-
ment, byt which is, not fo ealy to be apprehended by aie
verbal |
Pye L ook
verbal defcription, as we prefume it will be fromthe prefent,
though unnatural, figure. The middle rod, reaching to the
fufpenfion, is of fieel, which, asbefore,; we will call.1, de-
fcending to the crofs-piece a, which i a circular plate per-
forated with a central and four other holes, as feen in the
fubjoined feétion ; under the central hole of this circular
piece the rod 1 is pinned; then inftead of a pair of brafs
rods afcending contiguous to, and at each fide of, this cen-
» tral fteel rod, as ufual, a brafs tube has ics lower extremity
faft to the circumference of this {mall plate a, and afcends
within-a fecond larger tube to another fimilar circular plate
4, with five holes likewife, to which it is attached in like
manner ; the two brafg tubes are fo clofe together, that they
appear as one, except that theinner one 1s darkerthan theother
inthe figure ; to the plate 4, above the afcending inner brafs
tube, are faftened two ftecl rods, which we will here denomi-
nate 2 and 2,appearing contiguous to the rod x in the figure,
but actually at the fame diftance as the next pair denominat-
ed 3 and 3, which pairs ftand at right angles to one another,
as feen in the feGion under the figure; the pair of fteel rods,
2 and 2, having defcended from J, pafs through a pair of
the holes of a, and are pinned under a tranf{verfe circular
plece, c, that has only four holes in it; to the circumference
of this piece, c, is made falt the outer brafs tube that hidesall
the rods and other tube, and that afcends to a fourth circu-
lar piece, d, which forms an énd-piece to the large tube, to
which it is {crewed fait; laitly, the pair of fteel rods, 3 and
8, are made faft to the end-piece d, and defcend through
the other pair of holes of the three pieces, 6, a, c, toa fifth
crofs-piece, e, under which it is pinned, and by the central
hole’ of which the ball of the pendulum is hung at its centre,
or nearly fo. This fubftitutionof two brafs tubes for four
brafs rods, together with their end-pieces, and the mode of
arranging the fine fteel rods within the tubes, afford all the
properties united which we have previoufly mentioned; and
it is eafy to fee that fhortening either the reds of fteel, or
the brafs tubes, will alter the ratio of the refpeétive azare-
gates of their lenath, fo as to increafe or diminifh the effect
of the oppofite expanfions, till they exattly balance one ano-
ther, when a delicate and very exaét meafure is taken from
the point of fufpenfion tothe centre of ofcillation : this mea-
fure is taken with great eafe and accuracy by the new pyro-
meter which we have feen ufed, but which has not yet been
publicly defcribed, and the principle of which we do not feel
ourfelves at prefent authorifed to announce ; when the author
bas gone through all his pyrometrical experiments, molt pro-
bably he will lay before the public the conftrution and the
experiments at prefent in hand, both of which, no doubt,
will prove interefting. Indeed we can now venture to refer
the reader to our article Pyrometer for the information we
have {poken of, prefuming upon the experienced liberality of
the author. Above the end-piece, d, of the outer brafs tube
is a [mall tube of the fame metal furrounding the fteel rod
that afcends to the fufpenfion fpring, the ule of which is
to receive the fork of the crutch and to guard the ftecl
from the oxidise influence of the air, as well as, it
is probable, the other rods will be preferved, by being
enclofed in the brafs tubes. If we can difcover any thing
like the fhadow of an objeétion to this ftructure of the com-
penfation-pendulum, it is, that the included {teel rods-not be-
ing expofed to the air, may not be fo foon affected by at-
mofpheric changes of temperature as. the brafs tubes; but
we can hardly perfuade ourfelves that the difference will ever
be fo fenfible as to affe@ the rate of going of the clock, fee-
ing all the parts are very contiguous to one another through-
out the whole length, and mult confequently affeét one ano-
ther’s. temperature, by that ise contiguity, at all times,
Figse 45 5) and 7, areviews of detached parts of the fufpens
fion, and ys. 8 and 9 of the crutch, all which we come now
to explain, as eff-ntial appendages of the pendulum. We
have already faid, that E, in Jig. 2, Plate XXII. is the
bracket on which the frame is fixed ; to this bracket the bra{s
trianzular frame G is ferewed faft, different views of which
may be feen in figs. 1, 2, and §, of Plate XXVII., as well as
in fig. 2, Plate XXIII., in the laft of which the f{eale is
larger than the others; at the top of this frame is a milled
nut, and under it a micrometer head, a, in Jigs. 15 2, and 3,
of Plate XXVIL1., with 22 divifions on the circumference of
the micrometer head to fuit the finenefs of the threads of the
fcrew, by which the adjultment for rate is made; below the
divided head is a {quare piece of metal, c, in Jig. 4, which in
jgs- & and 2 is concealed within a tube having a fquare
hole, feen at c, in jig. 5, feparately ; to the fuperior end of
this tube with a fquare hole is an index made falt, pointing
to the divided head, feen alfo in fig. 5, which figure 5, isa
detached view, on a jarger feale, of the part 2 in Sg: Risiat
the lowerend of the {quare piece c, in fig. 4, is the piece of
watch main-f{pring, called the {pring of {ufpenfion, to which
the middle {teel rod of the pendulum is pinned; that part of
the piece c, which receives the nut and divided head, being
tapped, draws the pendulum up and down when the divided
head refts on the frame G, and is turned in a proper direc-
tion; the cock 4, with its tube c, is fhewn as detached from
the frame G, in fg. 5, but the manner in which this cock is
attached to the frame, may be feen from the fittings; the
dove-tailed piece, d, when detached from the cock J, enters the
dove-tail of the cock G from d behind, above G, before the
fattening ferews attach it to the cock 4, while the cock refts
on the fhoulder of the frame G. Fig. 7, is afront view of the
cock 4, in fig. 5, and is on an enlarged {cale,as compared with
the fame in jig. 1; in this fg. 7, is a thumb-fcrew, which
draws the two pieces, e and Ff; together, between which the
fufpenfion {pring is clamped, after the adjuftment for rate
is finifhed ; fo that in fat, the lower edve of thefe two
c'amping pieces, e and /, may. be called the point of fuf=
penfion, as it relates to the diftance from the centre of
ofcillation of the pendulum; and is, therefore, the point
from which the effective length of the pendulum ought to
be meafured ; the {crew over e, which holds this piece to the
tube, ¢c, isin an oblong hole which allows the piece, e, to
move without the faid tube. Mig. 6, is a front view of the
frame top, when jig. 7; is taken off, the piece, d, in the cock,
as fhown in jig. 5, 1s here fhown in its place inferted into the
oblong dove-tailed hole of the flame, G, together with the
twofcrew-holes at each fide of the letter,d ; whenthe cockin
Jig: 75 is placed fo as to cover the fliding-piece, d, in fiz. 6,
and is ferewed falt to this piece by two {crews from behind
the frame, it is evident that, when one of the two lateral.
prefiing-ferews, sands, is turned forward and the other
back, the fliding-piece, d, and with it the whole cock in.
Jig.7, will move from right to left, or the contrary; as the
cafe may be, and confequently the pendulum, borne by
this cock, asin jg. 1, will have a lateral adjuftment, to-
bring the clock into exaét beat without the rough treatment
of bending the crutch,. which is often done in other clocks
when the {crews are-all faft, however, the cock is as fteady,
as though it had neither the vertical nor horizontal adfutt-
ment; and asthe pin at the lower end of the fquare piece,
¢, fig. 4, is fmaller than. the hole in the upper end of the
fulpenfion-{pring, the pendulum finds its own vertical pofi-
tion before it is clamped, as well as if it were to be fuf-
pended by Y* anda horizontal axis, that admit not of ad-
jultment for rate while the clock is going. ig. 8, is the
crutch, attached by. the fuperior end to the verge of the
pallets,
CLOCK-MAKER.
pallets, as feen behind the frame, in fig. 2, of Plate XXIII.
where its fork embraces the brafs tube on the upper end of
the pendulum, as feen in fig.9, of our prefent plate; in
Mr. Reid’s clock, we have feen, a folid part of the fork
entered an oblong hole in the pendulum, which hole was
formed of two jewels tc avoid friction; it may not appear
to the reader at firft why there fheuld be friion in this
hole; but if he confiders that the bent end of the crutch
moves in a portion of a circle of fmaller radius than the
perforated part of the pendulum does, ke will perceive that
the crutch-pin muft neceflarily afcend in this hole during
the excurfion of the pendulum, and the more, the further
the pendulum fwings; to avoid the afcent of the forked
part cf our prefent crutch, it ts not firmly attached, as ia
general, to the lower end of the vertical part of the crutch,
but the crutch is firft bent into the form of an L reverfed,
when viewed as in the plate, and then a pin is inferted into
the remote end, a, of the bent part to become a centre of
motion for the lever of the fork, which has a fmall tube
moving round the pin fo as to keep it in the fame plane al-
~ ways, as feen in fg.Q; in fig. 8, the curve of the fork is
in the fame pjane, facing the eye, as its lever; by means of
this contrivan ce the fork, which holds the top of the pen-
dulum-rod faft, moves in the fame radius of curvature with
it, and though it rifes and defcends alternately, as it regards
the point, a, round which it has an unreftrained motion, yet
it continues to clafp the fame part of the rod, and never
flides from its hold, thereby avoiding all friétion, except the
infenfible quantity at the point of motion, a. The ball of
the pendulum is of the lenticular fhape, but a little fiatten-
ed at the circumference to alow it to hold more lead, and to
be heavier than it otherwife would be. A {mall portion of
a circle is attached to the frame below the ball of the pendu-
Jum, at 48 inches from the point of fufpenfion, and a pointer
demitted from the ball fhows the number of tenths of an
inch contained in the whole arc of vibration: this clock
will go eight days, with a power of 3lb. 13 oz. avoirdupois,
falling fix inches per day; its arc of efcapement, on the
feale, is 2.2 inches, and the total are of vibration ufually,
avhen the clock is clean, 3.4 inches ; which numbers may be
converted into degrees and minutes, thus: the circumfer-
ence of a circle, of 48 inches radius, is véry nearly 151
inches; therefore fay, as 151 in. : 360°:: 3.4 in. : 8° 6’, the
whole are of vibration; alfo as 151 in.: 360° :: 2.2ine:
5° 14’, the whole arc of efcapement ; hence each whole ex-
curfion is 4° 3’, and each arc’ of a€tion on the pallets in that
excurfion 2° 37’, in the clock before us; which quantitiesare
to each other very nearly as 17 to 11. We do not profefs to
fay that thisis the belt ratio to be adopted in pra@tice between
the arc of excurfion and the are of a&tion on the pallets,
becaufe we believe that the experiments hitherto made on
dead-beat efcapements, to determine the beft flopes of the
faces of the pallets, have not been numerous enough to war-
rant a conclufion on this point, which, notwithitanding, we
think of great importance, and recommend to the notice of
clock-makers. Mr. Nicholfon, the author of the ‘* Jour-
nal of Philofophy,” &c. once informed us, in converfation,
that his feconds pendulum clock with a dead-beat efcapement,
having its curves nicely formed in a Jathe, does not vary its
daily rate more thanatecond per day, when the maintaining
power isincreafed as much as four or five times, or more, which
we believe, is not ufually the cafe with dead-beat efcapements;
we are not, however, at prefent informed of the exact quan-
tity of the are of aétion on the pallets, on which moft pro-
bably the ifockronal property chiefly depends, though we
sere at the fame time informed that the fufpenfion-f{pring is
tapered from the top downwards, in a way that aids the longer
2
vibration by quickening them. The fubjg& is worthy of
minute inveftigation, particularly as Berthoud has aflerted,
that in his experiments he always found his clocks retard
with the dead-beat efcaprment by the addition of weight to
the maintaining power, and vice-werfa@, which was his rea-
fon for contriving his :fochronal pallets. The experimental-
ift, however, ought to bear in mind, that both the length
of the are of action and the modification of the impulfe
vary with the flope of the pallet’s faces in the efcapement in
quettion.
Crock-mater. If we were to define the word
clock-maker agreeably to the’ derivation of the term, we
fhould fimply fay that it means a man who makes clocks,
and this definition, at one period of the art, would have
been fufficient for our purpofe ; but finceclocks havebecome
fo common as to be confidered as articles of houfehold
furniture, the art of making them has not been confined,
as at firft, to one department of mechanics, but has
gradually ramified into various branches, fo diftn@ from
one another, that the maker of on= part is frequently un-
acquainted with the operations requifite for themanipulations
of another, equally effential. Since the time that clocks
became an article of our manufattories, requiring various
tools and engines for facilitating their conitruétion, the
fubdivifion of the art into various departments was a natural
confequence, which has been fourd to contribute to expedi-
tion, and confequently to cheapnefs; and, for the fame
reafon that a tailor has no need to underttand either {pinning,
weaving, or dying, a finifher of a clock has now no oc-
cation to caft or cut his wheels himfelf, much lefs to make
his {prings or enamel his dial-plate. From cuftom, how-
ever, that man is called a clock-maker, who finifhes or puts
together the different conftituent parts of a clock when made,
and who has his profit from the fale of the machine ; though
the makers, more properly {peaking, arethe workmen employ-
ed in making the frame and contained wheel-work. The
different operations may, indeed, be moft of them performed
by one workman, when the coniirnétion is intended to be
peculiar, or the works of fuperior accuracy, but in general
the different departments of the art may be feparately
enumerated, agreeably to the fubjoined order, viz.
1. he brafs-founder cafts the wheels, plates, pillars, and
faces, according to approved models :
2. ‘Uhe fpring-maker forges, fhapes, and tempers the
main-fprings, to any required itrength or dimentions : ©
3. The making of the weights, to be ufed as maintain-
ing powers of the balls, or bobs, and hands, may be cons
fidered as one branch : : ,
4. The man who keeps a cutting-engine and a fufee-
engine, cuts the wheels and pinions, and forms the grooves
on the fufee or barrel, accordingly as a {pring or.fulpended
weight is ufed as a maintaining power :
5. The movement-maker mounts the frame, makes the
wheels, pinions, detents, &c. and places them in the frame.
agreeably to the propofed calliper. tear a
6. The clock-{mith forges the fteel pieces for the arbors,
Pinions, pallets, rack, hammer, detents, &c.:
7. The bel!-founder calts the bell, or bells when the
clock has chimes :
8. The enamelyer prepares the ground of the dial, or
face, for receiving he colour of the figures, and gets the
painter to lay en the figures, agreeably to the calliper, with
or withoura circle for the feconds :
Q. When the face is not of real enamel, a japanner, or
imitative enameller, prepares and finifhes the dial:
10. Whenthe face is brafs filvered, an engraver ufually
prepares, and fometimes alfo filvers it: :
11. A
CLOCK-MAKING.
rr. A jewelleris employed for the pallets and pivot-holes
of the belt aftronomical clocks and regulators :
12. The gilder is frequently employed for preparing the
ornamental parts of the cafe: \
13. The glazier is applied to for the door of the fuperior
part of the cafe; when a feconds pendulum is ufed,
and for the principal door fometimes, when the clock has a
fhort pendulum :
14. The cabinet maker is reforted to, ufually, for the
cafe of the clock ; and fometimes alfo the carver:
15. ‘Mhe chain or cat-gut maker is indifpenfably ne-
ecflary :
10, Recently the tubular compenfation-pendulum has
been made and adjufted, by the mathematical inftrument-
maker, as being a portion that requires great precilion :
17. Lattly, the finifher, or, as he is otherwile called, the
maker, polifhesthe teeth and fteel parts, finifhes the pivots,
verifies the engagement, adjufts the efcapement, limits the
are of vibration by adjufting the maintaining power to the
weight of the ball, regulates the adjuftments for beat and
rate, finifhes the ftriking and repeating parts, and puts
the whole machine into a ftate ready for fale.
Crocx-makers, Company of. See Company.
Crock-making. Clock-making, or the art of making
clocks, feems not to hold that rank among the mechanical
arts, which its conneCtion with the fciences, particularly that
of aftronomy, and alfo which the many ingenious improve-
ments it has undergone by the help of {cientific men, entitle
us to expe. The cuftomof working by piece-meal from efta-
blifhed'models, which, it mutt be allowed, contributes greatly
to expedition and cheapnefs, has, no doubt, conduced to ex-
clude calculations and geometrical principles from the work-
fhops of the prefent day : whence it arifes, that if we wifh to
be introduced to the workman who has had the greateft fhare
in the conftrution of our beft clocks, we mutt often fubmit
to be conducted up fome narrow paflage of our metropolis,
and to mount into a dirty attic, where we find illiterate in-
genuity clofely employed in earning a mere pittance, com-
pared with the price which is put on the finifhed machine
by the vender of more eafy circumitances, though the latter
has had little more trouble in the conftru€ion than to order
his name to be inferted before it is placed for public notice
in his bow-window. The praétical departments of this art
being thus frequently confined to the obfcurity of a garret,
it is no wonder that a dexterity at performing certain manual
operations, fuch as hammering, filing, drilling, turning,
foldering, tempering, polifhing, &c. fhould be confidered as
the perfection of the art, and that the reafon is frequently
not underftood by the workman himfelf, and feldom by his
employer, why the numbers of his wheels and pinions, and
the fhape, fize, and difpofition of the different portions of
his mechani{m, are deemed preferable to others which he
might have adopted as eafily, if, in his apprenticefhip, he
had been fo inftru&ted. Indeed we have not in the Englifh
language any regular inftructions for all the fucceflive por-
tions of work to be performed in the conftruction of a good
clock, which want is much to be regretted; for, until the
clock-maker by profeffion can proceed in his work on
{cientific principles, he mult be content to be a mere flave of
imitation in anart, which is capable of affording him genuine
pleafure, from the opportunities it affords, of calling in
{cience to his aid in every ftep that he takes, through an in-
finite variety of praétical conftru@tions. [t would tranfcend
the limits prefcribed to our plan, fhould we enter into a detail
of all the minutiz of the art, but as none of our predeceffors
have given the mechanician any information on this interefting
fubject, we will give a fucciné& account of the principal
Vor. VIII.
operations, as they prefent themfelves in fucceffion, which,
if it may not afford the expert and informed workman much
inftruction, will, we prefume, gratify the curiofity of the
inquifitive mind, as far as the detail goes.
The firft requilite to be determined, is the kind of machine
to be made choice of ; viz. whether the-clock is to be port-
able or fixed; how long it fhall go at one winding ups
whether its maintaining power fhall be a fufpended weight, or
a {pring ; what kind of a dial plate or face it fhall have for
the indication of time; what fhall be the nature of its
efcapement ; of what materials its pendulum hall be com-
pofed ; what fhall be the time of a vibration ; and whether or
not it fhall have the ftriking work : all thefe and fimilar deten-
minations, muft be made before the work is put into hand.
We will fuppofe that a portable eight-days clock, with a half-
feconds pendulum, and a {pring for a Maintaining power, is
fixed upon as the inftrument to be made, which we will take
as an example, on account of the variety of the parts which
fuch an inftroment confifts of ; and, to render the account
more complete, we will fuppofe that it be required'to go
whilft it is wound up, and that, for the fake of accuracy,
it have the dead-beat efcapement, and a compenfation
tel le 3 the laft of which is not very ufualin a portable
clock.
The going Part of an Eight-days Clock.
1. Calculation, Waving determined upon the kind of
clock to be made, the firlt thing to be done, and that in
which the clock-maker is generally deficient, is, to calculate
the movement, or proper number of teeth in the wheels, and
of leavesin the pinions, of the going part of the mechanifm.
Dr. Derham, in his * Artificial Clock-maker,’’? has treated
this fubjeét at confiderable length, and has laid down rules
which have tended more to puzzle than affift the workman in
the choice of his numbers ; he propofes to take at random a
certain number of vibrations per hour for a pendulum of an
afflumed length, to reprefent his train, and then to find the
factors or numbers, which, ufed as multipliers, fhall give
the requifite produat, or nearly fo ; after which each faétor
is reprefented by a ratio of two optional numbers, to cons
ftitute a wheel and its pinion. We will not follow the Doétor
through his proceffes here, but merely obferve, that, by cal-
culating his whole movement at one operation from anaffumed
number of vibrations, he has introduced a variety of fuch
trains into portable clocks and watches, as male a vibration
of the fhort pendulum, and an ofcillarion of the balance, no
exact fraction of a fecond ; in fhort he has begun at the wrong
end of the bufinels; has fist fixed on the length of his pen-
dulum in inches, without confidering exactly the number of
vibrations it would make, and then calculated a train that
would fo nearly fuit it, that the adjuftment for time by
the bob, would compenfate the defeét of the numbers ; the
confequence has been, that the exadt value of a vibration in
a portable clock, and of an ofcillation in an ordinary watch,
has hitherto been difregarded: in the conftrn@ion. On the
contrary, we recommend to the clock-maker, firft to fix
upon his number of vibrations per fecond, and then to calcu-
late the true length of his pendulum, and exaé& value of his
train agreeably to the number of vibrations per fecond that
he previoufly determined, The moft fimple way of calculat-
ing the numbers proper for the movement of any clock, in-
tended to fhow feconds, is, by dividing it into three portions,
and then by calculating the wheels and pinions for each
feparate portion, by a feparate calculation, beginning at
the bottom of the train ; thus,-we firft fix upon the pinion of
the hour arbor to be, fuppofe 8, which is a good practical
number; and as our piece js to. go cight days, we will make
3X the
CLOCK-MAKING.
the fufee to revolve in 12 hours, which conftru€tion will re-
quire the great wheel on its arbor to be 8x 12, or 96, becau e
the pinion of 8 revolves, with the minute hand on its pro-
jecting pivot, in one hour; hence if we divide 192, the
number of hours in eight days, by 12, the time of one revolu-
tion of the great wheel, the quotient 16 will be the number
of efieGive {piral grooves neceflary to be cut on the circum-
ference of the fufee, in order that the picce may go jolt
eight days. This portion of the movement is not, however,
called a part of the train, but only determines, as has been
faid, the time that the clock fhall continue to go after each
winding up of the maintaining power; and it is eafy to con-
ecive, that if a fufee or a barre, with 24 turns of the catgut or
chain, were placed on the hour arbor, the clock would go a
natural day without the large wheel; and alfo, that if an
intermediate wheel and pinion were placed on the arbor be-
tween the hour arbor and the great wheel, the time of
going might be prolonged to Ic, 12, or even 20 times
eight days, but then the maintaining power muft be
proportionably increafed, which circumftance renders
fuch aconftruétion by no means defirable in a regula-
tor, particularly as the auxiliary fpring now in ufe will
keep the piece in motion during the act of winding up.
The remaining portion of the movement is properly called
the train, including thofe wheels and pinions only, which are
ufed for counting the vibrations made in an hour; the train is
moft eafily afcertained by two calculations, one for the two
wheelsand two pinionswhich multiplythe minutesintofeconds,
and the other for that wheeland pinion, or thofe wheels and
pinions, which fubdivide the feconds into vibrations; the form-
er of thefe two portions of the train, like the firft portion of
the movement, or portion for the period of continuance, is
the fame for a!! clocks, let the time_of vibration be what it
may, acircumftance not ufually confidered ; the ratio of ve-
locity to be gained by the pinion on the arbor of the feconds
hand, compared with the wheel on the arbor of the mi-
nutes hand, is required to be 6o : 13 which effect might
be produced by one wheel of 300 tecth, and a pimion of
« leaves, asis done in fome of the ornamental French pieces ;
but the fize of the wheel is cumberfome, therefore a pair of
wheels, with a pair of pinions, one conftituting a ratio or
vulgar fraction equal in value to 8, and the other equal to
71, making 8 x 74 = 60, or any other two numbers
making a fimilar produ&t, will produce the fame effe& with
fewer teeth ; for if the pinions be each 8, the wheels, in this
cafe, will be refpeCtively 64 and 60, the compound ratio
§
6
abs if pinionsof rohadbeen chofen, the wheels would havebeen
8 x 10 = 80, and 10 X 74 = 75, which numbers would
indeed have lefs friGtion than the preceding ones, by reafon
of their teeth aGting at lefs depth, the diameters of the
wheels remaining the fame,-and would moreover be capable
of ating more behind than before the line joining the cen-
tres of the wheel and pinion ; in like manner, pinions of 6
would require wheels of 48 and 45, and pinions of 12 wheels
of 96 and go, as may be feen in Zuzd/e LI. in our fubfequent
article, denominated CLock-movement. i
The laft portion of the movement, or fecond portion of
the train, fora half-feconds pendulum, will require only one
wheel of 60 teeth on the feconds arbor, properly shaped for
the efcapement ; for as one tooth in the dead-beat and com-
mon anchor efcapements efcapes completely at two vibra-
tions of the pendulum, 6o teeth will efcape, that is, a whole
revolution of the feconds hand will be made, in 120 vibra-
tions; if, however, the pendulum had been required to vie
brate feconds, the wheel in queftion, called ufually the {wing
x - being equal to the fimple a and, by the fame pro-
wheel, in oppofition to the crown-wheel, which requires
another efcapement, would have demanded only 30 teeth
for that purpofe ; and if three vibrations had been fixed up-
on, the number tocorrefpond muft have been go, otherwife
there mutt have been a, wheel and pinion of the value of 3,
a
f 8 a5 :
like —, or =, in addition to the ufual fwing-wheel of 30;
or, which is the fame thing, a wheel and pinion of the value
eS x
of 6, like —)0r = muft have been introduced between the
feconds arbor and a pallet, or fwing-wheel of 15. (See Ta-
ble 11. under Crock-movement.) Thus all the variety in
the calculation of trains, where feconds are indicated, is con-
fined, as we have intimated, to the laft portion of the move-
ment, and the calculation itfelf is fo fimple, that the mere
altering of the numbers of the pallet-wheel will convert a
clock with a feconds pendulum into one with half-feconda,
and wice ver/a. , :
2. Notation of the Numbers. The calculation of numbers
fuitable for an eight-days clock with a half-feconds pendu-
lum being thus readily obtained by three fimple operations,
which may be had by mere infpe€tion from the three tables
contained in the article CLocK-movement,the wholemay be re-
preiented, and itsvalue eltimated again by acompound fraGtion
Pa) 8 di I
Ee: Lee car x 6a Sareea
8
K eagle 8
is the fame thing in effe&, ars x a x
of 12 hours, or, which
oem I
60.. 60.x 2
we : of 12", or 86400 vibrations in 312
44236800 64800 ,
‘hours, which is the time of a revolution of the fufee, and
: 86400
great wheel, 96, on its arbor, and therefore
, or 7209
vibrations, each of half a fecond in duration, in one hour,
conftitute the value of this train. This mode of notation
gives the value better than any other perhaps that has been
adopted ; but the pofition of the wheels and pinions will be
better underltood from the ordinary mechanical method of
writing them down; thus:
Great wheel 96
Pin. 8—64 hour wheel
Pin. S —60 fecond wheel
Pin. S—6o0 {wing wheel
2 pallets.
Indeed it is difficult to write down the movement by any
one notation that fhall exprefs, at the fame time, both the-
value and pofition of the wheel-work, on which account we
recommend to the workman to write down his numbers by
both forms, taking care in the method, by compound ratios,
to put all the drivers under the line of divilion, and all the
driven onesabove ; fo that when an afcending movement is. °
reprefented, the wheels may be the denominators, and when
a defcending one, the pinions. In our mode of calculation.
from the bottom of the train, the notation muft be, as we
have made it, afcending. ;
3. Proportioning. ‘The calculation of proper numbers be-
ing made and noted down, the next ftage of the work ispro-
portioning the diameters of the wheels and of their refepece
tive pinions, fo as to tran{mit the maintaining power from the
fufee, or barrel in an ordinary 30 hours clock, to the pal-
lets, and thence to the pendulum, to compenfate the lofs of
motion which, when unaided, it would futtain from frigtion
and the refiftance of the air. If awheel and pinion were to
be made like two rollers, prefling their edges againft one an-
6 other,
CLOCK-MAKING.
other, to produce a communication of rotatory motion,
their diameters might and ought to be in geometrical
proportion direétly as their calculated numbers of teeth ;
but the force of the maintaining power would be too
great to be fultained by mere friG@ion ‘at the points
of conta&t of fuch rolling wheels and pinions; they have
therefore been neceffarily indented, and their teeth mu-
tually inferted fo far into their correfponding fpaces, as to
prevent the revolution of one wheel or pinion without a cor-
refponding motion produced in the next adjoining, which
would not bethe cafe with rollers, if a confidzrable force im-
peiled them at one end of the train, and at the fame time a
retarding force oppofed them at the other; for their fur-
faces, at the point of greateft oppofition to free motion,
would mutually rub without effeimg a communication of
yotary motion beyond fuch point, If now we call the points
of contact of the two rollers, made in geometrical proportion
to each other, or, in other words, the points where they pitch
again{t one another, the pitch-line, and conceive a number of
projecting little levers, or teeth, fixed at proper intervals
from each cther at thefe points of conta&, in the circular
pitch line of each roller, we fhall havea true idea of two
wheels properly proportioned to a& together, which,
when of unequal diameters, will not now be in geo-
metrical proportion to each other, by reafon of an equal
lever, or length of tooth, being added to each feparately,
after they were in exa&t geometrical proportion ; moreover,
it will be eafily apprehended that the deviation from their
original proportion, in the {tate of rollers, will be the greater,
the greater their difparity of numbers. Hence it will be
readily conceived, that the due proportioning of wheels and
Pinions isan important object in clock-making, for, fup-
pofing the teeth refpetively of the true epicycloidal forms,
invelticated under CLock-movement, unlefs the refpective
fizes be properly adjufted, the tran{miffion of the maintaining
power, and communication of motion, will both be unequa-
ble, and the mechanifm fubjeé to rapid deftru€tion. ‘The
ufual mode of proportioning, or fizing wheels and pinions, as
it 1s often called, is, firft to make both alittle too big for the
propofed calliper, and then, having rounded all the teeth of
the pinion and a few of the correfponding wheels, to diminifh
the latter in the lathe, or turning frame, gradually, until, by
fucceflive trials in the clock-frame, they are found to a& ata
proper depth, when placed in the pivot-holes previoufly
made; this vulgar mode we reprobate, as calculated to de-
ftroy the due pratical proportions, and hope to fee it banifh-
ed from the workfhops by the general: adoption of a bet~
ter method, which we have now to propofe.
In proportioning wheels and pinions, after the numbers of
their teeth are determined upon, two particulars are to be
attended to, the coarfenefs or folidity and the fhape of the
tooth; the former may be expreffed by the number of teeth
per inch in the circumference of the wheel; and the latter
by the denomination epicycloidal: if 2 tooth were
rounded in a circular fhape, which we by no means re-
commend, the pitch-line would be confidered as at one
half the breadth of the tooth from the extreme edge ;
but when it is rounded, as we have recommended
in our article Crock-movement, in an epicycloidal fhape,
or as the workmen call it, the day-/eaf form, Hatton
has found, from numerous experiments, that the depth, or
diftance of the pitch-line from the circumference, will gene-
rally be 3 of the breadth of the tooth in any wheel or pi-
nion; and as the epicycloidal is the beft fhape for the regu-
lar tran{million of force and velocity, we will adopt it as
the beit for pra&tice. We have juft faid that when
au epicycloidal-tooth is ufed, the diftance of the pitch
line from the end of the tooth is equal to % of ita
breadth, and if we {uppofe the tooth and fpace cut to be re~
ciprocally equal, we fhall have the true acting diameter of any
wheel or pinion greater thanthe zeometrical diameter, which
Camus calls aifo the primitive diameter, by 3 of a tooth or
fpace, on each fide of the centre, or 14 in the whole diame-
ter; let now a {pace ora tooth be called a mea/ure. and there
will be double the number of meafures as teeth in any wheel ;
alfo let thefe meafures of the circumference be reduced into
meafures of the diameter by the ufual ratio, of 3.1416: Ty
and then 13 added to fuch geometrical meafures of the dia~
meter will give the proper ating diameter, which may be
exprefled in inches and parts when the meafures per inch are
known. For initance, let our great wheel and its pinion
ae be taken at 12 teeth per inch at the pitch-line, which
y
may in practice be more or lefs,, according to the thicknefs
of the metal compared with the maintaining power as mo~
dified at the wheel’s circumference ; the number of meafures
of the great wheel is 192, viz. 96 teeth and 96 fpaces,
each meafuring 1-24th of an inch; then as 3.1416: 1 ¢
192 : 61.1; therefore, if to the geometrical diameter ex~
prefled by 61.1 meafures there be added 1.5, the fum 62.6
or 62,5 will be the acting diameter in the fame pape a
62.
tion, which are fo many 24th parts of an inch; but
22
gives 2.6 inches for the full a€ting diameter of the wheel in
queftion :—again, the pinion 8 has 16 fimilar meafures in its
circumference, and by the fame proportion the diameter will
be 5.09 meafures ; to which if 1.5 be added, the atting dia~
meter will be 5.09 + 1.5 = 6.59, or with fufficient ac
curacy 6,5, which divided by 24 as before, will give the
fame 52%; of an inch, or fomewhat more than a quarter
for the ating diameter of the pinion. Upon thefe
principles Hatton (‘* Introduétion to the Mechanical
Part of Clock and Watch-work,” page 334,) has con-
ftruéted a table of the fizes of pinions meafured dia-
metrically, and compared by a pair of callipers with
a given number of teeth and fpaces, in their correfs
ponding wheels, which many workmen copy in prac-
tice; but as his calculations are founded on a fuppolition
that the ends of the teeth are circular, requiring unity as
the fupplemental portion, we find them differ effentially
from Berthoud’s determination in his ‘ Effai fur l’Hor-
logerie,” p. 172, tome i. and fhall therefore infert here a
new table calculated on a fuppofition that the curve is epi-
cycloidal, and that the circumference is to the diameter as
3: 1, inftead of 3.1416: 1; the refult of which mode
agrees very nearly with Berthoud’s experiments on the pro-
per fizes of wheels and pinions, and therefore we recommend
it to the notice of the accurate workman.
Table of the true praGical Sizes of Pinions.
Teeth in the Meafures of the Wheel for a
Pinjons. Diameter of the Pinion,
ay ae - Saher:
4 - - - 4.1
5 - - - 4.3
ple eich bel Wc
7 | - - - 6,1
8 ~§ - - 6.8
Cie - : 7:5
3X2 Teeth
s
CLOCK-MAKING,
Teeth in the Meafures of the Wheel for a
Pinions. Diameter of the Pinion.
Rie) > > - 8.1
qr - - - 8.8
52 y= - Son 705
1 - - > Io.f
By - > - 10.8
15 - - - Tl 5
16 Sabena
The procefs by which this table is calculated is fimply
this; multiply the pinion by 2 for the meafures in the cir-
cumference ; divide by 3 for the diameter, and add thereto
12 for the acting fize; thus for the diameter of a pinion of
6, itis6 x 2 = 3 + 13)= 5% or 5.5; namely, 6 x 2
12, and ce 4 and 4 + 1.5 = 5.5 for the meafures ;
3
which laft quantity taken by the callipers acrofs the extreme
edge of the wheel will be 3 teeth and 24 fpaces, or 3 {paces
and 24 teeth, which are here fuppofed to be cut but not
rounded.
The application of this table, it is prefumed, cannot be
eafily miflaken by any workman who underltands that the
figures in the fecond column, to the left of the decimal
point, mean fo many meafures, either teeth or fpaccs, and
the figure to the right of the faid point, fo many tenth parts
more of a meafure to be added to the integral meafures. It
may be proper to add here that a proportioned pinion mult
be made fomewhat fmaller fora fmall wheel than for a large
one, and alfo fmaller when driven than when it is the driver.
We now know the numbers of our movement, and alfo that
whatever the diameters of the wheels may be, our pinions of
8 mult be turned in the lathe till their diameters are pre-
cifely each 6.8 meafures, or three teeth and very nearly four
fpaces, (taken by a pair of pinion callipers from their refpec-
tive wheels, in a ftraignt line acrofs the ends of the teeth)
either before or after they are flit, as the operation of di-
viding and cutting is called by the workmen. The diame-
ters of the wheels are ufually made to diminifh as the train
afcends, probably becaufe the force to overcome their iner-
tia diminifhes, and the fri&tion alfo is lefs in fine teeth with
flender pivots, than in coarfe ones with thick pivots: in-
deed there feems to want a ftandard rule for the guide of
workmen inthis particular. Having taken the great wheel
at 12 teeth per inch, meafured at the pitch line, we will
take the centre wheel of 64 at 14, and the fecond wheel of
60 at 16, which will make fomething like a regular diminu-
tion in the fizes in the afcent of the train, and allow us room
enough in our plates for the reprefentation. From thefe da-
ta, by the help of the foregoing direGtions, we readily afcer-
tain the requifites for drawing the calliper as expreffed in
the fubjoined table.
Table of Wheels and Pinions.
| Geometrical
Teetht Acting Diameters
| Wheels. per | Diamete's | meafured
Inch. | in Inches. | fiom the
Pitch Lines
Great wheel 96412} 2.60 2.55
Its pinion 3.) 12, |)" 0.273 0.21
Centre wheel 64 | 14} 1.514 1.46
{ts pinion 8 | 14 | 0.234 0.18
Second wheel 60 | 16 1.24 1.19
[ts pinion 8 | 16} 0.207 0.16
Swing wheel’ 60 | 16] 1.24
Pennington, of Camberwell, the ingenious mechanift
who con{trué&ed Mr. Mudge’s time-piece, and gave the
drawings in Mr. Mudge’s pamphlet, has paid particular
attention to the fubject of fizing wheels and pinions, and
has publithed a fmall pamphlet, recommending the ufe of
his method of calculation by a feftor of a peculiar con-
itruGtion; but we do not find that its. ufe has become
general. On conferring with him, we were informed that
his praétice is, to add 25 meafures of the geometrical
diameter to the wheel, and 14 to the pinion, in watch-work,
when the wheel is the driver; and 1,8, to each, when the
pinion is the driver. This rule, it wili be feen, differs very
little from our theory above laid down, where we obferved
that the driver ought to be fomewhat larger than the pro-
portion afiizned by the addition of 14 parts or meafures to
each, and more particularly where the wheels have {mall
diameters, as is the cafe in watch-work. But, as the good
action of wheels and pinions depends upon their being duly
proportioned and callipered, as well as on a proper fhape
being given to the teeth, the latter of which requifites is
defcribed under Crock-movement, we will not fatisfy ours
felves with having given our own method of fizing, which-
it is poflible the unlettcred portion of the workmen may not
underftand, by reafon of its requiring fome knowledge of
arithmetical proportion, but we will add moreover the
method of fizing piions pra¢tifed and recommended by
F. Berthoud, in his “ Effai fur Horlogerie,” which is as
follows; wiz. ;
No. of The full or adiing Diameter of the Pinion.
4 = two full teeth of the wheel, unrounded, and the Space.
between. ;
5 = three teeth, rounded from point to point.
6 = three full teeth, unrounded.
7 = three full teeth anda quarter of a {pace beyond,
8 = four teeth, rounded, from point to point.
9 = fomewhat lefs than four full teeth,
10 = four full teeth.
ri no meafure given,
12 = five full teeth.
13 no mealure given.
14 = fix teeth, rounded from point to point.
15 = fix full teeth.
The pinions in watches, he remarks, muft be fmaller in.
comparifon with their wheels. than in clocks, agreeably to
what we have above faid.
Copioufly, however, as we have treated the fubje& of
proportioning the fizes of wheels and pinions in a train of
wheel-work, we think the fubje¢t of fuch importance, that
we are unwilling to» fatisfy ourfelves with merely having
explained, and illuttrated, by an example, the method of
converting geometrical into practical dimenfions, but hope
to render the bufinefs ftill more familiar by an extenfive
table containing the geometrical diameters of all numbers
from 4 to 64; and alfo twenty different. variations in the
ftrength of the tooth which we have: newly calculated on.
purpofe. The data, on which the table is calculated, have
been already explained, and its application, it is prefumed, ,
is fo eafy, that the geometrical diameter, in inches and
decimal parts, of any wheel.or pinion contained therein, .
maybe feen by infpection, and immediately converted into .
the proper practical diameter, by the fimple addition of the
quantity of engagement of the tooth, at the bottom of the
fame vertical column, out of which the geometrical diameter
is taken, which addenda are calculated on a {uppofition that
the teeth are intended to be rounded of an epicycloidal form,
Ls Table.
CLOCK-MAKING,
Table of the Geometrical Diameters of Wheels and Pinions,
Teeth per Inch,
For PeGuilwronl triton fire /° 14 35 yak W7ilen8 ro 20 jl 21) 22
Wheels and
Pinions
4| 32] .25 18] .16] .r4] 013] .12].105].098] 09].085] .o8|.o751 .c7 |.067 |.064 |.061 1058)-O5) .053|
ea Samael | eae aap borat | Pree liga s TAGE aay =|
5] »40] .32 23| .20} .18} .16] .15 | .13] .12] -11}.106] .10 |.094] .o9|.084] .o8 |.076 igs 07 |.0 7
a) eee) LRA Ea | SC | mee erie oT 5 een i) TRE | an Kec i
6} .48} .38 27 | e24}) 20 |) «LO |pidy |) LOW ol 4i|i 523 | 12 |) 11105 | iT .046 |.091 .087 |.083 08 |
| 501) 45 BQ Mees |p 22ul) OM UO |ekn|) LON Mol Sl oa Arai edz «11 |.106]-T0T |.097 093 |
8} .64] .51 BOS 2) e2OH s2501 523 lhe 20 Le ZON, 0)
> 16/1.28 |r.02}).
—
17|1.36f1.08
—
cave 1.15} -96} .82] .771 .64] -571/-52| -48| .44] .41|)-38] .351 34] -32] 30
19]1.52|1.21 {1.01 | .86] .75
67
2011.59 |1.27 11.06] .o1} .79] .71| -64} -§8) -53] -49} -45] -421 -39] 371 -35] .33] 32] -30] .29| -28] -26
74
ce ae ee ee
21/1.67 11.33 |f-T1] .96| .83
22|1.75 11.40 |t.17 |t.00| .87] .78| .70
23/1.83 11.46 |1.22 |f.04|] .gt || .81| -73
—f —__
2411.91 |1.53
1.27 |i.09] .96| .85) .76
2511.99 1-59 |1-33 |[f-14] -99) -88]| .79 ‘53| -49| -47| 44] -42] 39) 38) 36] 35] 33,
26}2.07 |1.66 |£.38 1.18 }1.03] .92| .83
— |———|—_| ——_
27/2.15 |t.72 |1.43 |1-23|1.07| .96| .86
29/2.31|1.85 | 0-54./1-32 |Le15 |I.02] .93
3012.39] 1.91 [1-59 [1.37 |1-19|1.06] .96
—jJ — | | | |
1)2.47 |1.97 |1.64 |1.41 |1.23 |1-09] -99]| -go
—} — |} | — | —— |] | |
— |< | ——— | —— |} ———— | ———_| ——_ ———= | ef | — | | |
33)2-63 [2.40 |t-75 |t.50 1.31 |I.17 |1.05
ed ed es ee ee sy a es i ee, iy
‘es 188 |.150].125 |-107 a0 .083 |.075]-068 |.063 f.058].054 | .05 |.047 |.044 |.042 | .04]-038 |.036 |.034 |.033]-
en
=
25 fae
es mn | a 6 vA 8 9
=
2 fica Wa ee |
22) 2.79) 2.22) 1 $5] T.59/1-39 |1-23
Oh tee [enact (Gees | peas
12:97 2028 /£.91 11.63 [1.43 [1.27
37/2.95 12-35 |1-96 |1.68 |1.47 |1.31
CLOCK-MAKING.
Table af the Geometrical Diameters of Wheels and Pinions (continued)
Teeth per Inch.
[.1I |1.O14 93| 86
1.14 |1.04] .96| .88
1,18
a 533.03 |2,42 2.02 )1.73/0-51 rst 21 aoe LOL] .93
mal | pee 3 en ae EB es
39)3.10 2.48 2.07 [1.77 1-55 |1-38|t-24 1.13 £031 96
40/3.18|2.55 2.22 11.82 659 141 [te27 ex aa 98
4113.27 12.61 2-17 1.87 |1.63 |0.45 AUR aS hseluon
213.35 ee 2.23 Mor lmerieus ian ae eae 1.03
433.43 2 73 |2-28 |£.96 |1-71 RE ait eas
2.33 /2-
3 |1.63
1.10
[313
1.70
1.73
1.77
1.88
L.gI
(.49]1.36 |E.25 |1-15
1.53139) t-27 [e28
£657 [1.42 [1.30 [1-20
ia 1.48 fed a
—— |— —
1.35 |1.25
3 [1.48
6 }1.84}1.66|1.51 [1.38 |t.27 |1.18
£.69]€.54|1.40]!.30
.72]1.56|1.43 |1-32
1.75 |£-59 |1-46 [1-35
—_——_|— — | ——_ | —_—
1.78 |1.62 |£.49 |£.37
1.82 [1.65 | 1.51 [1-40
1.55 |1.68] 1.54 |1.42
2.09
2-12
a
6415.10 14.07 |3-40 |2.92 |2.54 |2.27
Epicycleidal
Addend
1.88 ]1.70]1.56}1-45
1.91 |1.74.|1.59 [1-47
T.O4]1-77 |L.61 |1-50
15 ro. 17
81] .76
93
-96| -89| -83} -79| -74] -70
98] -91t} .85 | -80] .76) -72
1.02] .95] .89| .84] 80] .75
1.04
1.07||-99| -93 | -88| .83] -79
1.09 |I.01} .95 go | 85] .So
I.11|1.04] .97]| -92| .86| .82
I.14 |1.06
1.16|1.08|r.01| -95| .go| .85
1.20 |1.03 | .97 2} .67
1.26 |1.12 69} .94| .8
1.22 |T.14
= = 1
1.25 |1.16|1.09
1.27 |1-19 |1.11 |1.05| .99| -93
1,29 |1.21 | 1.13 |£.07 |t.o1r | .95
T.31 |1.23 |f.15 |L.09
ea ee
1.34|1.25 |1.17|I.10
1.36 |1.27 |1.19 |t.12|f.06 |1.00
1.38 [1.29 |1.21 |1.34 11.08 |1.02
1.05] .98
1.41 |1.31 |£.23 |1.16|1.09 [1.03
1.98 |1-79 ]1.64 |1.52
2.01 |1.82)1.67 |1.54 |1-43 11.33 |1.25 [1.18 [1.11 |1.05 |1.00] .96] .91| .87} .83
2.04|1.85 |1.70 ]1.57 |1-46 |1-36 |1.27 |1.20 11,13 |1.07 |1.02
-188}1.50}.125 |.107 094 |.083 |-075 |-068 |.063 |.058 |.054 | .05 |.047 |.044].042| .04|.038 |0.36].034 |.033 |.031
20 | 211 22
62) 59} +57] +54
-71| .68! .65) .62
79] -73
af
-94| -89] -85| .81
a pees ee ep
-95| -91
-99| -94| -59) .85| Se
97
-87| .82
=
24
78
79
CLOCK-MAKING.
Uf: of the Table.
r. In the preceding table, the figures at the top of
each column, from 4 to 24, denote the numbers of teeth
per inch, and thofe at the left hand, from 4 to 64, denote
the numbers of fuch teeth inthe refpefive wheels and
pinions, and the fquares, formed by the vertical and
horizontal columns interfeCting eachother, contain, ininches
and decimal parts of an inch, the geometrical diameters of
the wheels or pinions fo circumftanced, to which diameters,
if the quantity of engagement entitled, ‘* addenda” at the
bottom of the vertical column be added, the fum will be
the practical fize of the wheel or pinion ftanding at the left
hand of the faid horizontal column; for inftance, let ustake
our centre whee) of 64 of r4 per inch, and we fhall find at
the interfeCtion of 64 at the fide and 14 atthe top, 1.46
for the diameter, and under it .o54, as the quantity to be
added, which together make 1.514, agreeably to our former
calculation; alfo, if we take its pinion 8, the interfection
of 8 at the fide and 14 at the top 1s 0.18, and the quantity
to be added again .054, the fum of which is 0.234, as
before. The application of the table to all other numbers,
both of teeth in the whole, and teeth per inch, is
equally eafy and accurate; and even if the numbers run too
high for the vertical columns, like our great wheel 96, the
refult may be as well obtained by taking the halves, or
other component parts, feparately, and ufing their fum after-
wards as a whole; for half of 96: is 48 and the interfeGtion
of 48 with 12 per inch is 1.27, which doubled gives 2.54
for 96, to which add .063 and the practical diameter is
2.603 as before determined; or otherwife take out for
. 50 + 46 and the fum will be 1.32 4-31.22 = 2.54 for the
geometrical diameter again as before. This mode of ap-
. plication renders the table unlimited in its extent.
2. But the determination of the practical diameter of a
wheel, fuitable for a given number of teeth, of a given
itrength, is not the only ufe of this table; any two of the
three things cdntained being given in clock and watch-work,
the third may be found by in{peétion, of which the preced-
.ing is but one variety 5 as another exempliiication, if it were
required to cut a wheel of fome given dimenfions into a
given number of teeth, the fize of the cutter, which is of
great importance, may be immediately afcertained ; for,
fuppofing that a wheel of 1 inch diameter be required to be
cut into 45 teeth, if we follow the column 45 horizontally
towards the right hand till we come at .95, which has .o5
for its epicycloidal addition, the fum 1.00 or 1 is found in the
column 15 per inch, which denotes twice the thicknefs of the
cutter ; and though the fum may feldom be found, in other
inftances, to be fo exa&t without a fraction, yet the nearett
number to the given diameter is always readily found, and if
the difference between the teeth per inch, in the columns
next above and next below, be taken, the proportional part,
properly applied, will give a decimal quantity to be added
to the thicker cutter, or lower number per inch, provided
very great accuracy be requifite in the thicknefs of the
eutter. A
3. When the cutter and dimenfions of the wheel
are given without the number of teeth, which may be the
cafe in fome inflruments with rack adjuftment work, where
calculations are out of the queftion, come down the
horizontal column from the teeth per inch fuitable for the
cutter, till the diameter givenis met with; thus in the
column of 5 per inch, for a wheel of 2 inches, the addition
..15 added to 1.85 makes 2.0 exaétly, and this coincidence
happens in the horizontal column 29, which number will
therefore be that of the wheel, for which. the engine for
cutting muft be fet to perform the requifite work. Thus
the table is not only extremely ferviceable to the clock-
maker, but to all inftrument-makers where wheel-work is
required,
4. Laftly, when the number of teeth per inch is not
afcertained in a wheel, and the diameter of a correfponding
pinion of a given number is wanted, the meafured diameter
of the wheel, excluding the rounded ends of the teeth,
will be at any time fufficient for finding, by the table, the
correfponding pinion, and vice verfi; for fuppofing the
wheel to be 48, and its diameter, exclulively of the rounded
ends of the teeth, 1.7 or 1-7, inches; from 48 on the left
hand vertical column proceed horizontally till 1.7 is found,
which will be in column g per inch; then in that vertical
column afcend till the given pinion, § for inftance, ftands
oppolite on the left hand, and its geometrical diameter is
.28, to which, if its epicycloidal addendum be added, wiz.
-053, the fum .363 will be the practical diameter of the
pinion wanted: and in this way any wheel or pinion,
previoufly made for a foreign purpofe, may readily and
accurately be made a portion of aclock-movement ; and
the calliper made accordingly.
4. Callipering —We come next to laying down the plan
or calliper of the clock-movement on pafteboard to be tranfe
ferred to the plates of the frame when properly hammered,
filed, and f{eraped, or planed ; the difpofition of the calliper
depends not on the acting, but on the geometrical propor-
tions of the wheels and pinions, conjointly with the difpof-
tion of the circles of indication on the face; when the
wheels are {mall, fuch as we have chofen for our example of
a half-fecond’s pendulum, the diftance from the minute to
the fecond hands will not be too great for an ordinary:
face, if the arbors are pivoted in a ftraight line, as in fg. 3,
of Plate X. where the dotted circles, taken from the latt
column of our Tasre of Wheels and Pinions, reprefent the
geometrical proportions, or the places of the pitch-lines, and
the complete circles taken from the column of ‘¢ aéting dias
meters in inches,” are fuppofed to coincide with the extreme
ends of the teeth ; hence the little fpaces contained between
the dotted and complete circles, at each fide, reprefent the
additional meafure and half of each wheel and pinion, fuch as
were determined by calculation, toconvert the geometrical into
the actual fize, or fuch as are given bythe large TaBve of geo-
metrical diameters and addenda. It is evident, therefore, to the
eye, that the diftance between any two arbors or pivot holes
isalways equal to the fumof the geometrical radii of thewheel
and pinion, which aé& together; this confideration renders
the bulinefs of callipering very fimple ; for, the centre wheel
of 64 being defcribed from any convenient point in the given
plane, a portion of a larger circle, A B, may be defcribed with
1.46+0.18
an extent equal to = .82, or 82, of an inchy
which is half the fum of the geometrical radii of the wheel
64, and of its pinion 8, and the pivot hole of the pinion may
be in any point of this chord line ; we have fixed upon a
point in aline parallel to the fide of the plate, from which as
acentre we defcribe the fecond wheel of 60, and alfo the
pinion of 8 on its arbor, to be a€tuated by the centre wheel
of 64; we now take another {weep from this determined
1.19+.16
point or pivot hole, with the extent = .67,,0r-92
Too
of an inch, which is again half the fum of the geometrical
radii of the fecond wheel and its pinion, according to our
table; and the pivot hole of the feconds arbor, or pallet
wheel, may be in any point of the chord CD; but we have
faid we propofed to have all the pinions ina ftraight line ,.
another.
CLOCK-MAKING,
another point ts confequently fixed upon ina line parallel to
the edge of the plate, which could not have been the cafe, if
the wheels had been large, like thofe ufually adopted to ful-
tain the great maintaining power of a feconds pendulum.
2655-21
Again with the extent
os Cl TA
; 1.37, or 1537, inches,
or fum of the geometrical radii of the great wheel and
centre pinion, which it a€iuates, we defcribe the portion of
acircle E I’, in any point.of which the pivot hole may be
placed for the fufee arbor ; we have placedit, in our calliper,
ina point at ight angles to the line of the centres of the
train, which is a matter of option, and the {pring barrel may
be cither above, below, or on one fide of the fufee, as fancy,
or the room left by the other work, may dire&t. From
what has been here faid, it will be eafy to conceive that there
is almoft an endlefs -variety in calliper-drawing, the difpofi-
tion depending on the variable fizes of the wheels and pinions
of a movement, compared with the diftance from the feconds
to the minute-hand arbors; but the particulars we have
here detailed, being thoroughly underflcod, will fuffice as a
guide in all poffible cafes; for, fuppofing a face to be pre-
vioufly given, and the centres for the minute and fecond
hands already made, the pivot hole for the fecond wheel may
eafily be determined by interfeGion from the two given
centres with the refpediive extents as above determined ; pro-
vided the diameters of the wheels be calculated large enough
for the diftance of the given centres ; tbat is, provided the
aggregate of the geometrical radii of the two interpofed
wheels and pinions exceed the faid diftance.
As we intend to give a particular account, at fome length,
of the various kinds of pallets, under the article Escare-
MENT, we fhall here fatisfy ourfelves with a brief delineation
of the dead-beat pallets, which we have propofed to adopt
in our half feconds little clock, and defer, for the prefent,
our account of its peculiar properties. The number of
teeth in the pallet-wheel has been determined to be 60, of
which any portion lefs than half may be chofen to be in-
cluded between the points of the pallets, as will be feen
hereafter ; we will aflume fixteen as a fuitable number for a
convenient conftru€tion ; then, as 16 teeth bear the fame
proportion to 60, the whole number, that 96° do to 360° ;
trom the point a, at the extremity of the wheel, in tke line
of the centres, we fet off a d and ac, each equal to 45°, and
f:om the points 4 aud c, draw tangents which will mect at the
point d, which point will be the required centre of motion for
the axis of the pallets: from this point d, with the extent
db, we draw the curve lines de and ¢ f, for the extremities
of the pallets, and alfo parallel thereto, with a {maller ex-
extent ; two other curves for the interior limits of the pal-
lets, care being taken that the thicknefs of the paliets, or
{pace between the two concentric curves, be equal to
almoit one half of a {pace contained between the extreme
ends of two contiguous teeth ; the body of the pallets may
then be defcribed at option by two curves from the centre of
the pallet wheel, referving a litile femicircular portion in ad-
dition, for the centre of motion. Had we fixed upon 12
teeth only to be contained between the points of the pallets,
the centre of motion would have been, as appears in the
figure, nearer the pallet-wheel, as at the interior edge of the
body of the pallets; and if more teeth than 16 had been
taken, the point d would have been more diftant than is re-
prefeoted, and the pallets would have required a item to have
brought them down lowenough ; jo that the fhape,as well as
fize of the pallets, depends on the number of teeth included
between their aéting points, it being advantageous for the
action that two lines, drawn from the centres of motion of the
pallets and the pallet-wheel refpeCtively, to the acting points,
fhould always form a right angle. With regard to the flop-
ins faces of the pallets, their dire@tion is determined geome-
trically from the angles that the pendulum is required to pafs
through in its. vibration before the wheel efcapes, which is
therefore called the angle of efcapement: we will not
attempt here to afcertain what angle of efcapement is beft
for a given angle of the whole excurfion, but affume it, for
our prefent purpofe, at 2° on each fide of the perpendicular,
as a guide for the flope of our intended pallets. From the
centre of motion of the pallets, d, with any extent, dg, there-
fore, we defcribe the fmall chords, ¢ 4, and 7 £, from the dot-
ted tangent lines prolonged, and {et off from g towards 4,
alfo from z towards £, 2° each, and draw two dotted lines
from the point d, to the faid chords, fo as to contain each an
angle of 2°; then if a fhort line be drawn from the upper in-
terior to the lower exterior interfeciion of the dotted lines
with the curved ends of the right hand pallet, it will give the
proper flope as feen in the figure ; alfo, if another fhort line
be drawn from the lower interior to the upper exterior inter-
feGion of the left hand pallet, it will give its proper flope,
and the plan of the pallets will be finifhed.
The {pring box, as we have faid, may be placed either
above the great wheel of 96, or below it, which is more
ufual, as at G, in fuck a fituation that the band or chain
may wind round both it and the fufee attached to the arbor
of the great wheel, without interfering with any part of the
movement. We fhall have occafion to {peak more minutely
refpeGting the requifite fize of the fpring-box, when we
come to treat of the articles Mainraininc Power and
Matn-/pring.
The calliper of the going part being thus finifhed on pafte-
board, we may proceed to draw the end and fide lines to en-
clofe the wheel-work, taking care to leave fpace enough far
the wheel-work of the ftriking part, and for the ends of the
pillars not to interfere with the movement ; the {pace in-
cluded within the four bounding lines, which may conttitute
either a parallelogram or a fquare, limits the fize and fhape
of each of the plates, which, together with the pillars,
ufually placed near their corners or edges, conftitute the
frame of the clock-work.
We might here extend our account of the preparation of
the plates for receiving the calliper, but as the procefles of
hammering, filing, and f{craping are manipulations familiar
to the mechanician, as well as to the labouring workman, we
may be allowed to pafs over them without any further no-
tice, than that we flrongly recommend planing to be fubfti-
tuted for {craping, agreeably to the practice of mathemati.
cal inftrument-makers, which operation makes an even fure
face.
The calliper for the ftriking part of a clock, which is
ufually and properly called the clock-part, might now be
added to the patteboard ; but as we propofed firft to purfue
the operations attending the conftruction of the going-part,
which has alfo been called the watch-part, on account ofits
watching or courting the time as it pafles filently along,
we will return to the ftriking-part hereafter, and preferve
our account of the going-part diftiné.
The calliper drawn on patteboard may now be transferred
to one of the plates, either by pricking through the centres
upon the brafs plate, or by delineating again the fame fi-
gure according to the diretions we have given, unlefs a
deepening tool be made ufe of for ca'lipering the exa&
depth at which each wheel and pinion have had their aGtion
previoufly examined ; this method is very little known in
England, and {till lefs ufed, though it conduces greatly to
perfee&
CLOCK-MAKING.
perfect a€tion ; whenever this tool is ufed, which is exhi-
bited in our colletion of Crock-tools, Plate XX1. fig. 6.,
of courfe the ultimate delineation of the calliper on the
plate mutt neceflarily be deferred till the wheels and pinions
are divided and rounded, and their aGion duly adjufted in
the tool, before the transfer is made by means of the fine
points of the parallel arbors, ufed as dividers, for the de-
_ {eription of the requifite circles.
5. The Pillars and Pivot-holes, We have faid that the pil-
lars, which conne& the two plates of the frame, and keep
them in their parallel pofition ia a frm manner, are placed
at the corners or fides of the plates, as at B, B, B, B,B,
fig. 3, of Plates XI. and XIf; the reafons are obvious the
work will thus be more firm than if the pillars were conti-
guous, and they will be out of the way of the wheel-work
and cocks ; their number may be three, four, or five, as cir-
cumftances may require. Before the holes are drilled for
the ends of the pillars, the plates are ufually pinned toge-
ther at each end, and filed to the fame dimenfions, fo that
one piercing with the drill and opening with a broach, per-
forates both plates alike, and enfures the perpendicularity
of the pillars when they come to be infertedinto their places.
It is alfo ufual to pierce with a {mall drill the pivot holes for
the arbors of the different wheels while the plates are pinned
- together, that the arbors may pafs acrofs the frame at right
angles to the furfaces of the plates, which is an effential
condition in the planting of the wheel-work, and requires
the workman to driil in as perpendicular a direGtion as pof-
fible, otherwife the plane of the wheel would not be paral-
lel to the furfaces of the plates, and confequently the com-
munication of motion and tranfmiffion of the maintaining
power would have an obliquity in their direGion, which
would produce injurious friction among the teeth.
The {trength of the pillars depends chiefly upon the
maintaining power and fcale upon which the works are con-
ftru&ted ; in pieces with a heavy weight they mult necefla-
rily be pretty thick, but in {pring pieces much metal only
gives a heavy appearance, without adding to the utility ;
the length of the pillars, however, is not fo optional; for
it depends entirely upon the number of turns of the fufee
in {pring pieces, and of the barrel in clocks with a fufpend-
ed weight; in our little eight-days’ piece, two inches will
be a fuitable diftance between the interior furfaces of the
plates to allow for fixteen turns of the fufee, with the ad-
dition of the guard-gut, or {top, at one end of the arbor,
and the great wheel and double ratchet, with the auxiliary
{pring (hereafter defcribed) to produce conftant motion, to-
gether with fpace for the rim of the centre wheel at the
other. The pillars are generally riveted into the back
plate, and pafs through the front one to fhoulders againtt
which the plate refts, in which fituation they are fixed by
pins paffing through their projeting ends; which mode of
fixing the plates admits, indeed, of their being readily dif-
mounted, but is by no means fo neat as the method of
mounting frames for wheel-work ufed by the mathematical
inftrument-makers, which ought to be adopted by clock-
makers. The method alluded to 1s, to ferew the pillars into
the back plate, even with its exterior furface, and to fix
the front plate by fcrews inftead of pins, which {crews go
into the ends of the pillars, and cover the perforations of
the plate by means of intervening collars, as reprefented in
the front of our frame, Plate KII. jig. 1. The preference
of this mode confitts in its allowing the plates to preferve
their furfaces uninjured and perfedily parallel after being
drefled, which the aét of riveting would diftort ; befides,
when the clock is at any time cleaned, the plates thus
mounted are made handfome again, as they were at firlt,
Vous VILL.
with little trouble, and the genera! appearance is thus more
workmanlike than in the ordinary way. The fhape of the
pillars feems to. be mere matter of fancy, when they are
Jeft {trong enough to effeét their purpofe; but cultom has
fanGtioned the bead, or fpheroidical enlargement, at the
middle. ©
Main-fpring, Barrel, Arbor, and Ratchet.
The frame being put together and ready to receive the
works, a fuitable {pring mult be obtained for a {mall clock
from the fpring-maker, whofe artis diftiné, and will form a
feparate account in its place; the breadth of the {pring we
will fuppofe to be an inch, which will require a box or bar-
rel, C, Plate XJ. fufficiently deep to hold it, and to be of
a diameter fufficient to admit of as many effeGive coils or
foirals as will turn the fufee fixteen times round, before its
force is expended in unbending itfelf. Sometimes it may
be neceflary to try two or three fprings before a good one is
met with, that will aét with a due degree of regularity; and it
has been aflerted that a fpring will a¢t more regularly and be
lefs liableto have undue friftion among the coils, if the breadth
be gradually diminifhed from the exterior to the interior end;
but we pledge not ourfelves for the exiftence of the fac,
though we conceive that the friG@ion of the fides of the
{pring againft the ends of the barrel, will thereby be greatly
diminifhed. The {pring arbor muft be ftrong in proportion
to the force of the f{pring, particularly at the pivots, the
front one of which mutt be thick enough to admit of being
fquared to hold a ratchet, or {mall ferrated wheel, C, at the
outfide of the frame, (fee Plate XII.) the teeth of which
ratchet mutt be ftrong enough to hold the arbor in any fitua-
tion to which it is turned, which it does by means ofa click
attached by a ferew to the exterior furface of the front plate
of the frame ; the {pring-arbor has a {trong pininferted into
it at the middle, within the barrel, on which pin a hole
made near the interior end of the fpring hooks, while the
exterior end is riveted to the circular fide of the box ; hence
it is not difficult to conceive that when the {pring fills the
box in its relaxed ftate, and has its coils moft clofe at the
rim of the barrel, it may be coiled up clofe to the arbor in
the centre, or, in other words, it may be wound up, by
two different methods; either the barrel may be held falt,
and the arbor be turned backward by its ratchet, or by a
key fitting its fquare; or otherwife, which is the general
and better pratice, the ratchet may be fuffercd to detain the
arbor in its place, and with it the wterior end of the foring,
and the barrel itfelf, to which the exterior end is riveted, may
be turned forwards by a chain or cat-gnt attached to it by a
knot at one end and wound round it, as feen at C, in Plate
XI. We have faid the latter method is the better, and the
reafon is, that, when the greateft and {mallett forces of the
{pring are adjufted to the fhape of the fufee, or rather the
fufee to them, the ratchet cannot be altered without de-
ranging this adjuftment. The arbor is turned in a turving-
frame with pivots and fhoulders fufficiently remote from cach
other to reach the interior faces of the plates, but to have
jeit fo much play endways as will prevent fri€tion ; and the
chain or gut mult be long enough to fill the fpiral grooves
of the fufee, and have at lcalt one half-turn on the barrel to
{pare ; alfo care mult be taken that the depth or fide ofthe
barrel muft be nearly equal to the efleive length of the fufee,
otherwife the gut will be liable to flip off at the ends of it.
The remote end-piece of the barrel is foldered falt, and has a
large pivot-hole, againtt which an inner fhoulder of the arbor
refts, and the nearer end-picce is turned in the frame fo larve
as to be capable of being forced or fprung into a receptacle
turned for it, round the inner part of the edge of the cir.
ng cular
fo)
- WC-E OG
cnlar rim of the barrel, in which fituation it refts againit a
correfponding inner fhoulder of the arbor, and completes
the barrel; when this adjuftable end is to be taken off for
the purpofe of examining or taking out the {pring, a flight
ke at the remote pivot of the arbor will force it out of
its place; fome {kill is neceflary for putting the {pring into
the barrel, when a tool on purpofe is not at hand, which
will be deferibed amore the Warcn-fools, and which feems
neceflary to be more generally ufed in clock-work to pre-
vent accidents confeqaent upon. a manual infertion of the
{pring.
6. Fufee, Ratchet, and Guard-gui or Stop.—The Spring-
barrel and its appendages beiry finifhed, a rough -elti-
mate of the power of the fpring may now be made
by firft coiling the gut, in a proper direction round ita few
times till itis nearly ali wound up, the arbor being held by
its ratchet, or ina vice, and then by fufpending a weight to
the fpare end, fuch as will juft pull the barrel two or three
times round from its relaxed {tate ; this weight will denote the
{malleft power, which fuppofe to be one pound; then add
fuch a heavier weight as will uncoil fo much more of the
gut as may be fuppofed to fill the fufee, and note it, which
we will again fuppofe to be two pounds ard a half for the
greatelt power of the {pring ; now this proportion of £:24
cr 2:5, may be taken esa guide for the refpective diame-
ters of the conical: piece of metal, E, fig. 1, Plate XI,
called the fufee, which is introduced to equalize the vary-
ing power cf the ipring, by aéting, as it were, witha fuc-
cefion of levers of different lengths, reciprocally proportion:
ate to the power of the {pring in any given fituation, fo
that when the power is great It is pulling by a fhort lever,
and vice verfé. The piece of folid metal intended for the
fufce muft be drilled through the centre, and opened with a
broach, end then have a fleel arbor of confiderable ttrength
driven tight into it, by which ic is turned into a conical or
rather paraboloidal fhape, that has its thicker end fomewhat
{maller generally than the diameter of the barrel, and the
other end fmaller in the proportion, according to our fuppo-
fition of 2:5, but fometimes in a greater ratio, without
the thicknefs of the gut; the length of the fufee mult be
fhorter than the pillars by as much as will admit the great
wheel and two ratchets, with the centre-wheel behind them,
to be introduced between it and the plate at one end, and a
contrivance for ftopping the revolutions when the fpirals are
filled with the gut, called therefore the guard-gut, at the
other end of the arbor, as we have already faid- ‘The futee
may now be grooved into fixteen complete fpirals by a fufee-
engine, the method of doing which will be explained under
this term hereafter; after this operation, a pair of ftrong
pivots may be turned on the fufee arbor, the pivot-holes
opened by a pivot-broach held perpendicularly with refpect
to the faces of the plates, and the fufee introduced into the
frame, parallel to the fpring-barrel arbor; a hole is now
Grilled at the large end of the fpiral, perpendicularly into
the metal, the fufee being taken from the frame, and an-
other hole to meet it from the plane of the thick end, about
a quarter of an inch from the circumference, which two
holes are juit large enough to receive the gut; the latter is
then enlarged by a chamfering tool to form a bed fora
knot to be made at the end of the gut, when inferted into
the hole made in the fpiral groove. If now a fquare be
made, either on the front or back pivot, which mutt proje&
through the plate, accordingly as it is intended to be
wound up in the face or behind, and if a key be inferted
upon it, the {pring may be wound up, and it will appear
whether or not the gut istoo long, and how much, nearly,
which may accordingly be altered. Hitherto the work has
OxC
MAKING.
proceeded, ona fuppofition that the fufee has been turned
of a paraboluidal: fhape, and that the fpring is perfeét at
the two extremes, as well as at all the intermediate degrees of
tenfion; but it yet remains to be proved, by mech-nical ad=
jultment, thac thefe coincidences have been effe€ted, or
are even capable of being accurately effcGted, without
material fublsquent alterations in the length of the {pring
and fhape of the fufee; for this purpofe a long gra-
duated !ever, with an adjuttable wereht, hereafter mentioned
under Crock-tools by the title of an adjufling-tool,. (fig.
10, Plate XXI.) is inferted on the fquare end of _ the
fufee, at N, when the frame is, mounted, as-in Plate
XII. and the weight is gradwally removed along tlie
bar, until by trial it is found to be an exa& ‘counterporfe to
the {pring previoufly wound up a few turvs by means of the
ratchet on the barrel-arbor; fuch balance being effected,
the {pring may be wound up by the adjufting tool, ufed as
a key, till the fixteenth fpiral at the top, or {mail end of the
fufee, be filled with gut, in which fituation, if the weight of
the tool fill conftitute an exa& covnterpeife to the power of
the {pring, it is to be prefumed that the foring is properly
fixed. with refpe to its quantum of intenfity, by its ratchet 5
but if, in the latter fituation of the tool, it turns out to be
more than a cuunterpoile, either the fpring is of too low an
intenfity in the prefent fituation of its ratchet, or the fufee
is too {mall at the fmall end. or both may be fo cireumflane-
ed; on the contrary, if the tool is not a counterpoife for
the {pring when wound up, either the {pring is fet too high
by the ratchet, or the {mall end of the fufee is too thick ; a
few fucceflive trials of fimilar adjuftment for the oppofite
_nds of the fufee, by an increafe or decreafe of intenflity be-
ing gradually given to the {pring by means of turning its
ratchet, will generally determme whether the failure in the
adjuftment is occafioned by the fpring or fufee, and the
former may be fhortened, or the latter altered, by a detached
tool to run in the groove as it revolves in the turning frame, ~
if a fulee-engine is not at hand ; though, it muft be confefled
that fome experience in this bufinefs will greatly facilitate the
determination of the proper means of final adjuftment. We
will now fuppofe the fpring fixed, and the fufee adjulted by
the tool, fo as to render the maiataining power precifely the
fame at the bottom and top of the fpiral groove; the ad-
jultments mutt next be made for all the intermediate turns
of the helix fucceffively, by means of the fame adjufting
tool with the weight unaltered, the {pring arbor alfo. refume
ing at every trial. its original pofition, which we will fup-
pofe to have been marked on the holding tooth of the
ratchet. When the {pring is good, and the fufee approach-
ing to aconical fhape, it will be found on trial, that the
maintaining power is too great for the tool of adjuftmen:
to balance before it is wound up half way; in cookequcalie
of which increafe in the maintaining power, the fufee mult
neceflarily be again put into the fulee engine and have its
groove deepened fo as to make a parabolic curve inftead of
a ftraight line from the top to the bottom of the fufee ;
after this alterarion the frame mut be remousted, the fpring
coiled up again to its determined pofition, and the weight
of the adjufting tool kept unaltered in its fituation; the
intermediate grooves in the helix may not yet be found all
fufficiently deep to render the maintaining power equal in
its effets throughout the whole length of the fufce, but
the adjulting tool will dete& the particular places where th
power predominates ; which places when marked may be
again altered in the fufee engine, and the parts replaced in
the frame, when, after three, four, or perhaps more altera-
tions of the fufee, and adjuftments of the fpring, at length
the effet produced by the power of the {pring is the fame
a whateve
CLOCK-
whatever part of the fufee be a&tuated by the gut; the
accuracy of this adjuttment is of the utmoft importance, and
fhould be minutely attended to, otherwife the piece may be
made to vary its rate of going on each fucceflive day of the
week, by reafon of the irregularity of the maintaining power,
unlcis indeed fuch a confequence be obviated by the nature
of the efcapement, or other contrivance, which ought not
to be depended upon while thereis a fundamental remedy.
Hence it is evident that, whenever the original main-{pring
of a clock (or watch) happens to be broken, or by any
means altered, another fpring, though of the fame dimen-
fions ought not to be fubftituted, as is often injudicioufly
done, without a correfponding alteration in the fufee, if
found neceflary, by a trial of the adjulting tool. Were an
optician to put a thermometer tube containing mercury,
already hermetically fealed, into an old fcale previoufly gra-
duated, the indication of temperature with fuch an inftru-
ment could not be depended upon to any thing like accuracy.
Of the fame nature is the probability of an imperfe& mea-
fure and indication of time arifing out of an exchange of the
matn-{pring without a correfponding adjuftment in the fhape
of the fufee, more particularly if the crown wheel efcape-
ment happen to be adopted, which is almoft conftantly un-
der the influence of the maintaining power.
During this labour of adjulting the fafee tothe fpring, it
willoceur that the gut might be wound up beyond the end
of the fufee, if it were turned more that fixteen times round,
on which account a {nail piece of foft fteel, equal in diame-
ter to the {mail end of the fufee, independently of the claw
or projecting piece, is ufually ferewed againft this end of the
- fufee at N, Plate X1., to prevent the gut from flipping off
when it comes to the projeCtion of the claw in queition,
which contrivance it has been faid is called the guard-gut ;
but it may be remarked, that the gut might wind back again
bya fecond courfe, like the cord of a kitchen jack on its barrel,
when it comes to the fnail-piece of the guard-sut ; to pre-
vent fuch effect, there are {upperadded afpring, M, fcrewed
at one end to the inner face of the tront plate, which plate
is taken off in the drawing, and a lever, L, moveable on a
pin asa centre, which pin pafles through a ftud in the front
plate, according to the pofition given in Plate XI.; the re-
mote end of the fpring, M, ftretches itfelf towards the back
plate of the frame, and carries the lever before it ; of which
the confequence is, that as the gut approaches the guard in
winding, it at length meets with the lever, L, and prefling
againft it drives it forwards till at length a fhoulder near its
remote end, feen near the pillar, is prefented to the claw, N,
of the {nail-piece, for which it becomesa {top at the inftant
that the fixteenth fpiral is filled by the gut, and the winding
is then neceflarily finifhed.
The coutrivance for allowing the fufee to turnin the act
of winding up, while the great wheel retains its pofition un-
altered, but which prevents the return of the fufee to take
place by the pulling of the {pring without the great wheel
being aéiuated, is called the fufee ratchet; it ulually con-
Ailts of a ferrated wheel with floping teeth, and a click to
catch thetecth, like the mechanifm already mentioned as being
atthe projecting arbor of the fpring-barrel, but with the
additien of a {pring to prefs upon the click to keep it in the
teeth; the ratchet wheel may be attached either to the
end of the fufee, and the {pring and click to the plane of
the great wheel, or otherwife the {pring and click may be
_ atthe end of the -fufee, and the ratchet wheel on the plane
of the great wheel, but the dire&ion of the flope of the
teeth will not be the fame in both cafes, for in one cafe the
wheel drives the click during the time of going, and in the
¢
MAKING.
other the click muft drive the wheel; it is ufual to turna
circular groove between the edge of the ratchet wheel and
the circumference of the fufee large enough to form a bed
for the click and its fpring, which therefore are hid from
fight, when the [pring is carried by the great whecl ; but
when it is carried by the end of the fufee, the faid groove
muft be in the plane of the great wheel to anfwer the fame
purpofe of concealrsent ; the number of teeth in the ratch-
ct wheel is optional, provided they be ftrong enough to
fuftain the maintaining power, and numerous enough to
prevent a corfiderable return of the fufee backward after
winding, before the click catches a tooth; the conftruc-
tion will be fufficiently underftood without further deferip-
tion, from a reference to fiz. 5, of Plate VIIL., to jig. 7, of
Plate XV., and to fiz. 4, o€ Plate XXII. of Horology.
+, Auxiliary-fpring. But we propofed that cur piece
fhould continue to go while it is wound up, which effeét re-
quires an additional apparatus to the ratchet we have jult de-
{cribed, as being ufual in an ordinary {pring-clock ; the ad-
dition ufually confifts of another ratchet-wheel with teeth
inclined in a contrary dire@lion, and ofa larger diameter, of
a circular or fometimes a horfe-fhoe fpring, and of a lever
operating as a detent with one ead faltened to the inner face
of the back plate, and the other reiting upon and fliding
over the floping face of the teeth of the large ratchet
when the clock is in motion, but which prévents the rat.
chet’s return when the clock is wound up. One end of the
fpring is pinned or {crewed to the rim of the great wheel,
and the other end tothe plane of the larze ratchet, and in
this cafe the {mall ratchet before defer: bed adiuates this large
one, inftcad of the great wheel, exactiy as above detcribed ;
and then the large ratchet contracts the {pring connecting
it with the great wheel, till its rcfillance in a contrary di-
reétion is equal to the maintaining power, in which fituation
the great wheel is then impelled in the fame manner as if
it were immediately connected with the {mall ratchet ; the
effe& of this beautiful contrivance is, that when the clock
is under winding, the {pring attached to the great wheel
being no longer contra€ted by the maintaining power, m-
mediately endeavours to extend itfelf, but the large ratchet-
wheel, to which it is riveted, is ftopped from. going back
by the end of the lever or detent, which is always in a po-
fition to catch the end of fome one cf the floping teeth of
this ratchet, the confequence of which is, that as the rat-
chet will not go back, the great wheelis impelled to go for-
ward at the oppofite end of the fpring by a force, at the
commencement of its action, equal to the maintaining power ;
and this force will continue for a much longer time than is
neceflary for the winding-up of any clock. This apparatus
may be more clearly apprehended by a careful infpection of
Jig: 4, of Plate XXIV1., and of figs. 7 and 8, of Brockbank’s
chronometer in Plate XV., which differ in vo other refpect,
but in their fize, from the fame parts as ufed in a clock,
8. Arbors, Pinions, and Wheels. Hitherto we have faid
nothing of the manipulation of the arbors, pinions, and
wheels of a clock, but have merely fpoken of their'diame-
ters, numbers of tceth, and refpeCtive fituations of their
pivot-holes. Ft will not be neceflary to enter into a detail
of the manner of forging the arbors, or of calling the brafs
by models of given cimentions, the ironmongers and tcol-
fellers having on fale iets of wheels, and arbors with pions
of different numbers ready flit, and a!fo pinion fteel-wire
drawn into a proper fhape for the teeth of {mall pinions, of
all which clock-makers ufwally: avail themfelves inltead of
preparing them; otherwife the brafs-founders i Chancery
lane, and in other parts cf London, as well as in Lanca-
oy 3 fhire,
CLOCK:
fhiré, will café wheels to any model at a certain price per
pound, which is a great convenience to the workman who
has oceafion for unufual fizes in his wheel-work.
It will not, however, be deemed foreign to our purpofe
to mention, that it is often found requilite to foften the pi-
nions of feel, and their arbors, before the graver for turn-
jag can cut them with fuificient eafe in the turning frame ;
this foftening is ufvally cile&ted by putting the ftcel pieces
into a wocden fire for fome hours, and leaving them to cool
gradually as the fire goes out. The wheels are generally
croffed in their original cait flate to make them light, in or-
der to avoid the cfle& of their inertia, and to prevent fric-
ti:n on the pivots of the arbors ; but itis neceflary to ham-
mer the rims and other parts of a wheel well before they
are filed flat, to be put on the arbor for turning, otherwife
the metal would be too foft to wear well, and the teeth ofa
wheel would not ftand the graver in the operation of being
turned, after it is cut by the engine, in cafe the diameter
fhould require to be reduced, as is commonly done, to work
well in its -calliper with its pinion. When the wheels are
hammered, and filed flat to nearly their exa& thicknefs, ac-
cording to the force they are ‘deitined to tranf{mit, they are
turned in the turning. frame to their praétical diameters, af-
ter being previoufly perforated in the centre, and fcrewed
falt ona suitable arbor, fuch as isreprefented by fig 2, of Plate
XIX.; they are then in a ftate to be cut by an engine made
ep purpofe, which is not always in the poffcflion of the
élock-maker, particularly in large towns, but which is
ulually kept by fome individual, whofe bufinefs is chiefly to
cut wheels for the clock-makers at a certain price per fet.
An ingenious workman, of the name of Brown, who lived
in King-{treet, Seven-dials, but who is now dead, was
noted in London for his dexterity and accuracy in cutting
elock-wheels, and occafionally pinions, into any number of
teeth ; his engine, however, is now in the hands, of Mr.
Vidler, mathematical inftrument-maker, Oxford-market,
Londoa, who has lately begun to ufe it ; but the beft en-
gine for this purpofe at prefent in conitant ufe, belongs to
Mr. Edward Troughton, of Fleét-itreet, and is ufed by
James. Fayer, at No. 35, White-lioa-flreet, Pentonville,
London.
This engine, which was contrived and made by the late
ingenious mechanilt Rehe, will round the teeth at the fame
time that it cuts them, if required, and is valued at goo.
in its prefent ftate. As we {hall have occafion to treat fur-
ther of the conftru@tion and operations of the CurrinG-en-
eine, we fhall here confider that our wheels have now under-
gone their operation, and are returned into the hands of the
clock-maker for finifhing ; we cannot, however, forbear re-
marking here, that the clock-makers of the prefent day
have greatly the advantage of thofe who laboured in the art
in the infancy of clocksmaking, in that they have fome of
the molt difficult operations in theory, fuch as dividing and
cutting the wheels, and forming the fpiral groove ot the
fulce, done by engines not only in lefs than one-huadredth
part of the time, but with isfinitely more accuracy, than
they could be performed by hand with manual tools ; and it
is much to be defired that they would, like watch-makers, have
their wheels cut and rounded in the engine at the fame time;
that they would make ufe of the deepeniug tool, fig. 6, Plate
XXI. jor pitching their depth of a€tion; and that they
would in that ttate transfer the diftances of the pivots to the
caliper, as we before recommended ; for then the equa-
ble tran{miffion of motion and maintaining power would
be enfured, provided the teeth be of a due fize and
form; the expence in cutting would, indeed, be fomewhat
MAKING.
more, but the Jabour of rounding by a file would be fue
perfeded, and confequently the work would be more expe-
ditioufly, as well as more accurately, performed.
But it has been remarked, by a philofopher well qualified
to make the remark (Mr. W. Nicholfon), that the introdue-
tion of new in{truments, and of new operations, requires the
fame {pace of time that is neceflary for inftru€@ting another
generation ; fo much does that facility, which arifes out of
habit, militate againit the adoption of new praétices: we
mutt, therefore, fuppofe our wheels returned from the en-
gine with their teeth not rounded, and proceed with our
detail, When a wheel has been cut, in the ordinary way,
by the engine, there are ufually fome filaments of metal, de-
nominated burs, left at the edges of the teeth by the cutter,
as well as general roughnefs on the fides and at the bottom
of the fpaces; thefe are firft cleared away by a fine file, jult
thin enough to go into the fpace left by the cutter, which is
called an equalling file, (fuchas is reprefented in Plate XXI,
fig. 14.) from its fuppofed property of leaving all the {paces
equal, when the burs are removed. The crofles of the wheel
and interior edges of the rim are next dreffed, firk by a rough
file, then by a fmooth one, and laftly by a burnifher of
polithed fteel, all fhaped like jig. 17, of Plate XXI.; the
arbor is next turned in a frame, by a well-tempered tool, or
ftrong graver, like that feen in fig.9, of Plate XXL., to its
propofed thicknefs, and the pinion reduced to its praétical
diameter; after which its teeth are rounded, hardened, and
polifhed, each of which eperations we will fuppofe to be un-
deritood, and the wheel is riveted on a fhoulder left on the
proper end of the pinion, exterior or interior, as the work
may require, if itis on the hour arbor; otherwife it may be
riveted, or {lili better fixed by two oppofite ferews, on a
brafs collet, which is previoufly foldered upon fuch part of
the arbor, to which it belongs, as the place of the pinion
which it atuates may require. The French call that por-
tion of an arbor, which is between the wheel and the remote
pivot, a fige; and that portion a ¢igeron, which ties between
the wheel and the neaver pivot. Some of the moft fkilful
veorkmen contend that the wheel ought always to be placed
on its arbor, fo as to be equally diftant from both pivots, and
we have feen clocks conilruéted with cocks, at the back of
the plates, to hold the pivots of projeGling arbors, in order
to effect this purpofe, but we will not usdertake to affirm
that this additional work is compenfated by any advantage
thus gained; we rather conceive that the grievance coms
plained of in the ordinary method of pivoting in the plates,
viz. the alleged unequal preffare and confequent unequal
friction in the oppolite pivot-holes, when a pinion is at one
end of the arbor, is to be attributed to another caufe prin-
cipally ; ze. the too great aperture of the pivot-holes: the
workmen have a maxim, that.‘‘ the pivots muft have play to
avoid fri€tion,”? but they feem not always to underftand’
what this play means; it certainly ought not to mean,
that the holes fhould be much larger than the pivots
which are to turn in them, for in that cafe the pivots
would be driven round the interior circumference of the holes,
and caufe the wheel to a at different depths in the pinion,
which would be a great evil; the meaning of the maxim isy
that the fhoulders of the arbors fhould not prefs againit the
plates when mounted, but that each arbor fhould have a lit-
tle play in the dire&tion of its length, or, in other words, be
left fo as to be at liberty to move a little backwards and for-
wards; which condition feems requilite. gis
We will now fuppofe all the wheels and pinions rounded’
neatly in the bay-leaf form, and their a€tion tried in the
deepening tool, with the correfponding pivot-holes drilled
with
—
CLOCK-MAKING.
with drills refpeétively proportioned to the propofed thick-
nefs of the pivots; the next ftep will be to attach them to
their arbors: the great wheel, however, notwith{tanding
what we have faid about riveting, ferewing, and foldering,
is not fixed by any of thefe operations, but is attached ro its
arbor by a method which admits of its being taken off at
pleafure, thus ;—a hole is opened by a broach in the centre ,
of this wheel, large enough to take the arbor of the fufee
without play, and, when 1t is prefled clofe again{ft the end of
the fufee, or, in our prefent infance, again{t the plane of
the fecond large ratchet, two marks are made, with a fine
file, at oppofite fides of the arbor, clofe to the plane of the
wheel; it is then taken off the arbor, and two [quare-fided
notches are filed carefully it.the faid marks of the arbor, but
not deep exough to injure its ftrength; a collet with a cir-.
cular hole, like that at the centre of the wheel, made at one
fide of its centre, and with a ftraight-edged flit acrofs the
centre from the faid hole, is then put on the arbor, after the
wheel has been firft put on, and is puthed forcibly along the
notches of the arbor till, by means of the oblong aperture,
it is concentric with the wheel, againft the plane of which
it preffes, when in the notches, and keeps it clofe in its place,
and at the fame time allows it to turn on its centre without -
the arbor. The auxiliary {pring is {crewed or pinned, in the
next place, at one end to the great ratchet, and at the other
to the great wheel, as before noticed. When the wheel is
thus firmly attached to the fufee arbor, with a power to re-
cede but not to proceed, on account of the click, without
carrying the arbor with it, it muft be put into the turning
frame and examined, as to its being truly centered, and alto
as to its being in a plane perpendicular to the arbor; which
trial may detedt fome flight alterations, neceflary to be made,
to fulfil thefe two conditions: after which, its pivots may
be turned to their exaé& fize, hardened, and polifhed.
The practice of fome workmen is, to folder their collets
on the arbors with hard folder, but we difapprove this prac-
tice, and recommend foft folder, particularly if the arbors
have been before hardened; it is {carcely neceflary to add,
thar if the ends of the collets are opened a little within, the
folder will there have beds to contain a quantity fufficient to
keep tke wheel firm on its arbor. What we have here faid
will not be equally applicable to the hour or centre wheel,
becaufe it is ufually riveted on the end of its pinion, which
will require a riveting punch and clamp, on purpofe (fg. 16;
of Plate XTX.) to prevent any injury being done to the
inion. Defore the wheels are all firmly attached to:their
arbors, they muft be tried in the turning frame, or callipers
with a ftraight edge for that purpofe, to fee if they are con-
centric, and that their planes are perpendicular to their ar-
bors, which conditions the workmen call being ‘ in the
round,”? and being ‘¢ in the flat ;?” and when properly ad-
jufted, in thefe refpeéts, they may be finally fixed as above
defcribed, and their arbor-pivots finifhed. Should a wheel,
that has had its teeth rounded in the engine, be at any time
found a little eccentric in the trial, before it is fixed on its
collet, which will not happen if the central hole be enlarged
with a good broach and with due care, the remedy in this
eafe would be, to mark the fide of the wheel which has the
longeft radius, and‘enlarge the central hole carefully on that
fide moft, and then to make a new collet for it, after the
hole is again made perfectly round, and found to be concen-
tric on an arbor that fits it; but when the teeth have been
rounded by hand, the wheel may have the eccentricity rec-
tified on its own arbor, and be again rounded where the teeth
have been touched by the graver, which is: the common
practice, and which conftitutes the greateft recommendation
of manual rounding of the teeth.
The files ufed in rounding the ends of the teeth of a wheel’
are fmooth, and curved on one fide (fee fig. 16, of Plate
XXI_.), and have each a projecting pivot at the remote end,
which a dexterous workman holds againft one finger of the
left hand asa refit bchind the wheel, while the right hand
guides the file from one fide of the tooth to the other, al-
ternately, with a degree of rapidity which furprifes the
fpectator.
We have hitherto fuppofed our piece not to be jewelled,
nor bu‘thed with bell-metal, whic!y addition enhances the
price, but greatly diminifhes the friGion in the pivot holes:
if the holes are caréfully enlarged with a good broach, {mall
pieces of metal holding ruby, agate, or bell-metal, may be
made to fit them exactly, the boles in which may be refpeét-
ively equal to the original pivot holes, and then the good
action of the wheel-work will not be aliered thereby. The
friftion in the pivot holes is greatly ciminifhed too by the
application of fine nut-oil; they are, therefore, generally
chamfered, or counter-furk, at the exterior’furfaces of the
plates, in order that the oil may be retained; but what
fhould be the exa&t depth of the bearing part of the pivoz-
hole, is a matter not abfolutely decided. Mr. Reid, we
have feen, prefers, to a counter-funk hole, a conical point,
which holds the oil in a globule by cohefion, and which is
held by a fmall cock.
In fome clocks which we have feen well-finifhed, the ends
of the pivots are conical, and bear againft holes of nearly
the fame fhape, not entirely perforated; but we conceive
that, unlefs the pillars and arbors were all of the fame metal,
the difference of their expanfibilitics muft materially alter the
quantity of play, lengthwife, at different feafons ef the year,
and in cold weather create confiderable friction, by afleGine
the brafs pillars more than the fteel arbors; an effet which
the workman probably does not take into his account, who
thinks of avoiding fri@tion by fuch a coni{tru€tion.
As the pallet-wheel makes many more revolutions than
any other in the movenrent, it is neceflary that the metal,
of which it is made, fhou'd not be very deftruGtible, parti-
cularly when pallets are ufed which rub againft its teeth ; we
therefore recommend a tempered ftecl wheel to be ufed,
which ought to be alfo divided and cut with extraordinary
care; becaufe any irregularity in the fhape of the tooth, or
diftance between the teeth, would injure the efcapement,
and produce befides fuch irregularity 1n the motion of the
feconds hand, placed on this wheel’s arbor, as would offend
the eye. We referve our obfervations on the fhape of the
teeth proper for different efcapements to act with, until
we treat this part of our fubject more particularly in its’
proper place.
g. Pallets: There is no part of a clock which requires
greater nicety in the execution than the efeapement, or
part which limits the intenfity and duration of the impulfe
given to the pendulum by the maintaining power, and which
Keeps up the due quantity of motion, that would otherwife
be gradually diminifhed to a ftate of quiefcence, by reafon,
as we have faid, of the unavoidable friction at the point of
fulpenfion, and of the refiitance which the air affords to the
folid parts of the moving pendulum : but for the fame reafon
that we have poftponed our particular directions concerning
che conftruGtion of the pallet or fwing-wheel, till we come
to the article EscaremEnT, mutt we alfo fatisfy ourfelves
here with a few general direétions and obfervations, which
apply exclufively to our dead-beat pallets. We have already
detailed, under our fubdivifion, entitled callipering, the me-
thod of laying down the plan of the pallets in quettion; the
fhape and dimenfions there afcertained mult be exactly
copied, or otherwife projected again, either on one ats
plates
I
CLL0' C K- MAKIN G.
plates oron a fmooth fheet of brafs, as a plate of trial for the
elcape, which will admit of pivot-holes being drilled, exact-
ly as in the plates of the frame, for the centres of the pallet
and pallet-wheel arbors ; a piece of good ftecl mult then be
forged nearly into the fhape of the anchor, compared with
the plan on the frame or brafs plate, but fomewhat larger:
after the arbor hole is drilled in the anchor, and eniarg-
ed to the propofed aperture, the requifite circles may be
deferibed, with extents borrowed frem the brafs calliper, by
means of a pair of {mall bullet compaffes, and the flopes may
be copied or re-traced for the faces of the pallets; the ex-
cluded metal may then be filed away very nearly, and all the
furfaces be fmoothed, firft with fine files, and then with oil-
ftone deft and oil. It has been faid that the breadth of each
pallet mutt be fomewhat lefs than half of a {pace meafured
from tooth end to tooth end of the pallet wheel, but the
quantity of diminution muft not depend on conjecture ;
therefore the breadth is left at firft equal to one half as near-
ly as can be afe.rtained, fo that the diminution of breadth
may be effeted by tentative adjuftment, firlt partially when
the wheel has its teeth finifhed, and when both it and the
anchor’of the pallets are inferted on pins urged into the pi-
vot-holes of the frame, or trial plate; and again more mi-
nutely when they are fixed on arbors, ‘and mounted in the
frame. To enfure the perfect portion of a circle at the ex-
tremities of the anchor, we recommend that it be put ona
motion arbor, that juft fits the central hole, and that it be
turned in a frame or lathe, like a wheel, before it is cut;
for then it is certain there will be no recoil in the pailet-
wheel, and feconds hand, when thofe parts prefs againfk the
ends of the teeth, during an excurfion of the pendulum;
and if the inner circles could be turned alfo after the efcape
is nearly adjuited, it would be defireable ; however, the
point of a graver may trace in the turning frame this inner
circle, and then a proper curvi-linear file, made and kept on
purpofe, may take off the interior fuperfluity of metal. In
adjufting the flopes and breadth of the pallets, it will be
ferviceable to infert an index on the pallet’s arbor, after it
is finifhed and the pivots turned, and to mark on the frame
plate the quantity of the efcapement angle, in this inftance
2° at each fide of the perpendicular demitted from the pivot-
hole, which will be a good guide for the true final adjult-
ment of the efcape. Particular care muft now be taken that
there be as little drop as pofiible, 2. e. that as foon as one
tooth has completely efcaped the face of its pallet, the next
acting tooth fhall be clofe to the back of the following pal-
let, fo.as not to ftrike it with a jerk; the place where the firft
contact takes place between the end of the tooth and inte-
rior or exterior circle of the pallet, accordingly as it is the
leading or following pallet, muft be very near-the com-
mencement of the flope, but not upon it, nor yet on the an-
gular point of interfeétion. Indeed it is extremely difficult
to give complete verbal direCtions for this delicate adjult-
ment, which requires long and attentive praétice to do per-
feétly ; for frequently, after the pallets are hardened, which
they mutt be as much as poflible, the fhape of the anchor is
found.to be altered, and the adjuftment of the pallets confe-
quently deranged ; to remedy this confequence, it is ufual to
harden only the pallet parts of the anchor, fo that by cer-
tain {trokes given near its arbor, the pallets may be brought
in or fet out a little to rectify them ; but after fuch recti-
fication it will always be neceflary to try, in the turning
frame, or at leatt by a pair of bullet compaffes, if the cir-
cular parts are again perfe€tly concentric, without which
condition the pallets will not be truly what are called dead-
beat,
Hitherto we have confidered the back pivot hole of the
pallets arbor, .as being in the plate of the frame, but it be; -
comes neceflary to cut away that portion of the back plate
where the pivot hole falls, by reafon of the crutch, or little
rod of {teel which mutt be fcrewed to a collet attached be-
hind the frame to the arbor, to form an L; which: contri-
vance imprefics the force that the pallets receive from the
maintaining power upon the pendulum ; the bent end of the
crutch is ufually inferted into a flit made in the verge or rod
of the pendsilum, but when the bent part is divided and
enclofes the pendulum rod, it is denominated the fork: the
crutchis molt ufually about one fixth part of the whole length
of the pendulum rod, but there feems to be no fixed rule
laid down. by which its belt length might and onght to be
determined in different cafes, which therefore we think de-
ferves further confideration.
But to return to the pivot-hole of the pallet’s arbor ; this,
for the reafon we have jut given, is finally placed in a cock
at the back of the pofterior plate, which is generally fo
fhaped as to furnifn alfo a point of fufpenfion for the pen-
dulum. (See a, in fig. 3, of Plate XI.) The exaé placing
of the cock, fo that the arbor pivoted into it fhall be per-
fedtly at right angles to the furface of the plates, is of
the greateft importance, and therefore it ought to be placed
and its fteady pins fixed, before the original pivot-hole,
through which it muft protrude, is cut away in the plate;
for in that cafe the protruding end of the arbor, while
in its proper pofition after the adjuitment of the efcape-
ment, will be ike a fixed arbor on which to flide the
cock, and fix its pofition before the fteady pins are applied
and the fcrews fitted to their places. : :
It is, however, the praétice of fome workmen to adjuft
the efcapement, by moving the cock before the iteady pins
are inferted. :
We might have noticed, that after the anchor of the
pallets is ferewed to the collet of its arbor, it fhould be
fufpended by the pivots of the verge, which is the name
given to this arbor, to try if the weight of each pallet ex-
actly balance that of the other, which may be effected by
dimuhing the thicknefs of the heavier pallet a little by a
fine file before it is finally, polifhed; alfo before the crutch
is {crewed it fhould be hung on the verge of the pallets
arbor, after the pallets are balanced and fuffered to find
their place of quicfcence, in order to find its own perpendi+
cular direGtion, and then it fhould be fixed in that fituation ;
for without this care it will require to be bent fo as to offend
the eye, for the purpofe of putting the clock into beat, or
otherwife will require a flit in it acrofs the centre, to admit
of an eccentric adjuftment, or fome fuch contrivance,
When all the adjuftments of the efcapement are thus.made,
the pallet faces, if not jewelled, and alfo the pivots, mutt
be hardened and finally dreffed by the ufual fucceffive operas
tions of polifhing.
10. Pendulum and Sufpenfion.. The precautions we have
hitherto di€tated, in our diretions for the fucceffive opera-
tions in clock-making, have for their principal objeét the
regular tranfmiflion of a certain quantity of the maintaining
power to the pendulum, in order to preferve the arc of vi-.
bration unaltered, which is one of the two effential qualitics
of the going pendulum, on which the exa¢t meafurement of
_time depends; the other, which is an indifpenfable quality
of the pendulum, where great exaétnefs is required, is that
by which its length is preferved unaltered in all the varia-
tions of temperature, as the centre of ofcillation regards the
centre of fufpenfion, Thefe two properties of the pendu-
lum, its conftant arc, and conftant length, conititute the exe
cellence to which all the other parts of the mechanifm are
fubfervient, and without which no clock will continue in;
variably
CLOCK-MAKING.
variably to indicate true time at all feafons of the year, how-
ever exquilite the workmanfhip of the movement and other
- parts. In an ordinary clock, the iron or fteel rod of the pen-
dulum is liable to confiderable alternate expanfions and con-
tractions, which render a compenfating contrivance necef-
fary for pieces deftined for aftronomical purpofes; or,
otherwife, a deal or ebony rod is fubftituted for the metallic
one, which natural fubilances, when of a ftraight grain and
gradually dried by age, are found to be much lefs liable to
alteration in their length by changes of temperature, than
iron orany other metal ; their dimenfions, however, are a little
altered by moifture, which alteration renders them in our
opinion objectionable.
In our half-feconds pendulum we propofed to make ufe
of acompenfation, in which the unequal and oppofing ex-
panfibilities of two different metals produce the defired
effe&. It would, however, extend our prefent article to an
improper length, if we entered here into the geometrical
theory of the pendulum, or even if we detailed again the ar-
rangement of the bars which conftitute the mechanifm of
the compenfation propofed ; but under our article Penpu-
LuM, the reader will, we prefume, find the former omiflion
amply fupplied ; and the latter has been anticipated in our
defcriptions of Reid’s and Brockbank’s aftronomical clocks.
RefpeGting the fhape and fize of a requ‘fite bob or ball for
the pendulum, we have already made our remarks under the
word Bos, and therefore fhall not repeat them here, parti-
cularly aswe fhall have occafion to refume the fubjec&t under
the article Mainraininc Power; it feems proper, not-
withftanding, to adda few words on the fubjeét of the fuf-
penfion of the pendulum. Berthoud, the jultly admired
author of many French works on clock and watch-making,
has affirmed (in confequence of fome of his experiments on
the length of time that penduiums, differently fufpended,
take in coming to the ftate of quicfcence, after being moved
the fpace of a given angle from the line of direction), that
what is called a knife-edge fufpenfion is preferable to that
in which a piece of watch main-{fpring is ufed at the point
- of fufpenfion ; we will not undertake to decide to which
mode the preference is due, but adopt that which our Eng-
lith clock-makers, perhaps without a fufficient comparifon of
the two, have brought into general ufe. In ordinary clocks
a flit is made in the moft prominent part of the cock, into
which the piece of watch-{pring is inferted, which carries a
{mall piece of brafs riveted to its extremity, by which the
weight of the pendulum is fulpended on the ecck, and a
hole drilled through both the clock and brafs piece receives
a pin to keep the pendulum in its fituation; but this mode
of fufpenfion is liable to two confiderable objeétions = firlt,
if the pendulum {pring happen not to coincide with a_per-
pendicular line pafling through the pivot-hole of the palict’s
arbor, one femi-arc of vibration will be greater than the
other, even after the bending or eccentric adjuttment of the
crutch has brought the clock into beat, for which imper-
feGion this mode of fufpenfion affords no remedy ; and fe-
condly, the adjuftment for time, as determined by the going
of the clock, cannot be made without {topping the pendu-
lum to ferew up the adjufting ball at the bottom of the rod ;
to obviate thefe two evils, we might have fufpended our
pendulum in a way which admits of both a lateral and longi-
tudinal adjuftment, without flopping the motion of the
yendulum, according to the drawings contained in Plate
XXVIL., and defcribed under the feGion of A/fronomical
Clock, by Mefirs. Brockbanks; but for the fake of variety,
we propofe to introduce a different mode of limiting the cf
fective length of a pendulum, which mode is frequently ufed,
but we believe has never before been publithed. The me-
thod we mean, is that which we have defcribed under the
head of aa eight-days portable clock, contained in Plates XI.
and XII.; from which defcription, it is prefumed, the read-
er will already have apprehended all that is neceffary to be
underftood relating tothe mechanifm, and its application to
the regulation of the going pendulum.
tt. Dial-work.—In the defcription of the fame eight-
days clock which we have juft referred to, has alfo been par-
ticularly explained the common diai-work of a clock, the
different parts of which are fo diftin@ly reprefented in Plate
XII., that no further direGtions feem neceflary in this place, ,
efpecially as we propofe to give an ample account of the
different methods of indicating time on the faces of clocks
and watches, under the article Diau-cuork.
12. Striking part. As we have dwelt fome time on the
d fferent fucceflive parts of the mechanifm of the going-part
of a clock, which are the moft effential to be attended to,
we hope to be excufed, if we treat more generally, and clafs
under one head what remains to be faid on the ftriking part,
which requires lefs of fcience, and more of mere mecha-
nical contrivance, than the parts we have hitherto treated
of.
Neither do we mean to defcribe over again here, the
offices of the different parts of the {triking mechanifm, but to
point out the order in which the various conftituent pieces
ought to be fucceffively made, and to give our reafons for
their requifite difpofition; leaving the mechanician and
workman in poffeffion of their own mechanical refources,,
to be applied in thar own way.
The direétions which we have given for the callipering
and manipulation of the train m the going part of the
clock, wiil equally apply to the wheels and pinions of the
flriking part, and the {pring box, D, fig. 1. Plate XI.
together with the great wheel, F, and its fufee, may be
made precifely in the fame way as thofe of the going part,
C, and E, have been direted to be made; alfo the guard-
gut muft be fimilar. To fhew the manner in which the
main-fpring is coiled within the box, the lid or end piece is
left out in our drawing. ‘The numbers of teeth proper for
the wheels and pinions of the firiking train, and alfo the
number of pins in the pin-wheel, have been before explained ;
as alfo the ftru&ture and polition of the fly, hammer, and
bell; which explanations therefore, need not be re-
peated.
When the dial-work is finifhed, andthe clock is meant to
ftrike the hours only, which is our fuppofition here, the
warning-pin may be attached to the wheel which revolves in
an hour, which we have elfewhere called the minute wheel,
(fee fig. 2, Plate X11.) becaufe it carries the minute hand as
it revolves ; or otherwife it may be pur, as we have placed it,
in the fecond wheel of a fimilar number of teeth, marked g,
in jig. 1, of Plate XII. where it is better feen. The warn-
ing-piece, #uv, muft revolve round the angular point, by
means of a tube fitting nicely on a fixed ftud, in fuch a fitua-
tion on the front plate of the frame, that the piece will not
require much force, to be deducted from the maintaining
power, to be moved from its ftationary fituation at the end
of each hour; and that this may be the cafe, the tail-piece,
v, fhould he at right angles with the tangent line, in which
the warning pin is moving at the time of their contact; the
bent end, ¢, mult neceffarily be at fuch a diftance from the
centre of motion of the warning-piece, as the pin in wheel
R, fig. 1, Plate XI. which it mult fallin the way of demands.
Allo the hawk’s-bill p ¢ r, fig. 1, Plate XII. which is lifted
by the bent end of the warning-piece, fhould lie in a line,
brs
CLOCK-MAKING.
pr, perpendicular to the tangent-line, in which the end of
the warning piece moves at the inftant of lifting, in order
that the lealt impreffed force may detach the bill from the
tecth of the fubjacent rack ; and-that the hawk’s-bill may
have the mechanical advantage of a long lever, its centre of
motion mutt be at the remote end r; likewife, in order that
it may always move in the fame plane, it muft have alfo,
like the warning-piece, a tube moving round a ftud in the
plate of the frame confidered as its centre of motion. ‘The
weight and ftrength of the materials of thefe two pieces,
which are ufuaily of fteel, fhould be -proportioned to the
power of the main-{pring which lifts them ; for which reafon,
the lichter they are the better, provided they do not bend
with the forces they have to fultain as detents, when at reft.
The length of the gathering pallet, 5, in the laft named plate,
mutt be guided by the ftrength of the main-fpring, as exerted
at the arbor on which this pallet is placed,-compared with
that of the counter-fpring, 0, of the rack-tail: forif the lat-
ter is comparatively ftrong, the pallet mult neceffarily be
fhort, to have power enough to gather up the rack ; but the
length of the tail of this pallet, depending on the diftance
that the catching pin. m, on the rack, is from the laft tooth
of the rack, may be optional; only it may be obferved, that
the longer the tail is, the more power it has to arreit
the motion of the ftriking train, when the hour is ftruck.
It is of little importance, whether the gathering pallet be
before or behind the bill of the hawk’s-bill, provided they
a&t clear of one another, and provided the rack have 12
notches, to be caught fucceffively by the pallet.
The fize and thape of the rack, ma, depend on the diftance
of the centre wheel arbor from the gathering pallet, conjoint-
ly with the fize of the fnail /; when the quarters are not
ftruck, the fnail is ufvally attached to the 12-hours wheel, and
revolves with it, as in our drawing ; but it might with equal
propriety be placed ona fecond wheel, revolving in the fame
{pace of time, as is the cafe in the clock with chimes, repre-
fented in Plate XVII. of Horology. The fteps which form
the notched fpiral outline of the fnail have their depth de-
pending partly on the length of the tail-piece, 2, of
the rack, and partly on the fize of the teeth of the rack ; the
diltance from the outer to the inner end of the irregular fpiral
of the fnail mult be fuch, and the length of the rack-tail fo
proportioned to the body of the rack, that the 12 teeth of
the rack will only juit pafs the gathering pallet, while the
pin, in the extremity of the faid tail, moves down the ftraight
Jine that conne&ts the two ends of the fpiral, formed by
the boundary of the {nail ; hence, fuppofing the rack pre-
vioufly made, the point for its centre of motion mutt be
found fuch, that the two conditions will be exaily fulfilled ;
but the beft way is, to fix upon a point for the - centre of
motion firft, and then to proportion the rack and fnail to
each other, for the affumed length of tail, from the faid
centre of motion; the fteps will afcend by equal additions of
height, if the teeth of the rack are equidiftant. When the
{nail is dcfigned, care mult be taken, that each ftep fhall fubtend
exacily the twelfth part of a circle, or 30 degrees ; the
apparent increafe in the fize of the fteps is not owing to any
increafe in the angles fucceffively fubtended, but to the
increafe of the fucceffive radii of curvature: forasthe wheel
that carries the {nail round revolves in 12 hours, every ftep
mutt correfpond to an hour’s motion, otherwife the fame
hour might be ftruck a fecond time fometimes, when a greater
{pace than the hour has elapfed, as indicated by the minute
hand. ‘Therack, like the warning-piece and hawk’s-bill,
is ufually made of ftcel ; but the fnail may be made of brafs,
7
which is more eafily cut by the file than fieel. ‘The bar
for repetition, and the ftrike or filent, may be added with
little trouble, if deemed defireable, but the account we have
given of thefe parts before, when defcribing a portable eight-
days clock, will be deemed fufficient by the generality of
readers, and thofe, who have been inftruGied in theart, will
need no further direction from us refpeéting thofe parts of
the workmanfhip which are merely mechanical ; for were
we to enter into a detail of all the nick-nacks which have
been introduced into the ftriking part of a clock, we might
write a whole quarto volume on the {ubje&t. Neither do we
think it incumbent on us to enter minutely here into the
particulars of the enamelling, filvering, &c. of the dial, or
of the manufa@ory of the hands, and cafe, which are fepa-
rate departments: it may, however, be proper to obferve,
that fome care is requifite in making the pillars of the dial to
be all of an equal length, that the plane of the dial may be
exatly at right angles to the axes of the hands; otherwife
they will approach the dialin fome points of their refpective
revolutions more than in others, which will offend the eye of
afpectator. It isa matter of very little importance whether
the bell of the ftriking part be fixed vertically or horizontally ;
this point is generally determined by the fize and fhape of
the cafe that is fixed upon.
13. Adjuflment for Rate. Suppofe now our propofed
clock to be finifhed, and fixed in its cafe, and this firmly at-
tached to a folid wall, to avoid ail cafual motion, that might
be derived from the floor of the room in which it is placed,
when trodden upon; fuppofe moreover, its pofition fuch, that
when the pendulum is put into motion, the two alternate ex-
curfions are exa@tly fimilar in extentand time, cr, in other
words, that the clock is in perfe&t beat; it then only re-
mains to be brought to true mean time, folar or fidereal, as
its deftination may be; if the latter is fixed upon, the ad-
juftment for the length of the pendulum mutt be made from
night to night fucceffively, till a ftar, feen through a tranfit-
inftrument, fhall be found to crofs the central thread of the
eye-piece, exaGily at the fame hour, minute, and fecond,
for two or three fucceffive nights, which nicety of adjuftment
mzy be effc€ied at any feafon of the year, provided the
compenfating mechanifm be perfeét ; indeed an examination
of the paflage of the fame ftar, whatever it be, will
dete&t the inaccuracy of the compenfation if there be any,
provided the tranfit-inftrument have its adjuftments perfeét.
It is hardly neceflary, perhaps, to add, that when any known
{lar is pafling the middle thread of the field of view of a
tranfit-inftrument, properly fet in the true meridian line, the
fidereal clock ought to‘be indicating the ega&t hour, minute,
and fecond, denoted by the faid ftar’s right afcenfion for ~
the year and day in queftion. When folar or common time
is intended to be indicated by the clock, which is the cafe
for all civil purpofes, the clock may be tried by a compari-
fon with a regulator previoufly adjulted, or more accurately
by fucceflive obfervations, taken of any of the heavenly bo-
dies, as explained in fome of the problems contained in our
article CHRONOMETER. a
If a tranfit-inftrument is ufed as the inftrument of obferv-
ation, an allowance.of 3™ 55°.9 muft be made for each twenty
four fidereal hours, which is the quantity by which a folar
day is longer than a fidereal one, as has been explained under
the article juft referred to, It may fave fome time in mak-
ing calculations for this purpofe, if we fubjoin a table com-
puted for the fervice of thofe who wifh their clocks to be
roperly regulated.
cae Table
*
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
Table for regulating Clocks or Watches.
Revolu- Acceleratian of the
tiois of |Mean Solar Time correfponding.| Siarsin Solar Time,
the Srars. |
daemhe sme 8. seem. aes.
Wy) Ow 23) SEO waar o) 13" 55.0
2 Tah In 23) annoys Ome ey eats
iB Ih 2EUn AS sek s2 Or 47.7)
4 Bgurage za | 16la) OF 1G 4550
5 Ee anon a OnS, OTOP BOS
6 5 23, 36° 24/6 0 23 35-4
7 ENAO eam ago NiaS 7 Oh) Naat at Ges
8 Piro a® N26" wea Olly lal aaea glee
9 S285 24" 36/9 Oneaih ant
10 ©) OR 20! F410 © 39 19.0
II HO 23 § 16s Aer Oa TAG
12 Die 23) m2) TAO. Oo 47" 10.8
13 2ai23) To sesats ON igre nGny
T4 TZ 23 AUST AN | OO 55 2-6.
15 at ae2ig) eT eT O58 58:5
Tou TG, 973 lt fatal (0) Tey g2 en Huet
17 RO AVIONICS? HOAT Dg Oo 5 On
18 E7euze AQ 13.8 I 10 46.2
19 18 922 45° 17.9 Leen oy hades
20 TO 22" AT, 22¢0 Ty 91, 30:0
21 Son D2 3s DO Tt ee2) OB.)
22 DE OPINION Sg SOs) Li ANC) ro Kora)
23 22. 22" Bo Maf3 Te 30 ser
24 23°22 25 38.4 P34 21.6
26- oh Gap 2h FAarG Te 3o 17.5
26 Ge 22 7 a AO.O Tee aba
27 aOR Ro) PTZ SO. Deol) Ons
28 Dig VODA Bop bole SS Ola hae
29. AS 51 >i eel 9 9) oe Se err
30 BO) maz 2) 3 To I 57 57-0
40 BO (20 ""22" 44-0 2 37 16.0
59 AQ 7205/44 25-0 3° 16. 35.0
60 59 20° 4 6.0 3 55 54:9
70 69 19 24 47.0 4 35. 13.0
80. 79 15) 45 28.0 5) Ts 138.0
go Sg Mio. 6 "O.0 iy pasa} eulinnese)
100 99 17 26 50.0 6m 33 1T0.0
200 Igy IO 53 40.0 egy ain(ayy pileKo}
BS 290) = 20, 30:0 EO) 39) 30-0
g60 | 359 © 24 36.0 | 23°35 24.0
Boe ed nO A 5O-5 8 28, Sh. 2B.
366 Aor IOI tT OsO Behl Nitey ixopl
Tae application of the preceding table can hardly be mif-
taken, but, for the fake of illuftration, we will fuppofe an
example that fhall include all the difficulties that are likely
to occur in practice ; letit, for inftance, be reqnired firlt to
put the clock to mean folar time, when Spica Virginis is
pafling the meridian hair of a tranfit-inftrument, on the
evening of the ft of May, 1807, and that, on the evening
of the feventh fucceeding day, the faid clock being obferved
to be indicating 10" 15" 24° at the moment, it be required
to afcertain the daily lofs or gain on an average of the faid
fidereal days? ‘Tne work may be thus performed; viz.
R. A. of Spica Virginis for 1806
(Vab. IL. Cronomerer)
} a3" 14" 5o%-29
Annual variation for one year, add Cray
Ditto for four months, - da. I .05
tg 25 7349
Vor. VIII:
Star’s corre€ted R.A: for May 1, 1807 13%
T5™ 984
Sun’s R. A. for noon of ditto, fubtract 2 30° 56 “f
Approx. folar time of ftar’s paffage LO! 44719
Propor. part of 3” 48%7 (daily dif.) ho
~ fubtract } React els
True time of the far’s psflage ee 2
which the clock mut be fet
Seven days acceleration of the am
from the Tab. fubtract Pi indhved
True mean folar time - HONEA! FIGS 5.60
Time by clock per fuppofition - 10 15 29
Amount of error in feven days EPO. igh ain Na.
Hence the daily error, in excefs in each fidereal day, is
5-14 : 5
= rar = 5°.02, which was to be determined.
For the other methods of afcertaining the rate of a
clock or watch, and for the manner of applying the equa-
tion of time, the reader is defired to confult the problems
under the article CHroNOMETER.
Ciock-movement is a term in Horology, which fometimes
implies a combination of wheels and Pinions employed in
the finking part of a clock, but moft ufually that fucceffion
of wheels and pinions which move one another, fiom the
maintaining power to the pallets in the going part, and
which are employed to-tranfmit the force of that power in
an equable but modifed manner to the reculator, at the
fame time that they count and indicate the number of its
vibrations in a given period of time. That thefe offices of
the going part, to’ which we will confine onrfelves princi-
pally, may be performed in a proper manner, It is requifite
that the wheels and pinions of the movement fhou!d have
their number of teeth properly calculated; that their dia-
meters fhould be exaétly proportioned to aét in fuitable
pairs; that they fhou!ld be properly callipered to make the
pitch-line of each wheel coincide with that “of its pinion ;
and that the teeth fhould be of a proper fize and fhape, to
tranfmit the motion and force they have received, to the
teeth actmg with them in an uniform manner in every pof-
fible fituation of the aéting parts.
The three firft of thefe requifites have already occu-
pied a confiderable portion of our attention under the
article CLock-making, to which the reader is referred ; and
the fourth, which relates to the fize and fhape of the teeth,
might have been properly deferred till we come to the word
Toorn, had it not fallen fo far into the alphabét ; we fhall
therefore introduce the fubttance, appropriated to that
word, in this place, that the fubject may appear in as com-
plete a ftate as our arrangement will admit, at an early pe-
riod of our work.
Before we proceed to examine {cientifically the requifites
which ought to guide the praétical con{trudtion of the tect
of wheels and pinions, it fkems neceffary that we fhould pre-
mife fome obfervations on the principle by which a commu-
nication of motion and a traniiniffion of force in general are
effe€ted in wheel-work.
In Plate IL!. fig. 1, of Horology, let ADB be a lever, or rod
without weight, moyeable on C as acentre, and let W and
w, fuppofed to be two bodies with weight, have their mafles
fo proportioned to each other, that the mafs cw may be to the
diftance C A, as the mafs W is to CB; or, in other words,
if the mais ce, multiplied by its diltance from the centre of
Z motion,
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
motion, BC, give a produd, or momentum, equal to the
produ&t of the mafs W multiplied by its diftance CA;
then the two bodies, za and W, will remain in equilibrio in
any fituation, AB, or aé of the free lever; but if we
fuppofe the two bodies to have equal maffes, ors which is
the fame thing, equal weights, it is equally evident, that
the .body, w, would preponderate in confequence of its
greater diftance from the centre of motion, which we will
fuppofe to be three times as great as that of W, and its ve-
locity would, in this cafe, be three times that of W; con-
“fequently it would require an oppofing force, three times as
much as W would require, to arreft its motion ; but if W
has its mafs or weight increafed three times, the diltances
remaining unaltered, the oppoiing forces, becoming Gimilar,
would then arreft one another, and produce an equilibrium.
The farhe effe&ts would follow if the threads of fufpenfion
were not left free at the ends of the lever, but were folded
round the circumferences of two circles, defcribed round
the common centre, C, with their refpeétive radu, C A and
CB, fig. 2; in this cafe, alfo, the {maller the circumference
of the dark circle is, the greater muft be the fufpended
weight to preferve the equilibrium of the two circles, and
vice verfi, the ratio being conttantly reciprocal.
Let -us fuppofe, now, fig. 1 placed contiguous to fig. 2,
with the large circle of one converted into the portion of a
wheel, and the {mall one of the other intoa pinion, asin
fig. 3 and let us fee what will be the confequence, when the
teeth are conneéted and the weights, W and w, applied as
before ; if we fuppofe the materials of which the portion
ef the wheel and the pinion are made, to be without
weight, anequilibrium will flill take place ; but remove the
{mall weight w, and what will then be the confequence ?
Wy, the pinion D will be impelled at a mean rate, in a di-
rection contrary to that of wheel B, with a force equal to
the weight of the {mall mafs, aw, or, as we have aflumed,
equal to one third of the large mafs, W, which may now
be called the maintaining power. But when a tooth of the
pinion moves with only one third of the force of W, ap-
plied at the point, A, of the wheel, which is at a diftance
from the centre, C, equal to thé radius. of the pinion, it
moves with the velocity of point B of the wheel, tooth
for tooth, and therefore the pinion makes three revo-
lutions for the wheel’s one, fuppofing their numbers to be
re{pectively 16 and 48, as their radii; hence 3, the ac-
quired angular velocity of the pinion’s circumference, mul-
tiplied by 4, its diminifhed force, makes the momentum
unity, which will alfo reprefent the momentum of the main-
taining power in motion, viz. force 3 multiplied by 3 compa-
rative velocity. Again, let us fuppofe the pinion, D, aétu-
ated by a body, w, equal to } of the weight of W, and
difregard its velocity for the prefent, the pontion of another
wheel, E, attached to ic by the lever ED, will have its
motion contemporary with it; but, by the fame mode of rea-
foning, the velocity of the point E will be increafed to three
times that of thé pitch line of the pinion, as before was the
cafe with the wheel B, compared with the point A; but
its force will be diminifhed in the fame ratio: that is, the
velocity will be 3 x 3 = 9, and the force, difregarding fric-
tion, &e. will be= x ae ~; but 7 the force, multiplied
)
oa < =
by 9, the velocity, will ftill be unity as before ; according-
ly, afmall body, F, having one-ninth part of the weight of
W, the maiotaining power, carried over a {mall fixed pul-
ley, G, will be fufficient to preferve the equilibrium with
refoect to the maintaining power, when the fecond body, zw,
is removed If an additional wheel and pinion were added
to the above, azd were fuppofed to have the fame dimen-
fions, the velocity produced at the pitch-line of this third
wheel would be 9 x 3 = 27, and the diminifhed force, on
our former fuppofition of no friétion or oppoling foree,
would be 4 only of the maintaining power. Inthisilluftration
of the pruciple by which an increafe of velocity, and a cor-
refponding decreale of power, accompany, a communication
of motion in alternate dive&tions in wheel-work, the tecth
may be confidered as the-remote ends of fo many levers,
which have their’ fulcra at the centres of the whecls and
pinions refpeCtively, as in fig: 4; and it ts ealy to fee, that
an accumulation of velocity, accompanied by a correfpond-
ing diminution of force, may be produced in any machine
where the wheels drive the pinions, as is the cafe in clock.
movements, to fuch an extent, even where the ratio of the
wheel to the pinion is 3.: 1 only, that the fri@ion of the
acting parts, together with the refiftance of the air oppofed
to the moving parts, may become a complete counterpoife
to the maintaining power. dn higher ratios of 12:1, 8:4,
&e. which are ufed in clocks, the number of wheels and
Pinions, to produce fuch an equilibrium, would not require
many pairs beyond what an ordinary clock has for its move-
ment. If, bowever, the pinions had been the drivers in-
ftead of the wheels, the reverfe of what we have fated would
have taken place; the velocity would have decreafed, and
the force applied have been augmented in the fame ratio we
have explained, which is the cafe in cranes, and other en-
gines for railing heavy bodies. _ Hence, if the movement of
a clock were compofed of itrong wheels and pinibns with
thick arbors, and had the power applied at the balance-
wheel, which may be called the top of the movement, the
barrel of an cight days clock having a thick cord coiled
round it, would raife a very ponderous body, and become
no mean engine for litting weights, furpafiing the ordinary
efforts of man’s natural {trength. ~
A flight confideration of what we have here advanced, will
fuffice to convey an idea to any one, who has not previoufly
confidered the fubje&, how admirably well adapted for the
purpofes of a clock-movement this property in dynamics is,
by which an increafe of velocity is always accompanied by a
proportionate abatement of force; for by means of it, the
maintaining power, however large, may be fo economically
portioned out in minute quantities, fufficient only to com-
penfate the lofs of motion which the pendulum or balance
fultains, at each vibration, that it may be made to laft for
many days, or even weeks, before it is exhaufted by the
great number of fucceflive minute deduGions, which are
made at periodical intervals ; at the fame time, certain wheels
and pinions, by their numbers and due arrangement, divide
and fubdivide, by means of hands and divided circles, the
fexagefimal portions of each hour, denominated minutes, and
alfo of each minute by the name of feconds. The various of-
fices of communicating motion, of increafing its velocity as at
firft produced, of diminifhing the original force of the main-
taining power, of dividing, {ubdividins, counting, and indicat.
ing the hours, minutes, and feconds, all performed by the fim-
ple contrivance of a clock-movement, or watch-movement, in
conjunction with the regulator, we hefitate not to affirm,
when. duly confidered, exhibit one of the moft ftrikin
inftances of human ingenuity. The experiments of the phi-
lofopher, the calculations of the mathematician, and the per-
fevering fiill of the mechanift, have combined to produce
ultimately this admirable piece of mechanifm, of which we
hardly know which moft to admire, the fimplicity of the
conflrution, or the complexity of the various offices, con-
{tantly and moft correétly performed.
4\s a further illuftration of this fundamental part of our
3 fubject
—— EEE
fubje&, we will here introduce the reader again to the cal-
liper of our propofed halffeconds clock, (fee Crocx-mak-
ing ) where we will fuppofe the centres of the wheels and
pinions arranged ina ftraight line, as feen in fig. 4, of Plate
III. We will fuppofe the main-fpring, or power, pulling
with a force, at the pomt P of the great wheel A,’ equal to
the weight of a body, W, of three pounds; then becaufe
this wheel has 96 teeth, and a€tuates a pinion, a, of 8 leaves,
their pumbers of teeth being dire@ly to each cther as their
radii, which are reprefented as levers aéting together, with
their fulera at the re{peGtive centres, the velocity at the cir-
cumference of the wheel wiil be communicated to the circum-
ference of its pinion ay which therefore will make 9°, or 12
revolutions, during the time that the wheel makes one; hence
if the great wheel be aflumed to revolve once in 12 hours, as
we propofed, the centre pinion a, together with its wheel B,
will revolve in one hour, and its arbor will be proper for the
hand to mdicate minutes on a circle of 60 on the clock face ;
but it muft be obferved, that the velocity is not increafed 12
times, as it refpects the point P, where the maintaining power
is appued, nor is the foree diminthhed in the fame ratio as it
regards that point ; bat, to make thecalculation more fimple,
we will confider the diftance of P, from the centre of A,
-equai.to 4, of the radius of wheel A, which is the radius of
pinion @, and correct the conclufion drawn from fuch a fup-
polition afterwards: the pinion @ then, we fay, has its velo-
city at the pitch-hne, or its number of revclutions equal to
12, and its force equal to 4; in the next place, the radius
of a pinion a, 1s to the radius of the concentric and contem-
6
porary wheel:B, as 8 : 64, and = = 1 8)jylthes circumfe-
rence of this centre wheel, therefore, will move witha velo-
city equal to 12 x 8, or 96,,and with a force only of 54;
both which will be impartec to the’pitch-line of the pinion J,
of S leaves ; again, the radius of the latter pinion J, is to'the
radius of its concentric and contemporary wheel C, as 8 : 60);
but *° isa fraciion, the value of which is 743 and 96x 74
therefore make 720 to exprefs the velocity, or number of re-
volutioas of pinion c, actuated by the wheel C; and ~1, will
exprefs the force, or fraftional part of three pounds, the
quantity affumed for'the maintaining power, which 18 equal
to 24 grains of troy weight. We have now found, that
while the wheel A is making one revolution, the laft pinion
¢ will make 720, and that 24 grains troy, fufpended by a
{mall pulley over the pitch-line of pinion c, and aitached to it,
will balance three pounds of the fame fpecies of weight,
fufpended at ~. of the radius from the centre of the great
wheel, if we difregard the effeGs of fiGion. Let us examine
-the confequence of thefe calculations as they regard our ar-
rangement of the calliper: the pinion c, we have feen, revolves
in 74, of 12 hours, according to our original afflumption of A
revolving in 12 hours; but in twelve hours there are jult720
minutes ; one revolution confequently of the laft pinion ¢, is
performed in exaétly one minute; its arbor will therefore be
proper for the axis of the feconds hand, which goes round its
circle of 60 in this time: but the maintaining power, W, is
not aétually fufpended at j'. of the radius of wheel A, ac-
cording to our fuppofition when we calculated, confequently
the refult, as 1t relates to the modified force at the pitch-line
of pinion ¢, requires yet to be correGed, or fomehow com-
penfated ; this is done by making the radius of the {wing or
balance wheel D, equal to the diltance of P from the centre
of A, in which cafe, the calculated velocity and force at any
peint in the circumference of D will be in the fame propor-
tion to what thofe of the maintaining power fufpended at P
are, as the velocity and force at the pitch-line of pinion c
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
would have been, if the fame maintaining power had been
a@tually fufpended 31, of the radius of A, from its centre;
the body W of 24 grains therefore attached to the citcum-
ference of wheel D, and carried over the {mall pulley above
it, will balance ‘three pounds, fufpended at the point P, of
the great wheel, if, as before, we dilregard fntion ; and the
pufh made, in any direétion, againtt the pallet face, will be
equal to a force of 24 grains, acting in the fame-diteCion :
the fame refult would alfo have accrued, if the body W had
been fufpended at the circumference of wheel A, provided
the fwing-wheel had been of the fame radius; but, fuppo!-
ing the body W to remain at P, and the fwing-wheel D-
made equal to the great wheel, then the velocity of the
former would have been increafed, and_ its force diminished,
in the proportion of the diameter of the fwing-wheel to the
diameter of the barrel, by which we fuppole the body W to
be fufpended at P: in this cafe, the {mall dotted body, x,
fufpended at y, at a diftance equal to the radius of wheel A,
would have been fufficient’ to keep the body W éin equi-
librio.
The pendulum propofed to be adopted, being a half fe-
conds pendulum, the fwiog-wheel muft have 60 teeth, in.
order that one tooth may efcape the pallets at every’ fecond
vibration, which therefore becomes a proper regulator for
our prefent movement. :
When the whole movement is previoufly given in any
clock, and we want to afcertain the relative revolutions of che
firft and lnft wheels, a little confideration of what we have
faid will fhow, that the produét of all the wheels, divided
by the produ of all the pinions at one operation, will give
096 6 60 68640
the refult at once thus, —— x tian eee at
as before.
rope
Alfo, when the relative forces of the maintaining power, at
the barrel, and at the end of a tooth of the pallet-wheel are .
thus afcertained, this calculated force mult be altered, inaf-
much as the pallet-wheel has its diameter greater or lefs than
that of the barrel,accordingly as we have fhown above. When
afpringand fufeeare ufed, the power of the {pring may be af-
certained cither by the initrument of adjuitment ufed as a
lever with a fliding weight, or, what will be lefs equivocal, a
barrel may be attached to the fquare of the fufee arbor, when
the {pring is adjutted, and thena heavy body fufpended by it
in a {cale to admit of weights of adjultment, which barrel and
weights may be fubftituted for the {pring and fufee in the
calculation, fir of the whole force applied as a maintaining .
power, and then of its modification at the face of the
pallets.
If we were to take the oppofing force of friction inte our
calculation, we fhould find the problem extremely compli-
cated; for there are not only various caufes of fri€tion in a
movement, fuch as that caufed by the aétion of the teeth,
and in the pivot-holes, &c. ; but the continual variation of
the quantum of friction, arifing from the deftru€tion of the
rubbing parts, the thickening of the oil ufually applied, and
the admiffion of duft, is fuch, that no regular and conftant
data can be obtained whereon to ground fuch a calculation
as would prove ferviceable, ‘The readteft, and perhaps beft,
praGtical way of afcertaining how much of the maintaining
power is expended in fri€tion, 1s really to fufpend fuch {mall
weight by a tooth of the fwing-wheel, as will’balance the
maintaining power, and compare this with the requifite force
obtained by calculation ; the difference will give the collec-
tive quantum of fri€tion, at the time of the experiment, in
the whole movement.
Frigtion, however, is no‘ the only obftacle to the maintain-
*3 22 t ing
=1720;
2
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
ing power in the works of a clack in motion; the tran{mi(-
fion of force is not conftant, but effected at fuch equi-diftant
intervals of time, as depend on the vibrations; for inftance,
in our half-feconds piece, the wheels and pinions are put in-
to motion, and ftopped again alternatcly 60, and where there
is recoil 120 times in each minute ; hence the inertia of the
matter compofing the wheel-work is as often to be overcome
as the arrefted motion is re-produced, and if the wheels
are not made very light at the upper end of the train,
where the force is greatly reduced, a very confiderable
portion of the calculated force will be employed in moy-
ing the works from a {tate of reft, at every vibration.
We prefume it is on this account, more than on account
of fri@ion, that the workmen have found it neceflary to di-
tninifh the wheels, and to reduce their weight, as much as is
confiltent with ftrength, accordingly as the train afcends.
To overcome the obltacles to the due effcét of the maintain-
ing power, arifing from friction, and the inertia of the wheels
and pinions, more force is ufually given to it than would
otherwife be neceffary, and the reqnifice addition, over what
calculation gives, mutt in every initance depend upoa tenta-
tive adjultments of the maintaining power to the- momentum
of the regulator, fo as to produce the due excurfion of the
pendulum or balance beyond the efcapement angle. In fome
delicate machines for keeping true time, the pivots of the
arbors are made to reft on friction rollers, or otherwifle, are
buthed with fome of the precious {tones that take a high
polith, which expenfive additions admit of the maintaining
power being fmall in comparifon with the momentum of the
regulator ; which circumftance, when the regulator is render-
ed unchangeable by fome compenfating mechanifm, is beit
calculated to preferve the angle of vibration alfo unchanged,
provided the maintaining power remain uniformly the fame ;
and even if fome flight alterations of force fhould arife out
of an imperfe&t adjultment of the fufee, where a {pring 1s
ufed, the great controul of the regulator would, under fuch
cireumftances, reftrain the effeéts of the flight irregularities
of the impulfes on the pallets.
Hitherto we have confidered the a€tion of the wheel with
its pinion, or what the French call engrenage, to be fo per-
feet, that the velocity and force, at the circumference of every
wheel, is truly and conftantly imparted to its re {pe€tive pinion;
which is fuppofing not only the whcel-work to be propor-
tioned and callipered with the utmott ex2Gnefs, but alfo
their teeth fhaped in the belt manner. There are, however,
three very common canfes of bad aétion 5 firftly, whenever the
wheel is too fmall for the pinion, though ever fo well caili-
ptred, its teeth will pitch againft the ends of the pinion’s
leaves, and require more then ordinary force to be confumed
in their difengagement; fecondly, when the wheel is too
large, it will impart to the pinion too much velocity during
the a@tion, and part of the force wi'l be expended in the drop
that ‘will take place before the action commences againit
each followi: g leaf of the pinion, after it has ceafed to a&
with the leading leaf; and thirdly, if the curve of the tooch
be all formed, the tranfmitted force will, in fome fituations,
execed, and in others fall fhort of a mean force; in all thefe
cafes the varied intenfities of the tranfmitted force will
corfiderably affe& the ifochronifm of the regulator with
any of the ordinary efcapements. Of the two frit of
thefe caufes of bed ation, we have pointed out the re-
medy, when we treated of the proper method of propor
tioning and callipering a movement, under the word
Crock-makiag ; the third, which is of the utmoft import-
ance, not only in clock-work, but in wheel work of every
defeription, prefents itfelf now for difcuffion.
in fg. 5 of Plate I1L., kt us fuppofe 6C A and dca
two bent levers, refpeStively moveable on the points C
and c, as their centres, and let us conceive that the parts,
C A and ca, which are in the direGtion c C of the line
of the centres of motion, be unchangeable in length, and
be loaded with their refpective weights W and w; but
that the parts, 6 C and bc, be variable in length, fo that
in any fituation their extremities may meet and att reci-
procaily on each other ; we affirm that the fame weights W
and qw, which will keep the two variable levers in equilibnio
at the point P, in the line of the centres, will alfo keep them
in equilibrio when their ends ret againft each other at any
other point, 4, in the circumference of a circle, of which ¢ P,
or C P, is the diameter.
Demonfiration.. Let b d, the thort line perpendicular to 6
C, which may reprefent the fhort arc made in an inftant by
the lever 8 C, turning on the centre C, exprefs the abfolute.
force of the weight W, acting at the extremity of the lever;
and let this abfolute force be decompofed into two others,
beand & f, the former of which, J e, may be perpendicular
to c 4, in the dire&ion of P 4, the angle at d being a right
angle, by reafon of its being formed at the circumference by
two chords from oppofite ends of the diameter, and the lat-
ter, bf, may be parallel to the line 5C; it is evident that
be expreffes that portion of the force 6 d, which is employ-
ed in moving the point, 4, of the lever ¢ b, from b towards.
g, and, confequently, in making thelever, c 5, revolve, whillt
the other portion, d f, expreffes that part of the force, b d,
which has a tendency to pufh the point 4 towards C; but
C isa fixed refilling point, which therefore deitroys this part
of the decompofed force: we fay, likewife, that 5 d ex-
prefies the abfolute force exerted at the end, 4, of the bent
lever, ac 4, by the weight w, to oppofe the revolution of
the point, J, round its centre, c ; for, becaufe the right
line, A W, is perpendicular to C A, and alfo 6 d to 4C, the’
weight, W, is to the force, 5 d, as the line, 6 C, isto C A;
but in taking C B perpendicularly to the line, 4 P, prolong-
ed, the lke triangles, d be, and COB, give bd: be:
CB:C4, therefore, by multiplying, W:¢::C B:C
A : now let the abfolute force with which the weight, w,
urges the point, J, ina direGiion oppofite to d g, be called x,
and we fhall have w:x::¢8:c a, or, on account of the
fimilarity of the triangles,c bP, CBP,asC BtoC P; but ;
on the fuppofition that the two weights, wand W, will ba-
lance each other, when their forces are exerted reciprocally ,
at the pomt P, en account of the equality of the levers, ea,
c P, the weight, w, may be {uppofed to be fufpended at the
point P; it will be thenas W: w::C P: CA; likewile,
by multiplying, W:x:.C B:CA; but we have jul
proved that W:eb::C B:C A, therefore e b = x;/
hence there will be an equilibrium, when the force, e d, is
equal to the force with which the point, 4, is urged to re-
volve by the weight W. It is equally ‘demonttrable, that an
equilibrium will take place between the two levers when
their point of contact falls in any other part of the cireums
ference of the circle, ¢,b P; and alfo, that an equilibrium
will not take place if fuch point of conta& fall either within |
or without the circumference of the faid circie. Vide Ber-
thoud’s ‘© Effai fur ’ Horlogerie,” tom. i. p. at.
Corollary. From the preceding demonftration an inference.
is deduciblé, of the utmoit importance in -wheei-work ; .
namely, if we fuppofe the point 4 to be always in the cir-,
cumference of cb P, while the lever} CA impels the lever ’ ‘
bca, the civcles H K and 4 & defcribed from the centres of |
metion C asd c, and touching one another at P;, when at-.
tacfied each to its own Jever, will move with the fame force
and the fame velocity. . ;
For rt, Let F and f be the refpe&ive forces with,
which,
“
- CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
which the circumferences of the circles HK and /é are
urged, and we fhall have bd: F:: CP: Cd, and f: be:
ch:chorcP; but we have feen above that be: bd::Cb
GiB, therefore fis! Pas © PMX Job) ol Ps CB; but the
fimilar trianglesc 6 Pand CBP givecP: CP::cb: CB;
hencecP x CB =CP x cd, therefore f= F; confe-
quently, if the circle H K be moved by any force uniformly,
the circle 4 & will alfo be moved uniformly. _
2dly. Whatever may be the velocity of the point 4, of
the lever A C4, that which it will communicate to the
lever dca, in the dire&tion de, perpendicular to the point
of contaé&t, will be the fame as that of point d; that is, if
we demit the perpendicular dg, the velocity in the direc-
tion Jd, being reprefented by dd, the velocity in the direc-
tionbe will be reprefented by dg. If then V be the velo-
city of the circumference of the circle, or wheel, TH] K, and
a that of the {maller circle, or pinion A &, it is evident that
Vibd: CP: Cd, likewile, thatdg: vi: cb: ch; aifo,
the like triangles, bdg, and CdB, give bd: bg :: Co:
CB; therefore, V:v::CP x cb: cP x CB; but thefe
two lalt produSts we have feen are equal, therefore v = V.
By a fimilar reafoning it-is equally demonitrable, that
neither the force nor velocity of the wheel would be equally
communicated to the pinion, nor thofe of the pinion to the
wheel, if the point of a&tion were fituated either within or
without the femi-circle cd P.
To apply the preceding corollary to our prefent purpofe,
of effeGting an equabie communication of force and velocity
in wheel-work, let us conceive the variable levers A C4,
and acb, in fig. 1, Plate IV. fo circumitanced, that their
remote points, , meet at P, and that the points H and 4,
of the wheel H K, and pinion 44, be alfo in conta& at P;
let the wheel now move through five fucceflive portions,
Hza,«P, By, 7), and dP, fucceflively, and conceive it to
drive the pinion 424, by fimple contaét; in this cafe, the
pinion will move in like-manner, through fimilar ares 4 a’,
af, By, y's and 3’P, and at each of the fucceflive
points of contaé&, wa’, BB’, yy. &c. the refpective lengths
of the levers, in order to mect in the femi-circle cf P, will
be A Ct and aci, AC2 and ac2, A C3 andac3, AC4
and ac4; and, laftly, ACéandacé, continually varying :
hence we may conceive a curve, H4, fuch, that fome point
of the variable lever ac 4, between 4 and A, fhall always reft
on it in every fucceflive fituation of the wheel and pinion,
beginning at 4, and ending at 4; if now we fuppofe the
curve H, on which the variable end of the lever cb A refts,
to be attached to the wheel_H K, and to be brought back
into its original fituation P, and alsoc 4 to be coincident with’
c P, it is evident that, though the wheel-and pinion were not
fo in contaét as to impel one another, yet if the wheel were to
be moved uniformly as before, the curve-piece attached to it
would drive the lever cb / before it in fuch a manner, as to
effeG& a conftant variation in its length, but whether fuch
motion of thé pinion occafioned by the attached ftraight
lever, when urged by the curve-piece H 4, will or will not be
uniform, depends entirely on the nature of the curve which
we'have not yet eftablifhed. et us examine the figure a
little more clofely. The arcs P H, of the wheel, and PA
of the pinion, we have aflumed to be equal in length, though
one contains double the number of degrees as the other, by
reafon of haying only half its radius; but the femicircle,
cb P, is defcribed from only half the radius of the pinion ;
confequently the dotted lines, cr, ¢ 2, ¢ 3, &c. which mea-
fure degrees, by being prolonged, on the circumference of
the pinion, meafure double degrees on the femi-circle, cb P,
by reafon of their meeting at the end of the diameter, in-
flead of at the centre; therefore the arc P 4, is alfo equal
Sige 2, of Plate 1V. which is the reverfe of fig. 1.
in length to either of the others, PH, and P4, ‘Thefe con:
fiderations will enable us to determine the requifite curve,
thus ; transfer the divifions, Ha, H@, &c. from P, back
towards K ; and through the interfeétions 1, 2, 3, 4, b, of
the {mall femi-circle, ¢ 5 P; draw parallel ares, 11’, 22',
&c. in dotted curves from C, as acentre ; which extents will
be the fuccefiive aGting lengths of the radius of wheel H K,
in the fucceffive fituations, as it revolves from Pto H ; alfo
the {mall extents P 1, P 2, P 3, &c. will be fo many radii of
curvature applied fucceflively from the different points of
Givifion ; for inttance, P r, applied to the firt point below P,
wil] interfeét the innermo? dotted arc at 1’; P 2, from the
fecond point in P K, will interfeét the fecond dotted curve
line at 2’; P 3, from the third point, will interfect the third
dotted line at 3’; P 4 at 4’; and, laftly, P 6, at 6’; andif the
interflices of the curve fo formed be completed, it will have
the peculiar property of driving the ftraizht line, 54, and -
its pinion, with an eqnable force, and an equable velocity,
provided the wheel HK, to which it js attached, move
equably ; for the aéting point will always be found in
the femi-circle cP, which is fulfilling the condition
of the problem ; alfo, reverfing the motion, the ttraight line,
b 4», will drive the curve, 6 H, and its wheel, back again:
with an equable force and velocity, as though the pinion
drove the wheel by contact. We have here fuppofed the
curve piece attached to the whee}, and driving the pinion,
but the fame projection, or rather the fame mode of pro-
jecting the curve, will apply when the pinion has the curve,
and is the driver according to the reprefentation given iu
We have
alfo hitherto fuppofed, that a wheel or pinion moves always.
in the fame direétion; but as it is frequently required in’
wheel-work, that the works fhould turn both backward and:
forward, it is neceflary to have a counter-eurve on the fol-
lowing part of the tooth, which in its turn may occafionally
be the leading part ; the fame geometrical procefs will give’
this reverfe curve, which muft neceflarily begin at the dif-
tance from the other of the whole breadth of the tooth ; in
our drawing, we have given the tooth equal to four divifions,.
in order to fhow more clearly the procefs of defcribing it,
but in ordinary works, particularly in clock movements, the
ftrength of the tooth is too fmall to admit of being-deferibed
and demonftrated in this way; we have notwithfanding-
thought it our indifpenfable duty to invettigate, and lay
before the reader, the fundamental principle on which the
proper fhape of a tooth depends. According to the pre-
ceding inveitigation, the curved portion of one tooth, it will
be feen, mult always drive a ftraight edge of the other, and
vice verfa; 2lfo a line drawn from the point of action to the °
primitive circles, or pitch line, where it is interfeted by a
line joining the centres, will be always perpendicular to both
the ttraight line and the curve. aS
Here the reader will naturally be led to afk, what is the
precifé nature of the curve we have determined? and what
name fhall we give it? A little reflection on its property and.
delineation will foon convince the geometrician that it is
an epicycloid, or rather a portion of an epicycloid, for the ”
generation of which the wheel conttitutes the bafe, and a
circle, equal in diameter to the radius of the pinion, the
generating circle. Camus in his ‘* Cours de Mathé-
matiques,” Liv. x. and xi. has inveftigated the epi-
cycloid, as it affords a rule for the formation of teeth in
wheel-work, which portion of the work has lately been
tranflated into Englith, but the tranflator has added fome
pradtical direGtions refpe@ing the fhape of a tooth, takew
from ‘*Imifon’s Elements of Science and Art,” the prin-
ciple of which we thins it neceffary here to corredt, the”
ame
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
fame time that we avail ourfelves of the elucidation of our
fubjeG which Camus’s matterly treatment of it affords!
In fiz. 3, of Plate LV. let H K reprefent a portion of the
fame wheel which is reprefented dy tie fame letters in fiz. 1,
and let the epicycloidal curve, Hi 2’ 4! 6’, be deferibed in
the ufual way by a fixed point in the circumference of a
{mall circle, with a radius equal to that of the femicircle,
cb Py ia fig. 1, coming in contaé with the circle H K,
and thereby effecting a revolution; then it is evident that
theepicycloidalcurveinourprefent diagramis precifely the fame
as the curve P i! 2’ 3! 4’, &c. in fig. 1, which fimilarity
proves the latter to be alfo epicycloidal ; for the chords 2 2’,
44, &c. in fig. 3, are precifely the fame as P 2, P 4, &e.
with which the points 2/, 4’, &c. aredefcribed in the curve
Pielialy é&e:, in fig. U3 and in fg. 3, the-arcs, 22’, and
4.4', &c. are re{pectively equal to 2 H, 4 H, &c. of the fame
Jig. 1 the fame way that Pe’, P»’, &c. are refpectively
equal to P3, Py, &e. in fig. 1. This epicycloidal curve,
P r’2’ 3! 4! b', in fig. 1, or H 2! 4! 6, in fig. 3, is of the
kind called exterior, by reafon of the generating circle re-
volving round. the outfide of the bafe H K; but if it were
made to revolve by a fimilar conta&t with the interior fide of a
circle, the generated curve would be of a different fhape,
and would be denominated an interior epicycloid. -In the
particular cafe where the gencrating circle has its diameter,
exactly equal to the radius of the circle which coultitutes
the bale, the line generated by a fixed point in the circum-
ference of this generating circle will not be a curve, but an
exaét ftraizht line pafling through the centre of the circle
which is made the bafe : thus in the lower part of /iz. 3, if
we conceive the fixed point, in the generating circle, for
deferibing the line required, to be at a, a point in the cir-
cumferensce of the bafe, ade, and the generating circle to .
move forwards to the points d and e.fucceffively, it is de-
monttrable that the faid fixed point, a, will be found fuc-
ceffively at 2 and c, and will confequently defcribe the
ftraight line or radius, aéc, in the fame tive that the gene-
rating circle revolves down one quadrant, ade, of the circle
eonltituting the bafe; this confequence muft follow from
the confideration that the arc, d4,. 1s equal to the arc, da,
and that the femi-circle, ec, is equal to the quadrant, eda,
according to our aflumption of the diameter of the fmaller
circle being exaétly equal to the radius of the larger.
With thefe demonitrable truths in our recollection let us
now turn to fig. 4, and fee how both the exterior and in-
terior epicycioids are concerned in the formation of an
epicycloidal tooth, or tooth that has the property of tranf-
mitting both the force and velocity it has received without
alteration to its fellow-tooth, when it is alfo fhaped accord-
ing to the fame principle: if we fuppofe the portion of a
circle, HK, to drive the {mall generating circle, cd P,
equably by fimple contaét at the point, P, the fixed point
4 will deferibe the portion, H 4, of an exterior epicycloid on
the plane of H K, extended, which portion we will {uppofe
to be one fide of -a tooth attached to H K, to which curve
the line P 4 is always perpendicular; again, if we fuppofe
not only the faid generating circle cbP, but alfo at the
fame time the circle £4, to revolve, by means of a fimilar
contaét with H K at the point P, then the inner or generat-
ing circle, cb P, will make two revolutions, while the outer
one, £4, makes only one; the confequence refulting from
fueh a combination will be the fame, as though the ge-
nerating circle,c2P, moved only once round within ‘the
circle, £4, confidered as ftationary, that is, the circle £4
becomes the bafe to the generating circle, and the del-
cribing point 4 fo circumftanced will trace on the plane of
circle £4, the ftraight line or interior epicycloid, bbc,
cafe. Hence if we conceive the points 4,4, and H, to coincide
at H, for the orizinal polition of the three circles, and alfo
of the tracer 4, it is eafy to comprehend, that, if a flit were
cut inthe plane cf the circle £4, in the direction of ‘the:
radius ch, fuch as would jut admit the tracer to pafs
through it, provided the great circle, HK, communicates
its motion equably to the other two by contaét at the point.
P, the tracer will pafs along the flit, conlidered as an interior
epicycloid, and at the fame time will defcribe an exterior. |
epicycloid on the plane beneath both the circles, cd P, and
Zh. A {mall initrument might readily be made to prove |
practically that the refult we have here pointed out would
follow from this arrangement of three circular metallic plates
kept in their piaces by a fuitable frame. But this is not all ;
if the curve Hd be made to forma partof thecircle H K,
confidered as a wheel, and the point, P,; of conta& be re-
moved a very {mall diltance from the two circles, fo «as not?
to touch them, the points, 4,4, and H,.may be again.
brought into their original coincident ftate, either by pufh-,
ing the tracer, attached to the extremity of the generating |
fmall civele, again{t the edge of the epicycloidal curve, or |
otherwile by fubitituting a ftratght lever in the place of the, |
flit, as a radius of the circle £4, and by prefling it, inflead |
of the tracer, againft the faid curve ; in either cafe an equa-
ble motion will be communicated to the great circle or
wheel, KH, as weil as though it had been a€tuated at the |
point of contaét, P: nay, moving the tracer back from A,
while in the flit at P, would give aa equable motion to all
the three circles: alfo reciprocally, the curve Hid, by preff- |
ing againit the tracer, while the wheel HK is in motion,
will give an uniform motion to the generating circle, cbP;
or otherwife it will uniformly drive the larger cirele kh, by
prefling againft its radial lever; in either cafe the motion wiil
be as equable as though communication were to take place
by mere contaét, cr by teeth infinitely fmall, at the point
P
which is the radius to the circle conflituting the bafe in this
This view of the fubje€, it is prefumed, will afford the
reader a full and clear elucidation of the application of the
exterior and interior epicycloidal curves to the formation
of teeth in wheel.work, and, at the fame time, eltablifh.
an eflential difference, which has been overlooked hitherto
in praétice, between the curve generated by a circle
equal to one of the ating wheels or pinions, and the,
curve generated by a circle equal in diameter to only
half of one of the acting wheels or pinions, the cor-
refponding wheel or pinion being in both cafes taken
of its full geometrical diameter as the bafe of generatioe..
The tranflator of a part of Camus, and the editor of ‘ Imi-
fon’s Elements of Science and Art,” have pofitively
though erroncoufly afferted that the generating circle fhould
in all cafes of wheels and pinions be equal to the fellow of the
wheel on which the curve is to be deferibed, in which opi-,
nion fome very refpeétable mechanicians agree; but others, .
on the contrary, aflert, with equal confidence, and more:
truth, that the faid generating circle fhould have its diame-
ter equal to only one half of the diameter of the faid fellow.
(See Camus, Dr. Young’s Syllabus, and Brewfter’s Edit.7
of Fergufon’s Sele&t Exer. &c.) A careful examination of |
Camus’s demonttrations would of itfelf have reconciled the
difagreeing parties, which we traft a due attention to our
elucidation, by means of the tracer and radial lever, will not
fail to effeét. The faci is, that, where pins like our tracer,
or {pindles are ufed fof teeth in any wheel or lantern, as is fre-,
quently the cafe in large works, the generating circle mutt |
be equal in diameter'to the diameter of the aGting wheel’ or
lantern which it reprefents, in order to trace the FREE
. teet
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.,
teeth of its fellow ; but in clock-movements, and in all other
inftances in wheel-work where both the wheels and. pinions
have the epicycloidal formation, the generating circle mutt
be only one half in diameter to what it is required when Jan-
terns are ufed, for in this cafe, which is what is mott fre-
quent, the interior and exterior epicycloids impel each other
alternately, the former being a portion of the radial lever,
and the latter a portion of the epicycloidal curve: thus, if
a pin were attached to the extremity of the generating cir-
cle ¢bP, and a radial lever to the plane of the circle, £4, of
twice its diameter, they would*be alike driven by the eni-
cycloidal tooth, H 2, of the driving great wheel, HK.
Hence the fhape of the tooth of the driven wheel or pinion
will always determine whether the curve of a tooth in the
driver muit be deferibed by a circle of the fuil or half fize
ufed as a generating circle, neither of which. it appears, wil!
apply exclulively in all cafes. It may be remarked, however,
here, that the beginning of the curve, or that part-which
is formed on the end of a tocth, will im praétice be, as nearly as
may be, the fame whichever of the two generating circles
be made ufe of, particularly if the teeth to be formed are
{mall ; for in fig. 1, it will make little difference whether
P rand P 2, or Pd and Py, be taken as fucceflive. extents
for defcribing the curve P 1’, 2’, &c.; butif PA were taken
inftead of PJ, the difference at J’, the remote end of the
curve generated, would be confiderabie. Hence the argu-
ment in favour of the-erroneous principle, adduced from the
trial of feven years wear without repair, by the tranflator of
Camus, is without weight, and proves only that a convenient
approximation to the truth may fometimes be fubltituted for
the truth itfelf in practice ; as the {mall circular arcs of a
pendslum are fubftituted for cycloidal arcs, to which they
are very fimilar at the loweft point; but where the truth it-
felf is attainable by equally fimple means, approximations
ought to be inadmillible.
Our theory, it will be obferved, hitherto {uppofes that the
whole tooth of the driving wheel or pinion be formed by
interfecting portions of an exterior epicycioid, and that the
whole tooth of the driven wheel or pinion be formed like a
ftraight radial lever, which is eafily fhaped ; thefe forma-
tions will act pretty well together, and when they are adopt-
ed, the outer ends of the teeth of the driven one muft be in
its primitive circumference; but im the driver the whole
tooth mutt project beyond its primitive circle ; fo that the
two primitive circles, geometrically obtained, muft not mect
at what is called the pitch-line, but be feparated by a {pace
equal to the length of the driving tooth; but in practical
works, particularly in horology, the teeth of both the driver
and driven-wheel or pinion are utuaily formed nearly alike ;
partly. by means of the exterior epicycloid, and partly
by means of the interior one,.or fraight line; the exte-
rior ends are formed ufually by being curyed, and the
interior pafts are bounded by radial {traight lines, either of
which parts will drive the other, which office they do alter-
wately ; this fhape is not only found to be the moft practi-
cable, but admits of a contatt of the two primitive circles
at a point of each tooth, called the pitch-line ; the confe-
guence of which formation is, that nearly an equal addition
may be made to each curve for the rounded parts of the
teeth of both the wheel and pinion; it is this formation that
‘we mean when we fpeak of ordinary teeth, and to which
ourtable is applicable, which is given under the article
Crock-making.
Olaus Roemer, the celebrated aftronomer and mechanilt
of Denmark, according to Wolfius and Leibnitz, was the
firlt who pointed out the utiliry of the epicycloidal curye,
when applied to delineate the fhape of a tooth; but De
la Hire took up the fubje& after him, and demonftrated,
that ifa tooth of ether a wheel or pinion be formed by por-
tions of an exterior epicycloid.deferibed. by a generating
circle of any diameter whatever, the tocth of its fellow will
be properly formed by portions of an interior epicycloid,
deferibed y the fame generating circle, which curious cire
cumftance allows of an infimte variety in the two, corref{pond-
ing curves that form the teeth of the wheel and pinion, if
they were praGicable. Nay De la Hire has fhewn, that if
the teeth of any wheel be triangular, cireular,-or of any
other regular figure, an uniformity of force and velocity may
be mutually imparted, provided the teeth of the correfpond-
ing wheel or pinion have its teeth formed by a figure, com-
pounded of the epicycloid and faid figure, which he has fur-
ther fhewn the method of effecting in a variety of cafes, not
however adapted for praGtice. But whether the mechanift
may choofe to ufe his exterior and interior epicycloids jointly
in thefame tooth, or feparately, in different wheels adiing to-
gether, this practical rule ought never to be loft fight of, viz.
the outer end of his interior, and alfo the inner end of his
exterior epicycloid fhould univerfally commence in the pri-
mitive or geometrical circle of his wheel or pinion.
The reader is now prepared to be told, what other-
wife might have appeared paradoxical, not only that the
fame pinion, of eight leaves for inflance, will require
the teeth of a wheel of thirty to be fomewhat differ-
ently rounded at the ends, from thofe of a wheel of fixty,
or any other number, in order to have like ation in both
cafes, but that, however accurately the teeth of wheels are
rounded, all numbers are not equally good to be ufed indif-
ferently for wheels and correfponding pinions. This latter
part of our fubject has not been much attended to in praétice,
byt is curious, and may contmbute to great utility, particu-
larly in horology, where an equable tranfmiffion of velocity
and force is defirable.
The whole of what we have hitherto faid refpeGing the
ation of epicycloidal teeth, has been upon a fuppofition that
the impelling force begins at the line which joins the centres
of any pair of wheels, or of a wheel and pinion, and is ex-
erted outwards always on one fide of this line until the teeth
e{cape one another, which mode is allowed to be the bett,
when it can be effeéted ; but there are many ratios, and thole
in common ufe between a wheel and its pinion, which will
not admit of this kind of aétion, however good the fhape of
the teeth. Indeed, Camus has fhewn, that no pinion lefs
than one of eleven leaves, will entirely anfwer the purpofe of
aéting always on one fide of the line joining the centres, and
that confequently the common pinions of fix are very ill
calculated to effect an equable tranfmiffion of velocity and
force, by reafon of their leaves atting alternately before and
behind the line of the centres.
In fig. 5, fuppofe H K to be a portion of a wheel of 50
teeth, and £4 a pinion of feven thin leaves or levers, each
like 64; Camus nas proved; that this wheel will not im-
pel its pinion in an uniform manner, by ating always behind
thecentres. His reafoning is to this effeét ; in order that the
leaves of a pinion of feven, may be impelled only behind the
line joining the centres, the tooth, P 6 H, of the wheel mutt
not quit the leaf c 4, until the next following leaf, cI,has reach
ed the point, P, inthe lme of the centres, in order that it may
be impelled in its turn by the next tooth, K I, behind that
line. The angle I c¢ 4, or quantity that one leat ot the
pinion mult be moved before the following one comes to the -
line of the centres, is one feventh of 360°, or 51° 25/ 43” al-
moil; confequently the angle Cc 4, or Ccd, 1s 51° 257 4.3".
Then taking the radius of the pinion at feven parts, the fide
cb of the fmali right angled triangle, when folved, will ce
4.304
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
4.364 of fuch parts ; alfoin the triangle Cc we have the
two fides cb as before, and ¢C equal 57, with the included
angle 6¢C, from which data, by a folution of the problem,
we have the angle: Cc equal 3° 35’ 50” nearly. The
angular quantity of the wheel H C1, which one tooth and
one {pace occupy,: or <4 of 360°, is 7°12’, from <which, if
swe deduét the angle b€c, or 3° 35' 50", the remaimder,
3° 36' 10", will be the angle HC4é.- Now, as the two
.epicycloidal portions of the tooth Pdand Hé are equal
aod fimilar, and alfo fimilarly placed with refpe@ to the full
radius C 4, and as the angle H Cé has been found to be
3°36! 10", the angle HCP, which ought to contain one
tooth and fpace, will be 7° 12’ 20” ; but we have feen that
the angle HCI is only 7° 12’, confequently the angle H C P
will-be greater than H CI by 20”, which is impoffib!e, be-
caufe a part cannot be greater than the whole. It 1s, there-
fore, impoflible that a wheel of 50 fhould move in an-uni-
form manner, a proportionate pinion of feven leaves impel-
ling them only behind the line joining the centres. A wheel
of fewer teeth than fifty will be fill lefs proper, and one of
a-greater number will not leave {pace enough fora fufficient
thicknefs of leaf in a pinion, Hence it appears, that: when
a-pinion of feven leaves is ufed, it will be impelled by its
wheel, partly before and partly behind the line joining the
centres, as may befeen more fully in fg. 6, where the pinion
is {uppofed to be impelled by the wheel from right to left.
In the fame manner it -may be proved, that if a wheel of
57 were made to drive a pinion of cight, the whole arc
tor both the tooth and {pace would be 6° 18’ 57”, of which
5° 7' 40” would be occupied by the tooth of the wheel, and
only 1° 11°17” by the fpace, or by the tooth of the pimion,
which quantity is not enough for the thicknefs of an acting
tooth; therefore if the teeth cf the wheel are made nearly
equal to the fpaces, they will drive the pinion of eight both
before and behind the line of the centres.
Alfo if a wheel of 64. were todrive a pinion of nine
leaves in fuch away, thatthe impulfe might be only be-
hind the line of the centres, the are at the pitch-line of the
whe l, for both tooth and fpace, will be 5° 37’ 30”, of which
the tooth will occupy 3° 45’ 42”, and the fpace,only 1° 51’
48", which will not leave room fora leaf {ufficiently thick for
the pinion.
Likewife where a wheel of 72 drives a pinion of ten
leaves behind the line of the centres, the are of the wheel’s
tooth is 2° 47’ 16", and of the fpace between two teeth
2° 12’ 44” only, therefore here the tooth and fpace cannot
be equal.
In pinions of 11,°12, &c. the impulfe may take place
entirely. behind the line of the centres, and the extreme ends
of the teeth might be taken away, asin the pinion of fg. 6,
and in the two teeth of the wheel, which are fuppofed to
have paffed the centre. Nay, in thofe cafes where the
pinion is always driven by an impulfe made only behind the
line of the centres, the addition to its tooth beyond the
geometrical diameter, may, as we have faid, be nearly dif-
penfed with; that is, the aéting and the geometrical
diameters may be almoft the fame, provided the angular
points be a little rounded to prevent their catching and
icraping the teeth of the wheel, though it is fafer to give
a little addition for the curves. ¥
Under our article CLock-making, we faid that the driving
wheel or pinion ought to be fomewhat Jarger than accord-
ing to its calculated proportion; but wedid not give the
reafon there, which is, that in thofe cafes where the teeth
are actuated both before and behind the line of the cen-
tres, the impulfe of the tooth before the line of the centres
aakes' place later than it otherwife would do, as well as
occafions a {maller fhock at the commencement of the im-
pulfe. The defc& attending fuch,a conftreétion is a little
more velocity in the driver than in the driven wheel or °
pinion, but this is confidered as of lefs importance than the
heck otherwife occationed in movements, with pinions of
low numbers.
Itis of the utmoft importance, that the mechanifi fhauld
bear in-mind another praétical rule, which we have now to
offer, as it arifes out of the preceding difeuflion of this
fobject, which 1s, that, in all ordinary cafes of wheel-work,
the pertion of .an interior epicyclo'd of any tooth, whether
that portion be a curve or ftraight line, fhould always drive
the portion of an exterior epicycloid of the tooth of its
fellow, before the line joining their centres; but that, en
the contrary, a portion of an exterior epicycloid mutt
always drive a portion of an interior epicycloid, whether
the latter be a curve or ftraight line, after the line of the
centres. E i
We are not, however, to infer from this rule, that it is a
matter of indifference, whether a wheel drive its pinion, and
a pinion its wheel, before or after the line joming their
centres; forin the action that takes place betore this line,
there is much friction occafioned, by the fliding of the tecth
of the driver, along that of the driven wheel or pinion, as
well as an accumulation of dirt eccafioned at the bottom of
the tooth of the letter; whereas, when the action is after.
the line in queftion, the teeth roll on one another, and the
dirt is carried out of the fpace between the teeth; this
confideration is the greateft recommendation of that kind
of aétion, where an exterior epicycloid impels an interior
one only after the line of the centres, which mode we have
feen, cannot take place with lew pinions; from whichview
of the fubje&t the dire& inference is, that pinions.cf bigh
numbers ought to be adopted in every cafe that admits of |
fuch an adoption. We may alfo refer to the fame caufe
the origin of the common bay-leaf fhape of a tooth, which
impels both before and after the line cf the centres, and
aéts at the pitch-line, at the moment of pafling this
line.
‘The epicycloidal teeth, fuch as we have defcrbed,, are
not however the only ones which have the requilite property
of tranfmitting the force and velocity uniformly, though
we have hitherto confined our obfervations to thefe fhapes, by
reafon of their being moft generally ufed. ‘Two teeth which
are formed by the evolution of threads from their refpeGive
geometrical circles, as feen in fig. 7., and which are fhaped
by the interfe€tion of portions of their refpective involutes,
though lefs known and confequently lefs ufed. have, accord-
ing to the late profeffor Robmfon and others, the fame
requifite property as the foregoing ones, and may be ufed
inftead of them in praétice. The curve formed at any
point, 7, by athread relting at the point H, of the wheel
or point, 4, of the pinion, is perpendicular to the thread,
and the thread is a tangent to the circumference of the cirele
from which it is evolved; whenever therefore one tooth»
drives the other, the point, 7, of aétion lies in theline H 4,
which is a common tangent to both circles, and the force is
con{tantly exerted in the direGion of the common tangent, '
in every pofition of the acting teeth; the nature of the
action confequently will be precifely the fame as though
the points H and 4 were in contact,. and impelled each
other at the point-of contact, hence the angular velocity
of KH, will be to the angular velocity of £4, a3 the
radius, c 4, is to the radius C H; that is, the motion and
force communicated will be uniform. ° 2
It is evident from an infpection of the figure, that when
teeth cempofed of interfeéting involutes are ufed ip a pair
5 of
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
of wheels, or in a wheel and pinion, the geometrical radii
mutt have the whole Jength of their refpeciive teeth added
to them to conftitute their aQing radii; and alfo, that the
two proportionate circles which come in contaét and defig-
nate the place of the pitch-line in ordinary epicycloidal
wheel work, mult be removed from each other to a diltance
equal ar leaft to the length of the longer tooth. ‘This
length will depend upon the geometrical radius of the wheel
or pinion, and coarfenefs of the tooth conjaintly. In large
wheels the tooth wili be long, and in {mallones the contrary,
where the coarfenefs is the fame, the breadth of the tooth
being in every intkance the abfeifs, and its Jength the
ordinate of the involute or curve that forms one fide of
the tooth. ‘The full length of any tooth of a given coarfe-
nefs, in a wheel of a given diameter, may confequently be
afcertained by a fluxional procefs, which we intentionally
avoid as being too intricate for ordinary purpofes.
This formation of a tooth, where the involute is derived
from the wheel or pinion’s own circumference, is recom-
mended by profeffor Robifon, on account of its admitting
the fimultaneous action of many teeth, thereby participating
the force among them; but as he does not profels to fay
that they a& without friction, we conceive that horology
would not be benefited by their adoption, even if the forma-
tion were practical. Mr. Brewtter, in his new edition of
Fergufon’s Letures, vol. ii. page 223, has properly ob-
ferved, that the principle of the profeflor’s teeth is not new.
De la Hire having long ago confidered the involute of a
circle as the laft of the exterior epicycloids, which it may
be proved to be, if we confider the generating ttraight line
as a curve with an infinite radius; and the involute may be
deferibed moft conveniently by a ruler or other ftratght edge,
bearing a tracing point moved round the circular bale, while
they are kept im contact. Accordingly, our rule for the
fituation of the geometrical or primitive ci:cles holds good.
The teeth which project beyond thefe circles are formed by
portions of exterior epicycloids; but our rule for the aétion
before and after the line of the centres, cannot, in this cafe,
apply, becaufe here the interior epicycloid is not concerned,
and the formation of the exterior one has no reference to the
diameter of its fellow. (Vide the articles Evoture and
Invo.urTe.)
After having faid fo much on the requifite fhape of a
tooth in a wheel or pinion, to tran{mit the motion and force
equably through a movement ; we might here add the necef-
fary directions for calculating the fuitable numbers for con
flituting movements of various kinds; but thefe have been
anticipated under the article CLock-making, to which the
reader is defired to refer, and in which he will fee that we
have divided the whole movement of the going part into
three portions ; any one of which may be altered at pleafure,
without affecting the other two. Upon the plan there laid
down, we have calculated three feparate tables of the differ-
ent portions, which we fubjoin, with a view of giving a great
variety of trains, to be had by mere infpe€tion, and of thus
faving the clock-makers the trouble of going through tedious
calculations, according to the prevailing cuftom of taking
into one calculation the whole movement at once, and of
breaking it into portions by a fubftitution of ratios equal in
value to the different faGtors of an affumed produ, which
proces makes the determination intricate.
Vou. VIII.
TABLE Ss
The firft Portion of a Clock-movement. :
Hours.) 6| 7 8 f 9 10} 11 | 12 13 {14 15 16]
3 18) 21) 24) 27) go] 33] 36) 39 42} 45| 48
4 |24) 28) 3°] 36) 4c} 44) 48) 52] 56) 60! 64
eds ere ut ai Ear TG Psa |
5 |3c| 35] 4¢1 45] se} 55] cl 65} 70] 75] 80
| 6 /36) 42] 48) 54! 60} 66) 72] 78! 8s1 gol 96
Aa cia ale eae
7 \42) 49! 561 63) 70} 77} 84, 91) 9Siro5|ri2
8 148} 56} 64! 72] Sol 8S} o6ro4|t12i12cl128
9 154] 63) 72) 81) go) go}108)117/126|13 5|144
ee a pe Us | a
10 |6c] 70} 80] gojroolr10/120/ 130] 140}1 50] 160
11. |66} 77] 88 eae 154165
12 |72| 84) g€{108]120/132|1441156)168}18c
13 79) OI 104}1 1711 30114341 56|109 183}195
pa nue | el a a ie ce a is jib fa
14 {84} O8lr12] 126): 40/1 54/168) 182) 1g6!2 1c}
15 {gc iScteachi nl epsteesliee 195|21cl2z5
16 {o(}rr2}c25t1 4|160!1 76) rg2l208\22412404
TABLE-I.
The fecond Portian of a Clock-movement.
Factors. O} 7 | O | g | to] 13 14| 15 {16
}
—|—|—|— }-— |} —|-—|— | | —
4 Y24] 28) 321 36) ac} 44 50| Co} 64
15 S$ gofros{i2cj135115<|165 5|210}225|240)
4F } Rie) 6c|
14 84] 98] c12}12El14cj154 196)210]224
4, 27 36 45 63 72
135 fe 120 OG
{_8 wilt avitiellien pie fa Pr a ae
is DKF Se ,
13 bes QULO4| C17] 1 Z0\142 169|182}195|208
5 sles 35) 49] 45) Sl 55) Oc! 6s) 70} 751, 0
12 72| 84) 96}108}120)132|1441156| 168} 1890} 192
Sr} 6c
11 66] 77) 88) gg} ric}t21}1321143 154(165)176,
6 138 42| 48] 54) 60] 66} 72} 78) 84] go) 96,
10 60} 7c] So Golrceit LOlL2O\A3 01140} 5 160}
SS a a ee ee er ed
63 4c 60 80) 1ooh} 4
9 54| 63) 72) 81] go} ggjro8}r17\126)19 5114.4)
—- |! joe 1 |
742] 49] 56] 631 701 77] 84, 91) 98}r05]r221
84 60 120
We V4s}° | Gol” | 75] | 80) [t05) |r20)
'B $48! 86164] 52! Bo} 88] Oblrog|rx2/raol12
4A TAB
{
5 0)
aks
CLOCK.
TABLE IT.
The third Portion of a Clock-movement.
———
Vibrations
per fecond.
the pendulum.
Length of
70|80|go
4.2 18154 6c| 6¢
35/4145] 5¢] 55] Go
i 21/24/27
Explanation of Table ¥.—Table I contains numbers fuit-
able for the great wheel, and the pinion on the arbor of the
ceutre wheel, together denominated “ the firft portion of a
clock-movement,”? which is that on which the curation of
motion at one winding up depends: the numbers on the
uppermott horizontal column, from 6 to 16 inclufively, repre-
fent fo many pinions 5 the numbers in the firlt vertical column,
{rom 3 to 46 inclulively, are the refpeCtive hours in which
the barrel or fufee turns once, as the cafe may be ; and the
larger numbers beginning with 18,and ending with 256, in the
interfeGtions of the horizontal and vertical columns are the
great wheels. By way of exemplification, fuppofe we want a
fufee to revolve in twelve hours, with a pinion of 8 on the ar-
bor of the centre wheel, the interfeGion of 12 hours at the
left-hand fide, and eight at the top, gives 96 for the number
of teeth in the great wheel, to produce the defired effect ;
or if the pinion had been required for a wheel of g6, to re-
yolyein 12 hours, over g6,in the column of 12 hours, ftands
the pinion 8. In the fame manner for 4 hours, and a whcel
of 48, the pinion willbe 12, and vice ver[a.
Explanation of Table \¥. ‘Table II. contains wheels and
pin‘ons fuitable for the fecond portion of a clock-movement
or firlt portion of the train, being that which effeéts a mul-’
tiplicatien of 60, and regulates the velocity of the feconds’
hand, by mzking its arbor revolve in one minute. This
might be done by one large wheel of 300, and a fmall pi-
nian of 5,.but fuch a coattru&ion would require a large
MOVEMENT.
frame; a compolition of two wheels and two pions ig
therefore fubftituted to produce the fame effeét more conve-
niently, the firft wheel being placed on the centre or hour
arbor that carries the minutes’ hand, and the lat pinion or
the arbor of the feconds’ hand that revolves in a minute,
The uppermott horizontal column contains the pinions from
6 to 16 inclufive, like Table I, ard the left-hand vertical
column contains couplets of factors, which, multiplied toge-
ther, produce 60 alwaysas a produét. Any parr of factors,
which are coupled together by a t )
fure, and the wheels in the {paces made by the interfeQions of
the vertical and horizontal columns, under the pinions made
choice of, and oppofite the factors fclected, will be proper for
the fecond portion of the movement. For inftance, when
may be taken at plea-
ai
pinions of S are ufed with the fa&ors 4? } the wheels,
8
found in the fpace formed by the interfeCtion of the verti-
pa
cal column under 8 and horizontal column ia which fe
ftand, are 64 and 60 ; but if the pinions were to be affuncd,
one 10 and the other 8, then the wheels would be either
So and 60, or otherwite 75 and 64, accordingly as the pinion
To is made a part of the ratio to reprefent the factor 8, or
the factor 73, which it may be taken to do indifferently 5
h y aes neue 3 8 Ife)
ence the notation may be — x —, or=+ X >=,OFr
y 80. \60nu) (BOpe) see
10 8 ie) 3 : h
— xX =, or— x —, the refult in point of accuracy is
75 94 75 G4
the fame, but in the conftruétion, the wheels of largeft dia-
meter and weight are required to be taken firlt in the move-
ment, becaufe the diameters diminith as the train afcends, by
reafon of the diminution of the tranfmitted force, which
otherwife would not overcome the inertia of the wheels,
which it is required to do at each vibration of the pendu-
lum: any two pair of wheels and pinions properly taken out
of the correfponding colums when rednced to a fimple a-
tio by the ufual method of multiplying the numerators toge-
‘ther for one numerator, and the denomiators for one denoe
TO! So
mination, will be found equal to = thus So x% Zo wom
TOS So I F
= an = x Gia ane ee before ; therefore, if the
Jirft wheel revolve in an hour, the laft pmion will, in this and
in every other inftance, revolve in a minute. Tne diminution
of the diameter of the third wheel of the movement, which is
the fecond wheel of the train, may be effected in two ways,
either by taking the feconds’ pinion {maller than the firft from
a column at the bottom of the table, where the factors are
nearly of equal value, or by taking the pinions alike, and
the wheels from one of the higher horizontal columns
: d 6
where the factors differ confiderably in value; thus - x —
42
+ 6
fous ealimn io} and 70% - from column vay are
1 \ ;
each equal to ra but ia the firft portion of the movement
the ratio of the fize of the two wheels is 60 : 42, and in
the other 7o : 42, from which mode of comparifon of the
columns it will be feen that a decreafe in the diameters of
almott any given ratio may be adopted from this table, fo
comprehentive is its extent, as it relates both to the variety
of 11 pinions, and to the choice of 10 pair of faétors, which
begin with the ratio 4: 15, or 1:4, and end with Tae
€
CLOCK-MOVEMENT.
The principal care to be taken is, that every wheel be taken
under its own pinion and oppofite its own factor ; for another
E ‘ : 62 (bos
inftance, ia the horizontal column of faGtor —? tie the pinions
of 9 will do for wheels Sx and 60; or otherwife, wheel go
may be taken with pinion ro, and wheel 60 with pinion g ;
that is, any wheel may be taken oppofite its own factor,
provided the pinion inthe fame column over it be ufed as its
fellow; fo that examples, may be given to a very great ex-
tent, which will afford abundant means of afcertaining by
experiment the belt poffibie numbers for this part of the
movement, without the trouble of calculation.
Explanation of Table V1. Table ILI. contains the third
portion of a clock-movement, or fecond portion of the
train, which is that on which the number of vibrations per
fecond depends. Whena vibration is performed in an exa&t
fecond, one wheel only is neccflary for this purpofe, with
30 teeth, becaufe one tooth completely efcapes the pallets
at every fecond vibration, which wheel mutt be placed in
this cafe on the arbor of the feconds’ hand, and is ufuaily
denominated the {wing wheel; alfo a wheel of 60, fimilarly
placed, will be proper for half feconds, 75 for 24 vibrations
per fecond, asd go for 3 per fecond; but thefe laft numbers
are found too high for portable clocks, time-pieces, &c.
therefore a wheel and pinion are introduced in addition to
the efcapement-wheel, in order to diminihh its diameter into
aconvenient fize for a portable conttruétion, as well as to
render it light, fo as to have but little inertia to be over-
come by the diminifhed force, which aéts at this part of the
movement. In ordinary pieces the two wheels are, one a
éontrate-wheel, and the other called the crown-wheel, with
the pinion on its arbor, but the wheels may all have the or-
dinary form of the wheels of a clock that {wings feconds,
it being not the fhape, but the numbers of the teeth of the
wheels and pinions that determine the frequency of the vi-
brations. The uppermott horizontal column iu this table,
like that in the two preceding tables, contains all the variety
of pinions from 6 to 15 inclulively ; the pinion of 16 being
omitted, however, to make room for two additional vertical
columns at the right hand of the table, the firlt forthe num
ber of vibrations per fecond made by the pendulum, and
the other for the length of the correfponding pendulum in
inches and decimal parts, meafured from the centre of fuf-
penfion to the centre of ofcillation, which two data once
fixed upon determine the horizontal column out of which
the whecls mu{t be taken with a given pinion ; the left-hand
vertical column is that in which one of the two wheels is
found, and the number ftanding on the fame horizontal line,
under the given pinion, is the other ; for as the product of
the two wheels, divided by the pinion under which one of
them ftands, is always equal to 60 in the highett large co-
lumn, or column of 2 vibrations per fecond, it is of no im-
portance to the accuracy which of the two wheels is made
the pallet-whecl; the determination of this point beg a
matter of practical conveniences in the fame manner in the
{econd large horizontal column, the quotient arifing from
the produ€&t of any two wheels ftanding in the fame line
taken horizontally, one in the firft vertical column, and the
other under the chofen pinion, divided by the pinion, is al-
ways 75; in the third parallel column the quotient fo ob-
tained is yo; in the fourth 105, and fo on; hence any of
the combinations adopted will be equal in value refpectively
to thofe large fimple numbers ufed as pallet-wheels without
fuch combination, which, it has been faid, are objectionable
in practice.
Let our firt example be to afcertain the requifites con-
tained in the table for a half-feconds’ pendulum, where a
pinion of 8 is ufed? -
In the firft place, 12 with 40 may be taken as the re-
quired numbers for the two wheels ; in the fecond, 15 with
323 in the third, 20 with 24; and, laftly, 30 with 16;
any one of which wheels may be the pallet-wheel, as the
nature of the efcapement may require ; if the crown-wheel
efcapement is ufed, which requires an odd number of teetla
for its aGtion to take place at oppofite fides of the wheel,
15 muft neceffarily be the pallet-wheel, and 32 the other,
with the given pinion of §: but whichfoever of thefe cou-
plets of wheels is adopted, the effective length of the pen-
dulum muft, according to the lait vertical column, be 9.8e
inches.
Again, for a pendulum that is required to sibrate 3 times
per fecond with a pinicn of 12: we have, in the firlt place,
15 with 72; fecondly, 18 with 60; thirdly, 30 with 36 ;
and, laftly, 45 with 245 fo that either 15 or 45 may be in
this inftance the crown-wheel, and for a different efcape-
ment any of the eight numbers mentioned; and the choice is
equally extenfive with any other pinion that may be chofen
from 6 to 15: the pendulum in this cafe is only 4.35
inches.
In this way, by means of the table before us, the third
portion of a clock-movement may be varied almoft at plea-
{ure without afle¢ting the other two portions, and a pendu-
lum of any of the calculated lengths may be applied to
works previoufly conftru&ed; which circumftance will enable
the workman to metamorphofe a portable clock into a large ©
one, and the contrary, without difficulty, or without even a
knowledge of the operations of arithmetic.
We might have extended this table to take in different
intermediate lengths of the pendulum and correfponding
number of vibrations per fecond, but our obje& is to banifh
incommenfurate. vibrations from clock-movements, and to
introduce thofe only which conttitute fome convenient fub-
divifion of the fecond, to anfwer the nicer purpofes of phi-
lofophy without extra labour and expence. The three or
four laft horizontal columns indeed, it may be faid, will not
be of much fervice in clock-movements, by reafen of the
fhortnefs of the pendulums ; but they will be found particu-
larly ufeful in watch-work, as will alfo the other tables,
which are fo comprehenfive as to apply with equal propriety ~
to clock and watch-movements.
Crock-tools. While clock-making was in its infancy,
and the different parts of the machine continued to be made
by the fame workman, each clock-maker was obliged to
defign and manufacture his own tools agreeably to his own
iaclination ; but as foon as the art branched out into differs —
ent occupations, tool-making became alfo a bulinefs of it-
felf, and is now quite diftinct from clock-making, nay, has
itfelf ramified into various branches. In the prefent ttate of
this manufaftory by far the greateft number of clock-tools
are made in Lancafhire, and become an article of commerce
among the ironmongers all over his majefly’s dominions.
In London there are a few houfes that deal chiefly in
clock-tools, engines, and rough materials ready prepared, as
to fize and fhape, for the workmen; one of the principal of
thefe is Fenn’s in Newgate Street, No. 105, where
tools of all kinds may be had at moderate prices. It
is much to be regretted that a Swifs tool and engine-maker,
called Petitpierre, who lately worked in an attic of No. 161
Fleet Street, and who made tools and engines in a very
fuperior manner, was fome months ago obliged to quit the
kingdom for want of regular employ, though his prices were
by no means exorbitant.
4A2 It
CLOCK-TOOLS.
It will not be expeded of us, to prefent the reader with
all the variety of tools that individuals have refpectively con-
trived, but to lay before him fuch a colleétion as cultom has
fanétioned in the trade; which we propofe to do in three
plates, devotéd entirely to this purpofe; neither will it be
expected, that we fhonld particularize all the different ufes
to which any individual tool may be applied, much lefs to
point out the politions in which they ought to be held in
the act of working, which would require almoft an unlimit-
ed variety of plates; it feems to be fufficient for cur gene-
ral purpofe, if we give a lift of the different tools at prefent in
common ufe, with references to the plates, where the reader
will comprehend the nature and ufe of each tool bya furvey
of jts figure, better than from aay verbal defcription with-
out the figures. We fnall, therefore, confine the remain -
ing portion of this article to a fimple explanation of the
plates.
Plate XIX. of Horology,
Fig. t. A motion-arbor, or arbor for turning wheels on,
with a fa(tening nut.
2. Motion-arbor, that ferews up to the fhoulder, witha
{mall nut to faften.
3. 4A plain arbor for collets, or tubes, to hold by
friction.
4. A flit arbor for holding and turning fmall pieces of
metal.
5. A pair of cutting bullet-compaffes for fitting any cen-
tral hole, in defcribing or cutting circles.
6. A cutting-leg for ditto.
7. A marking-leg for ditto.
8. A flake, or {mall anvil, for hammering, &c. on.
9. Common flat, fhort-nofed pliers for holding any piece
of metal.
to. A pair of callipers, with a ftraight edge, adjuftable
by a thumb-fcrew, of ufe for trying if a wheel 1s placed at.
right angles to its arbor, or what ts called in the flat, and
allo if it is perfeGly concentric, or in the round.
1x. Common callipers for meafuring diameters.
12. A frame-guage, infide and out.
13. A pinion-guage, with {pring and {crew adjuftment.
14. Beam-compaiies for cutting out circular pieces: of
metal from a folid plate, defcribing large circles, dividing
retilinear and curvilinear lines, &c.
15. A fquare or reCtangular piece of brafs.
106. A clamp for holding pieces of metal to be filed or
riveted.
17. A drill-arbor and drill ina focket for various drills,
to be ufed.with a bow and gut.
18. A drill detached to fit the faid arbor.
19. A drill of larger fize.
20.. A tool or graver for cutting grooves, which may be
of various fhapes and fizes.
Plate XX. of Horology.
Fig. 1. A faw for metal, with a wooden handle.
z. Cutting pliers for fhortening pins or for cutting wire.
3. A bench-yice, or vice to be clamped to a bench,
4, A hand vice for holding a {mall piece faft.
5: Clamping pliers for holding pins, &e. faftin filing.
6. Pendulum-pliers or long-nofed pliers.
4» Pivot-drill with a friQion-ferril.
8, Drill-arbor ina drill-frame, to be held ina ‘bench:
Vice.
9. A drill to fit the focket of the arbor,: when-itshag:a’
{quare tapering hole.
to. Ditto of larger bore.
it. Screw-head tool, including the arbor and frame with
areft, to be put into a bench-vice. f
12. A holding piece of ditto, detached from the end of
the arbor, and tapped with a female thread, to hold the
{crew to be drefled.
13. Ditto with a different thread.
14. A detached ferml for a drill or arbor.
15. Ditto in two halves, with adjutting-{crews te fit any.
. arbor or drill.
16. A {crew plate with different holes tapped.
17. A tap to be held in a hand-vice, for making a female’
thread in any hole. N. 2. When long fcrews are re-
quired to be made, a die, fuch as the mathematical inftrus
ment-makers ufe, 13 better than a {crew-plate, fur preferv-
ing the fcrew from bending ; there muft be as many taps as
tle plate has different holes tapped. ‘
18. A ferew-driver, of which there are various dimens
fions.
Plate XX. of Horology.
Fig. 1. A brace for receiving various bits.
2. A chamfering or counter-finking tool to fit the brace,
for which a large drill may be fubftituted.
. A pentangular or five-lided broach to fit ditto.
. A round broach to fit ditto.
. A fquare broach to fit ditto. d
. A deepening tool, for adjufting the engasement of
wheels with wheels or pinions, not as yet much ufed in
England.
. Turning-frame, or clock-lathe, of which there are va-
rious fizes, and conftru€tions ; fome going by a bow like
the prefent one, fome by a hand-wheel, and fome by the
foot with a large wheel and crank a€tuated by a lever
which is trodden upon. See Larar.
8. A graver for cutting the metal in a turning-fame.
g. A large ditto.
io. An adjufting-tool for fufees, with fliding weights, to
fuit any given maintaining power of aclock or watch.
11. A tool for turning pivots in, when inferted into the
end-hole of the turning-frame.
12. A triangular tapering-file.
13. A file for flitting or cutting the teeth of pinions.
14. An equalling file, or file for the {paces between the
teeth of a wheel, when cut in an engine.
15. A common hand-file with a fafe edge for ordinary
work.
16. A rounding-off file, for the ends of the teeth in
wheels and pinions.
37. A file for croffing-out, or forming the croffes and rim
of a wheel,
Befides the above there are various other files differing in
fize, fhape, and coarfenefs, according to the work they are
defigned to perform. :
Cuock-work, The word Clock-work, in its original fig.
nification, imported thofe wheels and pinions, latches,
catches, {prings, fly, hammer, &c. which conttitute the ftrik-
ing, or what was formerly called the clock, part of the works.
of a large horological machine ; but fince clocks became com-
mon and portable, the term has been applied in a more ge-
neral fenfe to the mechanifm of the going part, as well as of
the ftriking part, and even fometimes to the works of thofe
machines, which refemble the works of a clock in their ap-
pearance and ation. Under this head, therefore, we mean
to defcribe fuch detached pieces of clock-work as are not to
be> generally met with, but which feem, either from their
utility or curiofity, to merit a public notice.
i
Qin — so
sr
ie Striking
eLnock
1. Striking Part, with one Wheel and one Pinion.—VFig. 1,
of Plate XXV. of Horology, is a front view of the ftrikine
part of a clock, purchafed in the year 1806, at the fale of a
gentleman in Suffex, whois now deceafed, but who indulged
his fondnefs for mechanical contrivances, at an almoft incre-
diblé expénce ; this ftriking work is fo fimple, that it has
only one wheel and one pinion, and no other fly but the
hammer, itfelf, and is, notwith{tanding, capable of repeating
the jaft hour at any time, with the addition of a {tring at-
tached to thé lifting piece ; after our minute defcription of
the fircking mechanifm of an eight-days clock, with the
{nail and rack, it will not be neceffary for us to repeat what
we have already faid-on their ation, but merely to confine
ourfelves to the movement, bell, and hammer. The frame
of this clock is in the fhape of a crofs, confined by the pil-
lars A, B, C, and ancther below, not fhown ; the great wheel
of the tlriking part has 300 teeth, with a barrel and ratchet
as ufualon its arbor; it is actuated by a weight fufpended
by the chain D, and drives a pinion of fix leaves, when at
liberty to move; F isa rack placed ona long lever, the
tail of which, as ufual, refts ona frail, on the 12-hour wheel;
and G isa lifting picce to raife the click or hawk’s-bill H,
which it does by means of a pin fliding underneath the piece
H, whenever the pin in the one hour wheel moves its tail, as
ufual: on the protruding end of the pinion’s arbor, a gather-
ing pallet is fixedin the common way, the long tail of which
refts on the pin at the right-hand end of the rack, when
the rack is gathered up to the laft tooth ; and the click, H,
is heavy enough to fail by its own weight, after fliding over
the inclined part of any tooth ; all which aétions are fimiar
to thofe we have before defcribed in Plate X11. The bell is
mounted on the uppermoft pillar, as fhown in the figure, and
alever, I, is faft to the middle of the pinion’s arbor within
the frame ; this lever has what may be called a leg, fufpended
by a pin at its remote end, forming what we will call the
knee-joint of the leg, the foot of which leg forms the ham-
mer: now, it is eafy to perceive, that when the pinion be-
gins to revolve fuddenly, the foot of the leg flies out by its
centrifugal force, and the toe moves in the curve a, where
it mects with the edge of the beil, againil which therefore it
ftrikes and rebounds, by permifiion of the knee-joint, to 4,
we will fuppofe, the place where it would have been found
if the motion bad been fo flow as to have no centrifugal
force; but this point is in the interior part of the bell, the
foot therefore proceeds within the bell, and the revolution
is completed filently, but at the next, and at every fubfequent
revolution, this ftroke and confequent rebounding are re-
peated, till the rack 1s gathered up, which regulates the
number of ftrokes. The ball, K, is only a counterpoife fixed
on the tail of the ever I, and affiits with it to form a kind of
fly, to regulate the velocity with which the Strokes are fuccef-
fively made. This mechazifm is very fimple, and appears to
have been made many years, from the dirty ftate in which we
faw it; but has not, that we know of, been before de-
fcribed.
In the year 1803, the Society of Arts, in the Adelphi,
London, voted to Mr. Edward Mafley, of Hanley in Staf.
fordfhire, a premium of twenty guineas, for a new ftriking
part of a clock ; and in the fame year, another premium of
thirty guineas, to Mr, John Prior, of Nefsfield in York-
fhire, for another contrivance to anfwer the fame purpofe:
the drawings and accounts of both thefe inventions, were
publifhed in the tranfactions of the faid fociety, for the year
above fpecified ; but the defcriptions, as there given, are fo
imperfe@t, that we have found it neceflary to have new
drawings taken from the models themfelves, which are
preferved in the repofitory of the faciety, from fuch points
of view that the ation of the different parts may be ren-
“WORK.
dered as intelligible as poffible. We fhall défcribe Mr.
Maffey’s contrivance firft, as being fomewhat analogous to
the one we have juft deferibed, inafmuch as that it has one
wheel and one pinion only, inftead of a train of wheels and
pinions, as is ufual. :
2: Moaffey’s friking Part. Fig: , of Plate XXVI. of Ho-
rology, is a perfpeétive view of Mir. Maffey’s model, with the
front plate of the frame removed, or fuppofed to be tranf-
parent, to fhow the mechanifin fuchided. A is the great
wheel with 78 teeth, like the oidinary count-wheel, impel-
ling the pinion a of eight leaves; on the arbor of pinion a,
but at the oppofite eud, isa circular plate, B, with eight
pins placed in a concentric circle, at equal diflances, fo that
one pin correfponds to one tooth of the pinion 3 thefe pins
being’ near the circumference of the circular plate, aét witht
the pallcrs 4,2, and forma kind of cfeapement ; the pallcts
are connected with a pendulum of about g inches Jong, which
therefore vibrates pretty nearly half-feconds, between the
efcape of each fuccefive pitt refpeGively.. It is. not necef-
fary to fhow the pendulum which may be hung ona cock,
or on the pivot of the pallet’s arbor, which 1s more fimple
for this purpofe, and not objectionable, as it would be in the
going part. The lever, d, is a locking detent, with a claw.
for locking the pins of the plate B, when it falls in the way
of any one of them; on the arbor of the detent, d, is another
detent with a triangular claw, e, which fails in the way of
the pins of the great wheel, placed at usequal diftances, like
the notches in the locking-plate of a count-whcel ; on which
account the great wheel may be confidered as a count-wheel
alfo; to the fame arbor of d and e, is alfo attached a third
concealed lever, which reaches to the one hour wheel, and is
moved by its pin once in each hour, in the ordinary way.,
On the pofterior face of the locking plate, B, are eight
pins in a fmall concentric circle, dotted in the figure, which:
lift the hammer tail as ufual, to which a counteradting
{pring is applied, to give a {martnefs to the flroke of the
hammer, as it ftrikes the fide of the horizontal bell, mount-
ed over the frame, as fhown in the figure. The aé¢tion is
thus ; when the detent, d, is raifed, by the pin of the one
hour wheel of the dial-work not feen, the weight fufpended
by the cord C, draws the barrel on the arbor of the great
wheel round, and with it its ratchet, which takes the click
of the great wheel, and therefore carries it alfo, the detent
e being lifted at the fame time with the detent d; the wheel
now impels the pinion and plate B, which is not only the
locking but firiking plate alfo; the pins begin to lift the,
hammer in fuccefflion, and the ftriking goes on; in the
mean time the detent, d, falls within the circle of pins, as in
the figure, in confequence of the lifting pin of the one hour-
whee! letting go the concealed lever, but fo as not to im-.
pede the paflage of the pins of the locking plate; prefent-,
ly the neareft following pin of the great wheel fliding on,
the inclined face of the detent e, raifes it far enough to
move the claw of the detent, ¢, into the way of the pins of
the locking plate, and then all motion is arrefted, till the
dial-work raifes the detents again at the end of another
hour, when the fame procefs is repeated, the vibrations of
the pendulum regulating at all times the velocity with which
the lifting pins of the hammer-tail fhall move fucceffively
during the period of ftriking.
3. Prior’s firiking Part. Figs. 2 and 3 of the fame plate,
exhibit in perfpective the mechanifm of Mr. Prior, which
we have already mentioned. A is the gteat wheel of 78
teeth, whick impel the double endlefs ferew, B, cut on the
arbor of the fly CC; like fig. 1, this figure has the front
plate of the frame fuppofed to be tranfparent, to expofe the
different levers, &c. to view in their refpedtive fituations of
ation 3. on the arbor of the great wheel is the barrel, as in
Fs
vig, f ;
S'S
CLOCK-WORK. :
fiz. 13 ina eoneentric circle, near the edge of the large
wheel, are feyen pins, at unequal diftances, which catch the
claw of a detent a, placed falt to the arbor b, which arbor
Shas a play or motion in the direétion of its length, that
will allow its pivots to go more or lefs into the plates of the
frame refpectively, as circumftances may require, and a
{pring prefling on the end of the pivot, which comes to the
front plate, pufhes it back towards the wheel, whenever
this preflure is not taken off; the fpring alluded to being
onthe front plate, of courfe cannot be feen in the figure ;
alfo a {mall circular plate of metal, carried by the arbor of 4,
juit fits into a circular groove turned out on a contiguous
and parallel arbor d, in fuch a way that the arbors can re-
volye independently ; but when one moves lengthwife acrofs
the frame, the other mult neceflarily move with it, for which
purpofe the fecond arbor, d, has alfo berty or play length-
wile like the arbor J; to this arbor d, is fixedafecond detent
e, with a claw turning inwards; fis a third arbor, parallel
to the other two, but below them in the frame, carrying
about its middle the long tail i of the hammer K, and at the
end next the front plate a fmaller tail, to be prefled by the
fpring, g, in the aét of ftriking; on the plane of the great
wheel next the eye, are 13 pins, which fucceffively lift the
hammer by the tail 7, while the great wheel revolves ; on
the face of the great wheel, beyond the inferior circle of pins,
and within the fuperior one, is a fpiral groove, with fix
complete turns, into which the outer end of the detent ¢ flides
as the great wheel revolves; fo that if the groove were
equally deep and {mooth throughout, the bent end of this de-
tent would be carried gradually from the innermolt to the out-
ermott helix without ftopping ; but the fa& is, that at certain ”
intervals in the fix-fold f{piral, there are deep notches at the
bottom of the groove into which the detent inferts its claw
by the preffure of the fpring, which we have faid is not to
be feen; and whenever one of thefe depreffions of the de-
tent ¢ takes place, not only its arbor d, but alfo the arbor 4
are carried towards the great wheel by their motion length-
wife, fo that the claw of the detent a comes in the way of
the fuperior pins of the great wheel ; the excavated notches
in the bottom of the fix-fold groove are fo arranged, in point
of relative diftances, that the 12 are placed at fuch intervals
of the {piral as gradually increafe, like the intervals between
the notches of the locking plate on a count-wheel. The
a¢tion takes place in this manner; the arbor b has a lever
eonneéted with the pin of the one-hour wheel of the dial-
work, by which it is lifted every hour ; this lever is not {een
by reafon of its being at the other fide of the plate BA; at
the fame time the detent a is raifed, and fets the pins at
liberty, the weight fufpended by the cord 4 now turns the
wheel and fly; the detent ¢ in the mean tine advances in the
fpiral groove, and the 13 pins in the inferior circle raife the
hammer, which as often {trikes the bell mounted horizontal-
ly over the frame; when the detent is at the beginning of
the firft fpiral of the half dozen, one ftroke only is made,
until the excavation at the bottom of the groove aliows the
claw to dropinto it, which drop prefents the claw of the detent
ato the veareft pin, and fiops the ftriking; after another
hour the detent @ is again raifed, and the wheel proceeds.
to move, fo that when the detent drops again it does not
fall in the way of the pins, but continues at a little diftance
from their heads, fo long as the bent end of detent e does
not fall into the next excavation of the groove; when this
happens, however, it then falls in the way of the faid pins,
but in the mean time two ftrokes have been given, and in
the fame manner the hours 3, 4,5, &c. will be itruck till
the hour of 12 arrives; at this hour the wheel is unlocked
as before, and as foon as 10 out of the 12 ftrokes of the ham.
mer are made, the end of the detente comes at an inclined
plane /, which it afcends till it is above the plane of the
wheel, and at that initant falls by 1ts own gravity to the be-
ginning of the {piral neareft the centre, m which it then be-
gins to move, while the remaining two ftrokes of the 12
are making, after which it falls into the excavated notch
where we firlt found it, and the whole’ procefs has now been
gone through. It may have occurred to the reader, that’
during the fall of the detent ¢, by its own weight, from tue:
outermolt to the innermoft groove of the fix-fold fpiral, the:
{pring aGing on the neareft pivot of the arbor 4, would carry
it againft the plane of the wheel, and make it catch one
of the fuperior grooves before it arrived at the bottom
one; this would a&iually have been the cafe, if there
had been no precaution taken to prevent fuch acei--
dent; but the contrivance fhown in jy. 3, 1s introduced
as a preventive, which acts thus; the little lever under
the flender {pring turns on a_ftud ferewed into the interior
face of the pillar plate, or that which we have reprefented as
the pillar plate ; this lever refts on the fhoulder of the pro-
jeGting pivot, which is brought forwards into the frame,»
when the end of ¢ afcends the inclined plane we have men~
tioned ; at this inftant the {pring forces the lever down be-
tween the fhoulder of the pivot and the pivot hole, and pre-
vents the return of the pivot, when the lever e is falling ; and »
fora fhort time after; but while the two laft ftrokes of r2
are making, a pin in the back face of the great wheel feizes
the tail of the lever, and raifes it from the fhoulder and pivot
hole again, until the pivot has returned to the fituation it oc-
cupies when the wheel is locked. This mechanifm, we-
think, is ingenioufly contrived, and is very fimple ; inafmush -
as only one wheel is ufed as great wheel, count-wheel, lock-
ing whecl,and ftriking-wheel, without even fo muchas a fingle
pinion ; there are 78 teeth in the wheel, and 13 pins for the
hammer-tail, me = 6, therefore, are the teeth that pafs at
J
each ftroke; but the fcrew is double, and takes two teeth at
once, hence the fly makes juft three revolutions at each
ftroke of the hammer ; and a {mall weight is fufficient, not
only to maintain the motion of the wheel, but a!fo to over-
come all the obftacles it meets with, which recommendations
bid fair for bringing this {triking mechaniim into ufe in thofe
clocks, where the repetition is not defired.
4. Strike or filent. When we deferibed an eight-days
clock with the mechanifm of repetition, we had occafion to
explain one of the methods of caufing the clock to ftrike or
be filent by the mere fliding of a pin to the right or left ;
but there is alfo another method of doing the fame thing,
which we propofe to deferibe here as a detached piece of
mechanifm. ig. 2, of Plate XXV. thows all the parts that
are neceffary for explaining the mechanifm we have alluded
to. Ais a cock on the front plate of the frame, into which
a {mall circular plate 4 is pivoted, on the arbor a, of which is
inferted the fquare hole of a hand feen on the dial, pointing
to one of the words /lrike, or filent, engraved, or otherwife
marked, in a fmalli circle near one corner of the dial ufually,
but fometimes at the top, accordingly as the other works.
require; Bois a lever flit open at the top, and moveable on a
ftud, at the angular point where the tail ¢ is inferted ; and d’
is the portion of an ordinary rack with two pins in it, one at
the end of the circular part as ufual, and the other at ¢,
where the tail, ¢, of the flit lever, B, is feen refting ; laftly, °
eis the pin in the front plate again{t which the rack falls as
ufual, when the fnail is off, or when the clock ftrikes 12.
The ufe of this mechanifm may be explained in a few words
thus; when the hand on the arbor a is turned to /i/ent, as in
the prefeat pofition, the tail e, of B, falls in the way of pin
a, and
CLOCK
d. and prevents the {pring of the rack-tail from throwing the
rack back ; in confequence of which obitacle, the tail of the
patheriag rallet continues on the other pin, at the end of the
curved part of the rack, and the ftriking mechani{m con-
tinues to be locked: but when the hand we have fpoken of
is turned to the word /rife on the dial, the tail, c, of the {lit
lever is raifed above the pin, d, the rack falls without impedi-
ment, and the itriking takes place as though the mechanifm
before us had not been in the clock.
5. Endle/s Cord of Huygens. The reader has already read
@ partial defeription of an endlefs cord, for keeping a clock in
motion during the a& of being wound up, when he perufed
our acecunt of a thirty-hours clock ; to do jultice to Hay-
gens, the orginal inventor, and to make the contrivance
more clearly underftood, we beg leave to refer the reader to
Sg: 3, of Plate XXV. where the contrivance in aueftion is
diltin@ly exhibited in a way that we prefume will make it
clearly underttood. A is a metallic pulley, with pins inferted
into the bottom of its groove, and placed falt to the centre-
wheel without a ratchet ; B isa fimilar pulley, with pins and
a ratchet wheel faened to it; the pulley and wheel, to-
gether with the click GC; aiid its {pring D, are all placed
fait in a detached {tate on the frame, or cafe of the clock, as
may be moi convenient; Eis a pulley, round which the
endlefs cord goes, after this cord has embraced both the fu-
perior pulleys, and to this pulley is attached the maintaining
power, I’, one half of the weight of which refts on the pul-
ley, A, and the other half on the puiley, B, fo that this
power is double the weight of an ordinary power, fufpended
by a ‘ingle cord round a barrel ; the cord, G, which goes
round all the pullies, as reprefented in the figure, is made
fhort in the plate, for the fake of being made an endlefs one,
and is kept ftretched by the {mall weight H, and correfpond-
ing pulley. Suppofe it to be negeffary now to draw up the
power, I’, at any time 5 the hand takes hold of the cord at
G, and pulls it down, the pulley, B, turns round in confe-
quence of its pins being caught by the cord ; and the click
{liides over the inclized teeth, and holds the ratchet. in what-
ever fituation it is Jeft when the hand iets go the cord;
the pulling down of the cord, G, pulls up the part, I, of
the cord, and with it the power, I*, while the pulley, F, rolls
along the part, K, of the fame as it afcends, which part, K,
does not alter its fituation, except by the flow revolution
of the pulley, A, # ¢. by the going of the clock; in the
mean time the {mall weight, H, falls towards G, and de-
fcends at the fame time that T° afeends, till this power, T,
approaches the two pulleys A and B, when the winding con-
cludes by means of a ftop applied over the pulley, E, to pre-
vent the further afcent of the power, F. From this brief
account of the mechanifm before us it is evident, that one
half of the power, F, continues to a¢tuate the pulley, A,
during its afceri, as well as during its defcent, and that the
quantity of fall compared with half the circumference of
the pulley, A, will determine the continuance of going after
each winding up. vey
6. Forcing Spring. We have feen the application of an
auxiliary {pring,-attached to the fufee of a chronometer, and
to the barrel of an aftronomical clock, conftituting the former
a going fufee, and the latter a perpetual ratchet, both of
which anfwer the fame purpofe as the endlefs cord we
have jult deferibed ; but there are other applications
of a Ipring to produce the fame effect, that have not
yet been defcribed. fig. 4, of Plate XXV. reprefents a
{pring of this kind acting in the teeth of the fecond wheel
of the train, as we have feen it ia fome old Englith
clocks. A and B are portions of the two plates of a clock
frame ; C, the fecond wheel of the train; D, the arber of
-WORK.
a fliding pallet ; H, moveable in the {mall oblong frame; T,
attached to the arbor; K, a flender {pring on the arbor
preffing againit the ftraight tail-piece of the pallet, which
pafles throuzh a hole in the arbor; E, a {pring {crewed to
one of the plates of the frame, and preffing on the tail-piece ;
F, of the arbor’s pivot; and G, alever witha pin projecting
through the dial, with its oppolite end reaching over the
hole of winding, which ‘t covers when the clock is going.
The mode of application is thus; when the clock is
te be wound up, the pin of the lever, G, is pufhed down
a circular aperture of the dial to uncover the hole: for
the key that is ufed in winding up, which key could
not otherwife be put into its hole in the dial; the
lever, G, being faft to the front pivot, the arbor, D, turns
it a little way round during this motion, for uncovering the
key-hole; the tail, F, of the arbor, confequently is lifted
upwards, and with it the fpring, E, which is the auxiliary
{pring that moves the train by its effort to return the
tooth of the pallet, H, is fo thaped, that it will flip over
a tooth of the fecond wheel in one dire@ion, but not in the
other, without carrying the wheel with it, as may be feea
from its fhape in the hgure; when, therefore, the pin of
G is moved downwards, before winding, a fma'l fpace, or
portion of a revolution of the arbor, D, which bears: the
pallet and its frame, it carrics the end of the pallet next
the wheel over a tooth or fometimes over two teeth; the
{mail {pring, K, in the mean time allowing the pallet, H,
to recede in its frame, 1, till it has paffed the faid tooth or
teeth; but as the {pring, K, inftantly pushes the pallet
into the {pace next to the tooth it has jult paffed, and holds
it there, the pallet 1s urged back again by the auxiliary
{pring IE, and carries with it the wheel fo tar that it has
room to efcape from the end of the tooth a&tuated by it,
which efeape does not take place till fome time after the
clock is wound up: hence the clock continues to go during
the period of its being wound up, and when the force of
the {pring is an equivalent forthe maintaining power, which
it may be made to be when ttretched back to acertain point ;
the contrivance will be a convenient temporary fubititute for
the maintaining power,
7. The French Forcing-/pring. The forcing-fpring made
ule of in fome of the French clocks is fomewhat different
from the one we have juit defcribed, and we think more>
fimple ia its conttruétion, whichis this; FA E, in fig. 35
of Plate XXV., is a rod of metal, moveable ona ftud
{crewed into the front plate at A, where is a {mall tail-
pieee in contact with a quiefcent{pring, B, alfo {crewed tothe
fame plate; at F is a pin in the rod, which comes through
a curved aperture inthe dial, defcribed from the point, A,
with the radius A F; C is as before the fecond wheel of
the train, or at leaft a portion of it; Disa pallet moveable
ona pin {crewed into the fuperior part of the lever FAE;
and E isa flender {pring prefling againit the pallet to keep
it into the teeth of the wheel; the application of this me-
chanifm is in this wife; the lever is fuppofed to cover the
key-hole at fome point near F, to uncover which the pin,
F, is carried upwards towards G in the aperture of the
dial; the end, E, of the lever is by this motion brought
downwards, and the pailet, D, being curved on the back
of it, flides over a tooth, or fometimes two. teeth, below it,
by its motion on the pin at its upper end, the flender
fpring, E, during this time receding ; but when the pallet,
D, has paffed the required tooth or teeth, its fpring, E,
pufhes it into the {pace contiguous, and its ttraight interior
face lays hold of the tooth next above it; in this fituation
the mechanifm is ready for action, but would remain inace
tive if the {pring, B, or auxiliary (pring, had not at the-
3 fame
CLO
fame time been ftretched back by the tail-piece at A; this
fpring, B, however, exerts its force to come back to its quief-
cent {tate ; that is, to bring the pin back again from G to F,
its original fituation, and confequently raifes the end, E,
with the pallet and paillet-{pring, to its original fituation,
which cannot take place without urging the wheel, C,
round along with the pallet; this contrivance, therefore, is
alubttitute for the maintaining power, fo long as its aétion
continues ; and it 1s cafy to perceive, that aftera few minutes
continuance the pailet will efcape the tooth which it impels
pro tempore, and the maintaining power will then refume the
fole command of the train.
8. The Bolt and Shutter.—Another contrivance to anfwer
the purpofe of making’a clock go while it isunder winding
is the bolt and fhutter, in which a weight is fubftituted fer
a {pring ; fig. 6, of Plate XXV., reprefents the great wheel
and barrel, together with the temporary apparatus, te be
fubftituted for the maintaining power thus; the arbor, A,
is pivoted into two collars, a and 4, within the frame of the
works, in which it is at liberty to revolve ; this arbor carries
three levers or arms, B, C, and D, all of which are made
faft to it, and confequently revolve with it, whenever it is
turned round; the lever, B, is juft long enough to extend
to the hole in the dial for winding, oppofite the fquare end
of the barrel-arbor, which hole it juft covers when in its
ilationary fituation, by means of its circular extremity; the
lever, C, carries a [mall bolt at its extremity, which is
pufhed out by a cylindrical {pring of moderate ftrength,
while it is confined to move in the diretion of the length of
this lever; and D, thethird lever, has theweight appended,
which is ufed pro sempore as a {ubftitute for the maintaining
power. From this fhort defcription it is eafy to perceive,
that, when the clock is to be wound up, the lever, B, muft
neccflurily be removed up or down, to allow the key to
enter the hole in the dial’s face ; it is prevented from a{cend-
ing, and therefore any perfon unacquainted with the nature
of the mechanifm, who is going to wind up the clock, finds
that he muft puth down the covering end of B, to gain ad-
miffion for his key ; this motion of the lever, B, downwards,
pulls down at the fame time the fecond lever C, and alfo
elevates the third lever D, which is behind the centre of
motion; but the lever, C, cannot defcend till the bolt,
which meets with the teeth of the wheel, is pufhed in
by them, after which it will pafs; the cylindrical {pring
however inftantly puihes it out again, and makes it fit a {pace
between two teetl:; in this fituation the weight, D, ating on
the thirdlever, nowurges boththelevers, B andC; backagain
to their original fituations, and confequently urges the
wheel forwards by means of the bolt, till they have at-
tained thofe fituations; which will require fome minutes
when the bolt is applied to the great wheel, according to
our figure; but we are of opinion that it would be better
to apply the bolt to the centre, or even the fecond wheel,
where a fmaller weight would fuffice, and where it would
continue to act a fhorter time ; for the objection to the bolt
and fhutter, as wellas to the forcing-fprings juft defcribed,
is, that their ation continues for fome time after the aét of
winding in addition to the maintaining power, which there-
fore it doubles for a time, fuppofing the temporary power
to be exactly equal to the permanent one, agreeably to the
intention of the contrivance.
Crock-Seaves, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the
black-headed bog-ruth.
CLOD, in Agriculture, a term frequently applied to a
lamp of earth, clay, or any other earthly material in a lumpy
ate.
CLODAGH,, in Geography, the name of a river in Ire-
CLO
land, which rifes in the vorth-weft angle of the county ef
Cavan, and pafling by Swanlinbar falls into Lough Erne. It
isalfo the name of a {mali river m the King’s county which
joins the Brofna.
CLODAWA, 2 town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kalith; 24 miles E.S.E. of Guefna.
CLODDING-Beertts, in Agriculture, a large beetle,
formerly ufed in fome diftriéts for breaking the clods in clayey
and other {tiff tenacious forts of foil. But at prefent this fort
of bufinefs may be much more expediticufly performed, and
at lefsexpence, by means ofrollers conftrucied for the purpofe.
See Rorcer.
CLODDY, in Rural Economy, a word fometimes applied
to cattle, when thick, fhort, or fuil of flefh. It has the fame
meaning as lumpy, when applied to beafts.
CLODEN, in Geography, atown of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and eleétorate of Saxony ; 4 miles
S.S.W. of Jeflen. E
CLODIA Fossa, in Ancient Geography, a city of one of
the iflands of Venice, near the ifland Brendolo. Pliny.
CLODI Leces, in Roman Antiquity, comprehend a
variety of laws, enacted by the inftrumcural:ty of the tribune
P. Clodius, in orderto ferve his own purpofes of intereft or
revenge. Thus, it was enacted in the year of Rome 605}
1. That the kingdom of Cyprus fhould be taken from Pto=
lemy, and reduced into the form of a province. This law
was paffed in order to puntfh that king for having refufed
Clodius money to pay his ranfom, when taken by the pi=
rates, and to remove Cato out of the way, by appointing
him to execute this order of the people, that he might not
thwart the unjult proceedings of the tribune, nor the views
of the triemviri. by whom Clodius was fupported. 2. That
corn fhould be diitributed gratis to the citizens. 3. That no
magiftrates fhould take the aufpices, or obferve the heavens,
when the people were a¢tually aflembled on public bufinefs.
4. That the old companies or fraternities of the city, which
the fenate had abolifhed, fhould be revived, and new infti-
tuted. Thefethree laws were pafled with a view of concili- -
ating the attachment of the people. 5. In order to pleafe
thofe alfo of higher rank, it was ena¢ted, that the cenfors
fkould not expel from the fenate, or infli@ any mark of in-
famy on any man, who was not firlt openly accufed and con-
vidtedjof fome crime by their joint fentence. The true defign of
thefe feveral laws was to introduce the banifhment of Ciceros
for which purpofe they were enaéted ; 6. That whoever had
taken the life of a citizen uncondemned and without a trial,
fhould be prohibited from fire and water. In this law Cicero
was not nemed ; but foon after, in an aflembly of Clodius’s
hired flaves and incendiaries, it was exprefsly decreed that he
fhould be interdi€ted from fire and water; that nobody ~
fhould prefume to harbour or receive him on pain of death 3
and that whoever fhould take any ftep towards recalling him
fhould be treated as a public enemy ; unlefs thofe fhould firlt
be recalled to life, whom Cicero had unlawfully put to
death. At the fame time it was decreed, with a view of re-
warding the confuls Pifo and Gabinius, who had favoured
Clodius in his meafures; 7. That the province of Macedo-
nia, with Greece and Theffaly, fhould be granted to the for-
mer, and to the latter, Cilicia, which was foon after ex-
changed for Syria, with a power of making war upon the
Parthians; the law enabled them to defray their expences
out of the publictreafury. In the fameaflembly it was fur-
ther enaéted; 9. That the A®lian and Fufian. laws, by
which the people were left at liberty to tranfaé all public
bufinefs, even in the days called Fafti, without being liable
to be obftruéted by the magiftrates, on any pretence what-
foever, fhould be repealed. Thefe laws had been in ee :
about
a eae 9)
about too years; and Cicero frequently laments the lofs of
them, as fatalto the republic ; he calls them the moft fa-
cred and falutary laws of the ftate; the fences of their civil
peace and quict ; the very walls and bulwarks of the repnb-
lic, which had held out again{t the fercenefs of the Gracchi,
the andacioufnefs of Saturninus, the mobs of Drufus, the
bloodfhed of Cinna, and the arms of Sylla, (In Vatin. o.
In Pifon. 4.) 9. Another law was made by Clodius
give relief'to the private members of corporate towns, (mu-
nicipia) againft the public injuries of their communities.
Phe real defian of this fpecicus law was te ferve a creature
of his own, one Merula, of Anagnia, who had been punithed
or driven fromhis city for fonye notorious villainies, and who, in
return for this fervice,erected a ftatue to his patron, on part of
tie area of Cicero’s hovfe, and inferibed it to Clodius,
“the author of fo excellent a law.’? Among other laws
one was enatted, Io. Vo deprive the prielt of Cybele, at
Peffinus in Phrygia, of his office, avd to fubititute another
in his room. i
CLODIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
dopia, near Dyrrachium. The Itmerary of Antonine places
it between Scampis and Apollonia.
CLODIANUS, a river of Spain, in the Tarragonenfis,
mentioned by Mcla, and alfo by Ptclemy, who places the
mouth of it in the country of the Llercaortians.
CLODITI, Forum. See Forum Cloiii.
CLODIUS, Pusttus, in Biography, a Roman defcended
from an illuftrious family, and remarkable for his licentionf-
nefs, avarice, and ambition. He wasfufpected of having a
criminal intercourfe with his three fifters ; of whom one was
married to Lucullus, the general, under whom he ferved in
Afia. Difappointed in his hopes of miliary rank, he fuc-
ceeded in exciting a mutiny in the army. In the famous
confpiracy of Catiline, Clodius defended the fenate, and
was himfelf ove of Ciccra’s guards. Soon after this he in-
troduced himfelf, by means of female attire, into the houfe
of Julius Cefar, while Pompeia, Cefar’s wife, of whom he
was enamoured, was celebrating the mylteries of Ceres. As
it was reckoned a very high crime for eny male to be
prefent at thofe mylteries, he was accufed, the next day,
by one of the tribunes of impiety and facrilege, but either
threugh bribery or intimidation his judges acquitted him.
He contrived by the intereft of Pompey and Cxfar to be
chofen tribune of the people, and while he held that office,
favoured the ambitions defigns of thole who had affilted him
in obtaiaing it. He procured alfo a decree of the people
for the dethroning of Ptolemy king of Cyprus, and Cato,
who was-a check upon the meafures of Clodius, was ordered
Cicero became
Clodins, at
this time, uniting himfelf to Cafar’s interelt, began to in-
fult Pompey, who in his turn exerted himfelf to procure the
recel of Cicero, in which he was not fuceefsful till the tri-
bane Milo had driven Clodius and his followers from the
forum. As foon as-Cicero was permitted to return, he
caufed all the records of the tribunitial a¢ts of Clodius to
be dettroyed, on the plea that he had been eleéted to the
office contrary to law. Jn the year, before Chrift, 53,
Clodins was killed by Milo, as he was returning from his
country houfe. Cicero undertook the defence of Milo, and
endeavoured to prove that the deceafed had been the aggref-
for for which there was probably no juft ground, and his
client was banifhed. The attachment of the people for
Clo4ius was exhibited by the burning of Milo’s houle, and
making a’ funeral pile for the body of their hero of the
Vou. VIII.
‘ Si ioph 2)
benches of the fenate. Plutarch. Anc. Univer. Hift. Ct
ceronis Opera.
CLODRA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony and circle of Neuftadt ; 3 miles E.of
Weyda.-
CLODY, a river of the county of London-derty, Ire-
land, riffing in the Carntogher mountains, and joining the
river Bann, a little below Portgtenone. On it is a village of
the fame name. 4
CLOERE, a prifon or dungeon; it is conjeétured from
Britith original; the dungeon or inner prifon of Wallingford
eaftle, temp. Hi. 2. was called Cloere brien, i. e. carter Brieni
&e. ;
CLOG. See Ruwic Starrs.
€roc, in Rural Economy, a word fometimes applied toa
log of wood. It alfo fignities a piece of wood fattened to an
animal’s foot to prevent its doing mifchief.
CLOGHEEN, in Geography, a market and poft-town
of the ccunty of ‘Tipperary, Ireland, ou the great road
from Dublin to Cork.
The {urrounding country is fertile;
and there are fome good flour mills in and near the town, on
a {mall river that falls into the Suire, It is 93 miles S. W.
from Dublin, and 31 N. by E. from Cork,
CLOGHER, a {mall polt-town, or rather village, of the
county of Tyrone, Ireland, though’ fometimes dignified
with the name of city, as being the feat of a bifhopric, aud
having before the union returned two members to parliament.
Tiere was a rich abbey here, which with its revenues was
annexed by James I. to the fee of Clogher. Some antiqua-
rians fay that this was a Druidic fanétuary, end that the
{tone of divination was kept here from which its name is
derived, fignifying the place of the ftones St. Patrick is
alfo mentioned as the fonder of the fee, before he went to
Armagh. The barony to which it gives its name has land
of as good a quality as any in Ireland, and is very rich in
limeftone. Clogher is 77 miles N.W. from Dublin.
M‘Evoy’s Tyrone. Dodd.
Crocuer, an Irith bifhopric in the province of Armagh,
whiel: flretches Go miles from N.W. to S.E. by a breadth’
of 20, and comprifes fome portion’ of the counties of
Donegal, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Monaghan, and Lonth: Tt
contains 4.1 parithes, of which only two are united; and there
are in thefe nolefs than 4g churches. The cathedral, which
is alfe the parifh church, isa plain handfome modern ftru€ture.
The bifhop’s pelace is large, with a remarkably fine park
and demefne. Mr. Young ftates the income of this fee to
be acco /. being the next in value to Derry. At prefent it
mult be much more confiderable. Beaufort. Young.
CLOGHER-HEAD, a cape on the eaft coat of Tres
land in the county of Louth. N. lat. 53° 47’. W. long. 6°
TZ
CLOGH-JORDAN, a {mall poft-town of the county
of Tipperary, Ircland, 70 miles W.S.W. from Dublin.
CLOGHNAKILTY. See Cronaxriry.
CLOHARS Carnoet, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Fintiterre, and cilridt of Quimperleé ; 14 league
S, of it.
CLOISTER, Cravusrrum, an habitation furrounded
with walls, and inhabited by canons, or religious.
In amore general fenfe, cloifter is ufed for a monattery of
religious of either fex. Ina more reftraincd fenfe, cloiter
is ufed for the principal part of a regular monaftery, confift-
ing ofa fquare built around ; ordinarily, between the church,
the chapter houfe, and the retectory ; and over which is the
dormitory, which fee. -
The cloifters ferved for feveral purpofes in the ancient
monatteries. Petrus Blefenfis obferves, that it was here the
4B monks
CLO
monks held their leAures; the le&ure of morality at the
north fide, next the church ; the fchool on the weft, and the
chapter on theealt ; {piritual meditation, &c. being referved
for the church. ‘
Du Cange concludes, that all thefe- different exercifes
were performed in the cloifter itfelf ; but by miltake.
The church, the chapter-houfe, and the fchool, were not
parts of the cloifter, but buildings adjoining to it.
Lanfranc obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloifter was
for the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at certain
hours of the day.
The form of the cloifter was fquare; and it had its name
elauflrum from claudo, I fhut, or clofe, as being inclofed on
its four fides with buildings. Hence, in architeéture, a
building is faid to be in form of a cloilter, when there are
buildings on each of the four fides of the court.
CLOISTERED monks. See Monk.
CLOLUGH,, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which
rifes in the Commeragh mountains, in the county of Water-
ford, and paffing by Curraghmore, runs into the Suire.
Pearl-mufcles are found in this river. Smith’s Water-
ford. .
CLOMANNORUM Civitas, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, towards Babylonia.
CLOMPANUS, in Botany, minor and major: ,.Rumph.
See STERCULIA.
CLONAKILTY, or Crocunaxitry, in Geography,
a market and poft-town of the county of Cork, Ireland. It
was incorporated by the intereft of the firft Earl of Cork in
1605, and fent two members to parliament before the Union.
It is fituated near the fea, but this, fays Dr. Smith, affords it
more pleafure than profit, as the mouth of the harbour, being
choaked with fand, prevents veffels of burden from coming
toit. M*‘Kenzie deferibes this harbour as fit for {mall veffels
only ; and very dangerous failing in or out, when the wind
is at the foutherly quarter. ‘There is a pretty good market
for linen yarn and coarfe linens, which is attended by the
Bandon merchants. In the neighbourhood is a mine, which
contains fome good lead ore, of the kind called galena, and
abundance of black blende ; but the working of it was foon
dropped, from want of fufficient capital to proceed, as it
was not immediately productive. Clonakilty is 145 miles
S. W. from Dublin, aud 22 miles S.W. from .Cork.
N. lat. 51° 37’. W. long. 8° 42’. Smith. M‘Ken-
zie.
CLONARD, a poft-town of the county of Meath, Ire-
land. It was formerly of fome importance, having been a
bifhop’s fee, which was confolidated with feveral others in
1152, this being the refidence of the bifhop; but in 1216,
they were formed into the prefent fee of Meath. There
was an abbcy here, the ruins of which fhow it to have
been extenfive, and the endowments of which were great.
‘The old town is now gone to decay, and the new one which
has a bridge over the Boyne, is a place of no trade. It is
26 miles W. from Dublin, on the road to Mullingar, and
very near the place where the royal canal croffes the Boyne.
Thompfon’s Meath, &c.
CLONEGALL, a {mall poft-town of the county of
Carlow, Ireland, ,on the confines of Wexford, 47 miles S.
by W. from Dublin. .
CLONES, a market and poft-town of the county of
Monaghan, Ireland, the weekly fales of linens at which is
e(timated at 700/,, and its other trade thriving. There are
ruins of two or three religious buildings in and near this
town. It is 62 miles N.W. from Dublin.
CLONEY, a {mall lake in Glaneroughy Kerry, about
ten miles from Nedeen, and communicating with Kenmare
CLO
river, which is faid to poffefs all the charms of Killarney in
miniature. Beaufort. x
CLONFERT, an Inhh bifhopric, under the metropoli-
tan feeof Tuam. It was founded near the clofe of the fixth
century, and was united to the fee of Killmacduagh in 1602.
There are in this united fee fixty parifhes, all of which, ex-
cept three, are in the county of Galway. Thefe are by
unions reduced to fifteen benefices, and fourteen of them have
churches. The cathedral and parifh church are the fame,
and the bifhop has a palace in the neighbourhood; but Clon-
fert is fo {mall as not to deferve even the name of a village.
Beaufort.
CLONIA, in Ancient Geography, a marth of Africa, in
Interior Libya, near mount Rifadius. Ptolemy fays that
the marth is formed by the river Stachir.
CLONMACNOISE, or Crvain-mac-nots, 1. e€. the
retirement of nobles, in Geography, a place in the King’s coun-
ty, Ireland, once the fee of a bifhop, and at prefent remark-
able for the extent of its monaftical ruins. An abbey was
founded here by St. Kiaran, in 548, which afterwards be-
came a cathedral; this prefided over nine other churches, in
one church-yard, as it were, for they were within lefs than
the compafs of two Irifh acres ; and at the weit end of this
fpace the bifhop’s palace was erected. It was fituated on
the banks of the Shannon, ten miles from Athlone, raifed
above the river on ground compofed of many {mall elevations.
The abbey, which belonged to the regular canons of St. Au-
guftine, was peculiarly and univerfally elteemed, was uncom-
monly extenfive, and was enriched by many kings and princes.
Its landed property was fo great, and the number of cells
and monatfteries fubjeéted to it fo numerous, that almoft half
of Ireland was faid to be within its bounds. This was alfo
the Jona of Ireland, where the princes of the country were
buried; and it was imagined that all who were interred there
had infured an immediate afcent to heaven. Several of the
churches are fuppofed to have been erected as places of fe-
pulture. Yet, notwithttanding the opinion of its fanQity,
the abbey was often plundered and deftroyed by defpoilers of
every kind, by the unpolifhed Irifh defperado, by the bar-
barous Oitmen, and, with concern it is added, by the Eng-
lith fettlers. TThefe, who ought to have conciliated the af-
feétions of the natives, and fet them an example of obedience
to the laws, and of a peaceable demeanour, too often jcined
in the greateft outrages, and, amongft other tranfaétions of
a like kind, repeatedly difturbed the retired feminary of
Clonmacnoife. In 1568 the fee was united to Merth by a&
of parliament, and the deanery alone remains of the ancient
chapter. There are remains of feveral churches, and one is
ftill ufed as the parifh church. ‘There are alfo two round
towers. They are now furrounded by extenfive bogs, and
the appearance of the country is wild and uncultivated. ©
Ware. Archdall’s Monatt. Hibern.
CLONMELL, a market and pott-town of the county of
Tipperary, Ireland. It is the fhire town, large and opulent,
where the woollen and cotton manufatures were formerly in
a flourifhing ftate, but, as in other places, have declined.
Though very inconveniently fituated for the affizes, at the
extremity of fo large a county, it is admirably feated for
trade, on the banks of the Suire, which is fo far navigable
for large boats, the tide flowing a little way above the town.
The adjoming country is uncommonly fertile, and there are
in and near Clonmell a number of boulting mills, from which
flour is fent to Dublin. ‘The county-court houfe is a new
and handfome building; and the jail, which is alfo of late
conftruétion, was built on Mr. Howard’s plan. , Clonmell
was formerly a place of ftrength, and was able to make fome
ftand againft Cromwell, who befieged it in perfon. Ee
tne
CLO
the Union it fent two members to the Irith houfe of com-
mons, and has at prefent one reprefentative in the Imperial
parliament. It is 84 miles S.W. from Dublin; N. lat. 52°
21’. W. long. 7°43’. Beaufort, &c. é
CLONMINES, a village of the county of Wexford, on
an arm of the fea, not far from the place where Strong-
bow landed. Some ruins bear teltimony to its former im-
portance, and until the Union it fent two members to par-
liament. Tt is 814 miles S. from Dublin, and about 15 W.
from Wexford.
CLONTARF, a village in the county of Dublin, Ire-
land, on the ftrand between the city of Dublin and Hoath.
It is much frequented for fea bathing, and is a pleafing ob-
je& to thofe entering the harbour. Clontarf is remarkable
mn zhe hiftory of Ireland for a battle fought, in the year
1org, between the Danes, or Oitmen, and the Irith, in
which Brien Boronche, who commarded the latter, loft his
life, though his troops gained a decifive victory. It is 3
miles from Dublin.
CLOPPENBOURG, atown of Germany, in the circle
of Weitphalia, and bifhopric of Muntter, the principal place
of a bailiwick ; 64 miles N.N.E. of Munfter. N. lat. 52°
Bae Belong. 72% 3ic!,
CLOSE, a term in Heraldry, ufed to exprefs the wings
of the eagle, falcon, kite, &c. being kept clofe to their bo-
dies, but muft not be ufed to the peacock, dunghill-cock,
or any others not addiGed to flight. It is alfo applied to a
helmet with the vizor down.
Cross, in Mujfic, fimply means an end or termination to
@ movement, vocal or inltrumeéntal. See Capencr, Ca-
DENZA, CouNTERPOINT, and Composirion. But fince
the cltablifhment of the opera, or mufical drama, and fingers
of great abilities, tafte, and execution, have been employed
and frequently left to themfelves, ad libitum, at a paufe, or
at the conclufion of an air, by a clofe or cadenza is under-
ftood fuch an extemporaneous effufion of tafte and fancy,
terminated by a fhake, as could be executed in one breath.
See Tofi, chap. vit, p. 126, and Italian Tour; Refle€tions
on the length and abufe of clofes.
Long clofes were a nuifance in Italy thirty years ago.
When it was obferved that at Rome, Criftofero, who fung
in Guarducci’s polifhed manner, though his clofes were ex-
cellent, full of fancy aed good tafte, yet they appeared too
long; this fault was then general throughout Rome and
Naples, where fuch a long-winded licentioutnefs prevailed in
the cadences of every finger, as was always tirefome, and often
difgufling ; even thofe of great performers needed compref-
fion, and thofe made by performers of an inferior clafs, not
only wanted curtailing, but correction. A few feleét notes,
with a great deal of meaning and expreflion given to them,
is the only expedient that can render a cadence dcfirable, as
it fhould confit of fomething fuperior to what has been heard
in the art, or it becomes impertinent. ‘This abufe in mak-
ing clofes is not of very ancient ftanding, for in a ferious
opera of old Scarlatti, compofed in 1717, there is not a fin-
gle place for a cadence, ad liditum, to be found. But, to
length 13 now added another complaint, by that part of an
audience who have heard the great performers of former
times; which is, the taking breath, fometimes even more
than once, before the concluding fhake is made, after which
the performer expects to be ‘ welcomed home.” .
Crose, in Rural Economy, a {mall inclofed field or pad-
dock, A {mall inclofure of any kind.
Crose-Feeding, the praétice of eating grafs herbage down
in a clofe or bare manner, by fheep or other animals. It is
of much confequence to the grazier, to have his paftures
.
cL.o
kept in a ftate of clofe-feeding, as the animals are found to
do much better under fuch circumftances: and at the fame
time to be capable of {spporting a larger proportion of
ftock. Speaking of clofe-feeding, Mr. Young has given the
following ufeful remarks. ‘* In the preceding tials there
was not, through the thirty weeks, {carcely a bent to be
feen; the pafturage was conttantly fhorn to the ground,
and in that fate it was remarkable to fee how conttantly, and
even rapidly, it fprung, during the continuance of a drought
thac was deitructive of all produce in fields on the fame
farm, fuffered to run to bent, for hay or other views. The
comparifon was the moft decifive that can be imagined.
He had many fields, better than any there repiftered, that
yielded fo contemptible a produce of hay, as to be fcarcely
worth mowing ; and he was amazed to fee in fome of them
how poor the roven or after-grafs was, fo that both united,
or the entire growth of at leaft forty weeks, has amounted
not to the fourth of the value of the produce of fimilar foils
pared clofe by fheep.”? And he adds, ‘a Romney-marfh
grazier would be ruined if he had fo much grafs on his land,”
fays Mr. Boys, in his Farming Tour, fpeaking of a field
underftocked.””—Annals, vol. xix. p. 118. Nothing fo
bad,”’ fays another, ‘* in Romney-marfh, as mowing, fo that
fome landlords prohibit it.” Pliny, fays Mr. Young, knew
this.—L//? enim in primis inutile, enafci herbas fementaturas.
Plin. Hitt. Nat. lib. xviii. cap, 28. «And of the faét he has
not the leaft doubt, from various experiments and obferva-
tions; and there is no man but has remarked it, he thinks,
in the cafe of ray-grafs, the produce of which is loft if the
bent be allowed to rife. In all plants cultivated for pattur-
age, there is a great effort the moment the feed-ftem runs,
to which the whole growth of the plant is direéted to form
the feed; till then the growth is in the leaves: it 1s there-
fore palpable, that the way to have the greateft abundance
of leaf, is by feeding fo clofe as to prevent thofe ems
rifing at all. And he may further obferve, that, on this
fyftem of feeding, thofe grafles which yicld a very great but
coarfe produce, become f{weet, fine, and valuable, by thus
keeping them clofe fed. The avena efatior, or tall oat-grafs,
is very coarfe, but in a field of that grafs, thirteen acres
and half, it never was fuffered to rife, and confequent!y was
found, on examination, to appear as fine and pleafing to the
eye as any of the more delicate grafles. It is with this view
that he is cultivating it largely, and alfo the daéylus glomee
ratus ; and both are remarkably early.”
He fuggefts it as.** an inquiry that deferves attention,
whether the feperior profit of grazing fheep, on comparifon
with oxen, does not depend very much on this point of clofe
feeding : for large cattle, the herbage muft be kept to a
good head to give a full bite; and confequently innumerable
feed-ftems form, which tend to reduce the produce great-
ly.” There can be no doubt of the great benefit and advan
tage of clofe-feeding, in all itates where the lands are covered
with a coarfe grafly turf or fward. See Pasrure and
Grazinc-
Cosz-Zeap, aterm fometimes provincially applied to a
ram, or male fheep, where both the tefticles are within the
barrel of the animal.
Crose, Breach of, in Law, a {pecies of trefpafs, denot-
ing every unwarrantable entry on another's foul, which the
law fuppofes to be inclofed, either by a vilible fence, or an
invifible boundary. Accordingly, the words of the writ of
tref{pafs command the defendant to fhew caufe, ‘‘quare clau-
fum querentis fregit.”” Every fuch entry, or breach of a
man’s clofe, carries neceffarily along with it fome damage or
other; for, if no other fpectai lofs can be affigned, yet itil
4B2 the
cLo
the words of the writ itfelf {pecify one general damage, viz.
the treading down and bruifing his herbage. F.N.B.
87, 88. See Trespass.
Crose -Rolls, and Ciose Writs, charters, or letters of
the king, containing grants of lands, &c. fealed with his
great feal, and directed toparticular perfons, and for particular
purpofes, which, not being proper tor the public infpection,
are clofed up and fealed on the outfide, and are therefore
called writs clofe, litere claufe, and they are recorded in the
elofe rolls. Sze Lurrers, and Patent.
Cuose Field. See Fieup.
Cross Fights, aboard a hip, are bulk-heads put up fore
and aft in the fhip, for the men to ftand behind in a clofe
engagement, and fire on the enemy; or, if the fhips be
boarded, to feour the decks.
Crosse fire. See Fire, and ReverBeRATION.
Crose-hauled, in Sea Language, denotes the arrangement
or trim of a (hip’s fails when fhe endeavours to proceed in
the nearcft direétion poflible to that point of the compafs
from which the wind blows. ‘The keel of larger fhips makes
an angle of about fix points with the line of the wind: but
floops and {maller veifels fail almoft a point nearer. All
veflels, when clofe-hauled, make nearly a point of lee-way,
and this angle increafes with the increafe of wind and fea.
The fails, in this difpofition of them, are all extended fide-
ways on the thip; and the term clo/e hauled is then applied
to it, becaule her tacks are drawn clofe down to her wind-
ward fide, the fheets hauled clofe aft, and all the bow-lines
are drawn to their utmolt extenfion, in order to keep the
fails fteady.
Crose Quarters, denote ftrong beams of wood extended
along a merchant-fhip in feveral places; as they are a place
of retreat, when the fhip is boarded by an adverfary, they
are fitted with fmall loop holes, through which the fhip’s
crew may fire {mall arms to defend themfelves, and annoy
the enemy, They are likewife furnifhed with powder-chetls,
filled with powder, old nails, &c. which may be fred upon
the boarders.
Cuose Pound. See Pounn.
CLOSET, in Heraldry, is the diminutive or half of the
bar.
Croser, Clerk of the. Sce Crerx.
Croser, Water, in Architedure. Sce Warer-clofet.
CLOSH, in our old cuttoms, an unlawful game, forbid-
den by ftat. 14 Edw. 1V.c. 3. and 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9,
[t is faid to have been the fame with our nine-pins, and is
called ¢lofh-coy/s by the 33d. Hen. VILL.
CLOSTER Newsure, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the archduchy of Auftria; 11 miles N.N.W. of
Vienna.
CLOSTER-Seven, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Bremen, famous for a cons
vention or capitulation, called the treaty of Clofter-{even,
by which the duke of Cumberland, commanding 38,000
Hanoverians, was obliged in 1757 to furrender to the
French under the duke de Richeheu, and to lay down their
arms. It is diftant 19 miles S. from Stade, and 24 N.N.E.
from Bremen.
CLOSTERMAN, or Kioosterman, N., in Biography,
a portrait painter, who was born at Hanover in 1656, and
was much efteemed in his time. It is not known from
whom he firft received inftructions, but he came to London
in 1681, and for fome time affilted Riley in the draperies
and other accefforial parts of his pictures. After the death
of his matter, Clofterman got into vogue, and was employed
to paint the portraits of many of the principal nobility.
6
CLO
Tn the year 1696, he was invited to Madrid to paint the
king and queen of Spain, together with the principal grane
dees of the court ; he returned, loaded with riches and ho-
nour, to England; foon after which he painted a whole
length portrait of queen Anne iv her robes, a rich and ftrik-
ing picture, which was afterwards placed in Guildhall. He
died in the year 1713, ‘aged 57, having previorfly to hig
death been robbed of all his hard-earned wealth by an infi-
dious miftrefs. Defeamps. Pikington.
CLOSTRA. in Ancient Geography, a maritime place of
Italy, between Antium and the promontory of Circé.
CLOT-Bird, in Ornithology, a name by which the
common OznAnTueE is called im many parts of Englan}.
CLOTAIRE 1. kinz of France, in Biography, was the
third fon of Clovis, by his wife Clotilda,and born A.D,
497. When he was only 14 years of age, he inherited as
his patrimony the kingdom of Soiffons. In 516, he united
with two of his brothers in declaring war again{t Sigifmond,
king of Burgundy, and his brother Gondimar. The latter
they put to flight, but Sigifmond, with his wife and children,
they took prifoners. In this expedition Clodimir, one of
the three, was killed, having firft caufed the king of Bur-
gundy to be deftroyed, and Clotaire, with his brother Thi-
erri, took poffeflion of bis dominions as guardians to the fons
of the unfortunate monarch. They afterwardsinvaded Thu-
ringia, in which Clotaire fhewed great military prowefs, but
from certain jealoufies that fubfitted between the brothers,
he narrowly efcaped aflaffination at a conference. ~ Clotaire
and his brother Childebert feized their nephews, the fons of
the deceafed Clodimir, two of whom the favage Clotaire
ftabbed with his own hands; and the third efcaping, he
caufed all the tutors and even domeftics of the young princes
to be facrificed at the fhrine of his mad ambition. Clotaire
and Childebert invaded and ranfacked the Italian territories
of the Romans and Oftrogoths. In 543 they attacked
Spain, and penetrated as far as Saragofla, but on their re-
turn with confiderable booty, they were defeated and plun-
dered by the Goths. ‘I'he death of Thierri placed the fcep-
tre wielded by that monarch in the hands of his natural fon
Theobalde ; and on the demife of that prince, his fubje&ts —
agreed to acknowledge Clotaire as their fovereign, who, by
the fubfequent deceafe of Childebert, united the dominions
of Clovis under his fole government. Clotaire was not per-
mitted long to enjoy in peace his ill-gotten power and do- _
minion. His eldelt fon, Chramnes, twice took up arms
againft him, but being defeated, and compelled to feek for
mercy, he was once reftored to favour, but the fecond time
Clotaire ordered his fon with his wife and children, to be
burnt to death-in his prefence. Asan atonement for crimes
of which his own confcience muft have been a perpetual moni-
tor, the bloody Clotaire made very confiderable prefents to the
church, which he frequently accompanied with fuch a&ts of
devotion as the ignorance of the times preferibed. He died
in the year 561, having reigned fifty-one years. He had
been married to fix wives, and left four fons, who divided
his kingdom among them. ‘
There were three other princes of France of the fame
name, of whom we fhall only notice the fecond.
Crotarre I]. was but four months old when he fucceed=
ed to his father Chilperic’s kingdom. In his youth he fpent
much of his time in warfare, and by his condu& to his
kinfmen, two of whom he caufed to be murdered, he fhew-
ed himfelf entitled to the name of Ciotaire. When, how-
ever, he had gained the great object of his ambition, and
was become the fole monarch ot the Franks, he feemed
anxious to atone for his former cruclties by the excreife of a
mild
TCoLtO TE,
mild and juft government. He fubmitted the civil and ec-
clefiaftical affairs of his kingdom to-a council compofed of
people celebrated for their high rank and attainments in wif-
dom. He inflituted a kind of parliaments in his own pa-
lace, the powers of which, though not now to be clearly af-
certained, were probably exercifed for the benefits of the
people. Clotaire attained to confiderable celebrity as a
warrior. In 627 he routed the Saxons, who had revolted
from him, on the banks of the Wefer, with great flaughter.
The next year he died in the height of reputation, having
acquired the titles of the Great and Debonair. Du Fref{noy.
Hitt. Univer. Hitt. de France.
CLOTH, in Commerce, in its general fenfe, includes all
kinds of ftuffs woven or manufaétured on the loom, whether
their threads be of wool, hemp, or flax.
Croru is more peculiarly applied to a web, or tiffue of
woollen threads interwoven ; whereof fome called the warp,
are extended lengthwile, from one end of the piece to the
other; the reft, called the woof, are difpofed acrofs the
firft, or breadthwife of the piece.
Crorus, Superfine; the belt of thefe are made entirely
of Spanifh wool; the fineft forts of which are the Leonera
and Segovia.
Of Englifh wools, thofe of Hereford and Suffex approach
the nearelt in finenefs to the Spanifh, and from the choiceft
of thefe are manufaGtured fupertines of anieferior fort. From
the reft of the Englifh wools are made the feconds, liveries,
and coarfer cloths, varying in price according to their qua-
lities.
The goodnefs of cloth confifts, 1. In the finenefs of
the wool. 2d. In the clearnefs, richnefs, and beauty
of the colour. 3d. In its being evenly fpun, always ob-
ferving that the thread of the warp be clofer twifted, and
one-fourth part {maller than that of the woof. 4th. In the
cloth’s being well wrought and beaten on the loom, fo as to
be in every part equaily clofe and compact. 5th. In being
milled or fulled evenly, clean fcoured, and of a proper thick-
nefs or fubftance. 6th. In being well dreffed, fo that the
hair or knap of the wool be fully and evenly drawn out and
ranged on the furface, and in being fhorn clofe, yet without
Jaying the ground or threads bare. 7th. In its not being
overltretched in the rack, or pulled farther than is neceflary
to fet it {mooth, and bring it to its jult length and breadth.
Laftly. In the cloth itfelt appearing fmooth and neat on the
face, free from {mall knobs, fpets, and other imperfections ;
in being firm yet pliable, and fecling foft and fine to the
touch.
CiorH, manufadure of. A detailof the manner in which
fuperfine cloths are manufactured in Witthire, may ferve for
the whole; the inferior forts differing little, but in the
coarfer and lefs delicate modes of performing the fame
Operations.
It is previoufly to. be obferved, that all the cloths which
are defigned for fcarlets, greens,.and blacks, as well as many
of the mott lively and delicate colours, are manufactured
white, and dyed in the piece after they are finifhed.
The wool, being taken out of the bale, mutt firft be pick-
ed, to clear it from the pitch which adheres to it, and from
the other extraneous fubftances with which it abounds. It
muft then be fcoured, by putting it into a furnace contain-
ing a hquor compofed of three parts of water, and one of
urine. After it has been well ferred about therein, and the
greafe it contains diffolved, it muft be taken out, drained,
and wafhed in running water, and in that ftate it is fit to be
committed to the dye-furnace.
After dyeing it muft be again wafked and well dried, when
it mult be beaten with rods on wooden hurdles, to free it
from the dye-ftuff, which fill hangs about it; or elfe the
fame effeét 1s produced by putting it into a wool mill, form-
ed of a four-flapped vane or fan thinly fet with iron fpikes,
and {wiftly revolving within a hollow cylinder, compofed
of {mall wooden rods or ftaves, fufficiently wide apart to
{uffer the duft to fall through, as the wool becomes flightly
feparated by the motion of the fans. It is then once more
carefully picked, in order to take out the locks which are
unevenly dyed, and alfo the lint, and other filth with which
wool in this flate generally abounds.
In making mixed cloths, wool of the different colours, be-
ing weighed out in their requifite proportions, are firlt fhaken
well together; they are then further mixed by being well
turned in the wool mill, and by being afterwards ¢cwice pafled
through the feribbling engine inftead of once, they are ge-
neraliy found to be fufficiently intermixed.
The wool, thus prepared, muft now be fpreed abroad ona
floor, and oil of olives (in the proportion of 3lb. to 20lb. of
wool), evenly fprinkled over it, and beat into it with heavy
rods, when it is in a proper flate to be carried to the f{erib-
bling engine.
_ This 1s a machine compofed of ten or more wooden cylin-
ders, of various fizes, covered with cards, the teeth or wire
of which are of different degrees of finenefs, and bent or
hooked in oppofite directions. ‘Tnefe are combined in a
{trong wooden frame, and fo} fitted as juft to touch and work
againft each other, as they {wiltly revolve on being fet in
motion by acommon handle, adapted to be turned either by
men’s labour, orany fort of mill work. By paffing through
this engine, the locks of wool, which before were clofe and
matted together, are drawn abroad, the fibres are feparated,
and it is formed into light flakes; it is then taken to the
carder, which is a {maller engine of the fame kind, only
covered with finer cards, and with the addition of a fluted
roller revolving in a trough at the tail of the machine; by
which the wool, after being {till finer and better mixed and
carded, is formed, as it drops out, into feparate and {mooth
rolls of 28 inches long, and half an inch in thicknefs, which
are immediately taken by boys, and joined or attached to
the fpindles of the roving or flabbing machine.
This is a contrivance, by which 50 or more iron fpindles,
being fet upright in a wooden frane, are twirled by one
motion, yielding their threads to a common flider, at every
move of which the 50 rolls of woo! are drawn out and form.
edinto as many large fhghtly twilted threads, and at thé
fame time wound off into balls of a fize and fhape adapted
to the next operation, or {pinning.
This is performed by a machine called the /pinning jenny,
which alfo isa frame containing 70 or more upright {pindles,
twirled like the former by a common motion, and yielding
their threads to one and the fame flider; by this the large
hollow threads are further twilted and drawn out to the
degrees of fmailnefs and ftrength requifite for the different
purpofes for which they are deligned. The threads, being
thus fpun, are reeled into fkains and prepared for the loom.
The larger fort, dettined for the woof, is wound on fpools,
which are {mall tubes, fo formed as to be eafily placed in the
eye or hollow of the fhuttle. That for the warp is wound
on large wooden bobbins, from which, by the warping bar,
it is conveniently formed into the proper lengths and divi-
fions, and fo arranged and difpofed as to form the chain or
warp of the piece.
The chain, thus prepared, muft be ftiffened by a fizt,
which is made by diffolving 3lbs. of glue (the beft fort of
which is made from fhreds of parchment) in a quantity of
water fuflicient to moiften and faturate the whole, and when
dried it is ready to be turned on the loom.
Ta.
>
In weaving broad-cloth, there are two weavers in a loom,
One on each fide, who atthe fame time tread alternately on
the fame treadle, i. ¢. now on the right fide and now on the
left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the warp equally,
between ‘which they throw, tranfverfely, the fhuttle from
the one to the other. At each time that the fhuttle 1s
thrown (and fo athread of the woof inferted within the
warp), they ftrike it conjointly with a moving frame, where-
in is taftened the flay, which is a kind of comb, compofed
of thin pieces of cane, between whofe teeth the threads of
the warp are pafled, repeating the ftrokes fix or feven times
with the warp open, and again as many times after it has
crofled and clofed on the woof. The whole warp being
filled with woof, the cloth is finifhed.
Being next taken to the fulling-miil, it is there foaked
with urine or hog’s dung, and afterwards fcoured with
clean water; it is thus freed from the oil and filth contra&ted
in dyeing, and delivered perfeétly clean, in a {tate fit for the
next operation, which is burling. ‘
By this procefs (performed by women with little iron nip-
pers) the cloth is cleared from all the knots, lint, fmall ftraws,
and lefler filth ; and if, by the careleflnefs of the fpinner, it
contains any large uneven threads, they mutt now be gently
taken out; and if any fmall hole or rent is made, it muit be
carefully drawn up, and mended with fome of the warp-yarn
of the fame cloth.
But that compaétnefs and denfity which diftinguith
woollen cloth from all other manufaétures, and renders it fo
peculiarly adapted to our wear in thefe northern climates, are
derived from the next operation, which is fulling, or milling,
by which a cloth of 40 yards long, and 100 inches wide,
being firft {prinkled over with a liquor prepared from 5lbs.
of fine foap (made from the oil of olives) diffolved in hot
water, is laid in the mill-trough, and there pounded or ftamp-
ed on by two heavy wooden hammers, alternately raifed and
deprefled by the cogs of a mill-wheel. By this -procefs it
becomes by degrees (generally. in about 8 hours) fo thicken-
ed and fhrusk up, as to be reduced to 30 yards lqng and 60
inches wide, which renders it of the proper fubfance and
thicknefs of common fuperfine cloth. During this opera-
tion, it mutt be taken out from the trough from time to time,
to have more foap added, and to be fmoothed from the
wrinkles and creafes which it would otherwile contract.
This faculty of being rendered thicker by compreffion, is
peculiar to woollen fubftances. In vain may fabrics of filk
or cotton be fubjeGted to the fame procefs ; they would not,
in any length of time, be rendered thickef by it, or more
compat in the fmalleft degree. To account for this, it has
been obferved, that the fingle hairs of wool, when viewed in
a microfcope, are difcovered to be thickly fet with rough
and jagged protuberances, adapted to catch and entangle
with each other. ~Whence it feems probable, that during
the violent agitation the cloth undergoes in the mill-trough,
the fibres being, at every flroke of the mill hammer, ftrongly
impelled together, and driven into the clofeft poflible con-
tact, at length hook into each other, drawing clofer and
clofer as the procefs continues, till they become thus firmly
and inextricably united; each thread, both of the warp and
the woof, being fo joined and compacted with thofe that are
contiguous to it, that the whole feems formed into one fub-
ftance, not being liable, like other fabrics, when cut with
fhears, to unravel and become ragged at the edges.
The cloth, thus milled to its proper thicknefs, muft be
fcoured with clean water till it be perfeétly free from the
foap. Inthis part of the procefs, a preparation of fullers-
earth and bullock’s gall is found very ferviceable, rendering
the cloth at the fame time foft and mellow,
_ the proper glofs.
CLO aA,
The cloth muft now be taken to the cloth-worker, in order
to be dreffed, which is performed by firft properly drawing
out, aad arranging in one direétion, all the hairs or fibres of
the wool that can poffibly be brought. to the furface, and
then fhearing it as clofe asit will admit, withont difcovering
the ground of the cloth, or laying the threads bare.
The inftruments employed in this operation, are the wire
cards, and teazels, to raife and draw out the hair, and the
{hears to cut off what is too long and fuperfiuous. (The
teazel isa large kind of thiftle, with the points growing very
{trong and hooked; to ufe them the heads are cut off, and
fet clofe together in fmall wooden frames called handles.)
Thefe inftruments, although hitherto worked by men’s hands,
with great labour and expence, have of late been fo ingent-
oufly adapted to machinery turned by mill-wheels, as to per-
form the fame operations with much more precifenefs and
efic&t, as well as great faving in point of expence ; and the
machines for this purpofe are various, and continually 1m-
proving. The method hitherto employed is generally as
follows.
The cloth being drawn over a frame, conftruGted of boards
laid floping, and covered with hair-cloth, is, during its paf-
faye, in order to raife the wool, regularly {craped, or rub-
bed from one end to the other, with the cards or teazels,
being all the time kept as wet as poffible hy continually
pouring water upon it. It is then laid on the fhearing
boards, which are made of wooden planks covered with .
coarfe cloth, and forming a kind of hard cufhion, where the
wool thus raifed is cut off with long heavy fhears, which
are prefled clofe to the cloth with leaden weights, and gra-
dually lide forward at every motion or cut, till they have
proceeded from one lift to the other. The cloth is then
returned to be again fcraped or rubbed; thefe operations
are repeated three times, every time with finer cards, or
teazels, when the wool becomes fufficiently raifed. It mult
now be taken to the rack, on which being faftened by the
lifts with {mall hooks or tenters, it muft be drawn or
{trained thereon, until it be of an even breadth throughout ;
when dry it is returned to the fhearing boards, on which the
cutting is repeated three times more on the night fide, and
once on the other or back fide. After this it is given to
the cloth-drawers, who, having firft, with {mall picking irons,
made very fharp at the points, drawn out all the {mall dlraws
and bits ot lint which have before efcaped notice, carefully
fine-draw or mend the {mall holes or rents, if any fuch have
been made in it.
Nothing now remains to be done but prefling ; prepara-
tory to which, the cloth being doubled and laid in even folds,
a leaf, or fheet of glazed pafteboard, is inferted between each
fold or plait of the cloth; it is then laid in the prefs, and
covered with thin wooden boards or fences, on which are
laid iron plates properly heated, and onthe whole (by means
of a lever turning a {crew) the top of the prefs is brought
down, with-the degree of force judged neceflary to give it
When cold, it may be taken out of the
prefs, in order to be folded and packed, ready for fale.
The ftatute book contains a variety of laws relating to the
woollen manufa@ure ; the principal of which will be recited
under that article: we fhall here fubjoin an account of the
molt important laws pertaining to cloth and clothiers, Every -
fuller of cloth fhall ufe tayfels, or teazels, and no cards, deceit
fully impdiring the faid cloth, on pain of double damage, to
be determined by a juttice of the peace, mayor, malter, warden,
bailiff, portreeve, conftable of hundred, and fteward of leet,
who may commit the offender to the neat gaol ti payment ;
information may be made by any perfon not grieven to any
of the above magiltrates or officers; and the offender
fhall
4.0 °T: H
fall forfeit to the king, or to fuch perfons as fhall be intitled
to fines or amercements within their jurifdiction, 3s. 4d.
4 Edw. IV. c. 1. No cloth, uot fulled, fhall be exported, on
pain of forfeiting the fame, half to the king and half to him
that will fve. 7 Edw. VI.c.3. For the meafuring of cloth,
the ftatutes generally provide that the yard fhall confft of a
ftandard yard, and te breadth of a man’s thumb; or 37
inches in the whole. In every parifh or hamlet where cloths
are made, two juflices fhallappoint overfeers for taking care
that the ftatutes relating to the regulation of cloth be
obferved. 3 and 4 Edw. VI. c.2. 39 Eliz. c. 20. 43 Eliz.
c. 10. Thefe overfeers are empowered to fearch or try
the cloth, and perfons refuling or refilting fearch fhall, on
conviétion at the feffions, forfeit for the firft offence 10/. for
the fecond 20/. and for the third, ftand upon the pillory in
the next market town ; of the forfeitures one third {hall be-
long to the overfeers, one third to the king, and one third to
the poor. 39 Eliz.c.20. The length, breadth, and weight
of the feveral forts of cloth are fettled ; allowance in weight,
for dyeing, drefling, roving, and chafing, in broad cloth
4lbs. in long cloth slbs. and fo in proportion, is adjufted,
and an increafe of weight by any liquid is forbidden on pain
of 405. half tothe king, and half to the buyer that fhall fue,
by 4 Jac.1.c. 1. c¢. 2. Before fale the maker fhall fix his
fea] of lead to the fame, containing the length and weight, to
be tried by the water, and the overfeer fhall fix fuch feal to
the cloth, with the word ‘‘fearched.”? 39 Eliz.c. 20. On
the penalty of his recognizance he fhall fet his chriltian and
firname upon the feal, and no other fhall be good. 21 Jac.
ec. 18. Any perfon fetting any feal to cloth, or taking any
feal away, without warrant, fhall on convi€tion at the feflions,
for the firft offence forfeit 10/7. for the fecond 20/7. and the
pillory ; one third of the forfeitures to the overfeers, one
third to the king, and one third to the poor. Cloth offered
to be fold unfealed fhall be feized by the overfeers.
39 Eliz. c. 20. For each of the cloths under the fealed
meature in length, 65. 8d. per yard fhall be forfeited, be-
fides abatement of the price for what is wanting ; for every
yard of the faid cloth above the lengths, ros. fhall be for-
feited ; and for the fame wanting breadth throughout, {hall
be forfeited 205. wanting for half the length ros. under
half, 55.3; and for every pound wanting above 2lbs. in
weight fhall be forfeited tos. Jac. c. 20. For the en-
couragement of dreffing and dyeing of cloth, no perfon fhall
export any white woollen broad cloth, until he have paid duty
of 55. for every fuch cloth, on pain of forfeiting the fame,
or value ; half to the king, and half to him that fhall feize, in-
form, orf{ue. 6Annc. &. The legiflature has enaéted other
laws with regard to dyeing of cloth, for which fee Dyrinc.
No perfon fhall have or ufe any tenter, witha lower bar, &c. for
ftretching any rough and unwrought woollen cloth, on pain of
20/. half to the king, and half tohim that fhall fue. No
perfon fhall ftretch (or fell the fame ftretched) any wrought
woollen broad cloth above one yard in length, and half a
quarter in breadth; or balf cloth, above half a yard in
length, and half a quarter in breadth, &c. onpain of forfeiting
the fame, half to the overfeer or informer, and half to the
poor. 43 Eliz. c. 10. If any cloth remaining on the
tenters be ftolen in the night, and the fame is fonnd on an
perfon, ona jultice’s warrant to fearch, fuch offender {hall for.
feit to the owner treble value, leviable by diitvefs and fale, or
be committed to gaol for three monthg, or till the fine be paid ;
but for a fecond offence he fhall fuffer fix months imprifon-
ment; and for the third offence, he fhall be guilty of felony,
and tranfported for feven years. 15 Geo. II.c.27. No
woollen cloth fhall be exported, till it be barbed, rowed, and
fhorn, on pain of forfeiting the fame, half to the king, and
2
half to him that will fue. 3 Hen. WII. c. 11. -No perfoa
fhall ufe iron cards, or pickards, in rowing of cloth, on pain
of forfeiting the cards, and 205. ; nor fhall any perfon put
any flocks, chalk, flour, or ftarch, or other deceivable thing
on cloth, on pain of 40s. 3 and 4 Edw. VI. c. 2. Nocloth
fhall be rowed or raifed with oil, greafe, or any liquid, ex-
cept on the edge of the fhears with femet or oils, on pain
of 135. 4d.; and there fhall be no cutting of wool from the
backfides of cioth, except with fhears, in pain alfo of 135. 4d. ;
nor fhall any liquid be ufed on the fide of the cloth, to make
it look betterthan the infide ; nor fhall the fides be raifed,
fulled, rowed, or fhorn, better than the middle, on the like
penalty. 4 Jac.c. 2. No perfon fhall prefs cloth with a
hot prefs, on pain of forfeiting the fame or value. 5 and 6
Edw. VI. c. 6. And preffing of cloth with hot boards
fhall be punifhed with like forfeiture. 21 Jac.c. 18. With
regard to mixed or medley broad cloth, it is provided by
10 Ann. c. 16. and 1 Geo. ft. 2.c. 15. that the fulling
miller fhall take an oath before a neighbouring juttice, to
duly meafure fuch cloth fulled at his mill, when fulled and
wet, affix to it a feal of lead, marked with a crown, and
flamped with his name; together with the length and
breadth of the cloth ; for which he thali have one penny, and
enter in a book the marks, fort, number, length, and breadth:
of it; under a penalty of 20/. on conviction in 40 days,
before one juftice, or on oath of one witnels, leviable by dif
trefs; or, in want of diftrefs, commitment to the gaol or houfe
of corre&tion for three months. Counterfeiting, defacing,
or altering the feal incur the fame forfeiture of 20/. Selling
cloth before it is fo fealed fubjeéts to a forfeiture of one-
fixth part of the cloth. Ifthe buyer is not fatisGed with the
meafure, he may have it again meafured in the water, within
eight days after delivery ; the buyer and feller choofing eacha
meafurer ; and if it does not contain the quantity {pecified in
the feal, the owner or feller fhall forfeit one fixth part of the
value. By 13 Geo. c. 23. infpeGtors of mills and tenters
fhall be appointed by juftices at Eafter feflions, in the coun-
ties of Gloucefter, Wilts, and Somerfet, for examining and
fealing cloths; and millmen fending home cloths before
infpection fhali forfeit gos. perfons refufing entrance to the
in{peétor fhall forfeit 107. ; and the infpeGtor ating again{t
his oath, fhall forfeit 20/7, Such infpeétors fhall be paid 2 d.
for each cloth by the clothiers; the Yorkfhire manufa@ure
is fubject to peculiar regulations by 11 Geo. II. c. 28.
5 Geo. III. c. 51. 6 Geo. IIT. c. 23. No foreign
wool'en cloth fhall be imported, on pain of forfeiture, and
further punifhment at the king’s will. rx Edw. II]. c. a:
4. Edw. 1V.c. 1. Woollen manufaétures fhall be exported
cuftom free. 11 and 12 W. c. By 12 Geo. c. 34.
if any weavers of cloth enter into any combination foradvanc-
ing their wages, or leflening their ufual hours of work, or de-
part before the end of their terms agreed, return any work
unfinithed, &c. they fhall be convi&ted by two juttices of
peace to the houfe of corre&tion for three months; and
clothiers are to pay their work-peop'e their fuil wages agreed:
upon in money, under the penalty of 10/. &c.
Crotu, Cajfling of Leadon. See Castine.
Crotu, Cocking. See Cocxine cloth,
Curoru, Frizing of. See Frizinc, and Crorr.
Croru, Green. See GREEN.
Crorns, Hair, in Military Affairs. See Harr.
Crorn, Houfewife’s. Se Housewirr.
Croru, Jacombufibie. See Asbestos, and Linum Jp-
combuflibile,
Crotu, Painting on. See Paintine.
Crorn, Sear. See Srar-Cloth. "
Crorxo, in Aythology, the youngell of the Fates, Deftis-
RES5;
20
20.
CLO
nies, or Parcw. Tt was her office ta {pin the thread between
her fingers; that is, to gi ve ar vd prolong life.- She is repre-
{ented as holding the {pindle, dreffed in a long gown of feve-
ral colours,-and having a crown on her head ‘with 7 7 ftars.
CLOTNIZA, in Gea agraphy, a-town of Poland, in the
piatinate of Lubhn; 18 milss WS.W.- of Lublin.
CLOUD, a vilible aggregate of minute'drops of water
fulpended in the ecmelgacc eS
The word: is pro derived from the Anglo-Saxon
Lehlebd, covered, bi e face of heaven bein g foin thofe
parts where clouds app< The fame aggregate, which in
this fituation is called cloud, obta’ns the name of mift, when
fven to arife from the earth cr waters ; and fog, when it en-
velopes and coversthe abferver. Yet the two latter, viewed
from a Greater dries ce oF elevation, prefent 2ll the appear-
ances of clouds; while thefe, in their turn, become milts and
fogs, in proportian as we approach and penetrate them.
Tes may be prope r, the: efare, for the fake of precifion, that
the term cloud, in philofcphical oe {gould be made
a general one, com prehending x all {uch aggrepates, however
fituated.
It 1s concluded, f from numerous obfervations, that the
particles of which a cloud coniifts are always more or lefs
electrified. The hypothefis, which affumes the exiltence of
velicular vdpour, aud makes the particles of clouds to be
hollow fpheres, which uaite and defcend in rain when rup-
tured, however fanétioned by the authority of feveral eminent
philofophers, dogs ri feem neccilary to the fcience cf me-
cokers in its prefent ffate; it being evident that the
buoyancy of the particles is not more perfe& than it ought
to be, if we regard them as mere drops of water. In fad
they always defcend, and the water is elevated again only by
being converted into invilible vapour.
Croups, Natural Hifory of. Since the general intro-
duction of accurate mitruments tordetermining the changes of
denfity, temperature, humidity, and ele&tricity, which con-
tinually occur in the atmofphere, our knowledge of its con-
ititution and properties has been confiderably advanced. It
13. neverthelefs true that the philofopher of the prefent day
is not more weather-wife thanghis predeceffors in ancient
times. He is {till obliged to yield the palm in the {cience
of prognoftics to the fhepherd, the ploughman, or the ma-
riner; who, without troubling his head about the reafons of
things, has learned, by tradition and experience, to con-
net certain appearances of the fky with certain approaching
changes; ef which thofe appearances are, in fact, a com-
mencement or continuation, difcoverable while the caufe is
yet at a diftance. Undoubtedly the union of thefe two
kinds of knowledge, would beft deferve to be entitled the
{cience of meteorology; andit mutt tend, equally with the
invention or perfection of philofophical inftruments, to the
improvement of this feience, could we reltore to its place
the ancient and popular branch of it, now too much ne-
gleéted by philofophers, which is founded wholly on na-
tural phenomena. If we except the changes of the wind,
fome indications of moifture and drynefs, and a few others of
lefs importance, the whole of thefe may be traced to one
common origin inthe product refulting from the decompo-
fition of vapour; which remains, during a certain interval,
ina itate of fimple diffufion or fufpenfion in the atmofphere.
To give to the extenfive collection of faéts, which it is
eafy to make on this fubje&t, a communicable and ufeful
form; to render that attainable in a fhort time, which has
been hitherto the exclufive treafure of the adepts of long
experience, is the objeét of the writer of the following
{yitematic nomenclature and natural hiftory of clouds.
Cloudsare fufceptible of various modifications.
cLo
By this term is intended the &ruGure or manner of aggre.
gation, in which the influence of certain conftant laws
13 fufficiently evidert amidit the infinite leffer diverfities ree,
fulting from occafional caufes.
Hence the principal modifications are as difinguithable
from’each other, as a tree from a hill; or the latter froma
lake; although clouds, in the fame modification, compared
with each other, have often only the common refembiancts
which exift among trees, hills, and lakes, taken peneraily.
There are three fimple and Gi‘tin@ modifications, which
are thus named and defined.
1. Cyrus.” Def. Nubes cirriformis tenuifima, qué undique,
crefeat. ,
The Cirrus. A cloud refembling a lock of hair, or a
feather. Parallel flexucus, er diverging fibres,” untiaited 1 in
the direction of their mereale.
2. Cumulus. Def. Nubes denfa cumulata, furfum Cpek.:
cens. ‘a
The Cumolus. A Eleuy! which increafes from above i in
denfe, convex, or conical heaps.
3. Stratus. Def. Nuhes firata, aque modo exparia, cy
orfum creicens.
The Stratus. An extended, eaannte level fheet of.
cloud, increafing from beneath. ;
There are two modifications, which appear to be of an
intermediate nature; thefeare:
4. Cirro-cumulus. D<f. Nubeculz fubrotunde connexe |
vel ordinate pefite.
The Cirro-Cumulas. A conneéted fyftem of fmall round.
ifh clouds, placed in clofe order, or contact.
5. Cirro-ttratus. Def. Nubes exteruata, fub-concava vel
undulata. Nubecule hujufmodi appofite.
The Cirro-ftratus. A horizontal or flightly inclined
fheet, attenuated at its circumference, concave downward,
or undulated. Groups or patches having thefe charaters.
Laftly, there are two modifications, which exhibit a con
pound frudture, viz.
6. Cumulo-ftratus. Def. Nubes denfa, que bafi cumuli.
ftruéturam patentem cirro-itrati, vel cirra-cumult fuperdat. ,
The Cuomulo-itratus. A cloud in which the ftruéture of -
the cumulus is mixed with that of the cirro-!tratus, or
cirro-cumulus. The cumulus flattened at top, and over-—
hanging its bafe.
7. Nimbus. Def. Nubes dente , fupra patens et cirriformis,
infra in pluviam abiens. fae x
The Nimbus. A denfe cloud, fpreading out into a.
crown of cirrus, and aiding beneath into a fhower.
yell al
Of the Cirrus. al
This is always the leait denfe, and commonly the moft
elevated modification. It is fometimes {pread horizontally
through a vait extent of atmofphere ; the whole breadth of.
the fky being infufficient to fhew where it terminates. In
this cafe, its parallel bars appear, by an optical deception,
to converge in cppolite points of the horizon. Att others,»
it is exhibited in unconneéted perpendicular bundles, of the
moit minute fize. Between thefe extremes, it may be traced -
in every degree of extent and inclination to the horizon. —
In a ferene tky the cirrus is firll indicated by a few threads,
pencilled in white, on the azure groun?. Its increafe takes _
place in various ways, and may ‘be compared fometimes to
vegetation, more often to cryftallization. Thus, 1. Parallel
threads are added to each other horizontally, and oceafion-
ally other ftrata of the fame, croffing the firlt at right or
oblique angles, until a delicate tranipatent veil is formed.
2. Parallel threads are collefied into ditin&t groups, lying
at various angles with the horizon. 3, Flexuous and din
verging:
cuoupD.
verging fibres are extended from the original Rem, forming
the refemblance of crefts* of feathers, locks of hair, &c.
‘4. The firlt-formed threads become, as it were, the fup-
ports from whence others obliquely afcend or defcend into
the atmofphere. ~ Laftly. A denfe nucleus is fometimes
formed, and fhort fibres fhoot out from it in all directions.
The great elevation of the cirrus has been afcertained by
geometrical obfervations. ‘The fmall, white ftreaks of
*condenfed vapour, which appear on the face of the fky, 1
have found,” fays Dalton, ‘‘by feveral careful obfervations,
to be from three to five miles above the earth’s furface.”
Viewed from the fnmmits of the highelt mountains, they
appear as diftant as‘from the plains. A more eafy and not
lefs convincing proot of their elevation may be deduced from
their continuing to be tinged by the fun’s rays in the even-
ing twilight with the more vivid colours of the prifm,
while the denfer clouds, having already pafied through the
fame gradation, are in the deepelt fhade.
The duration of this cloud varies according to its flation
in the atmofphere; and the prefence or abfence of other
clouds; it is long, extending fometimes to thirty-fix hours,
when it appears alone, and at its greateft clevation; but
fhorter, or even very tranfient, when formed lower,. and in
the vicinity of the cumulus. i
By an inexperienced obferver the cirrus would be pro-
nounced abfolutely motiorlefs. On comparifon with a fixed
object, however, it is fometimes found to have a confider-
able progreffive motion. ‘he propagation of the cirrus,
‘and the variable direétion of its flexures, merit attentive ob-
fervation, as being intimately connected with the variations
of the wind, although undoubtedly not produced by the
“mere motion of the air,
The general principles, which the imperfe& notice hither-
“to beitowed on it feems to point out, ate the following :
1. Its appearance is a general indication of wind ; and it
is moft con{picuous and abundant before ftorms.
2. It is often a leeward cloud; or, when a group of cirri
appears on the horizon, it feems to invite a current towards
it; and the wind very often fhifts into that quarter towards
which the points are direGted.
3+ Horizontal fheets of the cirrus, more particularly thofe
‘which carry {treamers poiating upward, are among the indica- ©
‘tions of rain approaching, while the fringe-like depending
ones are found to precede fair weather.
Of the Cumulus.
Clouds in this modification are commonly of denfe
ftru€ture. They are formed in the lower atmolphere ; and
move with the wind, or more properly with that current
which flows next the earth. ‘The phenomena of the cumu-
lus are ufually thefe: In the latter part of a clear morning,
a fmall irregular {pot appears fuddenly at a moderate ele-
vation. This is the nucleus, or commencement of the cloud,
the upper part of which foon becomes convex and well de-
fined, while the lower continues irregularly plane. On the
convex furface the increafe vifibly takes place, one heap or
‘protuberance fucceeding another, and again lofing itfelf
ina fubfequent one, until a pile of cloud of an irregular
hemifpherical form is raifed ; which floats along, prefenting
its apex to the zenith, while the bafe, or rather the lower
furface of the bafelefs fabric, continues parallel to the
horizon. ‘
When thefe clouds are of confiderable magnitude, they .
‘remain at proportionately great diltances. When {maller,
they croud the fky by a nearer approach to each other. In
each cafe the bafes range in the fame plane ; and the increafe
Vou. VILLI. -
‘of each keeps pace with that of its neighbour, the intervens
ing fpace remaining clear.
The cumulus often arrives at its greateft magnitude early
in the afternoon, when the temperature of the day is at its
maximum. isthe fun declines, it gradually decreafes, re-
taining its charater till towards fun-fet, when it is more or
Jefs haflily broken up, and evaporates, leaving the fky clear,
as in the early part of the morning. Its tints are often vivid,
and pals through the molt plealing “gradation during this
lafl hour of its exiftence. :
The preceding phenomena form the hiftory of the pure
cumulus, as it may be termed, when no other modificacion
appears along with it. They are both tke accompaniments
and prognoltics of the faireft weather.
Of the Stratus. :
The ftratus has a moderate degree of denfity. Itis the
lowelt of the modifications, being formed in conta& with
the earth or water. It comprchends thofe level creeping
milts, which, in calm evenings, {pread like an inundation from
the valleys, lakes, and rivers, to the higher ground.
Unlike the cumulus, which belongs to ‘the day, and
‘rarely furvives the fetting fun, this cloud accompanies the
fhades of night, and commonly vanifhes before the afcending
luminary. ‘he evaporation commences from below. At
the moment of the feparation of the ftratus from the earth,
its character is changed, and it puts on the appearance of the
nafcent cumulus.
The noGurnal vilits of the ftratus have been always held
a prefage of fair weather. Thus Virgil :
« At nebule magis ima petunt campoque recumbunt.”?
Then mifts the hills forfake and fhroud the plain.
The meteorological axioms of this great poet were pro-
bably fele€ted from the popular ones of his age, as confirmed
by his own experience. Hence they ever agree with that of
his readers. There are few days in the whole year more calm
and ferene than thofe whofe morning breaks out through
the ftratus. They are the halcyon-days of our autumns;
.an interval of repofe beween the equinoétial gales and the
ftorms of winter.
Of the Cirro-cumulus.
The intermediate nature of this cloud may be afcertained
by tracing its origin, as well as inferred from its ftruéture. The
cirrus, in its flow defcent through the air, may be feen to
-pafs into this and the next modification ; although its pre-
vious appearance does not feem abfolutely neceflary to the
produétion of either.
Moft of our readers will recollect the appearance of the
icy eflorefcences on the panes of windows, gradually melting
into an aflemblage of drops, which adhere to the glafs, re-
taining fomewhat of the fame figure, deprived of its right
lines and angles. Such is the change of form which the
cirrus undergoes, in pafling to the {tate of the cirro-cumulus.
And, asthe water on the windows is occationally converted
again into fpicule of ice, fo thefe {mall rounded maffes fome-
times fuddenly refume the forms of the cirrus. In the ob-
lique denfer tufts of the latter, the change to the fpheroidal
form often begins at one extremity, and proceeds gradually
to the other, during which the cloud refembles a ball of flax,
with an end left unwound and flying-out. All the cirri in the
fame group, and frequently all thofe in view, obferve the
fame law in thefe changes.
The cirro-cumulus forms a very beautiful fky. Nume-
rous diltinét beds are fometimes feen floating at different al-
titudes, which appear to confift of {maller and {till fmaller
2th 4C clouds,
elouds,as the eye traces them into the blue expanfe. It is
moft frequent in fummer; is the natural harbinger of in-
creafed temperature ; and, confequently, one of the beft indi-
cations of fair weather, when permanent or frequently re-
peated. A more tranfient difplay of it is, however, fre-
quent in the intervals of warm fhowers, and.in winter. There
are alfo certain forms of it, more deep anddenfe than ordi-
nary, and arranged on a curved bafe, which enter into the
peculiar features of thunder-ftorms.
It is ufually found to accord witha rifing barometer.
Of the Cirro-flratus.
This is a multiform cloud, and can only be deteéted in its
various appearances by an attention to its diitin&tive cha-
racters. Itis always an attenuated fheet, or patch, floating
onthe air, in a poficion nearly or quite horizontal. As we
have compared the cirrus to dry flax, we may here contider it
as drenched in water, and having its {preading fibres re-
duced to a clofer and recumbent form. Viewed over head,
it is remarkable for its uniform hazy continuity, and in the
horizon for its great appearance of denfity, the confequence
of its being feen edgewife. In this fituation, alfo, it fome-
times cuts the fun’s or moon’s difk acrofs with a dark line ;
of which Virgil,
« Tile ubinafcentem maculis variaverit ortum
Conditus in nubem, medioque refugerit orbe,
Sufpeéti tibi fint imbres: namque urget ab alto
Arboribufque, fatifque notus, pecorique finilter.””
Georgic. lib. i.
Or fhould his rifing orb diftorted fhine
Thro’ fpots, or faft behind a cloud’s dark line
Retire eclipfed; then let the fwain prepare
For rainy torrents; a tempeftuous air,
Swift from the fouthern deep, comes fraught with ill,
The corn and fruits to wafte, the flocks to chill.
The cirro-{tratus is the natural indication of depreflion of
temperature, wind and rain. In order to make a proper ufe
of it in this refpeét, it is neceffary to attend to the time of
its appearance, to its continuance, and its accompaniments.
This cloud fometimes alternates with the ‘cirro-cumulus,
either at different intervals of the day, or in the fame fky,
or even in the fame ftratum, which may confequently be
feen fucceffively in each modification, and at intervals, partly
in one, partly inthe other. In this cafe the prognoltic is
doubtful, and regard is to be had to that which ultimately
prevails.
Again, there is a tranfient appearance of the cirro-itratus,
which often accompanies the production of dew in the
evening, and denotes an atmofphere but lightly furcharged
with vapour. Not fo when it appears earlier in the day, or
at fun-rife (according to the preceding quotation), and at-
tended with the rudiments of the cumulus. In general, the
weather may be fufpeGed of a {trong tendency to wind and
rain, as often as the fy is both hazy, and deformed with
numerous {mall patches ef cloud, in which the extenuated
charaéter predominates; and thefe appearances, together
with an abundance of cirro-cumulus, indicate thunder. Be-
fore ftorms of wind, there is in particular a feature of cirro-
ftratus, often very flightly expreffed, and in one quarter only,
which refembles the architectural cyma.
Bat the molt formidable appearance of the cirro-ftratus,
is that of extenfive fheets, defcending from the higheft
regions of the atmofphere, and fcarcely difcernible for a
time, but by the prifmatic colours which they aflume in
the vicinity of the fun’s or moon’s place. Thefe are the
fkreens on which are defcribed the immenfe circles of halos,
3
forming, by their occafional interfetions, parhelia, and paras
felenia, mock funs and moons, which fometimes vie in {plene
dour with the luminaries themifelves. It is eafy for thofe
who are acquainted with the principles of optics, to con=
ceivehow thefe interfecting circles are produced by light
pafling through fheets of cloud placed at different heights
and angles.
Contiftent with this is the prognoftic of foul weather
commonly deduced from the appearance of the halo. After
a folar halo in {pring, or the early part of fummer,a feries
of wet and cold weather may be expeéted, although it fhould
not commence for fome days; during which, neverthelefs,
the fame ftate of the atmolphere fubfifts, as is often mani-
felt from the repetition of the halo. Thofe which furround
the moon in clear nights, indicate rain or faow, according
to the feafon of the year. ;
In mountainous and even hilly countries, the cirro-ftratus is
frequently feen adhering to the more elevated points of
land. In winter it alfo vifits the plains, in the form of a
very wet and durable mift, the drops of which ‘are nevers
thelefs too {mall-to be vifible, and which, unlikethe ftratus,
is more denfe on miing grounds than in the vaileys. :
The cirro-Rratus ufually accords with a finking ftate‘@f |
the barometer. ;
Of the Cumulo-fratus.
The formation of the cirro-cumulus, or cirro-ftratue, by
condenfed vapour, defcending from the higher atmofphere,
does not prevent the cumulus from being produced out of
the water, which, in the mean time, evaporates, from the
earth and afcends to the middle region. In this cafe, the
two modifications after a while come into conta&t, and pre-
fent to the attentive obferver a fucceffion of curious appear=
ances. : ° ty
While the cumulus is rapidly increafing upward, a deli
cate fleece, of a itruture vifibly different, fometimes at-
taches itfelf to its {ummit; where it repofes as on a moun-
tain. This fleece is a cirro-{tratus; and the materials of
which it is formed are brought by a fuperior current over-
taking or meeting the cumulus. Frequently, the cumulus
in its increafe breaks through the cirre-{tratus, and appears
again above it, but with a vifible change in the aggregation,
which now becomes rocky, perpendicuiar, and, finally, over-
hanging. If the cirro-itratus fhould itfeff increafe too
faft to be {wallowed. up by the cumulus, the latter after a
while extends its protuberances laterally, and attaches itfelf
by them to the fuperior mafs of eloud. ft
When the cirro-cumulus, in like manner, occupies the
fuperior place, a cumulus rifing beneath it is fufceptible.of
the fame union by mutual attraction; the refult of which,
as in the former cafe, is a-large, lofty, and denfe cloud,
which often fubfilts through the day ; and.in the evening
undergoes the ufual evaporation. : I
It is not, however, ablolutely neceflary to the produGion
of this cloud, that either of the fuperior modifications
fhould be previoufly formed.. In a favourable itate of the
atmofphere, the cumulus itfelf, after having arrived atia-cer-
tain magnitude, fuddenly begins to over-grow its bafe, and
produces a cloud, which, in regard-both to its form and its
rapid growth, may be compared to a mufhroom.
The cumulo-ftratus ufually prevails in the completely
overcatt {ky. In this it prefents appearances not ealy to be
defcribed, but which may be claffed by a due attention to the
theory of this cloud. At prefent it is intended to compre.
hend under it every mode of union between different
ftrata, which is not productive of rain. Future inveltigas
tion
CLOUD
tion may point out diftin@ions, which at prefent we are not
prepared to make. :
This moditication is moft frequent during a mean elevation
of the barometer, or that which is denominated changeable,
when the wind blows from the weft, with occafional devia-
tions towards the north and fouth. In refpet to tempera-
ture, it hasawide range, and may ufher in a fall of fnow,
as well as a thunder-ftorm. Of the latter, indeed, it is
among the regular aarbingers, but with pecvliar appearances.
During the fuffocating calm which prevails before the firft
difcharge of the atmofpheric electricity, it may be feen in
different points of the horizon, rapidly fwelling to a ftu-
pendous magnitude, moft curioufly wreathed and curled,
“ fretted and embofled”’ in its fubftance, and flanked at dif-
ferent heights by the delicate opake ftreaks of the cirro-flra-
tus. The whole prefents a fpe€tacle of peculiar magnifi-
“cence, in contemplating which, one may imagine an invifible
agent colleGing in this immenfe laboratory the energies of
the form, and arranging innumerable batteries for the fub-
fequent explofions.
It will appear by what we have already ftated, that the
cumulo-ftratus affords in general a doubtful prognoftic,
When it is formed in the morning, the day often proves
fair, though overcaft ; and if the cirro-ftratus has contributed
to its formation, there will probably enfue heavy fhowers on
the fecond or third day. When it fubfills a long time, the
charaéter of its fuperior {preading part may be confulted,
which, if it be decidedly either that of the cirro-ftratus,
or cirro-cumulus, the ufual refult of their appearance may
be expected.
Of the Nimbus.
"To have a correét notion of this cloud, the reader has only
to take the opportunity of examining a fhower in profile as
it approaches from the horizon. He will fee the denfe
gloom, which experience teaches him to regard as a mafs of
defeending rain, lofing itfelf above in a cloud which com-
monly {preads in one continuous fheet toa great diftance all
arourd the fhower ; infomuch that while the latter is on the
horizon at feveral miles diftance, the edge of the cloud has
frequently arrived in the zenith. He will perceive that this
f{preading crown of the fhower advances regularly before it,
and that, whether viewed from a diltance or over-head, it
exhibits in a greater or lefs degree the fibrous ftru€ture of
the cirrus. After the fhower has paffed over, he will com-
monly obferve the fame appearances in the part of the cloud
which follows it; and in fqually weather he will fometimes
be able to repeat thefe obfervations on many different
fhowers appearing fucceflively ; or at the fame time, in dif-
ferent quarters. The term ximbus is intended ftriGly to
denote no more than this inverted cone of cloud, from
which a fudden or denfe local fhower, whether of rain,
fnow, or hail, for the difference is not effential in either cafe,
is feen to defeend. As it rifes to a great height in the at-
mofphere, it may be feen from a diftance of many miles;
and fo conftant is the refult of a fhower arriving with it,
that though, in a few inflances, perhaps from the fmall
quantity of the rain, we have not been able to difcover the
ufual ob{curity beneath it, while at a diflance, we believe it
may be laid down as a general rule, on as good grounds as
in moft other cafes, that rain, fnow, or hail, is falling on
the tract over which it is fpread.
“ Qualis ubi ad terras abrupto fidere nimbus
It mare per medium, miferis heu prefcia longé
Horrefcunt corda agricolis.”? Virgil.
So while far off at fea the ftorm-cloud lowers,
And on the darken’d wave its fury pours,
Mid crops unreap’d the haplefs peafants ftand,
And thuddering view its rapid courfe to land.
There is a great difference, at different times, in the propor
tion which the inverted cone of cloud bears to the column of
rain, &c. in which it terminates; and ina very turbid and
moilt atmofphere, the character of the upper part often ap-
proaches more nearly to the cirro-f{tratus than the cirrus.
‘The more perfe@ly diitin@ and local the fhower, and the
clearer the reft of the air from other clouds, the more per-
fe& the crown of cirrus, which, indeed, fometimes affumes
an almolt geometrical precifion in its form and internal ftruc-
ture ; the threads of the cirrus tending from ail fides di-
rectly towards the top of the column,
The pure nimbus commonly moves with the wind, and
from the rapidity of its paflage affords but little to the rain-
gauge. But it often happens, that it is formed in the
midit of cumuli which have already arrived at a great fize.
In this cafe the latter may be feen to enter fucceffively into
the focus at the top of the column, from whence they ne-
ver emerge; being vifibly converted to the purpofe of fup-
plying materials for the irrigation, which thus becomes
more abundant; and the fhower is alfo occafionally thus pro-
pagated in a direétion oppofite to the wind.
The nimbus, moreover, does not always originate in a
cirrus. The cumulus, and more often the cumulo-ftratus,
may be feen to expand at their f{ummit into a cirrofe fheet,
while the lower part is refolved into rain. On the contrary,
the rain fuddenly ceafing, and the nimbus remaining entire,
the fharp extremities of the crown often retire into it;
the fides aflume the fwelling folds, and the chara&ter
is exchanged for that of cumulo-ftratus. When the
fhower has expended itfelf, and the fheet breaks, the fuperior
portions ufually turn to the cirro-cumulus or cirro-{tratus,
and the lower to the cumulus. When a total evaporation
of the remaining cloud follows a fhower, it is a very favour-
able prognoftic. A nimbus is frequently accompanied by a
cirro-{tratus or two lying near it, and ona level with the
denfeft part of the cloud. The nimbus of thunder-ftorms
has many of thefe, as before obferved of the cumulo-ftratus,
arranged at different heights ; which, with the grotefque
form of each cloud, and the hazy ftate of the medium, are
fufficiently charaéteriftic of the high eleGric ftate of the
air at fuch times, and want only an attentive perufal (in na-
ture) to enable the obferver to afcertain it on future occa-
fions. It appears that the cumulo-ftratus paffes to the nim-
bus by a fudden change in its electricity: for in tracing the
progrefs of a thunder-ftorm, through a long range of thefe
clouds in the horizon, we have-been fatisfied, that the clouds,
which had ceafed to afford explofive difcharges, had under-
gone this change in their fuperior part, and were pouring
dowp rain; while others, among which the lightning fill
played, or which were fituated beyond it, retained their
{welling and rounded forms fome time longer.
Of the Origin, Sufpenfion, and Deflrudion of Clouds.
Thefe aggregates confilt of water, raifed by evaporation,
and become vwiible by condenfation in the atmofphere.
RefpeGting evaporation, and the ftate in which vapour
fubfitts, there has been much diverfity of opinion: and, of
the feveral theories propofed, there is not one comprehenfive
enough to merit exclufive adoption. A number of general
principles, however, have been eftablifhed; which we fhall
employ, with the aid of thofe of ele@ricity (hitherto not
aC 2 enough
CLOUD.
enough confidered in its filent and gradual effefts), to ex-
plain, though in an imperfe&t manner, the principal phe-
nomena of clouds.
Evaporation confifts in the union of water with caleric,
and the efcape of the compound as an invifible fluid, which
we fhall exclufively denominate vapour. ”
The folvent aétion of the air, to which this effect has
been attributed by chemical philofophers in general, has
been proved by comparative experiments on the force of va-
pour in air, and with air excluded, to have no perceptible
fhare in it. he laws which govern the natural procets,
(for thefe alone here intereft us) may be thus briefly itated.
The force by which water is converted into vapour is di-
rectly as its temperature, other things being equal: but
this force has to overcome an oppofing one, of the fame
nature, inherent in the vapour which already exilts in the
atmofphere. For fuch vapour, by its elaltic property,
tends to exciude from the {pace it occupies every additional
portion; and confequently to prevent the efcape from the
water of new vapour. Hence the temperatures being
equal, the quantity of vapour produced will be lefs, the
greater the quantity already diffufed in the air.
Buc though the chemical aGion of air is imperceptible,
its mechanical efle& is great. A moving atmofphere may
double or triple the rate of evaporation, according to its
velocity. “For not only is the furface, from whence only
the vapour efcapes, thus enlarged and changed; but the
nafcent vapour itfelf, which would otherwife hover a while
upon it, to the ob{truction of the procefs, is immediately
brufhed away and diffufed.
By applying thefe principles, we may explain to ourfelves
various natural phenomena: as for inftances; why the
wind, after rain, becomes colder than even the rain which
fell; being robbed of its caloric by the evaporation of the
floating and depofited water, with which it is in contact:
why {now fometimes totally difappears without melting,
and the furface of ice becomes fenfibly walted and chaa-
nelled; for thefe are warm, compared with the dry and
frotty air which blows at fuch times, and confequently
evaporate freely. In what manner, again, a {trong welerly
wind in fummer or autumn brings up clouds, which
on its ceffation defcend in rain: for it promotes evaporation
by its mechanical effe&, and the vapour efcapes into an
atmofphere already too moilt to carry it off to any great
giflance. This will be evident by recurring to the principle
before ftated, that the vapour efcapes by the force of the
temperature of the water out of which it is formed; and,
confeguently, into a colder atmofphere it will {ll efeape,
though continually, decompofed thereby.
Vapour is decompofed by air, in confequence of the fu-
perior affinity of the latter to caloric. ‘iis happens in
t“o ways. 1. When vapour efcapes or is propelled into air
colder than itfelf; the refult being a local denfe cloud. 2.
When a mixture of air and vapour is cooled ; in which cafe
there enfues a general turbidnels, which we fhall exclutively
denominate haze. It is oceztioned by minute floating
particles of water; the caloric which, united to thefe,
formed tranf{parent vapour, having paffed into the ar.
Qut'of this haze clouds may be afterwards formed, by
fimple aggregation, or by electrical attraction. It abounds
i» the atmofphere during molt part of the year, occupying
fometimes the higher, fometimes the lower, part thereof.
Yixe quantity in which it exills may be judged of, at fome
periods, by. the appearance of dittant objects feen horizon-
tally: at others, by the degree of intenfity of the
blue colour of the fky, which becomes paler by 3t,
‘tran{mitted through it.
if indeed the bluenefs is not wholly due to this part
of the medium.
Of the Nature of the Siratus.
This cloud is an example of the decompofition of vapour
thrown into air of a lower temperature. ‘The earth or wa-
ter on which it repofes is always warmer than the cloud, as
is alfo the clear air above, Thus, ina flratus, formed over a
ficld with ponds, the temperature of the earth juft below the
turf was 57°; of the water, 59°; of the air, at an elevation
of thirty feet, 55°; while that of the cloud, at four feet
from the ground, was 49.5°. Hence this cloud preferves a
level furface ; and hence it uniformly vanifhes, or begins to
be driven upward, as foon as its temperature becomes equal
to that of the earth. It is confequently due to the decom-
pofition (in a {mall portion of the atmofphere) of the va-
pour which the earth and water continue to emit, after fun-
fet, by the force of a temperature previoufly acquired. But
the change in the lower air, which gives occafion to this lo-
cal decompofition, is not fo eafily to be explained: for it ape
pears that very often, in the evening of a clear day, the
cecreafe of temperature in the atmofphere takes place in the
fame order in which the increafe did in the morning: viz. be-
ginning from the furface of the earth and proceeding ups
ward. If the air never became cclder, on thefe occafions,
than the contiguous foil, the effect might very well be
afcribed to the abforption of a quantity of caloric by the
latter. But we fee that, in the prefent initance, it became
colder by feven degrees, though vapour was {till decompof= '
ing: aod this ina perfet calm, which, in a great degree,
forbids another fuppofition, of the exchange of a quantity
of heated air bclow, for as much cold’ air from the higher at-
mofphere ; otherwife this wouid feem a fuflicient account of
the matter. ‘ :
The cle&tric charge of the ftratus, which is always pofis
tive, and fometimes highly fo, notwithftanding the conta&
of its lower furface with the earth, feems to prove that a
cloud is not even fo good a conductor as has been fuppofed,
and that the fluid, in certain cafes, may be very gradually.
Pofitive eleGiricity being that pro-
per to the atmofphere in fair weather, we fhould naturally
expe to find it in this cloud.
It might be worth while to examine the air above, with a
view to difeover whether there exifts in the latter 2 negative
counter-charge. It will appear, from a confideration of the
principles before ftated, why this cloud is almoft peculiar ta
the autumn. The gradual decline of the fun, at this feafon,
keeps the atmofphere conftantly furcharged with vapours
which is ultimately difpofed of insrain; and hence follow
gales of wind. The ftrvatus, therefore, though an imme-
diate indication and accompaniment of fair weather, affords
an unfavourable prognoftic in the early part of {ammer; as
it fhows that a tendency has already begun to extentive pre-
cipitation, at a time when the ulual predominant feature is
increafing drynefs.
Of the Nature of the Cumulus.
The heating effe&t of the fun’s rays on the atmofphere
is greateft near the furface of the earth, and diminifhes gra-.
dually in afcending. ‘The diminution proceeds in fair weather
at the rate of about one degree for each hundred yards, as ape
pears by obfervations with the thermometer on ftations of
known difference in altitude.
This inequality appears to give rife to the cumulus, on
the fame principles as thofe of the ftratus, but the effe@s are
more complicated. Vapour is generated, as before, at the
furface
ELour
furface of the earth, but it 1s thrown-into am atmofphere
heated by the fun, Here it maintainsits elaftic flate, and, in
proportion to the fupply from below, the whole quantity
exilting in the atmofphere is compelled to rife. In doing
this, it changes its climate, and arrives among air of a lower
temperature, where a portion is continually decompofed,
filling the middle region with haze. Of this, {mall aggre-
gates begin to be formed, the increafe of which is at firft
determined by no particularJaw. But the aggregate is not
im equilibrium with the air. It tends to fubfide, and in the
mean time the increafe of temperature is proceeding upward.
Hence the lower part foon finds a pofition in a plane of air
fufficiently warm to evaporate it: and as this effect is regu-
lated, in general, by the elevation alone, we fee thefe
aggregates aflume each a flat bafe, relting as it were onthe
fame plane, parailel to the earth’s furface. The remainder
of the cloud fports in all the varieties of the {pheroid, and
more rarely of the cone; according to the courfe of the
‘fhowers of minute particles of water, which we may confider
(though invifible in their progrefs) as defcending upon ‘it.
The vapour generated at the bafe is, probably,in part con-
denfed on the furface of the colder particles of the cloud
above. While the fupply from the haze exceeds the walte
by evaporation, the cloud increafes: when the latter has
begun to prevail, it may be traced through various flages of
diminution to its final wreck, on finking wholly into the
warmer atmofphere. This happens commonly about fun-fet ;
becaufe the afcending current of vapour, the fource of the
phenomenon, then flackens or ceafes; and the lowerair part-
ing withits redundant caloric to the higher, we unexpectedly
fee the denfe clouds evaporate, at the very time when the
chill of the evening is felt below, and the dew falls.
But it doesnot appear that the caufes we have hitherto
enumerated are fully adequate to the phenomenon. The
inereafe of the Cumulus is often more rapid than confifts
with the notion of fimple attraction, exercifed between diltant
particles of water, ina refitting medium. Whenacumulus is
thus increafing, the {mall aggregates in its way do not ufually
join it, but feem to vanifh before it. Laltly, the cumulus
itfelf, however denfe, never defcends in rain. It is difficult
to conceive that fo powerful an attraétion could exit for
many hours, without bringing the particles together into
larger and larger drops, until they were too heavy for
longer fufpenfion. If we fuppofe, however, that, from the
commencement of its aggregation, the cumulus becomes
a pofitively electrified mafs, thefe difficulties vanifh. This
mafs may electrify negatively, and attraé into itfelf, from:
reat diltances, both the difperfed particles of water and
thofe which have already united in much f{maller maffes.
Tts particles muft be mutually repulfive, and cannot come into
conta&t without a change of ftate: the fame may be faid of
the refpeAiive clouds in this modification, when they do not’
differ too much in furface.
Of the Nature of the Cirro-ftratus.
Whena portion of the atmofphere, charged with vapour,
is brought over a tra&t of land of lower temperature than
itfelf, its caloric is abflrafted in fufficient quantity, ufually to
occalion a decompofition of fome of the vapour, and a con-
fequent general turbidnefs.
The {weating, as it is improperly called, of walls and
pavements in-a thaw, and when ‘ain is about to come on,
is from this caufe; the vapour being decompofed on their
furfaces.. The mift which enfues at thefe times ob{cures
diftant objects, and occafions the trees, againit which it is
borne by the wind, to drip plentifully. Itisin faét a cirro-
ftratus in contaG& with the earth, and no phenomersion is
more familiar to the inhabitants of hilly tracts.) The fame
general depreffion of temperature may happen ia another
way, and higher in the atmofphere. Whenacold and .moilt
air flows over'a warmer vaporous one, it is obvious that the
former may be warmed, and beconte more tran{p2rent, at the
expence of the latter; which, fromthe fame caufe, matt be-
come turbid. he haze thus produced will not fubfide,
with the uniform motion of dew, but rather in fheets, be-
coming more denfe as they defcend, both from the anproxi-
mation of their particles, and addition from the vapour they
meet with. But the cirro-ftratus is far from afluming al-
ways the fimple form, to which. the mere effeis of gravity
might be fuppofed to give rife. Jt exhibits changes, which
can only be attributed to the acquifition, or paflage through
it, of fuch {mall portions of electricity, as ina humid medium
we may conceive a cloud to be-fufceptible of. On. thefe
occafions it tends either to the ftate of cirrus, or that of cirro-
cumulus, of which we fhall treat prefently.
The reafon of the prognoftic afforded by the cirro-flratus
will now be evident. It gives-us notice of a change in the
ftate of the fuperior atmofphere, which we could not other-
wife be certain of, until the current, in its courfe of propaga-
tion downward, had begun to affe& the denfer clouds, thrown
up-by the fuperficial evaporation... It is not very uncommon
to fee the cirro-{tratus evidently biought by a wind, moving
in a different direétion from that wherein the cumuli are
immerfed on which it fettles. In this cafe the latter are
{peedily arrefted by it, and aflume the new. courfe, or defcend
in rain, by a change of their cleCiricity.
Of the Nature of the Cirro-cumulus.
Let us now reverfe the former cafe, and confider the upper
current as both vaporized, and warmer than the air below,
It is probable that the upper is then cooled by that part
of the lower which is next to it, though very flowly, from
the difficult tranfmiffion of caloric downward. ‘The decom--
pofition of the vapour in the upper current by this.means;
may give originto the cirro-cumulus ; and the peculiar ag-
gregation of this cloud, as diftinguifhable from that of the
cirro-ftratus, may be the refult of its acquiring eleCtricity in»
its defcent in amuch greater degree. Such, at leaft, is thes
inference wemay deduce from its abundance before thunder’. >
ftorms;, when it is occafionally feen to arrive with the wind. 9
in extenfive flocks or ftrata, moving with unequal velocity,, >
and by confequence overtaking each other, until they form a.
denfe ttationary mafs.
This explanation of the origin of the cirro-cumulus is
principally deduced frum an obfervation; which we have
now fo often repeated, as to regard it as a. meteorological
axiom ;-that the temperature of the day following, exceeds that of,
the day. on which it appears. Hence, when it continues to recur
daily, the weather {till grows warmer, until a thunder-ltorm,,
in fome quarter of the. heated tract, puts a period to. the.
infulation of the clouds.
Of the Nature of the Cumulo-firatus.
In attempting to affign caufes to phenomena fo compli-.
cated, as thofe which this modification prefents, we may be
in danger. of admitting a greater number than are really
neceflary. It is apparent, however, that in the flate of,
things molt favourable to the production of the cumulo-.
ftratus, there exills a precipitation, independent of that
which gives rife to the cumulus, aad fituated in a higher
region. As this precipitation affords fometimes the citro-cu-,
mulus, at others the cirro-ftratus, we need not aflign to it
any other caufe than the one already mentioned, vz. a fupe-
rior vaporized current of air, Ut is not inconfitent with,
the-
“s
cLoO
the principles we have laid down refpe&ting the cumulus,
that this clond fhould alfo be produced at the fame time; it
being requifite only that there exift a fufficient action of the
fan on the earth’s furface, or a fuflicient temperature derived
therefrom. The inofculation of thefe two orders of cloud, the
fingular union which follows, and the eftablifhment of a new
centre of attra&tion, towards which the whole future increafe
tends, is the prominent feature in this modification, and the
chief faét which remains to be accounted for; As this effect
is not conftant and uniform, it cannot be afcribed to gravity
alone. Reafoning from analogy, rather than from direét
experiment, which it is not eafy here to apply, we may at-
tribute it to a difference in the electric charge of the refpect-
ive clouds ; which difference, though {mall, ought to pro-
duce the ufual appearatices of bodies charged plus and
minus ; vix.mutual approach and contact. This effect how-
ever appears to enfue rather with regard to the mafles than
to the individual particles.
The effe@ of the highly vaporized ftate of the higher
atmofphere is often difcernible in the cumulus from ‘its ear-
lieft appearance ; and it is eafy to determine, at certain
times, that this cloud, if it continue long, will pafs to the
prefent modification. The effe€&t we mean to point-out is
the uneven growth of ihe cloud; numerous {mall maffes
attaching themfelves to its furface, and giving it an appear-
ance not unlike the curls of a fleece of wool; particularly
when feen beneath the fun, in a fituation where the pro-
jeGting parts may catch the light. If we admit that the cu-
mulus aéts, as well by electrical attraction, as by that of
gravity, on the furrounding materials, we may here confider
them as arriving by fubfidence in too great plenty to be
immediately aflimilated ; in confequence of which they tend
to unite among themfelves. A ftill greater quantity of
haze, in the region next above the cumulus, gives rife to
the curious phenomenon of the cloud-capped cloud; when
the cumulus is covered at its fummit with a cirro-ftratus ; in
the fame manner as, in mountainous tras, this cloud repofes
on an elevated point of land. The caufe is probably elike
in each cafe, whether it be a lower temperature on a dimi-
nifhed electricity which determines to this particular fpot,
the commencement of the aggregation of the cirro-{tratus,
We may next contlider the cumulo-{tratus perfe&tly formed,
and endeavour to affign a caufe for iis occafional long con-
tinuance: which, however, exceeds the day of its formation
only on the approach of thunder: this cloud, as well as the
cumulus, very commonly vanifhing about fun-fet, and re-ap-
pearing the next day, for fome time. The two flrata of the
atmof{phere, which form the fuperior and inferior bound-
aries of the cloud, are probably, during this time, in fome-
what different ttates of ele&tricity ; the one alfo depofitin ¢
water, the other receiving it; the broad furface of the
cumulo-{tratus may be regarded as a coating, applied to the
upper ftratum; and receiving from it a continual acceffion
of charged particles of water, the eleétricity of which is
flowly tranfmitted, through the intermediate portion, down
tothebafeofthe cloud, whichis often fome hundred feet below ;
and where a continual evaporation counteraéts the increafe
above. Here, while the mafs continues in this modiiication,
the progrefs of the ele€tricity downwards is arrefted by the
dry air : for although the infulated rod is found fometimes
to be affected with pofitive, fometimes with negative figns,
while the bafe of fuch clouds is over it, this efle€t is com-
monly influential; and the rod is not charged, as by the paflage
of the nimbus. How the ele&ricity of this cloud sis af-
fected by the conftant evaporation of a portion at the bafe
remains to be afcertained ; and the fame may be Said as to
the cumulus,
U D.
Of the Nature of the Cirrus.
Tt was neceflary to defer the confideration of the nature
of this cloud, until we had developed, in a confiderable de-
grec, the principles on which our theory proceeds. The
reader will have feen that we aflume the fact of the flow
tran{miffion of the ele€tric fluid through clouds: which in
this, as in a former inflance, we apply rather analogically
than by induGtion ; the modification in quettion being ufually
fo high in the atmofphere, that the electric ftate of the lat-
ter, above and below it, cannot eafily be found by aétual ex.
periment. Proceeding, however, on this aflumption, we
fuppofe that the cirrus refembles in its ftate a lock of hair,
or a feather, infulated and charged; or rather, that its ar-
raogements refult from the fame caufe with thofe of the co-
loured powders, which ele&ricians project ona cake of wax,
after having touched it with the knob of a charged phial,
and which fall into a variety of configurations on the furface.
Thus the cirrus may be formed in the air, out of fuch float-
ing particles of water as are prefent, and may ferve the pur=
pofe of colleGting and tranfmitting the ele@ric fluid. | It is
during the bin re of variable winds that the cirrus molt
abounds ; and it is reafonable to conciude, that the portions
of air, which at thefe feafons are tranfported from place to
place, gliding over or interfecting each other, ufually differ
{ufficiently in temperature to occafion a flight dec.mpofition
of the vapour of one of the currents, and in their eleéiric
charge {ufficiently to induce a communication by means of
the condudling medium fo formed. Again, in the gradual
cooling of a perfectly calm plate of air, fituated at a great
elevation, and confequently tree from the occafional caufes
of difturbance which prevail below, it is not improbable that
the feparation of the caloric from the vapour, and the col-
Ie&tion of the ele&trifed water from the air, may go on to-=
gether, by a procefs fimilar to the cryftallizaticn of falts, in
which much caloric is liberated into the medium. ‘Fhis opi-
nion at lealt feems to be advanced by Kirwan, in his ** Effay
on the Variations of the Atmofphere,’’ and we may confider
the vegetating cirrus as the proper example of it. ;
Another conjeGiure might yet be {tarted as to the cirrus,
It might be regarded as a cloud wholly formed of minute.
fpiculz of ice; fince the air, at a certain elevation, is fuf-
ficiently cold throughout the year for this effet. But if
it fhould be found that the particles of clouds are fufceps
tible of a reétilinear arrangement in aay cafe at a tempe-
rature exceeding 32°, there would be no neceffity for this
fuppofition. 4 f leen
If the appearances of the cirrus are as frequent and va-
rious at fea as on land, it cannot be doubted that intelligent
mariners would find their account in keeping a regifter of
them, as connected with the changes of wind, &c. making due
allowance for the change of ftation in different obfervations
when under fail. :
The buoyancy of the cirrus feems to be moft perfe&
during its firlt increafe. It always follows, at length, the
common courfe of gravity, and the change to the cirro-
cumulus, or cirro-ftratus, which certainly depends on the
ftate of the medium it falls into, may be afcribed to the re-
tention or lofs of the electricity.
Of the Nature of the Nimbus.
This phenomenon may be thought to be. improperly
denominated a modification of cloud, fince it confiits ufually
of acolumn of defcending rain, fnow, or hail, feen in con-
nection with the cloud aifording it. Ags the concluding
link in the chain of atmofpherical precipitation, it feems,
neverthelefs, molt advantageoufly placed here ;. and its hil-
tory,
Pte mB.
x CLOUD.
tory, though far from including all that we may obferve,
and could wifh to have explained, on the fubjeét of rain, is
more decidedly illuftrative of the nature of clouds in general
than that of any other modification. Moreover, it is fome-
times obferved to be iformed before the rain begins, which
affords fufficient ground for confidering it as a diltin&
modification of clozd. We owe to the bold and penctrat-
ing conjecture of Franklin, on the identity of lightning
and the eledirie fpark, the invention of a method of invefti-
gating the eleStricity of clouds; which, in the hands of
sexperimentalifts, has fince brought out a mafs of fads
abundantly fufficient to eftablifh that propofition ; and which
allo throws confiderable light on the theory of rain, and
other depofitions from the atmofphere. By this method
the ftru&ure of the nimbus may at any time; when it pafles
over us, be demonflrated‘to be that of a natural conductor,
by which the pofitive charge of the higher atmofphere is
brought downto ‘the earth. For this purpofe, there is
provided a rod of iron, or other metal, weil infulated ona
pillar of varnifhed glafs, the latter being defended from rain
by an inverted funnel, foldered or cemented to the part of
the rod next aboveit. The rod fhould be furnifhed with
feveral paints of wire, a few inches long ; and it need not be
an elevated one for this purpofe, provided the extremity Js
eelear of other objets :capable of drawing off the fluid. The
charge is afcertained. by pith balls, of a larger or {mailer dia-
“meter, to fuit the occafion, fulpended by flaxen threads, on
a wire fixedvinto the lower part of the rod, and terminating
ina ball. Near the latter, it is proper to have another ball
fixed on a ftout wire, pafling into the ground, to which the
fluid, when abundant, may efcape in {parks. Vbis inftru-
ment exhibits a charge of the fame kind with that of the
air in which it is immerfed ; or, im cafe of -rain, &c. the
charge of the latter, as compared with that ef the air. We
will give, in the firft place, the appearances which we have
recently obferved during the paflage over the rod of a
nimbus of the moft fimple ftru@ture, having neither a cumulus
nor a cirro-ftratusattached to it; which moved along with
the lower current through the clear atmofphere, and dif-
~charged.a fhower of large opaque hail, the air below being
very dry; During the approach of the cloud from the
morth-ealt, the :pith-balls remained clofe until the fpreading
erown, which chara¢terifes this modification, had arrived in
-the wenith. At this time, and while the fhower itfelf was
fill three or four miles diltant, they opened negative. As
‘the cloud came nearer, their divergence increafed until
jt amounted to full two inches, at which time fparks of
confiderable frength might be-drawn from the rod. After
‘this the negative charge gradually went off, and the balls
touched-again. In afew moments the edge of the fhower,
mixed with a few drops of rain, arrived at the condustor,
and the‘balls inftantly opened pofitive, the charge gradually
increafing until fparks were emitted more freely than before.
This charge continued during the paflage of the hail,
and went off gradually -as feon as it was clear of the
inftrument. After having clofed, the balls opened again
“negative, and this charge increafed to a confiderable inten-
-fity, as the fhower receded towards the fouth and fouth-weft,
~ after which it gradually went off : the balls clofed, and finally
were left flightly pofitive. From thefe facts, the reader,
who is converfant in electricity, will deduce the ftru€ture of
the lower part at leaft of the fhower. He will fee that the
‘defcending hail formed a column pofitively ele¢trified.
This, which might be fix or feven miles in diameter, was
Surrounded with a cylinder of negative electricity, probably
extending in every direction three miles further, and refult-
ing from the ation of the pofitive centre on the dry atmof-
phere, in which it was moving, Now the amount of the
hail, when melted, was confiderably lefs than ~1,th of an
inch in the rain gauge ; and could the defcent of the ele@ric
fluid, through the whole fpace, have been rendered as ob-
vious to our fenfes as that of the hail, we fhould probably
bare faid that the fhower confited of fire more truly than
0
ce
ice.
The queftion that naturally prefents itfelf is, Whence
came this flood of electricity which accompanied the hail ?
It was not from the circumitance of the water being frozen,
fince a hard thower of rain equally exhibits a charge, but
with this remarkable difference, that whercas fnow, fleet,
and hail, are always politive, rain is found fometimes politive,
fometimes negative. The reader may confult, on this
head, an extenfive colleGtion of fa&s in Read’s Journal of
Atmofpherical Eleétricity. ‘* Phil. Tranf.’? vol. Ixxxii. The
probable fources of negativerain will be prefently mentioned;
but to retura to the queftion of the origin of the pofitive
charge; if we attentively confider the ftruéture of the nim-
bus, it is precifely that whichy from the kaown properties of
the ele€tric fluid, we fhould propofe fora conductor formed
to acquire the latter. If we detach from it the falline
caiumn, and extraneous clouds which ufually attend its
progrefs, it will be found to con4ilt of a clofe colleGion of
fibres, diverzing from the regicn of the cumulus, (where it
appears the rapid union of the particles into drops is accom-
plithed,) toa vait height and extent in the {uperior atmof-
phere. The conduéting-line, therefore, may be confidered as
prolonged from the top of the column, to the very extre-
mity of each of thefe fine fibres of cloud, which are often ex-
tended, ia all dire€tions, as correctly as thofe of a lock of hair
infulated on a charged condutor. The intention in this
eafe feems to be not fo much the precipitation of water, as that
of the electric fluid which keepsit in fufpenfion. This pur-
pofe accomplifhed, (and the reader may conceive how great
a difcharge mult be effe€ted by a number of fuch machines
ating at once on a {mall traét of country,) the water unites
into larger drops through the whole extent of the atmof-
phere ; it fublides in a continuous’ fheet, under which the
condenfed produét of the fuperficial evaporationmoves along,
in the form denominated /cud; and the rain comes down
freely and generally, until the atmofphere is difburthened, or
until the partial vacuum which is formed brings in a drier air
from the northward.
Negacive, as well as non-ele&ric rain (which fometimes
falls, though {trong politive and negative figns precede or
follow.it in the clear air) muft neceflarily refult from the ac-
tion of a central mafs of cloud, in which a {trong pofi-
tive charge exifts, on the clouds of lefs extent “which
fall in its way; and it is to be confidered alfo, that rain,
at the elevation in which it is formed, may be perfectly non-
electric, (i.e. it may refult from the union of clouds differing
in ele¢tricity, and hence uniting in rain, ) yet at the moment of
arriving at the earth, it may differ fo much in its charee-from
the atmofphere-below, the only ftandard of comparifon, as
to be ftrongly negative or pofitive with ref{pect to the latter.
But thefe confiderations belong more properly to the fubjec
of atmofpheric-electricity.
We fhall conclude with a brief review of the modifications:
afcending from the ftratus, formed by the condenfation of
vapour, on its e{cape from the {urface, to the czmulus, col-
le&ting the water arrefted in the fecond ftage of afcent ;
both probably fubfifting by virtue of a pofitive electricity.
From thefe proceeding, through the partially condu@tiing cu-
mulo-ftratus, to the cirro-ftratus and cirro-cumulus; the
latter pofitively charged, and confiderably retentive of its
charge; the former lefs perfectly infulated, and, perhaps,
conducting
CLO
condadting horizontally ; we arrive this at the region, where
the cirrus, light, elevated, and extended, obeys every impulfe
orinvitation of that fluid which, while it finds a conduétor,
ever operates in filence ; but which, embodied and infulated
in a denfer colle€tion of watery atoms, fooner or later burfts
its barrier, leaps down in lightning, and glides throuch the
n'mbus from its elevated ftation to the earth. See Evectrt-
ciry ATMOSPHERICAL, Evaporation, Rain, Meteo-
ROLOGY.
Crovups, Magellanic. See Macevranie clouds.
Croup-Berry, in Botany. See Rusus Chamemorus.
CLOUD’S:HILL Lime-works, near Bredon on Charn-
wood Foreft, in Leicefterfhire. The lime produced from
the rock in this part is often called Barrow-lime, and is in
fuch general repnte for water-works, that rail-way branches
have been conftruéted to thefe works, from two different
navigations in oppofite direétions, viz. from the A/hby-de-la-
Zouch canal, a branch of 63 miles, and from the Leicefler
navigation, a branch (including a water-level) of 12 miles in
length; while a third rail-way therefrom, to be called the
Bredon rail-way in another direGtion, -was in contemplation
at the time that the Derdy canal was formed, with which
and numerous others it was intended to conne& ; fee our
article CANAL. .
CLOVE, in Commerce, is ufed for the two and thirtieth
part of a weigh of cheefe, or barrel of butter, z ¢. eight
pounds avoirdupoife = 54. cwt. = +; quintal, (120 lb.)
= 9.78, &c. lb. troy. g Hen. VI. cap. 8. A clove of
wool weighs 7 pounds, and 2 cloves make a ftcne = } tod
iz ewt. = <4 fack, = 8.5069 Ib. troy.
Crove Cinnamon. See CINNAMON.
Crove iflands, in Geography. See Morvcca.
Crove-july-flowers, a {pecies of caryophyllus, greatly re-
- commended as cordials, and given in diforders of the head,
palpitations of the heart, and in nervous complaints of all
kinds. See Dranruus CaryoPpHyYLuius.
Crove-Pink, in Botany. See Diantruws Caryoruyi-
LUS. .
Cuiove-tree. See CAnyorHyLuius.
Crove-Warerr, is prepared of brandy, and cloves bruifed
therein and diftilled.
CLOVER, in Botany. See TriFrorium.
Crover, in Agriculture, is the name of a well known plant
of the artificial grafs kind, of which three forts are cultivated
in the field; the red clover, the middle clover, or cow red
* clover, and the white clover.
The red clover (trifolium pra-
- tense) is a biennial perennial plant, which rifes to aconfider-
- able height, has a long tap root, and flowers from May to
September.
Tt has been remarked by Mr. Bannitter, in his ‘¢ Synopfis
of Hufbandry,” that itis “ in fome places called broad clo-
“ver, and is diitinguifhed by a large leaf, and blows, as its name
implies, with a red bloffom, It delights in arich earth, and
of a (liffihh nature, but will profper well on gravels, fands, or
chalks. It probably, however, thrives beft in clayey or
ftrong deep loamy foil. And the above author thinks, that
the moft convenient time for fowing this grafs is with the
oats in February or March, or among the green wheat in
thofe months; though it is not unfrequently fown with the
barley in April; but in this latter cafe, thete is danger of its
- growing to fuch a height among the corn, as to occafion the
. withered, and hence great mifchief may accrue to the barley, .
barley to lie fo long abroad at harveit that the clover may be
if much rain fhould fall ere it can be brought into the barn ;
or the barley may be much lodged, fo as to deftroy the
clover; either of which are inconveniencies that one would
with, he fays, to avoid; and for thefe reafons, clover is
4
;
CLO
rarely fown among barley on good lands; but on thin foils
thefe accidents are lefs to be apprehended.”’
But Mr. Young fays, ‘ there are feveral methods of fow-
ing this feed, which is fo profitable upon almoft every farm,
that it muft be had if poffible. ft. In the drill hufbandry,
it may be fown and harrowed in, at the time the barley is
fown broadcalt ; a pair of light harrows at the fame time
following the drill machine, to cover the clover feed. 2dly.
It is fown before the roller, when the barley is four inches
high ; and gdly. It is hand or horfe hoed in, when the corn
receives either of thefe operations, if the farmer is in the
practice of giving them.
«« Thefe arethe methods moft commonly ufed. But Mr.
Ducket, he fays, drilled the feed in the fame drills as the
barley, but that way is very uncommon. Another way he
has known, has been that of fcarifying the barley itubble in
harveft on light foils, and fowing the feed alone then.’
But * of thefe methods, the firft is, he thinks, the fureft for
a crop, and the moft to be recommended, notwithitanding
the admitted evil which fometimes takes place in a wet fea-
fon, of the clover growing fo luxuriantly as to damage the
barley. ‘The fecond fucceeds well, if rain follows in due
time, and would perhaps generally fucceed, if the farmer
ventured to harrow it in, which he might fafely do. In the
third method it often fucceeds, but it alfo often, as he fays,
fails; nor is it neceflary, in many cafes, to hoe the barley.”
It is further ftated, that, “ in regard to the quantity of
clover which the farmer fows, he has feveral confiderations
to govern his determination. In the firft place, it isin many
fituations, and on many farms, as profitable a crop as any
other he commonly reaps. On tolerably good land, he may
expect, at two mowings, three tons of hay ; on good, three
and a half, and even four; or, if he applies it to foiling his
teams for want of lucern, the produce, ina different way, is
equally ftriking. This produce is alfo gained at a very
cheap rate; cheaper than he gets any other crop. Add to
this, that it forms an excellent preparation for either beans or
wheat. Still, however, the quantity to be fown will depend
in fome meafure, on his having lucern, faintfoin, or a great
plenty of meadow land. If he is deficient in thefe, it be-
comes more than ufeful; it is effential.”? But, fays he,
“the unfortunate circumftance which attends clover is, its
being extremely apt to fail, in diftriéts where it hasbeen long
acommon article of cultivation. The land, to ufe the far-
mer’s term, becomes fick of it. After harvelt, he has a fine
plant, but by March or April, half, or perhaps more, of it
dead. This makes a new courfé of crop neceflary. In-
ftead of its occurring once in four years, in the common
Norfolk courfe, it becomes neceflary to fow it only,’ he fays,
“ inthe fecond round alternately, beans after barley, in one
courfe, and then clover in the next. This has been found to
anfwer. This obfervation, however, fhould be made not
without obferving, that on a farm at Merton in Surry, Mr.
Arbuthnot, by means of deeper ploughing.than common,
and ample manuring, fucceeded well with clover every third
year in this courfe: 1. beans; 2. wheat; 3. clover; on land
that was faid to be fick of it, though fown before only once
in four years. He viewed his crops in that new courfe dur-
ing three rounds, and never faw finer.””?’, Much caution is ne-
ceflary in repeating it frequently, as. various faéts in the dif-
ferent furveys of the kingdom fully fhow.
In refpeét to the proportion of feed that may be necef-
fary, the fame able writer ftates, that from * ten to twelve
pounds an acre is the ufual quantity of feed, but that fifteen
is better ;?? and that ‘¢ as clovers are liable to decline or go
off,?? very early in April, and in fome feafons in March, the
young clovers fhould be carefully examined, as a full plant in
‘ : autumn
CLOVER.
autumn often dies away in winter and fpring ; fo that, by
this month, the farmer is in doubt whether he fhal! let it
ftand or plough it up. In this cafe, it is highly advifable,
he thinks, to dibble into all the vacant {pots {pring tares,
which thus take extremely well, and between clover and
tares a very ample crop is produced,” and that of a fort that
is of the greateit utility to the farmer.
But it has been ftated by Mr. Donaldfon, in his account
of the prefent ftate of hufbandry in Great Britain, that in
the northern diitrits, * the quantity of feed allowed to the
Englith acre, when it is intended to plough up the field after
the firlt or fecond year, is from ten to fifteen pounds; to which
is commonly added about a bufhel of rye grafs feed. It was
formerly, he fays, confidered improper to fow grafs-feeds of
any kind along with oats, barley, or other white-corn crops.
This opinion, however, has been clearly and fatisfaciorily
proved to have been ill founded, and muft haye been at firlt
promulgated by thofe who were better acquainted with the
theory than with the practice of agriculture. Every practi-
cal farmer now knows,”? he adds, ‘ that if a crop of grafs
be the principal object in view, there is a greater chance of
its proving abundant when the feeds are fown with barley
particularly, than when fown alone. ‘This faét is fo com-
pletely eftablifhed, that there are, it is prefumed, few inftances
where the method above mentioned is flill adopted. The
general practice 1s to fow, not only red clover, but all other
grafs-feeds, with oats or barley in the fpring. When the
feeds are fown, which is ufually done as foon as the grain is
harrowed in, the field is again gently harrowed, and after-
wards rolled, fo as to cover the feeds, and {mooth the furfaée
of the field, that the fcythe may pals eafily over it the fol-
lowing feafon. Red clover, when the feed is fown along
with, or rather immediately after, barley, and at the rate of
twelve or fifteen pounds to the acre, frequently overtakes, or
overtops, the crop of barley fo much, as materially to injure
it. Were the clover feeds not fown till the barley had vege-
tated to the height of three or four inches, he thinks this
lofs and inconvenience would in all probability be avoided;
at the fame time the crop of barley would rather be improv-
ed than injured by a light harrowing at that ftage of its
growth, while the clover- feeds would vegetate as freely, and
the crop of grafs prove as abundant, as if the feeds had been
fown at an earlier period, or at the time the grain was put
in. «As itis an eftablifhed rule or regulation in many dif-
trids, efpecially in Scotland, for an entering tenant to pay
the one who removes a certain fum, as from ros, to 20s.
the acre, for liberty to fow grafs-feeds along with the out-
going tenant’s barley ; it is fair to prefume, he conceives,
that this rule has been eftablifhed on proper principles, and
that the payment fo made, is no more than an equitable com
penfation for the injury which the removing tenant fultains
by granting this permiffion. ‘ If fo,” fays Mr. Donaldfon,
“« the average lofs of 155. the acre, which is incurred by
fowing red clover along with barley feed, muft appear of
confiderable magnitude to thofe who fow a fourth, a tifth, or
a fixth part of their farms every year with barley and red
clover-feeds. The method above fuggelted for obviating
this lofs and inconvenience, cannot poffibly be attended with
any bad confequences to either of the crops in quettion ; and
as it would in all probability prevent this evil, which is fo g¢-
nerally complained of, it certainly merits the eonfGderation
of thofe who, having repeatedly fuftained heavy lofles from
the failure of their crops of barley, are of courfe more imme-
diately interetled.”
The pra@tical writer we have firft mentioned has remarked,
that <‘ on farms where there are kept large flocks of fheep,
there 1s an abfolute neceflity of fowing annually many acres
Vor. VIII.
of this grafs, that there may beno want of food for the flock
during the fummer months. For this reafon, clover is often
fown on land that is improper for its cultivation; in which
predicament may be ranked fuch poor fields where the juices
of the ground have been exhaufted by repeated crops of
corn. But, though large burthens of clover cannot be ex-
pected from fuch worn out foils, yet the farmer, in the
circumftances above alluded to, a¢ts a prudent part in fowing
the feed, for this wiil confiderably improve his gratteus in
the following autumn, and furnifh the fheep with food dur-
ing the firft part of the winter; and if the clovers may not
have taken fufficiently thick to ftand for acrop, or that the
ground be intended to come in courfe for corn that year, or
for a fallow, fuch mode of hufbandry may be purfued with-
out an apprehenfion of the leaft damage to accrue from the
growth of the clover. Qn thefe accounts, it will redound
much to the intereft of a farmer who keeps a large flock, not
only to raife many acres of this grafs annually, with the ex~
prefs view of referving it for a crop to fupply the ftock with
green meat throughout the fummer; but in particular cafes,
as when from the abundance of the crop the fed is but of
inferior value, or there is a.probability of there being required
on the farm a larger fupply of fheep-keeping than ufual, to
fow a {prinkling of clover-[eed in a variety of fields among
the wheat, oats, and barley, though fuch ground be intended
for tillage the following {pring.”’
It is added that “‘ the beft clover feed is that where the
purple colour chiefly prevails, and which is moft free from
the feeds of weeds, of whatever kind. When clover ts
defigned to ftand for a crop, the beft method of preparing
the land for this ufe is to allow a liberal quantity of dung
on the turnip fallow, and the tursip feed being thus fown
on fallows, properly conduéted, will, in all likelihood,
produce a good crop of that root ; and if the {pring fhould
turn out kindly, the turnips may be eaten off, and the
ground reduced to a tilth for fowing the oats and clover
feed in March. ‘Three bufhels of oats in this cafe is a
proper quantity to the acre: if more feed were allowed,
the crop from the extraordinary tillage beftowed on the
land would probably throw out too great a quantity of
ftraw fo as to be early lodged, by which the welfare of
the clover would be endangered. As it is of confequence
that the ground fhould work kindly at the time of towing
this and all other grafs feeds, the utmoft care fhould be
taken to get it into a due preperation for that purpole;
and as the turnip ground is frequently baked very hard by
the treading of the fheep in a wet winter, fo that fuck
ground is apt to break up in large clods at the firlt ploughs
ing in the {pring: in this cafe, two ploughings will be
required previous to fowing the oats and clover, which
will not only difpofe the field to work kindly, and vo lk
fmooth and level, fo that the {mall fibrous roots of the
clover will meet with lefs refiftance, and the grafs will
form its fucceeding fhoots with greater facility; but
this kindly difpofition of the ground at feed time, will
enable the oats likewife more fuccefsfully to withitand the
drought of the fpring, or other accidents. As it is of
effential confequence that the clover feed fhould be fown in
a bed of well pulverized earth, and at a time when the
ground may be werked to the greatelt advantage with the
harrow, care fhould be taken to fix on a tolerably dry time
for this work, otherwife much of the feed will not vegetate,
and that which may grow will fuftain infinite prejudice : for
in awet feed time the ground becomes beaten down fo
very clofe, that the feed is prevented from fending forth
tender fibres; and in conlequence from fhooting forward
with vigour; whence the crop lauguifhes in 1ts feveral
4D progrefive
GCHOVE R.
progreffive ftates, and fails to produce a return nearly
adequate to what might have been expected from land in
that improved ‘tate; and this fhows the neceffity of break-
ing up fuch ground which is meant to be fown-with ciover
feed, in the early part of the fpring, that there may be
time to give the ficld a fecond ploughing, if it fhould be
found requifite; and hence alfo appears the neceflity of
fowing the feed before the dry weather fetsin, and this
may generally be brought about, if the turmps are fed off
by the latter end of February, or beginning of March.
Vhough an early fowing, as fome time within the month of
March, is by far the moft likely method of infuring
a good crop of clover on thin foils, yet in the cafe above
mentioned, there will be no time loft in waiting till the land
has been twice ploughed, though from this circumttance, if
the weather fhould prove unkindly, the feed time may be
protracted till April, as it will be far more prudent to wait
till that time, than to fow the feed in a rough and ill
cultivated bed. Neither can fuch early fowing often be
complied with on {uff foils, as this ttubborn ground does
never work kindly under the harrow, till the {pring is farther
advanced, and always requires a fecond ploughing for the
Lent corn, fo that the clovér is rarely fown en thefe foils
till the middle.of April, and very frequently this bulinefs ts
procrattinated till May; but this fhould by no means be
brouzht into a precedent ; fince on moft grounds, as obferv-
ed before, the early fown clovers have a much fairer chance
ef fucceeding, than thofe which are fown later in the
{pring feafon. The feeds of clover, being very fmall, require
enly a fuperficial covering, and the ufual method is to fow
the clover previous to the ldft harrowiag of the oats, by
which the feed will be introduced to a proper depth; and
this method of tining the feed in with the harrows is, in
his opinion, greatly to be preferred to putting it in with a
bufh or only rolling in the feed, as 1s the praGice with
many people; for though this feed, being of a diminutive
fize, will cafily take rect, and if harrowed in at too great
a depth beneath the furface, would be in danger of not
coming up at ail: yet there isya medium to be obferved,
and-the fowing of it previous to the crols harrowing of the
corn, appears, he fays, a more likely way of defending it
from the cafualties of the weather, than the flight covering
by a buh or roller, Clover feed is often fown amongtt
green wheat in the {pring, and covered with the {mall har-
rows, and the ground afterwards rolled, except when the
whcat is fo thin upon the ground; and fo loofe at the root,
zs not to admit of this practice, which fometimes happens;
and in this cafe we muft content ourfelves with the ufe of
the bufh-harrow and roll,’’ as it would be dangerous to have
recourfe to any other method.
It is well known that clover, in its infantine ftate, and
before it has attained its rough leaf, is very apt to be eaten
by the fly or flea, which is another reafon for fowing early,
that the plants may get into rough leaf before the approach
of dry weather; and this is likewife an argument for reduc-
irg the ground to the finett poffible tilth, that this infe&
may not have fo proper a nidns to generate in; fince it is
found by experience, that the fly or flea, which is the fame
infeét that preys on the feed leaf of the turnip, and on the
firft fhoot of the ‘hop, is more frequently met with, and
commits more fatal depredations on ground that is rough
and ¢loddy, than on thofe fields which have.been’ reduced
toa line tilth by the harrow. There is, the fame writer
fays, a very common error which farmers are apt to run into
at clover feed time, by which they are often confiderable
fufferers in the future crop; and this is, to fow a larger
quantity of ground than they are able to harrow-in the
fame day, fo that if there happens a glut of rain, that they
cannot get on their land till feveral days after it has been
fown, the feed mutt either lie uncovered, ora great part of
the clover be torn up by the harrow after it has begun to
vegetate. It is, he fays, a very ufual method for the
fecd{man to continue fowing clover or other grafs feeds ia
the afternoon after having iown the barley in the morning, .
by which management the farmer thinks he is gaining time,
as this ground may be harrowed the next day with the odd’
horfes, whilft the team horfes are covering in the barley or
oats. And were there a certainty of fine weather, this would
doubtlefs be avery prudent and commendable praétice; but
as this is not to be depended on, it feems to him to be an
experiment fraught with too much hazard, in fuffering a
dozen or fixteen acres of clover ground to lie uncovered,
which would be utterly fpoiled if wet weather fhould in-
tervene, fo as to prevent it being harrowed within three or
four days, a {pace of time fufficient for the feed to have
ftricken root. Nor is this the only mifchief likely to follow
from this pratice; for the feeds of clover, as well as
trefoil, being of a dimimutive fize, their veffels foon become
overcharged with moifture, and when this happens, great
part of the feed will in courfe never vegetate; fo that om
every account it feems to be highly imprudent to purfue
this method, unlefs the weather be fuch as to promife a
dry day or two,-which however, in our infular fituation, and.
at this time of the year, can rarely be depended on with any
degree of certainty.
It is obferved, that * though clover feed will grow at two
yéars old, it is by far the molt fecure method, to fow that
of the laft year, which is not only quicker in vegetating,
but the plants likewife foot away with greater expedition,
and fooner attain their rough leaf; a eonfideration of no
{mall moment, fince the fly is fo peftilent an enemy to this
grafs in its infantine ftate.?? It is always a matter of great
importance, in thefe crops, to have weil ripened frefh
feed. ;
And it is further remarked, that, ‘in a dripping fummer,
the clovers grow to a confiderable height amongtt the corn,
and in this cafe, the barley often fuffers after a wet and
tedious harvett. Oats take lefs damage by wet, and wheat,
being reaped, may generally be cut above the clover.
When it happens that the clover grows to fo large a head
during the fummer, the ftubbles will be found to produce
great ftore of food in the autumn, cither for horfes or cows,
efpecially if warm dripping weather should happen at that
time: and when the large cattle are removed, their places
may be fupplied with fheep, and by this management a very
confiderable advantage is gained; for thus the working
horfes are maintained in good heart at that time when there
wili be but afmall fupply of green meat remaining, the cows
will be fupplied witha wholefome food that will caufe them
to yield abundance of milk, and the fatting cattle will be
-greatly improved in flefh : old ewes, or indeed fatting fheep
of whatever denomination, will thrive in this keeping, and
if they fhould not be perfectly ready for the butcher when
taken out at Michaelmas, will however be in much better
condition to be driven into the turnip field, than if they had
at that time been bare of flefh: fuch fatting lambs asare yet
unfold, may likewife be brought into flefh on thefe young
clovers. In fhort, among the various advantages to be
derived from the cultivation of this grafs, it is none
of the leaft, that in the autumn after it is fown, it will
produce a fupply of valuable food, which may be turned
to fo many diflerent purpofes, and, with the help of the
faintfoin lays, preferve the turnips untouched till Chriftmas,
if the early part of the winter fhould prove mild and a
2
@
Su our ®.
To fuch farmers who purfue the mode of fuckling lambs,
the young clovers are exceedingly ufeful, affording a valu-
able pafture for the ewes, and caufing them vd {pring
abundantly in their mik. But with all thefe advantages,
there is fome diferetion to be ufed in thé feeding young
clovers, both with refpec&t to the cattle and the grafs.
Beafts which are of the ruminant tribe, it is well known, are
apt to feed with that greedinefs and avidity when turned cn
fueculent pafture, as to occafion a repletion; which, among
the farmers, is technically called hoving or blowing. Many
forts of food will occafion this malady, and none has a
greater tendency towards it than clover ; for which reafon
the horned cattle fhould not be turned into the field till
towards nine or ten o’clock in the morning, efpecially in
wet weather; and whillt they are feeding, they ought to
be carefully watched, though there will be lefs need of thefe
. precautions when they have been fome few days accuftomed
to the food, and have eaten down the rankeit part of the
-grafs. The like precautions it will be neceilary to take with
refpect to fheep, when they are depaftured with the cows ;
but if thefe latter are not permitted to graze on the clovers
till the large cattle fhall be removed, they will run little or
norifk of hoving.”? See Hoven.
It may be neceffary alfo to obferve, that ‘ this, as well
as other fown graffes, is much injured by being depaftured
too low. It will be neceflary with refpect to feeding clovers
in this period of their growth, to take the ftock of them
before the clofe of the year, as it would bea fpecimen of
very ill hufbandry, Mr. Bannilter thinks, to fuffer the cat-
tle to remain in the field after Chrifimas, at which time the
clover fhould be Jeft a tolerable height; for if eaten down
too clofe, a great part of it would be deltroyed, and the
fpring fhoot would be languifhing and weakly, which fhould
never be the cafe in this fort of grafs,
The fame writer has fometimes known young clover, mown
in the circumftances above mentioned ; but this method, he
thinks, would be prejudicial to the future growth of the crop,
fince the cutting off the flalks with the fcythe mutt caufe the
juices to evaporate, and thereby weaken the ftocks. One ad-
vantage there is however, he fays, which attends this praGtice:
namely, the removal of the ftubble, which when very ftrong,
~ and where the corn has been cut high, is apt to deaden the
f{cythe at the mowing of the clover in the following fummer,
when cut for the general crop.”
It has been remarked, that, ‘‘ with fome it is the cuflom
to apply manure over the clover land immediately after the
grain has been taken from the land, which in foils that are
not in a good ftate of fertility, may be advantageous in pre-
ferving and invigorating the plants; but under other
circumftances, itis not neceffary. There is, however, another
cafe in which the ufe of what is termed long ftable dung,
when not in the ftate of fermentation, may be found ufe-
ful, by preventing the plants from being too ciofely nibbled
and eaten up by theep, which is that where the land is
in the ftate of commonage or not inclofed. And the writer
thinks, that, ‘‘ when the clovers are to be continued for
two or more years, the application of a thin coat of manure,
in the autumn or {pring feafon, isa praétice from which great
benefit may be derived, elpecially on lands that are in the
lefs perfect flate of heart. Inthe drier forts of foil, this
bulinefs may probably be done with the greateft advantage,
about the latter end of February ; but where the lands are
foft, retentive of moifture, and poachy, the early part of the
autumn, while the ground is fufficiently hard, may be the
mott fuitable feafon for the purpofe. Well rotted dung is
perhaps the molt proper in thefe cafes.” By performing the
work at this period, “ there is lefs danger,” Mr, Middleton
thinks, ‘of the clover plants dying away in the winfer thin
is the cafe under other circumttances? At whatever fealon
the manure may be applied, it fhould be {pread out over the
furface im as even a manner as poflible, and be beaten per-
feétly fine.
In the county of Hertford, “itisa pretty common praftice
to fow coal afhes in the months of January or February, on
fuch of the young clovers ag are intended for mowing in th-
next fummer. ‘This is a very good praétice where the land
is not either ferti e by nature, or much improved by the dune
cart; but where the ground is in good heart, there remains
little neceffity for this top drefling on the clover: the
method with the Hertfordfhire hnufbandmen is to {ow
thirty bufhels of coal afhes on an acre, which they often
fetch ten or fifteen miles, and purchafe at fourteen or
fifteen pence per fack, for the purpofe. Thole fields of
clover which are intended for pafturage, unlefs in’ very
late and unkindly {prings, will have attained a (uflicient
length to that purpofe by the middle of fepril, and wiil
afford ftore of valuable feed throughout the fumme r, bur if
it fhould be thought proper to referve any part of this
growth for feed, the cattle mutt be taken ont, towards the
latter end of May, or early in June; and it is much more
eligible to feed down thofe fields which are intended for thi:
purpofe, in the fore part of the fummer, than totake of the
primary crop for hay, as fuch repeated mowings have a great
tendency to impoverifh the land, and to render it improper
for fowing with wheat the next year: befides, inthe former
inftance, the farmer is not confined toa fet time for laying
in the field, as the ftock may be taken out atan early period
of the fummer; whereas this advantage is loft, when the
firft. crop is referved for hay, and thus a dry time may fet
in and ftop the growth of the rowens, fo that the crop of
feed clover may be protratted till late in the autuma, when
bad weather may be exp<ted, which will greatly jure tt
fample,’” and produce other inconveniences.
As itis found that “clover will not perfee its feeds, if
mown for that purpofe early in the year; it is neceflary to
take off the Arlt growtheither by feeding or with the feythe
and to depend for the {eed on thofe heads that are produced
in the early autumn. Seed clover is found to tern out to
good account in thofe years when the crops are not injured
by the blatt, which is often fatal to them, or by theiait
in the autumn, which fometimes prove their deftruGion :
for the time of harvelting this feed falling out late, when
rainy weather mcey be expected, renders it on that account
avery tedious job. But where the feed has headed well, is
not affected by the bla{t, has been properly harvefted, and
the fample is unadulterated by the feeds of dock or other
weeds, it proves a very lucrative article to the farmer, fince
it Is no Uncommon circumftance to grow a fack on an acres
and to fell it from thirty fhillings to two guineas per buthel.
And the trouble attending it is but trifling. It is found that
a bufhel of good clover feed, in kindly years, willweig¢h near
7olb. but in bad feafons it feldom rifes higher than Oslb.
Such clover feed as is of a deep purple colour, and is free
from feeds of weeds of every kind, but more particularly of
dock, which of all. others is the moft pernicious; fetches a
price at market out of all proportion larger than that of an
inferior kind, or where the fample is adulterated with other
feeds. It is therefore of great confequence, at the laying in
a piece of clover for feed, to be careful that the land be
fuch that is not prone to blait, and that it be free from
weeds of every defcription, the dock efpecially, as without
this it is impofiible to produce clean feed.”
It is remarked by the author of the ** Prefent State of
Hufbandry, in Great Britain’’ that, « when it is propofed to
eH DED
ne
fave
CLOVER.
fave the feeds of red claver, the firfl crop of grafs fhould be
cut early, fo that the fecond, whence the feeds are procured,
may be ready for cutting by the end of Angud, or begin-
ning of September. ‘The reafon of making choice of the
fecond crop, is, he fays, that it always branches out into
more feed-bearinig plants, or ftalks, than the firlt crop, and
conleqnently a greater quantity of feed is procured from the
fame extent of land. Befide:, the hay of a firft crop of
clover, is more valuable_than that of the fecond ; and as it
is neceilary to thrafh clover-hay véry much, in order to fepa-
rate the hufks in which the feeds are inclofed from the ftems,
or ftalks, the lofs of hay is, of courfe, lefs contiderable in
the one cafe, than it would be in the other, while the crop
of feed is at the fame time more abundant. A crop of clo-
ver, of which it is propofed to fave the feeds, fhould, he
thinks, be allowed to itand till the hufks become quite brown,
and the feeds have acquired a degree of frmnefs. It fhould
then be cut, and harveited in every refpeét like other hay ;
and the feeds thrafhed out at any period during the follow-
ing winter, or {pring, according to the farmer’s convenience.
The quantity, he fays, commonly reaped, is from four to
five bufhels the Englifh acre; weighing, when thoroughly
clean, from two to three hundred weight. The expence
ef thrafhing is, he fays, confiderable—not lefs than from
ss. Od. to 7s. the bufhel. This great expence, which,
from the laborious nature ef the work, cannot be reduced
while the operation continues to be performed by manual
labour, may, he hopes, foon induce fome intelligent mecha-
nic to conftrué&t a machine, by which the labour may be
greatly leflened, while the work may be as completely,
and more expeditioufly performed.’? See Crover Threfp-
ing- Machine.
{t has been Rated that ‘the principal objeétions to the
feeding of clover crops, are thofe of their uncertainty, on
account of the {tate of the feafon at which they become ripe,
the trouble and expence of threfhing out the feed, and the
injury which they produce in leffening the fertility of the
foil. The high value of the feed, in moft feafons, is how-
ever, he obferves, a great inducement to the letting of clo-
ver crops ftand for that purpofe.”? And froty nights, and
hot, funny, dry days in May, are very prejudicial, Mr.
Bannifter fays, to the clovers, and prevent a fucceffion in
the growth of thofe which have been eaten down, as doth
likewife dry and fultry weather in June; fo that in back-
ward {prings and hot fummers the clovers produce but a
trifling return either for feeding or hay, when compared
to the growth of thofe years wherein the f{prings and fum-
mers have been more kindly and propitious. During the
weather above mentioned, the ftalk and leaves are often fo
totally fcorched, that he has known in the fields of this
grafs, when advanced to fome height, fo as to have formed
the heads for bloom, and to promife fair for a crop, that
the leaves have univerfally dropt off, and the juices have
been fo much exhaulted by the parching heat of the fun,
that the utter deftru€tion of the crop has enfued. When
this difafter happens, and the weather continues dry and
fultry till the middle of June, the beft way is to fet on
the mowers, without waiting any longer in expectation of
rain, and to truft to future fhowers for improving the latter-
math. But although on thin lands, fuch as gravels, chalks,
&c. the clovers are often ruined by a hot and parching fum-
mer, yet on loams there is not that danger to be apprehend-
ed from this contingency, as thefe grounds, being of a
ftronger nature, will pufh on the clovers with greater vigour
in their progrefs. This difpofition in the clovers to burn in
a dry fummer on thin foils, fhows the neceffity of laying
them in carly for the fcythe, and frongly enforces the rule
before recommended, not to winter feed this prafs with cat~
tle of any kind after Chrittmas. Clover begins to form its
head for bloom towards the middle of June, and will continue
in a growing {tate tillit becomes in full bloffom, at which time
it isin the higheft perfection to mow for hay ; but this grafs
differs in this particular from faintfoin, that, when its blof-
foms are fully expanded, they continue much longer in that
{tate than the laft-mentioned grafs, fo that if the weather
fhould prove wet and urkindly for the haying, the clevers
will wait a fortnight, after they become in bloffum, without
futtaining any material injury, either by the fhedding of the
leaf or bloom ; for the fame weather which renders it impro-
per to mow this grafs, continues it in a growing flate, and
prevents the bloflom from dying away. When the crops of
clover are large and heavy, it is neceflary that the {waths.
fhould be turned over at the making, the ftalks of this grafs.
being very replete with juices. This may be done the next
day after the mowing, or the fecond day after,as the weather
is more or lefs<favourable, obferving that, as the chief
virtue of this hay refides in the leaf and bloffom, the lefs
thefe are dilturbed the more valuable will be the fodder >
on which account the tedding of this hay abroad, as is
practifed by fome people, cannot fail to be of the greateft
Injury. From the wind-rows it fhould be made up into
grafs cocks, which, having enjoyed the influence of the fun
and air for a day or two, may be thrown into Jarge cocks.
for carting. But if wet weather prevails during the feafon
for making this hay, it caufes an infinite deal of trouble to
the farmer, and the clover, from having been frequently fhaken
abroad, is deprived of its mott nutritious particles, namely,
the bloffom and the leaf of the plants. See Hay-making.
The fame author ftates further, that ** there is an accident
which fometimes happens to young clovers that cuts off all
hopes of a crop, and obliges the farmer to plough up his land
for wheat. This malady takes its rife from a worm which
gnaws off the grafs jult within the ground, fo that the blade
withers and dies away. A gentleman of great knowledge
and experience in every article that relates to country affairs,
aflured him that, in December 1777, he had fuffered very
confiderably from this infeét, which in the preceding fummer
totally deftroyed feveral acres of clover on his farm, and that
this happened on the bet of his land, worth more than 20s.
per acre, whilit that of inferior goodnefs, and thofe fields
which worked badly at feed time, efcaped the difafter.” Tt
is obfervcd that ‘ clover is rarely fuffered to continue longer
on the ground than one year; after which the field is gene-
rally fown with wheat at one ploughing, a mode of huf-
bandry exceedingly advantageous to the farmer, who thereby
enjoys a crop during the fallow year, that yields him confi-
derable profit, and leaves the ground in far better condition
for wheat, than would have been the cleaneft and beft con=
duéted fallow, there being no preparation fo kindly for this
grain as clover hay. It has been long fince remarked, and
every year’s experience confirms the truth of the obferva=
tion, that clover lays, which have been mown the preceding
furnmer, do uniformly produce better crops of wheat, ceteris
paribus, than thofe which were depaftured: whereas, on the
firft idea, one fhould Tuppofe the contrary would be the
event, from a conftderation that the furface of the pafture
had been improved by the dung of the cattle which fed on
it. This preference in favour of the mown clover, he is in-
clined to think, arifes partly from the fhedding of the leaf,
which aéts asa manure to the ground, but it is chiefly ow-
ing to the fhade which the land enjoyed, during the fummer,
from the feorching heat of the fun, by which the nutritious
particles were retained ; whereas the field, which had been
fed down clofe, could participate of neither of thefe benefits
an
CLOVER.
and, with refpect-to the dung of the cattle, the moillure of
other nutritious matters having been exhaled by the fun,
but fmall advantages could be derived from it. But thofe
who keep folding flocks generally begin to plough up their
clover lays early in the fummer, and having ploughed one
day’s work, fet the fold on that part; and the whole of
this ploughed ground being gone over by the fheep, another
journey is to be ploughed; and which bufinefs of ploughing
and folding is to be continued till Michaelmas, when the
whole field is to be broken up. By thus ploughing up
the feld at various times, a portion of feed is referved for
the ftock fo long as the clover continues to grow, and the
major part of it may be ploughed up fome confiderable time
before the wheat feafon, whereby the ground becomes {uffi-
ciently clofed, fo as to guard again{t the ill effects of the
worm: and this end is itil more effentially anfwered by the
folding, which never fails to be of great advantage, and
which he is inclined to think proceeds rather from the
treading of the fheep, whereby the ground is compreffed to
a texture more firm and compact, than from any virtue in
their dung and urine, which can be of no material ufe in the
heat of the fummer: but when, after feed time, the fheep
are folded on the ground, this is undoubtedly of infinite
fervice, the invigorating moilture of the dung and urine of
the fheep, being immediately wafhed down to the roots of
the grain; for which reafon this manner of folding claims a
decided preference over all others, fo long as the weather
will admit of its being purfued with propriety.
The clover crops are often mown as a green fodder for the
horfes in the fummer, which purpofe it anfwers extremely
well, and, if the land on which it is raifed be in good con-
dition, will, in akindly fpring, be fit for the f{cythe fome
time within the month of May, and may be cut twice for
this ufe; or the fecond crop may be fuffered to ftand for
feed, or be fed off, according as the farmer’s exigencies may
require. But fince the culture of lucerne hath been brought
into general practice, few farmers choofe to be without a
field of that valuable grafs, which in this refpeét has greatly
the advantage of clover, being not only equally wholefome
and nutritious, but on good land may be mown three or four
times in the courfe of the fummer, and will remain many
years on the ground. See Lucerne.
It has been remarked by a late writer, that though much
advantage may be derived from the converting of clover
crops into hay, and letting them remain for feed,-it is pro-
bable that a itill greater benefit may be produced by the
practice of cutting the crops green, occafionally, as they
attain a fufficient growth ; and conveying them, when want-
ed, to the horfes or other cattle, in the ftables and fold-
yards, in order to their being confumed in the ftalls, It is
contended, he fays, by an experienced agriculturer, that in
this manner it will certainly fupport more than twice the
{tock it wou!d do, if fed off upon the ground where it grew;
and the additional quantity of manure that will by this me-
thod be made in the ftalls and yards, if they are kept well
littered with any fort of ftraw, or even rufhes or fern, will
fully compenfate the farmer for this expence in cutting and
bringing the clover into the yards. In cafes where lucerne
cannot be grown to advantage, this may, without doubt,
be the cafe.
It is fuggefted, that it is a method which experience, in
many parts of the kingdom, has proved to be of the great
eft advantage, efpecially where the bufinefsis not upon too
extenfive a fcale; but in large concerns, it is, perhaps, im-
poffible to attend to it fo fully as may be neceffary for deriv-
ing the greateft benefit from it. ‘The refult of an experi-
ment ftated by a writer of confiderable accuracy, however,
q
he fays, fhows, that even on an extenfive fcale it is a praCtice
which is attended with vaft advantage. In this trial feven
acres of clover, cut green, were found to be fufficient for
twenty horfes, feven cows, five calves, and five pigs, for the
period of feventeen weeks from the middle of May. They
were fed in the ftable and rick-yard, being taken twice in
the day to water, and the horfes had neither hay nor corn.”
And ta calculating the valve of the crop, it is remarked that
the horfes could not have been kept equally well for lefs
than eight-pence a day ; but as the vfual price at which
they are taken in at, in that diftni@, is two fhillings and fix.
pence the weck, it may be better to take that as the princi-
ple of calculation.
20 Horfes, 17 weeks, at 2s. 6d. per week 42/, ros. od.
7 Cows, ~ ditto, at 2s. 6d. per week 14 17 6
5 Calves, - ditto, at 1m 6d, perweck 6 7 6
5 Pigs, - ditto. Co) Fesle de io)
£63 15. 0
Or; penacres, Ou) 127
And, “the quantity of dung raifed by the above ftock,
is {uppofed to be from four to five hundred loads, which is
ellimated at 25. 6d. per load.”? But ‘the expence in labour
for cutting and conveying the food to the ftock, is not
charged; which renders the experiment in feme meafureincom-
plete. The benefit of the practice is, however, fully eftablifh-
ed.” And the great fuperiority and utility of this praétice
are exhibited in a ftill more ftriking point of view, by con-
trafting this with the confumption of the fame fort of ‘cro
in the field, by an equal number of the fame kinds of ftock;
as, in the time five acres had been ufed in the former me-
thod, thirty had been confumed in the latter, and the horfe
part of the ftock left in much worfe condition. And it is
added, that, ‘‘befides the fuperiority of the praétice of foil-
ing this fort of crop in the economy of food, it has the im-
portant advantage, as has been feen, of affording much
larger fupplies of manure, efpecially where the {talls and
fold-yards are kept occafionally well bedded and cleaned up,
as the converfion of the materials proceeds, which muit be
greatly expedited from the vaft increafe in the urinary, a3
well as other difcharges that mult of neceffity take place in
this fort of feeding.
The principal difference between feeding clovers off, on
the land, and confuming them in their green ftate, in this
manner, is fuppofed by Mr. Kent to be this; ‘* the quick
growth of the grafs, after mowing, fhades the ground, and
prevents the fun from exhaling the moitture of the land, fo
much as it would if fed bare ; confequently it continues to
{pring with more vigour ; and the moment one crop is off
another begins to fhoot up. Whereas, when cattle feed it,
they frequently deftroy as much as they eat, and, befides,
bruife the necks of the roots with their feet, which prevents
the clover from f{pringing fo freely as it docs after a clean cut
by the fcythe. In hot weather, which is the common feafon
for feeding clover, the flies too are generally fo troublefome
to the cattle, that they are continually running from hedge
to hedge to brufh them off; by which it is inconceivable what
injury they do to thecrop. But when they are fed in ftalls
and yards they are more in the fhade; they thrive better,
and, at the fame time, confume the whole of what is given
them without wafte.” The author of ‘* Pra@tical Agncul-
ture,’ however, remarks on this, that ‘ though much of
the fuccefs attending this praftice without doubt depends
on thefe circumftances, yet that the upper parts-of the roots
are lefs penetrated by moifture, and fewer of the plants of
courte
CLOVER.
wourfe deftroyed.”? He adds, that. ‘by proper attention
to this crop a.very ufeful and abundant green food, for dif-
ferent forts of live ftock, may be provided at an early period
of the fpring, efpecially when the winters are not very fe-
vere.’ And it is advifed by Mr. Middleton, “on che poorer
fort of foils to have both the firft and fecond: crops of this
-plant to be eaten green upon the land by fheep and bullocks,
being mown and given them to feed upon.” In this way
the cattle thrive better from their filling themfelves fooner,
and having more reft; and there is no wafte. But in order
to derive the greateft poffible advantage from the foiling
with this or other crops, convenient covers, fheds, or other
fuitable houfes are neceffary to be provided. See Sortinc.
dt is remarked, in addition, however, ‘*that the practice of
feeding down or pafturiag clover crops with live ftock,
though it-may be advantageous in many cafes, efpecially
where fheep-hufbandry forms a principal obje&, always re-
quires to be conduéted with care and attention, both in re-
{pe to the plants and the animals that are to feed upon
them.’ -As from the tender nature of the clover plant it
fhould feldom be eaten on the land by the heavier forts of cattle,
becaufe, from the greedy manner in which they feed, many
of the plants are pulled up, and others, as has been feen,
greatly injured or deftroyed by being bruifed in their tread-
ing, efpecially as they protrude their young fhoots. Horfes
are particularly objected to on this account by Mr, Parkin-
fon.
fheep; but where the foils are of the drier kind, the lighter
forts of itock of other defcriptions may be occafionally ad-
mitted, fuch as calves, foals, and young beafts. And, as
pigs are tond of the clover plant, and thrive well upon it,
they may fometimes be admitted with advantage. In the
practice of lamb-fuckling, it is an ufeful application of the
young clovers to turn the ewes upon them, as they afford a
fort of pafturage, which has much effect in increafing the
flow of milk. They may, likewife, in the opinion of the
author of the ** Report of Middlefex,”’ be applied to the
fattening of fheep in April and May; and be ted by the
fheep intended for turnips, in the autumn, till they are
ready, with much profit and advantage. No fort of flock
fhould, however, be kept upon crops of clover where the
land is foft, wet, or poachy. Mr. Marfhall fays, that, in
fome of the fouthern diftri&ts, where it is the cultom to eat
down the young clovers by fheep, it is ufual to choofe a dry
feafon for the purpofe, the ftock being removed in cafe the
land becomes foft and wet. When this fort of ftock is em-
ployed, it may be the moft fafe practice not to permit the
animals to continue too long upon the land; as by eating
the plants too clofely they may fuflain much mifchief, It
is Contended by fome, that treading the fuil lightly where
the lands are dry, may be of great utility to the clover
plants, by forcing the earth to the roots, and in that way
protecting and rendering them more capable of refilting the
effets of froft in the winter feafon. It has likewife been
fuggefted, that ‘‘ the eating off the weak lateral fhoots that
were thrown out while under the fhade of the grain crops,
foay be ferviceable by increafing the ftrength of the plants,
and enabling them to with‘tand the frofts, as well as.to fhoot
more ftrongly in the {pring.” It may, therefore, be con-
cluded that the moft beneficial method, where the patturing
of this crop, either in the fpring or autumn, is had recourfe
to, is not to fuffer the lands to be fed upon when in a moilt
fate, or to be too hard ftocked, or with the heavier fort of
animals, at any time while they remain upon it.
In the feeding down this fort of crops, as has been already
feen, there is not only danger of injuring the plants, but the
animals that confume them. Without proper management,
The mot appropriate fort of ftock is obvioufly that of +
i} °
cattle and other animals, on being turned upon them, often
fuffer great inconvenience, and are in danger of being dé-.
ftroyed by the vatt diftenfion of their ftomachs which takes
place. In this fituation, the animals are, in the langtage of
the farmer, faid to be blowa or hoven. The nature of the
difeafe does not feem to be much inveftigated; but. it pro-
bably arifes in confequence of the large quantity of green
fucculent herbage being greedily devoured without due
mattication, by which it undergoes an uncommon degree of
fermentation in the ftomach ; and from this fudden decom<
pofition, an unufual quantity of gafeous fiuid, or flatus, is
at once fet at. liberty, which ultimately overcomes the con-
tractile power of the digeftive organ, and the animal is de-"
ftroyed. The fuppofition is rendered more probable from
the circumi{tance of the affeGiion being lefs apt to take
plece when the clovers or other fimilar herbage are fed upon
in-a dry ftate, as the ftock in thefe cafes are not able to
confume them in fo expeditiousa manner, or in fo large a
proportion. It is added, that on thefe principles the prac-
tice of not fuffering the cattle, or other forts of Kock, to feed
upon them when they are wet, and there is a full bite, would
feern to be perfeétly corre. The advice of not turning the
animals upon the crops before the fun difftpated the dew and
moifture depofited in the night, is likewite judicious, and
ought to be attended to, as well as that of keeping them in
motion as much as poffible when firft terned in. With
fheep the fame precautions may be néceffary, if they be put -
upon them with the other tock in their full growth; bat
when they are turned in after they have in fome degree beea
fed down, there will be little danger of their being injured.
Where the clovers are eaten off, as after-gra{s, in their foft,
foggy, and young {tate of growth, there is, however, great
danger of the flock being hurt in this way, unlefs tiiele cir-
cumftances be attended to and carefully guarded again,
See Hoven. +
It is oblerved to be the practice with fome ** when the
land is intended for the purpofe of early pafturage, and in.
fome cafes where the obje& is hay, to fow rye, rib, and other
fimilar graffes with the clover. In the firft intention the
practice may be beneficial, as the rye grafs rifes early, and
may contribute to afford a more full and better herbage for
the ftock at {uch periods, efpecially on the better forts of foil ;
but with the latter view it fhould perhaps feldom be made ufe
of, as the clover will in general produce a fufficiently abund-
-ant crop of itfelf; amd from other forts of plants being
mixed with it, on account of their drying in au unequal man-
ner, it may futtain injury as hay: It is probably, for fome
re2fon of this fort, that {uch clover-hay as is mixed with other
grafles is lefs faleable, and of confiderably lefs value in the
London markets, than that, which confifts folely of clover.
Some cultivators, however, fuppofe, that by blending rye-
gra{s with clover in a {mall proportion, a ftrength and body —
is given to the crop.” And it has been fuggefted as an
improvement where rye grafs is mixed with clover, to fow
the latter,a week or two before the other, as from the clover
plants having a tender, weak {tem in their early growth, they
may in that way be prevented from being injured by thofe of
the rye-grafs clafping round and fhading them. But when
the crop is defigned for cutting green for the purpofe of
foiling animals, it would feem to be the beft- method not to
fow any other fort of grafs with it, as no advantage can be
gained in that way, while there may be danger of the crops
being injured by it.
It is obvious, that ‘ the chief difadvantage of this almoft
invaluable plant, is that of the fhortnefs of its abiding or con-
tinuing in the lands, efpecially in thofe of the lighter and
more free kinds, as hinted above. It is afferted by fome, not~ ~
to
CiL{O
to lat longer than two years, except on grounds that are
perfetly frefh ; and, in fome cafes, where it has been often
repeated, not more than one. According to Mr. Marthall, in
fome of the fouthern counties, it is, however, found more
durable on the calcareous foils, efpecialiy where not frequent-
ly repeated on the fame land, from its being better able to”
contend with weeds in its. natural. tate of growth. Thefe
fas fhow the neceflity of keeping it as far diftant as poflible
in the courfes of cropping, efpecially on all the more light
friable forts of foil, and the fuperior advantages of cultivating
it ep thofe of the calcareous kinds.”” And it is fuggelted
as probable, that ‘its duration may be confiderably pro-
longed, by preventing the plants from fhooting up to feed
ftems as much as pefitble, either by keeping them cut by the
f{eythe, or by the feeding them down by ftock in a mode-
rate degree, as in thefe ways they will be prevented from
being fo foon exhaufted in their roots, as happens in many
other forts of plants, as soon as they have perfected their
feeds. i
It is obferved in the “ Hertford Survey on Agriculture,”
that the beft farmers about Ware mow the firlt growth, and
always feed the fecond: they confider it as good manage-
ment to mow the firlt, as it is, in their eftimation, bad to mow
the fecond. However, he faw feveral fecond crops in full
bloffom between Walkern and Stevenage, of a luxuriance
that fpoke no bad management: nor is it a point at all to
be afcertained. ‘The practice of various other diftri@s is. in
favour of mowing both. And Mr. Whittington has no
doubt upon this point, thinking that better wheat will be
after two mowings than after one. About Hatfield, and all
that vicinity, they have cultivated clover fo long and fo re-
peatedly, that the foil is, as the farmers fay, fick of the
plant. It matters not how fine a crop may be in autumn, it
dies even fo late as in that month. Mr. Keate hada
proof of the benefit of not fowing it in one or two. eourfes
confecutWely. Having part of a field for five or fix years
under lucerne, when it was broken up, barley and cloyer were
fown over the part which had been under lucerne, and alfo
on a contiguous piece, where the clover- hufbandry had not
been interrupted on the latter, the clover in 1801 failéd and
was ploughed up, but where the lucerne had grown, the
clover was, as the writer faw, extremely fine, thick, and reou-
lar. This fhows, he thinks, that other graffes may be fub-
flituted, and yet the land refrefhed and prepared for future
clover without a failure. The great price which hay has
yielded of late years, has been an injury to the land ; the
* farmers have been unwilling to vary the courfe, or to
plough up a bad plant ; and very foul ficlds are the confes
quence. Others finding clover crops apt to fail fow trefoil
alfoy And this variation of trefoil is excellent management
in his opinion.
It is added, that. Mr. Clarke of Sandridgbury has: had no
clover fail till laft year, (1800.) If he intends feeding, he
mixes trefoil, otherwife he fows clover alone. He mows
fome twice for hay ; fome once, and then feeds fheep on the
-Jand.. His beft wheat is after two mowings, one for hay,
and the fecond for feed ; this he attributes to the great fall
of the leaf, and to the plants covering the foil from the fun
fo well and fo long. And Mr. Biggs, near St. Alban’s,
grows better wheat after mowing, than after feeding ; and bet-
ter after two mowings than one, and this general fuperiority
has, in his opinion, amounted to four or five bufhels an acre.
And many others reap better wheat after mowing than after
feeding the clover. And fome think, that the reafon is “ the
clover’s being fed too clofe: were it kept to a confiderable
giowth before it were turned in, fo that all fhould not be
eaten, but enough trod down to cover the land from the
~
Vv E R.. _
fun, then feeding would give the beft wheat’ And in
Norfolk, it is remarked, by the author of the report of that
diftriét, that thirty years azo they had for fome time. found
their clover crop failing, from its recurring too often; this
caufed the variation of fub/tituting trefoil for one round, ard
the clover being fown but once in nine years, the evil was re-
moved. And he now found the fame account every where
in the fouth of the country, that the land (whatever the foil),
was what they call fick of clover, Formerly it was fown
every fourth or fifth year; but now if it returns fo often it
fails for acres together; they therefore fow clover in one
round, and then fubfitute white clover and trefoil, adding
a little ray grafs, but as little as they can help. Whether
the wheat Is as good after thefe feeds as after clover, is rather
an unfettled point. From Mr. Burton, a moft intelligent
obferver upon this quettion, the writer found that he himfel€
got as good wheat after white Dutch as after red clover, but
that he believed the true change for the foil would be to
fow no feeds at all; and he fhowed him a large field of red
clover, part of which was very regular and good, and part
inferior, the former was ina courfe where no feeds had been
fown, and the latter where Dutch and trefoil were intro
duced *a ftrong confirmation of his remark. Mr. Fowel
ufes fix pecks of ray, fix pounds of clover or trefoil, and four
of white clover for two years.
And the land round Hingham is tired of producing this
crop, and canfes the variation of fowing ray, trefoil; and
white clover.
It is alfo obferved, that in Happing-hundred, they admit
at Catfield, that ‘* if clover recurs too often the land will
not yield it, but their method is not an alternate fubfitution:
of other feed, or baulking the land for a round, ‘but to takea
fix courfe fhift inftead of a five, and mixing white clover and:
trefoil and ray, by which two precautions they fucceed
well.
Thefe ftatements from different parts of the county: clearly
fhow the neceflity of caution in repeating crops of clover on
mott forts of foil.
It may be obferved, that fince red clover has been culti--
vated in England, great improvements have been made in
heavy clay-lands, which before produced little except rye€-
grafs and coarfe bents, but being fown with red clover, have
produced more than fix times the quantity of fodder they fore
merly did, whereby farmers have been enabled. to feed a
much greater ftock of cattle than they could do before
with the fame extent of ground, which has, at the fame
time, enriched the foil, and prepared it-for corn ; and hence
it is now common,.where the land is kept in tillage, to lay
down their ground with clover, after having had two crops
ef corn, whereby there is a conftant rotation of wheat, bar-
ley, clover, or turnips on the fame land,
And Mr, Donaldion confiders the general introdu@ion of
clover and other cultivated graffes, as one of the greatelt
improvements in modern hufbandry. The commencement
of improvements in the different fpecies of live fock, in-the
modes of cultivation, and in the. fuperior quality, as-well
as quantity, of the crops of grain, may all, he thinks, be
dated from the period when the fowing of grafs-feeds was’
firft introduced into the different diftri€is-of the kingdom.
One acre of red or broad clover will go as far in feedinx
horfes or black cattle as three or four of natural grals.
And when it is cut occafionally, and given to them frefh, .
it will probably go fill much farther, as no part of itis loft
by being trodden down. ;
The red clover is a biennial, perennial plant, whofe
roots decay after they have produced feeds; but by eating
it down, or mowing it, when it begins to flower, it caufee
the
GLO) VER. :
the roots to fend out new fhoots, whereby the plant is con-
tinued longer than it would naturally do.
Crover, Middle, ov Cow-red Cover (Trifolium medium),
is a plant of the clover kind, which rifes with a branchy
ftem, and has a flrong, deep, ftriking root. It is perennial,
flowering im July. Its ftalks are much more branchy and
flexuous than in the common clover.
It isa plant that grows naturally in high lands of a chalky
quality, and in fuch gravelly foils as have a fubftratum of
clay. It is a fort of crop that is fown in thofe improved
diftrits, where the land is to continue in a ftate of reft for
feveral years, being put in with the white clover. It is
found to continue longer in the land, or to be more abiding
than the common clover, and at the fame time almoft equal-
ly produétive, efpeciaily on the poor calcareous defcrip-
tions of land.
Crover, MWhite, another plant of the clover kind, (¢tri-
folium repens) which bas a fibrous root and creeping ftem,
never rifing nearly fo high as the common or cow-clover.
It is perennial, flowering from May to September. It has
its name, probably, from its bearing a white flower. It is
lhikewile fometimes denominated Duich clover, from its having
been principally imported from Holland. According to
Mr. Amos, in the more fertile and moilt foils, it becomes
more branchy in the ftalks. He confiders it as the fweetelt
grafs'for all forts of ftock yet known, which makes the clofeft
{ward, and is very productive of foliage. Hence it is, he
thinks, moft peculiarly adapted to laying down land to paf-
ture.
will accommodate itfelf to moft kinds. It is feldom fown
alone, unlefs it be to raife the feed, nor fhould it ever be
mown for hay. In liying down rich foils, which are intend-
ed to remain in pafture for many years, this feed fhould pre-
dominate in the compolition or mixture that is made ufe of
for the purpofe.
It grows naturally in moft of the paftures in England, and
is generally known among the country people by the name
of white haney-fuckle.. This is an abiding plant, whofe
branches trail upon the ground, and fend out roots from
every joint, fo that it thickens and makes the clofeft {ward of
any ot the fown graffes; and it is, as has been fad, the fweeteft
feed for all forts of cattle yet known; therefore, when land
is defigned to be laid down for pafture, with an intention to
continue fo, it fhould, as jult obferved, be fown with a pretty
full or large proportion of the feeds of this plant. There
is an advantage in patturing white clover, that does not
{trike farmers in general, which is, that each joint of the
plant furnifhes a frefh root, and of courfe a frefh plant, when-
ever fuch joint coies in clofe contaé with the foil, and con-
fequently the more it is trodden, the thicker it will get upon
the ground. The ufual allowance of this fort of feed is
eight pounds to one acre of land; but it fhould never be
fown with corn; for, if there is a crop of corn, the grafs
will be fo weak under it, as to be fcarce worth ftanding ;
but fuch is the opinion of farmers in general, that they can-
not be prevailed on to alter their old cuftom of laying down
their grounds with a crop of corn, though they fhould lofe
twice the value of their corn by the poornefs of the grafs,
which, in fuch cafes, will never come to a good {ward, and
ore whole feafon is alfo loft ; for if this feed be fown in the
{pring without corn, there will be a crop of hay to mow
by the middle or latter end of July, and a much better after-
feed for cattle the following autumn and winter, than grafs
which is fown with corn will produce the fecond year. The
feed of this fort of clover may alfo be fown in autumn, in
the manner direG@ted for the common red clover; and this
autumnal fowing, if the feeds grow kindly, will afford a
It flourifhes moft upon rich, dry, warm foils; but it -
good early crop of hay the following {pring ; and if, after
the hay is taken off the land, the ground be well rolled, it
will caufe the clover to mat clofe under the ground, and bes
come a thick clofe fward.
It has been greatly depended upon by moft cultivators,
in bringing lands into a {tate of fward, and is faid to be an
extremely ufeful plant on the more rich and dry, fandy and
loamy foils, as well as in the clayey and peaty defcriptions
of land, where they have been well drained from moifture ;
but on the more wet and poorer forts of loamy and clayey
Jands, it is not by any means fo proper or ufeful, as it is not’
lating, but gives place to plants of the aquatic kind, as
well as others of an indifferent defcription. It is a plant
fuppofed by fome not to afford fo {weet an herbage as broad
clover, or many others, but in our trials it has, bowever, al-
ways been eagerly fed upon both by fheep and neat cattle ;
and where clofely fed down, there can be little doubt of its
great utility. According to Mr. Goring, as ftated in the
communications to the Board of Agriculture, that which
comes up naturally by the application of manure is much
more hardy than that which is fown, as well as more lafting
in the fol. And it has been juftly remarked as a proof of
good land, that it runs quickly, of its own accord, to this
plant. It may be introduced with moft forts cf feeds, and:
contributes greatly tothe fucceis of the cultivator in the im-
provement of his grafs lands. ‘
White clover feed is annually imported from Flanders, by’
way of Holland; but itis not more a rative of that country,
Mr. Donaldfon fays, than cf this, as it is very common in
moift paftures, in every county in the kingdom; but the
feeds were never collected for fowing in this country till of’
late years; nor are there many perfons here, even now, who
make a practice of faving this feed ; though it may bedone
if the fame method as is pratifed for the red clover be taken’
with this fort; it therefore might be advantageous to far-
mers who are defirous of improving their land, to fow care-
fully an acre or two of this white clover for feed, which will
fave them the expence of buying for fome years, when the
price ishigh; and there will be a {ure market for any quan-
tity they may have to f{pare.
By Mr. Young it is ftated as a very profitable article of
cultivation, which has of late years been particularly attend-
ed to in the counties of Suffolk and Effex, by raifing it
alone for feed. The firft growth, contrary to the cafe with —
red clover, is feeded. Some take a fpring-feeding firft.
The returns depend, of courfe, on the price, which varies
much, but it has proved a very profitable article, yielding _
from 7/. to 15/. an acre. And it is found that wheat fuc«
ceeds well after it in molt cafes.
Crover-Hop, another plant of the white clover kind
(trifolium procumbens), which has a wide-{preading, flightly
branched, procumbent ftem, or ftalk, and a thickifh, fhort,
hbrous roct. It isa fort of clover that bears a yellow flower,
on which account it is called by fome yellow meadow trefoil.
It grows naturally among the grafs in the upland paftures of
this country ; but the feeds are frequently fold in the fhops,
and are by many mixed with the other forts of cloverand
gra{s-feeds, for laying down ground to pafture. This plant
grows with upright, branching ftalks, about a foot high,
garnifhed with trifoliate leaves, whofe lobes are oblong and
heart-fhaped, but referved, the narrow point joining the foot-
ftalks. The flowers, which are yellow, grow from the fides
of the flalk, upon long foot-ftalks, colleéted into oval, im-
bricated heads, having naked impalements lying over each
other like feales, fomewhat like the flowers of hops, from
whence the plant had the name of hop-clover, which grows
naturally in thts country. There is another variety which
13
CLO
isa much {maller plant than this, and generally known by the
name of none-fuch, or yellow hop-trefoil. See None-/uch.
This fort of clover is ftrongly recommended by the foilow-
ing circumftances: rft. Its not only growing but flourifhing
ov the moft barren fands, and therefore being a very proper
grafs to cultivate on fuch unfertile foils, where any other
_grafs thatis worth notice will fearcely grow at all. 2. Its
not being apt to {well cattle as the red cloverdoes. 3. Its
continuing long in good ground, and bearing a very good
feed, or crop; and, by its flourifhing both on fands and clays
_ which have not been ploughed for many years, its being
likely to continue long on any foil.
In Norfolk, this plant is called red fuckling, and is culti-
vated about Norwich for the profit of the feed, and yields a
large quantity, but is faid not to have any merit comparable
to clover or to tretoil,
Crover-Lay, or Ley, a term which fipnifies the land
from which clover has been taken, mown, or paltured. — Tt is
aremark of Mr. Bannifter, that, ‘ where clover-lays have
been fuffered to continue in that flate longer than one year,
it is a very hazardous experiment to fow the ground when
broken up with wheat or oats, as from the length of time ia
which the furface has been covered with a turf, the worm
becomes engendcred therein, which often deftroys the crops of
corn; therefore, the fafeft way of procedure in the breeking
up of thefe old clover-leys, is either to make a fallow of them,
orto put them in with peasor other pulfe.”” From what
has been remarked above, it is evident that thefe forts of lays
require to be mariaged with confiderable attention.
Crover Reaping machine, isan implement conftruéted for
the purpofe of reaping and collefting the heads of fuch
clover-crops as have been let remain for feed. Various con-
trivances of this fort have been fuggefted by writers on huf-
bandry, but there is probably none that anfwers the purpofe
ina perfect manner.
It has been fuggefted by Mr. Marthall, in the “ Rural
Economy of the Southern Counties,”? that, ¢ as the great
difficulty in the fecuring of the clover for the purpofe of feed,
is that of getting the herbage fufliciently dry, in the dewy
and damp feafon at which the feed becomes ripe, that light
bags, formed of thin cloch or fine wire, might be ufeful for
colleéting, catching, and retaining the heads, which moftly
rife above the herbage, by being fixed upon the handles of
the feythes as they are {wept otf by them, being emptted as
there may be neceffity, as, in this way, the herbage by be-
ing left upon the ground, would be of three times the value
of the multy flraw afforded by feed-clover, either for the
purpofe of being eaten off, orturned down asa manure. De-
fides, the heads, by being weil dried in wet weather in the
houfe, and in dry feafons in the open air, the feed would, it
is fuppofed, not only be preferved with more certainty, but
ina much better ftate in re{pe to the fample, and of courfe,
in mott feafons, be of much greater value.”
Ciover Threfbing-machine, in Rural Economy, an imple-
ment contrived tor the purpofe of cutting off and colleCing
the heads of fuch crops of clover as have been let remain in
order to afford feed.
Various machines of this fort have been invented at dif-
ferent times, but probably without being perfectly adapted
to the bufinefs. Long ago an account was given, in * Brad-
jey’s Syitem of Hufbandry and Gardening,” of a machine
employed for this purpofe in Flanders, where this fort of
‘crop was introduced and cultivated at a much earhler period
than in this country, and which he has defcribed in the foilow-
ing manner. ‘ He has fecn,’”” he fays, “! two or three
ways of threfhing out clover-feeds by ergines in that country,
Vor. VIII.
‘matter.
cLO
after the heads of the feeds are thrathed off by common flails.
The engine which he beft remembers has a hopper.at the
upper end of a trough, fo that the heads of the feed fall con-
{tantly from the hopper into the trough. The trough is
about fix feet long, and about two feet aud a half over, and
lies flopewife from the hopper, which is at the higher end,
fo as to drop at the other end about afoot. The bottom of
this trough within-fide is made rough by chiffels, and upon
it 1s a board made to draw backwards and forwards, which
Is cut in a rough manner like the infide of the bottom of the
trough. -When the feeds fall into the trongh at the upper
end, the broad beard, in its-motion, draws them through the
trough, and thereby breaks or opens the feed-veffels, fo that
the chaff and the feeds run out of the lower end ready for
winnowing. ‘i'his motion is maintained by a water-wheel
and crank, and anfwers the purpofe it 1s defigned for v ry
well. He has alfo feen an engine of this kind where the
bottom of the trough wasa hurdle, more fizely wrought than
the common hurdles; and the fliding part, which he cails
the broad board, wasa hurdle of the fame make. In this he
found, that moi of the pure fed fell through the lower
hurdle, and little more than chaff was difcharged by the lows
er end of the trough, and confequently mutt otve lefs trouble
in the winnowing or cleaning from the chaff. He has alfo
feen another kind of mill, or engine, for this purpofe, which
fomewhat refembles the mill which tanners ufe in grinding
bark. In the former, he fhould have mentioned, that there
is commonly a weight laid upon the upper hurdle, or board,
the better to break the heads of feed that pafs between
that and the bottom of the trough. And from the great
fimplicity of this machine, the author of the ‘ Prefent
State of Hufbandry in Great Britain” thinks it is furprifing
that fome fuch has not been long fince creéted for the pur-
pefein England, where fuch great quantities of clover-feeds
are aonually faved. Were threfhing-milis generally ecre@t-
ed. in this kingdom, it is highly probable,’’ he fays, * thé
might in time be made not only to thrafh off the heads
of the clover from the ftalks, but, by means of fome fuch
machinery as above defcribed, be made alfo to feparate the
feeds fromthe hufks of the clover crops.
CLOULT, Pierer, in Biography, an engraver of fome
repute, native of Antwerp,- who, after he had learned the
firlt principles of his art, went to Rome, where he refided
many years, {tudying under Spierre and Bloemart: having
completed his itudies he went to Paris, where he lived fome
time, and from thence retired to the place of his birth, and
there died aged 62 years. His prints, though fomewhat defi
cient in harmony and effect of Chiaro-feuro, occafioned by
the too equal diftribution of the lights and fhadows, are en-
eraved ina firm and bold manner, fomething refembling that
of Pontius. He engraved many prints from. Rubens. whichare
much elteemed. Amonglt the beft may be reckoned the’
Death of St. Anthony,alargeupnght plate; the Defcent from
the Crofs, the fame ; a Converfation, where feveral lovers are
reprefented in a garden, a large plate length-ways, anda land-
{cape with a cottage, where the {now is reprefcoted falling 5
this, which is a large plate length-ways, makes one of a fet
of fix: the other five were engraved by S. Boifwert. Strutt.
Heinecken.
Crovet, ALBERT, nephew of the preceding artift,
was b rn at Antwerp, and like his uncle, went to Italy to
perfe&t himfclf in his art- He ftudied fome time under
Cornelius Bloemart at Rome, and engraved feveral of the
prints from the gallery of Pietro da Cortona, in the palace
Pitti at Florence, with a near relemblance to the ftyle of his
Belides a great number of other portraits, he
4h engraved
cLO
engraved thofe introduced in the lives of the painters by
Bellory. The dates-on“his prints, cited by Heinecken, are
from 1641 to 1675. Strutt. Heinecken.
CLOUGH, or Draught, in Commerce, an allowance of
‘two pounds in every hundred weight for the turn of the
{cale ; that the commodity may hold out weight when fold
out by retail. :
Croven, or Clogh, in Geography, a {mall poft-town
of the county of Down, Ireland, which has a fair for moun-
tain fheep. There is a caftle built ina Danith fort, which
is very unufual, and which, from being too {mall for the refi-
dence of a refpectable family, muft have been built merely
for defence, for which its. fituation is excellent. It is 69
miles N. from Dublin. Survey of Down.
There are other villages called Clogh, and fome places
‘to which this word isa prefix, its fignification im the Infh
language being a flone.
Croves,-or Cly/, is the fame with paddle, fhuttle, &c.
being a kind of fluice or pen-ftock, ufed for retaining or let-
ting go the waters of canals, ponds, mill-dams, &c.
* Crovucue-arches, or Paddle-holes, in the conftru&ion of
tanals, denote the crooked arches, which convey the water
from the upper pound into the chamber of the lock, when it
ts to be filled, and when the cloughs or paddles are drawn up.
See Plate V. Canals, fig. 36 and 37. :
CLOVIO, Dox: Givuri0, in Bisgraphy, fo jultly cele-
brated for his aftonifhing miniatures and illuminations in
miffals and other religious books, was born in Sciavonia in
the year 1498. He was originally educated for the church,
and took orders, but was afterwards fuffered to relinguifh
the facerdotal habit by a difpenfation from the pope. Soon
after the age of eighteen, his love'of painting prompted him
to travel to Rome, where he was taken into the fervice of
the cardinal Grimani, by whom he was, for the {pace of
three years, employed in making careful pen-drawings from
the fineft medals.
He afterwards became the fcholar of Giulio Romano,
and made contiderable advancement in oil-painting ; but his
matter, perceiving the extraordinary talent which he evinced
for miniature, fucceeded in perfiading him to apply him-
felf entirely to that branch of the art; and it may with
juttice be faid, that we owe to the fagacity of Giulio
Romano, and the unexampled afliduity of Clovio, the moft
exquifite and delicately finifhed performances of that kind
in the known world; ‘fince he not only far furpaffed all who
went before him, but to this day ftands unrivalled, by all
thofe who have fince attempted to walk ia his footfteps. In
addition to the inftruétion which our artilt received from the
favourite fcholar of Raffaele, he derived great benefit from the
works of Buonaroti, many of which he copied in a mott
beautiful and finifhed manner; and he afterwards reaped
great- advantage from the friend(hip and experience of
Girolamo da’ Libri, a miniature painter of great note at
Verona: the refult of all thefe Audies was a ftyle of draw-.
ing, partaking of-the purity of the Roman, and the grandeur
of the Florentine fchool; united, not unfrequently, to the
rich colouring of Titian or the ambient hue of Coreggio.
Amongtt the furprizing labours of Don Giulio Clovio,
defcribed by Vafari, that>-writer particularly dwells upon an
Ufficio della madonna, painted for the Cardinal Farnefe: In
this work many portraits were introduced, and the figures,
though in fome cafes no longer than fo many ants, were re-
prefented with as much diftinétnefs in ail their parts, as if
they had been drawn the fize of life.
A beautiful miffal, illuminated by Clovio, formerly be-
longing to Alexander Champernoun, efq. is now in the pof-
Osha,
feffion of the Townley family. Several, prints from the
works of this matter, are cited by Heinecken. He died
aged 80, in the year 1578. Wafari. Lanzi, Storia Pitto-
rica. 2
CLOVIS L., the firft Chriftian king of France, fucceed-
ed his father Childeric I. in the year 481, when he was but
14 years of age. He. wa} not long in freeing his country
from a formidable domination, “and in putting an end to the:
empire ‘of the Romans in Gaul. In 486 he defeated
Syagrius, the Roman general, at Sorflons, which he after-
wards made the/feat of his royalty. Syagrius fled to Thou-
loufe,. claiming the protection of Alsric, king of the
Viligoths, by whom, however, he was finally given up to
Clovis. The king, for fome time, amufed him with pro-
mifes of enlargement, and: thereby obtained new conquefts 5
but at length caufed him to be beheaded privately. The
power of the Romans being thus deftroyed, the French
found themfelves mafters of all the provinces fituated between
the Rhine and the Loire. At this period therights of kings
were of a very limited nature, which ill aceorded with the
haughty fpirit of Clovis; he felt that it was neceflary to
fubvert the powers of the foldiers, in order to eftablith and
augment hisown. Anh opportunity for this parpofe foon
prefented itfelf. A rich vafe was taken from’ a church at
Rheims, which the bifhop anxioufly defired might be reftored.
Clovis was inclined tc grant his wifhes, and at the divifion of
the fpoil claimcd the vafe as hisown. “ Hold,” exclaimed a
foldier, with his battle-axe raifed, ‘* thou fhalt have no other
than-the fhare which may fall to thy lot.’”? Clovis, at the
time, diffembled his anger, but he fhortly after took oecafion
to charge the man with fome trifling offence, and telling him
to recolle& the vafe, ftruck off his head with a fingle blow.
This a@ of authority, diated only by the mean and favage
{pirit of revenge, impreffed his army with reverence for his
authority, and eftablifhed a fort of boundary between the
rights of kings and thofe of the people. In 493, Clovis married
Clotilda, daughter of Childeric, formerly king of Burgundy.
She was a zealous Chriftian, and took every means in her’
power to convert the king. For three years fhe ftrove in vain,
when, feeing himfelf in danger of a defeat, he invoked the
God of the Chriftians, vowing an adherence to him, if by his
affiftance he might be enabled to conquer his enemies. He
rallied his troops, gained a complete viGtory, and was, with
3,000 of his fubjects, immediately baptized by the bifhop,
for whom he had formerly endeavoured to fave the vafe.
France became now a Chriftian country, and this revolution,
from paganifm to Chriltianity, feems to have been effeCted
with no more difficulty or difturbance, than any common ré-
gulations of the ftate. ‘* Indeed,” faysa good writer, “ when -
a fierce and barbarous people received the Chriltianity of that
age, they rather made its genius bend to their difpofition,
than formed themfelyes upon its precepts ; and a compli~
ance with fuperttitious rights and ceremonies, with fub-
miffion to ecclefiaftical authority, and profufe liberality to re=
ligious foundations, conitituted the whole of their new obli-
gations.” The true genius and fpirit of the Chriltian religion
were little underftood in that day. Clovis himfelf, when
affected by a detail of Chrilt’s fufferings, exclaimed “ Oh that-
I had been there I would have revenged his injuries.” The
king foon attained the high honour of being reckoned the
only cathclic king in Europe, all the other princes being
Arians, and the emperor Anaitafius was regarded as not.
perfetly orthodox. Clovis meditated the moft extenfive
plans, and was defirons of uniting under his domination all
the territory which extends from Langres to Geneva, and
from the Pyrenéesto the banks of the Loire. He waged
4 a luce.
~he encountered in his retreat.
- ealled St..Genevieve.
~~ tl eC
_ UAeaO
a fuecefsfal war againft his wife’s uncle, Gondebaud, from
whom he exacted a heavy tribute, on pretence that Alaric,
whofe dominions he had long coveted, was guilty of herefy ;
he fella vidim to the ambition cf Clovis. - His career was,
however, checked by his brother-in-law, Theodoric, king of
the Oftrogoths, who defeated him at Arles. Clovis, rendered
defperate by this mifcatriage, fellon, and deltroyed all that
To facilitate his ambitious
projects, he prevailed on Clodoric to.affaflinate his own‘father,
Sig¢ebert, and-then’had the parricide put to death, that he
might have fewer obftacles, with which to.contend in invading
his:tertitories.. “Having taken by furprize a-chief ofené of
the little flates, by which bis own dominions were furround-
ed, he canfed his héad to'bé fhaved, -becaufe he had the title
of kings which he wifhed to belong exclulively to-him(elf.
such was the ancient mode:of declaring a prince incapable of
wearing acrown. ‘The fon of the infultedichief obferved to
hhis, dejected parent, “that the branches would one day fhoot
ont agaw,/fince the trunk had not been divided.” ,Clovis
ehraped jat the fpeech crdered both father,and fon to be
‘beheaded.’ Hav exié¢nded his conquetts from the mouth
of fhe Rhme to ‘Lhouloufe, Ciovistook up his refidence in
Paris, which he made the feat of his empire, and which
remained for fourteen centuries the metropolis of the French
monarchy. He then adopted the pelicy ef overthrowing
" the little independent fates and royalties of Gaul, andjbring-
ing themall ander bisown authority, and in pus fuing this plan
he ferupled’not io employ treachery and aflaffination. To ex-
piate his crimes hefounded feveral monafterics,and built agreat
number of churches, at the inftigation of his clergy, who per-
fuaded him that, by fuch aéis of royal munificence, he would
fecure the pardon of his fins. Clovis died in 511, at the age
of forty-five years, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and was
buried in the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which isnow
He left four fons, for each of whom
he had preparea a kingdom. Clovis was author of the
Salic Jaw, which excludes the wife from any fhare of inherit-
ance. It likewife gave rife to the exclufion of females from
the fucceffion to the throne of France. See Saric Law.
“Hitt. Univer. Du Frefnoy.
‘Crovis IL. king of France, fucceeded his father, Da-
gobert, in the kingdoms of Neutftria and Burgundy in 638,
while he was a very young child. He is mentioned in this
work on account of fome traits of humanity which are at-
tnbuted to him ; of thefe the moft remarkable was, that of
ftripping the gold and filver plates which ornamented the
coffins. of St. Denis.and his companions, in order to purchafe
corn for the poor in atimeof fcarcity. Vhis aGtion has been
reprefented by fome monkifa writers as the caule of an’in-
fanity, with which, itis faid, he was affliGted, and to which
they impute the ftupidity of his defcendants. Clovis mar-
vied a’beautjful young girl, who liad) been purchaled of fome
Englifh merchants by the mayor ofthe palace, and prefented
tothe fovereign; by her he hadithree fons, none of whom
emerged from obfcurity. Of Clovis 111. nothing is record-
ed meriting our notice.
CLOUS @ Ariillerie de Travaux. militaires, nails for ay-
tillery and imilitary works. Thefe are of. different kinds,
lengths, thicknefles, forms, and denominations, and are par-
ticularly deferibed in this work, under the feveral names o
appellations they bear.
CLOUT, in Agriculture, is an iron plate put on the end
of the axle-tree of a cart, or other carriage, to prevent its
‘wearing. . url
Crovur-WNails, See Naiv.
CLOUTED Cream, in-Rural Beonomy, fuch creamcas
ie raifed by means of the milk being heated.
cLO :
CLOUTS, in Gunnery, are thin plates of iron ‘nailed on
that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriaze, which comes
throush the nave, and through which the linfpin goes. " See
ARTILLERY -carriages. nee shee :
CLOWADOK, in Geography, a river of South Wales,
which runs into the Yithon, at Lianbadern in Radnorfhire. »
CLOWES, Wirx1am, in Biggraphy, an.eminent furgeon
of the fifteenth century, received bis education under
George Keble, whofe {killin the art he flrongly cemmends.
He was for fome time furgeon in the navy, as he fays he
was on board her majefty’s fhip the Aide, in the yean1579,
when the emperor’s. daughter married the king of Spain.
He fome time afterwards fettied in London, and was made
furgeon to Chrilt’s and Bartholomew’s hofpitals. He -
pears to have been in hijxh eftimation, and to have had a
confiderable {hare of prattice, as he {peaks of. cures perform-
ed by him on perfons at Town-Malling, in Kent, and other
towns and villages in the vicinity of London... In 1586 he
was ordered to go to the Low-Countries, to the affiitt-
ance of the army under the earl of Leicefter. On» ‘his
retutn’ he ‘was appointed furgeon to the queen. From
various paflages in his publications, we find ‘that a {trict
friendthip fubfifted between him and Banifter, who was no
lefs famous for his profeffional abilities.. We learn alfo,
from the fame fource, that he had-ferved under the earl of
Warwick, and had been a retainer to lord Abergavenny. At
what time he died is not known. The lateft date in his
works is in 1596, at which time he appears to have been in
full praétice. As an author he is deferving of confiderable
credit. His works are in Englifh, and he ttrongly defends
the praétice of writing in our vernacular language ; at the
fame time, from his frequent quotations from Galen and
Celfus, he fhews he had a competent fhare of learning. His
firft publication is entitled, “* A Brief and Neceffary Trea-
tife touching the Cure of the Difeafe, now ufually called
Lues Venerea,”” printed in 1585, reprinted in 1596, and
again in 1637. He fpeaks of the increafed frequency of
the difeafe, and fays, that-in the {pace of five years he had
cured more than a thoufand patients, infeéted with it, at,
Bartholomew’s hofpital. He -ufed mercurial friGtions, and
occafionally turbith mineral, mercurias diaphoreticus, which
he highly commends. He alio gives formule for purging
potions, dict drinks, fumigations, ointments, platters, cauitics,
&c, THis next publication, which’ appeared fir in 1588,
and which has obtained for him the greatelt credit, was an
approved practice for ali young -chirurzeons, congerning,
burnings with gun-powder, aad wounds made with gun-fhot;
éword, halberd, pike, lance, &c..the refult of much praétice
and obfervation, while employed.as an army furgeon, ftrengtha
ened by obfervations from the. molt approved writers, and
containing all that was then kaown on. the fubjects treated
of. Inthe treatment of gun-fhot wounds, and of punctures
of the nerves, -he' profefies to. ufe emollient and foothing ap-
plications, though they would hardly be efteemed fo at this
time ; they were, however,.an improvement on what he had
been accultomed to fee in the ‘early part of his-pragtice.. He
relates the cafe of a perfon whofe fkull was fraétured; in
which he ufed the trepandfuccefsfully, and ofa’ compound
fra&ture of theleg, which he cured without amputating the
limb. In fhort hemay be juftly ranked among’ the reitorers
and improvers of furgery! ‘To the: fecond edition ‘of : this
work, publifhed in 1591, he added a, tranflation of.a treatife
on thervenereal difeafe, by John Alucenar, aSpanith phyfician,
and fome.aphorifms relative to furgery, in Englifh and Latin.
Thé firft of the pieces was delivered to him, he fays, bya
friend ; the latter:he found among fome old books of furt
gery. Clowes was’ a rational practitioner, and appears te
4. Ei2 have
ap-
C-L.U
have had an enlarged, intelligent, mind.
Janghs at quacks and impottors, particularly at thofe juglers
who pretended to charm away difeafes, and tells a merry
ftory of one old beldam, who-was put on her trial for ufiog
witchcraft in the cure of difeafes. The judges, who faw
theignorance, as well asthe malice of the profecutors, told
the dame, if fhe woul@ divulge her charm the fhould be fet at
liberty. his fhe readily did, to the no {mall diverfion of
the court, when fhe informed them, that it confilted in re-
peating the following words, after receiving the ftipulated
pay, a loaf of bread and a penny:
My loaf in my lap,
My penny in my purfe, e
Thou art never the better,
‘And [ am never the worfe.
But we have little reafon to laugh at the credulity of our
ancelitors, while we fuffer ourfelves to be impofed upon by
itories of the efficacy of tractors, and other equally infigni-
ficant and contemptibie pieces of juglery and impofture.
Aikin’s Biograph. Memoirs.
CLOWEY, in Geography, a lake of North America, N.
lat. 62° 20', W. long. 106° 15’.
CLOWNS’ Aut-Heat, in Botany.
Sy/vatica.
Crowns’ Wound «sot. See Stacuys.
CLOYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure and Loire, and principal place of a can-
ton in the diftriét of Chateaudun ; the place contains 1520,
and the canton 10,751 inhabitants; and the territory in-
cludes 245 kilometres, and 15 communes,
CLOYED. ‘The feamen, when any thing is got into the
touch-hole of a great gun, fo that they cannot with a prim-
ing-iron make way for the powder to be put in to prime it,
fay, the touch hole is cloyed ; wherefore, when guns are nailed,
&c. they fay they are cloyed.
CLOYNE, in Geography, afmall town of the county of
Cork, Ireland, remarkabiec only for heing the fee of a bifhop.
The cathedral is a fine old building, and within a fhort dif-
tance of it there is a well preferved round tower. The
bifhopric lies entirely within the county of Cork, extending
eaft and weft near 50 Irifh miles in length, by a breadth of
23. It contains 137 parifhes, which have been reduced to
69 benefices; though they contain 539,700 Irifh acres.
The patronage of the bifhop is confiderable ; and the warden-
fhip of the church of Youghel, and a union of parifhes near
Cloyne being united to the bifhopric, this fee is ufually
reckoned amongtt the beft. Thecelebrated Berkley was one
of its bifhops. Cloyne is within a short diftance of the fea,
about 14 miles eaft from Cork.
CLUACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media, according to Ptolemy.
CLUACARIA, or Ciucar, atownof Africa.
CLUACINA, in Mythology, an epithet of Venus, de-
rived, as fome fay, from C/ua, to hear, liften, or agree; or,
according to others, fignifying to fight. Her image was
ereéted in the place where peace was concluded between the
Romans and Sabines.
CLUALE, in Geography, a town of America, in Geor-
gia; 15 miles S. of Oaktutkee.
CLUANA, a maritime town of Italy, in the Picenum,
fituated at the mouth of a river. Pliny.
CLUB a battalion, to, alow, vuigar, military phrafe, imply-
ing both the confufion which a body of men gets into by
falfe direétions given to its differeit component parts and a
temporary inability, on the part of the commanding officer,
to reltore them to their natural front in line or column.
See Sracuys
He every where
cLuv
Officers, who are inexperienced, and but indifferent ta&ti-
cians in the fubordinate parts, may frequently commit this
error. The confufion, however, fometimes happens through
an erroneous movement of a divifion or company, even
whem the word of command has been correétly given. An -
officer fhould know how to unravel the feveral parts imme-
diately. But if heis puzzled, he fhould caufe the di/perfe to
be founded for the troops to repair in loofe and defultory
order to fome rallying point, and there to re-aflemble in their
natural line of formation. A general, however, may be a
perfect judge of pofitions, and underftand thoroughly the
principles of attack and defence without having minutely
ftucied or particularly attended to the drill and the mere
mechanical arrangements of inferior movements; whereas
one, whofe attention is chiefly directed to fuch objects, is
{eldom or ever fit to be entrufted with the command of an
army on actual fervice, or in the field, where but few of the
manceuvres ulually taught and attended to are either ufeful
or can be advantageoufly put in practice. And it ought
always to be remembered by thofe, who write or fpeak on
the attack and defence of this country, though none of
them feem to have fo much as once adverted to the fad,
that neither the Pruffian nor German tdétics can be made
ule of with advantage in either attacking or defending it.
At the fame time it muft be acknowledyed, that a general
fhould attend to the minutiz as well as to the fublimer
parts of his profeffion, allowing, however, to each their julk
and proportionate claim to his attention.
Cxius antenne,in Natural Hiflory, a name given by natu-
ralifts to fuch of the horns or antennez of butterflies as re-
prefent a club, being larger at the extremitics than at the
origin.
Crus-fool, or club-footed, a diftortion fo called. See
Foor, Diftortion of the.
Crus-haul, in Sea-Language, denotes a method of tacking
a fhip, when it is expeéted fhe will mifs-{tays upon a lee-
fhore. ' :
Crus-Mofs, in Botany. See Lycopopium.
Crus-Rufh. See Scirpus.
CLUDRUS, or Ciupros, in Ancient Geography, a river
of Afia Minor, in Caria, according to Pliny, who fays that
the town of Eumenia was fituated on its banks.
CLUE of a Sail See CLew.
.
CLUGNY, in Geography, an ifland in the Southern In- |
gin Ocean, difcovered by Kerguelen, near Kerguelen’s
and. ,
.CLUIS Dessous, a town of France, in the department
of the Indre, two leagues N.W. of Aigurande.
Cruis Deffus, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre, and diftri& of Chateauroux, 10 miles E. of Ar-
enton.
CLUMB, in Ornamental Gardening, a detached portion of
ground, dug up on lawns, or other parts of pleafure-
grounds, fo as to be confiderably raifed in the middle for
the purpofe of receiving different forts of trees, fhrubs,
flower and other plants of the ornamental kind, in order to
fhow them more fully, and produce a better effet. ‘They
differ from borders in being perfe€tly detached and feparate,
as well as in being much more railed im the operation of
digging them over. This fort of ornamental compartment
is nat, however, at prefent fo much in ufe as formerly, except
in very fmall defigns. But iu extenfive grounds, where there
is much mown grafs or lawn, when occationally introdveed,
they have a good effect. It has been obferved by the author
of ‘* Ornamental Planting,” that ‘¢ detached mafles of wood,
as well as groups and fingle trees, give a kind of animation to
a {cene;.
}
CL U
a fcene; and this may be a reafon why Brown was fo lavifh
of them: but that a crowd of clumps, as a profufion of fin-
gle trees, mult ever disfigure the feene they appear in.”’
In the forming of compartments of this nature, great
eare fhould be taken to have them properly proportioned to
the nature of the fituation and extent of ground, as nothing
can be more offenfive or difgufting than clumps difpropor-
tionately large. The diftribution of them in the ground
fhould likewife be well attended to, in order that they may
produce the moft certain and ftriking variety and effect;
this is much affilted by their being duly but irregularly in-
termixed with the other ornaments of the {cite on which
they are introduced.
In the bufinefs of planting them, the trees and large
growing fhrubs fhould be conftantly placed towards the
back parts or middles, while the f{maller fhrubs and flower
plants occupy the fore parts, being all properly intermixed
according to their habits and metiiods, as well as times of
flowering ; as, by a judicious management in this refpect,
they produce a much better variety and effect, and continue
much longer in beauty. .
All the finer forts of flowering trees, fhrubs, and other
plants, are here proper, as well as a flight mixture of thofe
of the more common kinds. =
The annual management of clumps is merely that of dig-
ging them over once or twice, trimming, and removing all
the old ftems and decayed parts of the plants and fhrubs,
raking them over neatly in the early {pring feafon, and put-
ting in fuch annual feeds as may be thought proper. See
Bosguer.
Cuiumps, in Agriculture, are portions of land planted with
different forts of trees in a clofe manner,-for the purpofe of
affording fhelter and protection to the ground or live ftock
kept upon it.
CLUN, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Temde, 5 miles W. from Ludlow, in Shrophhire.
CLUNCH. By this name miners and well-diggers, &c.
denominate a variety of ftoney matters which they meet
with in digging. In the clay which is met with below the
fand ftratum, which crops in Leighton, Woburn, Ampthill,
Sandy, and other parifhes in Bedfordthire, two remarkable
layers of whitifh ftone cailed clunch are met with, near the
part of the clay abounding with large perforated gryphites :
thefe clunches are not much harder than chalk, and contain
within them very beautiful and large fpecimens of cornua
ammonis, of {mall bivalve fhells called anomia or pundibs,
and {mall pieces of rotten wood, in a foft or almolt pulpy
ftate: what is remarkable, and may tend to throw fome
light upon the bitumenization of wood in the ftrata, is,
that fome fpecimens of this foft wood taken out of the
clunch being immerfed in a phial of water, were, after fome
months, fhrunk very greatly, particularly in thicknefs, and
were found hard, and their fraéture to be finooth and {hining
ike the bitumenized wood which is found in other {trata,
particularly in the purbeck potters, or white pipe-clay
ftratum.
CLUNDERT, or Kiunperr, a ftrong town of Hol-
Jand, formerly called ‘* Neuwervaert,”’ feated on a river or
canal, which runs from the Merwe, and forms the traét on
which this town and Williamftadt ftand into an ifland. It
was taken by the French in March 1793, and foon after
evacuated ; 10 miles W.N.W. of Breda. N. lat. 51° 40’.
E. long. 4° 28'.
CLUNG, in Rural Economy, fignifies clofed up, or
ftopped ; fpoken of hens, when they do not lay. Jt is alfo
applied to wood or any other thing that is fhrivelled or
fhrunk up, when it is faid to be clung. Abh: timber is
cLu
fometimes fo much clung, that it cannot be fplit into hoops
or other fimilar forms. And in this ftate it 1s improper for
the ule of coopers. iw:
CLUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hither
Spain, S.W. of Numantia, which became a Roman colony
and ® conventus,”? Suetonius in his Life of Galba (c. 8.)
informs us, that this prince governed Hifpania Tarrago-
nenfis for eight years, and that during this period Vindex re-
volted againft Nero, and invited Galba to unite with him
in refeuing the empire from tyranny. It was in this town
that a prick of Jupiter, admonifhed in a dream, found ia the
fan@uary of a temple a prediction, delivered 200 years before,
which annonnced that a man fprynz from Spain would poffefs
the empire of the world. This prediction,and the revolt of Vin-
dex, determined Galba to [eize the empire, under the modett
title of licutenant of the fenate and of the Roman people. It
was, moreover, at Clunia, that Galba, after receivlog intelli
gence of the defeat and death of Vindex, received information,
that the foldiers, fenate, and Roman people had given him
the title of emperor. This prince, in acknowledgment of
thefe favourable occurrences, celebrated Clunia on his me-
dals, by the name of Sulpicia, under which appellation it
was honoured by Galba. On one medal the emperor 1s
reprefented feated and receiving the victory prefented by
the goddefs of the city. This place is now denominated
Corunna or Corunna del Conde. :
CLUNIUM, a town of the eaftern part of the ifland of
Corfica, according to Ptolemy
CLUNY, or Cruent, in Geography, a town of Trance,
in the department of the Sadue and Loire, and chief place
of acanton in the diftri& of Macon, fituated between two
mountains on the Rhone. The church is fuppofed to be
one of the largeft in France, and the town includes three
parifhes. he place contains 3814, and the canton-r5 567
inhabitants: “the territory comprehends 2623 kilometres
and 23 communes; 34 leagues N.W. of Macon, and feven
S. of Chelons-fur-Sadne. In this place was a celebrated
abbey of Benediétine monks, being the head or chict of a
congregation denominated from them. It was founded by
William, duke of Berry and Aquitain ; or, as others fay, by
the abbot Berno, fupported by that duke, in the year 910} but
owed its diflinguifhed reputation to Odo, who, upon the death
of Berno, was created abbot of Clugni in 927. 1 his zealous
ecclefiaftic not only obliged the monks to live in a rigorous
obfervance of tltir rules, but alfo added to their diferplinea
new fet of rites and ceremonies, which, notwithftanding the air
of fan@tity that attended them, were in reality infignifieant
and trifling, and yet at the fame time fevere and burthenfome.
This new rule of difcipline was produtive of glory to its
author, and, ina fhort time, was adopted in all the European
convents; for moft of the ancient monafteries, which had
been founded in France, Germany, Italy, Britain, and
Spain, received the rule of the monks of Clugni, to which
alfo the convents, newly eftablifhed, were fubjected by their
founders. Thus it was, that the order of Ciugni attained
to that high degree’ of eminence and authority, opulence,
and dignity, which it exhibited to the Chriftian world, in
the following century. _Motheim obferves, (E. H. vol. in.
p- 473,) that the “order of Clugni,” was not, as fome
have reprefented it, a new fet of monks, fuch as were the
Carthufian, Dominican, and Francifcen orders; but figni-
fied only, Jr}, that new inftitution, or rule of difcjpline,
which Odo had prefcribed to the BenediGine monks, who
were fettled at Clugni, and, afterwards, that prodigious
multitude of monalteries throughout Europe, which re-
ceived the rule eftablifhed at Clugni, and were formed by al-
fociation into a fort of community, of which the abbot of
Clugni:
Clugni was the chief. Towards the clofe of the 12th cen-
tury a jealoufy avofe between the Ciltercians and the monks
of Clugni, which, after feveral diffenfions, produced at
lens
theamopen rupture, and declared war between thefe two
1
nt and powerful monafterics. “The mo
~accufed the Cifkercians of affecting an,extr t auftenty
in their’manners and difcipline ; while the Ciftercians, on
the other/hand, charged them, and on very jut grounds,
with having degenerated from their former fanétity and re-
gularity of conduée. St, Bernard, the oracle and proteétor
of the Ciftercians, wrote, in the year 1327, an apology for
his own condu& in relation to the divifion that fublited be-
tween the two convents, and inveighed with a juft, though
cecent, feverity againit the yices that had corrupted the
mouks of Clugni. He aecufes them of luxury and intem-
perance at their table, of fuperfluity, and magnificence in
their drefs, their bed-chambers, their furniture, equipage,
and buildings. He points ont the pride and’ vanity of the
abbots, wv ed more like the governors of provinces
than the fpiritual fathers of humble and holy communities,
whofe origi ‘efiion it was to be crucified and dead to
the intercils and pleafures, the pomps and vanities, of the
prefent Jd. He declares, with a,pious concern, that he
knew feveral abbots, each of whom had more than 6o
-horfes in his ftable, and fuch a prodigious variety of wines
in his cellar, that it was fcarcely poffible to tafte the half of
them at.a fingle entertainment. This charge was anf{wered
with uncommon moderation and candour, by Peter Mauri-
cius, abbot of Clueni; and,hence_ it, oceafioned a contro-
verfy in form, which {pread from day to day its baneful in-
fluence, and excited dillurbances in feyeral parts of Europe.
It was, however, followcd with a much more vehement and
bitter conteft concerning an exemption from the payment of
tythes,.granted among other privileges and immunities to
the Ciflercians, A.D. 1132, by Innocent II. This keen
difpute was, in fome meaiure, terminated in the year 1155.
Mofheim, E. H. voi. ni. p. 67.
This order of monks was brought into England by Wil-
liam, curl of Warren, fon-in-law to William the Conqueror,
who built a houfe for them at Lewes in Suffex, about the
year 1077. There were twenty-feven priories and cells of
this order in. England, which were governed by foreigners,
afterwards made denizens.
CLUPEA, in Ancient Geography. See CLyPEA.
Crurea, in Ichthyology, a genus of abdominal fifhes.
The charaéter of the genus confilts in the head being com-
prefled ; mouth comprcfled and rough within; jaws un-
equal,the upper with ferrated myltaces ; tongue fhort,rough,
with inverted teeth; eyes moderate,round,and marginal}; gills
fetaceous; the gill-covers of either three or four plates; and
the gill-membrane eight-rayed ; bodycompreffed, elongated,
andcovered with {cales of moderate fize; lateral line ftraight,
near the back, and running ina parallel dire€tion to it; belly
carinated and generally ferrated ; ventral fins ufually nine-
wayed ; tail forked.
s of Chigni
Species.
Turissa. Anal finwith twenty-eight rays; laft ray of
t),e dorfal fin long and fetaceous.
This fh is about twelve or fourteen inches in length ; the
back bluifh-green, with rows of brownifh {pots; the fides of
the head green, and of the body filvery white. ‘It itihabits
the fhores of America and India, and is confidered poi-
fonous.
Seticornis. Lateral bones of the upper jaw fetaceous ;
anal fin with thirty two rays. A native of the Pacific Ocean.
‘The body is of a lanceolate form, with the back bluith, and
Cc LU
the belly filvery; the fcales fmooth, deciduous, fomewhat
of a rhombic form and obliquely imbricated. .
Cypeinoipes, Belly obtufe. Length lefs than twelve
inches. Thebody is of an oblong form and filvery colour, with
the back’bluifh, and the feales difpofed in ten Jongitudinal
feries, A tropical fifh. Camaripugaucu of Ray. .
Teoevics. Tail cuneated, or wedge-formed, :
Inhabits the coafts of Afcenfion ifland ; the body is white,
contprefied, broad, and ferrated.
Suvensrs. Outer ray of the gill-membrane truncated be-=
hind. A fpecies which inhabits the coaft of China ; inuits
general fisure, this fifh is broader than the common herring,
but in other refpe&ts refembles it. f :
Mysrus. Body enfiform;-anal fin joined to the tail.
Lion. A native of the Tiidian feas. ta
“Aruertnorpes. Lateral line filvery. Gmel. This kind
inhabits Surinam. "he lower jaw is fhorter than the other.
HiaumeEva.
ventral, anal, or caudal fins: dorfal fin.extending the whole
length of the back; tail linear. ann
This and the following: fpecies are defcribed by Forfkal as
natives of the red fea; they feem both very doubtfnl.
Doras. Ventral fins minute; upper lip two-horned, with
extended teeth; lower longer, the teeth itrong and ere.’
Vittosa. Lateral line prominent and rough. Muller,
A native of the north fea, ranieee
Tusercuiata. Lower jaw longer: on the fnout.a wart-
like protuberance, and a red {pot at the upper commiffures
of the jaws. La Cepede. os slits
A fmall fpecies obferved by Commerfon, in the Indian
feas, and faid.to be an excellent fifh for the table. -
Fasciata. Above, marked with femi-current dufky
bands ; below, with rounded fpots, La Cepede. Inhabits
the Indian feas, and was found by Commerton. apiicar
Macroceruara. Above bluish, with the head elong-
ated; upper jaw longeft: finsred. La Cepede. 9 =
Defcribed from a drawing, made by father Plumier, an
fifth taken in the American feas. ry
Axosa. Sides marked with a longitudinal feries of {pots
fnout bifid.
M4
2
This is the common ‘had, a fifh which inhabits the Medi-
terranean and northern feas: it is of the marine kind, but at
particular feafons afcends rivers for the purpofe of depofiting
its {pawn, and which it is obferved to lay in the deepelt Hie
of the river. “Towards autumn this fifh returns again to the
fea. Ufual length from eighteen inches to two feet.
The young of this fpecies has been very recently afcertained
by us to be no other than the little fifh known ER
the name of white bait. The hiltory of that heretofore am-
biguous fifh has excited the curiofity-of fo many naturalifts,
that we cannot refrain repeating, in this place, a few ne
fervations that have lately fallen-from us on the fame fu jeé
in the ** Natural Hiftory of Britifh Fithes.”’—We havethere
obferved that when the true character of the white bait
becomes more generally underftood, and the veracity of thoi
remarks we fhail offer ‘in the fequel is fufficiently confirm
by the obfervations of other naturalifts, it-will perh $-@p-
pear that it has remained with us to remove the myfterio
veil that has hitherto enveloped the hiftory of this ieee
fifh ‘in obfeurity. To what peculiar circumftances we arg
to attribute the errors that. have prevailed among writers,
refpeéting this fifh, we cannot eafily imagine : unlefs, as we
mutt fufpe&, they never had an opportunity of examining
it; but that-they-have a@tually been deceived, -we are per-
fectly fatisied. This affertion is not advaneed on fight
furmifes, for fome pains have been taken by us to inveltigate
the hiftory of this heretofore ambiguous fih: we hav
“sexamined -
4
Body lanceolate, naked, and deltitute of <
~ examined it repeatedly, and have now before us a variety
of fpecimens, elucidatory of the different tranfitions of its
growth, from a diminutive fize to the full length of three
or four inches. Every one of thefe bears the moft ftriking
femblance of the parent fifh, and affords an incontrovertible
evidence, that the white bait is really the fryof the common
fhad. We fhall premife our enquiry by introducing the
obfervations of Mr. Pennant concerning it, in the relult of
which he labours to prove, that the white bait is not the
young thad, or even fith of the clupca, but one of the
cyprinus genus, approaching near to the bleak, and
fhall conclude with ftating our reafons for diffenting from
an opinion fo long eftablifhed, and fo uniformly adopted by
Jater writers.
_. Dnring the month of July (fays Mr. Pennant) there
appear in the river Thames, near Blackwall and Greenwich,
innumerable multitudes of fmall ffh, which are known to
the Londoners by the name of white bait. They are
efteemed very delicious when fried with fine flour, and
occafion, during the feafon, a. valt refort of the lower
order of epicures to the taverns contiguous to the places
where they are taken at.
«: There are various conjectures about this {peeies, but all
terminate in a fuppofition that they are the fry of fome fifh,
but few agree to which kind they owe their origin. Some
attribute them to the fhad, others: to the {prat, the {melt,
and the bleak. That they neither belong to the fhad, nor
the {prat, is evident from the number of branchioftegous rays,
which in thofe are eight, in this only three. ‘That they are
mot the young of {melts is as clear, becaufe they want the
pinna adipofa, or vaylefs fin ;. and that they are not the off-
fpring of the bleak is extremely probable, fince we never
heard of the white bait being found in any other river, not-
wwith{tanding the bleak is very common in feveral of the
Britifh ftreams; but, as the white bait bears a greater fimi-
larity to this fifh than any other we have mentioned, we give
it a place as an appendage to the bleak, rather than forma
diftin& article of a fifh, which it is impoffible to clafs with
ceertainty. It is evident that it is not of the carp or cypri-
nus genus; it has only three branchioltegous rays, and only
one dorfal fin; and, in refpeét to the form of the body, it is
compreffed like that of the bicak. Its ufual length is two
ches ; the under jaw is longett ; the irides filvery, the pu-
pil biack; the dorfal fin is placed nearer to the head than
the tail, and confilts of about fourteen rays; the fide line is
Atraight ; the tail forked, the tips black. The head, fides,
oh belly are filvery ; the back tinged with green.’ Brit.
‘Zool. i 4
Dr, Shaw, in his “ General Zoology,” defcribes the white
bait as a fpecies of the carp or cyprinus genus. It is ob-
Werved, by this writer, that ‘¢ this fmall fifh, which is ex-
tremely plentiful, at particular feafons, in the river Thames,
is fuppofed to be the young of fome fpecies of cyprinus,
though it is not agreed to what fpecies it fhould mott pro-
perly be referred.’’? The white bait is introduced by Dr.
‘Turton as a variety of the bleak, cyprinus alburnus.. He de-
feribes it as having the lateral line ftraight. he general
‘defcription is to the following effet. ‘* Pupil black ; iris
filvery ; lower jaws Jonger; head, fides, and belly filvery ;
-back tinged with green ; dorfal fin nearer the head than the
‘tail, and with about fourteen rays; tail forked, the tips
_-black.”? It will be proper to add, that no mention is made
-of this fifh in the Gmelinian Syflema Naiure, and that Dr.
Turton has inferted it, to all appearance, on the authority of
Mr. Pennant.
Our obfervations commenced with ftating the white bait
naturally conceived, is very great.
Cone PA, t ;
to be the genuine offspring of the had, and confequently of
“the clupea inftead of cyprinus genus,as the preceding authors
confider it. “This we fhall have little difficulty in determin-
ing. © To {peak with indecifion ona point that admitsof not
the flighteft doubt, would be fuperflucus; when we deliver
an opinion merely, it is becoming to exprefs it with diffi-
dence ; but furely diffiderce and indecilion are mifapplied to
matters beyondthe poflibility of doubt, and fuch is the fact
precifcly With regard to white bait. Every circumfance
confidered, we cannot avoid concluding that much of: the
prevailing errors refpeCting the white bait has originated
from the incautious obfervations of Mr. Pennant. on this
fubje@ ; that this author never faw the white Bait, and that
fucceeding naturalifts, too implicitly relying upon his ob=
fervations, have been inadvertently precipitated into thofe er-
rors,which the molt cafual examination of the fith in queftion
would have enabled them io dete&. If, however, contrary
to this fuggeftion, Mr. Pennant ever did examine the fith,
his fpecimens mult have been either in a molt imperfe& ftate,
or his inveftigation of it unpardonably negligent. His fizure
conveys no jultidea of the fith, and his critical animadver-
fions are laborioufly intricate and defeétive. He tellus, for
example, that the white bait “ neither belongs to the fhad
nor the f{prat, as 1s evident from the number of branchiofte-
gousrays, which in thofe are eight, in this (the white bait)
only three.” This remark is incorre&; the branchiofte-
gous rays were uniformly eight in number in at leaft fifty
fpecimens we examined, with the view of afcertaining the
fa&t exaGtly. The number of thofe rays determines at once
that it cannot be of tke cyprinus genus, which is diftinguifh-
ed by having only three rays inftead of eight. Mr. Pen.
nant further remarks, that “it is impoffible to clafs this fith
with certainty,”’ buat in what refpect this amb'suity confifts
itis not for us to fay. The white bait certainly poffefles every
criterion of the {pecies as evidently as the parent, or full-
grown fifh; its outline is the fame, the fins are alike; it ex-
hibits the fame ferrations on the abdomen and cleft on the
fnout ; and what is even remarkable in a fith of this fmall
fize, the lateral range of duflcy {pots is perceptible through
the beautiful filver feales, as in the larger fifh; it ex-
hibits, in a word, the moft perfeét but diminifhed view of the
common fhad, not a folicary character excepted. Vide Do-
nov. Brit. Fifhes, pl. 98.
Harencus. Body without {pots; lower jaw longer.
The common herring is a fith fo generally known to every
common obferver, that we conceive it unneceflary to offer an
elaborate defcription of it; the fpecies is pretty accurately
defined by the above charaéter, which is that affigned to it
by Linnzus in his ‘* Fauna Suecica.’’
The importance of the herring to .the inhabitants of
Europe, and thofe more particularly of the northern coun-
tries, is very great. The fithery of the herring, as may be
The Dutch who, in
this refpeét, fet an early example of induftry to the relt of
Europe, were engaged in this fifhery fo long ago as the year
1164, and are {aid to have carried it on for feveral cedturies
after, with the greateft perfeverance and fpirit. The method
of pickling the herring, after the Dutch manner, is reported
to have been difcovered- by, William Beukelen, of Biervlet,
neat Sluys in Flanders, and his art, in a great meafure, re-
mains a fecret to this day. The fuperior excellence of the
herrings pickled in this manner is generally allowed, and
fuch herrings bear a hicher price than thofe preferved in any
other way. The Britifh pickled herrings are in little efteem,
except in our own country. Some attempts have been lately
made to eftablifh a fmall colony of Dutch fifhermen on oi
co
geite G ia) Li 1)
coaft of Scotland, for the exprefs purpofe of piekling her-
rings in the fame manner asin Holland, but whether the
laudable endeavours of thofe concerned will be ultimately
fuccefsful, time alone can determine ; there feems to exifk a
general, aud, no doubt, very unfounded prepo‘leffion in the
country, that they are itll inferior to thofe pickled in Hol-
land>
Many particulars related by authors, refpeting the pe-
riodical migrations of the herring from the northern regions
towards the fouth of Eurepe,feem to admit of great difpute ;
the belt informed ichthyologifts of the prefent time are in-
clined to think thofe accounts, in molt infkances, erroneous.
It is fuppofed the herring, like the mackrel, remains, during
the winter months, at no ‘very great diltance from the fhores,
which it moft frequents during the fpawning feafon ; the
fame we have ourfclves obferved with regard to the {prat.
In winter they inhabit the deepeft parts of the fea, or
plunge beneath the foft mud at the hottom, from whence
they uife at the {pring feafon, and approach the fhallows in
order to depofit their fpawn in proper fituations. In proof
of this, Bloch obferves, that herrings are found at almoft all
feafons of the year about fome of the European coafts, and
that the northern migrations, fuppofed by Pennant and
others, are impracticable in the fhort period afiigned by them,
as the fith, in its fwifteft progrefs, is utterly incapable of
moving at a rate by any means fo rapid as the term allowed
for thofe migrations would require. For this, and other
reafors, Bloch is induced to think the long voyages of the
herring exilt only in the minds of its defcribers.
The herring 1s {uppofed to feed on marine worms, and
the {mall fry of fifhes in general; its greateft enemies are
the various fpecies of whales, fome of which fubfift almolt
entirety on this ith.
Pircuarpus. Nofe turned up; dorfal fin in the centre
of gravity ; fcales large and frm.
‘The pilchard is fomewhat allied in general appearance to
the herring, but is thicker, or of a lefs compreiled form, the
back more elevated, and the {cales very confiderably larger
in proportion, It is alfo a fmaller fifh, rarcly exceeding the
length of eight inches. Pilchards, according to Dr. Bor-
Jafe, appear ufually in vatt fhoals off the Cornifh coats, about
the middle of July, and difappear again in the beginning of
winter, though a few return again after Chriftmas. Their
winter retreat is fuppofed to be the fame as that of the her-
ring. The p:lchard fifhery is a very produétive concern on
the coaft of Cornwall, where thofe ffh are cured for export-
ation. Oil is alfo extraGted from them in great abundance.
Sprattus. Lower jaw longer than the upper; dorfal
fin about feventeen-rayed, belly ferrated.
The fprat inhabits the north of Europe, appearing at
particular feafons in immenfe fhoals near the coafts; it
ufually {pawns in autumn.
Encrasicotus. Upper jaw longeft. Linn.
The general length of the anchovy is from three to four
inches, or, at the utmoft, about four inches and a half;
though individual {pecimens have occurred of a ftill Jarger
fize. ‘Yne prevailing colour is filvery, with the back
reen.
This Sth is found in great plenty in the Mediterranean,
Northern, and Atlantic feas, and, like the herring, is fup-
pofed to leave the deep recefles of the fea, and in fpring
approach the fhores, for the purpofe of depofiting its fpawn.
The great fifhery of anchovies 1s at Gorgona, a {mall fle to
the weft of Leghorn. ‘hey are taken in vaft quantities,
and prepared for fale by falting and pickling; the bones
salily. diffolve in boiling. It is fuppofed to have been
2
CLbw
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who prepared
from it a kind of garum for their table. The anchovy hag
been obferved, though very rarely, on. the Englith coalt?
Vide Donov, Brit. Fifies. See AncuHovy. —
CLUSES, in Geography, a towu in the department of
Leman, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Bonne-
ville, feated by the fide of the Arve; the place contains
2102, and the canton 10,330 inhabitants: tne territory ins
cludes 1¢o0 kiliometres aud $ communes.
CLUSIA, in Botany, (fo called in memory of C. Clu:
fias, or Charles de l’FEcivfe,) Balfam-tree. Linn. Gent
1154. Schreb. 1584. Juff. 256. Wert. 3.147. (Perepé
Evcye.) Clafs and order, polysamia monecia. Nat. Ord,
Guttifere, Jufl. Vent. =
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth from four to fixteen-leaved, per-
manent, leaves concave, imbricated, the exterior ones gis.
dually fmaller. Cor. Petals from four to Jix, large, open,
roundifh, larger than the calyx. Stam. Filaments from fx
or cight, to a very great.number, fimple, fhorter than the
corolla. Pi/f. Germ ovate-oblong ; ftyle none, ftigma ra-
diate, peltate, flat, obtufe, permanent. Pertc. Capfule
foheroid, large, furrowed, from four to twelve-celled, opening
fron the fummit to the bafe into as many valves as there are
cells, each terminated by aray of the fligma. Seeds nume-
rous, {mall, covered with a fucculent pulp, affixed either to
a central angular receptacle, or to receptacles adhering on
the tnfide to the fummit of the valves. '
Eff. Ch. Calyx from four to fixteen leaved. Petals from
four to fix, Stamens generally very numerous. Stigma fef-
file, with diverging rays. Capfule from four to twelve-
celled, opening longitudinally into as many valves. Seeds
fmall, covered witha fucculent pulp.” '
Obf. All the flowers have ftamens anda piftil; but in
fome, the flamens are abortive, in fome the piftil, and in
others they are both perfe€t. All the fpecies are trees
abounding in a vifcid juice, which becomes red when exe
pofed to the air, and hardens into a gum or refin. In the
female flowers, a neétary is formed by the coalition of the
abortive anthers, including the germ.
Sp. 1. C. rofea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Poir. 1. Plum,
Gen. 21. Jacq. Americ. 270, Pid. 231. (Cenchramidea,
Pluk. Alm, 92. tab. 157. fig. 2. Catcfb. Car. 2. tab. 99.)
«© Leaves veinlefs; corcllas fix-petalled.”” Trunk from
twenty to thirty feet high; branches fpreadings Leaves
oppofite, quite entire, inverfely egg-fhaped, firm, coriaceous,
even on their upper furface, marked underneath with oblique
parallel nerves unconneéted by veins, round, and fometimes
a little emarginate at the fummit, narrowed at the bafe, on
fhort peticles. /eqwers large, rofe-coloured, axillary and
terminal; peduncles thick, fhort, fometimes fimple, more
frequently two or three-flowered ; braétes fhort, obtufe,
fealy ; calyx-leaves fix, coloured, almoft round, concave, ob-=
tufe, open, fomewhat imbricated ; the two intermediate ones
half the fize of the two interior ones, and twice the fize of
the two exterior ones ; petals concave, very open, with a thick
fhort claw ; {tamens very numerous, erect, awl-fhaped, the
length of the germ, and furrounding it in two ranks; in the
female flowers, without anthers ; germ cylindrical, fhorter
than the calyx, furrowed by the impreffion of the filaments ;
{tigma with eight equal rays. Cap/ule greenith, large, al-
mott round, obtufe, eight-celled, eight-valved. Seeds nume-
rous, covered by athick, foft pulp, attached to a very large
central receptacle, the angles of which form the cells. A na-
tive of the Weft Indies, among rocks ; and it is aifo parafi-
tic on the trunks or limbs of other trees, occafioned by birds
{catering the vifcid feeds, which take root like thofe af
miflelto
CLuU
miffelto, but not finding fufficient nutriment, the roots {pread’
on the furface of the tree, till they find a decayed -hole, or
other lodzment, where there is a {mall portion of foil 5 the’
fertility of this beings exhaufted, a root is difcharged out of
the hole till it reaches the ground, though at forty feet dif-
tance; here azain it fixes itfelf and becomes a much: lareer
tree. The refin is ufed to cure fores in horfes, and inftead
of tallow for boats. 2. C. a/éz, Linn. Sp. Pi.2: Mart. 2.
Poir. 2! “Jacq. Amer. p. 271. tab. 166. Pium. Gen: 22.
Icon. 87. fg. 1. “ Leaves veinlefs ; corollas five-petalled.”?
In habit refembling the preceding fpecies. ‘Leaves alfo
fimilar, except in being a little Jonget, not emarginate, and
fearcely petioled. 2/owers white, without fcent, {maller
amd lefs elegant ; calyx-leaves niné, in three ranks, of dif-
ferent fizes, as in C. rofea; petals twice as large as the in-
ternal calyx-leaves; filaments from five to eight, only half
the length of the germ; germ a little fhorter than the pe-
tals; fligma five or fix-rayed. Cap/ule large, of a beautiful
fearlet colour when ripe, five or fix-celled, with the fame
number of valves. Seeds’ whitifh, covered with a reddifh
pulp, attached toa large central receptacle. A native of
Martinico. 3. C. fava, Linn. Sp. 3. Mart. 3. Poir. 3.
Brown. Jam. 235. (Terebinthus; Sloan) Jam. 167. Hiit.
i.-p. OI. tab. 200. fig. 1.) “ Leaves veinlefs ; corollas four-
petalitd.” “General habit, leaves and inflorefcence fimilar
tothe twopreceding. M/awers pale yellow ;) calyx ‘almolt
quadrangular; compofed of fixteen leaves in four ranks ;
the inner ones gradually increafing in fizes petals egg-fhaped,
narrowed towards the claws, very thick, two larger than
the others; ftamens very numerous; filaments fhort, thick,
nearly in four ranks round the germ; authers with two fe-
parate lobes; germ very fmall; tligma thick, aimoft capi-
tate, with four lateral appendages, twelve-rayed. Cap/ule
tweélve-celled, twelve-valved. Seeds numerous, attached to
a very large, oblong; twelve-furrowed receptacle. It :s faid
to’vary in the’colour of the flowers and fruit. A native of
Jamaica, and of Cayenne, in South America, amorg rocks
at the foot of mountains. 4. C. retufa, Poir. 4. Lam. Jil.
tab. 852. <* Leaves fomewhat veined, egg-fhaped, retufe ;
flowers fix-petalled ; fruit fomewhat globular-comprefled.””
Leaves fix or feven inches Jong, and about three broad, op-
polite, petioled, very thick, completely retufe and round at
the fummit ; marked with ftrong, tranfverfe, parallel nerves,
connected by very fine, fearcely perceptible, veins. Mowers
axillary, towards the extremity of the branches, peduncled,
often folitary ; calyx-leaves eight, inverfely egg-thaped, in
two ranks; the outer ones not half the length of the others ;
braétes two, about the middle of the peduncles, and two
others at the bifurcation, where there is more than one flower ;
fhort, egg :fhaped, very thick, f{mooth, permanent; corolla’
much larger than the calyx; ftamens very numerous, anthers
fimple, ere@t. Capfule clobular, compreffed at the two ex-
tremities, with at leaft fixteen or eighteen cells, and as many
walves. “A’native of America. 5. C. veno/a, Lina. Sp. 4.
Mart. 4° Poir) 6: Pium.Gen. 27. Te: 87. fig 2. -** Leaves
veined.”?. Trunk more than thirty feet high. J/owers
white’; calyx-leaves four, roundifh; two outer ones a little
narrower, acute; petals four, ege-fhaped, obtule, very open,
alittle longer than the calyx ; ftamens very numerous; fila-
ments ftraicht, ‘a little fattened; anthers’ ereét, oblong 5
ftigma five-rayed. Miller’s" plant, which feems to be’a va-
ifiety, has rofe-coloured flowers, produced in long fpikes at
the end of the fhocts. “A> native of the Welt-Indies. 6.C.
ffifore, Poir. 5.“ Leaves inverfely egp-fhaped, fome-
what veined; flowers feffile, cluttered.” ‘Stem rugged,
greenith. ‘Leaves oppofite; coriacéous, thick; fometimes
emarginate, quite entire, narrowed at the bales petioles only
“Vow. VILE.
ClL70>
two or three} lines Icng,-compreffcd, thick. “ZVoqwers fall,»
axillary. “A’ native of Madagafear, defcribed from am im-:
perfeét fpecimen in the herbarium of -La:‘Marck, in which.
the parts of fructification could not be diltinguifhed.«
C. feffilis, Mart.'6. Fork. Fl. Auft. 1. 391. «©. Leaves op-’
polite, inverfely era-fhaped and elliptic, quite entire, veined ;
flowers axillary, folitary, nearly feffile, four:petalled.”?> A.
native of New: Caledonia. © 8..C pedicellata, Mart. 6. Fortt.
Flor. Auftral. ni 390.» Leaves oppofite, -inverlely egg-
fhaped, quite entire, veined; cymes axillary ; flowers four-*
petalled. A native of Tongatabu. ;
Propagation awd Culture. "Thefe plants are moft advan-
tazeoully imported in ‘tubs from their native | climates,
They muft_ be conftantly kept in’ the ftove, and fparingly
watered, efpecially-in winter. They may alfo'be'propa~
gated by cuttings, which mult be laid to dry for a fortnichs
or three weeks. “The belt time for planting them is in June
or July, when the pots fhould be‘ plunged tnto’a hot-bed of
tannet’s bark.’ In winter they may be placed upon ftands
in the dry’ttove $ but if they are plunged into the: tan-bed!
infummer, their leaves: will be larger and more beavtifuiy
C. felis venofis, Fabric —AZinor, Rumph. See Decuma-
RIA barbara. ‘ ;
CLUSINA 'Paxus, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a long’ marth, formed by the waters of the Clanis, near Clu=
finm.
- CLUSINI Fontes, fountains of Italy, in Etruria, placed!
by the ancients near Ciufium. They are now called’ « Bag mi
de S. Cantiano’?’
Cxusini, a people of Italy, in Etruria; the Chifni Novi
are placed by Pliny towards the fources of the Viber, and
he calls their town Cluftum Novum; the Clufint Veteres ere.
placed by the fame author on a mountain, and he calls their
town Vetus Clufium.
CLUSIUM, now Chiufi,.a town of Ttaly, at a {mail cif.
tance to the weft of Perugia, on the right bank of the Clams.
Its ancient name was “ Camers.’? Its origin is traced to
about the time of thefiege of Troy; and fome attribute its-
foundation to Clufius, fon of Tyrrhenus, and others to’ Tc-
lemachus. In the time of the Romans it was confiderable-¥
and Porfenna held his court and was buried in this place.
Pliny fpeaks of his tomb, and of a monument ereéted in
honour .of him, called the’ “ Labyrinth.” he Gauls
befiexed this place, but marched towards Rome without
taking it. ‘This place is now, on account of the infalubrity
of the air, almoft forfaken.
CLUSIUS, more properly pz v’Ectusst, Cuarres, in
Biography, avery eminent botani, born at Avras, in the
French Netherlands, February 19, 1526.° He recéived the
fir’ rud:merts of polite literature, with the kuowledge of
feveral modern’ languages, at Ghent; and afterwards be+
ftowed fome time upon the Greek and Latié claffics at Lors
vain, where he likewife applied himfelf'to the ftudy of jurif
predence. He alfo took a degree in medicine; but it does
not appear that he purfued either of thefe (tudics asa fource
of emolument. ‘Having always had an ardent defire'to tific
foreign countries, he went to! Germany at the ace of 233
where he imbibed a tafte for general feience, efpeciaily geo=
graphy and botany. He travelled into- the fouth of France,
but was called home by his father on account of the civil
wars, about 1563. He afterwards found means to viliz that
kingdom again, as well as Spain, and great part /of Portue
gal, chiefly with a view to the botany of vhofe countries,
which he has amply illuftvated. He’ vifited England at
three feveral times. © In all thefe journies he formed valuable
acquaintances among the learned in his favourite ‘feience,
who fubfequently communicated: their various difeovericsto
righ carich
CcCLU
enrich his publications ; his liberal, candid, end amiable dif-
pofition preferving him from ali envy and rivalfhp. He
not only colleéted and defcribed a number of new plants,
but made drawings of feveral with his own hand. In the
year 1573, Clufius was invited to Vienna by the emperor
Maximiian [J., with whom, as well as with his fon, after-
wards the emperor Rodo'phus Il., he was in great favour,
and was honoured by the former with the rank of nobility.
He had always a great defire to vilit Italy ; but having
three times been diverted from his purpofe by various ac-
cidents, he concluded it was noc the will of Providence that
he fhould ever fee that country, and gave up the drfign.
In 1593, the 6Sth year of his age, Clufius was chofen pro-
feffor of botany at Leyden, where he refided in great repu-
tation tillhis death, which happened on the 4th of April
1609, in the 84th year of his age. He was honoured with
a public funeral in St. Mary’s church, Leyden, when a
Latin oration in his praife was delivered by the rector of
the univerfity. He died unmarried. With refped to
bodily health, Clufius was unfortunate beyond the ufual lot
of humanity. “In his yeuth he was affliéted with dangerous
fevers, and afterwards with a dropfy. He broke his right
arm and leg by a fall from his horle in Spain, and diflocated,
as weil as fractured, his left ankle at Vienna. In his 63d
year he diflocated his right thigh, which, being at firft ne-
gleéted, could never afterwards be reduced, and he became
totally unable to walk. Calculous diforders, in confequence
of his fedentary life, accompanied with colic and a hernia,
clofe the catalogue of his afflictions. Yet his cheerful tem-
per, and ardour for f{cience, never forfook him, nor did any
man eéver erjoy more refpect and efteem from thofe who
knew him.
Ciufius may be faid to have held the botanical fceptre
for along courfe of years till his death. Although not,
L.ke his great contemporary, Conrad Gefner, a fyitematic
genius, he was one of the beft praétical botanifts. He dil-
eriminated plants very happily, and his hiltories of them are
rendered intereiting by innumerable remarks and anecdotes,
which carry his readers along with him wherever he goes,
to fhare his pleafures without his toils. When fezted in his
botanical ¢hair at Leyden, his authority was re{pected on
all hands, and all difcoveries were laid at his feet. Our gar-
dens are indebted to him for the cherry-laurel and horfe-
chefnut, now fo common and fo ornamental, which he re-
ceived, among many other plants, from the imperial am-
baffador at the Porte, in 1576. All the reft of the cargo
perifhed, but Clufins beftowed the greatelt poflible attention
to preferve and increafe thefe; for, unlike many felfith col-
leGtors, he delighted to difperfe his treafures among thofe
who took pleafure in their acquifition, and it is but juft that
his memory fhould be perpetuated along with thofe two
beautiful trees, with which all botanifts cf tatte ought for
ever to affociate his name, thus giving him a monument
more lafting than brafs or marble.
The principal publications of Clufiusare the following :
r. ‘© Rarioram aliquot Stirpium per Hifpantas obferva-
tarum Hiltoria,”? Antwerp, 1576, ogtavo, with above 220
wooden cuts, admirably executed. In feveral parts of this
werk, he conliders the fruétitication as of primary import-
ance for determining the genera of plants, a doctrine which
had but recently been firft advanced by Conrad Gefner, and
Cefalpinus.
2. * Rariorum aliquot Stirpium per Pannoniam, Auf-
triam, etvicinas quafdam Provincias obfervatarum Hiftoria,”
Antwerp, 1583, o¢tavo, with above 350 wooden cuts, fome-
what lefs elegant, as Haller obferves, than thofe of the for-
mer work, but fufficiently good and original, as is the
Cry
letter-prefs of both. The former is a treafure of the veges
table productions of the fouth of Kurope, as the latter is of -
Alpine ones. Both are commodious and highly agreeable
pocket-companions for the travelling botanitt.
3. The foregoing were re-publifhed, with the title of
** Rariorom Plantarum Hiltoria,” in folio, at Antwerp, in
1601, with fome additions of garden plants, an amp!e treatife
on fungi, with cuts, fome of Clufius’s correfpondence, and
Pona’s account of mount Baldus. This is the edition ia
common ufe, and mot generally quoted.
4. © Exoticoram Libri decem,’? Antwerp, 1605, folio,
with numerous cuts of animals, exotic fruits, and gums.
The obfervations of Garcias ab Orta, Acolta, Monardez,
and Bellon, form the bafis of this work, to which Clufius has
added many illuftrations. An appendix of his own on rare
plants is fubjomed, in which isthe firit figure of the horfe-
chefnut in flower.
5. * Cure Pofteriores,’? Antwerp, 1611, folio. This
polthumous work is generally bound with the lait. It con-
filts of a few excellent figures and defcriptions of rare plants.
The funeral oration of Clufius, with various poetical tributes
to his memory, are commonly annexed to this volume, and
among them a fhort account of his hfe from * DBoiilard’s
Portraits of Tiluftrious Men.’’
To this lift may be added various tranflations and edi-
tions of other writers on Botany, or Materia Medica. A
mauufcript of Clufius on fungi is faid to exift in the library
at. Leyden. Boiffard. -Haller’s Bibl. Botan. Clufius’s
works. S.
Crusius, or Clufio, in Ancient Geography, now La Chiéfe,
ariver of Italy, in Cifalpine Gaul; which bounded the
country of the people denominated ** Cenomani,’’ accord
ing to Pliny.
CLUSTER, in Agriculture, a bunch or number of things
of the fame kind growing or joined together. 4
Cruster-Sowing, that method of fowing grain, in which
anumber of corns are placed in the ground together, or in
clufters. See Sowine of grain.
Ciustexs, a word provincially ufed, to imply the bunches
or clumps in turnip crops, &c.
Criuster of Stars, in Affronomy.
Srar.
Ciuster-polype. See Poryre.
CLUTIA, in Botany. See Cruytra.
Crutia androgyna; Linn. Mant. See AnpRracHne
See NEBULA aud
fruticofa.
CLUVERIUS, or Cruvier, Puixip, in Biography, a
celebrated geographer, born at Dautzic in 1580. The ear-
her parts of his education he received under the eye of his
father, who feat him to Leyden to finifh his ftudies. Here
he was intended to purfue the civil law, but fhowing a de-
cided difpofition for geographical ftudies, he was advifed by
Jofeph Scaliger to devote himfelf chiefly to the advances
ment of that branch of knowledge. Whith this view he re-
folved to examine for himfelf the Low Countries; but in his
way to Brabant, he was robbed, and obliged to return to
Leyden. His father abandoned him to want, becaufe he
refufed to purfue the courfe which he had marked out for
him in the law; the young man, therefore, had recourfe to
the militery life, and ferved in Dohemia two years. He
was afterwards imprifoned, on account of a publication re-
lating to ftate affairs. Upon recovering his liberty she re-
fumed his geographical purfuits, and travelled into England,
France, Germany, and Italy, for the purpofe of making
accurate obfervations of the countries which he meant to
defcribe. He was every where received by literary and
learned men, with all the refpet due to his talents. He
{poke
“
GLU
{poke with fluency ten languages, wiz. the Greek, Latin,
German, French, Englifa, Dutch, Italian, Hungarian,
Polifh, and Bohemian. On his return to Leyden he taught
with reputation, and died at the early age of 43 years.
His principal works are, 1. “ De Tribus Rheni Alveis ;”’
2. “ Germania Antiqua ;”? 3. Italia Antiqua, Sicilia, Sar-
dinia, et Corfica;’? 4. * Introduétio in. Univerfam Geo-
graphiam.’’ Moreri.
CLUVESYECK, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the duchy of Holftein; 5 miles E.N.E. of Rendfburg.
CLUVIA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in the
country of the Samnites, garrifoned by the Romans.
CLUYTIA, in Botany, (named by Boerhaave, in me-
mory of Angerius Clutius, or, in his native language, Ant-
gers Cluyt, profeffor of botany at Leyden. The name of
the genus has ufuaily been {pelt Clutius; but profeflor Mar-
tyn has judicioufly altered it to Cluytia, to make it more dif.
tint, in pronunciation, from Clufia.) Lina. Gen. it4o.
Schreb. 1526, Gert..623. Juff. 387. Vent. 3.489. (Clu-
telle; Encye.) Clafs and order, dioecia gynandria. Nat.
F Tricocce, Linn. Luphorbie, Jull. Tithymatlsidee,
ent.
Gen. Ch. Male. Cal. Ferianth five-cleft or five-leaved ;
leaves concave, fpreading. Cor. Petals five, {preading
very much, about the length of the calyx and al-
ternating with its divifions; claws flat; fcales (called by
Linnzus exterior netaries) five, {mail, trifid, {preading,
oppofite to the divifions of the calyx, placed in a circle within
the petals, and about the length of the claws; glands (call-
ed by Linnzus interior neétaries) five, fmall, meilifluous at
the tip, placed between the feales, oppofite to the petals.
Stam. five, fituated on the upper part of the flyle, remote
from the corolla, {preading horizontally ; filaments fhort ;
anthers roundifh, verfatile. Pi/?. Germ none; flyle cylin-
drical, truncated, very long, bearing the ftamens. Female.
Cal, and Cor. as in the malic, permanent; {cales or exterior
nectaries tive, didymous, of the fame fize and fituation as in
the male; interior nectaries none. Pi/?. Germ roundifh;
ftyles three, bifid, reflexed, the length of the corolla; ftig-
mas obtufe. Perts. Capfule globular, fix-furrowed, {ca-
brous, three-celled, Seeds, one in each cell, roundifh, even-
furfaced, with an appendage at the tip.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-leaved or five-cleft. Corolla five-pe-
talled. Styles, in the female flowers, three. Capfule three-
celled. Seeds folitary.
Sp. 1. C. daphnoides. Lam 1. (Chameelea; Burm. Afr.
120, tab. 44. fig. 2.) ‘* Leaves nearly linear, narrowed
towards the bafe, obtufe at the tip; younger ones tomen-
tous on both fides; flowers folitary, erect.” A fhrub
abeut two feet high, much branched ; branches cylindrical,
ftiff ; {maller ones leafy, cottony near the {ummit, tubercled
below. Leaves almott feflile, near together, without any re-
gular order, thickifh, refembling thofe of Daphne Cneorum,
but {maller and lefs fmooth. Flowers axillary, peduncled,
generally folitary ; males {maller than the females and lefs
erect. A native of Africa, communicated by Sonnerat.
2. C. alaternioides. Linn. Sp. Pl. r. Mart. 1. Lam. 2.
(Tithymalus; Pick. Alm. 369. tab. 290. Chamatia;
Burm. Afr. 116. tab. 43. fig. 1. Alaterneides; Comm.
Hort. 2. p. 3. tab. 2.) ‘* Leaves nearly feffile, linear-lan-
ceolate ; flowers folitary, ereét.”? Linn. ‘* Leaves linear-
lanceolate, mucronate, quite {mooth, cartilaginous and fca-
brous at the margin.” Lam. A fhrub, about two feet high;
Lam. (5:x or eight; Miller.) Svems leafy, almott their
whole length ; branches numerous, on their upper part, com-
monly fimple, angular. Leaves fcattereds J Jawers greenifh-
white, imal], axillary, folitary, peduncled; males {maller,a little
cLuU
endulous. A nativé of Africa. 3. C polygonoides. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 3. (Chameelea; Burm. Afr. 118. tab. 43.
fig. 3.) ‘ Leaves lanceolate ; flowers axillary, very numerous.”
Leaves alternate, gradually narrowed to the fummit, acute,
{mooth, quite entire. V/owers fmall, ufually two together,
pendulous. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 4. C.
pulchella, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 3. Lam. 4. Gert. tab. 107.
Lam. tab. $35. (Frotex /&thiop:cus; Comm. Hort. 1. p.
177. tab, gi.) “© Leaves egg-fhaped, quite entire; flowers
lateral”? A fhrub, three or four feet. high. Sfem upright,
branched at its fummit, forming a handfome head; branches
fmooth, with a greenifh bark. eaves an inch broad, alter-
nate, petioled, foft, finely dotted underneath. JVowers
greenifh-white, axillary, commonly feveral together; male
ones {maller, on peduncles enly three hnes log ; female, on
peduncles longer than the petivles. Lam. Capj/ule pedicelled
or feflile, globular, {eabrous, with elevated points, three-
furrowed, tricoccous ; cocci of the fubftance of paper, pib-
bous on one fide, angular on the other, femi-bivalved, the
back of the valves feparating {pontaneoufly from the parti-
tions ; partitions membranous, permanent on the axis of the
fruit, dark cheftnut-coloured, fhining, flightly ferrated on the
edges. Receptacle central ; filiform, covered by the parcitions
which form fix membranous roundifh wings about the axis.
Seeds dark cheftnut-colaured, ezg-fhaped, fmooth, fhining,
with a two-lobed white umbicular gland immediately below
the tip on the infide. A native of Africa. 5. C. lanceolata,
Mart. 10. Wahl. Symb. 2. 101. Forfkal. /Egypt. 170.
«© Leaves elliptic-lanceolate ; flowers lateral, tomentous.””
Nearly allied to the preceding, but differs in having the
branches purple, and ath-coloured, villous at the top. Leaves
broad-lanceolate, two inches long or more, without dots uns
derneath, few above, and vifible only with a magnifier.
Male-flowers numerous, aggregate, axillary, on very fhort
peduncles; female ones commonly folitary, peduncled ;
calyxes villous-tomentous. Cap/ules not dotted. A native
of /Egypt. 6. C. hirta, Linn. jun. Supp. 432. Mart. 4.
Lam.g. Vahl. Symb. 2. 101. ‘ Leaves wedge-fhaped,
{mooth ; flowers lateral, glomerate, hirfute.”? A fhrub.
Branches cylindrical, {mooth, tubercled with the remains of
falien leaves, ufually fcattered, but fometimes three together.
Leaves petioled, reticularly veined. F/owers nearly feffile ;
calyx rough with fhort hairs ; petals oblong, minute, fmooth ;
ftyle trifd, involved in afh-coloured hairs. Yound by
Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 7. C. tomento/a,
Linn. Mant. 299. Mart. 5. Lam. *“ Leaves elliptical,
tomentons on both fides.”” A fhrub, three feet high, much
branched, upright, tubercled with the remains of fallen
leaves. Branches cylindrical, pubefcent. Leaves the hze
of thofe of thyme, feffile, rather acute. J/ocbers white,
{effile, lateral folitary, longer than the leaves; calyx five-
toothed, cotcony on the outfide; petals oval, the length of
the calyx ; ftigma bearded. A native of fandy fhores at the
Cape of Good Hope. 8. C. retufa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart.
6. <“ Leaves oval, retule: flowers racemed, axillary.”
Leaves on fhort petioles, alternate, the fize of thofe of
beech, reflexed at the edge, with prominent tranfverfe nerves
underneath. Joqwers very {mall; racemes axillary, quite
fimple near the ends of the branches ; partial peduncles three
or four, alternate, filitorm ; calyx-leaves acute ; petals three-
toothed; ne€tanes none, except a ring furrounding the re-
ceptacle ; in the middle a column with five horizontal. fila-
ments, and verfatile anthers. A native of the Katt Indies.
9. C. /quamata, Lam. 6. (Scherunam-cottam. Rheed, Mal.
2. p. 23. tab. 16. Good. Rai. hilt. 1623. Corni five forbi
{pecies; Bont. Jav. 103.) ‘ Leaves elliptical, {mooth
above, pubefcent and nerved underneath; flowers axillary,
4h {eflile,
cLV
& file, (quamofe at the bafe.”? A thrub, ten or fifteen feet
high ; upper branches flender, almolt filiform, leafy, pubef-
‘cent towards the fummit. Leaves alternate, on fhort petioles,
entice 3 furnithed underneath with lateral, oblique, parallel
nerves, which are croffed by other {mailer ones. | Floqwers
axillary, not racemed, but fefiile, and often cluftered two or
tliree together, fupported by a {mall fomewhat fpungy knot,
which is termed by the feales. Cap/fules egg-hhaped, {mooth,
avith three or fourcells. A native of the Eaft Indies; found
by Sonnerat aed Commerton. La Marck doubts whetherit
‘be not the retufaof Linneus; but the deferiptions are fo in-
confiltent, that we have though it beft to keep them dif-
tin&, thouzh the fynonyms, quoted by Linneus, probably
beleng to La Marck’s plant. 10. | C. eluteria, Linn, Sp. Pl,
‘ . 8. Woodv. Med. Bot. Sopp: Pl. 217.
rt. Clif..486. Croton; Brown, Jamy’347-. n.
Plek. alm.'tab.220. fie. 51) Seba ‘Phef. 1.
tab. 4 . * Leaves dordate-i te.?? A’ {mall tree,
feveral ish, with numerous nches; bark Jef the
branches brown aud fmooth ; that of the trunk externally
‘more white and roush. ' Leaves alternate, on long petioles,
ebtufe, bright green above, paler underneath. © F/owers
both of the male and female plants in fpikes, whitifh, with
alk the cha rs of the other Upecies; but itis neceffary
obferve that? Dr. Woodville docs ‘not notice the number of
tlamens, which "according'to Linnxus ‘are ten, «and render
the real genus of the plant uncertain. ‘There is'much icon-
fulioa with refpe& to it and croton cafcarilla of Linneus;
tae latter of which, a rative of the Spanifh main, has been
fipoofed by many to afford the medicinal bark, called caf-
‘carifla. But Dr. Woodville pofitively afferts, that this drug
4s the produce cnly of cluytia eluteria, and is bronght to
Europe folely from the’ Bahama iflands. | This deferiptioa
and fizure are taken froma {pecimen in the herbarium of
Sir Jofeph Banks. In the fame plate he has figured a
branch fent from Jamaica by Dr. Wright, under the name
of craton elutheria,. which, in his account of medicinal
plants of Jamaica, he fays, is the fame as the cafearilla, or
elutheria; but it appears fromgDr. Wright’s fpecimens ia
the herbarium of the prefident of the Royal Society, that
his plant is dioicous and truly a cluytia, differing from that
of the Bahama iflands in having broader! and. more obtufe
leaves. According to Lewis, the cortex cafcarille is import-
ed into Europe from the Bahama iflands, particularly from
that which is called elutheria, in curled pieces, or rolled up
into fhort quills about an inch in widths exhibiting, when
broken, a fmooth, clofe, blackifh-brown furface. Freed
from its outer whitifh coat, which is infipid and inodorous, it
hasa light agreeable fmell, and a moderately bitter talte, ac-
compamed with a confiderable aromatic warmth. — Its virtues
are partially extraGted by water, and totally by rectified
fpirit. Dittilled with water it yields a greenith effential oil,
ofa very pungent talte, and of a fragrant penetrating {mell,
more grateful than that of cafcarilla itfelf. See CascagiLua.
rr. &. fipularis, Linn. Mant. 127. Mart. &. Lam. 7.
«« Leaves oval, tomentous underneath,?? Branches zigzag,
tomentous. Leaves rather large, quite entire, on fhort
petioles; ftipules egg-thaped, acute, the lengthy of the
petioles. Flowers dark purple, axillary, feffile, not longer
than the ftipules ; calyx one-leafed, campanulate at the bafe,
with five acute divifions, permanent ; petals roundifh, very
fhort, alternately with the divilions of the calyx ; ftyleco-
lumear, trifid, famens five, fertile and horizontal. A native
of the Eaft Indies. 12. C2 acuminata, Linn. Supp. 432.
Mart. 9. Lam.: ro. ‘ Herbaceous ; leaves egg-fhaped,
dmooth, obtufe, with a point; flowers axillary, folitary.” A
' -
. fiz. 3
feet bh
to
.
Ly
native of the Cape of Good Hope.
telephoides. ‘ ;
’ Propagation and Culture. C. alaternoides and C. pulchel-
la, are calily propagated by cuttings during any of the fum:
mer months. | The pots fhould be plunged into a very mo-
derate hot-bed, till the cuttings have taken root. The plants
fltould afterwards be put feparately into fmall pots, and kept
in the open air, m a fheltered fituation, till Octoberor latery
if the weather prove mild. In winter they require only_the
fhelter of the green-houfe, without artificial heat pabut
fhould oceafionally be allowed free air, they will otherwife
grow mouldy and perifh. (C.-eluteria may alfo be “propa>
gated by cuttings during the fummer, which fhould be kept
ina dry place for a few days. before they are planted.” We
will live through the winter ia an airy glafs-cafe, but mutt
be fparingly watered. In fummer it requires only to “be
fcreened trom heavy rain. -}
CLWYDD), Fate of, in Geocraphy,afingularly beautifuland
fertile vale in North Wales, which extends northward fromthe
termination of the Berauis hills, near Liangollen, by Rath
and Denbigh, to’the feabeyond St. Afaph. The breadthiof
this vale is about three miles, and the length near thirty, and
throngh almoft the whole of it the two little rivers*of the
Clwydd andthe Elwy run parallelotoveach other» Ttvis'fe=
parated by a ridge of mountains from the dreary waftes
which encompafs. it; there is neither mountain nor rock to
be feen in any part of it, after you turn your back upen
Rudland; the hills on one fide of it rife very gradually by
gentle afcents : moft. of them are cultivated quite to their
{ummits, others half-way up; and when the tops are not
enelofed, they are a fine grafiy down, and fhadedand enliven:
ed with wood. This vale abounds with rich enclofures,
farm-houfes, gentlemen’s feats, pleafant villages 5 and its
three towns, Ruthyn, Denbigh, and St. Afaph, ftand in
fine fituations, about the diftance of fix miles from one
another. ri) tis Sig
CLYDE, a large river in Scctland, inferior only to the
Tay. ‘The parent flream originates from Clyde flaw, in the
parith of Crawford, one of thofe ftupendous hills that fepa-
vate the diftri& of Annandale from Lanarkfhire, nearthe
fources of the Annan and the Tweed. After ‘pafling
through, and thus dividing the county .of Lanark, almof
55 miles, the Clyde enters the Frith of Clyde oppofite to
the diftri& of Carval and the ifland of Bute, in Argylehhire:
It is navigable for fmall craft only as far as Glafgow, .and 6
miles beiow that city at Dalmure-burnfoot, the great.canal
from the Forth joins the Clyde. See Canau. Part of
Lanark (hire receives the name of Clydefdale, er Stathelyde;
from this river, which it renders more fertile than any other
portion of Scotland, and extremely romantic, through its nu=
merous cafcades. ‘Twenty miles from Clydeflaw, the valley
contracts, the banks become iteep, and the gradual. decli=
nations on each fide of the rivers are adorned with many
handfome feats, the refidences of gentlemen who have
highly cultivated their lands, and planted the beft deferip=
tions of fruit-trees, which yield abundantly; and their
rich meadows are covered with excellent flocks. Borniton
fall, ordinn, derived from the Gaelic word ‘‘leum,”? leap,
or fall, is fo termed from an elegant manfion named Bon-
niton-houfe, fituated near it; a fhort and romantic walk on
a projecting rock, exhibits the fall of the river over a preci-
pice 12 feet in height, into a hollow den, as Mr. Lockhart
expreffles it in the itatiftical account of Scotland, producing
a plealing contraft of foam and mift, with the placid fur-
face above, where the Clyde emerges from beautiful groupes
of foreft-trees. After this defcent, the itream rufhes with
2 , angry .
It refembles andrachne
uy
zhery impetuoiity over a bediof rocks, bounded’ on either
fide with crags refembling ancient walls, from which wild
birds fly in rapid fucceffion; half a mile below, is the Corra-
linn, (derived from an eitate and caftle on one of the banks) -
The {cenery of this neighbourhood is extremely grand, but
the cafeade, as viewed from feats placed in various parts of the
walks, grouped with tremendous rocks, the caftle, a corn-mill
ena rock below, and rendered more fublime by the roar of the
water rufhing intovan abyfs, is truly aftoni(hing. Sir James
Carmichael, of Bonniton, erected a pavilion’on the fumimit
ef a bank, in 1708, which affords’a full view of the linn,
and a mirror placed in the uppermoft room, exhibits the ca-
taract by reflection, as if it were on the point of over-
whelming the {peétator. The defcent of the Clyde is faid
to be 34. feet, but there» arevthree inconfiderable breaks’ in
the fall.. The mift from this prodigious body of waterafcends
to a very great height, and a, perpetual rainbow glides,
during the {hining of the fun, frem place to place, as the
air adts on particles of the fluid. A third linn has obtained
the name of Dundaf, or Black-cattle leap, probably from
its vicinity to fome fortreis now forgot, which feems to be
corroborated by the tradition, that detiominates a rock the
patrict Wallace’s chair, or place of concealment from the
Englith. ..Trouts frequently leap up this fail, which is
about three feet high. New Lanark, a village, and four
cotton-mills, are fituated near Dundaff linn. Stonybyres
linn, receives its name from Stonebyres, an eftate in the
pofleffion of Daniel Vere, elq.. This catara&t, which is 80
feet im height, and 2 miles below Corra linn,. terminates the
progrefs of the falmon towards the fource of the Clyde, but
their attempts to afcend it during the fpawning feafon, are
inceflant; nor is the horfé-mufcle,. or pearl-oyfter, though
plentiful below the linn, ever found above it. The banks
and precipices termed ‘ Cartlane-craigs,” are faid to be
nearly 400°feet higher than its level; and at the bottom flows
the Moufs, ‘a remarkabie ftream, which penetrates the hill
of Cartlane, and the folid rock, in preference to a more
conveniént courle on its very: borders. The Clyde, having
pafied Lanark, proceeds to Hamilton and Glafzow, recelving
feveral, tributary ftreams, particularly the- Avon, and the
north and fouth Calders ; befides which, the Leven enters it
at Dumbarton, and the Carl near Renfrew; by’ thefe
means the Clyde. expands to the breadth of 2 miles oppofite
Newport, Glafgow, but the Channel alone is navigable by
veffels: of conliderable ‘burthen ; below Greenock it enters
the Futh of Clyde. Mr. Lightfoot, who explored the
borders of this beautiful mver, difeovered fome uncommon
plants, which he has deferbed in his “ Flora Scotica,”” but
the only mineral found in the neighbourhood, is f{patum
ponderofum, veins of which interfect the rocks. There
are feveral {mall bridges on the Clyde, and one of mag-
nificent defign at Glafgow.
+ There is a light-houfe for the benefit of this navigation,
on Little Cambray ifland, oppofite to the fouth end of the
He of Bute. ‘The tide flows in this river to fome diftance
above Paifley, The Ayr rail-way communicates with this
river near the town of Ayr. An act paffed 46 Geo. IIT.
for making and maintaining water-works for fupplying the
town of Glafgow with water from this river. In 1806, 46
Geo. III. an a& paffed for the Glafyow and Saltcoats ca-
nal, to conneét with this river at Ardroffan harbour. Mr.
Thomas Telford, the engineer, is employed on both thefe
works.
- Crypt and Fortu Canal.
article Canau.
; CLYDON, from xavfo, I caufe to fluduate 3 in Medical
See Forth and Clyde in our
‘ :
CL yY
Writers, is wfed for the fluGuation’ of food taken into the
ftomach, arifing from the. laxity or weaknefs of its fibres, and
of the abdomiaal mufcles.
“\CLYMANT), a:term fed by fome heralds to exprefs a
oat ftanding on his hind legs.
CEYMENE, in! Fabulous Hiflory, the name of fevera
females, the principal’ of whom were the following ; @
#daughter'of Oceanus and Tethys, and mother, by Iapetus,
of Atlas. Prometheus, Sc. :—a'nereid, and mother, by fu-
piter, of Mnemofyne:—daughter of Oceaaus, and mother,’
by’ Apello} of? Phaeton; &cl:—the mother of Homer,
Reh ket \ ¥
CLYMENEIDES, an appellation of the fitters of Pliae-
ton, derived from the name of their mother.
CLYMENUM in Botany, hifpanicum, filiqua articulata,
et filiqua plana,'Tourn. See Lanuyrus articulatus, and
Latuyrus clymenum.
~ CrymEnum dithynicum, fliqua fingulari, Boerh.
cia bithynica.
Ciyvmenus, in Mythology, a furname of Pluto.
CLY-MORE, ‘a great’ two-handed fword, formerly ufed
by the Highlanders. It was‘double-edged, and about two
inches broad, or about one fifth of an inch broader than the
ancient Roman giadius. The length of the blade of the
cly-more was about 3 feet 7 inches; and that of the handle
about 14 inches. It had a plain tranfverfe guard of about’
a foot; dnd the weieht of it was about fix pounds and a
half. Thefe {words are fuppofed by.fome-to have been the
original weapons of the Englifh, from the circumftance of
the ficure of a foldier’s being found with one of them”
among the ruins of London, after the ‘great fire in 1660.
Such a fword muft have been a very bad and inconvenient
weapon, calculated only for giving a falling ftroke, ands
that, too, “at feme diftance, and muft have’ been ufe-
lefs- againit a large fhield ; and fuch a {word as the Ro-
man ¢ladiuvs, which was two-edged and fharp-pointed, pe-
cuhiarly fitted for flabbing, and not above fiftcen inches long’
in the blade.
« CLYNDEE: Collieries,°in -Lrangevelach parifh, near®
Swanfea in Glamorganfhire, in South Wales, are works,’
belonging’ to” Lockwood ‘and Co., and famous for the
under ground canal, which condudts to them, bring a branch’
from the Swanfea canal, ia Morriftown, about 3 miles above,
Swanfea. This canal proceeds about 1000 yards in anorth-,
weft direGtion into the hill, along a tunnel 82 feet high and
5 feet wide, for 4-ton boats; from over this canal-tunnel, a-
branch of under-ground rail-road, of half a mile long, pro-
ceeds along the Clyndée vein of coals, with numerous
fhorter branches of ‘rail-road, to the prefent workings of’
coals. he communication between the canal and rail-road
is made, by means of a perpendicular pit or fhaft about 20
fathoms deep, through which the coals are let down in baf-
kets of about 7 cwt: each, to be tipped or emptied into the
boats below. The mode in which the def{cent of thefe bal-
kets is. regulated, is curious ‘and finzular: the rope, which
conne&ts the defcending full bafket and the afcending empty
bafixet, winds ‘over ‘a horizontal roller, which conneds by
means of a toothed wheel with the upright fhaft of a regu-
lator, confifting of boards or arms which lave in the water
of ‘a round ciftern or well, about 8 feét diameter, provided
and conftantly fupplied with water tor thé requifite haght,
by means of pipes and cocks which bring in or Jet ‘ont water, -
whenever the coal-bafkets are intended to defcend flower or
fafter. This fimple and effetual: mode of regulatine, or
rather of déitroying, power in machinery, was contrived by
Mr. William’ Robert, a carpenter in the employ of Lock-
wood and.Co. and was erected in the year 1793 ; notwith-
itanding
See Vi;
CcLyY
ftanding which, Mr. Anthony George Echardt, in a patent
dated 31ftof January 1795, included this as his invention,
and propofes to apply it for regulating mills, to be worked
by men, walking on the outfide or top, nearly of large cy-
lindrical wheels.
CLYOQUOT, in Geography, a found or bay on the
N.W. coalt of America, wefterly from Berkley’s found.
CLYPEA, or Ciurea, a town of Africa, in the prefent
kingdom of Tunis, the J/fis of the Grecians, is built upon
a {mall promontory, the Taphitis of Strabo, which being in
the figure of a fhield or hemifphere gave occafion to the
name. It is five leagnes S.E. from the promontory of
Mercury or Cape Bon. It is called by Livy, Mela, and Pli-
ny, Clupea; by Polybius, Appian, and Agathemerus, Afpis ;
but by Solinus and the Itinerary, Clypea. According to
Silius Italicugs and Solinus, it was built by the Sicilians ;
and they add, that its founders called it Afpis. Strabo
reprefents Clupea and Afpis as one city; but Ptolemy er-
roneoufly diftinguifhes them, and places the cape of Mercurit
promontorium between them. This was the firit place which
the Romans took in Africa, in the firlt Punic war. It was
formerly an epifcopal fee. Nothing now remains of this
ancient city, for the caltle is a modern ftructure : and what
they now cail C/ybea is a colleGtion of miferable huts or
cottages, about the diltance of a mile from the {pot where
the old city flood.
CLYPEARIA, in Botany, alba; Rumph. Burm. See
ADENANTHERA falcata.
CLYPEOLA, (diminutive of Clypeus, a fhield, fo
called from the fhape of the filicle.) Linn. gen. 807. Schreb.
1082. Willd. 1231. Gert. 819. Jull. 240. Vent. 3. 107.
(Jonthlafpi; Tour. 99.) Clafs and order, tetradynamia
Jiliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siliguofe, Linn.
Gen. Ch. Ga/. Perianth four-leaved; leaves ovate-ob-
long, permanent; Linn. (caducous; Lam.) Cor. Petals
four, oblong, entire. Stam. Filaments fix, fhorter than the
corolla ; anthers fimple. Pi/?. Germ roundifh, compreffed ;
ftyle fimple, ftigma obtufe. Peric. orbicular, flat, comprefled,
very flightly emarginate, erect, deciduous, two-valved. Sveds
orbicular, folitary.
Eff. Ch. Silicle emarginate, orbicular, comprefled, flat,
deciduous.
Sp. 1. C. jonthlafpi, Lion. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam, 1.
Willd. 1. Gert. tab. r41. Lam. Ill. tab. 560. fig. 1.
(Thlafp. clypeatum, ferpylli folio; Bauh. Pin. 107.—
Jonthlafpi: Col. Ecphr. 1. p. 281, tab. 284. Tourn, 210.)
‘Annual treacle muttard, or buckler muftard. « Annual ;
filicles orbicular, one-celled, one-feeded.”? Stems about five
or fix inches high, fleunder, weak, almoft fimple, cloathed
with fhort whitifh haivs. Leaves linear-{patula-fhaped, {mall,
alternate, feffile, glaucous, with minute flars ot hairs on the
furface. Flowers yellow, fmall, the fize of the calyx; ina
{mall terminal fpike. Silicle pubefcent, furrounded by a
paler and fincly cilated edge, not opening fpontaneoully,
but eafily divifible into two very thin membranous valves.
Receptacle none, except a capillary umbilical cord, {pringing
from the margin of one valve, and extending to the centre
of the cell. Seed elliptic, compreffed, {mooth, of a tawny
colour. Gert. A native of the fouth of France, Spain, and
Italy. Villars doubts whether it be different from aly ffum
minimum of Linneus. Its filaments have a tooth above the
bafe, as in molt of the alyffums. Willdenow has made
this appendage, the leading eflential charaGer of that genus,
but has, notwithftanding, admitted maritimum and fome
other {pecies, which he himfelf acknowledges to have per-
fe&ily fimple filaments. 2. C. tomentofa, Linn. Mant. g2.
Mart. 2. (Alyffum orientale. Ard. Spec. 2. p. 32. tab.
ely
15: fig. 1. Lam. 9. Willd. 11.) Hoary treacle muftard.
“ Perennial ; filiques orbicular, two-celled ; one feed in each ©
cell.?? Root woody, branched ftems fhrubby, diffufe; leaves
hirfutely hoary ; lower ones three inches jong, half an inch
broad, ovate-oblong, finuated; ftem ones alternate, feffile,
linear-lanceolate, entire, or finely toothed. Flowers yellow,
longer than the calyx, terminal and axillary, at firft ina
kind of umbel, but afterwards panicled. Svlicles inverfely
heart-fhaped, alternate, peduncled. Firft obferved in the
Levant by Tournefort; cultivated at Venice in 1755 by
Arduini, from feeds fent by Leonard Seller. 3. C. marie
tima, Linn. Sp. 2. Mart. 3. (Alyflum maritimum; Lam. 8.
Wild. 2. A. halimifolium ; Hort. Kew. 2. 381; Bot.
Mag. tor. Thlafpi; alyflon dictum maritimum; Bauh.
Pin. 107.) Sea treacle muftard or clowns meftard.
« Perennial; filicles two-celled, egg-fhaped; one feed in
each cell.?’ Stems fhrubby, much branched, diffufe, ever-
green. Leaves hinear-lanceolate, quite entire. Flowers white,
darker in the middle, refembling thofe of water-creffes, with
an agreeable honey-like {mell, calyx deciduous; petals in-
verfely ezg-fhaped ; filaments dark purple, toothlefs; an-
thers yellow. A native of the coalt of the Mediterranean.
In England, where it is ufually fown in the rich borders of
the garden, it grows fo luxuriently, that the ftems, becom-
ing juicy and tender, are generally deftroyed by our frofts.
It thus becomes an annual from peculiarity of circumftance.
Tournefort, Arduini, La Marck, Gartner, Juffieu, Ven-
tenat, and Willdenow, all agree in referring the laft two
fpecies to alyflum, on account of their two-celled filicle,
which Geertner makes an effential charaGter of alyffum; a
circumitance which we cannot but think fully fofficient to
conftitute a generic diltinétion; but as they have not been
taken up in our firlt volume, we found it neceffary to intro-
duce them here. 3
Cryreora alliacea, Arduin. Lam.
alliacea.
CryPeora alyffoides, Crantz. See Aryssum calycinum.
Cryreoua annua filtculis bilocularibus difpermis, Sauv.
See AryssuM campefire.
CrypeoLra didyma, Crantz.
gata.
CiyPeoLa montana, Crantz. See Aryssum montanum.
Crypeora filiculis bilocularibus tetrafpermis, Hort. Clif.
See Atyssum calycinum.
CLYPEUS, or Cryreum, Buckler ; a piece of defenfive
armour, which the ancients ufed to carry upon the arm, to
fecure them from the blows of their enemies.
The figure of it was either round, oval, or fexangular :
in the middle was a bofs of iron, or of fome other metal,
with a fharp point. See SHrexp.
CLYSMA, in Ancient Geography, a town and fortrefs
of Egypt, fituated at the bottom of the gulph of Heroo-
polis, according to Ptolemy, who, as well as the table of
Peutinger, cillinguifhes this town from Arfinoe. Eufebius
fays exprelsly, that at Clyf{ma the Ifraelites pafled the Red
Sea. F. Caimet fays, that this place, in modern times,
is called Colfum.
CLYSSUS, a term uled by the old writers in Chemifiry
and Alchemy, is defined, by Macquer, to be the vapours that
arife from the detonation of nitre with any inflammable. fub-
itance, &c. Lhe clyffus of nitre is the vapours from nitre and
charcoal; the clyfius of {ulphur, thofe from fulphur and ni-
tre, &c. The term is now obfolete.
CLYSTER, or Guyster, in Medicine, Enema. A
clytteris a liquid medicine applied by injzétion up the retum,
and is a very ancient, and, in many cafes, a very important
form of medicine, though lefs frequently employed in this
than
See Perraria
See Briscure ra /evte
€'L. ¥
than in many other countries, where medicine is practifed as
a {cience.
Clyiters are applied either by a large fyringe which holds
from one to two or more pints of liquid; or, in private prac-
tice, generally by means of a fmall ivory pipe faftened to,
and opening into the middle of, a hog’s bladder. To ufe
it, firft Lop, with a fmall cork, the end of the pipe which
opens into the bladder, then pour into the bladder the liquid
intended to be thrown up, and tie it tight that none may
{pill out. Then lay the patient on his belly, and introduce
the pipe (previoufly oiled) for an inch or two into the rec-
tum, draw out the cork, which may be eafily done through
the folds of the bladder, and, by prefling gradually on the
bladder, all the liquid will readily pafs up into the rectum.
AX perfon may readily perform this office for himfelf when
ufed to it. ‘The dire€tion in which the pipe is to be intro-
duced is parallel to the facrum, being that of the courle of
the lower part of the reium to the anus. :
Clyfters are ufed for feveral purpofes. Moft commonly
they are purgative, and moft of the liquid cathartics taken
by the mouth are alfo ferviceable as clylters, obferving that
confiderably larger dofes may be fafely ufed by injection. A
pict of decoGtion of chamomile flowers with Glauber’s falt,
or thin gruel and falt, eletuary of fenna and milk, or caftor
oil made into an emulfion with egg, are very ufeful mild ca-
thartics, which may be employed in this way, and many
others might be enumerated. It is of advantage to employ
fome emollient fubftance, combined with the purgative, to
defend the inteftine in fome meafure againft the acrimony of
the medicine. Thus, if the electuary of fenna is ufed, it
may be conveniently rubbed up with a little oil, and the whole
will then mix uniformly with milk or any other liquid.
When clyiters are employed as purgatives, it muit be re-
membered that they cannot pafs higher up than the valve of
the colon, and confequently that they can only act diredily
upon the large intedtines. Therefore, they can feldom en-
tirely fupply the place of purgatives by the mouth, which
pals through and excite the whole inteftinal canal; but they
prove mott ufeful auxiliaries, particularly in thofe cafes of
inteftinal diforder that are attended with much vomiting and
irritability, where, befides emptying the lower bowels, they
aét as topical fomentations, and very often induce eafe and
fleep when other methods fail. In fuch cafes, therefore,
they fhould be in pretty large quantity, not very ftimulating,
and as warm as the patient can bear them.
Gly fters are alfo of fingular fervice in checking that ex-
treme and painful irritation of the rectum, that attends long
eontinued diarrhcea and dyfentery. In thefe difurders the
great fuffering of the patient is the inceffant tenefmus, and
difcharge of bloody mucus from the inteftine, with extreme
pain and irritation. ‘his 1s often wonderfully relieved by a
gilyfter. made of thin ftarch, or linfeed tea, or any other mild
mucilage, mixed with a few drops of laudanum. ‘The quan-
tity of liquid injeGted in this cafe fhould be but fmall, that
#t may not ftimulate the inteftine merely by its bulk, but the
dofe of any opiate, given by glyfter, may in general ke three
or four times the quantity which, under fimilar circumftances
of age, conftitution, &c., would be given by the mouth.
We may mention a few other [pecific purpofes for which
glylters have been employed with advantage..
As vermifuges they have a peculiar and local ufe, where
the worms.are lodged in the lower inteltines, particularly as
very highly flimulating medicines are often required to dif-
Jodge thele troublefome animals, which, if given by the
mouth, might produce a good deal of inconvenience and ir-
ritation.
CNA
Tobacco infufion is given by way of gly{ter im ftrangulated
hernia, to bring on that extreme fttate of faintnefs and relax-
ation which is moft favourable to the rede¢tion of the hervia.
In uterine or intcltinal hemorrhage, relringent cly/ters;
and particularly iced water, are fometimes of powerful ufe
in checking thefe alarming accidents.
Afa‘cetida infufion, and other antifpafmodics, were formerly
often injcéted in hyfteria, and other complaints fer which.
this clafs‘of remedies is employed, but this is dittle ufed at
prefent.
Turpentine mixed with a watery liquid, by the intermede
of egg, is often given by clyfter, and in this way it
powerfully aéts both on the bowels and kidnies, giving that
peculiar fmell to the urine which attends the internal ufe of
this remedy.
Lattly, nutritive fubftances are fometimes given in this
way, when, from con{triGion or wounds in the cefophagus,
nothing can be taken into the ftomach. This is, doubtlefs,
a very imperfcét method of fupplying the wants of nature,
as comparatively only a {ma!! quantity of the abforbents open
into the lower inteftines, but cafes have occurred iv which
life has been fupported by this means for many days. ‘The
fubftances to be inieéted in thefe cafes, are any of the
animal or vegetable liquids and infufions which are knowa to
afford the moft nutriment, fuch as {trong broths, milk, jel-
hes, and the like.
CLYSTRUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, fitu-
ated near the fea, in a diftri&t of mountainous Cilicia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.
CLYT A, a people of Macedonia, who furnifhed excel-
lent nitre. Pliny.
CLYTEMNESTRA, in Fedulous Hiflory, the daugh»
ter of Jupiter, or of T'yndarus, king of Sparta, by Leda,.
and wite of Agatnemnon. While this prince wasat the fiege
of Troy, fhe had an intrigue with Aigilthus, whom fhe en-
gaged to murder Agamemnon on his return. His fon Oref-
tes, however, avenged the death of his father, by killing
fEgilthus, together with his mother Clytemneltra. See
AGAamEmnon and ORESTES.
CLYTHENESS, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, in
the German Ocean, on the fouth-ealt coalt of the county of
Caithnefs. N. lat. 58° 14’. E. long. 0° 107:
CLYTIA, or Cryriz, in Fabulous Hifory, daughter of
Oceanus and Tethys, was beloved by Apollo;. but after-
wards deferted by him, in confequence of an amour with:
Leucothoe, her filter. Clytia difcovered the fecret to her
riyal’s father; and on this account Apolio treated her with
contempt and abandoned her; fo that fhe langutfhed, and,
by continually gazing on the fun, was changed into a fun-
flower, which itil turns towards the fun, in token of her
love.
CLYTIUS, one of the giants flain in the war again{t
Jupiter, by Hecate; or, according to Apollodorus, by
Vulcan.
CLYTORIS, a beautiful virgin of Theffaly, deflowered!
by Jupiter, who, for this purpofe, ailumed the form of an
ant.
CLYTUS, one of the Centaurs.
CNACADION, in dnacient Geography, the name given
by Paufanias to one of the three mountains, between which
was fituated the town of Las. This mountain was in La-
copia.
CNACALON, or Cnacatus, a mountain of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Arcadia. Diana hada temple on this moun-
tain, and was worthipped in it.under.the appellation of * Cna-
calefia.””? Paufanias.
7 CNAUSON;
CNE
USON, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
rding to Paufanias (1. viil. c. 27.), was one of
the colonies founded under the aufpices of Epaiminondas.
CNECEUS, fuppofed to be the Cnacion of Plutarch, a
ri of the Peloponnefus, in Laconia. ;
CNEMIS, a town of Greece, upon the fea-coa% in the
Loeride, according to Pliny. It is called Cnemides by Mela,
Ptolemy, and Strabo; the latter of whom fays, that it was_
ed placs, and fituated oppofite to the promontory
a, in the ifle of Euboea.—Alfo, a mountain of the Lo-
; oppolite to the fame ifland, from which the Locrii
Epicnemides, who inhabited its vicinity, derived their ap-
ellations.
CNEMODACTYLZUS, in Anatomy, a mufcle, other-
wife called Extensor (ertii internodti digitorum.
CKhEORUM, in Botany, (Kye, Hippoc. Theo-
phraft. Cneorum; Plin. Derivation unknown.) Linn.
Gen. 48. Schreb. 65. Willd.81. Jufl. 369. Vent 3: 443.
(Chamelea; Tourn. 421. Gert. 441. Cameleé; Encyc.)
Cljafs aud order, triandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce,
Linn. Terebiniacee, Jufl. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. very {mail, three-toothed, permanent.
Cor. Petals three, oblong, ereét, three times the fize of the
calyx, equal, deciduous.’ Stam. Filaments three, awl-
faped, fhorter than the corolla; anthers fmall. Pi?. Germ.
fuperior, obtufe, triangular; ityle ereét, the length of the
ftemens ; ftizma trifid, {preading. “Peric: Berry dry, hard,
plobularly three-lobtd, tricoccons; cocci two-celled, two-=
feeded, (three-berried drupe; Gert.) Seeds {olitary, con=
duplicate.
_ EM Ch. Calyx three-toothed.
Berry dry, tricoccons.
Sp. C! tricoccum, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart.’ Lam. - Willd:
Gert, tab. 7o. Lam. Ill, tab.27. ((Chamelea tricoccos ;
Bauh. Pin. 462. Cam. Epit. 973.) Widow wail, or {purge
olive. A {mall ever-green fhrub, about two feet and a
half high; branches compact, well garnifhed with leaves,
Cylindrical,’ fmooth, “greenifh. Leaves alternate, feffile,
elongated, entire, narrowed at the bafe, a little enlarged to=
tvards the fummit, fmooth, rather tlk, with a ftrong vein
or rib along the middle. F/owers pale yellow, fmall, axil-
lary, on fhort peduncles, often folitary, fometimes two or
tlirce together. Lam. Fruit tricoccous, or confilting of
three {mall-berricd drupes, gibbous on one fide, angu-
lar on the other, joinedat a common axis, dark brown
when ripe; fleth thin, green; fhell bony, thick, nearly
flobula¥, wrinkled, marked on the inner fide with a
furrow and umbilical hole, two-celled, without valves ;’ one
of the cells placed behind the other, both of them at the
feat of the radicle, divided by “a very flender partition, fo
that the upper part of the fhell appears four-celled. Recep-
tacle common filiform, terminated by the flyle ; proper con-
filling of {mall umbilical cords’ reaching from the axis of
the fruit to the feeds, Seeds one in each cell, very fmall,
égefhaped, doubled together like a worm, white, with a
brown caruncle at the infértion of the umbilicus, Gurts
A native of the fouth of Europe in dry, rocky foils.
Cr See ConvoLtvunus, and DAPHNE.
oa: ure. ‘his ornamental little fhrub is
a fort
Cz
Petals three, equal.
ation and (
hardy enough to bear-the cold of our winters, provided it
be not‘rendered too Insuriant by being’ planted in a very rich
foil. Its feeds fhould be fown in autumn, foon after they
ate ripe, in a bed of éommon earth,-and covered ‘half ’an
in¢h deep. In the autumn following the plants'may be re*
rioved where they.are to’remaine “Vhey flower in Mareh, and
a. freth fucceffion through the whole of the fum-
Pry }
ee
produce
~preceded every other.
C NB
mer. The leaves and fruit are acrid, cauftic, and violently
purgative. or
CNEPH, in Mythology,'denoting good, by way of emi-
nence, an appellation under which the ancient Egyptians,
particularly in the vicinity of Thebes, honoured the benes
ficence of the Creator, as they adored his power under the
name of Pétha, and his wifdom under that of Veith. “The
priefts of Egypt,’? fays Enufebius, (Evang. Prep. 1. 3.)
‘call Cneph the architeét of the univerfe.” Strabo men-
tions his temple, built in the ifle of Elephantis. The fym-
bol of this god, or attribute of the divinity, was a ferpent,
called by the Pheenicians the ‘ Good Genius.?? To this
purpofe Eufebius obferves, that ‘ the ferpent in the middle
of acircle, which it touches in the two oppofite points of its
circumference, indicates the Good Genius.”? For this ob-
jet they chofe a particular fort of ferpent, of which He-
rodoius -(l. ii.) gives the following defeription. ‘ There
are found, in the environs of Thebes, facred ferpents which
are not venomous. ‘They have two horns on the top of the
head, When they die, they are buried in the temple of jus
piter. The name of Cneph, or Good Genius, was beftowed
on them, as well as on the divinity they reprefented’; and
the veneration of the people extended no farther than to
the image. The temple of Cneph may be regardedias the
molt ancient in the country:; and its exiftence has been al-
leged, in conneGion with thofe of Piitha: and Neith, as
an evidence that among the Egyptians the wozfhip of the
Creator, which was one of the dogmas of their religion,
Cneph was fometimes reprefcnted ja
the fhape of a man of a dark-blue complexion, holding a gir
dle and a fceptre, with a reyal plume on his head, and
thrufting forth an egg out of bis mouth, whence another
God proceeded whom they named Phtha, denominated’ by
the Greeks Vulcan. Thefe hieroglyphics have been thus
explained ; the intelligent being denoted by them is hidden
and invifible, the giver of life, and the univerfal fovereigm;
and his being moved in an intelle&ual {piritual manner, cis
fignified by the feathers on his head, and the egg, proceed=
ing from his mouth, is interpreted to be the world. © 9) 4.
CNESTIS, in Botany, (Kexsiz, Gr. from Krew, or Kira,
fealpo; fo called on account of the prickly cap{fules which
wound the fkin when rubbed againft them.) Willd. o11.
Jol. 374. Vent. 3.452. (Gratelier; Lam. Eneyes) of
Clafs and order, decandria pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Teres
bintacee, Jal. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cai. deeply five-cleft; fegments ovalor‘oblong,
villous on the outfide, coloured. within, caducous. » Cors
Petals five, inferted into the receptacle, fometimes fhorters _
fometimes longer than the calyx, alternativg with its divie
fions. Stam. Vilaments ten, attached to the receptacle, a
little longer than the petals; anthers round, didymou
Piff. Germs five, fuperior, egg-{haped, -very villous 5-tbyle
fhort ; ftigma truncated, obfcurely two-lobed. :Peric. Caps
fules five, diftinGt, one or more frequently abortive, narrowe ~
ed towards the bafe, villous, one-valved; opening Jongitus
dinally on one fide like thofe of fterculia or :apocyaum, a —
little curved. Seeds one in each capfule. _
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five.
one: feeded. ; :
: sree we
Capfules fives .
Sp.1. C. glabra, Lam. Encye. 1. Il. Pl. 387 Willd. nn
Leaflets egg-fhaped, petioled, fmooth on both fides’ ra
cemes fafcicled, fhort, flender.” Atree. Leaves feattereds
fituated near the endsof the branches, pinnated with an odd
one. Common petioles from five to feven inches long, cy-
lindiical, fmooth ; leaflets from nine to. Afteen, two inches.
long or more, entire, coriaceous, on very fhort petioles;
5 Flowers
-
: CcNI
Flowers red or purple, {mall; racemes numerous, f{carcely
two inches long, cotteny, lateral and terminal, corollas open,
icarcely longer than the calyx. Cap/ules club-fhaped, curved,
fix or feven lines long, ruffet, covered with an abundant
prickly pubcfeence, which wounds the fkin. A native of
theiflzs of France and Bourbon. 2. C. polyphyla. Lam. 2.
Willd. 2. “ Leaflets ovate-oblong, fomewhat villous, on
very fhort petioles ; racemes tomentous ; capfules very ob-
tufe.” A tree, with the habit of the preceding. Branches
fomewhat cottony towards the fummit. Leaflets about. {e-
venteen, fometimes flightly acuminate, nearly {mooth above,
nerved, and a little villous underneath. FV/owers rather
’ larger than thofe of the preceding fpecies; racemes three
inches long or more, a little fafcicled, cottony, axillary,
and terminal; petals narrowifh, longer than the calyx,
Capfules r{-mbling thofe of the preceding, but quite ob-
tufe. A native of Madagafear. 3. C. corniculata, Lam..3.
Mart. 3. (Spondioides pruriens; Smeathman, Herb.)
*tTeaflets oblong-acuminate ; middle nerve villous; cap-
fules oblong, acute, horn-fhaped, tomentous, prurient.”
Branches woody, cylindrical, brown, fiphtly pubefcent near
the fummit. eaves more diftant than in the preceding ;
leaflet$ about nine, an inch and a half long, entire. Cap-
Jules four or five, near aninch and a half long. Difcovered
by Smeathman, at Sierra-Leona. 4. C. trifolia, Lam. 4.
Wilid. 4. (Spondioides villofa; Smeathman, Herb.)
«* Leaves ternate ; lcaflets egg-fhaped, acuminate, even-fur-
faced above, panicle terminal.” Branches woody, cylin-
Grical, cottony. Leaves alternate, fometimes almoft oppo-
fite; petioles three inches long, cylindrical, cottony, leaf-
lets entire, nerved and reticularly veined underneath, flightly-
tomentous; flipules {mall, fetaceous or filiform. Flowers ina
loofe terminal panicle; peduncles cottony; brates {mall,
filiform. Cap/ules .club-fhaped, half an inch long, rather
acute at their fummit, curved, cottony. Found in Africa
by Smeathman. ;
CNICUS, erifithales, ferox, Jpinofiffimus, centauroides,
unifiorus, cernuus. Linn. See Carpuvs, n. 70. 86, 87.
2, 93. 95- acarne Linn. SeeCartHamus canefcens.
—— oleraceus, pygmaeus, Linn. See SERRATULA.
Cnicus aculeatus purpurcus humilior, Tourn.
Arractytis humilis.
‘Cnicus /jlvefiris /pinofior, Bauh. Pin.
garis.
Cyicus ceruleus afperior, Bauh. Pin. See CarrHamus
caruleus. 4
Cnicus
mus carduncellus. ,
Cnicus. creticus, atradylidis folio et facie, Tourn. See
CArRTHAMUS creficus. <
Cyicus dentatus, Forfk. See CarrHamus dentatus.
Cwicus hi/panicus arborefcens, fetidifimus, Tourn.
Carruamus arlorefcens.
Cyicus fativus, five oficinarum, Bauh. Pin, —— vul-
garis, Cluf. See Carruamus findlorius.
Cnicus caule diffufo, foliis dentato-finuatus, Hort. Cliff.
See Centaurea benedida.
CNIDINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a ftrong place of
Afia Minor, in Ionia, placed by Diodorus Siculus in the
vicinity of the town of Ephefus.
CNIDUS, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria, in the pro-
vince called Doris, at the extremity of a promontory, an-
ciently denominated Tnopium, now Cape Crio, having on
the north the Ceramic, or Ceraunian bay, and on the fouth
the Rhodian fea, This ancient city was much celebrated.
Venus, its tutelary deity, was worfhipped in this place; and
hence fhe has been called the Cnidian Venus, Her ftatue,
Vor. VIII. ?
See
See CaR tina vul-
humius montis lupi, Herm. See Cartua-
See
CN O
which was reckoned ane of the moft beautiful produétions
of Praxiteles, was placed here ina temple, which was open
on all fides; fo that the ftatue might be every where feen ;
and in whatever point of view it was examined, it excited
equal admiration. No drapery veiled its charms; and its
beauty was-fo fingular and extraordinary, that it inflamed
with a violent peflion another Pygmalion, who, in the dark,
endeavoured to animate a cold and infenfible reprefentation
of a molt fafeinating woman, and there left traces of a mad
profanation. (Pliny, H. N. 1. xxxvi. c. 5.) Nicomedes,
king of Bithynia, offered to pay the debts of this city, which
were immenfe, in order to obtain this mafter-piece of art ;
but the Cnidians could not be prevailed upon to part with
it. Pliny, who relates the fa&, praifes them for their refufal
to furrender an object which immortalized their city, as well
as their paffion for the fine arts. In this place were other
itatues, which, daftitute of the perf Gion and feducing graces
of the Venus of Praxiteles, contributed no lefs to the public
glory and profperity, by the crowd of ftrangers who came
hither to admire them. | Heaps of ruins at this day occupy
the place of one of the mott f{plendid cities of ancient Greece ;
and the curious are prohibited from digging among them,
in order to difcover fragments of its ancient {plendour. In--
dependently of a tafte for the arts, the Cnidians had alfo a
genius for great enterprifes. They had refolved to cut
through the bafe of the large promontory which formed
their domain, and to convert their penin{ula into an ifland.
Thus, their {mall craft would have avoided the long circuit
of Cape Triopium, as well as the dangers of the tempeftuous
fea which breaks upon it ; and their country, more infulated,
would have been lefs expofed to attacks and furprifes from
the enemy. But an oracle fufpended labours which- were
likely to conduce to the fafety and profperity of the {tate.
It was found that the meaning ef the two hexameter verfes,
pronounced by the Pythian at Delphi, fignified that the in-
habitants of Cnidus were to leave their ilihmus fuch as it,
was; becaufe, if Jupiter had willed it to be an ifland, he
would have faved them the trouble of making it fo; an
abfurd anfwer, calculated only to divert from the exe-
cution of grand proje&s, and worthy of perfonages who,
on mytterious tripods, and in an obfcure language, boafted
of being the interpreters of the Fods, ‘The fhores of Cni-
dus furnifh now, as in former times, a great abundance of
fifhes, juflifying the appellation of ‘* Pifcofam Cnidon,”’
given it by Ovid. The wines of Cnidus were anciently
very famous. Theophraftus (1. vii. c. 4.) fpeaks of Cni-
dian onions as of a particular fpecies; they were very mild,
and did not occalion tears.
CNIZOMEN ZS, a people of Afia, placed by Diodorus
Siculus in the vicinity of the Arabian gulf.
CNOPITZ, in Geography, a river of Carinthia, which
runs into the Drave, about 6 miles S. W. of Saxenburg.
CNOSSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on
the northern coat of the ifland of Crete, towards the ealt, and
at a {mall diftance from the fea. According to Strabo (I. x.)
it was formerly called Cceratus, or Ceretos, from the name
of the river which watered it. This was famous for the
refidence and court of Minos, and as the abode of the moft
wealthy, as well as the moft powerful and warlike, people of
the whole ifland. Strabo fays, that in extent it was 30
ftadia. A {mall village, Cnoffou, would ferve to point out
the {cite of the ancient town, if it were not difcoverable in™
the rubbifh which covers it, anda great part of which has
fupplied materials for the building of modern Candia. » The
ort of Cnoffus was denominated Heraclzum.
CNOTHONDORF, ia Geography, a town of Hun-
gary, 18 miles W. of Tokay.
4G CNUPHIS,
CO.A
CNUPHIS, or Cunumis, in Ancient Geography, a city
of Egypt, S. of Thebes, and on the fame fide of the river,
fo called from a god of that name, worfhipped by the in-
habitants. See Cnepu.
CO, a town of Egypt, and the capital of the Cynopolite
nome.
COA, in Botary, fcandens, fru@u trigemino, Plum. See
Hippocratea volubilis.
Coa, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix, near
the fea, and almoft oppofite to the ifland of Diofcorides,
according to Ptolemy. It is mentioned in the books of
Chronicles and Kings, on occafion of the horfes with which
Solomon was fupplied by it.—Alfo, a river of Afia, which
had its fource, according to Ptolemy, in Mount Imaus, and
joining the river Suafte, difcharged itfelf into the Indus.
Coa, in Geography, a river of Portugal, which runs into
the Duero; 12 miles S. of St. Joanno de Pefqueira.
COACERVATUM Vacuum. See:Vacuum.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, fufpended
on leathers, and moved on wheels.
In England, and throughout Europe, the coaches are
drawn by horfes, except in Spain, where they ufe mules.
In a part of the Eait, efpecially the dominions of the
great Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den-
mark they fometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches; though
this is rather for curiofity than ufe.
The coachman is ordirarily placed ona feat raifed before
the body of the coach. But the Spanifh policy has dif-
placed him in that country by a royal ordonnance ; on occa-
fion of the duke d’Olivarcs, who found that a very import-
ant fecret, whereon he had conferred in his coach, had
been overheard, and revealed by his coachman ; fince that
time the place of the Spanifh coachman is the fame with that
of the French ftage-coachman, and our poftillion, viz. on
the firk horfe on the left. :
If we derive the origin of the modern word coach, or
coche, from caroche, or carofe,*and thefe from caroccio, we
find that this term was known in the 14th century, and was
probably invented not merely to defignatea military machine
fo called, but was adopted from one already in ufe, fignity-
ing a larger kind of car or waggon. Muratori, in his «* Dif-
fertation on the Military Syftem of the rude ages in Italy,’”
(vol. i. p. 360.) obferves, that the inventor of the caroche,
introduced after the year 1000, was Eribert, archbifhop of
Milan, in the rth century, who directed that a ftandard of
the following kind fhould precede his men as they marched
to battle. A tall beam, like the malt ofa thip, fixed in a
{trong waggon, is raifed on high, bearing on the top a
golden ball, with two very white ftreamers depending from
it. Inthe middle, the holy crofs, painted with the image
of our Saviour, with its arms widely fpread, overlooked the
iurrounding troops, fo that, whatever fhould be the event
of the combat, they might be comforted with this fign.
This is the undoubted origin of the military caroche, in
imitation of which other more powerful cities afterwards
formed them with a little variation, in order to ferve the
purpofes of war. The caroche was ufed not only by the M:-,
Janefe, but alfo by the Bolognefe, Paduans, Veronefe,
Brefcians, Cremonefe, Placentines, Parmefans, &c.; and it
appears, that in the 13th century the ufe of the caroche was
regarded as fingularly honourable, and of great avail in con-
quering theenemy. ‘Lo lofe it was accounted an irreparable
difgrace, as it was the higheft glory to take that of the ad-
verfary. From Italy the vfe of thefe caroches paffed into
Germany, Flanders, Hungary, and other countries, as Du
€ange has remarked; but in the r4th century, when another
mode of fighting was introduced, and they were found to be
5
COA
rather an incumbrance than an advantage, they ceafed to be
employed. But to return from this digreffion to the hiftory
of coaches, more properly fo called.
Some have thought, from the etymology of the word
coach, to determine the country in which it was invented.
But it would be much more cafy to afcertain the origin of
the term, if we did but know by whom clofe-carriages” were
invented. Menage makes it Latin, and by a far-fetched
derivation, traces it from ‘ vehiculum.” Junius derives it
from ox%2, to carry. Wachter feeks its origin in the German
word “ kutten,” to cover ; and Lye in the Belgic “ koetfen,?’
to lie along, as it properly fignifiesa couch or chair. The
Italian derivation has been already mentioned. Others en-
deavour to prove, that the word coach is of Hungarian extrac-
tion, and thatit had its rife from a village in the prevince
of Weifelburg, which is at prefent called “ kitfee,”? but
was formerly known by the name of ** kotfee,” or ‘* cotzi,”’
and that this travelling machine was even there firft invente
ed. However this be, it is certain that in the 16th century,
or even at an earlier period, a kind of covered carriages was
known, under the name of Hungarian carriages.
Beckmann, in his ‘ Hiftory of Inventions”? (yol. i. p.
rir, &c.) has taken canfiderable pains to prove, that cavered
carriages, under different forms and denominations, were
ufed among the principal nations of antiquity. According-
ly, he fays, that the arcera, mentioned in the 12 tables, was.
a covered carriage, ufed by fick and infirm perfons. This
was employed at an earlier period than the foft /eica, and
difufed after this was introduced. A later invention was the
carpentum (which fee) ; and at a ftill later period were in-
troduced the carruce, concerning which fo little is known,
that antiquaries are not certain, whether they had only one
wheel, like our wheel-barrows, or, as is more probable, four
wheels. (See Carruca.) In procefs of time covered car-
riages became more generally appendages of Roman pomp
and luxury; but at length the fpirit of the feudal fyftem for
fome time banifhed the ufe of them. The feudal lords, con-
ceiving it to be of the greateft importance that their mili
tary vaffals fhould ferve them on horfe-back, were averfe
from indulging them with elegant carriages, the prevalence
of which would render them indolent, and unfit them for
“military fervice. Accordingly perfons of every rank, males
and females, clergy and laity, rode upon horfes or mules, ©
and fometimes upon fhe-affes. The minilter rode to court,
the magiltrates of the imperial cities to council, even in the
beginning of the 16th century, and great lords made their
public entry on the moft folemn occafions on horfe-back.
In the accounts of the papal ceremonies that occur, we find |
no mention of a ftate-coach, or body coachman, but merely
of ftate-horfes, or ftate-mules.
Tt was neceffary that a horfe for his holinefs fhould be of
a grey colour, not mettlefome, but a quiet tra€table nag ; that
a ftcol with three fteps fhould be brought in order to affilt .
him in mounting ; and the emperor and kings, if prefent,
held his ftirrap, and led his horfe, &c. Bifhops alfo made
their public entrance on horfes or affes richly decorated,
At the coronation of the emperor, the eleGtors and principal.
officers of the empire were ordered to make their entrance on
horfes, and to perform their fervice on horfeback. More-.
over, it was formerly neceffary, that thofe who received an
inveftiture fhould make their appearance on horfeback : the
vaffal was obliged to ride with two attendants to his lord’s
court, where, having difmounted from his horfe, he received”
his fief. Covered carriages, however, were known in the
principal ftates of Europe, in the 15th and 16th centuries 3.
but they were at firft ufed by women of rank, and the men
thought it. difgraceful to ride in them. At this ee
when.
——
Ota Crs
when the ele@ors and princes did not chufe to be prefent at
the meetings of the flates, they excufed themfelves by in-
forming the emperor that their health would not permit
them to nde on horfeback ; and it was confidered as unbe-
coming for them to ride like women. In the year 1544,
when count Wolf of Barby was fummoned by John Frede-
ric, elector of Saxony, to go to Spires, to attend the conven-
tion of the {tates aflembled there, he requefted leave, on ac-
count of his iJl {tate of health, to make ufe of a clofe carriaze
with four horfes. Theufe of covered carriages was for along
time forbidden even to women. In the year 1545, the
wife of a certain duke obtained from him, with great diffi-
culty, permifiton to ufe a covered carriage in a journey to
the baths, with this exprefs ftipulation, that her attendants
fhould not have the fame indulgence.
certain, that the emperors, kings, and princes, about the end
of the 15th century, began to employ covered carriages on
journies, and afterwards on public folemnitics. Indeed, in
the account of Don Ambrofe Travafari’s embafly, in 1433,
we are informed that he made his entry into Mantuain a
coach, (un nobil cocchio tirato du fpiritofi defirteri.) In 1474,
the emperor, Frederic IL], vifited Trankfort in a clofe car-
wiage ; and in the following year he came into the fame city
in a very magniticent covered carriage. In the defcription
of the {plendid tournament held by Joachim, eleGtor of Bran- °
denburg, at Rupp in r5cq, the clectrefs appeared in 2 car-
riage all over gilt, accompanied by twelve other coaches,
ornamented with crimfon, and another of the duchefs of
Mecklenburg, which was hung with red fatin. At the coro-
nation of the emperor Maximilian, in 1562, the elector of
Cologne had twelve carriages; and in 1594, when the
margrave John Sigifmund did homage at Warfaw, on accourt
of Proffia, he had in his train thirty-fix coaches with fix
horfes each. Count Kevenhiller (cited by Beckmann,)
deferibing the marriage of the emperor Ferdinand IT. with
a princefs of Bavaria, fays, ‘‘ the bride rode with her filters
in a {plendid carriage ftudded with gold ; her maids of honour
in carriages hung with black fatin ; and the reft of the ladies
in neat leather carriages.”’ The fame author mentions the
entrance of cardinal Deitrichftein into Vienna in 1611, and
tells us that forty carriages went out to mect him. At the
eleGion of the emperor Matthias, the ambaflador of Branden-
burg had three coaches, which were conltru€ted in a coarfe
manner, of four boards clumfily put together. When the
confort of that emperor made her public entrance, on her
marriage in 1611, fhe rode in a carriage covered with per-
fumed leather. Mary, infanta of Spain, confort of the preced-
ing emperor, Ferdinand IL1., rede, in Carinthia, in-1631, in
a glals carriage, in which no more than two perfons could fit.
The wedding-carriage of the firft wife of the emperor Leo-
pold, who was alfo a Spanith princets, coft, together with the
harnefs, 38,000 florins. The coaches ufed by that empe-
ror are thus defcribed ; ‘¢ in the imperial coaches no great
magnificence was to be feen; they were covered over with
red cloth and black nails. The harnefs was black, and in
the whole work there was no gold. The pannels were of
glafs, and on this account they were called the imperial glafs
coaches. On fettivals the harnefs was ornamented with red
filk fringes. The imperial coaches were diltinguifhed only
by their having leather traces ; but the ladies in the imperial
fuite were obliged to be contented with carriages, the traces
of which were made of ropes.””, At the magnificent court
of duke Ermeft Auguftus, at Hanover, there were in the year
1681, fifty gilt coaches with fix horfes each. ‘The firft time
that ambaffladors appeared in coaches, in a public folemnity,
was at the imperial commiffion held at Erfurth, in 1613,
re{peCling the aitair of Juliers. ;
Tt is neverthelefs.
In the hiftory of France we find many proofs, that at Paris,
in the 14th, sth, and even the 16th centuries, the French.
monarchs rode commonly on horfes, the fervants of the court
on mules, and the princefles, together with the principal
ladies, fometimes on affes. In 1534, queen Eleonora and
the princeffes rode on white horfes, during a facred fettival ;
and that private perfons, e. g. phyficiaus, ufed no carriages
in the 15th century, has been inferred from the priuci-
pal entrance to their public {chool, which was built in
1472, and which was fo narrow, that a carriage could not
pafs through it, though it was one of the wideit exifting at
that period. In Paris alfo, at all the palaces and public
buildings, they had fleps for mounting on horfeback, fech
as thofe which the parliament caufed to be erected in_15¢9.
However, carriages appear to have been nfed at an caly
period in France. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, iffued
in 1294, for fuppreffing luxury, and in which the wives of
the citizens are forbidden to ule carriages (cars), is ftill pre-
ferved. Coaches or chariots are faid to have been in ufe at
the duke of Burgundy’s court fo early as 1445. (See
Palaye’s “* Memoires fur ]?Ancienne Chevalerie.”?) Under
Francis I., or rather about 1550, fomewhat later, there
were at Paris, for the firfl time, only three coaches; one of
which belonged to the queen, another to Diana de Poiétiers,
the miftrefs of two kings, Francis I. and Henry IL., by the
latter of whom fhe was created duchefs of Valentinois, and
the third to René de Laval, lord of Bois-Dauphin, who,
being a corpulent unwicldy nobleman, was not able to
ride on horfeback. Others fay, that the three firfk coaches
belonged to Catherine de Medicis, Diana duchefs of Angon-
léme, the natural daughter of Henry IL., who died in 1619,
and Chriftopher de Thov, fir prefident of the parliament,
the latter of whom was troubled with the gout; but his wife
came to Paris on horfeback. The other minifters of {tate foon
followed his example.’ Henry IV. was affeflinated in a
coach, but he ufually rode through the ftreets of Paris on
horfeback, and had only one coach for himfeif and his
queen. We find, however, two coaches at the public fo-
lemnity on the arrival of the Spanifh ambaffador, Don Peter
de Toledo, under the reign of thes king. The coaches
ufed at this time were not {ufpended by flraps; they hada
canopy fupported by ornamented pillars; and the whole
body was furrounded by curtains of ftuff or leather, which
might be drawnup. If Henry’s coach had Been furnifhed
with glafs, it is probable that he would not have been mur-
dered. Baflompiere, in the reign of Louis XIII, is faid to
have been the firft who projected a {mall coach with glafles :
and the coach in which Louis XIV. made his public en-
trance about the middle of the 17th century, appears to
have been a fufpended carriage. ‘The inventor of this very
material improvement, or that of fufpending the body of the
carriage from elaltic {prings, cannot be afcertained. "T'his is
the only information relating to it that occurs, unlefs we al-
low that the firlt word of the following expreflion, ‘ bran-
lant et moult riche,”’ which is applied to the carriage pre-
fented to the queen of France, in 1457, by the ambaflador of
Ladiflaus V., king of Hungary and Bohemia, indicates that
the carriage was fufpended.
Twifs, in his ‘ Travels through Spain and Portugal,”
fays, that coaches were feen for the firlt time in Spain in
the year 1546. ‘To this purpofe it is obferved by Don LLe-
renzo Vander Hamin and Leon, in the firlt book of Don
John of Auftria’s life, that Charles Pubeft, a fervant of
Charles V. king and emperor, came in a coach or chariot,
a thing rarely feen in thefe kingdoms. Whole cities ran
out to flare at it, for at that time they only made uie of
carts drawn by oxen; and in them were’ fen the moft confi.
4G2 derable
GCOACH.
Cerable perfons even of the court. Within a few years, about
three {core and ten, it was found neceffary to prohibit
coaches by royal proclamation. In Madrid, it is faid, there
are from four to five thoufand gentlemen’s carriages.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century, when Charles
of Anjoy made his entrance into: Naples, the queen of
Naples rode in a carriage, called by hiltorians ‘“¢ caretta,””
the outhide and infide of which were covered with {ky-blue
velvet, interfperfed with golden lilies. From Naples the
luxury of carriages {pread over all Italy.
England lays claim to a very early ufe of coaches; but
whatever may be the denowination under which they are
mentioned, it is moft probable that the ancient vehicles of
this kind were merely cars, or a fuperior fort of waggons.
From the life of St. Erkenwald, in fir William Dugdale’s
hiftory of St. Paul, he appears to have ufed fomewhat ap-
proachingto their conftruction, ora fort of chaife with wheels,
in which he preached when he was old and infirm. This
mutt have been as early, at leaft,as the year 675. Brooke, in
his ‘“ Catalogue and Succeffion of Dukes, Earls, &c.”’ fays,
that William de Ferrars,earl of Derby, died of a bruife occa-
fioned by a fall from his coach in 1253. Mr. Dailaway,in his
« Irquiry into the Origin of Heraldry,” cites a manuscript
regifter of the abbey of Gloucefter, preferved in the archives
of Queen’s college, Oxford, which ftates the manner of
conveying the body of Edward IL., from Berkeley cattle ;
« Ifte tum abbas fuo curru, honorificé ornato cum armis
ejufdem ecclefie depidtis, &c. ;”” and from which citation he
infers that arms were painted at this early period on carriages
and domettic furniture. From Stowe’s furvey of London, we
learn, that the oldeft carriages ufed by the ladies in Eng-
land were known under the now obfolete name of “ whirli-
cotes.’ When Richard II., towards the clofe of the 14th
century, was obliged to fiy from his rebellious fubjects, he,
and all his followers, were on horfzback ; but his mother,
who was fick and weak, rode ina carriage. Butthis became
afterwards unfafhionable ; for that monarch’s queen, Anne;
the daughter of the king of Bohemia, fhewed the Engiifh
Jadies how gracefully and conveniently fhe could ride ona
difufed, except at coronations and other public folemnities.
In 1471, after the battle of Tewkefbury, which decided the
fate of king Henry VI. and that of the houfe of Lancatter,
when others fled ia different direGions, the queen was found
in her chariot, almoft dead with forrow. (Hall’s Chronicle.)
In 1487, on occafion of a grand celebration of the feaft of
St. George, at Windfor, in the third year of king Henry
VIL, the queen and the king’s mother rode in a chaife, co-
yered with a rich cloth of gold, drawn by fix courfers, har-
nefled with the fame cloth of gold; and 21 ladies, habited
in crimfon velvet, rode on white palfreys. (A thmoie’s Order
of the Garter.) In the Northumberland houfehold-book,
the duke’s chapel-fluff is ordered to be fent before by my
lord’s chariot; which ufe’ of it, about the year 1512, indi-
cates that it bore little refemblance to the modern carriage
of that name. In the proceflion of the funeral of Thomas
Howard, duke of Norfolk, 1524, the body laid in a chariot
was drawn by horfes. richly. caparifoned ; and before it, in
its way to Thetford, where he was buried, went three
coaches of friars. Holinthed fays that queen Elizabeth
ufed a chariot at a very early period (1558) of her reign.
From thefe and many fimilar inftances that might be cited,
we may cafily conj2éture what kind of vehicle was the-an-
cient coach. In every period of Englith hiftory chairs and
horle-litters, or hanging-waggons, occur, and they appear
to have been the molt eafy and commodious machines for
conveyance with which our auceftors were acquainted.
Stowe, in his ‘ Summarie of the Englifh Chronicles,” cited
by Strutt, in his ‘* Manners and Cuttoms of the Englith,??
vol. ii., ftates, that. in 1555, Walter Ripon made a ease
for the earl of Rutland, which was the firft that was ever
ufed in England ; and, in 1564, the fame Walter made the
firft hollow turning-coach, with pillars and arches, for her
majefty ; and again, in 1584, he made a chariot-throne, with
four pzllars behind, to bear a canopy with a crown imperial
on the top, and before, two lower pillars, on which ftcod a
lion and a dragon, the fupporters of the arms of England
From Stowe’s large chronicle we learn, that in the year
1564, Guylliam Boonen, a Dutchman, became the queen’s
coachman, and that he was the firft that brought the ufe of
coaches into England. Soon after, within the period of 20
years, they became common among the nobility and other
perfons of rank. About this time it is faid long wagons,
conveying paflengers. and commodities, were introdaded?
Anderfon, in his ‘* Hiftory of Commerce,” fays that
coaches were firft known in England about the year 1580
and that they were introduced from Germany by Fitz-Allen;
earlof Arundel. He adds, from Stowe, that they were re
general ufe by the nobility and gentry about the year 1605:
But Mr. Strutt informs us, that it was a long time after
the invention af coaches before a coach-box was added to
the body; ‘for the coachman joineth a horfe fixed to
match a faddle-horfe to the coach-tree; then he fitteth upon
the faddie; and when there are four horfes he drove thofe
which went before him, guiding them with arein.”” Tn the
year 1598, when the Englifh ambaflador went to Scotland
he had acoach with him. The duke of Buckingham,
the unworthy favourite of two kings, was the firft perl
who rode with a coach and fix horfes, in 1619; in ridicule
of which novel pomp, the earl of Northumberland put eight
horfes to his carriage.
Towards the end of the 16th century, John of Finland,
on his return from England, among other articles of luxury,
brought with him to Sweden the firft coach. Before that pes- ~
riod, the greateft lords in Sweden, when they travelled by
‘
land, carried their wives with them on horfeback he ©
nie 1 l and th
fide-faddle; and, therefore, whirlicotes and chariots were, princefles travelled in the fame manner. : 3
In Da Roches’s “ Hiftory of Denmark,’ there are two
paflages, in which coaches are mentioned as exifting in that
country in the time of Chriftian IL. about the year 15153
but, perhaps, they merely mean the covered carts which are’
{till ufed in Weltphatia and its neighbourhood.
It appears that in the capitalof Roflia there were elegant
coaches as early as the beginning of the 17th century. At
Amitterdam coaches with wheels were prohibited in the year
1663, in order to fave the expenfive pavement of the ftreets,
for coaches there, even in fummer, are placed upon fledges
as thofe at Peterfburg are in winter. Many attempts have
been made to fupprefs the ufe of coaches. The feudal no-=
bility and vaffals on the continent were forbidden the ufe of
coaches, under pain of incurring the punifhment of felony.
In 1588, duke Julius of Baaiieck publifhed an order, ere
hibiting his vaflals to ride in carriages; and in 1608, Philip
II., duke of Pomerania-Stetten, reminded his vaffals, that
they ought not to make fo much ufe of carriages as of
horfes. Thefe prohibitions, however, have been of no avail;
and coaches became common ail over Germany.
Louis XIV. of France, made feveral fumptuary laws for
reitraining the exceffive richnefs of coaches, prohibiting the
ufe of gold, filver, &c. therein, but they have had the fate’
to be neglected.
_ Coaches may be divided into two kinds ; thofe that have
iron bows, or necks, and thofe that have not ; both the one
and the other have two principal parts, the bedy, and the
train, P
CD A ©.H.
train, or carriage. The body is that part where the paffen-
gers are difpofed; and the carriage is that which fuftains
the body, and to which the wheels are faftened, that give
motion to the whole machine.
There have been various contrivances among coach-makers
to enable coaches, and other four-wheeled carziaves, to turn
fhorter than the common coaches, without the fore wheels
touching the perch. The moft common and effective among
thefe, is a contrivance called the crane-neck, a reprefentation
of which is given in Plate XIII. fig. 1. of Mechanics. In
_the place of the common fingle perch or pole, which con-
neéts the two axletrees together, two iron perches, A, A,
are fubftituted ; they are firmly attached to a {tout piece of
wood, B, by bolzsand ferews ; this piece, which carries the
two fprings, D, D, at its ends, has another, E, halved into it
at right angles, that fupports, at its end, athird beam, F,
parallel to the firft, the ule of which is to hold iron braces,
6,b; for the {prings, and to ftrengthen the perches A, A,
which are conneéted to it by {crew-bolis at the place where
they crofs* each other. The perch-bolt, a, round which
the fore-axle moves as a centre, when the coach is in the at
of turning, pafles through the interfe¢tion of the pieces B
and E, and alfo through the axletree G. HH is an iron
circle concentric with the perch-bolt, firmly fixed to the
axletree, on which the ends of the pieces B and E reft, fo
asto guard again{ft the perch-bolt being breken or bent by
any fudden jerk when the carriage is turning. The remain-
der of the carriage is made in the common way, and theim-
provement confifts in bending the two perches, A, A, up-
wards, fo that the fore wheels can turn under them, and
might be made to turn quite round, if neceflary.
Fig. 2, reprefents a contrivance of Mr. Jacob, of Greek-
ftreet, Soho-fquare, for the fame purpofe. A is the perch,
as ina common coach, B the piece carrying the {prings, and
F the piece fupporting their braces, bolted acrofs the perch
at right angles; @ is the perch-bolt, which does not pafs
through the axletree itfelf, but through a piece of wood, G,
projeGing perpendicularly from the middle of the axletree,
about half the diameter of the fore-wheels, and is firmly fixed
to it by bolts and ftraps of iron; the axletree, H, is ftraight
on the upper fide, and has a {traight edge of iron {crewed on
thetop of it, on whichthe end of the percli, A, is fupported;
the under fide of the perch is alfo faced with iron, where it
lies upon che axletree. It is evident, from the drawing, that
by removing the perch-bolt to a diflance from the axle-
tree, by means of the piece G, the axletree may be turned
round much nearer into a line with the perch, without
either of the wheels touching it, than it could do, if the
perch-bolt went through the middle of it, as in the common
way. By this contrivance, though it does not poflefs all
the advantages of the crane neck, coaches may be made to
turn much fhorter than the common ones, without any in-
creafe of expence in their conftruction.
Coaches are diftinguifhed, with regard to their ftruGure,
into coaches, properly fo called, chariots, calafhes, and berlins.
With regard to the circumftances of their ule, &c. we diftin-
guith flage-coaches, hackney-coaches, &c.
Chariot, or Half-Coacu, is a kind of coach that has only
a feat behind, with a ftool, at molt, before. When thefe
are very gay, richly garnifhed, and have five glaffes, they
are called CaLasuHEs. j
By 43 Geo. LIT. ¢ 161. repealing former a&s, the fol-
lowing duties are impofed on carriages, to take place from
April 5, 1804, and they are levied under the provilions of the
43 Geo. III. c. 99, and by 45 Geo. III c. 15, &c. viz. for
one cartiage with four wheels, tle annual fum of 11/3 for
two fuch carriages, 24/ 4s.; for three, 39/. 125.5 for
four, 55/.% for five, 71/. 105.3 for fix, 89/. 25.3 for feven,
io7/. 165.3; for eight, 127.2. 3s.; for nine 148/. 1os.; and
an additional 16/, 10s. tor every other carriage: and for
every additional body, fucceffively ufed on the fame car-
riage or number of wheels, the further fum of 155. 6d. :—
For every carriage with lefs than four wheels (tax-carts ex-
cepted) drawn by one horfe,5/. 15s: 6d. ; and drawn by two
er more horfes, 8/. 15. 8$d.; and for every additional bo-
dy, fucceflively ufed on the fame carriage or number of
wheels, the further fum of 2/.15s.:—For every carriage,
kept for the purpofe of being let to hire, for any period
not exceeding 28 days, fo that the ftamp-oflice duty, payable
by law on horfes let to hire, fhall be duly paid and fatisfied
on every fuch letting by a licenfed perfon, if fuch carriage
have four wheels, as above; if it have lIefs than four
wheels, the refpeétive fums above mentioned in the cafe of
the fame carriages:—all which duties fhall be refpedtively
paid by the perfon keeping the fame:—For every carriage
kept for the purpofe of being Jet to hire, for any period of
time lefs than one year, and in fuch manner, that the faid
ftamp-office duty fhall not be payable to fuch letting by any
fuch licenfed perfon, if the carriage fhall have four wheels,
the annual fum above ftated ; and if fuch carriage have lefs
than four wheels, the refpe€tive {ums above mentioned:
Poft chaifes are chargeable with cight guineas each. By 43
Geo. III. c. 161, the following new duties are to be paid
by coach-makers, and on carriages built for fale, in lieu
of the duties thereby repealed ; and alfo the new duties on
perfons vending fuch carriages by auction or commiffion:
viz. by every perfon who fhall carry cn the trade of a
coach-maker, &c. the annual duty ot 55.; by every {uch
coach-maker for every carriage with four wheels, made for
fale, 1/., and for every fuch carriage with two wheels, ros.:
—By every perfon who fhall fell any carriage chargeable
with duty by this a&t, by way of aution or commiffion,
the annual duty of 55.3 by every fuch perfon for every
{uch carriage with four wheels, which he fhall fell by auc-
tion gr on commiffion, 1/, and for every fuch carriage with
two wheels, fo fold, ros. Perfons who have kept any car-
riages in the year ending on the days appointed for the com-
mencement of the duties in 1804, are to return lifts to the
affeflors ; and perfons beginning or ceafing to keep carriages,
or to carry on the trade of coach-makers, are to give notice
of the fame. Coach-makers are required to keep accounts
of carriages built or fold by auétion or on commiflion. The
affeflors, &c. to whom fuch accounts are delivered, fhall
certify the fame to commiffioners.
~The number of coaches made in England in the year
1793, is faid to have amounted to 40,000, more than half
of which were exported. By the yearly accounts of the
net produce of the permanent taxes, it appears that the duty
on four-wheeled carriages (exclufive of hackney coaches)
amounted in the year 1803 to 184,389/7. 5s. 7£d. and in
1804, to 172,013/. 55. 53d. ; and the duty on two wheeled
carriages, to 90,090/. 2s. 72d. and 119,866/. 115. 54d. re-
{pectively : and the amount of the duties on both forts of
carriages was 260,559/. 135. odd. in 1805, 260,088/. 45. 72d.
in 1806, and 302,349/. 35. 2d. in 1807 refpectively. The:
duties upon hackney coaches and chairs amounted in 1806
to 24,325/. 2s. and in-1807 to 25,857 /.
Coacues, Hackney, thofe expofed to hire in the ftreets
of London, and fome other great cities, at rates fixed by
authority.
Thefe firft began to ply in the ftreets of London, or ra-
ther waited at inns, in 1625, and were only twenty in num-
ber ; but they were fo much increafed in 1635, that king
Charles iflued an order of council for reftraining them. In
16379
GO AG H.
1637, he allowed, fifty hackney-coachmen, each of whom
might keep twelve horfes. In 1652 their number was limited
to two hundred, and in 1654 extended to three hundred,
for which 600 horfes were employed. In 1661 four hun-
dred were licenfed at 5/. annually for cach. In 1694 feven
hundred were allowed, and taxed by the 5 and 6 W.and M.
at 4/. per annum each. , ;
By 9 Anne, cap. 23, the king may appoint commiffioners,
not exceeding five in number, for regulating hackney-
coaches within the bills of mortality ; and by this ftatute
eight hundred hackney-coaches were allowed in London and
Weftminfter ; but by 11 Geo. III. cap. 24, the number
was increafed to one thoufand; and by 42 Geo. IIl.¢. 78.
one hundred more was added, which are to be licenfed by
the commiffioners, and pay a duty of 5s. per week (9
Anne. c. 23.) and an additional duty of 5s. per week (24
Geo. III. feft. 2. c. 27-) for each licence to the crown, to
be paid monthly : and if any perfon drive or let to hire a
hackney-coach without licence, he fhall forfeit 57. The
commiflioners may appoint infpeétors to fee that licenfed
perfons provide fafe and clean coaches and fufficient horfes,
and fufpend the licence of any perfon whofe cozch or horfes
fhall be found defe@tive (39 and, 40 Geo. III. §. 4.); nor
fhall any horfe be ufed wich any hackney-coach uoder the
heieht of r4 hands (9 Anne. c. 23.). ‘ By-the fame fiatute
every coach is to have a diltin€ mark or number on both
fides, which is not to be altered under penalty of 54 No
unlicenfed coaches fhall ply at funera's for hire, or without
having a number fixed on the fore-ftandard, fhewing it to
be licenfed, on pain of 5/. 1 Geo. c. 57. 24. Geo. IT.
{eff 2.c.27. By 1 Geo. c. 57. refufing any perfon to take
the number cf the coach, or giving a wrong number, incurs
the forfeiture of a fum not exceeding gos. By 11 Geo.
III, c. 28. every hackney-coach is to be provided with
checque-ltrings, and. plying without them incurs a penalty
of 5s.; and by 1 Geo. c. 57. drivers of hackney-coaches
are to give way to perfons of quality and gentlemen’s
coaches, under penalty of tos.
By 39 and 40 G. Ill. c. 47. the fares on hackney coaches
allowed by 26 G. III. c. 72. are repealed, and the following
fares are to be taken in lien thereof: namely, between fix
in the morning and twelve at night for every diftance not
exceeding one mile 1s. and for every further diftance not
exceeding half a mile 6 d. and increafing 6 d. for every half
mile fuch coach fhall go farther. f. 1. 4
Andas to time, for every coach kept in waiting between
fix in the morning and twelve at night, for not exceeding 49
minutes 1s. and for any further time not exceeding 20
minutes 6d. and fo on during the whole time fuch coach
fhall be engaged, computing at the rate of 6d. for every 20
minutes. 5
And for every coach hired where there is a regular con-
tinuation of carriage-way pavement, or at any ftand beyond
fuch continuation, and taken to, and difcharged at any
place from which the fame cannot be driven to the nearelt
continuation of fuch carriage-way pavement, or fuch ftand, °
before fun-fet, (eftimating the rate of driving at five miles
an hour,) then one half part of the fare hereby allowed for
fuch diftance as fuch coach can be fo driven towards fuch
neare(t pavement before fun-fet, fo as no fraétion of any
fum lefs than 6d. fhall be payable by reafon of fuch half
yate ; andthe full rate hereby allowed fhall be paid for fuch
diftance as fhall remain for fuch coach to be driven at the
rate aforefaid to fuch pavement after fun-fet, or where fuch
coach fhall have been hired at any ftanding beyond fuch
pavement, then to fuch ftanding or to the neareft pavement,
xt the option of the perfon dilcharging {uch coach,
And every coach hired for a day not excecding r2 hours,
and to end before 12 o’clock at night, and the diftance not
to exceed 20 miles, fhall be paid 18s. for fuch day’s work,
and for any further time or diltance or if after 12 at night,
fuch further rate for fuch time cr diftance as is allowed for
any further time or diltance of the like nature by this a&:
And alfoif any fuch coach fhall be taken to and difcharged
at any place exceeding one mile from where there isa regular
carriage-way pavement, fo as that fuch coach cannot be dri-
ven to fuch pavement within fuch r2 hours, or before 12 at
night; or where the diftance where fuch coach fhall be dif
charged, added to the diftance fuch coach fhall have been
driven, fhali in the whole exceed 20 miles, then fuch fur-
ther additional rate as is herein allowed for any further time
or diftance of'the like nature.
And for every fuch coach which fhall be hired or kept in
waiting after twelve at night or before fix is the morning,
or fhall be difcharged at any fuch time and place that it
cannot be driven to fomeregular carriage-way pavement be-
fore twelve at night, an additional fare for fuch time or dif-
tance as aforefaid, over and above the rate before mentioned,
of 6d. upon every 1s. but fo that fuch additional rate fhall
not be taken for any fuch coach hired. between ten and ©
twelve o’clock at night, unlefs the rate, according to the time
for which fuch coach fhall be kept, or the diftance fuch
coach fhall be taken, fhall according to the rates aforefaid
amount to 2s. or upwards, although fuch coach fhall not be
difcharged till after tweive at night. .
And when the average price of oats computed according
to 31 G. III. c. 3o. fhall exceed 255. per quarter, the com-
miffioners for licenfing hackney coaches may. allow additional
fares to be taken, viz. 6d. on every 25. fare: Is. on every
4s. fare, and fo 6d. additional on every additional 2s. pro-
vided the coach goes or is kept to the full amount of the
fare; and fuch additional rates may be continued till go
days after oats are reduced to one guinea per quarter.
6 A es
mo licenfed ceachman, plying for hire, within the cities
of London and Weftminiter, or the fuburbs thereof, or elfe-
where within the bills of mortality, fhall be ubiiged and com-
pellable, on every day of the week, at feafonable times, to
go any where within the diftance of ten miles from either of
the faid cities. 7 G. IIIc. 44. f.12. 12 G. He. 4o, ff. 1.
No perfon who hall regularly ufe fuch hackney coach as
a {tage coach to and from any of the towns or places in the
neighbourhood of London or Wettminiter, fhall be obliged
to carry any fare out of the ordinary courfe of his ftage work
or duty; provided that he do, by painting in legible charac-
ters, on the door of fuch coach, or on a board to be affixed
on fuch door, plainly denote and ditinguifh the fame to be a
{tage coach to and from any fuch town or place. 12 C.
iMivcewag hte.
If any hackney coachman fhall refufe to go at, or exa&
more for his hire, than according to the above act, or bye-
laws ; he fhall forfeit a fum not exceeding 3 /. nor under 10s.
T Galt. 201co sesh 2: ;
And every hackney coachman where coaches are ftanding,
fhall be compellable to go with any perfon when defired,
and on refufal, (unlefs he prove being hired) fhall be liable
to the like penalties as perfons refufing to carry for hire, by
any law nowin being. 39 and 40. G. IIIc. 48. f. 5.
Hackney coachmen exacting more than their fare, fhall
be liable to the penalties, and their fares fhall be recoverable,
as under formeraéts. f. 11. ;
And if any perfon who fhall drive a coach, or carry a chair
for hire, acting under a perfon licenfed, fhall be guilty of
mifbehaviour, by demanding more than his fare, or giving
abufive .
COA
abufive language, or other rude behaviour; he fhall, on con-
vidtion on oath, forfeit not exceeding 205. to the poor; and
if he fhall not be able, or refufe to pay, he fhall be com-
mitted to Bridewell or fome other houfe of correction, to be
kept to hard labour for feven days, and receive the public
correction of the houfe before he be difcharged. g An. c.
23. {. 44.
And on mifbehaviour of a coachman or chairman by abu-
five language, or otherwife, the commiffioners may revoke
his licence, or infli€ton him a penalty, not exceeding 3/. to
the poor; and on non-payment, he fhall be committed to
Bridewell or fome other houfe of correction, to be kept to
hard labour forgo days. g An.c. 23. f. 49. 7 Geo. III.
c. 44. f. 16.
Ifany perfon fhall refufe to pay, or fhall deface any coach
or chair, any juftice may grant his warrant to bring him be-
fore him ; and on proof upon oath may award fatisfa&tion to
the party, and on refufal to pay, may bind him over to the
next feflins, who may determine the fame. 9 An.c. 23,
{, 22.
And if any hackney coachman or his renter, fhall be in
arrear for any rent made payable by his licence for any
longer time than is exprefled therein, the faid commiffioners
may revoke fuch licence, and levy the money upon the
goods of either the owner or renter, in like manner and form
as by any law now in being with refpe&t tothe owner. 26
Gener. 72. 3): :
The rents and penalties to be levied by diftrefs, by war-
rant of three commiffioners; which diftrefs thall be fold in
ten days, returning the overplus, charges of the diftrefs and
_ of the warrant being firlt deduéted (if on feven days’ notice
they pay not the fine without fuch warrant ) ; and in default
of diltrefs, to be imprifoned till paid ; and if any rent fhall
be unpaid for 14 days, the commiffioners may withdraw the
licences ) 9 Ain. ic.) 235 fi 1:2.
And moreover, the breach of the bye-laws, and of thefe
rules and orders, may be punifhed by any juftice of the peace,
mayor, bailiff, or other magiftrate, where the offence fhall be
committed, inlike manner as by the commiffioners. g An.
CHze ese Gr ike 25cu G7 ten 7) AG Th. Gs 36. 7G.
Tico 44:f. 19. 10 G. LID. ci gai ft 7.
And every licenfed perfon who fhall negle& or refufe
(being duly fammoned for that purpofe) to appear’/by him-
felf or his renter, fall forfeit tos. to be recovered as the
other penalties; and if fuch licenfed perfon fhall negle& or
refufe to appear, together with his renter, upon the third
fummons, the complaint may be heard and determined in his
abfence. 10 G. III. c. 44. f. 6.
Aind if any owner of a licenfed hackney coach, fhall re-
fufe or negle& to appear with his driver before the com-
miffioners upon the third f{ummons left at his ufual place of
abode, the {aid commiflioners may revoke fnch licence, and
licence another perfon in his room. 24 G. III. feff. 2. c.
2909 037 « \
Hes i penalties levied by any jultice, mayor, bailiff, or
other magiltrate, fhall by them be tranfmitted to the receiver
general of the duties on hackney coaches and chairs, and they
fhall alfo tranfmit a certificate thereof to the commiffioners,
within ten days after levying fuch penalty, on pain of 10/,
half to the king and half to him that fhall fue. 10 G. 3.c.
4. £.8.
vEyceugy coaches were firlt eftablifhed at Edinburgh in
1673 and carriages of this kind have been introduced with-
in fome years, in feveral principal cities and towns of Eng-
land. At Paris, and in fome other places in the continent,
they are known, by the name of “ fiacres.”” This appella-
tion is faid by Beckmann to have originated in France, about
the year 1650, when one Nicholas Sauvage firlt thought of -
CH.
keeping horfes and carriages for hire; and as he lived ina
houfe called the *‘hdtel S. Fiacre,’’ the coaches, coachmen,
and proprietor wer2 called ‘ fiacres.”” A particular kind of
hackney carriage is peculiar to the Parifians; it is de-
nominated ‘* brouette,”’ or “ roulette,’? and fometimes by way
of derifion, “ vinaigrette 5”? and was invented by a perfon
of the name of Dupin ; the body is almoft like that of our
fedans, but rolls upon two wheels, and is dragged forwards
by men. Carriages of thiskind came into common ule in
167 t, but they were employed only by the common peopte.
he number of all the coaches at Paris is computed ({ays
Beckmann) at about 15,000; and theauthor of the “Tableau
de Paris,’”? reckons the number of the hackney coaches to
amount to 1So00, and afferts that more than 100 foot paffen--
gers lofe their lives by them every year. Fiacres were in-
treduced at Warfaw, for the firft time, in 1778. In Copen-
hagen there are 100 hackney coaches. In Madrid there are
from 4 to 5,000 gentlemen’s carriages 3 in Vienna 3000, and
200 hackney coachess
Coacues, Stage, are thofe appointed for the conveyance
of travellers from one city or town to another ; and thefe, as
well as other coaches,. chaifes, &c. with four wheels, pay an:
annual tax of 8/. 8s, ;
Perfons keeping ttage-coaches for the purpofe of convey=
ing paflengers by hire, fhall take outa licence at 55. annually,
and renew it on pain of forfeiting 10/. 25 Geo. III.c. 51
By 30 Geo. Ill. c. 36. it is enaGted, that the drivers of
itage-coaches, drawn by three or more horfes, are not to
admit more than one outfide paffenger on the box, and four
on the roof, under a penalty of 55. for every perfon above
the limited number, to be paid to the toll-taker at every
turnpike gate through which fuch carriage fhall pafs; the
proprietor’s name fhall be put on the carriage; and if the
coachman fhall fuffer any perfon to drive the fame, without
the confent of the infide paflengers, or quit the box without
reafonable occafion, or fora longer time than fuch occation
may require ; or fhall, by furiouily driving, negligence, or
mifconduét, overturn the carriage, or endanger the perfors
or property of the paffengers, or of the owner of fuch car-
riage, he fhall for every fuch offence forfeit not exceeding 5 /.
nor lefs than 405.3 and if the guard fire without caufe, he
fhall forfeit for every fuch offence 20s. If the driver cannot
be found, the proprietor of fuch carriage fhall be liable to
the penalty laid upon the driver. he penalties are to be
applied, half to the informer, and half to the furveyor of the
highways in the place where the offence is committed, for
the repair of the highways. See Post-hor/es.
Coacu, in Sea Language, denotes a chamber or apartment
near the ftern, ina fhip of war. ;
COADJUTOR, Fellow-helper, is properly ufed for a
prelate joined to anothers to affilt him in the difcharge of
the functions of his prelature ; and ‘even, in. virtue thereof,
to fucceed him. f
The coadjutor has the fame privileges with the bifhop>
himfelf. Coadjutors were formerly appointed by kings, for
archbifhops and bifhops grown old, or abfent, and not able to
fuperintend their diocefes. But the right of appointing
coadjutors, in Romifh countries, is now referved to the pope
alone.
Coadjutors are alfo called bifhops in partibus infidelium ;
becanfe it is neceflary the coadjutor of a bifhop fhould be a
bifhop himfelf; without which he cannot difcharge the
office.
The ufe of coadjutors in the church, is borrowed from the
Roman empire. Symmachus fpeaks of afliftants, or coad-
jutors, given to magiltrates, and-calls them adjutores publici
oficit. See SurFRAGAN.
The popes formerly made a fhameful abufe of the coad-
jutories 5
COA
jutories ; fome they granted to children, and young people,
with this claufe, donec-ingreffus fuerit ; till they were capable
of entering upen the adminifiration, of the office. Others they,
granted to perfons not in orders, with this clanfe, donec ac-
celferit ; d others to perfons at a great diftance, with this
claule, regrefus; but the council of Treat tied down
the pope’s hauds, by adding abundance of reftriCtions on the
article of coadjutors.
In nunneries they have coadjutrixes, who are religious,
nominated to fucceed the abbefs, under pretence of aiding
her in the difcharge of her office.
COADUNATA, in Botany, the 12th of the natural
ofders of Linnzus in the Philofophia Botanica, and the 52d
of the Pofthumous PreleG&ions. In the former it contaius
the following genera; annona, liriodendrum, magnolia,
uvaria, michelia, and thea. In the latter xylopia is added,
and thea removed to columnifere. Linnzus has Icft no ex-
planation of this order.
COAGMENTATION, is ufed, among chemitts, for
the a& of melting down a matter, by calting in certain
powders, and afterwards reducing the whole into a concrete
or folid.
‘COAGUILLA, or New EstrremapurA, in Geography,
a province of New Leon, part of the Spanifh dominions in
No-:th America; the bounds of which are extended by
Alcedo to the river Medina, and the extent of which is com-
puted at 200 leagues from N. to S. and 160 from N.W. to
N.E. ‘The capital is Monclova, in lat. 27° 30’. This pro-
vince isa defert wafte, fcarcely peopled, except by fome
Miffions; aad its mineral treafures, if any exilt, have not
been explored.
COAGULATION, in Chemifiry. A liquid is faid to
coagulate when it becomes folid, or nearly fo, without af-
fuming a regular cry{tallized form, and without the lofs of
the more fluid part by evaporation, or by any other method.
The folidification of the white of egg by heat, and the fpon-
taneous ftiffening of blood when drawn from the living vein,
are familiar cxamples of coagulation. We are perfectly
ignorant both of the caufe of coagulation in thefe cafes, and
of the nature of the change that takes place in them.
In many cafes a thickening, which is alfo termed coagu-
lation, is produced in liquid folutions, by certain additions,
which exercife a well-defined chemical aétion. In this cafe
* coagulation is fynonymous with incipient and copious precipi-
tation, where the relative bulk of fluid is fmall; as, for
example, where milk is coagulated by rennet, which pro-
ducesa feparation between the curd and whey; but before
the feparation is complete the whole mafs ftiffens, or coagu-
lates. This term is alfo applied to a fudden and copious
produétion of cryftals, fo minute or irregular, as hardly to
aflume to the naked eye the cryftalline form, as when ftrong
fulphuric acid is poured into a concentrated alkaline folution,
which immediately converts the whole into a confufed mafs
of fulphat of potath.
‘COAGULUM, the coagulum of the Latins, the asuz,
and the rapacos of the Greeks, are the fame with what in
Englifh we call rennet. See Renner.
COAITA, in Zoology. See Simia pani/cus.
‘COAK. See Coxe.
Coaks, in Ship-Building, denote oblong ridges left on the
furface of different pieces of made-matts, by cutting away
the wood round them, the intermediate part being called the
plain. :
COAKING, is the uniting of two or more pieces to-
gether in the middle, by {mall tubular pieces, formed from
the folid of one piece, and funk exaétly the fame in the
other, the butts of which prevent the pieces from drawing
afunder length-ways. There are different methods of
; om CW
coaking, fuch as the following :—Coak and plain, when a
coak is formed, and a plain furface follows between that and
the next:—Running codks, which are coaks continued
through the whole length along the middle, but anfwering »
the above purpofe, as the butts of each coak come one-
third of their breadth within and without each other alter-
nately :—Chain-coaks, which are formed one at the end of
the other, on the oppofite fides of the middle line. - Sze
TAaBLING.
Coaxixe, or Bufking, in Block-making, denotes letting
through the middle of a fheave a cylindrical piece of metal,
with a hole through its centre, to admit the pin or axis on
which the fheave turns ; on eaeh fide of the fheave a plateis
let in, having three or four correfponding holes in each, for
rivets to go through, to fecure and firengthen the whole.
The entrance of the holes in the plates is enlarged, that the
heads of the rivets and points, when clenched, may -have a
{mooth furface. When there is only one plate, the rivets
have broad heads ; the heles in the fheave are made accord<
ingly, and the points are clenched on the plate. he cylin-
der and one plate are caft in one piece.
CoaxinG, plang, is letting in narrow pieces of ligrum-
vite, tranfverfely to each other, one on each fide of the
fheave ; which has likewife a fmall circular brafs plate let in
oneach fide, and riveted through, as others. :
COAL, in Mineralogy. The word coal has been derived
by fome writers from the Hebrew, and by others from the
Greek or Latin, but whatever may be its origin, it is de-
ferving of remark that the fame found for the fame objest is
ufed in the Anglo-Saxon, the Tevtonic, the Dutch, the
Danifh, and the Iflandic languages. Coals are found ia
feveral parts of the continent of Europe, but the principal -
mines are in this country. They have been difcovered
and wrought in Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Canada, and
in fome of the provinces of New England. China abounds’
in them, and they are well known in Tartary, and in the
ifland of Madagafcar.
Hiftory of Coal as an Article of Commerce.
Coals are firit mentioned as fuel for artificers by Theo-
phrattus, who deferibes them as earthy fubltances that burn
like wood-coals, and are ufed by the {miths. . The ancient
Britons had a primitive name for this foffil, and Pennant
fays, ‘* that a flint axe, the inftrument of the aborigines of
our ifland, was difcovered in a certain vein of coal in Mon-
mouthfhire, and in fuch a fituation as to render it very ac-
ceflible to the inexperienced natives, who in early times were
incapable of purfuing the feams to any great depths.”?
Although coals are fo abundant in many of the above
named places, yet as there are no beds found in the whole
extent of Italy, the great line of this fuel feems to {weep ~
round the globe, from the north-eaft to the fouth-weit, vi-
fiting Brabant and France, and avoiding Italy. The ftrong- -
eft argument adduced by thofe who contend that the
Romans, while in poffeffion of this ifland, were ignorant of
the ule of coal, is, that there is no name for it in the Latin
language, the word carbo being always ufed for charcoal.
Cefar takes no notice of coal in his defcription of this ifland ;
yet there is good evidence to believe that the Romans
brought it into ufe. In the Weit Riding of Yorkhire are’
many beds of cinders, heaped up in the fields, in one of
which a number of Roman coins were found fome years ago. _
From Horfely it appears, that there was a colliery at Ben-
well, about four miles welt of Newcaftle-upon-T yne, tup-
pofed to have been aétually worked by the Romans, and it
is evident from Whitaker, that coals were ufed as. fuel in
this country by the Saxons. No mention is made of this
foffil during the Danifh ufurpation, nor for many years after
the Norman conquelt. 5
re The
COAL
‘
The firt charter for the licence of digging coals, was
granted by king Henry IIT., in the year 12393 it was there
denominated fea-coal ; and, in 1281, Newcattle was famous
for its great trade in this article, botin 1306, the ufe of
fea-coal was prohibited in London, from its fuppofed ten-
@ency to corrupt the air. Shortly after this, it was the
common fuel at the king’s palace in London, and, in 1325,
a trade was opened between France and England, in which
corn was imported, and coals exported. In 1379, a duty of
fixpence per ton was impofed upon fhips coming from New-
eaitle with coals. At this period, the inhabitants of the
county of Durham had obtained no privilege to load or un-
load coals on the fouth fide of the Tyne; but, in 1354,
Kichard I1., on account of his devotion to Cuthbert, the
tatelary faint of Durham, granted them licence to export
the produce of their mines, without paying any duties to
the corporation of Newcaftle. Inthe year 1421, it was
enacted, that the kecls or lighters carrying coals to the fhips
fhould meafure exactly twenty chaldrons, to prevent frauds
in the duties payable to the king.
fineas Sylvius, afterwards pope Pius II., vifited this
ifland, about the middle of the 15th century, and he re-
marked, that the poor of Scotland received for alms pieces
of ftone, which they burnt in place ofewood, of which at that
time the country was de(litute. About the beginning of
the 14th century, the beft coals were fold in London at the
rate of 4s. 1d, per chaldron, and at Newcalftle for about
2s. 6d.3; and in 1563, an act was paffed in Scotland to pre-
vent the exportation of coals, which had occafioned a great
dearth of fuel in that country, Queen Elizabeth, in the
year 1582, obtained a leafe of a great part of the mines of
Durham, for ninety-three years, at the annual rent of gol.,
which occafioned an advance in the price of coals ; it was af-
terwards affizned to Thomas Sutton, the founder of the Char-_
ter-Houfe in London, who affigned it to the corporation of
Newcaftle, for the {um of 12,000/.; and the price of coals
was immediately advanced to feven fhillings and eight fhil-
lings per chaldron. Notwithftand'ng the feveral advances
upon this article, when qneen Elizabeth demanded the ar-
rears-of two-pence per chaldron, which had been granted
to Henry V., but the payment of which had been neglected
by the corporation, they petitioned for a remifiion of the
debt on account of their inability ; this was granted, and alfo
a charter to incorporate a new company, called hoftmen or
coal-engroffers, for felling all coals to the fhipping ; in con-
fequence of which the corporation impofed one fhilling per
chaldron additional upon this article. At this period the
lord mayor of London complained to the lord-treafurer,
Burleigh, that the free-hofts in Newcaitle, to whom the
grand-leafe had been affigned, for the ufe of the town, had
transferred their right to a few perfons, who engroffed all
the other collieries, and he requefted that the collieries
might be free, and that the price of coals fhould not exceed
feven fhillings per chaldron.
It appears, by an order of the hoftman’s company, dated
A.D. 1609, that tram-waggons and waggon-ways had not
then been invented, but that the coals were at that time
brought down from the pits in wains, holding eight bolls
each (all of them meafured and marked), to the ftaiths by
the fide of the river. About this period, an engine for
drawing the water out of the coal mines was invented in
Scotland, by a predeceffor of the firft earl of Balcarras, who
obtained from James VI. a patent for 21 years. This im-
provement was not, till fome time after, adopted in the
neighbourhood of Newcaftle.
In a petition of grievances, prefented by the houfe of com-
nions to king James, in 1610, acomplaint occurs of a late im-
Vor. VIII.
pofition of one fhilling per chaldron on fea-coals, rifing in
Blyth and Sunderland, not by virtue of any contra or grant,
as on the coa!s of Newcaftle, but under the mere pretext, af,
fumed by the contraétors, of his majefty’s royal pr rogative.
This petition difplayed fo ftrongly the rapacity of that body
of men, and the diftrefs occafi.ned by it to the inhabitants
of London, that the prayer of the petition was immediately
complied with. It was during the fame reign, that an in-
formation was exhibited in the ftar-chamber, by the attor-
ney-general, again{ft the mayor and burgeflis of Newcattle,
by the name of hoilmen, for that they, having the pre-
emption of coals for the inheritors in Northumberland, and
the county of Durham, by their charter of the 42d of Eliza-
beth, forced fhips to take bad coals, amongft which was a
quantity of flate; in confequence of this they were all fined,
{ome of them in pemaltics of one hundred pounds each, and
committed to the Fleet prifon; and the decree was ordered
to be read in the open market in Newcafltle, two feveral
market days.
In 1615, there were employed in the coal trade of New-
caftle 400 fail of fhips, one-half of which fupplied London,
the remainder the other part of the kingdom ;. the French
too are reprefented as trading to Newcaftle at this time for
coal, in fleets of 50 fail at once, ferving the ports. of Pi-
cardy, Normandy, Bretagne, and as far as Rochelle and
Bourdeaux, while the fhips of Bremen, Embder, Holland,
and Zealand, were fupplying the inhabitants of Flanders.
In 1622, an order was iffued by the hoftmen, azainft
the fecret and diforderly loading of coals, but not until they
had received feveral precepts from the king and privy-coun-
ceil, concerning this abufe. ‘They were fummoned to anfwer
again, by procefs from the exchequer chzmber, againit the
governor, ftewards, and fome others of the company, for the
above default ; and as we are not informed of the refult of
this proceeding, we may conclude it did not terminate in
their favour. Soon after this, David Ramfay, a great pro-
jeGtor, obtained an exciufive charter to raife water from low
mines and coal pits, by a method entirely original. In the
yea: 1630, the king let to farm an impoit cn coals of 5s.
pe” chaidron, for thofe tranfported out of England, Wales,
and Berwick-upon-Tweed, to any part beyond the feas, ex-
cept Guernfey, Jerfey, and the Iflz of Man ; of rs. Sd. over
and above the 5s. on thofe to be exported, as above, by any
Englifhman ; and alfo of 3s. 4d. for every chaldron to be
exported except for Ireland and Scotland. In 1631, an in~
formation was again made in the ftar-chamber, by Heath,
attorney-general, againft the hoftmen of Newcattle, for mix-
ing 40,000 chaldron of coals with flates, &c. ; from whence
it feems, that the former fines and imprifonment had no ef-
fect, but that they had ftill proceeded to cheat the metropolis
and the country at large, even after thofe fevere meafures of
government. A. D. 1634, the king, folely by his own
authority, impofed a duty of four fhillings per chaldron on
all fea-coal, ftone-coal, or pit-coal, exported from England
to foreign parts.
In 1637, one fhilling per chaldron appears to have been
paid, on the foreign vent of coals, to the mayor of Newe
callle and corporation. Government being applied to for
redrefs, letters were fent to the bifhop of Durham, requiring
him to write to the faid mayor, and order an immediate
re{toration of the above exa¢tion ; the bifhop’s letter 1s dated.
roth of January, 1638. In 1643, when the Scots belieged
Neweattle, all the coal-mines were, it is faid, ordered to be fet
on fire, which was prevented by general Leflie, who took the
veflels by furprize. In 1648, coals were fo exceflively dear in
London, that many of the poor are faid to, have died for
want of fuel. In November 1653, articles were again ex~-
4H hibited
co
hibited acainft the town of Neweaftle, concernieg the coal-
trade; and the caufe, as ufual, was given again& them.
About this time the port of Sunderland appears to be ning
into 'importanee. In 1667, coals are {aid to have been fold
in London for above 2cs. a-thaldron ; about 320 keels were
at that time employed upon the river Tyne, in the coal trade,
each of which carried annualiy 800 chaldrons on board the
fhivs. To adjutt the difference vf meafures it muit be noted,
that 16 chaldrons of Newealtle, are equal to 31 of London
pool meafure, according to Mr. Eddington. In 1658,
the cultoms upon all coals exported, were let to Mr. Mar-
tin. Nowel at 22,000 pounds per annum, of which fum
"49,7832. 146. 8d. were for the coals of England, and
2,216/, 55. 4d. for thofe of Scotland. Commiflioners were
now appointed by the lord protector, under the great feal
of England, for the meafuring of keels, which was per-
formed ina new and better manner than had been before
known. In December 1667, the parliament made an order,
that the price of coals, till the 25th of March following,
fhould not exceed 305,,per chaldron ; aad by an act made
that year, after the great fire in London, a duty of one fhil-
ling per chaldron was*granted to the lord mayor of that city,
to enable him to rebuild the churches, and other public
edifices. This, however, being infufficient, it was made three
fhillings, to continue twenty years. In 1677, Charles II.
granted to the duke of Richmond one fhilling per chal-
dren on coals brought'to London, which was continued
in the family till the year 1800, when it was purchafed by
government, for the annual fum of 1,900/. payable to the
duke‘and his fucceffors. ‘his duty at prefent produces to
povernment 2,500/. anoually. At the end of the feventeenth
eentury, 14.00 fhips are faid to have been employed in ex-
porting yearly from Neweaftle, two hundred thoufand chal-
drons of coal, Newcaftle meafure, which was about two
thirds of the whole trade. The over-fea trade in this ar-
ticle, at the fame time, employed nine hundred thoufand tons
of thipping. In 1710, a duty was laid upon coals for build-
ing 50 churches; a curious and particular account of the
monies colleéted by duties on coal, for the building of St.
Pavl’s church, in London, from Oober 1, 1665, to May
5; 1716, is preferved in the Antiquarian Repofitory, vol.
il. page go. In the year 1741,.a drawback was granted on
the duty on coals, ufed in fire-engines for -working the tin
and copper mines in Cornwall. Mention occurs in 1758, of
a machine invented by Michael Meninzies, efq. by which coals
were drawn up, not by the ftrength of horfcs or of men, but
by the defcent of a bucket full of water, of a weight fuperior
to that of the coals drawn up, lifting a corve of fix hundred.
pounds weight, out of a pit about fifty fathoms deep, in two
minutes. A machine, nearly fimilar, was afterwards erected
at Worfley, by James Brindley, on the duke of Bridge-
water’s canal, and is mentioned in our article CanaL. See
alfo bucke! Excine. In the year 1764, there were exported
from the river Tyne, for London, and coaltwile, twenty
thoufand chaldrons of coals, and forty thoufand chaldrons
of London meafure for foreign parts, more than had been
exported in any one year. Tromthe years 1770 to 1776,
were fhipped to London, and other parts of Great Britain,
351,000 chaldrons of coals, of which 260,000 were fent to
London ; ‘to the Britifh colonies and plantations, 2,000 chal- ~
drons ; and exported to foreign parts, 35700 ; in all, averaging
380,000 chaldrons, Newcaitle meafure, per annum. ‘The
weight of thefe, at 53 cwt. per chaldron, is one million, fe-
ven thoufand tons; the duty paid to the crown at the ports
of difcharge, on 351,600 chaldrows, at 5s. per chaldron,
is 167,000 pounds.
In 1776, from a note communicated by the furveyor of
0
AL,
the eultoms of Neweaftle, we find, that 14.000 chaldrons
were exported in that year from Blyth ; 18,000 chaldrons
from Hartley Haven; 350,803 chaldrons from Newcattle,
coafkwife.
The trade, thus rapidly encreafing, acquired its prefent
importance. "lhe following account of coals exporied fromy
the river Tyne, in the years 102, £803, 1804, and 1895,
wil give an idea of the amazing extent to which it is now
carried.
Coattwife. Over-fea. Plantations.
In the year 1802 494,488 415157 2844
1803 505,137 42,508 19 oe
of 579.929 433737 3852
{$95 552.827 47,213 2360
We do not here include the quantity exported from the hare
bours adjoining near to Newcaftle, wiz. Sunderland,
which exports, annually, about three hundred thoufand chal-
drons; and Blyth and Hartley, which alfo export confider-
able quantities ; neither do we notice the proportion con-
fumed in the town and neighbourhood of Newcaftle.
tis calculated, that the fum expended in materials for
boring and finking for coal, {uch as wood, iron, repes, &e.
independently of the money paid for the exclufive privilege
of working, amounts, in fome collieries, to upwards of
39,000 pounds per annum. By a calculation lately made,
it is fuppofed that 64,724 people are employed by the coal
trade on the rivers Tyne and Wear. See thefe under our
article Canax. The following is a calculation of the capi-
tal employed in the fame trade.
In the collieries - 1,030,000
In thipping 2 - 1,400,000
Capital employed by the London
coal-merchants - 109;000
Total 3,130,000
From this detail, the coal-trade muft appear of the utmoft’
importance, not only ina local, but ina national point of view,
as a nurlery of excellent feamen for the Britifh navy; and
as the means of employment for many thoufands of mduf-
trious working people, Befides the important advantages al-
ready enumerated, others delerve to be noticed. Coal is inmany
refpects, and in a very high degree, ufefulto the landed in-.
tereft, not only by greatly enhancing the real value of thofe
lands in which it is found, and thole through which’it mult
pafs, from the works to the place where it is fhipped, but
from the general improvements which it has occafioned, in
confequence of the wealth it has brought into the country. -
Ana‘ of parliament paffed in 1803, as hereinafter mention-
ed, for preventing the mixing of coals of different forts toge-
ther, by thedealers, before delivery in London and its environs;
and forthat purpofe, it required the name of thecoalscontained
in each fhip’s cargo to be certified to the buyers. It were
much to be wifhed, that fome better criteria could have been
adopted for afcertaining the different. forts of coals (the
worlt of which often are, orrather fhould be, felling in Lon-
don at two thirds of the price of the beft forts, or lefs,) than
merely the names of the feveral pits’ mouths out of which they
were drawn ; when it is well known, that all tie: deeper pits
are funk through feveral veins of different qualities, a
fometimes have one of thefe veins in work, and fometimes
another, or perhaps feveral of them at the fame time ; whence
the facility arifes, of fending better or worfe coals to market
under the fame name, according as the relative prices of
good and bad coals may induce : could not the names of the
different veins which have diftin& qualities, have been certi«
fied, along with the coals dug therefrom, initead of the arbi-
trary,
€ O'A 21.
trary, and perhaps worfe than ufclefs name of the pit, con-
taining feveral ves exactly the fame with, and actually open-
ing into the works of the neighbouring pits? The follow-
ing is an alphabetical ft of the names ot tiie different cargoes
of coals publifhed in the newfpapers, as. {eld at the coal-ex-
charge, London, during a confiderable period, with the name
of the river, canal, or port from whieh they were put on fhip-
board, after being conveyed thither by rail-ways; &c. (fee
our article Canar) and a feries of numbers, exprefiing the
number of times that each name appeared among the coal-
exchange fales of the day, durimg the period alluded to.
Adair’s Main - - Tyne - 126
Allan’s: Main - Wear - L
Baker’s. Main - Tyne = 16
Bedford Main - Wear - 45
Bedworth - Grand Funciion.
Benton - - Tine 301
Benwell - - Tyne - 4
Biddick Main - -° Wear - 17
Bigg’s Main - - Tyne - 419
Birtley Moor - - Wear - 3
Blyth - - Blyth - 199
Boundry Main - Wear - 14.
Bourn Meor Maia - Wear - 343
Brandling Main - Fyne = I4pl
Byker F : Tyne : 53
Cowper Main - - — Blyth - 122
St. David’s - - fy - 17
Eden Main = - Wear - 138
Eighton Main - - Tyne - Ba
Elmore Main - - Tyne - 3
Flatworth = - Tyne - 6
FloGon - - - - 2
Gate’s Head Park - - —- Tyne - 2
Greenwich ° =! eas - - 42
Harecattle - - Grand Funéion.
Harraton - - Wear = 3
Hartley - - Seaton Burn = b 202
Heaton Main - - Tyne - 359
Hebburn Main - - Tyne - 377
Hollywell Main - - Tyne - 178
Howard’s Main - - - - 2
Hutton Seam - - Wear - 2
Kenton, Eaft and Welt - Tyne = 103
Lambton Main - - Vear - 6
Lawfon’s Main - - - - 5
Marley Hill = - Tyne a 3
Montague Main - = Tyne - 266
Murton Main - - - - 2
Newbottle we - Wear - go
Newton ~ - - - - - 4.
Percy Main - - Tyne - I
Pontop, Simpfon’s - Tyne 2 48
——— Windfor’s - Tyne - 154
Primrofe Main - - Wear = 32
Reétory Main - - — - Tyne or Wear - 87
Roffel’s Main - - Tyne or Wear = £53
Scotch Coal - - - - 3
Sheriff Hull - - Tyne - 105
South Moor - - Tyne - 122
Stanley - - - - ca
Tanfield Moor - - Tyne - xii
——_——~ Pitt’s - Tyne - 154
Team - - Tyne - O4
Tyne Main - - Tyne - 2!
Ufworth - < )Dyne - 4
Wallbottle Moor + = Tyne: = iol
Walker - - Tyne - 292
Wall’s End - - Tyne = 468
Warwick Main - - Wean - 55
Wednefbury - - Grand Fundion.
Wentwortl - - Wear - 28
WeftGeld - - - - a
We . - Wear - I
Whitheld - - Tyne - 15.
Wallington < - Tyne - 337
Wooler - - - - 12
Wylam Moor - - Tyne ; Lp2
The numberof the different forts of coals as zbove, which
were in one day on fale in the market, on four particular oc-
cafions, within the above period, amounted to 24; on three
market days, there were 23 different forts fold; on threé
days, 22 forts; on two days, 21 forts ; on eight days, 20 forts;
on feven days. 19 forts; on 10 days, 1S' forts; on 18 days,
17 forts; and en 235 market days, cargoes of from ro ta
15 different forts of coals, were reported as {old in the Lon-
don market.
From the above table, the proportionate frequency of
demand and facility of fupply in London, for different forta
of coals, appears to have ttood as follows, viz. Wall’s end,
Bigg’s main, Hebburn main, Heaton main, Bourn’ moor
main, Willington, Benton, Walker, Montague main, Hart-
ley, Blyth, Hollywell main, Pontop (Windfor’s), Tanfield
moor (Pitt’s), Ruflel’s main, Wylam moor, &c, The order
of the different forts of coals, as to price per chaldron, on
fhip-board in the pool, have, on feveral occations, ftood as fol-
lows, beginning with the higheft, vz. Wali’s end, Percy main,
Bigg’s main, Heaton main, Hebburn main, Kenton, Walker,
Willington, Benton, Montague main, Adair’s main, Eightoa
main, Cowpermain, Tanfieldmoor, Pontop, Brandling, Blyth,
Bourn main, Team, Hartley. Newbottle, Ruffel’s main, Bed-
ford main, Hollywell main, Wallbottle, &c. Thefe prices are
of courfe fubjeét to vary confiderably, according as the veflels
arrive in confiderable numbers or not, with the forts which
happen to be at that time in demand. We have been at
confiderable pains in colleGting the above particulars, in
order to throw all the light in our power upon a branch of
commerce, of the firft importance in a national point of view,
but particularly fo to the metropolis, whofe profperity and
comforts fo much depend upon it. In Eddington’s “ Effay
on the Coal Trade, 1503,’’ many highly ufeful particulars on
this fubjedt will be found.
By jo C. II. ft. 1. c. 8. and 6 and 7. W. cc. ro. and 11
G.I]. c. 15. a penalty of rol. is enacted, for defacing marks
on keels, boats, waggons, &c. ufed for the carriage of coals
in the ports of Newcaflle, Sunderland, &c. ; and by 15 G.
ill. c. 27. extended to the other parts of this kingdom. By
31 G. IIL. c. 36, regulations are enacted to the fame pur-
pofe; and any perfon conviéted of removing, defacing, or
deftroying fuch marks, is fubjeét to the fortviture of a fum
not lefs than 40s, and not exceeding 5/. By £2 Ann. ft.
2. ¢. 17. every coal-bufhel fhall be round, with an even bot=
tom, be 19+ inches from outlide to outfide, and contain cné
Winchelter bufhel; and all fea-coal and culm, chargeable
with any duties by the Winchefter meafure, fhall be charged,
fold, meafured, and paid by the chaldron, containing 36 {uch
bufhels heaped up. By 17 G. II. ci 35, three juftices may
fet the retail price of coals, after landing in any place to
which the 16 and 17 G. II. refpecting the price of coal
brought into the river Thames, doth not extend, zs they
fhall judge reafonable. Concerning the weights, mealures,
and prices of coals, efpecially in and about London; and
alfo concerning the duties upon them, there are various re-
gulations ena¢ted by about 40 different acts of parliament,
rea tie 3 Or ‘ - whidH
CW ard... |
which we fhall not recite. The ftat. 43 G. III. c. 134,
which is an “ aé& for eltablifhing a free market in the city of
London, for the fale of coals, and for preventing frauds and
impofitions in the vent or delivery of all coals brought into
the port of London, within eertain places therein mentioned,”
fituate within the diftance of 25 miles from the Royal Ex-
change, in the city of London, empowers the corporation of
Londen to purchafe the coal-exchange inthe faid city, and
regulates the mode of indemnity to thofe whofe buildings
may be requifite for the purpofes of the faid aét. For pre-
venting the fale of one fort of coals for another, the vender
and dealer fhall forfeit, for every fuch offence, 20/. per chal-
dron fo fold ; and fuch vender or dealer fhall not be fubje&
to any penalty inflitted by the 3 Geo. IJ. c. 26, on every
perfon who fhall knowingly fell one fort of coals for, and as
a fort of coals which they really are not; provided always,
that no fhip-owner, matter, or other perfon, having the care
or command of any veffel within the faid port of London,
fhall be fubjeGt to fuch penalty in refpe&t of any number of
chaldrons exceeding 25 chaldrons, for the fame cargo of
coals. ‘This act direéis, that no coal-meters or coal-heavers
fhall be unneceffarily detained on board a fhip, and fettles
how the wages of coal-heavers fhall be paid ; it alfo requires,
that fhip-meters fhall give certificates of the coals delivered in
each lighter; and that no fra‘tional part of five chaldrons fhall
be delivered into any room of a barge, under a penalty of for-
feiture in the firft cafe, ofa fum not exceeding 10/., and in the
latter not exceeding 20/. This ftatute further enjoins and
preferibes the mode of remeafuring coals by the vat;
and alfo enaéts, that in cafe the coals fo remeafured fhall not
amount to the quantity mentioned in the certificate of fuch
fhip-meter as required by this at, the coal-meter, who mea-
fured them from the veffel into the craft, fhall, for every
bufhel found deficient, if the deficieney be not equal to three
bufhels in five chaldrons, forfeit 5s. per bufhel, and if fuch
deficiency fhall equal or exceed three bubhels ia five chal-
drons, then fuch meter fhall forfeit 5/. per bufhel ; and alfo
the expences of placing the vat forthe remeafurement. Car-
men are required to carry a buthel meafure in their carts, of the
form, fize, and dimenfions diréGted by the 12 Ann. c.173
and the carmen, not having fuch meafure, fhall, for every
offence, forfeit not exceeding 10/. nor lefs than 4os.; and
the vender or dealer in fuch coals, thall forfeit not exceeding
20/. nor lefs than 5/. Carmen are alfo to deliver a printed
ticket in a prefcribed form, previous to the delivery of any
coals ; and in default of fuch delivery, for every fuch offence
forfeit not exceeding 10/. nor lefs than 40s. Meters are for-
bidden to give certificates without actually meafuring the
coals comprifed in them, under forfeiture of afum not exceed-
ing 20/ if it ihall appear upon the remeafurement of fuch
coals, or any part thereof, that any fack fhall not contain
three bufhels ; then the vender of, or dealer in fuch cca!s,
fhail for every fack of coals deficient, on the remeafurement,
forfeit not exceeding 4os-. for every fack fo found deficient.
Eyery fack ufed for the delivery of coals within the limits
determined by this a&t, fhall meafure in the infide, at leaft
four feet two inches in length, by two feet one inch in
breadth, ufider a*forfeiture of a fum not exceeding 4os.;
and no fack fhall, after the pafling of this a&t, be marked at
the Guildhall of London, or at the exchequer at Wefimin-
fier, that fhall meafuré lefs than above. The penalty on
carmen for driving away coals without neafuring, when re-
quired, for every fuch offence, isa forfeiture of a fum not ex-
ceeding ro/.; and the vender or dealer fhall incur the fame
forfeiture g and fuch coals fhall be forfeited for the benefit of
the poor.
From this account of coal, as an article of commerce,
and the laws relating to it, we now proceed to its natu-
ral hiftory. There are three genera or families of coal
viz. brown coal, black coal, and uninflammable coal.
I. Famiry.—Brown Coal.
Sp. 1. Common brown Coal, Bovey Coal, Surturbrand, or
bituminized Wood. Its colour is light brownifh black ; it o¢-
curs in mas; its longitudinal fra€ture is fibrous lamellar,
paffing into flaty or woody, and is flighty glimmering ; 1s
crofs fraéture is more or lefs conchoidal, with a fhining re-
finous luttre ; it acquires a polifh by friétion, and is mode»
rately hard. Sp. gr. 1.4, when pure, but when mixed with
pyrites, it is often confiderably heavier,
It burns with a weak flame, hike half-charred wood, giving
out an unpleafant bituminous odour; when ignited in an
open fire, it leaves a fmall quantity of white afhes. Ac-
cording to Mr. Hatehett (Phil. rant. for 1804), 1ce parts
yield by diftillation
30. Acidulous water.
10.5 Thick, brown, oily bitumen.
45. Charcoal.
14.5 Hydrogen, carbunetted hydrogen, and earbonic
acid.
Iso.O0
It is found in England at Bovey, near Exeter, and in
fmaller quantitics in the ifland of Purbeck, fome parts of
Hamphhire, Suffex, &c. lodged in pipe-clay. It is alfo
found in the territory of Heffe and other parts of Germany,
in Denmark, Iceland, Greenland, Italy, Faro iflands, &e.
Sp. 2. Moor Coal. Its colour is dark blackifh brown;
it occurs in mals, forming thick beds, which are full of rifts
and cracks. Internally, it exhibits a bright refinous luftre ;
its longitudinal fracture is imperfe€tly flaty, its crofs fra@ure
is even, approaching to flat conchoidal. It breaks into
rhomboidal fragments. It is very tender, eafily frangible,
and of low f{pecific gravity.
It is found in Bohemia, Tranfylvania, in Denmark, the
Faro iflands, &c. .
II. Famiry.— Black Coal.
Sp. 1. State Coal. Its colour is pure black, or greyifh-
black, and is often iridefcently tarnifhed. It occurs in mafs,
and commonly poffefles a high refinous luftre. Its longi-
tudinal fra@ture is flaty ; the crofs fraGture is fmall-grained,
uneven, pafling into flat conchoidal. It breaks into angular
fragments. It is foft and eafily frangible. Sp. gr. 1.25 to
1.4. It contains from 57 to 64 per cent. of charcoal, from
33 to 43 per cent. of bitumen, and from 3 to 6 per cent. of
earth and oxyd of iron. ‘The bitumen is partly in the ftate
of afphaltum, and partly in that of maltha; in proportion
tothe prevalence of the former, is the caking quality of the
coal,
Almoft all the common coals, as pit coal, fea-coal,
caking-coal, bituminous coal, run-coal, rock coal, &c. bes
long to this fpecies.
Sp. 2. Pitch Coal, or Fet. Its colour is velvet black.
It occurs in maf{s, in plates, and fometimes in the fhape of
branches and trunks, with the trveligneous texture. It has
a brilliant refinous luftre,-and a conchoidal fraéture. Tt
is foft and brittle. Sp. gr. 1.3. It burns with a greenifh
flame and a {trong bituminous odour. It eccurs in Spain,
the fonth of France, and in the Pruflian amber mines,
where it is called black-amber. In Fiance, this fubltance
is manufa€inred into buttons, beads, and other trinkets.
Sp. 3. Cannel, or Candle-Coal, Splent Coal, or Parrot
Coal of Scotland. Tks colouris dark greyifh black dt oc-
curs in mafs, and has a gliftening refinous luftre. Its frac-
ture
C'O Ack,
It is much lefs frangible than common
coal. Sp. gr. 1.23. It 1s very inflammable, and crackles
and flies while burning. It flames much and burns quickly,
does not cake, and leaves from 3 to 4 percent. of afhes.
The f{plent-coal of Scotland is a coarfe flaty variety of the
above, containing pyrites, and leaving, after combuttion,
about 20 per cent of afhes. Sveh
Cannél coal occurs occafionally in the Newcaitle pits, in
Ayrhire in Scotland, and elfewhere, but the largelt beds of
it, and of the pureft kind, are near Wigan in Lancahhire.
It is an excellent fuel; it will take a good polifh, and may,
with care, be turned in a lathe, into fnufl-boxes and other
trinkets, which are often pafled off for true jet.
III. Famivy.—Uninflammable Coal.
Sp. 1. Mineral Charcoal.
ture is conchoidal.
Its colour is greyifh black.
Tt occurs in plates and irregular pieces, It has a glimmer-
ing, filky luftre, and a fibrous fracture. It foils the fingers,
is foft and friable. It is fomewhat heavier than common
charcoal, and burns to afhzs without flaming. It ge-
nerally occurs mixed with flate-coal.
Sp. 2. Kilkenny Coal, Welfh Culm, or Stone-Coal. Its
colour is dark iron black, verging on fteel-grey. It occurs
in mafs, has a bright metallic luftre. Its longitudinal frac-
ture is flaty ; its crofs fracture is {mall and imperfectly con-
choidal, Sp. gr. 1.5. to 1.8. ,
When laid on burning coals, it becomes red hot, emits a
very light lambent flame, like charcoal, and is at length
flowly confumed without caking, leaving behind a pertion
of red afhes.
The true Kilkenny coal is harder than Welfh culm, and
of a brighter luftre; it often contains pyrites, and there-
fore gives a fulphureous odour when burning. This {pecies
of coal is found alfo in Hungary, Italy, and France.
Thefe are the moft confiderable varieties of coal com-
monly known; but we muit not imagine that each of them
is to be met with in a pure fiate, in thofe places where they
are found; on the contrary, the different qualities and pro-
portions of their ingredicnts make a va{t number of other
varieties, fit for different purpofes, according to the quality
and quar:'ty of thofe they contain. The various kinds of
coals are often found mixed with each other under ground,
and fomé of the finer forts run, like veins, between thofe of
acoarfer. Mr. Magellan obferved in the fine coals employ-
ed ina curious manufaétory at Birmingham, that they pro-
duced a much clearer flame than he had ever feen produced
from common coal, but, on inquiry, he found that thefe
were picked out from the common coals of the country
through which they ran in veins, and were eafily diftinguifh-
ed by the manufa&turers, though they did not afford fuffici-
ent indications of @ fpecific difference. The purpofe to
which they were applied, was the moulding of rods of tranf-
parent and coloured glafs, into fhapes proper for common
buttons, which the workinen performed with afonifhing ex-
pedition. i eS eg a
On fubjeGting pit-coal of any kind to diftillation in clofe
veffels, it firlt yields watery liquor, then an etherial or vo-
latile oil, afterwards volatile alkali, and, laftly, a thick and
greafy oil. But.it is remarkable, that by rectifying this laft
oil, a tranfparent, thin, and light oil, of 2 ftraw colour, is
produced, which, being expoted to the air, becomes black,
like animal oils. From this and other obfervations, the ge-
neral opinion is, that all coals, bitumens, and other oily fub-
flances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their origin
fiom vegetables buried in the earth, during the fucceflive
proceffcs of itratification ; me it is well known, that only
organized bodics have the power of producing oily and fat
fubftances,
Before a coal-pit is funk, it is neceflary to explore the
ground by boring, but if there are already -pits in the
neighbourhood, fe&tions are obtained from them, which
prevent the neceflity of doing fo.
Boring is accomplifhed in the following manner: The
rods are made of iron, from three to four feet long, and one
inch and a half {quare, with a folid cr male ferew at one
end, and a hollow one at the other, by which they are fait-
ened together, and as the hole formed by them increafes
in depth, other rods are added. The chifel is about eight
inches long, and two and a half broad at the extremity,
which is ae on to the end of the lower rod, and a le-
ver or handle is put through an eye at the top of the
upper rod. :
The mode of operation is, to lift up the rodsa little, and
then let them fail, turning them at the {fame time gently
round; by a continuance of this motion, a hole is fretted,
ard worn by degrees through the hardeft {trata or rocks.
The borers can fix on handles for two, three, or four per-
fons to work as they find it neceffary. After they get
down to a certain depth, the rods are wrought by a bracke;
a box of wood is frit inferted into the ground, to keep the
rods in a vertical or ftraight direction, and a triangle is ere&t-
ed over the fpot where the poring is to be made (which is
about three inches in diameter), for the fake of drawing up
the rods; they have one key, or temporary handle, for un-
f{crewing, and another for fecuring the rods from falling
back again ; they ufe a clofe wimble to bring up fludge and
foft matter. When the chifel is blunted, or has cut
down four or fix inches, the rods are lifted up, either all
together, if there be convenience, or by pieces, when a key
is ufcd to keep the rods from dropping down the hole; the
chifel is ferewed off, and the wimple or fcoop {crewed on.
“This being put down, brings up afterwards the duit or
pulverized matter of the fratum through which the chifel
has cut, and fhews as weil what kind of matter they are
boring in, as the exaGt depth thereof.
A confiderab‘e improvement in this eflential Operation waz
made a few years ago, by Mr. James Ryan, a gentleman of
Treland, for which he took outspatents in 1905: a copy of
that for England may be feen in the 2d feries of the © Re.
pertory,” vol. vi. p. 3243 this confifts in ufing a cylindrical
cutter, fomething like the furgeon’s trepan-inttrument, by
which a core, or folid and nnbroken piece of each ftratum, is
cut, and by other tools brought vertically to the furface, in the
exact pofition as to the cardinal points, in which it ftood in the
ftrata, and thus the quantity and dire Stion of the dip, as wellas
the exact nature of the ftrata or meafures, are correctly afcer-
tained, the former being molt effential circumftances towards
determining the proper place to fink an engine-fhaft, for
draining the bed of coals intended to be worked. The
borers and apparatus of Mr. Ryan are calculated to forma
hole of any fize, from eight inches to near as many feet in
diameter ; fome of two feet diameter have, we are told,
been actually funk thereby, to a confiderable depth, and
anfwer the purpofes of pump and air-fhafts, and that one,
nearly eight feet in diameter, is now finking thereby in Ire-
land! In April, 1807, Mr. Ryan prefented a complete
fet cf his apparatus to the Board of Agriculture in Lo: ~
don, and bored a hole of fome depth therewith near Ken-
fington, under the infpeGion of fome of its members, the
cores or borings therefrom, being exhibited to the Board, and
lodged with the apparatus in their repofitory, they voteda
pecuniary reward to Mr. Ryaa. From the apparent iin
portance
COAL,
portance of this difcovery to mining, but to coal-finding ia
particular, we were induced to wilh, to give an accurate de-
feription and drawings in this place of Mr. Ryan’s appara-
tus and procefs, but found the time too fhort, after the
Board of Agriculture became poffefled of the fame, to do
it here; under the article Mininc, we fhall endeavour to
give them in the further ftate of perfeGtion, in which practice
wili doubtlefs then prefent the fame.
Boring is of the utmoft ufe and importance in collieries,
for by boring previoufly to the finking of a pit, the owners pro-
cure moft effential data on which to proceed, being informed
before hand of the nature of the earth, minerals, and waters
through which they have to pafs, and knowing, to an inch
or fo, how deep the coal lies, as well as the quality and
thicknefs of the ttratum bored. The boring notes of collieries
are the grand arcana of the coal-mining trade, which the
owners fometimes diflike to difeover to the prying eyes of
the philofopher. They have, however, been occafionally
_ exhibited, which gives us an opportunity of laying before
our readers an account of what relates to the boring of
two of the principal collieries in the neighbourhood of New-
caftle.
Se&tion of tbe Strata South of the Main Dike in Moxstracue
Maw Colliery, 34 Miles above Newcaftle.—The Nembers
in the firft column on the left-hand form am Index. from
which it will be immediately perceived, where the fame
itrata occur; the fecond column contains the number of
the flrata, the third the names of each, and the fourth, or
numeral columns, exprefs the thicknefs of each ftratum in
Fathoms, Yards, Feet, and Inches.
Thicknefs of each Stratum.
Particulars of the Strata. Fa. Yds, Fr. In.
© a Beil - - Ol Of itns 0
o 2 Clay ~ - ZO 212) uO
1 3 White poft - = OO. nO.
© 4 Coal - - D. SOL On A:
2 5 Black metal ftone - =7O) 1. Or
3 6. Grey pok - - Te MT 2A
4 7 Blue metal ftone - = ae eo
3 8 Grey pott - - 2.02/0. 0
I 9 Strong white poft - Zar h 40,0
3 10 Grey poft - ” On TO
5 11 White pott with black metal partings 5 0 0 o
3 12 Grey poft = ™ Ol. OSA.
6 13 Brown poft with coal pipes =) £0" Me ot 3
1 14 White poft - - Ze oO
7 15 Ditto mixed with whin - = 0. nO, 0
o 16 Coal - - O13 70 6
2 17 Black metal ftone - Be 1 30'80
8 18 Grey metal ftone - A 2a Oue®
9 19 Brown polt with fkanny partings Of Lee
o 20 6Coal - - 06 0 9g
8 21 Grey metal ftone - te Ta 2ehO
to 22 Coal - = OD, OIG
ir 23. Band i Benwett Main - 0; 'S, On G
1o 24 Coal - =O 1 On.O
8 25 Grey metal ftone - Cie payens)
1 26 Strong white poft - 2 TW 0
12 27° Whin - = 10. Oma, Oo
1 25 White poft - - CRAG) hej)
°o 29 Coal . * 3OrOee Lo
2 30 Black metal ftone - i Ot
1 3x White poft . 2 2° (0 O20
2 32 Black metal ftone - 7 Wied tie) saat
333 Grey ditto oa ae Sb. 2 4
~
4
Sr OO Ons
a
malt
CONT He On
ie!
is)
CON B® CATO hw NO DH DY OF HY
nN
ww O On1rW DO —~ WO Brew DOW WOH MH TD
=
©
Thicknefs of each Stratum.
Particulars of the Strata.
Ditto polt with whin girdles -
Stroug white pof ns
Grey metal itone -
Coal - 3
Polt girdle - x
Grey metal ftone -
Cos., BEaumomr Seam -
Stroeg winte thill -
Ditto do. poft -
Coal = z
Black thill = =
Grey metal ftone - e
Ditto pott - = a
Ditto metal ftone =
Strong white polt :
Coal Sarg =
Black metal ftone «
White poft -
Blue metal fone with poft girdles
White poit with whin gridies
Black metal ftone -
Grey pott - c
Blue metal ttone 2
Stroug white polt -
Blue metal ftone =
Coal = iS
Black thill - 2
Blue metal {tone with poft girdles
Grey pott - -
Strong white pol -
Black metal ftone u
Coat, Low Main =
Grey metal [tone
White pott - =
Grey metal ftone with poft girdles
White poft with whin girdles
Grey metal ftone with poft do.
Coat, Low Low Main -
Grey metal ftone - -
White poft - -
Grey metal ftone - -
Black metal do. ag E> -
Grey. do. do. .
Ditto poit - -
Strong white pof with whin girdles
Grey metal ftone -
Ditto pott : Xi
White poft - -
Grey metal’ ftone
Coal - :
Grey metal ftone - -
Ditto with poft girdles -
Coal S -
Grey metal ftone - -
Ditto pott < -
White do. mixed with whin -
G-ey metal fione - -
Coal - -
Grey metal ftone with poft girdles
Strong white poit with whin do.
Ba. Yds. Fr. Bin
cy
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COAL
Seétior of the Strata of the Low Main Coal at Saint An-
tHONy’s Colliery, three Miles below Newcattle.
Thicknefs of each Stratum,
Particulars of the Strata. Fa. Yds. Pt. In.
© 1 Soil - - O70) 20/0
o 2 Clay - - Ae DO
1 3 Brown poft - - Te {pono ne.
© 4 Coal - - 6: 1-010) 16
2 5 Blue metal ftone - ah i2) 431 ak2) 16
3 6 White girdles - - Zio ENZO
o 7 Coal - - Ovo) 8
4 8 White and grey poft : Griion Bate
5 © Soft blue metal ttone - FOV! 'O2|10
© ro «Coal - - eo oF 0:6
6 11 White poft girdles - - Ese dt yeh ne)
9 12 Whin - - Lig ATTRA
8 13 Strong white po - Lia ekg ss dite)
© 14 Coal - - Oo To
Q 15 Soft blue thill - - AE EN NZM, 0
to 16 Soft girdles mixed with whin =fying) iB) 6211 YO
o 17 Coal ~ - Conc) lke iia)
ir 18 Blue and black ftone ~ Suh ERIN S
© 19 Coal - - oo o 8
8 20 Strong white poft - 2D Bate) io)
zy2 21 Grey metal tione - - Dvn) L286
© 22 Goal - =O ROIs 04-98
33 23 ‘Grey poft mised with whin - 4 OTs 20
34 24° Ditto girdles - ~ RB) ONTO
15 25 Blueand black flone - 2 Bort 2" i'o
° 26 Ceal - - OF) OF 16
12 27 ‘Grey metal ftone - = POM OMS)
8 28 Strong white poft u = Oriaotlor vo
36 29 Black meta! ftone with hard girdles 3 0 © 0
27 30 «6Coar, Hicu Main - TiO! FO) 46
46-0: 010
1 3r Grey metal - - Avr Ono
6 32 Pott girdles - : NOMA)
5 33 Blue metal - - Ones Tae C
14 34 Girdles - ao) CumON tras 2
2 35 Blue metal ftone - : 5 toro" .0
8 36 Pot - - ifm Cip Me)
2 37 Blue metal ftone - = 2 Powon oO
19 38 Whin and blue metal * Boy. Se nil ate)
8 39 Strong white polt - Sie Sep eee ie)
i 40 Brown polit with water - 0) WOON Ie,
20 41 Bue metal flone with grey girdles 2 0 2 0
© 42 Coal - - ON PSs Wolo)
2 43 Blue metal ftone - Seley iowa!
8 44 White pott - - (cya ge Nei Po)
0 45 Coal - - o © 0 6
21 46 Strong grey metal with poft girdles 2 0 0 6
8 47 Ditto white poft - - TOL 1s)
7 48 Whin - > Cohen tere tank)
2 49 Blue metal ftone - ed On NA
2t 50 Grey ditto with poft girdles - angels nuls
22 51 Blue do. whia do. - Poe yte ye Weers
© 52 Coal - - cop Coin Heine)
23 53 Blue grey metal - Eloi sii Moyes
3 54 White poft - - AN) VO)ihyy)
24 55 Ditto mixed with whin - 2 409 (O70
“8 56 White poft - - Te OlteZ aa
25 57 Dark blue metal and coal - Oh hOpngne iy
26 58 Grey metal ftone and girdles - 2 0 2 ©
Thickneis of each Stratum.
Particulars of the Strata. Fa. Yds, Ft. In.
24 59 White pof.mixed withwhin. - 9 3 0° 0 7
7.0o Whin - - OOM del FO
24 61 White pof mixed with whin - 15S 1Os 16
12 62 Dark grey metal {tone - Opie Lh Oh)
Qa 63 Coal - - GE mish Yo he)
27 64 Grey metal with whin girdles hare p cite SUBS)
2t 65 Ditto.with girdles - ZT. Os: 0
o 67 Coal - - OT Os) 2
23 68 Blueand grey metal - Coy ube SG)
8 66 White po : Oy ah/OI 0.
° 69 Coal - - o 0 0 gy
23 70 Blue and grey metal . 2,0° 0.0
24 74 White pott mixed with whin = Out) (ity 6)
18 72 Grey metal s = LW OmiOnnG
21 73 Ditto with girdles - = Tl ONO ig
28 74 Coat, Low Main - - TepOh (On.
135 0 1 6
From the foregoing feétions will be feen, the various forts
of fubftances through which the miner, near Newca!tle, has
to pals, before he comes to the obje& of his purfuit: thefe
{ubitances we may divide into fix different clafles, of each of
which we will give an account in their order.
uf{t. Whin-ftone; the ftrata thus named are the hardeft of
all others, fo that angular pieces of ir will cut glafs. It exhi-
bits, by fraéture, the appearance of large grains of fand, half
vitrified. It can fcarcely be wrought, or broken in pieces
by common tools, without the affiltance of gunpowder ; it
decays a little by being expofed to the atmofphere, leaving
a brown powder; in the fire it cracks, and turns reddifi=
brown. Each ftratum is commonly homogeneous in fub-
ftance and colour ; the moft common of which are black or
dark blue, yet there are others of it afh-coloured and light
brown.
2d. Polt-ftone, isa free ftone of the hardeft kind, of a very.
fine texture, and when broken, appears compofed of the
fineft fand. It is commonly found in a homogeneous mals,
though variegated in colour, and is not fubje& to injury
from expofure to weather: there are four varieties of this
ffone; itt. The white-poft, which, in appearance, is like
Portland-{tone, but confiderably harder. This is fometimes
found having brown, red, or black fpots. 2d. Grey-polt,
which has the appearance of a mixture of fine black and
white fand; it is often variegated with brown and black
ftreaks, the laft mentioned look like fmall clouds compofed
of particles of coal. gd. Brown or yellow poft is often met
with of different degrees of colour, moft frequently that of
light ochre or yellow fand. It is as hard as the others, and
fometimes has black and white ftreaks. 4th. Red-poft is
generally of a dull red colour. It is often ftreaked with
white or black, but is rarely met with. All thefe lie in
ftrata of different thicknefles, but commonly thicker than
any other ftrata. They are feparated from each other by
{mall partings of coal, of fand, or of foft matters of differ-
ent colours, which are very diftinguifhable.
gd. Send-ftone; thisisa free {tone of a coarfer texture than
the above ; it is eafily pervious to water, and when broken, is
of acoarfe fandy texture. It is friable, and readily moulders
to fand when expofed to the air and rain. It has frequently
white fhining {pangles, or plates of mica, in it, and peb-
bles, or other {mall nodulous ftones inclofed in its mafs; of
this there are two kinds, diftinguifhed by their colours grey
and
COAL
Itis found in confiderable thicknefs with but
It is fometimes in
and brown.
few partings, which are fandy or foft.
layers 26 thin as the common grey flate.
4th. Metal-ftone ; this is a tolerably hard ftratum, next
in point of hardnefs to fand-ftone, folkd, compact, of confi-
derable weight, of an argillaceous fubftance, interfperfed
with nodules or balls of iron ore, and yellow or white py-
rites. The furfaces of its ftrata are hard, polifhed, and
{mooth. When broken, it has a dull dufky appearance, is of
a fine texture, like hard, dried clay mixed with particles of
coal, Though hard in the mines like the fand-[tone, it
moulders when expofed to the adtion of the air. Its colour
varies from black to light brown or grey ; it lies in flrata of
varicus thicknefs.
sth. Shiver; this ftratura is more frequently met with in
collieries than any other ; it is known to the miners under
the names of black fhiver, black metal, or bleas; the black
is the molt common, it is fofter than metal ftone, and, in
the mine, is rather a tough than a hard fubftance. Tt is ea-
fily feparable by the multitude of its partings. It breaks
into long {mall pieces when flrack with force, which, on
examination, prefent the figures of {mall irregular rhomb-
vids, each of which has a polifhed glaffy furface; when
broken acrofs the grain, it exhibits a dry laminated tex-
ture, like exceedingly fine clay. It is very friable, feels to
the touch like an unG@uous fubftance, and diffolves in air or
water to a fine black clay; and, like the laft mentioned, it
fometimes contains nodules of iron ftone, often even beds of
iron-ftone are found init. The colour of the fhiver is not
confined to black ; it difcovers brown, dun, and grey colours,
and a variety of fhades according to the proportions of
each. Its ftrata are parted from each other by lamina of
fpar-coal, or other mitter; as may be feen by the fore-
going tetion.
Many of thefe flrata are confiderably thick, being fre-
quently found from 100 to 200 feet in depth, or upwards,
of nearly the fame kind of matter throughout, whilit others
again are of the leaft imaginable thicknefs. They are all di-
vided or parted from each other, -eitlier by an even, fmooth,
polifhed furface, or with a very thin lamina of foft, duity
matter between them, called the parting, by which means
they are eafily feparated; yet though the furfaces are fome-
times fo clofely joined together, that it is with difficulty
they can be feparated, which is called a bad parting, they
are never known to be in the flightelt degree inter-
mingled.
There are befiles this principal divifion or parting, fe-
condary ones alfo laterally, but thefe are not fo ftrong or
vilible, and are only met with, where the texture is not of
a uniform hardnefs or colour through the whole body of the
flrata. In almoft every ftratum there are other divifions
cailed backs, which crofs the former longitudinally, and cut
the whole ftratum through its two furfaces; thefe are again
croffed by others, called cutters, running either in an
oblique or perpendicular direction, and which cut the ftra-
tum through its two furfaces, and, together with the other
partings, divide it into various figures. The fofter. kind of
tlrata has in general more backs and cutters than the
harder ones, which fometimes have thin partitions of dulty
or foft matter, but like the partings are fometimes without
any. Whenever the “trata lic regularly they are thus di-
vided, and generally extend in this manner through a large
extent of country, though it is often otherwife, for that
regularity is frequently interrupted, and the ftrata diforder-
ed by various chafms, breaks, or fiffures, which are called
dikes, hitches, and troubles, acevrding to their dimenfions, and
the matters with which they are filled; firft,
Dikes, or faults, are fiflures of the largeft kind, which
feem to be cracks, or breaks, of the folid {trata, occafioned
by one part of them being broken away and fallen from the
other. They generally run in a ftraight line for a confider-
able length, and penetrate from the furface tothe greatelt
depth ever yet tried, in a direGtion fometimes perpendicular,
and fometimes cblique, to the horizon, in which cafe they _
are faid to hade or underlay. The fame kind of ftrata are
found lying upon each other inthe fame order, but the whole
- of them are fometimes greatly elevated or depreffed on theone
fide of the dike or on the other. Thefe fffures are fre-
quently two or three feet wide, and at cther times many
fathoms. If the fiffure or dike be of any confiderable
_width, itis generally filled with heterogeneous matter, didier-
ent from that of the folid ftrata on each fide of it; fome-
times with clay, gravel, or fand, fometimes with a con-
fufed mafs of different kinds of {lone lying edge-ways, aad
at others with a folid body-of free-ltone or even whin-ftone.
When the fiffure is of no great width, feppofe two or three
feet, it is then ufually filled with a confufed mixture of the
ditlerent matters which compofe the adjoining ftrata, confo-
iidated into one mafs. 1f the dike ruzs or firetches nowh
and fouth, and the fame kind of ftrata are found on the eatt
fide of the dike, ina fituation with refpeét to the horizon;
10 or 20 fathoms lower on the othier fide, it is then faid to
be a dip dike, or down-calt dike, of 10 or 20 fathoms to the
eaitward ; or counting from the eaft fide, it is then faid to be
arife dike or upcaft, of fo many fathoms weltward. If
the {trata on one fide are not much higher or lower with re-
{ped to the horizontal line, than thofe on the other, but
only broken off, or removed to a certain diftance, it is then
faid to be a dike of fo many fathoms deep, and from the
matter contained between the two fides, it is denominated a
clay, a ftone dike, &c. There are fome, though they are
not often met within the coal countries, whofe cavities are
filled with fpar, ores of iron, lead, or other metallic
or mineral matters; and it is pretty well known, that all me--
tallic veins are nothing elfe than what in the coal countries
are called dikes. It generally happens, that to a confiderable
diftance on each fide of the dike, all the itrata are in 2 kind of
fhattered condition, very tender, eaiily pervious to water,
and debafed greatly in their quality, and in their inclinatioa
to the horizon often altered.
adly. A hitch is only a dike of fmaller degree, by which
the {trata on one fide are not elevated or feparated from
thofe on the other more than a fathom. Thefe hitches are
denominated in the fame manner as dikes, according to the
number of feet which they elevate or deprefs the ftrata. :
3dly. Vroubles or bends may be called dikes of the {mall-
eft degree, for they are not a real breach, but only a ten-
dency towards it. The ftrata are generally altered by a
trouble or bend from their regular direction to a different
ong. When the regular courfe of the ftrata is nearly level,
a trouble will daufe a confiderable afcent or defcent ; where
they have, in their regular fituation, a certain degree of ai-
cent and defcent, a trouble either increafes or alters it to @
contrary dire¢tion ; and a trouble has thefe cffecis upon the-
adjoining ftrata in common with dikes, thatit greatly debafes
them from their original qualities; the partings arc feparated ;
the backs and cutters disjoined, and their regularity difor-
dered ; the original cubic and prifmatic figures, of which the
{trata are compofed, are broken, the diflocation filled with
heterogeneous matter, and the whole ftrata are reduced to
a fofter and more friable ftate.
Notwith-
.
@ © AB,
' Notwithftanding that the dikes and hitches, or faults, as
they areas generally called, are filled with extraneous mat-
ters, in a confiderable degree of diforder, yet there generally
is a /eading, as the miners call it, or ftreak of imperfect and
‘mixed coal, which leads or dire&ts to the vein on the other
fide of the fault, whether the fame be higher or lower, and
by which they ere in a contiderable degree direéted, in ent-
tine the fault to recover their vein; in very confiderable
faults, like that on the north of Newcaftle, which drops
the ftrata 549 feet, it is not probable that any leading can
be traced. In the coal-inines near Bath, there is a fault
which has altered the level of the fame vein of coals, much
more than in the above cafe.
By the finking of the fhaft, which is a natrow, per-
pendicular pafiaze, “a communication is opened with the
various {trata above-mentioned, and the different veins of
codl. The flrata of this foffil are feldom or never found to
lie in a trué horizontal fituation, but generally have an in-
clination or defcent, culled, as before noticed, the dip, to
fome particular part of the ‘horizon. If this inclination be
to the eaft, it is called the eaft dip and a weft tife, and ac-
cording to the point of the compafs, to which the dip lies, is
_at denominatdd. This teclination, or dip of the ftrata, is
found every where; in fome places it varies very little from
the level, in others very confiderably, even fo much as to be
nearly tn a perpendicular direction; but whatever degree of
inclitfation the itrata have to the horizon, if not interrupted
by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always found to lie
in the rétular manner firft mentioned, They generally con-
tintié upon one uniform dip, until they are broken or difordered
by aby of the above intetruptions, Waliis, inhis ‘ Hiltory
‘of Northumberiand,” tells us, that the ftrata in that part
of the ifland generally rife to the north-welt and dip to the
* feuth-eaft:) Dr: Stukely; in his ** Ttin. Curiof.”” 1725,
fays, that fothe of the coal-works in the fame country dip full
eaft; but it ts plain, he adds, that fouth-ealt is the natural
dip. “is thofe at Whitehaven, inclining fouth-welt, re-
ctive, he fuppofes, a counter-bias, as being on the welt
fide of the land; he further obferves, that the principal
dip is to the fouth-eatt; ytt in this country dips in
various diréGiions, as the fall of valles, or beds of ri-
vers, as well as the canfes above-mentioned, occafionally
influeneé its primary bent. See Geclogy, Platel. jig. 1.
where aa is intended to reprefent the vegetable mould or
alluvial matters depofited on the furface of the regular
ftrata, reprefented by 2, c, d, e, &c- on the lert-hand fide
of the figure. AA, and BD, are intended to fhow the
dikes, by which the fame are disiointed, deprefled, or_ele-
vated, as before deferibed ; and where CC fhows a hitch or
fmaller dike; DD, EE, FF, and GG, are the repre-
fentations of troubles or bends of the ftrata.
Such are the ufual difpofitions of the rata; two principal
difficulties are met with in the defcent, the firlt isin keeping
Out quick-fands where they occur, and the fecond to keep
the fhaft fo dry as to allow the mento work. A quick-fand
is kept out by a procefs called * tubbing,” that 1s forming a
circle in the infide of the pit where the fand bed is, with
ftaves of oak, each piece being fhod with a fharp piece of iton ;
thefe are driven through the itratum of fand, fo clofely joined
that no water can penetrate, and arekept in their fituation
“by incernal hoops or kivbs at certain diftances; the water is
drawn out now geénerally by a ftedm-enzine and pump. See
‘Stream Enocrxr, Pump, Prefure Excine, Bucket ENGINE.
Through a large difrnié of South Wales, their highly
valuable veins of coals, of which an account was lately pre-
fented by Mr. Edward Martin to the Royal Society (and
publithed in the Philofophical Lranfactions for 1806, p,
Vor, VIII.
342; &c.) are gained at comparatively trifling expehcees, com-
pared with molt of the Neweaftle pits ; the depth of the val-
ltesand heightsof the hills in that partof the country, allowing
fevera) fucceffive and thick veins of coals to be worked by
tunnels into the hill above the level of the tivers, or {prings of
water, in the vallies; and the coals, and the valuable iron
ore which alfo abounds, are let down into the boats on the
canal tunnels, or as loading for tram-waggons in the tunnels
below ; through which they are conveyed to open gay,
and thence to the iron-works or place of fhipping : of feveral
of thefe curious works in South Wales we have given concife
accounts, under the nantes of the particular canals, rail-
ways, &c. in our article Canax; and we fhall take’ occafion,as
the names of them occur in our work, to give feveral material
additions and corre€tions which have come to our knowledge,
principally through the kindnefs of Mr. Martin above men-
tioned, fince that article was put to prefs, fo as to render the
fame, we hope, quite complete.
In the environs of Glafgow there are confiderable coal-
mines of excellent quality, which are alfo worked at an eafy
expence ; they are found under beds of -quartzofe freettone,
which in fome mines are more than 10 feet thick ; it adheres
tothe freeltone, without any istermedium. The coal appears
at the depth of 30 feet from the furface, in fcattered lines
running in an irregular manner through the midft of the
freellone ; then follow beds of the fame fone without the
leaft veltize of coal, but asthe beds defcend, the coal re-
appears in {mall ftraygling and interrupted feams fromthree to
four inches thick ; thefe are again fucceeded by an unmixed
rmafs of freeftone, which falls through a depth of more than 40
feet, and terminates in folid and continued beds of coal. It
is much to be regretted that the operation of boring is held in
fo little eftimation in Scotland, but the reafon is very obvious;
in England it is made a diftin@ trade, and is conducted by
men of information, who have been repularly brought up to
the bufinefs: in Scotland it is effeted by any common
workmen about the pits, poffcfiieg neither information nor
experience, and their accounts are confequently fo confufed,
imperfect, and equivocal, as to merit no confidence what-
ever.
The great and univerfally felt importance of its veins of
coals to this country, makes us again regret our inability, at
prefent, to lay before our readers, any more than a few of
the principles, of the modern and yet unpublifhed difcoveries
of Mr. William Smith, on this and other fubjects conneéted
with the ftratification of the Britifh iflands (fee our articles
Jfirudure of the Eartu and StrariricaTion.) It is con-
fefledly of the firlt importance, either to the inhabitants ef
a diltraét in general, or tothe owners of the foil in particular,
to be able to dete and work fuch veins of coal, as may exilt
under their foil; and hence we find on inguiry ia the neigh-
bourhood, that almoft every common, moor, heath, or piece
of bad land,in parts where coals are {carce, have at one time
or other been reported by ignorant coal-finders to contain
coal: how many times, for inltance, have our grandmothici's
and nurfes, repeating their ftovies, told us, that plenty of coals
m'ght be dug at Blackheath, near Woolwich, and on other
commons near London, if government had not prohibited
their being dug, for encouraging the nurfery of feamen, &c.
Our inquiries, and thofe of Mr. Smith, have brought to light
hundreds of inftances, where borings and fiukings for coals
have been undertaken in fuch fituations, and on fuch advice,
in the fouthern and ealtern parts of England, attended with
heavy, and fometimes almoft ruinous, expences to the parties,
thouzh a fource of profit to the pretended coal finders, who,
orfome of their never-failing race of fucceflors, equally fapient,
have in many inflances been able to retura to the fame fpot
4 I ot
C*1OrANE. i
er neighbourhood, and perfuade a new proprietor to aé&
again the fame farce, and {quander his money on an unattain-
able obj-@ ; for fuch, we can without hefitation pronounce,
the publication of Mr, Smith’s map and feétions of England
will prove it to be. This gentleman, more than 15 years ago
afcertained, by an a€tual examination of the country, that the
firatum. on which London ftands, is the highelt but one
(the Bagfhot-Heath Sand) in the Britifh feries of ftrata,
and that whether we proceed from London direétly for the
Newealtle coal mines, in a direction not greatly to the weft of
a north point, or to thofe in Somerfetfhire, near Bath, ly-
ing in an eatterly direétion, or rather fouth of it, from the me-
tropolis; or whether we travel thence to the neareft coal mine,
lying in any intermediate dire€tion, as in the counties of
Durham, Yorkfhire, Nottinghamfhire, Leicefterfhire, War-
wickfhire, Glouccfterfhire, &c. ; ona careful examination we
fhall find, the very fame fucceffion of {trata occurring upon the
furface, and may ecalily fatisfy ourfelves, by an examination
of the quarries, pits, and even of the hollow roads and ditches,
which are every where to be found, of the identity in the
nature of the various ftratified matters, as fand, chalk, marle,
clay, limeftone, &c. ; and of the exa& occurrence of each in
the fame order, as we proceed Gutwards from the metropolis.
A. more particular examination will next fatisfy us, that thefe
appearances are occafioned by the feveral {trata which we have
mentioned, fucceflively rifing towardsthenorth wet, (and con-
fequently dipping in the contrary direétion) generally fpeak-
ing, and ending one after another, with very curioufly in-
dented or fingered edges, after which the fame {tratum never
occurs again: the chalk ftrata, for inftance, will be quitted
near Dunftable, in the road to Warwickthire, and never be
feen afterwards on the furface, or be found funk to in any
pit or excavation during all the remainder of the journey, or
even in purluing one in the fame direétion, to the utmott
limits of the Bnitifh iflands ; and, though we hall, in fuch an
examination, meet with a number of different fands, clays, and
other flrata, which may feem at firft fight to be recurrences
of the fame ftratum, after it has rifento the furface and
ended ; yet, on examining two of fuch more minutely, we
fhall find, either the ftrata lying if undifturbed contaé with
them above and below, to be different in the two cafes, or
their vifible or chemical qualities to differ, their thickneffes to
vary, or, that the fame particular fpecies of organic remains
are not found imbedded, or their impreffions left in one of
the ftrata, as are obfervable in the other: wherever, on the
contrary, thefe circumftances concur, they may be faid to
prove the identity of any ftratum, at however diftant points it
may becompared ; and for fhortening our inquiries forfuch pur-
ofe, fciencehappily prefents us with the profpeé of fimilarad-
vantazes, to thole pofleffed by the botamitt of the prefent day ;
who, in{tead of examining all the parts of a plant fuppofed to
belong to particular genera or {pecies, proceeds at once to
examine fome one or two of them, which the writings of
former botanifts have fhown to be effential chara&ters of that
particular plant ; and it is no unreafonable hope now to form,
that the eflential charaéters of each of the moft remarkable
and ufeful {trata in the Britifh feries, will ere long be gene-
rally known to mineralogilts, fince they have become fo to
fome particular individuals. Each particular ftratum appears
to us, to have formed part of one valt plane, with a flight in-
clination towards the fouth-eaft, or nearly, and with great
extenfion in the directions of N.E. and S.W. in thefe lati-
tudes; prior to the truly enormous violence with which the
earth has fince been diflocated and broken, during the form-
ation of the dikes,-faults, hitches, and troubles, which we
have had occafion more particularly to mention in this ar-
ticle, and fome greater ones, which we fhall have future op-
portunities of mentioning, particularly that by which the
whole of the land of England, fouth of the river Thames,
has been difturbed and broken from its original pofition
(dipping S.E,) into one, in which all the ftrata north of a
line paffing not far from Hattings, Battle, Eaft Grinftead,
Guildford, &c, have now a much greater dip, nearly at night
angles thereto, or N. E.; while, onthe other, or fouth fide, they
have juit a contrary or S.W. dip; but with as many local
deviations or partial dips in each cafe, as are ufually to be
found, and which fometimes vary, perhaps in feveral direcs
tions, many times in travelling a mile, and yet on the whole,
the {trata keep rifing as above, the planes being the longelt
in one particular direCtion,
The organic remains, or exuvia of different animals, and
the remains of plants, are foundlodged in our ftrata in the
greateft abundance, and, to {uperficial obfervers, appear to
have nomethod or arrangement thercin; but, on a clofer
examination, and taking care to notice the minuter differs
ences in thefe organized remains, it will be found, that each
particular kind, either alone, or mixed with one or more
diftiné&t kinds, occupies a certain thicknefs of ftrata, fome-
times but an inch, or lefs, and fometimes many feet, but ex-
tending to the preateft diftances in the plane of that ftratum,
and that either above or below thofe limits, the remains will be
found to be different, or none are found; hence the layers
of fhells, plants, &c. become the moft ufeful, as well as cer«
tain, criteria of the identity of ftrata; thefe often changing,
where the obvious qualities of the {trata appear unchanged,
by which means they divide thick ftrata into thinner ones,
and furnifh us with fo many more afcertained or known
points in the progreflion of ftrata; which, in the confined
operation of finking a fhaft or well, is of the greateft ime
portance, but particularly fo in boring, for afcertaining the
{trata. See Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxv. p. 45.
We have been led to enter thus far into Mr. Smith’s theory
of the ftratification, im order to explain in this place fome
part of that which relates more particularly to the finding
of coal; and as the mention of organic remains has, and mult
often againoceur, we beg here to call the attention of our read~
ers to three diftinG eras obfervable, relating to foffil organized
bodies ; 1{t, that period in which the animals themfelves, or
their exuvia, and vegetables, were quietly depofited and
buried, in and among the fucceflive depofitions of ftrata,
taking effect according to laws, apparently as uniformand
extenfive as thofe of cryftailization; 2d, a period wherein
the ftrata were ruptured, torn, and wafhed by mighty cur-
rents of water, and during which great quantities of the
organized remains from within the ftrata were detached,
broken, and worn, and at length left with the gravel and
alluvial matters, which now cover almoft every part of tke
furface, although, in many places, fuch alluvium is no thick-
er than what is cailed the vegetable mould ; 3d, a period ex-
tending from the laft to the prefent time, in which the waves
of the fea on its coafts, the currents of inundated rivers,
and the other operations of nature, have, though ina very
limited degree, been continuing the fame procefs of wafhing
out, breaking, expoling, and wearing the original organized
matters of the ftrata, thofe which had in the fecond period
beendepolited withthe gravel and alluvium ; and expofing alfo,
in many inftances, organized remains belonging to an earlier
part of the prefent or third period ; which is further diitin-
guifhed, by the growth of immenfe beds of vegetable, or
peaty matters on the furface, which have inclofed the remains
of recent animals, vegetables, &c. mixed with the occafional
depofitions of muddy waters, to which fuch have, in low fitua-
tions, been repeatedly fubjeé.
When, therefore, we {peak of organized remains, yuna
urther.
GOAL
further explanation, we wifh to be underftood as meaning
thofe of the ftrata, of the firft era, no otherwife altered than by
the gravity or chemical aétion of the furrounding matters 5
when we with to {peak of the organized remains peculiar to
the ftrata, but difturbed during »he fecond era, we fhall, as
Mr. Smith does, call them gravel fufils ; and this, whether
they bear marks of breaking and wear, or not, if they are
found depofited with gravel, or among angular or worn fray-
mentsof matter near the furface, the evident effeéts of collition
and attrition; when we have to mention the organized foflil
matters of the third era,if they appear fuch as have been depo-
fited by water among gravel, and the depofitions of water, as
above mentioned, or have been buried by the labour and works
of men or animals, and undergone a mineralization, we fhall
eall fuch recent foffils, while thofe which owe their burial, and
probably their change and prefervation, to vegetation, fhall be
called peat foffils ; thefe terms and diftinGions appear to'us ef-
fentially necefflary for avoiding, in thefe inquiries, endlefs mif-
takes andabfurdities, into which former writers on this fub-
je@t have been led, for want of fuch diferiminations. When
organized matters of the’ prefent race, are found on or near
the furface of the earth unchanged, at leaft not mineralized,
they will ftill be denominated recent fhells, bones, teeth,
horns, plants, &c- and will be fufficiently diftinguifhed from
our recent foffils above.
A careful examination of the feveral ftrata which in-
tervene and end, between London and any of the neareft
points mentioned as coal-diftriéts, will fhow thefe {trata to
be very various in their. qualities, and in their thicknefles
(altogether amounting to feveral hundred fathoms), with no
one circumitance fo obfervable among them, as the total
abfence of diftin& vegetable impreflions or remains (among
their numerous animal remains, ) except of wood, and which,
it is obfervable, are generally, we believe we might have faid
always, found in thefe upper itrata in the feries, in cafual, de-
tached, and broken pieces of the trunk, almoft like chips and
billets, and generally with the appearance upon them of pre-
vious rottennefs and wear, from toffing or floating’ in water ;
not unfrequently alfo, this fuppofition is {trengthened by the
worm-holes with which thete detached pieces of wood
abound, particularly in the Woburn Sand ftratum, where
mineralized remains of the worms or animals which perfor-
ated the wood, found below the fuller’s-earth ftratum, are
fill feen occupying the holes tthe filictous wood, of which
we have fpecimens now before us. The pieces of wood found
in the fertes above the coal, are in ftates as various as the
matters of the {trata inclofing them; in many inftances they
are filicious, pyritic, or ochreous, lefs frequently, perhaps, they
occur in a foft rotten ftate, fometimes hike charcoal, and at
others bituminized almoft to the confiftence of pitch; and
thefe lait {pecimens they are, which, when accidentally ac-
cumulated, as at Bovey-Tracey, and many other places, on
the out-crop of the Purbeck pipe-clay ftratum, have been
improperly denominated coal ftrata ; and in Suffex, and other
parts, have mifled the coal-finders, or perhaps rather their
credulous employers, above alluded to.
This abfence of vegetable impreffions will be found to
continue in our journey outwards from the metropolis, until
a remarkable ftratum is paffed, called by the miners in So-
merletthire the ‘red earth,” being a very red ferruginous
“earth, or {tone, fomething like that on which the city of
Coventry ftands: from hence, examining -wettward or north-
ward, we fhall find a material change take place, in the animal
remains becoming very fcarce, and vegetable impreflions
beginning to appear and increafe, among a certain feries of
flrata, called, by the miners of feveral counties, the ‘coal
meafures,”” which are often remarkable for their quick and
varied alternations, as the two feAtions of coal ftrata or meae
fures, which we have given in this article, will exemplify.
For many fathoms together, among fome of the coal mea-
fures, particularly in the argillaceous or coal-fhales, {carcely a
lamina of the ftrata, as thick as paper, can be {plit off,
without expofing the impreflion or bituminized remains of
fome plant, as mentioned hereafter, many of them highly
beautiful: as thofe appearances increafe, veins of coals,.or
uniform fkrata of thefe bituminized vegetables, . without
the intervention of fhale, or earthy matters, occur; thefe
are often extremely thin, and have intervening ftrata, or
coal meafures, fometimes of confiderable thicknefs between
them, fo that in fome of our Britih coal-pits, 30 or more
diftinét and feparate veins of coal are funk through, before
tle ‘* main,”’ or moft defirable feam of coals isreached; from
which, if the pit was to be farther funk, or if we travel
weltward or northward to the ending of the feveral mea-
fures funk through, and over thole below, we fhall at length
find. thefe coal-meafures end, and what the m‘ners call ‘* dead
earth,”” or ftrata, as diffimilar to coal-mea{: res as thofe at
the top of the Britifh feries, already mentioned, will be
found to fucceed throuch a certain feries of ftrata, but thea
other coal-meafures will be found to occur again, &c.
Thefe different fets of coal meafures traverfing the country,
as now feen on Mr. Smith’s map, have often been noticed
by praétical men, and by fome writers, under the title of
‘runs of coal ;”? and that on which Newcaftle is fituated,
probably from its early and great importance in fupplying
the metropolis, has been called the «* great run.”? The firlt
workings of all our coal has evidently been upon their outs
crop, or breaking-to day, cither at the ending of the ftrata,
or where the former and convullive heavings of the {trata
have left their edges bare, or nearly fo: but experience has
progreflively proved, as the improvements of pumps, and
machinery permitted, that the coals were better in quality, and
lefs troubled, the farther they were purfued into the deep, or
in the direction of the “ten o’clock fun,” fromtheir out-crop,
moft generally: and thus the Newcaftle mines have been
progrefiively creeping nearer to the fea, and now extend to,
or under it, and {till find their coals improve ; of which the
Wall’s End coals, brought to the London market, are an
inftance: 19 like manner, the mines on the oppofite coaft,
near Whitehaven, for working feams, which the local dip of
that part occafions to defcend under the fea, have their works
now extended near a mile under the ocean, at about fix hun-
dred feet beneath its bottom. Accordingly it has occurred,’
that mines have been begun higher and higher up, on the fe-
rics of ftrata, called coal-meafures, and, confequently, had
their pits of greater depths, and now the attempt‘is making
at Bath-Eafton, in Somerfetfhire, of finking in matters
above the red earth, in hopes of there reaching the Somer-
fetfhire coal-veins, hitherto not worked fo far ealtward, or
into the deep, by fome miles, although fome of their mines,
owing to the rapidity of the partial dips are, we believe,
working at the greateft depths of any in the kingdom. An
application of the principles above explained will enable any
ingenious perfonto judge, whether his diltriG is likely to
contain coals, at pra@ticable mining depths; for it feems an
ufelefs inquiry, whether they exilt or not beyond this ; for
inflance,whether the vicinity of London,and the more fouth-
ealterly parts of our ifland have the coal-veins of the middle
counties d:pping under them, it canbe of {mall ufe to inquire;
from the immentfe number and thicknefs of the known ttrata
which intervene, and contain no coals, or other very valuable
matters. The very open and porous flate of fome of thefe
{trata, the chalks (more than 50 fathoms thick) for in-
ftlance, occafion them to be fo powerfully fupplied with’
AA: water
Cr Ot 40;
water, as to yender the profpect of finking even one faaft
through them at London, utterly hopelefs, Mr. Dodd,
whofe fcheme for a tunnel in chalk under the Thames, at
Gravefend, we have noticed in our article Canaan, has fiance
complained to the public, that the boring of one {mall
augre hole, before his fhaft was funk, let up fo much wa-
ter into it, that he was unable to penetrate more than
322 feet deep; what then was he to have expected,
had he ever come to open the length of 900 yards
of an 18 feet tunnet in this. fame chalk ? We hape to
be excufed for thefe digreffions, they tend, we thirk, to
illuftrate the quellion, of the practicability of finding coals,
through a large and important part of our ifland ; and we
fhall now proceed to the methods ufed in finking for
coals.
~The firft operation after finking the engine pit of acoal mine
is the working or driving in the coal, and finking the firft
coal pit ; the fituation of which fhould be a Jittle higher up
the plane of the ftrata, or to the rife cf the engine pit, that
the water which colleéts may not obftrn& the working of the
coals when the engine flops: yet it flould not exceed the
dillance of 30 or 40 yards, becaufe when the firft mine is to
be driven a long way, it becomes both difficult and expen-
five. After the pit is thus funk to the coal, the miner
is to begin his work; he firft digs or undermines with his
pick-axe, a light inflrument for hewing coal, (nearly in the
fhape of an initrument of the fame name ufed by payiors and
gardeners) at the bottom,and on one fide, into the feam or flra-
tum as farashe can; he then forces down grear pieces of
coal by a wedge and mallet, taking care to leave, at proper
intervals, pillars for fupporting the roof.
Fig. 2. in Plate I. reprefents the plan of the work-
ings of a coal mine, where A A reprefents the main paflage
or gangway, in the direGtion of the dip, and in which tram-
plates or rails are now often laid, for the paflage of the trams
loaded with coal to the pit or winding fhaft; B B, C C,
D D, and EE, reprefent other parallel and ftraight paffages,
between the pillars of coal, a,b, c, d, &c. & fi g, b, &ce
which are left for fupporting the roof and {trata above.
The coal is often wrought in this manner to the limits of
the mine; when thefe pillars, or fo many of them as can be
got, are taken out by a fecond working, and the roof and
other folid ftrata are permitted to fall down and fill up the
excavation, often to the great and permanent injury of the
furface of the land, and fometimes to canaJs, and other works,
as particularly mentioned under our article CANAL.
If the roof and pavement are both ftrong, as well as the
coal, and the pit only 30 fathoms deep, then two-thirds or
three-fourths may be taken away at the firft working, and
one-third or one-fourth left in pillars; if tender, it will require
a larger proportion to be left, probably one-third or nearly
one-half.
There is an overman, whofe office it is to go through the
pit to examine the places which the men have wrought, to
rocafure their work, and to fee that the pit is free from in-
flammable vapour. There is alfo a deputy cverman to fuper-
intend the pillars of coal that are left, aad to fet up props or
build walls, when the roofis loofe and threatens to fall. The
bufinefs of the perfon called an <‘* onfetter’? is to hang the
corves (ufually bafkets made of hazel rods) upon the rape to
be draw up the fhaft. Collieries are liable to an accident of
a very dangerous nature, called a.‘‘ creep” or * fit,”? when the
pillars of coal are left fo fmall as to fail or yield under the
weight of the fuperior ftrata, or when the pavement of the
coal is fo foft as to permit the pillars to fink into it, which
fometimes happens, by. the great weight that lies upon
them ; in either cafe the folid itratum above the coal falls and
as
cruthes the pillars to pieces, and clofes up a great extent of
the workin,s, or probably the whole colliery,
Mr. Ryan, we underftand, propofes to cure the defect of
a foft pavement, inthe principal paflages, which are required
to ftand for a long time, by forming them in the coal, of the
form fhown in jig. 3. Plate I., or nearly approaching to
elliptical ; the tram-plates or rails a, a, in their bottoms oc-
cupying nearly the whole width in that part, with the un-
dilturbed coal nearly or quite meeting under them: in this
cafe it will be neceflary to confiruct two parallel paflages at
a proper diftance, one for the going of the trams to the fit,
and the other for their return. Another fatal accident to.
which coal-miners are fubjet, in the vicinity of old workings
betsveen water-tight ftrata, arifes from the water contained im.
thefe artificial cavitics, or fometimes in natural cavities or
fiffures filled with loofe and porous matters, burfipg ia and
fuddenly filling their works: the only fecurity againft this,
is to bore an augre hole before the working as it proceeds,
to prove the regular continuance of the coal. The collieries,
about Raditock, on the Somerfetihire coal canal, have been
{ubject to this accident, on imprudently cutting through their
faults, or dikes, which, as weil as feyeral of their intervening
ftrata, are of water-tight matters.
There are two other evils to which coal mines are fubje& ;
hydrogen pas called by the workmen, ‘ fire-damp” by the
explofion of which many liyes are loft ; and carbonic acid gas
commonly called ““choak damp,” which is not fo fatal as the
former. Hydrogen gas is principally generated, by the con~
tact of pyrites with water in fome of the old workings of the
collieries which haye been negleCied and not fufficiently
ventilated : it there accumulates until difeovered by the oc-.
cafional vilit of fome of the overmen, whofe office it is to ex-
amine the oid workings called ‘¢ waftes :”” fometimes for want
of due caution it caufes the death of many of the miners,
being fet on fire with their lights. On thefe occafions the men
throw themfelves on their faces to the ground to avoid the
return of the blaft, as there is more danger to be apprehended.
from the vacuum formed by the total confumption of the in-
flammable gas, than from the effeét which the fire has upon
them. It rarely happens after an explofion that the men are
much burnt; they fuffermore bythe violentconcuffionof atmale
pheric air, rufhing into the workings to fll up the vacuum,
than from any other caufe. After an accident of this kind,
it is generally confidered dangerous to enter the pit for fome.
days, on which account it is to be feared many lives are loft
which might haye been faved by immediate affiltance.. At:
Whitehaven and Workington, where the inflammable gas.is
very prevalent, the miners often work without candles, in
driving their adjts for ventilation, by the light of a flint
mill, or of {parks produced fomewhat in the manner of a razor,
grinder’s wheel ; but the only effectual method of preventing.
accidents of this nature, is to pay due attention to the ttate,
of the old workings, and to caule a thorough ventilation by
the methods ufually adopted, which are the following: the
airis put in motion by means of a large furnace placed near.
the edge of one of the fhafts inclofed ina covered building.
from which is atubedefcending into the pit, The heated air,
thus afcending through the chimney, is fueceeded by cold
from the fhaft, which in its turn is replaced from. the
foweit part of the mine. The whole is thus fucceflively
removed, and its place is fupplied by air which, finds
its way from above, through another communicating fhaft,
open to the day. The certainty of this operation has
evidently no dependence on the depth of the mine, its extent,
or its form, The brifk current thus produced below, natu-
rally takes the moft dire& courfe betwixt the two. fhafts.
The ventilation on each fide is therefore accomplifhed, by
means
COAL.
means of a continued communication formed betwixt the
two fhafts in any required direstion, by opening the proper
avenues, and clofing all others. A continued current is
fametimes made to pafs in this manner for twelve or eighteen
miles, fee fg. 4. Plate 1. where § reprefents the fhaft, and A
the adit or working of a mine which 1s fubje& to damp or
foul air ; a@aq@ isa clofe pipe, leading from the part molt af-
fected to the furface of the ground, and there entering the
lower part of a furnace, F’, and afcending through the fire
therein, by the heat of which a current of air is conftantly
thrown ont of she upper end of the pipe: this method is ap-
plicable, and very neceflary, where particular and diitant parts
of the mine require ventilation ; becaufe by this means frefh air
can be made to defcend down the fame fhaft, and along the
adit through which the pipe and furnace canfe the foul air
tovafcend; for the more general ventilation of coal-mines,
and where frefh air can be fupphed by other fhafts, as it ge-
nérally can in mines at work, by means of the winding fhaft,
the water-(haft or engine pit, or both, a fimpler mode
is adopted, as at Worfley mine, on the duke of Bridge-
water’s canal, and other places, fhown in fig..5. where S re-
prefents the air or ventilation fhaft, having a common roli and
winch-handle erected over it, from whicha cage or iron ballet,
¢, is fufpended by a chain, and in which a large fire of coals is
coniiantly kept burning, fome yards below the furface of the
ground ; the winch-handle 15 made ufe of for drawing the fire
to the furface as often as the fame wants replenifhing.
Choak damp is rarely attended with any ill efleéts, and is
eafily difcovered by its extinguifhing a candle. The fafeft
method of exploring collierics fubject to this evil, is to walk
as ered as the workings will allow; fcr choak damp being
heavier than atmofpheric air, occupies, of courfe, the lower
part of the mine. It is move difficult to exhaull this gas by
ventilation than fre damp, as the latter afcends, from its
being lighter than atmofpheric air, whilft the other, by its
gravity, is forced upwards with great difficulty.
> Itis not exactly determined by what means choak damp is
generated'in coal mines, but it is generaily fuppofed to pro-
ceed from the putrefaction of vegetable fubftances.
| After the operation of **hewing,” or digging, is per-
formed, the coals are brought to the bottom of the
pit, in corves- or bafkets, either drawn along the ground in
the manner of a fled2e, or upon a {mall rail or train road
as they are called in Shropfhire, hooked on to a chain, and
drawn or wound up bya rope to the furface. This is
often effeSted by a machine cailed a gin, wrought by horfes.
Of thefe winding machines there are various kinds ; fome
wrought by water, others by the fire engine; either of the lait
named, are only convenient In fome particular fituations; that
wrought by horfes is therefore in mo general ufe. There
are, befides, a fort of gins called ‘whim gins,”’ and another
known by the name of “ macaroni gins.””” In the whim gin
the ropes run’ upon two wheel-pullies over the fhaft,
the roller is at fome diftance, and the circular track of the
horfes is‘not round the fhaft. See our article Mine Winp-
ING Engine, and Apparatus. To reccive the coals, there are
two * bank{men,’”” who take off the corves at the top of
the pit, and empty, or, as the workmen call it, “teem”
them. “The coals, by teeming, are difcharged into waggons,
by means of a grated {pout, which allows the fmall coals
to go through it, winlit the large pafs into the w FTO.
Boys or women attend to throw alide the pyrites, or, as
they are'technically called, * braffes,”” or in other places,
“ flates,””? which are fold to the copperas manufacimrers.
See Copperas. :
‘The coa!-waggon has been already fhortly defcribed un.
der our article CANAL; and fora fuller account, we refer
to Waccon. Our account of the waggon-ways, and
rail-ways, alfo occurs under the article Canax; and for other
particulars relating to the conveyance of coals from the
mines to the wharfs and veflcls: See Waccon, Rait-
Way,and STEATH.
Having thus givena defcription of coal-mines, we fhall
give an account of a vifitation toa pit. That in which
the beft view is gained, and which can be entered with the
greateft eafe and fafety, is in the vicinity of Newcaftle, wix.
Eatt Kenton colligry,the property of Mefirs. Knowfley and
Chapman. Having previoufly obtained permiffion of a viewer,
or fome other perfonconcernedin the colliery,a {mall hand lan-
thorn mutt be proyided, a light being neceflary for each per-
fon. It is alfoadvifable to take a change of drefs, at lealt of
upper cloaths ; flrong boots to keep the feet dry, and an old
hat. Being thus prepared, proceed to the tteath, which is
by the river fide, about four miles above Newcaltle, a plea-
fant excurfion by water. When there, fome of the men,
who have been apprized of your coming, will affilt in feat-
ing you ona fet of {mall empty coal waggons, capable of
containing two perfons each, feven of which are drawn along
a rail-way by ore horfe. As foon as you are placed, with
your candles lighted, you fet off at full {peed, with a boy in
the firfi waggon, for a charioteer, into a tunnel, or fubterra-
neous paflage fix feet high, about the fame breadth,and three
miles in length. It is particularly neceflary to guard again{t
putting your hands fuddenly out of the waggon, as the tun-
nel, in mott places, is only. wide enough to admit the waggon,
and horfes, and you are of courfe by doing fo in danger of
receiving an injury; but by fitting quietly, you afcend very
{moothly, till you arrive at the place where the men are at
work. «At your firft entrance into the tunne! you. are
flruck with the noife of the waggons, which, being failened
with chains to each other, and going fometimes at the rate of
ten miles an hour, make a found refembling thunder. ‘The
paflage is in general hewn out of folid rock, compofed of
metal ttone, a fort of fehiltus. Wherethere is not rock, it
is arched with brick or ftone. ‘The water from the pit
runs down by the fide of the rail-way to the river Tyne,
At intervals there are double rail-ways; and where you
come to one of thefe your driver ftops his horfe, and a dead
filence enfues ; he then calls aloud, and liftens to hear if any
loaded waggons are coming down, that they may there
pafs each other; when he is palt, your driver renews his
{peed, until he reaches the next interval, when he repeats his
call, and fhould no anfwer be heard in return, he proceeds.
If, by the negligence of the boys, the waggons fhould
mect where there is no double rail-way, the boy with the
empty waggon unloofes his horfe, which is taught to turn
round, and force the waggons back with its breaft, until
they reach the double part, where they can pafs each other.
On the fides of the tunnel you will obferve feveral fungi
of a pure white, which, by the heat of your hand, or expo-
fure to the open atmofphere, diffolve into water. ‘I've air
up. the tunnel is cold, but perfectly pure, but as you ap-
proach the workings a confiderable degree of warmth is
felt. You alight from your waggons in order to view the
different operations to which your guide will condu&
you.
{n the upper feam or flratum, the coal is not much
wronght on account of its inferiar quality. Here you
will fee the ftables for the horfes, the fteam-engine for railing
the coals from the lower feam, and the ventilating furnace,
by which the impure vapours are drawn off Here you will
alfo be fhown, on the roof of one of the lateral openings of
this
COAL :
this level, a variety of curious fpecimens of plants, fomewhat
like grafles, ferns, vetches, &c. impreffed upon a fort of blue
flaty ftone ; the different plants are remarkably diitin& from
each other. There is alfo in one part the trunk of a tree,
many blocks of which have been taken out to make feats in
a neighbouring garden ; as far as the {tone has been cut, the
tree has been traced even to its fmalleft branches, and the
roughnefs of the bark is ftill preferved in the ftone: the
whole of this ftratum is one uninterrupted continuation of
thefe impreffions of vegetables: it is nearly horizontal, and
is 112 yards from the {urface.
In Eatt Kenton colliery, there are three fhafts or perpen-
@icular openings, for raifing the coals. ‘The firft is the
pit at the day, near the village of Kenton: it is circular, 56
fathoms deep, and at prefent only ufed for delivering coals
for fale at Newcaftle. The coals are drawn up in bafkets.
"The bottom of this pit is ona line with the rail-way from the
river. The fecond fhaft is eighteen and a half fathoms deep,
and at a fhort diftance from the bottom of the firft. It is
f{quare, and juft admits the waggons, which are drawn up
and let Jown by the fteam-engine. The third fhatt is only
7 fathoms deep. After having examined the works, you
may be drawn up to the furface by the firlt fhaft in a
bafket in about two minutes, in which {pace of time you
will have afcend:d 56 fathoms. But fhould this mode of
cenveyance not be approved of, you may return again by
the tunnel. Brand’s Hiftory of Newcaftle. Com. Maga-
zine. Dr. Black’s Leétures. Wallace’s Northumberland.
Pennant’s Tour.’ St. Fond’s Travels. Pitiure of New-
caftle. Papers of the Literary and Philofophical Society of
Newcaftle upon-Tyne. Philofophical Tranfactions.
Coat-balls, balls made of coal and clay, or flack, for
firing. Thefe balls are made with 4 of clay, without fand
or gravel, and 3 of coal-dufl, or culm, well mixed, and
formed either into round balls or into bricks. This coal-
duft being the refufe of the mine, makes this fort of firing
cheap. See Phil. Tranf. N° 460. fe@. 3. See Patent Coat.
Coar bufhcl. The meafure directed to be ufed in Lon-
don and other places for retailing coals, is different from the
Winchefter bufhel for corn, or malt bufhel, 18Z inches wide,
and 8 inches deep, containing 2150.42 cubic inches, defcribed
under ourarticle Busuex. By the aétof 12 Anne, the coal-
buthel is dire&ed to be round, with an even bottom, and to
be 194 inches diameter, from outfide to outfide, capable of
containing one Winchetter bufhel and one quart of water 5
of which a ftandard is to be kept in the exchequer, and 36
of fuch buthels, heaped up, are to make one chaldron. By
the aé& 43 Geo. III. the coal-bufhel was direéted to be
heaped up in the form of a cone, but the exaét height, or
proportion thereof, to the bafe or top of the buthel (195
inches) not being fixed in this act, the principal land coal-
meters have, from careful and long continued obfervations
of the cuftom or praétice of meafuring coals, fixed the
height of the cone at 7 inches above the top of the bufhel;
this we learn from Mr. Robert Vazie, a gentleman who has
laudably taken much pains, in endeavouring to introduce a
bow-zage to-coal-bufhels, nearly fimilar to the bail or han-
dle of a water-pail, which fhould at all times, by being hift-
ed up and fwept over the bufhel, determine the proper
quantity of the heaped part, which is now left to the dif-
cretion of the fillers, fubjeét to the inattention or partiality
of the meter, who is, or ought to be, ftanding by. Ac-
cording to thefe data, the content of the coal-bufhel itfelf
(= 1s corn bufhel, as above) will be 2217.62 cubte inches,
its depth infide varying, from about § to g inches, according
to the thickaefs of the wood in the fides, it being the out-
2
>with the fecond floor, by a large opening in the wall.
fide diameter which is fixed by law, on account of the heap.
ing up. :
-A cone of 194 inches diameter, and 7 inches high, will
contain 696.8482 cubic inches, and therefore 2914.47 cubic
inches, will be very nearly the cubic content of a heaped:
bufhel of coals, = 1.6866 cubic feet, = .062467 cubic yards,
= 5.866565 cubic links, -4771206 fteres or new wood
mealures of France, = 3'¢ chaldron, = 4 coal pecks, =
1.3553 malt, or Wincheiter buthels ftruck. From the
above calculations, our readers will fee, whet relation the:
coal bufhel bears td other meafures. By the late aéts for
regulating the delivery of coals in and near the metropolis,
every waggon or cart ufed in delivermg of coals, is requir~,
ed to have a lawful bufhel with it, edged with iron, to pre-
vent wear, and fealed;° and ufing others or altering fuch
bufhels, incurs a forfeiture of 50/.
Coat, Cannel, or Candle. See Coax Supra and AMPELITES.
Coat Canal, or Samerfzifbire Coal Canal, commences:
in the Kennet and Avon canal, about 34 miles above the city
of Bath, and proceeds S.W. in two branches, with;
rail-way extenfions to the collieries N.E. of Mendip hiils.;
See Cana.
Coat-fi/h, in Ichthyology. See Gavus Carbonarius.
Coat-ifland, in Geography, a village in the county of Ty-,
rone, Ireland, where the coal works are carried on with to-
lerable fuccefs. In 1800, there were five pits working in-;
duftrioufly, and the works were not much impeded by wa-
ter. There is, however, great want of encorragement 5,
and the canal, which was made at the public expence, to;
the Tyrone collieries calied Blackwater, has been fo much ne=
gleG&ted, that itis choaked up with mud and weeds. Coal-
ifland is about 3 miles W. from Lough?Neagh, and 4 N..
from Dungannon. M‘Evoy’s Account of ‘l'yrone. See
Canau.
Coat Meafures, a term among miners, for the ftrata moft
frequently alternating with beds of coal; thefe often confilt
of argillaceous fhale, and contain numerous ‘enprelligas of
vegetables upon them, of which there was a very curious,
coileétion in the late fir Afhton Lever’s mufeum. See our
article Coat Supra. aie
Coau Meafuring. In the pool or port of London, coals
are meafured out of the fhip into the barges, or lighters, in
a veflel or low tub, called a vat, holding nine bufhels (fee
Var), which is heaped up by the porters who fill, until
the {worn meter, who is always in attendance, is fatisfied
with the jultice of the meafure, and direés the vat to be
emptied over the fhip’s fide into the room of the barge, &e.
below. Out of thefe barges, &c. the coals are again meafured
by a ftandard coal bufhel (fee Coat-du/bel), in the pre-
fence of another {worn meter, called a land meter, and are
emptied out of the bufhel into facks, for delivery to the
buyers; a few years ago, this laft procefs was improved as
follows : 7
‘ : . . ‘
Plate XV. of Mechanics, reprefents a machine for mea-:
furing coals, for which Mefirs. S:meon and Thompfon took
out a patent in the year 1803. The machine, from which
the drawing is taken, was erected in 1803 at the Red-crofs
coal wharf, near London bridge, and has been at work ever
fince with great fuccefs near the water-works. It is ereGted
before the wall of the coal warehoufe, and communicates
The
barges, containing the coals, are brought under the wall of
the warehoufe, which is by the water-fide; they are filled
into buckets, and then drawn vp by a machine into the
houfe, where they are emptied into a wheel-barrow, and
thus conveyed to the flage, A, fiz. 1, in the floor of which
®,
the _
cOAL
the bufhels, B, B, B, are placed; thefe bufhels are of catt-
iron, of the dimeafion diretted by aét of parliament; they
- have moveable bottoms, opening downwards on hinges to-
ward the wall of the houfe, and are fhut by achain, which
is faftened to the bottom, oppofite the hinges, and comes up
through a tube, @; the other end of the chain goes over,
and 1s faltened to a wheel of calt-iron, EH, mounted ona
fhaft, which carries fimilar wheels for the other two bufhels;
jt turns on a pivot in the wall, F, at one end, and on ano-
ther, working in a collar, fupported in the wainfeoting, G,
which forms the other end of the room; the fhaft projects
fome ciltance through this partition, and has a wheel, H,
fixed on it, round whicn a rope, IK, paffes; the end, K,
of this rope has a ring tied to it, which is hooked ona pin
.in the wall, which pin is adjuftable by a ferew, as fhown in
Jig. 2, fo that when the ring is hooked on it, the bottoms
of the bufhels fhall be clofe fhut; dd, fie: 2, is an iron frame
ferewed to the wall, in which a {qnare piece of iron, e, car-
rying the pia (on which the ring is hooked) flides; fis a
{crew turning in the trame, and pafling through the piece e,
which is tapped, fo that by turning the {crew by a winch,
put on the f{quare at its upper end, the pin can be raifed or
‘lowered.
- The chains, D, fig. 1, have each a f{crew-link in them,
by which the bufhels can be all made to fhut clofe at the
fame time.. Beneath each bufhel is a wooden hopper, L,
into which the coals are emptied when the bottom of the
bufhel is opened, and the facks are hung to this hopper to
receive the coals; there are two {mall hooks at the back of
the hopper, to which the mouth of the fack, M, is hook-
ed; / is an iron bar, with a hook at each end, to faften to
the {ack ; two fmall cords are tied to this bar, which pafs
‘over two pulleys, and are both faftened toa ring that is”
hooked on a pin, driven into the hopper, in order to keep
the fack’s mouth clofe up to the hopper.
The operation of the machine is as follows: the coals
are filled into the bufhels by three men, and are heaped up
until they touch the plummet, d, fufpended by a chain from
the ceiling; when the coal-meter, who fits before the defk,
N, fees, through the window, that they are properly filled, he
takes the rope, I, with one hand, and with the other flips
the ring, at the end of K, off the pin, as before defcribed ;
the weight of the coals, refting on the bottoms of the
buthels, then caufes them to open, and the coals fall into
the facks beneath; he holds down the rope, I, until the
bufhels are all emptied, then lets it return, and hooks the
ring on the pin.. The bottoms of the buthels are made to
fhut, by one of the {paces between the arms of each wheel,
.E, being filled with l-ad, which is equal to about half the
weight of the coals; when the facks are filled, they are
placed in a hand-barrow, and are wheeled into the waggon,
the ftage, R, being juft the fame height from the ground,
as the floor of the waggon, which is backed up againtt it.
Coat-Mines. See Coat. By 10 G, Il. c. 32, if any
perfon {hall wilfully and malicioufly fet on fire any mine, pit,
or delph of coal, or cannel-coal, he fhall be guilty of felony,
without benefit of clergy. By 13 G.. II. ¢. 21, if’any
perfon fhall convey watcr to any coal-work, with defign to
deftroy or damage the fame, he fhall pay to the party ag-
grieved treble damazes with colts, recoverable im any court
of record at Weltminfter. By 9 G.I11. c. 29, any per-
fon demolifhing engines, wageon-ways, bridges, &c. be-
longing to coal-mines, or cauling the {ame to be done, fhall
be guilty of felony, and betran{ported for feven years: the
profecution on this aét being within 18 months. By 39
and‘40 G. ILI. c. 77, any perfon, deftroying or damaging
mines ar roads leading to or from the fame, Shall be deemed
guilty of a mifdemeanor, and may be imprifoned, on cone
viction, for any time not exceeding fix months. Colliers
and others, who wilfully and obftinately work in a manner
contrary to their agreements, or who do not fulfil their
contraéts, fhall, on convi€tion, upon the oath of one wit-
nefs, before one juftice, forfeit not exceeding 40s., and upon
non-payment, be committed to the common gaol with-
out bail, for a time not exceeding fix months, or till fuch
penalty and cofts fhall be paid; and the contraét fhall be-
come void. Perfons convicted of fraudently walling or
{tacking coal, &c. fhall, on convistion, by confeflion or
oath of one witnefs, before one jultice, be committed to the
common gaol or houfe of correction, for any time not ex-
ceeding three months. If any perfon fhall fteal coals or im-
plements, not exceeding the value of 55., he fhall, for the
firft offence, forfeit not exceeding 105. over and above the
cofts, or be committed to hard labour for one month ; for
the fecond offence, not exceeding 205., or be committed
to the houfe of correétion for three months 3 and for the
third, or any future offence, not exceeding 405., or be com-
mitted to hard Jabour for 6 months. Ail profecutions un-
der this aé&t fhail commence within nine months after the of-
fence is committed.
Coat, O/d, an inferior fort of charcoal, made in Kent, and
other places, from the roots of trees and underwood, for fale
to the founders, and others, in London, who ufe it for fome
common purpofes, asa fubftitute for charcoal.
Coau-Orton, or Cole-Orion, a retory in the hundred of
Eaft-Gofcote, in Leicefterfhire ; it is fituate very high. yet
its coal-mines have attraéted the rail-way extenfions of canals,
in two different direétions, viz. the Leice/fer and the Ajhby=
de-la-Zouch. See Cana.
Coat, Patent, is applied toa fubftance manufactured
in Millbank Street, Weitminftér, under.a patent, grant-
ed to Mr. Chabannes, (fee Repertory of Arts, XV.
367.); it contifts of the fmaller parts, fifted out of the fea-
coals, ufed for culinary purpofes, before they are fold,
mixed up with a certain proportion of dirt and fweepings
of the ftreets, which mixture is watered and tempered to-
gether, until fit for making into- {mall bricks, of which great
numbers are fet to dry in a large open-boarded fhed. One
or two of thefe coal-bricks, put into a coal-fire, are faid to
continue the intenfity of its heat for along time. See Coate
balls. :
Coau-Port, the name given by the late Mr. Wil-
liam Reynolds, to-a new town which he founded on the
banks of the Severn river, at the entrance of the Shropfhire
canal. See Cana.
Coat, Small, isa fort of charcoal, prepared from the {pray:
and brufh-wood, ftripped off from the branches of coppice-
wood, fometimes bound in bavins for that purpofe, and fome-
times prepared without binding.
The wood they difpofe on a level floor, and, fetting a por-
tion of it on fire, they throw on more and more, as falt as it
kindles ; whence arifes a fudden blaze, till all be burnt that
was near the place. As foonas ail the wood is thrown ony
they caft wateronthe heap from a large dith or {coop ; and
thus keep plying the heap of glowing coals, which ltops the
fury of the fire, while, with arake, they {pread it open, and
turn it with fhovels till no more fire appears. When cold,
the coals are put up into facks for.ufe. Small coal was for-
merly much more in wfe in London than it Is at prefent.
The fiftings of charcoal are called charm by the London
dealers.
Coat-foot. See Soor.
Coat-pirits. Coals diftilled in a retort not only afford a
phlegm and black oil, but a fpirit, or gafeous matter, which is
apt
COA
apt to force the lute and break the glaffes,now known to be hy-
drogen gas: bladders may be filled with this inflammable air,
which may be kept a confiderable time. IE the bladder be
pierced with a pin, and fqueezed near the flame of a candle,
the gas will take fire, and affotd an amufing fpeétacle. See
Phil. Tranf. N. 452. fe&t.5. See Dames and Gas-Lights.
Coat-tar. Sce Tar.
COALBROOK Dates, in Geography, a village of Shrop-
fhire, about 13 miles from Shrewlbury, which exhibits to the
traveller the beneficial effects of manufacture “and commerce,
in its celebrated iron-works, as well as a variety of romantic
feenes. The river Severn winding between high wooded
hills, oppofire to the forge’ot Brofeley, is crofled by a bridge
of onearch, roofeet inlength,and formed entirely of calt-iron,
with {trong {tone abutments, which prefents at once a fbriking
eff-& in land{cape, and a ftupendous {pecimen of the powers
of mechanifm. This was the firft iron bridge erected in
England, and was caft in 1779, under the direGtion of Mr.
Abraham Darby. Belides the communication of thefe
works with the Severn river, they havea branch of the
Shropthire canal extended to conneét with their rail-ways.
See Canat. |
COALESCENCE, the union or growing together of
two bodies before feparate. It is principally applied to
fome bones in the body, which are feparate during infancy,
but afterwards grow together; or to fome morbid union of
parts which fhould naturally be diftinét from each other.
Thus there is a coalefcence of the fides of the vulva, anus,
and nares; of the eye-lids, fingers, toes, and many other
arts. -
COALITION, the re-union, or growing together of
arts before [eparated. Sze ConGLurinarion, &e.
COAMANT, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
the vicinity of the Paropanifiani, according to Mela; the
fame with the Comani of Pliny, who probably inhabited the
conntry called by Xenophon Comania.
COAMINGS, in Ship Building, are thofe planks, or that
frame, forming a border round the hatches, which raife them
up higher than the reft of the deck. Loop holes for muf-
kets to fhoot out at, are often made in the coamings, in
order to clear the deck of the enemy when the thip is
. boarded.
COANCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, placed
by Ptolemy on this fide of the Ganges.
COANE, among the Greeks, a name given to a peculiar
{pecies of tutia or tutty, which was always found in a tubu-
Jar form. It has its name from xa, a word ufed to exprefs
a fort of cylindric tube, into which the melted brafs was re-
ceived from the furnace, and in which it was fuffersd to cool.
In cooling, it always depofited a fort of recrement on the fides
of the veffel or tube; and this was the tutty called coane.
COANEPILLI, in Botany, Hernand. See Passrruora
mormalis.
COANGO, in Geography, a viver of Africa, in the king-
dom of Congo, called Zaire, which fee.
COANZA, a large, deep, and rapid river of Africa,
which rifes in the unknown interior parts towards the eaft ;
and, after recciving many rivers in its courfe, and bounding
the kingdom of Angola on the fouth, empties itfelfinto the
Atlantic, about 9? 20’ S. lat. and about 12 leagues S. of
St. Paulo Loando, the capital of Angola. It is navigable
about 150 miles upwards, quite to Cambamba (which fee) ;
and abounds with variety of fifh, forms feveral iflands, and
has fome cataracts, one of which, in particular, bears its
name. Its mouth, between the capes Palmerino and Lego,
is above a league wide; and its fall into the ocean is fo rapid,
that the fea is rendered muddy 2 or 3 leaguegsbelow it. Its
3
CO.
mouth is not eafily perceived from the open fea, on account
of an ifland quite covered with high trees, which lies juft be-
foreit. About 15 or 16 leagues above, it divides its waters
into two ttreams, of which the fouthern is the deepeft, and
mot frequented. The two chief iflands formed by this
river, are Maffander and Motchiama, which fee. fas
COAPAIBA, in Botany, Maregr. Pil.
CopaiFera. ,
COARA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Syria, in the
province called Chalcidene, which fee. t
COARL, in Geography, a river of South America, which
runs into the river of the Amazons, in Terra Firma.
COAS, in Ancient Geography, a-river of India, fo called
by Ptolemy, but by others called Choecs. See CopHenes,
and Cow-river.
COASINA, a town of the French department of Lia
mone, on the ifland of Corfica, ard chief place of a canton
in the dillri& of Sartene; 5 miles N. of Cervione. The
canton contains 2631 inhabitants.
COASSE, in Zoology. See Viverna Vulpecula.
COAST, in Geography, a {ea-thore, or the country, ad-
joing tothe edge of the fea. Buffon diftributes the coats
of the fea into three kinds; :viz. 1. High coatts,; com-
pofed of hard rocks, commonly perpendicular, and of a con-
fiderable elevation, riting fometimes to the height of 700 or
Soo feet. 2. Low coatts, of which fome are almoft level with
the furface of the water; and others have a finall elevation
and are often bordered with rocks nearly ona level with the
water, which give rife to breakers, and render the approach
of fhips very dangerous. 3. Downs, or coafts formed by
fand, either accumulated by the fea, or brought down and
depolited by rivers; thefe downs form hiils of greater or
lels elevation, accordmg to cireumftances. The depth of
the water along the coaft is general y proportional to their
elevation; fo that a high coalt indicates a deep-water, and,
or low coaits, th’ water is commonly fhallow. See Sra.
Coast, Gold, fometimes called Guinea Proper; a pro-
vince of Guinea on the coaft of Africa, fo called fram the
abundance of gold which it produces, is bounded by Ni-
gritia or Nogroland on the north; by the Slave coaft onthe
eat; by the Ocean on the fouth; and by rhe Tooth: or
Ivory ‘coaft on the weit. Lt commences at the river Anko-
bar, or Cape -<\pollonia, and extends to the Rio Volta,
comprehending from 100 to 120 leagnes from welt to eaft.
The Gold coalt, itretching along the fea, contains a va-
riety of different kingdoms and ftatcs, viz. Adomir, called
likewife Saku and Avira; Axim, Ankebar, Adom, like-
wife called Little Inkeffan, or Warthes;. Jabi or Jabs;
Commendo or Gusfio; Fetu; Sabu; Fantin; cron, or
Akron; Agonna, or Anguirras; Amra, or Aquamboes
Labbade; and Ningo,or Lambi. Tach of thefe kingdoms
or provinces has one, ‘two, or more tuwns of villages on the
fea coait, between, orunder the European fortsand fertlemehts.
Some of them are monarchies, having their own proper
kings, and others are republies, governed by maziltrates,
who are fubje& to the laws and periodical changes. The
gold of this country is generally found in three differcnt
kinds of places; the firft and bet in vailies, fituated be-
tween mountains; the fecond at and about rivers and falls
of water; and the third at the mouth of rivers and rivalets
on the fea coalt, which laft the negroowomen, after a fall of
rain, collet, by wafhing the earth that contains it, in bowls,
and thus feparating the one frém the other. The negroes
praétife various methods for fophifticating the gold, which
they obtain. One is the calting of it into fetiches, mixed
with half or a third part of fiver and copper. (Sce Fs-
ricue.) Another method of adulteration is that of calting
pieces
Rui. uBike
COAST.
pieces of gald fo artfully, that the external cruft, about the
~ twelfth of an inch thick, fhall be pure, while the infide con-
fits wholly of copper, or of iron. The third method by
winch they attempt to deceive the Europeans, is by means
of a powder of coral or of copper filings, tinged fo exaGly
like gold, that only feales can dete€&t the counterfeit.
The natives of the Gold coaft are in general tall, ftraight,
‘and well-proportioned, with oval faces, {parkling eyes, re-
gular and white teeth, thick eye-brows, and {mall ears;
mouths moderately large, and lips tmged with a better co-
lour, and thinner than thofe of the negroes of Angola.
With regard to their mental! faculties they have a quick ap-
prehenfion and retentive memory, and a furprizing degree
of felf poffcflion upon the moft fudden and alarming occa-
fions. As to their difpolition and chara¢ter, they are, in
‘general, extremely indolent in the exercife of the talents
with which mature has endowed them; they are crafty,
fraudulent, and diffembling ; covetous and intemperate.
When they obtain a victory over their enemies,
they return home dancing and finging; and, if they are
‘defeated, they do the fame round the graves of their friends
and fellow-foldiers ; fo that a ftranger cannot diltinguifh a
viGtory’ from a defeat, except that after the latter they
fhave their heads) The women are handfomer than the
men, ftraight, flender, and well-limbed; with high chetts,
{mall mouths, and -eycs fpirited and lively. They are
cheerful and loquacious ; gay in their difpofition, and loofe
in their principles as to gallantry, but temperate in their
diet. Both the men and women, when neceflity furmounts
their natural indolence, are inzenious, diligent, and labor-
ious ; and when they are excited by avarice or indigence,
they apply themfelves with great affiduity to agriculture and
fifhing. Upon the whole, their natural talents are good,
but their paflions are ftrong, theirignorance great, and they
abandon themfelves to the calls of nature without dread of
fhame, that fhield of decorum, decency, and virtue. ‘Their
-drefsis various, depending upon fancy and circumitances; fome
wear long hair, curled, plaited, or tied upon the crown of tke
head in the form of arofe, which they moilten with oil, and
tinge with different colours, and others wear it fhort, for con-
‘veniency ; or loofe, either for ornament or from negligence.
Their hair, however, is generally adorned with gold feti-
ches; a fort of collar, called ‘* conte de terra,’’ four times
the value of gold; or with a blue coral, which they call
** accori,”” efteemed of equal value with the precious metal.
Their arms, legs,andlikewife wailts,are fet off with gold, conte
de terra, andaccori. Their ufual drefs is a petticoat of velvet,
filk, cloth, or fome ituff; and thofe who pretend to a taite
fuperior to the vulgar, make their ‘ paans”? of a mixture
of 50 different kinds of cloth. This paan they plait fo art-
fully that it fits neat round the middle, hanging half way
down the legs; round their necks they wear ttrings of gold
and coral, amounting fometimes to 100/. in value; and b
thefe worth among them is eftimated, fo that .thofe who
want them are excluded the company of thofe who poffefs
them. The common people, as fifhermen, Xc. are very
poorly attired, with a yard or two of mean ttuif formed into
a kind of petticoat, or with a girdle drawn between their
legs; to which they frequently add a cap made of ruthes,
or when they can obtain it by ftealth or intereft, a failor’s
old hat, which they wearin hot as well as cold-weather.
The rage of drefs is chiefly prevalent among the women, fo
that the ladies are loaded with gold, coral, and ivory trink-
ets. In the manners of all the negroes, both male and
female, there is a neatnefs peculiar to warm climates, and in-
deed neceffary in {uch climates, which is a praétice of wafh-
ing their bodies twice every day, either in falt or frefh water,
Vou. VILL
With this view they fix their habitations either on the fea-
coaft or on the banks of rivers; and in defe& of thefe, they
make tanks or baths; habit rendering cleanlinefs no lefs ef.
fential to them than faod. ‘They teach their children to
fwim when very young: and thus they become expert
divers, and are able to continue for a long time under wafer.
So fond are they of this element, that half their time 1s
{pent in it, and they may not improperly be denominated am-
phibious.
Befides the natural inhabitants of the Gold coaft, there
is a great number of Mulattoes, a mixed progeny, arifing
from the commerce of Europeans with the black womer
This {purious race, it is faid, form gangs of thieves and
robbers, voidof decency, honour, honelly, or principle, ta
their dealings with each other, with the negroes or Eu-
ropeans. They call themfelves Chriftians, but in reality
are the groffeft idolaters; and their women very generally
proftitute themfelves, publicly to Europeans, and privately to
the negroes.
The towns and villages of the Gold coaft confit of a
multitude of little huts or cabins, difperfed in groups, with-
out order or defign, and communicating with each other by
narrow crooked roads, which terminate in the centre of the
town or market-place. The farther you remove from the
{ea-coalt the more civilized do the natives appear, at Jeaft,
as to their building and mode of living. On the coaft the
towns and villages are fituated in dry, barren, fandy lands,
or upon rocks and precipices ; but, in the interior parts,
they occupy the moit delicious fpots that can be chofen
they are better built, kept in a neater and cleaner flate, ge-
nerally paved and better peopled.
The diet of the negroes on the Gold coaft is neither delicate
nor expenfive ; confriting commonly of a pot of millet boiled
to the confiftence of bread, yams, and potatoes, over which
they pour palm-oil ; and the dith is garnifhed with herbs and
putrid ith. On holidays they feaft upon beef, mutton, and
fowls. The difh called “* malaguet,”” which is ufed by peo-
ple of a fuperior rank, coniitts of fifh, corn, dough, palm-oit,
and herbs, boiled in water and feafoned with falt and pepper.
The negroes, though fomewhat temperate in eating, indulge
to a great degree in drinking. The morning is ufhered ia.
with brandy, and the evening concludes with palm-wine,
mirth, riot, and tobacco, of which they are extravagantly
fond.
In their marriages they have no ceremonies, nor have they
any previous courtfhip, or any difputes about marriage-fet-
tlements. Polygamy is allowed among them without any
reftrition befides what refults from humane or worldly cir-
cumftances ; however, the ufua! number ot wives is from two
to ten, and feldom exceeds twenty. ‘The women conftitute
the labouring part of the people, and are employed in culti-
vating the ground, and providing fubtittence for the hufband,
who {pends his time idly in goffipprng, drinking, and
fmoaking. On the coaft, however, the cafe is different ;
for in many towns and villages the men toil and labour for
the females. The rich have two wives, exempt from fervile
employment, to whom the management ef the houfe is en-
trufted, and who exercife a de’egated authority over all the
other women. Of the honour of thefe the hufband is par-
ticularly jealous ; but as to the reft he is unconcerned, pro-
vided that he can profit by their incontinence ; for among
the negroes it is not uncommon for the bufbands to derive
fupport from the voluntary proftitution of their wives; and
as the wealth of the negroes confilts chiefly in the number of
their family, they direct their chief attention to the increafe
of their children ; accordingly great refpect is paid to a
woman with child; and fhe is delivered without much pain
4K or
COAST.
or anxiety, _ Befides their lawful wives, the negroes often
keep concubines. who are frequently preferred, and more ten-
derly treated than thofe to whom they are actual'y married ;
but their children are illegitimate, and, if begotten upon a
Slave, are retained as fuch by the heir of the father’s fortune,
unlefs he previoufly manumits them with the ufual cere-
monies ; in which cafe they are free after his death. and
enjoy every right of free-born perfons. Legitimate children
never inherit the fortune of parents in any kingdom on the
Gold coat, exceptat Acra, Theelde‘t fon ct a king or chief-
rt facceeds his father in his employment ; but, befides his
veld and fabre, he has no claim on any other part of his
fortune. Among the negroes, matters are accountable for
their flaves, and are oblized to repair the injury they com-
mit by theft, robbery, adultery, or murder. “They are hike-
wife refponfible for their fons, nephews, and other relations ;
and unlefs the impofed fine be paid, the delinquent mutt fuf-
fer corporal punifhment, and even death, if the crime be of
a heinous nature. He who debauches the wife of another
man in the interior countries, is not only rvined himfelf; but
entails deltruction on all thofe who are conne@ted with him by
blood. If the delinquent bea flave, the punifhment Is a crucl
death, belides a fine impofed upon the mafter. Ifa woman
be caught in adultery, her life is forfeited, unlefs it be re-
deemed, at a great expence, by her relations; and the wo-
man who indulges her paffion for a {lave dies, without pofli-
bility of redemption. The flave alfo perifhes with her, and
her relations are obliged to pay a confiderable fum of money
to the injured hufband. In this cafe every confiderable negro
is his own judge. The woman, on the other hand, has no
redrefs, if the hufband fhould prove unfaithful. On the fea-
coaft all the women marry yqung; and many families ally
themfelves by marriage as foon as the children are born.
Chattity, however, is held in no hizh eftimation; for thofe
who violate it before marriage forfeit no refpe@ either from
their hufbands or the world ; nay, they are efteemed the
better qualified to enter into matrimony, and are confequent-
ly preferred to abfolute veftals. In the countries of Eguira,
Axim, Ancobar, Anta, and Adom, there are certain females
who never marry, but are dedicated by profefiion to the public
ufe, and formally initiated in their vocation. The negroes,
though in various re{pe€ts unpolifhed, are by no means defi-
ciext in a certain exterior politenefs in all their mutual inter-
courfe. When they firlt meet in the morning, they clafp
each other in their arms, and pray that the day may be prof-
perous.. Upon an accidental meeting, after they had before
feen each other, and the ufual compliments had p2ffed, the
negroes on the coaft pull off the hat or cap; but the interior
negroes do not efteem uncovering the head as any token of re-
fpect. At Elmina, when a ftranger from another country is
introduced, after the firft compliments, the wife, or female
flaves, bring water, greafe, or ointment, to wafh and anoint
him; which office they perform with their own hands.
‘The vilits of kings and perfons of fuperior rauk, are attended
with feveral peculiar and extraordinary ceremonies, which it
is needicfs to recite,
Few families on the coaft keep any confiderable number of
domettic flaves ; nordo they make any great parade of them
at their feltivals or vifits. The exclufive right of felling
flaves is velted in the rich, not fo much by law as from the
neceffities of the meaner rank, which render them unequal to
the purchafe and maintenance. ‘Thofe who are employed in
this capacity in almoft all the maritime parts, confift of fuch
as have bartered their freedom tothe rich for fuftenance, and
are marked by them with certain figns, that atteit them to be
their property. If after thisany attempt fhould be made to
run away, they lofe the left ear for the firft trefpafs, the right
ear for the next, and the third fault is punifhed either by
death, or felling them as flaves to Europeans. Thofe who
are born flaves are treated with a degree cf tendernefs on the
coaft which is uncommon in the inland countries. They are
chiefly employed in fifhing, agriculture, and thofe arts that.
are neceflary for the {upport of their mafters and them-
felves. :
Among the negroes, there is a variety cf mechanical arts,
in which they are confiderable proticients ; fuch as making
wooden and earthen veflels and plates, chair-matling, copper
ointment-boxes, bracelets, necklaces, rings, and ear-rings of
gold, filver, or ivory. Their chief excellence confifts in the
manufaéture of all forts of weapons and initruments of war,”
and all kinds of {mith’s work ; their tools, however, are very
rude and fimp!e. They alfo manufacture gold and filver
hat-bands of a very fine thread and exquifite workmanfhip.
In building canoes of various fizes, and ufed for trading from
one port to another, loading and unloading fhips, and fifhing
on the coait, they are very ingenious ; as well asin the ufe of
them. Their agriculture is chiefly performed in the rainy
{eafon ; the ground being at other times too hard for tillage.
At feed-time they choofe a convenient fpot of ground, which
is eafily obtained with the corfent of the king, who claims
a nominal jurifdiction ; and in three days after it is fown the
whole field is covered with a beautiful verdure, and the crop
is ready for reaping in lefs than three months. For maize
they fele&t an elevated ground ; and for rice and millet, low
marfhy lands.
matter to difpofe of all their grain, that they have eftablifhed
The natives of the coaft find it fo eafy a.
.
corn-markets in every village, where the current money is -
gold duit, cowries, and bujis. The price of grain is rated
by police officers of the king’s appointment; and to thefe
markets the men and women refort early in the morning
to buy or fell, or to exchange one fort of grain or fruits
for another. Such are the induitry and ftrength of
the negro women that they frequently travel from the
interior country fix miles to market, under heavy loads,
and fell their fruits or grain at the fea-port markets for
European commodities, looking-glaffzs, bracelets, ear-rings,
giafs-beads, and other female trinkets, fo paffionately fond
are they of drefs and finery. The markets are exempted
from all forts of duties and impofts. At mid-day, the wine
merchants bring their pots of palm-wine to market ; and
when the bulineis of the day 1s finithed, multitudes of men
and womenare to be met on all the roads, finging and dancing
with an enviable cheerfulnefs, and without the {malleft re-
mainiig veltige of the care and fatigue of the day. Befides
thefe markets, they have alfo fairs, which regularly oceur
twice a~year, whither the natives refort to purchafe Euro-
pean wares, which they tranfmit to the inland countries. On
thefe occafions the women aflemble in the evening to dance,
fing, and make merry for an hour before they go to bed.
Vhey appear in their beft habits, and the women in parti-
cular rival each other with all the emulation and jea-
louly of drefs confpicuous among European females. ‘Their
dance is a kind of regular confufion, which, with the appear-
ance of diforder, preferves a certain method adjufted to the
mufic, which is compofed of horns, trumpets, flutes, and
other inftruments. ‘The women wear on their legs a number
of {mall bells, which jingle as they move in their dance ; and
the men hold in their hands a kind of fan, made of horfe-
tail, or the extremity of an clephant’s rump, with which
they {trike each other’s fhoulders as they pafs. The dances
performed in honour of the fetiche are more grave and fo-
lemn, bearing about them an air of religious devotion. At
Abramboe, they have dances for eight succeeding days, in
honour of the king, which they call the dancing feafon mg
thele
-
CPOr A’ ST,
thefe there ia a refort of a largé eoncourfe of negroes of
both fexess and the whale is conduéted ‘with extraordinary
pomp. Ail the diverfions among the negroes confilt of thefe
dances, mufic, and mock-combats, which latter often termi-
Nate tragically, Among other cultoms and manners that
diftinguifh the negroes, we cannot forbear mentioning one
excellent inititution, in confequence of which a common beg-
gar is not to be feen on the coalt. When a negro is unable
to fubiit by labour, he binds himfelf to a matter, who is
obliged to fupply him with all nece‘laries. In return he en-
gages to defend his mafter with all his power, to. watch his
aifairs, and, in feed and harvelt time, to labour as a hufband-
man, ‘hus every man becomes ufefully employed, and the
infrm and aged are taken care of by their friends.
Among the negroes, the fear of death isa very general
and diftrefling paflion ; and, accordingly, for prolonging life,
they recur firlt to medicines and natural remedies ; and ‘when
their cafe is: deemed peculiarly dangerous, they pee recourfe
to their fuperttitious religious worfhip, as the moft eficétual
antidote. The prieft of courfe diverts the patient by liberal
offerings to appeafe the fetiche ; nor does he on this occafion
neglect his own interelt. If the difeafed perfon recover, the
prieft is fure of ample recompence. The chief medicines
~ufed by the negroes are lime juice, malaguet, or cardamoms,
the roots, branches, leaves, bark, and gums of trees, and
about 30 different kinds of green*herbs.
When ail the arts of tne pricit and door have proved
ineffeGtual, diligent inguiries are inftituted coficerning the
death of the patient. Having afcertained that it has not
been owing to poifon or incantation, his relations are ex-
amined, whether he has been attended with due care, and the
neceflary offerings have been made to the fetiche and prieft.
Should no defect in thefe particulars appear, they fatisfy
themfelves with attributing his death to his negleé of religious
duties, and the performance of thofe rites which can alone pro-
long life. The prieft proceeds to interrogate the deceafed, and
then returns to the affembly of his friends and kindred with
fuch an anfwer as bett fuits his intereft ; and they are then
fatisicd. As foonas the patient has breathed his laft, his
relations uaite in dreadful how.ings and lamentations and
_ then preparations are made, by a variety of ceremonies, in
which the fetiche and_prie{t have an intereft, for his funeral.
Prefents are madz in order to obtain repofe for his foul, and
to fecure his fate paffageinto the other world. In his coffin
feveral articles of value are depofited, coftly in proportion to
_ his wealth ; and when his affenibled relations or friends have
continued for two or three days to drink brandy and palm
wine, and other ceremonies are finifhed, the corpfe is carried
to the grave, preceded by a number of young men, who
continually difcharge volkies of arms, till the deceafed 1s laid
inthe ground, Men and women, in great crowds, follow,
fome dancing, fome finzing, and others crying or laughing.
When the corpfe is covered, and the grave filled, every one
departs where he pleafes.. But the greater number ulually
adjourn to the houfe of the deceafed, there to prolong their
mirth “and fealting. When a king, or any eminently dif-
tingutfhed eee dies, tus body 1s generally kept a year
above ground; and, in order to preferve it from putrefac-
tion, it islaid over a gentle fire, upon a wooden utenfil, re-
fembling a gridiron, to dry by flow degrees. Others inter
their dead privately in their own honfes. At the funeral ofa
king, feveral of his flaves are facrificed in order to attend him
to the other world; and efpecially his favourite wife. But the
moft abominable rite is the praélice of felling thofe who,
through. age and infirmity, have been rendered incapable of
labour, to become vidiims in thefe horrible folemnities: The
negrocs ufually build a little hut, or planta {mall garden of
rice or maize upon the grave, inta which they throw all the
effets of the decéafed, of the ieaft value to his heirs. Some-
times an oration “is pronounced at the funeral of a negro,
‘which fets forth, at .che grave, the virtues of the deceated.
In fome countries they do not bury flaves, but throw, their
bodies into the fields, as a prey to bealts anal birds ; 1n other
countries they cover them with earth, without any attendant
ceremony.
As to the religion of the Gold ccaft, it is diver-
fified among a a number of fe&ts, proportioned to the number
of uations, or rather famili ies, on the coalt, All the negroes,
however, profefs to agree in their belief of one true God, the
creator of the world ; but his omnipotence is the only attri-
bute of which they baie any ciltins’t idea. Some have faid,
that they conceive of the Deity as partial to the Kuropeans,
and ‘taking pleafure in: afl Ging them with.a thoufand eviis.
Dapper fays, that the negroes facrifice to the devil; but
Bolman afferts, that their devotion is wholly paid to the
prieit, the mediator between them and their divinitivs. No-
thing religious is undertaken without the prieft or fetichere,
who is confulted onavariety of the mot interefting occafions.
The praétice of exorcifm is prevalent among them. All
promifes of importance, and obligatory oaths, are confirmed
by drinking what is called an ‘* obligatory draught ;” this
is accompanied with an imprecation, that the fetiche may
deltroy them, if they are unkaientul but oaths of this nature
have been fo often violated by nations and individuals, that
they are fallen into difrepute. Their peeks religious ce-
remonies, om occafion of droughts, aeods , barren and un-
healthy feafons, &c. are performed by ates to their idols
in groves, which are held pecul‘arly facred; and whenever
the chiefs of a town or nation affemble, the prielts are con-
fulred as to the meafures that are molt likely to fefpend or
avert public calamities, and their decrees are folemnly pub-
lifhed by acrier- Every negro has his peculiar and appro-
priate fetiche, which he worlhips on the day of the week
when he happened to be born. See Fericue.
The notions which the negroes entertain of a future ftate,
are very various. Some maintain, that immediately upon
the death of any perfon, he is removed into another world,
where he aflumes the fame charaéter in which he lived on
earth, and fupports himfelf by the offerings and facrifices
his friends make after his departure. Bofman affirms, that
the greater number of negroes have no idea-of future re-
wards and punifhments, annexed to the good or evil aétions
of this life. Some few, however, ‘he allows to have fome
grofs notions of future judgments, which conliit in being
wafted away to a famous river, fituated in a diftant inland
country, called * Boimanque.’ > Here their god interro-
gates them conceruing the life they have lcd, wie ‘ther they
have religioufly kept the holy days dedicated to the fetich =
ira from all meats, and inviolab rly kept their oath ?
thofe who can anfwer in the affirma alive, are conveyed over
the river to'a land abounding in every kind of luxury and
felicity. Thofe who have voit nded in’ any of the above-
mentioned particulars, held of principal importance, are
plunged by the god into the river, and buried in eternal ob-
livion. Others believein a kind of metempfycholis, or tranf-
migration 5 fuppofing that they fhall be tranfported to the
land of white men, affume that complexi: m, aud be endowed
with fimiar fouls; but this doctrine is only maintained by
thofe who think highly of the inreileétual faculties of the
white men. “The inland negroes tell the maritime negroes,
that, 1 ina diflant interior country, there lives a great Peiclions,
in a {plendid houfe, who tes -s extraordinary powers, and
exercifes dominion over the elements of nature, and foretels
‘the events of futurity. All perfons in his vicinity are ex-
4K2 amined
CeO Ander,
amined before him after death, and if the refult be unfatif-
factory, he kilis them a fecond time; but if their conduct
appears to have been pious and exemplary, he farnifhes them
with a pafiport to a ftate of true and perfe& felicity. Hence
proceeds the deep veneration in which they hold this priclt,
fo that they efteem him little inferior to. a god. The ne-
groes, it is faid by fome, are not ignorant of the devil, whom
they regard as a malicious, deceitful being, refembling a
white man; but Bofman denies that they pray or facrifice
to him, as moft other authors have affirmed. Iultead -of
paying any worthip to him, the devil is exorciied out of all
their towns at ftated feltivals, and with abundance of cere-
mony. The negroes firmly believe the reality of ghotts,
Spirits, and apparitions ; and that they walk up and down
the earth, terrifymg and beating people, efpecially the un-
believers. Some have faid, that the negroes ufe circumci-
fion, prayers, and ablutions, and feem to have an indiltnA
idea of futurity. They believe that good men fhall, after
death, enjoy happivefs, and bad men be doomed to mifery ;
that the former {hall live with fine women, upon luxurious
diet, and the latter ftroll, as vagrants, round the earth, al-
ways in motion, and alwaysunhappy. ‘The negroes, in ge-
reral, have no folemn feltivals, befides one at the conclufion
of their harvelt, which they call a fair, and that al-
ready mentioned for exorcifing the devil; nor have they
any ditinG@tion cr divifion of time, except what they have
been taught by Europeans. Monthsand weeks are altoge-
ther unknown to them; their method of reckoning being by
the fhining of the moon, whether it be in the change or in
the quarters. Hence they determine their feafons for fowing
the different kinds of grain. It 1s probable, however, that
the divifion of time into weeks and days cannot be of very
late date, as all have refpeétively their peculiar names, which
are perfectly facniliar even to children. Their fabbath falls on
the Tucfday, except at Anté, where it happens on Friday ;
and it diffe.s from other days in no particular, but that they
abftain from fith; all other kinds of food and employments
being permitted without any reftraint. The negroes of the
interior countries divide trme into fortunate and unfortunate
days; in fome countries the great unfortunate days aré 195
and the Iefler, which d:ffer from the other, 7. Between
thefe intervene 7 unfortunate days, which are a fort of va-
cation from all occupations and bodily labour. In fome
countries the lucky days are particularly obferved, in others
the unlucky ones are no lefs religionfly kept ; but the ma-
ritime negroes difregard all diftinétions, and efteem one day
the fame with the other.
The government cf the NEZTOES 15, in general, licentious
and irregular: and its forms are divided into five diftin@
kinds. ‘Ihe firlt is that of pure monarchy, where the king
is defpotic; the fecond is a kind of arilloeracy, the chief
power being lodged in the hands of the cabocerots or
chiefs; the third is velted with thofe who have acquired
weight and influence from their great wealth, which body
fome have reprefentedas the nobility ; the fourth isan ab-
folute democracy, where all are equal with refpect to dig-
nity and power, whatever may be their wealth 5 and the
fifth clafs of p:rfons, rather than government, conlilts of
thofe flives, who have been fold by their parents, thofe
who were born flaves, or thofe whofe poverty has reduced
them to this unhappy condition. On the Gold coatt the
crown defcends from father to fon by right of inheritance,
and # default of heirs male, it paffes to the neareft of blood ;
although fometimes a man’s wealth in gold and flaves pro-
cures him this honour, in prejudice to the lawful heir, The
royal government is. fupported rather by force than by au-
thority ; the refpect of the people being proportioned to the
number of king’s flaves and the greatnels of his wealth, with-
out which fovereigns find but little refpe& and fubmiffion
from their fubjeéts, and are obliged to pay them for the
{mallet fervices, But when their kings are rich and power-
ful, they are elevated by the fervile homage of the people
above all law and control. Negroe fovercigns are cbliged’
to exercife great liberality, and the firft entertainmerts they
give colts a year’s revenue. ci negroe king is-always difpot-
ed to aid a neighbouring fovereign with his troops, beeaufe
the greater part of the fubfidy goes into his own pockets.
There is nothing peculiar in the education of princes, anditdif-
fers little from that of the poorett fubje&s ;: fo that it is com-
mon to fee a man taken from the plough-tail to wield a icep-
tre; and he who was yelterday driving a flock of fheep,
fhall to-day. be at the head of an army. The jndges, among”
the negroes, or the fupreme officers of the courts of juftice,
are chofen from the moft confiderable perfons in refpe& to”
wealth and influence. To thefe belongs the decifion of all
caufes, civil and criminal ;_ and‘from their decifion an appeal’
lies to the king. War is declared by the negroes ather
from views of revenge, ambition, or plunder, or as auxiliaries
to fome injured neighbouring itate, or, which is moft com-'
mon,. for afubfidy. Many wars-are undertaken for the re-'
covery of private debts. When war, from whatever caule it
originates, is projected in the king’s council, a general aflem-
bly of the nobility is fummoned, and the matter is deliberately
debated. An army is inftantly raifed, and no time is loft in
making an incurfion into the enemy’s country, and pro-
claiming war, which is carried:op at a fmall expence. In
their engagements, the negroes obferve no order o¢ difcipline.
Their principal arms are mufkets or carabines; befides’
which, they have a kind of {words fhaped like chopping-
knives; a fort of dart ca!led aflagay ;.and a fhield made of twigs
and ofiers, covered with leather, and fometimes plated on’
the infide with copper, to ward off the affagays, as well as
the blows of the {word.. Some few negroes have cannon,’
but their engineers are fo ignorant, that their artillery is of
no importance. When the negroes are exhaulted with war,
which between two defpotic fovereigns, who hold their fub-’
jects in abject flavery, 1s generally tedious and bleody, they”
begin to think of terms of accommodation, and of fettling
a place of negotiation. This is ufualiy a large plain, on the
frontiers of the two contending kingdoms ; to this both fo-
vereigns march in full armour, accompanied by a crowd of
feticheres, the emblems and mediators of p<ace. The priefts
of both nations engage by oath to terminate all hoftilities,
to live in perfe& friend{hip, and to give pledges of their
faith ; but the prifoners on either fide are confidered as the’
abfolute property of the fovereign who pofleffes them. As
foon as thefe ratifications are exchanged, a loud~peal of
warlike inftruments publifhes the general tidings; arms’
are thrown down on both fides; and the day is clofed with
feltivity.
As the Gold coaft is fituated nearthe 5th degree of north
latitude, the heat of the climate may be fuppofed to be ex-'
treme ; and yet it is more healthy than many voyagers have
reprefented it. During the interval from O&ober to March,
the air is very hot, a the other months are tolerable; and
through the whole year the extreme heat of the day is mo-
derated by the refrefking and cool fea and land breezes of
the evening and morning. It bas been obferved, that on
account of the high mountains that abound on the Gold
coalt, and the deep vallies that lie between them, the cli-
mate is rendered infalubrious by a thick fog, which prevails
particularly in marfhy grounds and near rivers. From
March to O&ober, and in the months of July and Auguft,
fogs are very prevalent ; aad added to the beaftly uncleanli-
neis of the negroes themfelves, they contribute to render _
the climate unhealthy, and particularly noxious to ftrangers,
The
GO A 5-F:
The negroes, however, notwithitanding all the difadvantages
of their climate and manuers, enjoy good health and live to
old age.
Bofman divides the feafons on the Gold coa{t into fummer
and winter: the latter admitting of three fubdivifions, we.
two rainy, two foggy and hazy, and two windy months ;
but the changes are fo frequent and irregular, that we can-
not lay great ftrefs on fuch a ditribution, This coalt,
however, is fubjeét to heavy rains and boilterous winds; but
it derives great benefit from the land and fea breezes.
On this coaft the true trade-winds are wetterly, keeping
a tract with the fhore, where it {tretches eaftward.
Among the tame animals of the Gold coalt, the firft in
rank, on account of their utility, are horned cattle, fuch as
bulls, cows, fheep, and goats, with which Dinkira, Affi-
ento, Axim, and all the inland countries abound, though
only a few black cattle are brought to the coaft. It has
been obferved by feveral writers, that all the animals are fpe-
cifically lighter on this coaft, than in any other part of the
globe, a circumftance which is fuppofed to proceed from
the nature of their aliment, that, initead of firm and folid,
produces only a fpongy, loofe, and tough ficth. The fheep
are much f{maller than thofe of Europe, and covered with
hair inflead of wool; nor does their flefh at all refemble
mutton in its tafte, being dry, lean, and hard. Goats are
innumerable, but they are of a very {mall fize. Their fleth,
however, is {weet, fat, and delicate. ‘The horfes produced
on the Gold coaft are of 2 {mall fize; they are fearce in the
maritime kingdoms, but plentiful in the interior countries.
The coulitry likewife produces a few afles, taller and hand-
fomer than the horfes, and generally preferred for riding.
Hogs abound ; but their flefh islean and hard. Of all ani-
mal food, dog’s flefh is moft valued among the negroes.
The dogs of this country, which neither bite nor bark, and
which are of a!l colours, are bred with great care, and
driven to market like flocks of fheep, where they fetch a
high price. A cat is much elteemed among the negroes,
fom- of whom eat its ficfh.
Among the wild quadrupeds of this ccaft, we may reckon
the elephant, which is of fomewhat a {maller fize than that
of the Eat Indies, and which the negroes diftinguifh into
three kinds, viz. the river, the wood, and the mountain
elephant ; tigers, which are very numerous in almolt every
part of the coaft ; the buffaloe, which is here very fearce;
the jackall ; a Species of wild boar, lefs fierce than that of
northern and cold countries, whofe ficth is tender, fat, and
Gelicious; deer of all kinds and fizes; hares, rabbits, and foxes,
anda few porcupines. On the Gold coaft is found a quadruped
which the negroes call “ potto,”’ the fluggard; the ** berbe,”
or wine-bibber, fo called from its fonanefs for palm-wine ;
the ‘“‘kokebo”? of the negroes; and their ‘arampo,”’ or
man-eater, fo called becaufe it digs up graves, and prefers
human flefh to all others; and rats and mice, which are the
moft numerous and deftrudtive quadrupeds on the Gold coatt.
Lizards, aligators, and cameleons, are alfo found in this
country.
The Gold coaft affords alfo a great variety of birds ; its
pheafants are peculiarly beautiful, and it has various others
of the feathered tribe, which our limits will not allow us to
enumerate. Its reptiles and infeéts are alfo very numerous,
and of great variety. The coaft, as well as the lakes and
rivers, furnifh great abundance of various kinds of fifh.
Among the trees, fhrubs, &c. we may enumerate the
palm, which furnifhes the negroes with wine and oil; the
cocoa-tree ; {weet and four oranges, and lime trees ; the pa-
pay-tree; the banana-tree; and vines. In a word, the
Gold coaft affords fruit-trees of all forts, and wood far all
purpofes.
As to the grain of the coalt, it confifts of the great and
{mali milhio, fuppofed to be the Turkith wheat, which af-
fords two crops in the year; and rice, which is yielded in
great abundance. Its other vegetables are yams, potatoes,
and beans, fome of which are peculiar to the cotntry. It
furnifhes alfo the Guinea pepper, Spanifh pepper or pimento,
cardamoms, and a number of fruits, and grains, common
to almo# all countries.
Tobacco is alfo preduced in great plenty on the Gold
coaft, to the ufe of which the negroes are much addicted.
We fhall clofe this detail with obferving, that the Gold
coatt furnifhes a vatt quantity of falt.
Of the inland country, little more is known, than that it con-
filts of three extenfive kingdoms, called Affiantee or Shantee,
Akim, and Aquamboe, each of which fupplies the maritime
ftates with a great number of flaves, whom they fell to the
Europeans. In the Britifh Welt Indies moit of the negroes
purchafed on the Gold coaft, are known by the general ap-
ellation of Koromantees, from Koromantyn, which fee.
The number of flaves furnifhed of late years by the Gold
coaft has been eftimated at 10,000.
Coast, Grain, Pepper, or Malaguetia, is the mott weftern
divifion or province of Guinea, and bounded by Nigritia on
the north; the Ivory coaft on the eaft; and on the fouth
and welt by. the occan. It is contained between the Rio
Seftos and Grova, a village two or three miles from cape
Palmas, extending for a {pace of 55 miles along the fhore.
But if it commence at the river Sanguin, and ftretch to Cape
Palmas, its limits will be enlarged about 60 miles. Within
thefe frontiers are the towns and villages of Seftos, or Sef-
tro, W. of the river Sanguin, Bottowa, or Battaway, Seno,
Seftro Krou or Kro, Wappo, Bado, Great Seftro, Little
Seftro, Goyava, Garaway, &c. &c. The chief rivers are
the Rio de Seftro, the Rio. de St. Paul, and the river de
Sierra Leona. The climate on this coat is materially affe¢ct-
ed by the exhalations raifed by the fun from the rivers and
fea-coaft, which are faid to occafion putrid fever, almoft
always fatal to Europeans.- The productions of the earth
are peafe, beans, gourds, lemons, oranges, and bananas.
The palm-wine and dates of this country are excelleat..
Cows, hogs, fheep, and goats abound; but that which con-
ftitutes the chief wealth of the Grain coaft is the abundance
of Guinea pepper which it produces. But the principal
commercé of the Grain coait confilts in ivory and flaves.
As to the manners of the natives, they are not chargeable
with any kind of intemperance; but they allow their wo-
men, who are weil-formed and handfome im.their perfons
and features, every kind of intercourfe with Enropeans, and
fome of them are guilty of the mot infamous groftitution.
Theft is common among them, as it. is among all negroes.
Their language is altogether unintelligible not only to Eu-~
ropeans, but to their neare{t neighbours ; and as they have
no interpreters their commercial tranfactions are carried on
by figns and tokens. Among thefe people there are many ex-
ceilent mechanics, and particularly {miths, who underltand
the art of tempering fteel, and making arms: their {hips
wrights are alfo expert in. the ftru@ure of canoes. They
have likewife derived from experience many improvements
in hufbandry, efpecialiy fuch as regard the culrure of nice,
millet, and Guinea pepper, which are the chief articles of
their fubfiftence and commerce. ‘Their government is arbi-
trary and defpotic ; and their fovereign, who on all oceafions
appears among them with pomp and magnificence, is regarded
with a kind of awe, as if he were a tuperior being. Ale
though
COAST ‘
though ignorance attaches them to the rites of paganifm,
natural reafon fuggells to them fome ideas of a future fate,
as we may infer from the ceremonies performed in relation to
the fouls of the deceafed, which they hope to find in a ftate
of happinefs. They welcome the new moon with fongs,
dances, and various kinds of diverfion; and their fupertti-
tious regard for forceries is extreme. Fora further account
of thefe people, we refer to-the article Sesros. The
months molt favourable to trade on this coatt are Febru-
ary, March, and Aprl; and {mall veflels are more conve-
nicnt than large fhips, as they are better adapted for enter-
ing the rivers and failing up the country. The fouthe
fouth-ca winds begin to blow on this coalt in the month of
May, and they are couftantly attended with heavy rains and
ternadoes, extremely dangerous to fhipping, with thunder
and lightning that are terrible.
Coast, Jvory, Tooth, or Quaqua, fo called from the ele-
phants? teeth which are found here, is a province of Guinea,
bounded by Nigritia on the north; by the Gold coaft on
the eaft; by the ocean on the fouth ; and by the Malaguet-
ta, or Grain coaft on the welt. Geographers and feamen
are much divided in their fentiments concerning the extent
and limits of this coalt: fome confining it between the Rio
Suero da Cofta, where the Gold coaft begins, and Grova,
about three miles from Cape Palmas; whillt others ftretch
its boundaries from Cape Palmas to Cape Tres Puntas, the
whole of that fhore being known to mariners under the ap-
pellation cf the Tooth coalt. However, the moft pree:fe
and accurate limits are contained within Cape Apollonia to
the eaft, and Cape Palmas to the weit. The principal towns
of the Ivory coaft are Grova or Grua, Great Tabo,
Little Tabo, Great Drewin, Batrou, Laho, Apollonia, and
Vallo, each of which ftands at the mouth of the river,
whence it refpectively derives its name. Ass for the interior
country, itis but little known; the natives refufing the
Europeans leave to eitablifh fettlements, or even to trade
among them, except by means of the coait-negroes, and this
they allow with the moft circum{pect caution. The fame
commodities are found here as in the other provinces of
Guinea ; viz. gold, ivory, and flaves. Grova ilands three
miles E. of Cape Palmas; Great Tabo, 30 miles from Grova,
eait; Little Tabo four miles farther ealt; thence to Great
Drewin 11 miles, thence to Batrou 19 miles, to Laho 7, and
from thence to Cape Apollonia 20 miles:—the whole amourt-
ing to 94 miles. . The river St. Andrew on this ceaft is a
fine, deep ftream, increafed near its mouth by the influx
of another river, both waich unite in forming a large
road. The entrance is furrounded with lofty trees,
beautiful verdant meadows, and rich fields of great
extent. About 500 paces from the mouth of the rivera
peninfula runs a great way into the fea, joined to the conti-
nent by a flender neck of land, about 5 or 6 fathoms broad.
The whole peninfula is a high level rock ; having a plat-
form 400 feet in circumference, and commanding the whole
neighbouring country. At the foot of a little eminence,
N. of the neck of land, there is a fine frefh water {pring,
capable of fupplying a large gairifon, and of being fecured
by the cannon of the fort. The land-marks here are fo
diftin& that it is impoffible for fhips to miftake them. “They
confift of lofty, thick, and fhady trees, with three or four
large villages, within lefs than half a mile of cach other.
The fields and meadows near the mouth of the river are
fertilized by meandering ftreams, and are thus rendered fit
for producing every fpecics of grain, fruits, and roots; but
efpecially maize, millet, rice, peafe, yams, and melons.
Here alfo grow. oranges, limes, cocoa-nut trees, and citrons,
forming large groves; and here alfo the fugar-cane, and a
thoufand other plants, which {pring up without cultivation
are abandoned to the ravages of the elephant, arid as haunt@
for wild bealts. Whatever the Gold coaft produces is alio
found here, in greater abundance and perfection} and, in-
deed, the fruits and vegetables of the warmer climates feem
to be all united on the Ivery coaft. As to the nianners of
the natives in this diftrict, the men wear a loofe drefs which
hangs down to the knees, and the women, a narrow cloth
rourd their walls. Many of them are naked, The richer
of both fexes have a paan of fine cloth, and the men wear
poniards, or long knives by their fides.) “The women are
{mall, but neatly proportioned. ‘Their features are regular,
their eyes lively, and their teeth white, fmall, and even.
The men are hkewife well-formed ; and are not deficient;
either in courage or underitanding. They are very fond of
bracelets of iron and ivory, mounted with little bells, which
they put round their arms and the fmall of each leg. Thefe
bells infpire them with additional joy in dancing, to which they
are much addiéted, as well-as all the negroes. Ealft of the river
St. Andrew are at leat a dozen of craggy, rugged
mountains, {lretching three or four miles along the coaft ; but
the intermediate ficlds, well watered by nearly twenty rivulets,
are rich and fruitful : fo that if the inhabitants were fomewhat
more civilized, no country on earth bids fairer’for a profitas
able commerce. The elephants are of an enormous fize
flaves and gold are alfo very plentiful. ‘
From the Rio de Suero da Cofta to Cape Apollonia, the
coalt is low and even, extending itfeif 12 niles towards the
ealt, bordered with large trees, and covered with villages, the
chief of which are Boquun, Iffini Peguena, Great Iffint,
Albiani, Jabo, and Akanimina. =Between Boquun, which
ftands at a {mall diftance fom the fhore, near the mouth of .
the river Da Cofta, furrounded by woods, and pleafantly fitu-
ated, and Akanimina, feated on a rifing ground half a mile
W. of Cape Apoilovia, aud commanding an extenfive fea and
land profpeét, the interior country is high. ragged, and moun-
tamous, but affording fome fine gold, ivory, and a few flaves.
Near Cape Apolionia is tne kingdom of Guiomere, which fee.
The whole coat from Cape Palmas to Cape Apollonia, a
few capes excepted, appears fo low, but fe equal and ftrait,
thuc places cannot be eafily diftinguifhed, and, befides the
capes, the only diftinét land marks are the heights and
mountains about Drewin. ‘The landing is dangerous, on ac-
count of high furfs and fwelling waves; and the negroes
alone are fo acquainted with the coaft, and fo refolute, as to
encounter its dangers in their little canoes; which are em-
ployed in loading and unloading the fhipping. Round
Cape Apollonia there are large tra¢ts of failow land, in which
the negroes fow Indian corn. The complexion of the na-
tives is fo black, that it has been compared to the fineft
jet; in their difpofition they are lively and enterprifing, and
in commerce indefatizable. Their huts are neater and
cleaner than thofe of their neighbours, and their drefs more
elegant, being fet off with ornaments of gold, ivory, aed
cownies. The hair or wool of their heads is divided into
innumerable {mall trefles, which they adorn with fragments
of oyfter fhells and other fhining baubles. On the Icft
cheek they have a fear, of the figure of a poniard, and the
reit of the body is often marked in the fame manner, to
denote the warlike difsofition of the perfon; this cuftom is
very ancient, and ferves to diltinguifh the inland from the
maritime natives; the former of whom are often reduced to
flavery by the latter, and fold as flaves. From Cape Apol-
Jonia to the river Mankaw, where the province of Axim,
the firlt divilioz of the Cold coait, begins, are two or three
fine villages. From hence to Axim, the fhore takes its
courfe S.S.E., and near the village of Boggio the river
’ Mankaw. ~
‘ Gi Oi A Site
Mankaw empties itfelf into the fea, at the month of which
the negroes find a confiderable quantity of gold.
Every country within the limits of the Ivory coaft is
fruitful in rice, peafe, beans, goofeberries, citrons, oranges,
and cocoa nuts; and fugar-canes might alfo be cultivated
ere to great advantage. Upon the whole, the Ivory coatt is
reckoned one of the fineft divifions of Guinea; the prof-
pect of the mountains and vallies, filled with villages, is de-
lishtful; mot of thefe little towns being furrounded with
lofty palms and cocoa trees. he foil of the high land is a
reddifh earth, which, with the perpetual verdure of the trees,
forms.an agreeable mixture of colours. Cotton and indigo
are the {psataneous growth of the diitricts of Great Drew-
in and St. Andrew, which are indeed the richeft of the
whole. Palm-wine and oil are plentiful; together with a
fpecies of fruit, growing ona fort of palm-tree,- called by
the natives ** tombo,’’ or bourbon.’? All forts of tame
animals, fheep, cows, goats, and hogs are very numerous and
cheap: and the coait fupplies great abundance and variety
of fith. :
The natives, in general, are above the common flature,
well_limbed and well-proportioned, though their features on
the firlt glance are hideous: and yet they are deemed the
mott rational, civilized, and polifhed people in Guinea ; ap-
plying this charaéter to the natives of the Quaqua coatt, or
from the river Drewin to Cape Apollonia; tor as to the
others, anthers concur in reprefenting them asthe molt bar-
barous, cruel, and favage of all nations. heir diet is coarfe
and indelicate. Back foup is a favourite dith all over Gui-
nea, both among Europeans and negroes. The Europeans
make it of flefh or fow!, with pepper, vinegar, falt, and fome
fweet herbs peculiar to the country ; but the negroes add
fith, ocra, which is a vifcous vegetable fubltance well known
in our Welt Indian iflands, where it is ufed to thicken foup,
and palm-oil. The men are fond ofa great quantity of hair,
with which they are fupplied by the women, who cut off their
own forthis purpofe. Some of the women, who wear their
bair, adorn it with little plates of pure gold. Their form of
falutation they have in common with al] negroes; which is
that of laying held of the fingers, making them crack, and
repeating the word ‘ quaqua’”’ feveral times, in a low voice.
It is a conftant rule, that the fon follows the profeffion of
his father. In the mechanic arts they are unflilled, info-
much that a common door-lock is reckoned among them as
avery great curiofity ; a watch full further increafes their
admiration; and making paper to fpeak, as they exprefs it,
isa perfect miracle. Their religion, lke that of the inhabit-
ants of the Gold coaft, is founded in ignorance and fupertti-
tion. They revere their princes and priefts, under a perfua-
fion that magic and forcery are qualities infeparable from
majefty and pricithood. The ufual trade carried on with
the inhabitants of this country, who are generally very timid
and jealous in their intercourfe and commercial tranfactions
with Europeans, confills of cotton cloths, ivory, gold, and
flaves. From the river Babas to the Rio de Suero da
Colta, the country produces great abundance of good cot-
ton, which the negroes of the interior country manufaure
with great indaitry, and which they fell to the inhabitants of
the Gold coaft, and to tlofe who fetch it from it cen-
tral parts of Africa, ‘The Quaqua negroes manufacture a
kind of plant, refembling hemp, into a ftrong cloth, to
which they give a beautiful colour, and fome pretty flowers
and defigns, that indicate them to be no bad artifts in this
way. ‘hey have alfo a confiderable trade in falt, with their
inland neighbours. All the countries behind Quaqua furnifh
a large ftore of the moft beautiful ivory in the world, which
they fell principally tothe Englifhand Dutch. They obtain
likewife from the mountains a confiderable quantity of gold.
The European commodities, which the negroes accept moft
readily in exchange for their own, are of much the fume na-
ture as in other parts of Guinea, When the natives of this
coaft trade with any European fhip, they let fall a few drops of
water into their eyes, by which fymbol, equivalent to a kind
of oath, they intimate that they would fooner lofe their eye-
fight than cheat thofe with whom they trade. They are no
lefs averfe to drunkennefs than to fraud: for though their
country abounds with palm-trees they drink no palm-wine,
but only a certain {mall liquor which they mix with water.
Although this country be divided into a variety of petty
ftates and kingdoms, yet they have fearcely any feparate in-
terefts: for among themfelves war feldéom happens; and,
confequently, the flave trade here bears but a {mall propor.
tion to that traffick on the Gold and’ Slave ccatts.
Coast, Slave, is generally inchided by European uavi-
gators under the limits of the kingdom of Benin. It is
bounded by the Rio de Lagos in this kingdom, and extends
to the Rio da Volta, the boundary on this fide of the Gold
coalt. ‘The coaft is generally diftinguifh<d by the appella-
tion of Great Benin. (See Benin.) From port Douarre
it extends towards the fouth of Cape Formofa; then turning
ealtward to Rio del Rey, and again inclining to the fouth of
Cape Gonfalvo, towards the equator, it forms the gulf of
Guinea. ‘Thus, in its whole length, it meafures about 350
leagues ina curve line, or are of acircle. The Slave coaft
comprehends the coafts and kingdoms of Coto or Koto,
Popo, Whidah, and Arcrah: which fee refpectively.
Coast, Windward, an appellation commonly given to
that part of Africa, which extends from Cape Roxo, or
Ronge, to Cape Apollonia. The European fettlements on
this coalt, except a {mall Englith fagtory in the river Sierra
Leone, are chiefly thofe of the Portuguefe. The negroes
obtained from them, as well as from the Englith factory, have
been called ** Mandingoes,” though not with ftriét propriety,
as many different languages are {poken on the coaft between
Senegal and Apollonia.
Coast, Cape, the chief fettlement of the Englith on the
Gold coalt in Africa: the ancient Portuguefe appellation is
“ Cabo Corfo.”? This Cape is formed by an angular point,
wafhed on the fouth and ealt by the fea, upon which ttands the
Englith fort,about 9 milesfrom Elmina. Herethe Portuguefe
fettled in 1610, and built the citadel of Cape Coaft, upon a
large rock that projects into the fea. Some few years after-
wards they were diflodged by the Dutch, to whom this place
owes its principal ftrength. In 1664, it was demolifhed by
admiral Holmes ; and in 1665, De Ruyter, the famous Dutch
admiral, had orders from the {tates to retaliate the injuries
committed by the Englifh. But though, with a fquadron of
13 men of war, he attacked all the fettlements of this nation
along the coait, ruined all the factories, and took, burnt, and
funk all the fhipping of the Englifh company, he was
fruitrated in his attempts upon this fort, which had not at
that time recovered the damage which it had fultained in the
expedition of Holmes. The treaty of Breda having con-
firmed Cape Coatt to the Englifh, and the king granting a
new charterin 1672, the directors applied all their attention
to fortifying and réndering commodious this, their chief
poffeflion, The wails are high and thick, efpecially on the
land fide, buile partly of {tone, but chiefly of brick, which
the Englith made at a {mall diftance. To the height and
ftrength of its walls the fort owes its chief fecurity, and the
neighbouring negroes dependent on the company, derive from
them a protection again{t the incurfions of the Fantins.
The interior parade, raifed 20 feet above the f{nrface of the
work, forms a quadrangular Space, cooled by the gentle re-
frefhing
COA
frething {ea-breezes to which it lies open, and _pleafantly
fituated, having queen Anne’s point, and ail the thipping in
the road of Anatnaboa‘in view. The platform is defended by
pieces of artillery, which command the road and its entrance.
"Che fort has four haltions, mounted with cannon; other pieces
are placed on the battlements, and others on the wa'l towards
‘Tabara for the purpofe of keeping the negroes in awe ; to-
wards the fea, the perfpeAive of Cape Coatt is beautiful and
regular; the fortifications are well conceived, and the ad-
vantages of natural fituation are aided by art. Cape Coatt,
however, has inconveniences, amonz which we may mckon
fome neighbouring hills, by means of which an enemy might
without difficulty embarrafs and annoy the fort. The
foldiers are lodged in the beft barracks of any on the coaft of
Guinea. The governor’s apartments communicate with the
chapel: near the gate is a prifon for criminals, and beneath
the platform, a large vault 1s cut in the rock for the confine-
ment of flaves. ‘he prefidency of Cape Coaft is lodged in
the hands of a fingle perfon, appointed by the direétors of
the African trade ; and the ufual commerce confi'ts chiefly in
gold dult and flaves. The company’s gardens occupy a {pace
of no lefs than § miles in circumference, being furronnded by
trces ; andthe foil is every where fo fertile, that it produces
every fort of fruit commonly found in the warmer climates,
as lemons, oranges, citrons, guavas, mangoes, plantains,
bananas, pine-apples, tamarinds, cucumbers, water-melons,
cocoa-nuts, and every kind of fallad and roots.
In the neighbcurhood of Cape Coaft, the Englith have
built two forts, the one called “ Philips’s tower,”? and the
other-* Fort Loyal,” or ‘* queen Anne’s fort,” each of them
being three-quarters of a mile diftant from the Cape Coat.
The firft ftands on an eminence on the fide of the garden
S.E. of the fort. The fecond is fituated near the village
of Manfro, upon a hill called Daniftein, where Fredericfburgh
formerly ftood. Cape Coait is in N. lat. 4° 58’. i.
long. 1°.
COASTING, that fort of navigation, wherein the places,
failed to and from, are not far diftant ; fo that a fhip may
fail in fight of the land, or within founding, between them.
Such are the voyages on the Narrow, or Britifh feas, be-
tween England, Holland, and France; alfo thofe about the
Britith feas, and in the Mediterranean, &c.
For the performance of this navigation, there is only re-
guired good knowledge of the land, of the time and dire¢tion
of the tide, of the reigning winds, of the reads and havens,
be ufe of the compafs, and of the lead, or founding-line.
ilot. See Prior,
Coastiné, in Agriculture, &c. denotes the tranfplanting
of a tree, and placing it in the fame fituation, with refpe& to
salt, weit, north, &c. as it ftood before. ,
COAT, in Anatomy. See Tunica and Eye.
Coat of Arr: in Heraldry, a furcoat reaching to the
waift, open at the uides, and ornamented with armorial bear-
ings, worn by the ancient knights in times of war, or at
tournaments over their armour, being the principal character-
Ric by which they were diftinguifhed from one another, the
being covered with the helmet.
ing the period of five centuries after the conqueft, the
variation in the mode of exhibiting coat-armour was very
trivial.
"he Norman in the field being clofely invefted in. armour,
which exacily fitted his fhape, threw over it an ornamented
furcoat without fleeves, at firft loofe ; but during the fuc-
ceffive reigns of the three frit Edwards, it was confined to the
body in narrow folds. After that, the mixed armour
{compofed of mail and plates) became common, and the
7
COA.
fleel boddice was gilt and otherwife ornamented. This
armour did not, however, long continue in fafhion, but was
fucceeded by tabards of arms, larger than the original furcoat
and made of the richetft fuk ftuffs, fumptnoufly embroidered,
which afterward became the’drefs worn py the nobility and
gentry, till the commencement of the fixteenth century :
fince that time they have been cantinued only as the flate
drefs of the officers of arms. S-e Plate of Heraldry.
Coat of Mail, in French cote de mailles, in Military
Language, armour made of fcales or won rings connected
together net wife.
Coat, in a Ship. a piece of tarred canvas put about that
part of the matts, or bowfprit, which joins to the deck, or
lies over the ftem of a fhip. They are alfo put about the
pumps at the decks, that no water may go down there ;
and they are alfo uled at the rudder’s head. ‘
Coar likewife denotes the materic]ls with which the fhip’s
fides and malts are varnifhed, to preferve them, as tar, &c.
COATI, in Zoology, the name given by Seba to the
little ant-eater, MyamecopHaca didadyla.
Coart is a name alfo aifizned by Marcgrave to the Bra-
filian weefel, the animal deferibed in the Tranfaétions of the
French Academy under that of Coati mondi, VivERRA
Nasva of Gmelin.
Coar:, of Ray’s quadrupeds, is the animal commonly
called the tacoon, Ursus Loror of Schreber, and Gme-
lin. :
COATING, in its general fenfe, denotes the covering of
a body, or the {preading of one fubltance over another; and
this is praGtiled, with various views, in civil economy, in
the arts, ard in fome f{cientific branches of knowledge.
Thus, human beings are covered with various garments,
both for defence and for ornament; houfes, veffcls, and moft
works of wood, are covered with paint, or pitch, or lead,
or copper, or other matter, for the fame purpofts; the bafer
metals are covered with the richer, filver is coated with
gold, copper with gold or filver in ornamental works ; iron
or copper is coated with tin for culinary purpofes, in order
to prevent the rufting ofthe former, and the noxious effe&ts
of the latter; and fo forth. See the practical methods of
performing thefe operations under the articles Paintina,
PruasterinGc, Gitpinc, SirverinG, Tinnine, &c. —
CoatinG, in Chemifiry, 1s ufed principally for the pur-
pofe of defending certain vefiels from the immediate ation
of fire; thus, glafs retorts and the infide of fome furnaces
are coated with various compofitions. See LoricaTion,
and Lurine.
Coatine, in Eledricity, means the covering of eleé&rie
bodies with condutors, or the latter with the former, or,
laftly, electrics with other ele€trics. LEle&irics are coated
with conductors, for the purpofe of communicating to, or
removing from, their furfaces, the ele€tric fluid in an eafy
and expeditious manner ; otherwife an electric body, on ac-
count of its non-conduéting property, cannot be electrified
deprived of the electric fluid, withont touching almoft every
poiat of its furface with an eleCtrified or other body. This
coating gencrally confifts of tin-foil, fhect-lead, gilt paper,
gold leaf, filver leaf, or other metallic body, eitlrer in the
form of a thin extended lamina, or in fmall grains, fuch as
brafs filings, and leaden fhot. ‘The coating may be faftened
to the furface of the ele€tric by means of pafte, glue, wax,
or other adhefive matter. In lining Leyden phials, care
fhould be had not to faften the coating (if it confifts of
brafs filings or gold leaf ) with varnith ; for this is apt to take
fire on making the difcharge. But in fome cafes the metal-
lic coating is merely laid upon the eleétric ; for inftance, in
certain experiments, a piece of tin-foil, or a brafs Plate, _
al
,
COVA
laid upon a pane of glafs, fo that after having charged the
glafs, the coating may be eafily fhook off; and a Leyden
phial is, fometimes, partly filled with leaden fhot, which
performs the office of an inner coating, and may be cafily
poured out of it. Alfo, when two extended parallel me-
tallic furfaces are‘placed at the diftance of about an inch or
two from each other, the intervening ftratum of air (being
an electric) is faid to be coated, and may be charged and dil-
charged like a Leyden phial. When the electric is of a
very fufible nature, fuch as fulphur, fhell-lac, fealing-wax,
&c. a cafe of it may be coated by pouring it melted upon a
metallic plate, or in a cup, which is required in certain expe-
riments. See Execrriciry, ELecrroruoruvs, and Ley-
DEN phial. ;
In certain cafes conductors are coated with electrics,
either partially or entirely, for the purpofe of preventing
the abforption or diffipation of the eleétric fluid from their
furfaces. This is done with varnifh, or more effectually
with fealing-wax, the latter of which, when the fhape and
fize of the condutor allows it, may be eafily performed by
warming the conduétor to a certain degree, which ts indi-
cated by aétual tral, and then rubbing a ttick of fealing-
wax over its furface.
Lattly, the coating of eleGtrics with other electrics, is
principally, if not exclufively, practifed with articles “of
glafs ; for, fince moifture eafily adheres to the furface of
gilafs, the infulating quality of the latter is thereby greatly
diminifhed and often annihilated ; hence the glafs feet of in-
fulating fools, the glafs handles of directors, the pillars of
fome electrical machines, &c. are generally covered with
fome other electric fubftance of a refinous quality, which is not
apt to attraé& moitture. The febftances principally ufed for
this purpofe are fealing-wax and varnifh. When the glafs
articleis fufficiently {mall, the beft way of covering it with
fealing-wax is, to heat the former, and then to ruba flick
of fealing-wax over it, fo as to form an equal coat of the
wax over the furface of the glafs; and this is, by far, the
belt mode of obtaming the defired object ; but when the
piece of glafs is too large, then the fealing-wax mut be
diffolved in {pirit of wine, and muit afterwards be fpread
over the glafs with an hair pencil; having previoufly wiped
the glafs perfe&tly clean and dry. In this cafe, however,
care muft be had to ufe the beft reCtified fpirit of wine, or
alcohol ; for if impure fpirits be ufed, the folution of feal-
ing-wax, when fpread upon the glaf{s, will infulate very im-
perfe@tly, or even not at all. Of the diffolved fealing-wax
you may lay two, three, or more, coats upon the glafs, al-
ways allowing one coat to become perfeétly dry, before the
next is put on.
With refpect to the ufe of varnifh, it muft be obferved,
that very few of the common varnifhes will anfwer this pur-
pofe in any tolerable degree. ‘This is one, however, which,
when properly made, and carefully applied, anfwers as well
as the fealing-wax coating. ‘This varnifh, which was long
kept a fecret, is made in the following manner: Take half
a pint of linfeed-oil, one ounce of faccharum faturni, and one
ounce and a half of litharge. Set them in an iron veffel to
boil over a {mall charcoal fire (viz. fuch as is barely fufficient
for the purpofe), ftirring the materials frequently with an
iron fpatula or an old knife. As foon as thefe ingredients
are incorporated, add one ounce and a half of prepared amber,
and let it continue to boil, ftirring the materials frequently,
until you find upon trial, that a drop of the liquor, placed
between two knife blades, ftretches like thick glue, or like
turpentine. When this takes place, remove the veffel from
the fire, fuffer it to coola little, and then mix f{pirit of tur-
pentine withit, flirring the whole together, which will thin
Vou. VIII,
COB
it; but take care not to render it toothin; for by keeping,
ina few days, it will of itfelf grow thinner. Lattly, keep
1¢ In bottles for ufe. MN. B. The iron veflel muft be much
larger than the quantity of ingredients might require, and
it mult be furnifhed with a handle, becaufe the oil, &c. in
boiting, is apt to {well and will run over, if the veffel be not
quickly removed from the fire. The amber is prepared, firft,
by powdering it; fecondly, by melting, or rather charring
it, ina fhovel over the fire ; aud, laltty, powdering it again
in a mortar. This varnifh is ufed in the fame man-
ner as the above mentioned folution-of fealing-wax ; but you
need not lav on more than one coat of it, or, at moft, two.
COATZACUALCO, in Geography, a navigable river
of Mexico, or New Spain, which difcharges itfelf into the
gulf of Mexico, near the country of Onchualco.
COAVO, or Cuavo, a river of Africa, which runs in-
to the Indian fea. S.lat. 8° 40’, FE. long. 35°.
COB-Nut. See Hazre.
COBA, or Cope, in Ancient Geography, a trading town
or emporium of Ethiopia; feated on the Avalite gulph, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. F
COBA, in Botany (fo named by Cavanilles, in me-
mory of father Barnabas Cobo, a Jefuit, who, after living
forty-five years in North and South America, compofed a
natural hiltory of the new world, {till extant, but never
publithed), Vent. v. ii. p. 4o1. Cav. Ic. 16, 17.
Gen. Ch. Cal. pentagonous, one-leafed, with five ex-
panding fegments. Cor. monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ;
tube very long, gradually dilated ; border campanulate, five-
cleft ; fegments open, flightly crenated. Stam. Filaments
adhering to the lower part of the tube, declining, ; anthers
oblong, verfatile, at firft fhorter than the corolla, afterwards
longer, and becoming twilled in a fingular manner. Pi/?.
Germ furrounded at its bafe with a pentagonous glandular
rim or nectary ; dtyle longer than the ftamens ; ftigmas three
or five, refleted. Cap/ule from three to five-celled. Seeds
numerous, imbricated.
Sp. C. /candens, Cav. Icon. tab. 16, 17. Bot. Mag. 851.
(Cobbea, Bot. Rep. 342.) Anelegant climber. Leaves
alternate, equally pinnated, terminated by a dichotomous
tendril ; leaflets exo-fhaped, acute. Flowers at firlt green,
finally changing to a bright violet, large, axillary, folitary.
A. native of Mexico, where it is called yedra, morada, or
violet ivy. It grows with aftonifhing rapidity, and is
eafily propagated by cuttings. Firft railed by Cavanilles in
the royal garden at Madrid, and fince both in Vrance and
England
COBALT, Kobcit, Germ. in Mineralogy. Cobalt is-a
metal of a white colour, inclining to bluith, or fteel-grey ;
when tarnifhed, acquiring a reddifh tinge ; its fracture is
compact, fine-grained, and uneven. Its {pecific gravity, is
8.53. It is attracted by the magnet, aud is itfelf capable
of polarity. At a common temperature it is brittle, aud
cafily reduced to powder, but when red hot may be flightly
extended under the hammer. Ic requires for its fufion nearly
the fame heat as caft iron does. When in the ftate of
oxyd it tinges the faline vitreous fluxcs of a deep blue. It
is foluble in nitro-muriatic acid, and the folution forms a
blue-green fympathetic ink.
§1. Ores of Cobalt.
Cobalt occurs, 1ft, mineralized by arfenic; 2d, as an
oxyd; 3d, combined with arfenic acid; 4th, combined
with fulphuric acid,
Sp. 1. Arfenical Cobalt.
Cobalt is never found pure in the metallic ftate, but is
4L always
CrOr Real Ty
-always alloyed with arfenie, and often befides contains iron
and fulphur, and fometimes nickel, bifmuth, and filver.
Of the fub-fpecies only the cryftallized (3d fub-fpecies)
has been analyzed, and both by Klaproth and Taffaert,
The following are the refolts. Klaproth obtained
Cobalt - 44.
Arfenie - 955.5
Sulphur - 0.5 ‘i
100.9
Taffaert obtained
Cobalt -- 36.66
Arfenic - 49.
Tron - 5.66
Sulphur - 6.5
Lehi) oi raiad f
oo.
Similar differences are obferved between the analyfcs of
this variety by other chemilts, fo that it may be coniidered
as allowing confiderabie range both in the proportion
and nature of its conttituent parts, without materially af-
feting its cryftallization. Tt appears, however, from Havy,
that when the eryitals difplay a lamellar fracture, they con-
tain a notable preportion of fulphur and iron. We fhall
follow Brochant’s arrangement of the fub-fpecies.
1. Sub-fpecies. White cobalt. Weiffer Speifkabolt. Cobalt
blave, ({pecies 2 of Kirwan and Hauy).
The colour of this mineral, when recently broken, is tin-
white, but its furface is generally yellowifh, bluih, greyifh,
or iridefcent, like fteel that has been heated. It occurs in
mafs, difleminated, kidney-fhaped, and rarely in minute
quadrangular tables, or imperfeét cubes and o@ohedrons.
‘Their external luftre is flight, but internally is brilliant and
metallic. Its fraéture is fine-grained and uneven: when
broken, it flies into fharp-edged irregular fragments : when
in mafs, it contains fine-grained granular diftinét concretions.
Tt requires a polifh by fri€tion, is brittle and hard: when
expofed to the blow-pipe, white cobalt melts with great
eafe, giving out a white vapour, and a ftrong arfenical
odour, and a white brittle bead of metal remains, which
gives a blue colour to glafs of borax, when melted with it.
It is foundia Norway, at Tunaberg in Sweden, Annaberg
in Saxony, and alfo, rarely, in Swabia and Stiria. In Saxony
and Norway, it is contained in beds of micaceous fchiftus,
accompanied by the red earthy cobalt, quartz, hornblende,
and pyrites.
2. Sub-fpecies. Dull-grey~ cobalt.
Cobalt gris, ({p. 1. of Kirwan and Hany.)
The colour of this mineral is a clear fteel-grey, but by
expofure to the air it acquires an iridefcent tarnifh. It
oceurs in mafs or diffeminated, fometimes in kidney-fhaped
or cluftered maffes, and very rarely in fpecular lamine. Its
external luftre is very feeble, but internally it exhibits a
bright metallic luftre. Its fracture is compa, generally
even, but fometimes paffing into flat-conchoidal; its grain
is remarkably fine and clofe. Its fragments are fharp-
edged, indeterminate. It is not fo hard as the preceding,
and is lefs brittle. Its fpecific gravity varies from 4.3. to
5-3, or even 5.5. It gives a bluifh-grey metallic ftreak.
When expofed by itfelf to the blow-pipe, it gives out an
arfenical vapour and {mell ; but feldom fufes: when treated
Grauer Speifkobolt,
in the fame way with borax it gives the flux a blue colour,
and is reduced toa metallic globule, :
A fpecimen from Cornwall was analyfed by Klaproth,
who procured from it about 20 percent. of cobalt; 24 of
iron, and 33 of arfenic, the remainder confilting partly of
bifmuth and fulphur, together with earthy matter. Some
varieties have alfo been found to contain nickel and fiiver,
Itis found in Saxony, Bohemia, Swabia, and Hungary ; alfo
in Stiria, France, Norway, and Cornwall.
3. Sub-fpecies. Bright white cobalt.
Cobalt eclatante.
The colour of this mineral is tin-white, but tarnifhes to
greyifh, whitifh, or iridefcent. It is found in mafs, diflemi-
nated or invefting, or of particular {hapes,. as cluftered,
Glaux Kobolt,
' kidney-fhaped, globular, or cryftallized in cubes or o&tohe-
drons. The cryitals are middling-fized or fmall, their furs
face is commonly fmooth and brilliant, and marked with
ftria on the fides of the primitive cube. The fraéture of
the cryftals is lamellar, that of the other varieties is fine-
grained, uneven, or radiated, When in mafs it prefents
granular, or lamellar, or teltaceous diftin&, concretions. Its
hardnefs 1s fomewhat inferior to the preceding fub-fpecies
when pulverized, it is of a fteel-grey colour. Sp. gr. 6.2
It ts brittle, and eafily frangible.
Before the blow-pipe, it burns with a faint white flame,
difengaging arfenical vapours; it then becomes black, is
attractable by the magnet, and is, with the utmott difficulty,
reduced to a metallic globule. It often contains as much
as 50 percent. of reguline cobalt.
This is the commoneft of all the ores of cobalt : it occurs
for the moft part in primitive mountains, together with
the other fpecies of cobalt ore, with vitreous, red,
and native filver, with arfenical and cupreous pyrites, &c.
Tt is met with in various parts of Germany ; alfo in Sweden, ©
Norway, Stiria, and Cornwall. -
Sp. II. Larthy Cobalt.
Of this there are the four followinz varieties :
Var. 1. Friable black cobalt. Schwarzer Kobolt mubite
Cobalt terreux noir friable.
The colour of this is black, bluifh, brownifh, or greyifh
black. It is without lultre, has a loofe earthy confiftence,
is friable and meagre, ftains the fingers in a flight degree,
and gives a brighttfh ftreak. It is foluble in muriatie acid ;
tinges borax blue, and very rarely fhews any indications of
fulphur or arfenic, when treated by the blow-pipe.
Var. 2. Indurated black enbalt. Verkarteter /chwarzer
kobolt. Cobalt terreux noir enduret. :
In colour it refembles the preceding, except that it is
fometimes of a dark greenifh black. It occurs maffive, dif-
feminating, inveiling, kidney-fhaped, cluftered, or in veins.
It is dull, but takes a polifh by fri@ion. Its fra@ture is
earthy and compact, pafling into flat-conchoidal. It pof-
fefles a moderate degree of hardnefs. Sp. gr. from 2. to 4.
With nitric acid it gives a red folution, anda bluifh-green
one, with muriatic acid. It has not been accurately ana-
lyfed, but confilts of oxyd of cobalt, with a fmall variable
proportion of arfenic and fulphur mixed with vitreous filver
ore, oxyd of iron, and clay.
This, and the preceding variety, are always found toge-.
ther; but the indurated is by much the moft rare. It is
found in Saxony, Thuringia, Swabia, and the Tyrol. .
Var. 3. Yellow cobalt. Gelber erdkobolt. Cobalt- ter-
reux jaune.
Its colour is that of faded ftraw, pafling into yellowihh
white, and often ftreaked with brick-red. It is tound in
mafs, diilsminated or invefting. £t is without luitre, i a:
fe=.
,
G.OFB OA Lat,
"fne-prained earthy fra€ture, gives an untuous ftreak, and is
foft and friable.
It is infufible per fe, gives a feeble, arfenical odour, and
communicates a deep blue tinge to borax: but when mixed
with iron, as it often is, the colour is greenifh.
This is one of the rareft of the ores of cobalt. It has
hitherto been found only in Thuringia, Wirtemberg, and
Dauphine.
Var. 4. Brown cobalt.
reux brun.
Its colour isa clear liver-brown, pafling into grey, yellow,
and black. It occurs in mafs or diffeminated ; it is dull,
but acquires a greafy luftre by fri€tion. Its fraéture is
fine-grained, earthy. It is eafily broken, being almolt
friable. It has been analyfed, but appears to be the con-
ne€ting link between the fecond and third varieties. When
rs on burning coals, it generally gives out an arfenical
odour.
Brauner erdkobolt. Cobali ter-
Sp. 1II. Red Cobalt.
OF this there are two varieties.
Var. 1. Cryftallized. Koboltblute. Fleurs de Cobalt.
The ufual colour of this mineral is peach-bloffom-red,
paffing into cochineal and greyifh-red ; by expofure to the
air it becomes paler, and almoit white. It is found very
rarely in mafs, or diffeminated, and {till feldomer cluftered,
or kidney-fhaped ; its moft ufual ftate is that of a thin
cryftalline covering, or minute drufes of cryftals. The
forms which it generally affeéts are rectangular tables, or
tetrahedral acicular prifms, or hexahedral prifms terminated
by dihedral fummits: thefe figures, however, are not often
determinable, on account of the minutenefs of the cryftals,
and their tendency to form radiates and globular groupes.
‘The furface of the cryftals is fmooth and brilliant, and their
fracture lamellar. The fracture of the other kinds is ra-
diated, pafling into fibrous. It is tranflucent, and often,
when cryftallized, femi-tranfparent.
Before the blow-pipe it gives a faint arfenical odour, and
becomes of a dark-grey colour; it is almof infufible by it-
felf, and gives a beautiful blue tinge to borax.
Var.2. Earthy. Kobolibefchlag. Cobalt terreux rouge
pulverulent.
The colour of this is the fame as that of the preceding
variety. It occurs in a pulverulent or indurated ftate, diffe-
minated through, orinvefting other minerals, and occafionaily
in mafs. Itis dull, opake, and has an uneven earthy fra€ture.
In other refpeéts it agrees with the preceding.
Sp. IV. Naiive fulphat of cobalt. Naturticher. kobolt-
vitriol. Sulfate de cobalt natif.
At Herrengrund, near Neufohl in Hungary, is founda
faline fubftance, in the form of tranflucent ftalaGites, of a
pale rofe-red colour. It was at firft fuppofed to be fulphat
of manganefe, but from an analyfis of Klaproth, it appears
to be a pure fulphat of cobalt.
§ 2. Reduétion of the Ores and Analyfis.
Cobalt is never employed in manufacture in the reguline
flate; the fole ufe of this very valuable metal being to give
various thadesof blue colour to glafs and enamel, and when
thus employed, it is in the ftate of oxyd. In this fate it
forms either zaffre, or /malt, when prepared in the method,
which will be defcribed in the next fection. b cs
Many of the cobalt ores are complicated, and difficult to be
analyzed completely, nor is it eafy to cbtain the cobalt alone
from them in confiderable purity. The metals naturally
_varied with cobalt-are the following : 1%, arfenic, generally
in very large quantity, part of which is in the reguline ftates
and, as appears, another part 1s in the ftate of arfenic acid,
which, uniting with the oxyd of cobalt, forms an arfeniat
of cobalt, that has often been miftaken for the pure oxyd,
The entire feparation of the two is extremely difficult.
2d. Nickel exifts with many cobaltic ores; and being foluble
in the fame menftrua, it is not eafily feparated. 3d. Iron,
in variable quantity, is found with moft of the ores of co-
balt, and is hurtful, as it impairs and degrades the fine blue
for which alone cobalt is valued. 4th. Manganefe, which
is a flill worfe admixture. 5th. Copper, in {mall quantity,
is fometimes found, which, however, does not much injure the
cobalt.
An imperfeé analyfis of the common cobalt ores, and
which merely has for its object the extraction of the cobalt,
is made in the following way : Mix the ore, in fine powder,
with charcoal or faw-duft, and roaft it in a low red heat,
till the arfenic is driven off, and no arfenical fumes are any
longer perceived. Calcine the refidue fome time longer
with a ftrong red heat, and in an open fire, and then mix it
with about four parts of a faline, reducing flux, (fuch as that
compofed of equal parts of tartar and carbonat of psta(h)
and heat it in a roomy covered crucible, at firft moderately,
till the firft fwelling of the materials has fubfided, and then
for a quarter of an hour in a heat fully fufficient to melt
iron. When cold, a button of reguline cobalt is found
beneath a mafs of fcorie of an intenfe blue-black colour.
From 109 grains of the Tunaberg ore, Klaproth obtained in
this way 44 grains of regulus of cobalt, which, however,
mutt have been {till very impure, retaining iron and a portion
of the arfenic. It may be further purified by alternate
deflagration with nitre, and reduction with a faline carbo-
naceous flux, repeated two or three times, in the way that
Lampadius and Tromfdorf have employed with f{malt, as
will be prefently mentioned.
The reducing flux for cobalt ore, employed by Beaumé, is
the following: Mix 1 oz. of the roafted ore with 3 oz. of
black flux, and 3 oz. of carbonat of potafh, cover it when
in the crucible with about 1 oz. of falt, and heat the whole,
at firft flowly, and afterwards very brifkly for a quarter of
an hour.
But, for the purpofes of mere analyfis, where all the
conttituent parts of the ore are required to be known wich
as much precifion as poffible,»thefe methods are much too
inaccurate to be depended on, and recourfe muit be had to
the more tedious and difficult analyfis in the humid way.
The procefs given by Taffaert (An. de Chim. tom. 258.)
is hizhly valuable and inftruétive.
The method given by Lampadius, of purifying cobalt by
fufion is the following: Proje& in a red hot crucible a
mixture of 4 oz. of zaffre, 2 oz. of nitre, and 2 oz. of
charcoal. A ftrong arfenical fmell is perceived in the pro-
cefs, and a blackifh-grey mafs is left, which is to be again
mixed with charcoal and nitre’ and deflagrated as before:
then throw in the crucible 2 oz. of black flux, and heat it
intenfely for an ‘hour. This gives a tolerably pure regulus
of cobalt, weighing 6 drams. Powder it, and mix it with £
dram of nitre, and as much manganefe; put it into a luted
double crucible, and heat it for an hour in a forge-furnaces
The metal, by this operation, lofes all its iron and is nearly
pure.
Tromfdorf’s procefs is the following: Vhe zaffre, or
fmait, is to be twice detonated with nitre, then wathed ia
hot water, which carries off the arfenic now united with the
potafh of the nitre, and the rcfidue is to be digetted in dilute
nitric acid, which will only touch the cobalt and leave’ the
jron, ‘The nitrous felution may then be decompofed by aa
4b 2 ; alkali,
C OJBiA SUF.
alkali, and the purified oxyd of cobalt, thence refulting, may
be afterwards reduced if required.
§ 3. Preparation of Zaffre and Smalt, or Azure.
All the zaffre and {malt of commerce are prepared in fome
parts of Germany, and particularly at Schneeburg in Mifnia,
which affords a very lucrative trade to Saxony. The fol-
lowing is the method of preparation as given by Kunckel.
(See Neri’s Art de la Verreriz.) The cobalt ore, broken in
{mall pieces, is fpread on the hearth of a furnace, like a
baker’s oven, fo conitructed that the flame of the wood is
yeverberated on all fides over the furface ; which foon heats
itred-hot. Avery denfe arfenical vapour then arifes, which
is conveyed from the furnace into a horizontal wooden
{quare trough, or chimney, fometimes of the enormouslength
of a hundred fathoms, where molt of the arfenic is con-
denfed and colleéted for fale. The cobalt ore is calcined
for fome hours, till it fearcely emits any more vapours, after
which it is taken out, ground to fine powder, replaced in the
oven, and calcined a fecond time, and then again ground
and pafled through a very fine ficve. This powder is then
mixed with about twice its weight of powdered flint or
quartz, wetted to the confiftence of {tiff mortar, and rammed
into {mall barrels, where the mafs foon acquires a {tony
* hardnefs, and is then the zafre of commerce. The reafon
of ufing the flints appears to be partly to dilute the cobalt
ore, and partly for fome purpole of concealment ; the ex-
portation of the fimple calcined ore being forbidden under
heavy penalties.
Smalt, fometimes alfo called azure blue, when finely
powdered, (which muft not be confounded with the true
azure, or lapis lazuli) is an intenfely deep biue glafs, made
of the calcined cobalt ore and the common vitrifiable fluxes,
. which is ufed as a colouring matter for a variety of purpofes.
The intenfity of colour of courfe depends on the proportioa
of roafted cobalt ore which it contains, regard being had to
its quality, and the proportion of oxyd of cobalt which it
is eftimated to contain. On an average about equal parts
of the roafted ore of potafh, and of ground flints are ufed.
This mixture is firlt fritted, aud'then melted in pots fimilar
to thofe of glafs-houfes, and about ten or twelve hours of
fufion are required. When the glafs is thoroughly fufed,
it is laded out and dropped into cold water to crack it in
every direction, and then grcund in a mill made of a very
hard ftone. At the bottom of the glafs-pots a quantity of
regulus of bifmuth is always found, lying under a mixed
alloy of arfenic, iron, and copper.
‘The grinding of the blue glafs is a work of much dif-
ficulty, and different degrees of finenefs of the powder are
obtained by fubfequent wafhing and fifting.
Smalt is a valuable colour, on account of the fine body
which it poffeffes ; and being indeftructible in any heat, it is
ufeful for all enamel colours, but it will not mix with oil
colours, and therefore can only be partially ufed. Starch
is flightly coloured with it to give a {mall degree of blue-
nefs, which correéts the yellow hue which linen and cotton
acquires by being worn.
Zaffre is alfo prepared in Bohemia, Wirtemberg, Silefia,
and Lorraine, but the Saxonis preferred.
The oxyd of cc ‘It contained in the zaffre is ftill inti-
mately mixed with a {mall portion of arfenic, partly as arfe-
nic acid, and partly as oxyd ofarfenic. If zaflre is digefted in
Jiquid caullic ammonia, a red folution is formed, which, on
evaporation, depofits a yellow powder, which is a mixture
of the oxyds of cobalt and arfenic. If zaffre is boiled in
water, a folution is alfo obtained, which is fenfibly acid, and
was thought by Brugnatelli to indicate the exiftence of a co-
baltic acid, but Darracq has fhewn it to be an arfeniat of
cobalt.
§ 4. Chemical Properties of Cobalt.
Cobalt, when perfedtly pure, has a fteel-grey colour, not
very refplendent, and when flowly cooled, has fomewhat of
a reticulated texture. It melts at about the fuling point of
calt iron,
Cobalt, when heated ftrongly in conta& with air, is
converted into a black oxyd, with an increafe of about 18
parts on 100; hence £00 parts of the oxyd contain 84.74
of metal, and 15.25 of oxygen. When it retains any arle-
nic, the colour is reddith. :
This metal burns in oxymutriatic acid gas, with a bright
white flame.
The fulphuric acid diffolves cobalt with difficulty, but its
oxyds more readily. If zaflre, or which is better, the wet pre-
cipitate from nitrat of cobalt by carbonat of potafh, is di-
gelted with fulphuric acid; and the mixture evaporated nearly
to drynefs, the refidue digefted with hot water, gives a fo-
lution of fulphat of cobalt, which, by flow evaporation,
affords the {alt in cryftals, that are of a fine red when the
metal is pure, but greenifh when it contains nickel. This
falt is foluble in 15 parts of boiling, and 24 parts of cold
water.
Nitric acid diflolves cobalt or its oxyd copioufly and with
great eafe by digeltion in a moderate heat. The folution is
redg or claret-coloured, or yellow, if it holds iron. It
{carcely can be brought to cryftallize, but by evaporation
to drynefs and calcination, it. leaves a dark red or violet
oxyd.
Muriatic acid a&s with great difficulty on cobalt, and
can {carcely be made to diffolve it, unlefs by repeated eva-
porations to dryneis and affution of frefh acid. But it dif-
folves the oxyds of this metal with much more cafe when
aflited by heat. The folution is of a rofe-red, but when
evaporated to drynefs and warmed, it acquires a beautiful
blue-green, which more approaches to blue in proportion as
the folution is free from iron. This fingular property of
the muriat of cobalt was firft difcovered by Hellot, and
ufed in making a beautiful /ympathetic ink, the properties
of which have engaged much of the attention of cie-
mifts. If the folution be confiderably diluted, charac-
ters traced by it on paper are fcarcely vifible when cold,
but when held near the fire, they very {peedily affume
a beautiful blue green, which colour again totally difap-
pears when cold, and may be made to re-appear at
pleafure by the fame means. The paper, however, fhould
not be heated more or longer than is neceflary to produce
the full effeét. It is found, that not only the pure miuriat of
cobalt, but any folution of this metal into which imuriatic
acid, or a muriatic falt, enters, will have the fame effect.
Hence the commoneift method of making this fympathetic
ink, and that employed by the inventor, is, to digeit zaffre
in a moderate heat, with a mixture of ahout three parts of
nitric and one of muriatic acid, diluted with as much water,
tilla highclaret-coloured {olution is formed, which fhould then
be diluted with as much water as poffible, to prevent the
paper from being corroded by the acid. Buta much more
concentrated folution may be made, which fhall not injure
the paper, in the following way: Boil fome moderately di-
lute mtric acid or zaffre, till much of the cobalt is.
diffolved out of it, then add to it any alkali as long as any
precipitate takes place ; pour off the clear liquor after fland-
ing fome time, wath the fediment with hot water, and
threw it ona filter. ‘Take the fediment which is left on the
filter, and putit, while {till wet, into a glafs flaik, and boil.
8 it:
cOB
it with diftilled vinegar, which will readily diffolve it, and
make a rofe-coloured folution, which may then be made into
a fine fympathetic ink, by diffolving in it fome common falt
or fal-ammoniac.
It has been mentioned that the colour of the common
cobaltic fympathetic ink is green, and when made fimply
by diffolving the foluble part of zaffre in nitro-muriatic acid,
it is generally a pale grafs green, but in proportion as the co-
balt becomes purer, the colour approaches to a bright blue
green. This is probably owing to the feparation of iron
which the common zaffre contains in abundance, and which
may be effected more or lefs perfe@ly in various methods.
The fimpleft (though not the moft economical) is to add to
the folution very gradually carbonat of potath as long as the
precipitated oxyd is rofe-coloured, and to ceafe when it begins
to have a yellow ochery hue; for the former coufilts chiefly
of the cobalt, and the latter chiefly of the iron. Then by
colleS&ting, wafhing, filtering, and re-diflolving the rofe-
coloured precipitate in the mitric or acetous acid, a much
purer folution is obtained, which contains very little iron, and
gives a blue-green fympathetic ink, when any muriatic falt is
added. Another way of feparating moft of the oxyd of iron
is to evaporate the nitrous {olution nearly to drynefs, and to
expofe it for fome time in a fhallow veffel to the air, by
which much of the iron will be rendered infoluble, and fub-
fide as a red ochre, whillt the cobalt wi!l remain in folution.
Or elfe the acetited folution of both metals may be alter-
nately evaporated to drynefs, and the foluble part re-diflolved
by frefh acetous acid, for two or three times fucceffively,
by which the iron will gradually feparate, and the cobalt
alone be left.
But to obtain perfely pure cobalt, feparate from arfenic,
bifmuth, iron, and other impurities, is more difficult, for in
the above-mentioned proceffes the arfenic acid and oxyd con-
tained in the cobalt ore muft accompany the cobalt and be
retained in all the folutions. We fhould therefore recom-
mend the following method: Digeft a quantity of zaffre
with nitric acid diluted with about three times its weight of
water, and boil them for fometime. After ftanding fora
while pour off the clear {olution and evaporate it nearly to
drynefs. Then dilute it pretty largely with water, which
will caufe the bifmuth, if any, to fubfide. Then neutralize
any excefs of acidin the filtered folution by any alkali,
avoiding to precipitate any of the metal which it contains,
and add, cautioufly by drops, fome ofa folution of nitrated
lead (made by diffolving the cryttals of this falt in water) as
long as any precipitate falls down. This latter is arfeniat of
lead, and by this means all the arfenic acid of the zaffre will
beremoved. Then entirely decompofe the clear folution by
cauftic potafh, collect and wath the precipitated oxyd put into
a phial, and add to it fome cauilic ammonia, which will dif-
folve only the oxyd of cobalt. From this ammoniacal folu-
tion all the oxyd may be again feparated either by evapora-
tion to drynefs, or by boiling with cauftic potath, and a very
pure black oxyd of cobalt is left, which may be reduced to
the metallic ftate by being heated intenfely ina covered cruci-
ble lined with charcoal ; or it may be diflolved in the feveral
acids. This method, however, is expenfive, on account of
the quantity of ammonia employed, but it is difficult to ex-
clude the iron totally by any other method.
A triple falt of cobalt, nitric acid, and ammonia, is made
by adding ammomia to nitrat of cobalt, which may be cry{-
tallized.
The fixed alkalies have little or no ation on cobalt or its
oxyds in the moift way, but ammonia diffolves the oxyds
largely, as already mentioned.
Tin&ture of galls give a yellowifh white, and pruflic acid
COB
a green precipitate to the folutions of cobalt when free from
iron.
Sulphur unites with great difficulty to cobalt by fufion,
but the hydrofulphurets and liver of fulphur readily’ diffolve
this metal, Hydrofulphuret of potafh added to the folutions
of cobalt gives a very black precipitate, which an excefs of
the hydrofulphuret again diffolves. Cobalt ore fufed with
liver of fulphur is diflolved thereby, and a brilliaat metallic
looking mafs is prodeced, which deliqueices totally by expo-
fure to air, and falis into adark hquid.
None of the pofible alloys of cobalt deferve any particular
notice, for this metal has only a fingle ufe in the arts, namely,
that of giving a blue colour to vitrefcent compounds when
its oxyd is melted with them, and this colouring power is fo
intenfe, that a fingle grain of the pure oxyd (or zaffre in pro-
portion) will give a very deep blue to half an ounce of glafs.
When the glafs contains much more than this proportion,
the body of colour is fo intenfe as to render it nearly opake,
and hence, too, it is of ufe in forming the black gl
enamels.
The affinities of cobalt are fiated to be in the following
order, viz. the. gallic, oxalic, muriatic, fulphuric, tartareous,
nitric, phofphoric, acetic, arfenic, and carbonic acids, and
ammonia. We may add. however, that the difficulty of ob-
taining pure cobalt, and the variety of metals with which it is
ufually alleyed, render this order of affinity fomewhat doubt-
ful.
Cozpatr is alfo ufed by fome to exprefs that fuffocative
vapour or damp in mines, which often proves fatal to the
miners. It is common among the Germans, to fay on this
occafion, that the cobalt rofe and choaked them. See
Damrs.
COBAN, in Commerce, a piece of gold coin in Japan,
worth 30s. fterling.
COBANDI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany,
placed by Ptolemy on the eaftern coalt of the Cimbric
Cherfonefus.
COBARRUBIAS, Axroxzo Dr, in Biography, an
architeé&t of Toledo, who is faid to have been the firft who
introduced the Greek and Roman ftyles of architefure in
Spain. He was employed by Charles V. to erect the north
front, as well as fome other parts of the roye! palace of
Toledo, in which work, however, he has adopted a mixed
ftyle, partaking of the old Gothic as well as of the
Greek; probably with the view of rendering the modern part
of the building more conformable to the great body of that
very ancient fabric. He likewife modernized the vaft and
magnificent cathedral of the fame city, and built the exten-
five church and monaftery of St. Michael at Valencia.
Milizia, Mem. degli. Arch.
COBAYA, in Zoology, the Guinea pig. See Cavia
cobaya.
COBBAN, in “Botany, a {mall tree like a peach-tree,
which grows in Sumatra, called Per/fice affinis in Taprobana.
C. B. -Arbor Geiruph, five cobban, J. B. It bears a {mall
leaf, like that of the tree which produces the /iliqua catharti-
ca, with fhort branches, and a yellowith or taffron-coloured
bark. The fruit is thick and round like a tennis-ball, in-
clofing a nut as big asa filberd, which contains a ery bitter
kernel, tailing hke the root of angelica.
The fruit is very proper to quench chirft ; but the kernel,
however bitter, is far fuperior in virtne. The inhabitants
of Sumatra, where the tree grows, extract an oil from the
kernel, which is very efficacions in pains of the liver and
fpleen, taken inwardly, or ufed by way of unétion; and is
alfo 2 fovereign remedy in the pain of the gout, to which the
inhabitants of that ifland are very fubject.
From
COB
From the fame tree diftils a gum, which is very fervice-
ablein the before-mentioned diforders, if it be diflolved with
a moderate quantity of oil, and applied to the affeted parts
by way of cataplafm.
COBBE’, in Geography, the capital town of Dar-far, in
Africa, fituated alr oft on the direct road from the north to
the fouth extremity of the country. N. lat. 14° 11’. E.
Jong. 25° 8’. The town is more than 2 miles in length,
but very narrow ; and the houfes, few in number, each of
I occu es Wi! ithin its in lofure a lay "ge portion of
ground, a ae by cor able wafte. It is full of
oe es of feveral kinds, woich give it an agreeable appearance
ata {mall diftance; for, being fituated on a plain, it is not
diftin@ly vifible more than 4 or 5 miles in any direétion.
marie the rainy feafon, the ground on which it ftands is
furrounded by a torrent. Fronting it to the eaft, the town
itfe} f extending from north to fouth, is a mountain or rock,.
Bi een by the fame appellation, which is the refort ee
cals. The inhabita ants are’ fupplied with
er ena n wells of {mail depth, fome of which are dug
within the shelsneke of many of the houfes; but the belt
of them are in or near the bed of the torrent. The town is
furrounded by villages at fmall diftances, in various direct-
ions, which are d Jependent upon it, and increafe its apparent
population ‘The aban eaties of Cobbé are, for the moft
part, merchants, employed in trading to Egypt, the greater
number of whom come from the river, and fome of them
are natives of that country.. Some Egyptians, chiefly
from Said, a few Tunilines, natives of Tripoli, and others,
ome and go with the caravans, remaining only a fufficient
time for the fale of ther gosta) Others have married in
Dar-ftir, and are now perfectly naturalized, and recognized
as fubje@ to the fultan. The fathers being dead, the child-
ren fucceed to their occupations. The other inhabitants
are foreigners, from Dorgola, Mahas, Sennaar, and Kordo-
fan, who are generally ingelatieaule in commerce, but daring,
reftlefs, and’ feditions, fo that the prefent fultan has made
fome efforts to banifh them from his dominions ; they are
the offspring of thofe whofe parents have emigrated, and who
have themfelves been born in Dardftir; the latter are often
people of debauched manners, and HOE remarkable for the
fame {pirit of enterprife as the a€tual emigrates. The peo-
ple firft mentioned commonly ufe among themfelves the Jan-
guage of Barabra, though they alfo {peak Arabic: The
jatter are generally unacquainted with any language but the
Arabic. They ufually intermarry with. each other, or with
the Arabs. Some, avoiding marriage with Furian women,
merely cohabit with their flaves. Perfons of both thefe de-
feriptions are eafily diltinguifhable from the natives of the
country, being ufually of a more olive complexion, and hav-
ing a form of vilage more nearly refembling the European,
oath fhort curly black hair, but not wool. They are a
well fized and well-formed people, and have often an agree-
able and expreffive countenance, though fometimes indicat-
ing violent paffions, and a mutable temper. South-eaft of
dette in alarge open fpace,a market is held on Monday
and Friday, in every weck, in which provilions of every kind
are fold, including all the commodities which the country
produces, and alfo thofe that are brought from E; egypt: and
other places ; and from this market all the villages, fix or
eight miles round, derive their fupplics. About the month of
December grain is cheapeft, and at this time the inhabitants
commonly lay in their annual ftock. Two, or fometimes
three, pecks of millet may be had for a flring of beads,
worth about one penny fterling; at Cairo. Slaves; though
fometimes brought to the market, are commonly fold private-
ly, which is frequently complained of as an evil, becaufe it
COB
facilicates the fale of fuch as have been ftolen from other
quarters. In the town they have four or five “* meétebs,”?
in which boys are taught to read, and, if they wifh it, to
write. The leGturer inftru€ts gratuitoufly the children of the
indigent ; but thofe who are in eafy circumftances make a
fmall remuneration. Two or three le€tures in the Koran, and
two others in what they call “ elm? theology. In this
town is one mall mofque, being a {quare room, formed by
walls of clay, where the fukkara, or pretenders to extraordi-
nary fanctity, blending with it brutal intolerance to ftrangers,
mect thrice in the week. A large mofque, the area of which
was about 64 feet {quare, and the walls about 3 feet thick,
was begun when Mr. Brown vifited this place; but though
the material was merely clay, the work advanced very flowly.
Browne’s Travels in Africa, ch. 17.
COBBESECONTE, or Corsecoox, fi fignifying, i in the
Indian language, the land where fturgeons are taken, is
a {mall river which rifes from ponds in the town of Winth-
rop, in the diftriGt of Maine, and falls into the Kennebeck
within 3 miles of Nahunkeag ifland, and 15 from Moofe
ifland.
COBBING, in Sea Language, a punifhment inflited at fea
on thofe who quit their ftanon during thenight watch. It
coniiits of a number of ftrckes on the breech with a flat
piece of wood, called the cobbing-board.
COBBS, in Geograph ,a town of America, in the ftate of
Virginia ; 20 miles S.W.of Richmond.
COBCAR-ING Jren-works, are fituate on a branch of
the Dearne and Dove canal, in Yorkfhire. See Canat.
COBELLA, in Zoology. See CovuBeEr venofus, called ps
Laurenti a/pis cobella.
ea ee or CorcHEsTeR River, in Geography,a naen
of Nova Scotia, which rifes within 20 miles of ‘Tatamogouche,
on the N.E. coaft.of Nova Scotia; from thence it runs fonth-
erly, then S.W. and W. into the eaft end of the bafin of
Minas. Atits mouth is a bank, with a good channel on
each fide, fo that veffels of 60 tuns burden may pals, and
fail 40 miles up the river. On its banks are fome feattered
fettlements.
COBER, a river of: ‘England, i in the county of Cornwall,
which runs into the Englifh channel a little below Helfton..
COBESEY, in the diftri€t. of Maine, in N. America. ove
PittTsTon.
COBEZA, or Comya, an obfctre port and villages in
the audience of Los Charcas, in Peru, South America; the
place is inhabited by about 50 Indian families, and is the
molt barren fpot on the coaft. It is, however, the neareft
port to Lipes, where are filver mines, and alfo to Potofi,
which is above 100 leagues diftant through a defert country.
COBHAM, a {mall town of America, in the ftate of
Virginia, on the fouth bank of James river, oppofite to
Jameftown ; 20 mi}:s N.W. of Suffolk, and eight or nine
S.W. of Williamfoyx. N. lat. 37° 7. W. long. 76° 55%
Cosuam J/le, an land se eaned: by captain Middleton
in the journal of his voyage for finding a north-ealt paflage.
Its two extremes bear N. by E. and. E_ by N. in N. lat.
3°, and E. long. from Churchill, 3° 50’, which he takes
co be the ** Brook Cobham”? of Fox.
COBI, as it is called bythe Tartars, and denominated
Chamo by the. Chinefe, an immenfe defart of ‘Tartary,
runving in a parallel direétion from the ealt to the weit,
fouth of the Altaian ridge, and occupying almoft the
whole fouthern part of the country of the Kalkas. ‘This
defart is reckoned to be more than ‘roo leagues in length
from eaft to weft, and almoft the fame in breadth from
north to fovth, and even more towards the weltern part;
and it prefents nothing to view but immente -plains af fand,
2 fometimes
x
COB
fometimes moveable, fometimes folide Thefe plains are
here and there interrupted by fome little hills, on which are
feen a few bufhes, but not a fingle tree. It is in general
dry, and deltitute of pafturage and water of every kind,
‘except a {mall number of pools in which the rain 1s colle&ted,
and a few bad wells that occafionally occur. Its fituation is
very high, and it may be eafily perceived on leaving China,
that one mutt afcend confiderably to crofs it; the cold, on
that account, is exceedingly fharp, and continues very long.
The great quantity of falt with which the fand is impreg-
nated greatly contributes to this temperature. On digging
only a.few feet below the furface, the earth may be found
frozen in every feafon of the year. The fands of this re-
gion are very inconvenient to travellers, and dangerous to
horfes, many of which daily perifh; and, therefore, the
neighbouring Tartars, when they traverfe them, generally
make ufe of camels, becaufe thefe animals require little
food, and can live without water for feveral days.
COBIJA. See Cospeza.
COBILUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor
in Bithynia, according to Valerius Flaccus, fuppofed to be
the Cobulatus of Livy.
COBIOMACHUS, a name given by Cicero to a vil-
lage of Gallia Narbonnenfis, fuppofed to be the fame with
the modern Cabdignac, between Touloufe and Narbonne.
COBITIS, in Schihyology, a genus of abdominal fifhes,
diftinguifhed by the following chara¢ter.
The head is {mall, oblong, and deftitute of fcales; eyes
fituated in the upper part of the head; nape flat. Gill-
membrane with from four to fix rays; gill-cover confifting
Of a fingle piece, and clofing beneath. Body covered with
mucus, and fmall, thin, deciduous f{eales; and nearly of
equal thicknefs from the head to the tail; back ftraight,
with a fingle fin; lateral line fcarcely confpicuous; vent
neareft the tail.
Species.
Barsatura. Cirri fix, head unarmed, and compreffed.
Linn. Lnachelycpus, &c. of Klein, and Cobitis fluviatilis of
Ray. -
The Cobitis barbatula is the bearded loche of Englith
writers. ‘This fifh is an inhabitant of clear rivulets in many
parts of Europe. The body is finely varied with pale
brown, white, and black ; it is a fertile fifth, and of exqui-
fite favour, and is on that account cultivated with much
afliduity as an article of luxury for the table in fome parts of
Europe. Donov. Brit. Fithes. e
Taenta. A forked {pine under each eye, Linn. Co-
bitis aculeata, Marfd, Dan. Yaenia cornuta, Willughby.
This alfo is a native of Europe ; it inhabits freih waters,
and is obferved to lurk under ftones, whence in England
it has obtained the name of groundling; it feeds on worms,
aquatic infe€ts, and ‘{mall fifhes; when handled makes a
hiffing noife. The colour is yellowilh, with four rows of
brown fpots, and like the foriner fpecies this has fix
beards or cirri to the mouth.
Fossixis. Cirri eight; a forked fpine over each eye.
Linn. Fn. Suec. Muffela foffilis, Marfd. Bey/zker,
Gefner. f
This fpecies is the largeft of the genus; it inhabits bog.
gy places, and muddy lakes, and {treams in feveral parts
of Kurope, but is moft frequent in Germany. ‘The great
loche is ufually from ten to twelve, or at the utmolt fifteen
inches in length, of a dull yellowifh-brown colour, marked
above by feveral longitudinal ftripes of dark brown or
black, and which extend the whole way from the head to
the tail, This fpecies conceals itfelf during the winter, or
COB
when the marfhes it inhabits begin to grow dry, at fome
diftance beneath the furface ot the mud. According to
Bloch this fish is obferved to be unufually reftlefs; quitting
the muddy bottom in which it generally refides, and {wim-
ming nzar the furface of the water. It is a prolific fith,
very tenacious of life, and excellent food.
Hererocyira. Head without cirri; dorfal and anal
fins fpotted with white, and the tail barred with black.
Defcribed by Dr. Garden as a native of Carolina, where,
according to that writer, itis known by the name of mud-
fifh. The length is about four inches; the body roundith,
and covered with large imooth feales, and the colour be-
neath yellowith. The head is flattifh, lips denticulated ;
dorfal and anal fin placed oppofite, and fituated at a great
diftance from the head; they are blackifh and powdered with
pale tranfparent fpecks. Gmelin exprefles fome doubt
whether this fifh in reality appertains to the genus colitis.
Jaronica. Head without cirri, deprefled; jaws armed
with teeth. Japanefe loche.
A native of Japan, and firlt deferibed by Houttuyr, in
the 2zoth volume of the Haarlem Tranfa&tions. The leugth
is five inches, and the body is of a roundifh form. The dorfal
fin contains twelve rays; the pectoral eleven, ventral eight,
anal nine, and tail twenty.
AnaB eps. Cirri two; head depreffed, eyes prominent.
Linn. <Anableps Arted. Anableps, tetropthalmus, Bloch.
Linnzus contiders this asa fpecies of cobitis, but we are
clearly of opinion that notwithitanding its general refem-
blance to fifhes of this genus, the very extraordinary, and in-
deed, peculiar conftruction of its eyes at once removes it
from that genus of fifhes. Thefe eyes are protuberant, and
have double pupils, fo diftin@ly marked, that at the firlt
view the filh eppears in reality to be furmihed with a pair of
eyes on each fide of the head. Bloch conftitutes a new genus.
of this fingular fifh under the generical appeliation of ana-
bleps, a genus we fhould adopt could the article be readily:
referred to its alphabetical order in the Cyclopedia.” Lin-
neus, however, having defcribed it as appertaining to the
genus cobitis, there can be little impropriety in allowing it
to remain as a fequel to that genus. ‘This fifh was firft de-
{cribed by Artedi, who cxamined fome fpecimens of it in
the mufeum of A. Seba, which were received from South
America, the region it inhabits. It is faid prine:paily tq
live in the rivers of Surinam, near-the fea-coaits,
The length of this fifh is from fix to eight inches, or
fometimes rather more. Itis of a very comprefied form,
and is covered with moderately large rounded feales, which
are {maller in proportion on the head than any other parts.
The colour is a pale yellowifh brown, marked, like the great
loche, with four or five longitudinal blackifh ftitpes.. Inthe
ftru€ture. of its eyes it diflers from every other flh known 3
‘ thefe eyes are extremely protuberant, fituated on the upper
part of the head, and feem each divided into two dittingt
eyes, united in a fingle tubular receptacle ;. it appears, how~
ever, on difeGtion, that though the anterior half of each
eye feems to be double, or furnifhed with two pupils, yet
the cryftalline is fingie ; the appearance of a double eye on
each fide arifing mercly from the deep divifion of the ante-
rior region. It is afferted alfo by Gronovius, that the anal.
fin varies in its {tructure in different individeals, being in
fome of a fimple or regular form, and furnithed with mine
foft rays, while in others it is farmed into a. tube, which
is fometimes accompanied by a {mall additisnal fin.
Cosiris aculeata, called alfo cobytis oxyryachus, and .daco-
Tithus, names given by Aldrovandus, Jotutton, Gefner, and
other old writers, to the Cobitis taenia of modern naturalilts.
See CosiTis facitia.
j COBIUS..
COB
COBIUS. See Gosius.
COBLENT, Herman, in Biography.
LAERT.
COBLENTZ, in Geography, a city of Germany, in the
circle of the lower Rhine, in the eleétorate of Treves, or ac-
cording to the French arrangement, the principal place of a
diftri&t, and capital of the department of the Rhine and
Mofelle, including three communes, and containing, ac-
cording to the ftatement of Tinfeau in 1803, 10,000 inha-
bitants; and according to Render in his * Tour through
Germany,’ (vol. i.) about 16,co0, all of whom are Roman
Catholics. They are generally tall, with agreeable features,
and exprcflive countenances.
The population of the whole diftriG in 1803 is ftated by
Tinfeau to have been 69,900. It comprehends 209 com-
munes, diitributed into 12 cantons, viz. Coblentz, Ander-
nach, Boppard, Cochheim, Raiferfech, Luzerath, Mayen,
Munttermaifield, Polch, Ruberach, Tries, and Zell. In this
diflri& there are confiderable bleaching yards, and fome
manufactures of woollen and linen cloth, and alfo of leather.
The foil is moderately fertile, affording excellent vineyards ;
and the hiils are covered with trees. The canton of Mayen
has three quarries of flateand lime, together with fome lead
and iron mines. ‘The mineral fprings of Andernach are de-
nominated Tinitein, or Tuniflein water. The canton of
Luzerath has a warm bath.
Almolt immediately above the city, the river Mofelle
unites with the Rhine, and forms a kind of triangle, from
which circumftance it derives its name, in Latin Confluentia.
Over the Mofelle is a ftone bridge, conftruéted in the 14th
century, which has 14 arches, 520 feet in length, and of fuch
a height that veflels may pafs under it without lowering their
fails. The flying bridge, or bridge of boats, by which
paflengers may crofs the Rhine three times every hour, to
the fmall town of Thal, prefents a very. uncommon and
pleafing fight. Inthe time of the Romans, Coblentz was
the ftation of the firft legion ; and afterwards it became the
refidence of the fucceflors of Charlemagne. In 1249, it was
encompaffed with walls, and fince that time it has been for-
tified. The ftreets of Coblentz are generaily regular, the
pavement tolerably good, and the city welllighted m winter.
On the eaftern bank of the Rhine, the eleCtor finding
the fituation of the old palace, inthe vale of Ehrenbreititein,
infalubrious and inconvenient, has lately built another very
elezant and fumptuous one, where he has fince’ refided.
This city contams- three large churches, two of which
are coliegiate, feveral convents, and other noble buildings.
It has alfo a Gymnafium or academical fchcol, in which a
new plan of education 1s adopted, with refpeét both to the
claffics and fciences, which, from the encouragement it has re-
ceived, is likely to produce the belt effe& on the cultoms and
manners of the inhabitants, and to promote in a very great
degree the improvement of the city. Commerce, however,
notwithftanding the advantageous lituation of the city near
the Rhine and the Mofelle, does not make any great pro-
grefs; one caufe of which is the vicinity of Mentz and
Cologne, which, by duties and tolls, impede the natural
courfe of trade, Another caufe is religious intolerance,
which long prevailed here, but is now in a great degree re-
moved by the enlightened policy of the elector. Coblentz
was formerly imperial, but was teken by the French ia
Otober, 1794, and ceded to them by the treaty of Campo
Formio, in 1797. The country around this city isin every
refpeét very romantic, ‘The hills on the right and left form
an amphitheatre, and fome of them are covered with Lufhes.
The meanders of the rivers Lahn and Mofelle, which join the
See H. Cor-
cos
Rhine, exhibit a pleafing profpe&. Nearly oppofite'to this city
is the ancient fortrefs of Ehrenbreitftein, which ts feated on
the fummit of a ftupendous rock about 800 feet above the level
of theriver, and when fupported by a competent garrifon, is
deemed impregnable ; it communicates with Coblentz by fub-
terraneous paffages cut in the folid rock, and is plentifully
fupplied with water from a well 286 feet deep. In the
arienal, belonging to this fortrefs, is a curious cannon, called
«Der Vogel Greif,” i.e, the bird called Griffin, 20 feet
long, about two feet diameter in the bore, and four in the
breech. This cannon, it is faid, when difcharged with a ball
of 160 pounds weight, will carry it to Andernach, about 12
miles from thence. ‘The ancient refidence of the eleczors of
Treves is fituated at the foot of the caltle. The view from
the pinnacle of the fortrefs commands the country round
Coblentz for about roc miles. A confiderable leather manu-
faftory has been eitablifhed at this place, under the patronage
of the elector ; and another at the diftance of about two miles
at Vallender. They receive their hides dire&tly from Buenos
Ayres in South America. The prifon belonging to this
fortrefs, and the treatment of thofe criminals who are con-
fined in it, have been long a reproach to German jurifpru-
dence. Coblentz is fituated at the diftance of 36 miles
N. W. from Mentz, 54 N.E. from Treves, and 82 E.S.E,.
from Liege. N. lat. 50° 24’. E. long. 7° 4%
COBLENZ, a town of Swiflerland, in the diftriG of
Baden, at the confluence of the Aarand the Rhine, 10 miles
N.N.W. of Baden. : >
COBLESKILL, a new town of America, in the ftate of
New York, and county of Schoharie, incorporated in
1797 :
“COBOB. a name of a difh among the Moors. It is made
of feveral pieces of mutton wrapt up in the cawl, and after-
wards roafted in it; the poorer people, inftead of the meat,
ufe the heart, liver, and other parts of the entrails, and make
a good difh, though not equal to the former. Phil. Tranf.
NOS 2 ba
COBOOSE, in Sea Language, is derived from the Dutch
Rambuis, and denotes a fort of box, refembling a centry-box,
ufed to cover the chimneys of fome merchant-fhips. - It
generally ftands again{t the barricade, on the fore-part of the
uarter-deck, It is called in the Weft Indies cobre veza.
COBOZE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Siam. N, lat. 12° 43’. E. long. 97°
20". :
COBRA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coluber in the Gmeli-
nian fyftem. See CoLuBEr. aA :
Conra Americana of Seba, is ConuBer fubalbidus of mo-
cern authors.
Cosea Lachefis of Lavrenti, is Coruser /achefis of
Gmelin. J
Befides thefe it is to be obferved there are feveral diftinét
kinds of fnakes, known under the general and indefinite
title of cobra, fome of which it would be difficult to reduce
with any degree of certainty to the modern nomenclature,
Cobra de las cabegas is of this delcription ; it is an Ame-
rican fpecies of ferpent, whofe bite is faid to be very fatal:
this kind lives under ground and feeds on ants. Cobra de
coral is alfo a native of America, and is called by the natives
Ibibiteca, This is about two feet in length, and is much
variegated with red. Cobra de cipo is likewife an American
f{nake called by the natives of Bralil, Boiijapo.
COBRAS de Capello, the Portuguefe name of a kind
of ferpent, calléd by fome authors, /erpens incoronatus,
diademate, feu confpicillo infignis, and alfo the {pectacle {nake,
from the itrange double occllated {pots on the-back of the
‘ ; head ~
Ge 6
head and neck, which bear fome refemblance to a pair of
fpeGtacles. It inhabits India, and is fatd to be the moi poi-
fonous of its tribe. See Coruner Naga.
In the fecond yolume of the “ Afiatic Refearches,”
we have an account by John Williams, efg. of fix cafes
of perfons, in the molt dangerous fituations, in confe-
quence of being bitten by the cobra de capéllo, who
were cured by the internal and external ufe of volatile
caultic alkali. The dofe was a tea-{poonful, repeated
according to. the neceffity of the cafe. The author
above obferves, that convulfions of the throat and fauces are
a conftant {ymptom of the bite of this ferpent 3 but he never
knew an inftance of the volatile canttic alkali failing in its ef-
fect, where the patient has been able to {wallow it.
Conras, in Geography, an ifland of South America, inthe
Atlantic, near the coait of Brafil, on the fouth fide of the
river Janeiro, oppofite the city.
COBRE, Et, a town of the ifland of Cuba, ten miles
W. of St. Jago.
Cosre de verd, Cobre verde, in Zoology, the name given
by the Portuguefe in America, to a {pecies of ferpent, called
by the natives Boiobi. This is the Boa Canina of Lin-
neus.
COBULATUS. See Conrtus.
COBUM, in Anciixt Geography, a river of Afia in the ter-
ritory of Colchis; the fource of which, according to Pliny,
was in mount Caucafus, and it had its courfe among the people
ealled Guani. Arrian mentions it under the name of Chobus.
Tet difcharged itfelf into the Fnxine fea.
COBURG, Principaxity of, in Geography, a diftri&
fituated near the river Saal, between the terrjtorics of Bareith,
Thuringia, Heaneberg, and Bamberg, in the circle of Fran-
conia, but dependent on the circle of Upper Saxony. It
formerly belonged tothe counts of Henneberg, but pafind by
marriage to the houfe of Saxony, and is divided among four
branches, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, or Saxe-Saalfcld, Saxe-
Meinungen, Saxe-Gotha, and Saxe-Hildburghaufen. The
Jand is generally fertile, and the inhabitants export corn,
wool, fat cattle, tiles, works in wood, pitch, and pot-ath.
_ Cozsurc, a town of Germany in the circle of Upper Sax-
ony, but infulated in Franconia, of which it formerly madea
part, when the counts cf Heaneberg poflefled it in the 14th
century. . [t is now the refidence of the dukes of Saxe-
Saalfcld, and is feated on the river Irt{ich, ina valley be-
tween two mountains. The town and fuburbs are fur-
rounded by a wall. Here are four churches, and a college
founded by John Cafimir, duke of Saxony, in 1597, on
which the emperor Leopold, in 1677, conferred fuch extra-
ordinary privileges, that it might be faid to rival fome uni-
verlities, and a public fchool, and alfo manufa&tures of gold,
filver, china, and petrified wood, with which the country
abounds. As Luther refided fome months at Coburg i the
year 1530, the archives may be regarded as a treafury of
authentic papers, relating to the reformation. Coburg is 23
miles N. of Bamberg, and 4o S. of Weimar. N. lat. 50°
rasosflong at 1° i's
COBUS; in Ancient Geography. a river of the Bofphorus,
which flows, according to Plisy, from the Caucafus
_, COBWEB. See Wes and Sirk. :
Coswes, in Ornithology, a name given in Merton’s Hiltory
of Nortliamptonthive to the {potted fly-cateher, or mufetcapa
grifola of Linneus and Gmelin.
- COCA, in Commerce, a méafure in Japan, equal to an.
Englifh pint. 7
Coca, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile,
on the Erefa; 24 miles S.S.E. of Valladolid, and 22
N.W. of Segovia.
{ (Vox. VIII. re P
*
coc
COCABA, in 4auciet Geography. a place of Afia, in the
territory of Bafhan, in the vicinity of Palettine, where the
herefiarch Ebion is faid to have lived.
COCALA, a place in Afia, on the Indian fea, in the
country of the Orite. Arrian. Vis town of India, 1s fup-
pofed to be the Cicacole of modern times. See Crcacove.
COCALIA, atewn cf Afia, placed by Ptolemy in the
interior of Pontus Cappadocirs. Q
COCALICO, in Geography, a township of America, in
the ftate of Pennfylvania, and the county of Lancafter.
COCAMA, a lake of South America, which, at 5° 14!
S. lat., by anarrow channel, enters the eaftern fide of the
river Gualaga. “This lake is about 1} league in circumfer-
ence ; and on the bank is a dry, elevated foil, on the top of
which ftands a miffionary fettlement, where refide the pre-
fident of the miffions, and the lieutenant-governor. The
number of Chriftians is 8895, with 19 curates, and a fu-
perior of the miffions; each of the former having 200 dol-
lars a-year, and the vicar 333, paid at the treafury of Quite,
and chiefly remitted in effects; while the Indian fervants
hunt and fith, and cultivate {mall fields of tice and fugar-
canes. Boys of 10 or 12 years of ape, are trained by an
ufeful policy to the magiftracy, being annual infpectors of
the condu&t of their comrades, and correCting {ma | offences,
whilft rare examples of crimes are reported to the judges.
Thus offencesare avoided, and vourg perfons are trained to
fincere and goodconduét: See Maynes.
COCANICUS Lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
fituated on the fonthers coal of Sicily, which, according
to Piiny, produced falt.
COCCAPANI, Srcismonvo, in Biography, a painter
and architeét, born at Florence, 1583. Early in life he
fhewed a ftrong inclination tewards the mathematics, end
he afterwards [tudied painting and archite€ture under Lodo-
vico Cigoli. His firll work of painting was an alter-picce
in the church of St. Ponziano at Lucca. Inthe year 16109,
he effited his mafer in the paintings which he was then ex-
ecuting in the Paoline chapel in the Vatican. Few of his
pictures are in public, but many of confiderable ment, and
articularly fome excellent portraits, are to be found in the
private colleGtions of Florence. Many years of his life
were {pent in compofing a treatife on archiceGture, mecha-
nics, hydraulics, &c. illultrated by geometrical figures ;
which, for its ingenuity and clearnefs, was honoured with
the approbation of the celebrated Galileo. About the
year 1630, he was employed, in competition with other ar-
tits, to make dcfigns fer the fagade of St. Maria del Piore
at Florence ; which fine church, however, fill remains with-
out one. Thisartilt died, much refpeded, in the year 1642.
Baldinucci. Orlandi.
Coccarani, Giovanni, elder brother of the above-men-_
tioned artift, was born in Florence in 1552. He was Brit
intended for the law, and took his doGor’s degree, but he
afterwards applied himfelf, more {pecially to the tkucy of
the mathematics, mechanics, avd civil 2s well as military
archite@ture ; in each of thefe branches cf fci.nce, he foon
became fo eminent, that his inftrugtions were eagerly fought
by many of the youhg nobility of Florence, as well as fo-
reigners, with whom he ever after kept up a literary, corret-
pondence. In 1622, he was called to V jenna, and employ-
ed by the emperor in the quality of military engineer ; and
he afterwards received a grant of lands for his fervices
Upon his return to Florence, be built the ine palace cal ed
Villa Impenale, for the grand dukes and erected the con-
vent of the. nuns.of the erder of Santa ‘Derefa,, with the
church in the form of an hexagon, and a well-prop: ryioned
4M cupolas
c-O' ¢
enpola. The grand duke of Tufcany having founded a
college for the ftudy of the mathematics, Coccapani was
chofen profeflor, nor would he abandon his native city when,
upon a future occafion, he was invited to occupy a fituation
of the fame kind in Rome, itill more honourable. Several
extraordinary pieces of machinery were found at his death
in 1649, and one in particular, which, by the help of 30
flaiks of water, placed in a box ingeninoufly formed to re-
ceive it, was enabled to grind corn, and at the fame time
print copper-piates, and perform various other functions.
Baldinucci. Milizia. Mem. degli Arch.
COCCEIRA, ia Botany, a name by which fome
authors have called the cocoa-uut tree, the palma nucifera In-
diz of molt writers.
COCCEILUS, Joun, in Biography, an eminent theologian,
was born at Bremen in 1603, and in 1630 he was made
Hebrew profeflor in the univeifity there. In 1650 he was
chofen profefior of theology at Leyden, and rendered him-
felf diftinguifhed by the peculiarity of his opinions. In ex-
plaining the Scriptures, he always looked beyond the literal
meaning to fomething that fhould wear the appearance of
myltery. e regarded the Old Teitament as a perpetual
reprefentation, or mirror of the hiltory of Chriit, and his
‘church; he maintained, that all the Jewifh prophecies have
a relation to Chrift, and that his miracles, aGiions, and fuf-
ferings, and thole of his apoftles, were types of future events.
He was peculiarly attached to the book of Revelations,
and believed in common with many divines in almoit every age
of the Chriftian church, that there would be a vifible reign
of Chrift upon earth, which fhould deftroy the kingdom of
Anti-chrift. Cocceius was oppoted in feveral of his darling
tenets by Veet; hence in church hiltory we have the party
names of Cocceians and Voetians. Cocceius died at Leyden
in 1669, and his works were colleéted after his death in 10
vols. fol., eight of which were publifhed at Frankfort in
1689, and the remaining two at Amfterdam not till 1706.
He was a man of great erudition, indefatigable induitry,
and the moft ardent picty ; his many virtues did not, how-
ever, fcreen him from the attacks of his contemporaries, by
fome of whom he was branded as a heretic: a fate to which
the belt men in every age have been fubj<@&. Nouv. Did.
Hit,
Coccetus, Henry, a celebrated civilian, was born at
Bremen, 1644, and educated at Leyden. After having tra-
velicd in various parts of Europe, he became profeflor of
Jaw ac Heidelberg, where he was created privy counfellor of
flate. On the capture of this city in 1685, he loft his li-
brary, ‘and immediately went to Utrecht. Here he ftayed
but two years, when, in confequence of an invitation from
the ele€tar of Brandenburg, he undertook the profeilurfhip
ot Jaw at Frankfort onthe Oder. By this prince he was
confulted on the moil tmportant {tate affairs, and his reputa-
tion gained him the rank of baron of the empire, in the
year 1718, an honour which he fearcely enjoyed a fingle
year. He died in 1719, leaving behind him the character
of a great man, celebrated 2s well for his integrity and dif-
intere!tednefs, as for his affiduity in every thing that he under-
took. His principal works are ‘ Juris Publici Prudentia
compendiofe exhibita,’? 1695, 8vo. ‘* Prodromus Juftitiz
Gentium,”” 1719, 4to. “ Dedu@tiones, Confilia, Refponfa
jn Caulis lultriam,”? 1725, fol. and “A colleGtion of Thefes,”
in g vols. gto. He kfta fon, Samuel, who was diftinguifh-
ed as a ltatefman in the court of Pruffia, under Frederic the
Great, and who drew up the Frederician code, and publithed
an edition of Grotius ** On War and Peace,” in 5 vols. 4to.
He died in 1755. Nouv. Di&. Hit. Du Frefnoy.
COCCHI, Anrwony, a learned Italian phyfician, was
1
coc
born at Florence in 1695, where he received the rudiments of
his education. Ata proper age, he was fent by his father to
France.to various parts of Germany, to Holland, andat length
to England, every where affociating with, and cultivating the
intimacy of the moft diftinguifhed philofophers aud phyft.
cians, among others, with Boerhaave, fir Ifaac Newton,
and Dr. Mead. It was on the fuggeflion of Dr. Mead,
that on his return to ltaly, while filling the chair cf profef-
for of anatomy and furgery at Florence, he wasinduced to
publith «¢ Grecorum Chirurgici Libri; Sorani unusde Frac:
turarum fignis, Oribafii duo de Fraétis, et Luxatis, ex Col-
leGione Nicetz, Florent.’? 1754, fol. The manufcripts
from which this curious work is publifhed, are in the li-
brary of the Medici at Florence. ‘ Oratio de Ufu Artis
Anatomice, Florent.’”’ 1736, 4to. The author givesa fhort
hiftory of anatomy acd furgery, in which he denies that the
ancient anatomilts, Herophilus and Erafiftratus, were accuf-
tomed to diffe& the bodies of men, while living. ‘* Medicine
laudatio in Gymnafio Pifis habita,” 1727, 4to. Spoken on
opening a courfe of leétares at Pifa, where he had been ap-
pointed profeffor, prior to his returning to Florence. ‘ Del
vitto Pythagorico,” Flor. 1743, and 1750, 8vo. It has
been feveral times re-printed. The author thinks a vegetable
diet bef fuited to the conftitution of man. He wrote alfo
on cold bathing, which he commends. ‘ On the Baths at
Pifa, and Sopra Afciepiadea.”’? This was publifhed by his
fon, Raymond Cocchi, who fucceeded his father as profef-
for of anatomy, and phyfician to the public hofpital at
Florence. Haller Bib. Chirurg. Eloy. Di&. Hilt.
Cocc#i, AnTHONY CELESTINE, cotemporary, and proba-
bly related to the above, practifed medicine, with credit, at
Rome, in the early part of the laft century. He was teacher of
botany there, and author of the following : “ Epiltolaad Mor-
gagnum, de lente cryftallina oculi, vera fuffulionis fede,”
Rome, 1721, 4to. ‘ Epiftole Phyfico-Medice ad Lanci-
fium et Morgagnum,”” Rome, 1725, 4to. Some judicious
obfervations are offcred by the author on the gaol or hofpital
fever, on aneurifms,and on acafewhich occurred to the author
of a dilatation of the vena cava ; alfo onacafe of hyfteria; a
tranflation into Latin of ‘* Zenophon’s Ambrocofmus et An-
thia,” 1726, 4to. London. ‘ An Oration on opening the
botanical garden at Rome, to which the author was ap-
pointed curator ; and a relation of a cafe of {mall-pox, pre-
ceded by a paroxyim of convulfion, which was appeafed, we
are told, by bleeding the patient, and immerfing the extremi-
tics in warm water.” Differtatio Phyfico-praGtica conti-
nens vindicias Corticis Peruviani,’’? Rome, 1748, Svo. ‘he
prejudices which at that time prevailed againtt the ufe of the
Peruvian bark, which are here judicioufly combated, have
long fince fubfided. Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.
COCCHI, Gioaccuino, a Neapolitan opera-com-
pofer, of confiderable reputation in Italy, and mentioned
by Rouffean in his Lett. fur la Muf. Fran. in 1750,
among the eminent matters then fiourifhing in that coun-
try. It was in the beginning of the Mattei’s opera rce
gency, 1757, that Cocchi came to London, where he com-
pofed a great number of operas, ferious and comic, arranged
patticcios, and publifhed mifcellaneous fongs, fymphonies, or
opera overtures, in parts, and pieces adapted to the harpfi-
chord. Coming from Naples, where good compofers
abounded, he had good tafte, and knowledge in all the me-
chanical parts of his profeffion ; but his invention was very
limited, and even what he adopted from others, became lan-
guid in pafling through his hands.” The only drama fet by
this compofer, during his 15 years refidence in this country,
was “ Ciro Riconofciuto,” int-59. The air “ Rende mi il
figlio mio,”” was happily fet, and was ftill more happily {0g
Y
coc
by Mattei. This air is full of fpirit and paffion, and per-
fectly {uited to the fituation of the character by which it
was performed. This is one of the firft capital opera airs
without a fecond part and da capo. "The duet has confder-
able merit, but too many of the paflages are alla /coxze/e.
This drama was reprefented during a great part of the re-
mainder of the feafon. It was in this opera that Tenducci
was firit noticed on our ttage ; and, though a young per-
former, and only fccond in rank, he had a much better
voice and manner of finging than Potenza, to whom he
gave precedence.
In 1760, Cocchi fet * La Clemenza di Tito,”’ but difco-
vered no new refources in its compolition. At the end of
May of this year, ‘* Erginda,”’ written by Apoftolo Zeno,
now fet by Cocchi, was alfo brought out, but after three
reprefentations, to very thin honfes, the feafon was clofed,
June 7th, without its having afforded much rapture to the
public, or profit to the impre/uria; who not having been able to
procure a capital finger to perform the firft man’s part, and
Cocchi’s invention, which was never fertile, being now exhau!!-
ed, the feafon paffed on rather heavily ; as did his ** Tito Man-
lio” in 1760, which only fuflained three reprefentations. The
feafon clofed this year with an occational ** Grand Serenata,”
and the next began with an occafional drama, * Le Speran-
ze della Terra,” both compofed by Cocchi, both fhort-
lived, and little noticed. In 1762, he compofed two comic
operas, to which even the animated performance of the ad-
mirable Paganini could not give long life. Cocchi was
quite exhaufted long before his comic operas were produced.
His invention did nor flow in torrents, it was but a rill at its
greatelt {well; and now, with hardly a fingle {mile upon any one
of the airs, his heavy and thread-bare paffages were doubly
wearifome. Indeed, his refources in the ferious ttyle were
fo few, that he hardly produceda new paflage after the firft
year of his arrival in England; but in attempting to clothe
comic ideas in melody, or to paint ridiculous fituations by
the effets of an orchettra, he was quite contemptible.
Without humour, gaiety, or creative powers of any kind,
his comic opera was the moft melancholy performance I ever
heard, fays Dr. Burney, in an Italian theatre.
When Cocchi firlt arrived in England, he brought over
the new paflages that were in favour at Rome and Naples,
to which, however, he added fo little from his own {tock of
ideas, that, by frequent repetition, the public was foon
tired of them ; and his publications in this country are now
as much forgotten as if he had lived 1m the fifteenth century.
Indeed, all the animation and exiltence they had, were con-
ferred on them by the performance of Elifi and Matter. He
remained here long enough to fave a confiderable fum of
money by teaching to fing. Plutarch informs us, that Dio-
nyfius the tyrant of Syracufe, when he had loft his king-
dom, became a {choolmafler, the common refource of opera
compofers and fingers, who, after being dethroned in the
theatre, often fubmit to the fame drudgery.
The operas which he compofed in England have been
foecified till the year 1762, when his engagement as opera-
compofer ceafed. In 1765, he compiled a ferious pa'ticcio,
called ** La Clemenza di Tito,”’ in which he introduced
a few of the fongs from his own former opera of that name,
which had been performed in 1760 ; and in 1771, he com-
pofed an opera called * Semiramide Riconofciuta,” and this
was his fale; but the nation had been too long accuftom-
ed to better mufic to liften to it with much pleature.
About 1772, he retired to Venice, where he had been
maeftro of a confervatorio before his arrival in England ;
and there he enjoyed in cafe and tranquillity the fruits of his
jabours, feveral years. ‘he patrons of the confervatorios
C, Ore
of Naples and Venice, with great liberality and kiadnefs to
other nations, grant permiffion to the eminent compolers
whom they elect mafters of the confe tvatorios, to accept of
engagements in foreign countries, without difpoting of their
places, but to deputies properly qualified for fuperintending
thefe mufical eftablifhments, which are reftored to the tra-
velling mafters on their return. This indulgence was
granted to Haffle, Galuppi, Sacchini, Bertoni, &c. durins
the many journeys which they took profeffiozally to Spain,
Portugal, Germany, England, and differents parts of Italy.
COCCI/E Piturz, in the Materia Medica. See
Pius.
COCCIFEROUS, in Botany, fuch plants‘ or trees as
bear berries. See BacciFERous.
COCCINELLA, in Lntomolozy, a genus of coleopterous
infeéts, poffefiing, according to the fyitem of Linnzus, the
following effential charaGter: antenne clavated, or ending
in a club, which is folid and truncated; anterior feelers
hatchet-fhaped, polterior filiform; thorax and wing-cafes
margined ; the body hemifpherical, and the abdomen flat
beneath. The Fabrician charaéter of the coccinella confills
in having the anterior feelers hatchet-fhaped, the potterior
filiform ; lip cylindrical ; and the antennz terminating in a
folid club. i
This genus of infeéts is divided into fections according’ to
the'colour of the wing-cafes ; and the f{pots, or dots with
which they are marked. The firft feGtion comprehends thofe
which have the wing-cafes red or yellow, and marked with
black dois; the fecond, thofe having the wing-cafes red or
yellow, with white or wlitith dots: the third has the wing-
cafes yellow, {potted with red; the fourth, the wing-cafes
black, with red {pots ; and the fifth, the wing-cafes black,
dotted with white or yellow.
The coccineliz are generally found on plants, and as they
fubfilt chiefly on the aphides, or lice that infeft vegetables,
are to be numbered among thofe infe&s which are effentially
{erviceable to horticulture and agriculture. The larve of
the coccinella, a lively race, are frequently feen running
brifkly over plants in fearch of the aphides, which they at-
tack with ferocity, and devour in vaft numbers. Thefe
larve are of an elongated figure, becoming pointed towards
the tail; the head is rather flat and proteéted by a fealy
covering, but the rett of the body is naked. This animal is
furnifhed alfo with fix legs, which, like the head, are of a
fcaly nature. The body confifts of twelve joints or annula-
tions, aud in fome f{pecies is rough, with little verrucofe, or
wart-like puftules. When in the pupa ftate, the coccinelle
are enveloped in a thin and delicate membrane, and are at-
tached to the under furface of the leaves of thofe plants
which they moft commonly inhabit in the larva and fly tate,
The pupz of many fpecies are elegantly dotted, and {potted
with black, upon a ground of various colours. The infe&s
of this genus are, with few exceptions, of a {mabl fize.
Species.
Firft Divifion, Thofe with the wing-cafes red or yellow;
and marked with black dots.
Cincra. Subrotund, yellowifh, thorax with four black
dots. Deferibed by Fabricius in his Supplementum as a
native of the Eaft Indics, from a f{pecimen in the cabinet of
Daldorff
Gg Notata. Red, with nine black dots ; margin of the
head and thorax white. Herbit. Inhabits North America.
Larta. Red, with thirteen black dots; thorax black,
with the margin aad two dots white. abr. Suppl. Inha-
bits Mogadore.
Lintorara. Red, with five dots, and two little lines of
4Me2z black
COCCINELLA.
black at the bafe of the wing-cafes. A new {pecies taken
by the Revd. Mr. Burrel, near Holt, in Norfolk. Marth.
Ent. Brit.
rr-Notata. Red, with eleven black dots; margin of
the winz-cafes at the bafe yellow, body black. Marth. Eu.
Brit. Difcovered in Kenfington Gardens.
Fiava- Wing-cafes, legs, and thorax at the fides yellow.
Marth. Inhabits Britain.
Sixvosa.. Wing-cafes fulvous, with two abbreviated
finnous #ripes, and a biack dot each fide. Marfh. Inhabits
B:itain.
Marcinata. Wi
thorax with a white m
tive of South America.
Listsata. Black ; dif_lc of the wing-cafes red, with two
bleck dots.: Fabr. Inhabits Hamburzh. This is of the
middle fize, and has the head and thorax black; and the
~wing-eafes black, with the difk red, and marked witha large
black dot each. ;
MarcGinEtLa. Wing-cafes duil teftaceous, with yellow
margin. Fabr. A native of America.
SupinAMENSIS. _ Wing-cales red and immaculate ; head
Lrotylus Surinamenfis, Olivier.
cafes red, with black margin ;
inal dot each fide. Linn. A na-
and thorax black. Linn.
Feaind in South America. ;
ImmacuLata. Wing-cafes ferruzinous and immaculate ;
thorax black; margin and two dorfal dois white. Fabr.
Inhabits American iflands.
Unrcovor. Thorax and wing cafes immaculate. Fabr.
D-feribed asa native of the Ealt Indies, from the cabinet
of Abildgard. :
M. Nicaum. Obiong, wing-cafes teaceous and imma-
eulate; thorax white, with a black M. Fabr. Inhabits
Kiel. i : f
.Sancuinea. Wing-cafes fanguineous and immaculate ;
thorax fpotted with black. Linn. A {pecies of {mall fize;
feund in South America.
Impuxcrata. Wing-cafes red, and without fpots ;
thorax red, and brownifh in the middle. Deferibed by Lin-
meus as a native of Sweden, where it inhabits gardens ; it is
found alfo in other parts of Europe, as Germany, Spain,
and Britain. Paykul calls it coccinella aptera.
Dimipiata. Wing-cafes fearlet, with the tip black.
Febr. A native of Coromandel, in the Bankfian cabinet.
This is ofa large fize, with the head and thorax rufous,
and immaculate; wing-cafes with black future; body and
cs vellowilh.
ee Wing-cafes yellow, with whitifh
margin, and two black dots. Fabr. he
This kind inhabits Saxony, according to Hybner ; it is
of a large fize, with the head and thorax white, fprinkled
with many black dots ; the wing-cafes are yellow, with pale
pie ti Wing-cafes red ; {mall line at the bafe, and
the tip black. Fabr. A native of New Holland, in the
Bankfian cabinet. This is of a {mall fize; the head is
whitith ; thorax whitifh, with four black dots; body be-
neath black, and fhanks cf the legs white. ;
Unrrascrata. Wing-cafes red, with a black band in
the middle. Fabr. Defcribed as a native of Hamburgh
from the colle&tion of Dr. Schulz; it is alfo found in Bri-
tain. Marth. This is of the middle fize, with the head and
thorax black, and wi-hout fpots; near the fcutel is a {mall
oblique black line ; the body is black.
Awnvuxatra. Wing-cafes red, with fubannular black
fpot. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
TrinmveaTa. Wing-cales yellow, with three abbre-
yiated black lines. Fabr. An American fpecics in the cabi-
netof Zfchuck. This is a fmall infe&; the body is black ;
thorax deep black, with the exterior margin whitifh ; mar-
gin of the wing-cafes with a thin edge of black.
Vittata. Wing-cafes yellow; margin, future, and
two ftripes in the middle black ; thorax black, with the an-
terior margin white. Fabr. A native of Guinea.
Srraiata. Wing-cafes yellow, margin, future, “and two
abbreviated black ftripes; thorax yellow, with two dull dots.
Fabr. Inhabits the fame country as the laft.
Oxstonco-PuncratTa. Wing-cafes yellow; with four
abbreviated Jines, and fix dots of black. Fabr. A native of
Roeffia. A large fpecies.
ABBREVIATA. Wing-cafes red; an abbreviated band be-
hind, and two dots of black ; thorax black, with two white
lines. Feabr.
This is defcribed from the cabiact of {Dr. Blagden as a
native of North America. The body is oblong and black ;
front with a large white fpot.
6-Lintata. Wing-cales yellow, with fix lines, and three
dots of black. Fabr. A native of Rufiia. This is of a
large fize, the colour black ; head with two white dots at
the bafe ; exterior margin of the thorax white, with a black
dot. :
2-Puncrara. Wing-cafes red, with two black dots.
Linn. A fpecies very common in gardens in Europe.
3-Punctars. Wing-cafes red, with three black dots.
Linn. A native of Germany, and parts of Eurepe!
Hisrocrypuica. Wing-cales yellow, with two longi=
tudinal finuous {pots of black. Linn. Inbabits Eurepe.
Rivuvaris. Wing-cafes yellow, with two linuous dors
f2l bands, and fix dots of black ; thorax black, with two
yellow dots. Fabr. Coccinella tranfverfalis. Thunbergs
Inhabits Sweden. ’
Tricincta. Ovate 3 wing-cafes red, with three black
bands, the anterior one abbreviated and tricufpidate. Fabr.
A native of China. ‘This -is of a moderate fize and blaek
colour. The thorax is black and fhining with a white mar-
ginal {pot each fide.
ArcuaTa. Ovate; wing-cafes red, with four dots, two
bands, and dot at the tip black. abr. ;
Defcribed from the cabinet of Scheftedt as a native of
China. ‘I'his is of the middle fize. The bedy is black ;
head whitifh; thorax black, with the anterior part of the
margin, and fides whitifh ; future of the wing-eafes black. ©
Unpata. Oblong ; wing-cafes pale yellow; fiexuous
band and two dots black; thorax dotted with yellow.
Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Bankfian cabi-
net.
The body of this fpecies is large, oblong, and black ; head —
with two frontal yellow fpots; thorax with three dorfal.
f{pots, margin, and mark extending from the bafe of the
margin yellow; future of the wing-cafes black; legs yele
low ; joints black.
Frexvosa. Ovate; wing-cafes pale yellow; flexuous
band, and two dots black; margin of the thorax white.
Fabr. Inhabits Europe.
Cincutata. Wing-eafes pale yellow; with four dots
at the bafe, pofterior band and dot at the tip black. Fabr.
A native of Tranquebar. Hybner.
Inarquatis. Wing-cafes yellow, with three anterior
dots, future, and band at the tip black. Fabr.
This {pecies is defcribed from the Bankfian cabinet ; it is
an infeG@ofthe middle fize, and inhabits New Holland. The
body is black ; head yellow, and thorax black, with the fore
part yellow.
Trirascrara. Wing cafes red, with three abbreviated
black bands. Liyn. Found in gardens in Europe.
IntER=
a
COCCINELLA.
-. InrrreupTa. Wing-cafes yeliow, with two waved in-
terrupted bands, and two pofterior dots of black. Fabr.
Native country unknown.
2-Fasciata. Wing-cafes ferruginous, with two bands
and four dots of black. Fabr. Defcribed by Thunberg un-
der the name of coccinella jlexuofa. It is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope.
4-Norata. Wing-cafes red, with four black dots at the
bafe ; margin of the thorax white. Fabr.
Inhabits Europe. The head and anterior parts of the
thorax with the fides whitifh ; legs teftaceous.
4-Macurata, Wing-cafes red, with four black dots;
thorax black, with a marginal white fpot. Hybner. A na-
tive of Saxony.
The head of this fpecies is black with two pale dots at
the bafe ; thorax black, fhining, with the marginal fpot
large.
5-PUNCTATA. Wing-cafes faaguineous, with five black
Cots. Geoffr. A very common fpecies in Europe.
g-Macutata. Oblong; wing-cafes yellowifh, with five
black dots; thorax black with three rays of white on the
anterior “margin. Hybner. Found in Saxony and other
parts of Europe. The body is large and oblong; anterior
parts of the head white with two black dots.
6-Puncrara. Wing-cafes red, with fix black dots.
Linn.
Tnhabits gardens in Europe. An infe&t of {mall fize ;
the head is black with two white dots; thorax black, with
the margin and two dorfal dots white.
Graciauis. Wing-cafes red, with fix dots of black, the
intermediate one finuate, and larger. abr.
A native of North America. The head is black, with
the frontal {pot white.
€-Macutata. Wing-zafes red, with fix black dots, the
four anterior ones finuate and tranfverfe. Fabr.
An iehabitant of the Ealt Indies, defcribed from a fpeci-
men in the Bankfian cabinet. The head is whitifh ; anterior
part of the thorax white, with biack fpots; body pale yel-
low.
7-PUNCTATA.
Linn. ;
Common in moft parts of Europe. Donov. Brit. Inf.
Known in England by the name of Jady-bird , and lady-cow.
Tn its manners of life it differs in no refpe&t from the other
{pecies of the fame natural family.
+-Macutata. Oblong; wing-cafes red, with feven
black dots; the middle one on the future three lobed. Fabr.
Inhabits Germany according to Dr: Schulz. The head
is black ; thorax black, with the anterior and lateral margin
white; body white.
7-Norara. Oblong: wing-cafes red, with feven black
dots; margin of the thorax and two dots in the middle
white. Fabr. Coccinella mutabilis, Paykul.
Inhabits gardens in Germany ; and ts found in England,
but not commonly. This infect is of a fmall fize. The
head is white, with black pofterior margin; thorax black,
gloffy, with the margin in front and at the fides white ; body
black.
8-Puncrata. Wing-cafes red, with eight black dots;
thorax white, with black dots. Linn.
A native of the north of Europe.
with two frontal black dots.
Transversatis. Wing-cafes yellow, with eight black
f{pots, the four anterior ones finuate. Fabr.
Inhabits Coromandel. Bankfian cabinet. The thorax is
black and gloffy, with a white {pot each fide at the tip; fu-
ture of the wing-cafes and body black,
Wing-eafes red, with feven black dots.
The head is whitith,
8-Macurata. Wing-cafes pale yellow, with eight black
dots ; the fix anterior ones tranfverfe and finuate. Fabr:
Same cabinet as the preceding ; the country is unknown,
The body of this infe&@ is dull yellow, the eyes black ; future
of the wing-cafes black ; body black.
9-Macurara. Wing-cafes red, with nine -black
the pofterior ene common 3; thorax with two dots.
AL native of New Holland, in the Bankfian cabinet: the
body is rafots ; thorax rufous, with two black dorfal dots.
9:Punctata. Wing-cafes red, with nine black dots,
Linn.
Iound in gardens in Europe; in England not frequent.
Paykul defcribes this {pecies under the name of soccineila col--
laris.
1o-Puncrata. Wing-cafes fulvous, with ten black
dots ; thorax with four fpots. Degeer, &c.
This fpecies inhabits Europe. The head is black, with a
‘tridentated white {pot in front;-thorax, with four whitith
fpots. [tis fund chiefly in gardens.
Innusa. Oblong; wing-cafes tetaceous, with ten black
dots ; thorax immaculate. Fabr. A’ native of India.
Divarara. Subrotund ; wing-cafes margined with
fulvous, and marked with ten black dots; thorax with two
dots.
dohabits America. Itis of a large fize, and fulvous ; an-
terior part of the thoraxemarginate ; the margin of the wing-
cafes dilated and black.
11-Punctata. Wing cafes red, with eleven black dots ;
body black. Linn.
Found principally in the northern parts of Europe ; occurs
occalionally in Britain.
12-Punerata. Wing-cafes yellow, with twelve black
dots; the outer one linear, and repandate. Linn.
Tnhabits gardens in Europe. The thorax is yellow, with
dots, and two {pots of black.
Varircara. Wing-cafes yellow, with twelve dots, and
two bands of black in the middle.
Deferibed from the Bankfian cabinet. The head is yel-
low, with the eyes black; thorax ycllow, with five black
dots at the bafe. It is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope.
CrysomMELInA. Wing-cafes rufous, with twelve black,
dots; chorax immaculate.
An African fpecies, found on the caus opuntia, and firlt’
defcribed by profeflor Thunberg. ‘The head and thorax are
red, with the margin rather paler ; dots on the wing-cafes
difpofedin pairs ; legs yellowifh.
CassipEA. Oblong, red; wing-cafes with twelve dots ;
of black, and on the thorax four. Inhabits Maryland.
13-Macutara. Wing-cafes yellow, with thirteen black~
dots; body orbicular.. Forfter. Nov. Sp.
Defcribed as a native of Sweden. The thorax is white,
with four black dots. This fpecies has been found in
Germany, according to. Panzer, and alfo in England.
Martham, &c.
13-Puxctata. Body pale yellow, with thirteen black.
dots ; body oblong. Linn. Inhabits gardens in Europe.
Versicoror. Wing-cafes yellow, with fourteen black
dots, two of which are common. Fabr.
A native of China. The body is large and orbicular ;
the head is yellow ; thorax margined, yellow, witha black
fpot in the middle.
14-Macutata. Wing-cafes yellow; future, and fours
teen {pots black. Hybner. Inhabits Saxony.
14-PuncraTa. Reddifh, with fourteen black. dots.
Linn.
A native of Europe. Found in England, not uncommon: -
Donoy-
COCCINELLA.
Donov, Brit. Inf. &c. Coccinella conglomerata of Fa-
bricius.
16-Punctata. Wing-cafes yellow, with fixteen black
dots; head with four black dots.
Inhabits Italy. This fpecies is of a large fize; its figure
oblong ; the head is white, with four black dots; thorax
white, with many approximate dots.
18-Puncrata. Wing-cafes yellow, with eighteen black
dots, the lait arched. Linn.
Inhabits the northern parts of Europe. This is of the
middle fize, and has the fides of the thorax yellow.
19-Punctrata. Wing-cafes yellow, with nineteen black
dots. Linn. Found on plants in Europe.
20-Puncratra. Wing-cales yellow, with twenty black
dots. Geofir.
Deferibed by Fabricius as a native of England, on the
authority of a {pecimen in the cabrnet of Mr. Aiton.
22-Punctata. Wing-cafesred, with twenty-two black
dots. Linn. Inhabits gardens in Europe.
22-Macurata. Ferruginous; wing-cafes yellow, with
twenty-two black dots. Fabr.
A native of Guinea, in the cabinet of Ifert. This is of
a large fize ; the head and thorax are dull ferruginous, gla
brous, and immaculate; body yellow, abdomen in the mid-
dle ferruginous.
23-PuxctaTaA. Wing-cafes red, with twenty-three aif
tiné black dots. Lian. Found in gardens in Germany.
24-Puncrata. Wing-cafes red, with twenty-four biack
dots. Linn. Inhabits Europe, and is found in England.
24 Macurata. Terruginous ; wing-cafes with twenty-
four black dots. Fabr.
Avnative of Tiasquebar. ‘This is of a large fize, ard
gibbons. The head is ferruginous and immaculate : thorax
jerruginous, with black dots; legs ferruginous, with a black
fpot on the thighs.
28-PuncraTa. Wing-cafes red, with twenty-eight black
dots. Fabr.
Inhabits the fame country as the laft.
Dr. Koenig.
Concrosata. Wing-cales yellow; with numerous con-
tiguous black dots; the tip immaculate. Linn. Coccinella
rofea, Degeer. Coccinella gemella, Herbft. A native of
Europe.
Lineora. Wing‘cafes yellowith, with two little lines,
and fomewhat contivuous fufcous dot. Tabr.
Inhabits South America. This is of a {mall fize. The
head is white, with the eyes black ; body and legs white.
Tricotor. Wing-cafes yellow, with ten red dots, and
ten marginal black fpots. Inhabits Amfterdam ifland.
Bankfian cabinet.
Crux. Wing-cafes yellow, with two black lines and
crofs. Thunberg. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
Comma. Wing-cafes yellow, with black future, margin,
and line. Thunberg. An African fpecies.
Second Divifion.
Difcovered by
Wing-cafes red or yellow, with white,
or whitifh dots.
Bicuttata. Wing-cafes rufous, with two yellow dots.
A fpecies of {mall fize found in Europe. The thorax
is black, with the lateral edge yellow. 3
8-Guttata. Wing-cafes red, with eight yellow dots.
Thunberg. A native of Japan.
StricaTA. Wing-cales rufous, with an abbreviated
whitith ftreak. Fabr. Suppl.
2-GuTrata. Wing-cafes rufous, with two yellow fpots.
Defcribed by Fabricius from the Hunterian colleétion.
It is of a {mall fize; the thorax black, glabrous, with the
lateral margin yellow. A native of Europe.
preGe trata. Wing-cales yellow, with ten white dots,
inn.
A native of Sweden, according to Linneus; found alfo
in England. Vide Donov: Brit. Inf.
Bis-6 Gutrata. Wing-cafes fulvous, with twelye
white dots, and the thorax edged with white. Fabr. In-
habits Norway.
Cayennensis. Wing-cafes fulvous, with twelve white
dots, and two connected white lunules on each fide. Coacei-
nella \2-guitata, Fabr.
Found in Cayenne.
white {pot on each fide.
14-GutTtTata. Wing-cafes rufous, with fourteen white
dots. Linn. A native of Europe ; and inhabits Britain.
Bis-7-Gurrara. Wing-cafes fulvous, with fourteen
white dots ; margin of the thorax white. Coccinella 14-gut-
tata, Schall. AG. Hall. A native of Germany.
15-Gurrara. Wing-cafes yellow, with fifteen white
The thorax is rufous, with a large
dots. Herbit, &c. A native of Germany.
16-Gurrata. Wing cafes red, with fixteen white dots,
Linn.
Inhabits England, and other parts of Europe. Donoy,
Brit. Inf.
18-Gurtrata. Wing-cafes red, with eighteen white
dots, the firlt two lunate.
Defcribed as a native of Europe by Linnzus and Scheffer.
Inhabits Germany. Panzer. Rarely -feurd in England,
once taken near Barton by Mr. Sheppard. Wide Marth.
Ent. Brit. :
20-GuTtara. Wing-cafes red, with twenty white fpots.
Linn. Found in gardens in Europe. :
Oztonco- Gurrata. Wing-cafes red, with lines and
dots of white. Linn.
Inhabits pines in Europe, and is a rare fpecies. This is
an elegant fpecizs, and has been difcovered in England,
Donovy. Brit. Inf.
Third Divifion. Wing-cafes yellow, fpotted with red.
Wing-cafes yellow, with four rufous
Tnhabits
OxviTERATA.
dots; the anterior pair obfolete. Thunberg.
Upfal. AG. Upf. 4. t.1. f. 1.
Fourth Divifion.
7-PUSTULATA.
Marth.
The head is black, with two yellow lines between the
eyes; thorax black, with the anterior margin yellow. In-
habits England.
ro-PusruLaTa. Wing-cafes black, with ten fulvous
Wing-cafes black, with red fpots.
Wing cafes black, with feven red dots.
dots. Linn.
Inhabits gardens in Europe. Coccinella variabilis of
Paykul.
Bimacutata. Downy; wing-cafes black, with two
rufous fpots. Marth.
Found in England. The antennae and mouth is rufous 5
body black; legs rufons, with black thighs.
Biriturata. Downy, head ferruginous; wing-cafes
black, with two ferruginous blotches; legs teftaceous.
Marfh. A native of Britain.
Furvirrons. Deep black, front fulvous. Marfh. In-
habits England.
Ruripres. Wing-cafes black, with a large marginal
fpot, and legs rufous. Fabr. Suppl.
Inhabits the South of Europe. .The body is fmall and
ovate ; head and thorax black and immaculate; legs entirely
rufous.
Impusturata. Wing cafes black and immaculate,
Linn. Inbabits the woods of Germany.
Nivipvura.
coc
Nirmputa. Wing-cafes brafly-black ; thorax margined
with rufous. Fabr.
Found in the American iflands. It is a {mall infe& ; the
head is black and immaculate, and the body rufous.
Parvura. Wing-cafes black; head, thorax and legs
rufous. Geoffr. Inhabits the environs of Paris.
Virtosa. Villous and black ; the margin of the wing-
cafes yellow. Fabr.
A native of Cayenne, in the cabinet of Don Rohr.
Awnaris. Wing-cales black, with the tip red and imma-
culate. Hybner.
A native of Saxony. ‘The head is red, and without {pots ;
thorax rufous, and at the bafein the middle black ; abdomen
and legs rufous.
Hemorruoipatis. Wing-cafes black; the tips red,
with a black band. Fabr. Inhabits Hamburgh. Dr.
Schulz.
Ocurara. Wing-cafes black, with two red fpots; a
large marginal white fpot on each fide the thorax. Fabr.
This is a native of North America, and is allied to Coc-
cinella cai, but is rather lefs.
Cacri. Wing-cafes black, with two rufous fpots, and
the thorax immaculate. Linn. Inhabits America.
VariaBitis. Wing-cafes black, with two lunate fub-
marginal red fpots. Fabr. Coccinella aujftriaca, Schrank.
Found in the neighbourhood of Hamburgh.
Frontarrs. Wing-cafes black, with two red fpots ;
front, and anterior legs black. Fabr. A native of Saxony.
4-Pustutata. Wing cafes black, with four red dots ;
orbits of the eyes, and edge of the thorax pale. Linn.
habits Europe.
4-Verrucata. Wing-cafes black, with four red {pots ;
tail rufous... Fabr. ~ Inhabits Kiel.
Bis-2-Pusruvara. Winy-cafes black, with four red
dots ; head and thorax dull black. Fabr. “
An European fpecies, and is fometimes found in England.
ExytTHrocerHaLa. Wing-cafes black, with fix red
dots ; head and margin of the thorax pale reddifh. Fabr.
Found in Kiel.
6-PusTULATA.
body black. Linn.
Inhabits gardens in Europe, and is found in England.
Vide Donov. Brit. Inf.
Lunata. Wing-cafes black, with ten red f{pots, fix. of
which are lunated. Feabr.
Defcribed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian cabinet, that
was found in St. Helens.
Fifth Divifion. Wing-cafes black, dotted with yellow
or white.
yo-PustuLtaTa. Wing-cafes black, with twelve white
dots; the exterior ones connected at the margin. Fabr.
A native of Europe.
14-PusruLatra. Wing-cafes black, with fourteen white
dots, Linn. Found on plants in Europe.
Gurraro-Pustutata. Wing-cafes black, with two
yellow fpots and four rufous ones.
Defcribed from the Bankfian cabinet as a native of New
Holland.
Ferina. Wing-cafes black, with fix white dots; body
globular. Fabr.
An American fpecies. This is of a {mall fize ; the head
is white ; thorax white, witha black {pot at the bafe.
PantuerinA. Wing-cafes black, with eight yellow
dots. Linn. Inhabits Europe.
Parparina. Wing-cafes black, with ten dots, and
finuate margin white,
Tp-
20
Wing-cafes black, with fix red dets;
Coe
Deferibed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian cabinet. The
native country unknown.
Ursina. Wing-cafes black, with ten white dots; and
the head and anterior margin of the thorax white. Fabr.
A native of North America, in the Hunterian colleGtion.
Legonina. Wing-cafes black, with fixteen white dots.
An inhabitant of New Hoiland, defcribed by Fabricius
from the Bankfian cabinet.
Ticrina. Wing-cafes black, with twenty white dots;
thorax fpotted. Linn. An European f{pecies.
Canina. Wing-cafes black, with twenty black
head and thorax villous and immaculate. Fabr.
of the Cape.
Tuunsercn. Wing-cafes black, with the margin and
two dots white; head black, with white dots. Thunberg.
Inhabits Upfal.
Fraviees. Wing-cafes black ; thorax black, with two
yellow dots; margin of the thorax with the tail yellow.
dots ;
A native
Thunberg. Inhabits the Cape.
Vivtosa. Villous, black ; margin of the fhells yellow.
Thunberg. Inhabits Cayenne.
Levis. Wing-cafes black, with fix yellow dots; ante-
rior angles of the thorax yellow. Thunberg.
Dentata. Wing-cales black; the outer margin, tri-
dentated line, and fix dots yellow. Thunberg. A native
of the Cape.
COCCIUM, or Coccio, in Ancient Geography, a place
in the ifle of Albion, placed in Antonine’s Itinerary on the
route from Glanoventa to Mediolanum, between Bremeta~
nacis and Mancunium ; fuppofed to be Rilchetter.
COCCO, the name of a plant in the Welt Indies, and in
fome of the iflands of the South Sea, called alfo Zudian fale.
COCCOCYPSELUM, in Botany (from xoxxocy a grain,
or feed, and xvfeany or xvbersov, a chef? or veffel.) Schreb.
1721. Mart. Willd. 207. Lam. Iluft. 168, Juff. 198.
(Cocipfele, Encyc.) Clafs and order, ¢ctrandria monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Rubiacez: Jui.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, one-leafed, four-cleft,
permanent ; 'fegments linear-lanceolate, ere&. Cor. Mono-
peialous, funnel-fhaped; tube longer than the calyx ; border
four-cleft, fegments egg-thaped, half-open. Stam. Filaments
four, fhort, inferted into the tube; anthers oblong, ere@:
Pift. Germ inferior, roundifh ; ftyle the Jength of the corolla,
bifid at the top; itigmas oblong. Peric. Capfule fucculent,
Juff. La Marck ; Ill. (berry ;.Schreb. Lam. Encyc. Willd.)
inflated, roundifh, crowned with the calyx, two-ceiled.
Seeds numerous, {mall, compreffed, affixed to the partition.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, four-cleft. Corolla funnel-fhaped.
Capfule (or berry) inflated, crowned, two-celled, many-
feeded.
Sp. 1. C. repens, Mart. Willd. Swartz. Prod. 31. C:
herbaceum ; Lam. Ill, Pl. 64.—Herbaceum repens; Browne
Jam. 144. tab. 6. fig. 1. ** Stem creeping at the bafe ; leaves
egg-fhaped ; cymes axillary, nearly feffile.’ Lam. Stems
growing in tufts ; each of them creeping eighteen or twenty
inches from the root, and fhooting out a few lateral branches
asitruns. Leaves oppotite. #/owers and fruit on fhort,
divided peduncles from alternate axils. Browne. A native
of Jamaica. 2. C. virgatum, Lam. Ill. (Nacibeea alba;
Aubl. tab. 37. fig. 2.) ‘* Stems rod-like ; leaves acuminate ;
cymes lateral, pecuncled ; peduncles longer than the petiole.’’
Lam. A native of South America, communicated by M.
Richard.
C. uniflorum, and biflorums Willd. See Feaneuia buxis
olia.
op We confefs that we are rather inclined to think with
Willdenow, that there igno folid generic diftin@ion between
coccocy p~
coc
coccocypfelum and fernelia. For it appears'to us that a fuc-
culent capfule, without valves, would be better called a dryifh
berry (bacca vix carnofa), the character attributed to the
fruit of fernelia. But asthe two genera are kept diltin@& by
Jufficu, who mult have had both of them in immediate con-
templation, when he drew up the third fectien of his natural
order, rudiacee, we have not chofen to diflent from fuch high
authority. ‘The only remaining diffcrences are, that in fer-
nelia the partition is perforated in the middle, and the feeds
are attached to a central receptacle which fupplies the de-
fe&. Willdenow, however, is wrong in his appropriation of
La Marck’s figures; for on the authority of La Marck
himfelf, in his Iiluftrations, fiz. t is not buxifolia, but his
own obovata, and fig. 2. is his lygiftum axillare, copied from
Browne’s tab. 3, ig. 2, and engraved by miftake as a fer-
nelia. The new genera coccocypfelum, lygiftum, and
fernelia, as well as the petefia of Linneus, feem to need a
more accurate inveftigation; and it will probably be found,
that no violence would be done to nature if they were all
united into one.
COCCODES, in Natural Hifory, aname given by Mer-
catus to thofe {tones of the ammites kind, whofe grains are
very large. :
COCCQLOBA, in Botany, (fo called from the kernel
heing lobed at the bottom.) Linn. Gen. 496. Schreb. 678.
Willd. 786. Gert. 261. Juff. 82. Vent. 2. 249. (Coccolobis;
Brown. Raifinier ; Eacye.) Clafs and order, c&andria irigy-
aia. Nat. Ord. Holoracce, Linn. Po/yzonec; Jull. Vent.
Gen, Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, five-cleft ; e¢ments
oblong, obtufe, concave, coloured, {preading widely, perma-
nert. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments eight. awl-fhaped, fhorter
han the calyx: anthers roundifh, didymous. Py?, Germ egg-
dhaped, three-fided; flyles three, fhort, fpreading ; fligmas
limple. Peric. the permanent calyx, thickened into a berry,
involving the feed. (Drupe; Gert.) Seed; nut. egg-
fltaped, acute, one-celled.
iff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, coloured, corolla none.
covered by the calyx, which is converted into a berry.
Sp. 1.C, uvifera. Linn. Sp. Plant. 1. Mart. 1. Poir. &.
Willd..1. Lam. Iil.tab. 316. fige2. Gert. tab. 45. Jacq.
Amer. 112. tab. 73. Brown, Jam. 208. (Polygonum caule
arboreo, fru@ibus baccatis; Linn. Sp. Pl, Ed. 1. Uvifera;
Hort. Clif. Pluk. Alm. tab. 236, fig. 7. Guajabera ; Plum.
ic. 145. Populus americana rotundifololia; Bau. Pin. 430,
Prunus; Sloan. Jam. 183. Hilt. 2. tab. 220, fig. 3. Cates.
Car. 2. tab. 96-) Round-leaved fea-fide grape, or mangrove
grape tree. “ Leaves neart-fhaped, roundifh, fhining.” A
large tree. Branches ivregularly {preading, not forming a
handfome head, but rendered beautiful by the leaves and
fruit; bark cinereous, thin; in the young trees {maoth ; in
the oid-ones fullof chinks; wood hard, ponderous, red ;
bet of little ufe, except for burning, on account of its fibrous
texture. Leaves large, alternate, entire, generally ending in
a fhort blunt point, but often quite round, thick, coriaceous,
deep green, with alternate prominent nerves, connected by
imall fearlet veins; petioles hard, fhort, thick; fipules
jheathing the branches. Flowers whitish, very {mall ; racemes
about a foot long, fimple, terminal, foiitary, thick, upright
at the time of fowering, pendulous with the ripe fruit ; pedi-
cols one-flowered. thick, thor’. Berries, the lize of a {mali cher-
ry, roundifh, umb licated, confilting of a purplifh membrane,
which covers a foft, thin, not unpleafantly attringent, pu'p,
Nut
anda large three lobed nut. Linn. Drupe formed of the ber-~
ried calyx, becoming black and wrinkled when ripe; pulp
foft, drying into a thin eruft ; thell thin, like paper, intimate+
hy united with the pulp, half three-celled; partitions mem-
branous, narrow, toe be found eply at the bottom of the
Coc
drupe. Receptacle a fmall fungous tubercle, formed at the
bafe of the fruit by the concurrence of the partitions. Seed -
fingle, fomewhat globular, acuminate at the top, deeply
umbilicated at the bottom, ftriated with wrinkles, ferruginoy
brown. Gert. A native of South America and the Weil
Indies, on a {andy foil, generally near the fea. The fruit is
fold in the market, and forms part of the defert in its native
countries. 2. C. Jatifolia. Poir.2. Lam, Til. Pl. 316. fig. 4,
aleaf. ‘ Leaves entire, very broad, contracted at the bafe.’”
In habit refembling the preceding, but differing remarkably
in its leaves. Young branches imooth, finely ftriated, a little
comprefled. eaves thin, rather membranous than coriaceous,
{mooth, quite entire, at lealt as broad as long, narrowed, not
heart-fhaped at the bafe ; with lateral fimple yellowifh nerves,
which ave connected by capillary reticulated veins. A native
of South America, cultivated in the botanic garden at Paris,
where it has not yet flowered. 3. C. auffralis. Mart. 12.
Poir. 16. Willd. 2. Forft. Prod. n. 175. “* Leaves cordate-
ovate, acute; flowers polygamous.’? A native of Zealand.
From the drawing in fir Jofeph Banks’s collection, it feems
ta be a polygonum. 4. C. pubefcens. Linn. Sp. Pl. 2,
Mart. 2. Poir. 3. Willd. 3. Brown, Jam. 210. (C. grandi-
folia; Jacq. Amer. 113. Scortea; Pluk. Phyt. 222. fh
8.) Leaves orbicular, pubefcent.’? A tree fixty or eighty
feet high. Trund rough. Branches only two or three princi-
pal ones, but little {ubdivided, thick, {preading. Leaves al-
ternate, very large, fometimes two feet in diameter, quite
entire, flightly heart-fhaped, much veined and wrinkled,
fmooth when o!d; petioles hard, thick, very fhort, fheathing
at. the bale. ower and. fruit unknown in. Europe. A
native of the Welt Indics. ‘The wood, according to Jaaquin,
is of a deep red colour, very hard, heavy, brittle, but almott
incorruptible: when ufed for polts or paliifades, the part under
ground becomes as hard as ftohe. ‘The fruit is faid to be
goodtoeat. 5. C. diverfifolia. Poir. 4, Willd. 4. Jacq.
Amer. 114. tab. 76. ‘* Leaves of the branchlets ovate ; of
the branches ovate-heart-fhaped.”? A fhrub, ten or twelve
feet high. Leaves alternate, petioled, a little coriaceous,
quite entire, flightly wrinkled, fhining, veined, ending in an
obtufe point. Racemes about three inches long, terminal,
upright, fimple, folitary. Jrwit, about the fize of a {mall
cherry, nearly round, almoft umbilicated at the fummit by
the union of the thick flethy leaves of the calyx 3 pulp foft,
of a beautiful purple colour, a little more acid than that of
C. uvifera, but eaten by peafants and children. A. native of
St. Domingo. 6..C. flavefeens. Mart. 7. Poir. 5. Willd.
5+ Jacq. Amer. 114. tab. 75. ‘¢ Leaves. elliptical, obtufe,
mucronate, heart-fhaped at the bafe.’? Willd. A fmail
branching tree or fhrub, about twelve’ feet high. Leaves
alternate, coriaceous, fhining, quite entire, on very fhort
petioles. Racemes {carcely an inchand a half long, terminal,
fimple, ercét. J rwit roundifh, purple, a httle larger than a
pea; pulp reddifh, fweet and eatable, but nut much elteem=
ed. A native of St. Domingo. 7. C. excoriata Linn. Sp Pl.
4. Mart. 3. Poir. 6. Willd. 6. (C. cortice levi; Brown. Jam.
210. Guajabara; Plum. Ic. 146. fig. 1. Arborindica; Pluk,
Amath. tab. 353. fig. 4.2) “ Leaves egg-fhaped ; branches
appearing as if itripped of theirbark.? Lino. “ Leaves
oblong-egg-fhaped, rather acute, heart-fhaped. at the bafe;
racemes pendulons.”” Willd. “A lofty tree. ranches with
a very thin, even-furfaced bark. eaves alternate, on fhe
petioles, coriaceous, entire, f{mooth, green above, yellowish
underneath, finely nerved and veined ; flipnles embracing the
item. Racemes long. Ac native of America andthe Welt In-
dies. 8. C. nivea. Mart. 4. oRotrez. Willd... Swartz,
Prod. 64. Flor. ind. eccid. vol. ih p. 693+ Jacqy Amer. 115.
tab. 78. “ Leaves oblong, acuminate, veined, thiming above,
5 racemes ~
ap © Hy @:
racemes almoft ere&t.’? A tree about twenty feet high, erect,
branched, Leaves alternate, halfa foot long, entire, petioled,
wrinkled, thin, membranous. J/owers {mall, yellowith ;
racemes terminal, folitary, fimple, calyx finally thick, fuc-
culent, of a fnow-white colour, covering to the middle a
three-fided, black, fhining nut. Fruit {weet and pleafant.
A native of the Weft Indies. 9. C. deoganenfis. Mart. 5.
Jacq. Amer, 113. tab. 178. fig. 33. (C. uvifera. 6. Poir.
Willd.) «¢ Leaves roundifh, quite entire, fhining, flat; ra-
cemes erect”? A fhrub ten feet high. Leaves refembling
thofe of C. uvifera, but only half the fize. A native of Port.
au-Prince and Leogane in St. Domingo. 10. C. pun@ata.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 8. Poir. 8. Willd. 8. (C. coronata ;
Jacq. Amer. 114. tab. 77. uviferaarbor ; Pluk. Almag. 394.
tab. 237. fig. 4.) ‘* Leaves lanceolate, egg-fhaped.”?” A
fhrub, twelve or fifteen feet high, ereé&t, branched. Leaves
half a foot long, petioled, flat, quite entire, a little coriace-
ous, alternate, veined, fhining, commonly two or three on
each flowering branchlet ; {tipules fheathing. Flowers white ;
racemes fcarcely an inch and a half long, ereét, fimple, termi-
nal, folitary. Almoft the whole receptacle, with a {mall part
only of the calyx, becomes a roundifh, dotted drupe, of a
dark red colonr, and a fweetifh, but rather auftere talle. A
native of South America, about Carthagena. 11. C. obtu/i-
folia. Mart. 6. Poir. 12. Willd. 9. Jacq. Amer. 114. tab.
74. “ Leaves oblong, very obtufe.’”? A fhrub, ten or twelve
feet high, much and diffufely branched. Branches {mooth,
cinereous. Leaves narrow, elliptical, alternate, petioled,
numerous, quite entire, fhining, coriaceous, rounded at both
ends, handfomely veined. Flowers white, {mall ; racemes
terminal, often alternate on the young branches, folitary,
fimple ; calyx-leaves finally fucculent, enveloping almoft to
the fummit a fhining nut, and leaving the upper part naked.
Fruit aftringent. A. native of South America about Cartha-
gena, in hedges and woods. 12. C. microflachya, Willd. 10.
Poir. 13. ** Leaves egg-fhaped, obtufe, quite f{mooth; ra-
cemes nodding.” Branches cylindrical, {mooth, cinereous.
Leaves at leaft an inch and a half long, alternate, petioled,
broadeft on one fide, quite entire. F’aqwers (mall, in very
fhort terminal racemes. A native of the Welt Indies. 13.C.
emarginata. Murray Sy. Veg. 314. Mart. 9. Poir. 1.
Willd. 11. Jacq. Amer. 314, Obf. vol. i. p. 18. tab. 9.
© Teaves coriaceous, roundifh, deeply emarginated.”” Branches
fomewhat zig-zag. Leaves alternate, petioled, entire, heart-
fhaped at the bafe, emarginate commonly with an acute angle,
nerved and veined. F'ru@ification unknown. A native of
the Weft Indies. 14. C. barbadenfis. Mur. Syft. Veg. 379.
Mart. ro. Poir. 10. Willd. 12. Jacq. Amer. 37. Obf. 1.
18.tab. 8. **- Leaves cordate, ovate, undulated.’’ A tree.
Leaves very large, petioled, fimple, entire, acuminate, f{mooth
on both fides, nerved, veined. °rudfification unknown. A
native of Barbadoes and Jamaica. 15. C. tenuifolia. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 11. Poir.o. Willd. 13. Lam. Ill. tab.
316. fig. 1 and 3. Brown. Jam. 210. tab. t4 fig. 3.
** Leaves egg-fhaped, membranous.””? A fhrub of hum-
bler growth than any of the former. eaves alternate,
petioled, fmooth, entire, obtufe, fometimes a little acute,
thin; petioles, according to Linnzus, furrounded with
a membrane inflead of a ftipule; but the fpecimens in
La Marck’s herbarium have fheathing ftipules. 2/oqers
feattered, pedicelled, in fimple terminal racemes. A native
of the Welt Indies. 16. C. Afiatica. Mart. 13. Lour.
Coch. 239. “ Climbing ; leaves oblong, egg-fhaped, veined ;
racemes terminal.’”” Svem fofmewhat fhrubby, branched.
Leaves alternate, rather acumirate, quite entire, coriaceous.
Flowers white, in loofe racemes; calyx bell-fhaped; ityle
cloven half way down ; fligmas roundifh, Fruit a roundifh
Vor, VIII.
CioOre
five-lobed berry, formed from the five fegments of the calyx,
blackifh, pellucid, fmall. A native of Cochin-china in
hedges and woods, 17. C. cymofa. Mart. 14. Lour.
Cochin. 240. ‘ Climbing ; flowers axillary and terminal,
in feffile cymes.”? Exactly fimilar to the preceding. excepting
the inflorefcence ; and like it, anative of Cochin-china.
Propagation and Culture, None of thefe fpecies have pro-
duced either fruit or flowers in England; but are eafily pro-
pagated by feeds imported in a perfect ftate. Thefe fhould
be fown in fmall pots filled with earth from the kitchen-gar-
den, and plunged intoa hot-bed. ‘The plants will appear in
five or fix weeks, and in about a month after will be fit to
tranfplant into feparate pots ; after which they muft be con-
ftantly kept in the bark ftove, and treated like other tropical
lants.
i COCCONAGA, in Ancient Geography, a people of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy.
COCCONAGARA, or CoccoranaGara, a town of
the Sines, according to Ptolemy, who were placed by the
ancients in the fouthern parts of China.
COCCONAGI, iflands fituated at the entrance of the
Red fea, towards the fouth of Arabia, according to
Ptolemy.
COCCONILEA, in Botzny, Bauh. Pin. Cluf.
Ruvs cotinus.
COCCOS, Gert. See Cocos.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, formed from xoxxo:, a grain
or kernel, and Qexow, to break, in Ornithology, the name of
avery remarkable bird, confiderably larger than the chaf-
finch, very fhort-bodied, and large beaked, whence it is call-
ed in Englifh, the gro/s-beak, or hawyinch, the Loxta Cocco-
thrauftes of Linnezus and Gmelin; the {pecific chara@ter of
which is, that it has a white line on the wings, that the
middle quills of the wings are rhomboid-fhaped at the tips,
and that the quills of the tal are black on the thinner fide
of the bafe. Itis the Gros-bec of Buffon. Its head is very
large in proportion to its body, and its great beak tapers
from a very thick bafe toa fharp point, refembling the fhape
ofa funnel. ‘he upper mandible is cinereous, but of a
lighter tint near the bafe; the lower mandible is cinereous
at the edges, which clofe into the upper; its under fide is
flefh-coloured, with a cinereous caft. The tongue is flefhy,
{mall, and pointed ; the gizzard is very mufcular, preceded
by a pouch, containing in fummer bruifed hemp feeds,
green caterpillars, almoft entire, and very {mall ftones. It
is an inhabitant of the temperate climates from Spain and
Italy as far as Sweden, and lives generally in the woods
and mountains all fummer; in winter it comes into the flat
country, and reforts near the hamlets and farms.’ It is never
feen in England, except in the winter months ; it feeds on
the kernels in the ftones of fruit, as cherry-ftones, and the
like, and breaks thefe with great dexterity, whence its
name; it will alfo eat the feeds of many different plants.
This bird is folitary, fhy, and filent ; its ear is infenfible, and
its prolific powers are inferior to thofe of moft other birds,
fo that the fpecies is not numerous. The male and female
are of the fame fize, and much refemble each other.
Coccoruraustes crijdata, the name by which naturalifts
call the bird ufually known among us by the name of the
Virginian nightingale, it being truly a coccothraultes, though
called by the improper name nightingale. Ray. See Loxia
cardinalis.
COCCULZ, in Botany, offcinales, Bauh. Pin.
SAMPELOS cocculus.
COCCULUS indicus.
MenispErRMuM.
COCCUS, in the Writings of the Ancients, a name given
4N by
See
See Cis-
See CissAMPELOS cocculus, and
: GO CC Us.
by fome authors to that fine fhining red colour ufed to
illuminate the capital letters in manu{cripts, and more gene-
rally known by the name of encan/lum facrum, from its being
ufed in ornamenting the marufcript bibles, and its refembling
the fine red glow of the enamel of that colour.
COCCUS, in Entomology, a genus of the hemipterous
ter. The infects of this tribe have the {nout feated in the
k, the antennz filiform, and the pofterior part of the
abdomen furnifhed with briflles; the male has two ere&
wings, and is deftitute of poifers, and the femaleis apterous,
or without wing
The cocci are a prolific race, and, like the aphides and
the chermes, are the petl cf plants. They are remarkably
difcriminate in their choice of food, almoft every fpecies
being peculiar to fome particular plant, and this fo con-
ftantly, that the far greater number of the cocci bear the
name of the individual vegetable on which they refpeciively
fubfit.. The diffim'larity prevailing between the two fexes
is very ftriking, not only in their form, but manners of life.
The male is firnifhed with wings, and is naturally very ac-
tive; the-female is without wings, and has fearcely the ap-
pearance of animation. The females fix themfelves to the
branches, leaves, and fometimes roots of plants, where they
remain immoveable, and are vilited by the males ; in this
{tate of apparent torpor, they produce their young, and
perith. As the cocci live on the juices of plants, which they
obtain by perforating the cortex, or cuticle, with their pro-
bofcis, they are very iujurious to plants, more particularly
the tender exotic kinds raifed in ftoves and green-houfes.
The females, when affixed to plants, oftentimes lofe the
very form and appearance of infeé&s ; their bodies fweil,
their fin ftretches, and becomes {mooth, and the fegments,
or annulations of the abdomen, entirely difappear. In this
itate they fo much refemble certain kinds of excretcences or
gatls found on the leaves and branches of plants, as to be
in general miftaken for fuch. When the infet affumes this
lait appearance, its diffolution is falt approaching ; and after
its death, the abdomen {till ferves as a covering, under
which the eggs of the future brood are concealed and pro-
teGed. Others of the coccus genus, though they adhere
in the fame manner to the leaves or branches of plants, re-
tain the true form of the infeé till the young are produced
from the ezg. The females of molt fp:cies have a quan-
tity of Gne cotton, in which the lower part of the abdomen
js concealed, and which ferves as a neit for the eggs when
depolited by the parent infed.
Species.
Hesperipum. Fourd generally on the orange, citron,
and other plants of the fame family, and on various ever-
sreens reared in green-houfes. The French call it Cochenille
fe Poranger, as it feems to prefer the former of thofe
plants.
The female of this fpecies is a fmall oval infe&, about
the fixth part of an inch in length; the back flightly con-
vex, of a fhining brown colour, with a {mooth furface,
and a notch in the polterior part. It has fix legs, and
when young runs upon trees. ‘The full-grown infedt does
not envelope itfelf in-a cotton-like or downy fubftance, like
niany others of the coccus tribe, but adheres, and after-
wards remains attached firmly to the bark, under the form
of an oval convex fhell, or hufk, of a femi-tranfparent
brownifh colour, with a gloffy afpeG@, as if covered with a
coat of varnifh, In this ftate the infeG dies, and fhortly
alterwards the numerous eggs concealed within the abdo-
mea are hatched, and procuce another brood. The male
is a very {mall winged infeét, and lefs frequently obferved
2
¢
;
‘
‘felves by fucking the juices.
than the female, which latter is extremely abundant, and
oftentimes proves very injurious to the plants they infeft,
The fpecies is originally a native of the warmer regions,
and has been introduced into Europe with exotic plants,
An account of this infect occurs in the Memoirs of the
French Academy by De Ja Hire, under the title of ** De-
{cription d’un Infeé&te, qui {attache a quelques plantes
etranzeres, et principalement aux orangers.” t. 1Q. p. IO.
Aontpum. Body purplifh-black ; crown of the head
tuberculate. Fabr. Modeer Aét. Gothenb. 1. jo.
Inhabits various ever-green trees of Afia; itis fmaller
than coccus hefperidum, without wings, and yellowith ;
oblong, or fomewhat orbicular, and with antenne nearly
the length of the thorax.
Carensis. Ovate, fomewhat downy, conic-gibbous,
and operculate at the tip. Modeer Aét. Gothenb.
A native of the Cape of Good Hope, and infeits the
goaphalium muricatum.
Aponipum. Rufous, mealy “and hairy. Fabr. Co-he-
nitle des ferves, Latreille. Caccus adonidum, corpore rofeo fa-
ringceo, alis fetifque niveis, Geoflroy. Pedicuus adouidum,
Linn. Fn. Suec. Pediculus coffece, Lederm.
The moft common infect ot the coccus tribe, and is fup-
pofed to have been originally peculiar to Senegal, from
whence it was long fince tranfported to America and Eu-
rope. The female is of an oblong-ovate forma, flightly
couvex above, with the body divided into many tranfverfe
fegments, which projeét on the fides, and are furnifhed
with fmall proceffes or points ; thefe p-oceffes are longer on
the two laft divifions of the body than the relt, and form a
kind of bifid tail, The whole infeé&t is of a pale rofe co-
lout, and appears more or lefs covered with a fine white
farinaceous fubftance: the legs fhort, and fix in number.
The male is very fmall, alfo of a rofe colour, and partially
covered with a white powder, with femi-tranfparent milk-
white wings, and four long filaments at the tail. ‘Thefe in-
fects wander about the plants they infeft, and nourifh them-
When the feafale is full
grown, and pregnant with eggs, fhe ceafes to feed, and re-
maining fixed to one fpot, envelops herfelf in a fine white
fibrous cotton-like fubftance, and lives but a fhort time af-
terwards; the young, which hatch under the hufk or body
of the parent infe&t, proceeding from it in great numbers,
and difperfing ir quelt of food.
Quercus. Found on the oak, Quercus robur. ‘This is
fomewhat kidney-fhaped, and of a brown co’our, ”
Cacti. Found on the cadéus opuntia, or prickly pear
tree. :
The coccus cai is a native of South Ameriea, and con-
fidered as an article of commerce and manufaGory, is of far
greater importance to mankind than any other of the infec
race ;—it is the true cochineal, the drug fo well known for
its valuable properties in the art of dyeing, and other ufcful
purpoles of life. The bedy is deprefled, downy, and
tranfverfely wrinkled; the abdomen is purplifh, the legs
oo
fhort and black, the antenre fubulate, and about one third
the length of the body. uk
The difcovery of this valuable infeét has contributed more
efliciently to enrich the pofterity of the Spanifh adventurers
in the New World, than the wealthy mines of Pern and
Mexico. The cultivation of the infc& proves a fourre of
employment to the induftry of the country; and while it
improves the effates of the land-proprietors, conftitutes to-
the benefit of the revenue a branch of commerce of the firlt
importance and confideration, This is no matter of aflo-
nifment ; the properties of the cochineal of South America
are fo incomparably fuperior to thofe of any other dye i
“
COC a Us.
the brillianey at leat, and in no ordinary degree for its dura-
bility, that its difcovery may be confidered as an incitimable
advantage to the civilized world.
The coccus dye of Portugal, Sardinia, Afia Minor, and
Africa, was in the moft general ufe in ancient times. This
was univerfally imagined to be the berry, or an excrefcence
of fome vegetable, an opinion which the common appearance
it aflumes in a dried ftate would, in a certain meafure, jultify.
That Pliny was of this opinion, is evident from feveral paf-
fages in his writings ; it was the idea of the vulgar, and he
adopted it. The fame notion, precifely, was entertained
of the Mexican cochineal; and it was only of late years,
lens after its valuable properties, were known in Europ-,
that che true origin and nature of this infect were clearly a.-
monftrated.
The cochineal of Mexico is brought into Europe in the
form of little grains of an irregular figure, which are
roundifh on one fide, and wrinkled tranfverfely ; the other
fomewhat flat. That in moft efteem is of a flaty grey co-
lour, mixed with reddifh, and covered with a fine white
owder. In trade the merchant dijftinguifhes four forts,
the Meftique, Campefchane, Tetrafchale, and Sylvettre, of
which the three firft are confidered the beft; thofe are
named from the places where they are produced ; the lait
fort, fylvettre, from being found wild without any culture.
The firlt three are {uppofed’ to be of the fame {peciesy but
we are yet ignorant whether the C. fylvettre, or wild cochi-
neal, and the other are of two different {pecies ; we only
know that the laft furnifhes lefs of the tinéture than the
other. This M. Thierry attributes not to the inferiority
of the grain, but to the cottony matter with which it is
covered, this augmenting its weight and abforbing part of
the colour. The procefs employed by the dyers for ex-
traéting the colour is fufficiently known, neither isit {carcely
requifite to add that carmine, the fineft and molt beautiful
erimion we poflefs, is obtained from the cochineal See Co-
CHINEAL,
The female of the cochineal infeé&t, in its full-grown or
torpid ftate of pregnancy, {wells to fucha fize in proportion
tothat of its infant ttate, that the legs, antennz, and probofcis,
are fearcely to be. difcovered, except. with a good eye, or
the affiltance of the microfeope. It is the female only that
is valuable for its dve. The male is a fmall, and rather flender,
two-winged fly, about the fize of a flea, or {till fmaller, with
jointed antenne, and large white wings in proportion to
the body, which is of a red colour, with two long filaments
proceeding from the tail, Tt is an active and lively animal,
and is dilperfed in {mall numbers among the females, in the
proportion, according to Mr. Eilis, in the Philofophical
Tranfactions, of one male to a hundred, ora hundred and
fifty, or two hundred females: fome writers fay even three
hundred.
he plants upon which thefe infe&ts are raifed by the
cultivators of cochineal is the nopal, or nopalleca cf the
Indians, called by fome the Indian fig-tree, and by bota-
nifts the caéfus opiitia, or prickiy pear-tree. The culture
of this plant forthe purpofe confills merely in lopping the
votten or décayed branches, and removing other plants and
weeds away that might injure them. Thofe they plant
in an argillaceous earth intermixed with gravel and {lones.
The Indians of the provinces of Guaxaca and Oxaca, who
attend particularly to the culture of the nopals, plant them
near their habitations, and call them nopaleries.
' The juice of the plant on which thefe infe&s breed is
their fole fubfillence. About the s5th of October, which,
in Mexico, is the commencement of the fine feafon, they
diftribute the cochineals upon the nopals. ‘This operation
confilts merely in placing the females, while they ate yet young
and ative, in a number of fimall nelts among the leaves, from
whence they wander about over various parts of the
plant, in fearch of the particular branches to which they
afterwards attach themfelves, and are vifited by the males.
The breeding of the cochineal is attended with precarious
circumf{tances; the cochineal is expofed to a variety of dan-
gers from the violence of the winds, the rains, fogs, frolts,
and other caufes, and alfo from the depredations of birds,
who are very fond of thefe infects.
When the infeéts are at their full growth they are gather-
ed and put into pots of carthen-ware, but much attention
is requifite to prevent them from getting out, as in that
cafe great numbers of them would be loft; though there is
no danger of this when they are at liberty on the nopal
leaves, thefe being their natural refort, and where they en-
joy abundance of delicious food; for theugh they often re-
move from one leaf to another, they never quit the piant ;
nor is it uncommon to fee the leaves entirely covered with
them, efpecially when they are arrived at maturity. When
they are confined fome time in thcfe pots they are kulled,
and put into bags.
The Indians have three different methods of killing thefe
infects; one by immerfing them in hot water, another by
fire, and the third by expofing them to the burning rays of
the fun; and itis owing to thefe different proceffes, that
the cochineals are fometimes of a deep, and at others, of a
bright red. Thofe who ufe hot water are very careful to
give it the requifite heat, and that the quantity of’water be
proportioned to the number of infects. The method of killing
the creatures by fire is to put them on fhovels, into an oven
moderately heated for the purpofe, the fine quality of the
cochineal depending on its not being over dried at the time
of killing the infe€ts. Some alfo are killed by the fumes of
heated vinegar, and others by {moke. Thofe killed and
dried in the fun feem, however, to have the preterence.
When the female infect has difcharged all its eggs it be-
comes a mere huflk and dies, fo that the greatelt care is
taken to kill the infe&ts before that time, to prevent the
young from efeaping, and thus difappointing the hopes of
the proprietor. E
As this infect attains to maturity, performs the ordinary
functions of lite, depofits eggs, and dies within the fhort
{pace of two months, according to M. Thierry, there are
no lefs than fix fucceflive generations of this infeét in the
{pace of a year. After being excluded from the erg, both
the male and. female remain ten days in the larva form, and
five under that of the nymph or pupa, and are then become
perfect infe&ts. Some writers, however, fay, that there ere
only three broods of the cochineal ‘annually, the fick of
which appears about the middle of December, and the falt
in May. It appears pretty certain that the femal
coupling, furvives for about a month, and that the males
die immediately. Befides the depredations committed
amongtt thefe infe&ts by birds, the larve of the fmall
fpecies of lady-bird, called by Fabricius coceinella caéli, 18
highly injurious to them, deftroying the females while in
a {tate of torpidity with perfe&t impunity.
The principal countries. where the cochineal infetis are
bred, are Oaxaca, Vlafeala, Chalula, Nueva Galicia, and
Chiapa, in the kingdom of New Spain; and Hambatia,
Loja, and Tucuman in Peru: but it is faid to be principally
in Guaxaca and Oaxaca that they are gathered in large
quantitics, and form a branch of commerce, the cultivation
of them being there the chief employment of the natives.
Notwithitanding fo much has been already written on
this fubje@, we are perfuaded no fmall degree of uncer-
4N2 tainty
2, atter
cOocCcUS.
tainty prevails with regard to the true hiftory of this infec,
and time alone can develope it; we are even yet ignorant,
as before obferved, whether the kind found wild in South
‘America is of the fame fpecies with that cultivated for the
purpofes of commerce ; we are yet to be informed whether
our own colonial pofleffions may not produce the fame kind
of infects, or infeéts capable of fupplying us with the fame
kind of dye; and even whether the {pecies of cocci indigenous,
or naturalized in our own country, may not be rendered of
confiderable utility in the fame point of view. It appears,
{till further, from what we have feen, that the Eaft Indies
affords one, two, or, perhaps, more fpecies of the cochineal
tribe, which, with due attention and culture, might prove
equally valuable with that of Mexico, and which, contider-
_ing the va{t extent of our poffeflions in India, might one day
become the fource of unexpected wealth. Latreille, with
a degree of patriotifm that does infinite credit to his me-
mory; invites the particular attention of his countrymen to
the fubject ; he recommends them earneftly to attend to the
indigenous products of France, fatisfied as he is that the
French need no longer remain tributary to Spain for this
branch of commerce. And he addreffes himfelf in parti-
cular to the inhabitants of the Eaft Indies, to feek after,
and inveltigate another fort of cochineal peculiar to thofe
countries, which is infinitely fuperior in fize to that of
Mexico, as he judges by a fpecimen brought by Maffé, a
zealous naturalift, to the Mufeum of Natural Hiitory.
«¢ Le gouvernement (fays Latreille) a le plus yrand intérét
4 favorifer ces tentatives. Ll me paroit aflez démontre que
nous pouvons cefler d’étre tributaires‘d’l’ Efpagne pour cette
branche du commerce. La cochenille fylvettre fe perpétue
dans les ferres du Jardin des Plantes de Paris; pourquoi ne
porteroit-on pas fes regards fur ce genre de culture, auquel
d@’heureufes circonltances femblent nous inviter? J’engage-
rois encore les naturaliftes, ou hommes éclairés, qui habitent
les Indes orientales, A étudier une autre forte de cochenille
qui eft infiniment fupérieure pour la grandeur a celle de
Mexique. J’en juge par un individu que Maffe, zélé natu-
ralifte, a envoyé au Muféum d’ Hiftoire Naturelle.”
It is but juttice to fome enlightened individuals of our own
country to {tate that the cocci of the Katt Indies, which
produce the cochineal tin&ture, have not been entirely dif-
regarded. A feries of no lefs than fourteen letters on the
fubjeét of cochineal infeéts difcovered at Madras by_ Dr.
Anderfon, and addreffed to fir Jofeph Banks, were printed
and publifhed at Madras in the year 1788, and two others
in conclufion of this fubject in 1789 and 17903 and alfo
an account of the importation of American cochineal infects
into Giindooftan. An interefting paper on the lacfha, or
lac infeét of that country, (coccus lacca), occurs alfo in the
Tranfactions of the Bengal Society, vol. ii. p. 361, and in
the Philofophical Tranfaétions, vol. 81.
Poronicus. On the roots of {cleranthus perennis.
Linn. Faun, Suec. Chermes radicum purpureus, Geoftr.
Coceus tindorius radicum, Breynnius Aét. Pnyf. Med. p. i.
p- 504. Graine d efcarlate de pologne, Latveille.
he body of this {pecies is of an oblong ovate form, and
of a purple or chefnut colour. It inhabits Poland.
This is denominated the cochineal of the north,
is found only in cold climates, and feems in a great
meafure peculiar to Poland, though not entirely confined to
that country. It was one of the principal kinds of fearlet
dyes in ule before the difcovery of South America; but as
it is an article collected with difficulty, and is fufficiently
verified by expertence to bein every refpecét inferior, as 3 dye,
to the coceus caéti, or Mexican cochineal, its cultivation is
tefs alfiduoufly regarded than formerly.
Thefe infeAs are affixed chiefly to the roots of plants,
the principal of wliich is the {cleranthus perennis ; they oc-
curalfo on the pimpernel, the pellitory, moufe-ear, and fome
others, that grow in fandy fituations. ‘Towards the end of
June thefe cocci are in a fit ftate for being gathered ; they
are then nearly of a fpherical form, and of a fine violet co-
lour. Some of them are not larger than poppy feeds, and
others the fize of a pepper corn, and each of them is lodged
in a fort of cup like that of an acorn, and in which more
than half the body is contained. he outfide of the co-
vering is rough and of a blackifh brown, the infide {mooth,
polifhed, and fhining. On fome plants they find only one
or two of thefe, and on others more than forty. Thefe
are the females; the males are {maller, and have wings.
About the end of June thefe infects are quite full of purple
juice, and it is at that feafon they are gathered. Thofe
who gather them have a hollow fpade with a fhort handle ;
then taking hold of the plant with one hand, they raife it
out of the ground with the tool held in the other; after
which they very quickly and dexteroufly detach the infects
and replace the plant in the ground, where it again takes
root. The coccus is then feparated from the earth by means
of a fieve; and fprinkled with very cold water or vinegar.
And, laltly, they are killed by expofure to the fun, or
keeping them for fome time in a warm place; but this muft
be done with caution, as too halty drying would f{poil the
colour. Sometimes they feparate the infects from the ve-
ficles with their fingers, and form them into balls, and by
this operation increafe the value of the article. ‘The Turks
and Armenians buy this cochineal for dyeing not only their
wooland filk, but the tails and manes of theirhorfes. The
women of ‘Turkey alfo employ an infufion of this drug in
the juice of the citron or grape to itain the tips of their
fingers, and feet, of a beautiful carnation colour, The Le-
yantines, after the manner of the Dutch, fometimes ioter-
mix the Polifh cochineal in equal portion with the cochineal
of Mexico, and extract from it the dye with which they
itain their fearlet cloths, by means of citron-juice, or a fo-
lution of alum. In the preparation of colours for the artift,
the Polith cochineal is of little fervice. MM. Macquer, who
tried many experiments on it, could never produce with
it any other than lilac, flefh colour, or crimfon; and he
found it far more expenfive than the Mexican. cochineal,
becaufe, although it bears an inferior price, it does not
yield more than one-fifth part of thecolour in proportion.
Fracariz. On the fragaria and potentilla. Coccus
Sragarie vefcae, 8. G. Gmelin It. 1. p. 205. Coccus poten-
tilla, Mayer,
A {pecies indigenous to fome parts of northern Europe,
Pruffia, and Siberia. This kind is diltinguithed by haying
the fnout black, the thorax marked with three ridges, and
the tail furrounded by blackifh hairs. The Ruffians ex-
traé&t a fcarlet dye from this infe.
Hyresicornis. On the hypericum perforatum. Pallas,
Inhabits Ruffia.
Inicrs. On the quercus coccifera. Fabr. Modeer AG.
Gothenb. Geoffr. Mat. Med. ii. p. 782.
This is the kermes of the Materia Medica, and when im-
merfed in vinegar and dried, produces a colouring matter of
a fimilar nature and tint, but in an inferior quantity, to that
of the coccus caéti. Thefe infets are found adhering to
the fhoots of the quercus coccifera, under the form of
{mooth, reddifh brown, or blackifh grains, about the fize of
peas, and covered with a white down. According to M.
Hellot, of the French Academy, they are found in the
woods of Vauvert, Vendeman, and Narbonne; but more
abundantly in Spain towards Alicant and Valencia, and in
Murcia,
COCCUS.
Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Eflremadura, La Mancha,
and Serranias de Cuenca, The infe& occurs alfo in Greece,
and the iflands of the Archipelago.
Before the difcovery of America, the coccus ilicis, or
kermes, as it was then termed, was the moft valuable for
dyeing fearlet. Its utility was known to the ancients, but
neither the ancients nor the moderns, till of late years,
feem to have underftood its origin and nature. Pliny fpeaks
of it asthe berry of a plant; others, after him, confidered
it in the fame light, or as an excrefcence formed by the
punctire ef a particular kind of fly, fimilar to the gall-nuts
oo the oak, and other plants. Tournefort was of this
opinion. Marfigli, and Dr. Nifole, a phyfician at Mont-
pellier, made experiments and obfervations, with a view to
further difcoveries, but did not perfectly fucceed. Two
other phyficians at Aix in Provence, Dr, Emeric and Dr.
Garidel, applied themfelves about the fame time, and with
more fuccefs, having finally difcovered that the kermes is,
in reality, nothing elfe than an infe&, affuming the appear-
ance of a berry in the procefs of drying.
It is related in Dillon’s ‘* Ttavels through Spain,” that
in Xixona and Terra de Rellen, there isa diftri€ called De
la Grana, where the people of Valencia firfl began to ga-
ther it, and their example was followed allover Spain. In
fome years, this article has produced 30,000 dollars to the
Inhabitants of Xixona.
The culture of the kermes is ftill an objet of confidera-
tion, though infinitely lefs fo than formerly. The people
of Hinojos, Bonares, Villalba, and other parts of the
kingdom of Seville, dry it on mats in the fun, ftirring
it about, and feparating the red duft, which is the finett
part; this they mix with vinegar, and denominate ‘paitel.’’
In other parts, the infects are gathered from the trees as
carefully as poffible, without lopping the branches of the
trees to which they adhere, and are fteeped in vinegar, in
order to kill the parent, to prevent the exclufion of the
young in drying. The kermes are then f{pread or thrown
on linen, and as long as they retain any moifture, are turned
twice or thrice a day, till they are thoroughly dried, when
they are putupfor fale. The kermes of Spain is faid to be
preferred on the coaft of Barbary, on account of its good-
nefs. The people of Tunis mix it with that of Tetuan
for dyeing fearlet caps, fo much in ufe in the Levant. The
Tunilians, according to the fame accounts, export every
year above 150,000 dozen of thofe caps, which yield to
the dey a revenue of 150,000 dollars.
The woollen cloths dyed with this fpecies of coccus,
are of a deep red colour, much inferior in brilliancy to the
fearlet cloths dyed with the true, or Mexican cochineal, but
of a more durable nature, and lefs liable tq ftain. M. Hel-
lot, to whom the world is indebted for feveral ufeful obferva-
tions on this fubjeét, obferves, that the figured cloths to
be feen in the old tapeftries of Bruffels, and the other ma-
nufaétures of Flanders, which have {carcely loft any thing
of their livelinefs by ftanding for two hundred years, were all
dyed with the kermes.
Ficus. On the ficus religiofa and indica. Fabr.
lacca kerr, Phil. Tranf. 1781.
This is the infeét which produces the gum lac, and isa
native of the Ealt Indies, It is of an oval compreffed form,
inferior in fize to the head of a moderately large pin ; the
back is carinatcd, the abdomen flat, the antenne half the
length of the body, and ramofe, or fending forth two or
three long delicate hairs; and the tail furmifked with, two
briftles.
The natural hiftory and transformations of this infe& have
not, hitherto, been attended to by any accurate and well-in-
Coccus
formed obferver, upon whom we may implicitly rely. Fhe
following general remarks feem more entitled to attention,
Thefe infe&s are faid to inhabit, befides the trees above-
mentioned, the pla/o of the Hortus Malabaricus, and
rhamnus jujuba of Linnzus. They commonly fix them-
felves fo clofe together, and in fuch numbers, that fearcely
one in fix can haye room to complete her cell; the others die,
and are eat up by various infects. The extreme branches
appear as if they were covered with a red duit, and their fap
is fo much exhaufted, that they wither, and produce no
fruit, the leaves drop off, or become of a dirty black co-
lour. Thefe infe&s are tranfplanted by birds ; for if they
perch only upon thefe branches, they mult carry off a wum-
ber of the infe@s upon their feet to the next tree they ret
upon. It is worth obferying, that thefe fig-trees,’ when
wounded, drop a milky juice, which inftantly coagulates
into a vifcid ropy fub{tance, which, hardened in the open air,
is fimilar to the cell of the coccus lacca. The nativessboil
this milk with oils into a birdlime, which will catch pea
cocks, or the largeft birds. A red medicinal gum is pro-
cured by incifion from the plafo-tree, fo timilar to the gum
lacca, that it may readily be miftaken for the fame fubltance.
And hence it is fuppofed, thefe infects have little trouble
in animalizing the fap of thefe trees in the formation of
their cells. The gum lacca is rarely feen upon the rhamnus
jujuba, and it is inferior to what is found upon the unculti-
vated mountains on both fides of the Ganges, where nature
has produced it in fuch abundance, that were the confump-
tion ten times greater, the markets might be fupplied. The
only trouble in procuring the lac, is in breaking down the
branches, and carrying them to market. The price in
Dacca, a few years ago, was about 325. the hundred weight,
though brought thither from the diftant country of Affam.
The beft lac is of a deep red colour. This infect and its
cells have gone under the various names of gum lacca, lack,
and loc tree; in commerce, they diftinguifh four kinds of
this fort of gum.
Caricz. On the ficus carica. La cochenille du figuier
commun, Olivier. The body is ferruginous, with the mar-
gin elevated and pale. Its general figure is oval, and convex.
This defcription applies only to the female, as the male is
yet uoknown.
This kind is found in the fonth of Europe, and through-
out the Levant, where they commit vaft depredations on
the fig trees, to which they are peculiar. ‘Thefe infeéts are
fo numerous, that it is impoffible to deftroy them, and in
fome feafons in particular, they appear in fuch immenfe
{warms, as to defpoil the trees of their foliage, and rob:
them of their moifture, till they occafion the fruit to drop
off before it can ripen. Some cultivators of the fig {prinkle
their trees with a mixture of vinegar and the dregs of oil,
and which, in a partial degree, may prove eflicacious in de--
ftroying them,
Uve# Ursrt. Onthe roots of arbutus uva urfi. Fabr.
The body of this infeét is a chefnut colour, and produces a
tincture. Modcer A&. Gothenb.
Cuaracias. Cochenille du characias.
This curious infeét was firft defcribed by Bofc in the
*¢ Journal de Phyfique,” February, 1784, under the name
of Dorthefia characias, in memory of his friend Dorthes de
Montpellier, who had previoufly obferved it. The male
is about a line and a half in length exclufive of the wings,
which are very large, femi-tran{parent, and of a leaden-grey
colour. The antenne are fetaceous, and much longer than
the body, and the extremity and upper part of the abdomen
are tufted with white hairs or filets, which extend beyond
the end of the wings. The female is larger than the male,
4 meafuring
COR CW'S,
meafuring two or tliree lines in length, the antennee are fhort,
filiform, and of areddifh brown, and entirely covered with a
whitifh matter, which forms appendages or tufts on the
fides and onthe back. The abdomen terminates 1n a folid
friable mafs of long filets, upon removing which the body
appears reddith, with nine tranfverfe ftrie, The trunk is
fhort and fituated in the {pace between the anterior legs.
ry
2
he legs are of a reddifh brown. Preparatory to the fe-
‘ginning to lay hereggs, which fhe does at the com-
rent of the fpring feafon, fhe formsa little elongated
receptacle fomew hat in form of a fack, and fills it with a white
cotton-like fabftazce, in which the eggs are depolited.
T ice infe&s prefer the euphorbia charactas, and cuphorbia
fi pfella, two p.ants on which they thrive, and are rarely
found on any other. The young fhed their fins feveral times
before they acquire their full fize. The wings of the male
appear, when they have cait their fkins the third time, in the
month of September; the latter are rare, compared with
the females, not more than one or two males being found
to two or three hundred females. Their amours and habits
refemble thofe of the other cocci. A circumitance ap-
parently new in the hiftory of the cocci was obferved by
Dorothes relative to this infe&t. He found that the fe-
males furvive after laying their eggs; in the winter they
corceal themfclves under flones, or among the bark and
moffes, and re-appear in fpring, when the young are
hatched, and the parent iives at leaft a month afterwards.
It is faid that the larva of a particular kind of coccinclla infi-
nuates iifelf in the receptacle of eggs, and eats them without
attacking the parent. Qjivier appears to have found the
fame fpecies of coccus on the bramble in the neighbourhood
of Faris.
The coccus characias emits from the pofterior part glo-
bules of a vifcous matter, refembling the faccharine moif-
tare difcharged by the aphides. Some attempts have been
made to difcover whether shefe infeéts might be rendered of
any utility to the dyer, but without fuccefs; an infufion of
them in boiling water produces only a weak tinéture of a
pale yellow colour.
CaTAPHRACTUS.
and legs ferruginous.
This curious infeét was defcrined by Dr. Shaw, in the
fifth volume of the ‘ Naturaliits? Mifcellany,” from a {pe-
cimen communicated by Mr. Dickfon, gardener to the
Britifh Mufeum. Dr. Shaw confiders it as a f{pecies of
coccus, an opinion that feems to admit of fome doubt, but
as the infe& is unknown to us, except from the defcription,
we fhall retain it in this genus, and only repeat the account
given of it by that writer in his own words.
«The natural fize of the infeé&t (of which the female
alone appears to be at prefent known), is that of the cocci-
nella tigrina, or {mall yellow-{potted lady-bird, and at firft
view has an appearance fo littie allied to the generary of
the cocci, as to make it doubtful whether it really belongs
to that tebe of infeGs. The whole animal (except the
eyes, legs, antenna, and roftrum,) being coated, in the
moft curious manner, in a complete fuit of milk-white ar-
mour, as if cafed with ivory. The divifions or annuli of
the back are eight in number, of which the three fuperior
ones are each furnifhed witha {mall fcutellum or appendicu-
lar piece, which is wanting inthe other, ‘The fides are fur-
rounded by projecting laminz, fomewhat in the marner of
tortoifes or miliepedes ; the lower furface is compofed of an-
gular pieces, difpofed nearly as in the former of the above-
mentioned animals ; the eyes which are fituated jult below
or on the underiide of the antennz, are bright, and tome-
what elevated, not unlike thofe of alobfter; the colour of
the projeGting parts, viz. the legs, eyes, antennz, and rof-
»
Milk-white ; eyes, antenne, rofrum,
trum, is a fine bright ferruginous or reddifh brown.” The
eggs were {mall in proportion to the animal and of a brown
cofour, This infect is found amonz {phagnum and other
moffes in boggy and turfy ground, and is moft frequent ia
Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England, particularly
in fome parts of Cumberland.
mnt Feeds on the olive, myrtle, and phyllyrea.
iv.
Olivier deferibes this fpecies under the name of Caccus
olee, and Cochenille de? Olivier. The female is oval, and of
a red-brown colour, paler or deeper in different individuals,
and with the nerves, raifed and irregular. The male is un-
known, ‘This is found in the fouthern parts of France and
in Italy: it chiefly infe!ts the olive, and, though common —
on the leaves of that plant, is obferved never to touch the
fruit. The young, foon after being hatched, difperfe, and -
refort to the under fide of the leaves and buds. “They mui-
tiply prod’gioufly fait, and are, of courfe, injurious to the
olive which they particularly prefer.
Ruscr, Shell furrounded by cight {maller pieces. Mo-
deer At. Gothenb. ld rtathe
Inhabits Italy; on the Myrtus and Rufeus. The fhell
is truncated, octagonal, and perforated, and has the {malier
lateral pieces granulated im the middle. :
Myricz. Feeds on the myrica quercifolia, Fabr. Mo-
deer A&. Gothenb. ’ i aan
A naiive of the Cape of Good Hope. This is the fize
of a {mail pea, and of a femi-oval form, and pale flefh colour :
the crown is obtuiely pointed, and furnifhed with a very
{mal] pore, and another above the thicker cartilaginous
membrane. ; :
Cargex. Feeds onthe willow. Modeer A&. Gothenb.
Coccus fubrotundus fufcus, linea dorfali nigra, Degeer.
Size of a {mall pea, ‘and of an ovate form, with the ante- -
rior part obtufe and bifid ; the colour teftaceous or fufcous,
with a glofly furface, and marked down the middle witha
line of black. An European fpecies. ,
Psaxagipis. On the roots of graffes, particularly the
phalaris canarienfis, or canary gra{s. ia
¥
This kind is defcribed by Linnzus in his * Fauna Siena’.
cica,” under the name of Coccus phalaridis. Geoffroy calls
it Coccus graminis, corpore rofeo. The female forms little
nefts along the ftalks, and at the roots of grafs, which are
compoled of a white cotton-like fubftance, in which fhe
depofits her eggs. The body of the female is pale-red, or
whitith, and nfealy ; the male is of the fame colour, with
two wings, aud foue threads at the extremity of the tail,
two of which are longer than the rett. :
Crataci. Feeds on the hawthorn, Crategus oxyacantha,
Modeer A&. Gothenb.
Inhabits Europe; is of an oblong form, and chefnut
colour. Bile fi died Do dn
Sexratutaz. Feeds on the faw-wort, ferratula arvenfity
Fabr. Found in England. iL My
Zosters. Feeds on the zofera marina. Fabr. <n
‘This is about the fize of a pea; the fhields are_br. ny
and palerat theedges. Found chiefly on the « —
in the Baltic. +) > ae
Virts. On the branches of vitis wini tra. Fabr. :
Chermes vitis oblongus, Geoffroy. aa
‘he body of this fpecies is oblong, and of a cinnamon
colour. vite
LirxiopEnpRI.
Hameurgh Mag.
Fartnosus. Ovate, downy, pale fufcous, powdered with
white. Modeer Act. Gothenb.
Intelts the detulus aluus. The body of this fpecies is”
deprefled.
TOMMY sy
Feeds on the liriodendrum tulipifera.
CLEMATIDIs,
coc
Curmartipis, Feeds on plants of the ¢dematis genus.
. Geoffr. :
. Pexsice.
Gothenb.
The body of this {pecies is gloffy, and either of a reddifh
eolour, tawny, or black. :
_ Asietis. On the pinus abies. Modeer. Le kermées du
Jfapin of Geoffroy.
This is of a round and f{pherical form, and of a deep ma-
roon cclour; it is found on pines near the bifurcations of
the branches.
Fuscvs. On the oak, quercus robur. Modeer.
brown and mealy, and of a rotundate form.
Variecarus. Round, variegated with white, yellowifh,
and black.
The general colour is a yellowifh-white, marked with
three black tranfverfe rays, and the intermediate {paces
dotted with black,
Lanatus. Oblong, filky white; on the guercus rodur.
Geeffroy. :
This is of a brown colour, and aflumes a white appearance
from the filky down with which the body is covered.
Mespiti. Body filky-white ; on the me/pilus. Called
by Geoffroy Le termes cotonneux du néflier.
Feeds on the amygdalus perfica. Modeer AG.
Body
ConcuoriFrormis. Body linear, and fufcous; on the
elm. Modeer.
Aceris. Body ovate; on the maple. Modeer.
Lanicer. Brown, iilky-white ; on the waus campeftris.
Reaum, } x
Diosmatis. On the diofma crenata and pulchella.
Modeer.
Ani. In the divifions of the branches of Jetula alni.
Modeer. The body is of an oblong-ovate form, and
reddifh. ; ;
Uva. Fufcous, inclining to yellowifh, and {pherico-gib-
bous. Modeer. Inhabits Sweden, and is found under
fiones. ‘
Spurius. Ovate, with a few hairs, chefnut; beneath
pale yellow. Modeer. Found on the ulmus, or elm.
Coccus Maldivia, the Maidivia nut, in the AVateria Me-
dica, the name of the fruit of the palma Maldivienfis of
Johniton, an oval-fizured fruit, of a {wect tafe, and tamous
for its yirtues in nervous diforders.
' COCCYGAZUS Muscutus, in Anatomy, is a thin and
flat mufcle, of a triangular figure, arifing by its apex from
the point of the fpinous procets of the facrumy, and inferted
by its bafis into the inferior lateral part of the facrum, and
into the fide of the os coccygis. It is ftrongly connefted
to the lefler facro-ifchiatic, or fpinofo-facral ligament. It
* will reftore the os coccygis, when that bone has been carried
ackwards; and it may bend this bone forwards. This
mufcle isthe /evafor coccygis of Morgagni; fridngularis coc-
eygis of Santorini; and facroycoccygeus of Winflow. —
COCCYGIS curwvatora, isa thin and flender mufcle, deriv-
ed from the inferior lateral portion of the inner furface of the
facrum, and from the upper part of the os coccyyis; it is
fixed into the lower bones of the coccyx. It is often, moltly
or entirely, tendinous. It will bend the coccyx forwards,
Coccyers offs mufeuli, Thefe are {mall, thin, radiated
mufeles, lying on the inner, or concave fide of the og facrum,
and neighbouring parts of the pelvis. They are four in
number, two on each fide, one placed more forward, the
ether more backward; for which reafon the firll may be
termed coccygeus anterior, five ifchio coccygeus, and the other
_ “eoctygeus pofterior, live facro coccygaus.
COCCYGIUS, in Ancient Geography, a hill of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in the -Argolide territory. ‘Lhe way from Troe-
' America.
coc
zené to Halicé, paffed by the foot of this hill, on which was
atemple, dedicated to fupiter; and an old temple at the
bottom of the hill is faid to have beenonfecrated to Apollo.
This hill was near the rirer Inactius, according to Plutarch
and Paufanias, the latter of whom calls it Coccyx.
_COCCYGRIA, in Botany, Bavh. Pin. See Ruvs co
tinus.
COCCYNUM Promoyrtorium, in Geography, a pros
montory of Italy, in Magna Grecia, oppoiite to Sicily.
Appian.
COCCYX, or Ossa Coccyeis, in Anatomy, three or four
{mall portions of bone, conne&ted with each other, and joins
ed to the inferior extremity of the facrum. See SKELETON.
Coccyrx, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariftotle, and
other old Greek writers, to the fith called cuculus, and lyras
by other authors. » It is a {pecies of the triga, diftinguithed
by Artedi by th2 name of the triola, all over red, witha
bifid fnout, and the coverings of the gills ftriated,
COCETUM, among the Ancients, a kind of drink made
of honey and poppies.
COCHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De-
ferta. Ptolemy.
COCHABAMBA, in Geography, a province and jurif=
diction cf Peru, the new vice-royalty of La Plata, or
Buenos Ayres, fituated in a fertile valley between mountains,
and watered by ariver of the fame name. The adjacent
provinces are Sicafica to the N.W.; La Paz and Crnfo to
the W. and S.W.; Chayanta to the S.; and to the E.
Plata and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in S. lat. about 18°, and
W. long. about 67°. The capital town is Oropefa, and it
was formerly denominated the granary of Peru. It has one
gold mine.
COCHE, in Ancient Geography, a village of Babylonia,
near Seleucia, to the S. E. :
Cocue, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Caribbean fea,
between the ifland of Margarita and the continent of South
N. lat. 10° 57’. W. long. 63° 10!.
COCHECO, a north-welt branch of Pifcataqua river,
in the flate of New-Hampfhire, in America. It rifes in the
Bine hills in Strafford county, and its mouth is 5 miles above
Hilton’s Point. ;
COCHER, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Neckar near Wimpfen, in the circle of Swabia.
COCHEREL, atown of France, in the department of
the Eure, famous for a vi€tory gained by Guefelin over the
king of Navarre in 1564; 7 miles E. of Evreux.
COCHHEIM, or Kocneim, a town of Germany, in
the cirgle of the Lower Rhine, and ele@orate of ‘Treves,
now belonging tothe French, and chief place of a canton in
the department of the Rhine and Mofelle, and diltri& of
Coblentz, feated on the Mofelle, formerly imperial, but en-
gaged to the electorate of Treves in 1240 by the emperor
Adolphus de Naffau; 30 miles N.E. of Treves, and 46
N.E. of Luxemburg. The place contains 1527, and can-
ton 5647 inhabitants. The territory includes 18 communes.
COCHIA, in the Afateria Medica, the name of officinal
pills, which are diltinguifhed into the greater and Jefler: the
former 1s a compofition of hiera picra, troches of Alhandal
turpeth, diagrydium, and fyrup of buckthorn, taken from
Rhafes, but feldom ufed in the prefent practice. The latter
is compounded of equal quantities of bright aloes, the
purett fcammony, and the pulp of colocynth, made into a
mafs with fyrup of buckthorn ; two drams of the diltilled
oil of cloves are added to an ounce of each of the former
ingredients. hele pills are preferibed to difcufs vifcidities,
watry humours, and flatulencies.
COCHICAT, abridged from the Mexican name Cochite-
2
nacail,
coc
nacatl, in Ornithology, the Pfittacus torquatus of Gmelin, the
Ramphaflos torquatus of Latham, Ind., the Tucana Mexi-
cana torquata fe Briffon, and the Coloured Toucan of Lath,
Syn.; has the following fpecific charaéter : Above it is
black, below whitifh, its belly green, its hind part red, and
its collar of the fame colour, It frequents the fea-fhore, and
lives on fith.
COCHILE, or Coscixe, in Geography, a river of Na-
ples, which runs into the gulf of Tarento, between Caflano
and Roflano, in the province of Calabria Citra.
COCHIN, a fea-port town of Hindooftan, on the coaft
of Malabar, formerly occupied by the Portuguefe, after-
wards the chief fettlement of the Dutch, but now in pof-
fefliow of the Englith ; it is fituated in a country N. of Tra-
vancore, to which it gives name, and which kas been chiefly
reforted to for pepper. Cochin ftands at the N.W. of an
ifland, which isabout 18 Dutch miles in length, and two in
breadth ; to the fouth the ifland is formed by the mouth of
the river of Cali Coylang, and to the N. by that which runs
from Cranganore, and feparates it from the ifland of Baypin,
The form of the city is nearly femicircular, and it is about
14 mile in circumference, Cochin, befides the baftions, ca-
valier and wall by which it is fortified, has three gates, to
the W. tothe E. and to the N. Its principal buildings
are the church and the government-houfe. Its ftreets are
generally wide, but there are few handfome houfes. The
whole country in the vicinity of Cochin abounds with lakes,
which are the repofitories of the waters that {pring from the
welt fide of the Gauts, and is very flat, marfhy, and infa-
lubrious. At Cochin there were, at the beginning of the
Jaft century, about 4000 Jews, defcendants, probably, of
thofe who fled through Perfia to the coaft of Malabar, from
the perfecution of Titus, They had a fynagogue, in which
were carefully kept their records, engraven on copper-
plates; fo that they could fhow their hiltory from Nebu-
chadnezzar to the prefent time. ‘Wolfius, cited by Kenni-
eott (State of the printed Heb. Text, vol. ii. 532.), is of
opinion, that the Hebrew MSS, of Malabar claim a confi-
derable degree of confidence. |N. lat. 9° 58’. E. long.
76° 2/.
: Cocuin, Nicuoras, in Baeanhy: an engraver of con-
fiderable merit; he was born at Troyes, in Champagne, but
fettled in Paris, where he engraved a great number of plates,
not unfrequently in the ftyle of Callot, whofe difciple he
probably was; and, like that great mafter, he molt excelled
in {mall figures. Many of his prints are from his own com~
politions.. Amongit his other works are, part of the plates
for the entry of Lewis XIV., with his queen, into Paris.
This work, confifting of 22 prints, was publifhed 1622.
Part of the plates for a large volume in folio, of battles,
plans, views of towns, &c. relative to the conquelts of the
French army under the fame monarch, publifhed 1645.
Various fets of {mall prints from the Old and New Tella-
ment, &c. defcribed by Strutt and Heinecken.
Cocutn, Noer, or Narates R., an engraver, born at
Troyes, and in all probability of the fame family with the
preceding artift. He worked at Paris about 1670, and af-
terwards went to Italy, and died, as it is fuppofed, at Ve-
nice. We have by him many bold, but coarfe, etchings from
the works of Titian, Tintorett, the Caracches, and other
Italian artifts, and, among others, feveral of the plates fora
work, entitled, “*'Tabelle, felete ac explicate a Carola
Catherina Patina, Parifina Academica Bataviil, 1691.”’ This
work was alfo publifhed at Venice in the fame year, with an
Italian tranflation of the defcriptions, The prints, however,
owe their chief value to the merit of the compofitions from
which they are engraved. Strutt. Heinecken.
Cocuin, Cuarnres Nicxoras, in his youth applied
coc
himfelf to painting, but afterwards quitted the pafette for
the graver.
He was received into the Royal Academy of Paris in
1731, and died in 1754, His numerous prints, though
fomewhat mannered, are executed in an agreeable and fpi-
rited ftyle. Amongtt his beft works are: ‘ The meeting of
Jacob and Efau,’”” from Le Moine; and ‘ Jacob and La-
ban,” its companion, from Reftout ; both upright plates of
amiddle fize. He likewife engraved the two ftudies of Raf-
faele, for the * Alexander and Roxana,” in the Crozat cae
binet. Strutt. Heinecken.
Cocuin, Cuarres Nicuovas, fon of the preceding
artift, was born at Paris in 1715, and, affifted by the in-
{truétions of his father, and his mother Lowife Madeleine
Hortemels, became an engraver of confiderable celebrity.
In 1749, he travelled to Italy with the marquis de Ma-
rigny, and after his return, was, in 1752, made a meme
ber of the Royal Academy of Paris, and, in the fequel,
appointed fecretary and hiftorian to that fociety.
In addition to thefe honours, he was made a knight of
the order of St. Michael, and keeper of the king’s draw-
ings. Of his works, then extremely numerous, Mr. Jom-
bent publifhed a catalogue in 1770. He was living, ac-
cording to Mr. Strutt, in 1785, when that gentleman
publifhed his di€tionary. Heinecken. Strutt. 5
COCHIN-CHINA, in Hiffory and Geography. The
extenfive empire of China terminates on the fouth of the
22d degree of latitude; but a tongue of iand continued with
it extends on its weftern fide as far as the ninth parallel of
north latitude. This prolongation of 13 degrees in extent,
has a ridge of high mountaivs, which, running from north .
to fouth, divides the Birman empire on the weft, from the
kingdoms of Tung-quin, or Tong-quin, Cochin-china, Tfi~
ampa, or Siampa, and Cambodia, on the eaft. Thefe
names, though ufually marked on our charts, are unknown
to the natives, except Tung-quin. ‘The other three, col-
leGtively, are called An-nan, and are diftinguifhed by three
great divifions. The firlt, contained between the fouthern-
moft point, which forms the extremity in the gulf of Siam,
and which lies in about the ninth degree of latitude, as far as
to the twelfth degree, is called Don-nai ; the fecond, extend-
ing from hence to the fifteenth degree, Chang; and the
third, between this and the feventeenth degree, where the
kingdom of T'ung-quin commences, is called Hué. On
the fea-coaft of all thefe divifions, are fafe and commodious
bays and harbours. ‘The great river of Don-nai (Cambodia
on the chart) is defcribed as navigable by fhips of the
largeft fize to the diltance of forty miles, where the city
Sai-gong is fituated, having a capacious and a commodious
port, and an extenfive naval arfenal. In the divifion of
Chang, in latitude 13° 50’ N., is Chin-chen bay and harbour;
the latter fpacious and completely fheltered from all winds,
but only acceflible by large veffels at high water, on account
of a bar that runs acrofs the narrow entrance between it and
the outer bay. Atthe head of this harbour is fituated the
“city of Quin-nong. The principal city in the div:fion of
Hué, which bears the fame name, is fituated on the banks
of a large river, navigable by thips of a confiderable bur-
den; but a bar of fand runs acrofs the mouth. A little to
the fouthward of this river is the bay of Han-fare, or,
as it is ufually marked in the charts, Turcn, which, for
the fecurity and conveniences it affords, is equalled by few
in the eaftern world. It is fituated in N. lat. 16° 7’.
Cochin-china, properly fo called, extends from about the
2oth degree of north latitude to Pulo Condore, which lies
in 8°40. It isbounded by the kingdom of Tong-quin on the
N., from which it is feparated by the river Sungen, by the -
kingdom of Laos, and by a range of mountains, sca
vides
COCHIN-CHINA.
vides it from Cambodia on the W.3 and by that part of the
ealtern ocean, called the Chinefe fea, on the S. and E.
The kingdom is divided into 12 provinces, lying upon the
fea-coatt, and fucceeding each other from north to fouth.
Its breadth bears no proportion to its length; as few of the
provinces extend further than a degree from eaft to weit,
and fome lefs than 20 miles... The whole country is inter-
fected by rivers, which,though not large, are favourable to in-
land commerce. The climateis healthy, as the violent heat of
the fummer-months is tempered by regular breezes from the
fea. The rainy feafons are September, Oétober, and No-
vember; when the low lands are liable to be fuddenly over-
flowed by immenfe torrents of water that flow from thie
mountains. Thefe_inundations, which happen generally
once a fortnight, lait three or four days. The frequent
rains which are brought in December, January, and February,
by cold northerly winds, dillinguifh this country by a win-
ter different from any otheria the Eaft. The inundations, hke
the overflowings of the Nile in Egypt, contribute very
much to fertilize this country ; fo that in many parts the
land produces three crops of grain in the year. All the
fruits of India are found here in the greatelt perfeGion, with
many of thofe of China. Afiatic Regiiter. i. 84.
Hiftory of Cochin-china.. This country had a fhare in all
the early revolutions of Tung-quin; it was fabje originally
to the Chinefe government, and of courfe liable to the fame
changes which China itfelf experienced. In many periods
of its hiftory, Cochin-china feems to have ftood high in the
eltimation of the parties contending for rule. When the
Ming had expelled the Mogul ‘Tartars from China, the new
emperor, chief of that dynally, feut notice to the king of
Cochin-china of bis acceffion to the tlirone, and caufed fa-
crifices to be offered up in honour of the {pirits of moun-
tains, forelts, and rivers. Itataha, who was then fovereign,
fent his tribute to the new monarch, from whom, in return,
he teceived magnificent prefents. In 1373, this fame prince
made fo many saval captures from the pirates who infelted
the feas, that he was enabled to prefent the emperor with
feventy thoufand pounds weight of precious woods.
In the next century, after a long and very bloody war,
the kings of Tung-quin became‘abfolute matters of Cochia-
china, as far.as cape Aurilla, in N. iat. 12° 34’. The
aborigines, called Moys, retired to the mountains that fepa-
rate Cochin-china from Cambodia, where they have ever
fince remained. They are faid to be a favage race of peo-
ple, very black, and in their features refembling the Caffres.
After this revolution, the Chinefe hittorians {peak but
little of Cochin-china. It, however, recovered its inde-
pendence, and continued to be governed, as itis at prefent,
by its own kings. . ‘here is, notwithttanding this, but little
come down to usof itshittory, till whatis given us by Mr.
Barrow, which commences in the year 1774, and of which
the following is a brief outline.
In the year 1774, and in the 35th year of the reign of
Caung-fhung, king of Cochin-china, an infurreétion broke
out in the city Quin-nong, the capital of his kingdom,
This rebellion was headed by three brothers, of whom the
eldeft, named Yin-yac, was a wealthy merchant, who carried
on an extenfive commerce with China and Japan: the name
of the fecond was Long-niang, a general officer of high
rank, and great command; and the third was a prieft.
Such a dangerous combination of wealth, of military power,
and of influence over the minds of the people, was but
feebly refilted on the part of the king, who had for many
years furrendered, in a great degree, the reins of govern-
ment into the hands of his generals, who were moltly eu-
Vou. VIII.
nuchs. Other cireumftances tended to forward the views of
the rebel chiefs. ‘lhe impofition of a poll-tax had created
general difcontent amoug the people. They feized upon the
king, whom, with as many of his family as they could get
into their hands, they put to death. ‘The city of Sai-gong
was {uppofed to be favourable to the caufe of the depof-d
fovereign : an army was therefore marched againft it, the
city was taken, and 20,000 of its inhabitants put to the
fword. ‘The ufurpers left no meafures untried, nor fuffered
any occafion to pafs by, which might be the means of giv-
ing them popularity. ‘he merchant gave fumptuons en-
tertainments, fetes and fre-works: the general encouraged
and flattered his army, and the prieft prevailed on the cler-
gy to announce to the multitude the decree of ‘Tien, which
had erdained thefe three worthies to be their future rulers.
According to a plan laid down for the government of this
extenfive country, it was determined that Yin-yac fhouid
poffefs the two divifions of Chang and Don-rai: Long-
niang that of Hué, bordering on ‘lung-quin; and that the
youngeit brother fhouid be high preft of all C. chin-china.
‘Thus Yin-yac placed his brother between himfelf and the
Tung-quinefe, who were regarded as a very powerful peo-
ple; with thefe Long-niang took occafion to quarrel, but
they were unable to cope with him. Their king, after the
firft engagement, abandoned his army, and fled to Pekin to
implore the affittance of the emperor. Kien-Lung, who,
from his fucceffes in every part of Tartary, and on the great
ifland of Formofa, had been led to believe that his troops
were invincible, conceived there would be but little difficulty
in driving the ufurper from Tung-quin, and in reftoring the
lawful fovercign to his throne. Tor this purpofe he ordered
the viceroy of Canton to march immediately at the head of
100,000 men. Long-niang, apprized of the movements of
this immenfe army, and having afcertained their line of march,
fent out detachments to plunder and deftroy the towns and
villages, through which it muft pafs: the country being
thus laid walte, the Chinefe army, long before it had reached
the frontier of Tung-quin, was fo diltreffed by the want of
provifions as to be obliged to fall back; but in their re-
treat they were harrafled by the enemy to fuch a degree,
that by fatigue, famine, and fword, half the Chinefe army
was deftroyed without a general batcle being fought. The
viceroy, when he was within 100 miles of Canton, offered
to negociate with the ufurper, but Long-niang affuming
the charaéter and tone of a conqueror declared, that having
been called to the throne of Tung-quin by the will of hea-
ven and the voice of the people, he was determined to main-
tain his right to the laft extremity: that he had 200,000
men in Tung-quin, and as many in Cochin-china, ready to
die in his caufe : and that he was no longer an ufurper, for
he had been crowned Quang-tung, king of the united
kingdoms of Tung-quin and Cochin-china. The viceroy
was but ill prepared for this decided tone: yet no time
mul be loft in deliberation. He difpatched a courier to
Pekin, giving an account of victories gained, and enemics
fubdued, although himfelf had been driven before the enemy
without once daring to hazard an engagement. At the
fame time he {poke in high terms of commendation of his
antagonift, and of his right to the crown for which he had
been contending, and gave it as his opinion that Quang-
tung fhould be invited to the court of Pekin to do the
uival homage, and to receive the fanétion of the emperor for
holding the throne of Tung-quin ; fuggefting, alfo, that a
degree of mandarinate in one of the provinces of China, con-
ferred on the late fovereign of that country, would be an
ample indemnification for the lofs he had fultained in Tung-;
40 quin.
COCHIN-CHINA.
quin. The court approved the viceroy’s propof:l. The
fugitive king of Tung-quin relinquifhed his pretenfions toa
crown, and accepted the degraded title of a Chincfe Man-
darin: after which an invitation was difpatched: to Quang-
tung to proceed to Pekin. The wary general fent an officer
as his reprefentative, who was to aét the part of the new
king of Tung-quinand Cochin-china. He was received at
the court of Pekin with all due houours, loaded with pre-
fents, and confirmed in his title to the united kingdoms,
which were to be regarded as tributary to the emp-ror of
China. Oa the return of this mock king to Hué, Quang-
tung knew not how to at; but perceiving that the affair
could not remain a feeret, he caufed his friend and the whole
fuite to be put to death, as the only means of preventing
the trick which had been fuccefsfully played on the empe-
ror of China, from being difcovered. This event happened
in the year 1779. At the time of the rebellion in Cochin-
china, there refided at court a French miffionary of the name
of Adran, who was ftrongly attached to the royal family,
and who effected the efeape of the queen and her fon. By
favour of the night they fled to a confiderable diftance
from the capital, and took refuge in a forelt. Here for fe-
veral months the young king of Cochin concealed himfelf,
and the remnent of his unfortunate family, in the fhady
branches of a banana-tree, where they received their daily
fultenance from the hands of a Chriftian prieft, who carried
them fupplies at the hazard of his life, till ali farther fearch
was givenup. As foon as the enemy had retired, the un-
fortunate fugitives made the beit of their way to Sai gong,
where the people flocked to the ftandard of their legiti-
mate fovereign, whom they crowned as king of Cochin-
china, under the name of his late father, Caung-fhung. At
this time there were in the port of Sai-gong an armed vef-
fel commanded by a Frenchman, feven Portuguefe mer-
chantmen. and a confiderable number of junks and row-
boats. Thefe the king purchafed for the purpofe of mak-
ing an attack on the ufurper’s fleet, inthe harbour of Quin-
nong. The monfoon was favourable for the project, but
the refult was not crowned with fuccefs, and the young
monarch was glad to make a hafty retreat. "Though acon-
‘fiderable part of Yin-yac’s fleet was difabled or deftroyed,
it anfwered no other purpofe than to roufe his attention to-
wards the fouthern parts of the country. Caung-fhung
had fearcely returned to Don-nai, which he reached with
difficulty, on account of the monfoon being adverfe to
his return, when intelligence was received that a large
army was on its march againit him. Refiftance on
his part being in vain, he determined to feek for
fafeiy in flight. Having colle&ted the remains of his
family, and°a few faithful followers, he embarked in the
river of Sai-gong, and after a fhort voyage, arrived
fafely on a {mall uninhabited ifland in the gulf of
Siam, called Pulo Wai. Here he was joined in a fhort time
by about 1200 of his fubjeéts fit to carry arms. The ufurp-
er having difeovered the place of his retreat was upon the
point of fending out an expedition again{t him, but Caung-
fhung, apprized of his intention, deemed it more pradent to
embark for Siam, and to throw himfelf on the proteétion of
the king of that country. He had not been long landed
before he offered his affiftance, and that of his people, to join
his Stamefe majefty againft the Birmans: thefe he foon re-
duced to the neceflity of fuing for peace on any terms.
Caung-fhung returned to the capital ot Siam, where he was
received with unrliverfal joy, and every demonttration of
kindnefs, on the part of the king, who loaded him with pre-
fents of gold, filver, and precious ftones. He did not re-
main long in favour, but was oblized with his adherent '
to feck refuge again in their folitary ifland. Here he fortified’
himfelf fecurely again his enemies, and in a fhort times.
learnt through his friend Adran, that the greater part of
his fubjeG@s were {till attached to him, and diffatisfied with
the ufurpér. He committed his fon to the care of Adran,
who embarked with his charge for Pondicherry, and from
thence they failed to Paris, where they arrived in the year
1787. The yourz prince wis prefcnted at court, and
treated with every mark of refpe€t. In the courfe of a few
months Adran concluded a treaty between Louis XVI. and’
the king of Cochin, in which the former engaged to lend’
Caung-fhung effectual affitance to reflore him to his own
throne. The fcheme was, however, fufpended firft by the
devices of an artful woman, and afterwards completely aban-
doned by the French Revolution in 1789. The bifhop ne=
verthelefs did not defpair of the caufe ; he, with the young
prince and fome volunteers from France, went in fearch of
the king. At the mouth of the river leading to Sai-gong
they learned that the monarch had remained two years, liv-
ing, like the reft of his adherents, on the roots which they
dug from the ground, but that he had at leagth raifed his
ftandard in Don-nai. In the year 1790, the bifhop and his’
fon joined him at Sai-gong ; they were followed. by a {mall
veffel which had been taken up to convey arms and ammu-
nition. The greater part of the firft year was occupred in
fortifying the place, in recruiting and difcipliaing the army,
and in colle€ting and equipping a flect. In the year 17915
the rebel Quang-tung died at Hué, leaving behind him a fon
of about 12 years of age to fucceed in the government of
Tung-quin, and the northern part of Cochin-china.
Caung-fhung immediately commenced operations againft
Yin-yac; the attack was fo wholly unexpe&ed on the part
of Yin-yac, that he and his court had gone thirty miles up
the country to enjoy the pleafure of hunting. On [uch oc-
cafions the fovereign is not only attended by a few courtiers,
but with numbers fufficient to compofe a {mall army. They
are chiefy foldiers, who furround the thickets, and having”
fprung the game, which is ufually an elephant, or tyger, or
buffalo, they diminifh the diameter of the circle, till fixing
the animal on a fpot, they ether kill him with their fpeats
or take him prifoner. ‘The alarm of the enemy was quickly
communicated to the hunting party, and the beach was pre-
fenily lined with troops: but they were of little affiitance,
and the ufurper had-the mortification of witneffing the
deffruftion of his fleet by that of Caung-fhung. In the
year 1793, when the Britith f{quadron, in its way to China,
came to anchor in Turen-bay, it was known that the whole
of Donnai was in poff-flion of the lawful fovereign, Chang,
the middle part of the country, was held by the ufurper
Yin-yac; and Hué, including the country and iflands ad-
jacent to Turon-bay, was governed by the fon of Quang-.
tung. At firft it was fuppofed that our fleet had come in
aid of the legitimate fovereizgn, and under this idea, his
opponents aflembled a confiderable body of troops and’
elephants in the vicinity of Turon, and it was not tll after
many days had expired, that this impreffion was done away.
The rebel, Yin-yac, did not long furvive the deitru€tion of’
his fleet : he died a few months after the Britifh left Turon
bay of a difeafe brought on by rage and defpair at the fuc-
cefs of the lawful king : by fome, however, his death has: -
been imputed to poifon adminiftered by his {ubjeéts already
wearied with his government. He was fucceeded by his fon,
who poffeffed all che vices without the talents of the father.
Cruel, deceitful, and vindiGtive, he was univerfally hated.
In the year 1796, Caung-fhung refolved to attack his capi
* tal
~
COCHIN-CHINA.
tal by land. The young ufurper brought againit him an
army of 100,000 men; but the king completely routed it
with a much inferior force, and took poffeffion of Quin-
norg. On this cecafion an extraordinary inftance of meg-
naiimity is related of Caung-fhung. When the garrifon
had furrendered, the king, having been engaged in perfon
the whole day, and worn out with fatigue, was conveyed
into the citadel in a fedan-chair; but, on pafling the inner
gate, he was fired at by a perfon on the rampart: the cul-
prit was feized and brought before the king, when it was
difeovered that he was a general officer, and a relation to
the ufurper. The king, according to the cuttom of the
Chinefe, when it is intended to mitigate the fentence of
death paffed on a criminal, told him, that inftead of order-
ing his head to be ftruck off, he would allow him his choice
of poifon, a cord of filk, or adagger. ‘ If you are not
afratd of me,’’ faid the rebel chief, “ yeu will inftantly
order my releafe ; and as 1 have {worn never to live under
your proteGtion, or to be obedient to your laws, if you dare
comply with what I afk, I fhall immediately repair to
Hiué, where my rank and charaéter will procure me the
command of an army, at the head of which I fhall be proud
to meet you.” The king ordered his releafe, and cavfed him
to be efcorted to the northern frontier; and the following
year this very man was fecond in command at the fiege of
Quin-nong where he loft his life. he fon of Yin-yac was
completely fubdued, and the whole country, as faras Turon-
bay, fubmitted to the arms ot the lawful fovercign. The
other ufurper ftill kept pofleffion of the kingdom of Tung-
quin, againft which Caung-fhung was preparing a formidable
armament in the year 1800, fince which there have been no
authentic accounts, though, according to Mr. Barrow,
there are grounds for believing that he has re-conquered the
whole of that country. From the year 1790, in which
Caung-fhung returned to Cochin-china, to 1800, he was
allowed to enjoy only two years peace; thefe, however,
were probably the moft important in his hitherto trouble-
fome reign. Under the aufpices of the bifhop Adran, who,
in every undertaking of confequence, was to him as an oracle.
he turned his attention to the improvement of his country.
He-eftablifhed a manufactory of falt petre, opened roads of
communication between important potts and conftderable
towns, and planted them on each fide with trees for the
fake of fhade. He encouraged the cultivation of the areca
nut and the betel pepper, the plantations of which had been
deltroyed by the army of the ufurper. He held out re-
wards for the propagation of the filk worm; caufed large
traéts of land to be prepared for the culture of the fugar-
cane; and eftablifhed manufactures’ for the preparation of
pitch, tar, and refin. He caufed feveral thoutand match-
locks to be fabricated ; he opened a mine of iron ore, and
conftruG@ed {[melting-furnaces. He diflribeted his land
forces into regular regiments ; eltablifhed military {chools,
where officers were inftruéted in the doGrine of projeGiles
and gunnery by European malters; and Adran tranflated
into the Chinele language a fyltem of military ta@tics for the
ufe-of his army. In the courfe of thefe two years he con-
dtruGted three hundred large gun-boats, five luggers, and a
frigate ‘built upon the French plan. He cauled a fyftem
of naval ta&tics to be introduced, and had his naval officers
initructed in the ufe of fignals. An Enghth gentleman, in
the year 1800, faw a fleet of 1200 fail, under the immediate
command of this prince, weigh their anchors, and drop
down the river in the higheft order, in three feparate divi-
fions, forming into lines of battle, and going through a
variety of manceuvres by fignals as they proceeded. During
Au interval of peace he undertook to reform the fyitem of
jurifprudence : he abolifhed feveral fpecies of torture, -and
he mitigated punifhments that appeared to be difpropor-
tionate to the crimes of which they were the confequence.
He eftablifhed public fchools, to which parents were com-
pelled to fend their children at the age of four years, under
certain pains and penalties. He drew up regulations for
the cominercial interefts of his kingdom; caufed bridges to
be built over rivers ; buoys and fea-marks to be laid down
in all the dangerous parts of the coafts; and furveys to be
made of the principal bays and harbours. He fent miffions
into the mountainous diltrits on the wet of his kingdom,
inhabited by the Laos and the Miaotfe, barbarous nations
whom he wilhed to bring into a ftate of civilizatiin and
good government. In fhort, this monarch, by his own inde-
fatigable application to the arts and manufaétures, roufed,
by his example, the energies of his people, and {pared no
pains to regenerate his country. In lefs than ten years,
from a fingle veffel he accumulated a fleet of 1260 fhips,
of which three were of European conftru@tion. Caung-
fhung is, in the itrifteft fenfe of the word, a foldier, and
hoids the name of general in far greater eflimation than that
of fovereigzn : he is defcribed as being brave without rafh-
nefs ; and fertile in expedients, when difficulties are to be
furmounted. He is neither difeouraged by difficulties, nor
turned alide by obftacles. Cautious in deciding, but, when
once refolved, prompt and vigorous to execute. In battle
he is always eminently diftinguifhed ; attentive to all the
officers urder his command, he ftudioufly avoids to mark
out any mcividual as a favourite. He knows the name of
almoft every foldier, and delights in talking over with them
of their adventures and exploits ; he makes particular inqui-
ries after their wives and children; and even enters with a
degree of intereft into a minute detail of their domeftic con-
cerns. To foreigners he is affable and condefcending ;
he profeffes a veneration for ure do€trines of Chriftianity,
aud tolerates all religions in his dominions. He obferves
a moft ferupulous regard to the maxims of filial piety, as
laid down in the works cf Confucins, and humbles himfelf
in the prefence of his mother, who is {lill living, as a child
before its matter. With the works of the moft eminent
Chinefe authors he is well acqnainted; for the energy of his
mind ts not lefs vigorous than the activity of his corporeal
faculties. Ite is reprefented as the main-fpring of every
movement that takes place in his extenfive kingdom. To
enable him-the better to attend to the concerns of his
government, his mode of life is regulated by a fixed plan.
“At fix in the morning he rifes and poes into the cold baths
at feven he has a levee with his mandarins, when the letters
received on the preceding day are read, on which his orders
are minuted by the refpe€live fecretaries. He then pro-
ceeds to the naval arfenal, examines the works that had
been performed in his abfence, and rows in his barge round the
harbour, infpeéting his fhips of war. About twelve or one
he takes his breakfalt in the dock-yard, which confilts of
boiled rice and dried Hth. At two he retires and fleeps till
five, when he gives audience to the naval and military
officers, the heads of tribnnals or public departments, and
examines what they may have to propofe. hefe affairs
generally employ his attention till midnight, when he re-
tires to his private apartments, makes notes of the occur-
rences of the day, takes a light fupper, paffes an | our with
his family, and retires to bed between two and three in the
morning. We have been thus particular in drawing the
charadier of this prince,’on account of the afcendancy which
he is likely to gain in that part of the Eaft. The itrength
of the forces of the king in Ccchin-china was, in the year
1800, as follows: e -
402 Army,
COCHIN-CHINA,
ARMY. Men.
24 Squadrons of buffalo cavalry : 6,000
16 Battalions of elephants (200 beafts) - 8,000
go Battalions of artillery ail get ie eget 15,000
25 Regiments of 1200 each, trained in the
European manner - - - 30,009
Infantry with match-locks, &c. Minis = 42,000
Guards trained in European taStics - 12,Cc00
Land forces - 113,000
MARINE.
Artificers in the naval! arfenal - - 8,000
Sailors.regiftered on the fhips in the harbour §,000
Attached to the European built veffels - 1,2¢0
Attached to the junks - - - - },600
Attached to a hundred row-galleys = 8,co2
Marine forces - 26,800
Making in the whole, for the land and fea-fervice, one
hundred and thirty-nine thoufand eight hundred men.
Thefe military men are active and vigorous, and not en-
cumbered with drefs; they wear palte-board helmets, with
taffels of cow-tails, dyed fcarlet ; their quilted jackets and
petticoats are completely Chinefe. In general, a handker-
chief, tied about the head, fomewhat in the fhape of a
turban, a loofe fmock-frock, with a pair of drawers, coutki-
tute the drefs of a foldier.
Manners and Cujfloms of the Cochin-Chinefe. ‘* As none
of the honfes,”’ fays Mr. Barrow, ‘* were large enough tor
the accommodation of our party, the governor of Turon
direGted a fhed to be built, wich was finifhed in the courfe
ofa few hours; the roof and fides were covered with thick
clofe mats. Within this fhed was placed a row of little
tables, with forms on each fide. In China it is the cultom
to cover their tables fo completely with dithes, or bowls,
that no part of their furfaces can be feen + but the Cochin-
Chinefe feem to have improved on the liberality of their
neighbours, by not merely covering the tabie, but by pling
the bowls in rows on each other, three or four high. Of
table-linen, knives, bottles, and glafles, they make no ule ;
but before each perfon is laid a {poon of potter’s ware, and
a pair of porcupine quills, or {mall ticks, like thofe ufed by
the Chinefe. The contents of the bowls are preparations
of beef, pork, fowls, and fifh, cut inte {mall pleccs, mixed
with vegetables, and drefled in foups and gravies, compofed
of various materials. Neither wine, nor {piriis, nor ferment-
ed liquors of any kind, nor even water, are ferved round
during the time of eating; but when dinner is over, the
Chinefe f2au-choo is handed about in porcelain cups. ‘The
governor does not fit down with itrangers, but ufually when
he entertains fuch, lies ftretched on a mattrafs at the end of
a room, fmoking tobacco, or eating his areca nut, while
two tall fellows agitate the air the whole time with large
fans, made of the winged feathers of the Argus phealant.
The drefs of the Cochin-Chinefe is thus defcribed : they go
bare-legged, and generally bare-footed ; their long black
hair, like that of the Malays, is ufually twifted in a knot,
and fixed on the crown of the head, This, indeed, is the
ancient mode in which the Chinefe wore their hair, until
the Tartars, on the conqueft of the country, compelled them
to fubmit to the ignominy of fhaving the whole head, except
a little lock of hair behind. The houfes in general. confilt
only of four mud walls, covered with thatch ; and fuch as
are ficuated on low ground, or in the neighbourhood of
rivers, are ufually raifed on four pofts of wood, or pillars of
ftone, to keep out vermin, as well as inuedations. The
Cochin-Chinefe are, like the French, always gay and forever
talking ; the Chinefe always grave, and affect to be think-
ing; the former are open and familiar; the latter clofe and
referved. A Chinefe would couhder it as difyraceful to
commit any affair of importance to a woman. Women, in
the ellimation of the Cochie-Chinefe, are belt fuited for, and
are accord'ngly entrulted with the chicf concerns of the
family. In Cochio-chiva the women are quite as gay and
unrettrained as the men; but it appears to be their fate ta*
be doomed to thofe ocenpations which require, if not the
greatell exertions of bodily ftrength, at Iealt the molt per-
{cvering induftry. They may be fcen, day after day, and frem
morning til night, ftanding in the midit of pools of water,
occupied in the tranfplanting of rice; all the labours of til-
iage, and the various employments conneéted with agricul-
ture, failto the fhare of the female peafantry ; while thofe
in Turon, to the management of domettic concerns, add the
fuperintendence of all the details of commerce. They even
affilt in conitracting and keeping in repair their mud-built
cottages. They conduét the manufacture of coarfe earthen:
ware veflels ; they manaze the boats on rivers and in har-
bours ; they carry their articles of produce to market; they
draw the cottor-wo»l from the pod, fpin it into thread,
weave it into cloth, dye it of its proper colour, and make it
up into dreffes for themfelves and their families. The young
men in general are compelled to enrol themfelves in the
army, and fuch as are exempt from military feryice, employ
themfelves occationalty in fifhing, in celleCting fwallows nelts,
and the diches de mer, among the neizhbouring iflands, ag
luxuries for the ufe of their great men, but more particularly
as articles of export for the China market ; in felling timber,
building and repairing fhips and boats, and fome other oc-
cupations, which however they take care fhall not engrofs
their whole time, but contrive to leave a confiderable portion
of it unemployed, or employed only in the purfuit of fome
favourite amufement. But the activity and indultry of the
women are fo unabating, their purfuits fo various, and the
fatigue they undergo fo haraffing, that the Cochin. Chinefe
apply to them the fame prove:bial expreffion which we apply
to a cat, obferving, that a woman, having nine lives, bears a
great deal of killing. The men inthis country, even in the
common ranks of life, confider the other fex as deflined for
their ufe; and thofe in the higher ftations as fubfervient to -
their pleafures. The number of wives, or concubines, which
a man may find it expedient to take, is not limited by
any law; but here, as in China, the firlt in point of date
claims precedence, and takes the lead in all domettic con«
cerns. ‘The terms on which the parties are united are not
more eafy, than thofe by which they may be feparated ; the
breaking of one of their copper coins, ora pairof flicks with
which they eat their food, before proper witnefles, is con-
fidered as a diffolution of their former compact, and their aét
of feparation. In China, as we have feen, the men have fes
duloufly and fuccefsfully inculeated the doétrine, that a well-
bred woman fhould never be feen abroad ; and fo craftily
have.they contrived their precepts to operate, that the filly
women have been prevailed on to contider a phyfical defeét,
which confines them to the houfe, as a fafhionable accome
plifhment. In this refpect there is a total difference with
regard to the Cochin-Chinefe women ; they have the free
ufe of the limbs and their liberty, and, by their bultling
about with naked feet, they become unufually large and
{preading. The fame caufe, which in China has effe&ed
this total feclufion of the fex from fociety, and the abridge.
ment of their phyfical powers, has produced in Cochin-china
a dia.
‘+ COCHIN.
.a diametrically oppofite effe&, by permitting them to revel
unconirouled in every {peeies of licentionfiels ; hence they
are degraded in public opinion, and covfidered, a3 beings of
an inferior natureto men. "Thus fituated, charaéter becomes
of little value either to themfelves or others; the confe-
quence of which is, that women of lefs delicaey, or men of
more accommodating difoofitions, are not to be met with in
-any part of the world than thofe in the environs of Turon
bay ; perhaps, however, the general charaéter of the nation
is not to be afcertained from that which prevails at a fea-port.
The fingular indulgence granted by the laws of Solon, of
permitting young men to difpofe of their perfonal favours,
for the purpofe of enabling them to procure the articles of the
firft neceffity fer themfelves or their families, is fanctioned by
the Cochin-Chinefe, without any limitation as to age, con-
dition, or object. Neither the hufband nor the father feems
to have any {cruples in abandoning the wife cr the daughter
to her gallant. This profligacy of character 1s not confined
to the common people ; it applies indeed more forcibly to the
firft ranks of fociety. There is, however, but little that is
prepeff-ffing in the general appearance of the Cochin-Chinefe.
‘The women have but {lender pretenticns to beauty; yet the
want of perfona! charms is in {ome degree compenfated by a
lively and cheerfultemper. Both fexcs are coarfely featured,
and their colour is very dark ; they have the univerfal cuitom
of chewing areca and betel, which, by reddening the lips,
and blackening the teeth, gives them an appearance {till more
unfeemly than nature intended. The drefs of the women is
byino means fafcinating. A loofe cotton frock, of a brown
or blue colour, reaching down to the middie of the thigh,
and a pair of black nankcen trowfers, made very wide, con-
flitute in general their common clothing. With the ufe of
ftockings and fhoes they are wholly unacquainted ; but the
upper ranks wear a kind of fandals, or lonfe flippers. Asa
holiday drefs, on particular occafions, a lady puts on three
or four frocks at once, of different colours and lengths, the
fhorteft being uppermoft. Their long black hair is fome-
times twilled into a knot, and fixed on the crown of the
head, and fometimes hangs lovfe in flowing trefles down the
back, frequently reaching to the very ground. Short hair
is not only confilered as a mark of vulgarity, but an indica-
tion of degeneracy ; the drefs of the men has little, if any
thing, to diltingvifly it from that of the other fex, being chiefly
confined to a jacket and a pair of trowfers. Some wear
handkerchiefs tied round the head, others have hats or caps,
formed for protecting their face againit the rays of the fun;
for which purpofe they aifo make ufe of umbrellas of {trong
China paper, or fcreens of leaves, or fans made of feathers.
Confonant with the appearance of cheir mean and fcanty
clothing, are their lowly cabins of bamboo. There is, how-
ever, fuch a valt d'fference in the circumftances under which
an European and an inhabitant of a tropical climate are
fituated, that the former, who for the firft time finds him-
felf among the latter, will be very apt to fall into error in
attempting to form acomparative eftimate of their refpective
conditions. To the one, fuel and clothing, and clofe and
compact lodging, are effential, not only to his comfort, but
to his exiltence; to the other, fire is of no father ufe than a
few embers to boil his rice, or to prepare an offering for his
god. Clofe, thick clothing, fo far from being a comfort,
would be to him the moft inconvenient of all incumbrauces.
Even the little which he occafionally finds it expedient to
ufe, he frequently throws afide; for where nakednefs is ng
difgrace, he canat all times, and in all places, accommodate
his drefs to his feelings and his circumftances. In the vi-
cinity of Turon bay, there are only a few. villages, in the
largeit of which the number of houfes do not exceed 100,
CHINA.
and thefe chiefly thatched. The cottages of Turon are in
general {nug and clean, and fufficiently compact to protec
the inhabitants from the heat of the fun at one feafon, and
the heavy rains at the other. There feems to be no want
in the market of either cotton or filk f{tuffs for clothing ;
and the country produces a great variety and abundance of
articles, which contribute to the fultenance of the multitude,
as well as to the luxuries of the higher orders of the people,
Almott every kind of domeltic animal, except fheep, appears
to be very plentiful. In Cochin-china they have bullocks,
goats, {wine, buffaloes, elephants, camels, and horfes, In
the woods are found the wild boar, tiger, and rhinoceros,
with plenty of deer; they account the flefh of the elephant
a great danty, and their poultry is exceilent. They pay
little attent:on to the breeding of bullocks, as the tillage of
their land is performed by buffaloes, and their fleth is not
elteemed as focd. The fea, as well as the land, is a never-
failing fource of fuftenance to thofe who dwell on the cealt.
Mott of the general marine worms, dillinguifhed by the name
of mollufca, are ufed as articles of food by the Cochin-
Chinefe. All the gelatinous fubttances derived from the
fea, whether amimal or vegetable, are confidered by them
the molt nutritious of all aliments; and, on this principle,
various kinds of fea-weeds, particularly the fuct and u/ve,
are included in their lift of edible plants. The Cochin=
Chinefe collect hkewife many of the fmall fucculent, or
flefhy plants, which are ufually produced on falt.and fandy
marfhes, which they either boil in their foups, or eat ina
raw tate, to give fapidity to their rice, which with them is
the grand fupport of exiltence. In Cochin-china they are
almolt certain of two plentiful crops of rice every year, one
of which is reaped in April, the other in Oétober. Fruits
of various kinds, as oranges, bananas, figs, pine-apples,
pomegranates, and others of inferior note, are abundantly
produced in all parts of the country. They have very fine
yams, and plenty of {weet potatoes. Their {mall breed of
cattle does not appear to furnifh them with much milk, but
of this article they make a fparing ufe, even with regard
to their young children. Children, till the age of feven or
eight years, go entirely naked, and their food feems to con-
fiit chiefly of rice, fugar-cane, ard water-melons. The mafs
of the people in Cochin-china, like the common Chinefe,
have but two meals in the day, one about nine or ten in the
morning, and the other about fun-fet; and thefe are ufually
taken in the dry feafon, before the doors of their cottages,
upon mats fpread in the open air.
Amufements. The Cochin-Chinefe are very fond of
theatrical amufements ; the aétors are bulily engaged in their
performanees the whole day, proceeding, apparently, with as
much ardour when there are few or even no {peétators prefent,
as when there are many. Being hired for the day, acrowded
ora thin audience makes but little difference to the per
formers, all their concern being the receit of their pay on
the finifhing of their labour. One of thefe exhibitions has
been deferibed by Mr. Barrow. ‘* Inthe farther divifion of
the buildings,’’ fays he, ‘*a party of comedians was engaged
in the midit of an hiftorical drama when we entered ; but on
our being feated they broke off, and coming forward made
before us an obeifance of nine genuflexions and proftrations,
after which they returned to their labours, keeping up an
inceffant noife and buftle during our ftay. The horrible
crath of the gongs, kettle-drums, rattles, trumpets and
fqualling flutes, were fo ftunning and oppreffive, that nothing
but the novelty of the fcene could have detained us fora
moment. he moft entertaining part of the exhibition was
a fort of interlude, performed by three young women, for
the amufement as it fhould feem of the principal atrefs, be
3 ate
COCHIN-CHINA.
fatasia fpeGater in the chara@er of fome ancient queen ;
wiilt an eld eunuch, very whieficatly dreffed, played ‘his
antic tricks, ike a buffoon, in an harlequin entertainment.
Vie dialogue was ight and comic, and occafionally inter-
rupted by cheerful airs, which concluded with a common
chorus. Thefe airs, rude and unpolifhed as they were, ap-
peared to be regular compofitions, and were fung in’exa@tly
meafured time. The voices of the women were fhrill and
warbling, but fome of their cadences were not without me-
Jody, and she inltruments at each pavfe gave a few fhort
flourifhes, till overpowered by the deafening gong. At each
*epetition of the chorus, the three Cochin-Chinefe praces
difp!ayed their fine flender fhapes in the mazy dance, in
which, however, the feet’ were the leaft concerned. By
different geltures of the head, body, and arms, they affumed
a variety of figures, and <li their motions were exaétly adapt-
ed-to the meafure of the mutic. No entrance money is ever
expected in the theatre of ‘China, or Cochin-china. The
actors are either hired to play at private entertainments, at a
“fixed fum for the dey ; or they exhibit before the public ina
temporary thed entirely expofed in froat. On fuch occafions,
inftead of cheering the performers with empty plaudits, the
audience throw among them pieces of copper money.” At
‘Cochin-china football with a bladder; leaping over an
horizontal pole, and other aés of agility are pra&tifed. The
men amufc themfelves in fighting cocks, and young boys, in
imitation of their elders, train quails, {mall birds, and even
grafshoppers to tear each other in pieces ; and in every corner
of the itreets gamefters nay be-feen playing at cards, or
throwieg of dice. But what will molt altonifh an European,
is the fight of a party of young men keeping up a fhuttle-
cock in theair, by ftriking it with the foies of the feet.
Nothing indeed can exceed the ativity and energy of the
men in Cochin-china ; but, aétive.as they are, in the ufe of
their feet, thw manual dexterity is not lefs remarkable.
Jugglers and conjurors, and poiture-makers, are continually
exercifing their refpectivearts for the amufement of the crowd,
and for their own advantage ; and thofe who do not openly
practife juggling as a profellion, are-equally as expert in the
art of picking pockets. Theyfare all, from the higheft to
the loweft, moft importunate beggars, craving withent the
Jeaft ceremony, for every thing that may fuit their fancy ;
they are neither fatisfied with a fimple denial, nor even with
obtaining what they afk, but generally become more urgent in
their demands, mm proportion to the liberality of the giver,
and what they cannot obtain by begging, they uiually en-
deavour to procure by ftealing. :
Arts, Manufadures, Fc. That particular branch of the
‘arts in which the Cochin-Chivefe may be faid to excel at the
prefent day, is naval architeGture, for which they are not a -
little indebted to the fize and quality oftheirtimber. Their
‘row-gallies for pleafure are remarkably fine veffels, from
goto So feet in length, and they are fometimes compofed of
tive fingle planks, each extending from one extremity to the
other. The edge is mortif-d, kept tight by wooden pins,
and bound firm by twifted fibres of bamboo, without either
ribs or any kind of timbers. At the ftem and {tern they are
raifed to a confiderable height, and are curioufly carved into
«monitrous figures of dragons and ferpents, ornamented with
gilding and painting. A number of poles, bearing flags
and {treamers, pikes ornamented with tuftsof cows’ tails paint-
ed red, lanterns and umbrellas, and other infignia, denoting
the rank of the paffenger, are ereéted at each end of the
boat. The veffels that are employed in the coafting trade,
the fifhing craft, and thofe which colle& {wallows-nefts among
the iflands, are of various deferiptions : many of them cover-
ed with fheds of matting, under which whole families con-
flantly refide. heir foreign treders are ‘built on the fame
plan'as the Chinefe jonks ; the form and conftruGion of which
are entitled to but little refpe&t, except from the antiquity.
of the invention. As thefe veffels were never intended fér
fhips of war, {ecurity rather than fpeed has always been the
objeét of the owner. And as no great capitals are em-
ployed in trade, and the merchant is both owner and navi-
gator, a limited tonnage is fufficient for his own merchandiz-;
the veflel is therefore divided into diftin€ compartments, fo
that one fhip may feparately accommodate many merchants.
The bulk heads, by which the divifions are formed, confilt
of planks two inches thick, and fo weil caulked and fecured
as to be completely water tight. A fhip thus fortified with
crofs-bulk heads, may ftrike on a rock, and yet fuftain no
ferious injury ; aJeak fpringing in one divifion of the whole
will not be attended with any damage to the articles placed
in another ; and by the fhip being fo well bound together, fhe
is firm and {trong enough to fuftain a more than ordinary
fhock. In the neighbourhood of Turon are feveral plant-
ations of fugar and tobacco. The juice of the former having
undergone a partial refinement, is exported to China in cakes,
which in colour, thieknefs, and porcfity, refemble the honey -
comb; the latter is confumed in the country, as all degrees,
of every age and fex, indulge in the habit of {moaking. The
face of the country exhibits but feeble marks of tillage, and
arts and manufaGtures are evidently in a languifhing flate.
The cottages contain little furniture, and that little is of rude
conftruGtien, as if intended only for temporary ufe. The
matting thet covers the floor is ingenioufly woven in different
‘colours. Their'domettic utenfils confift chiefly of an earthen
ftove, an iron pot to boil rice, a pan fomewhat in the fhape
of a watch-glafs, to fry their vegetables in oil, and a few porce-
lain cups er bowls. Their veffels of caft iron are equal in
quality to thofe of the Chinefe, but their earthen ware is
very inferior, They work in metal with a tolerable degree
of neatnefs, and their articles of fillegree are equal to thofe
of the Chinefe. In faét both the one and the other poffefs
quickand comprehenfive talents, and under proper enconragte-
ment are already in that advanced ftage to make a very rapid
prozgrefs in the arts, f{ciences, and menufaétures. Thefe,
-however, do not appear to be in a ftate of progreffive im-
provement: but under every difadvantage their ingenuity
occafionally bfeaks forth in a furprifing manner. There is
in al] oriental governments a radical defe€&t, which no ad-
vantages of foil or climate, or other favourable cireumftances
can compenfate, and which mult for ever operate againft
their attaining the cha‘a@ter and condition of a great and
happy people. ‘This defe& arifes from the want of a perma-
nent fecurity to property.
The fituation of Cochin-china is well adapted to com-
merce; its vicinityto China, Tunquin, Japan, Cambodia, Sram,
the Malay coait, the Philippines, Borneo, the Moluccas, &c.
renders the intercourfe with zil thefe countries eafy and ex-
peditious, the commodious harbours formed on the coaft,
particularly that of Turon, afford a fafe retreat for fhips of
any burthen, during the moft tempeftuous feafons of the
year. Nocountry in the Eaft produces richer, or a greater
variety of articles proper for carrying on an advantageous
commerce ; fuch as cinnamon, pepper, cardamoms, filk,
cotton, fugar, Agula-wood; Japan-wood, ivory, &c. Gold is
obtained almoft pure from the mines; and gold in duft has
been brought at different periods from the mountains, and
bartered by the rude inhabitants for rice, cloths, and iron.
From them aifo the Agula and Calamboe woods are pro-
cured, together with quantities of wax, honey, and ivory.
Silver mines have been alfo lateiy difcovered ; and both gold
and filver are ufed in ingots, as in China, The amar iin mi
which -
COCHIN-CHINA,
which there is the greateft demand at Cochin-china, are {alt-
petre, fulphur, lead, fine cloths, and barred or flowered chints.
Pearls, amber, and coral were formerly in great requett.
The principal exports of this country are filks, fugar, which
is excellently purified by a procefs defcribed by Sir George
Staunton, ebony, and Calamboe wood, edible birds’ netfts;
which are found in great plenty om the iflands that are
fituated near the coa{ts of Cochin-china, and which are
efteemed a luxury in China, gold in duit or bars, and copper,
and porcelain, tranfported thither from China and Japan. It
has been fuggefted that a commercial conneCtion with
Cochin-china m‘ght prove very beneficial to this country.
The drain of {pecie from the company’s fettiements in India,
is become a matter of fuch ferious import, that any plan for
reftraining and counteraQing this growing evil demands
attention; and it has been thought that a fettlement in
Cochin-china would conduce to this important and defirable
purpofe, as well as be productive of many other advantages ;
the produétions of Cochin-china, which are in great demand
among the Chinefe, might with eafe be brought to centre
with us, if we had a fettlement anda confirmed influence in the
country. Purchafed with the ftaples of India and of Europe,
Turon would become the emporium for them, where our
fhips bound to Canton, from which it is only five days fail,
might call and receive them. It would provea faving of fo
much fpecie to Great Britain or India, as the value of the
commodities amounted to in China. In a few years, there
is reafon to believe, a very confiderable inveftment might be
provided. A fetticment in Cochin-china would give usa
fuperior advantage both to the Dutch and the Spaniards,
not only as its fituation is nearer, but as the Chinefe are
more accultomed to refort thither. Colonies of Chinefe have,
from time to time, emigrated from the parent country, and
fixed their abode in different parts of Cochin-china. Thefe
have a correfpondence in every fea-port of the empire; and
by their means, teas, china-ware, and various other articles,
that are the objeéts of our commerce with China, might be
imported in junks to our own fettlements, equally good in
quality, and cheaper, as the Chinefe are exempted from the
exorbitant duties levied on foreigners. Some of the beft work-
men might be encouraged to fettle in Cochin-china, and under
proper direGlion, manufaCtures might be carried on to as
great a degree of perfection as ia China itfelf. The inter-
courfe between Japan and Cochin-ckina might be renewed,
and we might participate in a trade for many years monopo-
lized by the Dutch. An advantageous trade might be
carried on with the Philippine iflands, and goods for Madras
and Bengal, introduced among them by means of the
junks, for the confumption of Spamfh America. The
Siamefe and Cambodians would bring the produce of their
re{petive countries, and barter or fell it for fuch articles as
they wanted from Cochin-china, and among them a fale
might probably be found for quantities of Bengal cloths.
The gold mines of this country, of which we have already
taken notice, would promote and enrich fuch an eftablifhment
in Cochin-china, the expediency and utility of which have
now been fuggetted. Befides the commercial advantages
likely torefult from fuch a fettlement, it would be attended
with others ofa political nature. ‘Turon-bay would not only
afford a fecure retreat to our Indiamen, in cafe of lofing their
paflage to China, but from thence we might intercept the
fleets of any hoftile power, either going to, or returning
from that country. We fhould thus become formidable
neighbours to the Dutch, and to the Spaniards, and in the
event of a war with cither of them, attack, with advantage,
their moft valuable fettlements.
The Japanefe is the only current money in Cochin-china :
it is paid or received by weight ; the money of the country,
which is of copper, 1s as large as our common counters,
of a round figure, and has a hole in the middle, by
which it may be ftrung in the fame manner as beads.
Three hundred pieces are put on one fide, and 300 on
another, which pafs in Cochin-china for a thoufand ; be-
caufe in 690 there are found 1o times 60, which make a
century among almoft all the people of the Eaft. In this
country merchants are liable to be much deceived with regard
to the value of money; becaufe the pieces are unequal in
figure and quality, and their value is regulated by a few
chara¢ters that are ftamped upon them, which are not eafily
afcertained ; accordingly merchants, without the affiftance of
honeft and flalful people, are liable to great impofition, more
efpecially as the traders of Cochin-china value themfelves on
being able to cheat an European.
The Language and Religion of the Cochin-Chinefe. The
Cochin-Chinefe have effectually preferved the written cha-
retlers of the Chinefe language, but the fpoken language
has undergone a very confiderable change, which is not fur-
prifing, fince the inhabitants of the northern and fouthern
provinces of China are unintelligibie to each other; though
ithas been altered, it does not appear to have received any
improvement. By a comparifon of a fhort catalogue of
Chinefe words, taken from Mr. Barrow’s excellent work on
Cochia-china, with their fynonyms, in the Cochin-chinefe
language, an idea may be formed how far the two fpoken
languages refemble or differ from each other .
Englifh. Chinefe. Cochin Chinefe,
The earth, tee; dia.
The air, kee, bloci.
Fire, ho, whoa,
The fea, hai, be.
A river, ho, jeang.
A mountain, fhan; noul.
The fun, jee-to, Bee bloci, ;
eye of heaven,
The moon, yue, blang.
The ftars, fing, fao.
The clouds, yun, moo,
Thunder, luie, no-fang.
Lightning, fhan-tein, choap.
The wind, fung, jeo.
The day, jee, or tien, ngai.
The night, ye, or van-fhang, teng.
The fly, or heaven, tien, tien.
The eatt, tung, doo.
Wett, fee, tai.
North, pee, pak.
South, nan; nang,
Man, jin, dan-ou.
Woman, foo-gin, dan-ba.
A quadruped, fhoo, kang.
A bird, kin, ching.
A fith, eu, ka.
AX tree, fhoo, kai.
One, ye; mot,
Two, . ul, hai.
Three, fan, teng.
Four, foo, bon.
Five, ou, lang.
Six, leu, laks’
Seven, tchee, bai.
Eight, pa, tang.
Nine, tcheu, chin,
Ten, fhee, taap.
Eleven, fhee-ye, moei-mot,
Englith,
COCHIUN EDA L.
Englith. Chinefe. Cochin Chinefe,
Twelve, fhee-ul, moei-hai.
‘Twenty, ul-fhee, hat-moci.
Thirty, fan-fhee, teng-moel.
teng-moei-mot.
teng-moci-hai.
fan-fhee-ye,
‘Tnirty-one,
fan-fhee-ul,
Thirty-two,
One hundred, Pes klang.
One thoufand, tficn, ngkin.
Ten thoufand, van, muon.
The Cochin-Chinefe have introduced the confonants 4, d, r,
which they pronounce without the leaft difficulty, though
a Chinefe cannot by any exertion articulate a fyllable into
which one of thefe enters. In the conftruétion of phrafes,
there is alfo a confiderable difference between the two lan-
In forming the plural of the perfonal pronouns,
guages.
the Chinefe make ule of the fyllable muen, many, as,
ngo, né, ta,
iT thou, he,
ngo-muen, ne-muen, ta-muen,
we, ye, they,
But the Cochin-Chinefe employ the fyllable chung, ai, as,
tool, bai, no,
ie thou, he,
chung-tooi, chung-bai, chung-no,
we, ye they.
To the Cochin-Chinefe, “© we found lefs difficulties,’
fays Mr. Barrow, “ in making ourfelves intelligibie, than
we had to encounter with the grave and folemn Chinefe,
whofe dignity would be thought to fuffer debafement by
their condefcending to employ the pencil in delineating ob-
jeGs, notwithftanding its alliance with their mode of writ-
ing; or by attemptiug to indicate, by figns and geftures,
{uch ideas 2s are capable of being interchanged without the
aid of language. This was by no means the cale with the
Cochin-Chinefe, who always feemed anxious to enter into
our views, and to facilitatea mutual underflanding.””
The religion of the Cochin-Chinefe, like that of almoft all the
oriental nations, is a modification of the doctrine of Budha,
but more fimple, and lefs difguifed with the myfteries and
machinery of oracular worfhip, than that which is practiled
popularly in China. From a fentiment of gratitude to the
benevolent and bountiful {pirit, the Cochin-Chinefe manifeft
their piety, by offering to the image of the proteéting deity
the firitlings of their living flocks, and of the fruits of the
earth. The firft ears of rice, the firft cep of fugar, or what-
ever the nature of the produce may be, is taken to the fhrine
which contains the facred image, and is there depofited with
becoming reverence, as an humble acknowledgment of the
divine goodnefs. Mr. Barrow was prefent at an offering
of this kind, which he thus defcribes: ¢* I obferved a per-
fon in a long coloured robe reaching to the ground, his
head bare and clotely fhaved, marching with a kind of mea-
{ured ftep, and followed by a few of the peafantry. On
arriving at the foot of the tree, they all halted, juft at the
head of the main trunk (for it was a fpecies of banian tree,
called dea in Cochin-china, whofe branches take root and
become ftems). I obferved a large cage of lataiced work,
with a pair of folding doors, fixed within two boughs, and
partly hidden by the foliage. Within was a wooden figure
of Budha, of the fame corpulent fhape, and in the ufual
fitting pofture as he is reprefented in the tentples of China.
A little boy, attending on the prieft, ftood clofe before him,
with a burning coal on a brazen difh. One of the peafants
carried a ladder of bamboo, which he placed againit the tree,
and another mounting it, depofited in the cage before the
idol, two bafons of riceya cup of fugar, and one of falt.
The prick in the meantime, with arms extended, and eyes
turned towards heaven, muttering fomething in a low tove
of voice, when the man who had carried the ladder fell on
his knees, and nine times proltrated his body to the ground,
aceording to the culflom of the Chinefe. Several women
and children remained ata diftance, as if forbidden to a-
proach too near; thoujrch as prictteffes are faid to be com-
mon in this country, it is not probable there was any re+
ftriiion on account of the fex.?? ‘The Cochin-Chinefe are
extremely fuperftitious, and their devotional exercifes, like
thofe of the Chinefe, are more frequently performed with a_
view of averting an ideal evil, than with the hope of acquir- -
ing a pofitive good; or, in other words, the evil fpirit is
more dreaded than the good one is revered. In various
parts of the country are ereéted Jargze wooden pillars, not
only for the purpofe of marking the fpot where fome great
calamity may have happened, but asa propitiation to the
evil fpirit, by whofe. influence it 1s fuppofed to hare been
occafioned. So, when an infant dies, the parents are fup-
pofed to have incurred the difpleafure of fome malignant
{pirit, which they endeavour to appeafe by offerings that
they imagine to be molt acceptable to the angry divinity.
Befides the fpontaneous offering, which individuals conceive
it neceffary to make on various occafions, there is a yéarly
centribution levied by government, for the purpofe of fup-
porting a number of monafteries, in which the prieits invoke
the deity for the public welfare. ‘This contribution confilts-
of produce in kind, as rice, fruits, fugar, &ce.; in heu of
which, in towns, are colle&ed money, metals, and clothing.
The priefts here, as in China, are reckoned the beit phyfi-
cians, but their art lies more in charms and facinations, than
in the judicious application of fanative drags.
COCHINEAL, Coccus cadi, Linn. See Coceus Ca&i.
The fubftance known in commerce by the name of coch:neal,
which is the molt precious of all our dyeing drugs, affording
the fegrlet crimfon, and many other valuable dyes, and from
which the fineft carmine is generally prepared, is in the form
of hemifpherical fhrivelled giains, about an eighth of an inch
long, of a deep reddifh-purple colour, and covered more or
lefs with a white down: they are very light, and eafily rubbed
to powder between the fingers. The Spanifh merchants
diftinguith at leaft two kinds, the belt, or domefticated,
cailed grana fina, or fine grain, and the wild. orgrana fjlvefira ;
of thefe, the latter is not more than half the fize of the
former, and is covered with a much longer down ; on which
account it always bearsa much lower price in the market.
The cochineal infeét is a native of Mexico, and was in
common ufe among the inhabitants asa dyeing drug when
the Spaniaras firft-came into the country; fince that period
its ufe has become more and more general, rot onlyin Europe,
but in various parts of Afia, and, as almof the whole of
this valuable commodity is ftill raifed in Mexico, Peru, and
the adjoining Spanifh fettlements, it becomes every year an —
object of more fedulons cultivation than before. AL.
The belt and finett cochineal, and, indeed, by far the
greatelt proportion of that confumed in Europe, is brought
to us from Mexico. The principal diftriéts where it 1s bred
are Oaxaca, Tlafcala, Chulsla, Neuva Gallicia, and Chiapa,’
in New Spain, but it is in Oaxaca that the greateft quan-
tities are produced, where the cultivation of thie little infe&
has long given employment and been an object of commerce:
to the native Mexicans./ Accord‘ng to Ulloa it is likewile
produced at Hambatia, Loja, and Tucuman in Perv. It
has been introduced into St. Domingo, and the Brafils alfo.
The wild cochineal (grana fylveltra) feeds upon moft of
the fpecies of cali that are natives of Mexico, requires no
particular care or attendance, aud may be gathered fix times
: in
COC HTN’ EAL.
jn the year, there being fo many generations of this ink&
jn a twelvemonth: the time of colleGing the écchineal is
jult before the female produces its young, as the animal
perithes immediately afterwards. The cultivated cochi-
neal (grana fina), called alfo Meffigue from a Mexican
province of that name, is the product of flow and progreffive
improvement in the breed of the wild cochineal, and is
found only in the gardens and plantations of Mexico, where,
provided with its choiceft food ahd fheltered from the in-
. _-clemencies of the feafons, it attains nearly double its origi-
a
“mal fize. This feeds only on one fpecies of caétus, the
‘cochenilifer or nopal, and produces only three broods in
the year. Its management is fimple, but requires inceffant
attention. “At the third annual gathering of cochineal, a
‘certain number of females are left adhering to branches of
the nopal, which are then broken off and kept carcfully
under cover during the rainy feafon; when this is over,
‘the {tock of cochineal, thus preferved by cach cultivator, is
diltributed over the whole plantation of nopals, where chey
foon multiply with great rapidity. “In the {pace of two
months, the firlt crop 1s gathered by detaching the infedts>
with a blunt knife, after which they are put into bags, and
dipped in hot water to kill them, and finally dried in the
fun, by which they lofe about two-thirds of their weight.
“This kind is alfo niuch more abundant in coloyring matter,
in which, indeed, its fuperiority over all other kinds confifts ;
fince, from the experiments of the French academicians, the
grana fylveftra of Mexico, and the cockineal of St. Do-
mingo, afforded colours equal in brilhancy, though not. in
quantity, tothe meltique or grana fina, The cochineal of
Bralil alfo, according to Bancroft, is net inferior in quality
to the fine grain of Mexico, though it contains only half
the quantity of colouring matter. The proportion of co-
louring matter coxtained in equal portions of the cultivated
eochineal, of the wild cochineal of Mexico, and of an in-
ferior kind from St. Domingo, is, according’ to Berthollet,
as eighteen, eleven, and erghr.
In time of peace, the cochineal of Mexico is almoft ex-
clufively fent from Vera Cruz to Cadiz, whence it is diffufed
all over Europe; butin time of war a contraband trade is
carried on to various parts of America and the Wedt Indies,
whence this country 18 chiefly Supplied. t
The quantities of fine cochineal imported into Spain in
the years 1758, 1789, and 1790, amounted to 11,090
bags, weighing z200lb. each, and making together
2,200,000lb. weight; and between the 1ft of January, 1791,
and the 1ft of QGober in the fame year, the importations
had exceeded 2000 bags. JT'rom accurate calculations it
appears that the average quantity of fine cochineal, annually
coufumed ian Europe, amounts to about 3090 bags, or
600,000lb. weight, of which 1200 bags, er 210,000lb.
may be conlidered as the prefent annual confumption of
Great Britain: a greater quantity comes, indeed, into the
kingdom, but the furplus is again exported to other coun-
tries. The attention of the Eatt India company has been
lately dire&ted to the production of this infeét, though
hitherto with but partial fuccefs. It is very {mall, not very
abundant in colouring matter, and inferior in quality to that
’ of New Spain. It is ufed only for the coarfeit goods, and
fold from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per pound. From 6& to 10,000 |b.
are annually brought to thiscountry. See Coccus Cacrtr.
‘Cochineal retains fome traces of its original form, even in
its dried flate; and though Europe for a long time confi-
dered it as the {ceds of an Indian plant, it is eafy to felect
from a parctl fome infects in which the round or convex
-back, with {mall tran{verfal furrows and flat belly, are readily
difcovered. Its external or commercial characters differ
Vou. VIII.
confiderably ; it is diftinguifhed by the dealers chiefly by its ,
colour and fize. 1. The large black, or deep puiple, of
bright hue, is preferred to all others. Its value decreafes
with its fize and luftre. 2. The large filver grey, though
held in lefs eftimation here, is, in general, equal to the for-
mer. It is preferred by the German buyers, to whom it is
fold fomewhat lower than the preceding, and from which it
differs only in the lefs removal of that white farinaceous
powder with which the infects, in their natura] ftate, are
covered. 3. The {mall white or filvery cochineal is held
in little cfimation, and fold at very inferior prices, Cochi~
neal duft is fometimes found in the market, and alfo the
fmall, or mutilated grains, feparated by the fieve from the
larger, and known by the name of Granilla. Al thefe
kinds are liable to adulteration with various fubftances, but
more efpecially with a palte, which is fometimes managed
fo dexteroufly as to deceive the belt judges, without very
particular examination.
The ufe of cochineal was known to the Mexicans before
the invafion of the Spaniards. It was the beauty of its
colour, as difplayed in their furniture, ornaments, and cotton
cloth, which firk dircéted the attention of their conquerors
towards this precious infect. From the reports made to
the Spanifh miniftry on this fabjeét, orders were iffued to -
Cortes, in the year 1523, to take meafures for multiplying
this valuable commodity, and confiderable quantities, raifed
by the induitry of the natives, were foon afterwards fent to
Spain. Although it was for fome time fuppofed to be -the
berry or feed of a vegetable; it was at length, however,
afcertained that thefe grains were the females of a particular
fpecies of infe&, called by naturalitts ‘* Coccus caéti,”? and
of the fame venus as the * kermes” (Coccus ilicis, Linn.).
See Coccus.
It is probable that alum was the only mordant ufed for
fixing the cochineal dye for fome time after its introduction
into Europe. The Mexicans alfo employed the fame fub-
ftance, as appears from the teltimony of the Spanith hiftorian,
Herrara. Thecolour afforded by cochineal with the alumi-
nous mordants is crimfon, and, indeed, previous to the dif-
covery of the ufe of tin, this feems to have been the only
colouranalogous to fearlet that was known. Drebbel, or, as
fome fay,* Kutter, or Keffer, a German chemilt, fir dif
covered the effet of the folution of tin in exalting the
cochineal dye. He brought his fecret to London about
the year 1643 ; and the firlt eftablifhment for dyeing fearlet
in this country appears to have been at Bow, whence it
obtained, for a long time, the name of the Bow-dye. The
procefs was known in Holland foon after the difcovery
was made, and in France alfo, where it was practfed by
the famons Gobelins, who received information from a
Flemifh painter, to whom it had been communicated by
Kutter himfelf. For the details of this operation, and the
fuccefiive improvements down to the prefent time, we refer
our readers to the article Scartet-Dye.
Cochineal, when thoroughly dry, if kept in a dry place,
and in clofe packages, may be preferved many years without
alteration. Hellot tried fome 130 years old, and found it
equal in quality to the freth infects.
The colouring matter of cochineal may be extricated either
by water or alcohol. The alcoholic folution is of a deep
crimfon colour, and, on evaporation, leaves a tran{parent
refiduum of a deep red, which has the appearance ofa refin,
and which affords by diftillation the produéts af animal fub-
ftances. The aqueous folution or decottion of cochineal is
of a crimion colour, bordering on purple, when viewed by
tranfmitted lights; and this, if evaporated flowly to the
confiftence-of an extraét, and then digefted in alcohcl, com-
4P municates
COCHIME AI
municates to this menftruum a colour fimilar to the preced-
ing fpiritnons folytion, a refiduum of the colour of wine-
lees being left behind. This affords, by deflrudtive diftilla-
tion, the produéis, of animal fubitances.
‘The aqueous decoction of cochineal, if mixed with a little
fulphurie acid, aflumes a red: colour, inclining to yellowifh,
or orange hue, and a {mall quantity ofa fine red precipitate
is throws down. Muriatic acid produces nearly, the fame
change of colour, but occafions no precipitate. A folution
of tartar, and, indeed, all acids, change the cochineal decoc-
tion to.a yellowifh red, and a fmall quantity of a pale red
precipitate is flowly depofited: the fupernatant liquor is
ycliow, but on the addition of a little alkali it becomes pur-
ple, the precipitate being at the fame time re-diffolved.
Alum brightens the colour of the infufion and gives it a
redder hue; a crimfon precipitate is depofited, and the
fupernatant liquor retains a fimilar tinge. A mixture of
alum and tartar produces a bripater and more lively coiour,
iaclining to yellow; and a precipitate is thrown down, but
much paler, and lefs in quantity than where alum alone is
ufed. Nitro-muriate of tin throws downa crimfon fediment
in confiderable abundance, not a particle of colouring matter
remaining in the liquor.
On adding a folution of tartar, and afterwards of tin, to
the infufion of cochineal, a rofe-coloured precipitate is
formed more quickly than in the preceding experiment.
The fupernatant liquor retains a tinge of yeliow.
Cochineal, boiled with half its weight oftartar, affordsa
decoMion more inclining to red, and not fo deepas when boil-
ed with water only. With the folution of tin, however, it
affords a more abundant precipitate, and of a more intenfe
colour. The extra&tion of the colouring particles of co-
chineal, therefore, is favoured by the aétion of tartar, though
the liquor appears much paler than the fimple aqueous fo-
lution.
The fulphate of iron forms a brown coloured purple, or
brownih violet precipitate ; and the fupernatant. liquor is of
a dilute yellowrth brown.
deep purple, or deep violet; andthe acetate of lead a purple-
violet precipitate, lefs deep tha
in both cafes being perfectly colouylefs.
The falphate of copper changes the colour of tre decoc-
tion to violet, and a {mall fediment of the fame colour flow-
ly fubfides.
Berthollet remarks a diftin@ive character in the colouring
mattcr of cochineal, compared with that of madder, treated
with the famere-agents. Both {pecies of colouring matter
acquire a yellow colour from acids; but if the particles of
cochineal be feparated by a fubftance, which precipitates
them from the acid liquor they are diffolved in, they re-
appear with their natural colour little changed, whillt thofe
of madder retain a yellow or fawn-coloured hue. On this
account the folutions of tin, which retain a great excels of
acid, and are fo eminently ufeful in exalting the colour of
cochineal, are ufed with little fuccefs with madder 5 probably
as Mr. Berchollet fuppofes, becaufe the combination of the
oxide of tia with the colouring matter of madder, retains a
large? portion of acid than it does when, combined with the
colouring matter of cochineal.
We have b-fore obferved, that the natural colour of co-
chineal is crimfon, and tnat, till the difcovery of the ufe of
the folution of tin, the colour now called fearlet was un-
known. The produétion of this colour was aferibed to the
nitro-muriate of tin only, and more efpecially to the a¢tion
of the nitrous acid of that folution, with little or no refer-
ence to the agency of the tartar, which was. always, em-
ployed in the operation. We are indebted to Bancroft for
The fulphate of zinc forms a,
the preceding ; the liquor
ple.
the correction of this error, and fora ferics of experiments
on the aétion of other metallic and ‘earthy folutions, with
the colouring matter of cochineal on woollen.
From thefe experiments it appears, that cochineal, with
the nitro-muriate of un, or common dyers’ fpirits, produced
a crimfon only, but with the addition of tartar a good
fcavlet.
Cochineal, with a fclution. of tinin muriatic acid, dyed!
a beautiful crimfon, and with 2 folution of that metal, by a .
Aoee
mixture of tartar and muriatic acid, a beautiful fearlet.
Cochineal, with tin calcined by the long continued a@tion’ ¥
of fulphuric acid, dyed afaimon colour, and; with @ recent
folution of tin, a reédifh falmon colour, inclining a little to
the crimfon. A folutidn of tin, in equal parts of nitric ands
fulphuric acids mixed, afforded a fimilar colour.
Tin, diffolved by the pure acid of tartar, dyed with co-
chineal a very beautiful fearlet, inclining a little to the
aurora. b
Tin very reagily diffolves by pure citric acid, and even by
lemon juice ; and the folation, newly madey dyes with com
chiaeal a moft beautiful icarlet, inclining, like the preced=
ing, alittle to the aurora. The citric acid with tin atts, at
leatt as efficacioufly as that -of tartar, in yellowing theca-.
chineal.crimfon; nothing, foys Dr. Bancroft, can exceed!
the beauty of fearlet dyed with the citrate ef tin. :
The folution of tia in vinegar afforded a fcarlet inclining:
a little to the crimfon. Brot
The phofphate of tia produced an aurora, and the fluate:
of tina very good f{carlet. a
With other bafes cochineal gave the following colours ta»
woollen:
With nitro-muriate of platina, a red, and
difh brown.
With nitrate of filver a dull red, and with muriate of filver:
a lively reddifh-orange. ;
With the acetat- of lead, a purple, inclining to violets:
and with nitrate of lead, a delicate lively colour, betweem
the red and cinnamon, but inclining moft to the former.
With the fuiphate, nitrate, muriate, and acetate of iram,
cochineal produces a dark-violet, and even a full biack,.
when employed in fufficient quantity.
All the preparations of copper appear to debale the;
colouring matter of cochineal, as do thofe of mercury in a
ftill greater degree; mot of thefe, whilt they degrade the:
colour, {eem to annihilate a portion of it. ‘ ; ;
With the nitrate and muriate of zinc, and various folu-
tions of bifmuth, cochin=a) produces different fhades of lilac.
Cobalt and nickel allo afford various fhades of lilac and pur-.
The fulphate of mangancle an orange, and the nitrate:
of manganefe a colour refembling a madder red. - ;
It has been before obferved, that, with the aiuminous mor-_
dants, cochineal affords its natural colour, or crimfon. Drs.
Bancroft has alfo examined the cff-Gs of other earthy folu-
tions. ne
Lime water, with cochineal, dyes a purple, which took.
but flowly, and required long boiling. ; jal
Sulphate of lime a full dark red, and nitrate of limea:
lively red, approaching to fearlet, and muriate of; lime a:
urpile. ‘ “™/ /
The folutions of barytes and of magoefia, afforded varis.
ous thades of lilac, and even the folution of filex in cauttic.
alkali, precipitated by the addition of an acid, affords a full
rich pleafing purple, which proved fafficiently durable.
Tre foregoing experiments repeated on filk gave lefs ad-.
vantageous refults. Cochineal, indeed, with the aluminous;_
bafis, dyes the crimfon colour as. well, and as durably on, .
filk as on. wool, ‘The, modes of producing this are well,
known,
of gold a red.
i
Cs OUR TIN Ea
known, and will be treated of hereafter; but ingeneral, with
the other earthy and metallic bafes, cochineal produced fim-
Jar but much paler colours than on wool.
The little difpofition manifefled by the colouring matter
of cochineal to unite with cotton, and the celebrated expzri-
ment of Mr, Dufay to illufirate this, are well known. He
caufed a piece of cloth to be manufa@ured with a woollen
web and cotton woof, and having fubjected it to the ordi-
nary procels of dyeing fcarlet, found that the wool had taken
a molt beautiful fcarlet, whilf the cotton remained perfectly
white. Sublequent experiments have shown that tiis effect
arifes not from the total want of affinity between the colour-
ing particles of cochineal united to tin. and the fibres of
cotton, but from a firiking and powerful difference in the
force with which the colouring matter is attracted by the
two fubltances. When cotton alone is {ubjea&ed to the fame
procelS, it takes a fcarlet colour more flowly indeed, and
paler than that imbibed by woollen, yet {ufficient to prove
its difpofition to fuch union, when not counteraéted by more
powerful affinities. When cotton and wool, however, are
goaintly Lubjeéted to the operation of fearlet dyeing, the lat-
ter, by its {trong attraétion, draws, and exclufively appro-
priates to itfelf, al] the colouring matter in the veffcel before
the cottos has had time to engage any part of it. It is
owing to this weaker attra¢tion. between the fibres of cotton
and the fearlet dye, that this latter is fo much lefy perma-
nent on cotton than on wool ; and it is alfo from this want of
fufficient attraGtion that: the cochineal colour is found to
take mof beneficially on cotton, when the bafis has firtt
been applied feparately.
Cochineal is fometimes ufed by calico printers in topical
dyeing, but more frequently ia the preparation of thofe co-
lours for the pencil, which are defcribed under the article
CoLour-making.
The mordants ufed for cochineal are thofe employed with
madder. he acetate of iron, or iron liquor for black, di-
luted tolutions for various fhades of purple or lilac, and mix-
tures of the acetates of iron and alumine for chocolates,
blooms, &c. &e.
With the common aluminous mordant, printed and rinfed
off the fame as for madder red, cochineal affords a bricht
and beautiful crimfon. It is, however, much lefs fixed than
madder, and cannot fupport repeated wafhing and expofure.
Tt is applied chiefly on fine cloth and delicate muflins, when
the folidity of the colour is oftentimes an object of lefs
confderation than its beauty. An addition of one-tenth,
or fifteenth, of gallsto the cochineal, gives it greater flabi-
lity, but this permanency is gained at the cxpence of its
luftre. The fne crimfon difappears, and the colour ap-
proaches mere to the red or middle hue. An advantage
attending the ufe of cochineal, is its little effeét on the white
or unprinted part of the cloth, which acquires no ftain in
tne dyeing, but what is completely removed by imple wafhing,
or, in fome particular cafes, by very gentle branning. From
two to three ounces of cochineal, according to the fulnefs of
the pattern, are fufficient for a piece of light ground. The,
pale delicate crimfon grounds, with white objects, require from
four to five ounces. It mutt be finely ground, and inclofed
ina linen or cotton bag, fufpended in the dye-copper, from
wheuce it can be occationally taken and fqueezed or wrung,
for the more complete extraction of the colour.
) In dyeing with cochineal; the value of this drug renders
every precaution foreeonomizingits ufeindi{penfably neceflary,
and a confiderable faving is made by diminifhing as much as
poffible the quantity of the dye liquor. Jt is well known,
that colouring matter of any kind, held im folution in the
dye-copper, can only be exhautted to a certain degree, even
by frefh and ‘ondyed woods; there is a certain point at
which the affinity of the water for colouring matter becomes
equal to tliat of the ftrongeft mordants, and all that is thus
retained may be confidered as totally loft, except when frefh
portions of colouring matter are added to the already ex-
haufted I'quor, and the operation of dyeing again renewed,
in which cafe the lofs is inverfely as the number of fuc-
ceflive operations performed in the fame liquor. In dyeing
with cochneal, therefore, no more water fhould be ufed than
is barely fufficient to cover the goods when preffed dawn clofe
Into the copper, with a ftick as they come over the.winch,
ané three fucceffive dyeings, at Jeaft, fhould be paffed through
the fame liquor before it is let off, and the copper replenith-
ed with frefh water. Long continued heat has a tendency
to injure the cochineal crimfon, and mcliné it too much to
the purple hue; each dyeing, therefore, fhould be withdrawn
fhortly after it has attained the boiling point. The firlt
fets may be boiled three minutes ; the fecond, one; the third
fet may be kept five or fix minutes at the boil, if it confifts
of darker cclours, fuch as chocolates, dark purples, &c. ;
but if crimfons, the colour, without boiling, willincline very
much to the purple hue,.and be much inferior to the firlt,
and even to the fecond fets. On this account it is proper,
when the work will admit of it, to dye the pale crimfon
grounds firk, follow after with the ftronger light grounds,
and, laftly, with the darket colours above-mentioned.
The ufe of tin veffels in dyeing fearlet or woollen, (where
the acid folutions ufed in that operation render them indif-
penfably neceflary) has induced many calico printers to em-
ploy chem in dyeing cotton, where no acid folution 1s pre-
fent, and where the good effects of tin may be fuppofed not
toapply. Itis certain, however, that the hue of the pale
and’ delicate crimfon grounds produced in a tin, veffel is
much fuperior to that produced in copper, and the
caufe of this difference is fatisfa@torily explained by che ex-
periments of Mr. Thomfon. From thefe experiments,
which will be more fully detailed in another part of this
work, it appears that the colouring matter of cochineal poffel-
fes very diltiné acid properties.
Turnings of pure foft iron digefted in a ftrong decofion
of cochineal were diflolved, with difengagement of hydro-
gen gas. The folution, at firlt purple, gradually acquired a
more intenfe colour, approaching to black. Expofed to the
atmolphere, it gradually abforbed oxigen, and let fall a
black precipitate. It communicated to cloth a dark grey or
purple colour, which was not removed by wafhing. With
tin the decoction of cochineal formed a beautiful crimfon
folution, and, with copper, a dull crimfon inclining to pur-
ple; both thefe folutions imparted their colour to cloth,
which rinfing did not remove. Hence it appears that the dit-
ference in the colours, produced in a tin and ina copper veffel,
arife from the aGtion of the colouring matter on the fub-
ftance of the veffel itfelf.
The colouring matter of cochineal alfo als powerfully on
the earths and metallic oxides, or on its own combinations with
them or cloth. A piece of calico impregnated with a weak
aluminous mordant, and dyed in a ftrong deco&tion of co-
chineal, takes at firft adye which is, however, f{peedily re-
moved, and the mordant itfelf foon after carried off the
cloth. The fame takes place with the dilute folutions of
iron. In dyeing with cochineal, therefore, in the way pre-
feribed above, fome care is neceffary in the management of
thofe goods, on which weak as well as ftrong mordants are
applied, left with the treatment neceflary to bring up the
latter to their proper ftrength and fulnefs, the former be to-
tally deftroyed.
The beautiful pigment carmine, ufed chiefly in eras
4P 2 an
coc
and water-colour painting, and fometimes under the name
of rouge, to frefhen the cheeks of pallid or faded beauty,
is allo a preparation of cochineal. It is a hght, foft, vel-
vety powder, of a mott rich and magnificent {earlet, inclin-
ing a little to crimfon. It was formerly made from kermes,
whence its prefent name is derived.
The preparation of carmine, notwithftanding the nume-
rous procefics detailed in various works, {till remains one of
thofe fecrets which are confined to the laboratories of a few.
Its conftirution, indeed, aud the general nature of the pro-
cefs for obtaining it, are well known; but excellence in co-
lours of this kind often depending on particular hue, arif-
ing from minute but important conditions in the preparation,
approved proceffes are guarded with religious care, confined
to the workfhops that gave them birth, in which myftery
and prejudice are def{potic. ‘
We iubjoin the following formula without vouching for its
merit; it 1s, however, at lealt, as good as any other publifhed.
Pour two quarts of fine clear river water into a clean cop-
per pan, and, when boiling, add two ounces of the beft
grain cochineal, finely ground and fifted. Boil fix minutes,
ftirring carefully the whole time. Add fixty grains of fine
Roman alum in powder, and boil three minutes longer,
after which withdraw it from the fire and let it cool a little.
Decant off the liquor carefully from the grounds, and {train
through a filk fieve fine enough to.retain the undiffolved
grains. Pour it into well-glazed porcelain difhes and fuffer
it to remain undilturbed three or four days, after which time
again decant the red liquor into other dihes from off the
fediment which has formed, and which, dried in the -fhade
and free from duft, forms the fine carmine. Another depo-
fition takes place at the end of a few days from the decant-
ed liquor, which forms a good- carmine of fecond quality,
and there ftill remains colouring matter fufficient in the re-
maining liquor to afford a rich lake.
The following procefs, not very different from the former,
has been recommended; and, if carefully purfued, will yield a
‘pigment greatly fuperior to the carmine that is generally met
with. [nto’a fourteen-gallon boiler of well-tinned copper put
ten gallons. of diftilled or very?clear rain water ({pring
water will not anfwer the purpofe). When the water boils,
{prinkle in, by Bearecay a pound of fine cochineal, previoufly
ground in a clean {lone mortar to a moderately fine powder ;
keep.up a gentle ebullition for about half an hour, and
then add three ounces and a half of eryftallzed carbonat of
foda; in a minute or two afterwards draw the fire, and then
add to.the liquor an ounce and a half of Roman alum, very
finely pulverized; ftir the mafs with. a clean ftick till the
alum ts diffolved, then leave it to fettle for 25 minutes, and
afterwards draw off the clear liquor with a glafs fyphon,
and feparate the reft of the fluid from the fediment by
Hraining it through a clofe linen cloth. Replace the clear
liquor in the boiler, and {tir in.the whites of two eggs, pre-
vioufly well beaten with a quart of wam water; then light
the fire again and heat the liquor till it begins to boil, at
which time the albumen of the eggs will coagulate and
combine with the earth of the alum and the finelt part. of
the colouring matter; this {cdinent is the carmine, and
being feparated by filtration, and well wafhed on the filter
with diftilled water, it is to be fpread very thin on an earth-
en plate, and flowly dried in a ttove, after which it is ft
for ufe. The fineft part of the colouring matter of the
cochineal being thus feparated, the relidue may be employ-
edin the preparation of red Jake in the following manner:
Add two pounds of pearlafh to the red liquor from which
the carmine was precipitated, and return it into the boiler
together with the dregs of the cochineal, and boil the
iv 1
coc
whole gently for about half an hour; then draw the fire,
and, after the fediment has fubfided, drain off all the clear
liquor into clean earthenware veffels. Then pour upon the
fediment a fecond alkaline ley, prepared by diffolving a pound’
of pearlafh in two gallons of water, and boil this alfo upon
the dregs for half an hour; by which procefs the whole of
the colouring matter will be exhaufted. Separate by filtra- ;
tion the liquor from the dregs, and return both the alkaline
folutions into the copper. When this bath is as hot as the:
hand can bear, add, by degrees, three pounds of finely pul ~
verized Roman alum, opferving not to add a fecond portion
till the effervefcence from the firlt has entirely fubfided.
When the whole of the alum has been put in, raife the fire
till the liquor fimmers, and continue it at this temperature
for about five minutes, at which time, if a little is taken-
out and put into a wine glaf{s, it will be found to confilt of
a coloured fediment diffufed through a clear liquor; after
ftanding quiet a while the greater part of the clear fupers
natant liquor may be poured off, and the refidue being
placed on the filter, will there depofit thecoloured lake. which, — ™
after being accurately wafhed with clear rain water, may be = «
covered with a cloth, and allowed to remain for a few days:
till it is half dry: it is now to be feparated from the filter,
to be made up in {mali lumps, and placed in a ftove to drys.
By this manazement a pound of good Mexican cochineal
will afford one ounce and a half of carmine, and abouta
pound and a quarter of red lake. ee
If the colour is required to incline fomewhat towards
{carlet, this may be effected by grinding along with the co-~
chineal from a quarter to half an ounce of the belt annotto.
The French add to the infufion of cochineal a {mall pro-
portion of axtour, a bark containing yellow colouring mat= 4
ter, and alfo of chouan, a greenifh yellow feed, both from
the Levant. They ferve to brighten the hue of the cam ~
mine, and incline it more to fcarlet. Carmine has a flight
tafte ,eafily recognized as that of cochineal. It is {paringly
foluble in water, to which it communicates its own cola eay
Mixed up with water it works itifly with the pencil and’
affords a poor colour. Ammonia diffolves it inftantly,
forming with it a deep tranfparent crimfon-coloured folu-
tion, inclining much to purple. This is the telt of its
purity, for the inferior or adulterated carmine is infoluble,
and falls to the bottom. The painters generally grind of
mix it with ammonia for the deep rich reds, and its folu- —
tions in that alkali afford moft beautiful pink or rofe colours. —
Carmine appears to be a lake in which the colouring princi=
ple predominates very much over the bafis; hence its folubility
in ammonia, which the true or perfeét lakes do notpoffefs.
COCHINO, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, —
in the ifland of Lemnos. N. lat. 39° 57’. E.long. 25° 22%.
COCHITOTOL, in Ornithology, the name given by — d
Fernandez to the bird fuppofed by Buffon to be the female
orange promerops, the promerops barbadenfis of Briffon, the — roe
avis paradifiaca Americana elegantifima ot Seva, and a vas ,
riety of the wpupa aurantia ot Gmelin. See Urura. ma an 4 }
COCHLEA, in Anatomy, a part of the labyrinth ofthe | 7
ear, which refembles a fnail thell. See Ear. teh |
Cocuxea, in Conchology, an obfolete term, often applied”
by old writers to univalve fheils of the fpiral kind, and thofe .
chieflyof the nerita and helix genera, and fometimes the
troch:, ani even turbo. cent
Cocuuea is alfo a fpeciesof Maprerora, which fee,
Cocuzea, in Mechanics, one of the five mechanical
powers; otherwife called the screw, which fee. :
It is thus denominated, from the refemblance a ferew
bears to the fpiral fhell of a fnail, which the Latins eall
cochlea. 4 Fe
ei COCHLEARIA,_
COCHLEARITIA,
COCHLEARIA, in Botany, (fo called from the form of
the leaves, which, being flightly hollowed, refemble an old-
fathioned {poon.) Linn, Gen. 803. Schreb. 1079. Willd,
$228. Jufl. 240, Vent. 3. 10g. Yourn, ror. (Cranfon';
Encyc.) Clafs and order, tetradynamia filiculofa. Nat. Ord.
Siliguofe, Linn. Crucifere, Jull. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Four-leaved ; leayes egg-hhaped, concave,
open,caducous. Cor. Petals four, equal, egy fhaped, twice
the fize of the calyx, open. Sram. fix, awl-fhaped, the length
of the calyx ; anthers obtufe, comprefled. P:/?, Germ fupe-
rior, heart~fhaped,’ or oval; ftyle very fhort, permanent ;
ftigma obtufe. eric. Siltcle heart-fhaped, gibbous, turgid,
fomewhat emarginate, tipped with the permanent ftyle, rug-
ged, two-celled,
Eff. Ch. Silicle gibbous, rugged; valves gibbons, obtufe.
Seeds feveral.
Sp. 1. C. officinalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1.
Willd. 1. Fior. Dan. tab. 135. Lam. Ill. tab. 558. fig. 1.
Woody. M d. Bot. tab. 29. Eng. Bot. 551. (C. folio fub-
rotundo; Bauh. Pin. Tourn. 215. C. batava; Lob. Ic.
293- Nafturtium ; Hall. Helv. n. 503.) Common {curvy-
grals. ‘ Root-leaves roundifh; ftem ones oblong, fome-
what finuated; fruit globular”? 8. Minor rotundifolia nof-
tras; Rai. Syn. 303. y. C. groenlandica ; With. nor Linn.
C. rotundifolia ; Dill. in Rai. Syn. 302. Root annual or
biennial, white, rather thick, elongated, with hairy fibres ;
whole herb f{mooth, fomewhat fiefhy, very various in fize.
Stems angular, branched in a corymbofe manner ; leafy.
Root-leaves on long petioles, roundifh, kidney-fhaped, {ome-
what toothed or repand ; flem-leaves alternate, {eflile, em-
bracing the ftem, angular or finuated. #/owers white, in
terminal corymbs, which are afterwards lengthened into
racemes; bractes none; calyx obtufe, {preading, concave;
petals inverfely epg-fhaped, entire. Silicles globular, not
emarginate, but little rugged, flightly veined, crowned with
a fhort ftyle. Seeds, five or fix in each cell. Common on the
fea-coafts of Europe, and not unfrequent in. mountainous
countries, far inland. .-On mountains it is generally {maller ;
but in the rocky wood above Bolton Abbey,in Craven, York-
fhire, eighty miles from the fea, it grows as luxuriantly as on
the coait. It has a warm, acrid, bitter tafte; and a pun-
gent, rather unpleafant, {mell when bruifed. Its a€tive mat-
ter is extracted by maceration, both in water and fpirits;
but its principal virtue refides in an-effential oil, feparable in
avery {mall quantity, by diftillation in water. It has long
been confidered as the moft effectual of all the antifcorbutic
plants ; and is, therefore, moft liberally provided by the bene-
volent author of nature, on the coafts of high latitudes, where
the feurvy is moft prevalent. Fofter found it alfo in great
abundance in the iflands of the South fea. A remarkably
volatile and pungent {pinit, known by the name of /piritus
antifcorbuticus, five mixtura fimplex antifcorbutica dranizii, is
prepared from it, which has been found an uleful remedy in
paralytic aff-Gions, and other difcafes that require an active
ftimulus.. But as an antifcorbutic, the expreffed juice, or the
plant itfelf, eaten in a faliad with water-crefles and brook-
lime, is the moft beneficial. 2. C. anglica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 2.
Mart. 3. Lam. 3. Flor. Dan. tab. 329. Eng. Bot. tab. 552.
(C, folio finuato; Bauh. Pin, 110. Tourn. 215. Rai. Syn.
303. C. britannica; Dod. Pempt. 594. Ger. Amen. 4cr.)
Enghih fcurvy-grafs. “ Root-leaves egg-thaped, entire ;
fkem-leaves lanceolate, toothed; filicles eiliptical, reticularly
veined,’? Roof annual or biennial. Herb f{mooth, fomewhat
flefhy, variable in the form and fize of its leaves, generally
fmaller than the preceding. Root-leaves on long petioles,
rarely a little toothed or repand; {tem ones embracing the
ftem, fearcely finuated. Flowers like thofe of C. officinalis.
Silicle twice the fize, turgid, fometimes almoft globular,
crowned with a longifh ftyle. A native of England on
muddy fea-fhores. 3. C. danica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 2.
Lam. 2, Flor. Dan. 190. Eng. Bot. 696. (C. aremorica ;
Tourn. 215. Barrel. icon. 1205. fig. 1. C. repens et minor
erecta; Bauh. Pin. 53. Thlafpi hederaceum ; J. Bauh. 2. p.
933- Lob. ic. 615.) ‘ Leaves all -deltoid, and petioled;
filicles elliptical, reticularly veined.?? Roof annual-or bien-
nial, fmaller than either of the preceding. Svems about five
inches long, feveral, feldom branched. partly decumbent,
{triated, reddifh, {mooth. Leaves nearly equal in fize, uni-
form, three or rarely five-lobed, fomewhat toothed, refem-
bling thofe of ivy. lowers white, fmall, in rather fhort
corymbs, Si/icle quite elliptical, lefs turgid, crowned with a
fhorter ftyle. Seeds about fix in each cell. A native of the
fea coafts of Denmark and Sweden. In England lefs com-
mon. Firft.difcovered by Lawfon in Walney ifland, Lan-
cafhire, afterwards by Llwyd in Anglefea, and is probably
to be found in other parts of the weitern coalt. We have
obferved it abundantly at Blackpool]. Mr. Crowe detegted
it m falt marfhes at Wells in Norfolk, and Mr. D. Turner,
and Mr. Sowerby in feveral parts of the fouthern coat, from
Portland ifland to the Land’s End. 4. C. groenlandica. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 4. am. 4. Wiild. 4. ‘* Leaves kidney-
fhaped, flefhy, quite entire.’ Root-leaves very {mall, convex
underneath, veinlefs, on long petioles. 5. C. fibirica, Willd.
5. * Leaves heart-fhaped, gafh-toothed.’? Stem ere&t, a foot
high, fimple. tiriated, {mooth. Leaves alternate, on long
petioles, obtufe, four lines long, and as many broad, deeply
toothed ; teeth obtufe; upper petioles the length of the
leaves; lower onés four times as long. Flowers white, in
racemes. Sulicles fmall, lanceolate, one or two feeded. A
native of Siberia. 6. C. acaulis. Willd. 6. Desfont. Atl. 2.
p» 69. “ Stemlefs; leaves cordate-kidney-fhaped ; fcapes
filiform, one-flowered, quite fimple.”’? Whole plant fearcely
halt an inch high, growing in infts, fmooth. Leaves {mall,
petioled, fomewhat flefhy, imooth. Scapes about the length
of the leaves. F/owers blue or white, the fize of thofe of C.
officmalis : border of the petals entire, inverfely egg-fhaped.
Silicle inflated, thick, oblong,,many-feeded ; ftyle very fhort.
A native of Portugal and Morocco. | 7. C. faxatilis. Lam.
6. (Myagrum faxatile ; Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Willd. Thlafpi
alpinum majus et minus; Bauh. Pin. 107. T. alpinum
myagroides; Pon. Bald. 185. Cluf. Hitt. 338. Alyffum ;
Hall. Helv. n. 490.’ Allion. ped. n. 887.) ‘ Lower leaves
petioled, ovate-oblong, flightly ferrated; upper ones nearly
feffile, tongue-fhaped ; filicle globular.” Lam. Root pe-
rennial. Stemfix or feven inches high, very flender, weak,
{mooth, reddith at its bafe, branched near the top. Roo?-
leaves {preading on the ground. A native of rocky ground
on the fouthern coaft of France, and on the mountains of
Switzerland and Italy. 8. C. auriculata. Lam. 7. ** Leaves
oblong, arrow-fhaped at the bafe, auricled, embracing the
{tem ; racemes long, loofe, fimple.” Entirely {mooth.
Stem fix or feven inches high, branched at the bafe, flender,
weak. Leaves larger than thofe of C. faxatilis; root-leaves
fpatula-fhaped, entire, narrowed into petioles; ftem ones
oblong, generally obtufe, enlarged and furnifhed with forme
angular teeth near the fummit, embracing the ftem ; arrow-
fhaped and auricled at the bafe. #/owers white. Silicles
oval-globular, crowned with the very fhort ftyle. Tound by
La Marck on uncultivated ground in Auvergne. 9. C. draba.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 8. Mart. 8. Lam. 8. Willd. 11. Jacq.
Auft. 4. tab. 315. (Lepidium humile, incanum arvenfe ;
Tourn. 216. Draba umbellata, five major capitulis donata ;
Bauh. Pin. Morif. Hift. 2. tab.21. fig. 1. bad. Arrabis five
draba et nafturtium babylonicum; Lob. ic. 224.) ‘* Leaves
lanceolate, embracing the ftem, toothed.’” Root perennial,
ftriking deep. Stems feveral, about a foot high, nee
eafy,
COCHUFARIA.
leafy, almot fimple, annual. Leaves diftantly toothed,
flightly pubefeent oa both fides, pale green or hoary, with
two acute auricles at the bafe. J/owers white, fmall, ia fe-
veral fhort racemes, which form a terminal panicled corymb.
Silicle inflated, heart-fhaped, {mooth, with a fingle feed in
each cell, A native of Italy, Auitria, and the fouth of
France. 10. C. glafiifolia. Linn. Sp. Pi. 4 Mart. 7.
Lam. g. Willd. 10. (C. altiflima, glaitifolio ; Tourn, 215.
Lepidium glaitifoliom ; Bauh. Pina. Monf. Hit. 2, tab. 2.
fig. 3.) ‘* Stem-leaves cordate-arrow-thaped, embracing
the ftem.? The habit of aturritis, Root biennial. Stem
from three to five feet high, ereét, leafy, cylindrical, {mooth,
with a few fhort branches. Lower leaves oblong, narrowed
into a petiole. Flowers white, {mall; in fhort, alternate
racemes, which form aa elongated terminal panicle. Silicles
globular. Sveds numerous. A native of Germany, about
Ratifbon. The whole plant is efteemed detesfive, diuretic,
jithontriptic, and antifcorbutic. 11. C. armoracia. Linn. Sp.
Pl..6. Mart. 6. Lam. 10. Willd. 8. Woodv. Med. Bor.
tab. 150. (C. folio cubitali; Tourn. 215. Raphanus rutti-
canus; Bagh. Pin. 96.) Horfe radifh. ‘* Root-leaves ob-
Jong, crenate ; item ones lanceolate, galhed or entire.” Dr.
Seeith. Rost perennial, fpindle-fhaped, long, very durable,
acrid. Siems about two feet high, ere¢t, corymbous, leafy.
Raol-ieaves petioled, very large, fometimes pinnacifid,
veined; {tem ones [efiile. lowers white. — Silicle eiliprical,
with a very fhort {tyle and {hort itigma. Zrwit often abor-
tive. A native of England and other parts of Europe, in
moift ground, and on the banks of rivulets. The ufe of its
feraped root in warm pickles, and as a poignant condi-
ment to various kinds of animal food, is well known. It has
alfo acquired much reputation as a mediciie, and 1s a power-
ful ftimulant, whether externally or internally employed,
Externally it readily inflames the fkin, and if its application
be long continued, produces bhiters. In this refpect it is
ufed with advantage in eafes of palfyand rheumatim. One
dram of the root infufed in a clofe veflcl with four ounces of
water for two hours, and made into a fyrup with double its
weight of fugar, taken internally, in the quantity of a tea-
{poonful or two, and {wallowed leifurcly, or at leatt two or
three times repeated, has been found to be fuddenly effectual
in relieving that kind of hoarfencfs which proceeds from an
interrupted feeretion of mucus, Infuled in water, and taken
into the flomach, it proves flimulant to the nervous fyftem,
and is on that account ufeful ia pally aad chronic rheumatifm,
whether arifing from feurvy or other caufes. This infulion,
taken with a large draught of warm water, is a ready emetic,
either by iticlfy ar to affiit the operation of other emeties.
The root cut, without bruiling, into very {mali pieces, and
{wallowed without chewing, may be taken to the quantity of
a table-fpoontul ; and, according to Bergius, has been found
very ufeful in arthritic cafes; which, however, Dr. Cullen
{uppofes to’ have been of the rheumatic kind. Its matter,
like that of other filiquofe plants, pafies readily to the kid-
neys, and thus prov.ng a powertul diuretic, is ufefulin droply,
“by promoting both unne and perfpiration. It has alfo tong ~
been known as an active antifcorbutic. It is extremely puss
gent both te the talte and fmell, but neverthelefs contains
fecret juice, which fometimes exudes in little drops upon the
furface. Its pungent matter is very volatile, being totally
diffipated in drying, and carried off in evaporation or diftilla-
tion by water and rectified fpirit. Ic impregaates both water
and f{pirit, by infufionor diitillation, very richly, with its aétive
matter. In diftillation with water, it alfo yields a {mall
quantity of eflential oil, exceedingly penetrating and pun-
gent. See Cullen’s Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 16g. ; and
Woodville’s Medical Botany, vol. iit. p. 407. An infofion
of it in cold milk is faid, by Dr. Withering, tobe one of the
fafeft and beft cofmetics, 12. C. macrocarpa, Willd. 9.
Waldftein and Kitabel, pl. Hung. * Root-leaves cordate-
ege-fhaped, crenate; ftem ones lanceolate, cartilaginoufly
toothed ; filicles elliptical, inflated.” Nearly allied to the
preceding fpecies. A native of Hungary in moift ground.
Cocuiearia coronopus, Linn. &c, See CoronorPus ruelit.
Cocuvearta, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of
the top-rooted efculent kind, the horfe-radith (C. armoracia)
which has a ereeping perennial root, the leaves very larze,
va‘ying much, the fowering fem a foot or eighteen inches
in height, and the flowers white, in loofe panicles, appearing
in May. bal
Metlind of Culture. Jn the culture of this plant there is
little difficulty, as it is readily effeGted by planting fuch cut-
tings of the roots as contain buds or eyes. ‘Phofe made from
the tops, and which have the heads or crowns of the plants
to them, are the beft. The off-fets and fide-fhoots ma
likewife be employed for the purpofe, as is moftly the cale
with market-gardeners, They fhould be about an inch or
two in length. As thefe plants require to be put into the
ground to a great depth, in order that they may form long
fine roots, the earth fhould either be dug over before the cut-
tings are placed in, or trenclied to the depth of fifteen or
twenty inches at the time, according to the method of plant-
ing that is made ufe of, and in either mode the ground be
well locfened, and broken down fully to the aboye depth.
The forts of ground mot adapted to the growth of the
roots are thofe of the more light deep kinds; but they will
fucceed tolerably on almoft any. When the land has beea
trenched over in the above manner, the ufual mode of plant-
ing is by means of the dibble; but there is another practice
which is fometimes followed, which is that of trenching in
the fets, or placing them in the earth at the time it is dug
over to the full depth of the loofened mould. ghee
But in the firft method, after the ground has been pre-
pared, a.line is ftretched acrofs, beginning at the end, and —
by means of a long tharp iron dibble, at the diftance of
inches from each other, a fet or cutting being dropped inte
each hole, and the mould clofed upon it. The line fhould
then be moved forward to the ditlauce of twenty inches or
two feet, and another row put in in the fame manner, proceed-
ing in the fame way till the whole of the ground is planted
Over.
In performing the work in the latter mode, the ground
fhould be made light and loofe, beginning at one end of the
piece, and pening a trench two fpades wide, and one fpade
deep, digging the bottom; then a row of cuttings fhould be
fet along the middie of the bottom nine inches diitant, in-
ferting them to their tops ia che earth; then digging the
next trench the fame width and depth, turning the earth into
the firit upon the rew of plants, breaking all large clods, and
levelling the top. After this, proceed to the fecond trench,
planting it in the fame way, performing the whole of the
work in a fimilar manner, aud then levelling the furface by
the rake. ’ ;
The moft proper feafon, or time of the year for this work,
is in the autumn for the dryer forts of land, and in the 7
fpring, as in February, or beginning of the following mo ‘-
for fuch as are of a moift quality. wa
In thefe methods of planting, in order that no time may
be loft, the ground may be fown the firt year with fpiiach,
radifhes, or any flight-rooting crap, that comes off early in
the fummer, to allow of the plants being kept cle. atter-
wards by hoeing ; which is all the culture they require in
bringing the roots to a proper fize for ufe.
holes made to the depth of fifteen or twenty inches pt
Ayn
Sometimes it is the cafe, efpecially where the land is fuitable
for them, that the plants make fuch progrefs as to have roots
large
ee |
a coc
large enough for ule in the courfe of a few months; but if
not much wanted, they are better to remain a twelvemonth,
or two or three years,.as by {uch delay they are much larger
and finer,
In. refpect to taking up the roots for ufe, the beft method
js to open a trench two {pades. wide, clofe on the fide of the
firft row of plants, and fully as deep as the {tool or bottom
of the roots, without difturbing them; then with a large
knife or fharp fpade to cut off all the fhoots, large and fmall,
of each ftool clofe and level, from whence they rife, leaving
the old or parent {tools in.the earth; and after having taken
up all the plants of the firft trench, proceeding to the next
row in the fame manner, turning the earth of it into the firlt,
and cutting off all the fhoots as before, taking up the whole
in the fame way as. wanted. By this means the remaining
undifturbed ftools continue to fend upa frefh fupply of {hoots
ja fucceffion for many years; but after the two firlt years
the ftools begin to {pread at bottom, and fend up many
{mali fhoots between and.in the rows ; all of which interven.
ing imall {pawn fhould be annually drawn up in the begin-
ning of {ummer, to render the principal fhoots large and fine.
And though the ftools of thefe roots endure many years, in
time they become weak or worn out, 4s well ae the foil ;.
confequently, in fix or feven years, when the fhoots be-
come weak and {mail, a frefh plantation fhould be made in
fome other place. In order to have fine roots it is-better,
however, to do it every three or four years.
~Thefe roots are much ufed for culinary purpofes when
{craped very fine, efpecially for fifh, and fome other forts of
food.
Whenever more of the roots are taken up at a time than
are wanted, they may be preferved. in their juicy ftate for
fome time, by putting them in a little dry fand.
CocHiearia, in Ancient Geography, a place in the ifland,
of Sardinia, between Ullia and Portus Luquidonis, accord-
ing to the It'nerary of Antonine. :
Cocarearia, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Cancroma, which
fees.
COCHLITES, in Watural Hiffory, a. term: compre-
hending feveral kinds of fofil theils found lodged in. the
Britufyttrata, and refembling {nails and periwinkles.
COCHLIUSA, an ifland of Afia Minor in the Mediter-
ranean fea, firuated on the coalt of Lycia.
COCHRYNNA, a river of Thrace, in the environs of the
Chalcidic territory.
COCINTUM, a town of Italy in Brutium, near the
éaitern coalt, at a fmali diltance to the welt of the promon-
tory of the fame name.
COCK, Marruew, and Jerome, in Biography, tivo bro-
thers, painters of Antwerp, who flourifhed about 1551.
Matthew is faid by Van Mander, to have been. one of the
firft, artifts amongft the Flemings, who painted landicape
ina good ftyle. However, his pictures, though finifhed, are
hard, and much refemble thofe of old Breugel.
Jerome, his brother, though pollefled of no {mall thare of
ability, gave himfelf up to engraving, and. publifhing many-
excellent prints, though in the old dry manner, after the
works of Matthew Cock, old. Breugel, and Francis Florio,.,
as well as from the pictures of the beft matters of Italy,
where he long refided ; befides which, he gave to the world
many interetting collections of antiquities, topography, &e.
He died in 1570, many years after the death of Matthew his
brother. Baldinucci, Heinecken.
Cock, of a Mufket, in Gunnery, the part of the lock
~ which fuftains the two fmall pieces of iron cailed jaws, bes
tween which the flint is fixed.
To cock a mulket, piltol, &c. is to fix the cock in fuch
a manner as to have it ready. for an infant difcharge..
5
€ 0.C€
Cock; in Jobrhydlogy, a fmall ith that is fometines very’
commen on the fhore of Cornwall ; the dedrus coguns of G@me-
lin, purple, and obf{curely exruleous, yellow underneath, with
a rounded tail,
Cock, Phafianus gallus of Linneus, io Ornithology, the
name of the male of gallinaceous birds; the fpecitic cha-
racter of whieh is, that it-has a comprefied caruncle on its
top; and.a double one on ite cheek » that its ears are naked,
and that its tail'is comprefled-and:rifing. For the hiftory and
varieties:of this bird, fee Poasianus Gallass For its ufes
in domettic economy, fee Eecs, Harcuine, Hen, and
Pouutry.
In the choice of a dunghili-cock, he fhould be! of a large
body, very long from the head to the rump, thick im the
girth, the neck long, loofe, and high; the comb, wattles,
and throat large ; the eyes round and large, and anfwer-
able to the colour of his plume or! main, as grey with grey,
yellow with ycliow, and fo of the reft’; his beak thould be
{trong and hooked; and his-main or neck feathers very long
and gloffy, covering his neck and fhoulders; the legs fhould be
trait, and of along beam, with very large and long {purs, a
little bending; the colour fhould be black, yellow, or browns
ih; theclaws fhould be long and ttrong; the tail jong, bend-
ing back, and covering the whole body; the wings very ftrong;
and the general colour fhould be reddifh. The cock is a
heavy bird, and: his gait is compofed and flow. His wings
are very fhort, and hence he feldom flies,-and the violence of
his efforts is fometimes indicated by his fereams. He crows:
either-in the night or day, but not regularly at certain
hours, and his note is very different from that of the female.
He ferapes the ground to-feek his focd, and fwallows, with
the grains, {mall pebbles, which ferve to effiit digeltion.
He drinks, by taking alittle water into his bill, and vaifing
his head at each draught. He molt frequently fleeps with
one foot/in the air, and his head covered by the wing ons
the fame fid2. The thigh on which the body refs is com=:
monly. more flefhy than. the other ; and it is: faid’ that our
epicures well know how to drllingu fh them. Ta its natural
iituation, the body is nearly paralie! to the grounds, as/is alfot
the bili; the neck rifes vertically, the forehead is ornament-
ed with a red flefhy comb, and the under part with a double
pendant of the fame colour, which, fays Buffon, vis neither
fleth\nor membrane, but of ia peculiar nature, different from
every thing elfe. In both fexes the noftrils: are fituated) on!
“either fide of the upper mandible, andsthe earsvoir either fides
of the heed, and below each: ear is {pread’ a white piece of
fking. The feet have commonly four toes, fometimes
five, but always three of thenr placed behind. ‘Phe
feathers rife by pairsifrom each: fhaft.. The tail is neatly
ftraight, bat admits, of av{mell elevation and deprefiiens
The male is diftinguifhed by having the two feathers in the
middle of the tail much: longer than the reft and bent into
anarch; the feathersiof the tail and rump are-alfo long andé
nairow, and) the feet are armed with fpurs. A good cock
has eyes’ {parkling with fire, boldnefs in his demeanour, and
freedom in his motions, and difplays foree in all his propor-
tions. Heisfo fingulariy-falacious, that though he ought
not to be aliowed more than 12 or'r5 hens (Colamella’ re-
commends, indeed, that they: fhould not exceed five) 5 yet?
if he had 50 a day, he would not, it is faid by Aldro-
vandus, negle€t oneof them: However, in this cafe it is not?
certain that’ he would fecundate the eggs of the female,
Ardent in his paflion, the firit: thing he does after he is dif-
charged from his rooit in the morning is to tread his hens ;:
and if he is for fome time deprived of his family, he makes
his addrefles to the firlt female he meets, though of a very
different {peciesy and even courts the firlt male that oceurs..
The firit factis mentioned by Ariitotle 5. the fecond ispreved:
by
COO":
by an obfervation of Edwards, and may be inferred from a
law mentioned by Plutarch, in his treatife on the quetlion
6* Whether brutes reafon,”? which enacted, that a cock con-
victed of this unnatural aét, fhould be burnt alive. “Phe cock
is extremely watchful of his females, and manifeits great
inquietude and anxicty; he hardly ever lofes fight of
them; he leads and defends them, and threatens them
with his menaces; he collets them together when
they {traggle, and never eats till he has the pleafure of
feeing them feeding around him. The different inflexions of
his voice, accompanied by various fignificant geftures, are a
kind of language that ferves to communicate his fentiments.
When he lofes them he expreffes grief. Although he is no
lefs jealous than amorous, he does not abufe his wives, but
directs his vage againft his rivals. Large as ishis family, it
is obferved that he has a favourite female to whom he mani-
“fefts peculiar attention. It was known as long, ago as the
time of Ariltotle, (vid. de partibus animalium, hb. iv. 5.)
that the cock had organs of generation concealed within his
body. The bulk of thefe varies in different {pecies, and in
different animals of the fame fpecies, at different times; but
whatever be their fize, they are very important in the animal
économy, as is evinced by the fecundation of eggs, and the
wondertul changes refulting from their extirpation. This
operation is commonly performed when the bird is three or
four months old. After emafculation it grows plumper,
and its flefh becomes more juicy and delicate, and when fub-
jectedto a chemicalanalyfis, yields different produ€ts from thofe
which it would have afforded before caftration. ©The extra&
of the lean of a capon is fomewhat lefs than the 4oth part
of its total weight ; whereas it amounts to 1-12th in a pullet,
and rather more than 1-7th in a cock. Befides, the ex-
tract of cock’s fiefh is very dry, while it is difficult to fepa-
rate the humidity from that ot a capon (Mem, Acad. Koy.
Scienc. an. 1730, p. 231.) The capon is no longer liable to
moult ; his rote is altered, his voice breken and feldom heard;
he is treated roughly by the cocks, with difdain by the feniales;
and deprived of all the appetites which he naturally pof-
felled, he is not only excluded from the fociety of his equals,
but extruded, as it were, from his fpecies. To cat, fleep,
and fatten, are in this ftate its principal objeéts. However,
he may even now be taught to rear and tend young chickens.
For this purpofe the capon mutt be kept fome days in a dark
place, only bringing it out at regular hours to feed, and ac-
cuftoming it gradually to the fight and company of a few ftout
chickens; for thefe it will foon acquire a fondnefs, and will
lead them with as much affection and affiduity as their mother.
Tt will condu@ even a greater number than a hen ; for its
wings fpread and afford more f{pacious fhelter ; and the hen,
freed from its folicitude and toil, will foon begin again to lay.
Some have practifed another method of teaching a capon to
clutch a brood of chickens, more crucl, but no lefs effe&ual
than the former; which is that of rendering him very tame
fo as to feed from one’s hand: and then, about evening,
plucking the fedthers off his breaft, and rubbing the bare
fin with nettles; the chickens are then put to him, and
prefently run under his breaft and belly, and probabl
by rubbing his bare fkin gently with their heads, ails
the pain which the ftinging of the nettles had occafioned.
This is repeated for two or three nights, till the capon con-
traGs an affection for the thickens, which have given him
relief, and takes them under his protection. A capon ac-
cuftomed to this fervice will repeat it to one brood atter an-
other.
Thus the capon, though condemned to fterility, will ftill
contribute indire€tly to the prefervation and multiplica-
tion of its {pecies. Another operation performed on the cock
is, efter cutting the comb as ufual, to fubititute in its ftead
one of the young fpurs which has juft begun to fhoot ; thus
engrafted, it gradually ftrikes root into the flefh, thence ex
tracts its nourifhment, and often grows more luxuriantly than
it would have done in its natural fituation, ra
Chickens are not hatched with that creft, and thofe red~
dith membranes which diltinguifh them from other birds.
‘Thefe parts do not begin to unfold themfelves for the firft
month, after they have left the fhell; at two months the
young cocks crow, and fight with one another; but it is
commonly after an interval of five or fix months that they —
manifelt any paflion for the hens, and that thefe begin to
lay. In both iexes the complete time of their growth is a
year or 15 months. ‘This period of their growth would im-
ply that the ordinary extent of their life does not exceed
feven or eight years, if the fame proportion fubfifted in birds
as in quadrupeds. But this has been obferved to be much
longer. Some have limited their age to 10 years; others
have extended it in their domeftic condition to 25 years; and
in a ftate of abfolute liberty to 30 years. But as cocks and
hens are bred for profit, the nens and capons that are def
tined for the table, feldom enjoy above one year’s exillenee,
and meft of them have only one feafon. Thofe which are
{elected for the multiplication of the {pecies become foon ~~
exhaufted, and none are permitted to arrive at their natural
period; fo that cocks are feldom or never known to die of age.
Cock, of the Game, or Game Cock, Phafianus gallus, of
Linneus: Phafianus gallinacens of Ray, Willughby, and
other ornithologitts. .
The Englifh game-cock is vulgarly imagined to be the
offspring of the dometticated fowl and the pheafant: this “
idea is, however, not at all affented to by ormithologifts, or |
the amateurs of the art of cocking.: On more fure grounds ~
its origin is referred to the wild cock of India, found not
unfrequently on the continent of India, and the ifles St.
Jago, Pulocondore, Timor, Philippine and Molucea iflands,
Sumatra, Java, New Guinea, Tinian, and the ifles of the
South Seas. At Sumatra and Java they are noticed as ”
being particularly large. Latham has obferved that they
breed moft freely in warmer fituations ; in very cold regions,
though they live and thrive, they ceafe to multiply,
According to Mr. Pegge, in the “*Archzologia,” vol.
iii, No. 19, the art of cock-fighting is referred to the
Greeks. ; hse Paty!
Jacobus Palmerius, a writer cited by Mr. Pegge, pres
tends that the traces of this diverfion may be dileceered ce
among the barbarians of Afia, as early as the reign of Crees
fus, king of Lydia, A.M. 3426, and 558 years before »
Chrift, But the learned antiquary apprehends, that the
fa& to which this writer refers, furnifhes no evidence that
quails, ufed among the ancients and moderns for fighting,
as well as cocks, were fitted for the purpofe of amufement
at fo early a period. Pliny, however, informs'us, (N. Hy
l.x. c. 21.) that at Pergamus, a city of Afia, there was an
annual exhibition of cock-fighting. But we derive no in-
formation from his account, when or where this.
commenced, or for what purpofe, whether civil o
it was introduced. ‘The Dardanit, a people of Tr
on their coins the reprefentation of two cocks fightiog
as thefe coins are of a late date, the antiquity of this
cies of diverfion among the Dardanians cannot be ints
from them.. Mr. Pegge fuggetts that, perheps, 3
have been introduced among them, and alts at Per
from Athens, where an annual feftival, under the ti
‘Arexlevévwy cydy, was inftituted by Themiitocles, a the
conclufion ot the Perfian war. When this famous gencral
was leading the Athenian army againft the Perfians, he
faw fome cocks fighting, and took occafion from this cir-—
cumftance to animate his troops by obferving to them; -
: « Thefes
f
COCK.
«Thefe animals fight not for the gods of their country,
not for the monuments of their anceltors, nor for glory,
nor for freedom, nor for their children, but for the fake of
victory, and that one may not yield to the other;’? and
fromthis topic he infpirited the Athenians. (Vid. lian,
War. Hilt. ii. c. 28.) If we can excufe the barbarity of this
inflitution, it may be confidered in fome degree as commend-
able, becaufe it was an aét of perpetual gratitude to the be-
nevolent deity that prefented him-with an occafion of ha-
ranguing his foldiers with fuch effet as to induce them
fuccefsfully to engage their enemies in battle, or at leaft, as
A permanent encouragement to his nation. As to the bar-
barity of the inititution, AElian remarks, that cruelty and
every kind of debauchery were fo generally interwoven with
the religious obfervances and ceremonies of thefe polite
Athenians, that they would be but little fhocked and offend-
ed by it on this account; or, however, not more fo than
the more ignorant barbarians of the oppofite coait of Afia,
the Pergamenians or Dardanians. We may further obferve,
that the cock, on account of his vigilance, was facred to
Apollo, Mercury, and Affculapius ; and for the fame qua-
lity, in conjun@ion with his magnanimous and daring fpirit,
he was appropriated likewife to Mars. This was extremely
Oppofite to the purpofe and intention of the “ Speétacu-
lum,” or public fhow, exhibited by Themiftocles ; as thefe
creatures, called by Columella ‘ rixofe aves,’”? were fup-
pofed to be more addicted to fighting than any others.
‘The fcene of engagement, however, or in modern phrafe,
the ‘*pit,’”? was the theatre ; and the fport lafted one day.
But others, as well as Themiitocles, have taken the advan-
tage of the fight of cock-fighung, and deduced from this
circumftance an argument for the incitement and encourage-
ment of military valour. Socrates endeavoured in the fame
way to infpire Iphicrates with courage. (Diog. Laert. ii.
§ 30.) Chryfippus alfo, in his book ** De Juttitia,’”” fays,
*‘our valour is raifed by the example of cocks.”? Lucian
likewife (de Gymnas. ii. p. 295), introduces Solon, the great
Athenian legiflator, as addrefling Awacharfis to the fame
urpofe. Mufonius alfo, cited by Stobeus ¢Serm. 29),
deduced the fame kind of inftruGtion from the battling of
quails and cocks; and we are informed that the young men
were obliged to attend the exhibitions of the theatre, in
ord:r to avail themfelves of this inftru@tion. It further ap-
»pears, that the other Greeks, as well as the Athenians,
held a good fighting breed of cocks in high eftimation, and
often amufed themfelves with this diverfion, We learn
from Pliny (ubi fupra), and Columella (viii. c. 2.), that the
iflanders of Delos were great lovers of this {port; and Ta-
nagra, a city of Beeotia, the ifle of Rhodes, Chalcis in
Enubeea, and the country of Media, were famous for their
generous and magnanimous race of chicken. The kingdom
of Perfia was probably inciuded in the laft, from whence
this kind of poultry was firft brought into Greece; and if
a judgment may be formed of the relt from the fowls of
Rhodes and Media, the excellency of the broods at that
time confifted in their weight and bulk (as the fowls of that
country were heavy and large), and fuch as our fportimen
call ‘ thake-bags’’? or ‘‘ turn-pokes.”? At Alexandria, in
Egypt, they had a breed of hens, called Movocogoi, which
produced the bett fighting-cocks. Upon the whole, it
fhould feem, that at firft cock-fighting was partly a religious
and partly a political infituticn at Athens ; and was there
continued for the purpofe of cherifhing valour in the minds
of their youth; but it was afterwards perverted, both here
and in other parts of Greece, to a common pattime, with-
‘out any moral, political, or religious intention; as it is
now practifed among us.
Vou. VIIL.
The Romans, who were prone to imitate the Greeks,
followed their example in this kind of diverfion, without any
good or laudable motives. Signior Haym (cited by Mr,
Pegge,) thinks, that the Romans borrowed the paftime
from Dardanus, in Afia; but it is needlefs to trace their
derivation of it to fuch a diitance, more efpecially as it was
generally followed in Greece, and was not introduced among
the Romans at a very early period. From a paflage that
occurs in Columella, (ubi fupra) it appears probable that
the Romans did not ufe the {port of cock-fighting in his
time; and he moreover {peaks of it in terms of ignominy,
as an expenfive amufement, unbecoming the frugal houfe-
holder, and as often attended with the ruin of the perfons
that purfued it. The Romans feem to have been more ac-
quainted with quails as fighting birds than with cocks. ' At
length, however, they paired cocks, as well as quails, for
fighting. The firft caufe of contention between the two
brothers, Baffianus and Geta, the fons of the emperor Sep-
tumius Severus, happened, according to Herodian, (in.
§- 33) intheir youth, about the fighting of their quails and
cocks; and, as they had often accompanied their father into
Greece, they had probably feen and Jearned this paftime
there. It might naturally have been expeéted that, after
the introduction of Chriftianity into. the Roman empire,
when the bloody fcenes of the amphitheatre were difcarded,
this barbarous and inhuman diverfion, which had a tendency
towards cherifhiig ferocity and implacability in the minds
of men, would have been reftrained and gradually annihi-
lated. Befides, this paftime has been the bane and ruiv of
thoufands here, as well as of thofe * lanifte avium,?? cock-
feeders, mentioned by Columella, whofe patrimonial fore
tunes were entirely diffipated and confumed by it.
The éock is not only a very ufeful animal, but fo ftately
in his figure, and magnificent in his plumage, that Pliny
{peaks in high terms of his government among his own
kind, and Ariftophanes compares him to the king of Per-
fia. Such alfo is his tendernefs to his brood, that he will
{cratch and provide for them with an affiduity almolt equal
to that of the hen; and fuch is his generofity, that, on
finding a hoard of meat, he will chuckle the hens together,
and without touching one morfel himfelf, will relinquith the
whole to them. The cock was calledtihe bird, xa}, Lox, by
many of the ancients; he was highly efteemed in fome
countries, and, in others, was even held facred; infomuch that
one cannot forbear regretting, that acreature fo noble and fo
uleful fhould be fo cruelly treated. It affords, however, fome
fatisfaction, that the AAcxlewoPouw,if fuch a word be aliowed,
or the maffacre of Shrove-Tuefday, is now declining, and
this circumftance encourages the hope, that, in a few years,
it will be totally difufed; but the cock-pit ftill continues a
reproach to the humanity of Englifhmen, and to the benign
religion which they profefs.
This {pecies of pattime was probably brought into Eng-
land by the Romans, but the precife period of its introduc-
tion has not been afcertained. The bird was here before
Cefar’s arrival; but Mr. Pegge, in his Refearches, has
found no notice of his fighting before the time of William
Fitz-Stephen, who wrote the life of archbifhop Becket,
fome time in the reignof king Henry II. William defcribes
the cocking as a {port of {chool-boys on Shrove-Tuefday,
called “¢ Carnilevaria.”? The theatre was the {chool, and the
malter was the direétor ot the fport. Trom this time, the
diverfion, however abfurd and barbarous, has continued
amongit us; it was followed, though dilapproved and pro-
hibited, 39 Edw. IIT. ; alfo in the reign of Henry VIII. ;
and A.D. 1569. By fome it has been called “a royal di-
verfion ;” aud much encouraged both by Henry VIII. and
4Q. James
cock.
James I; but it was forbidden by one of the a&s of Oliver
Cromwell, March 31, 1654.
There are no documents that we are acqnainted with to
inform us in what (fate the art of fighting cocks exited to
the reign of king Henry VIII. who, it is fuppofed, found-
ed the celebrated national cock-pit at Weftmintter, after.
wards renewed and encouraged by Churles II. whole pile
cocks, the irtroduétion of this monarch, are in high elti-
mation among numerous breeders at this day. From
that period annual mains have been fought at the royal
cockpit in Weftminfter to the prefent time.
The inftitutors of this cltabliihment enaSted certain laws
for the better regulation of thefe fports, the leading fea-
tures of which, as belonging to this art, we fhall here
briefly defcribe. ‘
There are three kinds of mains at prefent in ufe with
cockers; the /ong main, which in general continues for a
week, feldom or never longer; the /Sort main, of a day or
two, (both regulated by the fame laws); and the Welch
main: in the long main the cocks are generally the property
of a joint fubfeription, or of only two individuals, ard the
cocks thus colleted are chofen for the»main, according to
their weights, thofe being preferred, as a medium weight,
from three pounds eight ounces to four pounds ten ounces,
giving or taking an ounce on either fide, though they are
generally matched to a drachm weicht. The cocks, which
form the bye-battles in the main, become the obje&s of fe-
parate bettings, and are fubj-& to the fame weights and
regulations. Cocks, whofe weights are above four pounds
eight ounces, are termed fhake-bags or turn-outs, and are
feldom matched again{t each other by weight.
The fhort-main lafts only fora day or two, the cocks
being fewer in number, or the numbers are doubled for each
day. The Welch main is generally fought fora purfe, a
gold cup, a fat hog, or fome other prize; in this main all
the fowls are reftricted to a certain weight. w=. about four
pounds four ounces: thefe are matched againft each other, »
as fiall be agreed upon, the winners again taking the win-
ners, tiil they are reduced to a pair; then the winner of the
laft batrle gains the prize. &
Befides this there is alfo to be noticed the battle-royal,
which confiftsin any number of fow!s being put down to-
gether on the pit, and the laft furviving fowl gains the
rize.
i Thofe fpecies of fighting, called the battle-royal and
the Welch main, are known no where in the world, as Mr.
Pegge conceives, (ubi fupra), but in this country ; neither
in-China, where this fpecies of diverfion is very prevalent,
ror in Perfia, nor in Malacca, nor among the favage tribes
of America.
The battle of the main always begins with fighting the
lighteft cocks; it is fair to feed them in any way you pleafe
after they are weighed; and thofe which, proportionately
to their bulk, had been previoufly moft reduced, or brought
down, now have the opportunity of being fed and brought
np again, thereby gaining upon the weight of their oppo-
nents; for the lightelt cocks are fourd to be the firft pre-
pared by the artifices that are ufed to bring them to their
wind and aétion.
The following articles are obferved by the members of the
cock-pit royal, for regulating the mains. ‘* Articles of
agreement, made the day of > one thoufand
cight hundred and » between : Firft, the
faid parties have agreed, that each of them fhall produce,
fhew, and weigh, at the , on the day of
, beginning at the hour of in the morning,
‘cocks, none to be lefs than 3lb, 80z., nor more than 4lb.
IO oz., and as many of each party’s cocks that come within
one ounce of each other, fhall fight for a battle, that i
each cock, in as equal divifions as the battles can be
divided into fix pits, or days play, at the cock-pit before-
mentioned ; and the party’s cocks that win the greateft nums
ber of battles, matched out of the number before fpecified,
fall be entitled to the fum of , odd battle money,
and the fum to be ftaked into the hands of Mr.
before any cocks are pitted, by both parties. And we furs
ther ayree, to produce, fhew, and weigh, ov the faid weigh-
ing days, cocks for bye battles, {ubje&t to the fame
weight as the cocks that fight in the main, and thefe to be
added to the number of cocks unmatched ; and as many ;
them as come within one ounce ef each other, fhall fight fo
a battle; the number of cocks fo matched, to be
equally divided as will permit of, and added to each day’s
play with the main cocks; and it is alfo agreed, that the ba-
lance of the battle money fhall be paid at the end of each
day’s play. It is alf> further agreed, forthe cocks to fight
in filver fpurs, and with fair hackles; and to be fubjeét to
all the ufual rules of cock-fighting, as praGtifed at the cock~
pit royal, Weitminfter; and the profts arifing from the
{pzCtators, to be equally divided between both parties, after
all charges are pard that ufually happen on thofe occa-
fions. Witnefs our hands, day of ia tee
It is underitood on all occafions, that battles for 5/7, and
upwards muft be fought in filver fpurs, unlefs the contrary’
1s exprefsly agreed upon, for this reafon, that the battle is
not fo foon ended in lilver, and the fo wl has more opportunity
of difplaying his powers than in fteel {purs. The fetters
to of the cocks are not permitted, by the general laws of
cocking, to take up their fowls after they are put down
upon the pit, uulefs either of the fowls touch the fide of the
pit, or are entangled in each other, or in the mat; in either
cafe they may be handled and brought to the centre of the
pit; if the fowl is thrown on his back with his legs up-
wards, and not touching the pit, it is lawful to turn hi
only ; but it is not allowed, on any pretence, to remove fea-
thers, &c. from the beak or eyes during the fight.
If either, or both cocks, through blindnefs, or any other
caufe, ceafe to fight, ‘* the law is told,” that 15, a perfon
counts twice twenty, when they may be handled and fet to
again; this telling of the law is repeated as long asboth
cocks fight ; but ten only is counted at each interval after |
the firit, previoufly to their being put together; either ceaf-
ing to peck, is told out by a perfon counting diftin@ly and
audibly twice twenty, they are then fet to beak to beak;
if he now refufes to fizht, ten is told, and, “* once refufed,”
announced ; if he continues to refufe, ten more. ** twice re-
fufed.’? and fo on till he has refufed ten different times
when he lofes the battle; this is termed the dong Jaw. T
a cock refumes his fighting at any period during the eount-
ing, in that cafe, in counting again, to begin the tens till the
retufals make ten following each other. Should both be
difabied, and refufe to fight, defore the long law begins
counting, it,is a drawn battle, and neither wins; and fhould —
both refufe ighting during the telling of the long law, it
that cock’s battle which fought laf; but fhould he die b
fore the law is told out, he lofes the battle, notwithita
the other did not fight within the law. ;
If any one defires to ftop this telling him ow!
pound him, that is, he bets the cock will be beaten ts
to five fhillings; in this cafe he muft lay down his’ -
kerchief, glove, or fomething upon the pit, as a token of
the challenge. When the fbort law is told by a pérfon,
diftin&tly counting favice teventy, and afterwards repeating
the words, will any one take it ? three times; if ‘no one ace —
“ eepte:
COCK.
cepts the challenge during this fhort law, the cock is beaten.
It is neceflary, when any one takes the poundage or bet,
that he declares it, and alfo lays down fomething on the
pit as furety ; when the cock mutt fight till death, and
fometimes moft unexpeétedly he recovers and wins,
Having defcribed the natural origin of this race of birds,
the hiftory of the fport, and its laws and regulations, we now
procced to confider the general form and properties of the
fighting cock, when in his greatetft perfeétion, according to
the ideas we at prefent entertain.
The general outline of the fineft cock, taken as a whole,
nearly approaches that of a lengthened cone, excluding the
legs and tail, the apex” of the cone being the head, and the
bafe the vent and belly; under fuch external form, may
exift the beft properties of the cock; in defcribing the
beauties of particular parts, the head fhould be fmall, the
beak trong and pointed, the neck Jong, and at the fame
time ftrong, the girth of the fhoulders, cheft, and body,
broad, feeling broad to the grafp, and tapering again to the
rump. he thighs and legs large and ftrong, and rather
long than fhort ; and it is confidered a good point if he
brings them clofe up to his body, when held in the hards,
inttead of letting them hang loofely down.
The feathers, to amateurs, alfo afford a good criterion of
judging of the foundnefs of the bird ; where thefe lie clofe
to the fkin, and compacted together, and fecl fhort and fift
to the touch, and thining and glofly in their exterior; fuch
is deemed a found feathered bird.
The coloursanoit admired are the reds and the duck-wings §
by the red, among cockers, is underitood a cock with a
hackle (that is, the feathers of the head and neck) red, and
with the hackle general'y correfpond the colours of the rump
or faddle.
The red cock varies with a black breaft and ginger wing,
that is, of a gingerbread or tawny colour, and again with a
black-breaft and a dark wing ; fuch are dark red:.
Thecolourof the wing, as ufedamong the amateurs in cock-
ing, is fometimes taken from the whole wing ; as, where the
wing is altogether of a ginger-red, excepting the flight. or
_ primary feathers, which are dark, or a part of the wing, as
in the duck wings, hereafter to be deicribed.
The fight-reds, are thofe whofe breafts are wholly red, or
red {potted with black, or black ftreaked with red, and
thefe receive their names according to thefe circum(tances,
as, ginger-breafted, [potted-breafled. flreaky-breafled, &c.
The duck-wing cock derives this name from a bar of fteel-
blue acrofs the greater coverts, like the fafcia acrofs the
wild duck’s wing ; in this cafe it is obferved, that the fe-
condaries are exteriorly white, the hackle alfo white or pale-
yellow, or cream-colour, as are the faddle-feathers, which
correfpond, as we have before noticed, with the hackle.
In difcriminating the individuals of this breed, it is far-
ther ufual to deferibe the colours of the breaft and the
fhoulders ; the breaft may be d/uck, or /potted, or freaked ;
the fhoulders may be tawny, or dark-red, or birchen, that 18,
of the colour of the twiys of a birch broom, or /ilver-
Soouldered, being nearly white.
The yellow cock is merely a variety of the duck-wing,
from which it differs only in having the fecondary feathers,
or thofe next the flight, dark, inftead of white, which is not
of untrequent occurrence ; the blue -bar in thefe cocks is
fometimes feen to vary to a light-brown.
The next colour to be noticed is the dun ; thefe cocks, are
in reality of a lead, or flate colour, and may be wholly fo,
or duck-wings, with the breaft, flight, and tail, dun; or a
yellow-dun, that is, a yellow cock with a dun flizht, breatt,
aud tail; by flight-feathers are underftood the primaries, or
firft and ftrongeft feathers of the wing ; the red-duns are
red cocks with a dun breatt, flight, and tail.
Black cocks are fo coloured, fome wholly fo, others with
birchen or brazen fhoulders, which are almoft the only va-
rieties of this cock. ;
White cocks are either wholly white, termed /imocks, or
with red fhoulders, which are termed files; when thefe are
lreaked with any co!our in the hackle, breaft, rump, or tail,
they are then termed freaky-piles. :
_ Ifthe pile-cocks have a mixture of dun (that is, lead
colour on the breaft and fhoulders), they-are called dun-piles 5
another variety of this fowl is the cuckoo, which is deemed
rare, that is, a white fowl with the feathers variegated pro-
mifcuoufly, or rather barred with black and yellow.
The /pangled fowl is particularly rare; itis a red fowl,
with the feathers tipt with white, or fometimes white and
black.
There is ftil! another breed of cocks we have to mention,
called hen-cocks, from their feathers being fhort, refembling
thofe of-a hen; their colour is generally brown, or {peckled,
they are allowed to fight as well as any other, and to be as
good game ; we are totally unacquainted trom whence origt-
nates this breed; in fighting, it frequently happens that
they have an advantage, in being miltaken by their antagonift
cock for a hen, and frequently from this are enabied to get
the firlt blow. ;
When any coloured fowl: has the fhoulder mixed with
black, fuch cock is denominated beexy fhouldered, a term
whofe origin we are not acquainted with, probably from the
French word dis, b'ack, or dufky.
The legs, as forming part of the defcription and chara&ter
of the cock, fhould allo be noticed. Thefe are either yel-
low, blue, white, olive, or dark green, willow, or light-
green, black, or carp-lerged, a mixture of black and yel-
low ; the beaks in general correfpord with the colour of the
legs.
The eves are alfo an objec of attention, being a point of
defergption in the match-pile; the red, or ferret-eye (the
iris being red) ; the pale-yellow, or daw-eye; the dark-
brown, or floe-eve, 4
Other qualities of the cock: remain to be confidered, as
they conltitute importaut properties in the battle; thefe
properties confilt in the {pecific weight of the cock, in re-
gard to his bulk, asa large cock may not only feel light in
hand, but weigh light in the {cale, his bone and flefh being
ofa lighter quality, while others, though much lefs, fhall
outweigh him; and fuch are commonly diltinguifhed by
the phrafe, /umpy cocks, while the others are termed corky, or
light, ike cork, whichis of more value in the match, as
the larger cock has the advantage.
The conttitution, or rather healthy condition, of the cock
is alfo neceflary to be known; this is more readily afcertain-
ed than would be imagined ; firft, by the feather, as we have
before ftated, being found, and difficult to be drawn out,
fhort, {mooth, hard, and fhining ; his crowing with a fhrill
and clear voice; his luoking red in the face; if white, or
pale, in that part, or if he pavts much, and turns blackith
after exercife, it is prefumed, with tolerable certainty, that
he is difeafed and unfound; that he is unfit for the pens or
the battle.
The next confideration in the fighting cock is the fpur;
to hit well with the {pur is as neceflary as to have courage,
or any other good quality, as without this all the other qua-
lities may be thrown away ; this, however, is not known
from any exterior indication, but by actual trial, and is not
confined to any particular colour or breed. The piles ofter
are obferved to carry a fatal fpur, without having fo mich
4Q2 game
COCK.
game as the other breeds, efpecially if the battle be of long
duration.
And next of the game, or blood of the fowl ; for by this
term is indicated his courage, or rather his endurance of the
battle ; this property is fo extraordinary in fome of thefe
animals, that they fight obftinately to the laft, and by this
means, though apparently beaten, gain the battle.
Aion in fighting, to be excellent, fhould be rapid, but
without hurrying ; quick, but cautious; to break well with
their adverfary, that is, on the firft onfet to throw off, or
parry the blow, and then to hit ; for if they flrike and hit to-
gether at the onfet, it is not unufual to fee the thigh or
wing broken, or the fpur pafs through the body of one or
both. Itis of confequenee alfo, that in the early part of the
battle, they fhould ftrike without laying hold, and keep a
diftance, as laying hold in the beginning of the battle is al-
moft ufelefs, but not fo when the firft efforts are paft, and
they become a little weary.
It is ufual for the cock to aim at the head with the beak,
but his ftroke is known to be more fatal when he lays hold
of the point of the wing, as in this cafe the {pur enters fome
part of the body or the wing, and difables the fowl more
certainly.
A cock is faid to fight «well at the foot, when he has obtain-
ed an advantage, and follows it up till he has killed his ad-
verlary, never fuffering him to rife after being once down.
On Breeding. A well-tried breed of cocks being ob-
tained from a¢tual obfervation of their powers are to be ufed
as the itock to breed from, and it fhould be obferved that
it has been found injurious to breed from two old fowls;
on one fide or the other they fhould be young, and three or
four hens are fully fufficient for one cock, and the hens
fhould be all of one breed, and if the colours are fomewhat
alike fo much the better, as they unite the more kindly.
The breeding-place fhould be well aired,-and kept en-
tirely free from other poultry; clear water, grafs, gravel,
and lime rubbifh, an occafional change of food, as barley,
oats, potatoes boiled, and fometimes a little meat, and toaift
and beer, are alfo to be recommended.
The hen-houfe fhould be perfe@tly dry and clean, and the
roof with perches rather low, as otherwife the heavy fowls
jar their feet in coming down and occalion them to {well and
become: crippled.
The perches thould be carefully made of the proper fize
for the grafp of the foot, not being too large or too fmall,
as in the former cafe the hind claw is brought forward, and
he becomes what is called duck-clawed, and in the latter the
breaft-bone becomes crooked.
There are feveral injurious things to the health of the
fowls, which fhould be carefully kept away trom their breed-
ing place, as any thing which tends to foil the water they
drink ; the keeping of pigs, ducks, or allowing them accels
to coal afhes, or any foapfuds, are found by experience to
produce the roop; geele and turkies are injurious to fowls,
by continually fighting and battering them, and fhould not be
allowed to be near them.
The nelts of the hens may be about a foot and a half from
the ground, made in an earthen pan or difh of a proper fize,
and clean ftraw, rubbed up fo as to render it fott. Hay is
found by experience to be injurious to the eggs, and to more
readily produce vermin; and its faint {meil feems alfo not
to fuit them.
There fhould be nefts for every hen, and even their num-
ber fhould be rather more than lefs than the number of
hens, as otherwife they are apt to fight and difturb one an-
other from the neits, and break the eggs.
One egg Should be always left in the neft for them to lay
to, and that fhould be marked, that it may be eefily known.
Alfo the eggs as they are laid fhould be removed from the
neft and marked with the date of their being laid, and the
hen laying them, and be placed in a box of bran, and now
and then, if laid on the fide, be turned ever; they are, how-
ever, confidered beft placed with, the fmall end downwards,
as it has been found by experience that they keep better in
this pofition, and the following reafon is alleged for this
effect, the fhape of the fhel!l, which is a reverfed cone, forms
a fupport to the yolk, and prevents its defcending to the
fhell. 5
When a hen begins to cluck or be brooding, no more of
her eggs fhould be faved, as from this time her eggs are apt
to become imperfeé, are frequently without yolks, and often
without fhelis: belides, cockers have a notion that the fowl
bred from a clucking hen will not fhow the fame game and.
bottom as thole produced by her firft eggs.
If two clutches are wantcd from any fen in one feafon, it
is effected more ‘certainly by putting her firft clutch of eggs
under a dunghill hen, and putting the game hen under a
coop where the other hens are about her, till her heat is
over, when fhe may be fetat liberty ; whereas by temoving
her, fhe is forgotten, ‘and when brought back to the other
hens fighting enfues.
The next or fecond clutch fhe might be allowed to fit
upon herfelf.
Jhen a cock takes a diflike to any brooding or other
hen, fhe fhould be removed, as he would otherwife injure or
deitroy her. ; ’
About 12 eggs form a proper clutch, as the hen cannot.
well cover more. When the firft chickens are hatched, they
may be taken away and placed in a baiket with flannel or
wool by the fire-fide, and be fed with crumbs of bread, and
chopped eggs, boiled hard, tiil the reft are hatched ; then they
fhouid be placed with the hen at night, as fhe otherwife
might take a diflike and Kill them.
The eggs bein all hatched, at leaft, thofe that are found and
good, the hen and chickens fhould be conveyed into fome
dry place, where cats or vermin of any kind cannot get at
them. The hen fhould be cooped to prevent ber from wan-
dering from the brood, and getting into wet and dirty
Jaces. - , Ene
The chickens are beft fed with crumbs of bread and
hard boiled eggs chopped up with it, and this is occa-
fionally changed with advantage for ‘groats or grits,
wheat, chopped raw meat, or new cheefe and curds,
till they are able to eat barley, as they are apt in a.
fhort time to cloy with any one kind of food, to pine and
die. They fhould have clean water, at leaft once a day, and
it fhould be placed out of the fun. About the end of the
third or fourth week it is well to fet the hen at hberty with
her chickens, taking care that fhe is not annuyed by other
hens. 2
One advantage attends bringing them up under the dung
hill hen, which is, that fhe is lels quarreliome or fubject to be
difturbed by other hens. Shed ys fe
lt is a falfe notion of old times, that the chickens brought.
up under a dunghill hen will partake of her propertics, which.
is well known by experienced breeders to be untrue. sf
It is advifable, when the chickens are at an age that
their fexes can be diftinguilhed, as at about fix w wo.
months old, to fele& thofe intewded to be kept and to de-
ftroy the reft, as the furvivors thrive better, and 1t
the brood from being too much diftribuied, ae 8 bet
to purchafe fowls for the [pit than to kcep thefe to the inju-
aie them,
ry of the reft, unlefs where the fole object in bre
is the table, ;
.™
oie wat a4
sd
cOCc K.
In about four months it is ufual for them to begin to
crow, and this is the right time to cut their combs, as cut-
ting them early is thought to prevent their fightiag together,
and they alfo lofe lefs blood than if cut later, when the dif-
ficulty of flopping it is greater, as it is neceffary then to
ufe the cautery, or a {lyptic, for the cautery cannot be con-
veniently applied between the two furfaces or lobes of the
comb. In about a few weeks after this, or when they are
fent to their walks, their gills and deaf ears may be taken off,
by which term is underftood a loofe flefhy whitifh caruncle
behind the car. Some cut the comb clofe, called the ** low
comb ;”’ others leave an arched portion which is termed the
*high comb.” :
About this period of the life of the young fowl, a difaf-
ter frequently happens which fhould be carefully guarded
again{t; which is, that they will, without any apparent caule,
fizht and deftroy each other, and this we think we have ob-
ferved to happen more frequently after rain than at other
times; perhaps from their being wetted, foiled,and disfigured,
they may appear ftrange to each other, and thus are led to
begin fizhting ; at leaft this is the mott probable reafon that
has occurred to us.
If this happens before they can with propriety be feparat-
ed for different walks, it wili be found neceffary to purfue a
certain meafure to prevent their fighting 5 this is ufually ac-
complifhed by feparating them after fighting and keeping
them for fome time without food ; another difcipline to pre-
vent this evil confifts in holding the weakeft in your hand,
while the ftrongeft {purs and pecks him till he cries ont, or
by-beating him with a glove or handkerchief, he will after-
wards be fatisfied with being fubordinate for a long time;
otherwife they are ever fighting and picking or peeling the
fkin from the fkull often 19 a way that they never recover
from, and fuch are called pecl-pates, and are not allowed in
a main. :
This ftate of difcipline and fubordination will be pro-
moted by the prefence of the old cock among them, who
will fo interfere in their battles as to awe them to a more
peaceable demeanour, and this the more effectually if all the
hens are removed.
They fhould now, before they are fent to their walks, be
marked, and a regular regifler be kept of them. The marks
are generally made in the eyelid, noftril, or connecting mem-
brane of the toes by cutting a notch in one or more of them;
and are defcribed as right, left, or both eyes or noltrils out
or in right or ieft feet.
Having premifed thus far in raifing them, it is now our
buiinefs to fpeak of the moft appropriate walk, which is
often among experienced cockers even in fome refpeéts not
fafficiently attended to, Farm-houfes are not always good
walks for the reafon above-mentioned, that the game chickens
get battered by other fowls. Poor cottages, where they are
generally walked, have this difadvantage, that they have not
fufficient food; a clear air—good food—pure water, and
perfe& feclufion from other fowls are the beit requifites on a
walk of this kind; at any rate it is proper before they are
taken up for fighting that they fhould be feen, and fuch as
want it be fed, or, as it is called, hand-fed.
At about a twelvemonth old they are termed /fags, and at
two years old they are called cocks. It may be defirable to
try the breed while they are yet itags, in which cafe the
leaft valuable are feleéted ; fuch for inftance as are fhorter-
legged than the reft, or are in any refpect deficient in their
make ; from thefe trials we may be led to prefume upon the
courage and a¢tion of the reft of the brood, and for this-
purpole the {tag may be fought ‘againft.a cock of the fame
weight, to alcertain his qualities,
Short filver fpurs, in thefe trial-battles, are better than
fleel ones, as they are not fo immediately deftruétive; and a
{tag that beats a cock of equal weight mult have undeniable
good qualities, even though he afterwards wins no other
battle.
At two years old he becomes a cock, as we have obferved,
and is then fit for fighting in the main, or fingle battles.
It ftill remains, however, ere we bring him on the ftage, to
deferibe the regimen requifite to give him. the greatett
profpedt of advantage, and a fuccefsful iffue to the conteft ;
as a well-prepared fowl] will have the advantage*of a fuperior-
one that is ill-fed, or not prepared.
The fowl is fuppofed to come from his walk in good:
condition ; in which cafe, he will be too fat for fighting,
and will have no wind till he is reduced. To effect this,
ab{tinence from food and medicine are required for fever
or eight days, before he can be brought to the pit, at leaft,
fuch is the regimen purfued by our firft feeders, and is
pretty generally as follows: His tail and fpurs being cut
fhort, he is put into his pens, and the firlt day receives
no food; fecond, he has his phyfic, confitting of cream of
tartar or jalap, or both united, in the dofe of about five
grains of each ; or if it bea very fat and large fowl, the dole
may be increafed to ten grains of cream of tartar. Thefe are
given him mixed in frefh butter; this generally purges
brifkly, and fcours out the inteftines. Immediately after
the phyficis given him, and before it affeéts him, he is placed
on loofe ftraw or a grafs plat with another cock, and allowed
to {par with him. The hots, or*muffles, being previoufly
tied on their fhort fpurs. In this way he is exercifed till he
is a little weary ; he is then returned to his pens. Before
putting him up it is neceflary to examine his mouth to fee if ©
he has been pecked or wounded in the infide, as fuch
wound is apt to canker. To prevent this, it is wathed
with a little vinegar and brandy ; he now is allowed his
warm mefs to work off his phyfic. This is a diet made
of warm ale or fweet wort, and bread in it, with a little
fugar-candy ; or bread and milk and fugar-candy, a large
tea cup full.
He is then fhut up clofe till the next morning, or about:
24 hours. If the weather is cold, the room fhould be
made warm, ora blanket placed over the pen: if in warm
weather he may be clipped out for fighting; but if the
weather be cold this is beft left till the time of fighting,
The windows of the room fhould alfo be darkened, except--
ing at feeding times.
Early on the following morning, that is, about the third.
day, his pen muft be cleaned out from the effeéts of the
phyfic, &c. and clean dry {lraw be given him ; his feet alfo
fhould be wafhed and wiped clean before he is returned to his.
pen: if his feet feel cold his pen fhould be made warmer.
He is next to be allowed fome cock-bread, that is, a fort
of bread made of ingredients in the following proportions :
About three pounds of fine flour and two eggs, and four
whites of eggs, anda little yeaft ; this is kneaded with a
fufficiency of water for a proper confiftence, and is fent to.
the oven and well baked: fome add, 2s a great fecret, a
{mall number of anifeeds, ora little cinnamon; of this bread,
as much as would fill a tea cup, cut into pieces, is given him
twice that day; and no water is then given him whatever,
as it is conceived highly injurious at the early part. of. the
feeding.
On the fourth day, early in the morning, he fhould receive
half a tea cup full of good barley and a little water, in)
which a toaft has been iteeped fome time. Having eaten
this, clean his pen, let him be fupplied with clean ftraw, and
let his pen be uncovered for about an hour, while he
{cratches:
co
fcratches and picksthe firaw. Some think it highly advan-
tageous to prepare the barley for them, by beating and
_ bruifing it, and thus to take away the fharp points of the
barley, and the hufky fhell or cevering, which is then
blown away.
In the afternoon, the fame quantity of barley may be re-
peated, but no water.
On the fifth, or next day, he may have the bread as
before, but three portions of it, and no water.
On the fixth, or weizkirg day, very early im the morning,
give him the bread, as before: heis then to be weighed, and
afterwards a good feed of barley and water fhould be given.
Some hold it a valuable fecret to give them flefh, as fheep’s,
heart, for this and the fucceeding day, chopped fmall, and
mixed with the other food.
On the feventh day, or day before fighting, early in the
morning, let him have the fame feed of barley ; in the after-
noon bread and the white of an egg boiled hard, and_a little
water.
On the eighth, or day of fighting, he may have a little
barley, as about 40 grains; fome recommend it to be pre-
vioufly fteeped in port wine, which, we are not affured,.is at
all ufeful. If, at any period of the feeding, the food fhould
remain in his crop, no more fhould be given him till it is
removed, which a bit of apple or cheefe will affilt in digeft-
ing: and fhould the fowl dung loofe or purge, when not
required, it may be counteracted, by giving him a little
hemp-feed, which fome fleep in brandy. A little wheat or
milict-feed may alfo be added to his food. Repeated trials
have taught us that about 2 oz. may be taken away, or
fuperadded to the weight of a fowl for one day, by the
above means without injury : about eight is as much as he
fhould ever gain or lofe in the whole.
He is next cut out for Sighting, that is, his wings rounded,
the hackle and fadGlJe feathers cut fhorter, the feathers about
the vent cut clofe off, and the curly feathers of the tail,
Jeaving only the vane or fan, which is fhortened about
one-half. ‘The {purs are now placed on his legs, and he is
fitted for the battle: in placing his {purs on, they fhould
not be tied too tight, leaft he be cramped, or too flack,
leaft they get loofe; for fhould they come off, or even
break, dusing the battle, they are not allowed to be re-
placed. The point of the {pur fhould be carefully obferved
to be neither to the outfide or infide of the hock or heel,
but exaéily behind, and in a line with it; the hunckle or
hock is taken as a guide for its dire@ion, following that of
the natural fpur.
There remains for us to make one remark more to render
thefe matters clear, which is, that, although eight days are
found to be a fufficient time to prepare a fowl for battle,
yet, in a main, ten days arecommonly taken for the purpofe,
purluing a fimilar treatment to the toregoing. The cocks
are weighed on the cighth, and the lighteft begin fighting
on the tenth day, fo that the larger cocks, which are to
fight in the latter part of the main, and have been confider-
ably reduced, are brought up again by a greater proportion
of food than the medium quantity we have defcribed, and
which ought alio to be adminiftered oftener in the day.
The fucceis of the main often depending upon the proper
management of the latter fowls, much mutt be left to the
fill and judgment of the feeder, who ought td be intimately
acquainted with the nature and conftitution of the fowl,
that he may be enabled to bring him to the battle in the
beit poflible health and condition, neither dillreffed by
medicine or abttmence, before he is weighed, nor rendered
inactive by overfecding afterwards, as, in either cafe, he has
“pot a fair chance for his life.
CK.
Such is the art of cocking; if, by unveiling its myfteries
and {tripping it of difguife, the purfuit becomes iefs alluring:
and feduétive to the votaries of the cock-pit, we may have
contributed to remove a temptation, the iridulgence off
which does not appear conducive to the improvement
of the morals of mankind. However, it fhould not be
concealed that, confidered as an art, for maintaining the ge-
nuine propenfities of a noble animal; it is entitled to the re-
{peét of naturalitts.
“ Cock-fighting,” fays Mr. Pegge, “is an heathenifh
mode of diverfion from the firlt; and at this day ought
certainly to be confined to thofe barbarous nations above-
mentioned ; the Chinefe, Perfians, Malayans, and the ftill’
more favage Americans, whofe irrational and fanguinary
practices ought, in no cafe, to be objeéts of imitation tor
more civilized Europeans.’”
Cock, in Afechanics. Figs. 3 and 4, Pl. X1V. Mechanics,
reprefent two of Handafyd and Rudder’s patent corked plug=
cocks, of which A is the end to be driven intothe cafk, and B’
the fpout, as in common; C. fg. 3, is the plug, which hasa tri=
angular, or other fhaped top, and is to be turned bya key, fig.1,
which has a fimilar bole in it. To the part D, a hollow
cylinder of brafs, jig. 2, is foldered ; it has a hole in its top,
correfponding with the key ; in order to keep the plug down:
in its place, a Small {piral fpring, E, is applied, the lower:
end of which aéts onacoilar in the plug, fig. 3, and the»
upper end againit che top of the brafs cylinder, fig. 25 at
the bottom of the cock at F, the plug does not pafs quite _
through the cock, but there is a holeat the bottom te pour’
in oil to the plug of the cock, which hole is then clofed by
a {crew.
Figs. 4.and 5, fhow the application of the {pring toa com=
mon cock, the plug of which is to be turned by a crutch or
handle; the plug, jig. 5, is fomewhat longer than the cock, * -
and afpring, E} of two turns, is applied, fo as to aét between:
the bottom of the cock and the head of fcrew F, ferewed
into the plug; another part of this patent applies to the:
putting of acollar of cork round in a groove, G, fig. 5, in”
the plug, as a farther fecurity againit leakage. Wy sh
In 1797, Mr. Jofeph Bramah took out a patent for various
improvements in cocks, one of which is fhown in figs. 6 and
7; the plug, fig. 6, is hollow, and hasa hole, A, m its fide;
the end, B, 1s iquare, to put on the handle D, by which it~
is turned; the cock unferews at E, jig. 7, for putting the
plug in and our, and the fquare end, B, of the plug comes
through a hole in the end of thecock. The end, F, is in-»
ferted into the cafk, and the water is brought to the infide
of the plug, fig. 6; it is plain, that when the plug is turn —
ed, fo that the hoe, A, correfponds with the hole through
the fpout G, fig. 7, the cock is open, and fhut when ©
they do not coincide, owing to the plug being turned part
round; the advantage of this cock is, that the preffure of
the water always tends to pufh the plug farther into it,
and by that means keeps it water-tight. . i
Fig. 8 isanother cock, poflefling the fame advantages, for
which Mr. Bramah took out a patent in 1783; A Bis ~
a cylindric brafs tube, the end, A, of which is {crewed into™
the veilel, and the other end has a ftuffing-box in it, for the ©
polifhed rod, D, to pafsthrough ; one end of this rod hasa ~
knob, E, to move it by, and the other has a, plug, F, on it, °
which fits into the conical end of the tube A B. The ope-
ration of opening the cock is pufhing the knob E, which
opens the valve or plug, F, and permits the water to run out at
the {pout G. The {tuffing-box confiits of a plate, a, witha ~
hole through it, laid upon a fhoulder near the end of the —
tube A B; and the end of the tube beyond that is fcrew- —
tapped, into which is {crewed a plug, 4, which Smee ¥
I Ole
qo.
hole through it for the rod, D, to pafs through, and the
part which projects beyond the tube is fquare, for the con-
venience of turning it by a winch ; between this plate, a,
andthe plug, 4, a {mall quantity of ‘hemp, tow, &c. is put
round the rod, and by ferewing the plug, 4, tight, it is made
to embrace the rod fo clofely, as to prevent any water get-
ting through.
fig. 9 is the common ball-cock; the plug, A, af this cock
is held in by a ferew or rivet, in the common manner; it
has a copper rod, B, fattened to it, tothe other end of which
a globular baii, D, of thin copper plate is foldcred, which, by
its buoyancy, gradually fhuts the cock as the water mfes in the
veflel, and prevents its running over; and «s the waterin the
veffel is drawn, and again finks, the hen opens to let im more
water.
Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15, exhibit the fliding or Muice
cock, common in breweries, diltilleries, &e. A A (jigs. 14
and 15), is a franve, whofe internal edges are niccly polifh-
ed; on each fide of this frame a calt-iron plate, B (jigs. 15
and 13), is fcrewed, which has a piece of pipe and a flaunch
to conneé it with the pipes which bring and carry away the
liquor; in the cavity form-d by the ‘frame, A, fig. 15,4
flider, D (figs. T5 and 12), §s introduced, one face of which
is well polished to make it fit clofe to one of the fide-plates
B, and it is farther preffed up by two fleel {prings, @, a,
ferewed tothe back of the flider D, and ating againit one
of the fide plates B; to the flider, D. a well polifhed rod,
-E, is attached, and pafles through a ftuffing box. F (figs. 15
and 11) papi to the one above defcribed ; to the other
end of the rod, E,a rack, G, (figs. 15 and 10) isfaltened, which
works into a pinion L, (fg. 10) in the frame H, (figs. 10 and
15) fupported by two upnghts, I, I, ferewed to the upper
flaunches of the fide plates, B (figs. 13 and 15). When
the fiider, D, is down, asin jig. 15, the hole through the
fide plate, B, is covered, and the liquor affits the fprings,
@; a, in prefling the flider clofe to the plate, and keeping it
tight ; but when the pinion, L, is turned by a winch, the
flider is drawn up, and opens a paflage for the liquor.
. Cock, in a watch or clock. See Bavance.
Cock of a dial, the pin, ttyle, orgnomon. See Gnomon.
_ Cocx boats, {mall boats ufed in rivers, or near the fhore,
which are of no fervice at fea, becaufe too tender, weak, and
fmall.
Cock, black, black grous or game.
trix.
Cock; bloody-heeled. See Heerer.
Cock, caffrated. See Caron, Cock fupra, and de:
TRY-
Cock, gor, Gor-cock, is the moor cock, or red grous, Tr-
TRAO /coticus
~ Cock. grubbing of a. See Grunsinc.
Cock, high bearing, is a term ufed with refpe@t’to fight-
ing cocks ; ‘denoting one larger than the cock he fights.
As a low-bearing cock is one overmatched for height.
Cock, hybrid, hybrid grous. See Tetrao hybrida,
Cocx, Indian, the origin of our common poultry
found wild in India. The Curaffow-bird, Crax aleGor, has
been cailed improperly the Indian cock, being an inhabitant
of South America.
Cocx of the rock, or rock manakin.
cola.
Cock of the wood, or mountain.
gallus.
Cocx-paddle, in Ichthyolog
Jump-fucker is known,
Cocx-throppled, a name given a dealers in horfes to one
See Tetrao te-
See Pipra rupi=
% 4
See Trvrao uro-
»a name by which the common
coc
whofe wind-pipe is fmall, and bends like a bow when he
bridles his head, See Horse and Hunrea.
Cock, wood, wood-cock. See Scororax ruflicola.
Cock water is a ftream of water brought in a trough,
through a long pole, in order to wafh out the fand of the
tin-ore into the launder, while it is bruifing in the coffer of
a itamping-mill.
Cocks, aboard a fhip, are little fquare pieces of brafs,
with hcles in them, and put into wooden fhivers to keep
them from fplitting and galling by the pins of the blocks in
which thev move.
COCKADE, in French, cocarde, in Military Language,
a ribbon worn in the hat. Asa military mark it fucceeded
the fearf, which was formerly worn by the officers and fol-
diers belonging to the different nations of Europe, the
principa! of which, ia refpeét of this mark, are dfitinguifhed
in the following manuer: Both in the Britifh army and
navy, the officers wear cockades of black filk ribbons, the
non-commiffioned officers, private foldiers, and marines,
black hair The French cockades are made of
light blue, pink, and white ribbons, mixed together, and
are called tricolor, or three-coloured. The Spanifh cockade
isred ; the Pruffian black; the Auftrian black ; the Ruffian
green, and fo forth. Under the old government of France,
officers were not permitted to wear a cockade, unlefs they
were dreffed in regimentals. There are certain old regi-
mentsin the Pruffian fervies, of which neither the officérs nor
men wear cockades. In this couatry the cockade, till of
late years, was worn by military men of all ranks and defcrip-
tions, both with regimentals and without them. But, for
reafons beft known to thofe who have the regulation of fuch
matters, amilitary man, when out of regimentals, is not at
orefent diftinguifhed or koown from any other perfon.
COCKA' Too, in Ornithology, a family of the p&ttacus, or
parrot tribe, Brachyuri, cauda equali of Gmelis in, or thole
having the tail fhort, and equal at the end. ‘There are nine
fpecies of the cockatoo kind; namely, the Crowned, Black,
Bankfian, Funereal, New South Wales, White, Red-vented,
Molucea, and Yellow-crefted. See Psirracus.
COCKATOON, a name given by fome writers to the
white cockatoo, Psirracus fulphurcus.
COCKBURN, Caruarine, in Biography, a lady of
confiderable literary attainments, was born in London in
1679. She was the daughter of captain Trotter, a native
of Scotland, and commander in the navy, in the reign of
Charles Il., who died while his daughter was very young,
leaving the family in narrow circum(lances. In her own
language, in writing, and in French, Mifs Trotter was prin-
cipally her own inftruétor; but fhe obtained fome aid in
acquiring the elements of the Latin tongue, and the firft prin-
ciples of logic; ofthe latter fhe drew up an abftra&t for her
own ufe. She gave very early evidences ef a poetic turn,
and when fheawas but a mere child, furprifed her friends with
fome extemporary verfes on an incident that happened ia
the ftreet. She was educated in the principles of Proteftant-
ifm, from which, however, fhe was eftranged, by her intis
macy with fome Roman catholic families. Contiderable
pains were taken to bring her back to the religion in which
fhe had been brought up, but without effet. When fhe
was only 17, fhe wrote a tragedy, entitled “* Agnes de
Cattro,”? which was well received by the public, and a&ted
with confiderable applaufe at the theatre royal. Two years
after (he compofed another tragedy, entitled ‘« Fatal Frend~
fhip,”? which was reprefented at the theatre in Lincolns
Inn Fields, and obtained for the author a confiderable fhare
of celebrity. This play is regarded as the moft per- |
fect of ber dramatic performances, About this period fhe
wrote
oues.
coc
wrote feveral other poetical pieces, fome of which were in-
tended for, and introduced on the Englifh ftage. Her ge-
nius, and the powers of her mind, were not confined to
poetry; fhe was devoted to metaphyfical fudies, and was a
great admirer of the “ Effay onthe Human Underttanding.”’
When the was but 22 years of age, fhe vindicated the princi-
ples of Locke, againft an attack made upon them by Dr.
Thomas Burnet. To this work fhe did not affix her name, as
wellfrom an apprehenfion that the public might be prejudiced
againft a metaphyfical treatife written by a woman, as from
a fort of dread of being known to Mr. Locke as his de-
fender. In an anonymous addrefs to that great man, fhe
ftyles her work ‘a bold and unlicenfed undertaking ;”” and
declares, that though fhe ventures to publifh her defence of
Mr. Locke, yet it was ‘‘ not without much apprehenfion
and awe of his difpleafure.’’ Her name was not long con-
cealed, and Mr. Locke wrote her a very kind letter of
thanks; and through his relation, Mr. King, afterwards
lord chancellor, he made her a prefent of fome books. She
was {till a Roman catholic, and is faid to have injured her
health, by the frequent abftinence and faftings enjoined by
that church. She was, however, no bigot, and exhibited the
utmoft liberality to thofe who held different religious tenets ;
and, upon a fullinvettigation of the quettion, fhe refurned to
the communion of the church of England, from which fhe
never afterwards departed. This change occurred in 1707,
and in the following year fhe married Mr, Cockburn, a
clergyman, who had taken orders ; but his {cruples concern-
ing the oath of abjuration, required at the acceflion of George
I., obliged him to refign his employment as a clergyman, and
to undertake the laborious office of affiftant to a {chool.
He now found much difficulty in maintaining his fa-
mily; but Mrs. Cockburn applied herfelf with great affidui-
ty to the important duties of wife and mother. In the year
1726, fhe again became the defender of Mr. Locke, whofe
opinion with regard to the refurreGtion of the fame body, had
been controverted by Dr. Holdfworth. About this period
Mr, Cockburn had overcome thofe feruples which drove him
from the church, and was invited to take the office of mini-
fter to an epifzopal congregation at Aberdeen. Mrs. Cock-
burn wrote “ Remarks upon fome Writers in the Contro-
verfy concerning the foundation of Moral Duty and Moral
Obligation,” which were publifhed in the ‘ Hiftory of the
Works of the Learned.” She next drew up a confutation
of Dr. Rutherford’s ‘* Effay on the Nature and Obligation
of Virtue,” in vindication of the contrary principles and
reafonings enforced in the writings of the late Dr. Clarke.
This was publifhed by Dr. Warburton, to whom fhe had
fent itin MS. and who wrote a preface on the occafion, in
which he fays, that it contains all the clearnefs of ex-
preffion, the ffrength of reafon, the precifion of logic, and
attachment to truth, which make books of this nature
really ufeful to the common caufe of virtue and religion.”
The merit of this performance, the vivacity, acutenefs, and
Strength which were difplayed in it, in the difcuffion of fome
of the moft intricate and abftrufe queitions, excited the curi-
ofity of the public refpe&ting the concealed author. Her
friends now fet on foot a fub{cription to publifh all her
works, in which fhe readily concurred, but the did not live
long enough to difcharge the office of editor ; this was after-
wards undertaken and executed by Dr. Birch. She died
on the 11th of May, 1749, inthe 71{t year of her age, hav-
ing furvived her hufband only about four months. In early
life Mrs. Cockburn was celebrated for beauty, as well as for
her genius, and other accomplifhments. Her figure was not
prepoficfing, but fhe was diftinguifhed by theunufual vivacity
of her eyes, and the delicacy of her complexion. She was
coc
flri€ly virtuous, benevolent, and generous, as far as her
ftraitened circumftances would admit. In the year 175,
her works were publifhed in two vols. Svo. by Dr. Birch,
who faysofthe author, that ‘* her abilities as a writer, and
the merit of her works, will not have full jultice done them,
without a due attention to the peculiar circumftances in
which they were produced ; her early youth, when fhe wrote
fome; her very advanced age, and ill itate of health, when
fhe drew up others; the uneafy fituation of her fortune
during the whole of life; and an interval of nearly 20 years
in the vigour of it, fpent in the care ofa family, without the
leaft leifure for reading or contemplation. After which, with
a mind fo long diverted and encumbered, refuming her
ftudies, fhe inftantly recovered its entire powers, and in the
hours of relaxation from her domeftic employments, purfued,
to their utmoft limits, fome of the deepelt inquiries of which
the human mind is capable.”? Birch. Biog. Brit.
Cocxsurn jifland:, in Geography, a group of fmalt
iflands that lie off the N.E. coaft ot New Holland, S.W.
of pare Grenville, which lies in S. Jat. 11° 58’, W. long.
27" 20' ¢
COCKBURNE, atownhhip of America, in the northern
part of New Hamphhire, and the county of Grafton, on the
E. bank of Conneicut river, S. of Colebrooke.
CocxsuRNE, WiLLIAM, in Biography, an ingenious and
learned phyfician, flourifhed the latter part of the 17th and
beginning of the laft centuries. He was for fome years
phyfician to the royal navy, where he acquired a knowledge
of thefcurvy, and other difeafes incident to failors. uit-
ting the navy, he came to London, where he foon diitinguifh-
ed himfelf by his fuperior flill and abilities, and was thence
affociated with the college of phyficians, made a fellow of
the royal fociety, and phyfician to king William. His
works are a “ Treatife on Sea Difeafes, explaining their
Nature, Caufes, and Cure, to which is added an Effay
on Bleeding in Fevers.’ This book has been frequently
re-printed, and was early tranflated into the German and
French languages. The principal caufe of feurvy is the
diet, to which failors are neceflarily confined in long voyages.
Medicine can do little in the cure, which can gnly be effeG-
ed bya dict of frefh provifion, and taking the fick on fhore.
Fevers are to be cured by emetics and purges, and not by
f{udorifics, which, by walting the fluids, occafion coftivenefs,
to which failors are much inclined, from feeding on bifcuit.
He defends the ufe of the Peruvian bark, which many at
that time denied. ‘* Profluvia Ventri,” 1702, 8vo., a ter=
wards tranflated and publifhed in 1721, under the title of
“ A Cure of Loofeneffes.”
Caufes, and Cure of Gonorrhcea,’” London, 1713, Syo.
That it may exift, he contends, without any taint of the
venereal difeafe. The cure is to be effeéted by giving firft
‘ purges, and afterwards terebinthinate medicines. ‘* Gico-
nomia Corporis Humani,” London, 1695, Svo. Neither’
the pulle nor urine, he fays, afford any certain indices of the.
ftate of fever: neither is perfpiration burfting out fpontane-
oufly, often critical; itis (ill lefs fo when excited by warm
medicines and drink. This work was much noticed in i
time; but more accurate treatifes on’ the fubjeét have occa-—
SN it to fall into negle&t. Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Di&.
its 7
COCK-CHAFFER, in Entomology, the Jearabeus melo-
lontha of Linnzus, and meloloniha vulgaris of Fabricius, The
colour is teftaceous brown, with the thorax hairy; tail in-
fle&ted, and a triangular white {pot at each incifure of the
abdomen. é we!
Inhabits the northern pats of Europe, and is highly 1
jurious to agriculture. ‘I'he larva is foft and grey, wi_
3 thénz;
“ The Symptoms, Nature,
coc
the head and legs prote&ted by a fhelly covering of a yellow
brown colour. While in the larva ftate, which continues
for the fpace of three years, it devours the roots of grafs,
corn, and other vegetables. This mifchievous creature fub-
fifts alfo on the leaves and tender buds of trees, and is from
that circumftance denominated the ¢ree-beetle. They are
eagerly fought after, and devoured by crows, rooks, and
other birds, as well as animals: it is the larva of this infect
that is fo frequently turned up in ploughing, and in quelt
of which the crows are often feen following the track of the
plough-thares.
COCKER, a river of England, which runs into the Der-
went at Cockermouth.
COCKERINGS. an exaction or tribute in Ireland, now
reduced to chief rents.
COCKERMOUTH, in Geography, a borough town of
Cumberland in England, derives 1ts name from its fituation
at the mouth of the river Cocker, which feparates it into
two parts, and then falls into the Derwent, near the weftern
extremity of the town. The ftreets are {pacious, but irre-
gularly built ; yet many of the houfes are neat, efpecially
thofe on the acclivity towards the caftle. ‘The moot-hall,
market-houfe, and fhambles, have an ancient gloomy appear-
ance, and, like moft public buildings in the northern towns,
prove a confiderable ob{tru€tion to paflengers, from being
fituated in the midft of a principal ftreet. The church,
which is fpacious, but has no aifles, was rebuilt of free-ftone
in the year 1714, with the exception of the ancient tower.
Several fchools have been founded by fubf{criptions and be-
quefts: and a difpenfary for the relief of the indigent poor
was eltablifhed in 1793, to the benefit of which feveral
thoufand perfons have been admitted. ‘The ruins of the
eaftle occupy the fummit of an artificial mount, raifed on a
precipice above the Derwent, near its confluence with the
Cocker. It appears to have been a fortrefs of great ftrength
and extent, of a fquare form, and guarded by fquare towers :
the compafs of the wall meafuring almoft fix hundred yards.
It was anciently the baronial manfion of thelords of Allerdale;
and is generaily affirmed to have been built within a few
years after the conqueft, by Waldeof, the firft of thofe
lords. Cockermouth was anciently a hamlet to Brigham,
but was conftituted a diftin& parifh in the reign of Ed-
ward III. It has only enjoyed the privilege of reprefent-
ation in parliament fince the year 1640, except one return
made 23 Edward I. The right of eleétion is in the in-
habitants having burgage tenure, whofe number is 165.
‘The parts of the town, on each fide of the Cocker, are con-
nected by a bridge of one arch: onthe north fide is an
artificial eminence, calied ‘Toot-hill, refembling the large
barrows found in many parts of England. The hills on the
oppolite fide of the Derwent, in this neighbourhood, are of
a kind of caicareous ftone, almoft wholly compofed of fhells
of the anomia genus. Cockermouth is 305 miles N. from
London; has a weekly market on Mondays: the popula-
tion under the late return wag nearly 3000, the number of
houfes 433. The chief manufaCtures are hats, common
woollen cloths, fhalloons, checks, and coarfe linens. Hut-
chinfon’s Hilt. of Cumberland.
CockrerMouTH, a town of America, in Grafton county,
New Hampfhire, about 15 miles N.E. of Dartmouth col-
lege. It was incorporated in 1766, and in 1775 contained
118 inhabitants, and in 1790, 373.
COCKET, or Cocausrt, a feal belonging to the king’s
cuftom-houfe.
_ Cocker, or Cocguet, is a f{croll of parchment, fealed
and delivered by the officers of the cuftom-houfe to the
merchants, upon entering their goods ; certifying that the
Vou, VIII,
>,
' a hole being left to peep through.
coc
goods were cuftomed. It likewife gives name to an office
appointed for this purpofe.
The fame word is alfo ufed in the ftatute of bread and
ale, 15 Hen. IIL, in which is mentioned cocket-bread, among
feveral other kinds; it feems to have been hard fea-bifcuit,
which, perhaps, had then fome cocket, mark, or feal; or
elfe was fo called from its being defigned for the ufe of the
cockfwains or feamen.
-COCKING Cloth, a device for the catching of pheafants.
It confifts of a piece of coarfe canvas, about an ell fquare,
dipped in a tan-pit to colour it; and kept ftretched by
two flicks, placed fiom corner to corner, diagonal-wife ;
The {portfman then,
being provided with a fhort gun, carries the cloth before
him at arm’s-end ; under cover of which, he may appnoach
his game as near as he pleafes: when near enough, he puts
the nofle of his gun through the hole, and thoots.
COCKLE, in Botany. See Acrostemma githago, and
Louium femulentum. See allo Darnet-grafs.
Cock te, in Conchology. See Carpium. Many foffil fhells,
known under this name, are found lodged in the Britifh
{trata ; c.g. within the foil of Norfolk, in the lime-{tone frata
of Derbythire, in the free-ftone quarries upon King’s down,
near Bath, &c.
Cockxe-flairs. See Srairs.
Cocke-fhell Bay, in Geography, a bay on the eaft coalt of
the iflandot St. Chniftopher. N.lat.17° 22’. W. long. 62°22’.
COCK-KNEE Stone. See Ecuinus.
COCKPIT, a fort of theatre, whereon game-cocks fight
their battles. The cockpit is ufually a houfe or hovel,
covered over: they fight on the clod, or green fod; which
is generally marked out round, and encompaffed with feats,
one above another. See Cock of the Game.
CocxriT, in a man of war, is a place on the lower floor,
or deck, abaft the main-capftan, lying between the platform
and the fteward’s room ; where are fubdivifions or partitions,
for the purfer, the furzeon, and his mates.
Cocx-rouch, in Entomology. See Buarta orientalis.
COCKROAD, a contrivance for the taking of wood-
cocks. ‘This bird lies clofe by day, under fome hedge, or
near the root of an old tree, to peck for worms under dry
leaves, and will fcarce ftir out, unlefs difturbed; as not
feeing his way fo well in the morning ; towards the even-
ing he takes wing to feek for water, flying generally low ;
and when he finds any thoroughfare in a wood, he ventures
. through it.
To take them, therefore, they plant nets in fuch places;
or, for want of fuch places ready to their hands, they cut
roads through woods, thickets, groves, &c.
Thefe roads they ufually make thirty-five, or forty feet
broad, perfectly ftraight and clear; and to two oppofite trees
they tic the net, which has a {tone faftened to each corner.
Then, having a ftand, ora place to lie concealed in, at a
proper diftance, with a ftake near the fame, to faften the
lines of the net to; when they perceive the game flying up
the road, they unwind the lines from off the ftake ; upon
which, the ftones drawing it down, the birds are entangled
in the fame.
COCK?S-comb, in Botany. See Cerosta criflata, C.
margaraticea, C. coccinea, and Ruinantuus criffa galli.
Cocx’s-foot grafs. See Dactyuis.
Cock’s-Aead. See Hevysarum onobrychis.
COCKSON, Tuomas, in Biography, an engraver, in all
probability an Englifhman, by whom we have a great many
portraits, executed with the graver in a neat, but rather a
{tiff manner. Amongift other prints by him are the follow-
ing: King James I. fitting in parliament, a large print;
king Charles 1. fitting in parliamest, likewife a large print ;
4k the
coc
the princefs Elizabeth, daughter of James 1.; Samuel
Daniel, dated 1609; Concini, Marquis d'Ancre, 1617,
&c. Strate Heinecken.
COCKSWAIN, Cocxson. or Coxen, an officer on
board a man of war, who hath the care of the boat or floop,
and all things belonging to it. He is always to be ready
with his boat’s gang or crew, and to man the boat on all oc-
cafions. He fits in the ftern of the boat and fteers; and
hath a whittle to call and encourage his mer.
COCLES, Pustrus Horarius, in Biography, a cele-
brated Roman, defce:ded from one of the Horatii who
fought againft the Curiatii In the year of the city
247, he oppofed the whole army of Porfenna, king of the
Etrufcans, at the head of a wooden bridge acrofs the Tiber,
which joined the Janiculum to the city. When the bridge
was deltroyed, Cocles, though wounded by the darts of the
enemy, leaped into the Tiber, and f{wam with all his armour
on his back. A brazen ftatue was raifed to him in the
temple of Vulcan, by the conful Publicola, for his great
fervices. He had the ufe of only one eye, as the name
Cocles fignifies. Livy. Val. Max. Virgil.
Cocoa Jflands, Great and Little, in Geography, a group of
iflands, fo called from their being clothed with cocoa-nut
trees of unufualluxuriance, and fituated in the Indian ocean,
to the north of the Andaman iflands, about N. lat. 14° 20’.
E. long. 93°. Thele iflands are {mall, flat, and fwampy ;
they are uninhabited, and deftitute of good water. In
flecring between the Southern Cocoa, and the north end of
the ifland of Andaman, Port Cornwallis opens on the eaft
fide of the latter. }
Cocoa-nut Ifland, or Cocos, a {mall ifland at the
entrance of Carteret’s harbour, on the S. E. coalt of New
Ireland. Between this ifland and Leigh’s or Laig ifland,
there is fhoal water, and each of them forms an entrance into
the harbour; the S. £. or weather entrance is formed by
Leigh’s ifland, in which is a rock appearing above water,
called by Capt. Carteret ‘‘ Booby rock :” the paflage is
between the rock and the ifland, nor is the reck dangerous,
there being deep water clofe to it. The N.W. or lee
entrance, is formed by Cocoa-nut ifland, and this is the beft,
becaufe it has good anchorage, the water in the other being
too deep. Capt. Carteret entered the harbour by the S. E.
paflage, and went out of itby the N. W. Atthe S. E. end
of the harbour there isa large cove, which is fecure from all
winds, and ftto haul a fhip into. Into this cove a river feem-
edto empty itfelf. In the N. W. part of the harbour, there is
another cove, fit fora fhip to haul into, fupplying good
water, and very convenient both for wooding and watering.
The higheft part of the ifland of Cocos 1s not above 75
toifes above the level of the fea, and is formed of calcareous
ftones. This ifland is terminated on the S. E. and N. W.
by the fame kind of ftones. It is covered by large trees,
which always preferve their verdure. The ifland produces
fig-trees and vines of different {pecies in great abundance ;
but cocoa-nuts are fearce. Cocos and Laig abound with in-
feéts of various forms and colours.
Cocoa-nut, in Botany. See Cocos.
Cocoa-plum. See CuRYSOBALANUS.
Cocoa-point, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of tke
ifland of Tinian. ‘
COCOL, in Ornithology, a beautiful bird of the ardea
or heron tribe, the blue heron of Albin and other Englith
writers. This f{pecies inhabits Brafil and Cayenne; its
length is about three feet, and it is {pecifieally dilkinguifhed
by having. the hind head, pendent creit, and back cinereous ;
neck beneath {potted with black, and the fides of the head
black. This is the /oce of Buffon, and ardea cayanenjis
criflata of Briffon,
coc
COCOMARICOPAS, in Geography, a kind of favazes
in Spanifh North America, who live near the banks of the
river Colorado, and who are dextrous in {wimming acrofs,
holding in the left hand a piece of wood, which fupports
their arms and burthen, and fteering with the right ; while
the women, fupported by a kind of petticoat of bafket work,
upon which they place their children, pafs in like maener.
COCONATO, a town of Italy, in the* principality of
Piedmont ; 4 miles S. of Crefeentio.
COCONOR. See Koxownor.
COCOON. See Sik.
COCORTO. a town of Afia, in the country of Thibet ;
50 miles §.S. W. of Tchontori. ,
COCOS, in Betany, (according to Cafpar Bauhin, the
fruit 1s called by the Portuguefe coco, or coguen, from the
three holes at the end of the fhell, which give it the ap-
pearance of amonkey’s head.) Linn. Gen. 1223. Schreb.
1692. Julf, 38. Went. ja. 128.’ (Coceos;) (Garters
Cocotier; Eneye.) Clafs and order, monacia hexandria.
Nat. Ord. Palme; Linn. Juff. Vent. Male and female
flowers on the fame fpadix. Ca/. Spathe univerfal,
one-vaived, fpadix branched. Males. Perianth three-
leaved ; leaves almott trigonous, {mall, acute, concave,
coloured. (fix-leaved; Gert.) Cor. Petals three, egg-
fhaped, acute, {preading (none; Gzart.) Stam. Filaments
fix, the length of the corolla; arrow-fhaped. Pif. Germ
{carcely vifible, abortive ; ftyles three, fhort; {tigma obfolete.
Females. Perianth three-lwaved ; leaves roundifh, concave,
converging, coloured, permanent. Cor. Petals three, re-
fembling the leaves of the calyx, permanent. Piff. Germ
fuperior, roundifh or egg-fhaped, (three-celled; Gert.); ityle
none; ftigmas three. Peric. Drupe very large, coriaceous,
roundifh, ob{curely triangular ; nut large, fomewhat egg-
fhaped, acuminate, one-celled, valvelefs, hard, obtufely
triangular, perforated by three holes; kernel hollow,
EW, Ch, Afales. Calyx three-leaved; corolla three-
petalled, ftamens fix. Females. Cal. and Cor, as in the
males; {tigmas three, drupe coriaceous.
Sp. 1. C. nucifera. Cocoa-nut tree. Linn, Sp. Pl.
Mart. 1. Lam 1. Jacq. Amer. 277. tab. 168. Pid.
135. Gert. tab. 4, 5. Lam. Ill. tab. 894. (Palma
indica coccifera angulofa; Bauh. Pin. 508. Nux indica ;
Lob. ic. 2. p. 273. Tenga; Rheed. Mal. 1. tab. 1, 2, 354.
Calappa; Rumph. Amb. tab. 1, 2.) ‘* Unarmed; fronds
pinnated; leaflets folded back, enfiform.?? Trunk from
forty to fixty feet high, of a moderate thicknefs in propor-
tion toits height, fraight, naked, marked with the fears of
fallen leaves. Leaves from ten to twelve, cluftered, forming
a terminal head; upper ones ereét, middle ones horizontal,
lower ones rather drooping, from ten to fifteen feet long,
about three feet broad, pinnated; common petiole naked
near its bafe ; leaflets numerous, petioles in two ranks, which
are a little inclined to each other. Spathes oblong, acute,
opening on one fide. F/owers yellowifh white, feffile, in
a branched panicle; female ones near the bafe of the
branches; male ones more numerous, covering the upper
part. J ruit nearly as large as a man’s head, cluitered, eg
fhaped, obfturely three-fided, with rounded angles, umbui-
cated at both ends, with three obtufe projeions ; external
rind thin, even-furfaced, very tough ; inner one’ extremely
fibrous; fhell of the nut nearly globular, bard, with three
raifed {purious futures, and three holes at the bafe clofed
with ablack membrane ; kernel white, in firmnets and tattle
refembling that of the hazel-nut, hollow, containing a mpky
fluid. This kernel in fome plants is near an inch thick,
enclofing about a pint of fweet, delicate, wholefome. re-
frefhing liquor. A native of Africa, of the Ealt and Weit ~
Indies, and of South America, in a fandy foil ; ne
rut
coc
“fruit twice or three times a year. Travellers, from the time of
Dampier to the prefent day, are profule in their praifes of
this tree, and of the various ufeful purpofes to which it is
applied by the inhabitants of the warm climates, in which it is
indigenous. Its trunk is made into boats, rafters, the
frames of houfes, and gutters to convey water. The leaves
are ufed for thatching buildings, and are wrought into mats,
bafkets, and many other things for which ofiers areemploy-
ed in Europe. They are alfo written upon by the Eatt
Indians as a fubftirute for our paper and parchment. The
fibrous coat or hufk of the fhell, after being foaked in water, is
beaten into oakum, fpun into a variety of yarns, woven into
fail-cloth. and twiited into ropes and cables even for the largeft
flips. For thefe purpofes it is preferable to hemp on account
of its greater durability. (fee Corr). The woody fhell itfeif,
or nut which enclofes the kernel, is polifhed and formed into
goblets, powder. boxes, and various kinds cf cups. In Siam
it is generally employed as a liquid meafure, and its capacity
is determined by filling it with cowries (cyprza moneta:
Linn.) {mall univalve fhells current in that country inftead
of coined money. Thus there are cocoas of 1000 cowries,
of 500, &e The kernels, preffed in a mill, yield an oil,
which is faid to be the only one ufed in the Indies at the
table. When recent it is-equal in goodnefs to the oil of
fweet almonds; but it foon becomes rancid, and is then
employed only by painters. If the end of the young
f{pathes be cut off, or the body of the tree be bored, there
exudes from the wound a white, {weet liquor, which is
collected by the natives in pots, properly tried for the pur-
pefe; but by this operation the tree is inevitably rendered
barren: the juices neccflary for the ripening of the fruit
being entirely exhaufted. The liquor, thus procured, is
called palm wine, and is a favourite beverage in the country.
It is very {weet when frefh ; kept a few hours, it becomes
more poignant and agreeable; but the next day it begins
to grow four, and in the {pace of twenty-four hours is com-
pleat vinegar. By diftillation it produces a tolerably good
brandy, or as it is there called arack, more efteemed than that
obtained from rice. Boiled with quick-lime, it thickens into
the confiltence of honey ; and atter long evaporation, ac-
quires the folidity, and in fome degree the thicknefs of
fugar. «As fuch it is ufed by the confeétioners, but is much
inferior to the produce of the fugar-cane. The tender
leaves, before they fully expand, are fometimes eaten in place
of cabbage and other culinary greens; but as this luxury
ean be obtained only by the deitruction of fo valuable a tree,
it is generally thought too expenfive a treat, except in thofe
parts of the country where the plantations are numerous.
2. C. butyracea, Linn. jun. Supp. 454. Mart. 2. Lam. 2.
(Pindova; Pif. Braf. 125- Pindoba; Rai. Hift. 1361 )
“ Unarmed ; fronds pinnated ; leaflets fimple.”? A loftier
tree than the preceding fpecies, with a larger head.
Univerfal fpathe from four to fix feet long, cylindrical-
oblong. leffened at both ends, woody ; even-furfaced within ;
rendered uneven on the cutfide by numerous, longitudinal
parallel pyojections, a little remote from each other about
the middie of the fpathe, but approaching, and almott
united near the fummit ; {plitting longitudinally, and falling
eff after the expanfion of the fpadix. Spadix the length of
the fpathe, branched ; branchiets a foot long, quite fimple,
much crowded, one or two in each palm, containing only
male flowers; fix or eight others, both male and female.
In thofe which have only males, each of the flowersis fup-
ported by a fmall, fomewhat egy-fhaped, rigid braGte ;
leaves of the proper periauth three, refembling feales, very
{mail, oblong, flattith, a little united at the bafe, rather erect ;
petals three, linear, roundifh, leffened at both ends, fix or
eight lines long, bent different ways above the middle, very
GiO..c
white, fucculent, flightly conneéted at the bafe, alternating
with the calyx-fceales, even furfaced; filaments fix, filiform,
three times fhorter than the petals, inferted into the recep-
tacle, fomewhat united ; anthers linear, the length of the
filament, verfatile, bifid at the bafe, two-celled ; pollen re-
fembling fawdult, white, very fmall.. Thefe flowers: fall off
at the irruption of the fpadix, or on the Jeaft touch, making
a great heap under the tree. Male flowers of the androgy-
nous f{padixes fimilar to the former, but continuing longer ;
thofe intermingled with the females, thinly feattered, but
in the upper part, where there are no females, much crowd-
ed; petals thioner; filaments fhorter; anthers with two
horns. Female flowers crowded in an imbricate manner ;
braces triple, rather loofe, quite flat ; leaves of the calyx
three, hard, cartilaginous, large, egg-fhaped, concave, broad
and femewhat rounded at the bafe, nearly covering the
other parts of the flower; petals three, white, fcfhy, refem~
bling the leaves of the calyx, but fhorter and thinner;
neCtary corolla-fhaped, tubular, very white and very t! in,
three times fhorter than the petals, furrounding the greatelt
part ofthe germ; germ egg-fhaped, rather acuminate, quite
imooth, the length of the corolla; ftyle fcarcely zeny;
ftigmas three, rather long, even furfaced on the outer fide,
roughifh on the inner one, fomewhat erc&t. Drupe inverfely
egg-fhaped, ob{curely trigonous, one-celled, fucculent, fur-
rounded by the permanent calyx and corolla; rind cartila-
ginous ; pulp fibrous; nut dry, very hard, flightly itriated,
with fmall lengitudinal lines, convex on one lide, flattifh on
the other, oblong, a little acute at both ends, perforated at
tthe bafe with three oblique holes ; kernel cartilaginous, very
hard, with the flavour of that of C. nucifera. A native of
South America, where the inhabitants obtain from the
imperfectly ground nuts, without preflure, or the application
of fire, and by fimple maceration in water. a kind of butter
which fwims at the top, the heavier parts finking to the
bottom. All the butteraceous matter is extraéted by the
third maceration. It does not, however, acquire the con-
filtence of butter in a temperature, above the twenticth de-
gree of Reaumur; at the twenty-third it is perfectly quid
like other oils. The fucculent pulp is rather fweet, very
mucilaginous, and excellent for fattening hogs. ‘The oil or
butter procured from the kernel, 1s in conitant ufe among the
Indians of South America as an article of food, and asa
medicine, while it continues frefh, but is rancid and noxious
when old: 3. C. guinéenfis, prickly pole. Linn. Syt. Nat. 2.
Mant. p. 137. Mart. 3. Lam. 3. ( Baétris minima ; Gert.
tab. 139. fig. 5. B. minor fructibus fubrotundis; Jacq.
Amer. tab. 171. fig.s1. Palma fpinofa minor; Sloane.
Jam. Hitt. 2. p. 121. P. americana fpinofa; Baub. Pin,
507. Pluk. Alm. tab. 103 fig. 1. L. Avoira cannes
Aubl. Guian. obf. 97. Autara; Marg. Braf. 64. bad.)
“Whole plant prickly ; fronds diftant; root creeping.’
Root knotty, cylindrical. thicker than the trunk, fhort, bent
horizontally dire&tly below the furfece, prefently putting ©
out another trunk fo as to form a thicket, whi'lt it fixes
itfelf firmly in the foil by flender fibrous roots. Stem about
ten feet high in open fituations, fomewhat higher in woods,
about an inch in diameter, ereét, armed in its whole iength
with numerous {pines as fharp as needles. Leaves pinnated,
diftant, common petiole embracing the flem, — prickly ;
leaflets enfiform, flat, icaminate, fhining, with numerous
fearcely perceptible {pines at their edges, and a few {cattered
Jager ones on both furfaces. Spathes axillary, folitary,
{fpreading, permanent after the maturity of the fruic.
Flowers pale yellow, {centlefs, calyx many times fmaller
than the corolla, fometimcs three-leaved ; corolla triquetrous,
frequently three-cleft almolt to the bafe. Drupes roundith,
dark purple, about the lize of a common cherry; yielding
AiR an
coc
an acidulous juice, of which the Americans make a kind
of wine; eatable, but not pleafant, and affording food
chiefly to the wild hogs. Jacq. and Browne. Drupe
roundifh, fomewhat depreffed, fucculent, acidulous; rind
coriaceous; nut fomewhat globular, hard as ftone, very
thick, roughened on’ all fides by obfolete tubercles,
ftamped about the middle with three hdles, ftriated
in rays at their mouths; two fmaller ones not pafling
through the fhell; the other pervious, leading to the central
cell. Seed conoid, horizontally decumbent, tubercled,
brown, with avery prominent papilla at the bafé of the cone ;
albumen flefhy, friable; with a large cavity in the centre;
embryo awl-fhaped, horizontal, fitnated within the papilla.
A native of the Welt Indies and of South America. The
trivial name given by Linneus in the firft mantiffa, and con-
tinued by all fubfequent authors, was probably a mifprint for
guianenfis; canes are made of the trunk, ftripped of its
bark ; they are very light, knotty, black, and fhining. The
French call them cannes de Tobago, under which name they
are fometimes imported into Europe. In allufion to their
ufe as walking canes, Jacquin named this palm, Badéris
ano tov Boxreov. 4. C. aculeata. Great macaw-tree. Mart.
4. Swartz, Prodr. 151. Brown. Jam. 344. n. 7. Sloan. Jam.
2. tig. tab. 214. Jacq. Amer. 278. tab. 169? (Battris
globofa minor ; Gert. 1. 22. fig. 9.) ‘* Aculeate-{pinous ;
trunk fpindle-fhaped ; fronds pinnated ; ftipes and {pathes
{pinous.”? Jrunk the thicknefs of the human body, thirty
feet high, thick fet with fharp black prickles of different
lengths, and placed ufually in rings. Leaflets very long and
prickly. Fruit the fize and fhape of a crab; rind green;
pulp thin, fweetith, aftringent ; kernel white, {weet, eatable.
Sloane. Drupe globular, a little flattened, about an inch in
diameter, terminated by three acute feffile {tigmas, protected
at the bafe by the permanent calyx and corolia ; leaves of the
calyx {mall ; rind thick, coriaceous; flefh thick, fucculent,
at length fungous-coriaceous, adhering to the fhell of the
nut; nut globular, fomewhat lenticular, hard as ftone, thick,
of a ferruginous bay colour, one-celled ; ftamped at the fides
with three holes, two of them clofed at the bottom, the third
pervious. Receptacle none. Seed fingle, fomewhat globular,
lying horizontally oppofite to the pervious hole of the fhell,
flattith, or flizhtly depreffed near the hole, reticulated on all
fides with arched ftriz, of a brown bay colour. d/bumen
ficthy, oleaginous, white, fomewhat friable, hollow within.
Enibryo horizontal, oblong, milky white, elongated from a
roundifh bafe into a thick oblong lamina. Gert. A native
of the Caribbee iflands. Obf. Gertner feparates the lalt
two {pecies from cocos, on account of the horizontal pofition
of the embryo. Whether fuch a difference in the internal
ftru&ure of the feed be a fufficient generic chara&ter, we may
doubt, bet will not determine.
Cocos nypa; Lourciro) See Nipa.
Propagation and Culture. he cocoa-nut tree is fometimes
raifed in our ttuves ; but it is many years in advancing to any
confiderable heizht ; the young leaves, however, being pretty
large, they make a good appearance among other tender
exotics in two or three years. ‘The nuts 'muit be imported
when they are fully rive, in a tub filled with dry fand, and
carefully fecured from vermin ; they will frequently {prout in
their paffage, which is an advantage, becaufe they may be
immediately planted in pots of earth, and plunged into the
hot-bed. As their roots {hoot deeply and widely, they will
not bear tranfplanting, unlefs when very young, and even
then great caution is requifite to prevent their being in-
jured.
Cocos, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean ;
uninhabited, but aflurding anchorage, the beft at the north.
ealt extremity, excellent water, wood, fith, birds, and co-
coc
coa-nut trees, whence its name. The anchoring place is
by Vancouver’s obfervations in N. lat. 5° 35’. E. long.
86° 55’.
Cocos, a group of {mall iflands in the Indian fea, fi-
tuated about the diltance of 165 leagues to the S.W. of
Flat point, the moft fouthern of the ifland of Sumatra.
The northernmoft is a fingle low ifland, in S. lat. 119 50'.*
E. long. 97° S'. and lies due N. from the moft weftern of
the clufter of iflands, at the diftance of 14 miles. Between
them is a fair paflage. The fouthernmoft are a circular
range of low iflands, whofe latitude is from 12% 4’ to 12°
23'S. Their eaftern extreme g7° 19’ E. long. ; and their
weftern extreme under the meridian of the molt northern
iflands.
Cocos, Cape, a cape on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Madagafcar. S. lat. 14°20’. E. long. 55° 58’.
Cocos, in Natural Hiflory, a pyritic fofil, found in the
cliff of the ifland of Shepey, annexed by fir Jofeph
Banks to the collection in the Britifh Mufeum.
COCOSA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gaul, on
one of the routes from Aque Tarbellice to Burdigala.
COCOSATES, a people of Gaul, in Aquitaine.
COCOSSII, a people of Africa, im Mauritania Tingi-
tana. Ptolemy.
COCO'TZIN, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon
and others to the Indian turtle or ground dove, columba paffe-
rina. See CoLumBa.
COCOXIHUITL, in Botany, Her. Mex. See Boc-
CONIA.
COCROTALEON. in Natural Hiftory. Under this
name the ancients defcribe a ferocious hybrid brute, gene-
rated, as they pretended, between the hyena and the lion-
efs. This animal, according to their account, poffeffed
many qualities-of the mantichora; and as fome believe was
only another name for the fame beaft; it was alfo
called leucrocotta, and Jeucrocatta, or fimply crocotta, and
cocrotta. We regard the whole hiltory of this creature as
fabulous; the produétion of a hybrid brute engendered
between the two animals before-mentioned, is within the
limits of poflibility, but their defcription is inadmiffible;
they tell us the body refembled that of the lionefs, that the
tail was annulated, and the vifage human.
COCTIER, James, or Corrizer, as Chaumel calls him,
in Biography, in his ** Effay on the State of Medicine in
France,”’ was phyfician to Lewis XI. and obtained fuch in-
fluence over the mind of that voluptuous and cryel prince, as
to be feared, the hiltorians of the times fay, by him, who
was the dread of the reft of the world. Having cured the
king of a complaint which had bafiled the endeavours of
the phyficians and furgeons who had been ufed to attend
him, he had the art to get them difmiffed, and to have
their places filled by his own creatures, who, finding their
patient enfeebled by difeafe, and dreadfully afraid of dying,
were unceafing in their commendations of their patron,
whom they extolled as the only phyfician capable of pro- —
longing his life. Codcier, on his part, took care to
profit by this weaknefs, extorting from him immenfe
fums, as the reward for his furvices. On the death of —
Lewis, in 1483, a commiffion was inftituted to ese
what means Cc@ier had acquired his prodigious poff
fions; when it appeared he had received from the king
98,000 crowns within the laft eight months. Coétier, find-
ing he was in danger of lofing the whole of his ill-gotten.
wealth, had the addrefs to prevail on the king, Charles VITI.
to accept 50,000 crowns, and to put an end ‘to the inquiry.
Philip de Comines. Eloy. Di@. Hitt.
COCTION, a general name for all alterations made in
bodies, by the application of fire or heat. See Bortine.
COCUJUS;
copD
COCUJUS, in Lxtomology, the mame under which
Mouffet deferibes the infe&t vulgarly known by the name of
Jamaica .fire-fly ; it is of the clater genus, and hasa large
~ oval lucid, or fhining yellow fpot on each fide of the *ho-
rax. Brown, in his ‘¢ Hittory of Jamaica,’’ calls it eluter
major fufcus phofphoricus ; and tells us, that the lucid fpots
on the thorax are pholphorefcent, in which particular, his
affertion is corroborated by the teftimony of other writers.
This infe& is the elater noéfilucus of Linneus.
COCUMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Lotand Garonne ; two leagues S.W.
of Marmande.
COCUSUS, or Cucusus, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Cataonia, upon the Carmalus, near the frontiers
of Cilicia, N. E. of Irenopolis.
»COCYLIUM, a town of Myfia.
COCYTA, a river of Epirus, which ran near the town
of Cichyra, according to Paufanias.—Alfo a river of Italy,
in Campania, near the Lucrine lake, according to Siliys
Italicus, and Petronius.
Cocyra, in Entomology, the papilio cocyta of Cramer, is
the fpecies defcribed by Fabricius, under the name of pa-
ilio morpheus, which fee.
COCYTUS, in Afjthelogy, one of the rivers of Hell; fo
named from a Greek word xwawsiy, to lament; Vhus, Milton
(Par. Lott, B. ii.)
* Cocytus, named from lamentation loud
Heard on the rucful ftream.””
Cocytus and Phlegethon were branches of the river Styx,
which flowed in contrary directions, and afterwards reunit-
ing, augmented the Jarge channel of the Acheron. Ac-
cording to Horace, Cocytus flowed with a dull and languid
ftream. Hence was derived “* Cocyta virgo,’”? the appel-
lation of Ale&to, one of the Furies.
COD, in Jchthyology, a genus of filhes, comprehending
about twenty different {pecies. See Ganus.
Cop, Cape, in Geography. a cape of North America, the
fouth-eaftern point of Maffachufetts’ bay, in the ftate of
Maffachufetts’. N. lat. 42° 4’. W.long 70° ro’.. It pro-
bably derives its name from the multitude of cod-fith, found
on its coalt. Its form refembles a man’s bended arm, with
the hand turned inwards towards the body. The cape
comprehends the county of Barnftaple, though the name
“Cape Cod,” ftriftly fpeaking, ought to be confined. See
Barnstapie, and Province-rown. What is called
fs Race-point,”’ known to all feamen, is the north-welterly
extremity of the cape, and lies N.W. fram Province-town,
diftant three miles. See Race-point. The foil of Cape
Cod is, in general, more thin and barren than any other
part of New England, bet the fea-air impregnates all vege-
tables with a quality which renders them much more netri-
tious to cattle than the fame quantity far inland. The
falt-hay, which is almoft their only forage, affords a ma-
nure which 1s fuperior to that which is procured at a dif-
tance from the fea. This greatly afliils their crops of corn
and rye. Whe lands of Cape Cod, however, could never
fupport its inhabitants, which are reckoned to amount to
upwards of 18,000. The men and boys are, therefore, for the
moft part, conftantly employed at fea; fo that Cape Codis an
excellent nurfery for feamen. ‘The Cape abounds with
clear freth ponds, well ftocked with fith; and formerly the
inhabitants took many whales round the Cape; but that
bufineds is almoft at an end. ‘he manner of taking black-
fifh, which are of the whale kind, about five tons in
weight, and yield oil, like the whale, is fomewhat fingular,
When a fhoal of them.is difcovered, fometimes confitting of
copD
feveral hundreds, the inhabitants put off in boats, and get-
ting beyond them, drive them, likea herd of cattle, to the
fhore and flats, where they are left by the tide, and thus
become an eafy prey. The fhore of the Cape is, in many.
places, covered with the huge bones of thefe fifh, and of
whales, which remain unconfumed for many years. ‘The
wood on the Cape is generally pitch-pine.
It has been conjectured that the Cape is gradually wear-
ing away, and that it will ultimately fall a facrifice to the
ravages of the winds and feas. Many circumftances feem
to favour this Spinion. At Province-town harbour, ftumps
of trees are feen, which are now covered by the fea in com-
mon tides. When the Englifh firlt fettled upon the Cape,
about the year 1620, there was an ifland off Chatham, at
the diftance of three leagues, called ‘“* Webb’s ifland.””
containing 20 acres, covered with red cedar or favin. ‘The
inhabitants of Nantucket ufed to carry wood from it. This
ifland has been wholly worn away for almoit a century. A large
rock, that was upon the ifland, and which fettled as the earth
wathed away, now marksthe place; it rifes as much above the
bottom of the fea, as it ufed to rife above the furface of
the ground. On this {pot the water is fix fathoms deep, and
in many places on the Cape the fea appears to be encroach-
ing upon the land. The Cape is fo much expofed to various
winds, that fruit trees do not thrive. The fituation is
healthy, but the piercing winds that proceed from the fea
are trying to delicate conititutions. "The inhabitants, how-
ever, live in general, as long as thofe of other parts of the
northern ftates. ‘The winds in every direction come from:
the fea; and invalids, by vifiting the Cape, fometimes ex-
perience the fame benefit as from going to fea.
Cov’s Head, a cape on the S.W. coaft of Ireland. N..
lat. 51° 36’. W. long. 9° 59.’
Cop-f/h, in Ichthyology. See Gavus morhua
Cop-jifhery. See Fiswery.
CODA, Beneperro, in Biography, a Verrarefe painter;.
who was, according to Vafari, a {cholar of Giovanni Bel-
lini; he afterwards fettled in Rimini, where he painted
many works, in a ftyle fomething lefs dry than thofe of his
mafter. Amongtt his belt pictures, is the marriage ‘of the
Madonna, which is placed in the Duomo, with the infcrip-
tion * opus Benediéti,”’and that of the rofary, at the Domini+
cans. He diedabout the year 1520. Benedetto was, how-
ever, far furpafled by his fon, Bartolommio Coda, of whom
there is, at the church of St. Rock, at Pefaro, an altar pic-
ture, reprefenting the tutelar faint, and St. Sebaftian, one
on each fide the throne of the Madonna, accompanied by a
choir of angels full of grace ;. it bears date 1528, and is in
almoft every refpeQ a performance worthy the golden age
in which it was painted. Lanzt, Storia Pitt.
Copa, Jial. a tail-piece, addition to, or termination of,
a moveinent in mufic. : ‘
Copa /ancea,,in Ornithology, the name given by the Italian:
authors to the anas caudacula, and vulgarly known in Eng-
Jand by the names of cracker, or fea pheafunt ; the pintail
duck. of Englith, and anas.acuta of modern Latin writers.
This bird is diftinguifhed by having the two middle tail-fea-
thers longer than the reft, and acute or pointed; the hind
head on each fide marked with a white line, and the back
ath-coloured and undulated. The female is rather {maller than
the male. It inhabits America, Hurope, and Afia.
CODAGAM, in Botany: Rheed.. Mal. See Hypro--
COTYLE afiatica.
CODAGA-PALA. Rheed. Mal.
dy/entericum.
CODANA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia, fitu-
ated, according to Ptolemy, on the coaft.of Gedrofia.
CODA..
See Nexium anti--
17D
CODANONIA, an ifland, placed by Mela in the Co-
danus Sinus ; fuppofed to be the ile of Secland or Zealand.
CODANUS Sinus, the/Baltic fea, a gulf N. of Ger-
many, between this country and Scandinavia. Mela re-
prefents it as diverlitied with large and {mall \flands, inhabit-
ed by the Cimbri and Teutones. See Batric.
CODA-PILAVA, in Botany. Rheed. Mal.
RINDA citrifolia.
CODARIUM.
diandria monogynia.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla one petalled, linear-
lanceolate, inferted into the ring of the nectary. Legume
pediceiled, hiled with a farinaceous fubRance, generally with
a fingle feed, but fometimes with two or three, valvelefs.
Sp. C. guineenfe (dialium guineenfe. Whlld.) A tree,
or fbrub. Branches cylindrical; bark grey, uneven with
chinks and wartlike projections. Leaves alternate, un-
equally pinnated ; leaflets five, oblong, quite entire, ending
in an obtufe point, veined ; {mooth and fhining on the up-
pir furface, uneven underneath, with papilla, which are not
vifible without a lens; petioles pubefcent, tran{verfely
wrinkled. F/owers numerous, in a very compound panicle,
pubefcent ; calyx-leaves coriaceous, pubefcent on the ont-
fide ; upper one broader, oblong, emarginate: the others
oblong, acute; filaments two, thick, awl-fhaped, incurved ;
anthers two on cach lament, connate, oblong ; germ fupe-
rior; ftyle awl-fhaped, incurved; ftigma awl-fhaped. A
native of Guinea.
CODBECK, in Geography, a river of England, in the
north-riding of Yorkfhire, which pafies by Thirfk, and joins
the Willowbeck, about 2 miles below that town; and about
2 miles after their union they fall into the Swale.
CODDA-PANNA, in Botany. Rheed. Mal. See Cor-
RYPHA.
CODDAM-PULLI. -Rheed. Mal. See Camzocia.
CODDED Corn violet. Sce Campanuta hybrida.
CODDY-moppy, in Ornithology, the Engiifh name of a
fpecies of gull, very common in the winter feafon on our
coafts; it is the winter-mew of fome Englifh authors, and
larus pybernus of Gmelin ; larus fujcus f- hybernus, Ray. La-
rus canus 8 cinereus fubtus niveus, capite albo maculis fu/cis varia,
collo fupra fufco, alis variis, rediricibus albis fajcia nigra.
Lath. Ind. Orn. It is cinereous, beneath {nowy white,
the head white and varied with brown fpots, the neck brown,
wings {potted with brown, and the tail marked witha black
band. Suppofed to be a young bird, of the common gull
kind, which has not attained its full tate of plumage.
CODE, Convex, a colle€tion of the laws and conftitu-
tions of the Roman emperors, made by order of Juflinian.
The word comes from the Latin code::, a paper book ; fo
called @ codicibus, or caudicibus arborum, the trunks of trees ;
the bark whereof, being ftripped off, ferved the ancients to
write their books on.
The code is comprifed in twelve books, and makes the
fecond part of the civil, or Roman law.
‘Phere were feveral other codes before the time of Jufti-
nian, ail of them collections or abridgements of the Roman
laws. The mof ancient code, or digeft, was ityled ‘¢ jus
Papirianum,” from the firlt compiler, Papirius, who flounth-
edabout the time of the Regifucium. Mr. Gibbon, how-
ever, fufpeéts, that the Caius Papirius, the pontifex maxi-
mus, who revived the laws of Numa (Dionyf. Hal. 1. ni. p.
179), left only an oral tradition; and thac the ‘* jus Papi-
rianum”’ of Granius Flacens, (Pande. ly. tit. xvi leg.
144.) was not a commentary, but an original work, compiled
in the time of Cefar (Cenforin. de die natali. 1. ii. p. 13.
Duker de Latinitate J. C. p. 157.) Gregoriusand Her-
See Mo-
Solander. Vahl. Clafs and Order,
cop
mogenes, or Hermogenianus, two lawyers, who flourifhed
under Conftantine and his children, made each a colle&tion
of this kind, called, from their names, the Gregorian Code,
aud Hermogenian Code. The former included the conftitw-
tions of the emperors from Adrian, or, as fome fay, Au-
gaflus, to Dioclefian and Maximian. This was publithed
in Schultens’s ‘ Jurifpridentia Ant. Juftitia.’” The lat-
ter, which is a fupplement to the former, was compiled in
the age of the Conftantines, and comprifed all the imperial
conttitutions of Dioclefian aed Maximian, befides rhofe of
Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Caius, and Caginus, to the year
30, or 312, The authors, in compiling thefe, their res
{neclive works, followed the order of time ; which was after-
wards obferved in the codes of ‘Vheodofius and Juftinian.
They were both abridged by thofe who abridged the Theo-
dofian code; Gregorius is commonly believed to have been
the molt ancient of the two. The ftyle of Hermogenianus
is very uncouth, and often obfcure. - ‘
Cujas affigns to Gregory the reigns from Adrian to Gal-
lienus, and the continuation to his fellow-labourer Hermo-
genes. But though this general diltribution may be juit;
yet they often trefpafled on each other’s ground. We have
nothing remaining of them but a few fragments in different
books of jurifprudence ; the compilations themfelves falling
to the ground for want of authority to put them in execu-
tion.
‘Theodofius the Younger was the firft emperor who made
acode, which was comprifed in 16 books, formed out of the
conflitutions of the emperors from Conftantine the Great to
his own time; and compiled by eight able civilians, at the
head of whom was Antiochus, who had been conful in 437;
abrogating all other laws not included in it; and this is
what we call the Theodofian ecde, which was publifhed in
the year 435, and received and obferved in the eatt for about
9° years, till annulled by the code of Juftinian.
The Theodofian code has been a jong time loft in the
Weit ; Cujas took a great deal of pains to retrieve it, and
to publifh itina better condition than ever. Gothofred has
given us a comment on the Theodofian code; a work which
colt him thirty years.
Theodoiius, in publifhing the code, enacted, that the laws
made by one prince fhould be of no force in the dominions
of the other, unlefs confirmed and figned by him.
In 506, Alaric, king of the Goths, made a new colle&tion
of the Roman laws, taken from the three former codes, the
Gregorian, Hermogenean, and Theodofian, which he like-
wife publifhed under the title of the Theodotian code. This
code of Alaric continued a long time in force; and was all
the Roman law received into France. It is fometimes called
the code of Anian, becaufe compiled by Anian, who was
chancellor to Alaric. .
Laftly, the emperor Juftinian, finding the authority of
the Roman law exceedingly weakened in the Welt, upon
the decline of the empire, made a general colleGtion of the
whole Roman jurifprudence. The management hereof he
committed to his chancellor, Trebonianus ; who chofe out
the molt excellent conititutions of the emperors, from Adrian
to his own time; and publifhed his work in 529, under the
title of the New Code. oan
But becaufe Juitinian had made feveral new decifions,
which made fome alteration in the ancient jurifprudence, he
retrenched fome of the conftitutiors inferted by Trebonia-
nus, and added his own in their place ; on which account he
publiihed a mew edition of the code in 534, and abrogated
the former. See Cryin Law.
There have been various other later codes, particularly of
the ancient Gothic, and fince of the French kings; as the
code
COD
code of Frederic, the code Michault, code Lonis, code Ne-
ron, code Henry, code percHetes code des Eaux, code
Noire, &c.
Cops of canons, Codex canonum. See Canon.
CODECEIRO, ia Geography, a towh of Portugal, in the
province of Beira ; fix miles S. trom Guarda.
CODEN, atown of America, ia the flate of Virginia,
nine miles S.E. of Cumberland.
CODERA, Caps, a cape of South America, or the N.
eet of Terra Firma, in the diftri€t of Caraccas. N. lat. 10°
W. long. 66° 21’.
“GODESE a town of European Turkey, in the prgmnce
of Epire, 16 miles Ey of Valona.
CODEX, in Anéiquity, a kind of punifhment by means of
a clog, or block of wood, to which flaves, who had offended,
were tied faft, and obliged to drag it along with them; and
fometimes tt hey fat on it clofely bound. ;
Coprx Argentens. Sce Ancenreus Codex.
CODIA, in Botany, (from xudue, a little ball ; the flowers
growing in a {mall head.) Linn. jun. Supp. 33. Schreb. 675.
Willd. ipa: Fort. Gen. 30. Juff. 430. Clafs and order, ec-
tandria digynia.
Gen. Cn. Cel. common. Involucre four-leaved, leaves ob~
long, horizontal. Cal. proper. Perianth four-leaved ; leaves
elliptical, ereét. Cor. Petals four, linear, with claws. Stam.
Filaments eicht, longer than the corolla, growing two toge-
ther at the bafe of each petal. Pz?. Germ fuperior, very
fmall, villous; ftyles two, awl-thaped, the length of the
ftamens ; ftigmas fimple. Receptacle common, villous.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four-leaved Petals four.. Common re-
ceptacle involucred
Sp. C. montana. A fhrub.
elliptical, obtufe, entire, very {mooth.
bular, peduneled, fhort, axillary and terminal.
known. A native of New Caledonia.
CODIAUM, Rumph. See Croron Variegatusm.
CODIAVANACU, Rheed. See Tracia Chamelea.
CODICIL, a fchedule, or fupplement to a will, or other
writing.
It is ufed as an addition to a teftament, when any thing
is omitted which the teftator would add, explain, alter, or
retract ; and is of the fame nature as a teftament, except
that it # without an heir, or executor. So that a codicil is
a lefs folemn will, of one that dies either teftate or inteftate,
without the appointment of an heir; teftate, when he that
hath made his codicil hath either before or afterwards made
his teltament, on which that codicil depends, or to which it
refers ; inteftate, when one leaves behind kim only a ccdicil
without a teftament, wherein he gives legacies only to be
paid by the heir at law, and not by any heir initituted by
will, or teltament.
A codicil, as well as a will, may be either written, or
nuncupative. Some authors call a teftament, a great will ;
anda codicil, a /ittle one.
But there is this further difference between a codicil and a
teftament, that a codicil cannot contain the inftitution of an
heir ; and that in a codicil, a man is not obliged to obferve
firi@ly all the formalities preferibed by law for folemn tefta-
ments.
In cuftomary countries, tellaments, properly fpeaking,
are no more than codicils ; becaufe cultom itfelf names the
heir, and does not allow of teftamentary inheritors.
Codicils were firft brought into ufe in the time of Auguf-
tus, by L. Lentulus; they were originally intended to fol-
Jow the teftament; which was, as it were, their bafis. In
recefs of time, eaiiens came to have their effet, even
though made before the teitament; provided there was no~
Leaves oppofite, petioled,
Heads of flowers g\o-
Fruit un-
cop
thing in the teftament contrary to the codicil, People were
alfo allowed to make codicils without tefaments. Conqueft
and the formalities of law, fays Mr. Gibbon, (Hift. of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. viii. p. 80) ef-
tablithed the ufe of codicils. Ifa Roman was fu:prifed by
death in a remote province of the empire, he addrefled a
fhort epiftle to his legitimate or tefamentary heir ; who ful-
filled with honour, or neglected with impunity, this lait re-
quelt, which the judges before the age of Auguftus were,not
aut thorifed to’enforce. A codicil might be exp: effed in any
mode, or in any language ; but the ubfeription of five wit-
nefles mu(t declare that it was the genuine compofition of the
author.
Kaymond Lully has a book which he calls the ** Codicil;’”
wherein he pretends to have left his readers. the fecret
of the philofophers’ ftone; provided they do but under~
{land it.
CODINA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sardinia,
14 miles E.S.E. of Orittagni.
“CODINUS, Gerorce, in Biography, flourifhed in the
latter part of the fifteenth century. ‘Lo him, in conjunétion
with others, was entrufted the care of the palace of Con-
ftantinople. He wrote a treatife concerning the origin of
that city in the Greek language, and another concerning the
officers of the palace, and thofe of the great church in that
city. Thefe works were tranflated into the Latin, and
printed in Greek and Latin at Paris, in 1615.
CODIROSSO, in Ornithology, the name under which
Olina deferibes the red-ftart, motacilla phanicurus. See
Moracitia.
Copirosso-magziore, of Olina, is the rock-fhrike, Janius
infauftus of Gmelin, merle de roche of Buffon. See La-
NIUS:
CODIUM, in Botany,a genus formed by Stackhonfe, for
the fucus tomentofus of Linnzus, to which he gives the fol--
Jowing charaéter.. Fyuijication in {mall: implicated tubes.;
Frond cylindric-comprefled ; when wet, having the appears
ance of fpunge; when dry, tomentous. See Fucus.
CODLINS and Crztam. See Epirosium Hirfutum.
CODMA, ia Geography, a town of Perlia, in the province
of Segiftan, 154 miles S.S.W. of Zareng.
CODOGNO, 2 town of Italy, in the Lodefan, at the
conflux of the Adda and the Po; 12 miles S.S:E. of *
Lodi.
CODOLAN, Cape,a cape on the E. .coaft of the ifland
of Formentera, in the Mediterranean.
CODON, in Antiguity,a cymbal, or rather little brafs bell,
refembling the head of a poppy. ‘They were faftened to the
trappings and bridles of horfes.
Copon isalfo ufed to fignify the orifice of a trumpet.
Copon, in Botany, (from x00, a little bell.) Linn. Gen, -
1285. Sin Nat. Ed. 13. vol. ii. p. 292. Schreb. 715.
Willd. 823. Gert. 596. Juff. 422. Clafs and order, decandria
monogyma. Nat. Ord. undetermined ; Juil.. Borraginee 5 °
Lam.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, deeply .ten-cleft ;
permanent ; fegments narrow, linear. Cor. monopetalous,
campanulate, torulofe at the bafe ; border ten-cleft. regular; ;
ne¢tary contilting of ten {cales, inferted into the bafe of the
ftamens, covering the receptacle. Stam. Filaments ten, the «
length of the corolla ; anthers thick.. Pi/?. Germ fuperior,
eonicdl: {tyle the length of the itamens; {tigmas two, long,,
briitle-fhaped,” diverging. Peric.. two-celled.. Seeds roundith,
echinate, bedded in a juicelefs coloured pulp.
Eff. Ch. Calyx ten. “cleft, permanent. Corvlla bell- fhaped ;
border ten-cleft. Neary compofed of ten feales,- Poricaip
two-celled, containing feveral feeds.
Sp.
copD
Sp. C. Royent. Mart. Lam. Willd. (C. aculeatum ;
Gert. tab. 95. fig. 7.) Root annual. Stem about a foot
high, herbaceous, firm, full of pith, cottony, echinate, with
numerous very white prickles, branched. Leaves alternate,
petioled, egg-fhaped ; clothed on each fide with a fhort cot-
tony down, and rough with {mall hard prickles, fimilar to
thofe which are found in moft of the borraginez ; nerves and
petioles befet with white prickles. //owers fitvated a little
above the axils of the leaves, folitary, rather large ; peduncles
fhort, cottony, and like the calyxes, very prickly. Lam.
From a {pecimen fent to Juffieu by fir Jofeph Banks. Fruit.
caplule, enclofed in the permanent, connivent calyx; ovate-
acuminate, terminated by the compreffed forked ttyle, mark-
ed along both fides with a fharp future, {mooth, two-celled,
two-valved; partition contrary to the valves, cloven and
{pongy next the axis. Seeds numerous, {mall, varioufly an-
gular, blood-red, covered on all fides with foft papille of the
fame colour. Gert. Native country unknown,
CODORUS, in Geography, a townfhip of America, ia
York county, Pennfylvania.
CODRANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.
CODRINGTON, Curistoruer, in Biography, was
born at Barbadoes in the year 1688. When he was
able to bear the fatigues of the voyage he was fent to
England, and, after fome continuance at a private ichool
at Enfield, he was removed to Chrift-church, Oxford.
Here he took the degree of mafter of arts, and then
was entered as probationer-fellow of All-Souls college,
where he completed his ftudies, and juftly obtained the
charater of an accomplifhed gentleman and _ univerfal
f{cholar. Without quitting the fellowfhip of his college,
he joined the army, and, through the intereft of the prince,
foon attained the rank of captain in the firft regiment
of guards. He was inftrumental in driving the French
out of the ifland of St. Chriftophers, which they had feized
at the breaking out of the war between France and England.
He diftinguifhed himfelf at the fiege of Namur; and upon
the peace of Ryfwick he was made captain-general, and
governor of the Leeward Caribbee iflands. For his condu&
in this office he was charged with mifdemeanors, and feveral
articles of impeachment were exhibited againft him to the
Houfe of Commons in England; to which an anfwer was
publifhed, with atteftations in his favour, from the lieutenant-
governor, members of the council, and the reprefentatives of
Nevis. In 1703, he fhowed the greateft courage in the at-
tack upon Guadaloupe, though the enterprize failed : this
was probably the laft warlike expedition in which he en-
gaged, and he fhortly after refigned his government, and
retired to enjoy a literary kifure. He died in 1710, at his
feat in Barbadoes, and was at firft buried in that ifland, but
in 1716 his body was removed to England and interred in
the chapel of All-Souls, in which two orations were delivered
on the occafion, one by Digby Cotes, univerfity orator, the
other by Edward Young, LL.B. By his lait will he be-
queathed a confiderable eftate in Barbadoes to the fociety
tor the propagation of the Gofpel in foreign parts ; he left
alfo ten thoufand pounds to the college of All-Souls, for
the purpofe of building a library and the purchafe of books.
Biog. Brit.
CODRIO, in’ Ancient Geography, a ftrong town of Mace-
donia, mentioned by Livy, 1. xxx. c. 27.
CODRONCHUS, Baprist, in Biography, a learned
and intelligent phyfician of Imola in Italy, and author of
feveral ingenious works on the fubje& of medicine, flourifhed”
the latter end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th cen-
turies. That he was much valued, we learn from his cor-
7
‘haave in his * Methodus ftudii Medici.””
COE
refponding with the moft efteemed writers in his time ; his
works are alfo in the lift of thofe recommended by Boer-
The titles of the
principal of them are, ‘* De chriftiana et tuta medendi ra-
tione, cum tractatu de baccis orientalibus, (cocculis indicis)
et antimonio.” Ferraria, 4to. 1491. The Indian berries
were ufed as poflefling an intoxicating power to attra& or
intice fifth to the hook. ‘They have long been fuppofed to
be ufed by brewers, to give their beer a power of ftupefying,
without infufing fo much malt as would otherwile be re-
quired. In too large a dofe they would deftroy life ; the
ufe of them in brewing is, therefore, very properly pro-
hibited. ‘* De morbis qui Imolz et alibi communiter, anno
1602, vagati funt, commentarius, in quo potiflimum de lum-
bricis tratatur, et de morbo novo, prolapfu nempe cartila-
ginis mucronate.” Bononiz, 1603, 4to. In this complaint,
which appears to have been a fever, the patients were not
relieved until after difcharging a kind of worm, which the
author defcribes as differing from thofe commonly found in
the inteftines. The author wrote alfo on the effects of dif-
ferent kinds of poifons, and the remedies for each kind,
and the difeafes occafioned by witchcraft, in which he
appears to have had great faith: On hoarlenefs and other
affeGtions of the voice, and on the method of giving evi-
dence in courts of jultice: On the hydrophobia, of which
he had {een fome inftances, and on the adminiftering of helle«
bore, which he highly commends as a cathartic. Haller
Bib. Med. Eloy. Dié&. Hitt.
CODROPIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging
to the ftate of Venice, in the country of Friuli; 10 miles
S.S.W. of Udina. :
CODROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria,
fituated at the lower part of the Adriatic fea, and ferving as
a boundary to the empire, divided between Auguftus and
Marc Antony. - :
COD-ROY, in Geography, a river of Newfoundland,
which runs into the fea; between cape Ray and cape An-
uille.
CODRUS, in Biography, the 17th and laft king of
Athens, is celebrated for the noble a& of facrificing his life
for his country. He was the fon of Melanthus, and had
reigned twenty years, when the Heraclidz made war again{t
Athens. On this occafion the Delphic oracle was confulted,
who declared that vitiory would decide for that people
whofe fovereign was flain in battle. The enemy gave itni&
charge to {pare the life of Codrus, but the monarch, refolv-
ing to enrol his name among the benefactors of his people,
difguifed himfelf as a peafant, and was flain in combat.
When this was known to the Heraclide, they, dreading the
accomplifhment of the prediétion, broke up the camp and
retreated. From this period, the Athenians regarded Cod-
rus as the father of his country, and to pay the highelt
poffible regard to his memory, they refolved that no man
was fit to reign as king after him; the monarchy was ac- ~
cordingly abolifhed, and the government placed in the hands
of elective magiftrates, entitled archons, of whom the firft
was Medon, fon of Codrus, who fultained the office 20
years. This event took place abont 1070 years before the
Chriftian era. Jultin. Univer. Hift. Du Frefnoy.
CODUT, or Cupur2, in Ancient Geography, a people
of India, on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.
CGECILA, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in
Beotia, in the country of the Turduli.
CCECILIANA, a place on the river Calipos, E. of
Cetobriga, and S.E. of Ulifipo.
CCECINUM, a town of Italy, on the eaftern coaft of |
Brutium.
CCECINUS,
COE
CGECINUS, a {mall river which watered the town of
Ceecinum, and difcharged itfelf into the fea to the eait.
CQGiCK, Pirrer, in Biography, called likewile P. Van
Aelf, from the place of his nativity, a town in Flanders,
was, if we can form any judgment from the writers who have
{poken ofthim, or from the admirable prints remaining from
his defigns, one of the greateft painters which either Ger-
many or Flanders produced in his time. After he had
been fometime inftruéted in the fchool of Bernard of
Bruffels, he went to Rome to complete his ftudies, and foon
proved himfelf an excellent defigner, and a bold and fpirited
painter, as well in frefco as in ol. At his returnto his own
country he married, but his wife foon dying, he once more
gave way to his natural inclination for travelling, and at the
folicitations of a merchant, a friend of his, accompanied him
to Conftantinople in the year 1531.
Having ftaid {ome time with the Turks, and drawn fome
moft animated reprefentations of their cuftoms and cere-
monies, which he afterwards cut in wood, he once more
arrived in the place of his nativity, and took a fecond wife.
Towards the latter part of his life he wrote fome excellent
treatifes upon geometry, arehitecture, and perfpeciive. His
pictures of hiftory, as well as his portraits, were much
efteemed. He was made painter to the emperor Charles V.
and died at Antwerp, in the year 1550. After his death
the prints which he had made of Turkith coftume were
publifhed by his widow. This admirable werk contiits of
feven large pieces, which, when joined together, form a
frieze, divided into compartments by Cariaticles: ona tablet
in the firft block is written in old French, ‘ Les mceurs et
fachom de faire de turez, avecq les regions y appertenantes,
ont eft au vif contrefaicetze par Pierre Ceck d’ Aloft, luy
eftant en Turque, Vande Jefu Chri, MDX XXIIT. lequel
aufly de fa main propre a pourtraict ces figures duylantes a
Vimpreffion dy’celies ;?? and on the lait is this infcription,
«© Marie ver hulit, vefue du dict Pierre d’Alott, tres pafle en
Pan MDL. a fai& imprimer les dict figures, foubz grace et
privilege d’Pimperialle majefte en Van MCCCCCLIIL”
Thefe prints are very rare. Baldinucci.. Strutt. :
CGECUM, in Anatomy, the firk portion of the large in-
teftine, in which the {mail inteftine ends. As its dimenfions
~exceed thofe of the reit of the canal, it ts alio known by the
name of caput coli. See INTESTINE.
CG@DAMUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
mentioned by Ptolemy, who inhabited the environs of the
town of Sitipha, and of the river Ampfagas, in Mauritania
Cefarienfis.
CO-EFFICIENTS, in d/gebra, are numbers, or given
quantities, prefixed to letters, or unknown quantities, into
which they are fuppofed to be multplied; and therefore,
with fuch letters, or with the quantities reprefented by them,
making a produét or co-efficient produGtion; whence the
name, firlt given by Victa.
Thus, in 3a, or bx, or cxx; 3 is the co-efficient of 3 a;
b,of bx; and c, of cxx. If a letter have no number pre-
fixed, it is always fuppofed to have unit for the co-efficient.
Thus, a, or dc, import as much as 1a, or 1bc.
In any equation whofe highett power orterm has 1 for its
co-efficient, the co-efficient of the fecond term is always the
aggregate of all the roots retaining their proper figns; fo
that if all the negatives be equal to all the affirmatives, the
fecond term will vanifh; and where the fecond term is thus
wanting, it isa fign that the quantities under contrary figns
were thus equal. i
The co-efficient of the third term is the aggregate of all
the rectangles or products arifing by the multiplication of
every two of the roots, how many ways foever thole combina-
Vou. VIII.
COE
tions of duals can be had; as once ina quadratic, three times
in a cubic, fix times ina biquadratic equation, &c.
The co-efficient of the fourth term is the aggregate of all
the folids mad¢ by the continual multiplication of every three
of the roots, how often foever fuch a ternary can be had; as
once in a cubic, four times in a biquadratic, ten times in an
equation of five dimenfions, &c. And thus it will goon
infinitely.
Co-erricrents of the fame order, is aterm fometimes ufed
for the co-efficients prefixed to the fame unknown quantities,
in different equations. 2
pax+by-+ C& =m)
Thus, in the equations dx-eytfx= n>
: cea ps
cients a, d,g, are of the fame order, being the co-efficients of
x 3 alfo 6, e, 4, are of the fame order, being the co-efficients of
y. &c. The co-efficients alfo that affeéi no unknown quan-
tity, are faid to be of the fame order. :
Co-EFFICIENTS, oppofie, fuch as are taken each frum a
different equation, and from a differeut order of co-effie:-
cients. Thus, in the foregoing equations, a, c, £, and a, +, f
as alfo d, b, &, are oppafite co-efiicients. :
COEHORN, in Gunnery. See Morrars, under the ar-
ticle Cannon.
COEL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Delhi, 65 miles S.E. of Delhi, and 33 N. of
Agra. N. lat. 27°48’. E. long. 78° 27°.
CGELA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a part of the
Elide, a country of Peloponneius, according to Paufanias and
Strabo.—Alfo, a town fituated on the ftrait of the Hellef-
pont, S. of Seftos, and at the lower part of the creek, or
fmall bay in the Thracian Cherfonefus, whence it took its
name ‘* Portus Coelos.”? Pomponius Mela fays, that the
port of Coela is famous on account of the victory which the
Athenians obtained here over the Lacedemoniars, whofe fleet
was utterly deitroyed. The town of Coela, advantageoufly
feated beth for navigation and commerce, acquired, under
Adrian, the privileges and dignity of a municipium; and it
was recognifed under the appellation of ** Allium,” from bis
proper name. After the drimemberment of the greater pro-
vinces of the empire, it became a part of the province of
Thrace, called ‘* Europe,’’ under the metropolis of Hera-
clea.
Coeva of Eubea, a place of Greece in the ifland of Eubaa,
denoting the {pace or diftri&t which lay between Aulide and
Gerefte. :
COELZ, a fmall ifland fituated before the town of
Smyrna, on the coaft of Afia Minor. Pliny.
COELALET #,a people of Thrace, mentioned by Taci-
tus, and diftinguifhed by Pliny into the greater and lefs, and
called Coelate. He places the former at the foot of mount
Hemus, and the latter at the foot of mount Rhodope.
COELERINI, a people of Hifpania Tarragonenfis.
Pliny and Ptolemy.
COELESTIAL, ina general fenfe, denotes any thing
belonging to calum or the heavens. Thus,
Cor.estiar ob/ervations, are obfervations of the pheno-
mena of the heavenly bodies, made with a proper apparatus
of aftronomical initruments, in order to determine their places,
motions, phafes, &c.
Gbiervations in the day-time are eafy ; becaufe the crofs
hairs in the focus of the object-glafs of the telefcope are then
diftinétly perceivable ; in the night, thofe crofs hairs are to
be illumined to make them vifible. This illumination is ei-
ther performed by a candle, placed obliquely near them, fo
that the {moke does not intercept the rays; or, where this is
inconvenient, by making an aperture in the tube of the
as telefcepes
the co-cfi-
COE P
telefcope, near the focus of the objeét-plafs, through which
2 candle is applied to illumine the. crofs hairs, M. De la
Hire has made an improvement on the firff method. which
renders it of very good ufe; and it is by covering that end
of the tube next to the obje&-glafs with a piece of gaufe, or
fine white filken crape. For, im fuch cafe, a link, placed at
a good diftance from the tube, fo enlizhtens the gaufe, as to
render the crofs hairs very perceivable.
Obfervations of the fun are not to be made without placing
a glafs, {moked in the flame of a lamp or candle, between the
telefcope and the eye; to take off from its luftre, which
would otherwife damage the eye, were not a good part of
its beams intercepted.
Coeleftial obfervations are chiefly of two kinds; the one
when the objeéts are in the meridian ; the other, when they
are in vertical circles. For an account of the inftruments
with which obfervations are made, fee our articles CiRCLE,
and OsservaTory.
Corvestiat gisbe. See Grose.
Coevestiat Sphere. See Spuere.
COELESTINE. The native fulphat of ftrontian, called
cocleftine, from the blueifh tint which it generally aflumes, is
Givided into three varieties, the foliated, fibrous, and compad.
1. Foliated. Its colour is milk-white pafling mto blue.
Tt occurs in mafs, or cryftallized in {trait rhomboidal prifms,
or cuneiform oétohedrons, or fhort hexahedral prifms. Its
luitre is glittering or fhining. Its fra€tute is imperfectly fo-
liated. 1t is femitran{parent, rarely tranfparent. Itis fome-
what fofter than flour fpar, and is eafily frangible. Sp. Gr.
Bi
It confifts, according to Vauquelin, of
54 Strontian.
46 Sulphuric acid,
I09
Tt occurs in the neighbourhood of Briftol in loofe nodules,
and very finely eryftallized in Sicily. :
2. Fibrous. Its colouris betWeen indigo blue and blueith-
grey, paffing into milk-white; by Jeng keeping it lofes its
colour. It occurs in mafs and in plates. Its longitudinal
fraéture is curved-fibrous approaching to foliated, with a
fhining luftre; its crofs frature is {plintery, with a glittering
pearly luftre. It is tranflucent, fomewhat fofter than the
preceding variety, and eafily frangible. Sp. Gr. 3.83.
It coniilts, according to an analylis by Klaproth, of
58 Strontian.
42 Sulphuric acid, witha trace of iron.
100
Tt occursin ferrnginous mar! in the vicinity of Briftol, and at
Frankftown in Pennfylvania.
3. Compact. Its colour is blueifh or yellowifh-grey. It
occurs in mals, and in flattened {pheroidal and kidney-fhaped
mafles. Its fracture is fine-{plintery, pafling into foliated.
It is opake, and fometimes tranflucent on the edges. It is
{oft and eafily frangible. Sp. Gr. 3.59.
According to Vauquelin it confilts of
91.42 Sulphat of ttrontian.
8 33 Carbonat of lime.
0,25 Oxyd of iron.
100.
Tt occurs imbedded in clay in the gypfum quarries of Mont
Mortre, near Paris.
-
COE
COELESTIS Dea, in Ancient Mythahogy, the heavenly
goddefs, a deity worthippedin Africa, and {yppofed to be the
fame with the Mithra of the Perfians, and Aftarte of the
Pheenicians. It hada fplendid temple at Carthage, dedicate
ed by one Aurelius, a Pagan high-prieft, and deftroyed by
another Aurelius, created bifhop of Carthage, A. D: 390,
who converted the Pagan temple into a Chriftian church,
and placed his epifcopal chair on the fpot where the ftatue
of the goddefs had flood. At Rome, on the bafe of a ftone
on which the flatue of this deity was placed, is found this
infcription, « Invi&te Coelefti.”” 3
CCE LE-SYRIA, or Cotro-Syria, in Ancient Geography,
lay, according to Strabo, between the two mountains Liba~
nus and Antilibanus, and was thence called Cale-Syria, or
the Hollow Syria. The cities and towns in this part of
Syria, were, according to Ptolemy, Heliopolis, Abila Ly-
faniz, Gaana, Ina, Damafcus, Samulis, Abida, Hippus,
Capitolias, Adra, Scythopolis, Gerafa, Pella, Dium, Ga-
dora, Philadelphia, and Canatha; to which fome add Lao~
dicea Cabiofa, or ad Libanum. According to Galen, this
country produced black infammabie ftones. probably a fpe-
cies of {urturbrand or bituminized wood, fimilar to the Bovey=
coal of England; thefe, he fays, were generated im the hills
on the eall fide of the Dead fea, where the bitumen is pro-
duced, and had a fcent fimilar to bitumen, is
COELIA, Kaaiz, or Koiun, in Anatomy. Thishas many
different fignifications ; fir!t, it imports a cavity in any part
of the body, or in any of the vifcera ; fecondly, it implies the
fame as aleres. The xo:Aun, with the addition of aw, that is,
4 xa7w xarin. is the lower belly, or inteftinal tube
COELIACA Aerrsria, a large artery derived from the
trunk of the aorta, foon after that veffel has entered the ab-
domen, and diftributed to the ftomach and duodenum, the
liver, fpleen, and pancreas. See ARTERIES. Dre
Coerraca ganglia, are the nervous ganglia found in the
coeliac plexus. See the defcription of the great fympathetic
nerve in the article Nerve. eo
Coexz4ca, or the Czeliac paffion, in Medicine, a term wled
by the older writers, to denote:a diarrhcea, in which the
ftools were of a white appearance, refembling, or confifting of
chyle. - A diftin@tion was made between this difeafe and the
lientery; inafmuch as the food pafled off in an undigefted
ftate in the latter; whilf in the coeliac paflion the ftomach
completed the act of digeflion, but the chyle, produced by
this funtion, not being abforbed by the laGieals, was dil-
charged by ftool. This fpecies of diarrhoea rarely, if ever;
occurs ; fince, where the glands and abforbents of the me-
»fentery, or the intefines themfelves, are confiderably difeafed,
the ftomach is generally enfeebled in its funétions, by fympaa-
thy. Sce Drarruoea, and Lrenrery. a ?
Cozxiacus plexus, in Anatomy, 1s a mot intricate nervous:
network, formed chiefly’ by the fplanchnic nerves, and fome
branches of the par vagum; confilting of feveral ganglia, _
which vary confiderably in number, form, fize, and pofition,
and are conneéted to each other by larger and imailer ners
vous chords ; and furrounding the root of the cocnc ate
See Nerve. eee ss
CG&LIANUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Lucas
nia, on the route which led from Opinum to Heraclea: '
COELICOLA, in Lecleftaflical Hiflory, a {ett calledialfo.
“ Hypfittarii,? which arofe about A.D. 300, or fomewhat
fooner, ‘They are mentioned in the Theodofiam code, as
heretics; and feem to have been: perfons who, rejecting ido=
Jatry and polytheifm, and all revealed religrvons, admitted
only natural religion, See Wetftein’s Proleg. in N. T. p..38.
COELICOLOR, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
fome to the OPAL, ron eee aio
COELIOBRIGA, ~ .
COE
COELTOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a place upoa
the Nebis, in the country of the Callaici, Woof Bracara Au-
ufta.
3 COELIUS Mons, one of the feven mountains or hills
of the city of Rome, which owes its name to Coelius, or
Coeles, a famous Tufean general, who pitched his tents there,
when he came to the affihance of Romulus, againft the Sa-
bines. Livy (1. i. c. 30.) and. Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis
(1. iii.) attribute the inclofure of it to Tullus Hoflilius; but
Strabo (1. v.) to Ancus Martius. The other names by
which it was fometimes known, were Querculanus, or Quer-
citulanus, and Auguttus: the firft, occafioned by the
abundance of oaks growing there: the other impofed
by Tiberius, when he had ereéted new buildings wpon it after
a fre which confumed the whole of this quarter of the city.
(Tacit. Annal. L. Suet. in Tiber. c. 48.) One part of this
hill was called Coeliolus,” and “ Minor Coelius” Tothe
eaft it had the city walls; to the fouth ** Mons Aventinus 27?
to the weft, ‘Mons Palatinus;” to the north, ** Mons
Efquilinus.”? Its compafs was about 22 miles:
COELLO, Atonzo Sancuez, in Biography, a Portu-
guefe painter, was born in 1526: after having ttudied fome
time in Rome, he vilited Spain, where he profited from the
inftruétion of Antonio Moro: (fir Antony More): from
Spain he pafl-d into Portugal, and was employed by don
Jaan, and afterwards by donna Jyanna, his widow, filler to
Philip II. of Spain. About this time, Antonio Moro, in con-
fequence of an indiferetion he had been guilty of, found st
advifable to retire from the court of Spain ; and Philip fo-
licited his filter to fend Coello to occupy his place; on his
arrival at Madrid he was treated by that monarch with every
mark of refpe€& and condefcenfion, and feveral times em-
ployed to paint the portrait of Philip, on foot, and on
horfeback, as well as thofe of the nobles of his court.
There are feveral altar-pieces by Coello in the Efcurial, and
two of his pictures, reprefenting Sifphus and Titius, in the
royal palace of Madrid; but his greateft compofition is
the martyrdom of St. Scbatlian, in the church of San Ge-
roviimo in that city; on the right of the faint flands the
figure of Chrift, on the left that of the Madonna, and below
them San Bernardo and San Francefeo; the figure of the
Almighty, enveloped in glory, forms the top of the piéture.
This, like his other works, is executed witlr great boldnefs
of defign and expreffion, and a ftyle of colouring nearly re-
fembling that of the great Titian. This artift, who cer-
tainly ranks amongit the firft of the Spanifh fchool of that
period, diced in the fixty-fifth year of his age in I5go.
Cumberland.
Cortto, Craupio, of the fame family with the above-
mentioned artilt, was born in Mad:id in the feventeenth cen-
tury, but in what year is not known. He became the favour-
ite difeiple of Francefeo Ricci, painter to Philip TIT. and
through his means gained accefs to the royal collcAion,
where he afliduoufly copied many of the fine works of
Titian, Rubens, Vandyke, and other mafters. With thefe
advantages, and thefe alone, for he never was out of Spain,
Coello became, in the opinion of many, the greate{t painter
of the fehool, and decidedly holds a place in the firft clafs.
There is a Nativity by this matter in the royal palace at
Madrid, which, although hanging in the fame room with the
Adoration of Rubens, lofes nothing by the comparifon.
But his chef d’ceuvre is the picture ‘de las Colocazion de Jas
Santas Formas,”? which hanes at the altar of the grand Sa-
eriity of St. Lorenzo in'the Efeurial ; this piece is executed
“in fo malterly a ftyle, with fo ftriking an effe& of chiaro-
feuro, and fo much harmony, that the eye of the {pectator is
immediately atiracted by it, although it is furrounded by
COE
many of the works of Raphael, Titian, and others, of the
Ttalian and Flemith maflers ; the portraits of the king and
the principal’ nobility are introduced in the great group of
the proceflion, without any wife dilturbing the order or fo-
lemnity of the whole. The artilt was feven years in com-
pleting this admirable compolition ; after which he returned
to Madrid, in the year 1689, and was liberally rewarded.
It is much to be regretted, that many of Coello’s works, in
the churches and convents of Madrid, Toledo, and Sara-
gofla. are placed in fuch bad lights and injudicious fituations,
as not to appear to that advantage which they fo defervedly
merit.
His ftyle is faid to refemble that of Paul Veronefe, par-
ticularly in his draperies, colouring, and charaGters; nor
does he fall fhart of him in magnificence ef compofition.
His death, which happened in 1693, was, it is f{uppofed,
accelerated by the mortification he felt, upon Luca Giorda-
no’s being fent for by Charles II., to paint the frefcos of the
great {taireafe of the Efcurial. Cumberland. af
COELMANS, James, an engraver of Antwerp, where
he was born in 1670. His chief work confifts of fome
prints; executed by him entirely with the graver, about
1709, from the collection of piétures belonging to M. de
Boyer, Comte d@’Aguilles, at Aix in Provence; but we
cannot fay much for his ftyle in general, as it is too dark,
heavy, and inharmonious, and by no means correét in point
of drawing. Amongtt the bef of his engravings, for the
above mentioned work, are, “* The Murder of the Tnno-
cents,”’ from Claude Spierre, and ‘* The Fall of the Giants,
with Victory crowning David,” from Nicolo Pouffin. His
death happened in the year 1735. Strutt. Heinecken,
COELOMA, in Surgery, a hollow and round ulcer, in
the horny tunic of the eye.
COELOS, in Ancient Geography, a town and port of
the fea of the Thracian Cherfonefus, between [lea and
Cardia, according to Pliny. It is called «* Cesia” by Am-
mianus Marcellinus. SeeCanra,
COELOSSA, or CorLusa, a mountain of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in the Argolide, according to Strabo. The Car-
neate mountain formed a part of it.
COELUM. See Hraven.
Coztum isalfo ufed by fome anatomifts for the cavity of
the eye towards the angles, or canthi. See Eyz, Cane
THUS, &c.
COELUS, in Myrhology, one of the heathen deities, the
fame with the Greek Uranus, ‘
COEMETERIUM. See Cemerery.
COEMPTION, among the Romans, a rite of marriage,
practifed- on the part of the bride, which, when the was
bought by the hefband of her parents, the fulfilled by pur-
chafing, with three pieces of copper, a juft introduction to
his houfe and houfhold deities.
COEMPTIONALES, among the Romans, an appel-
lation given to old flaves, which were fold in a lot with
others, becapfe they could not be fold alone.
COEN, Joun Pirrerzoon, in iagraphy, was born in
1587, at Hoorn, inthe United Provinces. He was fent to
Rome at an early age, to be inftruéted in trade and com:
merce, under Pifcatore, a celebrated merchant there. Tn
1607, he went to India; and in 1613, the whole manage-
ment of the India trade was devolved on him, under the
title of ** dire&tor general,’ an office which feems to have
been made for him. He was chofen preficent of Bantam,
where he fixed his refidence, and had great powers entruited
tohim. There a plot was laid to affaffinate him, which,
though it mifcarried, led him to the refolution of changing
7 45 2 his
CoOLE
his-abode. In confequence of this, the Dutch, in the
year 1619, took poffeflion of Batavia, where they eftablifhed
the feat of their commerce. For feveral years the Dutch had
to contend with the native king of the place, affifted by the
Enghth. Peace was at length concluded between the two
companies. “Che Enplifh re-embarked, and Coen laid the
foundation of a new city, the flrcets of which were laid out
in ftraiyht lines, and fo fpacious as to admit of canals of wa-
ter, bordered by trees, tuat they might afford a fhade to
thofe who pafled backwards and forwards in boats. “The
place was forufied, and put into a ftate of detence, and
then it was declared the capital of the Dutch fettlements in
India. In the year 1622, Coen obtained leave to return to
Europe, and in the following January he fet fail with five
fhips, richiy Jaden, and arrived at Zealand in Deccmber,
having held the fupreme command in India for more than
four years. In 1627, he proceeded to India again, but he
had not been long at Batavia, before the emperor of Java,
jealous of the Dutch power, endeavoured to drive them
from the ifland. ‘[wice he laid fiege to this city, but fo
many of the Javanefe were killed by theartillery of the be-
fieyed, that a contagious diltemper broke out among them,
to which great numbers fell a facrifice. It extended even
to the Dutch camp and city, and deftroyed many of the
inhabitants. The Javanefe were forced, ultimately, to raife
the fiege ; exaiperated with the defeat, they atcempted to
affaffinate Coen. With this view, they fent to Batavia fe-
veral {mail veffels laden with provifions, having fome armed
men concealed in the bottom of them below bamboos.
They proceeded to the market-place, where the confpirators
hoped to accomplith their purpofe, but Coen was too ttrongly
guarded for them to venture upon an attack. He died in
September, 1629. Gen. Dict. Univer. Hitt.
COENA domini, bull. See Bucc.
Coexa Triumphalis, in Military Language. When a
viGtorious genera! made his triumphal entry, it was cultom-
ary for him to give a banquet or entertainment to the Ro-
man people.
CCENAKER, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Ceylon, near the fouth coaft’; 100 miles S. of Candy.
COENDOU, in Zoology, the French name of the Bra-,
filian porcupine, Hy/rix prehenfilis.
COINE, or CoENnororts, in Ancient Geography.
Cre:
CCENENUM, atown, placed by Ptoleiny in the northern
part of Germany.
COENNERN, or Konwnern, in Geography, a town of
Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of
Magdeburg, containing about 333 houfes; 38 miles S. of
Magdeburg.
CG@NOBITE, in Leclefaflical Hifory, formed of xawos,
common, 0s, life, a veligious, who hives in a convent, or in
community, under a certain rule ; in oppofition to anachoret,
or hermit, who lives in folitude.
Ceffian makes this difference between a convent and a mo-
naflery, that the latter may be applied to the refidence of a
fingle religious, or reclufe ; whereas the convent implies ce-
See
community ; and /arabaites, who are a kind of monks «r-
rant, that ftroll from place to place. (See Monx.) He
refers the inftitution of ceenobites to the times of the apof-
tles, and makes it a kind of imitation of the ordinary hives
of the faithful at Jerufalem. ‘Though St. Paehomius is com-
monly owned the inititutor of the canobdite life; as being
the firft who gave arule to any community,
COE
COENOBIUM, the ftate of living in a fociety or com=
munity, where all things are in common, Pythagoras ia
thought to be the author, or firlt inflitutor of this kind of
hfe ; his difciples, though fome hundredsin number, being
obliged all to give up their private eftates, in order to be
annexed to the joint ftock of the whole. The Effenians
among the Jews, and Platonitts, are {aid to have lived in the
fame manner. Many of the Chriltians alfo have thought
this the moft perfeét kind of fociety, as Leing that in
which Chrilt and his apottles chofe to live. See Cozno-
BITE.
COENOTAPH. See Cenorarn.
COENSIS Crviras, in Ancient Geograbhy, the fame
with Cos, the capital of an:fland of the fame name, which
was an epifcopal fee.
COENY RAE, a place in the ifland of Tafos, between
which, and that called AEnyre, or Annyra, there were very
rich mines.
CO-EQUALITY, a term expreffing the relation of
equality between two things. :
The retainers to St. Athanafius’s doétrine of the Trinity
hold the Son and Holy Spirit co-equa/ with the Father.
The Arians, &c. deny the co-cguality. See Trinity and
ARIAN.
COEQUOSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gaul
in Aquitaine, placed by the Itinerary of Antonine on the
route from Aque Tarbellice to Burdigala.
COERULEUM Moxtanum. See Copper, ores of.
CoeruLeum nahvum. See ARMENIUuS /apis.
COES, among Miners, are little houfes which the miner
make over their mines to lay ore in. 4
COESCOES, in Zaslozy, the Surinam opoflum, Didel-
phis orientalis, 1s dcferibed by Valentine under this name.
COESFIELD, in Geography, 2 town of Germany, in’
the circle of Wettphalia, and bifhopric of Munfter, the or-
dinary refidence of the bifhop, cortaining two parifh:
churches and five convents; 14 miles W. of Muntter.
COESNON, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
between Pontorfon and Moat St. Michael. Saad es
COESTOBOCI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Eu-
ropean Sarmatia, according to Ptolemy.
CO-ETERNITY is ufed among Divines to denote the
eternity of one being equal to that of another. . The ors
thodox hold the fecond and third perfons in the Trinity co-
eternal with the firft. f
COETI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in the
vicinity of the Tibareni and of the river Thermodon.
COEUR, Jacques, in Biography, a celebrated French:
merchant, and adminiltrator of the finances under Charles
VII. OF fuch confequence were his commercial purfuits,
that he is faid to have had 300 clerks in the ports of the
eaft, and that he became the richelt individual in Enrope..
His liberality was as extesfive as his wealth was great, and —
he advanced very confiderabie fums to bis fovereign, to en-
able him to recover his dominioss from the Englifh ; in) re="
turn for this generofity, he was raifed to the highelt offices -
of ftate, and was employed on many important embaflies; —
in thefe his own wealth was made ufe of to enhance the
glory of his country. His good fortune excited the jea-—
louly of his contemporaries, who exhibited agai ft him.
many heavy charges, from moft of which he readily cleared.
himfelf, but he was convi@ed, by a partial tribunal, of
others, and was condemned to- pay an enormous fine; his
eftates were confifeated, and he himfelf was confined to the
convent of Cordeliers at Beaucaire, from whence ke ef-
caped to Rome. His fubfequent hiltory is involved in ob-
(curity, but it is generally believed that he embarked in an
i ; expedition
CcCOF
expedition fitted out againft the Turks by pope Callixtus
= and died at the ifle of Chio inr456. Nouv. Dict.
ift.
COEUR, in Heraldry. —Party en Coeur, fignifies a
fhort Jine of partition in pale, in the centre of the efcut-
cheon, which extends but a little way, much fhort of top
and bottom; being met by other lines, which form an ir-
regular partition of the efcutcheon.
COEUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelopon-
nefus, in Meffemia, which watered the town of Eletra, ac-
cording to Paufanias,
COEUVRES, or Esrrees, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Aiine, and dittri€t of
Soiffons ; 7 miles S.W. of it. °
CO-EXISTENCE, a term of relation, denoting two or
more things to exilt together at the fame time, &c. See
ExisTENce.
COEYMANS, in Geography, a townthip of America, in
the ftate of New York and county cf Albany; 12 mules
below Albany.
COFFEA, in Botany, (its true name, according to
Bruce, is Caffe, from Catfa, the fouth province of Narea, in
Africa, where it grows {pontaneoufly in great abundance),
Linn, Gen. 230. Schreb. 314. Whlld. 353. Gert. 139.
Juff. 204. Veat. 2.583. (Caffeyer, Encye.) Clafs and
order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Svillate, Linn.
Rubiacee, Jul. Vent.
Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, very fmall; four, five,
or fix-toothed. Cor. monopetalous, falver or funnel-fhaped;
tube cylindrical, flender, much longer than the calyx ; bor-
der longer than the tube, four, five, or fix-cleft ; fegments
lanceolate, expanding, or obliquely reflexed. Stam. Fila-
ments four or five, inferted into the tube of the corolla ; an-
thers linear. Pi/?. Germ inferior; ftyle fimple, the length
of the corolla; itigmas two, awl-flaped, reflexed. Peric.
Berry roundifh, about the fize of a cherry, umbilicated at
its fummit. Seeds one or two, elliptically hemifpherical,
gibbous on one fide, flat and furrowed longitudinally on the
other, involved in an aril.
Eff. Ch. Corolla falver or funnel-fhaped. Stamens in-
ferted into the tube. Berry inferior, one or two-feeded.
Seeds arilled.
Sp. 1. C arabica, Avabian coffee-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1.
Mart. 1. Lam.1. Willd. 4. Lam. Ill. tab. 160. fig. 1.
Woodv. Med. Bot. tab. 230. Gert. tab..25. (Jafminum
arabicum, Jafl. AG. 1713. p. 388. tab. 7. Till. Pif. 87.
tab. 32. ivonymo, fimilis cegyptiaca, Bauh. Pin. 428.
Bon five ban, Alp. Aigyp. tab. 36. Pluk. Almag. 69. tab.
242. fig.1.) ‘ Flowers five-cleft ; berries with two ieeds.””
Linn. “ Leaves oblong-acuminate ; peduncles axillary, ag-
gregate ; corollas five-cleft.’” Willd. An evergreen fhrub,
from fifteen to twenty feet high. Zruné ereét, not more
than two or three inches in diameter; branches brachiate,
two growing at every joist, almoft cylindrical, flexible,
loofe. expanding ; lower ones extending horizontally, gene-
rally fimple. Leaves four or five inches long, two inches
broad, oppofite, fimple, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, quite
entire, {mooth, green, fhining on the upper furface, pale
green underneath, on very ‘fhort petioles. Stipules two at
each knot of the branch, awl-thaped, enlarged at the bafe,
oppolite, iutrafoliaccous. | flowers white, feflile, axillary,
cluttered four or five together, {weet-fcented, foon falling
off. Berries oval-globular, of a dark red colour when fully
ripe. Lam. erry inferior, elliptic-fphzroidal, with a little
eirenlar area at. the fummit, having within it a callous
paint; two-celled, containing a flefhy, fomewhat gelatinous
pulp; partition vafcular-flcfhy. Seeds one in each cell, el-
: i
COF
liptical, convex on one fide, flattifh, with a longitndinal
chink on the other, of a pale glaucous colour; aril of afub-
{tance refembling paper, elaftic, pellucid, loofely furround-
ing the feed, and entirely covering it. Gert. A native of
the old continent and adjacent iflands, between or near the
tropics. 2. C. mauritiana. Lam. 2. Illuf. tab. 160. fig. 2.
(C. arabica @. Willd.) ‘ Berries oblong, acute at the
bate; feeds two.” Lam. Branches compound ; branchlets
oppolite. Leaves only two inches and a half long, fome-
what acute, but not acuminate, narrowed toa point at the
bafe, {carcely petioled, f{mooth, much veined. Berries ax'l-
lary, almott feffile, never globular, but oblong and narrowed
to a point at their bafe, two-celled. Sveds one in each cell,
oblong, cartilaginous, pointed at one end, not having much
thicknefs. Defcribed by La Marck from a f{pecimen with-
out flowers fent to Juffien. It is evidently nearly allied to
the preceding, but efteemed by La Marck to he {pecifically
diltinét, on account of the different fhape of the fruit. This
eminent botanift has, however, been unaccountably negli-
gent with refpect to their {pecific chara@ters, having retain-
ed, without addition, that formed by Linnzus for C. arabi-
ca, which, in the Species Plantarum, is oppofed only to C,
occidentalis, and by no means excludes any part of the {pe--
cific character given by La Marck tohis C. mauritiana. The
following ones will, we believe, fufficiently cifcriminate
them from each other, and from all the fucceeding fpecies.
C. arabica. ‘ Flowers five-cleft ; peduncles axiilary, cluf-
tered ; leaves acuminate ; berries nearly globular; two-cell-
ed, with two feeds.”? C. mauritiana. ‘* Feduncles axillary,
generally folitary ; leaves fomewhat acute; berries oblong,
leffened to a point at their bafe, two-celled, with two feeds.’?”
But after all, it may be doubted whether the fuperior plump-
nefs of the berries of the Arabian coffee may not be entirely
the effet of cultivation, A native of the ifle of Bourbor..
La Marck, when he wrote the article in the Encyclopedic,
did not know whether the coffee, imported into France by the
name of caffé de Bourbon, is the produce of the indigenous
tree, or of cultivated plantsbrought originally from Arabia. It
has fince been afcertained, that the Bourbon coffee is ob-
tained from Arabian plants fent from Mocha in the ycar
1717. And we learn from the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris for the year 1715, that the inhabitants
of the ifland, on feeing a branch of the common coffee-tree
with leaves and fruit, brought from Mocha in a French
fhip, inftantly recolleG&ed that they had obferved a fimilar
tree growing wild on their mountains, which was foon after
produced, and found to be little different... 3. C. guianenjis,
Mart. 5. Lam. 3. Willd. 6.. Aubl. Guian. 1. tab. 57.
«* Leaves lanceolate ; peduncles axillary, aggregate ; corol-
las quadnifid.”? Willd. ‘‘ Fiowers quadrifid ; berries {mall,
violet-coloured, with two feeds.”? Aubl. A fhrub, one or
two feet high. Branches quadrangular, knotty. Leaves
oppofite, brachiate, acute, quite entire, green, {fmooth,
fhining, on fhort petioles. Svipules two at each joint, oppo-
fite, intrafoliaceows, acute. J/owers white, feffile. Ber-
ries {fpherical. Seeds coriaceous. A native of Guiana. 4.
C. triflora. Mart. 10. Willd. 5. Forft. Prod.g5. ‘* Leaves
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; peduncles three, terminal, one~
flowered.”? A native of Otaheite. 5. C. paniculata. Mart.
6. Lam. 4. Willd. 7. Aubl. Guian. 1. tab. 58. ‘* Leaves
oblong, acuminate ; panicle terminal, divaricated ; corollas
quadrifid; branches quadrangular.” Willd. « Branches
quadrangular ; leaves large, ovate-oblong, acute; corollas
quadrifid; berries with two feeds.” Aubl. A fhrub.
Trunk {even or eight feet high, five or fix inches in diameter;
covered with a grey, wrinkled, cracked bark. Branches
oppolite, compound, knotty. Leaves oppolite, brachiate,
on
; cor
on fhort petioles, Stipules intrafoliaceous, caducous.
Flowers white, fweet-fcented ; peduncles quadrangular, with
fite brachiate ramifications; calyx four-toothed; fta-
oppofite
mens four. Berries blueifi; one of the feeds frequently
abortive. A native of Guiana. 6. C. occidentalis. Linn.
Sp. Pl.2. Mart. 2. Lam. 5. Willd. 8. Jacq. Amer. 67.
tab. 47. (Pavetta, Brown. Jam. 142. tab. 6. fig. 1. Jaf-
minum, Burm, Amer, tab. 156. fig. 2.) ‘* Flowers four.
cleft; berries with one feed.” Linn. ‘ Leaves. oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate ; panicle terminal, trifid, few-flowered;
berries with one feed ; little branches quadrangular.” Willd,
A fhrub about fix feet high. Branches long, compoynd,
brittle. Leaves oppofite, quite entire, fhininz, on fhort
petioles. Suipules intrafoliaceous. Flowers white, {weet-
fcented; ftamens four; anthers fearcely proje€ticg beyond
the tube. Berries roundifh, about the fize of an olive,
crowned at the top, of a blueifh black colour when ripe.
Seeds folitary, roundifh, cartilaginous, ftriated, enclofed in
a membranousaril. A native ot Jamaica, St. Domingo, and
Martinico. 7. C. racemofa. Mart. 3. Lour. Cochin. 145.
«© Much branched; leaves rugged ; racemes terminal; ber-
ries with two feeds.”? A fmall tree, only four feet high.
Branches numerous, cylindrical, diffufe. Leaves oppolite,
ovate-lanceolate, quite entire, belet with many tubercles,
on fhort petioles. Flowers in ere& brachiate racemes ;
common peduncle long, quadrangular 5 partial ones fhorter,
cylindrical, oppofite or ftellate. Berry roundith, {mall, red,
watery, one-celled, with two hemifpherical feeds. A native
of Mozambique. 8. C. zanguebaria. Mart. 4. Lour. Co-
chin. 145. ‘“Corollas fix or feven-cleft ; fruit angularly
nerved, with two feeds.” A {mail upright tree, fix feet
high. Branches thick, fhort, fpreading. Leaves ovate-
lanceolate, fmooth, oppofite. FYowers white, axillary, fe-
veral together, on fhort one-flowered peduncles. Berries
red, oblong-ovate, angular with longitudinal nerves. A
native of Africa on the coalt of Zanguebar ; and cultivated
near Mozambique with the preceding {pecies. 9. C. fumbu-
cina. Mart. 7. Willd. 1. Fort. Prod. g2. ‘ Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate, cymes corymbous, terminal,” A native of
the Friendly Ifland:. 10. C. opulina. Mart. 8 Willd. 2.
Forlt, Prod.93. ‘* Leaves ovate-lanceolate ; cymes con-
trated, globular, termical.” A. native of New Caledonia.
to. C. adorata. Mart. 9. ~ Willd. 3. Forft. Prod. g4.
«< Leaves egg-thaped, acute; cymes corymbous, axillary.”
A native of ‘Lanna and the Friendly Iflands.
Propagation and Culture. None of the fpecies, xcept
the firit, have been cultwwated in Europe; and as this, like
ali the others, is a native of tropical climates, it is of courle
confined to our (Loves, to which its evergreen-leaves, beauti-
fully white flowers, and fuecceding red berries, are a valuable
ornament. It is raifed moft fuccefsfully from the berries,
which mutt be fully ripe, and fown foon after they are ga-
thered, for if kept cut of the ground a fhort time, they
will not grow. Lf freth berries cannot be obtained, young
plants mu® be procured in {mall pots. The pots in which
the feeds are fown fhould be filled with a light kitchen-gar-
den earth, planged into a hot-bed of tanuers’ bark, and
{paringly watered ence or twice in a week. In a month or
five weeks the plants will appear, and in two months more
will be fit to tranfplant. As many of the berries will pro-
duce two plants, thefe muft be carefully feparated, and
treated as before. The plants fhould have free air admitted
to them every day according to ‘the warmth of the feafon.
Jo fummer they will require frequent watering, but fhouid
have only a fwnall quantity ata time. They fhould not be
tranfplanted more than twice a year, and uniefs they have
made great progrefs in their growth, once will be fuflieieat.
FEE.
The ttave in which they are placed fhould be kept to’the
heat affigned for the ananas in the botanical thermometer.
COFFEE, in Domeflic Economy and Medicine, the name
of a weil known potable liquor, made by a decoétion, or
fimple infufion of the feeds of the coffee-berry, after they
bave been properly roatted, and ground to powder in a [mall
mill, conftrucied for the purpofe. Its introdution inte the
civilized world is comparatively of modern date. It was
unknown to the Greeks and Romans; nor is it mentioned
by any of the European writers who were engaged in the
crufades; it could not, therefore, have been ufed in Syria
during the r2th and 13th centuries. We are affured by
Mr. Bruce, that it is a native of Abyflinia, and is found
wild in great abundance from Caffa to the banks of the
Nile. F
It isalfo generally faid to have been cultivated in that coun=
try from time immemorial. M. Lagreneé, one of the molt
intelligent agents that France ever had in the India fervice,
fays the abbé Raynal, procured fome of the fruit, and made
trialof it. He found it, as the abbé informs us, to be
larger, rather longer, and almoft as fragrant as that which
is obtained from Arabia. That the qualities of the wild,
or cultivated berry, have been long known in that part of
Africa, is confirmed by Bruce. The Galle, hetells us, a
wandering nation cf Africa, in their incurfions on Abyflinia,
being obliged to traverfe immenfe deferts, and being alfo
dcfirous of falling upon the towns and villages in the culti-
vated part of Abyflinia without warning; carry mno-
thing with them to eat, but coffee roalted till it can be pul-
verized, and then mixed with butter to a confiltency, that
will fuffer it to be rolled up in balls, aud put into a leathern
bag. One of thefe, abont the fize of a billiard ball, keeps
them, they fay, in ftrength and f{pirits during a whole day’s
fatigue. better than a loaf of bread, or a meal of meat.
Bruce’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 226. wf
It is, however, from Arabia that coffee was firft brought
into Europe. Whether it is indigenous in that country, has.
not been pofitively afcertained ; and it is not poffible to re-
concile the reports concerning it, which are given by dif-
ferent oriental writers. According to fome, the ufe of it
was firft introduced by the prior of an Arabian monaftery,
who, being informed by a goat-herd of the effeéts produced
on his goats, when they had happened to browle on the
coffee-tree, gave an infufion of the berries to his monks, to
prevent the inclination to fleep, which frequently interfered”
with the due performance of their no€turnal prayers. Ace
cording to others, a mollack, named Chadely, was the firlt
among the Arabians who made ule of coffee, to relieve him--
felf from a continual drowfinefs which hindered him from:
attending punctually to his nightly devotions. His dervifes
did the fame, anc their example was followed by the lawyers. |
It was foon found out, that this liquor puritied the blood
by a gentle agitation; diffipated the crudities of the fto-
mach, and raifed the f{pirits; and, in confequence of thefe
properties, it was foon adopted by thofe who had no occas
fion to keep themfelves-awake. Both thefe accounts, efpes
cially the former, clearly imply that the coffee-tree grew —
wild in Arabia at that time, but was not till then cultivated —
for the fake of its fruit. The author of an Arabian manus
{cript, formerly in the library of the king of France, and
now depofited in the Bibliotheque Nationale, attributes the
firtt introduction of this beverage into Arabia, to Megaled-
din, mufti of Aden, about the middle of the rth century.
He is faid to have met with it on a journey into Perfia,
where it was then only coming into ufe ; asd, ou his return,
to have employed it himfelf, and given it to the dervifes,
with whom he was accuftomed to {pend the night in pare
he
COFFEE
The example of the muftt rendered this new luxury popular
in Aden, whence it rapidly extended to Mecca, Medina, and
the other citiesof Arabia Felix. Public coffee-houfes were
opened within a {mall fpace of time in Perfia, as well as in
thofe cities, which afforded a lounge to the idle, and a re-
Jaxation to the man of bufinefs. .There the politician re-
tailed the news, the poet recited his verfes, and the mollacks
delivered their fermons. The fame of this bewitching pota-
tion quickly reached Grand Cairo, and was received with
equal avidity at Conftactinople. But in thefe populous
cities, it did not obtain fimilar favour from the ruling
powers. At Grand Cairo it was oppofed on religious
grounds. In the year 1511, it was prohibited by Khaiae
Beg, from a perfuafion that ir had an inebriating quality,
and produced inclinations forbidden by the Koran. But
the prohibition was foon after taken off by his fucceffor,
Caufon. In the year 1523, Abdallah Ibrahim again de-
nounced it in a fermon delivered in the mofque of Haflan-
anie. A. violent commotion was produced, and the parties
came to blows. Upon this the fheik, E/-beiet, commander
of the city, aflembled the doctors, and, after giving a pa-
tient hearing to their tedious harangues, treated them all
with coffee, firlt fetting the example, by drinking it himfelf,
and then difmiffed the affembly without uttering another
word. By this prudent conduét, the public peace was re-
ftored; and coffee continued to be drank at Grand Cairo
without further moleltation.
At Conftantinople it had to encounter polttical, as well
as religious, oppofition. Religion, as ufual, took the lead.
The dervifes had the fagacity to dilcover, that coffee, when
roalted, has become a kind of coal; they, thercfore, de-
claimed againft it with fury, coal being one of the fubltances
which their prophet declared not intended by God for human
food. The mufti was of their party, and the coffee-houles
were foon fhit up. A more fenfible mufti fucceeded, who
affured the faithful, that roafted coffee is not coal, and they
were again opened. But, though religious fuperitition thus
eafily gave way to the feduGive influence of fenfitive enjoy-
ment, afubmiflion not at ail uncommon, the political objec-
tions were not fo readily filenced. ‘The ever-trembling ap-
prehenfions of a deipotic government found, or fancied that
they found, ia the public coffee-houfes, receptacles for the
difaffected, and nurferies of fedition. Thefe dangerous
places of refort were, confequently, always régarded with a
jealous eye; and, after feveral viciffitudes of coanivance and
difeouragement, were at length finally prohibited. But they .
were noc deemed formidable beyond the precinéls of Con-
ftantinople. They were of too much importance to the
public revenue to be entirely fupprefled, and were fulfered
to remain, without much reftraint, in all other parts of the
empire. Nor in the capital itfelf was the ule of coffee in
private families at al! difcouraged; fereples of canfcience
were no longer excited again{tit; and it has ever fince been
allowed to all ranks of men, with the full permiffion both of
the mufti and of the civil government. Tne Turks. have
now a particular officer, whom they call Kahvegi. or infpec-
tor of coffee ; and in the feraglio thereare feveral Kahveghis,
each of whom prefides over twenty or thirty Battagis, who
are folely employed in preparing this favourite liquor for the
inhabitants. A refufal to fupply a wife with coffee, is even
faid to be reckoned among the legal caules of a divorce.
The firk mention cf coffee in the weft of Europe is by
Rauwoilff, a German traveller, who returned from Syria in
1573. The tree was particularly delcribed in 1591 by
Profper Alpinus in his *+ Medicina /Egyptiorum,” and alfo
in his. Hiltory of A®eyptian Plants,” printed at Venice in
i592. Its ufe, as a beverage, is naticed by two. Englid.
travellers in the beginning of the 17th century ; Biddulph
about 1603, and William Finch in 1607. The former fays,
‘©The Turks have for their mof common drink coffee;
which is a black kind of drink, made of a kind of pulfe,
like peafe, called coava.” The latter, The people in the
ifland of Socotora have, for their beft entertainment, a
China difh of cobo, a black bitte:ith drink, made of a berry
like a bay-berry brought from Mecca, fupped off hot.’
Pietro della Valle, a Venetian, tells bis friend in a letter
written from Conftantinople in 1615, that, upon his return,
he fhould bring with him fome coffee, which, he believed,
was a thing unknown in his country. In France, it was
introduced firft at Marfeilles, in the year 1644, by fome
gentlemen who accompanied Monf. de la Haye to Conttan-
tinople, and brought with them on their return, not only
feme coffee, but the proper apparatus and ve%fels for making
and drinking it. In 1660, feveral bales were imported from
Egypt: and in 1671, a cofee-honfe was opened at Mar-
feilles, in the neighbourhood of the exchange, where people
met to fmoke, talk of bufinefs, and divert themfelves with
play. It was firft brought to Paris in 1657, by the cele-
brated traveller Thevenot ; but only in a {mall quantity,
and confequently was confined to his own family and parti-
cular friends. By the public at large it was never feen,
and fearcely heard of, but from the account of travellers.
In 1669, it was more generally introduced by Soliman Aga,
ambaflador from the fultran Mahomet LV.: andin 1672, a
public coffee-houfe was opened byan Armenian, called Pafeal,
who afterwards removed to London. But the ufe of coffee
had been introduced in the Englifh capita! before the return
of Vhevenot from the Eaft. For, in 1652, Daniel Edwards,
a Turkith merchant, brought home with him a Greck fer-
vant, whofe name was Pafqua, who underftood the method
of roafting and making it. This fervant was the firft that
publicly foid coffee, and kept a houfe for that purpofe in
George Yard, Lombard-ftreet. The firft mention of coffee
in our ftatute books is anno 1660 (12 Car. II. cap. 24.)
when a duty of four-pence was laid upon every gallon of
coffee made and fold, to be paid by the maker. In 1663,
it was ordered, by a particular ftatute, that all coffee-houfcs
fhould be licenfed at the general quarter feflions of peace
for the county. And in’ 1675, Charles II. iffued a pro-
clamation to fhut them up as feminaries of fedition ; but
in a few days the proclamation was abrogated by a fecond.
Since that ‘time coffee is often mentioned in our ftatute
books, but only with a view to the regulation of the duties.
Ray, in his ** Hiftory of Plants,” publifhed in 1688, fup-
pofes that there were then in London as many coffce-houfes
as in Grand Cairo itfelf, and that fimilar houfes were to be
met with in all the principal‘cities and towns in England,
At the fame time he expreffes his furprize that the ncigh-
bourmg countries fhouid permit fo rich a treafure to be con-
fined to a fingle province, and wonders what watchful dragon
is'employed by the natives to prevent {trangers from procuring
either the plant itfelf or its recent feeds ; which, hedoubtsnot,
would readily grow in a fimilar climate and foil to the great
advantage of the cultivator. It cannot be imagined that the
enterprifing commercial nations of Weftern Europe, which have
formed colonies in the tropical regions, would be inattentive
to the value of fuch an acquifition. The Dutch were the
firtt who made the attempt with fuccefs. We areinformed
by Boerhaave, in his Index to the Leyden Garden,” that
Ncholas Witten, burgomalter of Amtterdam, and governor
of the Eatt India compary, inftruéted Van Hoorn, governor
of Batavia, to procure from Mocha, in Arabia Fei'x, fome
berries of the coffee-tree to be fown at Batavia. ‘Phis was
accordingly dose, and about 1690, many plants were a
rom.
COFFEE.
from feeds, one of which was fent to the garden at Amfter-
dam, where it bore fruit, and in a fhort time many other
plants were raifed from it. In the year 1714, the magif-
trates of Amiterdam fent to Lewis XIV. a fine tree about
five feet high, in full foliage, with both green and ripe
fruic. This plant is faid by Du Tour to have been the
parent of all that have fince been cultivated in France and
in the French Welt India iflands. In 1717, feveral plants
were fent to Martinico, under the care of M. de Clieux,
who approved himfelf worthy of the trult. For the voyage
being long, and the weather unfavourable, they all died but
one; and the whole fhip’s company being at length reduced
to fhort allowance of water, this zealous patriot divided his
own fhare between himfelf and the plant committed to his
charge, and happily fucceeded in bringing: it fafe to Marti-
nico, where it flourifhed, and afforded a flock for the neizh-
bouring iflands. In 1718, the Dutch colony at Surinam
firlt began to plant coffee; and, in 1722, the French go-
vernor of Caycnne, having bufinefs at Surinam, contrived
by an artifice to bring away a plant, which, in the year
£725, had produced many thoufands. In the year 1732,
coffee was cultivated in Jamaica, and an at paffed to en-
courage its growth in that ifland.
[t is well known that the Arabian coffee is univerfally
allowed to be better in quality, and confequently bears a
higher price than that which is raifed in any of the Euro-
pean colonies. “(he reafons that have been affigned for this
difference may be reduced to five: 1. Difference of climate
and foil. That part of Arabia where the coifee tree is cul-
tivated is rocky, dry, and hot. At Batavia the foil is rich
and deep; and in the rainy periods the quantity of wet that
fails is exceffive. Hence it is probable that the plant had
in fome meafure degenerated before it arrived in Europe.
Nor was it hkely to be improved by its removal to the
Weft Indies, where it is generally cultivated on the richelt
ground. For though the planters know by experience that
coffee grown in a light foil, and on dry and clevated flopes,
fuch as are chofen for it in Arabia, has a {maller berry, with
a delicate flavour; while that which is produced in a low,
fertile, and moitt foil, has a larger berry, but comparatively
flat and infipid: yet, as they alfolearn from experience, that
the trees in this rich foil commonly yield from twelve to
fixteen ounces per plant; while thofe in the drier foils will
fearcely furnilh more than from fix to eight ounces, making
a difference of one half in the weight ;-and as in all the
European markets the tated difference in the price of each
is only from 15 to 20 per cent. it is evidently their interelt
to raife their coflze in the richett foil, notwithflanding the
deterioration in the‘quality of the berry, which is the necef-
fary confequence. 2. The cuitem of pollarding the trees,
which is univerfal in almoft all the French iflands. The
branches are obliged by this operation to take more of a
lateral direétion, mm conlequence of which they grow thicker,
and afford lefs accels to the rays of the fun; they are alfo
apt to become decumbent, and’ more expofed to the moilt
evaporations of the foil: and hence, as Du Tour imagines, the
berries are feldom perfe@ly ripened. 3. Gathering the fruit
before it is perfectly ripe, and not drying it ina proper man-
nere In Arabia the coffee berries are not gathered till they
readily fall off on fhaking the tree, when they are received
on linen fheets fpread for the purpofe, and are then removed
to a fituation where they can be completely dried in the
fhade on mats, which are fitted to imbibe their moilture.
Bat in the Welt Indies this cannot be effeéted, for though
the air in thofe climates is hot, it is always fo damp, that
coffee could never be dried in the fhade, fufficiently for ex-
portation to Europe. The rains, moreover, which are then
very frequent, often make the berries fall before they are
perfectly ripe. Du Tour recommends the drying of them
in ftoves. ‘The method of curing coffee in the Weft Indies,
as it is deferibed by Dr. Titford of Spanifh-town, Jamaica, .
(fee the 9th volume of the TranfaGtions of the Society of
Arts, &c.) is as follows: They bring the coffee-berries,
after they are ripened on the trees, to a machine called a
peeling-mill, where it isdiveited of its outer fkin and ‘pulp.
after which it is put in heaps, and undergoes a flight fer-
mentation, which is then fpread out and dried on platforms.
or terraces, until it 1s perfetly cured, when it is ftored till the
whole crop is got ins When this work is completed, they
begin to prepare it for market, by again putting it in the
fun, and carrying it to the peeling and winnowing-mills,
where it is totally divefted of its coats and impurities, and
the broken and bad coffee picked ont, &c.; after which
it is fit for market. The {mall and needy planters, how.
ever, who have no mills, beat out their coffee it large
wooden mortars, or troughs, which occafion a waite by:
breaking the berry. When any coffee is kept for private
ufe, or ifland confumption, it does not undergo the above.
proceiles; but the ripe fruit, as it is picked trom the tree, ”
1s {pread out in the fun, and fimply well dried, and beat out
as it 1s wanted for ufe or fale. Coffee is well known to im-:
prove, when fo preferved, by drying it in the berry ; but to
be impaired, when it is divelted of its coverings, as it is now
fent to market. Dr. Titford, therefore, recommends its
being fent home, in the whole berry, well dried. One ad-
vantage attending this mode is the faving of the labour to
the negro, and confequent expence to the planter; and
another is the prevention of the coflee’s imbibing the ill
flavour of fugar, rum, pimento, &c. which may be fhipped
with it, and which, it is faid, is the principal obje@tign to
the ufe of the Weft India coffee in England. 4. Want of
proper care in {towing them for the voyage. If they come
in a fhip with raw fugars and rum, they-are fure to contract
a tafte which cannot be driven off by the {ubfeguent roaft-
ing. ‘The French are in this refpeét much more attentive.
than the Englih, and, in confequence, their coffee, efpecially
that from the Windward iflands, iscommonly better. This:
{uperiority is the efle& of peculiar circumftances. Molt or
the Englith fhips are hired for the freight; the captains
{tow the goods as they receive them, and the owners are.
fatisfied, if the veffel is but well filled. ‘The French ships
are generally laden for the proprietor’s own ufe; the cap-
tains buy the goods themfelves ; and that they may be able
to give a good account of their management, they are
obliged to pay great attention to the ftowage of their veffel,
and the prefervation of their cargoes. 5. Ufing the coffee-
berries too foon. Dr. Browne afferts, that the worft coffee
produced in America will, in a courfe of years, not exceed-
ing fourteen or fifteen, be as good, parch and mix as weil,
and have as high a flavour, as the belt we now have
from Turkey, if kept in a dry place, and properly pre=
ferved ; and that {mall-grained coffee, or that which is_
raif<d in a dry foil and warm fituation, will, in about —
three years, be as good as that which is now ufed in the
Lendon coffee-houfes. Du Tour, on the other han
afferts, that whether it be old or new is of little importance,
provided it have been gathered when fully ripe, and have
loft all its vegetable juices. He is, moreover, of opin
that, ceteris paribus, it is always beft when new ; and affures
us that he has drank in St. Domingo the coffee of that
country made of berries gathered only fix weeks before,
which was not worfe, if not better, than Mocha coffee that
was three years old. It is true, he adds, that he gathered
the berries himfelf when they were juft ready to fall, de-
prived
COFFEE.
Prived them immediately of their pulp, dried the feeds in the
fun as fpeedily as poffible, and roafted them when they
ceafid to diminifh in fize, and when he could fearcely break
them with his teeth, In all other refpeéts he treated the
two kinds of coffee in the fame manner, and made ufe of
them in equal proportions.
Thus, in the courfe of three centuries and a half, has a
berry, which was not before known as an article of food,
except to fome favage tribes in the confines of Abyfiinia,
made its way throngh the whole civilized world. In the
nations which profe{s the religion of Mahomet, it is drunk
at leaft twice a day by all ranks of men, from the fultan
and multi to the artificer and the peafant. Among the pro-
feffors of Chritianity, by whom it has been kaown httle
In England, indeed, tea is moft generally preferred ; but
on the continent, efpecially in France, coffee is in univerfal
requelt, In confequence of this prevailinsr fafhion, the tree
which produces it is now extenlively cultivated in the tro-
pical climates of both hemifpheres. Of Arabia Felix it
may be reckoned the moft valuable produce. The Durch,
as we have feen, early introduced it into the ifland of Java,
and foon after into Ceylon. The Englifh have plantations
of it about Madras; the French once had at Pondicherry,
and flill raife it in great quantities in the Tfles of France
and of Bourbon. In America it is cultivated by the co-
lonifts of thefe three maritime powers, and in fome degree
by the Spaniards. It is not poffible to procure an accu-
rate account of the quantity that is raifed and confumeds.
more than a century and ahalf, it is {till regarded rather as but fome idea may be formed from the following partial
aluxury, and is uled only by the middle and upper clafles. - details,
; Pounds Weight.
Arabia furnifhes annually to the European companies - - - 1,500,000
Perfians - - -. - 33500.000
—__— fleet from Suez - - - 6,590,090
to Hindooftan, the Maldives, and the Arabian colonies on che
coalt of Africa - - - i gas
————_————_-—— to the Caravans - - - - 1,000,000
Total 12.550,000 Raynal.
Surinam exported in 1775 - - - - - 15,387,000; Do.
Martinico - - - - - - - 9,088,960 Do,
Guadaloupe - - - - - - - - - 6,302,902 Do.
Cayenne - - - - - - - - - 65,888 Do.
St. Domingo exported in 1767 - - - - - - 12,197,977 Do.
rae in 1775 ; - = 45,933,941 Do.
———— immediately before the French revolution - - = 71,663,187 Edwards.
St. Lucia - - In 1752 - - - - - - about 5,000,000 Raynal.
Porto Rico - in 1778 - - - - - - 1,116,325 Do.
Grenada - - in 1776 - = é & - - 1,827,166 Edwards,.
oe ———— in.1787 - - - - - - - 987,004. Do.
St. Vincent - in 1787 - - - - =, - - 71,041 Do.
Dominica - - in 1987 - - - ~ - - 2,032,775 De.
: in favourable years - = 4 = - 3,000,0co Do.
Jamaica - - in 1768 - - - - - - 420,300 Do;
—_——- in 1774 - - - - - - - =. 650,7co Do.
——_———_—- in 1787 emer = - - - - 716,315 Do.
in 1790 - - - - - - 1,783,740 Dao,
A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of
a fingle tree; but vigorous trees of a proper age fometimes
produce four pounds or more; and at Surinam fome that
were five years old and eighteen feet high, have been known
to produce even feven pounds.
The Arabians and Turks drink their coffee very hot, and
without fugar, People of the firit fathion ufe only what is
called fultana coffee, made of the dried pulp of the berry.
This pulp, after it has been bruifed, is put into an iron or
earthen pan, placed on acharcoal fire, and ftirred about till
it becomes a little brown, but not of fo deep a colour as the
common coffee ; it is then thrown into boiling water, with
the addition of at leaft a fourth part of the membranous
hoflk or aril of the feeds, commonly called, in the Weit
Indies, the parchment. The whole is boiled together in
the manner of common coffee. Tne feeds are thought by
the Arabians to be too heating; the common people;
therefore, generally ufe a weak liquor made of the :nom-
branous hufks alone. Thefe, as well as the pulpy part,
are carefully taken off from all the coffee that is fent co the
weit of Europe, and the feeds, becoming dry, foon lote their
Vou. VIII.
vegetative life. The excellence of our coffee depends in a
great meafure on the fkill and attention employed in the
roafting ; if done too little, it has little flavour, and lies
heavy on the ftomach; if too much, it becomes acrid, ac-
quires a difagreeable burnt tafte, and is rendered pernicious,
or at leaft, is deprived of its belt qualities ; wheréas, accord-
ing to Du Tour, the aGtion of fire, when nicely regulat-
ed, takes away its rawnefs, and the aqueous part of its mu-
cilage, deprives it of its faline qualities, and gives it that em-
pyreumatic feent, which is fo pleafant and refrething, and
which is fomewhat fimilar, but greatly fuperior, to that
produced by broiling meat on a gridiron.
In England the feeds are commonly roafted ina cylindric-
al tin box, perforated with numerous holes, and fixed pon
a {pit which runs longitudinally through the centre, and is
turued by means of a jack. The whole is {fpended over
a large charcoal fire in a femicircular hearth; or, as in
Yorkfhire, placed dire@tly in front of the large kitchen fire,
and taken off occafionally, that the berries may be fhaken
aud preferved from burning. When the oil rifes, and the
feeds have a dark brown cclour, it is emptied into receivers
; aT made
cOF
made with large hoops, and with iron plates at the bottom ;
there the coffze is again fhaken and left tocool. If it look
bright and oily, it isa fign that itis well done. In Perfia
boiling water is frequently poured upon the entire feeds,
which makes a weak, but agreeable infufion. And in Eu-
rope fome are of opinion that the coffee has a more delicate
flavour when the feeds have only been bruifed or pounded
in a mortar; but the common method is to grind it in a
mill to a fine powder. It is generally allowed that it 1s
much the beft when it has been recently roafted. The
powdered coffee is fometimes put into a linen bag or ftrainer,
fnfpended at the mouth of a coffee-can, or as it is called in
the north of England, a coffee-biggin: boiling water is
then poured upon it, till the can is fo full as to keep the
dtrainer completely immerfed in the hot water. When it has
ftood a fufficient time, the liquor is conveyed through the
{pout of the can, clear of the coffee grounds. ‘This is pronounc-
ed by Du Tour to be a good method. But, 1n his opinton,
the following is muchbetrer. Letthe powder be poured intoa
coffee-pot filled with boiling water in the proportion of
two ounces and a half to two pounds, or two Englifh pints
of water: let the reixture be flirred with a fpoon, and the
coffee-pot be foon taken off the fire, but fuffered to remain
clofely {hut, for at lealt two hours on the warm afhes. Dur-
ing the infufion, the liquor fhould be feveral times agitated
by achocolate frother, or fomething of the fame kind, and
be finally left for about a quarter of an hour tofettle. Cof-
fee thus prepared, adds the experienced French naturalitt,
is perfect. In France coffee is almoft univerfally made
ftronzer than in England. The Englifh, fays a lively
French traveller, care little about the quality of their coffee,
ifthey can but get enough of it. Dr. Fothergil recom-
mends the following method of making it for breakfaft:
Let it be made in the ufval manner, only a third part
itronger than ufual, and let as much boiling milk be added
to. it before it is taken from the fire, as there is water.
When it has fettled, drink it either with cream or without,
but with very litile fugar, which is apt to make it become
acid on weak ftomachs.
opinioa, that if our poor and middling people were able to
procure this, it would be much more nourifhing and bene-
ficial than the wretched beverage of ordinary tea, in which
they now indulge themfelves,
In none of the ftates of Chriftendom was the ufe of cof-
fee oppofed by religious fanaticifm; nor had it to encounter
political jealoufy, except for a few days in the reign of our
Charles Il. But, like every other fubjeét which has occu-
pied the human mind, it could not fail to occafion a differ-
ence of opinion. Among the profeffors of medicine in parti-
cular, it met with affailants and abettors. |The Thefis, en-
titled Potus Coffe, delivered by a Swedifh ftudent in the
univerlity of Upfal, and publifhed in the ““ Amznitates Aca-
demicz”’ under thedire¢tion of Linneushimfelf, is a farcaflic
exttertaining inveCtive againft the introduGtion of this novel
luxury, which the patrivtic youth apprehended would vitiate
the native talte, and debauch the fimple manners of his coun-
trymen. He accordingly inveighs againft it with an honelt
indignation, as one of the pernicious irrational indulgences
whieh had been imported into Sweden from degenerate
France ; and gives a ludicrous lift of the expenfive utenfils
required for its ufe in that fathionable ftyle which the vanity
of his fair country women would not permit them to fore-
go; and enumerates, with fomewhat of a triumphant fatis-
faction, the numerous bodily diforders, which it has been
known, or is likely to generate. Nor is it without fome
reluctance that he acknowledges its beneficial effects ina few
*
Our Englifh phyfician was of *
FE £.
particular cafes, Others, on the contrary, are as vehement
in its praife. If we may believe Du Tour, it banifhes lan-
guorand anxiety, gives thofe who drink it a pleafing fenfa-
tion of their own well-being, and diffufes through their
whole frame a vivifying delightful warmth ; it is alfo highly
favourable to the focial virtues, promotes cheerful conyerfa-
tion, fharpens the capacity for witty repartee, fmooths the
wrinkled brow, and is fometimes able to convert enemies
into friends. Did it certainly poffefs the latter property,
who would not devoutly wifh that Napoleon and all the
other monarchs of Europe, without inquiring whether they
have acquired their crowns by ufurpation or by legal heredi-
tary fucceffion, would meet once a year, each accompanied
by his prime minifter, and take an exhilarating cup of cof-
fee together? How in that cafe would they fmle upon
each other, and in what good humour would they return to
their refpective palaces, to difcharge, with benevolent faith-
fulnefs, the important duties of their elevated ftation! But
to defcend from thefe extravagancies of cenfure and panegy~
ric, the truth feems to be, that coffee, like tea, has different
effe&ts upon different conftitutions, and that phyficians are
inclined to recommend or difparage the one or the other, as
it happens to agree or to difagree with theirown. Dr. Fo-
thergil did not venture to decide which of the two is abfo-
lutely the beft. From his perfonal experience he pre-~
ferred coffee; but obferves that neither of them afford any
material fupport, and that they are rather the vehicles of
nourifhment than nutritios of themfelves. The com-
plaints faid to have been produced by the frequent or ex
ceffive ufe of coffee are habitual head-achs, vertigo, tremors,
ma{culine imbecility, pimples of the face, weakened vifion,
and according to profeflor Murray, apoplexy. _{t has alfo
been fufpeGted of producing pallies, and Dr. Percival af-
{ures us, from his own obfervation, that the fufpicion is not
altogether without foundation. As it produces or aggra-
vates hy{terical and hypochondriacal affcGions, Tiffot cau-
tions Jiterary and fedentary people againft, its ufe. To
thofe, however, who are inclined to trim the midnight
lamp, it cannot but be acceptable: but they will perhaps
do well to ufe it rather as an occafional refrefhment
than a regular beverage. Coffee, fays Dr. Percival, is
flightly aftringent and antifeptic ; it moderates alimentary
fermentation, ap4is powerfully fedative. Its ation on the
nervous fy{tem probably depends upon the oil which it con-
tains, which receives its flavour, and is rendered mildly em-
pyreumatic by the procefs of roafting. Its medicinal qua-
lities feem to be derived from the grateful fenfation it pro-
duces on the ftomach, and from the fedative powers it exerts
onthe vis vite. Hence it affilts digeftion, and relieves the
hhead-ach; but in delicate habits, it often occafions watch-
fulnefs, tremors, and many of thofe complaints which are de-
nominated nervous. Dr, Fothergil thought the French
practice of drinking coffee immediately after dinner, with a
view to promote digeftion, much better than our cuflom of
taking it later in the evening ; and that at any rate it isa de
firable fubflitute for the bottle, which, in England and the
northern parts of Europe, detains the gentlemen at the din- f
ner-table fo long after the cloth is drawn, to the a sj
of their health, and fometimes to the injury of their for-
tunes. (See Ellis’s Hiftory of Coffee.. The abbé Ra et
Hiftory of European Settlements: French Baton of >.
Bruce’s Travels in Abyffinia. Edwards’s Hiftory of the
Britifh Welt India Iffands. Woodville’s Medical Botany.
Du Tour in Nouveaux Diétionaire d’Hiftorie Naturelle, and
Didionaire Encyclopedie Methodique, Agriculture, under _
the word Caffayer). ae Lae
he epee ie
COF
By 43 G. UL c, 68. all former duties of cuftoms on cof-
fee are repealed, and the following new duties impofed: For
that which is the produce of any Britifh colony or plantation
jn America, or of any other country or place, on importation,
to be fecured in warehoufes, 6d. per cwt.; and when taken out
of fuch warehoufes for home confumption, 5d. perlb. By 43
G. III. c. 69. all former duties of excife are in like manner
repealed, and in lieu of them the following are impofed: For
every lb. weight avoirdupoife of coffee, of the growth or pro-
duce of any Britith colony or plantation in America, import-
ed into Great Britain, 1s. 1d.; for the fame, if imported by
the Eaft India Company, 1s. 6d; and for the fame of all
other coffee imported into Great Britain, 2s,. No coffee
fhali be imported into Great Britain otherwife than in chelts,
cafes, or packages, containing at leaft 112 lb., on pain of
forfeiting the fame ; and none other fhall be entered for ex-
portation. 5 G. III.c. 43. 23 G. IIl.c. 79. 42 G. III.
¢. 93. Officers of the excile and cuftoms may go on board
fhips, fearch, and feize. 11 G. IIL. c. 80. By 5G.
III. c. 43. if any veflel, coming from foreign parts,
having on board 20 Ibs. of coffee, fhall be found at an-
chor, or hovering within two leagues of the fhore, the cof-
fee fhall be forfeited, and the veffel, &c. be alfo forfeited,
provided fuch veffel doth not exceed the burden of 50 tons.
By 35 G. IIL. c. 118. the commiffiovers of excife Mhali pro-
vide near to the refpeétive ports warehoufes for lodging cof-
fee and cocoa-nuts: and officers of excife fhall mark every
eafk or package of thefe articles on board of fhips importing
them: and if they are fhipped before they are marked, they
fhall be forfeited and feized. When they are taken out of
warehoules, the proprietor fhall give written notice to the
officers, if for home confumption one hour, if for ex'port-
ation 12 hours; bring them to be weighed, and pay the
duty. On producing a certificate of the payment of the du-
ties, a permit for the removal of them fhall be granted. ‘The
importer, within go days after the entry of the veffel, fhall
enter the coffee, cocoa-nuts, &c. with the officer of excife
appointed for this purpofe; andthe fame fhall be landed or
warehonfed, on paying or fecuring the duties. In default of
fuch entry, the fame fhall be deemed clandeltinely run, and
forfeited. 10 G.c. to. 5 G. III. c. 43. Coffee, &c. not
removed, and delivered within the time, {pecified in the per-
mit, fhall be deemed as removed without permit. Cof-
fee, and a!fo tea, intended to be taken out for expor-
tation, fhall be delivered on fecurity given that they fhall
be exported, and not relanded; which fecurity fhall be dif-
charged, on a certificate under the common feal of the
chief magiftrate beyond the feas, or under the hands and feals
of two known Britifh merchants there, that the fame were
landed, or on proof by credible perfons, that they were taken
by enemies, or perifhed in the feas. 10 G.c. 10. By 21
G. If. ¢. 55. no damaged coffee, which cannot be fold for
1s. 6d, a pound, nor cocoa-nuts for 1s, a pound, fhall be
fold to be confumed in this kingdom, but fecured in
warchonfes, and not taken out till fecurity be given for
the exportation of them. Officers of excife feizing for-
feited coffee, &c. fhall be allowed one-third of the clear
fum that fhall arife from the fale after condemnation, &c.
a1 G. III. c. 55. Every perfon keeping a public-houfe,
fhop, &c. for felling of brandy and other {pirituous liquors,
who fhall have in his cuftody coffee, tea, chocolate, or cocoa-
nats above 6 Ibs. weight, fhall be deemed a dealer in fuch
articles. 11 G.c. 30. By 20G. III. c. 35. no perfon fhall
fell any coff-e, &c. without a licence; for which he fhall
pay (by 43 G. IIT. ¢. 69.) 55. 6d, to be annually renewed :
and felling without, fuch licence, incurs a forfeiture of 20/,
Houfes of manufacturing and fale are to be entered at the
COF
office for the divifion on pain of forfeiting 200/. and the
goods, &c. to G.c. to,’ Every houfe, in which coffee, tea,
cocoa-nuts, or chocolate fhall be fold, mult have an infcrip-
tion over the door, ‘dealer in coffee, tea, &c.” on pain of
200/, And perfons buying any of the faid articles of a per-
fon not having fuch infeription over his door, fhall forfeit
too/, Perfons haying fuch isfcription without entry of
their houfes, fhall forfeit 50/, over and above the penalties
for felling or dealing without entry. 19 G. III. c. 69.
Officers may enter houfes, &c. where fuch articles are fold,
to furvey and weigh, and in weighing, be affiled by the
owner, who fhall keep jult weights and fcales, on pain of
too/, and forfeitureof the fame. 10G.e¢.10. 10 G.I1II.
c.44. 28 G. Ill. c. 37. Deceiving or obftructing the of-
ficer incurs a forfeiture of rco/, 26 G. III. c. 77. If any
perfon fhall obitruét an officer fearching for goods fuppofed
to be concealed, he fhall forfeit 100/,; and the feller or
dealer concealing the faid articles, fhall forfeit the fame, and
treble value, with package, &c.; and the obftrudtion of an
officer in feizing or removing the faid goods incurs a ferfei-
ture of 5o/, 10 G.c. 10. No perfon fhall mix with coffee,
any butter or other materials, to increafe the weight, and
knowingly buy or fell any fo mixed, under forfeiture of
1oo/, 31 G. c. 30. Roatfting houfes fhall be appointed by
the commiffioners, with proper officers and perions fkilled
in roafting, and perfons having paid the duties may have
their coffee berrics roafted for Ss. per. cwt.; or the fellers
and dealers may find their own roalters, paying 3s. per cwt.
By 48 G. ILI. c. 129. if any article, made torcfemble coffee
or cocoa, be found in the poffeffion of any dealer, or call-
ed by him Englith or Britifh coffee, &c. it fhall be forfert-
ed, and the dealer fhall forfeit roo/, All fellers and dealers
of coffee, &c. fhall keep a daily account of all coffee, tea,
chocolate, and cocoa-nuts {ld in {mall quantities under 6 lbs. ;
and alfo an account of each parcel above 6 lbs. fold in each
day, in books prepared by the commiffioners, to be returned
to the officer upon oath of the truth of the entries : and ne-
glect of doing the fame fhall incur a forfeiture of 100/, ro G.
c. 10. The commiffioners fhall caufe all coffee and tea feized
in London and condemned, to be fold there; and if feized
elfewhere, they fhall caufe it, after condemnation, to be
brought and fold in London; or, after having been valued
by {worn valuers, they may be fold where the commiffioners
fhall think proper. 12 G. c. 28.
Corree-Berries, in Natural Hifory. Thefe are figured
pyrite found in the cliff of Shepéy ifland, and thought’ to:
refemble the berries of the cofflee-tree in their external form,
by Mr. Jacob, who publifhed an account thereof at the end
of his ‘* Plante Faverfhamenfes.’’
COFFER, a long fquare box about three feet long, and
one anda half broad, ufed for breaking in pieces tin ore ina
ftamping-mill.
Correr, Cap/a, in Architedure, a fquare depreflure, or
finking, in each interval between the modillions of the Corin-
thian cornice; originally filled up with a rofe, fometimes
with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
Thefe finkings, called alfo panels, are of different figures
in the compartments of vaults and foffits.
Correr,in French Coffe, in Fortification, a hollow lodg-
ment, or little ditch made in the great ditch when it is dry,
and has no fauffe-bray. Coffers are made oppofite to or be»
fore the flanks of the baflions, are from 15 to 20 feet wide,
from fix to feven feet deep, and are covered with planks and
earth raifed about two feet higher than the level of the bot-
tom of the ditch, after the manner of a parapet, in order to
have embrafures in them for {mall pieces of artillery to de-
fend the faces of the oppcfite es and to prevent the paff-
4T a ing
€°oO"r
ing of the ditch. Inftead of coffers, caponiers are frequently
made acrofs the ditch, oppofite to the middles of the tenailles
or curtains, which are lodgments four or five fect deep, having
on each lide a palifaded parapet about three feet high, as a
double covered way, to cover the mufqueteers lodged in it,
who fire through the meurtrieres, and pafs through fuch ca-
poniers to get to the outworks. Thefe are alfo made often
upon the glucis of the efplanade, to repel the enemy when he
endeavours to takethe covered way. Coffers are of ufe only
to the befieged. The chamber of a miue is alio called
coffres
Correr, Coffe a feu, coniifts of feveral coffers filled -with
fire-works, and other combuftidle materials, which they con-
ceal in places, by which they {uppofe or fufpe& the enemy
will fend fome foldicrs to attempt an enterprife. They
fet fire to it by means of a train oy powder, or by a faucil-
fon.
Corrér of a herfe, denotes the hollow formed by the
contour of the ribs. See Horse.
Correr, or Cradie, in Inland Navigation, denotes a large
wooden trunk or veflel opea at top, with moveable ends,
Jarge enough to receive a barge or vetlel from a canal, in or-
der to its being hoifted into a higher pound of a canal; or let
down from it. See fub{itutes for locks in our article Can au.
See Cana and Lock.
COFFER-DAM, a term in Engineery fora circular double
range of piles, with clay rammed between, formed round any
entrance lock toa dock, bafon, or canal, where the fame can-
not otherwife be laid dry for digging out and building the
foundations. See our articles Canav and Locx.
Correr-Dam, Batardeau, Fr.; an enclofure ufed in
laying the foundations of bridyes and other aqnatic buildings.
The earielt mention of coffer-dams occurs in the writings of
Alberti, cap. 6. lib. 2. ‘* Make,”’ fays he, ** the foundations
of your piers in autuma when the water is loweft, having firlt
raifed an enclofure to keep off the water, which may be
done in this manner. J)rive in a double row of ftakes, very
clofe and thick fet, with their heads above the top of the wa-
ter like atrench; then put hugdles within this donble row
of itakes, clofe to thet fide of the row which is next to the
intended pier, and fill up the hollow between the two rows
with rufhes and mud, ramming them together fo hard that
no water can get through ; then whatever you find within the
enclofure, water, mud, fand, or whatever elfe is a hindrance
to you, throw them out, and dig till you come to a folid
foundation.”” This m:thod recommended by Alberti, will
anfwer for fhallow water, but the coffer-dams in deep and
rapid rivers mult be conftructed with four or fix rows of
ftrong piles connected together with ties, to form a frame-
work of timber, and covered on each fide with a fheeting
of planks ; then the interflices of the frame are to be filled in
with clay or chalk carefuily rammed to make the whole
ftaunch.
COFFERER of the King’s Houfehold, a principal officer
in the court, next under the comptroller; who, in the
compting-houle, and elfewhere at other times, has a fpecial
charge and overfight of other officers of the houfe, for their
good demeanour and carriage in their offices; to all whom
he pays the wages. See Housgxoup.
COFFIN, ina general fenle, a wooden box or trunk,
into which the bodies of dead perfons are put, in order for
burial.
Coffins, at various periods, have been made of’ very
different materials. Coffins formed of a fingle ftone, hol-
jowed with a chiffel, are attributed by Mr. Gough to the
Romans. They were fometimes of marble. Some of them
CcCOFr
contained two or more bodies, others only one; in which
cafe it was not unufual for them to be made to fit the body,
with cavities for the reception of the head, arms, and other
protuberances.
rioufly wrought, was in ufe among the firft Chriltians in
England; who, in all probability, copied the cuftoms of the
Romans, after the conquerors had quitted our ifland. The
coffin, called ‘ kiftvaen,?? found among ancient relies in
this kingdom, was compofed of rough ftones, fet edgeways
at the fides and ends, and covered with one or more flat
{tones. Sometimes the flones were cemented together fo
that the joints were not difcernible, and fometimes they were
compofed of baked clay or tiles. The leaden coffin was in
ufe among the Romans, not only for tae reception of the
body, but, in many inftances, for the afhesand bones, It
was adopted by the Chriltians, and continues in frequent ufe
to the pretent time, efpecially among the more opulent.
However, lead was not the only metal nfed for coffins,
Alexander was buried in a golden coffin by his fueceffor
Ptolemy ; and Mr. Gough fays, that glafs coffins have been
found in England. The moit ancient inflance of weoden
coffins on record among us, is that of king Arthur, who was
buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed. The monk
of Glaftonbury calls it ‘ Sarcophazus ligacus.”? On this
fubjeét fee Gough’s Sepulchral Monuments in Great Bn-
tain, part i. fol. 1786.
The great improvements which took place in the cafting
of iron about 20 or 30 years ago, enabling large articles to
be run much thinner than before, fuseefied the introdaction
of caft-iron coffins ; thefe were calk at fomeof the Yorkthire
founderies, of different fizes, extremely thin, and fo appor-
tioned, that they packed one within another, after the manner
of neits of pill-boxes, for the convenience of carriage. From
not having heard of thefe iron ceffins of late, we apprehend
that they were not found to anfwer in point of expence.
The increafing practice of {tealing dead bodies out of church+
yards and burying grounds, for the ufe of the anatomical
{chools, and lecture rooms of the metropolis, having excited
the alarms of a great number of perfons, on the 5th of July,
1796, Mr. Gabricl Anghtie took ont a patent for en im-
proved kind of coffin, which fhould render the ftealing of
bodies therefrom very difficult, if notimpoffible. Thefe pa-
tent coffius are made of wood, in the common way, except that
no faw-curfs are made in the fides for facilitating their bend-
ing to the fhape, and by which the fides of common coffins
are fo much weakened ; the infide of the bottom, files, end,
and top, are fecured by iron plating, and with angle pieces,
from beiug cut cr forced open; on the under-lide of the lid
are fixed eight double {pring-catches, and within the top of
the fides, erght brafs fockets, exactly fitted to the catches,
fo that when the coffin is to be finally clofed thefe ipring-
catches enter the fockets, and by {pringing opea when the
lid is clofe put down, they effetually tecure the lid fram aed ;
again removed, as no tool or initrument can be Introd
to contraé the fprings again, aod prepare them for being
drawn back, D
employs {crews to further fecure the lid, fimilar to thofe uled
in common, except that each {crew head has both halves of
it filed away in a bevelled form, and in contrary directions,
fo that the fcrew-driver has perfe&t hold for driving or ferew-
ing them in, but none for drawing or unfcrewing them again,
For further fecurity, thefe patent ferews have their heads
let into the lid, and a plug of wood, which matches the grain
of the wood in the lid, is titted in upon them, fo as to conccal
the places of thefe fcrews. :
Corrin, in the Manege, the whole hoof of a horfe’s foot,
3
Between thefe ipring-catches the patentee -
The folid ftone, or marble coffin, often cue.
COG
above the coronet; including the coffin-bone, the fole, and
the fruhh. ‘
Corrin Jone, isa {mall fpongy bone, enclofed in the midit
of the hoof, and poffeffing the whole form of the foot.
Corrin joint, is that where the leffer paftera joins the foot.
A ftrain in this joint occafions a ftiffnefs, which can only be
removed by bliftering and firing.
-Corrin, in the Manufadure of China. See Cassette.
COG, in Afechanics. See Mitu and WHEEv.
COGA, in Geography, an ifland of Abyfiizia, in the lake
of Dembea.
COGHONUM, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
river and of a mountain, placed by Strabo in the country of
theGete. He favs, that Zemolxis cultomarily reftded on
this mountain, and that the Gete, after having deified him,
gave itthe epithet of * Sacred.”
COGAMUS, a river of Afia Minor, at the foot of
mount Imolus, according to Pliny, |. v. c. 29.
COGARETO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
flate of Genoa; 9 miles E.N.E. of Savona.
COGEAD, a lake of North America, 50 miles long,
and ro broad. N. lat. 66°. W. long. 109°.
COGEDUS, or Concepus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Spain, in Celtiberia, and in the vicinity of Bilbilis.
tis thought to be the prefent ‘* Rio de Codes,” which
runs into the Xalon.
COGGESHALL, in Geography, a town of England,
in the county of Effex, with a weekly market on Thurf-
days; 94 miles W. of Colchefter, and 44 N.E. of Lon-
don.
CocceEsHane’s Siiding-rele, an inftrument ufed in gaug-
ing, fo called from its inventor. See the defcription and
ufe under SuipinG-RuULE. 7
COGGIA, or Cocra, in Geography,-a town of the
ifland of Corfica ; 6 miles S. of Vico.
COGGLE, or Coc, a fmall fithing-boat upon the coats
of Yorkshire ; and cogs (cogones) area kind of little thips
or veflels ufed in the rivers Oufe and Humber. Stat. 23 H.
VIII. c.18. Preparatis cogonibus, galles, & aliis navibus,
&c. Mat. Paris, an. 1066. And hence the cogmen, boat-
men, and feamen, who, after fhipwreck or loffes by fea,
travelled and wandered about to defraud the people by
begging and ftealing ; until they were ieltrained by divers
good laws.
COGHAN, Wirtiam, in Biography, matter of arts,
and bachelor of phyfic (as he calis himfelf in the title to his
work), was born in Somerfetfhire, about the middle of the
“y6th century. He received his academical education at the
‘univerfity of Oxford; was made bachelor of arts, and fellow
‘of Oriel college in 1553, and bachelor in medicine in 1574.
The year following he quitted Oxford, having been ap-
pointed matter of the {chool at Manchetter, where he alfo
practifed in his profeffion, to the time of his death, which
happened inthe year 1607. In the year 1584, he publifhed
«fone Haven of Health,” chiefly gathered for the comfort
of ftudents, amplified upon tive words of Hippocrates, wiz.
«‘Jabor, cibus, potio, fomnus, venus 3”? whereunto is added,
.« A Prefervation from the Peftilence, with a fhort Cenfure
of the late Sicknefs at Oxford.’? It is a very curious book,
full of quotations from the ciaflics, recommending temper-
ance and exercife, as the beft prefervatives and reftorers of
health. Towards the end of the volume, he has given a
brief hillorical account of the {weating ficknefs, and of the
ficknefs which happened at Oxford in 1575. ‘ It began,’’
he fays, ‘‘on the fixth day of July, from which day to the
twelfth day of Auguit next enfuing, there died five hundred
and ten perfons, all men and no women.” <A\s the author
COG
was thereat the time, we are obliged to give credit to this
flrange circumftance, of which no parallel, as far as we
know, is to be found. Coghan alfo publifhed in 1602,
«An Epitome of the familar Epiftles, and fome of the
Orations of Cicero,’? for the ufe, we prefume, of his
{chool. Wood’s Athenz Oxor.
COGHNAWAGA, in Geography.
WAJA.
COGITATION, the a& or operation of thinking. Sce
THINKING.
COGLIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Principato Citra; 13 miles N.N.W. of Can-
giano.
COGNABANDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy.
COGNABARA, or Cocnanpava, a town of India,
on this fide the Ganges. Ptolemy.
COGNAC, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftri¢t in the department of the Charente,
feated on the river Charente, and having a fub-prefe@ and
a court of juftice. The town contains 2827, and the can-
ton 11,358 inhabitants. ‘The territory comprehengs 2345
kiliometres and 19 communes. ‘The whole diftriG includes
7ocommunes, 735 kiliometres, anda population amounting
to 44,145 perfons. It has four cantons, viz. Cognac, Cha-
teauneuf, Jarnae-Charente, and Segonzsc. ‘The foil is very
fertile, and produces in abundance corn, wine, and fruit.
It has always been famous for its brandy ; and carries on a
confiderable trade not only in brandy, but in wine, both red
and white, fpirit of wine, and linfeed. It has alfo fome
manufaQures of earthen ware. Cognac is 7 leagues W. of
Angoulefme. N. lat..45° 42’. W. long. 20° 287.
Coenac, atown of [rance, in the department of the
Upper Vienne; 20 miles S.E. of Confolent.
COGNATION, in the Civil Law, the bond of relation
between all the defcendants of the fame ftock, both males
and females; by which it is diltinguifhed from agnation,
which only comprehends the defcendants of the male
fex.
In France, for the fucceffion of the crown, they follow
agnation ; in England, Spain, &c. cognations; women'cominig
to the fucceffion, according to the degree of proximity,’
in default of males, or their defcendants from branch to
branch.
In the Roman Law, the words cognatio and cognati are
alfo taken in a more limited fenfe ; cognatio fignityiny only
the bond of relation between the defcendants from the fame
{tock by women ; and cognati thofe between whom there
was {uch a bond of relation fubfiting.
COGNE, in Geography, a valley of Piedmont, belong-
ing tothe bifhop ot Aolta, fo called from the {mall river
which waters it. The mountains, by which it is furrounded,
are rich in mines of iron and copper. It contains 13 vil-
lages, the chief of which is Cogne; 6 miles diftant frora
Aofla. -
COGNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany,
according to Ptolemy.
Cocni, or Konien, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, the capital of Caramania, and the ordinary reti-
dence of a beglerbeg, fituated in a beautiful and fertile
country. [t is very large, and its walls are fupported
by 108 fquare towers, at the diftance of 40 paces from
each other. It has two confiderable fauxbourgs, into ove
of which the caravans and flrangers retire. All the inha-
bitants are Turks, Armenians, Jews, and others, who come
hither to trade, and lodge inthe khans, where they are fup-
plied with ail neceflaries. Cogni is the fee of a PDR
209
See Cacune-
COG
260 miles S.E. of Conftantinople.
long: 50° 45’.
COGNIOL, in Jchthyology, a name given by fome to the
Jeomber colias, a kind of mackare), rather {mailer than the
common fort, and which has the bedy varied with fine green
and blue. It is fuppofed to be the young of the common
mackarel. :
COGNISEE, or Connusze, in Law, is the perfon to
whem a fine of lands, &c. is acknowledged,
COGNISOR, or Conusor, is he that paffeth, or ac-
knowledgeth, a fine of lands and tenements to another. Sce
Fine, and RECOGNIZANCE.
COGNITIVE is fometimes. applied to that faculty or
power of the human mind, by which we know any thing,
or are enabled to diftinguifh troth from falfity.
Latin writers ufe the terms facultas cogno/citiva in the fame
fenfe.
Hobbes has made ufe of the terms cognitive power, for the
power of knowing, or conceiving, in contradiltinstion to
motive power, or appetite.
COGNITIONIBUS mittendis, in Law, a writ to any
of the kinz’s juitices of the common pleas, who has the
power of taking a fine, and who, having taken a fine, defers
to certify it, commanding him to certify the fame.
COGNIZANCE, or Cocnisancs, in Heraldry.
Crest.
Cocnizance, or Conusance, in Law, is the acknow-
Jedgement of a fine ; or the concefiion of a thing done. In
which fenfe we fay cognofcens laira, a thief that conféffes.
Coenizance is alfo ufed for a power, or jurifdiétion.
Thus, cognizance of pleas denotes an ability to call a plea
out of another court; which no one but the king can do,
unlefs he can fhow a particular charter forit. See Fran-
CHISE.
Before defence made, if at all, cognizance of the fuit
mutt be claimed or demanded ; when any perfon or body cor-
porate hath the franchile, not only of dolding pleas within
a particular limited jurifdiction, but alfo of the cognizance
of pleas ; and that, either cithgué any Words exclufive of other
courts, which entitle the lord of the franchile, whenever
any fuit that belongs to his. jurifdiGtion is commenced in the
courts of Weftmintter to demand cognizance thereof ; or
with {ach exclufive words, which alfo entitle the defendant
to plead to the jurifdiction of the court. 2 Lord-Raym.
836. 10 Mod. 126. Upon this claim of engnizance, if
allowed, all proceedings fhall ceafe in the fuperior court, and
the plaintiff is left at hberty to purfue his remedy in the fpe-
cial jurifdiétion. As, when a {cholar, or other privileged
perfon, of the univerfities of Oxford or Cambridge, is im-
pleaded in the courts at Weltmiafter, for any caufe of action
whatfoever, ualefs upon a queftion of freehold. In thefe
cafes, by the charter of thefe learned bodies, confirmed by
a&t of parliament, the chancellor and vice-chancellor may
put in “a claim of cognizance,” which, if made in due
time and form, and with due proof of the faéts alleged, 1s
regularly allowed by the courts. It muit be demanded, be-
fore full defence is made or imparlance prayed ; for thefe
are a fubmiffion to the jurifdiGtion of the fuperior court, and
the delay is a /uches in the lord of the freachife : and it will
not be allowed, if it occafions a failure of jultice, or if an
action be brought againft the perfon himfelf, who claims
the franchife, unlefs he hath alfo a power in fuch cafe of
making another judge. 2 Venrr. 363. Hob. 87. Yearbook,
M. 8. Hen. VI. 20. 3 Comm. 298. See Univeryity
Court. Hg4 X
CoGNIZANCE, notice, power, or jurifdi@tion. Tn a mili-
tary feule or acceptation, it denotes the inveltigation or trial,
Ne Mats 2389 ratory.
See
Crorw
to which any perfon fubje& to martial law, or any a&t of
his, is liable. During the fafpenfion of civil authority,
every offence is an obje& of military cognizance, is fubject
to martial law, and may be proceeded upon according to
the f{ummary f{pirit and nature of its regulations:—A drum-
head court-martial for inftance.
CoGnizance is fometimes ufed alfo for an audience, or
hearing of a matter judicially. In which fenfe we fay, to
take cognizance, &c. Ou
CoGnizanCce, again, is ufed for a badge on a waterman’s,
or fervingman’s fleeve, which is commonly the giver’s
cre(t, whereby he is difcerned to belong to this or that
nobleman, or gentleman.
Coenizancer, &c. fine Sur, &c. See Fine.
Cocn:zance in replevin. See Repreyim.
COGNOMEN, in Roman Antiquity, a name that was pe-
culiar to fome family, or more properly to fome branch of that
family. The cognomen, which originally was often a kind of
nick-name, or on the contrary an appellation of honour, dif-
tinguifhed the different branches of the fame houfe, “in
eadem gente ;”” as when Livy fays (I. 9. ¢, 29.), that the
houfe of the Potitii was divided into 12 families. Sce
Name. .
COGNOVIT adionem, in Law, is where a defendant
acknowledges or confeffes the plaintiffs caufe againit him to
be juft and true ; and before or after iffue, fuffers judgment
to be entered again{t him without trial. Here the confeffion
generally extends no farther than to what is contained in the
declaration ; but if the defendant will confefs more, he may.
t Rol. 929. Hob. 178. See Jupcmenr. But frequently
the defendant confefles one part of the complaint, and
traverfes or denies the rett. rie
COGOLLA, in Geography, a river of Spain, which runs
inte the Nagarella, in the country of Rioja. '
COGOLLUDO, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ;
20 miles W. of Siguenga. 4 2
COGORETO, or Cocurro, a village of Italy, on
the coaft of Genoa, remarkable for being the native place of
Chriftopher Columbus, the difcoverer of America.
COGOXIMA. See Cancoxima.
COGS. See Cocecre. t
COGWARE is faid to be a fort of coarfe cloths, made
in divers parts of England, of which mention is made in
73 R. Il. c. ro.
CO-HABITATION, implies a concubinage, copula-
tion, or carnal knowledge, between two perfons. Itisrarely
ufed, except in a criminal fenfe.
COHALA, in Geography, a ftationary tribe of Arabs
in Abyffinia, who do not live in tents, but are tributary to
the mek, occupying different diftri€ts of Sennaar, near the
river Rahad, and regularly paying all the taxes and exaGtions
which are impofed by the government of Sennaar. |
COHASSET, a townthip of America in the county of
Norfolk, and {tate of Maffachufetts, incorporated in 1770,
and containing $17 inhabitants. It hasa congregational
church, ard includes 126 houfes, feattered in different forms. | -
The dangerous rocks of this name lie off this place, about a”
league from the fhore. Itis diftant about 25 miles 5.E.
from Bofton, or in a ftraight line about half of this diftance.
COHAUSEN, Joun Henry, in Biography, a learned
and ingenious phyfician, was born at Hildefheim in Lower
Saxony, towards the end of the feventeénth century. Being
educated to the praétice of medicine, afcer taking the degree _
of do@tor, he went to Muntter, where he feon diltinguifhed
himfelf, by his fuperior fkill and abilities. His works,
which are numerous, bear ample tettimony to the vigour
of his intelleéts, and of his application to letters. His lafl ~
I work,
COH
work, “ Hermippus Redivivus,” in which he profeffes to
fhew the practicability of prolonging the lives of elderly per-
fons to 115 years, by receiving the breath, and tranfpirations
of healthy young females, was written, or firit publifhed,
when he was in his 77th year. Thisywas tranflated into
Englifh, and publifhed, with additions and improvements,
by the late Dr. John Campbell, under the title of ‘¢ Her-
mippus Redivivus, or the Sage’s triumph over old Age and
the Grave.” A vein of humour runs through this, and
indeed through moft of the productions of this writer,
which gave them great popularity when firlt publifhed,
‘though they are now little noticed, exeeptine, perhaps, the
work jult mentioned, in which the irony is extremely deli-
cate, and his rhapfody, again{t the prevailing paflion of
taking {nuff. He affects to confider a paffion for taking
{nufi as a diteafe of the noftriis, fimilar to that affecting the
ftomach of girls in chlorofis, and therefore calls it the pica
nafi. The title of this produ¢tion is, ‘¢ Differtatio Saty-
rica, phyfico-medico-moralis, de Pica Nafi five ‘Tabaci
fternutatorii moderno abufu, et noxa.”’? Amftelodami, 1716,
r2mo.
Ruyfch, in the latter part of his life, imagined he had dif-
covered a mufcle at the fundus uteri, to which he delegated
che office of expelling the placenta, and to which he thought
the performance of that duty might be left. This our
author hasridiculed in a little volume, to which he gave the
title of * Lucina Ruyfehiana, five mufculus uteri erbicularis
a clariflimo, D, D. Ruyfchio deteétus,’’ publifhed at
Amfterdam, 1731. he following is a fpecimen of the
autbor’s humour on the oceafion :
« Vos obftetrices manum a placenta ;
Nolite iilam, fi relutetur, tangere.
Adeff expulfor mufculus,
Qui illam, mechanicis fuis digitis, extrahet,
Et molem inutilem ejiciat, deftinato tempore ;
Si fata volent.”’
And further on,
6 Vos obftetrices, fi fetum extraxeritis,
Refftat autem placenta.
Ite nunc domum, haud anxiz,
An mors, av alia fymtomata illam retentam fequantur;
Modo utero vim nullam intuleritis.
Mofeulus orbicularis veftras vices-
fupplebit,
Et placentam indubitato, ni fallimur, extrahet.
Quid ad vos, fi hic fuo officio
non fungatur ?
Ovos, nunc tali invento mufculo, felices! -
Vos femine decumanis laudibus maétate
Magnum Ruyfchium,
Quod falutis veftre mytterium non celarit, obftetrices.””
~~He -publithed the preceding year, ‘ Archeus faber
febrium et Medicus,” and in 1716, ‘* Neothea,”’ written to
fhew the folly of fending to China for tea, when we have fo
many herbs at hand, as pleafant, and more healthy ; but his
wit was not powerful enough to make either the ufe of tea
er tobacco unfafhionable. or the titles of others of his
works, fee Boerhaave’s Methodus Studii Medici. Cohaufen
died at Muntter, July 18th, 1750, in the S5th year of his
age.
SCOHAWSY or Casaria,in Geography, a {mall river of
North America, which rifes in the county of Salem, in the
ftate of New Jerfey, and purfuing its courfe through
Cumberland county, difcharyes itfelf into Delaware river,
oppofite to the wpper end of Bombay Hook. It is
about 30 miles in length, and is navigable for veflels of
cOH
100 tons to Bridgetown, at the diftance of 20 miles from
its mouth.
CO-HEIR,a
with another heir. ’
COHEL, a name given in Egypt to a preparation of tin
burnt with gall-nuts, which the Turkith women make ufe of
to blacken, and lengthen their eye-brows.
COHERENCE, a fchool-term, applied to propofitions,
difcourfes, &c. which have a mutual conneGticn, or depend-
ance on one another. j
COHESION, compounded of the particle co, with or
together, and the verb Aaerere, to flick, in Philofophy, means
that ation or power, by which the homogeneous particles
of bodies remain attached to cach other, as if they were but
one; thus the particles of gold, or of mercury, or even of
water, &c. cohere together; norcan they be feparated with-
out employing a degree of force, which mutt be different not
only in different bodies, but ikewife in the fame body under
different circumflances. This fame power of cohefion, be-
tween the homogeneous particles of matter, 1s called, hy the
chemifts, the aftradion of aggregation. The philofophical
writers have generally annexed the fame meaning to the
words adbefion and cohefion; we have, however, for diltine-
tion fake, ufed the former ina fenfe fomewhat different from
the Jatter, and this difference has already been ftated under
the article ApneEston.
In contemplating the power of cohefion, two different par-
ticulars prefent themfelves for our examination ; namely, the
fa&ts which have been experimentally afcertained relatively to
it, and the theories which have been offered in explanation of
thofe fe@s.
The various bodies of the univerfe, when confidered with
refpeét to the conneGtion of their particles, are diftinguifhed
into folids, fluids, and elaftic fluids. The particles of the
folds cohere with a very great power; whilft thofe of the
elaftic fluids, inftead of cohering, repel each other. The
fluids, like water or alcohol, are in an intermediate ftate,
viz, their component particles flightly cohere, at the fame
time that, when expofed, they are continually evaporative,
that 13, affuming the elaftic, or yaporous form.
Several bodies have been found to affume all the above-
mentioned fates, according as they are more or lefs com-
bined with caloric, or the matter of heat. Thus water is a
folid below the temperature of 32°, is a fluid between the
temperatures of 32° and 212°; and becomes an elaflic fluid
when heated beyond the laft mentioned degree. Abftraét
the heat, and the vapour gradually becomes a fluid, and
this fluid becomes a folid, viz. ice. The like tranfition of
ftate has been obferved in various other bodies ; hence we
are induced, from analogy, to conclude, that, were it in our
power to deprive every fubftance of all its heat, the whole
range of natural bodies, including even the aérial fluid, might
be converted into folids.
Befides heat, there is another power which weakens the
cohetion of the homogeneous particles of bodies, and this is
the attraction between the particles of different forts of mat-
ter, Thus, a folid falt, when put in water, is diffolved, viz.
its particles are feparated from each other, in virtue of the
attraction between them and the particles of water. Re-
move the water by means of evaporation, and the particles
of falt will again cohere into a folid form. This is called
by the chemitts, the attradion of affinity, and the very ex-
tenfive feries of chemical phenomena, depends principally,
if not entirely, upon the various aflinities of natural bodies.
See Curemican AFFINITY.
It appears, therefore, that the homogeneous particles of
every fort of matter, have a mutual tendency towards one
another,
perfon who fhares an inheritance or eftate
COHESION.
another, in confequence of which they cohere more or lefo
owerfully, according as that powcr ia counteracted ina
Feffer or greater degree, either by the interference of heat,
or by the affinity to other bodies, namely, the chemical affi-
nity. And the effeé&t is much more remarkable when both
thofe powers a& at the fame time. Strictly {peaking, the
aétion of heat ought to be included in the general name of
chemical affinity.
Independent of the a€tual interference of the two above-
mentioned counteracting powers, the particles of the fame
kind of matter will cohere with various degrees of force, ac-
cording as they have been permitted to defcend from the
foft, or fluid flate, to the folid form, either gradually or
abruptly ; which clearly indicates a fort of polarity in the
particles, that is, a tendency to arrange themfelves in one
particular manner, rather than in any other, in order to co-
here more powerfully ; and hence arife feveral qualities of
the fame folid, viz. tenacity, elafticity, rigidity, tranfparency,
regularity of form, commonly called cryttallization, &c.
Thus, if the aqueous part of a faline folution, and the heat,
be caufed to elcape fuddenly, the falt will be left in a pul-
verized form, whofe particles fhew a flight adhefion, if any,
to one another. But Jet the water and the heat efcape very
gradually, and the particles of the fale will arrange themfelves,
fo as to form regular bodies, called cryftals, of confiderable
fize, hardnefs, and tran{parency. Thus likewife, if a piece
of {teel be made red hot, and be afterwards cooled gradually,
it will remain pretty foft and pliable ; but if it be cooled
fuddenly, as by plunging it in water, and efpecially in quick-
filver, the piece of ftecl will afterwards be found very hard
and brittle, fo much fo that a file will have no action
upon it.
It is hardly neceflary to add any proofs of the exiftence of
the above-mentioned cohefive power, fince common experi-
ence fhows, how two drops of water, or of quickfilver, or of
any other fluid, ruth together when they are barely brought
to touch in fome {mall part of their furfaces; how a drop of
a fluid endeavours to aflume a globular form, in confequence
of the mutual attraétion of its particles; how the motion of
afolid in a fluid is retarded by the cohefion between the
particles of the latter ; how difficult it is to break a metallic
rod, or any other folid, &c.
Take two leaden bullets, fuch as are ufed for mufkets,
ferape off a part of each, fo as to form two {mall plain and
bright furfaces, apply thefe to each other, bringing the parts
clofe by compreffion, and a little twit with your fingers.
Now thefe bullets will be found to adhere very forcibly to
each other, foas to require a ftrong power (equivalent fome-
times to the weight of 5, or 6, or 8, or even more pounds),
in order to feparate them.
will no longer appear flat ; for part of the metal of one bul-
let feems to be intimately faftened to the other. ‘This ex-
periment will not anfwer in the fame manner when harder
metallic bodies are employed.
The knowledge of the tenacity of bodies is of great con-
fequence in civil economy, and efpecially in the mechanical
arts; hence feveral experiments have been inflituted for this
purpofe ; yet it is to be wifhed that the performance ofa
greater variety of fuch experiments, under the various cir-
cumfances which affe& the ftrength and tenacity of bodies,
viz, the various temperature, fize, and other qualities, were
undertaken by perfons'of knowledge and ability, in order to
render the ule of nacural bodies in mechanics, and other ufe-
fal branches, more certain and determinate. Profeffor
Mufchenbroeck made and publifhed a greater number of
experiments, for determining the cohefion of various fub-
flances, than any other philofophical writer, They do not
When feparated, the furfaces -
allrelate to bodies of an homogeneous nature; for he tried
hkewife theeshefion, or ftrength of different forts of wood,
which are compofed ef earthy, faline, refinous, and various
other particles, We fhall, however, tranferibe them all toe
gether, as they form a very ufeful collection of refults, relae
tive to the flrength of various bodies.
P. Mufchenbroeck, in order to try the cohefive power of
two polifhed planes, took two lumps of the fame fubftance,
fuch as plafs and giafs, copper and copper, &c. he flattened
and polifhed a part of each, and adapted thofe furfaces to
each other, by the interpofition of fome foft {ubftance which
might exclude the air; then, havivg faftened one of thofe
pieces to a firm ftand, he appended weights to the other,
until the planes were feparated from each other, and noted
the weights which eflected the feparation. When the po-
lifhed planes were about two inches in diameter, the pieces
were heated in boiling water, in order to melt a little greafe
that was interpofed between the polifhed planes. Two
lumps of glafs, or brafs, &c. thus prepared, were feparated
by the weights expreffed in the following table:
Cold greale, Hot greafe,
Planes of glafs, - 130 |b. > 3co |b.
brafs, = 150 - 809
copper, = 2¢0 - 850
marble, = 225 - 600
fives - oe, 50 - 250
iron, - 300 - 950 :
When the brafs planes were made to adhere by the inter=
pofition of other fubltances, the refults were as follow ;
With water, - 12 oz, to feparate them, '
oil, = 18
Venice turpentine, 24
candle tallow, - 8co
refin, - 850
pitch, - 1400
To afcertain the abfolute cohefion of folid pieces of wood,
he ufed pieces in the fhape of Jong fquare parallelopipedons,
each of whofe fides was 0.26 of an inch, and they were
broken by the following weights, which were applied in the
direétion of their length <
Fir, - 600 lb.
Elm, - 950
Alder, - 000
Linden-tree, - 1000
Oak, - 1150
Beech, - 1250
Ath, - 1250
He tried likewife wires of different metals, by appending
weights in the diretion of their length, until they parted.
The diameter of each wire was equal to 0.1 of a Rhinland
inch (equal to 0.09712 ofan inch Englifh). Therefultwere
as follows: 4 Pa
Lead - 209% lb.
Tin - - 40%
Copper e 299%
Yellow brafs « 350
Silver - - 370 eo
Tron - = 45°
Gold - 500 ’ :
In order to try the tranfverfe cohefion of different forts of
wood, or when the force acted in a direction perpendicular
to their length, he fixed one of the ends of the pieces,
which were fimilar to thofe mentioned above) into a fquare
hole ina metal plate, and hung weights on the other end, fyf-
ficient
xy
<f
1
as
CONES I On.
ficient to break each piece at the faid hole. The weights
and diltances from the hole were as follow :
Pieces of Wood. Diftances. Weights.
Fir - - 9 inches. = 40 OZ.
Oak - 8z - 48
Elm - - 9 - mi runt
Pine “ - 03 a 302
Alder - 94 - - 48
Beech - - q - - 5605
See Mufchenbroek’s Introductio ad Cohzrentiam Corpo-
rum firmorum apud Phyfice Exper. et Geom. Differta-
tiones ; and Introdudtio ad Philof. Nat. 4to. ed. 1762. tom. i.
cap. 21.
Mr. Emerfon likewife performed feveral experiments re«
“fpeGing the fame fubje&, to which he fubjoimed {ome judi-
cious obfervations. See his Principles of Mechanics, the
latter end of the 7th fection; where he expreffes himfelf in
the following manner:
“ The proportion of the ftrength of feveral forts of wood,
and other bodies, that I have tried, will appear in the follow-
ing table:
« Box, yew, plum tree, oak - Tr
Elm, ath i - - 83
Wainut, thorn - - - 9%
Red fir; holly, elder, plane, crab tree, apple
tree - = 2 4
Beech, cherry tree, hazle és c 62
Alder, afp, birch, white fir, willow or faugh 6
Tron - - - 107
Brafs - - = 50
Bone - - * = 22
Lead - - - 64
Fine free ftone = - - I
*¢ In this table I have put feveral forts of wood into one
elafs together, which I found to be pretty nearly of the fame
ftrengcth ; as I found fometimes one fort to exceed in ftrength,
and fometimes another ; there being a great difference even
in the {ame fort of wood’; and I don’t doubt but other people
that fhall make experiments, will find them as different and
various as I have done, and perhaps, quite different from
mine, juft according to the goodnefs or badnefs of the wood
they ufe. But I have contented myfelf to fet down what I
found from my own experience, as the refult of a great many
trials, without any regard to what other people have done or
may do. What | (hall further addis this :
« A cylindric rod of good clean fir, of an inch circum-
ference, drawn in Jength, will bear at the extremity, 4oolb. ;
and a {pear of fir two inches diameter, will bear about feven
ton; but not more.
«© A rod of good iron of an inch circumference, will bear
near three ton weight.
«A good hempen rope of an inch circumference, will
bear zooolb. at the extremity.
« Allthis fuppoles thefe bodies to be found and good
throughout, but none of thefe fhould be put to bear more
than a third or fourth part of that weight, efpeeially for any
Jength of time.”
The late Dr. Crawford, a. gentleman well known for his
excellent publication on elementary heat, once undertook a
feries of experiments for the purpofe of determining the va-
rious degrees of force requifite to break metallic wires in dif-
ferent degrees of temperature ; but his premature death pre-
vented the accomplifiment of his experiments ; nor does it ap-
pear, that therefult of thofe few which he lived to perform,
was ever made public. He heated the wires in a cylindrical
~-veffel full of oil.
Vou. VIII.
Having ftated the particulars that have been afcertained
experimentally concerning the power of ecohefion ; we fhall
now make a fhort excurlion into the region of {uppofition and
hypothefis; briefly mentioning fome of the ideas that have
been entertained refpeGing the caufes of thofe phenomena.
The abfurdity of moft of thofe fuppofitions, and the infufi-
ciency of others, render them undeferving of any ferious
confideration. Amongft the moft enlightened philofophers
who have confidered the fubje&t, fome have attributed the
cohefion of the particles, &c. to an immaterial power ; others,
with J. Bernoulli at their head, have attributed it to the ex-
ternal preflure of the aévial, or an etherial, atmofphere. (See
J. Bernouilli De Gravitate Atheris.) The firft of thefe
fuppofitions is utterly unintelligible; the fecond, when
brought to the teft of experiment and computation, is found
to be utterly inadequate to the effect. Sir Ifaac Newton,
without attempting to invefligate the nature of the power,
judicioufly contents himfelf with calling it a mutual attraGtion
peculiar to the particles of matter. His words are as fol-
low:
« The particles of all hard homogeneous bodies, which
touch one another, cohere with a good force ; to account for
which fome philofophers have recourfe to a kind of hooked
atoms, which, in effect, is nothing elfe but to beg the thing
in queftion. Others imagine, that the particles of bodies are
conneted by reft, 2. ¢. in effet, by nothing at all; and
others by confpiring motions, 7. ¢. by a relative reft among
themfelves. For myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the
particles of bodies cohere by an attractive force, whercby they
tend mutually towards each other ; which force, in the very
point of contact, is very great; at little diftances is lefs;
and at a little farther diftance is qnite infenfible.””
But what fort of attraétion can this be, which decreafes
and vanifhes at diftances fo very {mall ?—Break a glafs rod,
then apply the parts to each other as clofe as you will, fo
that the fra@ure can hardly be difcerned ; yet the adhefion is
infenfible. Defaguliers, without giving any proof of the
fa&t, conjectures, that the cohefive power decreafes in the ratio
of the fourth power of the increafed diltance; fo that at
twice the diftance, it ais 16 times weaker; at three times
the diftance it aéts 81 times weaker, and fo forth. hata
power (like the attraétion of gravitation,) fhould decreafe
according to the fquares of the diftances, may be eafily com-
prehended ; it being demonftratively true, that all powers or
emanations, which proceed froma centre, and expand al.
ways {pherically, mutt become more and more rere, in the
proportion of the f{quares of the diftances from the centre of
emanation. Butit 1s extremely difficult to form any idea of
a power that decreafes in the racio of the fourth, or any
higher power of the diftances.
When every thing is duly confidered, it appears much
more rational to fuppofe, that each particle of matter is en-
cowed with a polarity analogous to that of a magnet, viz.
that with one of its fides or ends, a particle of matter can at-
traét the fame end of another particle, but that it will repel
it with its oppofite fide or end. This, as has been obferved
above, feems to be indicated by a variety of phenomena; and
it may be eafily illuftrated by a magnetic experiment. Take,
for inftance, four or ix magnetic bars, or needles, place them
{fo that all their poles of the fame name may lie on one fide,
and you will find, that inftead of attrafing, they will repel
each other; fecondly, place them fo that two or three north
poles may be together with one fouth pole, on one fide, and
the attraction between the bars will be flight or partial.
Laftly, place them in regular order, fo that the north pole of
one bar may be contiguous to the fouth pole of the next,
and that to the north pole of a third bar, and fo forth; and
“ 4U you
COH
you will find that the bars cohere with confiderable foree.
Upon this hypothefis, the above-mentioned experiment of
the broken glafs rod may be explained in a more fatisfactory
manner; for though the fra€tured parts may appear to be
replaced in their original fituation ; yet it is {carcely poffible
to attain that immenfe accuracy, which is required to difpofe
the friendly poles or ends of the minute particles contiguous
to each other. The leaft abrafion of furface, the leaft inter-
polition of any matter, deranges the whole. Upon this hy-
pothefis it is alfo eafy to comprehend how the different hard-
nefs and configuration of the fame kind of body are produced ;
for when the particles are fuddenly depofited from any folu-
tion, or fuffer a quick tranfition from the foft te the hard
itate, they have no time to arrange themfelves in the proper
order ; confequently the aggregate becomes lefs compa& and
irregular, than when by a flow depofition, or gradual tranfi-
tion from the foft to the hard ftate, fufficient time is allowed
for the particles of matter to place themfelves in their proper
fituations.
COHIBUS, fo called by Tacitus, but by Arrian Chobus,
in Ancient Georraphy, a river of Afia near the Euxine fea.
COHOBATION, in Chemiftry, is the repeated expofure
of any fubftance to the chemical ation of a liquid, either
by returning the latter when driven off by diftillation, or
by fupplying a freth quantity after the a¢tion of the firft has
been exhautted.
CO-HONG, in Geography, a town of Afia in Thibet ;
20 miles S.W. of Tihien-tlang.
COHONGORONTO, the name of the American river
Potowmack, before it breaks through the Blue Ridge in
N. lat. 39° 45’. Its whole length to this place is about
160 miles. ‘ :
COHORN, Memnon, in Biography, a celebrated engi-
neer in Holland, the ftrong places of which are generally
indebted to him for their fortifications. At the fiege of
Namur, he defended a fort, named after himfelf, againit the
attack of Vauban. Cohorn refufed to furrender till he had
received a wound, which was deemed mortal at the time,
but from the effeéts of which he recovered. In 1702, the
ele&or of Cologne, efpoufing the caufe of France, admitted
a French garrifon into Bonn; Cohorn attacked the place with
fo much vigour, that the commandant furrendered in three
days. He died the following year at the Hague, leaving
behind him a treatife on his method of fortification. Nouv.
Hift. Di&. Du Frefnoy. .
COHORS equitata, in old infcriptions, has perplexed fe-
veral antiquaries, who have been taught to confider the co-
horts as appropriated to the foot fervice, as the ale and
urme were to the horfe, Mr. Horfeley, in particular, ima-
gines, the cobors prima Claudia equitata, which he had met
with, was intended to intimate that this cohort had been
promoted from the horfe fervice; but when, by another in-
{cription, he was led to confider that corps as confifting of
a thoufand horfe, his difficulty is increafed to that degree,
that he knows not what to affirm upon it. But the learned
Dr. Taylor thinks there is an eafy {olution of this difficulty.
The auxiliary, or provincial cohorts, were either entirely,
or purely foot, like the legionary, or ordinary cohorts; or
elfe they had a mixture of both kinds of militia, as appears
from Gruter, DIxxiv. 5. This latter fort, as they could
not properly be ranked under cither denomination of horfe,
or foot, being mace up of both, feem to have appropriated
to themfelves the diftinguifhing title of cohortes equitate,
corps of infantry with a mixture of horfe. And of this
term we find frequent mention in infcriptions. —
Hyginus alfo, “ De Caftrametatione,” gives us a full
and decifive proof of this denomination, and of the number
a
C OH
of which fuca cohorts confitted. Thefe troops confitted of
athoufand men, part horfe, and part foot, and were hence
called milliarie. "The proportion of the horfe to the feot
was 240 to 760. His words are, “* Habet cobors equitata
milliaria pedites feptingentos fexaginta, centurias decem,
equites ducentos quadraginta, turmas decem.”? Vid, Phil,
-Lranf. N° 482. fect. 3.
Coxors miliaria. See above Conors equitata. ;
COHORT, Couors, in Roman Antiquity, a body of in«
fantry, confifling of five or fin hundred men; anfwerigg in
molt refpeéts to our battalion.
The cohort was divided into three manipules, or compa-
nies; the manipule into two centuries ; and the century into
an hundred men.
The firlt centurion in the firft cohort was called primipilus ¢
and had the charge of the eagle or ftandard of the legion.
—A legion confifted of tencohorts. The firft cohort, which
always claimed the poft of honour, was formed of 1105 fol-
diers, the moft approved for valour and fidelity. The re-
maining nine cohorts confilted each of 555. See Lecion.
When the army was ranged in order of battle, the cohorts
were difpofed in the following manner : The firft cohort took
up the ght of the firft line, as the companies of grenadiers
do in our regiments ; the reft followed in their natural or-
der; fo that the third was in the centre of the firit line
of the legion, and the fifth on the left; the fecond be-
tween the firft and third; and the fourth between the third
and fifth. The Sve remaining cohorts formed a fecond line
in their natural order: thus the fixth was behind the firft,
and fo of the reft. :
The firft, third, and fifth cohorts were efteemed the belt ;
at leaft it appears fo from the pofts they took up, which
were looked on by the Romans as the moft impartant.
Marius is by fome faid to have been the firft who divided
the Roman forces into cohorts: which opinion feems con
firmed by Rotinus ; ‘* Non enim in tota Livii hiitoria cohor-
tium fit mentio. Ideoque dodi viri fentiunt a C. Mario
primum cohortes effe inftitutas.””? But yet this is a great
miftake ; for the cohorts are eften mentioned in Livy, and
particularly, lib. xxvii. ; c. 13. ** Marcellus—cohortibus que
figna amiferant hordeum dari juffit: centuriopefque manipu-
lorum quorum figna amiffa fuerant diltrictis gladiis diftinétos
deitituit.’? This happened A. U.C. 543, and confequently
feveral years before Marius was born. Cohorts were diftin-
guifhed according to their appointment and office, into aux-
iliary, which were fent by allies ; equitata; fee above ; pedi-
tata, which confifted of foot-foldiers only ; pretorian, which
was formed of the beft foldiers, and ferved to guard the praetor
or general. This cohort was inftituted by Publius Pofthu-
mus, the diétator. Auguitus likewife formed a cohort un-
der this appellation, confifling of nine thoufand men: which
was afterwards increafed by Septimivs Severus. There were
alfo the cohors togata, akind of militia, which guarded the
ftreets of Rome; the cohors vigilum, inftituted by Augultus, _
which ferved on occafion of fires; and the coors urbana,
eltablifhed by Auguiftus, to guard the city.
COHOZ, or Conoks, in Geography, a {mall village of
North America, near which is the remarkable fall of the»
Mohawk river, about three miles from its mouth, by which
it difembogues itfelf into the Hudfon or North river,
about ten miles above Albany. The breadth of the river is
300 yards; a Jedge of rocks extends quite acrofs, and
from the top of them the water falls about 50 feet perpen-
dicular, or, as fome fay, between 70 and 80 feet; the line
of the fall from one fide of the river to the other being
nearly ftraight. The appearance of this fall or cafcade is very
different, according to the quantity of water; when the-
river
co!
river is Full, the water defcends in an unbroken fheet from
one bank to the other, whilft, at other times, the greater
part of the rocks is left uncovered. The rocks are of a
very dark colour, as is alfo the earth on the banks, which
rife to a great height on either fide. A bridge, 1109
feet long, and 24 feet wide, refting on 13 piers, was erected,
at the expence of 12,000 dollars, in 1794, about three quar-
ters of a mile below the cataraét, from which it exhibits a
grand view to the fpe&tator ; though the molt romantic ap-
pearance ts obferved fram Lanfinburgh-hill, about five miles
to the eait of it.
COHUAGIUM, in Antiquity, a tribute paid by thofe
who meet promifcuoufly in a market, or fair; cohua figni-
fying a promifcuous multitude of menin a fair or market,
robably from the French cohue.
COHUIXCAS, in Geography, a country of New Spain,
in which there is a contiderable mountain of load{tone,
between Tcoiltylan and Chilapan.
COIBA, or Quizo, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the coaft of Veragua. N. lat. 8°. W. long 82° 26’.
COIF, the badge of a ferjeant at law; who is hence alfo
called ferjeant of the coif.
The coif is of lawn, and is worn on the head, under the
cap, when they are created, and ever after.
The ufe of the coif was to cover the ton/ira clericalis, or
clerical crown; becaufe the crown of the head was origi-
nally clofe fhaved, and only a border of hair left around
the lower part, which gave it the appearance of a crown.
We have an example of its antiquity in M. Paris’s « Hif-
tory of England,’-A. D. 1259, when one William de
Buffy claimed the benefit of his clergy, and hence fir H.
Spelman conjeCtures (Gloff. 355.) that coifs were intro-
duced to hide the tonfure of fuch renegade clerks, as were
ftill tempted to remain in the fecular courts in the quality of
advocates or judges, notwith{tanding their prohibition by
canon. See Tonsure, &c.
COIFFE-Jaune, in Ornithology, the name given by
Boffon to the oriolus i@eracephalus.
Corgrse-Noir, of Buffon, is the hooded tanager ; Tuna-
gra pileata, Linn.
COIPFY-va-Vitve, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Marne; three miles S.W.
of Bourbonne.
COIGNET, Gries, in Biography, called likewife
Giles of Antwerp, from the place ot his nativity, was born
in 1536, and in his youth received employment for fome
time in the houfe of Antonio Palermo, a picture merchant
of that city. He afterwards travelled through the greater
part of Italy and Sicily, and in many places left fpecimens
of his abilities, as well in frefco as in oil. At Terni, a
{mall town in the Papal territory, he painted a room entirely
with whimiical grotefques, and likewife an altar pi€ture; in
this laft, however, he wasaflilted by a fcholar of his, named
Stella, who afterwards died in Rome. From Italy he re-
paired to Amiterdam, where he painted many works highly
creditable to his talents, and at laft fettled at Hamburgh,
where he died fa the year 1600. Coignet is deferibed as an
univerfal artift, fufficiently fkilled in hittory, landfcape, and
indeed every department of painting ; but his excellence was
moft remarkable in his fmall pi€tures of conflagrations, or
where his figures were illumined by the moon, or by torches,
Janthorns, or other artificial fame. He not unfrequently
worked upon the copies made by his {cholars, and, by
means of a few matterly touches of his pencil, gave them,
at firft fight, fo much the appearance of originals, that
many were deceived. Mavy of the back grounds and ar-
col
chite€tural parts of Cornelius Molinaer’s piftures were
painted by him. Baldinucci.
COIL, denotes a rope laid in regular folds for the con-
venience of itowage, and hanging toon cleats, to prevent
its being entangled. See Quoit.
COILANTHA, in Botany. » Renal. Sp.
TIANA purpurea,
COILON, in Antiquity. See Cavea,
COILOPHYLLOM, in Botany, Morif.
CENIA purpurca.
COILOTAPALUS, Brown. See Cecrorra peltata.
COILPETTA, ‘in Geography, a town of Hindoottan
in the Carnatic; 54 miles S.W. of Madura, and 18 N.
of Palamcotta.
COIMBETORE, a province of Hindooftan, in the
Myfore, and in the fouthern part of the territories for.
merly belonging te Tippoo Sultan. This country is fepa-
rated from Calicut and Cochin towards the weit by a ridge
of lofty mountains named the “* Gauts,’? a continuation of
which bounds it on the north; on the eaft it is bounded by
the Carnatic; and on thefouty by the province of Dindi-
gu’. In the continuity by the ridge of mountains on the
welt, oppolite to Paniany, there is a break about 16 miles
wide, which appears to border on what d’Anville calls
** Annamally,” or the ‘¢ Elephant Mountains,’”? and is oc-
cupied chiefly by a foreft of timber trees, having the fort
of Annamally on the eaft, and Paitcandcherry on the weit.
The valley or opening extends 14 or 15 miles between the
termination of the Northern Gauts, and the commence-
ment of the Southern ones; before it opens finally, into the
low country on the Malabar coaft. It is well known, fays
major Rennell, that {hips which navigate the Malabar coaft
during the N.E. monfoon, commonly experience a {tronger
gale in the neighbourhood of Paniany. than elfewhere ; and
he is of opinion, that this-opening in the Gauts is a very
fufficient caufe of fuch an effe&t. The major has a!fo been
told, that the lower part of the Coimbetore country par-
takes of the rainy, or S.W. monfoon of the Malabar coatt,
which may be referred to the fame caufe. The river of Pa-
niany takes its courfe from the Coimbetore country,
threugh this opening ; and is faid to be navigable in the
iainy feafon for fmall boats, tothe foot of the Gauts.
This circumftance, together with the inundated ftate of
the country at that feafon, may ferve to fhow, that the
country, weft of the Gauts, has no great declivity, ina
courfe of near 60 miles. Coimbetore is a fertile country,
and well watered by feveral’ rivers ; its principal towns are
Coimbetore, Erroad, Carroor, and Daraporam.
CoimpBetore, a town of Hindootlan, and capital of
the province to which it gives name, fituated at the foot of
the weltern Gauts, on the river Noyel. This town was
taken poffeffion of by general Meadows in July 1790, after
having been evacuated by ‘Tippoo Sultan, who left behind
him a quantity of grain and military ftores. ‘Che mud fort
by which it was defended was incapable of making any
long reliftance. Tippoo retook it in the following year,
and it was confirmed to him by the peace; but by the par-
tition treaty, made by marquis Wellefley in 1799, Coime
betore, and alfo Sattimungalum, LErroad, Perentory,
Oudcul, Showoor, Chingery, Cangiam, Carroor, Vizi-
mungle, and Daraporam, were annexed.to the Britith pof-
feffions. N. lat. 10°55’. E. long. 77° 7’.
COIMBRA, a large, handiome, and celebrated city of
Portugal, the capital of the province of Beira, fitnated on
a mountain near the river Mondego, in a country abounding
with vineyards, olive-trees, and fruits. It was built by the
AW at Romans
See Gex-
See Sarra-
Sm,
COIN.
Romans about 300 years before Chrift. It is a bifhop’s fee,
fuffragan of Lifbon, and has an ancient univerfity, con-
taining, according to Link, about 800 ftudents, a cathe-
dral, and fountains that are very magnificent. N. lat. 40°
18’. W. long. 8° 30’.
COIN, Mairice. in the manufa&ure.of money, medals,
and counters, is a piece of fteel well tempered, four or five
inches deep, {quare at bottom, and round at top; whereon
are engraved, dent-wife, with punchectis, and other inftru-
ments, the feveral figures, marks, &c. to be ftruck on the
moneys, &c. See Coinace.
For the manner of engravingcoins, fee Encravinc on feel.
Corn is more generally ufed fora piece of metal, ftamped
with certain impreffions, which are intended to give it a legal
and current value; and alfo to ferve as a guarantee for its
weight and purity. ; f
According to L. Coke, the term coin is French, fignify-
ing a corner, and hence has its name; becaufe in ancient
times money was f{quare, with corners. x Inft. 297. Others
derive it, by a kind of forced analogy, from the Greck xoios,
common, becaufe money is she common medium or inttru-
ment of commerce, Others again deduce it from cuneus, a
wedge, tracing its origin either to the form of a wedge,
ingot, or lingot (linguetta), in which bullion has been tran{-
ported from the remoteft ages ; or to the wedge, or chiffel,
an in{trument with which thefe lingots were occafionally cut
to the weight required, as they do at this day in the Eaft
Indies with fheers.
Coins conftitute the ftandard or fcale, by which the prices
of all things boughtand fold are alcertained. See Money,
Currency, and ComMERCE.
Coin differs from money, as the fpecies from the genus.
Money is any matter to which public authority has affixed
a value, and which ferves as acireulating medium, whether
it be metal, paper, leather, fhells, &c.; but coin isa particu-
lar {pecies of money, always made of metal, and {truck ac-
cording to a certain procefs, See Cornace. ;
The origin of coins, like that of mott other ufeful things,
is involved in great obfcurity.) Whether coins be of equal
antiquity with money, may admit of fome doubt; efpecially
as mott of the ancient writers are fo frequent and exprefs in
their mention of leathern money, paper money, wooden
money, &c. Some, however, notwithitanding all this, are of
opinion, that the firlt moneys were of metal; the reafons they
give are the firmnefs, neatnefs, cleanlinefs, durablenefs, and
univerlality of metals; which, however, do rather conclude,
that they ought to have been fo, than they a¢tuallywere fo.
In effe&, the very commodities themfcives were the firft
moneys, i. ¢. they were current for one another by way of
exchanye; and it was the difficulty of cutting, or dividing
certain commodities, and the impoflibility of doing it with-
- out great lofs, that firft put men on the expedient of a ge-
neral medium.
Indeed, thus much’may be faid in behalf of coins, that,
on this view, it was natural for men to have their firft re-
courfe to metals, as being almoft the only things whofe
goodnefs, and as it were integrity, is not diminifhed by par-
tition ; befides the advantages above expreffed, and the con-
veniences of meliing, and returning them again into a male
of any fize or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals which, firft
accultomed people, who trafficked together, to accuunt them
in lien of quantities of other merchandizes in their exchanges,
and at length to fub{titute them wholly in their ftead; and
thus arofe money ; as it was their other property to preferve
any mark or imprefficn a long time, which confirmed them
in the right; and thus was the firlt rife of coins,
In the firftages, it is probable, that each perfon cut hismetal
into pieces of different fizes and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandize, or according to
the demand of the feller, or the quantity ftipulated between
them ; to this end they went to market, loaden with metal,
in proportion to the purchafe to be made, and furnifhed with
initruments for proportioning it, and with f{cales for dealing
it out, according as occalion required.
By degrees it was found more commodious to have pieces
ready weighed ; and as there were different weights required,
according tothe value of the different wares, ali thofe of the
fame weight began to be diftinguifhed by the fame mark, or
figure ; thus were coins carried one ftep further.
At length, the growing commerce of money beginning to
be ditturbed with frauds, both in the weights and the mat-
ter, the public authority interpofed; and hence arofe the
firft ftamps or impreffions of mon¢év; to which fucceeded
the names of the moneyers, and at length the effigy of the
prince, the date, legend, and other precautions to prevent
the alterations of the {pecies; and thus were coins com-
pleted. 5
Herodotus aferibes the invention of coins to the Lydians,
and Pliny attnbutes it to Bacchus; but it is evidently too
remote to be traced to any authentic fouree. Lycurgus
ordered that iwon movey only fhould be ufed at Sparta,
which feems to imply, that a better kind had been knowns
ard the introduction of copper coin into Italy, is
afcribed to Janus, or Saturn. We learn, however, from
Pliny, and other good authonities, that filver was not coined
at Rome until about the year 480 of the city, nor gold until
about the year 640.
We de not find in Sciipturethat any coins were ftruck by
the Jews, until the time of the Maccabees; their money,
before that period, being pieces of filver, of certain weights,
fuch as thekels, talents, and drams; a practice ftill retained
in China, and other countries; and which appears to have
been univerfal in ancient commerce. It may be, therefore,
prefumed, that when thofe weights became altered and
dilturbed by fraud, the neceffity of flamping them with cer-
tain impreffions became obvious ; and hence may be juppof-
ed the origin of coins, with their effigies, legends, dates, &c.
for which fee Mepaus.
Coins have been generally made in all civilized nations,
either of gold, filver, or copper, and frequently of all three :
thefe metals have been found by long experience the fittelt
materials for money, particularly the two former, which we
fhall chiefly notice in the prefent article.
Gold and filver are each perfeétly homogeneous, from
whatever mines they may have been taken, Thefe metals
are likewife malleable, and divifible, into the moft accurate
proportions ; from their {carcity and price, they are not too
bulky for the common purpofes of commerce; and, from
their durability, they are lefs fubje€t to decay than moft other
articles of value.
Gold and filver, in their pure or unmixed ftate, are too
flexible to make coins fufficiently firm for general ufe; and
hence the neceflity of mixing with them a certain propor.
tion of fome harder metal; and this mixture is called the
alloy. The quantity or proportion of alloy is various in
different countries, and has varied confiderably in different
ages. Arbuthnot (ch. 6.) ftates, that the ancient coins, par-
ticularly of gold, had very little alloy, in fome not above a
fiftieth part. The Romans, according to Pautton, were
the firft who taught the world the criminal art, as he calls
it, of debafing the purity of metals intended for coins, (fee
“ Metrologic,” p. 329.) Pliny informs us (Jib. xxxiit, ch.
3.) that the Romans mixed an oa part of alloy.with Pet!
yer.
COIN,
filver coin. Livius Drufus in tribunatu plebis o&avam
partem ris argento mifcuit.””_ The fame author thus no-
tices their illegal debafement of money: ‘¢ Mifcuit denario
triumvir Antonius ferrum. Mifcuit eri falfe monete.’’ (lib.
xXExii. c. 9.)
The quality of alloy has been always confidered of import-
ance with ref{peét to the durability of coins. The moft com-
mon fortis copper; and fometimes for gold a mixture of
filver and copper. In order to afcertain the beft kind of
alioy for gold coins, a chemical procefs was inftituted in
London in 1798, under the management of Henry Caven=
gifh, efq. F.R.S., and Charles Hatchet, efq. F.R.S.;
and the refult of their exp-riments was, that gold coins are
not fo likely to wear by abrafion and friction, if they-are al-
loyed with filver and copper, as with copper only ; but that
the difference between them, provided the copper be very
pure, ts fo little, that thereis no fufficient reafon for altering
the prefent alloy, contifting alone.of copper. The report of
this ingenious and elaborate procefs, may be feen in the
Philofophical Tranfa@ions for 1803.
In all well regulated governments, there has beena ftandard
for coins, fixed by law ; that is, a certain proportion between
the quantity of pure metal and its alloy. In England the
ftandard for gold is 14, that is 11 parts of pure metal, and one
part of alloy. The finenefs of gold is moftly expreffed in
carats; thus the whole weight is fuppofed to be divided into
24 equal parts, called carats, and the ftandard for gold is
faid to be 22 carats fine, that is to contain 22 parts of pure
gold, and 2 of alloy, which gives #2, or $3. The Englith
carat is divided into 4 parts, called grains.
The ftandard for filver is 22, that is, 11 oz. 2dwts. of
pure filver, and 18 dwts. of alloy, making together rb.
troy, which may be thus expreffed, 222 = 3%. This pro-
ortion for filver is faid to have been fixed in the reign of
Richard I., by certain perfons from the eaftern parts of
Germany, called eafferlings ; and hence the word ferling,
which was afterwards the name given to the filver penny,
and which is now applied to all lawful money of Great
Britain.
From the legal weight and finenefs of coins, there is a cer-
tain allowance for deviation or error, according to the mint
regulations of moft countries; end this allowance is called
the remedy of the mint. In England, the remedy for gold
is the fixth part of a carat, that 1s, the piece coined may fall
the 144th part fhort of its ftandard weight and finenefs ; anid
the remedy for filver is 2 dwts. in the pound, that is, the
y2oth part of the ftandard. In fome countries, a certain
yemedy is allowed in the weight, and another in the finenefs;
and this allowance ts often made a fource of profit, belides
the feigneurage ; but, according to our mint indentures, the
remedy is only an allowance for accidental error ; and, there-
fore, no account is taken of it in calculating the value of
our coins. Itmay be here obferved, that in England there
is no feigneurage, or other advantage, derived from the pri-
vilege of coining, the whole expence of the mint being de-
frayed by the public. On the propriety, however, of this
regulation, the ableft politicians have differed ; and there ts
a probability, that in the new coinage which is now in con-
templation, a feigneurage will be eftablifhed, particularly in
the filver and copper coins, which chiefly regard our internal
traffic; but as foreign bills of exchange fhould be always
paid in gold coin of full value, no great change is likely to
take place in this refpect.
According to our prefent mint regulations, whoever takes
a quantity of ftandard bullion to the tower, whether gold or
filver, will receive in-return his full weight in new coins, in
the following proportions: For every pound troy of ftand-
ard gold, he will receive 44% guineas; and for every pound
troy of ftandard filver, 62 fhillings. This regulation for
filver, commenced in the reign of queen Elizabeth; and that
for gold in the reign of Charles I].; the fhilling always
paffed for 12 pence; but when the guinea was firft ftruck,
it paffed for about 20 fhillings; but its value was not
abfolutely fixed, being left to find its level, according to the
market price of gold; and thus the guinea continued to
fluétuate between 20 and 21 flillings, until the year 1728,
when it was ordered to pafs current in ali payments for 24
fhillings; and this law had the effet of making gold a
f{tandard, or meafure of value, as wellas filver.
From the foregoing regulation, it is obvious that the mint
price of gold is 3/. 17s. 10d.4 per ounce, and the mint price
of filver 62d. per ounce: for
As 12 0z.: 461. 148. 6d. : 1 oz. : 3f. 17%. tod.45 and
As 12 0%. : 625.2: 1 0% : 62d.
It alfo follows that the guinea fhould weigh 12922 grains of
ftandard gold, or 11843 grains of pure gold; and that the
filling fhould weigh 9228 grains of ftandard filver, or 8522
grains of pure filver ; for
As 443 grains : 1/b. 2: 1 guinea : 12932 grains.
And as 24 carats : 22 carats :: 12932 : 1183%.
And for filver
As 628. : 116.231
And as 40 : 37 :: 9233: 4
From thefe proportions it appears, that the relative value be=
tween pure gold and pure filver is as 15 $3325 to I, or as 154%
to 1 nearly: foras 11538 > 8532 x 212: 1: 1528385. But
the relative proportion of thefe two metals, according to the
average market price for the laft five years, is only as 143 to
I, as will be feen by the flatement of the prices of gold and
filver here given.
The comparative value of gold and filver has fu€@tuated con«
fiderably in different ages, and in different countries. The
earlieft account we have of it is given by Herodotus, (lib, 11.
p. 95-) where he {tates the proportion to have been in Perfia,
in the time of Darius, the fon of Hyftafpes, as 13 to 1.
Other hiltorians ftate, that it wasas 12 to 1 in Greece, in the
early periods of her hiftory ; but that about the time of
Alexander the Great, it was only as rotor. And this
was the proportion in Rome at that period, where it con-
tinued nearly the fame until the reign of Julius Czfar, when,
on account of the quantity of gold brought from conquered
countries, it was to filver only as 74 to 1, a proportion,
however, which was but temporary.
In England, from the time of the Saxons to the difcovery
of America, the relative value of gold and filver was about
irtor. Inthe reign of queen Elizabeth it was 13 to 1.
In China and Japan in 1717, it was 9 or ro to 1, (according
to fir Ifaac Newton’s reprefentation to the lords of the trea-
fury at that period.) In Spain and Portugal it is, at pre--
fent, as 16 to 1, and in moft other parts of Europe, fomething
more than 1g tor. Thus the extremes of fluctuation in tke
relative value of gold and filver, in all ages, may be compre-
hended within the limits of 17 and 7 to 1.
On-a view of the Hittory of Coins, it appears that there
bas been, in general, a progreflive reduGion in their value, and
that few inttances have occurred of any advancement. The
depreciation of money, in England, from the conquett to the
beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, was occafioned partly by
the debafement of the coin, and partly by the gradual increafe
of gold and filver from the mines of Europes for che increafe
of the precious metals, like that of all other articles, tends
only to diminifh their value. From this period to the revo-
lution a confiderable redu&tion in the value of coins was oc-
cafioned by the influx.ct gold and filver from the mines of
America 5
Daehn)
8
228 grains.
rz9
J3T
c oO
Amerieas and from the revolution to the prefent time, the
depreciation may be afcribed both to the increafe of the
precious metals, and to the extenfive ufe of paper as a cir-
culating medium.
The following {tatement will thew the depreciation of our
filver coin from the conqueft to the end of the reign of queen
Elizabeth. But in order to make the fubjeG clear, it will
be proper to obferve, that troy-weight was not ufed in the
Englifh mint until the reign of Henry VIII. Before that
period, gold and filver were weighed with what was called
the Tower pound, or the moneyer’s pound, which had been
ufed by the Saxons, and which was lighter than the pound
stroy by 3 of an ounce troy weight.
The Tower pound was coined
in the year fo wale
1066 into 20 oO
1300 20 3
1344 229
1346 22 6 =
Tada, Meo ee
1412 32 0
14.04 BG Fone.
1527 42 23 pound troy 45 o
1560 56 3 60 0
1601 55 1% 62,""o
The coinage of William the Conqueror was on the fol-
lowing fimple plan. The pound in weight and the pound in
tale (i. e. in reckoning) were the fame. ‘The pound 1 tale
was divided into 20 fhillings, and each fhilling into 12 pence
or fterlings; and the pound weight was divided into 12
ounces, and each ounce into 20 dwts. Thus the weight of
each penny or fterling was one penny-weight, or 24 grains.
This plan of coinage is faid to have been firft adopted by
Charlemagne, in France, in the eighth century.
The firft Englifh gold coin of which there is any account,
was ftruck in the year 1257, by order of Henry III ° It
was of pure gold, weighing two-pence, or fterlings of filver,
and was to pafs for 20 pence. \This gold pennie, as it was
called, was nearly the weight of a feven fhilling piece of the
prefent time, and it is faid, that ‘* the king tried this expe-
dient of coining gold through neceffity ;”? and alfo, ‘ that
the city of London made a reprefentation againft the mea-
fure.’’ Snelling, on Gold Coirs, p. 2.
The next gold coinage was in the year 1344, when the
gold florin was ftruck, which took its name from Florence,
where it had firft been coined, in 1252. It was afterwards
minted in moft of the countries in Europe. In Germany it
was called the gulden, on account of its quality ; and in Hol-
land the guilder. The florin, however, has been long a filver
coin, and in many places it is adopted as the unit in keep-
ing accounts under an imaginary value: this, as well as all
imaginary monies, had their origin in real coins, like the florin
and the pound tterling.
Coin has been already defined the ftandard by which the
prices of all things bought and fold are afcertained; but
coin is, befides, an equivalent for which goods are exchenged ;
and, in this refpeét, 1t fails as a proper ftandard, being liable
to variations.
A fkandard for weight or meafuresis fuppofed to be fixed ;
but coin, asa metal, is fubje@ to fiuctuation in its value, like
every other faleable article.
Perhaps there is no fubje& of political economy fo diffi-
cult, both in theory and practice, as the proper regulation of
coins. For, befides the flu€tuation in price, and in the compa-
sative value of the precious metals, cois are expofed to many
IN.
other imperfe&ions and diforders ; fuch as filing, fabrications
melting, and unavoidable wear.
The imperfeGtion arifing from the rivalfhip of gold and
filver, might, it is thought, be removed, by making one me-
tal only the meafure of property. Sir William Petty,
Mr. Locke, Mr. Harris, lord Liverpoel, and other writers
of high authority, concur in opinion, that the coin which is
the principal meafure of property, ought to be made of one
metalonly. But thefe authors do not agree whetherit fhould
be gold or filver. .Mr. Locke argues that it fhould be filver,
while lord Liverpool maintains, that gold has latterly confti-
tuted the ftandard value. Thefe different opinions may be,
however, in fome meafure reconciled. When Mr. Locke
wrote on the fubject, filver was certainly the legal meafure
of value; but in 1725, when the guinea was eftablifhed as a
legal tender, gold became a meafure, and, of late years, the
principal one, particularly in large payments. Indeed, while
mankind gontinue to fet fo high a value on both metals, it is
not likely that either will be exclufively adopted as a meafure
of value. For the payment of bills of exchange, gold is pre-
ferred m molt countries. In Leghorn, and other parts of
Tialy, it has been of late years made the legal money of ex
change. In fhort gold feems to be the meafure of value in
great concerns, and filver in the inferior departments of
bufinefs; gold may, therefore, be confidered as the integer,
and filver the fraGtion.
It is worthy of obfervation, that the progrefs of metals, as.
reprefentatives of property, feems to have kept pace with the
increafe of wealth and commerce. Iron, brafs, and copper,
firtt anfwered the purpofes of money ; filver next followed ;
and, as property increafed, gold fucceeded. But the great
increafe of riches and trade in modern times, has rerdered
even gold infufficient as acirculating medium, and reprefent-
ative of property. Paper has been, therefore, fubitituted,
and it is generally found the moft convenient. Where credit
cannot be given, coins are neceflary ; but where well found-
ed confidence exifts, paper is certainly preferable. It is
exempt from moft of the imperfeGions and diforders of coin;
and, in many other refpects, it greatly facilitates the opera-
tious of commerce.
Among the imperfeGions of coin, the difference which
frequently exifts between the mint and market prices of the
precious metals, deferves particular notice. It has been al-
ready fhewn, that the mint price of gold is 3/. 17s. 10d.2 per
ounce, and of filver 62d. per ounce ; but the following itate-
ment will fhew how much the market prices have varied from
thefe prices fince the year 1792, and it fhould be obferved,
that for many years before that period, gold was frequently
above, and feldom below, the mint price; while filver was
almoft conftantly above the mint price, and higher in pro-
portion than gold.
s
Market Prices of Sranparp Gorn and Sirver.
Gold. Silver.
1792 41. 15. od. 5s. 5d. per ounce.
3793 S174 440 hen
1794 ° 317 6 Hin %
1795, #1 12.5 2 oy acts,
1790 387-209 5 4
1797 Eee ROWS) Le
1798 317 9 5 0
1799 4, O..8 5. uhh
r8oo Bue "@ ean
iSo1 46,8 mre)
1802 iy eo ey UPL
1803 4 0 © Sad,
Marnxsr
‘ COIN.
Maaxer Prices of Sranparp Gop and Sirver
(continued. )
Gold. Silver,
1804 4l, os. 0d, 5s. Od.
1805 EMG ay God)
1806 4 00 Eats}
January- 1807 AOS tie
June 1807 4 0) mo 5, 8
From the above ftatement, it appears that, for the laft
five years, the precious metals have varied very little in their
value, and probably this average price will be madea rate,
or rule, for the new coinage. We find here that gold has
continued, during that period, at 4/. per ounce, which is
about 2} per cent. above the mint price, and filver has been
at an average of 5s. 7d. per ounce, which is about 8 per
cent. above the mint price. It is alfo obfervable, that in
the years 1800 and rSo1, gold was 12 per cent., and filver
16 per cent. higher than the mint price.
While fuch a difparity exifts between the mint and market
prices of the precious metals, it is manifeft that, notwithftand-
ing theillegality of melting our coin, many of thofe which are
of full weight and finenefs will be converted into bullion,
when fo confiderable a profit is to be derived from the prac-
tice. Experience has toa frequently fhewn that, during the
excefs of the market above the mint price, our coins have
difappeared ; and as various inconveniencies and difficulties
were occafioned by fuch fearcity, attempts have been made
to reduce the coins, particularly thofe of filver, to a deteri-
oration adequate to the market price ; and to this may, in
fome meafure, be afcribed the prefent deficiency of our
filver coins.
Attempts have been likewife made to reduce the gold
coins, but without any confiderable effect ; a laudable atten-
tion having been always paid to their weight ; but it has been
found impra€ticable to pay the fame attention to filver
money ; for whenever a {careity of it prevails, great incon-
venience is experienced, in all the inferior departments of
bufinefs. The public offices, therefore, and tHe bank, have
generally connived at the debafement of our filver coins.
The following was their reduced flate in 1798, as reported
by certain officers of the mint, who had been appointed to
take the fame into confideration.
3 per cent,
Q per cent.
24 percent.
38 per cént.
Deficiency of crowns .
of half-crowns -
of thillings -
of fixpences -
Since the above period, a ftill greater deterioration has
taken place, infomuch, that it is generally fuppofed our in-
ferior filver coins at prefent are worth very ttle more thaw
half their nominal value.
Among the caufes which have contributed to the depre-
ciation of our cein, and to the advanced prices of bullion,
fome reckon the reftrifion, laid on the Bank of England,
from paying in fpecie; a mealure which took place*by”
order of government in 1707, and which, however, has hi-
therto proved falutary. But when and in what manner
payment will be refumed, is a queition of fome difficulty, as
well as importance. It is obvious, from what has been
already ftated, that good coins cannot be fafely iffued to any
large amount, until a new rate of coinage fhall have taken
place ; and the prefent political ftate of Europe is another.
caufe that renders the continuance of the reftriGion ne-
ceffary.
In the year 1798, his majelty appointed a committee of
certain members of the privy council, to take into confider-~
ation the {tate of the coins of the kingdom, and the efta-
blifhment and conftitution of the mint, and to propofe fuch
improvements, in both thefe refpecis, as might to them
appear neceflary. At the head of this committee, was lord
Liverpool, whofe talents for bulinefs have been long ac-
knowledged.
In 1805, his lordfhip publifhed a ‘* Treatife on the Coins
of the Realm, in a Letter to the King,”’ a work of great
intelligence and refearch, and which Contains a very accurate
hiftory of the Britifh coins, from the conquett to the pre--
fent time; and alfo alearned and interefting difquifition on
the monetary regulations of the ancients.
Among the new principles which this publication is in-
tended to eftablifh, are the following on coinage:
That the coins, which are the principal meafure of pro=
petty, fhould be compofed of one metal only.—That this
metal fhould be gold.—And that the expences of fabrica-
tion (2. ¢. the mint expences) fhould be taken out of the
filver and copper coins.
Thefe principles, as well as various other important quel-
tions in lord Liverpool’s work, are ably inveftigated by
Mr. Wheatly in a recent publication, entitled “An Effay
on the Theory of Money, and the Principles of Com~
merce.”? But as the plan of the new coinage is not yet
finally fettled, or, at leaft, not made known to the public,
we want data to proceed on the fubjcét. We fhall therefore
clofe the prefent article with the following tables of the
principal coins now in circulation; and when our work ar~
rives at the articles Mint and Monty, we propofe to give
an-account of whatever new coinaves may have then taken
place in England and elfewhere, and alfo to ive fulland ac-
curate tables of all the real and imaginary monies of the
Univerfe,
A TABLE
coin.
A TABLE of the principal Gold Coins now current, containing their Weight, Finenefs, Pure Contents, Current
Value, and Intrinfic Value in Sterling, according to the Mint Price.
, eS EERE REE Gt LE So LLL.
Austrian Do-
MINIONS,
Bavaria,
Brunswick,
Bern,
DENMARK,
East Inpies,
EnGranb,
FLANDERS,
FRANCE,
GENEVA,
Genoa, -
GERMANY,
HambBurcGu,
Hanover,
Ho.vanp,
Matra, -
Miran, +
NapLes -
PizpmonT,
Povanp, -
PorTUGALy
Prussia, -
Rome, -
Russta, -
Saxony, -
Sicruy, -
SPAIN, -
SweEDEN, -
Turkey, -
Tuscany, -
VENICE, -
Unitep STATES
oF AMERICA,
} Souverain, fingle -
Ducat Kremnitz or Hungarian
Carol'n d’or = .
Max d’or = -
Carl d’or - -
Ducat - = =
Ducat current - -
Mohur, or gold rupee -
Star pagoda - -
Guinea - - -
Half guinea - -
} Eagle . - .
Seven fhilling piece -
See Auftrian Dominions.
Louis d’or, old, (coined before 1786)
Louis d’or, new, (coined fince 1786)
Napoleon, or piece of 40 sretet
(new coins) - -
Piftole - -
Sequin - -
Genovina d’oro - -
New piece of 96 lire -
Ducat ad legem Imperit -
See Germany.
George d’or - -
Gold gulden - -
Ryder - . <
Ducat - - a
Louis d’or, double -
Doppia or pittole -
Double ounce, or fix ducat piece
Doppia or piftole, old, ono
before 1735) - -
Ditto new (coined fince 1785)
Sequin - - -
Ducat, fee Germany.
Joanefe - -
New crufade - -
Frederick d’or. - -
S-quin - - -
Doppia -
Imperial of the coinage of 1763
Ditto of the coinage of 1801
Augutte d’or - -
Ounce - = He
Doubloon or piftole, aR a
coined before 1772) = -
Ditto (coined fince 1772)
Ducat - - -
Sequin Funducli of 1764 =
Mahbub of 1781 -
Nisfie of 1751 - -
Roubbie do. - -
Rufpono - - -
Sequin gigliato ~ -
Sequin - - -
Finenefs.
Carats.
Contents
in pure
Gold.
Grs{| Grs.
78.37
53-29
117.18
78.12
92-76
53-18
42.35
169.15
42.86
Ur8.65
59-52
39°55
Onw N LW
ble ool
isJ
[ 13.09
106.02
179.33
79 82
53-62
399.74
35+ 45
5310
bon
Ue bik)
9°
t Go Lo 09
lta fof tol Olt
3 | 93-37) 5 rix-dollars - 16
37-58| 2 rix-dollars 6 BE
140.75} £4 florins - - fp # eh vi
24 | 52.91] 5 florins 5 ftivers = 9 yi a
a foo2.2< | £ 20 fendi current, or 134 ley dn'.
“IVY feudi filver } AD) ais
34 | 88.13] 25 lire 3 foldi - oy ree
115.81] 6 ducats - - ig Mig
3 |134.63{ 24 lire - - 3 9%
3. |127.61| 24 lire - - 27
3k | 53-22] 9g lire 15 foldi - 9 SE
202.95 |6400 rees - - 015 oe
3% | 14.36] 480 rees - - 2 Mo
3 | 93.37 5 rix-dollars 8 gros 16 62
24 | 51.94| 214 paoh - - 9 2
23 | 76.32| 314 paoli - - 13 58
1$5.33| zo rubles = Fe 12 of
24 {185.33} 10 rubles = z 112 gd
23 | 91 83 5 rix-dullars = 16 34
of | 60.34] 30 turi 19 $2
95-92} 8o reals 10 maravediga 16 113
2 | 93.72| 8o reals vellon - 16 7
23 | 52.95 1 rix-dollar 46 fhillings 9 4
oe Thefe pieces pals fora greater “
plete or Icfs number of pialtres, eet
: ee according to the frequent 5 a
: 8.1 changes and degradations of} - re a0%
741 the Turkith coins. + Ss
3k |160.71 | 40 lire - E a ae
3% | 53-57| 13h lire = “ 9 6.
34 | 53-72] 22 lire piccole - 9 6
47.50} 10 dollars + - a)! aioe
Current Value. Value in
Sterling.
ma d.
6 florins 40 creutzers 13 10%
4 florins 30 creutzers 9 St
To florins 42 creutzers og
7 florins § creutzers Tr 107
5 rix-dollars = - 16 5%
7 livres 4 fous - or tes
12 marks Danifh = 4 %6
15 filver rupees - 9 11%
3% filver rupees - vie
2 fhillings - - Io
toZ fhilings = - 10 6
7 ihillings - - eG
24 livres « ~ 19 112
24 livres - - 18 gf
40 francs - => i 8%
To livres - - 14 1F
13 lire 10 foldi - 4 oe
100 lire - - 10 2%
g6 lire - - 29
varies in different places 9 42
A TABLE
COIN.
A TABLE of the principal Silver Coins now Current, containing their Weight, Finenefs, Pure Contents, Current
Value, and Intrinfic Value in Sterling, according to the Mint Price of Silver.
Contents Value
Weight. | Finenefs. | in pure Current Value, in
Silver. Sterling.
Grs. Ozs. Dwts Grs. 5 d.
Arx-va-Cuaperre, Rathfpruefentger = 95:08). 7 x 56.22| 16 marks current Oo 47%
Austria, - See Germany, (convention coins)
Basi, - Rix-dollar (coined fince 1764) | 360.40] 10 23 | 304.10] 30 batzes Bun Gs:
Bavartay - See Germany. 3s
Bern, - Patacon - 3 417.63} 10 8 | 362.95] 3 livres 10 fous 4. 24
10 Batzes piece 5 125.43] 10 24} 105.84] 20 fous 1 2%
5 Batzes piece - 69.27| 9 33} 52.91] 10 fous Oey
Borocna, - See Rome.
Denmark, > Rix-dollar, fpecie = 447.90] 10 10 | 391.91! 7 marks, 6 hhillingscurrent} 4 62
Krohn, or crown, fingle 344. 8 1 | 230.77] 4 marks, 4 fhillings current | 2 6&2
Encranp, = Crown - - 464.50] Ir 2 | 429.66] 5 hhillings 5
Half crown - 232.25| 11 2 | 214.83] 22 fhillings 2a
Shilling - = 92.90] Il 2 85.93] 12 pence I
East Inputs, Rupee Sicca = 179.55] II 15£] 175.96] 16 annas 2 of
Do. Bombay - 178.31)-1n 142 | 174.48 Do. 2 OF
Do. Surat - - 178, Ir 2 | 164.65 Do. Ii
Do. Arcot - 17O.20|EUL 12 170.33] to fanams bad ia S22
Do. Madras - 178.31] 11 148 | 174.48 Do. 2 oF
FLANDERS, - Ducatoon - - 513-47] 10 82 | 446.42) 3 florins rr ftivers current | 5 2+
Crown = A 456.91] 10 82 | 397.43] 3 florins 3 ftivers current Ai ie
FRANCE, - Ecu, or crown - 451.62} 10 175 | 409.26] 6 livres 4 OF
: 5 franc piece, (new coin) 386.18] 10 16 | 347.56] «5 francs 4 OF
GENEVA, > Ecu, or patagon - 416.87] 10 347.39] 3 livres rip ey
= do d’argento i 2
Genoa, i Fall mp) - cee 594-54] 11 10 | 569.77] ro lire 6 7%
Do. light - 5476 II 10 | 524.21! 9g lire 12 foldi 6 1%
Scudo di St. Giambatifta 316.45] II £ | 291.39] 5 lire-g foldi 3 45
Giorgino - = 87.30] 10 63 | 75.17] 26 foldé o 104
Madonnina 3 70.24] 10 2 59-11] 1 lira, or 20 foldi o 83
New piece of 8 lire, of 1789 | 500. It 458.33] 8 lire 5 4
= Rix-dollar, conftitution, (coin-
aia ediafter themateroe Pe} } 450-90] 10 133 | 400.81 | Thefe coins bear an agio| + 8
Florin, cue - 225.45| 10 133 | 200.40] J againftthe convention coins} > i
Rix-dollar, convention, (coin- e a ;
ed after the rate of 1753) } 432-93) TO oo Pos thet 2
Florin, or piece of 3 do. 216.46} 10 180.39] 60 creutzers 2° y
Copfitiick - 103.70] 7 60.49| 20 creutzers 0° 8Z
HampurcHy = Rix-dollar, banco - 444.30] fo 12 | 340.63] 3 marks banco 4 62
Mark, current : I4I.50| 9 106.13] 16 fhillings current Tepes
Hanover, ° See Germany,(conftitution coins.)
Hoxtranp, - Ducatoon - - | 504.20] 1r 5 | 472.69] 63 ftivers 5 6
Three gilder piece - 456.40] 11 445.87] 60 ftivers 5 2%
Daalder - - 243.20] I 222.93| 14 florin BG
Albert’s dollar - 433-17] 10 84 | 376.62] 50 ftivers 4 48
Gilder, or florin - 162.70] 10 183 | 148.29] 20 ftivers 1 8
Rix-dollar, fpecie or banco 443.80] 10 113% | 391.88] 52 ftivers 4 62
Lewendaler, or Lyondollar 422.70] 8 175 | 312.63] 42 ftivers 3 of
Goldgilder - Zor.go] 8S § | 207.56} 28 ftivers 2 84
Lusecr, . Rix-dollar, current = 424.20] 9 318.15] 3 marks 3 Ss
Lunesurec, Fine piece of two thirds 201.70] If 153 | 197.92] 24 mariengrofchen 273s
MeEcKLENBURG, Sce Hamburgh, mark current.
Matra, - Ounce - - 458.70] 10 382.25} 22 {cudi current 4 55
Scudo - - 183.48] Io 152.90] 12 tari I of
Mian, - Filippo - - 430. tr 63% | 406.11| 7 lire ro foldi 4 8%
Napves, - Ducat - = 338.60] 10 174 | 306.85] 10 carlini 3
Pizpmonr, - Scudo - > 543-:05| 10 173 | 492.15] 6 lire or livres 5 8h
Vou, VIII. 4X PoLany,
COIN.
A TABLE of Silver Coins, &c.— (continued. )
Contents
i : Value
Weight. | Finenefs. | in pure Current Value. in
Silver. Sterling.
Grs. | Ozs, Dwts.| rs, s. ads
Poranp, - Rix-dollar (coined fince 1787) | 424.47] 9 15 | 345-60] 8 florins, Polifh 4 of
Double florin, Polifh,. id. eee 7 83.61| 6o Polifh grofchen o 112
Single florin, do. id. 81.311 6 73 | 43.20] 30 Polith grofchen ° 6
PortTuGaL, - New crufade, (coined fince 1750)} 265.68} 10 16 239.11 |480 rees 2. 9k ‘
Frussia,; - Rix-dollar - 343.40] 9 257-55| 24 good grofchen 3
Rome, -\ - .Scudo - - 413.24| 10 19% 378-83 | 10 paoli,-or 5 lire 4 42
Russia, \ - Ruble of the coinage of 1764 | 369.88] 9 277 41| out of currency 8 oe
a Do. of the coinage of 1501 277-55| 10 8 | 240.54|100 haa 2 gf
/ oe ae : _. eq! § outof currency, it wasori- :
\ Livonefe of 1757 - 406.50} 9 304.98] Pele ae fe cnc 6}
Saxony, ml See Germany. -
Srcity, - Ounce - - 104.5.85| 10 14. | 932-55] go tari 10 10
Scudo - = 418.34] 10 14 | 373-02 | 12 tari 4 4
Sparn, - Dollar (coined before 1772) 418.47] 14 353.60} 20 reals vellon 4 52
+: (coined fince 1772) 418.471. 10 15 "|. 374.78 Do. 4 4%
SWEDEN, - ix-dollar, f{pecie - 451.67] to 10% | 396.78]. 48 fhillings 4 72
Sr. Gaur, - Rix-dollar - - 430.70|,t0 7% | 372.64|° 2 florins 4 ad
Tuscany, - Francefcone, or Leopoldone 426.14] ro 184 | 389.17] 10 paoli or 63 lire 46
Tallaro, or Scudo - 418.55| 10 183 | 381.26] 9 paoli, or 6lire A ag
Turkey, - Pialtre of 1780 - Dias 6 138.50] 40 paras 1 7k
Do. of 1801 - 198 5 16 95-79 oO. eee
Uniteo Srates, Dollar - - 416. 10 14 | 370.93] 4 dollar 4 33
VENICE, - Scudo della croce - 490.62] 11 449.06| 12 lire 8 foldi piccole 5ieaB
Giuftina - - 43.48] 11 395-52| 11 lire piccoie Ae ix
Ducat - - 351-58| 9 183 | 291.04] §& lire piccole 3 44
ZuRicH, - Ecu, or rix-dollar - 436.901 10 7 | 376.831 2 florins {4 44
In the foregoing tables, double pieces, and the fraCtional
parts of coins are generally omitted, efpecially where they
are of the fame ftandard, and of the due proportional weight.
Thus, doubleand half Louis-d’ors are omitted, as their weight
and value may be found from the fingle Louis-d’or. The
fame may be obferved of the Souveram, the Frederick, the
Eagle, the Italian and Spanifh piftoles ; the Portugal and
Italian gold coins, and the filver coins of moft countries.
In fome places, however, the inferior pieces are of inferior
ftandard ; and fuch are noticed in the table.
It fhould be alfo obferved that the finenefs of gold and
filver, in the foregoing tables, is exprefled in the Englith
manner ; althougha difference prevails in this refpect in moft
countries. :
Some nations exprefs the finenefs of gold, like the Eng-
lith, by fuppofing the whole weight to be divided into 24
equal parts, or carats; but the divifions of the carat vary.
In America, Turkey, Spain, and Portugal, the carat is divid.
ed, a3 in England, into 4 grains; in Holland, Germany,
Sweden, and Denmark, it is divided into 12 grains ; in
Genoa and Leghorn, it-is divided into 8; in Rome, Milan,
and other parts of Italy, into 24 parts; and in the old
fvftem of France the carat was divided into 32 parts; but 1a
all the above places, the number of.carats 1s 24.
The fnenefs of filverin Holland, Portugal, Spain, and
mott-parts of Italy, is expreffed by dividing the unit or
pound into 12 parts, called deniers, denari, or penny-weights;
in Genoa, the pound of fine filver is divided into 12 ounces,
and the ounce into 24 denari; in Germany, Switzerland,
Denmark, and Sweden, the mark is divided into 16 ioths,
and the loth into 18 grains. In Turkey they reckon,
for filver, 190 carats, and each carat is 4 grains.
7
In fome countries, the expreffion of finenefs, both of gold
and filver, is the fame. Thus, in France, according to the
new fy{tem, any quantity of either metal is fuppofed to be
divided into 1000 equal parts, called milliemes. In Ruffia,
they reckon the pound of each metal at 96 folotnicks ; in
Venice, at 1152 carats. In China, and the Eaft Indies,
pure gold or filveris faid to be 100 touch, and the degrees of
finenefs are expreffed by the rooth parts; thus go touch
a 90 parts of pure metal, and ro of alloy, that is ths
he.
Tt may alfo be ufeful to know that the aflayers of gold
aud filver in England, in their reports, do not exprefs the-
finenefs (as it is in thefe tables) by the whole proportion
of pure metal, and its alloy ; but by the quantity in whieh it
differs from the Englifh ftandard. Thus, a Dutch ducat
is ftated to be 1 carat, 2 grains, B. that is, better than
Englifh ftandard, which means that it is 23 carats, 2 grains
fine ; and a French filver piece of 5 francs is ftated to be
7 dwts. W. thatis, worfe than Enghfh ftandard. ‘
As the value of the coins in the foregoing tables is only
computed at the Englifh mint price ; it will be proper to
fhew how their value may be found at any other price.
Suppofe, for example, it is required to find the value of a
Portugal Joanefe at 4/. per oz. The weight, per table,
being 221.4 ers. and the finenefs 22 carats.
Here the finenefs being the fame as the Englifh ftandard,
the value of the price may be found by a fing'e itating : thus,
As 1 oz. or 480 grs.: Sos. 3: 221.4. prs. : 365. 1odd,
the value required. ;
But if it be required to find the value of a Spanifh dollar,
of the weight of 418.47 grs. and 10 oz. 15 dwts. fine, the
market price of f{tandard filver being 5 s. 8d. per oz.
Here
cro DM
Here the finenefs mut be fir reduced to the Englifh
ftandard ; thus,
As 11 02. 2 dwts.: 10 0z. 15 dwts. or as 222: 219 ::
418.47 ers. : 405.275 grs.; the quantity of ftandard filver
contained in the dollar.
Then, as 480 grs.: 405.275 grs. :: 68d.: 4s. 94d. the
“value required ; which agrees with the prefent market price
of new dollars, that is, 5s. 6d. per oz. for as 405.275 grs.:
45. 94d. 3: 1 0z.: 55. Od.
Suppofe it were required to find the value in fterling of a
French 5 franc piece, from the following report of the
affayer, weight 16 dwts. 1 gr.—Vinenefs 7 dwts. W. Here
II oz. 2 dwts. — 7 dwts. = 10 0z. 15 dwts. ; then fay,
As 11 07. 2 dwts, : 10 oz. 15 dwts. oras Gin he s/s
385 grs. : 372-9 grs.; the quantity of flandard iilver con-
tained in the picce.
When) as “1 oz. or 480 gna. : 342.9 g4rs. ::) Gadi:
48.17 d. or 4.5. oid. nearly, the value of the piece according
to the mint price; but according to the prefent market
price, 5s. Sd, it is worth 4.5. 4} d.
The following are the principal writers on coins. Arbuth-
not on ancient coins. JL.ocke, Lowndes, Snelling, Folkes,
and lord Liverpool on Englifh coins. Simon on Irifh coins.
Le Blanc, and Bouteroue on French. Benaven on Italian.
Bircherod on Danifh, and Brenner on Swedifh coins. The
following authors have written on coins in general, Kraufe
of Hambargh. Ricard of Amfterdam. Gerhart of Berlin.
Marien of Spain. Richbourg and Bonneville of France,
and Du Boft of London. A general treatife on coins, in-
cluding exchanges, weights, and meafures, is now in the
prefs, and will fhortly be publifhed, under the title of the
Univerfal Cambift,”” from the manufcript of which the
prefent article has been extracted.
Corn, Laws relating to. The coining of money is in all
ftates the act of the fovereign power, that its value may be
thus known on infpection: and with refpect to coinage in
general, there are three fubje&ts of confideration, viz. the
materials, the impreflion, and the denomination.
With regard to the materials, fir Edward Coke lays it
down (2 Inft. 577), that the money of England mut be
cither of gold or filver ; and none other was ever iffued by
the royal authority till 1672, when copper farthings and
half-pence were coined by king Charles II., and ordered
by proclamation to be current in all payments under the
value of fix-pence, and not otherwife. But this copper-
coin is not upon the fame footing with the other in many
refpects, particularly with regard to the offence of counter-
feiting it. And, as to the filver coin, it is enacted by
ftatute 14 Geo. III. c. 42, that no tender of payment in
filver money, exceeding 25 pounds at one time, fhall be a
fufficient tender in law, for more than its value by weight,
at the rate of 5s. 2d. an ounce.
- As to the impreffion, the ftamping of it is the unqueftion-
able prerogative of the crown; for, though divers bifhops
and monaftéries had formerly the privilege of coining money,
222%
yet, as fir Matthew Hale obferves (1 Hal. P. C. 191), this
was ufually done by fpecial grant from the king, or by pre-
fcription, which fuppofes one; and, therefore, was derived
from, and not in derogation of, the royal prerogative. Be-
fides that they had only the profit of the coinage, and not the
power of inflituting either the impreflion or the denomina-
tion; but had ufually the ftamp fent them from the exchequer.
The denomination, or the value for which the coin is to
pafs current, belongs likewife to the king’s prerogative ;
and, if any unufual pieces are coined, that value mutt be
afcertained by proclamation. In order to fix the value, the
weight and finenefs of the metal are to be jointly confidered.
When a given weight of gold or filver is of a piven finenefe,
it is thea of the true ftandard, and called eaflerling, or
iterling metal. (See Coin /upra.) And of this fterling
metal, all the coin of the kingdom mutt be made, by ftat. 25
Edw. 1II. c. 13. So that the king’s prerogative, as judge
Blackftone obferves, feemeth not to extend to the debafing
or inhancing the value of the coin, below or above the
fterling value (2 Inft. 577.); though fir Matthew Hale
(1 Hal. P. C. 194.) appears to be of another opinion. The
king may alfo, by his proclamation, legitimate foreign coin,
and make it current here ; declaring at what value it fhall
be taken in payments. (Ibid. 197.) But this, Black{tone
apprehends, ought to be by comparifon with the flandard of
our own coin; otherwife the confent of parliament will be
neceflary. »‘There is at prefent no fuch legitimated money 5
Portugal coin being only current by private confent, fo that
every one who pleafes: may refufe to take it in payment.
‘The king may alfo at any time decry, or cry down, any coin
of the kingdom, and make it no longer current. (1 Hal.
P: C. 197.)
Two offences refpeGing the coin are made treafon by the
flatute 25 Edw. ill. c.2.. Thefe are the aétual counter-
feiting of the gold and filver coin of this kingdom, or the
importing of fuch counterfeit money with an intent to utter
it, knowing it to be falfe. Thecrime itfelf is made a {pecies
of high treafon ; as being a breach of allegiance by in-
fringing the king’s prerogative, and afluming one of the at-
tributes of the fovereign, to whom alone it belongs to fet
the value and denomination of coin made at home, or to fix
the currency of foreign money ; and, befides, as all money,
which bears the ftamp of the kingdom, is fent into the
world upon the public faith, as containing metal of a par-
ticular weight and ftandard, whoever falfifies this is an
offender again{ft the ftate, by contributing to render that
public faith fufpeéted. Upon the fame reafons, by a law of
the emperor Conftantine (C. 29. 24. 2. Cod. Theod. de
falfa Moneta, |. 9.), falfe coiners were declared guilty of
high treafon, and were condemned to be burnt alive; as,
by the Jaws of Athens (Potter, Antiq. B.i. c. 26.), all
counterfeiters, debafers, and diminifhers of the current coin
were fubjeéted to capital punifhment. This metbod of rea-
foning, however, fays judge Blackftone, is a little over-
ftrained; counterfeiting or debafing the coin being ufnally
practifed, rather for the fake of private and unlawful lucre,
than out of any difafleGtion to the fovereign. And there=
fore, both this and its kindred fpecies of treafon, that of coun-
terfeiting the feals of the crown, or other royal fignatures,
{eem better denominated by the later civilians a branch of
the ‘ crimen falfi,”’ or forgery, (in which they are followed
by Glanvil (1. 14. c. 7.), BraGton (I. iii c. 3. § 1 and 2.),
and Fleta (1. 1. c. 22.), than by Conftantine and our Ed-
ward III. a fpecies of the ‘‘crimen lefe majeftatis,”’ or
high treafon. For this confounds the diftinétion and pro-
portion of offences; and, by affixing the fame ideas of
guilt upon the man who coins a leaden groat, and him who
affaflinates his fovereign, takes off from that horror which
ought to attend the very mention of the crime of high treafon,
and makes it more familiar to the fubjeét. Before the
flatute 25 Edw. JII., the offence of counterfeiting the coin
was held to be only a f{pecies of petit treafon (i Hal. P.C.
224.); but fubfequent acts in their new extenfions of the
offence have followed the example of that ftatute, and have
made it equally high treafon with an endeavour to fubvert
the government, though not quite equal in its punifh-
ment. In confequence of the principle thus adopted, the
ftatute 1 Mar. c. 1, having at one ftroke repealed all inter-
mediate treafons created fince the 25 Edw. III., it was
4 X2 thought
COIN.
thought expedient by flat. 1 Mar. ft. 2. c. 6, to revive two
{pecies thereof, viz. 1. That if any perfon falfcly ferge or
counterfeit any fuch kind of coin of gold or filver, as is not
the proper coin of this realm, but fhall be current within
this realm by confent of the crown; or, 2. Shall falfely
forge or counterfeit the fign manual, privy fignet, or privy
feal ; fuch offences fhall be deemed high treafon. And by
ftatute 1 and 2 P. and M. c.11., if any perfons do bring
into this realm fuch falfe or counterfeit foreign money,
being current here, knowing the fame to be falfe, with
intent to utter the fame in payment, they fhall be
deemed offenders in high treafon. ‘The money referred to
in thefe flatutes muft be fuch as is abfolutely current here,
in all payments, by the king’s proclamation; of which
there is none at prefent, Portugal money being only taken
by confent, as approaching the neareft to our ftandard, and
falling in well enough with our divifions of money into
pounds and fhillings ; therefore, to. counterfeit it is not high
treafon, but another inferior offence.
Clipping or defacing the genuine coin was not hitherto
included in thefe ftatutes; though an offence equally per-
nicious to trade, and an equal infult upon the prerogative, as
well as perfonal affront to the fovereign; whofe very image
ought to be had in reverence by all loyal fubjeéts. And,
ticrefore, among the Romans, (FF..48. 4. 6.), defacing or
even melting down the emperor’s ftatues was made treafon
by the Julian law ; together with other offences of the like
fort, according to that vague conclufion, “ aliudve quid
fimile fi admiferint.”?. And now, in England, by ftatute
5 Eliz, c. 11, clipping, wafhing, rounding, or filing, for
wicked gain’s fake, any of the money of this realm, or other
money fuffered to be current here, fhall be adjudged high
treafon ; and by ftatute 18 Eliz. c. 1, the fame {pecies of
offence is deferibed in other more general words, viz. im-
pairing, diminifhing, falfifying, fealing, and lightening, and
made liable to the fame penalties. By ftat. 8 and 9g W. III.
c. 26, made perpetual by 7 Ann. c. 25, whoever, without
proper authority, fhall knowingly make or mend, or affift in
fo doing, or fhall buy, fell, conceal, hide, or knowingly have
in his pofleflion, any implements of coinage fpecified in the
aé, or other tools or inftruments proper only for the coinage
of money ; or fhall convey the fame out of the king’s mint ;
he, together with his counfellors, procurers, aiders, and
abettors, fhall be guilty of high treafon. ‘The ftatute pro-
ceeds to enact, that to mark any coin on the edges with
letters, or otherwife, in imitation of thofe ufed in the mint ;
er to colour, gild, or cafe over any coin refembling the
current coin, and even round blanks of bafe metal, fhall
be conftrued high treafon. But all profecutions on this a&
are to be commenced within three months aiter the com-
miffion of the offence; except thofe for making or mending
any coining teol or inftrument, or for marking money round
the edges ; which are direGted to be commenced within /ix
months after the offence committed. (Stat. 7 Ann. c. 25.)
And, laftly, by ftatute 15 and 16 Geo. II. c. 28, if any per-
fon colours or alters any fhilling or fix-pence, either lawful
or counterfeit, to make them refpectively refemble a guinea
or half-guinea; or any half-penny or farthing to make them
re{peCtively refemble a fhilling or fix-pence ; this is alfo high
treafon ; but the offender fhall be pardoned in cafe (being
out of prifon) he difcovers and conviéts two other offenders
of the fame kind. For the punifhment of this {pecies of
treafon ; fee TREASON.
Offences relating to the coin, not amounting to treafon,
to which clafs we may refer fome inferior mifdemeanors that
do not amount to felony, are thus declared by a feries of
flatutes, which we fhall recite in the order of time. By
ftat. 27 Edw. I. c. 3. none fhall bring pollards and crock=
ard=, which were foreign coins of bafe metal, into the realm,
on pain of forfeiture of life and’ goods. But by ftat. 9
Edw. III. i. 2. no iterling money fhall be melted down,
upon pain of forfeiture thereof. By ftat. 17 Edw. III.
none fhall be fo hardy as to bring falfe and ill money into
the realm, on pain of forfeiture of life and member by the
perfons importing, and the fearcher permitting fuch imports
ation. By ftat. 3 Hen. V. ft. 1. to make, coin, buy, or
bring into the realm, any gally-halfpence, fufkins, or dot-
kins, in order to utter them, is felony ; and knowingly to
receive or pay either them or blanks, (ft. 2 Hen. VI. c. 9.)
is forfeiture of 100s. By ftat. 14 Eliz. c. 3. fuch as forge
any foreign coin, although it be not made current here by
proclamation, fhall (with their aiders and abettors) be guilty
of mifprifion of treafon. By ftat. 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 31.
the offence of melting down any current filver money fhall
be punifhed with forfeiture of the fame, and alfo the
double value; and the offender, if a freeman of any town,
fhall be disfranchifed ; if not, fhall fuffer fix months’ im-
prifonment. By ftat. 6 and 7 Will. III. c. 17. if any per.
fon buys or fells, or knowingly has in his cuftody, any clip-
pings or filings of the coin, he fhall forfeit the fame, and
5oo/.; one moiety to the king, and the other to the in-
former; and be branded in the cheek with the letter R.
(See Beneft of Cutrcy.) By flat. 8 and g Will. III.
c. 26. if any perfon fhall blanch or whiten copper for fale,
(which makes it refemble filver), or buy or fell, or offer for
fale, any malleable compofition, which fhall be heavier than
filver, and look, touch, and wear like gold, but be beneath
the ftandard; or if any perfon fhall receive or pay at alefs
rate than it imports to be of, (which demonftrates a confci-
oufnefs of its bafenefs, and a fraudulent defign), any couns
terfeit or dimivifhed milled money of this kingdom, not be-
ing cut in pieces, an operation which is exprefsly dire&ted to
be performed when any fuch money fhall be produced in
evidence, and which any perfon, to whom any gold or filver
money is tendered, is empowered, by ftats. 9 and 10 Will.
IlIvc. 21. 13 Geo. III. c. 71. and 14 Geo. IIIc. 4o.
to perform at his own hazard, and the officers of the exche-
quer, and receivers-peneral of the taxes, are particularly re-
quired to perform; all fuch perfons fhall be guilty of felony,.
and may be profecuted for the fame at any time within three
months after the offence committed.
But thefe precautions not being found fufficient to pre-
vent the uttering of falfe or diminifhed money, which was
only a mifdemeanor at common law, it is ena&ted by ftatute
15 and 16 Geo. II. c. 28. that if any perfon fhall utter or
tender in payment, any counterfeit coin, (give in exchange,.
pay, or put off, 37 Geo. III. c. 126.) knowing it fo to be,
he fhall, for the firft offence, be imprifoned fix months, and.
find fecurity for his good behaviour for fix months more 3.
for the fecond offence, fhall be imprifoned two years, and
find fureties for two years longer ; and, for the third offence,
fhall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. By the
fame ftatute it is alfo ena€ted, that if any perfon coun-
terfeits the copper coin, he fhall fuffer two years imprifon-
ment, and find fureties for two years more. By itat. 11
eo. III. c. 40.perfons counterfeiting copper half-pence or
farthings, with their abettors, or buying, felling, receiving,.
or putting off any counterfeit copper money (not being
cut in pieces, or melted down) at a lefs value than it imports
to be of, fhall be guilty of a fingle felony. This ftatute alfo
enaéts, that one juftice, on complaint upon oath that there
is jult caufe for fufpicion again{t any perfons being concerned:
in counterfeiting the copper monies of this realm, may, by his
warrant, caufe the dwelling-houfe, &c. of fuch fufpected _
a
COIN.
fon to be fearched for coining tools and infruments ; and if
they be found, they fhall be {eized and produced in evidence
againft the profecuted perfon, and-afterwards defaced or de-
ftroyed, or difpofed of at the pleafure of the court or juf-
tice. By 14 Geo. IIT. c. 42. which a& was at firlt tempo-
rary, and was fuffered to expire, but revived and made per-
petual by 39 Geo. III. c. 75. if any quantity of money,
exceeding the fum of five pounds, being or purporting to be
the filver coin of this realm, but below the ttandard of the
mint in weight or finenefs, fhall be imported into Great Bri-
tain or Ireland, the fame fhall be forfeited, and profecuted in
any court of record at Weltminfter; butif it do not amount
in value to 20/., the fame may be profecuted in a fummary way
before two juftices, at the ele€tion of the commiffioners of
the cultoms; and after condemnation, melted down or
otherwife defaced, and fhall be divided in equal moieties to
the crown and profecutor. By 37 Geo. III. c. 126. fo
much of the above-mentioned aéts of 15 Geo. LI. c. 28.
and rt Geo. III. c. 40. and all other aéts concerning the
copper. monies, called an half-peony and a farthing, or any
other copper money of this realm, fhall extend to all copper
money which fhall be coined and iffued by order of his ma-
jefty. By the fame ftatute, if any perfon fhall make, coin,
or counterfeit any coin, not the proper coin of this realm,
Nor permitted to be current in it, but refembling, or made
with intent to refemble any gold or filver coins of any foreign
ftate, or to pafs as fuch, or if any perfon fhall bring into this
realm any falfe or counterfeit foreign coin, knowing the fame
to be fo, with the intent of uttering the fame within this realm;
he fhall, in either cafe, be guilty of felony, and may be tranf-
ported foraterm notexceeding feven years. By thefame ftatute,
if any perfon fhall have in his cuftody, without lawful excufe,
more than five pieces of any falfe or counterfeit foreign
coin, or made with intent to refemble or pafs as fuch foreign
coin, he hall, upon conviétion, cn the oath of one witnels,
_ before one juftice, forfeit the fame, which fhall be cut in
pieces and dettroyed by order of fuch juftice, and fhall alfo
forfeit not exceeding 5/. nor lefs than 4os. for every piece
found in his cuftody ; half to the informer, and half to the
poor; and if not forthwith paid, fuch offender may be com-
mitted to the gaol, or houfe of corre€tion to hard labour, for
three calendar months, or till fuch penalty fhall be paid.
By 43 Geo. III. c. 139. the counterfeiting of foreign coin
is a mi{demeanor and breach of the peace; and the perfon
that is convicted, fhall, for the firlt offence, be imprifoned’
not exceeding a year, and for the fecond offence be tranf-
ported for feven years. ‘The fame ftatute enaéts penalties on
perfons haviog more than five pieces of {uch coin in their
pofleflion, ard dire&ts the houfes of fufpe€ted perfons to be
fearched, and counterfeit coin feized, &c. &c. By the
fame ftatute, amending fo much of feveral aéts of 6 and 7,
y and 8. Will. as relates to the exportation of filver bullion,
the treafury may grant licences for the exportation of mol-
ten filver and bullion; and perfons fo licenfed may export
fuch bullion without the ufual certificates. But if any bul-
lion is entered to be exported, otherwife than in the name
of the true owner or importer, the exporter fhall forfeit the
fame, or value, half to the king, and half to him who fhall
feize or difcover the fame.
By 3 Edw. [. c. 15. perfons taken for falfe money are
not bailable by juftices of the peace. It is not neceflary there
fould be two witneffes in cafes of counterfeiting the coin,
as it isin other high treafons; but perfons may be convicted
according to the courfe of the common law, by one witnefs
only. The reward for apprehending and convicting an of-
fender againft the ftatutes relating to gold and filver coin,
is 40/. in order to obtain which, the judge fhall give a cer-
tifcate of the conviGtion, and the fheriff, on its being ten-
dered, fhall pay the fame without fee, within one month
after tender and demand, on pain of forfeiting to the party,
double the fum with treble cofts: and the fheriff hall be
repaid out of the treafury, 6 and 7 W. c.17. 15 Geo.
IT. c. 28. In like manner, a reward of ro/. fhall be paid for
apprehending and convicting one who counterfeits the copper
money. 15 Geo. 1I.c. 28. The commiffioners of the trea-
fury may iffuea fum not exceeding 6oo/. yearly, for the
charge and expences of the officers, and others employed in
the profecution of offences of this kind. 7 Ann. c. 24. 1g
Geo. II. c. 28.
In Scotland, by the articles of the Union, it is appoint-
ed, that all the coins be reduced to the Englith, and the
fame accompts obferved throughout. Till that period the
Scots had their pounds, fhillings, and pence, as in England;
but their pound was twenty pence Englifh, and the
others were in proportion: accordingly, their mark
was 133s. Scots, current. in England at 133d. their noble
in proportion. Befides thefe, they had their Turnorer pence,
and half-pence ; their penny, one twelfth of that of Eng-
land; befides bafe money of achifons, baubees, and placks :°
the boddle, one fixth of the penny, one fourth of the achifon,
one third of the baubee, and one half of the plack.
In Ireland, the coins are as in England; viz. fhillings,
pence, &c. with this difference, that their fhilling or harper,
is but equal to rr3.d. fterling ; or a fhilling Englih is equal
to twenty-fix half-pence: whence their pound is only 15s.
43d. of Englifh money. For an account of the coins of
different parts of the world, with their proportions or values,
we refer to the article Money. ' See alfo Coin Supra.
Coins, Shells current for.—Thele ferve in many places for
money ; and are brought from the Maldives, and called
in the Indies cowries : on the coafts of Africa; they change-
their names, and are called bouges:
In America they take a third name, viz. porcelains. In-
deed thofe laft do come from the Maldives ;’ there being fhells
found in the Weft Indies much like thofe of the Fait.
In the knigdom of Congo there is another kindof fhells,
called zimbi; though fome will have them the fame with
the cowries.. Cowries, coris, or bouges, are white fhells,
current particularly in the ftates of the Great Mogul : fixty-
five are ufually reckoned equivalent to the done, a {mall
copper coin, worth about a halfpenny fterling.; which
brings each cowry to ;+,th of a penny fterling.
Porcelains are nearly on the fame footing with the cowries.
See PorceLain.
Zimbi are current, particularly in the kingdoms of Angola
and Congo. Two thoufand zimbis make what the: ne-
groes call a maciute, or macoute; which is no real money,
whereof there is none in this part of Africa, but only a
manner of reckoning: thus, two Flemifh knives they efteem
a macoute ; a copper bafon, two pounds weight, and twelve
inches diameter, three macoutes; a fufee ten, &c.
Coins, Fruits current for—There are kinds of fruits
current for coins ; two in America, particularly among the
Mexicans, which are the cacao and maife: the other in the
Fatt Indies, vx. almonds, brought thither from Lar, and
growing in the defarts of Arabia.
Cacao, fifteen of thefe are efteemed equivalent toa Spanifh
rial, or feven-pence fterling. See Cacao.
Maife has ceafed to be a common money fince the dilcovery.
of America by the Europeans,
Almonds are chiefly ufed where the cauris are not current,
As the year proves more or lefs favourable to-this fruit, -
yalue.
COIN.
value of the money ts higher or lower: in a common year,
forty almonds are fet againft a percha, or halfpenny fterling ;
which brings each almond to ,1,th of a farthing.
Coins, Ancient, are thofe chiefly which have been current
among the Greeks, Jews, and Romans.
For Fewife Coins, their Values and Proportions fland thus:
(Sterling.) 1. 5. d.
Gerah ‘ oo 135
| 10|Bekah, Oo I 146
20| 2/Shekel, Ons2eeas
= | |
| (Maneh,
25 20) © : ° 5 °
Pea 5 OlMina Hebraica, } 3 lating
i]
- at
Gaeetlnccckoes bel alent. Bags alo
Solidus aureus, or fextula, worth o 12 of
Siclus aureus, worth 1 16 6
A talent of gold, worth 5475 0 O
Value and Proportion of the ancient Grecian Corns.
(Sterling.) 5. d. rs.
Lepton, oo O35
-\Chalcus, 0 oO 03%
14| 2\Dichalcus, oo 14
28) 4} 2|Hemiobolum, By te pe
56| | ‘ 2|Obolus, ee
r12| 161 8} 4) 2|Diobolum, © 2 22
|
22 32! 16| S| 4} 2/Tetr oclum, om IGP ees
336) 48| aalr2) 6) 3 12|Drachma, ey jee)
662) 96} 48)24 mite 3, Ate ritea ar ag
a —|— Tetradrach- } x é
1324|1 12! 96|48|24112 6} 4 2| flater, <=
SSS | — |
151
Ga\;64 <aalbe 30\15 72\ 5/24/12|Pentadr. CBee
Note. Of thefe the drachma, didrachma, were of filver,
the reft, for the moft part, of brafs. ‘The other parts, as
tridrachm, triobolus, &c. were fometimes coined.
Note alfo, the drachma is here, with the generality of
authors, fuppofed equal to the denarius : though there is
reafon to believe, the drachma was fomewhat the weightier.
See Dracuma and Denarivus.
(Sterling.) 7 os.
The Grecian gold coin was the ftater aureus,
weighing two Attic drachms, or half ofthe |
ftater argenteus; and exchanging mow [ o 1Geer
tio
for 25 Attic drachms of filver; in our
money,
According to our proportion of gold to filver rr 0 9
There were likewife the ftater Cyzicenus, ae 8
changing for 28 Attic drachms, or eA i dh te
Stater Philippicus, and &ater Alexandrinus,
of the fame value,
Stater Daricus, according to Jofephus,
50 Attic drachms, or~
Stater Creefius, of the fame value.
Vote 1 12 3%
Value and Proportion of the Roman Coins.
(Sterling.) s. ad. gprs.
Teruncius, 0 0. Of%35
Polstennetes o 0° 18
Bugis d
4) “As, } 05 O one
sol 524|Sellertius, O pds Qe
ea ie ho ay ee
sli] 5) furans, o* a5
eed
40 20\r0) 4] 2{Denarius, O53
Jote. Of thefe the denarius, victoriatus, feftertius, ands
fometimes the as, were of filver, the reft of brafs.
There were fometimes alfo coined of brafs the triens,
fextans, uncia, fextula, and dupondius.
(Sterling.) 2 s,
The Roman gold coin was the aureus, which
weighed generally double the denarius ; the
value of which, according to the firft pro-p r- 4 33
portion of coinage, mentioned by Pliny,
was
According to the proportion that obtains nor Ba Pes
d.
amongtit us, worth, J
According to the decuple proportion men- Pond
tioned by Livy and Julius Pollux, worth, oe
According to the proportion mentioned by
Tacitus, and which afterwards cbeaine’, | 16iage
=
whereby the aureus exchanged for 25 de-
Darii, its value, j
Thefe tables are formed on the fuppofition that filver is
worth five fhillings, asd gold four pounds an ounce. See
Arbuthnot’s Tables of Ancient Coins. See alfo on this
fubject an excellent paper by M. Raper, efq. intitled “ An
Enquiry into the Value of the Ancient Greek and Roman:
Money, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. ixi. part ii. art. 48. p.462.
See Denarius and Dracum. For a more particular and
ample account of ancient coins and coinage ; {ee the article
Mepat. See alfo Money.
Coin, in Architedure, a kind of dye, cut diagonal-wile,
after the manner of the flight of a itair-cafe ; ferving at bot-
tom to fupport columns in a level ; and at top to correct
the inclination of an entablature, fupporting a vault.
Thefe coins have alfo the fame effect with round balufters,
which are not inclined according to ‘any flight.
Coin d’Artilleur. Coins in gunnery. are wedges which.
artillerifts lay under the breeches of guns, for the purpofe
of raifing or deprefling and pointing them. ‘They are com=
monly notched at the fides, that they may the more eafily be
pufhed forward or drawn back.
Coin de Maneuvre Militaire, a certain difpofition os ar-
rangement of troops, which the ancients made ufe of for
penetrating into and breaking an enemy’s line, It con-
fitted of a corps, or body of troops, formed with a confider-
able depth, and very {mall extent of front.
Corn is alfo ufed for a folid angle, compofed of signa
aces .
COAN A‘G E,
faces inclined towards each other; whether that angle be
exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or interior, as the
coin of a chamber, or chimney: from the word cuzeus,
wedge. See Quorn.
Corns, on board a man of war,
Corn-moulds. See Mourns.
Coins, Canting, on board a fhip, little fhort pieces of
wood, or billets, cut wedge-I'ke, to lie betwixt the caflks.
Corns, Standing, on board a fhip, billets, or pipe-{taves,
to keep the cafks from flirring, or giving way.
Standing-coins are made of barrel boards, about four
inches broad, and of a fit length to be driven in between
the ends of a cafk, about two or three’ hoops from the chine
hoops, to keep the butts from jogging.
COINAGE, or Cornina, or the art of making money,
has hitherto been chiefly performed either by the hammer or
the mill. = The firft method is now, and has, indeed, been
long generally difufed, though it was the only one known
till the reign of Henry II. of France, when the coining-
mill was invented by Antoine Brecher, a French engraver,
and the firlt money was ftruck with it in that kingdom in
the year 1553. Whe ufe of it continued there till 1585,
when, in the r2th year of Henry III. it was laid afide, on
account of its great expence in comparifon of the coinage
with the hammer; nor was it revived till the year 1645,
when, by an edit of Louis XIV., it was eftablithed for
perpetuity. Queen Elizabeth had milled money, ftruck
in England fo early as the year 1562; but it did not conti-
nue for more than 10 years; and the hammer was again
adopted as lefs expenfive. ‘This example was foon followed
in France, till the fubfequent fuccefs of the mill in’ England
was probably the caufe of its re-eftablifhment in that king-
dom, in 1645. Briot, a French artilt, failing to induce the
government of France to adopt the ufe of the mill, came
to England in 1623.
Thus, this machine, hke mo{t new inventions, met at firft
with various fate, it being fometimes ufed, and at others
laid afide ; but in the r4th year of Charles II., that is, in
the year 1662, the ufe of the mill and ferew (hereafter to
be defcribed) was finally eftablithed in the mint of this king-
dom.
Soon after the revival of the mill in this kingdom by
Briot, the coinage of England arrived at a degree of per-
fe&tion to which it had never before attained. This was
owing in a great degree to the ingenuity of Thomas Simon,
fuppofed to beanative of Yorkfhire, who, upon the return
ef Briot to France in 1646, fueceeded him as chief en-
graver at the mint.
Tt was at this period, alfo, that graining was firft placed
on the edges of all our coins, and fuch confidence was
then placed in this new device, that it was deemed impof-
fible for the coins of this kingdom to be injured by clipping
or wearing. Experiences however, in a very fhort time,
proved that milled money, either of gold or filver, could be
diminifhed with great facility and expedition. This fraudu-
tent practice was well known and carried on in the reign of
king William.
In coining, either by the hammer or mill, the pieces of
metal are ftamped, or ftruck, with puncheons or dyes, in
which are engraved the fovereign’s effigies, with arms, le-
gend, &e. :
The ancients ufed neither the puncheon nor the matrice,
but merely cut the impreffion upon a fteel dye 5 both are
now ufed. ‘The puncheon is a high-tempered piece of fteel,
upon which the coin is engraven in relicvo, and then ftamp-
ed upon the matrice, which is a: piece of fteel four or five
See QuoiNs.
inches long, fquare at the bottom, and round at the top-
The moulding of the border, and Ictters, are added on the
matrice, with {mall, (harp, fteel puncheons. When thus
completed, it is called a dye. The puncheon thus faves
much labour in repeatedly engraving the fubjedt of the
coin; for a dye will fometimes break with Rriking one coin,
the neceffary force being fo great.
It is not certain when this improvement commenced. It
is believed that Simon, already mentioned, firlt introduced
the idea of marking the crown and half-crown with alegend
on the edge, 2s an ornament and protection to the coin ;
but the original inventor of this art is unknown. The firft
piece, yet known as an inftance of it, is a fiiver “ piedfort”
of Charles IX. of France, dated 1573. he firft medal is
one in filver, of George Frederic, marqu's of Brandenburg,
dated 1589. Briot gave the firft {pecimen of it in Great
Britain upon his Scottifh coronation medal in 1633; and
Simon, as we have jul mentioned, introduced it into the
larger coin, with great propriety, as it is both or-amental
and preferves fuch pieces from being clipped. This opera-
tion is performed, fince the year 1685, by means of a very
fimple, but ingenious machine, invented by M. Caftaing,
and then introduced into the French mint ; and fince that
time into all the mints of Europe. It is defcribed in the
fequel of this article.
The firft operations are, the mixing and melting of the metal,
becaufe there is no {pecies of coin of pure gold or filver, but
always a quantity of alloy of copper is mixed with them,
or for the gold coin, the alloy is a mixture of filver and
copper, as filver alone would make the coin too pale, and
copper would give too high a colour. The alloy is ufed to
render the coins harder, and lefs liable to be diminifhed by
art. See At.toy and Coin.
When the gold and filver are completely melted and mix-
ed, they are poured into moulds, or frames, for calting
them into long flat bars: the method of doing this is pre-
cifely the fame with that ufed by founders, in fand; both
with regard to the frame, the manner of working the earth,
and that of ranging the models, or patterns. Thefe pat-
terns are flat plates of copper, about fifteen inches long,
and nearly of the thicknefs of the [pecies to be ftruck. The
only difference between calling the bars of gold, and thofe
of other metals, copfifts in this: that the latter are taken
out of the crucibles with ladles, and poured into the aper-
ture of the mould ; and that for gold, the crucible is taken
off from the fire with a pair of tongs, made for the purpole,
and the metal is thence poured into the mould.
In coining by the mill, or milled money, the bars are
taken out of the moulds, and f@raped and brufhed ; they
are then flattened in a mill, and brought to the proper thick-
nefs of the fpecies to be coined.” ‘There i@, however, this
difference, that the plates of gold are heated again in a fur-
nace, and quenched in water, before they undergo the opcra--
tion of the mill; but the plates.of filverare paffed through
the mill without any additional heating. The plates, whe-
ther of gold, filver, or copper, thus reduced as nearly as
polfible to their proper thicknefs, are cut into round pieces,
called blanks, or planchets, with an inftrument faltened to
the lower extremity of an arbor, whofe upper end is formed
into a ferew, which being turned by an iron handle, turns
the arbor, and lets the fteel, well fharpened, in form of a
punch cutter, fall on the plates; and thus a piece is punch-
ed out. See Plate (Coinage) fig. 1.
The pieces are now to be brought to the flandard weight
by filing or rafping, and what remains of the plate between
the circles is melted again, uader the denomination of fizel.
“The:
COINAGE.
The pieces are now weighed in a very accurate balance, and
thofe that prove too light are reme!ted, but thofe that are
too heavy are filed to the ftandard weight. When the
blanks are adjufted, they are carried to the blanching-houfe,
that is, the place where the gold blanks are brought to
their proper coJour, and the filver onesare whitened ; which
operation is performed by heating them in a furnace, and
when cooled, boiling them fucceflively in two copper vef-
fels, with water, common falt, and tartar, and after that
feouring them well with fand, and wafhing them with clear
water, drying them over a wood fire, in a copper fieve, in
which they are put when taken out of the boiler. For-
merly the planchets, as foon as blanched, were carried to
the prefs to be ftruck, and receive their impreffions ; but
now they are firft milled. The machine ufed for this pur-
pofe confifts of two plates of fteel in form of rulers, on
which the edging is engraved, half on the one, and half on
the other. One of thefe plates is immoveable, being ftrongly
bound with ferews to a copper plate on a board or table;
the other is moveable, and flides on the copper plate by
means of a handle, and a wheel, or pinion, of iron, the
teeth of which catch in other teeth, on the furface of the
fliding plate. The planchet, being placed horizontally be-
tween thefe two plates, is carried along by the motion of
the moveable one; fo as by the time that it has made
half a turn, it is found marked all round. See fg. 2.
Laftly, the planchets, being thus edged, are to be ftamp-
ed: that is, the impreffion is to be given them in the
mill, (fee fig. 3,) by the French denominated balancier. The
chief parts of this machine are, a beam, fcrew, arbor,
&c. all contained within the body of it, except the firft,
which is a long iron bar, with a heavy ball of lead at each
end, and rings, to which are faftened cords to give it mo-
tion. This bar is placed horizontally over the body of the
machine; in the middle of the beam is faftened a fcrew,
which, by turning the beam, ferves to prefs the arbor under-
neath it ; to the lower extremity of the arbor, placed perpen-
dicularly, is faftened the dye or matrix, of the reverfe or
arm fide, in a kind of box, or cafe, in which it is
retained by {crews: and under this is a box containing the
dye of the image fide, firmly fixed to the lower part of
the engine. See fig. 4. When the planchet is to be
ftamped, it is laid on the image-matrix, upon which two
men draw one of the ropes of the beam, and turn the ferew
faftened in it; which, by this motion, lowers the arbor to
which the dye of the arms is faftened: thus the metal, being
in the middle, at once receives an impreffion on each fide,
and becomes money,-but they have not currency till
they have been weighed examined. For the coining of
medals, the prqtefs is nearly the fame with that of money.
The principaFpdifference confifts in this: that money,
having but mall relievo, receives its impreffion at
a fingle ftroke of the engine; whereas for medals, the height
of their relievo makes feveral ftrokes necefflary. For this
purpofe, the piece is taken out from between the dyes,
heated, and returned again; which procefs, in medallions,
is fometimes repeated as many as fifteen or twenty times, be-
fore the full impreffion is given. Medallions, and medals of
high relievo, are ufually firlt caft in fand, and then put in
the prefs to perfe& them. Medals, therefore, receive their
form and impreffion by degrees ; money all at once,
In coining with the hammer, the bars-of metal being
taken out of the moulds, are heated and ftretched on an an-
vil; they are then cut to pieces, farther flretched, and
rounded with fheers; thus, by cutting and rounding they
are reduced to the flandard weight, and to the fize of the
Species to be coined. ‘The blanks, or planchets, thus form-
ed, are carried to the blanching-houfe, where they undergo
the fame preparation as the milled money defcribed above,
and are fent to the miater to be ftamped with the bammer.
For this latt operation, two puncheons, or matrices, are
ufed: the one called the pie, and the other the trufs, Or qui=
ver; each engraven dent-wife; the pile bearing the arms,
and the trufs the image; both their legend, date, &c. The
pile, which is about eight inches high, has a kind of talon
or heel in the middle, and ends in a point; this kind of
figure was given, for the fake of being more eafily funk,
and more firmly faftened to the block on which the money
is truck. The minter, then, laying the planchet horizon-
tally on the pile, and covering it with the trufs, which he
holds fleadily in his left hand, gives feveral {mart blows on
the trufs with an iron mallet held in the right; more or
lefs, as the graving of the dyes is more or lefs deep. Thus
the coinage is finifhed, and the blanks converted into money,
which, after they have been examined, become current.
We have now given a brief account of the modes cf coin-
ing hitherto adopted in this country.
About 16 or 17 years ago the ingenious Meffrs. Boulton
and Watt of Birmingham began to apply the power of their
{team-engine at the Soho manufaGtory, to the operatians of
coining, and have fince coined a large quantity of two-
penny, and penny pieces, of copper, and half-pence and ~
farthings, for government, which are in general circulation ;
a few years ago, alfo, on tne appearance of fcarcity in the
circulating medium, thefe gentlemen re-coined a large quan-
tity of Spanifh dollars for the Bank of England, without
their being firft melted, or the Spanifh impreffion obliterated,
by rolling, or otherwife. The Danifh government being
defirous of introducing the approved coining apparatus of
Boulton and Watt, at the royal mint at Copenhagen, fent
over Olaus Warberg, one of the profeffors in the univerfity
of that city, to contraé for, and fuperintend the making of,
and to learn the ufe of a complete fet of lleam-wrought coin-
ing apparatus; under the authority of a {pecial a¢t of parlia-
ment for that purpofe, Meflrs. Boulton and Watt have al-
moit completed the apparatus for the Danifh mint; and
ere long it is expe€ted to be fhipped off for its deftination.
A plan has been adopted by the Britifh government, for
removing the royal mint out of the confined and inconvenient
apartments in the Tower, where it has for fuch a length of
time been carrried on, to an entire new edifice ereéted for
the purpofe, on the {cite of what was formerly the victual-
ling office, and fince the tobacco warchoufes, on the eaft
fide of Tower-hill. The erections for the engines and ap-
paratus, to be conftruéted by Boulton and Watt, on their
moft improved plan, have been begun upona large fcale, and
the whole will, when finifhed, prefent a fpe@acle worthy of
the nation. A great fecret has hitherto been made of the
operations in the Soho mint, the motives. for which we pro~
feis not fully to underftand ; it cannot, we think, arife, as
fome have imagined, from the idea of preventing the clan-
defline counterfeiting of the coin of the kingdom ; becaufe,
large and expenfive engines and apparatus like thefe, are
not likely to be ereéted or ufed in a private manner ; and,
granting the poffibility of counterfeitors accomplifhing this,
under cover of fome other mechanic art or trade, then we
conceive, that men of fufficient fill and ingenuity to carry
fuch awork into effe&, would not long be at a lofs to find
out the principles of aGtion adopted at Soho, from a ftudy
of the impreffions on the coin in circulation. To us, it ep-
pears, from fuch an examination, that the impreffion is not
given by a blow, or by the accelerated motion of a fcrew,
as inthe common methods, but by the fimple and powerful
action of a crank, worked by the fteam-engine, and that the
6 : nilling:
© .0.f
milling on the edge is done by the threads of an endlefs re-
volving ferew, again{t which the coin rolls; the rolling, or
flatting and punching (or perhaps rolling) out the round
pieces or blanks for coining, is probably eflected by methods
well known in other branches of the metallic arts.
This machinery works the fcrew-prefles for cutting out
the circular pieces of copper, and coins both the faces and
edges of the money at the fame time, with fuch fuperior ex-
cellence and cheapnefs of workmanfhip, as well as with
marks of fuch powerful machinery, as malt totally prevent
clandeftine imitation. By this machinery, four boys are
capable of ftriking 30,000 pieces of money in an hour ; and
the machine acts at the fame time as a regilter, and keeps an
unerring account of the number of pieces ftruck.
By the time that owr work has advanced to the word
Mint, we hope to be allowed to give an account of the new
national mint, which will then probab'y be in action, or to
obtain fufficient information thereof, for the gratification of
our curious readers.
To this grand invention, the earl of Liverpool refers in
his letter to the king, with furprife that it has not been al-
ready introduced into the practice of coining in this coun-
try: * But the new machinery,” fays his lordfhip, ‘ now
employed in the manufaétory of every fort of metal, in
which the mechanics of this country far furpafs thofe
of any other, has not in general been admitted into your
majefty’s mint. It is en acknowledged principle, that ma-
chines that act with a given force, can work with more truth
and accuracy than the arm of man, the force of which ne-
ceflarily varies occafionally, from feveral caufes; another
practice has been invented, that of {triking coins in a fteel
collar, fo asto make them perfeétly round, and all precifely
of the fame diameter, an improvement which certainly con-
tributes to the beauty of the coin; new modes of putting
what is called the grainery on the edges of the coins, have
alfo been invented, which, at the fame time that they pro-
te& the coins from being filed, equally with the prefent
mode, do not occafion thofe rough edzes which expofe
them to wear by abrafion or fri@ion. For thefe, and many
other valuab’e improvements, the public are indebted to the
ingenuity of Mr. Boulton of Soho, near Birmingham. It
is fingular, that though the manufacturers of England have
greatly profited by thefe inventions, the officers of your
majefty’s mint have never, or not {ufficiently, availed them-
felves of them; the mints in foreign countries are in fearch
of them, ard their governments, in more than one inftance,
have employed Mr. Boulton in erecting mints on bis new
principle; and parliament has authorifed the fame.”? Earl
of Liverpool’s * Treatife on the Coins of the Realm.”
Martin Folkes, efq. “* On Englith Coins,” Darwin’s
« Bot. Garden,”
The coinage of England is now performed wholly in the
Tower of London; where there 1s a corporation for it,
under the title of the mint.
Formerly there were here, as there are ftill in other coun-
tries, what we call the rights of /eignorage and braffage ;
but fince the eighteenth year of king Charles II. there is
nothing taken, either for the king, or for the expences
of coining ; it having been fettled by a& of parliament,
that all money fhould be ftruck at the public expence; fo
that weight is returned for weight, to all perfons who
carry their gold and filver to the Tower. See Coin.
There is a duty of ten fhillings per ton on wine, beer,
and brandy imported, called the coinage duty, granted
for defraying the expence of the king’s coinage, but not to
exceed 3000/. per annum, by ftat. 18. Car. II. cap. 5. and
continued and advanced by fubfequent ftatutes, 4 and 5
Var. VIII.
cor
Anne, cap. 22 1 Geo. I. cap. 43. 4 Geo. II. cap. 12
1 Geo. III. cap. 16, &e. By ftatute 27 Geo. II-c. 11.
(explained by that. 27. Geo. III. c. 13. f. 64.) the treafury
is to apply 15,000/. ayear to the expences of the mints
in England and Scotland. The ftatute 14 Geo. III. c,
92. regulates the ftamping of money-weights, the fees for
which are fettled by ftat. 15 Geo. III. c. 30. at 1d. for
every 12 weights.
The fpecies coined in England are efteemed contraband
goods, and not to be exported; all foreign fpecies are al-
lowed by a& of parliament, made in 1673, to be fent ovt
of the realm ; as well as gold and filver’ in bars, ingots,
duft, &c.
Cotnace of Fez and Tunis is not under any difcipline ;
each goldf{mith, Jew, and even every private perfon, under-
taking it at pleafure ; which renders their money exceedingly
bad, and their commerce very unfafe. See Morocco.
Cotnace, Mufcovite—Tne czar Ivan Vaflillicyjtch in-
fittuted the frtt regular coinage, towards the middle
of the fixteenth century, and fet up a mint at Mofcow.
In the reign of this prince the Reffian coinaye began to ac-
quire anew form, and coins of different denominations were
{truck after a certain alloy and weight. Peter I. made va-
rious alterations in the coinage. All mints were abolifhed,
except thofe at Mofcow. A mint was afterwards fet up at
Peterfburg, and this is at prefent the only one where gold and
filver coins are ftruck. At this time there are in Ruffia one
mint for filver, and fix for coppercoin. See Russia,
Coinace, Perfian—Al\l the money made in Perfia is
ftruck with the hammer; and the fame may be underftood
of the reft of Afga and America, and the coafts of Africa,
and even Mufcovy; the invention of the mill not being
yet gone out of Parope, nor even eltablifhed in every part
of it. The king’s duty, in Perfia, is feven and a half per
cent. for all the monies coined; which are now reduced to
filver and copper; there being no gold coined there, except
a kind of medals at the acerffion of a rew fophi.
Coinace, the Spani/b, is efteemed one of the leaft perfe&
in Europe; it is fettled at Seville and Segovia, the only
cities where gold and filver are ftruck. t is true, there are
brought from Mexico, Peru, and other provinces of the
Spanifh America, fuch vaft quantities of pieces of cight,
and other {pecies both of gold and filver, that, in this
refpect, it muft be owned, there is no ftate inthe world
where fo much money is coined, as in that of the king of
Spain. “See Spain.
To take the reprefentation of a coin on paper, card, or
pafteboard. See Mepau,
CO-INDICATIONS, in Medicine, fizns which do not
indicate by themfelves alone, but together with other cir-
cumltances, &c. help the phytician to forma judgment.
COINING, in the Zin-qorks, is the marking cf the tin,
when caft into blocks, or flabs, with the figure of the lion
rampant. This is done by the king’s officer. he king’s
cultom is four fhillings for every hundred weight.
COINTE, Cuarres Lz, in Biography, was born at
Troyes inthe year 1611. After having received a good edu-
cation, he was employed in inftru@ing others in grammar,
the claflics, and rhetoric. He had not devoted many years
to this occupation before he was called to aflit in diplomatic
affairs, and in 1643, he rendered his country confiderable
fervice, in conjunction with M. Servien, at Munfler, in f{et-
tling the preliminaries of peace. For his zeal and fidelity in
this bufinefs he was rewarded with a pention, which enabled
him to devote his whole time to theolovical {tudies. Be-
tween the years 1665, and 1679, he publ*fhed his great work,
entitled Annales Ecclefiattic: Francorum,” in eght felio
volumes. ‘This vait compilation contains almott every
WING thing
vas rae nag
thing that: relates to the Gallican church, previoufly to the
penicd in which he wrete. He dicd at Pans, where he had
the tail thirty years of his life, in the year 1651, re-
gretted by his numerous friends, as well for the excellence of
his charaéter, as for his talents, which, though not of the
er, he had rendered ufeful to his country and the in-
Nouv. Dif. Hilt... Du Frefnoy.
in Botany, Hernand. See Cacrea
COIPATLIS,
ofpefiliforta. -
COIR, in the Menufadurcs, the Afiatic name of a ftrong
vezetablc fibre, prepared from the hufks of the cecoa-nut, and
mach ufed inthe Ea Indies in the manufaGture of cables and
cordege. Dr. Wiliiaay Roxburgh, a corre{ponding member of
he Society of Aris, London, refiding at Calcutta, in 1S01,
‘mitted to that learned body, the detail of his experi-
ments on hemp, and twenty other different forts of vegetable
fibre, with the view of alcertaining their relative ftrength,
when white, when tanned, and when tarred; thefe wilt be
found in the 22d volume of their TranfaGiions. In 1805,
the fame ingenious gentleman tranfmitted to the fociety the
rcfults of his further experiments, on the above mentioned
21 vegetable fibres, in the three ftates above named, both
when frefh, and after 116 days maceration in water, during
the hot feafon; thefe were for afcertaining the efleGs of
tanning and tarring ropes made of thefe fubftances, both as
the fame affcGted their ftrength at firft, and preferved them
from decay by wet. See Tranf. Soc. Arts xxiv. 143.
COIRE, or Cuur, in Geography, a town of Swiffer-
land, in the department of the Grifons, fituated at the foot
of the Alps, ina rich plain between two and three miles
wide. This town lies partly in the plain, and partly upon
the fteep fide of a rock, and is furrounded with ancient
brick walls, ftrengthened with fquare and round towers, ac-
cording to the ftyle of fortification before the invention of
gun-powder; the itreets are narrow and dirty ; it contains
about 3000 perfons. It probably owes its origin to the
emperor Conftantius, who, in the 355th yearof the Chrift-
jan era, penetrated into Rhetia, and fixed his {tation
for fometime near the {cite of this town, which was con-
firucted near the camp, and deriving from the imperial re-
fidence the name of Curia, its appellation was afterwards
changed inte Coira and Coire. The remains of two or
three towers, evidently of Roman conftruétion, attet its an-
tiquity, and ferve to eftablifh the truth of the above-men-
tioned conjecture concerning its origin. Ccire was formerly
acity of the German empire, fubjeé to its own courts, and
in the ninth century became fubjeé to the dominion of the
bifhop. Like many other cities of Germany, it obtained
contiderable privileges from the different emperors ; and the
inhabitants, having gradually circumfcribed the authority of
the bifhop, at length eftablifhed an independent republic.
The government of Coire is ariflo-democratical; the: fu-
preme legiflative authority refides in the citizens, whofe
number amounts to 294, divided into five tribes. The exe-
cutive power is entruited to the council of 70, compofed of
14 members annually elected from each tribe. This council is
divided into feveral leffer departments, the chief of which is
the fenate, or council of fitteen, who have the principal di-
rection of affairs, either folely or conjointly with other
members of the fovereign council. The chiefs of Coire are
two burgomatters, taken from the members of the fenate,
who continue in office for life, though liable to a removal.
They enjoy the fupreme dignity by rotation, each for a
year. The criminal tribunal is compofed of the fenate and
15 other members of the fovercign council. The prifoners
ave examined and the procefs drawn up by a fecret council,
formed of the feven eldeft members of the fenate, the ma-
jority of whom. mG@ft concur to order the inflition of
unis
@ O-T
torture. After the convi&ion, procefs is laid before the
crimina! tribunal, which ultimately pafles fentence, and all
offences. excepting great crimes, are commonly punifhed by
fines. Coire {ends two deputies to the general dict of the
Grifons, held here every three years. Thefe are generally
the two burgomafters. Upon the higheft part of the town
ftands the bilhop’s palace, the cathedral, and the houfe
belonging to the chapter. :
The bifhopric of Coire was probably ereéted foon after
the firft eitablifhment of Chriftianity in thefe parts, under
Conftantine, or his fon. The diocefe once extended over
the whole Roman province of Rhetia, which comprehended
the prefent country of the Grifons, the Valteline, Chia-
veona, and Bormio, together with the eaftern diltri& of
Swifferland as far as the lake of Cortlance, and part of
Tyrol; the bifhop’s territorial poffeflions were allo confi-
derebie, and his revenues by no means inadequate to his power
and dignity. The principal diminution of his power was occa-
fioned by the formation of the league of God’s Honfe.and the
limitation of his prerogatives in 1527. he introduétion of
the Proteftant religion gave the final blow to his power;
for his revenue fuftained great diminuticn by the lofs cf the
tythes, which were feized by the reformed communities,
The bihop is fuffragan of Mentz, and prince of the Roman
empire, which dign:ty was annexed to the fee in 1170 by
the emperor Frederic I., and he is ftyled lord of Furflen-
berg and Furltenau. His annual revenues, which zmount
to about 2,000/., arife chiefly from eftates near Coire, and
in the Tyrol; he receives alfo the annual fum of about 7o/.
from the cultoms of Chiavenna, in return for having ceded
his claims over the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, to
the republic of the Three Leagues. ‘The only preregatives
remaining are the right of coining money, and an abfolute
jurifdiGtion both in civil and criminal affairs within the {mail
diftri& in which his palace and the chapter are fituated.
The bifhop is chofen by the chapter. The epifcopal diftn@
is only a tew hundred paces in circumference, and is fur-
rounded by high walls; the greater part of the palace is
modern, except a fquare tower, fuppofed to have been con-
flruéted by the Romans. The chapter confiits of twenty-
four canons, fix of whom are refident; the inhabitants of
this diftri€t are all’ Catholics. Above the palace, and at
the higheft extremity of the town, is the convent of St.
Lucius, deriving its name from a {mall chapel dedicated to
that faint, who, according to the legends of the Romifh
church, was a king in Britain towards the latter end of the
fecond certury. After embracing Chriftianity he is faid to
have quitted his throne, and, wandering in thefe parts, to
have built an hermitage upon the fpot where the chapel
now ftands; and by his preaching and example, to have
converted numbers to the Chri(tian faith. He is ftyled the
apottle of the Grifons, and held in high veneration as a
faint by the Catholics; while the Proteltants of the towa
p2y him not the leaft veneration.
There isa Latin feminary at Coire for the children of the
burghers, and another, inftituted in 1763, for the education
of perfons intended for the church ; thefe eftablifhments,
though poorly endowed, have been of fome literary advan-
tage to the country. Coire has alfo a typographical fociety
for Latin, German, and Romanfh. 2
The environs of Coire are delightful the plain is nchly
diverfified with corn ard pafture, the hills gradually floping
to the foot of the mountains are covered with vines, which
yield wine of a pleafant flavour, but net ftrong. The
Rhine, which flows rapidly through the plain, begins here
to be navigable by rafts, and merchandize is tran{ported to-
wards Lindau. and Zuric. N, lat. 46° 54’. E. long.
. COISLANS).
€.of
COISLANS, a Dutch fa&ory.on the coalt. of Malabar ;
23 leagues < W. of shaecies Camediien
were fenton om ie ccteoat ie t Seguier,
who died in 1672. They are preferved at prefent in the
Benediétine libiary of : oe Germain. des Prez, and are de-
feribed in the following fearce work, viz. ‘* Bibliotheca
Codliniana, olim Segtieriaua, feu MStorum omnium Gre-
corun, que in ea continentur, accurata defcriptio, ubi operum
fingularem notitia datur, atas eujuigne MSti indieatur,
vexultionurn {pecimina exhibentur, aliaque mult aap notanter
qu ad palzographiam.Gracam pertinent, Studio et opera
B. de Mont fancon, Pari rs. fol2? hey are Jikewife
enumerated in Montfaucou’s * Bibliotheca bibliothecarum,’”
tom. ii. One of thefe MSS. is referred by Montfaucon
and Wetltein to the mh century; others of them were
written in the rith, 12th, and rgth centuries; and mot of
them were brought from mount Athos. One of them
contains a part of the O. T. without any proper reference to
the N.; five contain the four Gofpels; others contain the
A&s BE the Apottles, and the Catholic Epiitles; various
commentaries on St. Matthew aud St. Mark ; commentaries
on the Acts of the Apoitles; the Epitiles of St. Paul, poate
commentaries; -the whole N. T.; the N. Baie except th
book of Revelations; the Acts, Epiltles, and Regelacouss ;
fragments of the Epiltle of St. Paul; andthe A&is, Epifles,
adsBenelations.... From t4 of thefe MSS. Wetltcin, in his
N.T. has made extracts. See Marfh’s Michaelis, Introd.
to the N. J’, vol. ii. and i.
COITER, Koyrer, Votcuer, in Biography, a cele-
brated phyfician, furgeon, and anatomilt at Groningen,
where he was born in the year 1534; fhewing ae a dilpo-
fition to the ftudy of medicine, he was fent by his father
to Padua, and placed under the direction of Fallopius, by
whom he was initiated into the knowledge of anatomy, in
which he was further improved by Eultachius, duving a re-
fidence of feome months at Rome. He then went to Bo-
logna, and was, introduced to the celebrated naturalift, A!-
drovandus, with whom he continued his ttudies. Not fatis-
fied with his attainments, he went to Montpellier, and after-
wards, with the view of obtaining a greater number of human
fubjects for diffeGtion, for he had hitherto operated princi-
pally on brute animals, he accepted the poft of one of the
phylicians to the army of the king of France, which he at-
tended through a campaign. ‘The numerous obfervations
he made on the effects or alterations produccd by certain
difeaf-s, in the ftructure of the vifcera, fhew how well he
was qualitied for this poft. On qnitting the army, he went
to Nuremburg, where he fettled and continued to the time
ot his death, which happened about the year 1576.
Thouga his life was fhort, yet, from the activity and
powers of his mind, he was enabled to make confiderable im-
provements, both in anatomy and {urgery; among the former
are to be noted, his obfervations on the brain, the motion
of which, he Paiinds was occalioned by the motion of the ar-
teries. He alfo difcovered that the brain was not abfolutely
neceffary to life, which in fome animals remained after it was
taken away. He firlt deferibed the corpora lutea, in the
ovaria; alfo the order in which the parts of the chick are
feefaldedci in the egg; and in the heart he obferved, that the
contraction of the ventricle preceded that of the auricle. He
deferibed the frontal finufes ; and though he did not difcover
any of the parts of the organ of hearing, that had not been
before noticed, they are more accurately defcribed, by him,
Douglas obfurves, than they had been by any preceding
1$..17
€ OF
He added two milcles to the ce which are called
by anatomilts corruzators of tle eve-lids, but from their ule,
Douglas fays, ti 1ey might more pro sperly be called
fores fupererl rum; allo two mufeles performing a fimilar
ng his chirurgical obfervations, ares
the brain are more danzere
ns entire than when it is ruptured;
writer.
denref-
office for the lips. Am
that wounds or hurts of
when the dura mater remai
in thefe cafes, he boldly opened that membrane, to give vent
fed A mour. When fungi from the brain arife,
they may be fafely, he fays, persd « own. He cured a
tient of a wound in the brain, extending to the ventricle
but the patient was ever after aficted with alienation of fis
mind. The works in which thefe, and numerous other valua-
le obfervations are contain d, are ‘De cartilaginibus tabule
to the eflu
pa-
quingue, ” fo), Bone wie, 500. «cM sternarum €t latemarnm
pr neipalium corporis he mani partium, tal ul atque ATOMIC
Ze
exercitatioues, oblery ationcfque varie nOvis €t IACOC
mis fguris amaleates 2,’ Norib. 1573) fol. In the introduG&ica
he gives a bricf hillory of anatomy, and traces the order
which it fhould be ftudied. He here firit gave a complete
fet of plates, depiciing the fkeleton of a feetus. Diverforem
ani imalium {cel:tonum spa ie cum ledtionibus Fallo-
pii-de partibus fimilaribus,’? Norib. 1575, fol. containing well
depiéted fkeletons of various qua dinpeds, birds, and am re -
bious animals.- Boerh. Math. Studii Med. Dongias
Anat: Haller Bib. Anat., &c.
COITION, the intercourfe between male and female i in
the aét of generation. It is obferved that frogs are forty
days in the aét of coition. Darthcline, &c. relate that but-
terflies nake an hundred and thirty vibrations of the wings
in one adt of coition.
Corrion is alfo fometimes ufed for that mutual attraction,
or tendency toward each other, which is found bet ween iron
and the magret.
COIT-MOSS.Cotritry. This mine is fituated near
the borders of Chefhire, and to that fingular mountain Axe
iEdge, in the neighbourhood of Buxton, in Devonfhire,
ayer is formed by the weltern edge of the filicious grit
rock, covering the lime-ftone, in this diflocated part of the
country. T he furface, fora confiderable diftance round the
pit,-is mofs or bog, and which extends feveral feet bencath
the furface ; the ccal lics from 30 to 40 fathoms deep, and
is covered by a ferruginous clay {chift. which Assos ues: on
expofure to the air. ‘This mine is drained oa a fough ef con=
fiderable length, in an ealterly direction
COJUMERO, in Zovlogy, the name given by fome to
the manati. See Taicuecuus manatus.
COIX, in Botany, (Kaz, Gr. a name given by Theophraf-
tus to one of his Kaazusduare, or reed- leaved plants, allied to
the palms.) Linn. Gen. 1043.: Schreb. 1405. Willd.
4639s. Jull. 34. Vent. 112. (Lachryma Job. open
3c0, Lithagroftis. Gart. Larmille. Encyce.) Clafs and
order, monecia triandria. Nat. Ord. ae Linn. Juff.
Vent.
Obf. Gertner obje&s to the Linnezan name, as not de-
noting the plant intended by Theophraflus and other ancient
writers.
Gen. Ch. Male flowers in a loofe fpike. Cal. Glume
two-flowered, two-valved; valves oblong-egg-fhaped, obtufe,
awnlefs; the outer one thicken: Cor. two valved, valves
ovate-lanceolate, nearly the length of the calyx, thin, awnlefs.
Stam. Filaments three, capillary ; anthers obiong. Female
flowers few, fituated below the male fpike. Cal. Giume
two-flowered, twoevalved;’ valves rounded, thick, fhining,
hard; the outer one larger, fhining. Linn, Schreb. Mait.
Glume onc-flowered, one-leafed, ovate-conical, open at its’
AY 2 fummit,
in
: re)
2.
Cre
fummit, thick, coriaceous, fhining ; compofed of two valves,
which are united the greateft part of their length. Lam.
Glume one-flowered, three-valved; exterior valve larger,
thick, coriaceous, fhining; calyx two-valved, fmaller. Juff.
Vent. Female flowers two, one couftantly abortive ; inclofed
4n a one-leafed, permanent involucrum, which, as the feed
ripens, becomes hard as ftone. Gert. Cor. Glume two-
valved ; outer valve egg-fhaped ; inner one narrower, {mall-
er; both awnlefs. Pif. Germ ege-fhaped, very fmail;
ftyle fhort, two-cleft; itigmas two, horned, much longer
than the flower, pubefcent. Peric. none, except the outer
glume of the calyx, which falls off with the feed without
opening. Seed fo):tary, roundifh.
Ei. Ch. Male flowers in loofe (pikes. Calyx and corolla
awnlefs. Temale flowers, calyx and corolla awnlefs. Style
two-cleft. Seed covered by the offified calyx.
Sp. 1. C. decryma. Job’s-tears. Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart.
zy. Lam. 1. Willd. r. Lam. Iiluft. tab. 750. (Lacryma
Jabi. Cluf. Hift. 2. p. 216. Tourn. 306. J. Bauh. 2. p.
449. lod. Pemp. 526. Lob. Ic. 44. Lithofpermunr arun-
dinaceum forte Dioiccridis et Plinit. Bauk. Pin. 258. Moris.
Hift. 3. p. 249. Salee. Rumph. Amb. 5. tab. 75. fig. 2.
Catriconda. Rheed. Mal. 12. tab 7o. Lithagroflis lacryma
Jobi. Gert. tab. 1. fig. to.) ‘ Seeds egg-fhaped.”? Linn.
** Spikes axillary, feveral, peduncled.” Lam. ‘ Cuim fe-
micylindrical above, obtufe; flowers naked; fruit ego
fhaped.” Willd. Root fibrous, annual, at leaft in our climate.
Stems two or three feet high, leafy. Leaves more than an
inch broad, alternate, arurdinaceous, fheathing, fmocth,
with a white midrib. Flowers from the fheatlisof the up-
per leaves, in feveral fafcicled unequal racemes, which are
fhorter than their refpe€tive leaves. Seeds blueifh white,
rounded at the bafe, fomewhat pointed at the fummit, very
hard, even-furfaced, fhining like pearis. A native of the
Eatt Indies, cultivated in Spain and Portngal, where, in
times of fcarcity, a coarfe kind of bread is made of its feeds,
and eaten by the poor. It is applied to the fame purpofe
in the Levant, and in Chica. Its feeds are fometimes bored
aid threaded for necklaces, and other female ornaments.
2. C. angulata. Linn. Hort. Cif. 438. Mart. 2. (C. arur-
dinacea. Lam. 2. Lacryma Jobi Americana altiffima, arun-
dinis foho ct facie. Pum. Cat. Lithofpermum arundinaceum
alium. Hern. Mex. p. 282, the inner figure?) ‘¢ Seeds angu-
Yar.” Linn. * Spikes axillary, folttary, nearly feffile.”” Lam.
Root perennial. Si feven or eight feet high, hard,
ached. Nearly allied to the preceding, perhaps only a
variety. 3, C. agreflis. Mart. 3. Willd. 2. Lour. Cochin.
551. (Sal c-Utan. Rumph. Amb. 6. 22. tab. g fig. 1.
Llacryma Jobi paludofs minor; Burm. Zeyl. 138.) “Culm
quite finple ; leaves even-furfaced ; feeds round:fh.”” Lour.
“ Culm cylindrical; flowers naked; feeds roundith.””
Willd. Root perenmial, creeping: Culms three feet high,
cefpitofe, folid, jomted. eaves lanceolate-linear, acumi-
nate, alt Peduncles long, three or four to-
gether the fame axil, erect, many-flowered. Seeds
brown, fining, imall. A native of meift places in Ceylon,
A.mboina, end Cochin-china. 4. C. arundinacea. Willd. 4.
Koenig. Culm femicylindrical above, acute; flowers in-
volucred; feeds elliptical.” Willd. Root perennial. Stem
very lofty, branched: Leaves aculeate-ferrated. .Peduncles
in pairs, furrounded by inverfely egg-fhaped obtufe invo-
lucres, which are Jinear-cufpidate at the tip. Fruit four
times {mailer than that of C. lacryma, white, fhining. A
native of the Eaft Indies, near Tranfchaur, but very rare.
Propagation and Culture. The feeds of C. lacryma may
be procured from Portugal, and fhould be fown ina mo-
#, {neathing.
COkK
derate hot-bed in the fpring: they may afterwards be tranf.
planted into a warm border, two feet at leaft diftant from
each other, and will reqnire no farther trouble. C. angue
lata will not bear the open-air in England, but muft be
plunged into the bark-bed, where it will produce ripe feeds
the fecond year,
COKE, Sir Epwarp, in Biography, a lawyer of great
eclebrity in the fixteenth and feventeenth centuries, was the
only fon of Robert Coke, efq. of Mileham, in Norfolk, a
barrifter of contiderable pra€tice. He was born in 1550,
and received the early part of his education at the free fehook
of Norwich ; after which he complcted his academical ftudies
at Trinity Coltege, Cambridge. From Cambridge he went
to Clifford’s Inn; and in the following yeat he entered as
fludent in the Inner Temple. He foon difcovered great
penetration, and a folid judgment in cafes that belonged to
his profeffion; and we are told by himfelf, that he pleaded
his firlt caufe in the court of King’s Bench, io Trinityterm,
1578. About the fame time, he was appointed reader of
Lyon’s Inn, an office which he held for three years, during
which his le@ures were much reforted to; his reputation in=
creafed, and his bufinefs as a barrifter found him amp'e em-
ployment for the exercife of his great talents. In a few
years be married the daughter and co-heirefs of John Pafton,
e{q. with whom he had a large forture; and by means of
her conneétions, in conjunétion with his own abilities, he
made the moft rapid advances in his profeflion. He was
chofen recorder of the cities of Norwich-and Coventry ; he
was evoaged in almaft every caufe of importance at Weft-
minfler Hall; and was frequently confulted in the affairs of
the crown. His property and influence in Norfolk pointed
him out as a fit reprefentative of the county ; he was accord-
ingly ele€ted member ; and, in the 35th year of Ehzabeth,
was chofen fpeaker of the Houfe of Commons, being at the
fame time folicitor-general to the queen ; an office which he
fhortly exchanged for that of attorney-general.
As fpeaker of the houfe, in the year 1593, he made the,
three ufual requvetis, of freedom from arrelts, of accefs to the
royal perfon, and of liberty of fpecch; to which the queen
replied, that liberty of fpeech was granted to the commons,
but they muft know what liberty they were entitled to; not
a liberty for every one to fpeak what he Jiketh, or what
cometh in his brain to utter; their privilege extended no
farther than a liberty of aye and xo. That fhe would not ims
peach the freedom of their perfons ; and thet fhe would not
rcfufe them accefs to her perfon, provided it were upon ur-
gent and weighty caufes, and at times convenient, when fhe
might have leifure from other importart affairs.
The death of Mr. Coke’s lady, by whom he had ten chil-
dren, afforded him an opportunity of augmenting the num-
ber of his alliances, by a fecond marriage with lady Hatton,
the widow of fir Chriftopher, and fifter to lord Burleigh, af-
terwards earl of Exeter. The marriage ceremony, in this
inflance, having been performed with feme irregularities, he
was profecuted in the archbifhop’s court, and obliged to
make the requifite fubmifiion, in order that he might efcape
excommunication, and the penalties attached to it.
It has been remarked, that few reigns have produced fo
many and able lawyers as that of queen Elizabeth; yet of
them all, no-one was fo much diltingnifhed as Mr. Coke,
whom minifters confulted in all points of difficulty ; and who,
it is faid, never failed to furaifh them with legal colours for
all their proceedings ; which, though many of them were
very extraordinary, yet being fo guarded, were beheld by
the people as juft and honourable.
Qae of the moft interefting profecutions, ere ne
ned.
COK
affizned to him as attorney-general, was that of the earl of
Effex, who, with the carl of Southampton, were indigted for
thecrime of high-treafon, The attorney-general, ‘* Coke,”
fays Mr. Hume, ‘ opened the caufe againft him, and treated
him with the cruelty and infolence which that great lawycr
~ufually exercifed.again{t the unfortunate.’’ At the conclu-
fion of his fpeech he faid that, ‘* by the jult judgment of
God, he of his earldom fhould be Robert the Lati, that of
a kingdom thought to be Robert the Firit.” Imoft
immediately after the aceflion of James to the throne,
Mr. Coke received the honour of knighthood; and in
the July following, fir Walter Raleigh was accufed and
profecuted for a fuppofed plot againit government. Sir
Edward Coke managed. this trial entirely, and difplayed
fo much rancour againit the prifoner, as may be deemed
not only a great reflection, on his own memory, but even
on the manners of the age. ‘Traitor, monflee, {pider of
hell, are terms which he employed againft an illuftrious cha-
rater, who was under trial for life and fortune, and who de-
fended himfelf with an even temper and heroical courage.
Nor was the attorrey-general lefs blameable with refpect to
the high court before whom he ftood ; his arrogance was fo
confpicuous, that lord Cecil demanded, if he came thither
to dire@ them? Upen which he fat down, and refufed to
utter anotaer word, till he was folicited by all the commif-
fioners, when he rofe, and recapitulating his arguments, fir
Walter was found guilty.
On the difcovery of the gun-powder plot, fir Edward
Coke obtained great credit for the fagacity and vigilance
which he fhewed in unravelling the faéts relating to that ex-
traordinary affair. Upon one of the trials a high compliment
was pafled npor him by lord Cecil, who faid, ‘that the evi-
dence had been fo well diftributed, and opened by the attor-
ney-general, that he never heard fuch a mafs of matter, better
contrated, or made more intelligible to a jury.”’ It was in
reward for his fignal fervices on this occafion, that he was
raifed to be chief jultice of the court of Common Pleas, an
office which he appears to have filled with high reputation
and honour. In 1613, he was made chief juftice of the
King’s Bench, and one of the members of the privy council,
but withaut enjoying any confiderable portion of the king’s
confidence. He had already chofen as his motto, * lex tu-
tiffima caffis ;?? and it was a maxim to which he determined to
adhere; he was, therefore, ill fitted to ferve the high preroga-
tive notions of James; he alfo fhewed marks of indignation,
when his fovercign, through the attorney-general, undertook
to find out his opinion of a caule hkely to be brought before
him as judge ; declaring, that it was-a principle from which he
would not depart, ‘that he was a judge in a court, and not
in a chamber.”? As his temper had nothing in it that was
conciliating, and as he felt the dignity of his high office,
which he confidered as held for the benefit of the people,
rather than for the pleafure of the crown, he involved himlelf
not unfrequently with a court governed by favourites, and
fond of a higher degree of power than was allowed by the
conftitution, When the earl of Somerfet’s guilt in the mur-
der of fir Thomas Overbury was difcovered, the king fent to
the chief juftice, fir Edward Coke, and earneltly recommend-
ed to him the molt rigorous and unbiaffed ferutiny ; an in-
junétion which he executed with the greateft induftry and fe-~
verity. With the fmall clue given him, he unravelled moft
carefully the whole labyrinth of their guilt ; but his zeal on
the trials of the perfons concerned in this affair, was mingled
with a bitternefs and fury that feem to have ill accorded with
the decorum and dignity of a judge. On the trial of Mrs.
Turner, Coke ferupled not to affirm that fhe was guilty of
the feven deadly fins; fhe was a whore, bawd, a forcerer,
COOK
a witch, a paptit,-a felon, and a murderer, In the fummer
of 1616, he was fufpended from his office, and from his feat
at the council board, the eccafion of which was owing to
fome difference with the new favourite, Villiers, afterwards
duke of Buckingham; but in little more than a year, he was
received at court, and reinftzced in the privy council. He now
took an adtive part in profecuting various perfons for corruption
in office, and other offences, by which means many heavy fines
were levied, and the treafury replent{hed. In this he feemed
to favour the interefts of the crown; bet in parliament, of
which he was a diftinguifhed member, he maintained the
rights and privileges of the commons, againft the proclama-
tions of the fovereign ; and was, on that account, in the year
1621, committed to the Tower, and his papers feized. He
did not long remain a prifoner, though he was again expelled
from the privy council, and ftigmatized by the king, as
“ being the fitteft inftrument fora tyrant that ever was in
England ;?? a charaGter to which he had no jult title, nor
would it have been applied to him by James had he become
fuch an inftrument in his own hands.
In the fucceeding reign he was nominated fheriff of Buck~
inghamfhire, to prevent him from being chofen member of
the houfe cf commons; he was, however, ele&ted to repree
fent that county in the parlianent which mct in the year 1628,
and was diitinguifhed for his zealin attempting to redrefs the
grievances, and fupport the rights and liberties of the people.
The moft important fervice which he rendered to his fellow
citizens, was in framing and propefing the “ petition of
rights ;”” this was the lait of his public a€ts, and was juftly
efteemed the moft explicit declaration of Englifh hberty
which had, at that time, appeared. Parliament was in a very
fhort time after d:ffolved, and fir Edward Coke retired to his
feat in Buckinghamfhire, where he ended his days in tran
quillity, and in high eftimation and refpe&t. He died Sep-
tember 3, 1634, in the cighty-fifth year of his age, leaving
behind him a numerous family, anda very large eltate. In
his laf{ moments he exhibited the u:moft refignation to the
divine will, and finifhed his courfe with uttering the words,
‘© thy wiil be done.”
The charaGter of this great lawyer has been varioufly re-
prefented ; but it cannot be denied that he was at once a
zealous and faithful fervant of the crown, maintaining its juft
prerogatives ; and as a fenator, he exhibited alaudable zeal
for correGling abufes, from which nothing could ever de-
ter him. His works are, ‘* Reports,” in 13 parts, folio.
« A Book of entries”? ‘ Inftitutes of the Laws of Eng-
land ;”’? confifting of, (1.) a tranflation and a comment upon
fir Thomas Littleton’s "Tenures; which is his moft cele-
brated work, and contains an immenfe body of Icgal erudi-
tion: (2.) Magna Charia, and other felect ftatutes, with a
comment: (3.) The Criminal Law, or Pleas of the crown :
(4.) An account of the jurifdi&ion of all the courts in the
kingdom. ‘* A Treatife of Bail and Mainprize.””? ‘ Read=
ing on the State of Fines, 27 Ed. i.” Complete copyholder,
Biog. Brit. Hume.
Coxe, or Coak, denotes pit-coal or feascoal charred. For
the exciting of intenfe heat, as for the {melting of iron-ore, and
for operations where fmoak would be detrimental, as the dry-
ing of malt, foflil coals are previoully charred, or reduced to
coaks, gaat is, they are made to undergo an operation almott
fimilar to that by which charcoal is made. By this procefs
coals are deprived of their volatile parts, nothing remaining
except the carbon and earthy impurities. ‘The great quan-=
tities of coal du, or {mall coal, colleéted at the numerous
pits in the neighbourhood of Newcattle, wou'd foon be-
come a great incumbrance, were it not that an admirable
method has been difcovered, not only to prevent the incons
venience,
COR
Yenience, but to-tumrit, with a little modification, into an
article of commeree and advantage, by preparations as fimple
as they are inzentcus. Coal, in this pulverized {tate, is not
proper furchamber fires, beeaufe it falls through the bars of
the grates, or extingnithes the fire by faliing upos the ignited
Cinde i fs, that nogircan get between to affilt the
is {mall coal is, therefore, proper in this
or fome purpofes in glafs-houfes,. lime or brick
The confamption for thefe purpofes is
ferable, but is not nearly equal to the quan-
the pics, notwithitanding the great care
o ke=p the coal in large pieces; belides, fome
to crumble into fmall-coal upon receiving the
ans have, therfore, been fought to render
rpefs. “That property, which
belongs’ to the bett coal, of -agglutinating and forming a
finale mafs, whenin a {tate of combuftion, naturally faggett-
jeath fhock : m
this coal praper far oth:
ed the idea of endeavouring to confolidate confidcrable
quantitis of this coal duit, or fmall-coal, by means of a
great fre. ToeffeA this it is put into akilin, ina great de-
gree Gmilar to a lime-kiin, which is previoufly well heated
with la-ge piecesof coal. The fmall-coal then runs together,
and forms a mafs, without loling any large portion of its
valuable qualities. When the ignited. mafs is. completely
red, large pieces of it are pulled cut with iron rakes (fuch
as are ufed in the copperas works), and laid feparately on
the ground, where thev are very foon extinauifhed; thefe
pieces are firm, taough porous, and are excellently adapted
tor {melting iron, and other ores, in high furnaces. This
fimp!e and ingerions contrivance has given birth to feveral
new branches of indufiry and commerce. ‘The coal, thus pre-
pared, is ufed in a great number of manufaCtories, where a
draft or bleit is ufed, as a fubftitute for charcoal, to which
it is ’n mott inftances fuperior, as it produces a ttronger,
more equal, and longer continued heat. Such is the method
of coak-making at Newcaftle, and other places. “That
purfued in the great iron-works at Carron, near Falkirk, in
Scotland, being fo completely different, our readers will ex-
cufe our giving an account of thigallo. The bufinefs is con-
ducted there in the open air, and in the mof fimp!e manner ;
a-quanuty of large coal is placed on the ground in a round
heap, of from 12 to.15 feet in diameter, and about two feet
in height ; as many as poffibie of the large pieces are placed
on their ends, to form paflages for the air; above them are
thrown the {maller pieces and coal duft, and inthe midtt of
this circular heap, is left a vacancy of a foot wide, where a few
faggots are depofited to kindle it. Four or five apertures of
this kind are formed round the ring, particularly on the fide
expofed to the wind; there is, however, feldom occafion to
light it'with wood, for other mafies being generally on fire,
the workmen mokt frequently ule a few fhovels of coal already
burning, which aéts more rapidly than wood, and’ foon
kindles the furrounding pile; as the fire fpreads the mafs
increafes in buik, puffs up; becomes fpongy and’light, cakes
into one body, and at length lofes its volatile paris, and
emits no more fmbke. © It'then acquires an uniform red ‘co-
‘lour, inclining a little to white, in which ftate it begins to
break into gaps and chinks, and to affume the appearance of
the under part of a mufhroom; at this moment the heap
mult be quickly covered with afhes, of which theres always
a fufficient provifion around. the numerous fires, where the
coak i: prepared. This method of throwing a large quan-
tity of afhes on the fire, to deprive it of the approach of air,
is fimilar to that ufed in making charcoal, which is covered
over with earth; the refult is alfo pretty much the fame, the
it-coal thus prepared being light and porous, and produc-
ing the fame effe& in. high -furmaces as charcoal.- Thisis a
CoK
quality of extreme value; fimee, by means of charred pit-eoal,
founderies may eciily be eltablithed, im places where the want -
of wood for charcus?, world otherwifle render it neceflary to
abandon cven the richeft mines of iren. ; :
The fimple method above defertbed being found. to con-
fume much of the belt qualities of the coke, owing to the
too free aceefs of air curing the procefs; many years ago a
method was introduced, of diluilling, or charting coals. in
clofe veflcls, by the heat of another fire externally applied,
and by which alfothe liquid bituminous matter, or ecal-tar,
was feparated and condenfed ; the value of which, as a fub:
flirute for paint in rough works. contributed to rendet this
a profitable mode of preparing 'trong-cckes, for thre {mclt-
ine of metals, and other purpofes m the arts, where, with
g-eaterplenty of wood, charceal formerly was ufed ; and which
coke, from its fuperior ipflammabilizy, cold be xfed in com=
mon grates and thoves, where the draft or ivitux of air is ms
fuficient to burn the common coke. Ona the 13th ef Nos
vember, 1800, Mr. David Muhhet of ‘Giafgow teok out a
patent for various improvemenis in metallurzy, and, among
others, for an improved coking furnace, builtof fire-brick,
or iron-plates, and made to exclude the external air from the
coals to be coked while they are heated to incandefeence;
by a fire underneath with dues enveloping the coking veffel:
In his fpecification (fee Repertory of Arts, xiv. 182.); dif=
ferent confiru€ions of thefe furnaces are defcribed, fome ta
condenfe the tar and foot, or lamp-black, and fome for let+
ting thefe cfeape, if their condenfation fhould not be found
advantageous. On the i8th May, 1804, Mr. Frederick Al=
bert Winfor took out a patent for combining the faving
and purifying ct the inflammable gas (for producing light and
heat}, the ammonia, tar, and other produdts of pit-coal, with
the manufaéture of a fuperior kind of coke (fee Repertory;
ad Series, v. 172.). And, lately, the fame gentleman has
taken out a fecond patent, for further improvements im thefe .
procefks, but this fpecification not being yet fled (Juné.
1897), we are unable here to deferibe minutely, and give
drawings of the oven, or carbonizing furnaces, as we wifhed
to do, which he ufes for preparing his patent coke, of a
fuperior quality, as the refidaum of the gas, ammoniel liquor,
and oil-tar, feparated in his proceffes (fee Gas lights, and
Tar-coa/), in which 309 yards in length of the wall of
Carlton-Houfe gardens, next to the Mail in St. James’s
Park, were, on his majefty’s birth-day evening lat, lighted
up with gas-lamps, and burners, of varicus contlruétions;
and with tranfparencies, and other devices, illuminated by
brilliant gas-lights. This patert coke, from the ‘experi+
ments which we have feen, feems perfecily applicable to
burning in our rooms and apartments ; making a lively and
pleafant fire, with a very {mail degree of draught up the
chimney, and producing no {moke. Two pecks of coals;
weighing 36 lb. coked invne of Mr. Winfor’s {mail carbons
izing furnaces, produced 244 Ib. of coke (or 67 per cent.);
which, when broke into moderate fzed pieces, meafured
three pecks. Dr. Watfon obtained 58, Mr. Jars 63, and
M. Hicim 73 per cent. of the weight of coals, in fimilay
experiments.
In the {melting of ores in Silefia, it was found (1. Bergm,
Journ. 1790. p. 320.) that g2 Ib., or one meafere of cokes;
were equivalent to 180 1b., or three meafures ef charcoal 5
.and, in another place (ibid. 1792. p. 60:), one meafure-of
cokes is faid to equal the effe&ts of five meafures-of charcoal;
or three of pit-coal. amt
From the experimeets of M. Lavoifier; in the Stockholm
Memoirs, 1781, p.187, it appears, that the-heats produced
as meafured by the evaporation of equal quantities of water,
ander equal furfaces, and the times of :confurmption, to Fae
uce
but which has long fince been difufed.
CO 4
duce the fame effeoby four different kinds of fucl, were as
follow, viz
Combuftibles, Weight. Meafure. Deration.-
Prt-coal, - Oco lbs. - yo cubic feet. = 20 hours:
Cokes, sh B03 2 17 = 124
Sharcoal, - 600 - 40 - 5
Oak wood. 1089 - 33 - 4.4
Whence it appears, that if coal produces a certain quan-
tity of heat in a given time, coke, ina much {maller quan-
tity, will produce ue fame eect in little more than half the
time ; an cqual weight of charceal in one-fourth of that
time ; and oak wood, of nearly double the weight of coal,
in about one-fitth of that time.
The coke-ovens, mentioned in a former part of this article,
began about 30 or 40 years:ago, to be applied to cther pur-
poles befides the making of coke. About the year 1780, we
remember to have feen a coke-oven, opening with a door al-
mot lixe a large bakev’s oven, applied to heating the bo:lers
of the fleam-engines of the Chelfea or Pim'ico water-works,
On the 23d June
1789, the right honourable Hay Seymour Conway took
out apatent (fee Reperte ry of Arts, mi. 75.) for imp roved
methods ef conveying and ad: apting the heat cf coke ovens
to the suorkng, of tleam engines, baking of bread, calcining
and fi fufing of metals and ores, &c. We are told in this
foecification, that three bifcuit-ovens were e rected and work-
ed from the fire of one coke-oven thus conftructed, the heat
from it being regulated by openings and vegilters, with
perfeG fuecefs. See Oven. Others of thefe coke-ovens
Were adapted Sa heating boilers, and for working flills.
The earl of Dundonald’s method of making cokes, or cin-
deis, after he had excraGted the coal-tar from coals, for which
he obtained a patent, goth April, 1781, and the time of
which was afterwards ae by act of Beet to the
aft of June 1806, required the ‘admitting of. the external
air into his furnace, in fufficient quantities to carry on the
pee eu ven of the coals operated upon (fee Repertory of
Arts, i. 145.), by which the neceflity. of a fecond, or-exter-
nal fire, fot ale the furnaee was avoided ; but the cokes,
produced by this means, are inferior in quality to thofe pro-
duced in clofe veffels, as in the proceffes of Muthet, Winfor,
&c. above mentioned.
COKER, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Lancafter, whieh runs into the Infa fea, 5 miles
N.W. of Garftang.
CO-KIANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Se-tcbuen ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Tche-li-
leou.
CO-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Yun-nan; 1160 miles S.S.W. of Pekin. N.
lat. 26° 35’. IE. long 99° 16’.
COKZIM. See. KORRES
COL, or Corr, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland,
about 1 gmiles long,and 3 broad. Col,fays Dr. Johnfon, is one
continued rock, of a furface much diverfified with protuber-
ances, and covered with a thin layer of earth, which is often
broken, and difcovers the flone. Such a foil is not adapted
to plants that flrike deep roots, nor do they rife to any
great height. The uncultivated parts are cloathed with
heath, among which induftry has interfperfed {pots of gras
and corn ; but no attempt has yet been made to raife a tree.
The lord ‘of, Col bas lately introduced the culture of tur-
nips, to provide foed for his cattle in the winter. This
ifland has many lochs, fome of which have trouts and eels.
The quadrupeds are horfes, cows, theep, and goats. It
has neither deer, hares, nor, rabbits, Rats are its only, vere
Cco.L
min, ard they have been brought thither by fea : they have-
no ferpents, frogs, or toads. "The number of inhabitents is
ellimated af fomewhatmore ae cee Tri is a malls N \
from the ifland ct rate
from Prite de Tale: i Be rar ce, to C: ampre edo, in cae ue
Cer cf Argenticre, a paffage of the Alps, between Nice
and Saluzzo.
Cox de Balme, an eminence of the Alps, in the vicinity
of Mont Blane, lying in the way from T tent to Chamosny.
Tt is very fteep, buat not dangerous, ard the pat h, which is
in no point bare rock, runs throw :gh a thick wood cloathing
the tides of the meuntain
Cor of Limen, a pallag e of. the Alps, between Sofpella.
and Cont.
Cor of Peraco’s, a paflage of the Pyrenées, between
Ceret, in France, and Ampurdan, in Spain.
Cox of Pertus, a paflape of the Pyrenécs, between Bou-
lou and Junqnere.
Cor of Tena, a paffage of the Alps, between Pied-
mont and Nice, over the mountains of Venda.
COLA peti’ AmMarTRICE, In Liography, a painter: and
architect, fo called from the piace of his birth, a {mall
town near Aqu ula, in the {tate of Naples. .At Afcoli, and
in all that province, where he {pent the latter part of his
life, Cola enjoys the reputstion of having been an exes lent
painter, as well asa great architect. In fome of his early
piciures, there isa degree of drynefs in the ftyle; but, in his
latter works, his drawing 3 isina vrand tafte, and his pi€tures in
every refpect worthy of Plone ation. His molt celebrated pic-
ture at Afcoli, repreferts our Saviourdift ributing the-eucharift
to the apoftles; in the Oratorio del Corpus iDeaae His
greateft work of architeCture is the facade of the magnilt-
cent phureh of St. Bernardino, at Aquila, which was begun
in 1525,and finifhedin 1542; it bears this infcription on the
architrave Cora. Amataicius. ArcHirector. In-
eTRusae. his artift is likewife fpoken of as a {culptor..
Lanzi. Storia Pirt. Milizia. Mem. degli Arch.”
Cora, Gennaro D1, one of the painters who Alourithed
in Naples in the 14th century. ie was born about 1320,
and was the fcholar of Maeltro Simone, an artift of fome
eminence in thecity. There are feveral ftories-of the life
of the Madonna, painted by this matter, in company with
another Neapolitan painter called Slefanone, in the church of
St. Giovanni da Carbonara; they are executed with great
diligence. This artift died about the year 1370. Lanai.
Storia Pitt. Domenici.
COLAIR Lake, a lake of Hindooftan, which, during
the inundations in the feafon of the periodical rains, 18 40
or 50 miles in extent, and at all times a confiderable- piece
of water, and lies about midway between the Godavery and
Kiftnah, in the new foil gradually formed by the inundations
of thefe rivers, about 12 Britith miles to the N. of Mafuli-
patam. The origin of this lake may be referred to the
fame caufe as that which produces the lakes andmorafles of the
Egyptian and Bengaldeltas ; which is, that the depofition of
mud by the two rivers (or thet two branches of one river) atthe
time when they overflow, is greateft near the banks ; and
thus the ground acquires the form of an inclined plane from
each river bank towards the interior part of the country,
where a hollow fpace will be left. The fubfequent inunda-
tions finding their way into this hollow place, from the
lower part of the river, wall gradually fill up with mud that:
part of the lake which lies towards the fource of it ; and as
the new land continues to encroach upon the fea, the lake
will travel downwards in the fame proportions A plan has
* 6 been,
«
COL
“been propofed for opening a/communication at zl! feafons
between the Colair Jake and its parent rivers, with a view to
‘the improvemert-of the acjicent lands, which ferm a part
of the circars, and of the inland navigation. But
though the propofal was-made in 1779, it does not feem to
have heen adopted. Rennell’s Mem. p. 256.
COLAIRCOTTA, atown of Hindooltan, in the cir-
car of Ellore; 10 miles E. of Eilore.
COL, Ital. with, in Afufe, a 9
con-lo, as col baffa, with the bafe ; ¢
fichord; colla parte, with the voice-part ; coll’ organo, with
theorgan, &c.
yn of con-la, con-le,
nbalo, with the harp-
contrac
iy, a town of India, on
Ay TT 1 : Dp, : hin. Sears
OL/EPIANI, a peppte of Pannonia, wio, accoraing
Sasus 4 tuppofed
to Pliny, inhabited the near t
J
country
to have derived their rom the river Cole
> ae eas a Atk, Oe
COLAN, in Ge a {mall to itunted near the
~ - Sen EAE +
South S<a, on the t Paita, in the Kisgdom of Peru,
istown runs the river Chera,
the fame flream which wa 2 The int a nitants
cultivate grain and breed cattle, with which they fupply
Paita, at the difance of about four leagues towards the
fouth, and alfo other towns. ‘The Indians of this town ae
under an obligation of daily fewding to Paita one or two
balzas loaded with water, which is diftribuied among the
inhahitants by fated proportions. The nature of the forl,
and the fituation of the place, render it extremely hot. ts
inhabitants, compofing about 35 or 40 families, and con-
filing of Spaniards, Mulattoes, and Metlizzs, live chifly by
paffengers going or returning from Panama to Lima.
and jari{diGion of P
waters
The
town thus owes its whole fupport to the harbonr, which is
the place where the cargoes of goods fent from Panama are
Janded, together with thofe coming from Callao to the
jurifd:ctiion of Piera and Loja. Here they alfo conltruc
large rafts of logs, which will carry 60 or 70 tons of goods:
with thefe they make long voyages, even to Panama, at the
diftance of five or fix hundred leagues. They bear a malt
with a fail attached to it, and they always go before the
wind, being unable to ply againft it, fo that they are adapted
to thefe feas in which the wind ts always nearly in the fame
direStion. Their cargo is ufually wine, oil, fugar, Quito
cloth, foap, and drefled goat-fkins.) The float is commonly
navigated by two or three men, who {fell their float when
they difpofe of their cargo, and return as paffengers to the
port from which they came. The Indians go out at night
by favour of the land-wind, with filhing floats, more manage-
able than the others, though thefe have maits and fails too,
and they return again in the day-time with the fea-wind.
COLANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Greater
Armenia, near the Euphrates. Ptolemy.
COLANCORUM, a town of Germany, according to
Ptolemy. ' ;
COLANIA, or Cotonta, a town of the ifle of Albion,
afligned by Ptolemy to the Damnii, and fuppofed by Cam-
den and Baxter to be the prefent Coldingham ; but this
being at too great a diftance, and belonging to another
nation, others have thought it more probable that it was
fituated at or near Lanark, the fhire-town of Clydefdale.
COLANTONIO, Marzio nt, in Biography, a painter
of conliderable merit, who flourifhed towards the latter part
of the 16th century. He was born at Rome, and was in-
ftru&ed in the art by his father, an indifferent painter of
grotefques. Marzio foon made a rapid progrefs, and excelled
in fre{co, in which way he was employed, upon many con-
fiderable works, in the churches and palaces of Rome:
amongft others he painted a chapel dedicated to St,
coun
Andrea, in the church of the Madonna della Con.
folazione, with ftories of that apoftle. He afterwards
painted many fmall pictures of battles and land{capes,
in the flyle of Tempefta, for which he was much admired.
The lal years of his life were {pent in Piedmont, in the
fervice of the prince of Savoy. He died in the prime of
life, in the pontificate of Paul V. Baglione. Lanzi,
Storia Pitt.
COLAPIANI See Corzprrani.
COLAPIS, a river cf Pannonia, which difcharged itfelf
into the Savus, near Sifcia, according to Pliny: Strabo and
Dion Caffius mention this river; but the latter calls it
Colops.
COLAPTICE, the art of carving, or cutting, the refem-
blances and figures of natural things in ftone. The term
for the arttit is Uithoxos.
COLAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Myfore country ; 35 miles E.N.E. of Bangalore, and 135
W. of Madras. NN. lat. 13° of. E. long. 78° 19%.
COLARBASIANS, or Cororsastans, in Ecclefiaflical
THiflory, a {2& of Chriitians in the fecond century ; fo called
from their leader, Colarbafus, a difciple of Valentinus;
who, with Marcus, another difciple of the fame matter,
maintained the whole plenitude and perfe€tion of truth and
religion, to be contained in the Greek alphabet; and that
it was upon this account that Jefus Chnift was called the
alpha and omega. This fe& was a branch of the VaLENTI-
nians. Sce alfo Marcostans.
COLARIN. Sze Corrarino.
COLARNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain, in
Lufitania, according to Piiny. Ptolemy calls their town
Colarniam.
COLARUS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Gohud; 30 miles S S.W. of Narwa, and 125
S. of Agra.
COLATTO, a town of Italy, belonging to the ftate of
Venice, in the ‘Trevifan; 6 miles S.S.W. of Ceneda.
COLATURE. See Firrration.
COLBA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and territory of Neuftadt; 3 miles W.S.W. of Nen-
ftadt.
COLBATCH, Joun, in Biography, an apothecary and
furgeon, and in his later years member of the college of
phyficians, London, a man of much induftry and ingenuityy
and author of numerous publications on medical fubjeéts.
He appears to have praétifed medicine in London, and to
have been in confiderable repute from the beginning to
nearly the middle of the laft century. His firft work was
entitled <A New Light of Chirurgery,’? publifhed in
London in Svo. 1695. He fhews the mifchief occafioned
by ufing tents, and injeGting acrid fubftances into wounds,
and inftead of them recommends a powder of his compofing,
which he diffolved in water and applied. It reflrains
hemorrhage, he fays, fooths pain, and difpofes ulcers and
wounds to heal. As this excited oppofition, in an edition
of the fame work publifhed fome years after he vindicated
his doétrine, and adds a variety of cafes and experiments, in
which his method had beer attended with complete fuccefs.
In 1696, he publifhed ‘* A Phyfico- Medical Effay core
cerning Alkali and Acid,? 8vo. He attributes molt
difeafes to a predominant alkali in the conftitution, and fays
they are to be moft efficacioufly relieved by adminiftering
acids. Lemon juice, cream of tartar, and the acid of
vitriol, were found by him to be fovereign remedies againft
melt difeafes. Among other complaints, they cured the
gout, on which he wrote a treatife the following year. His
laft publication was on the “ Mifletog of the Oak,” Bie
i OD,
COL
don, 1719. He found it efficacious apainft the epilepfy,
chorea fanéti viti, and other difeafes of the nervous fyitem.
He gives half a drachm of the powder of the m‘fletoe, every
three or four hours. ‘The book contains full direGions for
colleGiing and preparing the plant, which is equally cfiicacious,
he fays, gathered from any other tree, as from the oak. His
opinion of the efficacy of the plant is confirmed by the re-
etal of feveral cafes in which he had given it with fuccefs.
Netwithitanding the high chare€tcr he gives of the mifletoe,
it has long fince fallen into difufe. Dr. Frafer has lately
endeavoured to recal the attention of phyficians to the fubject,
but he feems rather to have been led to it, by reading the ac-
count given by Colbatch, than from his own experience ; at
the leait, the few cafes he recites are not in point. Of the
time when Colbatch died we have no account. Haller Bibs
Chir. &e.
COLBERG, in Geography, a well fortified Proffian towa in
that part of Pomerania anciently called Caffubia, is fituated
onthe river Perfante; which, not fer from hence, fallsiuto the
Baltic fea, and forms a convenient harbour. It has a few
linen and woollen manufatures, a good falmon and lamprey
fithery, and a tolerable trade. Some falt is made, on ac-
count of the crown, out of a falt fpring clofe to the town,
In 1755 Colberg was bombarded by the Ruffians without
effect. Under the command of the brave co'onel Louca-
dou, the garrifon eppofed an equally fuccefsful rcefittance
to the French, who inveited the piace in November, 1806,
and raifed the fiege in April, 1807. Colberg is diftant 98
miles N.N.E. from Kultrin, and 124 N.E. from Berlin.
Wolate 5425 OE. long. 15° 27/.
COLBERT, Joun Baptist, marquis Seignelai, in Bio-
graphy, one of the greatett ttatefmen that ever had the ma-
nagement of the affairs of France, was born at Rheims, in
161y. His father was Nicholas Colbert, whofe family was
orizmally from Scotland. The fubje& of chis memoir
fhewed an early attachment to commercial and financial pur-
fuits, and to gratify his inclinations, in this refpedt, he made
a tour through the provinces of Trance, which were the
moft famous for trade and manufaétures. At Paris he was
introduced to the prime minitter, cardinal Mazarin, who ad-
m‘tted him to his confidence, and in a fhort time entrulted to
his management the molt important concerns. The cardi-
nal, during his lat inefs in 1661, recommended Colbert to
hs fovercign, as a man qualified for the highelt office, and
appointed him one of the executors to his lalt will. Louis
XVI. attended to his late minifter’s recommendation and
appointed Colbert as intendant of the finances. He imme-
diately fet about reforming abufes, and abolifhing a number
of ufelefs places which, in that, as m other ftates, had
been created for the purpofe of ferving individuals, rather
than of benefiting the public. He quickly re-eltablifhed
order in the receipts and payments, and by a ftrict regard
to the principles of economy, was enabled to augment the
public treafury, while at the fame time he aétually dimi-
nifhed the taxes impofed on the people. He eftablifhed a
court of jultice to examine and decide on all matters
relating to finance, #nd thus recovered many aliena-
tions of the reventie, and fupprefled annuities to a great
amount, which had-been acquired unjultly, and for which
the original price was repaid. In 1664 he was appointed
fuperintendant of the public buildings, and invited architeéts,
feylptors, and other artilis of real eminence, fyom all parts,
whem he employed, on the mott liberal texms, to decorate
the palaces, and to render the capital worchy of the greats
nefs of the kingdom. It was about this time that he turned
his attention to commerce, and by his prudence and attivity,
raifed, asa preparatory flep, the royal navy to a moft re+
Vor. VILLI.
COL
fpeGable ftate, fo as to enable it to protec the defigns
which he had in view. He conceived the projet of reviv=
ing the French Eaft India Company, notwithftanding all
the misfortunes which had difappointed the fkill and dili-
gence of his predeceffors; for this purpofe he made himfelf
acquainted with fuch merchants and feamen as were molt
converfant with the bufinefs. From them he learnt that a
{cheme of this magnitude could not fucceed, without a very
large fund eltablifhed for the purpofe : a peremptory exclu-
fion of foreigners ; and fuch a degree of liberty and indepens
dence being fecured to the compasy as might be fatisfac-
tory to every one, whether native or foreigner, of the fafety
of the property entrufted to them. To attain thefe objects
it was neceflary to give a {timulus to the nation; accord-
ingly the pers of the moft able academicians were employed
to recommend them to public notice. Colbert fucceeded,
and he efiabiifhed allo the Weft India and African compz2-
nies, which gave to France many important advantages.
Nor was the minifter lefs attentive to the internal manufac
tures of the country; thofe of filk, of wool, of glafs, and
of theel, were either introduced or liberally encouraged, and
foftered by his care and folicitude ; and it is faid that there
was fcarcely a year of his miniltry in which he did not in=
troduce fome new and ufeful manufacture to excite the in
dultry, and augment the wealth of his countrymen.
Colbert was the zealous patron of the arts and literature 3
he prevailed upon Caflini to quit Btaly, and to place himfelf
under the prote¢tion of the king of France, by whom ha
was penfioned. ‘The French academy of painting was like-
wife founded by Colbert ; he was greatly inftrumental in the
ettablifhment of the Academy of Sciences, and that of inferip~
tions took its rife from an aflembly in his own houfe for the
purpofe of furnifhing defizns for the king’s medals. To en~
courage national induftry he projected the grand canal
of Languedoc, thereby uniting the two feas by which,
France is bounded. This. undertaking, which was ‘com-
pleted in about fourteen years, has afforded prodigious ac-
vantages to the enterprizes of the French nation, which
would have been raifed to a much higher degree of opu-
lence had not the fovereign’s inclination for war, and for
expences of every kind, brought on embarraffments, which
not only thwarted the. defigns of the minifter, but finally
deltroyed many of his beft plans. He himfelf has been ac-
cufed of a too great regard to fhow and parade, and with a
dcfire of encouraging the induftry of towns, to the detri«
ment of the agricultural interefts. To render provifions
cheap to the inhabitants of towns, and thereby encourage
manufactures and commerce, he prohibited the exportation
of corn, and thus excluded the inhabitants of the country
from every. foreign market for the produce of their indultry.
Ths great man, after having pafled through many offices of
the firlt importance in the ttare, died of the ftoné in Sep, .
tember, 1683, in the fixty-fifth year of his age, leaving be-~
hind him fix fons and three daughters. : He was a man of
great probity, extenfive knowledge, in whatever concerned
his own fituation, and of the molt indefatigable indultry,
His well timed, and neceflary reforms, created him enemies;
but his name has defcended to polterity, accompanied with
the plaudits of the wife and good of every nation. Nouv.
Dis. Hitt. Univer. Hitt. Hiltoire de France.
Corbert, Joun:Barrist, marquis de Torci, and fon of
the above, was born in 1665. In 1686 he was appointed
fecretary of {tate for the foreign department, andin 1699 dis
rector-general of the pofts. He'is faid to have furpefled
his father in the extent of his abilities and in‘the cultivation
of his faculties: but in imication of him he was a zealous
promoter of commerce and the arts, and raifed the: Frenck
% 4 Z , navy
COLCHESTER.
savy to 2 fuperiority overevery other in Europe. He died
in 1746, having attained the reputation of an able, ftatef-
man, aidan excellent man. He left behind him memcirs
of the negociations from the treaty of Ry{wick to the peace
of Utrecht, which were publifhed 1 1756 in three vols. r2mo.
Cotzer c's MSS. Codices Colkertini, in Bid'val Hiflory,
were colle€ted by the celebrated Colbert, minilter ot the
marine to Louis XIV. and are at prefent in the royal hbrary
in Paris, for which they were purchafed by cardinal Fleury.
They are defcribed in general in the Bibliotheca Colbert-
jna,’’ Parifiis, 1728, p. ti. Svo. aud in Montfaucon’s ** Bib-
liothecarum” tom. ii. But feveral of Colbert’s MSS. and
efpeciatiy thofe of the Greek Telament, appear to have
been feparated from thofe of the Colbert library, and placed
among the MSS. which were before in the royal library.
"Phe Colbert MSS. of the Greek Tetament mutt therefore
be fought among the Codices Regii, in the fecond vo'ume
of the ‘‘ Catalogee MSS. Bibl. Regie.” Five of thefe
MSS. which contain the four go!pels, of which two are re-
ferred to the 11th century, were collated by Simon, and their
readings noted in the margin of Curceliaus’s edition of the
Greek Teftament. Of feven other MSS. given in Mill’s
Greek Veitament as eight, that learned cuitic has given a
eolle&ion of readings, made by Larroque in a very fuper-
ficial manner, and communicated by Allix. One of thefe
divided by Mill intothree feparate MSS. contains the whole
New Teftament, except the book of Revelation, and was in
Mill’s time fuppofed to be 600 years old. This important
MS. is defcribed by Griefbach in: his ‘ Symbolz,’? who
defends. it againit the fufpicion of its having been altered
from the Latin, relates that its readings harmonize with
thofé of Origen, refers it to the r1th or r2th century, and
eftimates it. as a MS. of great value. Twelve other Codices
Colbertini are fimply Lectionaria of the four gofpels, which
Werftein collated in 1715. See Michaelis’s Introd. to the
N. ‘T.:-by Marth, vols. it. and iti,
COLBUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bithynia,
Pliny.
COLCHAGUA, or Coxtracvua, in Geography, a town
of South America, in the kingdom of Chili, and capital
of a jurifdiétion containing about 1500 families.
COLCHESTER isa large market and borough town
ef Effex, England, and, as its name imports, was formerly
a Roman ftation. From an examination of the belt auchori-
_ ties it appears to have been the Camalodunum cf the Ro-
mans ;- and Tacitus, with fome other ancient hi‘torians, relate
that it was the principal military colony of the legions under
Claudius. That emperor, having fubjugated the Trinoban-
tes, took poffeffion of this {trong hold, and garrifoned it
with the fecond, ninth, and fourteenth legions, whom he
flattered with the pompous appellation of ‘ conquerors of
Britain,” aud named the place Colonia; probably as a pre-
eminent memorial of its being the firft Roman colony efta-
blithed in this ifland. In the Itinerary of Antoninus, it is
diftinguithed both by that appellation, and by its original
one of Camalodunum. It appears alfo, from the coins of
“Claudius, mentioned by Camden, to have been called Colo-
nia-Camalocdunum. Ciaudius, after eltablifhing this colony,
seduced the adjacent country into a Roman province; and
having appointed Piautius, propretor, returned to Rome,
where a magnificent triumph was decreed to him by the
fenate. an anniverfary folemnity inftituted to commemo-
rate his vitory, and the furname of Britannicus entailed on
his family. His fuece(s caufed equal rejoicing at Camalodu-
dum, where atemple was ercéted to his memory, and he was
worfhipped as the tutelar deity of the place. This profpe-
nity was not deltined to laft; for though the oppreffed Bri-
8
tons were conquered. they were not fubdued ; and-after fee
veral unfuceefsful efforts to regain this flation, they at
length cfisGied it under Boadicea. This. Amazonian
princefs, taking advantage of a favourzble opportunity,
when the chief part cf the veteran legions was witle
drawn, direéted her force againit this devoted colony ; fire
and flazghter marked her progrefs; and Camalodunym. the
fest cf Roman tyranny in Britain, wes overwhelmed in its
own ruins, after a feelble re nee fiom the remaining, {ole
dics, who defended themfelves for two days in the tcmple,
From the authority of Pliny, and the evidence of Roman
coins, with other antiquities, itis, with high probability,
deduced that Camalodunum was foon rebuilt.
‘* Uhere are more Roman rema‘ns in and about this town
than in ary other part of South Britein. Immerfe quauti-
tics ef Roman bricks and ules are to be fcen incorporated,
or rather are the chicf matericls in ali the moft ancient end
public edifices. The town-wails, the cafile, and the churches.
are half built with them; end in feveral parts even the
Roman workma:fhip is cepied. The bricks are generaily
about 14 inches by 13; ome 18 by 14; exceedirgly hark
and well baked. Whe fuseliex Romana of ali kinds till
abounds here; hardly any place being dus up, withot urns,
vafes, and pottery ot all forts, or at lealt, fragments of
them being difcovered. Sepuichral urns, with the afhes
therein, are likewife frequently found; as well as lamps,
rings, intaglics, chains, &c. A remarkable fepuichral urn,
in particular, was teken up here a few yearsago. It wasa
large seffel, made of thick, cozric, light clay, containing
twenty gallons; within was an urn of black earth, hoidiug
about two gallons, and having in it the afhes of a Roman
lady, as may be fuppofed, becaufe there were alfo with it
two bottles of clay tor incenfe, two clay lamps, one metal
veflel for ointment, and a [peculum of polifhed metal, an-
ciently ufed for a looking-glafs.””? Moraut’s Effex. ”
The teffelated pavements are generally found at the depth
of between three and four feet beneath the furface. There
appear to have been icveral in the church-yard of St.
Mary’s at ihe Wall; teflcre having been freqnently dug up
in different places. Many Roman petere, fragments of
f{culptured veffels, facrifcing infiruments, Roman bracelets,
and other ant:quities have alfo been fourd here; and latcly
in a field near the welt end of the town, part of a Reman
hypocault wes difcovered.s ‘The continued refidence of the
Romans at Colchefler is farther confirmed by che many
ftrong entrenchments, itretch'nz from north to fouth, well-
ward of thetown. Thefe are conjefiured to be the re-
mains of the Caftra, Caftella, and Prefidia, which, we
learn from Tacitus, were formed about this ftation.
Ancient tradition gives to the town the honour of being
the birth-place of Conflantine, the firft Chriftian emperor,
and his mother Helena; the {ubftance of this legend,
which has frequeutly engaged the attention of the learned,
is briefly this; that Coé!, a Britihh prince, was invefted by the
Romans with the government of this d:tri@ ; where, taking
advantage of the diftraction of the Roman empire, he af-
fumed independence, repaired the public works, and gave
his capital the name of Caer-Coel; that Conftantius, em-
powered with fovereign authority by Dioclefian and Maxi-
milan, was fent to Britain to reduce the revolters, and that
he laid fiege to Caer-Coel as the centre of the inturreétion ;
that during the fiege, which continued three years, Con-
ftantius became acquainted with Helena, the daughter of
Coel, was captivated by her perfonal charms and mental
endowments, and-made peace with Coel, on condition of
receiving his accomplifhed daughter in marriage ; and that
Conttantine was the iflee of this union, and-was born at
Caer-
CO DG T
Caer-Coel. This tradition, which criginated with Britihh
writers, is wholly unnoticed by Roman hiltorians, and con-
tradifted by the concurrent evidence of the bet informed
writers on Roman hiltory. (See Gibbon’s ‘ Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire.”) The real birth-place of Con-
ftantine is cenerally fuppofed to have been Naiffus in Dacia.
"Though the tradition which effigns it to ColcheRer is found
to be unworthy of credit, yet it probably owed its rife to
fome occurrences in the hiltory of this city, particularly con-
nected with his family. Conltantius refided in Britain a con-
fiderable timne, acconp2nied by his fon Con@antine, and pro-
ba'ly by his wife Helena; and Colonia bring then a flon-
rifhing Ration, he may be fippofed to have made it, at leaft,
an ocesfional refdence. Conitantius was a fecret promoter
of Chriftianity ; and Con‘tantine and Helena being avow-
edly fo, obtained the veneration of the inhabitants, who
afcribe to her, among other picus labours, the foundation of
St. Helen’s chapel.
Under the Saxon government, Colchefter, then called
Colon-ceafer, or Colne-ceafter, loft much of its ancient
confequence, by the increaf:d importance of the Englifh
metropolis, which arofe from its more favourable fituation
For trade and commerce. The Danes afterwards obtained
poli flion of Colchefter, aid, by a treaty with Alfred,
were eltablifhed here and in the adjaceut country 5 but re-
commencing their ufual fyitem of dettru@ion and plunder,
Edward the Elder Jaid ficge to this town, which was taken
by affault, and the Danes were ali put to the fword. Ed-
ward is fuppofed to have repcopled the defolated city by a
colony of Weit-Saxons, and in 922, according to the Sax-
on Chronicle, he rebuilt or repaired the walls. Colchefter
appears to have been a confi erable town at the time of the
Domefday Survey ; the number of burgefles, who then held
houfes under the king, was 2763; the number of honfes in
thei poffefion 355, befides many others occupied by differ-
ent proprietors. At the commencement of the civil com-
motions in the reign of Charles I., the inhabitants of Col-
chefter coalefced with the parliament and petitioned that the
town might be better fortifed ; in coniequence of which
15co/. was accordingly granted for that purpofe. Unwar-
ranted aéts of outrage were foon committed by the lower
claffes againft the Lucas family ; but the horrors of civil war
were not felt in all their feverity till the year 1648, when the
memorable fiege of this town reduced the inhabitants to the
greateft diltrefs.
Co'chetter is fituated principally on the fummit and north-
ern afpeat of a gentle eminence, rifing from the river Colne,
which flows on the north and ealt fides, and is navigable to
the fpot called the New-Hythe, in the eaft quarter of the
town. The fpace inclofed by the remains of the ancient walls,
forms a parallelogram, having its longeit fides towards the
north and fouth; the buildings without the walls, chiefly
on the fouth and eaft, are. very irregularly difpofed. The
principal ftreet, which rans nearly eaft and weft, contains
reany refpectable houfes and large thops 5 but is disfigured
by the od market-houfe and other {mall buildings, which,
eccupying the middle of the ftreet, obftru& the paflage.
Part of the town was firlt paved in the year 1473: in the
reign of James I. an act was obtained for paving the whole,
and its provifions were enforced by another aét pafled in
1750. By thefe flatutes, the land-owners and proprietors
of buildings, are compelled to pave and repair all the ways
contiguous to their refpective poffeflions. ‘The prefervation
of the walls was formerly an object of great attention, but
they are now nearly deltroyed; and what remains is only kept
in repair by thofe who have gardeas or grounds adjoming.
The walls confit of {tone and Roman brick, united by a
very {trong cement ; their circumference is one mile and
EST Fak,
three quarters, inclofing an area of rather more than 10S
acres. Edward the Elder, as already mentioned, rebuilt or
repaired them after the defeat of the Dances in 9215 and
Richard If. is recorded to have exempted the burgefled
from the charge of fending members to three parliaments,
on account of the great expence they were at “in repairing
their wall with lime and ftone again{t allinvaders.’ Similac
exemption was granted by the two fucceeding fovereigns 5
but fince the ficge in 1648 no public attention has been
paid to the walls. When in their perfect Rate, the entiance
to the town was by four principal gates and three polterns ;
mo of which are now deitroyed. The walls were flrenyth-
encd by feveral baftions, and defend+d on the welt by a {mall
ancient fort of Roman workmanfhip, contru€ted with the
walls originally called Colkynge’s caltel; the arches that
remain are formed of Roman brick; on the north and
well fides were deep ditches in the places meft open te
attack,
On ar elevated fpot, north of the High ftreet, and com-
manding a profpeét of the winding valley to the north
and ealt, ftand the ruins of a very ancient caftle. The
outer walls of the keep are nearly perfeét, and by their valt
thicknefs and folidity, evince the importance that in the
early ages was attached to this fituation. The whole build-
ing is conflru@ed with a mixture of ftone, flint, and Romar
bricks; but the latter are chiefly in {uch pieces as convey an
idea of being taken from fome more ancient building. The
eveGtion of this fortrefs is afcribed by Norden to Edward the
Elder; but the Monaiticon refers it to Ludo Dapifer, fewer
or fteward to William the Conqueror; it is evidently Nor-
man in its general ftru€ture; yet it feems probable, ‘from
the great number of Roman bricks worked up in the walls,
that it was raifed on the fite of fome Roman building, and
with a large portion of its materials. The tradition record-
ed in the Colchefter Chronicle, precifely points out a more
ancient edifice on this fpot ; ‘in fundo palatii Coelii_ quon-
dam regis ;?? now if, according to Mr. Gough’s fuppolition,
Coel or Coelius was a Roman name, the origin of the fort-
refs feems to beafcertained ; and unlefs fome f{pacious ftruc-
ture had previoufly occupied this fite, there would be great
difficulty in accounting for fo large a fpace as the caftle and
its ramparts include, fo near. the centre of the town, remaining
unoccupied till the time of the Normans. For a more par-
ticular account of the caftle, vide “ Architectural Antiqui+
tics of Great Britain,’’ vol. 1.
The town and fuburbs of Colchelter comprehend fixteen
parifhes ; fome of the churches are deftroyed ; the remain-
der, with the ruins of St. John’s abbey, St. Botolph’s pri«
ory, and the Moot-Hall, conftitute the chief of the ancient
and public buildings. St. John’s abbey, fo called from its
dedication to St. John the Baptift, was a very magnificent
{tru@ture, founded by Eudo Dapifer, in the year 1097 5 It
occupied a pleafant eminence without the walls on the fouth
fide; but only the entrance gateway, and fome fragments of
other parts, now remain. The gateway is built with hewn
{tone and flint, and the workmanfhip is very uniform and
ftablé. The abbey church was of fingular conftruction,
having a tower in the centre, with circular angles, termi-
nated by {mall conical fpires; the weft front alfo was furs
nithed with circular turrets. ‘The abbey had the privilege of
fan@uary, Ata {mall diftance, north-eaft, are the remains
of St, Botolph’s priory, generally fuppofed to have been
founded by a monk named Eynulph or Ernulph, early ia
the twelfth century ; though fome portions of the ruins im-
ply a far anterior date. Ernulph was the firlt prior, and
placed on his foundation regular canons of the Auguftine
order. The priory church, which was parochial as well as
conventual,continued nearly perfect till the fiege in 16485
4Z2 wher
coL
when it was ia a great meafure deftroyed; the contendin”
partres charge each other with having wantonly occafioned
its demolition. Its ruins are peculiarly interctting to the
architeGural antiquary, as prefenting fome curious fpecimens
of brick ornaments, and of interlaced arches, from which
tke idea of the pointed arch is fuppofed to have originated.
The length of this edifice within the walls, was, in its
prifline ftate, 108 feet; its breadth, including the naves
and ailes, nearly 44. The weft-front was highly decorated ;
on this fide was the principal entrance, which is flill ex-
tant. The door-way is a fine femicircular retiring arch,
having various zig-zag mouldings con{truéted with {mall thin
bricks and hewn ftone in alternate fucceffion. Thefe vene-
rable remains are particularly defcribed in the Architec.
tural Antiquities of Great Britain,’’ vol. i.
Fait of St. Botolph’s, is St. Mary Magdalen’s hofpital,
originally founded for perfons afflicted with leprofy, by
Endo Dapifer, temp. Henry I. To Eudo alfo the Moot-
Hall owes its origin, where the courts are held, and the
public bufinefs tranfa&ed. Adjoining to it are the town
gaol and theatre. A free fchool and feveral charity fchools
have been eftablifhed, and various meeting-houles built for
different religious feéts. Colchefter was incorporated by
charter of Richard I. dated 1189; and the burgeffes were at
the fame time invefted with many valuable privileges, parti-
cularly the exclufive right of fifhery on the Coine, from
the north bridge to Weft-Nefle. Thefe privileges have
been confirmed and extended by feveral fubfequent fove-
reigns, efpecially by Henry V., the initial letter of whofe
charter reprefents St. Helena before the crofs, finely illumi-
nated. The laft charter, under which the town is now go-
verned, was granted by George III. in 1763. Its provi-
fions are nearly fimilar to thofe of the former charters granted
by Charles II. and William and Mary, which have on dif-
ferent occafions been furrendered. The corporation confilts
of a mayor, recorder, town-clerk, twelve aldermen, eigh-
teen affiltants, eighteen common-councilmen, and fome in-
fcrior officers. The right of returning reprefentatives to
parliament is vefted in the corporation and free burgeffes
not receiving alms; the number of voters is about 1400.
‘The ¢arlieft return was made 25 Edward I.
Colchefter has been a market-town time immemorial ; but
this privilege was confirmed by Richard the Firlt’s charter.
The market is held on Saturday. The number of inhabit-
ants returned under the late a@, as refiding within the town
and liberties, was 10,089 ; the number of houfes 1793. A
confiderable portion of the trade of the town arifes from
the oytter fithery : Colchefter oyfters having been long ce-
lebrated for their goodnefs and flavour. This town is dif-
tant from London 51milesN.E. _”
Mile End, fo named from being nearly that diftance
north of Colchefter, is an extenfive parifh, chicfly belong-
ing to the burgefles of that town, by a grant either from
Henry I. or Stephen, which was renewed by Henry VIII.
Morant’s Hiftory of Effex, 2 vols. fol. Hiftory of Col-
chefter, 2 vols. 8vo.
The top of the ftaircafe of St. Mary’s church fteeple in
this town, war, about the year 1798, fcle@ed as one of the
ftations in the Government Trigonometrical Survey, and its
fituation was determined by an obfervation from Great Tay
fleeple diftant 33,056 feet, and bearing 84° 22''42” N.W.
from the parallel to the meridian of Greenwich, and another
from Stoke fteeple diftant 36,796, and bearing 1°47’ 26"
N.W. from the fame parallel, whence was deduced its lati-
tude 51° 53/ 17.7 N, and its longitude 0° 53’ 33”.7 E. of
Greenwich. ‘The obfervations from this place were ufed
with thofe of Great Tay for fettling the fituation-of Welt
co
COL
Bergholt; and with thofe of Stoke, for Earl’s Colne and
Little Bromley churches. The Colne river is navigable
for {mail fea-built veffels up to this town. See Canar.
Cotcuester, a townfhip of America, in Uliter county,
New York, fituated oa the Popachton branch of Delaware
river, S. W. of Middletown, and about 50 miles S. W. by S.
of Cooperitown.—Alfo, a large townfhip in New London
county, Conneticut, fettied in 1701 ; about 15 miles welt-
ward of Norwich, 25 S.E. of Hartfo-d, and 20 N. W. of
New London city.—Alfo, the chief tewn of Chittenden
county, Vermont, fituated on the eaft bank of lake Champ-
lain, at the mouth of Onion river, and N. of Burlington, or
Colchcfter bay, which fpreads N. of the town.—Alio, a
poit-town of Fairfax county ia Virginia, fituated on the
N.E. bank of Ocquoquam creek, three or four miles from
its confluence with the Potowmack; and here about 1co
yards wide, and navigable for boats. It contains about 49
houfes, and lies 16 miles S. W. of Alexandria, 106 N. by E.
of Richmond, and 172 from Philadelphia.
COLCHICUM, in Botany, (fuppofed to be fo called
from Colchis, where it is faid to grow in great abundance, )
Linn. Gen. 457. Schreb. 621. Willd. 707. Gert. 81.
Jufl. 47. Vent. 2. 155. Tourn. Claff. 9. Seét. 1. Gen. 5.
Clafs and order, hexandria trizynia. Nat. Ord. Spathacea ;
Linn. Funct, Jufl. Foncacei, Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal.a{pathe. Cor. monopetalous, tubular, very
long, fpringing immediately from the root ; border campanu-
late, deeply divided into fix lanceolate-egg-fhaped fegments.
Stam. Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, in-
ferted into the tube ; anthers oblong, four-va!ved, incumbent,
Pift. Germ fuperior, fituated at the bottom of the tube of the
corolla, contiguous to the root, below the furface of the
ground; ftyles three, a little longer than the itamens ;
itigmas reflexed, channelled. Peric. Capfules three, inflated,
coherent in their lower part, flightly feparated towards the
fummit, opening longitudinally on the inner fide. Seeds
numerous, almoft round, wrinkled.
Eff. Ch. Calyx a fpathe. Corolla fix-cleft ; tube fpring-
ing immediately from the root. Capfules three, connedied,
inflated, with many feeds.
Sp. 1. C. autumnale. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1.
Willd. r. Lam. lil. tab. 267. Eng. Bot. tab. 133. Woody.
Med. Bet. tab. 177. (C. commure; Bath. Pin. 67.
Moris. fe&. 4. tab. 3. fig. 1. Rai. Hilt. 1172. Syn. 373.
‘ Leaves flat, lanceolate, ere&t.”? Root bulbous, nearly as
large as that of the tulip, flefhy, abounding ina milky juice,
perifhing after the ripening of the feeds, but firft throwing
out a lateral bulbous offset, which produces the fowers of
the enfuing vear. Flowers generally purplifh, opening in -
the latter end of September without ttem or leaves ; tube
of the corolla very long ; fegments of the calyx, lanceolate,
large ; anthers yellow ; germ remaining under ground dung
the winter. Leaves appearing in the enfuing fpring, a foot
long, broad, fattith, obtufe, dark green, uprizht, three or
four together, theathing. -Cap/ules ming with the leaves,
and ripening the feeds in May. There isa varigty, or rather
a monttrofity cf this “fpecies, figured in Englifh botany,
tab. 1432. It is produced by fome accidental caufe which
prevents the plant from flowering at the proper feafon,
in confequence of which the flowers accompany the leaves
in the {pring ; but all their parts arc imperfect ; there is no
pollen in the anthers, the fegments of the corolla are un-
naturaily long and narrow, of a greenifh lickly hue; andthe
germ is entirely abortive. Specimens were fent_to Dr.
Smith by Mr. Salmon, from a meadow near the Devizes,
Wilts. Weare in poffeffion of fpecimens gathered in the
neighbourhood of York by the Rev. Mr. Wellbeloved.
A native
COL
A native of many parts of Europe, abundant in the weft
and north of England, moft frequently, but by no means
exclufively, in a caleareous foil. The whole plant has a
{trong and naufeous fmell. The recent fucculent bulb has
an acrid, cauitic, bitter tafte, and is poifonous to man and
otheranimals. A preparation of it is ufed in France, by
order of government, to deftroy wolves. Deprived of its
juices by age, or dried in an earlier ftate, it lofes its active
qualities, and may be eaten with impunity. If taken out
. of the ground before the plants flower, and completely freed
from its juices, it affords, like many other bulbs and tubers,
a farinaceous matter which is wholefome and nutritious.
Baron Stoerk of Vienna firlt intro2uced it into ufe as a medi-
cine. He fliced an ounce of the frefh root, and digefted it
for forty-eight hours in a pound of vinegar, with a gentle
heat. Hethen ftrained the vinegar, and added to it twice
its weight of honey. The oxymcl, thus produced, taken
twice a day in dofes of a dram, and gradually increafed to
an ounce or more, proved a very powerful-diuretic, and in
many cafcs cured dropfies, which had been efteemed def-
perate. Pills are alfo made of the dried root reduced to
powder, which have been found beneticial in removing ob-
ftruétions. It is a favourite medicine in Germany and
France; but the Englith phyficians have found it a lefs
efficacious diuretic than the {quill, by which it ts {till more
excelled as an expeCtorant. The London college dire&ts an
oxymel colchici; that of Edinburgh, a fyrup; the latter
differs from the former only in ufing fugar inttead of honey.
The exprefled juice of the leaves, or an infufion of them
in boilizg water, applied asa lotion, has been ufed in France
to deftroy the lice which infelt horned cattle. In an agri-
cultural point of view, it is certainly a noxious weed to the
farmer ; not, indeed, on account of its poifonous qualities,
for neither cows, horfes, nor fheep will touchit ; but on ac-
count of its broad leaves, which occupy the place of better
herbace. The only meihod of getting rid of it is to dig
up the bulbs with a fpade, and to replace the earth
when they have been feparated from it. 2. C. montanum.
inn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 2. Willd. 2. Hall.
Helv. n. 1256. Allion. Ped. tab. 74. fig. 2. (C. montanum
angullifolium ; Bauh. Pin. 68.) ‘ Leaves linear, fpreading
widely.” Root {mailer than that of the preceding
fpecies, with adarkercoat. Leaves about th-ee inches long,
and half an iach broad, coming out with the flowerin Auguit
and S-ptember, and continuing green all the winter, at firlt
broadith and egg-fhaped, afterwards almolt linear. Flowers
reddifh purple, marked with lines; border deeply divided
into uarrow, almoft linear fegments. A native of Spain,
Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, and the fouth of France;
cultivated in England in 1629. 3. C. variegatum, Linn.
Sp.g- Mart. 3. Lam. 3. Wiild. 3. Moril. tab. 3. fig. 4.
«© Leaves undulated, fpreading.”’ Leaves appearing after
the flowers are over, finaler than thofe of C. autumnale,
moft commonly three in number, of a paler and frefher green
colour, lying clofe upon the ground, broad at the bottom,
a little pointed at the end. Mowers whitifh, beautifully
marked’ with purplifh {pots ; border broad, with expanding
{eements. A native of the iflands in the Archipelago,
flowering in OStober or November.
Propagation and Culture.’ A\l the three fpecies are de-
firable ornaments to the flower-gzarden, particularly as they
appedr at a feafon when molt other plants have lot their
beauty: Their bvibs require the fame treatment. as
thofe of the tulip. They fhould be taken up about the end
of May, when the leaves are withered, and may be kept
above ground until the beginning of Augutt. The third
fpecies is vather tender, Many. varieties of the common
COL
fort were known in the time of Parkinfon, afid are flill-pro=
pagated by the florift; thofe moft common are the fingle
and double-flowered white, the fingle and double-flowered
purple, the variegated purple, the rofe-coloured, and the
{tripe-leaved.
Coicaicum vernum hifpanicum ; Bauh. Pin.
BOCODIUM.
COLCHIS, or Cotcuos, in Ancient Geography, now
Mingrelia, was bounded on the eaft by Iberia and Caucafus,
on the welt by the Euxine fea, on the fouth by Armenia
and part of Pontus, and on the north by mount Caucafus,-
dividing it from Sarmatia Afiatica. The moft noted cities
in this country were Pityus, Diofcurias, Aea, and Cyta,
which fee refpectively. The cities of Sarace, Zudris, Surium,
Madia, and Zalifla, are alfo mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, and
Ptolemy. Colchis was watered by many rivers, as the Co-
rax, the Hippus, the Cyaneus, the Chariltus, the Phafis,
the Abfarus, the Ciffa, and the Ophis, all emptying them-
{elves into the Euxine fea. The Colchrans were, according
to Herodotus, originally Egyptians; Scfoltris having left
part of the army, with which he invaded Scythia, in Co!chis,
to people that country, and guard the pafles. Apollonius,
Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Euftathius, and Marcellinus,.
agree with Herodotus, who mentions many particulars in
which the Colchians refembled the Egyptians. “ They had,’”
he fays, (lib. if. c. 104, 105.) ‘ the like tendency ta»
woolly hair, and were of the fame dark complexion. There
was a great fimilitude in their mannfaétures, particularly in
their linen; forthey abounded in flax, which they wrought
up to a high perfection after the Egyptian method. Jn’
fhort, their whole way of life, and their language, had a
great refemblance.”” Hence we may perceive, fays Bryant,
(Anal. Anc. Myth. vol. iii. p..451.) that thou,h they were-
not, as the ancient hiitorian fuppofes, of the real Mizraim’
race, yet they came froma collateral branch, and were a
colony from Egypt. Accordingly, this learned writer fup-
pofes, that the Colchians were one of the moft ancient co-
Jonies of the Cuthites, which is faid to have exifted many ages
before the era of the Argonaute ; fo that, according to the
poct (Apollonius Argen. 1. iv. v. 267. v. 276.) many of
the conftellations were not found in the heavens at the time.
when this colony was founded. One of the principal cities
was called Cuta and Cutaia; and the country was called
Cuteis and Cutais, from the Cuthite inhabitants. They re-
tained, fays Bryant, a great reverence for the memory of:
their anceitor Caus, and the ridge of mountains, which ran»
through their country, was from him denominated Catca-
fus. The Coichians not only derived their origin from
Egypt, but they were, as Bryant maintains, a part of that
body, who by the Egyptians were ftyled the Hellenic and’
Pheenician fhepherds. ‘Uhey quitted Egypt, and were fuc-
ceeded by the Ifraelites, called afterwards the Jéws. To
this purpofe Diadorus fays, (lib. i%.), * that the Colch‘c
nation upon the Pontus uxinus, as well as that of the Jews,
who fetrled (in Canaan) between Syria and Arabia, were
both founded by people, who went forth in early times
from Egypt.” As they enriched this country with maay
ufcful arts, it may well be expected that they fhould retain
to the latt fome of their original excellence. We accord-
ingly find, that writers extoll their advances in: {cience,
though it muft have been much impaired, before. the Gre-
cians were acquainted with their coalt.
In procefs of time many-other nations fettled in Colchis,
as the Heniochi, the Amprente, the Lazi, the Ligures,
the Marfi, the Iltri, the Mofchi, and the Manrale. THe
Colchians carried on for a long time an extenfive commerce.
Strabo (hb. xi.) has given:us a good’ defcription of their
country 5
See But-
CoOL
eountry ; and we may prefume that the nature of it mut
have been always much the fame. He fays, that the whole
region abounded with fruit of every kind, and with every ma-
terial that was requifite for navigation. Tlic only produ&
of the country that was at all exceptionable was the honey,
which had a bitter tate. They had plenty of timber, and
many rivers for its conveyance downwards. They had alfo
abundance of flax and hemp ; together with wax and pitch.
The hnen manufaGtured by the natives was in high repute.
Some of it was curioufly painted with figures of animals and
flowers ; and afterwards dyed, like the linen of the Indians.
And Herodotus tells us (lib. i. c. 203.), that the whole
was fo deeply tinf@tured, that no wathing could efface the
colours. ‘They accordingly exported it to various marts, as
it was every where preatly fought after. Strabo fays, that
many people who thought that they perceived a fimilitude
between the natives of Colchis and thole of Egypt, particu-
Jarly in their cultoms, made ufe of this circumilance to prove
the refemblance. He adds, that the high reputation and
{plendour, which they once maintained, may be known by the
repeated evidences that writers have tran{mitted concerninz
them. The enterprifing difpofition or extenfive commerce of
the Colchians led them to eitablifh many fettlements; fo that
the coait of the Euxine, upon which they dived, was in many
places peopied from them. One of their chief colonies
feems to have been that of the Amazons, which fee. Col-
chis, befides its other produ@ions, was enriched with many
rites of gold, which gave occalion to the fable of the
golden fleece, and the drgonautic expedition, fo much cele-
brated by the ancients. See ArconavuTic.
The Colchians were governed by their owu kings in the
earlieft ages ; for Pliny tells us (1. xxxiii. c. 3.) that Se-
foltris, king of Ezypt, was overcome, and put to flight, by
the king ef Colchis. Little, however, that is certain, 1s
-known concerning their kings.
Upon the death of Getes, in whofe reign the famous
expedition of the Argonauts occurred, Colchis, as we
learn from Strabo, (1. i. and xvi.) was divided into feveral
petty kingdoms; but the oceafion or this divifion is not
known. We find no further mention of the affairs of Col-
chis, or of the princes who reigned there, till the time of
Xenophon, who tells us (Anab. I. v.) that the fon of Getes,
the fecond of that name, reigned in Colchis, while he was
making war in Afia. Colchis was afterwards fubdued by
Mithridates the Great, but revolted from him while his forces
were employed againit the Romans. As foon as the king
of Pontus had concluded a peace with Sylla, he marched
againft the Colchians, who offered to fubmit, upon condi-
tion that he would appoint his fon to reign over them, with
the title of king of Colchis. This propofal fo provoked
Mithridates, that he caufed his fon to be arrefted and loaded
with chains of gold, facrificing him foon after to his jealoufy
and ambition. Mithridates, finding that the Colchians ob-
flinately refufed to fubmit on any terms, affembled his
troops in order to reduce them by force; but as he paffed
through the country of the Achxans, that people attacked
him with fuch vigour, and defended the paffes with fuch re-
folution, that, after having loll a great part of his army by
the ambufcades of the enemy, and by the exceflive cold of
the country, he was under a neceflity of returning into Pon-
tus. Colchis, during its fubjectiox to Mithridates, was
governed by prefeéts of his appointment, one of whom was
Moaphernes, great uncle to Strabo the geographer. The
Colchians took part with Mithridates againft Pompey ; and,
during that war, were governed by their own king, called
Olthaus, who was vanquifhed, taken prifoner, and led in
triumph by Pompey. Pompey cenferred the fovereignty
cro
on Arifiarchus, for his eminent fervices during the Mithri«
datic war. Afterwards Pharnaces II., king of Pontus, feized
on the kingdom of Colchis, while Cefar was entertained by
Cleopatra in Egypt; but was foon obliged to abandon his
conquelts, and retire into the country of the Bofporani, where
ke wes kiiled by Afancer. From this time no mention of
the Colchians occurs t:ll the reign of the emperor Trajan,
to whom they fubmittcd of their own accord. Perhaps they
were governed by theirown king; for Strabo makes the
river Phafis the northern boundary of the Roman eimpire,
Under the emperors, Coichis was fubj<@ to the pretors whe
governed Dithynia and Pontus ; but never made part of any
province. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. ix. For the prefent flate of
Colchis or Colchos, fee Mincretta.
COLCOTHAR, in Watural Hiflory, &c. The Latin
writers of the middle ayes ufe colcofhar as a name of vitriol ia
general, which was called by the Greeks chalcanthum.
Colcothar is originally an Arabic word, which does not
fignify the commen vitriol, but the cha/citis. The word has
been {pelt calchuthar, and from this the word chalcitis differs
not very much. The Greeks of the middle ages followed
the Arabians in the ufe of the word colcothar, but added to it
a termination proper to their lenguage, end particularly to
the cuftom of thofe times, which feemed not to exprefs
exaGily the feme thing, but a diminutive of it: they wrote it
colcotharien, or chalcitarion. This they alfo called the orchis,
orchidion, the ladi eladion, and fo ina theufand other inflances,
Avicenna ufes the word zeyi to exprefs this fubltance, but
then he is by no means Ceterminate in it, Lut mzkesit include
the mi/y, fory, and melanteria, as well as the chakitis ; but dif-
tinguilhing in another place the feveral kinds of 2agi, he telis
us, that cne was the cha/cand, which was green; afecond the
chakitis, which was'ycllow ; a third the fory, which was red.
Alzagiit is aneme alfo ufed by him to exprefs all thefe kinds ;
and this word the interpreters generally render aframenta,
ks. This is gencrally f{uppofed to exprefs their bring all
black fubftances, which is not the cafe ; but it properly fig-
nifics, that they are ail vitriolic foffils: etramentum being
a name of vitriol, as a fubttance ufed in the making of ink.
There are two kinds of colcothar. natural and faditious.
Corcoruar, Natural, otherwife called chalcitis, is a red
vitriol, brought from Ge:many ; formed from the com-
mon green vitriol, calcined naturally by fome fubterraneous
fire.
Corcotuar, Artificial, isa fubitance which remains after
martial vitriol has been calcined, and diftilled for a leng time
by an intenfe fre; and. by that means reduced to the red-
nefs of blood. :
Mr. Ie Fevre propofes an eafy method ef making colco-
thar of vitriol: he mixes two parts of filings of iron with one
of fulphur, and a little water. After the acid of the fulphur
has diffolved the iron, he expofes the pafte to the air, and it
changes into colcothar. See Mem. of the A. D. S. an. 1730,
Tes 2:
To obtain this article the moft’ inferior, kind of cop-
peras is employed; it is firft placed in a tolerably regu-
lar manner about two inches thick, upon iron plates which
cover the firit half of the bottom of a ftove or oven which is
heated, and nearly evaporates the water of cryftallization ;
beyond thefe plates in the fame oven, whichis built with the
belt fire bricks, after having undergone the evaporation upon
the iron plates, on which the copperas is thrown, itis then fub-
mitted toa red heat ; during which, as may bereadily fuppofed,
its lofs is confiderable, eight cwt. of copperas producing fcarce-
ly five cwt. of colcothar. In the laft named procefs the eva-
poration is entirely effeGted, and the fubltance completely cal-
cined; from this it is tuken to a mill, where it is ground
and
COLD.
and fifted into an impalpable powder of a ftrong red co-
Jour.
Colcothar, after calcination, retains fome of its: acid, and
tmbibes moitture from the air; butif itis wafhed in water,
the remaining acid is difcharged ; it no longer attracts moif-
ture, and becomes what is called the /zeet cart) of vitriol.
Unwathed colcothar is an artifeptic, tonic, aftringent, and
corrofive, and is therefore applied externally to all putrid,
fanious, and fungous ulcers. Sce Virriov.
Colcoihar is a dark red-brown oxyd of iron, the refidue
ofthe diflillation of nitrous acid, from nitre end vitriol of iron.
Fhis is calcined, wathed, and thoroughly levigated, and in
that flate is much employed by painters, and in polifhing
gilafs and fteel. It is called by artilts crocus, or crocus martis,
from its colour.
COLD, in common language, denstes the fenfation which
is felt, or the effe& which is produced, by the abitraiion of
heat; that is, heat and cold are oppofite to each other, and
the exiltence or increment of the one is equal to the want or
decrement of the other; fo that the fame degree of temp2-
rature may be called hot or cold, according as it is compared
witha colder or a hotter temperature. hus the climate of
Great Britain is a cold climate in comparifon with that of
the Welt India iflands, and a hot climate in comparifon with
that of Siberia. Ifa man warms one of his hands near a fire,
whilft he cools his other hand by means of ice; and if, after-
wards, he plunges both his hands in a bafon of water of the
common temperature of the atmofphere ;-that water will
feel cold to the hand that has heen heated, and hot to the
other hand.
. From this it appears that cold is not any thing real, but
merely a privation of heat ; fo that intlead of faying that a
body has been cooled to a certain degree, it may with equal
truth and propriety be faid, that the body has been deprived
of heat to that certain degree. Notwith{tanding the fimpli-
city of this theory, and the conviClion which feems to accom-
pany it, philofophers have often entertained doubts concern-
ing it; and they have endeavoured to inquire into the real
ftate of the matter, by deviling experiments capable of de-
monitrating whether the caufe of heat was any thing real,
and that of cold only a privation or diminution of the former ;
or, vice verfa, whetber the caufe of cold was any thing real,
and that of heat a diminution of it; or, laflly, whether the
produétion of heat and the produ&tion of cold were not owing
to two diftin& principles, or elements. On the fuppofitioa
that the caufe of one of thofe effeéts only is real, it is much
more natural to fuppofe, that the caufe of heat is the real
principle or element ; fince its effects, viz. enlargement of
the bulk of bodies, the feparation of their parts, &c. are fuch
as mutt be produced by the introdudtion of fomething real 5
and the abftra&tion of this principle may naturally produce
the effe&is of cold, fuch as contraction of the bulk of bodies,
agglutination, &c. ; whereas it would be unnatural to fuppofe
that a body contracts its bulk, or its parts come into clofer
contaét, becaufe fomething elfe bas been introduced amongtt
them. With refpe& to the last fuppofition, wiz. whether
the effets of heat and thofe of cold be not: owing to two
diftin& principles, few arguments, and the equivocal refult of
few experiments, have, at times, been adduced in {upport of
it. Butthe general and prevailing opinion amongtt philofo-
phers is, that a fingle element, called caloric, produces heat
or the effecis of expanding bodies, feparating their parts, &c.
and that cold is only a relative expreffion; that is, meaning
only the decrement of heat; fo that real or abfolute cold
confiits only in the total abitraétion of caloric ; and, that
fuch a point, viz. the zero of heat may be determined, has
been fhewn by the experiments, the difcoveries, and the cal-
Pa)
culations, ¢f fome late eminent philofop! ers, vrz. Irvines
Black, Crawford, and others. We fhall prefently give a
compendious account of the particulars relating to the deter-
mination of tbis remarkable point ; this total privation of
heat, below which cold can not increafe, fince heat c2n not
dccreafe, But it will be neceffary, previoufly to it, bricfly to
mention an experiment which at firlt fight feems to
prove that eo!d is fomething real, and independent of
heat.
Let two concave metailic refleGtors, about 20 inches in
diameter, or larger, be placed facing each other at about the
diftance of 15 fect 3 and fuppofe the focus of each to be 18
inches diftant from the furface of the [peculum. Call the
focus of one refleGtor A, and that of the other B. In order
to fituate the refletors exactly facing each other, place a
lighted candle in the focus of one of them, then move the
other, fo that the reflected image of the candle m the focus
of this other reflector appears, by trial (viz. by receiving 1c
upon a piece of paper), to fall m the dreétion of the focus
and centre of the firlt reflector. Now, if a piece of red hot
iron, or a bureing charcoal be heldin the focus, A, of one of
thofe refleGtors 5 and. the bu!b of a thermometer be placed in:
the focus, B, of the other refle€tor, the mercury in the ther-
mometer will be raifed by the radiant heat of the iron which:
falls upon the firft fpeculum in a diverging manner, is refleét-
ed from it in parallel lines to the other fpeculum ; and luilly,
is refleGied from this in converging lines to its focus, B,
where the thermometer is fituated. And that this is aétually
the cafe may be ealily proved ; for if the furface of either re-
fleGtor be covered ; every thing elfe remaining unaltered,-the:
effe@& will not take place, viz. the mercury in the thermo-
meter will not be heated. If, inftead of the red hot iron, a
piece of ice be placed in the focus, A, the thermometer will.
be lowered in the focus, B, Cover the furface .of either re-
fleGtor, and the mercury will rife in the thermometer. Ua-
cover the refleStor, and the mercury will defcend, and fo on.
The refult of this experiment has been fuppofed to prove that
cold is fomething real or pofitive ; for it proceeds from the
ice to the fpeculum, is reflected from this to the other fpecu--
lum, and is laftly refleGted from this other {peculum to its
focus, B, where it cools the thermometer. Bot the true
caufe of the phenomenon is,.that the heat of the thermome-
ter is reflected: upon the ice, in the fame manner. as the heat
of the red hot iron. was refleéted upon the thermometer ;. for
in this laft difpofition of the apparatus with the ice and the
thermometer, the Jatter is the hotteft of the two bodies. IPf
inftead of the thermometer, a piece of burning charcoal be.
placed in the focus, B, no perfon will hefitate to fay, that
the heat of the charcoal is refleted upon theiceat A. And
there is no reafon whatever for afferting that the fame thing
does not take place, when the thermometer is in the fo-
cus B.
We may now procéed to explain the determination of the
zero of heat. If a quantity of water, whofe temperature is
100°, be mixed’ with an equal weigtit of mercury, whofe tem~
perature is 50°, the temperature of the mixture will be
found to be 88°; confequently the water has loft 12° of heat,
andthe mercury has gained 38° of heat. But ifthe original’
temperature be reverfed, viz. the water at 50° be mixed with
an equal weight of mercury at 109°, the temperature of the
mixture wilt be 62° 3 confequently, the water has gained 12°
of heat and the mercury has loft 38°. ‘Therefore it is evident
that the fame quantity of caloric which raifes the tempera-
ture of water'12°, will raife that’of an equal weight of mer-
cury 35°; ot, by the rule of"proportion, the fame quantity
of caloric which raifes the temperature of water 1°, will
raife that of the fame weight of mercury 3.16 degrees,
Hence
COLD.
Hence it may be concluded that when water ard mercury are
of the fame temperature, the water aGtually contains rather
more than three times as much caloric as an equal weight of
merenry. Or, by the rule of proportion, if the caloric of
water be called 1, that of mercury, (always m<aning of an
equal weight and equal temperature) will be 0.31. And
thefe are cailed the {pecific caiorics of water and of mercury.
By the Itke means the foecific calorics of various other bodies
Lave been determined, in relation to that of water, which is
tlwavs called one, orunity. The fpecific caloric of ice,
which is different from that of water, has been found to be
0.9. This may be fufficent to give an idea of what is meant
-by foecitic caloric in this place; but, for a tull account and
explanation of the f{ubject, fee the articles Cavoric and
Hear.
It has alfo been found, that when equal weights of water
and ice are at the temperature of 32°; the water contains
140° of caloric more than the ice, which 140° of caloric are
neceflary to keep it ina fluid ftate ; nor can the ice be con-
verted into fluid water without communicating to it 140° of
heat. Further, fince the fpecific calorics of water and of
tce, are as I to.0.9, it Is natural to fuppofe that when they
are both at the temperature of 32°, their abfolute or entire
quantities of calorics are inthe fame proportion ; v'z.as 1 to
0.9, and 140° is their difference, 140 being the number of de-
grees of latent caloric, which water at the temperature of 32°
holds more than ice at the fame temperature of 32°. Now
from thefe data, the zero of heat is determined by the fol-
lowing algebraical reafoning, according to Dr. Irvine's
theorem. Put x for the unknown number of degrees of
caloric from 32° down to zero, or to the whole privation of
cheat ; then the whole caloric of ice, in the above mentioned
circumttances, is x; and the whole or abfolute caloric of
water isx+140. But the abfolute caloric of ice is to that
of water as 0.9 to 1; or as g to 10; therefore we have this
analogy x : x + 140::9:10, which gives the equation
10x = 9 x + 1260. And by tranfpofition we have
10x —Qx = 1260; or, x = 1260. Therefore, the zero or
total privation of heat ftands at 1260 degrees below the
freezing point, or rather the melting point cf congealed wa-
ter. ‘The fame zero of heat may be determined by meens of
other fubftances ; and it hasthus by various means been cal-
culated by other philofophers: but as their determinations
do not agree, fome fallacy has been generally fufpe&ed ei-
ther in the theory or in the operations. The following sre
the refults of the experiments, ard the calculations made by
divers perfons for the determination of the zero of heat.
Fabhrenheit’s Scale: degrees below the o of that Scale.
Lavoifier and Laplace, from experiments ona
mixture of 9 parts of water, and 16 of quicklime,
placed the zero of-heat at - - - 34584
Their experiments on a mixture of fulphuric
acid, and water in the proportion of 4 to 3, fix the
zero of heat at - - . - 72924
Their experiments on a mixture of the fame fluids
in the proportion of 4 to 5, place it at - 26304
Their experiments on a mixture of nitrous acid
and quicklime, fix the o of heat at - - 233372
Seguin places the zero of heat at - - 18944
Otber experiments of the fame fix it at - 2709
And from other experiments leis led to fix itat 16623.
Kirwan fixes it at - - - 1350
Crawford places it at -. - - 1532
Gadolin’s experiments fix it at - - 14612
Yhis immenfe.difagreement of refults feems ‘to indicate that
fome one at Ieaft of Dr. Irvine’s fuppofitions maft be mif-
taken. But the prefent Dr. Irvine in his edition of his fa-
ther’s effays, obferves, that his father’s method of computiaz
the zero of heat or point of total privation, does not appear to
lie under any fallacy ; but that the great difcordance between
the determinations of that point, as calculated by different
perfons, arifes from the difficulty of determining with aecy-
racy the proportion of the {pecific calorics, or capacities of
ice and water. ; !
In the prefert ftate of civil fociety, the produ@ion of cold,
2s fubfervient to the advantage; the conveniency, and the*
luxury of mankind, efpecially under certain obvious circum
ftances, and at certain places, is a matter of confiderable cous!
fequence. The artificial production of cold. is by no means?
fo eafy as the production of heat; fo that great attention
muit be paid to a variety of circumitances, in order that the
cooling of liquors, of apartments, &c. may be performed in’
the eaiizit, and molt ecoaomical manner poflidle. The various
known artificial methods of cooling, are ventilation; the ufe of
cold caves, wells, grottos, &c. when their temperature is
lower than that of the ambient air; evaporation; the ufe of
ice where ice is to be had; the folution of certain falts ; and
the expaniion of air ; but for the particular details and prac-*
tice of thofe methods, fee the articles ConGeLtation, VEN-°
TILATION, FREEZING, Evaporation, and EXPANSION.
Cop, in regard to is adion on the living body, may be’
conlidered, according to popular language, and the comman:
feelings of men, from which that language is deduced, as a>
pofitive agent. In ftriéinefs, it is merely a privative, or re-
lative term, fignifying a greater or lefler abftra¢tion of heat, »
or calsric: but for practical purpofes, it is ufeful to refer to
the fenfations, as a ftandard, and to adopt the vulgar ac-*
ceptation of the term. :
The operation of cold on the animal body may be regard-
ed in three points of view : 4[t, as to its general effeéts, as’
well in thofe degrees in which it is confiltent with the health »
and vigour of the body, as in thofe tn which it becomes de-
ftruGtive of the principle of life ; 2diy, as to its influence in ©
the production of different difeafes; and, 3dly, as to ite
remedial effects, or its power of alleviating and curing fome
of the molt fatal diforders, to which the animal economy is
liable. In attending to the detail of faéts, under the two »
firft heads, we fhall neceffarily be led to confider aifo the +
means of preventing and removing the pernicious effects of
the agency of cold. , !
I. Of the general eff2ds of cold on’ the living body.. A‘
certain quantity of heat is obvioufly indifpenfible to the ex-"
iftence of life, throughout both the gaimal ahd vegetables
world. The returns of fummer and winter alternately mul- ‘
tiply and diminifh to-a great extent the number of living *
beings, elpecially of thofe which poffefs a comparatively lefg °
perfeét organization ; and, in ail, a free circulation of the:
fluids is requilite for the fupport of the vital principle.
Hence life is incompatible wit! that degree of ‘cold, which ‘
produces a congelation of the fluids.» It is a law in the na- *
ture of heat, as well in living asin dead matter, that it is ’
communicated from a body poffeffing a larger quantity, to ’
any other body which comes in contact with it, poffefling a -
{maller quantity, until an equilibrium is produced, pr until '
the degree of heat is the famein both. Were living bodies, ‘
therefore, poflefled of no other properties, but thofe which *
belong to them-in common with inorganic bodies, in an ate *
mofphere of the temperature of 32° of Fabrenheit’s ther-
mometer (the freezing point of ‘water), or 2 little lower, it’
is obvious that life muitceafe, The animal body, however,
* is endowed with a power of generating or evolving heat, to ©
a contiderable extent, much above the ordinary temperature»
, ot
Om)
of the atmofphere. This power is even itcreafed by the
neceflity occafioned by external cold, and diminifhes with
the increafe of the atmofpherical aie fo that, during
a ftate of health, the temperature of the animal body is
pretty uniformly the fame, notwithftanding the extentive va-
riations of the external temperature (within an indefinite
limit). Or, in other words, there is inthe body a power of
regulating or varying the evolution of heat, accords: g to
the demand made from without.. In the human body, the
degree of heat is regularly about 98° of Fahrenheit’s feale;
in birds, it is fomewhat higher ; and in fome other animals
it is much lower, efpecially in the amphibia, &c. which
have hence been called cold-blooded animals, and which
fuffer great variations of their heat.
In order to afcertain the truth or falfity of an affertion,
that fome animals, efpecially {erpents and fifth, had recovered
their vitality after bemg frozen, Mr. John Hunter inftituted
a number of interefting experiments on the power of differ-
ent animals in refilling the agency of cold. Carp was
gradually deftroyed, and froze, when fubmitted to a freezing
mixture at 10° Fahrenheit, and did not recover. Jt was
with great difficulty that he fucceeded in sine a dor-
moufe,fuch were its powers of evolving heat, and thenon-con-
duGing quality of its integuments ; and it was not till the
hair was wetted that life was deftroyed, and the animal,
when dead, became ftHF, and could not be recovered,
When a toad was fubmitted to a fimilar cold mixture, the
water froze round the animal, but it did not die. In other
eafes the heat was readily overcome.
It appeared from thofe experiments, that an animal moft
be deprived of life before it can be frozen; and that the
power of refifting the cold was in proportion to the perfec~
tioa of the animal, and the natural heat proper to each {pe..
cies and to each age. It may, perhaps, alfo depend in fome
degree on other circumflances, not yet afcertained ; as in
fome of the experiments on dormice, it was found, that in
thefe animals, which are of a conftitution to retain nearly
the fame heat in all temperatures of the air, it required the
‘greateft cold that could be produced to overcome this
power 5 while in the toad and fnail, whofe natural heat
is not always the fame, but is altered very materially accord-
fag to the external heat or cold, this power izas exbaufted
in a degree of cold not exeeeding LOM OEMS 5 oe the {nail
Deiug the molt imperfect of the two, its powers of generat-
ing heat were by much the weakeft. Butin all there was a
great exertion or an expence of the enimal powers in this
vrefiffance, in proportion to the neccffity; and the whole
animal life was thus, at length, exhanfiad: Hence thole
animals, which cannot fupport life for any confiderable time,
2t the temperature of the freezing point, always endeavour
to procure fuch places of abode in the winter as feldom ar-
rive at that point. Thus we find toads burrowing, frogs
living under large fiones, {nails protected under the
athe Iter of {tones and in holes, ffh having recourfe to deep
water, all which places are generally above the freezing
point in our hardeft frols; however, our frofts are fome-
times fo fevere as to kill many, whofe habitations are not
very fecure. When the frolt is more intenfe or of longer
flanding than commos, or in countries where the winters
are always fevere, there 1s generaily fnow, and the water
freezes ; the advantages arifing from thefe two circumftances
are great ; ; the fnow ferving as a blanket to the earth, and
the ice to the water. See Philofoph. TranfaQions, vols.
Axv, and Ixvin.
The power of refitting the aGtion,of cold, or of evolving
heat. in greater quantity than the furrounding cold media
abftraét it. could not of courle be determined by experiment
Vor. VIII.
ED.
on the human body ; but many ordinary and accidental cir-
cumftances have demontlrated its exiltence to an extents
which could not have been anticipated. It is fearcely
neceffary to allude to the common occurrences of the winter
feafon, when the heat of the body remains at its natura il de-
gree.of 95, during an expofure to an atmofphere, of 10, 15,
or 20 degrs ees or more bclow the > ecezing point, even im this
country. In Roffia, Mr. ‘Tooke obferves, that the drivers
and their horfes, during extreme cold, feel little or no in-
convenience in purfuing hel employment, along the roads,
though the beards of the former, and the. muzzles of the
latter, are covered with hoar frof, and little icicles, from
the congelation of their breath ; and they travel all day, in
the fevereft cold of that nor thern climate, without receiving
any detriment. ‘‘ Nay, even from twenty to twenty- -four
degrees” (below the zero or freezing point, we prefume)
‘Of Reaumur, women. will ftand rinfix rg the linen through
holes in the ice, four, five, or fix Raurs together, often
bare-foot, with their hands dipping in the water. all the while,
ana their draggled petticoats {tiff with ice.”? Tooke’s View
of the Ruffian Empire, vol.i. Even the extremes of cold
in Siberia, inthe neighbourhood of Hudfon’s bay, &c. are
compatible with human life, aided by a cloathing of furs,
and other flow conduéters of heat. We have learnt from
accidents, alfo, that cold is fometimes refifted, during a
long expofure, without fuch aid. An interefling account is
before the public of the cafe of Elizabeth Woodcock, who
was involved in a fnow-drift, on February 2d, 1799, in her
way home from market, where it is f{uppofed fhe drank too
freely of ipiricuous liquor. The frow accumulated over her
to the height of about fix feet, a fort of hollow cone being
left from her head to the furface, through which breathing
was performed. T’rom this fituation fhe was removed on the
roth of February, having lain eight days in the fnow. Her
life was preferved ; but the greater part of her feet were de-
ftroyed. A hiftory, fomewhat refembling the foregoing,
is detailed in the ** Journal de Medecine” of Paris, for the
year 1767, of a man who refifted the ation of cold from
{now, in which he was buried four days, and from which
he was removed alive on the fifth day; and of a crew of 14
men, fhipwrecked, and immerged in the fea during 23 hours,
eleven refifted the action of the cold, and recovered. We
fhall have occafion to mention thefe cafes more particularly
in the fequel of this article.
Such, indeed, is the power of refiflance to external cold
in the human body, or rather fuch the conflant evolution of
heat, that an atmof{phere of the temperature of 98° of Fah-
aaa which, of courfe, does not abftra@t any of the
heat of the body, is extremely incommoding to the feelings,
In a phyfical fenfe, every temperature of Pee air, or other
{urrounding medium, below g8°, might be denominated
cold; but en regard to the feeling rang to the health, a
degree much lower, namely, from 60° to 65°, is the moit
grateful and invigorating. Tbe external medium at the
temperature of about 62° appears to abftra&t the heat of
the body, in the fame proportion in which it is generated,
without any extraordinary exertions of the fyltem; and
therefore neither contributes to exhault its powers, nor to
excite uneafy fenfations. ‘Thus the conftitution of man is
wilely adapted to the general or medium temperature of the
habitable globe. Hence alfo the general denominations
which are given to different degrees of temperature. Ina
degree of heat from 60° to 64°; Sis) exertion of the body,
w inchs is Hey) to man’s fubfiftence or gratification, 18
performed with eafe and fafety; and this degree is called
temperate. The higher degrees up to 70° are called <varm,
and all above that Zof. In the inferior range of the feale, a
5A few
CooL Bb
few degrees below 60°, as down to 50° or 47°, are denomi-
nated cool; and all below, cold. There is, however, confi-
derable difference among men, even in a {tate of health, in
affigning names to particular degrees of the thermometric
{eale ; as their fenfations vary, according to the power,
which their refpeétive conflitutions poffefs, of evolving heat.
This depends much upon the original vigour of the fyitem,
efpecially of the heart and arterial fyftem ; it is alfo much
influenced, as is evcry other funétion of the body, by habit.
Mr. Tooke attributed much of the impunity, with which
the Ruffians perform their labours, already mentioned, dur-
ing extreme cold, to their * being feafoned to it;”—a po-
pular term, which tmplies the acknowledged effet of habit
on thofe who take their refidence in climates of widely dif-
ferent temperature.
To perfons who, from vigcur of conftitution, or from
habit, readily evolve a confiderable quantity of heat, efpect-
ally during moderate corporeal exercife, a degree of cold,
which, to the weak and unhabituated, is a fource of painful
fenfations of chillinefs, is agreeable to the feelings, and con-
ducive to health. For the fenfation of cold is merely rela-
tive; it is in proportion to the previous fenfation of heat,
and to the power of evolving it, to fupply the place of that
which the external cold medium abftraéis. Hence the fame
temperature, at different times, excites even oppofite fenfa-
tions, according to the ftate of the circulation from exercife,
or from difeafe, or previous expofure, &c. And thofe op-
pofite fenfations are even excited at the fame time in differ-
ent parts of the body, as is familiarly illuftrated by the fol-
lowing experiment. If the hands be immerfed in two vef-
fels of water, the right hand into a veffel containing water at
the temperature of So°, for inftance, and the left into a vef-
fel in which the water is of the temperature of 40°, and after
remaining a fhort time, both be immerfed into a veflel which
contains water at the temperature of 60°; this water, of
the intermediate degree of heat, will excite a fenfation of
cold to the hand, which had previoufly been expofed to the
temperature of 80°, and wili feel warm to that which had
been immerfed in the water of 40°. During the previous
immerfion, for a fhort time, a greater ab{traétion and evolu-
tion of caloric had been made in the left hand, under a tem-
perature of 40°, and a leffer in the right, under the’ higher
temperature of 80°; and hence, when the abftraétion is fud-
denly diminifhed in the left hand, by a higher temperature
of 60°, and fuddenly increafed in the right, by the lower
temperature of 60°, the fenfation is the fame as 1f heat were
actually added to the left, and cold applied to the right
hand; for the fenfation is, as we before ftated, relative.
At the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s {cale, the ba-
lance of the evolution and ab{traGtion of heat is fteadily main-
tained, without exertion or injury to the human body ; but
very low temperatures, by abitraéting the animal heat more
{peedily than it can with eafe be evolved, exhautt the living
powers, and ultimately-deftroy the principle of life.
The firlt effect of cold, applied to the human body, is to
weaken and diminifh the ation of the blood-veflels, efpeci-
ally of the fuperficial branches of the arteries, which become
unable to tranfmit the blood in the ufual quantity through
the integuments ; and more efpecially in the extreme parts,
as the hands and feet, which are at the greateft diflance from
the heart; and in projecting parts, asin the ears, uofe, fero-
tum, &c. which expofe a larger furface to the cold. Hence
the fkin becomes pale, and, contraéting round the miliary
glands and roots of the hairs, exhibits a roughnefs, which is
compared to the fkin of an unfeathered goofe, and is tech-
nically termed, cutis anferina. By the fame contraétion of
the {maller veffels, and the diminifhed circulation, the ex-
treme and projecting parts are diminifhed in fize; thus
rings, which are tight on the fingers, while the body is warm,
drop off in cold weather; and even the fhoes fall from the
feet during extreme expofure. The heart, and the whole_
arterial fyftem, become weak, and the number and {trength
of their pulfations are diminifhed, according to the obferva-
tions of Dr. Currie and Dr. Rufh. Dr. Currie remarks,
that the natural pulfe of one of the men, on whom his ex-
periments in the cold bath were made, was about 79 in a
minute; but that, in confequence of agitation of mind, it
was never flower than $5 before immertion, and generally
more. However this might be, it funk invariably to 65 in
the water, became firm, regular, and fmall. After being in
the bath fome time, it could hardly be felt at the wrift.
Phil. TranfaGtions, vol. lxxsii. But, froma feries of experi-
ments, made by Dr. Stock of Brifto!, a refult fomewhat dif-
ferent was obtained. ‘he itrength of the arterial aétion
was, in all cafes, diminifhed by immerfion in cold water, but
its frequency was, with fcarcely any exception, inereafed :
in many cafes, from the combination of extreme weaknels
and rapidity, it was {carcely poflible to count the number of
pulfations. The circumftance of the frequency of the pulfe
increafing with its debility, feems to be more analogous to
the general obfervation with refpe& to arterial aétion. This
fact alfo agrees with the obfervations made by Drs. Spooner
and M’ Donnell, at I-dinburgh. See * Stock Medical Col-
le&tions on the Effeéts of Cold,’’ appendix. Spooner ‘* Diff.
Inaug. de Afcite Abdom.” Edin. 1785. From the debility
of the arterial fyftem, the blood is partially delayed in its
courfe through fome of the cutaneous veffels, and, not
undergoing the change ‘of colour, which a circulation
through the lungs produces, it gives a blueifh or livid colour
to the fingers, ears, and other projecting parts. If the cold
is intenfe, or the expofure continued long, the circulation
in thefe parts becomes altogether interrupted, and the power
of evolving heat being altogether deftroyed, a partial lofs of
the vital principle takes place, or, in other words, mortifi-
cation enfues, and the parts fall off fromthe body. The
portions thus deltroyed, are ufually faid to be frofinip-
ed, of which an example has already been mentioned, in
the cafe of Elizabeth Woodcock, who loft her feet from this
caufe. But inftances of this are fo numerous, that it wilk
be unneceflary to detail them here.
The influence of cold in debilitating the force of the cir-
culation of blood is alfo evinced in the perfons of the inha-
bitants of the frigidzone. ‘* As we approach nearer to the
north pole,”? Mr. Tooke has remarked, ‘ both the animal
and vegetable produtions of nature become more and more
ftunted. The ordinary ftature of the Samoyedes feldom
exceeds four or five feet, and their whole exterior corre-
fponds with their dwarfifh fize. ‘The fame bodily ftre@ure,
and the fame features of face, are applicable to the Eaft Si-
berian tribes. The Kamtfhadales are equally dwarfith.”
View of Raffia, vol. 2d. It is remarked by Linnzus, that
the hares, partridges, and other animals, which inhabit the
northern climes, are confiderably fmaller-in fize, than the. ~
fame fpecies in more fouthern countrics, Amenitates Aca-
demic, vol. vil.
From the languor and weaknefs of the arterial fyftem,
produced by the application of cold, other effects
on the conftitution neceffarily accrue. It is a faGt, well
eftablifhed in phyfiology, that a free circulation of blood,
which has undergone the falutary change produced by re-
{piration, to the brain and nervous fyftem, is requilite for the
fupport of the fenfibility. If the circulation is fufpended
for a few moments, asin fyncope, the fenfibility of the frame
is alfo fufpended; and, on the other hand, where there is a
more
ClOTIDD:
more than ordinary fupply of blood to any part, as in in-
flammation, the fenfibility is highly augmented. Hence an-
other immediate effe@ of the agency of cold on the human
body, is a diminution of the fenfibility of the parts on which
it is exerted. his is univerfally felt in the numbnefs of
the hands and fingers, which, under the impreffion of cold,
are altogether incapable of accurate difcrimination of touch ;
the whole of the furface of the fkin partakes of the imperfe&
fecling. [he tongue is alfo incapable of diltinguifhing the
peculiar favour of fapid bodies, if they be extremely cold ;
and the fenfe of {mell is in a confiderable degree enfeebled by
cold. Ifthe cold be intenfe, or its application long con-
tinued, the powers of the whole nervous fyftem become
weakened; a torpor of the animal funétions enfues; the
action of the mufclesis feeble, and fearcely obedient to the
will ; an unconquerable lanzuor and indifpofition to motion
fucceeds; a gradual exhauition of the nervous power fhews
itfelf in drowfinefs, which terminates in fleep, from which
the perfon, unlefs fpeedily roufed, frequently awakes no
more.
A ftriking illuftration of thefe effeGts of cold is related by
captain Cook, in an occurrence which took place during a
botanical excurfion of fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander,
among the hills of Terra del Fuego. The party, confifting
of 11 perfons, were overtaken by darknefs, and obliged to
{pend the night onthe hills, during extreme cold. Dr. So-
lander, who had more than once crofled the mountains which
divide Sweden from Norway, well knew that extreme cold,
efpecially when joined with fatigue, produces a torpor and
fleepinefs that are almolt irrefiftible ; he, therefore, conjured
the company to keep moving, whatever pains it might coft
them, and whatever relief they might be promifed by an in-
clination to reft; ‘* whoever fits down,’’ faid he, will
fleep ; and whoever fleeps will wake no more.’ Thus at
once admonifhed and alarmed, they fet forward; but while
they were ftill upon the naked rock, and before they had got
among the bufhes, the cold became fuddenly fo intenfe, as
to produce the effects that had been molt dreaded. Dr.
Solander himfelf was the firft who found the inclination,
againft which he had warned others, irrefiftible, and infifted
upon being fuffered to tie down. Mr. Banks entreated and
remonttrated in vain ; down he layupon the ground, though it
was covered with fnow; and it was with great difficulty
that his friend kept him from fleeping. Richmond alfo,
one of the black fervants, began to linger, having fuflered
from the cold in the fame manner as the doétor. Mr.
Banks, therefore, fent five of the company forward, to get a
fire ready at the firft convenient place they could find, and
himfelf. with four others, remained with the dodétor and
Richmond, whom, partly by perfuafion and entreaty, and
partly by force, they brought on; but when they had got
through the greater part of the birch and fwamp, they both
declared they could go no farther. Mr. Banks had recourfe
again to entreaty and expoftulation, but they produced no
effe&t. When Richmond was told, that if he did not go on
he would ina fhort time be frozen to death, he anfwered,
that he defired nothing but to lie down and die. The doc-
tor did not fo explicitly renounce his life; he faid he was
willing to go on, but that he mutt firft take fome fleep,
though he had before told the company that to fleep was to
perifh. Mr. Banks and the reft found it impoffible to carry
them, and there being no remedy, they were both fuffered to
fit down, being partly fupported by the bufhes, and in a few
minutes they fell into a profound fieep. Soon after fome of
the people who had been fent forward, returned with the
welcome news, that a fire was kindled about a quarter of a
mile farther on the way. Mr. Banks then endeavoured to
wake Dr. Solander, and happily fueceeded ; but though he
had not flept five minutes, he had almoft loft the ufe of his
limbs, and the mufcles were fo fhrunk, that his fhoes fell
from his feet ; he confented to go forward, with fuch affift-
ance as could be given him ; but no attempts to relieve poor
Richmond were fuecefsful. He, together with another
blaek, left with him, died. Several others began to lofe
their fenfibility, having been expofed to the cold and tre
{now near an hourand a half, but the fire recovered them.
See captain Cook’s firft Voyage.
In addition to this intere(ting narrative, many examples of
death from extreme cold, occurring in a fimilar way, are re-
corded. Bomare obferves that travellers among the Glaciers
of Switzerland, are fometimes furprized and killed by the
cold, efpecially thofe who travel on horfeback ; and that the
approaching danger manifefts itfelf by a ftrong difpofition
to fleep ; fo that if the perfon does not immediately refilt it,
and put himfelt into a brifk movement, death is inevitable.
Ditonaire ad’? Hilt. Naturelle, Art. Froid. Saufinre alfo
has remarked that among thefe mountains, even in the fineft
weather of fummer, fudden ftorms of the moft inienfe cold
wind, with {now that obf{cures the air, are not uncommon,
and are frequently fatal to the traveller ; for he perifhes
with cold, if he ftops ; and if he goes on at hazard, he falls
in all probability over a precipice. Voyage dans les Alpes,
tom, i1.
The French peafants, who inhabit the feet of the bleak
mountains, which feparate France from Spain, annually
fuffer fatal accidents, in their journeys acrofs the perpetual
{nows, which cover them. In February 1765, five men
who were returning from the Spanifh forges, to bring their
families the fruits of their labour, were caught in one of
thofe ftorms defcribed by Sauffure. One of them, named
Boutillat, fetzed by the cold, immediately felt extreme
laffitude, his limbs were unable to fupport him, and he fell
down, overcome with fleep, and was foon overwhelmed with
the {mow. The cold continued, and he lay four days, infen-
fible, in the fnow, which, to ufe the words of Mr. Hunter,
probably ‘‘ferved as a blanket,”’ to fhelter him from the
more intenfe cold of the atmofphere. He awoke on the
5th morning, with a fenfation of burning thirft in his throat,
and he inttinétively bit of the fnow, in which he was enve-
loped. A fimtiar hollow cone, through which he had
breathed, was found in this inftance, as in that of Elizabeth
Woodcock before deferibed ; and he was, like her, unable to
affift himfelf to throw off his cold covering. But fome men,
fent in fearch of him by the magiltrates of the village, for-
tunately difcovered him. The cuticle ofa confiderable part
of his body was detached, as if by blifters; but he was not
fenfible of pain; in feveral places gangrene had occurred.
When he was taken home, the limbs. were ignorantly
wrapped in warm linen, fome of which was dipped in aro-
matic liquors. The fect were deltroyed by the mortifica-
tion, and came off ; and intwelve or fourteen days after the
accident he died. M. Pilkes, who cetails the hiltory of the
cafe, remarks, that, if cold applications had been made, in-
ftead of the warm linen, and aromatic liquors, his life might
probably have been preferved. Sce Journal de Medecine,
Paris, 1767, tom. xxvii.
The effect of extreme and continued cold is not only to
deftroy animal life, but alfo to preferve animal fubftances
from decompolition by the procefs of putrefaction. Hence
in regions of unvarying cold, the bodies of thofe who perifh
are preferved entire under the fnow. Bomare affirms, that
there are {till found in South America, a confiderable number
of the firft conquerors of the new world, who, at the com-
mencement of the fixteenth century, preferred to along and
5 A 2 circuitous
co
circuitous route, the fhort but dangerous paffage of the
mountains of Peru, in order to examine more [peedily the
rich mines, which had been defcribed to them. ‘The
warmth of their avarice, and their ardour in fearch of gold,
could not defend them from the influence of cold, from which
they perifhed, and by which they are {tal preferved, with
all that they carried with them, and in the various attitudes,
in which they were frozen and furprifed by death, conititut-
ing a fort of natural mummies.”? Dict.d’ Hilt, Nat. And
Bartholin obferves, that the Danifh failors had informed
him, that bodies had been preferved in Spitzbergen during
o years. Gazette de Salut.
When cold is combined with mojfure, even at a much
higher temperature, its effeéts are extremely deleterions,
and even fatal, independent of the train of difeafes, which it
excites, and which we fhall deferibe hereafter. Vor water
not only conduéts the heat away more rapidly, but, by
evaporating, it abftraéts an additional quantity from the
body, efpecially when it is expofed to wind: in this cafe, a
new fheet of cold water is, as 1t were, perpetually applied to
the furface of the body, which induces an extreme chill,
both by the number of particles in contaét with the fkin,
and their greater facility of receiving heat. It appears,
however, that the deleterious effets of cold combined with
moifture, are fomewhat different from thofe which are the
confequence of a dry cold; and that cold /alt water is lefs
prejudicial to the body, than cold frc/o water ; as the follow-
ing faéts and experiments, related by Dr. Currie, will evince.
On the 13th of December, 1790, an American fhip was
caft away on a fand bank, that hes in the opening of the
river Merfey, into the Imfh channel. “The crew got ona
part of the wreck, where they pafled the night; and a fignal
which they made being difcovered next day from Hillberry
ifland, a boat went off, though at a great rifk, and took up
the furvivors: ‘The unfortunate men had remained twenty-
three hours on the wreck ; and of fourteen, the original
number, eleven were ftill alive, all of whom in the end re-
covered.. Of the three that perifhed, one was the mafter of
the veffel ; another was a paflenger, who had been a mailer,
but had loft or fold his fhip intAmerica ; the third was the
cook, who was a weakly man ; he died only @ few hours be-
fore the boat reached the wreck. The two matters had been
long dead. This fact excited much curiofity, and their death
was attributed to intoxication from a free ufe of cherries
from a keg, which had contained cherry-brandy. But in
faét nothing was preferved, neither food nor drink, and the
whole crew were upon an equality, except that fome were
deeper in the water than others; ard the two maiters had
the advantage in this refpe@, for they fat on the only part
of the wreck that was out of the fea; they were, however,
frequently overwhelmed by the furge, and at other times ex-
pofed to heavy fhowers of fleet and {now, and to a high and
piercing wind. ‘The temperature of the air, as nearly as ean
“be guefled, was from 30° to 33° of Fahr. and that of the
fea, from trials in fimilar circumftances, from 38° to 40°.
The mate was generally up to the middle in the water. The
crew were worle fituated, being fome of them up to the
-fhoulders. They were not at any time able to change their
pofition, but kept their legs in pretty conftant motion to
counteraét the cold, their arms being employed in holding
the wreck. It isremarkable that a poor negro,, who efcaped
almoft unhurt, was perhaps deepeft in the fea of any.
The matter of the thip, Capt. Scott, a native of North
Carolina, and about 40 years of age, died firlt. As they
- were in the dark, Mr. Amyat, the mate, could not fee his
countenance; ‘but he was firlt alarmed by hearing bim talk
incoberently, like one in the delirium of fever, By degrees
LD.
his voice dwindled into a mutter, and his hearing feemed to
fail. At length he raifed himfclf up in a fort of convulfive
motion, in which he continued a few feconds, and then felk
back dead on the deck. This happened about eight o’clock
inthe evening, four hours after the flip went aground,
Soon after this, Capt. Davifon, who was about 28, began
to talk incoherently, in the fame manger as the other; he
ftruggled longer, but died in the fame way about eleven at
night. The cook died in the forenoon of the fucceeding day 5
he was a low-fpirited mar, and defpondid from the begin-
ning. All therett held ou:, though forely pinched with cold
and hunger, til they were taken up about three in the after=
noon. Mr. Amyat faid that his hands and feet were {welled
and numb, though not abfolutely fenfelefs ; he felr a tight-
nefs at the pit of his ftomach, and his mouth and lips were
parched; but what diftreffed him moft were cramps in the
mufcles of bis fides and hips, which were drawn into knots.
Though immerfed in the fea, they were ail of them very
thirty ; and though expofed to fuch fevere cold, not one
of them was drowzy, nor did fleep precede death in thofe:
who verifhed.
ReflcGt'ng on the curiors fa&s mentioned in this melar—
choly narrative, Dr. Currie was led to inftitute a feries of
comparative experiments on the effects of immerfion in cold:
frefh water and falt water baths on the human body. ‘Fhe
refults tended to elucidate in fome meafure the faéis in quef-
tion ; as wellas to afcertain fome important practical deduc-
tions, which may be of ufe to perfons fuffering under fimilar
accidents; and others, which relate to the general ufe of
the cold-bath. Dr. Currie imagined that the death of the
two malters was to be imputed to their pofition on the wreck.
Being expofed to heavy fhowers of fleet and fnow, they
might fuffer from being wet with frefh, rather than fale
water; the chilling effeGQs of evaporation might operate
againft them, promoted as they mutt have been by the high
wind ; or they might receive injury from their frequent im-
merfions in the fea, producing an a/feration in the media
furrounding. ‘The experiments of Dr. Currie feem very
ftrongly to corroborate thefe fuppolitions. a
The immediate cffe&t of plunging into a cold /alt water
bath, was a reduétion of the temperature of the body, from
its natural itandard gS° to about 87°; but while the perfor
remained in the water, the conftitution wes called on fora
greater evolution of heat, and his. temperature arofe gradual-
ly to 93° or 95° in the courfe,of twelve or fifteen minutes,
On emerging, and being expoled to a north eait wind, the
teryperature again rapidly funk, even while attendants were
rubbing him with towels, to 87° or 88°. But a warm bath
foon rettored the natural heat. After immerfonin a fref>
water bath, the heat of the body funk gradualiy, and not fo
low ; but after being 30 minutes in it, even the hot bath
with difficulty reftored the heat. In two minutes after the
perfon, who had been in the frefh water bath, was put into
a warm bath at go°, he fell into a violent fhiver, and his
heat fell two degrees. ‘The bath was then heated to 95°
and 96°, but {till he felt cold. It was heated to 99°: he
contiaued in it five minutes, and his heat was ftillone degree
lower, than when he quittedthe cold bath. The heat was
gradually raifed co 106°, when the fenfe of coldnefs of which
he had complained at the pit of the ftomach, gradually went
off. After immerfion in the cold falt water bath, the per-
fon, who was the fubje& of the experiment, had been ufually
kept in the warm bath till his natural heat was nearly re-
covered ; but now after being half an hour in the heat of
106°, his own heat was flill 93°. He now became fick and
very languid, a cold fweat covering his face, his pulfe very
quick and feeble. He was removed into bed, but paffed a
feverifl-
Gy Orly Dy
feverith night, and next day had wandering pains over his
body, with great debility, refembling the beginning ftage of
a fever. By cordials and reft, this went off. See the ex-
periments related in the Philof. Tranfations, vol. Ixxxii, for
1792, and the Appendix to Dr, Currie’s Medical Reports
on the effe&ts of water, &c: vol. 1.
The fa&ts juft {tated clearly point out the greater danger
of being wet with fre/h than with /a/t water: the fuperior
fafety of the latter, probably, confilts in the flimulus of the
faline impregnation upon the fkin, which may countera& the
debilitating effe@s of the cold. The practical inferences
which Dr. Currie deduced from thefe facts are extremely im-
portant. He oblerves,
“ey. Itis, I think, already well known among feamen,
that where there is only the choice of being wet with falt or
frefh water, it is always fafeft to prefer the firft. In the
heavy showers of rain, hail, or fnow, by which gales of wind
are generally accompénied, the men that muft be expofed
to them, ought, like Lieutenant Bligh and his crew, to
wring their clothes cut of falt water.
s¢o, In all cafes where men are reduced to fuch diftrefs
by fhipwreck, or otherwife, that they have it only in their
power to chufe between keeping the limbs conttantly im-
merged inthe fea, or expofing them to the air svhile it rains
or fnows, or of being expofed to it, where the fea is at times
wathing over them, it ts fafelt to prefer aconftant immerfion;
becaufe, in the northern regions, where the cold becomes dan-
gerous to life, the feais almoft always warmer than the air, as
the experiments of Sir Charles Douglas fhow; and becaufe
there is not only a danger from the increafed cold produced
by evaporation, but alfo from the lofs of heat by the rapid
changes of the furrounding medium, as the foregoing ex-
periments point out,
se 3. Whether, in high and cold winds without rain or
fnow, and where a fituation may be chofen beyond the
reach of the waves, it is fafer to continue in the air, or to
feek refuge in the fea, maft depend upon feveral circum-
ftances, and cannot perhaps be certainly determined. The
motives for chufing the fea will be ftronger in proportion as
the wind is high and cold, and in proportion as the fhore is
cold.”
Some deduStions alfo were obtained from the expeiiments,
which relate to the common ule of the cold-bath, and which,
as they do not exaétly accord with the vulgar opinion on
this fubje&, and may contribute to correét fome practical
errors in the ufe of the bath, we fhall tranf{cribe.
« The air and the water being equally cold, and both
45° or under, I found the lofs of heat in pafling from the
oxe to the other, to be regulated in the following way.
« ry. Tf, inftead of being expofed naked to the wind, pre-
vious to immerfion in the water, the body was kept warm
by a flannel covering, the mercury fell much lefs on the firlt
plunge.
« 2. If, after plunging in the water, the perfon continued
in it only a minute or two, a fubfequent fall of the mercury
did not always take place on his emerging into the air.
On the contrary, there was fometimes a rife on fuch occa-
fions in the mercury, efpecially if the atmofphere was at
reit.
‘© 3, Inone inftance, after continuing in the water fifteen
minutes, on rifing into the air in a perfect calm, though dur-
ing a frolt, there was little or no feeming diminution of the
heat ; while expofure under fimilar circumftances, with a
north-eaft wind blowing fharply, though the air was many
degrees warmer, produced a rapid diminution. The effeéts
of the wind in diminifhing the human heat are indeed ftriks
ing, and are not, in my opinion, explained by the common
fuppofition.”
Hence we fee an obvious neceffity, that invalids fhould
not allow themfelves to become chilled, before going into
the cold-bath, that they fhould leave it fpeedily, and not
fuffer any expofure to a cool wind on emerging ; fince by
fuch means they not only countera@ the beneficial effets of
bathing, but even incur confiderable danger, See Batu
and Baruina.
Hitherto we have attended to the effets of extreme cold,
with or without the joint operation of moifture, on the hu-
man body, in a flate of previous natural temperature. The
action of cold in more moderate degrees on the body, heated
toa preternatural extent, by exercife, or other caufes, af-
fords a fubject of not lefs important confideration: The
more important indeed, as the popular notions on this topic
are moftly founded in error, and lead to daily praétical confe-
quences of very pernicious tendency. So many infances of
the noxious effects of expofure to cold, or of drinking ccld
liquids, when the body was hot, are recorded, and are be-
lieved frequently to occur, that a conviGtion of the fa& is
univerfal ; and this conviGtion is corroborated by the popu-
lar hypothefis, that the fuppreffion of perfpiration is the
fource of innumerable evils, and that fudden viciffitudes are
invariably noxious. On the other hand, however, a number
of facts, ttanding on equally authentic record, tend to con-
tradi&t this general doétrine, by fhowing us that rapid and
great tranfitions, as from vapour-baths to rolling in the
fnow, &c. are conftantly made, in fome countries, with im-
punity, and even with advantage to the health. It remained
for the genius of Dr. Currie, (a name to: which the highett -
honours of medical {cience are due,) to reconcile thefe con-
traditions, upon philofophical principles, and to give us ra-
tional views of pra€tical utility on this fubjeG@. However
inconfiftent with the vulgar notion, the general truth ap-
pears to be, ** that, from whatever caufe the heat of the body
is increafed, in proportion to this increafe (provided no local
difeafe has occurred, and the body is not already ina ftate in
which it is rapidly parting with its heat,) is the fafety with
which cold may be applied.’? Medical Reports, p. 104
and 123. 2nd.edit. The numerous apparent exceptions, up-
on which the popular opinion is founded, will be found not
to Invalidate this principle, if the circumftances are minutely
examined. For it will then be afcertained, that the injuries
which perfons have fuffered from the application of cold un-
der the circumftances in queftion, did not arife from its
agency on them when hot, but when cooling, after having
been heated ; when a profufe general perfpiration was rapidly
carrying off the heat, or when fatigue had exhaufted the vi-
gour of the fyftem, and the power of evolving heat; and
that, onthe contrary, where the fenfation of heat was great
and tteady, the heat itfelf fteadily retained, or kept up by
exertion, and the Jiving power not debilitated by fatigue,
the application of cold was fafe and falutary. A brief de-
tail of fome fa€ts will evince the juftice. of this conclu-
fion.
- Firfl, then, we fhall find that all the fatal effeéts of cold,
either when internally or externally applied, have occurred
in thofe fituations, where the fyftem, after: having been
much heated and enfeebled by fevere exertions, was lofing
its preternatural heat from profufe perfpiration, and, in ge-
neral, alfo from the ceffation of the exertions by which this
heat was originally produced.
Dr. Currie relates one inftance of death from drinking
cold water under thefe circumftances, which occurred in his
own experience. It was thecafe of a young man, who had
been
COLD.
been engaped a long time in a moft fevere match at fives.
After it was-over he fat down on the ground, panting for
breath, and covered with profufe perlpiration. In this
ftate he called to a fervant to bring him a pitcher of cold
water juft drawn from a pump io fight. He held it in his
hand for fome minutes, but put it to his head as foon as he
had recovered his breath, and drank a large quantity at once.
He laid his hand on his ftomach, and bent forwards; his
countenance became pale, his breath laborious, and in a few
minutes he expired.
We are told by Dr. Ruth, that few fummers elapfe, in
which there are not inftances of many perfons among the la-
bouring part of the community, being thus affected in Phila-
delphia; and he has defcribed the feries of iymptoms more
minutely. Ina few minutes, he fays, after the patient has
{wallowed the water, he is affeéted by a dimnefs of fight, he
ilaggers in attempting to walk, and, unlefs fupported, falls
to the ground ; he breathes with difficulty; a rattling is
heard in the throat ; his noflrils and cheeks expand and con-
tract in every aét of refpiration; his face appears {uffufed with
blood, and of a livid colour; his extremities become cold,
and his pulfe imperceptible : unlefs relief is fpeedily obtain-
ed, the diforder terminates in death in four or five minutes.
Medical Inquiries and Obfervations, vol. i. More frequently
patients are feized with acute f{pafms in the brealt and fto-
mach, which are fo painful as to produce fyncope, and even
afphyxia.
Many cafes are related by authors, and Dr. Currie has
given a detail of feveral, from the colleGion of Shenck, in
which the leading circumftances are nearly the fame with
thofe of the example above quoted ; and many fats have
been incidentally recorded by hiltorians, which alfo agree
with it in the effential points. In Quintus Curtius, (lib. vil.
cap. 5.) an account is given of the march of the army of
Alexander the Great in purfuit of Beffus, through the
country of the Sogdiani, which is reprefented as deftitute
of water, fterile, and covered with {corching fands. The into-
lerable heat, fatigue, and thirft of the foldiers in their march
through this burning defert, arg icubed with all the florid
eloquence of thehiltorian. At length, fainting under their
toils, they reached the banks of the river Oxus, where, by
indulging in large draughts of the ftream, Alexander loft a
greater number of his troops than in any of his battles.
** Sed qui intemperantius hauferant, interclufo fpiritu ex-
tincti funt'; multoque major horum numerus fuit, quam ullo
amiferat prelio.” A fimilar {tory is related by Appian (De
Bellis Civil. lib. y.) ; and a difafter of the fame kind is re-
corded to have occurred to the Chriftian army in. the holy
wars, (Guliclm. Tyrius, lib. iii. cap. 16.). See Currie’s
Reports, p. gg. et feq. The almott fatal effets which en-
fued to Alexander himfelf, when, after a long and harafling
march, covered with duft and {weat, he plunged into the
Cydnus, in the fight of his army, are to be accounted for in
the fame way. (Quint. Curt. lib. iii. cap. 5.) The heat
preternaturally accumulated by exercife is heid with little
tenacity ; it is diffipated by the profufe perfpirations ; and is
{peedily loft, when, to thefe perfpirations is added a {tate of
reft after fatigue. The vital power is then unable to efle&
any re-actien, and a flight application of cold exhaufts the
heat and the vitality of the fyitem.
But, /econdly, experience hasdemonftrated that, on the con-
trary, where the heat is fteadily retained, as in the early ftages
of exercife, before perfpiration has diffipated it, or fatigue has
debilitated the living power; or where it is continued by
fubfequent exertion ; cold drink, or the cold bath, are highly
fafe and falutary, Hence the Roman youth, in the heat of
their exercife in the Campus Martius, frequently plunged
into the Tiber, not only with impunity, but deriving from it
a high enjoyment: and hence the fafety of the praétice of
the Ruffians, of remaining fome time in a hot bath of from
1064° to 116° of Fahr., then rolling naked in the fnow,
and returning to the warm bath as before. In the cele-
brated experiments of Dr. Fordyce, fir Charles Blagden, &c.
thefe gentlemen paficd from a room, heated to upwards of
200°, naked, to the cold air, yet no one received the leaft
injury. The heat of the bedy and the aétion of the arterial
fyftem were here increafed; but had they-continued ex-
pofed naked to the cold air, till the heat funk as low as
its natural ftandard, and the heart and arteries fubfided into
their ufual ftate of action, their fituation would have
been very hazardous. :
From the preceding ftatements then, it is evident, that
the application of cold to the body, when heated, is always
fafe, while the heat is kept up by exertion, and while there
is {till a fufficient power remaining in the conftitution of
generating heat. Perhaps the fteadinefs of the fenfatioa
of warmth, or at leaft the abfence of chillinefs, is the bef
teft of this fafety. Hence the danger of a pepular pra@tice,
of waiting till a degree of coolnefs has taken place, before —
quitting a hot room, or before going inte a cold bath, is
{ufficiently obvious ; and the frequent bad confequences of
leaving hot rooms are moft frequently the effe@ of this im-
prudent praGtice. We doubt whether any perfon ever re-
ceived an injury from cold, after leaving a heated afiembly,
if he left it while he continued warm, and either by exer-
cife in the air, or by a warm covering, kept up that warmth
in fome degree till he reached his home. And with refpe&
to the cold bath, every judicious phyfician now recommends
all who are delicate and infirm, to ufe {uch a degree of
exercife before immerfion, as may produce fome in-
creafed action of the veffels, with fome increafe of heat,
and thus fecure a degree of re-a€tion under the fhock.
Thofe who, being heated and beginning to perfpire,
wait on the edge of the bath until they are perfeétly
cooled, and then plunge into the water, often feel a fudden
chillinefs and fhivering, which are alarming and dangerous.
In fuch cafes the injury is generally imputed to going into
the water too warm, whereas in truth it arifes from going
in too cold. See Currie’s Reports, p. 109. Buchan on
Sea-Bathing. ;
Some controverfy has been maintained among phyficians
as to the mode of aétion of cold on the living body, and
fome apparent inconfiltency is to be found in the language
of writers, when treating on this fubje&t. Thus Dr. Cullen
mentions the /fimulant operation of cold, as well as the éonic,
and the contrary, or /edative operation of the fame agent.
This has arifen from not diftinguifhing between the dire&
and indirect effects of cold. ‘The direét effect of the appli-
cation of cold, or, ftri@ly {peaking, of the abftraGion of
heat, is {imply the abftraétion of a great and general itimu-
lus, viz. heat ; and this is of neceflity a /edative operation.
Hence, by its continuance, all the aGions of the fyftem,
and the fun@tions of life, are enfeebled and ultimately de-
royed, This, the two late fyftematic writers, Brown and
Darwin, contend, is the only operation of cold. When
again Dr. Cullen fpeaks of the /fimulant power, he means
the indire@ action of cold, or the confequences which re-
{ult from the fubfequent operation of the ordinary tempe-
rature of the air, after the cold is withdrawn. ‘Thefe con-
fequences are attributed by Drs. Brown and Darwin, not
to the cold, but tothe returning ftimulus of heat. The dif-
pute, therefore, is obvioufly little more than verbal. ie
irect.
GpOn Is Dy
dire& action of cold is /edative; the indire€&t operation
is /fimulant, or tonic; whatever theory we adopt on the
fubject.
‘he mode in which the latter effe& is produced, was, in-
deed, not explained until Dr. Brown’s fyflem was promul-
gated. his acute, but prejudiced theorift, demonttrated
this general fa& in the animal economy ; that whenever any
accultomed ftimulnus is greatly reduced, or withdrawn, the
living fyttem becomes more acutely fulceptible of {timula-
tion; fo that a Jeffer portion of ttimulus, fubfequently ap-
plied, will excite an equal ation; and the ufual proportion
will excite an extraordinary degree of action, or, to ufe the
Janguage of Brown, the excitability is accumulated during
the abftraction of ftimuli. In Dr. Darwin’s phrafeology
the excitability is called Jenforial power. Thus, Dr. Brown
oblerves, * If cold fometimes appears to ftimulate, it pro-
duces that effeG not as a€tual cold, but either by diminifh-
ing exceflive heat, and reducing it to its proper ttimulating
temperature, or by accumulating the excitability diminithed
by exceffive ftimulus.?? Elements of Medicine, vol. i. feét.
37. And Dr. Darwin remarks, that, ** After any part of
the vafcular fyftem of the body has been long expofed to
cold, the fenforial power is fo much accumulated in it, that
on coming into a warm room the pain of hot-ech is pro-
duced, and inflammation and confequent mortification,
owing to the greater exertion of thofe veffels, when again
expoted to a moderate degree of warmth.’? Zoonomia, vol. il.
cl. iii. 2, 1.17, &c. Hence, the glow on the fkin, pro-
duced by the increafed ation of the cutaneous veffels, on
emerging from a cold bath; and hence the face becomes of
a red colour in a cold day in turning from the wind. This
re-action, however, or increafed excitability of the fyftem, is
in proportion to the relative vigour of the conftitution and the
degree and period of the agiton of the cold. Ina delicate
habit, the vital power is fo fpeedily enfeebled by cold, that
it becomes almoft incapable of fubfequent excitement; and
Janguor, debility, palenc{s, chillinefs, and fhivering enfue
after immerfion in the cold-bath; this tate is fucceeded by
a dry and burning heat of the fkin, which terminates ina
free perfpiration, conftituting, in faét, the fimpleit form of
a febrile paroxy{m.
But although it be admitted, that the a@tion of cold, as
merely confifting in the ab{traétion of the ftimulus of heat,
is dire&tly /edative, and only indirely flimulant ; yet we
mutt.contend that cold wlfo exerts a different agency on the
living body, which is dire@tly ftimulant ; namely, an agency
on the faculty of fenfatior. "his fenforial power was alto-
gether overlook-d by Dr. Brown; but it is not eafy to ex-
plain why Dr. Darwin, who underftood the laws of fen-
fation fo well, fhould have difregarded the influence of
eold upon it altogether. The ilimulating aGion of cold,
as Dr. Currie has obferved, though fhort in duration, is
powerful in degree. In the torpor of convulfion, when
weaker ftimuli are unperceived, the affuhon of cold water
on the naked body wii! often excite the dormant fenfibility,
and introduce a new aétion throughout the nervous {y{tem.
{n the apoplectic fiate, brought on by the fumes of char-
coal, this remedy is. of all others the moft efficacious. In
a cafe of afphyxia from this caufe, which was lately detailed
to a medical fociety, by an eminent phyfician, it was re-
marked, that the {prinkling of cold water over the cheft
and face produced an effet of ftimulation, and excited
motions which were only equalled by powerful fhocks
pafled from a Galvanic battery. When dogs ave fuffocated
in the vapour of the grotto del cant, it is well known that
they are recovered by plunging them in the adjoining lake.
The ftimulating influence of cold water in fyncope, or
fainting, is a matter of vulgar obfervation. It is impofiible,
therefore, to: desy this influence of cold, unlefs, indeed, it
fhould be faid that it is not the cold that flimulates, but
the fenfation which the cold produces; a point which it
would be a waite of time to difpute,
Befides the difference in the intenfity of the cold, in the
pericd of its application, in its being accompanied with
moifture, or with a current of air and evaporation, and
other external circumftances already defcribed, as modifying
its operation on the living body ; there are many internal
circumttances which render the body more liable to be in-
Jered by cold, or, on the contrary, enable it to refilt the
deleterious effeéts of this agent. Whatever induces debi:
lity, efpecially of the circulating fy{tem, tends to enfeeble
the calorific power, and, therefore, to diminith the means of
refiftance to the aGtion of cold. Hence, long fafting, great
fatigue, a previous debauch, excefs in venery, long watch-
ing, evacuations, fevere ftudy, with its concomitant, a fedena
tary life, all contributing to debilitate the body, render it
particularly lable to fuffer from expofure to cold. Hence
alfo, during fleep, (in which the heat is commonly 12°
lower than the ftandard of health when awake, according
to Mr. Hunter), in a ftate of reft after violent exertion,
and during convalefcence from difeafe, when the arterial
action is languid and feeble, even flight cold is capable of
producing injury, unlefs the internal heat is retained by
means of warm cloathing. Injury is likewife more fre-
quently fuftained, when one part of the body is expofed,.
while the reft are kept more warmly covered than ufual; or
where there is a peculiar fenfibility of the conftitution, or of
any particular organ of the body.
On the contrary, circumitances of an oppofite nature
enable the body to refift the morbid effe&s of cold. Such
are vigour of conttitution, efpecially of the heart and ar-
teries ; exercife, by which the aGion of the latter, and con-
{equently the evolution of caloric, is increafed; and the
ule of cordials, by which the fame aé@ticn is promoted.
The operation of adlive paffions, or of vigorousattention to
certain other objects, weaken the fenfation of cold, and itsphy-
fical ation onthe body. Thus theaftronomer, intenton the
object of his fublime f{cience, itis faid, neither feels, nor is in-
jured by, thedamps or chillnefs of the night. And in certain
{tates of excitement of the brain ard nerves, asin fome {pe-
cies ot madnefs, cold is refitted in an extraordinary degree.
Dr. Currie favs, ‘* I have feen a young woman, once of the
greateft delicacy of frame, ftruck with madnefs, lie all
night on a cold floor, with hardly the covering that decency
requires, when the water was frozen on the table by her, and
the milk that fhe was to feed on was a mafs of ice.”? The inflas-
ence of habit is alfo great, in enabling the body to refift the
effets of cold; and the ufe of the cold bath is hence a
powerful prefervative from its injuries. Cullen. Dif. Inaug.
de Frigore. 1780.
The means to be adopted for the relief of thofe who have
fuffered from the aétion of cold, will be readily underftood
from a confideration of the principles, which have already
been ftated. Where a flate of torpor, or a fufpenfion of
the animal fun@tions, has been the confequence of ex pofure-
to cold, the principal objeé& is to rettore heat to the body,
and to excite the refpiration and circulation ; in as much a3
it has already been fhewn, that the torpor of the nervous
{yftem depends upon the imperfeét performance of thefe
funétions. The patient then may be brought into a warm
but well-ventilated room, and gently rubbed with warm
flannels. His feet and legs may be immerfed in tepid or
warm water. ‘The a¢tion of the diaphragm and the heart,
are moft readily excited by warmth and other flimuli, applied
to the pit of the ftomach. Dr. Currie invariably found
in his experiments, that a bladder filled with warm water SEs
7] plied
€+ OL BD
plied to this part, was the moft effc€iual mode of com-
municating an equable heat to the body, and removing the fhi-
verings, the fénfe of chillnefs, and languors, produced by
extreme cold in the bath. And Dr. Kellie remarked, that
the good effects of fri€ion with ammonia on the epigaltric
region were very ftriking, in exciting the action of refpi-
ration, and the motion of the heart. (See Edinburgh Med.
and Surg. Journal, N°iv. p. 373.) He obferved, too,
that the progrefs of the reftoration of the temperature of the
body, appeared to keep pace with, and to be regulated more
by, the excitement of thefe functions, than determined by the
caloric communicated from without. The application of
ammonia, or other {timulants, to the noftrils, is alfo ufeful ;
and as foon as the patient has fo far recovered as to be able
to [wallow, fome warm and gently flimulating drink fhould
be given, in {mall quantities, from time to time.
From the accumulation of excitability, during expofure
to cold, and the confequent tendency to violent inflammatory
ation, on the refloration of heat, it has been recommended
to begin the attempt to recover perfons under thofe circum-
itances, by the application of cold of alefs fevere degree, as
by friftion with fnow. But the’ writer juft quoted has fug-
gelted the propriety of difcriminating between a general tor-
por, and the local affection in a froit-bitten limb. In the
Jatter cafe, where, notwithftanding the injury done to a
part, the general powers of the fyftem remain excitable,
heat mult be very flowly and gradually communicated, or
inflammation, gangrene, and lofs of the part enfue. But
in the former occurrence there does not appear to be the
fame danger of violent reaétion, or of deftroying, by pre-
mature ftimulation, the accumulated fenfibility, where the
{enforial funGtions have been altogether fufpended.
When diforder has been produced by drinking large
quantities of cold water during profufe perfpiration, after
violent exercife, two remedies have been found ufeful;
namely, a bladder filled with water heated to 1 TO" Or Thy
of Fahrenheit, and the tin@ure of opium; the latter of
which is recommended by Dr. Ruth, and the combination
of the two by Dr. Currie. “I know but one certain re-
medy for this difeafe,”? fays Dr Ruth, “and that 13 liguid
landanum. ‘The dofed of it, as in other cafes of fpafm,
fhould be proportioned to the violence of the difeafe. From
a tea-fpoonful to near a table-fpoonful has been given in
fome inftances before relief has been obtained. Where the
powers of life appear to be fuddenly fufpended, the fame
remedies fhould be ufed which have been fo fuccefsfully em-
ployed in recovering perfons fuppofed to be dead from
drowning.’ Med. Ing. & Obf. vol. i. p. 152.
Il. Of the Effees of Cold in-producing different Difeafes.—
It is well known, that the application of cold, in very mo-
derate degrees, whether the body were previoufly of its na-
tural temperature, or had been heated above that point,
though incapable of producing the fatal confequences be-
fore enumerated, is neverthelefs produétive of numerous dif-
cafes. We have already remarked, that, in a perfon of a
delicate conftitution, immerfion in cold water fo far finks the
calorific powers, as to leave a great chillnefs, thiveting, and
languor on emerfion, which, by a law of the animal econo-
my not fatisfactorily underitood, is fucceeded by a dry burn-
my heat of the fkin, quick pulfe, and thirft, conilituting a
febrile paroxy{m, of the fimpleft form. Now, expofure to
cold, efpecially afer having been heated, produces, in many
p-rions, a fimilar febrile ftate. If it fubSdes in the fpace
of 24 or 48 hours, it 4s denominated an ephemera, ‘or fever
of a day. Mo commonly it remains longer, and is ac-
companied with fymptoms of catarrh, with a dimirution of
the diteharge from the ikin. This diforder is fo common a
3
confequence of fuch expofure, that ic is denominated vel-
gatly @vok/. See Catarrs. According to the predifpo-
fition of the conftitution, however, or the particular expo-
fure or fafceptibility of parts, a local inflammatory aif Gioa
of one part or other, generally accompanies the febrile ftate.
Hence we fee the dificrent forms of catarrh ; inflammations
of the eyes, throat, lungs, bowels, &c.; rheumatifm, ery-
fipelas, and other inflammatory d:feafes.
Since the experiments of San@orius attra&ed the public
attention to the difcharge of perfpirable Muids from the fikia,
a great importance has been attached to the regularity of
this di{charge, and all the morbid effeGs cf ccld are Rill at-
tributed by the vulgar to the interruption or fuppreffion of
it. This notion is apparently countenanced by the dry fate
of the fkin during the febmnile ftate which enfues; and by
the termination of the fever, when a free perfpiration again
breaks forth. But it is more probable that thofe complaints
arife from the irregularity of the circulation, end the congef-
tion of blood in fome parts, and diminution of it in
others; the diminution of the diflenfion aud a&tion of the
veflels of any part being generally followed by an increale
of both (by the law of excitability), which, in thofe cafes,
amounts to inflammation. Hence the parts moft frequently
difordered by cold, are thofe which are moft expofed to its
aGtion, as the limbs, lungs, and throat ; and rheumatifm,
catarrh, and inflammation of the throat, are the molt com-
mon difeafes: and thofe internal parts, which are moft af-
feted by the diminifhed circulaticn of the furface, as the
bowels, allo fuffer confiderably ; whence dyfentery and diar-
rhoea are frequent confequences of expofure to cold.
In all the atcempts which have been made to pafs the win-
ter in extremely cold climates, the /curvy appears tohave been
the molt fatal difeafe. It becomes therefore a fubjeét of
important inquiry, whether this dreadful malady is caufed
by the cold, or by the diet and other circumitancer, and
what means are the molt eff:Gtual in preventing its occur-
rence.
of fuch actempts in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the
Lit. and Philof. Society of Maschefter, p. 89, et feq. from
which fome important inferences rélative to thefe inquiries
may be deduced. It is remarkable, that thofe who
were compelled by accident, and withont a fupply of pro-
vilions, to pafs the cold feafon in thofe inclement re-
gions, were nearly all preferved; while thofe who were
left by defign, and with plenty of ftores, all perifhed in the
feurvy.
Capt. Monck, a Dane, in 1619, wintered in Hudfon’s
bay, lat. 63° 20’, with the crews of two thips, well provided
with neceilaries ; the crews amounted to fixty-four perfons,
ail of whom, except the captain and two men, perifhed. Ta
1633, two trials were made by the Dutch of eltablifhing
wintering- places at their northern fifheries ; the one at Spitz-
bergen, the other on the coait of Greenland, in latitudes
about 77° or 78°. Seven failors were left at cach place, amply
furnifhed with every article of cleathing, provifion, and
utenfils, which were thought neceffary or ufeful in fuch a
fituation. The journals of both companies are preferved,
but they were all found dead on the return of the veffels in
the fpring.
On the other hand, Capt. James, an Englithman, winter-
ed ou an ifland in Hudfon’s bay, with a crew of twenty-
two, of whom only two died. They were all affGted with
the fcurvy, but, weak and fick as they wert, compelled to
labour hard ont of doors, during the greateft inclemency of
the feafon, in building a pinnace. ‘Two other inftances, one
of eight Englifhmen, the other of four Ruffians, lefe by
accident, and deftitute of provifion, in Spitzbergen, are re~
corded,
Dr. Aikin has colleéted together feveral accounts -
——
CL OLE) Di
corded ; the whole of the former returned home the enfuing
{pring ; the latter all furvived fix years on the ifland, when
one died, and the three others were refcued.
The three principal circumftances which diftinguifh the
fatal attempts from thofe which fucceeded, are, that, in the
former initances, the men fed on /alt provifions, drank /piritu-
ous liguors, and lived in indolence ; whereas the men who fur-
vived the winters, and were but flightly affected by, Jor al-
together efcaped, the {curvy, fed upon fre/h animal food, or
at leait preferved without falt; they drank cater only, and
ufed much exercife. On the value of freth meat and exercile,
as preventives of difeafe, it is unneceflary to comment.
With refpe& to the ufe of f{pirituous liquors, the preceding
facts are extremely important and fatisfatory. Thefe per-
nicious liquors, indeed, are now generally underftood to be
prejudicial during fevere and continued cold, although they
afford fome fupport againft the temporary effects of cold
and moillure. - The brief elevation which they preduce, is
a very fallacious token of their good effects, as it is
always fucceeded by the greater depreflion, and therefore
tends rather to exhauft, than to invigorate, the principle of
vitality.
The popular opinion in regard to the influence of cold
on the health, is, in this country, founded altogether in error.
During a mild winter, complaints of the unwholefomenefs of
the feafon are heard perpetually, and the falubrity of frolt
is generally extolled. Now the fact is entirely the reverie,
as the experience of every phyfician will evince. Dr. Fo-
thergill fays, «it has been frequently obferved, and, as far
as the bills of mortality may be depended on, is demonttra-
ble, that an excefs of wet with moderate warmth, is not fo
injurious to our conftitutions as a fevere cold feafon.”? Ob-
fervations on Weather and Difeafes, Nov. 1751. And
again, Dec. 1757, he remarks, ‘* that no weather ts in com-
mon fo little productive of acute and fatal difeafes, as the
warm and the moilt, nor any fo dangerous, in thefe refpedts,
as the oppofite:’? this fact is alfo confirmed by Dr. Wil-
lan. Reports on Difeafes in London, p. 211. Dr. Heber-
den has fhewn, that, of the two fucceflive winters of 1794-5,
and 1795-6, the former was the coldett, the latter the warm-
eft, of which any regular account has been kept in this
country, and the comparative mortality was not lefs re-
markable than the temperature. ‘* For in five weeks, be-
tween the 3rft of December, 1794, and the 3d of Febru-
ary, 1795, the whole number of burials amounted to 2823 ;
and in an equal period of five weeks, between the 30th of
December, 1795, and the 2d of February, 1796, it was
¥471; fo that the excefs of the mortality in January, 1795,
(the cold feafon) above that of January, 1796, (the mild
feafon) was not lefs than 1352 perfons ; a number fuflicient
furely to awaken the attention of the moft prejudiced ad-
mirer of a frofty winter.”’ Philof. Tranfac. for 1796. The
moft remarkable effet of a cold winter is apparent in the
difeafes of old people; a mild winter, is, indeed, a year’s
refpite from death to many of the aged. It is curious to
obferve,”’ fays Dr. Heberden, ‘‘ among thofe who are faid,
in the bills, to die above 60 years of age, how regular the
tide of mortality follows the influence of this prevailing
canfe; fo that a perfon, ufed to fuch inquiries, may form no
contemptible judgment of the feverity of any of our winter
months, merely by attending to this circumftance. Thus
their number in January, 1796, was not much above one
fifth of that in 1795.’? All the chronic difeafes of this
country feem to be hurried on to a premature termination
by a cold winter. In fhort, if there be any whofe lungs
are tender, any whofe conttitution has been 1mpatied by age,
intemperance, or difeafe, he will be liable to have all his com-
Vou. VIII.
plaints increafed, and all his infirmities aggravated by fuch a
feafon.
VII. Of the Efzds of Cold as a Remedy in certain Difeafes.—
Althongh the action of cold on the living body, whether by
dire&tly reducing the powers of the vafcular, and nervous
fyftems, by occafioning great irregularities of the circulation,
or by accumulating the excitability, is a prolific fource of
difeafes; it is fitted, at the fame time, by thefe powerful
qualities, to counteraét many of the morbid a¢tions of the
conttitution, and to arrett fome of its moft fatal diforders.
Hence, from the time of Hippocrates downwards, it has
been claffed among the moft aétive remedies which the art
of medicine is poffeffed of, more efpecially in the febrile and
inflammatory complaints. Che writings of that extraor-
dinary man, as well as thofe of Galen, Celfus, and moit of
the celebrated phyficians whofe works have come down to
us, contain many fuggeftions, both as to the internal and
external application of cold; and a hoft of modern writers
have commented on its ufe. In our own country it was
propofed as an almolt univerfal remedy by Smith; and Dr.
Hancock wrote a treatife on the fubjet in the early part
of the 18th century, under the title of “ Febrifugum Mag-
num,’’ which excited fome controverfy. But in Spain and
Ttaly the ufe of cold water obtained, about the fame period,
a greater and more general reputation, than in any of the
other countries of Europe. This treatment was celebrated
under the title of ** Dieta Aquea.”’ See Dr. Cyrillus’s Ac-
count of it. Philof. Tranfac. vol. xxxvi.
But although the ufe of cold, as a remedy, is fupported
by the fanction of antiquity, and by a feries of fucceeding
authorities, it has been recommended, efpecially in febrile
diforders, in a vague indifcriminate and empirical manner.
It was referved for a medical philofopher of the prefent
age, to determine the circumiftances which render its em-
ployment in fevers fafe and falutary, and to point out the na-
ture of its operation on clear aud rational principles. We
allude to Dr. Currie of Liverpool, whofe name we have al-
ready frequently mentioned. From the ftatement of the facts
and principles before laid down, the reader will eafily com-
prehend the praétical rules and cautions which mult be ob-
ferved in the application of cold to febrile difeafes.
We have already feen, from many faéts and experiments,
that wherever the heat of the body is increafed above its
natural degree, and is retained fteadily, the action of cold is
fafe, pleafant, and falutary. Now in continued fevers, the
heat is reta'ned in general with a tenacity much greater than
when it is the confcquence of temporary exertion, or of ex~-
pofure to heat from without. There is, in the febrile flate,
an inflammatory conftriction of the cutaneous veffels, which
tends at once to keep up the febrile ation, and to prevent
the flow of perfpiration, the great refrigerating procefs of
the conftitution. Its fafety, therefore, in the hot ftages of
continued fever, is decided and complete. Bunt it is, more-
over, extremely falutary and remedial in vavious ways. Tia
the firft place, the fenfation of heat is one of the greavelt
fources of irritation in fever, and therefore tends to augment
and to continue the febrile action, and to prevent the refrefh-
ment of fleep. The operation of cold, by relieving that
enfation, contributes materially to leffen the febrile actions,
and to footh the patient to repofe, at a time when all opiates
are unable to effect that purpofe, but rather aggravate
the reftleffuefs. Secondly, it has been proved by the ex-
periments of Dr. Alexander and Dr. Currie, that a confi-
derable elevation of the heat of the body, above the ftandard
of health, is incompatible with the procefs of perfpiration.
Thus at the temperature of 104° or 105° of Fahr. the vefiels
of the fkin remain obttinately conttricted, the fin continues
5 B dry,
E€ OLD.
dry, and pungently hot to the touch of the byftander ; and
it is only when it is reduced to 99° or 100°, that the orifices
of the veffels relax, and a free perfpivation diminifhes the
heat, and moderates the febrile condition. Hence the ob-
vious abfurdity of attempting to force fweats, by covering
the patient with a load of bedclothes. a pradtice {till unfor-
tunately prevalent among the vulgar and the ignorant, but
which all intelligent practitioners have long ago abandoned.
In fa&, the on!y means of exciting perfpiration, under fuch
high temperatures, is to cool the body to that lower degree
at whict the veffels can relax and pour out their fluids. In
fevers, therefore, a3 in health, when there is no fenfe of chil-
linefs prefent, when the heat of the furface is fleadily above what
is natural, and when there is no general cr profufe per/piration,
the free ufe of cold drink, and the affution of cod water
over the fk'n, are the moft falutary remedies which can be
adopted, as ample experience has now unequivocally decided.
The confequences of the wafhing of the body with cold
water, or of the ufe of the fhower-bath, in typhus fever, un-
der the circumfances juft quoted, are almott invariably the
following, as we have witnefled in the London- Houfe of
Recovery. «As foon as the patient ts returned to bed, a
gentle, fometimes a- profufe, perf{piration breaks out, ard
a calm and qniet fleep enfues 5 the actual heat of the furface
and the diftrefiing fenfation of heat, are greatly diminifked,
the pulfe becomes much lefs frequent, the tongue cleaner
and moilt, the pains of the nead and limbs are alleviated, and
the whole febrile condition is relieved, and its courfe rendered
milder, and confiderably abridged. This relief is the more
effeGual and permanent, in proportion as the remedy is
more early reforted to. When it is employed on or before
the third day of the fever, in the form of affufion, by means
of a bucket of water, or the fhower-bath, it fometimes pro-
duces a complete folution of the difeafe ; but after that pe-
riod, its effect is merely to relieve the fymptoms, and,
efpecially if repeated when the heat returns, to bring the
difeafe to a fpeedy happy termination. In the former cafe,
the great operation is attributed to the /bock produced by the
ftrong fenfation of cold; which, like other violent ope-ations,
fuch as an emetic, a bnifk purgative, &c. adminiftered in the
beginning, diffevers the catenation of fymptoms, which, by
delay, become indiffoluble by medicine.
Experience has now confirmed the great benefit arifing
from the application of cold water to the furface of the body,
according to the practical precept before quoted, ia typhus
fever, whether originating from contagion, or other canfes;
in the fynochus. or fub-inflammatory-fever of fummer, in this
climate ; and afo in the exanthemata, as in the eruptive fe-
ver of {mall-pox, in which the fever and fubfequent eruption
are rendered extremely mild; and, above all, in the fearlet
fever, in which the heat of the body rifes higher than in any
other febrile difeafe of this country. Several remarkable in-
fianees of the rapid alleviation of this fevere difeafe are re-
lated, which occurred in the family of Dr. Gregory, at Edin-
burgh, and among Dr. Currie’s own children. Reports, vol.
ii. In the plague, feveral accidents have occurred, which
render it probable that cold water would be of the higheft
benefit in that terrible difeafe. M. Defgenettes, phyfician
to the French army in Egypt, relates that a miner, attacked
by the plague, during the. expedition into Syria, efcaped
naked, during a violent delirium, from the fort of Cathieth,
and wandered nearly three weeks in the defert. Two buboes,
which he had upon him at that time, fuppurated and healed
of themfelves. This man perfeétly recovered. An artillery-
manalfo, who had two buboes and an anthrax, made his
efcape from the lazaretto of Boulak, on the day of his being
admitted, and in a violent delirium precipitated himfelf into
4
the Nile. He was taken up about half an hour afterwards.
below Embabeth, by the people of that village; and he
afterwards perfeéily recovered. Hiftoire Medicale de Armee
@’Orient, p. 249. Thefe extraordinary cures correfpond
perfetly witha number of ftriking facts of the fame kind,
al pointing out the powerful inftin@ by which, in the deli-
rium of the plague, as in other burning fevers, the patient is.
impelled to feek the moft eafy and obvious modes of reliefs
«¢ How fruitlefs and how perverted,” Dr. Currie remarks on,
thefe faéts, “are the efforts by which learning and fcience:
have attempted to combat this fatal difcafe ! The belt rea.
medies for the plague were probably miffed by the phyfi-
cians both of France and England: they were not to be
traced in the prevailing fyftems of medicine, or in the phar-
macy of our fhops ; but it is probable they might have been
found, in the refrefhment of the breeze, in the dews of the
night, and in the waters of the Nile.”? The application o£
cold water to the kin, in the yellow fever of the Weft In-
dies, has been attended with great benefit. For the evidence
on this fubje&t the reader may confult Dr. Currie’s fecond:
volume of Reports. Dr. Jackfon’s Treatife on the Fevers:
ef Jamaica. Dr. Chifholm’s Effay on the malignant pefti-
lencial Fever of the Welt Indies. Dr. Stock’s Medical Col-
leGtions on the Effeéts of Cold, &c. &c. san
In intermittent fever the preternatural heat is retained more
feebly than in continued fever ; and, therefore, the ufe of cold:
mutt be referted to with more caution. In the cold fit, when
there is not only a fenfation of great cold, but an aétual di-
minution of the heat, as fhewn by the thermometer, its ap-
plication would be extremely deleterious; but experience
has fhewn, that chen the hot flage is fully formed, the af-
fufion of cold water fpeedily brings on the {weating ftage,
and shortens the paroxy{m. Dr. Currie has related a cafe of
tertian intermittent, of three months ftanding, which had
refifted every medicine, but of which only one paroxyfm
occurred after the cold affufion had been ufed, the bark being
taken in the interval. Indecd he almoft always found the
cold affufion produce an immediate folution of the fit; but,
in general, if no remedy were ufed in the intermiffion, the fee.
ver returned at its ufual period. In fome inftances, however,
the fucceeding paroxy{m was prevented by ufing the cold
affufion about an hour previous to its expected return; and
the difeafe ultimately removed by continuing this praétice
through four or five of the foilowing periods. But the ufe
of the cold affufion in the abfence of this fever, requires a
couftitution in a great meafure unbroken, to render it fafe.
In recommending the application of cold water to the
fkin as a remedy in fevers, an exprefs exception is made
againft it, during the feverifh chill, or after the perfpiration
has begun to flow profufely, and more efpecially after it has
continued to flow profufely, for fome time. An exception
is alfo made againft its being employed in the latter end of
fever, when the ftrength is much exhauited, and the heat is
fometimes as low or lower than the temperature of health.
We fpeak at prefent of fevers unaccompanied by any vifceral
inflammation. The only caution, then, which is requifite is,
that the heat of the body be fteadily above the natural degree, and
that there be no chilline/s on ihe one hand, nor profufe perfpiration
on the other. Thefe obfervations apply equally to the ufe of
cold drink, as to the external application of cold water.
If the afperfion of cold water on the furface of the body
be ufed during the cold ftage of the paroxy{m of fever, the
refpiration is nearly {afpended ; the pulfe becomes fluttering,
feeble, and of an incalculable frequency ; the furface and the
extremities become doubly cold and fhrivelled, and the pa
tient {eems to ftruggle with the pangs of inftant diffolution.
Confequences, not lefs alarming, enfue, if the cold is ie
uring”
COLD
“uring profufe perfpiration, when the heat is rapidly finking ;
-and the application is fometimes equally hazardous, when the
heat, meafured by the thermometer, is lefs than, or only equal
‘to, the natural heat, though the patient fhould feel no degree
of chillinefs. This is efpeciaily the cafe towards the laft
flages of fever; when the powers of life are too weak to {ul-
tain fo powerfula fhock. When thefe alarming fymptoms have
‘been produced by accident or inadvertence on the part of the
attendants, fri€tions on the furface, and particularly on the ex-
tremities, fhould be employed ; a biadder filled with warm
water, of the heat of 110° or 120°, fhould be applied to the
pit of the ftomach; and cordials cautioufly adminifiered in
{mall quantities.
With refpe&t to the modes in which external cold may be
applied to the body, it may be obferved, that circumltances
will determine the eligibility of cach. In the commence-
ment of fever, where the object is to cut-fhort the dileafe, by
the fhock of the fenfation of cold, as well as by the {wdden
abftraGtion of the ftimulus of heat, the cold affufion is to be
preferred. his is performed by throwing a bucke: full of
water over the naked body of the patient; the fhowerbath
is alfoa convenient mode of affufion. But where the fimple
cooling of the body is the object of the pradtice, the ikia
may be wafhed with cold water alone, or with a mixture of
vinegar, or common falt, by means of a fponge. This mode
feems preferable in all cafes in which preat re-aétion of the
fy fem would be detrimental ; as it may be regulated accord-
ing to the heat, and the ftate of the fenfations of the patient,
fo as to avoid, in a confiderable degree, the fluth of
heat which enfues, after a momentary cold. The affufion ef
tepid water, i. e.of the heat of 87° to 97° of Fahrenheit,
may be advantagcoufly ufed with the fame view. ‘“ The
tepid affufion,”’ Dr. Currie remarks, is little, if at all, iti-
mulating.; and does not, like the cold affuSon, roufe the
fyftem to thofe actions by which heat is evolved, and the
<effeGts of external cold are refitted. Where the objcé is to
diminifh heat, that may be obtained with great certainty by
‘the repeated ufe of the tepid affulion, fuffering the furface of
the body to be expofed in the interval to the external air;
and if the beams of the fun are excluded, and a ftream of
wind blows over it, the heat may be thus reduced where cold
water cannot be procured; even tn the warmelt regions of
the earth ; on the plains of Bengal, or the fands of Arabia.
FT have accordingly employed the tepid affufion very general-
ly in thofe feverifh aifetions, where the morbid aétions are
weakly catenated, depending rather on the ftimulus of preter-
natura! heat, than on contagion, miafinata, the morbid con-
tents of the ftomach and bowels, or local inflammatory affec-
tion. Of this kind are a great part of the feverifh aff Gtions
of children, in which the tepid affufion is a valuable remedy.
It very generally produces a contiderable diminution of heat,
a diminifhed frequency of the pulfe and refpiration, anda
tendency to repofe and fleep. I have ufed it alfo in feverifh
diforders of various kinds where the lungs are oppreffed, and
the refpiration laborious, and where, of courfe, the oppreffion
might be dangeroufly augmented by the fudden ftimulus of
the cold affufion. It is alfo applicable to every cafe of fever
in which the cold affufion is recommended, and thofe may re-
ceive much benefit from it, whofe fears or whofe feeblenefs
deter them from that energetic remedy.”? Vol. i. p. 69.
It remains to be determined by experience, to what extent
the application of cold water to the furface of the body may be
advantageoufly employed, where there is active inflammation
in any of the more important organs, as in the lungs, liver, &c.
Dr. Currie has colleéted abundant evidence, from his corref-
pondents, of the fafety ot cold affufion in typhus fever,
* when accompanied with a cough, and other catarrhal fymp-
toms. We have ufed the fhower-bath, under fuch circum.
ftances, in feveral cafes ; as well as in fever, combined with
inflammation of the tonfils, and with dyfenteric affection of
the bowels, not only with impunity, but with relief, as well
to the febrile as to the inflammatory fymptoms.
In all cafes of a€iive inflammation, to which topical reme«
dies can be applied, the application of cold is, ncxt to the
detraGiion of blood, the moft powerful remedy. In thefe
inftances, as the object is fimply the diminution of heat, the
application of cold muft not be fudden and temporary, but
confiderable in degree, and permanent in duration, fo as to
prevent any local reaétion. Hence the fuccefa with which
joe and fnow, and the clay cap, are applied to the head and
other parts, for the purpofe of preventing or reducing in-
flammation. The faturnine and other lotions, which are en
ployed in inflammation of the eyes, &c. feem to owe their
powers priucipally to their cold temperature; and many of
the popular remedies in fuch complaints are ufeful on this
principle only.
In rheumatifm, and even gout, the application of cold has,
in all ages, been freely recommended by many practit-oners.
Hippocrates and Celfus employed it largely ; and in modern
timesits benefits have not been overlooked. Dy. Heberden
informs us, that * the great Dr. Harvey, upon the firit ap-
proach of gouty, pains in his foot, would infantly put them
off by plunging his leg into a pail-of cold water.”? ‘This
pra@tice is now recommended by Dr. Kinglake, as invart-
ably fafe, and fpeedily curative; and we doubt not, that, in
a majority of cates, where the conftitution remains unbroken,
and the gouty inflammation is aétive, fuch wili be the event.
We have yet to learn, however, under what circumftances
the danger of repulfion, which is perhaps not altogether
imaginary, occurs, Inthe more local attacks of acute rheuma-
tifm, or what is commonly called rheumatic- gout, we have
feen the application of cold water to the inflamed joints very
beneficial,
Inthe commencement of the painful inflammation produced
by fire, whether by burning or-fealding, the free ule of cold
is rapidly beneficial, in relieving the pain, and removing the
inflammatory fymptoms. A’ flight burn or feald,if the part
be plunged into cold water, and detained there, or on the
frequent repetition of the immerfion, is frequently cured ina
fhort fpace of time. The following ftriking fact 1s related
in the New York Medical Repofitory, vol. i. p. 538. “ Two
brothers, apprentices to a hatter, were employed in taking
hats from a boiler, and rinfing them out in a very large tub
of cold water. Some difpute arifing, one of them hited the
other in his arms, and feated him direétly in the boiler; but
being inftantly ftruck with terror at what he had done ; with-
out loofing his hold, he again lifted him from the boiler,
and feated him in the tub of cold water. The youth, who
had been thus hurried through thefe extremes of tempera-
ture, had on a pair of wide trowfers, and received no other
injury, than a narrow bliiter, which was formed dire@tly under
the waiftband, and encircled his body.”
There is another important clafs of difcafes, in which, as
well as in febrile and inflammatory complaints, the application
of cold is one of the molt active remedies that we poflefs ;
namely, /pa/modic, or convulfive difcafes. In thefe, how-
ever, the object is not, as in the former, the fedative opera-
tion of abftraéting heat, and thus diminifhing vafcular action;
it is the fimulant effect of cold, the {trong impreflion on the
fenfations, by which the morbid catenations are diffevered, of
which we avail ourfelves in treating {pafmodic difeaies. It
is, therefore, only the affufion of cold water, or the fudden
immerfion in -the cold bath, which is ferviceable in thefe
maladies ; and the chief nae derived from the pepeaen
53 B2 9
C'oly’D:
of cold in thefe cafes, * depends on its being ufed in the
paroxyfm of convulfion ; its efficacy confilts in refolving or
abating the paroxy{m ; and when this effeét is produced, the
return of the paroxy{m is greatly retarded, if not entirely
prevented.”’? Currie, Reports p. 133- In fpafmodic difeafes,
which do not arife to general convulfion, the cold bath is
of little efficacy.
The cold bath and cold affufion have been employed for
the cure of convulfive diforders from very early times ; there
was a great difference of opinion, however,among the ancients
as to their good effets. Hippocrates recommends the ufe
of them, and Galen fupports the fame doGtrine; while
Paul GEgineta and others affert the infufficiency, and even
danger, of thefe expedients. The continental writers of
the laft two centuries have detailed numerous inftances of
their good effects. In that terrible difeafe, the tetanus, the
cold affufion appears to be the molt effectual remedy, which
has hitherto been adopted. Hippocrates recommends that
a quantity of cold water fhould be poured over the patient
jn the convulfions of tetanus, with a view of exciting a
febrile re-aétion; as he had obfe:ved (Aphorifm. 57. fe&. 4.)
that a fever, fupervening on a fpafm or tetanus, removes the
difeafe. Headdsa caution to this advice, that the practice
mult not be uled, except in fummer ; nor unlefs the patient
be young, and of a full habit of body, and the difeafe do
not originate from a wound. Aph. 21. fet. 5. Inthe Wett
Indies, where this difeafe is of frequent occurrence, the affu-
fion of cold water is faid by Dr. Mofeley, to have been found
by far the molt efficacious remedy, during the lalt fifty years.
(Treatife on Tropical difeafes. p. 491-) Dr. Currie has
related feveral cafes in which it was {uccefsful, even though
the difeafe was the confequence of a wound ; in which cafe,
jt appears that the father of phyfic relinquifhed the convul-
fious to nature, as incurable. Dr. Wright, who firft
employed the cold affufion in fever, ufed it alfo with fuecefs
ia tetanus. And the writer of this article has witnefled one
cafe, which, although originating from a wound in the heel,
made by an axe, was fuccefsfully treated by the cold affufion,
combined with free dofes of opium.
«In the Ayfleric paroxy{m,” Dr. Currie affirms, “the
cold bath, or indeed the plentiful affufion of cold water, is
an infallible remedy. Thofe who fuppofe that the terror it
occations ought, in this cafe, to prevent our having recourfe
to it, are, in my opinion, miftaken. Though the hyfteric
paroxy{m be the offspring of paffion, it 1s never occafioned,
{ will venture to affert, by the paffion of fear, A fenfe of
danger will always, I believe, prevent it; or indeed a power-
ful dread of any kind. I have known a tub of cold water
kept in readinefs, with the certainty of being plunged into
at on the recurrence of the paroxy{m, cure this difeafe, with-
eut the remedy being ever actually tried. I know the
hyfteric paroxy{m often takes place when danger is over, but
that is another cafe.”’
In the fpafmodic affection of the bowels, which conflitutes
colic, the application of cold, efpecially to the lower extremi-
ties, has been frequently efficacious in diffolving the fpafms,
and procuring evacuations. A cafe of ob{tinate con!tipation,
which continued in fpite of all the medicines, that were de-
yifed for its relief, and in which there was alfo extreme pain,
and confiderable fever, was at length completely removed by
dafhing cold water on the extremities, up as high as the
pubes, and plunging the feet in warm water. See Edin.
Med. Effays, vol. v. p. 8go. Similar cafes are alfo recorded
in the Medical ‘Tranfaétions of the London College, vol. iti,
By the fame expedient {pafmodic ftri€tures of the neck of
the bladder, have been frequently removed. It is a very
common practice to place children, when afflicted with a
temporary fuppreffion of urine, with their naked feet on a
cold {tone, or marble hearth; and in general this plan at
once removes the obftru€tion, and caufes the urine to flow.
The cafe of an adult (a gentleman of Briftol) is related by
Dr. Currie ; he was inftantly relieved of an obftinate ftric-
ture of the neck of the bladder, of thirty hours duration
during all which time not a drop of water had paffed, by
piacing his feet on a marble flab, and dafhing cold water.
over the legs and thighs; the effect was inflantaneous. The
urine burft from him in a full ftream, and the ftri€ture was
permanently removed. The common remedies, particularly
opium and bleeding, and each of them very largely, had
previoufly been triedin vain. Reports, p. 138.
The effe&t of the ftimulus of the fudden fenfation of cold
in the ftate of fufpended animation, occafioned by the jane
of charcoal, has been already mentioned, Inthe experiments
made for the gratification of travellers, who vifit the grotto
del cani, the dogs that are rendered apparently lifelefs trom
the carbonic gas, are fpeedily recovered on being plunged into
the adjoining lake.” Several experiments on other animals,
in which the fame phenomena were obferved from the applica
tion of ice and cold water. after fuifocation by carbonic acid
gas, are related by Dr. Stock. See his Med. Colleétions
before quoted, p. 120. et feq. ‘The good effeGs of the fame
ftimulus are univerfally known, in common cafes of fainting,
or fyncope, from which the patient is {fpeedily roufed by
fprinkling cold water on the face. The ftimulating effedts
of this application, were, indeed, in one cafe of afphyxia, to
which we before alluded, not lefs obvious than thofe Gecks
fioned by the Galvanic fluid.
We fhall content ourfelves with merely mentioni
inftances of difeafe, in which the Syalcbor of cold area
fiderable value asa remedy. Such are the attive hemorr-
hagies ; phrenfy or inflammation of the brain; the early
ftage of the acute hydrocephalus, and of the torpor from
drunkennefs ; and the paroxyfms of acute mania. In all
thefe maladies the cold fhould be applied fteadily, near the
parts affeéted, the obje& being to diminifh the aétion of the
veffels in thofe parts by abltraéting the ftimulus of heat,
There are other difeafes alfo, in which the fudden and ED
porary application of cold, in the form of the cold-bath, is
efficacious, by gradually ftrengthening the conftitution ; fuch
are fcrofula; the rickets of children; and fome een
diforders. The fame expedient is alfo beneficial as a pre-
ventive of feveral difcafes, efpecially thofe which arife from
expolure to cold and moifture, fuch as catarrh, rheumatifm, in-
flammatory fore throat, &c. by inuring the fyltem to he
action of cold, and thus fortifying it again‘ its deleterious
effects.
Cotp, the popular term for catarrh, which is the mof fre-
quent difeafe occafioned by the aétion of cold. See Cararru.
Corp is alfoa difeafe to which horfes are fubject ; this is
ufually oceafioned by want of regular exercife, by overs
heating them in riding, and fuffering them to cool too
fait, or negleét of rubbing them down when they come in
hot after journeys. The fizns of a cold are a cough, hea-
vinefs, watery eyes, kernels about the ears and under the
jaws, gleets of the nofe, and rattles, in breathing, &e.
Bleedings, hot mafhes of bran and water, and moderate
exercife will, in molt cafes, be an effe€tual remedy. To
thefe may be added balls confifting of warm opening in-
gredients; Dr. Bracken prefcribes the following ; take an=
nifeed, carraway feed, and greater-cardamoms, fincly pow
dered, of each one ounce, two ounces of flower of brim.
flone, one ounce and a half of turmeric in fine powder, two
drams of faffron, two ounces of Spanifh juice diffolved in
water, half an ounce of oil’ of annifeed, one ounce anda -
haf
couL
half of liquorice powder, anda fufficient quantity of wheat
four; let thefe ingredients be well beat in a mortar and
made into a {til palte; and given in {mall quantities about
the fize of a pullet’s egg. See Coucu.
Coup Fit, in Medicine, the firlt ftage of a paroxy{m of
fever, in which there is not only a fenfation of cold, but a pale
and contraéted fkin, and generally a diminution of the aual
heat, as meafured by the thermometer. The cold ‘tage is
mott fevere and obvious in intermittent fevers, in which it is
accompanied with great fhivering, and even fhaking of the
whole body, and clattering of the teeth: it is denominated
by the vulgar, the ague, in contradiftintion to the fucceed-
ing hot and fweating ftages, which are called the fever.
See Fever and Acusr.
Cotp-Bath. See Batu, and Batruinc.
Coxn, Artificial. See Freezinc, or THERMOMETER.
Coup Diamargariton. See DiaMarGARiTon.
Cop Diatragacanth. See DiatraGacantTu.
Cexp Drfiillations. See DisTituarion.
Coup Fujfion. _ See Fusion.
Coxrp-charge, in Farriery, a medicine confifting of vine-
gar, bole, and whites of eggs, mixed to the conliltence of
a poultice, and fpread over the injured part for the cure of
ftrains, &c.
Coxp-jinch, in Ornithclogy, the name of a {mall bird oc-
calionally obferved in England, aud better known by the
appellation of pied-fly-catcher. It is the mu/cicapa atrica-
pilla of Linneus, See Arricaritia.
Coxip-4ffon, in Geography, a vicarage in Gloucefterfhire
in the hundred of Puckle-Church; the fituation of its
church fteeple was determined in the ‘ Government Trigo-
nometrical Survey,’”’ in 1797, by obfervations from Lanf-
down ftation, diftant 13,563 feet, and from Farley Down
ftation, diflant 24,120 feet, and bearing 33° 43/21” S.E,
from the parallel to the meridian of Black-Down ; whence
was deduced its latitude 51° 26’ 54”.8 N. and its longitude
2° 20' 44".4, or o™ 24'.9 W. of Greenwich.
Corp, Cape, a cape at the north end of Charles ifland, on
the coalt of Eaft Greenland. N, lat. 79° 6’, E. long. 10°
r
Coxp Spring Cove, is fituated near Burlington, New
Jerfey, America, and is remarkable for its fand and clay,
ufed in the manufaGture of glals; from whence the glafs-
works at Hamilton, 10 miles weft of Albany, are fupplied
with thefe articles.
COLDDITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and circle of Leipfick; 21 miles S,E. of
Leipfick, and 36 W. of Drefden.
COLDENIA, in Botany, (fo named by Linneus, in
honour of C. Colden, a North American botanilt, who fent
feveral new plants to Europe, which are defcribed in the
Upfal a&ts for i743.) Linn. Gen. 173. Schreb. 233.
Willd. 268. Gert. 424. Juff 130. Clafs and order, se-
trandria tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Ajperifolie, Linn. Borra-
ginea, Jull.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth, four-leaved (four-cleft, Gart.);
leaves lanceolate, erect, rough with hairs. Cor. monope-
talous, funnel-fhaped, the length of the calyx; mouth not
clofed; border four-cleft, fpreading, obtufe. Stam. Fila-
ments four, inferted into the tube; anthers roundith.
Pifi. Germs four, fuperior, egg-fhaped, connate in pairs,
each ending in a filiform permanent {tyle; ftigmas fimple.
(Style one; ftigma bifid; Gert.) Peric. none. J'ruit
egg-(haped, comprefled, fcabrous, acuminate, terminated
by four beaks; Linn. (Truit four-capfular, feabrous, four-
beaked ; capfules approximating, one-feeded; Jufl. Sveds
two, two-celled, mucronate at their fummit, echinate with
fhort hairs, flattened: on the fide where they join, two-lobed
(ORO) &
on the outfide, forming together four regular lobes, ending
in a point compofed of four upright ttyles clofe to each
other; Lam. Nuts four, {mall, enclofed in a rind, united into
a rounded, tetragonal, mucronate fruit; rind fungous, very
thick on the back of the nuts, becoming gradually thinner,
and almott membranous on the fides; {hells bony, hard,
convex, and rounded on one fide, comprefled into an acute
angle on the other, one-celled; Gert.)
Eff. Ch. Calyx four-leaved. Corolla funnel-fhaped..
Styles four. Seeds two, two-celled.
Sp. C. procumbens. Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Willd.
Gert. tab. 68. (Teucrii facie bifnagarica tetracoccos rof~
trata; Pluk. Alm. tab. 64. fig. 6. Morif. Hift. 3. 423.
n. 22.) Root annual. Stems trailing on the ground, a foot
long, cyliedrical, branched, rough with white hairs,
Leaves alternate, egg-fhaped, rounded at their fummit,
nearly feffile, deeply crenated, plaited at the ferratures, un
equal at the bafe, cloathed with white hairs except in the
plaits. © Flowers pale blue, fmall, axillary, feffile. A
native of the Eaft Indies. It is propagated by feeds,
fown in a hot-bed in the [pring. When the plants are fit
to remove, they fhould be put into feparate pots, plunged
into a hot-bed of tanners’? bark, and kept in the fhade till
they have taken frefh root; after which they fhould have
frefh air, according to the warmth of the weather, and be
{paringly watered two or three times a week. They mult
remain in the hot-bed, where they will flower in fune, and
ripen their feeds in September.
COLD-Harsour, in Geography, a houfe on the north
bank of the Thames, oppolite to the town of Earith
in Kent, the fituation of which was determined in
the “Government Trigonometrical Survey,’? about the
year 1798, by obfervations from Rainham fteeple, dif.
tant 14,090 feet, and bearing 3° 1’ 31” N.E. from the
parallel to the meridian of Greenwich; and from
the ftation on Purfleet Cliff, diftant 10,971 feet, and
bearing 81° 1’ 59” S.E. from the fame parallel; whence is
deduced its latitude 51° 29’ 16".5 N. and longitude 0° 11/
19".3 E. of Greenwich.
COLDING, or Korpinc, a town of Denmark, in
the diocefe of Ripen, fituated between mountains, on
the river Thueths, which runs into the Little Belt
about a league below. It is an ancient town, and was
formerly the refidence of many Danifh kings, who
adorned 1t with feveral edifices. ‘The harbour is now filled
up, and its commerce almott annihilated ; 24 miles N.E. of
Ripens) Naess 5° go's ei lonp..9° 23”
COLDINGHAM, a town and parifh in the county of
Berwick, Scotland. ‘lhe town is fituated about a mile from
the fea, in a reclufe vale, watered by two rivulets, which
flow on either fide of it. The monattery at Coldingham is
faid to have been burnt previous to the confecration of St.
Cothbert, or about 685, and wasrebuilt, according to lord
Hailes, by king Edgar in 1098, who affilted at its dedica-
tion, after which it became one of the moft important in
this eaftern portion of the kingdom. The diffolution of the
monattery, or fome other caule, appears to have injured and
diminifhed the town confiderably, but it has recently exhi-
bited indications of renovation, and the inhabitants rapidly
increafe. The parifh is fertile with the exception of about
600 acres, which are totally incapable of cultivation, and
the peats found in the diftri& are not fufficiently felid for
fuel; but the hills are not generally fo. fteep as to
prevent the nfe of the plough, though St. Abb’s head is in
the vicinity, and the coalt, compofed of crags, 1s eonfidered
dangerous to the mariner. ‘The banks of the river Lye,
which flows through the parifh, are fringed with wood, and
Coldingham loch, a mile welt of St. Abb’s head, is a
beautiful
COE
beautiful fheet of water of confiderable depth, and about a
mile in circumference. There are feveral hamlets within
the parith, inhabited principally by farmers and weavers, and
the ruins of a church are full vifible on St. Abb’s head.
Faft-caftle in this neighbourhood, is entirely furrounded by
the fea, and muft have been almoit impregnable before the
invention of cannon. Population in 1791, 2391.
COLDITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up-
per Saxony, and margraviate of Meiflen, fituated on the
Mulda; 10 miles S.E. of Leipfick.
COLDSHIRE /J/ron, fuch as is brittle when it is cold ;
fee Iron.
COLDSTREAM, in Geography, a town fituated on
the north fide of the river Tweed, in the county of Ber-
wick, Scotland, feems to have owed its origin to an abbey
of Ciftertain monks which ftood within the parith of the
fame name. General Monk has contributed to immortalize
the place, from having raifed a regiment here, which he
named the Coldftream, previous to his vi€torious exertions in
favour of Charles Il. Since that period a portion of the
royal guards have borne the title, which has never yet been
fuilied, or difhonoured ; probably this 1s the moft important
epoch in the annals of Colditream. There are feveral tumult
in the parifh, that are fuppofed to contain the remains of
Chieftains flain in remote border wars. The roads from
London to Berwick, and from the latter to Kelfo, and
Dunfe to England, pafs through Coldftream, which 1s ad-
mirably fituated for manufactures, as coals are reafonable
in price, wool plentiful and excellent, and the banks of the
Tweed produce great crops of corn, and feed numerous
herds of cattle ; yet, with all thefe advantages, and a neat
bridge facilitating communication between the two king-
doms, no coniiderable trade is carried on.
The parith borders on the Tweed for feven or eight
miles in length, and is about four in breadth ; the foil on the
above river is light, but inclines to clay at fome diftance
from it, and a fingular flip of barren land, termed the
Muir-Land, divides the. parifh from eaft to welt. Shell
and rock marle, free-{tons, and coals, are found in abund-
ance, and yet the latter is much negleéted. Several plante-
tions have lately been fet to fupply the deficiency of native
trees. The principal feats in the parifh are Hirfel, the refi-
dence of the. earl of Home, who has erected two fuperb
obelifks to the memory of his fon, lord Dunglafs, flain in
the American war, and Kersfield, the manfion of Mr. Mo-
rifon. Population of the diftnié& in 1793, 2193.
COLD-Warer, a lake of North America.
54° 56’. W. leng. 111°
COLE, Witiam, in Biography, the moft famous bo-
tanift of his time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordfhire,
in 1626, and after the ufual elementary learning he went to
Merton College, Oxford, where he completed his education.
He fettled at Putney, a village near London, and publifhed
a work intitled «The Art of Simpling, or an Introduction
to the Knowledge of gathering Plants,” &c. and another_
intitled «* Adam in Eden, or Nature’s Paradife, containing
a Hiftory of Plants,’’ &c. Upon the reftoration of Charles
II., he was appointed fecretary to Dr. Duppa, bithop of
Winchelter, but died in the year 1662, at the early age
of 36.
Core, Witxiam, a learned and ingenious phyfician,
who diftinguifhed himfelf by various publications on phyfi-
ology, and on the praétice of medicine ; reccived his edu-
eation at Oxford, where he took his degree of doétor in
the year 1666. He fvon after fettled at Briftol, and having
acquired celebrity there, he removed to London, He had
the merit of being an early convert to the opinion of the ex-
ecllence of the Peruvian bark, which he prefcribed liberally
N. lat.
cou
and with fuccefs in hyfterical affeGions, as wellas in inter=
mittents. His works abound too much with theory. Fever
he fuppofed to be occalioned by a depravation of the nervous
fluid. His works are, ‘‘ De Secretione Animali, cogitata,”
Oxon. 1677, 8vo. The fecretions receive their qualities
from the ftru€ture of the glands, by which they are fepa-
rated from the blood. “ An Effay concerning the late fre-
quency of Apoplexies,’”? Oxford 1659. His new hypo-
thefis as to the caufe of fever, firft publifhed in 1694, was
feveral times reprinted, ‘ Confilium etiologicum de cafu
quodam Epileptico.”” He recommends the mifletoe, by
which he pretends to have cured the complaint. ‘The pa-
tient, who defcribes his cafe, fays he was much relieved.
He wrote alfo on infenfible perfpiration, and was author of
{everal differtations which were publifhed in the ‘* Philofo-
phical Tranfaétions” of that time. Haller Bib. Med.
Eloy. Di&. Hif.
Coxe, in Agriculture, the name of a plant of the cabbage
kind, which is cultivated both on account of its feed, and
for feeding cattle and fheep. The feed, by preffure im
mills contrived for the purpofe, affords a valuable oil, and
the refixfe, or cake, is ufed asa manure.
It has fometimes the name of rape. Martyn, in his edi-
tion of Miller’s Dictionary, feems to confider cole (braffica
napus) as the wild plant; and rape (napus fativa) as a gar=
den or cultivated variety 5 but oblerves, that ** the {pecific
diftin@tions are very infufficient,”
A late writer on hufbandry remarks, that “ as to the,dif-
ference between cole and rape, it is hardly poffible to di-
ftinguifh them in the feed, but when in plants you may
eafily tell one from the other. Cole is generaliy intended
to be caten by fheep, and rape to itand for feed to be ma-
nufaétured into oil, which is ufed in Jarge quantities by
clothiers, and other tradef{men, and likewife in phyfic.
Cole is alfa often fowa for the purpoje of ftanding
for feed, from which oil is made. Cole grows to a greater
height when in leaf than rape, and the ftalks are fo foft and
pulpy, that {heep can eat them very near the bottom. Rape
is of a hardier nature, fitter to ftand the winter; the flalks
are rigid, grow bufhy, and branch much; and when {pring
approaches they {pread and yield more feed than cole. Theis
two feeds are in general, he thinks he may fay always, in-
termixed; it would, therefore, be well worth while fora
grower to collect with care, out of acrop, the different feeds,
and to fort them properly, for cole is the beft for feeding
fheep, and rape for the purpofe of making oil.””
It isa plant which has been found to thrive in the beft
and mott perfe€t manner in deep, rich, dry, friable, and
kindly fos; but which, with plenty of manure, and deep
ploughing, may be grown in moft others. And it has been
{tated by Mr. Young, in his calendar of hufbandry, that
upon fen, and peat foils and bogs, as well as black peaty low
grounds, it thrives aftonifhingly, but more efpecially when
the land has been pared and burnt, which is the beft fort of
preparation for it. But the author of the “ New Farmer’s
Calendar,” thinks that it is a plant which is not perhaps
worth attention onany but rich and deep foils; for inftance,
thofe luxuriant flips that are found by the fea fide, fens, or
newly broken up grounds, where valt crops of it may be
raifed ; hence it is, he fuppofes, we have heard fuch differ-
ent accounts of its produce and ufe,
It has been fuggeited by the author of “ PraGical Agricul
ture,’’ that when grown on lands that have been long in till-
age, the friable, loamy kinds are found to anfwer the beft ;
but that it may be grown with perfe& fuccefs on the fenny,
marfhy, and other coarfe wafte lands, that bave been long in
the {tate of grafs, after being broken up and reduced into a
proper ftate of preparation. Asa firft crop, on fuch de-
{criptions
< OFT Tf,
fcriptions of lands, it ia often the beft that can be employed.
When fown on old tillage lands, the method of preparation
is pretty much the fame as that which has been given for
the common turnips; the land being ploughed over four or
five times, according to the condition it may be in, a fine
ftate of pulverization or tilth being requifite for the perfect
growth of the crop. In this view, the firlt ploughing is
moltly given in the autumn, in order that the foil may lie
expoied to the influence of the atmofphere, till the early
part of the fpring, when it fhould again be turned over
twice, at proper diltances of time from each other; and to-
wards the beginning and middie of June, one or two addi-
tional ploughings fhould be performed upon it, in order that
it may be in a fine mellow condition for the reception of the
feed. But ifthe feed be intended to be put in upon lands
that are newly broken up from the fate of {ward, they mutt,
fays he, be rendered perteGly clean, and in a fufficiently fine
ftate of mould for the reception of the feed, either by fre-
quent ploughing in the common way, and afterwards har-
rowing the furface well by light fhort-tined harrows, or by
having recourfe to the practice of paring andburmng. The
laft is by much the molt effeCtual, cheap, and advantageous
method, where the furface contains a large quantity of coarfe
grafly matter, as it can fcarcely be reduced by any other
means, without much time and trouble. This is the fort of
preparation that 1s generally employed when the crop is in-
tended to ftand for feed, Further, that where it 1s fown on
the firft fort of preparation, it is the beft practice for it to
fucceed wheat or barley crops. When the former, barley
and oats, with grafs feeds, may be put in after it, but if the
latter, it may be fucceeded to the greateft advantage by
wheat, as itis found to be not only an excellent preparation
for that fort of grain, but to afford it of the fineft quality ;
and by its being taken off early, there is fufficient time al-
lowed for getting the land in order for the wheat crop.
That where the tillage land is not in a good ftate of fertility,
manure of the fame kind, and inthe fame proportion as for
turnips, fhould be applied, and turned in with the Jatt plough-
ing for the feed.
It is tated in the “¢ Effex Report on Agriculture,” that cole
feed is ufuaily prepared for by as full and complete a fallow
as turnips, and no lefs quantity of manure. ‘This, however,
chiefly refpe&s arable land long cultivated; but newly
broken up ground, efpeciaily, is found generally moft con-
genial to this feed, and vaitly the moft productive. The
writer faw a ftriking inftance of this. ‘ A fine field,
as to quality of foil, was fown broad-caft with cole feed.
The greater part of 1t had been arable time immemorial, the
remainder recently broken up. The produce of the former
was only between three and four quarters an acre, the latter
upwards of five.”” :
Ttis found in the raifing of this fort of crop, fuch feed as
has been perfe@ly ripened, is quite frefh, and hasa fine black
colour, is to be preferred, as vegetating in the mott perfect
and expeditious manner.
‘The quantity or proportion of feed that is made ufe of is,
in general, from a quarter to half a peck, according to the
manner of fowtng that may be practifed. Where the
crop is intended to be confumed as a green food for
cattle, a larger proportion of feed may, however, be neceflary
than where the obtaining of feed is the chief objeét of the
cultivator. Two quarts an acre have been mentioned by
Mr. Young, but fome, he fays, fow three, and he has heard
of a gallon being fown.
In the Effex Survey it is fuggefted, that ‘‘ from three to
four pints per acre fhould be ean if intended to ftand for
feed; butif defigned merely for autumn, winter, or {pring
feed, more may be requifite, and even five or fix pints may
not be too much.”’
The methods of fowing are different in different cafes;
but the mof common practice is that of broad-calting, or
difperfing it in as regular a manner as poffible over the furface
of the ground by the hand, covering it by means of a buth, or
other lizht harrow. TInftead of this it is, however, fome-
times ploughed in, when cultivated on the more light and
open kinds of foils, a large proportion of feed being allowed,
and the furrows made narrow, with but little depth. In
cafes of this fort, this has been fuggefted by Mr. Kent as
preferable to the former mode.
Bur the drill method has alfo been praétifed, the feed be-
ing depofited, to the depth of one inch, in rows; on every
other lard twelve inches afunder. The fuperiority of this
mode, over that of the broad-calt, appears, according to Mr.
Amos. to be confiderable, as the land is capable of being
kept clean with lefs difficulty and expence than in the other
modes.
The author of the “ Experienced Farmer,” fays, that
‘‘rape ought tobe drilled in the fame manneraspeasandturnips,
with the manure in the drills; and, like peas and turnips,
fhould be cleaned in the {pring by the plough. If this is
properly done, it will. be thinks, make the land equal to
the belt fallow in the kingdom. The fal:ing of the leaves,
and the {mothering of the crop, will keep it m quite a mel-
low ftate ; and if the ftraw and roots are immediately clean~
ed off, the ground fearifed, and a fafficient quantity of feed
fown, there will be a crop of rape, to be eaten by fheep, be-
tween the time of reaping the rape ard of fowing wheat.
This, inflead of impovertfhing, would improve the land ina
very high degree, and intermix the manure in the beft man-
ner poffible.”?” Rape has two years rent to pay, and cannot
turn out a very profitable crop, without fome management
of this fort, but, by the method here recommended, you get
a crop and a haifin two years.”
It has been (uggelted by Mr. Marfhall, as a defirable me-
thod, to fow the feed in beds, for the purpofe of being after-
wards tranfplanted into the field, and fet out in the manner
ef cabbage plants. Half a rood of land, in this way, would,
he fays, be fufficient to furnifh plants for five or fix acres.
In this manner, as well as by pulling the plants from the
places where they may ftand too clofe in the fields, the
vacancies that frequently occur in this fort of crop, may be
filled up, thé work being performed by dibbles. And this
Mr. Young confiders as the Fiemifh culture.
The feed fhould, he thinks, be fown thick, the plants be-
ing fet out on an oat ftubble, after one ploughing.
It is, he conceives, fo great and ttriking an improvement
of our culture of the fame plaat, that it merits the utmott
attention ; for faving a whole year is an objet of the firlt
confequence. The tranfplanting is not performed till Oc-
tober, and lafts all November, if no frott; and at fuch a fea-
fon there 1s no danger of the plants not fucceeding ; earlier
would, however, furely be better, to enable them to be
ftronger rooted to with{tand the frofts, which often deftroy
them; but the objeét of the Flemings is not to give their
attention to this bufinefs, till every thing that concerns
wheat fowing is over. The plants are large, and two feet
long; a man makes the holes with a large dibble, like the
potatoe one ufed on the Effex fide of London, and men and
women fix the plants at 18 inches by to inches, fome at a
foot {quare, for which they are paid 9 /iv. per manco of land.
The culture is fo common all the way to Valenciennes,
that there are pieces of two, three, and four acres of feed-
bed, he fays, often met with. The crop is reckoned very
uncertain ; fometimes it pays nothing; but in a good year,
up
COLE.
upto 300 fiw. the arpent (100 perches, of 24 feet), or $2.
i5s.the Englifh acre. They make the crop in July, and
by mznuring the land, get good wheat.
In Effex “rape-feed,””? Mr. Vancouver obferves, “is tranf-
planted at twelve inches fquare upon potatoe land, at a
guinea per acre ; generally itands for a crop, and is always
found to anfwer extremely well. This practice is ftrongly
recommended where wheat flraw is in much demand, as the
ftraw of the rape-feed affords an excellent fubititute for lit-
tering the ftraw-yards, the fheds, and the flall-fed cattle.”
Another mode is likewife fuggefled by Mr. Marfhall,
which is “the tranfplanting the whole crops, by beginning
at one fide of the field, and proceeding gradually from one
land to another, till the whole is finifhed, which would, it is
belioved, be highly advantageous; as in this way the land
would be provided with the beft plants, and fuch as are of
equal fize ; and by their being placed at regular diftances,
the crops would ripen in a more equa! manner, while at the
fame time free admiffion would be given to the hoe, and the
intervals be kept clean by nerrow horfe-hoes for the purpofe.
The work is commenced about the beginning of September
or O&ober, according to circum{ances, in which the plough
is made ufe of, the plants being placed by women in a lean-
ing pofition in every fecond furrow, about a foot apart, and
the roots covered by the next furrow, after which another
is added, and more plants placed in as before, proceeding in
the fame manner till the whole is finihhed. The plants, of
courfe, ttand about the diftance of eighteen or twenty inches
by twelve. Where land that has been pared or burned, is
manazed in this way, it is advifed that the firft, or feed-
ploughing, fhould be in a crofs direction; and that for
tran{planting lengthways, in order to render the land dry in
the winter feafon.
lt may be obferved, however, that thefe latter methods
of managing thefe crops appear better adapted for fuch as
are defigned for feed, than for thofe intended as green food
for live-[lock ; as, by the perfect culture, that may be thus
given them, and the ufe of manure, the inconveniencies at-
tending the feeding of rape crops, may, perhaps, ina great
meafure, be obviated.
And it is fuggefted, that when cultivated for ufe as a
green food, the feed fhould probably be fown more early
than where the crop is to ftand for feed, or be employed in
both ways, but fufficiently early to get a ftrong leaf without
running to ftem the firft autumn. ‘The middie of June and
the jaft week in July may, it is fuppofed, be the molt pro-
per periods. Mr. Young remarks, that, when for fheep-feed,
the crop is fown ail through thefe months, but, for feed, the
firft week in Auguft will do.
Where, however, the plant is cultivated merely for the
feed, it is moftly fown on fuch lands as have been newly
broken up, either by paring and burning, or fome other
fimilar means, about July or Auguit. But when it is to be
made ule of as a winter and {pring food for animals, the
land is prepared as above, and the feed fown about the fame
time as that of the turnip.
In refpeét to the after culture of crops of this fort, it
fhould always be weil attended to, in order that large ttems
may be produced. It is advifed by fome that the crop
fhould be kept perfe&ly clean by means of hand and horle-
hocing, a practice which is not, however, by any means
gereral among the cultivators of this kind of produce. It
ic, indeed, fuppofed by fome farmers, who are in the habit
ef cultivating this plant, that it would anfwer wel), and pay
for the labour and trouble of having the young plants
tran’ planted from a feed-bed, as above ; a very tmall bed,
or ; ortion of ground, being fufticient to fupply the neceffary
quantity of plants. By adopting this method, and fetting
them out upon ridges, as praétifed in fome places for tur-
nips, having a proper allowance of manure and fuitable hoe-
ing, the general complaint againft the cultivation of this
plant for feed might, it is thought, be obviated, as it is pro-
bably the weedy and flovenly flate in which the crop is fuf-
fered to remain that renders it more exhaufling than many
other fimilar crops. In whatever way the cultivation may
be attempted, it is evident that the land cannot be too
mellow or too much pulverized, for the growth of the
cole-feed plant ; as it not only requires a rich foil, but alfo
that it be in excellent tilth.
In the cafes of broad-caft fowing, where the culture of
the crops is afterwards attended to, it is fuggefted as the
practice of fome farmers, after the plants have attained two
or three inches in height, put out fix leaves, and begun to
{pread and fhew themfelves perfe&tly above ground, to hoe
them over by means of a hand-hoe, fomewhat {maller than
that employed for turnip crops, fetting the plants out to
the diftances of from fix to eight or nine inches from each
other, according to their vigour or ftrength, and the ferti-
lity of the foil. This is the only hoeing that is in general
given; but in many cafes, as where the land is poor and
difpofed to throw up weeds, much advantage may be de-
rived from a repetition of the operation, not only in clean-
ing the ground, but promoting the growth of the plants,
by flirring the mould round them. This fhould be dene
about a month or five weeks after the firft hoeing. The
expence of performing the work once is moftly from about
fix to feven or eight fhillings the acre. But that in the
row method of cultivation, whether by drilling the feed, or
tranfplanting the young plants, the bufinefs of hoeing may
be performed in a more perfect and cheap manner, on ace
count of the great diftances of the plants admitting the
earth in the intervals to be ftirred by the plough or horfe-hoe,
while hand-labour becomes only neceflary between them in
the rows. In this way a garden cleannefs may be preferved
in fuch field crops at no great expence.
It is ftated, in the * Report of Effex,’ that in the rich
diftri& of Rochford hundred, they have immenfe crops of
cole, and they are admirable farmers in the management of
it. Some crops of Mr. Wright’s, at the Hall, are exceed-
ingly fine ploughed for feven times, manured with twenty
loads an acre of dung, and all hoed out (though not for
feed) to a foot afunder: this incomparable management,
which ttretches away fo far beyond the common*praétice
of the kingdom, produces, the writer fays, /la/k, which is
the great value of cole; and on this fine land that ftalk is
as brittle as glafs, the fure proof of a feeding property.
Yhefe crops are mown with a ftrong {cythe made on pur-
pofe, and carted to the farm-yard to feed bullocks, which
it fattens better than any other food produc ed by the farm ;
fome alfo featter them on dry paftures for fattening fheep.
In Lincolnfhire, he remarks, they know the value of
cole, but none is hoed. And Mr. Prentice, of Prittlewell,
is largely in this hufbandry, and his crops very fine. He is
very careful in the hoeing, as he conceives that great virtue
isin the ftaiks!; he gets ftalks as large as his wrift, and thefe
are more foreing to a bullock than turnips: this is the
object that makes hoeing fo profitable. They are mown
and carried to bullocks in yards. He finds oats a re as good
after cole as after turnips; but a clear fallow will give more
than cither. He has fed part of a field on the land and
mown part, the oats were a little better after Feeding.
Mr. Vaffall, of Eatlwood, is alfo fo well convinced of the
great value of the ttalk, that he does not mow but fpeeds
up to get more, and every atom is eaten by fheep. And
feveral
—:- -
@ Onli Bi |
feveral other cultivators in the fame diftri& find great ad-
vantage from hoeing and keeping the crops clean.
By fome it is thought, that where thefe forts of crops
are confamed in their green ftate on the foil, they may be
equally beneficial to the landlord and his tenant ; but it is
foxgelted in the “ Avricuitural Survey of the county of
Middlefex, that, fuffering them to perfect their feed,
would be putting a confiderable fum of money into the
pocket of the tenant at the certain expence of the land-
lord.””
And it is obferved by Mr. Donaldfon, that where this
kid of crop is cultivated for feed, great care fhould be
taken that it he not allowed to remain too long uncut ; as,
in that cafe, it is very apt to fhed its feeds. Ass foon as the
pods begin to affume a brownifh colour, it fhould be reaped,
and laid carefully in the ground, where it ought to remain,
without moving, till it be ready for thra ing. This 1s af-
certained by the ftraw or ftalk's becoming white,’ and the
feed, whenrubbed out, appearing black. It fhould always
be thrafhed out on the field on which it grows, as it is almoft
impoffible to remove it any diftance, without fhaking out a
great part of the feed. he operation is ufually performed
on large cloths, about twenty yards fquare; and, in order
to do it expeditioufly, a great number of hands are com-
monly employed. '
Mr. Young has remarked, that crops of rape or cule-feed
are extremely different, uncertain, and liable to numerous
accidents. “* They muft,”? fays he, ‘be conduG&ed with
great fpirit, or the lofs will probably not be {mall. The
principal point is to make good ufe of fine weather ; for, as
they muft be thrafhed as falt as reaped, or at leaft without
being houfed or ftacked like other crops, they require a
greater number of hands in proportion to the land, than
any other part of hufbandry. The reaping is very delicate
work ; for, if the men are not careful, they will fhed much
of the feed. Moving it to the thrafhing floor is another
work that requires attention; the belt way is to make little
wagyons,-on four wheels, with poles, and cloths ftrained
over them: the diameter of the whecls about two feet ; the
cloth-body five feet wide, fix iong, and two deep, and
drawn by one horfe ; the whole expence not more than 30
or 405.”? He has, in large farms, feen feveral of thefe at work
at atime in one field. The rape is lifted from the ground
gently, and dropped at once into thefe machines without any
fofs ; they carry it to the thrafhers, who keep hard at work,
being fupplied from the waggons as faft as they come, by
one fet of men, and their ftraw moved off the floor by ano-
ther {et ; and many hands of all forts being employed, a
great breadth of land is finifhed in a day. Some ule fledges
prepared in the fame way. Allis, he fays, ftopped by
rain, and the crop much damaged ; it is therefore of very
great confequence to throw in as many people as poffible,
men, women, and boys, to make the greateft ufe of fine
weather.
The author of the Rural Economy of Yorkhire” has
obferved, that a public rape thrafhing, conducted as it is in
the vale diltriét of this county, is oue of the moft ftriking
feenes which occur in the field of rural praGlice. “* Con-
tending armies,” fays he, * can f{carcely exhibit, to the dif-
tanteye, greater tumult; nor can the parade boaft of better
difcipline, than may fometimes be obferved in a well-con-
duéted rape-thrafhing.
“Tf the quantity to be thrafhed be large, as 20 or jo
acres, the whole country, for many miles round, are col-
leGted. The days of thrafhing are confilered as public
days ; the lord of the harvett keeping open field, for all who
choofe to enter; ample provifion of meat and drink being
Vor, VIII.
made for this purpofe. A wake or a fair is not a fcene of
greater jollity.
‘Tt 33 not common, however, for unbidden guefls to go
to thefe rural meetings, without afifting, or at leaft offering
their fervices to affift, in forwarding the bufinefs of the day.
But to make fure of hands for the more laborious depart-
ments, men and women are previoully retained with wages,
over and above the fpoils cf the fealt.
‘* Alfo previous to the day of thrafhing, a * rape-cloth,””
“* carrying cloths,” and other neceflaries, are to be provid-
ed. The cloths are in the hands of a few men who let them
ovt at fo much a day, or fo much an acre. A rape-cloth
of the largett ize meafures twenty yards {quare, weighing
more than half a ton weight. Heflen is the ufual material
of which it is made. The hire of fuch a cloth is 155. a
day.
‘«« Alfo, before the thrafhing, the rape and the ftubble are
to be clezred away from the place, or places, (if the piece be
large) where the thrafhing-floor is to be made, the clods
being taken off, and the hollows filled up where the cloth
is intended to be laid.
‘The bufinefs of the day is thus cenduéted: the men are
divided into carriers, thrafhers, and floor-men. Women fill
the carrying-cloths, and boys hold them while filling. Thefe
cloths are made of canvafs, about fix feet fquare, with poles
fixed on two oppofite fides, in the manner of a rolling map ;
openings being left in the middle between the poles and the
canvafs, for two men to,run their arms through, one on
either fide the poles, refting by them on the men’s fhoulders;
the cloth filled with rape hanging between them. In thefe
cloths the whole of the crop is carried to the thrafhing-
floor.
‘« The floor-men are divided into layers-on, turners, takers=
off, rake-men, riddlers, &c. &c. &c.
‘The rape to be thrafhed is fpread thin upon the cloth, in
a circle as large as the cloth will contain.
«*The thrafliers move continually in this ring; marching
with a flow ftep, in pairs andin two divifions ; the individuals
of each divifion following one another, as clofely as the
nature of their employment will allow them,
“« The firlt divifion are preceded by the layers-on, and fol-
lowed by the turners, and clofe upon the rear of the fecond
divifion follow the takers-off, who, with wooden tined forks,
fhake and throw off tHe ftraw, which is piled in heaps by
others, with longer implements.
“Finally, the rake-men run off the feed with the ends
of their rakes thruft before them, forcing the feed into recefles
formed within the ring, or upon the corners of the cloth ;
where groups of fillers, riddlers, &c. &c. are employed in
feparating the feed from the principal parts of the pods and
fhort ftraws which are beat off in thrafhing ; while ethers
are equally bufy in putting the unwinnowed feed into bags,
and carrying it to the pie or the waggon.
_ © Toward the clofe of the day, when the ftraw has rifen
in mountain piles of almoft filver brightnefs; when the field
of employment appears on its largeft {cale ; when every
department is in full work ; and when every individual is
animated, and not yet fatiated with the entertainments of
the day, the rape-thrafhing affords the contemplative minda
pleating fight, and would afford the pencil a piéturefque
fubject.
“he two divifions of thrafhers, moving in clofe pha-
lanx, with flails nimbly brandifking, fometimes in open
view, fometimes partially hid among the piles of ftraw; the
cloth-men, buly and attentive to their various employments;
the team drawing off the loaded feed ; the carriers, from
every hand, prefling to the thrafhing-floor, with their feem-
5C ingly
CO .LeE.
ihgly cumbrous loads, and the diftant groups of fillers,
fcattered on every fide of the foreground; could not, he
thinks, fail of affording matter interefling to the painter;
efpecially in a country where a fuitable offscape is feldom
wanting.
“Tt were almoft a pity, fays he, that a fcene, at once
fo pi€turefque and fo truly ruftic, fhould fink into oblivion,
as in all probability it will, in a fhort courfe of years. A
more frugal management is growing into efteem, and it is
highly probable that, in a few years, public rape-thrafhing
will be difcontinued, and in a few years more be forgotten.”
he feed of this fort. of crop is, likewife, fometimes
cleaned in the ficld, and put into facks for the market.
But where large quantities of feed are brought quickly to-
gether, as they are liable to heat and become mouldy, it
may bea better method to fpread them out thinly over a barn,
granary, or other floor, and turn them as often as neceflary.
It is ftated, that the method of binding crops of this kind
in {mall fheaves, and {tacking them in the field, isnow much
adopted. The barn ought, however, to be preferred.
In refpe&t to the expences of the different operations,
fuch as reaping, turning, thrafhing, drefling, and depofiting
the feed in bags, they may, in general, be eltimated at
from 30s. to 40 or 50s. the acre.
The produce is various, according to the difference of
culture which the crop has undergone, and the manner in
which it has been managed in procuring the feed.
It is furtherftated bythe author of ‘* Modern Agriculture,”
that cole, on which fheep have been folded, isin many places
allowed to ftand afterwards to perfeé its feed: —A practice
which cannot however be recommended, except in cafes
where tt has been flightly eaten off. This is particularly
the cafe, he fays, in Northamptonhhire, as is evident from the
following paffage in the report of the prefent ftate of agri-
culture in that diftri@. ‘ Cole, or rape, is cultivated as
a {pring food for fheep. The fheep are folded in the fame
manner, as on rye and turnips, and continue till about the
endof February. Ifthe winter be favourable, and not very
wet, the cole is fometimes allowed to ftand for feed, when
thirty bufhels, on an average, are produced on the acre.
In Effex on a medium of the county, Mr. ‘Vancouver ftates
the produce to be twenty-nine bufhels the acre. But in the
parith of Bradwell, it is fet by Mr. Dudley at thirty-four.
And at Spaines- Hall, in the largeft crops, and beft feafons,
it rifes to five, and even fix quarters the acre. Others under
thefe laft cireumftances have found the produce forty or fifty
bufhels or more per acte. And Mr. Marfhall confiders it on
the whole, as one of the molt profitable crops in farming.
On cold unproduétive old pafture lands, there have, fays he,
been inflances in which the produce of the rape crop has
been equal to the purchafe value of the land. ‘The feed is
ufually difpofed of by the laft of ten quarters, for the pur-
pofe of having oil expreffid from it, by mills conftruéted
for the purpofe. But it is an article which varies very
much in price, as from 18 to 35/. the laft. As there are
ten quarters, or cighty bufhels, in a laft, the price of this
feed may be faid to vary from 4s. 6d. to 8s, 9d. the
bufhel, according to the prices above mentioned ; and from
6/1. 15s. to 13/. 25. 6d. by the acre; average, g/. 185. gd.
Cole, when it thrives, and the feeds are well preferved,is, Mr.
Donaldfon thinks, one of the molt profitable crops known in
this country. It is, however, at the fame time extremely pre-
carious ; being, hike turnips, very liable to be deltroyed by
{warms of flies and infe&is. And from what has been ob-
ferved above, it is obvious, that uncommon care and atten-
tion are neceflary in harveftiag this fort of crop. If it be not
cut down at the proper time, or if a long continued fall of
rain fhould happen immediately afterwards, the crop is in.
great danger of being entirely loft.
The great application of this crop is, however, as a green
food in the feeding of cattle and fheep. And it has been
obferved, that where itis to be confumed in this way, the
crop will, in general, be fufficiently advanced for the pur-
pole, if there fhould be a neceflity for it, towards the latter
end of November ; but, except where the {eed is to be after-
ward taken, it is probably a much better practice to referve
it as feed in the {pring months. When cut or fed down in-
the autumn, tke plants moftly advance fo in the {pring as to.
form afecond crop in April. Butin this method of feeding.
off the crop, care fhould be taken that the plants are not:
pulled up and deftroyed by the animals being confined too
long upon them at a time. ; }
In its ufe for fheep it is fearcely furpaffed by any other
vegetable, in fo far as ref{peéts its nutritious properties, and
thofe of being agreeable to the tafte of the animals; but in
quantity of produce, it is inferior to both turnips and
cabbages. In this ufe, the crops are fed off occafionally,
from the beginning of November to’the middle of April 5
being found of great value in the firlt period, in fattening
dry ewes, and all forts of old fheep, and in the latter, for fup-.
porting ewes and lambs. ‘The fheep are folded upon them.
in the fame manner as practifed for turnips, in which way.
they are found to pay from 50 to 60s, the acre, that
quantity being fufficient for the fupport of ten fheep, for ten
or twelve weeks, orlonger, according to circumftances. And-
it has been found by experience to be fuperior to turnips in.
fattening, andinfomecafes, even to be apt to deftroy them by
itsfattening quality. Inthefurvey of Linconhhire, it islikewife.
ftated, thatthe crop which is grown on frefh land has the ftem.
as brittle as glafs, and is fuperior to every otherkind of food
in fattening thefe animals: while in that produced on old til-
lage, the {tem is tough and wiry, and has but little proof in it.
In Effex this crop is alfo fometimes fown for feeding off -
with fheep, and alfo for ploughing in for manuring the land.
And other farmers are largely in the fyftem of fowing cole
crops to be fed off the fame year, for wheat, feeding them off
in September for that purpofe, by weaned calves, and fatten-
ing fheep and lambs, &c, One intention beyond the mere.
value of the food is that of treading and confolidating the.
land, as a preventative to the ravages of the wire worms.
Avs a winter and {pring food for fheep, it is therefore almoft |
indifpenfible. Itis evident, however, Mr. Donaldfon thinks, |
that the cultivators of cole, in order to turn the crop tothe ©
greateft poflible advantage, fhould always keep in view the.
doxble purpofe to which it may be applied. By feeding it
off flightly with fheep in the early part of winter, the follow-
ing crop is not materially injured; fo that, while a con-
fiderable fupply of winter food is procured, the return of
cole feed by the acre, may not be greatly, if at all diminifh-
ed; and this, therefore, of all others, feems the moft profit- -
able mode of management. ;
But though for theep this is a very fattening fort of food,
highly, produ@tive of milk, and much relifhed by them; it.
muit be given to cattle with proper caution, as it is apt to.
hove and burit them in the fame manner as clover. When,
it fucceeds, the produce of green feed in the {pring is con-_
fiderable; but where afterwards fhut up for feed, the quantity.
cannot however be expected fo large as where it is referved
entirely for that purpofe. As a winter and {pring food, it is
worth from ahout forty fhillings, to three or tour pounds per
acre, for two or three months in the {pring feafon; for which
time, an acre may carry from feven or eight, to ten large
fheep, according to circumftances. The haulm of this plant.
is frequently burned; and in fome places the afhes, which
are
ee eae . ee
OO.
are equal to pot-afh, are fold; by which praGtice, if no
manure be fubitituted, the foil mult be greatly deteriorated.
It is fuggefted by Mr. Marfhail, that the value of the ftraw
to cattle in winter is very confiderable. The fover (pulls
and points broken off in threfhing) is as acceptable as hay,
and the tops are eaten with an avidity nearly equal to cut
ftraw, better than wheat ftraw. When well got the {maller
butts will be eaten upclean. The offal makes excellent litter
for the farm yards; and is ufeful for the bottoms of mows,
flacks, &c. It is a cuftom, in Lincolnfhire, fometimes to lay
their lands down with cole, under which the feeds are found
togrowwell. Bur this fort of crop, as has been already ob-
ferved, is moft fuited to frefh broken up, or burned lands,
ror asa fucceflor to early peafe, or fuch other green crops as
are mowed for foiling cattle. The culture of thefe crops
for feed, has been much objeéted to by fome, on account of
the great depree of exhauttion of the land that it is fup-
pofed to produce, but where it is grown ona fuitable foil, and
’ preparation, with proper attention in the after culture ; and
the {traw and offal inftead of being burnt, as in the common
practice, are converted to the purpofesof feeding and littering
cattle ; it may, in many initances, be the molt proper and ad-
vantageous crop that can be employed by the farmer. This
is a kind of plant which is fometimes alfo known and culti-
vated under the name of rape. See Rare. !
Coxe-Seed, in Agriculture, a name by which the above
‘fort of crop is fometimes cultivated, efpecially when the feed
“as the principal objet. Sce Rape.
Coxe-Fi/h, more properly Coar-Fifh, in Ichthyology, the
‘name by which the gadus carbonarius is known in England.
Tn Cornwall it paffes underthe name’of the Raaw/lin Pollack.
“Sce Gapus Carbonarius.
Cove-Moujz, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Parus. See
ATER.
Cove- Pearch, in Ichthyology, a name given to a {mall fifh,
‘much efteemed about Dantzick and other places, forits deli-
cate flavour. Itis very like the common river pearch, but it
does not grow fo large, and has a greater variety of colours,
-and its head is proportionably larger. Phil. Tranf, N° 83.
Coxe-Seed, in Botany. See Brassica Napus.
COLEBROOK, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
“in the northern part of New Hampfhire and Grafton county,
feated on the eait bank of Conneéticut river, oppofite to the
Great Monadnock, in Canaan, and ftate ot Vermont; join-
ing Cockburne on the fouthward and Stuartftown on the
* northward; 126 miles W. by N. from Portfmouth.—Alfo,
“sa rough, hilly township on the north line of Conneéticut, in
Litchfield county ; 30 miles N.W. of Hartford city. It
was fettled in 1756. It has two iron-works, and feveral
mills, on Still river, and N.W. water of Farmington river.
Cpresrooxe-Dale. See Coarzroox-Date,
COLEFORD, a {mall town of Gloucetterfhire, England;
though poffeffing the privilege of a weekly market on Tuef-
days, it is only achapelry to Newland, a village in its’ vicini-
ty. The original charter for this market was granted by king
James I. Inthetime of the civil warsbetween king Charles and
his parliament, this market-houfe, with fome other buildings,
fuffered from a fkirmifh that took place in this town, when
Sir Richard Lawdy, the major-general of South Wales, and
feveral officers were killed. A new market-houfe was built
"in 1679, towards the expence of which Charles IT, contri-
* buted 4o/.; queen Anne gave towards rebuilding the chapel,
which had fuffered at the fame time, 300/. Vhe houfes of
this town are ranged moftly in one wide itreet. Coleford is
‘y24 miles N. W. from London. This town is fituated at the
’ edge of the Foreft of Dean, within a few miles of the navi-
gable river Wye, and near to the tract of the once propofed
CO°8
Dean Foreft Rail-way, See Canar. Rudder’s Hiftory af
Gloucefterfhire, 2 vols. folio. Rudge’s ditto, 2 vols. vo.
COLENDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
which was taken, according to Appian, by Titus Didius af-
ter a feven months fiege. It is the prefent Cavarruvias.
COLENET, or Cotnert Cape, a-cape onthe N.E.
coalt of New Caledonia. N. lat. 20° go’, E. long. 162° 56'.
COLENETO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which
runs into the gulf of Tarento, four miles E. of Roffano.
COLENICUL, in Ornithology, the name given by Buf-
fon to the Loufiane quail, tetrao Mexicaaus, called alfo
Colenicuiltu. Hern.
COLENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland
of Scardona, on the coalt of Liburnia, forming part of Illyria.
COLEOPTERA, in Entomology, an order of the Lin-
nzan fyftem, comprehending fuch inleéts as have four wings,
the upper pair of which are cruftaceous and divided by a
ftraight future. The word is derived from xoAzd:, a fheath,
and slepov, a eving. See Enrome@LoGY.
COLERAIN, in Geagraphy, a townfhip of America, in
the ftate of Pennfylvania, and county of Lancafter.—Alfo,
a town on the north bank of St. Mary’s river, in Camden *
county, Georgia. By a treaty concluded at this place in
1796, between the United States and the Creek nation of In-
Aians, the line between the white people and the Indians
was eftablifhed to run from the Currahee mountain to the
head or fource of the main fouth branch of the Oconee
river, called by the white people, Appalatchee,and by the
Indians, Tulapocha, and down the middle of the fame. Li-
berty was alfo given by the Indians to the prefident of the
United States to eftablifh a trading or military poft on the
fouth fide of Alatamaha, about a mile from Beard’s Bluff,
or any where from thence down the river, on the lands of
the Indians ; and the Indians agreed to annex to the faid
poft atraét of land five miles {quare; and in return for
this and other tokens of friendfhip on the part of the Indi=
ans, the United States ftipulated to give them goods to the
value of 6000 dollars, and to furnifh them with two black-
{miths, with tools.
Coxeraine£, atownfhip of America in the flate of Maffa-
chufetts and county of Hampshire, containing 229 houfes,
and 1417 inhabitants. i
Coreraine, a market, poft, and borough town of the
county of Londonderry, Ireland, fituated on the river Bann,
about three miles above its mouth. It was anciently a
great place of note, being the chief town of a county ereéted
by fir John Perrot, during his government of Ireland ; and
on the fettlement of the prefent county of Londonderry, it
gave name to a barony, and had a contiderable traét of land
attached to it under the government of its corporation, call-
ed the Liberty of Coleraine. It is one of the Irith boroughs
deemed of {ufficient importance to fend a reprefentative to
the parliament of the United Kingdom. It is of a toler-
able fize, and contains nearly 4000 inhabitants. The port is
indifferent, occafioned by the extreme rapidity of the river,
which repels the tide and makes the coming up to the town
difficult ; yet it has no inconfiderable trade in imports, and
it exports fome butter and hides, beiides large quantities of
falted falmon. In 1801, the average annual duties of this
port exceeded 6000/., and they have fince increafed. There
has lately been a confiderable importation of old drapery,
but this will be prevented in future, having been difcovered
to be of a fraudulent nature. Many plans for the improve-
ment of the port and town, by making a canal to the fea,, by
opening the navigation of the Bann, emoving the ridge
of rocks above the town, have been fuggefted, but none of
them have been carried into efleét. The fine falmon fitheries
SG above
COL
above and below the town have engaged the notice of tra-
Mr. Young gives the following account of it.
*© The falmon fpawn in all the rivers thatrun into the Bann
about the beginning of Augult, and as foon as they have
done, {wim to the fea, where they ftay till January, when they
begin to return to the frefh water, and continne doing it till
Acugult, in which voyage they are taken; the nets are fet
the middie of January, but by aét of parliament no nets or
weirs can be kept down after the i2thof Augult. Allthe
fitheries on the river Bann let at 60co0/. a-year. T'rom the
fea to the rock above Coleraine, where the weirs are built,
belongs to the London companies; the greateft part of the
relt to the marquis of Donegal. The eel fifheries let at
roool. a-year, and the falmon ffheries at Coleraine at 100o/.
The cels make periodical voyages as the falmon, but inftead
of fpawning in the frefh water, they go to the fea to fpawn,
and the young fry return againft the ftream; to enable
them to do which with greater eafe at the leap, ftraw ropes
are hung in the water for them; when they return to the
fea they are taken: many of them weigh 9 or 10 lbs.
The young falmon are called graw/s, and grow ata rate
which, I thould fuppofe, fearcely any Sth, commonly known,
equois; for within the year fome of them will come to 16
and 18 lbs. but in general 10 or 12 lbs.; fuch as efcape the
firt year’s fifhery are falmon, and at two years old will gene-
rally weigh from 20 to 25 lbs. This year’s fihery (1776),
has proved the greate(t that ever was known, and they had
the largefthawl, taking 1452 falmon at one drag of one net.
T had the p'cafure of feeing 370 drawn in at once. They
have this year taken 400 tons of fifh; 200 fold frefh at 13d.
a pound, and 200 falted at 187. and 20/. per ton, which are
fent to London, Spain, and Italy. The fithery employs 80
men, and the expences ia general are calculated to equal
the rent.” Mr. Sampfon obferves, that the fifh moft
elteemed are thofe which weizh from 16 to 20 lbs.; and
that the grawls are reckoned one penny a pound inferior to
falmon. He alfo mentions that the price of falmon has
rifen to 4d. and 5d. per Ib. principally in confequence of a
«communication with the Liverpool market by means of falt
failing {macks. The linen manufacture is carried on exten-
tively; and Colera‘ne gives name to a particular kind of
jinen made and fold in this town and the neighbouring ones,
whichis Zths wide. Coleraine is 114 Inrifh miles (145 Eng.)
N. from Dublin, W. long. from Greenwich 6° go’, N. lat.
5° 8. Beaufort, Young, Sampfon, &c.
COLESHILL, a town in Warwickthire, England, was
a royaldemefne, held by Edward the Confeflor, and William
the Conqueror, in whofe reign, or that of his fucceffor, it
pafled tothe Clintons, from whom it went to fir John de
Mountfort, in confequence of his marriage with Joan,
daughter of fir John Clinton, in the year 1353. ‘The man-
or remained in the family of Mountfort till the reign of
Henry VII., when fir Simon Mountfort, deceived by the
pretenfions of Perkin Warbeck, with a belief that he really
vellers,
was the fon of Edward LV., unfortunately fent the impoltor
301. by his youngeft fon, Henry; he was foon afterwards
apprehended, on a charge of aiding Warbeck, tried at Guild-
hall, London, in 1494, and fubfequently hanged and quarter-
ed at fyburn. The manor of Colefhill was immediately
granted to Simon Digby, deputy conttable of the caftle,
who had brought fir Simon Mountfort to the bar; from
him the manor defcended to the prefent pofleffor, the lord
Digby. The town is fituated on a hill of confiderable
height, in the neighbourhood of rich meadows, watered by
the Cole, and is adorned by the vicinity of beautiful hang-
ing woods, to which its handfome church and lofty {pire
form a moft pitturefque addition ; the view from the church-
COL
yard is equally attractive; bur the town includes nothing:
worthy of notice, except a place neatly built. The church
contains many ancient and interefting monuments, particu.
larly two arches, under which are the effigies of two knights,
crufaders, one of which is afcertained by Dugdale to have
been John de Clinton, who died in t291. ‘fhe tomb of
Simon Digby, erected by himfelf, previous to his deceafe in
1519, {apports the effigies of him and bie wife, Alice. ‘This
lady left a fingular bequeft, of a filver penny to every child
under nine years of age (whole parents were houlckeepers
within the parifh), who fhould kneel at the altar, every day,
after the facring uf the high mals, and there fay five pater-
notters, an ave, and acreed, for the fouls of herfelf, her huf-
band, and all Chriftian fouls. The inhabitants, aware of
the falutary confequences to early youth, afifing from this
bequelt, purchafed the lands charged with the payment, after
they had devolved to the crown by the d'ffelution of chan~
tries, part. of the rent of which is now diftributed to thofe
children who attend at church every morning at 10 o’ciock,
and there fay the Lord’s prayer, and part maintains a fehool.
There are, befides, handfome tombs to the memory of feveral
other of the family of Digby, whofe deferted feat, named
Colefhill-hall, of antique architeture, ftands ina fihe park
nearthe town. About a mile below Colefhill, is Blitte-
hall, fo termed from its fite on the river Blithe, once the
refidence of the great and excellent antiquary, fir William
Dugdale, where there are many valuable portraits, but none
more fo than that of fir William by Boffcler, painted in 1665.
COLET, Joun, in Biography, well known aa the foun-
der of St. Paul’s {chool, London, and one of the revivers of
ancient literature in England, was the eldeft fon of fir Henry
Colet, knight, an opulent tradefman, who was twice lord
mayor cf London. He was born in the parifh of St. An-
tholin’s in the city, in the year 1466, and although it does
not. appear at what {chool he received his clementary inftruc-—
tion, or at what college ac Oxford he was entered, yet it is
certain he fpent feveral years at that univerfity, where he
took his degrees in arts in 1490. Afterwards he travelled
for improvement in France and Italy, where he refided about
four years. During this period, he diligently cultivat-d the ©
acquaintance of thofe perfons, whether foreigners or his own
countrymen, who were moit eminent for literary attainments,
and embraced every opportunity of fludying the Greek lan.
guage, which, at this time, was but imperfeétly taught in our
univerfitics ; and in which he had made, at home, but a flen-
der proficiency. While abroad Mr. Colet employed his time
in reading the beft ancient fathers, and in the ttudy of ecele-
fiattical hiltory. Notwithftanding his abfence, he was pre-
fented at different times to valuable prefermentsin the church
of England, though he had not even taken orders. On his
return to his own country in 1497, he received firft deacon’s
and afterwards pricft’s orders; and then retired to Oxford,
that he might purfue his theological fludies without inter-
ruption. There he read leéiures gratis on St. Paul’s epifties,
and contracted an acquaintance with the learned Eraimus, :
which grew into an intimacy and friendfhip of the clofett
kind. In his le&ures he exhibited’ much learning ; and im a
his expofition of the feriptures he not only expofed the cor- —
rupt notions of the {choolmen, but fhewed a fearlefs integrity
in avowing his own fentiments. This open and manly con-
du& procured him a high degree of celebnty, which was fol-
lowed by new preferments in the church. He was fuecef-
fively prefented toa prebsnd in the church of Sarum; to
another in St. Paul’s; and, through the favour of the king,
was made dean of that church. He introduced the praGice
of preaching and expounding the {eriptures, and ellablifhed a
lecture in St. Paul’s church, which is fuppofed to have.
made
coL
made way for the reformation. The freedom of his dif-
courfes, the reform which he introduced into the cathedral
church ; the contemptible light in which he held out the
conduét of the monattic orders, and his open enmity to the
fuperititions and corruptions of the church, afforded his ene-
mies an opportunity of accufing him of herefy. He was,
however, protefied by the archbifhop Warham, and fa-
voured by Henry VIII.; and by their means enabled to
triumph over his opponents, and to perfevere in his various
undertakings.
About the year r508, he formed his plan for the founda-
tion of St. Paul’s fchool, which he completed in the fpace of
four years, and endowed with eltates to a confiderable
amount. Here the Greek language was firft publicly taught ;
and in this excellent*inftitution have been educated many of
the moft diftinguifhed charafters that have adorned our coun-
try. The celebrated William Lilly was the firft high mafter
im dean Colet’s fehoo] ; and the Mercers’? company were
appointed truftees for the management of this important na-
tional concern. This foundation conttitutes an zra in the
hiftory of Englifh literature, and merits the grateful regards
of every friend to found learning. A few years after he had
completed the eftablifkment of the fchool, the dean built a
hand{ome houfe near the palace of Richmond, Surrey, where
he meant to retire in old age, that he might receive and en-
joy the fociety of his friends. He died, however, before he
could realize his intentions, in September, 1519, in the fifty-
third year of his age, and was buried on the fouth fide of the
_ choir of St. Paul’s; over his grave is a flone, with the inicrp-
tion of ‘* John Colet’” only: his. meritorious deeds fpeak
more to his praife than the proudeft monuments of brafs or of
ftone. The perfon of dean Colet was tall, handfome, and
manly. His manners were conciliating, but his temper was
very irafcible ; and to obtain a-command over himfeif, he
practifed much ab{temioufnets, and frequent fallings, befides
making ufe of all the motives that religion and philofophy
could fuggeft. His attachment to literature was ardent ;
and his public fpirit can never be forgotten fo long as learning
is valued. Thouch a papift, he was an enemy to the grofs
fuperititions of the church of Rome. He difapproved of
auricular confefhion, the celibacy of pritfts, and thofe other-
tenets that have been generally condemned by men of found
judgment in every age and country.
By one of his biographers, it is obferved, that ‘no higher
tellimony need be given of the merit of dean Colet, than his
great intimacy with Erafmus. There was a fimilitude of
manners, of ftudies, and of fentiments in religion, betwixt
thefe illuftrious men, who ventured to take off the veil from
ignorance and fuper‘tition, and expofe them to the eyes of
the world; and to prepare men’s minds for the reformation
of teligion, and the reltoration of learning. Erafmus, who did
him the honour to call him matter, has given us a hint of his
religious fentiments, in his colloquy entitled “ Peregrinatio
Relizionis ergo,” in which Colet is the perfon meant, under
the name of Gratianus Pullus.”’
Colet was not diftinguifhed as an author. but we have his
«< Rudimenta Grammatices:”’ * The con{truction of the eight
parts of fpeech ;” and fome religious traéts. He left alfoa
convocation fermon in Latin, of which there is a tranflation
in the firft volume of the Pheenix, and Epiftole ad Erafmum,
and other treatifes which flillexiftin manulcript. Biog. Brit.
Granger.
COLETON, in Geography, a hamlet of qe? Ware,
in Devonthire, near to the Froward point at the entrance of
the navigable river Dart, (fee Canat) where there isa naval
flag-ftaff, whofe fituation was determined in the Government
Trigonometrical Survey in 1795, by au obfcrvation from
coL
Butterton ftation, diftant 87,314 feet, and bearing 75° 0’ 28”
N.W. from the parallel to the meridian of Butterton ; and
from Fourland ftation diftant 8593 feet; whence is deduced
its latitude 50°21! 2."3 N. and its longitude 3° 31’ 11”.2, or
14™ 45.7 W. of Greenwich. :
COLEWORT, in Botany. See Brassica Oleracea.
Coveworrt, in Agriculture, a plant of the cabbage kind,
which was formerly much more cultivated in the field than at
prefent, cabbage plants being fubftituted in its room. It
might, however, be a very ufeful plant for feeding milch
cows or other cattle, in the fpring, when there isa fcarcity
of green food, as it is fo hardy that the froft does not dettroy,
or in the leaft injure its growth. i
The moft advantageous method of cultivating this plant in
the field, is that of fowing the feeds about the beginning of
July, choofing a moift feafon, by which the plents maybe
brought up in about ten or fourteen days. The quantity of
feed which is neceflary for an acre of land ia generally about
nine pounds, .When the plants have got five or fix leaves,
they fhould be hoed in the fame manner as turnips, cutting
down all the weeds from among them ; andalfo thinning out
the plants where they are too thick ; but they fhould be kept
thicker than turnips becaufe they are in more danger of being
deftroyed by the fly. This work fhould be performed in dry
weather, that the weeds may be killed. About fix weeks
after this, the plants fhould have a fecond hoeing ; which, if
carefully performed in dry weather, will entirely deftroy the
weeds, and make the ground clean, fo that they will require
no farther culture. In the {pring they may either be drawn
up, and carried out to feed the cattle, or the beafts may be
turned into the field to feed upon them as they ftand; but
the former method fhould be preferred, becaufe there will then
be little walte ; whereas, when the cattle are turned in among
the plants, they tread down and deftroy more than they eat :
efpecially when they are not fenced off by hurdles. By fow-
ing the feeds in rich beds of ground, and afterwards removing
the plants into the field, in the way that cabbage plants
are managed, the produce of this vegetable might perhaps be
rendered more abundant. Sce Brassica and Cappace.
In the practice of J. C. Curwen, efq. thefe plants have
been found highly bencfieial as a green food for milch cows ;
they have alfo been found to an{wer well for fheep in fome
diflnds.
COLGIAT, a gantlet, which the Turks carry in war.
The colgiat covers the arm down to the elbow, and in de-
fending the hand it at the fame time enables them to parry
off the blows direGed againft the head. '
COLI, Giovanni, in Biography, an excellent frefco
painter, who was born at Lucca in 1634. He purfued his
ttudies in company with Filippo Gherardi under Pietro di
Cortona, and a friendfhip of fo powerful and latting a nature
took place between the two young artilts, that it cou'd only
be difflolved by the hand of death, which carried off Coli in
1681. Until this period they had ever painted together,
each heightening his enjoyments and foftening his labour,
by fharing them with the other. They were fome years at
Venice, where they acquired much of the ftyle of that
{chool and painted the ceiling of the library of St. Giorgio
Maggiore. Amongft the greateft of their joint works at
Rome, are thofe of the grand gallery in the palace Colonna,
and of the church of the Lucchefi. Their principal work
at Lucca is the Tribuna of the church of St. Martino in
frefco, and three altar-pieces in oil, in the church of St,
Matteo. Orlandi. Lanzi. Sroria Pitt.
Corr Sonalis, feu Goyolcoxque, of Ray, is the leffer Mexie
can guail. See Terrao coyolcos. ;
Cort valvula, io dnatomy, is a valve formed in the point '
of
COL
of communication between the large and {mall inteftines.
See Inrestine.
Coviacum promontorium, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
montory of India, N. of ‘Taprobana, feparating two {mall
gulfs: the fame which is called by Ptolemy Cory, and by
others, Calligiacum, Colis and Colias.
COLIAS, a promontory of Attica, on the coaft of the
Saronic gulf, 5.E. of the port of Phalerus. In this place
were a temple and ftatue of Venus, whence Venus was de-
nominated Colias, Here were alfo ftatues of goddeffes called
«* Genetyllides,’”” becaufe they prefided over childbirth.
Suidas reports, that in this place there was a manufa@ture of
veflels painted with vermillion.
COLIART, in /chihyology, the French name of the Raya
éatis of Linnzus, which fee.
COLIBERTS, Colbert, in Law, were tenants in foc-
cage, and particularly {uch villeins as were manumitted, or
made freemen. Domefday.
But they had not an abfolute freedom ; for though they
were better than fervants, yet they had fuperior lords, to
whom they paid certain duties, and in that refpe& might
be calied fervants, though they were of middle condition be-
tween freemen and fervants. Du-Cange.
COLIBRLY, in Ornithology, the general name under which
Buffon defcribes the family of humming bitds (Trochili of
Linnzus) which have the beak curved. See Trocuitus.
COLICA, Colic, in Medicine, a pain in the abdomen,
particularly about the region of the umbilicus, or navel, at-
tended with conttipation.
This term was probably originally intended to defignate a
pain of the large inteftine, or colon, only. Celfus obferves,
** Intra ipfa inteftina confiltunt duo morbi, quorum unus in
tenviore, alter in pleniore eft. A plerifque video nunc illum
priorem Gazcr, hune xodsxdy nominari.”? (Lib. iv. cap. 13.)
In the writings of Hippocrates, the word colic 1s not to be
found; it was probably firft employed by Celfus. (See
Tronchin de Colica piétonum, cap.i.) At prefent, it is uled
as a general term, and 1s applied to a vartety of painful af-
fe&ions of the abdomen, whieh differ confiderably in their
feat and caufes; but which agree in their general charaGter
of a deep-feated pain in the belly, occupying more efpecially
the umbilical region, frequently accompanied with naufea,
or even vamiting, and generally with a conftipation of the
bowels. See Cullen. Nofol. Method. Gen. 59. Under cir~
cumitances of great aggravation, when the periftaltic motion
of the inteltines becomes inverted, fo that ftercoraceous mat-
ter ishrown up by vomiting, the denomination of i/eus, or
iliac paffion, has been applied to this difeafe by modern
authors.
The pain, in colic, is feldom fixed and pungent in any
one part of the belly ; but is generally a painful diftention
{preading in fome meatfure over the whole of the abdomen,
and particularly with a fenfe of twifting or wringing round
the navel. At the fame time the navel and teguments of
the belly are frequently drawn inwards, and often the muf-
cles of the belly are {pafmodically contracted, and this in
feparate portions, giving the appearance of a bag full of
round balls. ‘The bowels are coftive, and the ittomach is
‘fqueamifh, fo as frequently to reject the food and drink,
which are {wallowed ; and in thefe vomitings, not only the
contents of the ftomach are thrown up, but alfo the contents
of the duodenum, and therefore frequently a quantity of
bile. The colic is unaccompanied by fever in the begin-
ning; but if it be not relieved, an inflammation is liable to
en{ue in the part of the inteitine efpecially affeGted, which
aggravates all the fymptoms of the difeafe. When this
takes place, the pain of the abdomen, which in the begin-
CoOL
ning was moveable, and: relieved by external preffure, is
greatly agoravated by the fame caufe, and becomes fixed ;
and the patient is unable to ftand ereét; but leans forward,
to diminifh the tention of the mufcles and integuments of
the belly. The pulfe, which was little altered at the com-
mencement, becomes frequent, {mall and wiry. The breath-
ing becomes difficult, and the patient is cut off with thie
fymptoms of inteitinal inflammation. See Enteritis. Vo
this inflammation the vomiting of fecal matter, which con-
flitutes the ileus, has generally been attributed. Dr. Cul-
len, however affirms, that, as there are inflammations of the
inteftines without ftercoraceous vomiting, fo he has feen in-
flances of itercoraceous vomiting without inflammation ;
there is therefore no ground for diitjnguifhing ileus from
colic, but as a higher degree of the fame affeGlion. Firlt
Lines of Praé. §. 1438.
The fymptoms of colic, and the difle€tions of bodies dead
of this difeafe, Siew very clearly, that it depends upoa a
{pafmodic conttri€tion of a part of the inteftines ; and that
this therefore is to be confidered as the proximate caufe of
the difeafe. In fome of the diffe€tions of perfons dead of
colic, an introfufception, or inverfion of one poruon of the
intefline within another, has been obferved to have taken
lace.
The colic has been deferibed by many writers as being of
different fpecies. Sauvages enumerates twenty, exclufive of
feveral fpecies of ileus, rachialgia, &c. which are alfo
varieties of the fame affection. (Nofol. Method. Claff. vii.
Ord. iv.) Thefe diltin@tions, however, in a practical view,
are of little utility ; fince in all the different modifications of
the difeafe, the proximate caufe appears to be the fame, that
is, a fpafmodic conftriétion of .a part of theinteltines; and
confequently, in all the inftances, the principal indication of
cure is the fame ; namely, to remove that conftnGtion. Even
where the difeafe depends upon a mechanical obftru€tion of
the inteftine, as from accumulated forces, calculous concre-
tions, or a thickening and narrowing of the bowel itfelf, it is
not produced by the exiftence of thefe obitruétions, unlels
{pafmodic conftri¢tions of the inteftines are brought on.
The exciting cau/és, which are as various as the modes of
irritation which can a& upon the bowels, have been aflumed
as the fources of diftinG@ion of the fpecies of colic. Hence
the following varieties have been pointed out by nofologilts;
namely colica flatulenta, arifing from wind in the bowels, and
known by the great difcharge of it with the ftools, or glyf-
ters, by the rumbling noife or borborygmi, and by the fre-
quent Change of the feat of the pain ;—C. piluito/a, from a
{uppofed colleGtion of mucus in the canal;—C. /lercorea, from
hardened feces lodged in the bowels, occurring generally
after long conftipation, and in perfons of habitually fle
bowels ; this commonly conttitutes the variety of colic whic
occurs in women in the latter ftages of pregnancy, or C. gra-
vidarum. Other Ipecies have been noted under the titles of
C. verminofa, arifing from the irritation of worms in the in= |
teftine, which ftimulates it to partial {pafmodic conftric-
tions, efpecially the round-worm or lumbricus ;—C. bilie/a,
excited by an unufual fecretion of acrid bile, frequently ac-
companied with a lax belly, and bilious ftools;—C. calculo/a,
in which the {paf{modic aétions are excited by the ftimulus of
concretions lodged in the bowels, efpecially in the colon ;
and under which head alfo may be included the colic occa-
fioned by hard fubftances taken in by the mouth, as the
{tones of plums, cherries, or other fuch fruit ;—C. accidentalis,
which is of temporary duration, being produced by indi-
geltible aliment, or by too great a quantity of proper food,
or by other matters, which by their mechanical, chemical,
or fome other peculiar quality, irritate the inteltines as pe!
I pa
CyOrE FC, Ae
pafs through it, and which terminate when thofe matters
are difcharged. The colica @ frigore arifes from the ation
of external cold, efpecially when applied to the feet, be-
' tween the integuments of which and the bowels there isa
great fympathy. The C. Ayflerice may perhaps be pro-
perly included under the C. flatulenta. The C. meconialis,
and C. /aéentium, conftitute the gripings of infants and
children, the former arifing from the retention of the meco-
nium, within the firft fix weeks after birth; the latter, after
that period, from the prevalence of acidity in the ftomach
and prime viz. (Sauvage’s Loc. Cit.) .Of the C. pidtonum,
arifing from the poifon of lead, we fthall {peak more parti-
cularly afterwards.
The chief point, both in dire@ing our prognofis, and our
choice of remedies, in colic, isthe prefence or abfence of
inflammation. The continuance of that irritation, which
in the beginning excites a fpafmodic aétion in the mufeular
coat of the inteftines, produces at length an inflammation
inthe fame part. Before we proceed to apply our remedies,
then, the principal diagnofis which we muft determine, is
whether the pain is occafioned by fimple fpafm, or by a fu-
pervening inflammation. The favourable fymptoms, which
imply the fpaf{modic ftate, are a foft pulfe, of natural, or of
little increafed'frequency ;_ the pain intermitting occafionally,
or moving from one part to another, and being relieved, or
at leaft not increafed, by external preffure ; and the occur-
rence of feculent evacuations. ‘The unfavourable fymp-
toms, on the contrary, as leading toa fufpicion of inflam-
‘mation, are a confiderable duration and unremitting feverity
of the pain, obf{tinate conftipation, with tenfion of the ab-
. domen, and an aggravation of the pain by preffure; a
very frequent, {mall, and hard pulfe; the fiin being hot
and dry, or partially moift with clammy fweats-; frequent
retching, ‘with a dry, brown tongue, hiccup, and delirium.
The principal indications of cure, in colic, are, 1lt, to
prevent.or remove inflammation ; 2d, torelieve the fpafmodic
conitri@ion and pain of the bowels; and 3d, to excite their
regular aétion, and procure free and feculent ftools. The
means by which thefe indications muft be fulfilled, though
obvious in general, will be neceffarily varied by circumftances,
efpecially by a confideration of the nature of the exciting
caufe, and of the progrefs and variety of particular iymp-
toms.
1. Where inflammatory adiion has already taken place,
as indicated by the fymptoms before elftumerated, efpecially
by the feverity of pain, by its increafe on preffure, and by
the very frequent, hard pulfe, recourfe fhould be immediately
had to the lancet, anda free bleeding from the arm, from
a large orifice, fhould be effefed. In perfons of full and
ftrong habits, this operation may require to be repeated,
if the pain fhould not remit, and the pulfe fhould remain
hard and frequent, and if’ the blood drawn fhould exhibit,
not only the buffy coat, but a confiderable eontraGtion of,
the coagulum. In more delicate habits the: fame purpofe
may be accomplifhed by the application of feveral leeches to
the abdomen, aided by the warm bath, or warm fomenta-
tions, or by the application of a blifter. In ftrong habits,
indeed, if the pain has been of confiderable duration, in-
flammation is always much to be apprehended, and a mode-
rate venefection may be beneficially employed in anticipating
its actual attack. In perfons of a weak and lax conftitution,
however, confiderable caution is requifite in the ufe of this
owerful expedient, unlefs there is a {trong fufpicion of the
abfolute exiftence of inflammation.
2. The molt effeétual antifpafmodic means that can be
reforted to, are the application of heat, whether in a dry
er humid form ; and the ufe of opium, either by the mouth
or the anus. ‘The application of a dry heat is frequently
employed with relief. Thus bladders filled with warm
water, or bags of fubftances which long retain their heat,
or living animals, have been ufed for this purpofe. But
the application of heat in combination with moitture is per-
haps generally more efficacious ; and moft of al], when it is
applied to nearly the whole of the furface of the body, as
by immerfion in the warm bath. The frequent inconve-
nience, however, or impra¢ticability of this, renders it ne-
ceflary to adopt, as a fub{titute, the local fomentation of
the belly with cloths wrung out of hot water. The fo-
mentation has one advantage, that it may be longer conti-
nued; but to procure all the benefits of immerfion it fhould
be applied at the fame time to the lower extremities. Upon
the fame principle, a filthy expedient, frequently adopted
by the older practitioners, was beneficial; namely the
application of the omentum, or the warm {kin, of a newly
killed animal.
Praéiitioners are not altogether agreed as to the propriety
of adminiftering opiates in colic; many have extolled them
as highly ufeful, while others have confidered them as am-
biguous, if not dangerous, medicines. As the tendency of
opium is to produce coltivenefs, by diminifhing the irritabi-
lity, and therefore fufpending the periftaltic motion of the
bowels; it is fuppofed that while it relieves the pain, it
mutt render the caufe of the difeafe more obfltinate, and
more efpecially as upon the fame grounds, it alfo has a ten-
dency to impede the operation of purgatives. But it mutt
be obferved that the great caufe of the conftipation in co-
lic, as well as of the pain, is the fpafmodic conftri€tion of the
bowels; and, therefore, itis obvious, thatthe mo!t effectual
way of aiding the operation of a purgative, is toremove this ~
coni{triction, and thus to fuffer the contents of the bowels to
pafs freely along. And fo far, we believe, from finding the
a€tion of purgative medicines impeded by the effects of an
opiate, in colic, the prattitioner has generally the fatisfac-
tion of feeing, that, after an opiate has been taken, a milder
purgative will produce the defired evacuations, which a
more active one had previoufly failed to produce. It is,
therefore, to be recommended that an opiate be generally
given a fhort time preceding the adminittration of a purga-
tive; or, as the operation of a purgative on the inteltines
is neceflarily flower than that of an opiate, which atts im-
mediately upon the nervous fyftem, through the medium of
the ftomach, the opiate and purgative may be advan-
tageoufly combined. Perhaps the only cafes, in which the
operation of an opiate can be confidered as hazardous, are
thofe which have been preceded by long coftivenefs, fo that
a ftagnation and induration of fices in the colon are to be
{ufpected. In fuch cafes a ftool ought to be firft procured,
if poffible, by laxative medicines, aided by the ule of
emollient glyfters injected repeatedly, in order to foften the
hardened feces, and facilitate their expulfion. But even in
thofe circumftances of coftivenefs, Dr. Cullen juftly re-
marks, when, without inflammation, the violence of the
{pafm is to be fufpected, when vomiting prevents the ex-
hibition of purgatives, and when with all this the pain is ex-
tremely urgent, opium is to be employed, not merely as an
anodyne, but alfo as an antif{pafmodic, neceflary to favour
the operation of purgatives; and it may be fo employed,
when, either at the fame time with the opiate, or not long
after it, a purgative can be exhibited; and in all cafes
where the colic comes on without any previous coftivenefs,
and arifes from cold, from paffions of the mind, or other
caufes which operate efpecially on the nervous fyftem, .
opium proves a fafe and certain. remedy.. Firft Lines,
1 A
§ 1445 cine
COLIC A.
3. As the [pafmodie pains of colic are neceflarily increaf-
ed by the ftagnant feces, it is always important to excite
the action of the bowels, and to procure free natural ftools.
Therefore, as we have already ttated, etther foon after or in
conjunction with an opiate, fome cathartic medicine fhould
be adminiltered, either: by the mouth orin a glyfter, or both.
Tf the conftipation has been but of fhort duration, the nen-
tral falts will generally be adequate to the purpofe of pro-
curing evacuations; fuch as the magnefia vitriolata, for in-
ftance, or the cryftals of tartar, which Jaft Dr. Cullen re-
commends. They both have the advantage: of being con-
veniently repeated at fhort intervals, in {mail quantities,
uotil the defired effe& is produced; and they are alfo not liable
to difagree with the ftomach. The caftor oil, oleum ricini, is
alfo_a mild aud tolerably certain purgative, which may be
advantngeoufly ufed where there is no ficknefs prefent. If
more active means are required, a few grains of calomel,
either alone or combined with a fmali quantity of jalap or
rhubarb, may beemployed. But the more draftic cathar-
tics fhould be avoided, becaufe they are apt to be rejected by
the ftomach; but particularly becaufe, if they do not fuc-
ceed in removing the obftruction, their great irritating qua-
lities are liable to excite indammation, or to iocreafe it, if it
has already commenced.
The difeafe, -however, is often confined to the colon, or
large inteftine, and therefore remedies may be applied im-
mediately to the part affected, by means of glviters. Large
quantities of warm water, injected by a proper fyringe, have
frequently had the eflect of removing the pain and {pafmodic
firicture of the colon, partly by the foothing effeAs of the
warmth, and partly by mechanical dilatation. Opium may
alfo be adminiftered in this way, efpecially in combination
with neutral falts, ina large glyfter of warm water, with
confiderable advantage. ‘Thefe emollient glyfters aé& alfo
powerfully in aid of laxative medicines taken by the mouth,
particularly where the latter is impeded in their operation by
a colleGion of indurated feces; for while the periltaltic
motion of the bowels is roufed by the laxatives in the upper
part of the canal, the obftructian is foftened, and ioofened
in the lower part, by the aly Re. A folution of afafcetida
may be frequently adminiftered with advantage, in the form
of a glylter, as it tends both to relieve the pain by its anti-
{pafmodic qualities, and alfo to ftimulate the lower bowel,
to evacuation. But where there is very obftinate conftipation,
no glyfters are generally more efficacious than thofe made of
turpentine, properly fafpended in water, by means of muci-
lage, or the yok of anegg. Asa latt refource, injections
ot tobacco fmoke, or of an infufion of tobacco, are ufually
employed, and are powerful ftimulants to the inteltines.
There are feveral cafes, however, on record, in which, after
cvery purgative medicine had failed, and the moft acrid
giyfters had proved ineffe@ual, the action of the bowels has
been fully excited by throwing cold water on the.lower ex-
tremities. Two cafes of this kind may be found in the
Medical Tranfa@tions of the College of Phyficians, vol. iii.
and another in the Edinburgh Medical Effays, vol.v. p.1g0.
See Covp.
Couica Pidonum, or Colic of Poi@ou, is a {pecies of the
difeafe peculiar in refpe& to the caufe, from which it origf-
nated, 1a the progrefs of its fymptoms, and io the paralytic
condition of the body, which it leaves behind. ‘This colic
is endemial in fome countyies, and has allo been at times
epidemical in others, where it is not commonly prevalent.
Ik frit received the name of colica piftonum, by which itis
now generally deliznated, from Citois, or Citefius, as he
calls himfelf, phyfician to cardinal Richelieu, it having been
epidemic in PoiGou to a great extent in 1572. See ** Dia-
+
-which remit at times, and are particularly aggravated aft
triba, de novo et populari apud Pictones dolore Colico Bi-
Niofo,” in his ** Opufcuia Medica,”? Paris, 1639. It has
been likewife denominated colica damnonienfis, or Devonfhire _
colic, by Huxham and others, fince it is endemic in that :
county ; and painters’ colic, becaufe frequently occurring |
among painters; and alfo colica /aturnina, becaufe it ongi-
nates, perhaps invariably, from the operation of the eee
of lead. In the Welt Indies, where it is alfo endemic, it
is called the dry belly-ache. Sauvages has conftituted it a’
genus diftin& from colic, under the title of rachialgia.
But although Citois firft diftinguifhed the difeafe by a pe-
culiar name, it was well known long before his work ap-
peared. It was equally familiar to the people of Picardy,
Britanny, and other provinces of France, as well as in Mo-
ravia, Silefiz, and many parts of Germany. (See Langius
Epift. Med. Droétus Confil. Nov. de Peftilentia, cap. 5.—
1572.) colic, which terminated in paralyfis of the limbs,-
a terminatt.a, we believe, with fir George Baker, peculiar
to colica pictonum, had been deferibed by Paulus Aégineta,
(cap. 18 ) * de refolutione ex colico morbo oborta ;” by
Avicenna and fome other Arabian phyficians ; and by feve-
ral continental writers, Fernelius, Hollerius, Foreftus, &c.
as well as by our countryman, John of Gaddefden, in his
« Rofa Anglica,’’.cap. 20, prior to the time of Citois. The
reader who is defirous of obtaining a minute hiftorical view
of the difeafe will be amply gratified by the perufal of the
treatife of Tronchin, * De Colica Pi€tonum, Jena 1771,”
and of the excellent papers of fir George Baker, in the
three volumes of the Medical TranfaGtions of the Col. of
Phyficians of London. PAYE™ *
The attack of colica pi€tonum is genetally preceded by
a fenfe of weight and uneafinefs, about the region of th
flomach or umbilicus, accompanied with fome languor and
diminution of appetite. At length flight pains are felt,
eating ; thefe in a fhort time become continued, and |
tremely fevere, fo that the patient Ifes chiefly on his belly ¢
or tofling about, with expreffions of the greateft a
The eyes become dull, and the complexion pale, and of
dirty or livid colour. The pulfe is often quickened by the
fevere irritation of pain, and the fkin, aan reneraily
cold and damp, is occafionally rather hot ; but there ap
to be no tendency in this difeafe to inflammation.
mach is in fome cafes extremély irritable, and
ever is fwallowed, and the conftipation is ob
pain often thoots, or is fixed inthe back, andt
are painful, When thefe fymptoms occur 1 nt
plumbers, white-lead manufa@turers, poiifhers S58
perfons of other occupations, in which they ane epee
the aétion of the poifon of lead, there can be no doubt:
of this fp-cies of colic being prefent. After fever 3
of colica pictonum, a paralyfis commonly affects t
or the whole hand and fore arm, fo that the former be
contracted, and the hands, when the arms are extend -
rizontally, hang neverthelefs at a right angle to the arms;
the exfen/or muieles being in both cafes more paralyfed than —
the flexors: a
The exciting caufe of coliéa piftonum appears ‘
in all initances, as we have already itated, the
lead. ‘The deleterious powers of this metal, efpecia
form of oxyd, or in combmation with an acid, ha
long weil known; nor are they confined to the hun m:
cies. Dr. Percival haz recorded mary examples o} (pot-
fonons effets of lead, when given to hounds, cats, nuets,
geefe, ducks, and other poultry. (Obfervations and Expe-
riments on the Poifon of Lead.) And its power of excitung
colic and paralyfis has alfo begn long underitood: fince
3 thefe
ee etl
Cc: Os
thefe effets have been frequently traced to the accidental
or drfisned ufe of the metal, as medicine, or in the food and
drink. Dunne the 16th and r7th centuries, when the fatu--
nine falts, efpecially the acetite of lead, or, as it 1, vuigarly
called, fugar of lead, were adminiltered in larg dofes medici-
nally, the colica pi€tonum.and paral) fis, mtheir fevereltferms,
appear to have frequently occurred. Neverthelefs, it was not
until the inveltizations of fir George Baker were publithed,
that the poifon of lead was fufpeGted even to be the common,
much lefs the exclulive caufe of colica pittoaum. Such is the
difficuity of attaining treth and found experience in medi-
eine! In thofe countrics where the difeafe was endemic, it
was attributed to a free ufe of the fub-acid wines, or other
fuch liquors, peculiar to the refpective diltritts, with which,
in fact, it was very obvioufly conneéted. In the various
provinces of France and Germany, where it has been ob-
ferved to be epidemic in different feafons, it has been clearly
obferved to prevail among perfons who drank freely of thofe
fub-acid fermented liqnors, by Sennertus, Spigelius, Car-
danus, Citois, and many other writers. The colic of
D-vonfhire is always attributed to the ule of the cyder of that
county, according to Huxham and Mufgrave. The latter
briefly remarks, ‘ hane ({cil. colicam) acre facit pomaceum,
figuidem eos huic affuctos folum afficit, annis hoc potu divi-
tidus graflatur, pomona negante vix datur.”? Mulgrave de
Arthritide Symptomatice. Tronchin De Col. Pid. p. 32.
Inthe Welt Indies, the endemic colic, called the dry belly-
ache, is obferved to be the confequence of drinking freely
of the newly diltilled rum; and this liquor is therefore uni-
yerfally confidered as the caufe of the difeafe. But betides
thefe peculiar fermented liquors, and other metallic poifons,
as well as lead, authors have affigned feveral caufes to colica
pictonum ; fuch are, the remains of imperfectly cured fevers,
gout and rheumati{m, interrupted perfpiration, {curvy, me-
lancholia, and emotions of the mind. See Tronchin. Loc.
Cit. To thefe latter circumftances, however, no one now
attributes the origin of colica pictonum. ‘The only doubt
which can exift at prefent, is, whether thofe fub-acid and
fpirituous liquors poffefs any property capable of producing
the difeafe, independently of an impregnation with lead.
It has been remarked, that the cyder of Devonfhire pro-
duced the colic much mre frequently and extenfively, than
that of other countries, as of Herefordfhire; and the wines
of fome diftrids on the Continent excited the difeafe, when
fimilar wines of other diftri€ts did not. Sir George Baker
afcertained, that a {mall quantity of lead was employed in
feveral of the mills, in which the apples were bruifed for the
manufacture of cyder, to faften the iron cranks, which con-
neéted the ftone-work. It is well known, too, that in fe-
veral countries on the continent, the practice of fweetening
the wines with litharge, and other preparations of lead, was
very common, and that in thefe diltri€ts the colic was parti-
culacly prevalent. Dr. Mofeiey obferves, that he was cau-
tioned by Dr. Menghin, of Infpruck, to avoid all {weet
wines whatever, but particularly the common tavern wines
upon the road, in the Tyrol and in Italy. He adds, that
he never deviated from this advice but once, and paid dear]
for it at Viterbo. (Treatife on Tropical Difeafes. p. 527.
On the other hand, colica piétonum is very prevalent in this
metropol:s, and other large towns ; yet we have never feen
an inftance, which was not decidedly traced to the operation
oflead. A great proportion of houfe-painters and plumbers,
fuffer the difeafe at fome period of their life; and a very
minute quantity of lead will produce it in fome conftitutions,
Dr. Fothergill has recorded feveral cafes, in which the com-
plaint was occafioned in perfons employed in painting with
water-colours, who were in the habit of pointing the pencil
Vor. VIII.
PC) Ae
inthe mouth. Oneof the fevereft cafes which we have wit-
nefied, occurred in a woman, who was occationally occupied
in cleanfing polithed g'afs of the remans of the putty,
which had been ufed for the purpofe of polifhing. It is
farther to be added, that in many fpecimens of cyder, which
were analyzed by fir George Baker, a fmall portion of lead
was detected, And im the new rum cf the Weft Indies,
‘hich excited tre col'c throughout fome regiments of fol-
tiers, while others were totally free from it, Dr. Hunter
dfeovered, by analyz, the pretence of lead. This lead ap-
pears to be depotited after a certain t'me, probably with~-
in ayear, andthe rum lo/es its noxivus quality. See Med.
‘Tranfact. vol. ni. S:r George Baker. Ibid. Dr. Fother-
gill Med. Obf. and Inquirics, vol. v. On the whole, there-
fore, we are fatisfied of the correétnefs of the conclufioa
of fir George Baker, that colica pidionum is occafioned ex-
clufively by the poifon of lead.
‘Lhe cure of colica pidlonum muft be attempted on the
fame principles, which we have already laid down for the cure
of colic in general ; in as much as 1¢ confilts, hke the other
{pecies, in a {pafmodic conltriction of fome portion of the
inteltinal canal. But in this torm of cole there appears to
be little difpofition to inflammatory action ; and the doubts
and apprehenfions, which fome practitioners have exprefled;
of the propriety of adminiftering opia’es, until fome evacu-
ation from the bowels has been procured, are altogether un-
{upported by experience. We are fatisfied, that, wherever
colic can be decidedly traced to the operation of lead, the
molt effectual, and the only ready cure, is to he found
in the adminiftration of a larze dofe of cpium, to be repeat-
ed at fhort intervals, vatil the pain (and of courfe the fpaf-
modic {trifture) is relieved. When this effect has been
produced, there is feldom any difficulty in exciting the aétion
of the bowels, and procuring proper evacuations of faces;
after which, the cure is foon completed by tonics and cor-
dials. his praétice of firft relieving the pain and conftric-
tion by opiates, before the bowels are attempted to be
forced by purgative medicines. was ftrongly recommended
by Dr. Warren (Med. Tranfaé. vol. ii.) ; and was alfo em-
ployed by Dr. Darwin, (Zoonomia, vol. ii.). “The prac-
tice, therefore, is fupported by reafon, experience, and
authoricy ; and the apprehenfions, that opium is liable to
excite inflammation in colica pictonum, are altogether hy-
pothetical and gratuitous. As affilting the anu-{pafmodic
operation of opiates, the warm bath, fomentations, &c. as
mentioned under the head of Coxrc, may be reforted to
with benefit.
For the cure of the palfy, which fucceeds to colica picto-
num, little can be done by the adminiftration of drugs.
The ufe of the waters of Bath is generally found to be pro-
duétive of advantage. There feems to be a tendency in the
conftitution, efpecially in recent cafes, to recover itfelf, if
the exciting caufe is avoided, and this may be aided by the
local ftimulus of warm water, friftion, &c. and, above all,
perhaps, by mechanical fupport to the paralyzed hands.
Dr. Pemberton has recommended, that, for this purpofe,
the patient fhould have his hand and fingers extended upon
a fort of battledore, tied to the fore-arm, which fhould be
worn daily. He affirms that, in feveral inftances, a perfect
cure of the paralyfis from lead has been effeCted ir the courfe
of a few weeks. (Treatife on Dif. of the abdominal Vifcera.)
It is obvious that the return of colica pictonum, and of the
palfy which fucceeds it, can only be effectually prevented
by relinquifhing thofe avocations, which necedlarily expofe
the patient to the influence of the poifonous metal which
excites the difeale ; or by refraining from thofe liquors with
which any of its preparations are intermixed.
5D Coricay,
CO
Conica, in Ancient Geography, a country of Alia, near
mount Caucafus, in the country of the Coraxes. Pliny fays
that it was a country of Pontus, in which the fummits of
mount Caucafus dirc&ted their courfe towards the Riphzan
mountains.
COLICARIA, a place of Italy, in Cifalpine Ganl, ac-
cording to the Itinerary of Antonine; 25 miles from Hol-
tia. M. d’Anville places it W. of Vicus Serninus, and
N.E. of Mutina. -
COLIC/E Argrertx, in Anatomy, are the arteries which
fupply the colon. There are generally three cf thefe: the
colica dextra, which fupplies the afceuding colon, and the
colica media, which is dittributed to the tranfverfe arch of
the inteftine, come from the fuperior mefenteric artery ; the
colica finiflra, which fupplies the defcending colon, arifes
from the inferior mefenteric trunk. Sce ARTERIES.
COLIC. Suect, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome
to the porcellana, or concha venerea, from its fuppofed virtue
in curing that difeale.
Cotic-Srone, the name given by fome modern authors to
a ftene found in New Spain, and fome other parts of Ame-
vica, and efteemed of great virtues there in the cure of the
colic, and in the difeafes of the womb. It is a fpecies of
jafper very nearly approaching to the lapis nephriticus, and
called by the natives ¢/ayotic, and by the Spaniards, piedra
de hyada. _\t is of a confiderable weight and hardne(s, and
is of a dufky green colour, without any variegations. The
Indians cut it into various forms, fometimes of men, fome-
times of their idols ; fometimes alfo they figure it into long
and even columns, and fometimes into round and flat pieces.
All thefe are nicely polithed, and thofe of the lalt {ape are
what are principally ufed in the cure of the colic. They
wet thefe with their fpittle, and then rubbing them, till hot,
with-their hands, they apply them to the navel in a fit of
the colic ; and they fay, that they immediately carry it off,
by determining the humours to pafs off, either upwards or
downwards, or both ways. They fometimes cut this ftone
into flat plates alfo, with two holes cut at each end, by
means of which it may be worn, tied to the wrift by a rib-
band, and it is fuppofed thus tbe a prefervative from all
difeafes of this kind, and from many others.
COLIGNON, Francots, in Biography, an engraver,
native of Nancy, who, after he had ftudied under Callot,
and fpent fome time at Rome, eftablifhed himfelf in Paris in
1649, as an engraver and print merchant. His works,
which are numerous, confilt principally of views of buildings,
gardens, and plans of cities, executed in a fpirited manner,
not unlike that of Ifrael Silveftre, or Stefano deila Bella.
Amongtt thefeis a plan of the city of Malta, with the ancient
fortifications, and a fet of prints reprefenting the buildings
erected at Rome under pope Sixtus V. He likewife en-
graved fome prints from Raffaele, the Carracci, Domini-
chino, and feveral other mafters of the Italian fchool. Strutt.
Heinecken.
COLIGNY, Gasparp pe, a chara&ter of confiderable
diftinétion in ‘the civil wars of France, was born in 1517,
and trained to the knowledge of arms at a very early period.
Of his youthful exploits nothing is mentioned worthy of
hiltorical record: In 1550, he was a colonel-general in the
. infantry, and employed in forming a pacification between
England and France. He was fhortly after raifed to the
polt of admiral, and was engaged in many important fervices
for his king and country, in one of which he was taken
prifoner by the Spaniards. Upon the death of his royal
matter, Henry IL. he united himfelf with the Huguenots,
and avowed his adherence to the Proteftant religion. Ex-
cepting the prince of Condé, he was at the head of the
7
COL
party, both in matters of diplomacy and asa foldier. He
took up arms againit the Guifes who had planned the ex-
tirpation of the Huguenots, and although in feveral bate
tls he had the mortification of being obliged to retire from
the field, yet his courage and intrepidity never failed him ;
when wounced, ard his friends lamenting over his fituation,
he obferved, that in his profeffion a man thould regard death
and lifeon equal terms. Dy his talents and bravery the Hu-
guenots, though defeated, were fufficiently formidable to
conclude a peace. They had increafed fo much in
numbers, and the progrefs which their doctrines were fliil
making, was fuch, that it was imagined they would fhortly
have become the predominant religion in France. Coligny
was invited to the court, and the king, with thofe about
him, ufed every means of flattery and delufion to throw the
admiral off his guard. He fufpended his ufual prudence,
and became reconciled to the chiefs of the party who not
long before had offered a large reward to any one who
would affaffinate him. He who had defied equally the
power and menaces of royal authority could not wholly
withftand the folicitations of his enemies, who, to anfwer
their own finifter views, had put on the mafk of friendfhip.
Inattentive to the prefages of his firmelt adherents, he re-
fufed to leave Paris, and was himfelf the firft viétfm of the~
infamous maffacre which took place, not enly in the capital,
but in almofi all the provirces on St. Bartholemew’s day,
1572. He had, only two davs before, been wounded by a
hired affaffia, named Maurevel, as he wag returning from the
Louvre, and was on that account confined to his reom,
wohena party, headed by his implacable enemy, the duke of
Guile, broke open the door where the admiral was fitting.
Befme, one of the duke’s domettics, approached him with
a drawn {word, “ Young man,” faid the gallant but difabled
Coligny, ** you ought to refpe&t my age, but a@& as you
The
to the infults of the populace, and then hung by the feet o
He was afterwards privately buried im the cha cal
ferment, and uniting himfelf at the call of confeience tothe —
Proteftant intereft. He joined his brothers in arms, was
married, folemnly depofed, and retired to England, whe e
he was poifoned by adomeftic in 1571. Nouv. Die. Hil
Univerfal Hitt. : . 3
Coticny, in Geography, a town of France,
department of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in
diftri&t of Bourg; 12 miles N. of Bourg. The place on-
tains 1658, avd the canton 9764 inhabitants: the territo
comprehends 1774 kiliometres, and g communes. — '
COLIHAUT, a town on the weltern fide of the ifland
of Dominica. : : ..
COLIMA,
ChOvL
COLIMA, a large and rich town of America, in the
country of Mexico, and province of Mechoacan, fituated in
one of the molt pleafant and fertile vallies of the country,
producing cocoa, caffia, and other valuable commodities, |
belides fome gold ; of the breadth of eight leagues, and ex-
tending to the fea. Near itis a mountain of the fame name,
with a volcano, defcribed by Dampier as having two fharp
peaks, from which {moke and flame continually iffue. A
tamous plant, called o/eacazan, is {aid to grow in the neigh-
bourhood, which is reckoned by the natives a catholicon for
reltoring decayed ftrength, and a fpecific againit all forts of
poifon. Colima lies 1to miles W. of Mecneoacan.. N. lat.
19° 50’. W. long.-104° 46’.
COLIMER, atown of France, in the department of
the Orne, and diftriG of Mortagne ; 4 miles VV. of it.
COLIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Caarzim,
with a ftrong caltle; 28 miles E. of Prague.
Coun, grand colin, in Ornithology, the name given by
Buffon to the Mexican quail, tefrao nove hi/panie ; which
fee. >
COLINDA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
rovince of Bengal ; 25 miles S. of Comillah.
COLINEI’E, a town of France, in the department of the
Northern Coaits, and chief place of a canton, in the dillni&
of Loudéac. The place contains 465, and the canton
5539 inhabitants: the territory includes 1274 kiliometres,
aod 6 communes.
COLINIA, in Ancient Geography, a name given to the
ile of Cyprus. z :
COLIPHIUM, a name given by Athenzus, and fome
other authors, to coarfe bread made of meal with the bran
among it, and fuch as is eaten by the poorer people in. molt
countries. :
The word is derived from xwhov, a limb, and 19s, firength,
and isa very expreflive word, as this fort of bread makes
people robuft and ftrong, and is greatly preferable to any
other kind for people of ftrong conilitutions, who ufe hard
labour or much exercife. It fignifies alfo a kind of food
compofed of bread, new cheefe, and roaited flefh, which
Pythagoras taught the athlete to ufe, who before had been
ufed to live on figs.
COLIR, an officer in China, who infpeéts what paffes
in every court or tribunal in the empire; and though him-
felf notin the number, yet is affitting at all affemblies, the
proceedings whereof are communicated to him.
He is properly what we may cail an in/pe@or ; he gives
fecret intelligence to the court ; and even, on occafion, ac-
eufes the mandarins of their faults openly ; and that not
only of faults in their public offices, but evenin private life.
To keep him impartial, he is kept independent ; by having
the poft forlife, Thefe colirs make eyen the princes of the
blood tremble.
COLIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of India, near
the fea. The rivers Hypanis and Megarfes run towards the
confines of this country.
COLISEUM, the name given to the amphitheatre of
Vefpafian at Rome, either from its magnitude, or from
Nero’s coloffal ftatue. Under the article AmPHITHEATRE,
an account has been already given of its dimenfions and con-
trivance. We have here only to fay a few words on its hif-
tory. It ltands upon the {pot formerly occupied by a pond
enclofed within the walls of Nero’s gi'ded houfe. Tne pond
being dried up, Flavius Vefpafian, A.D. 72, began this
celebrated edifice, for public exhibitions, on a plan formed
by Auguttus, in the then centre of the city. “he time which
it took in building is not exaétly agreed upon by hittorians ;
but the greater part appears to have owed its origin to
and when Rome falls, the world will fall.’
C"O.0,
Titus, who employed fuch of the Jews upon it as were
brought in flavery to Rome. When the Gorhs plundered
the city, whatever about the Colifeum was precious, portable,
or profane, the ftatues of the gods and heroes, and the
coltly ornaments of feulpture, which were caf in brafs or
overfpread with leaves of filver and gold, became the fir
prey of conquett and avarice, “he vacant {pace, im the cone
tre, was converted into a fair or market ; the artifans of the
Colifeam are mentioned in 2n ancient fnrvey ; and the chafms,
which are til difce-ned amone the maffy tones, were either
perforated or enlarged to receive the poles that fupported
the fhops or tents o: the mechanic trades. (Donatus, Roma
Vetus et Nova, p. 285.)
Reduced to its mative majeity, fays Mr. Gibbon, the
Tiavian amphitheatre was contemp ated wits awe and admi-
ration by the pilzrims of the north ; and their rude enthu-
fiafm broke ferth mn a fublime proverbial expreffion, which
is recorded in the eighth century, in the fragments of the
venerable Bede. ‘* As long as the Col-feum ttands, Rome
fhall ftand; when the Colifeam talls, Rome will fall;
(Beda in
Excerptis feu Collectancis apud Du-Cange Gioffar, med.
et infine Latintatis, tom. ii, p. 407. Edit. Bafil.) The
fame learned writer makes mention ofa paflage in Muratori,
from which he gathered, that toward the end of the eleventh
or beginning of the twelfth century, during a time of faction,
a numerous garrifon was lodged tn its enclofure.
In 1332, we find a bull-feaft celebrated here, after the
manner of the Moors and Spaniards. It is deferibed, fays
Mr. Gibbon, from tradition rather than memory, by
Ludovico Buonconte Monaldefco, in the mof ancient frag
ments of Roman Aanals, (Muratori Script. Rerum Italica-
rum, tom, xii. p. 535,536.) and however fanciful they may
feem, they are deeply marked with the colours of truth and
nature. A convenient order of benches was reftored, and a
general proclamation, as far as Riminiand Ravenna, in-
vited the nobles to exercife their ficill and courage in this
perilous adventure. ‘Che Roman ladies were marfhalled in
three {quadrons, and feated in three balconies, which, on
this day, the third of September, were lined with fearlet
cloth. The fair Jacova di Rovere led the matrons from be-
yond the Tyber, a pure and native race, who ftill reprefent
the features and chara€ter of antiquity. The remainder of
the city was divided as ufual between the Colonna and the
Urfini; the two factions were proud of the number and
beauty of their female bands; the charms of Savella Urini
are mentioned with praile; and the Colonna regretted the
abfence of the youngelt of their houfe, who had {prained
her ancle in the garden of Nero’s tower. The lots of the
champions were drawn by an old and refpedctable citizen ;
and they defcended into the ayena, or pit, to encounter the
wild buils, on foot as it fhouid feem, with a fingle {pear
Amidf{t the crowd, our annalilt has felected the names, colours,
and devices of twenty of the molt confpicuous knights.
Several of the names are the molt il-uftrious of Rome, and
the ecclefiaitical ftate; Malatefla, Polenta, Della Vaile,
Cafarcllo, Savelli, Capoccio, Conti, Annibaldi, Altieri,
Corfi; the colours were adapted to their tafte and fituation ;
the devices were expreflive of hope or defpair, and breathed
the fpirit of gailantry and arms. ‘The pride or prudence of
the Urlinirettrained them from the field, which was occupied
by three of their hereditary rivals, whofe inferiptions denoted
the lofty greatnefs ofthe Colonnaname. ‘The combats were
dangerous and bloody. very champion fucceffively en-
countered a wild bull; and the viétory may be afcribed to
the quadrupeds, fince no lefs than eleven were left on the
field, with the lofs of nine wounded, and eighteen killed on
Rl2 the
COL
the fide of their adverfaries. Some of the nobleft families
might mourn, but the pomp of the funerals, im the churches
of St. John Lateran, and St. Maria Maggiore, afforded a
fecond holiday to the people.
This ufe of the amphitheatre, he adds, was a rare, per-
haps a fingular feftival ; the demand for the materiais was a
daily and continzal want, which the citizens could gratify
without reftraint or remorfe. In the fourteenth century, a
feandalous aé of concord fecered to both faétions the privi-
leve of extraGting flon:s from it, as a free and common
quarry ; and Pogzius laments that the greater part of thefe
frones had been burnt to lime by the fol y of the Romans.
Yo check this abule, and to prevent the rogiurnal cr mes
that might be peroetrated in the valt and gloomy recels,
Engenius 1V. furrounded it with a walt; and by a charter,
Jong extant, granted both the ground and edifce to the
Olivetan Monks. After his death, the wall was overthrown
in atumult of the peopie ; ard had they themfelves refpea-
ed the nobleft monument of their fathers, they might have
jullified the refolve thatit fhould never be degraded to private
property. The infide was damaged ; brtin the middle of
the fixteenth century, an wera of tatte and learning, the 'ex-
terior circumference of one thoufand fix hundred and twelve
fect was ftillinviolate ; a tripie clevation ot fourfore arches,
which refe to the height of one hundred and eight feet.
Of the prefent ruin, the nephews of Paul IIL. are the
guilty agents; and every traveller who views the Farnete
palace, may curfe the facrilege and luxury of thefe upitart
princes. A fimilar reproach is applied to the Barbarini ;
and the repetition of injury might be dreadcd from every
reign, till the Colifeum was placed under the fafeguard of
religion, by the molt liberal of the pontiffs, Benediét
XIV. who confecrated a fpot, which perfecution had
{tained with the blood of fo many Chnitian martyrs.
(Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, vol. vi. p. 635—640.)
Gammucci, Scamozzi, Serlio, Maffei, and fevcral others
occur among the more valuable writers on the Fiavian am-
phitheatre, exclufive of thofe who have written on the gene-
ral antiquities of Rome. Some) curious particulars alfo
may be gathered from “ L’Anfiteatro Flavio,” ‘del —
Cavalier Carlo Fontana,”’ fol. Haia. 1725 ; and fome more
elaborate details in ‘ Joh. Maranzoni delle Memorie facre
et profane dell Anfiteatro Flavio di Roma, volgarmente letto
il Coloffe, Differtazicne,’’ 4tc. Rom. 1746. See alfo Wil-
kins’s defeription of Ancicnt and Modern Rome,” vol. i.
p. (1g. and ‘*Tappen’s Profeffional Obfervations on the
Archite@ure of the Ancient and Modern Buildings in
France and Italy,” p. 151.
The term Co/i/eum is alfo given to two other amphithe-
atres; that of the emperor Severus, and the amphitheatre of
Capua.
COLISTA. in Biography, an eminent performer on the
organ at Rome,1770. He wasat this timeorganilt of St. John
Lateran, the molt ancient church in Chriftendom. The organ
of this church, which is the largeft in Rome, was built in
1549, and has undergone two repairs fince; the one in
1600, by Luca Blafi Perugino, aud a fecond, a few years
fince, under the direétion of the prefent orgamift. It has
thirty-fix ftops, two fets of keys, long cighths, an o¢tave
below double F. and goes upto E, in altiffimo. It has like-
wife pedals; in the ufe of which Signor Coliita is very dex-
trous. His manner of playing this inftrument feems to be
the true organ ftyle, though his tafte is rather ancient 5 in-
deed the organ ftyle feems to be better preferved throughout
Italy than itis with us; as the harpfichord is not fuflicient-
lv cultivated to encroach upon that inftrument. Signor
Colifta played feveral fugues, in which the fubjects. were fre-
COL
quently introduced on the pedals, in a very meft rly manner,
But it feems as if every virtue in mufic was to border upon
fome vice ; for this ftyle of playing precludes all grace, teftc,
and melody ; while the light, airy harpfichord kind of play-
ing. deft-oys the /aflenuto and richrefs of harmony and con.
trivanceof which this divine inftrument is fo peculiarly capable.
COLITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome
writers to a tone fuppofed to imitate the human penis, or
tefles, Separately, or both together.
COLILUS, in Ornithology, the name of the red creeper,
8 in Moehrinp’s genera of birds, certhia mexicana of Gmeiin,
Trochilus coccineus, Linn. Syit. nat 6.
Corius,a genus of the paficrine order, ditinguifhed by
having the bill fhort, thick, convex above, and flat beneath;
upper mandii ' bent down at the tip; noltrils fmall, fta-
ated at the bale of the bill, and near.y covered with feathers ;\
tongue jagged at the tip; tail long and cuneated.
‘The birds of the conus tribe are mottly inhabitants of
Africa and India. The number of {pecies at prefent known
amount to feven, two only of which are defcribed by Lin-
nus, the colius capenjis, confidered by that naturalilt as
appertainiag to the loxia or crofs-bill tribe, and named by
him loxia celius; the other, cclius /enegalenfis, which Lin-
neus clafles with the butcher birds, under the name of la-
nius macrourus. :
Bniflon firft propofed to forma diftin@ genus of thofe
birds under the title of colivs, which was afterwards adopted
by Buffon, under that of co/icu. The genus colius, is infert-
ed in the Gmelinian edition of the Syflema Nature, and by
Dr. Latham in his Index Ornithologicus, Coly is the
Englifh name afligned to this genus of birds in the fynopfis
of the lail-:nentioned writer.
Species.
Carensis. Exterior tail feathers white on the outfide ;
body: cisereous. beneath whitifh. Gmel. Colims capitis
bone fpei. Briff. Le coliou du cap de B. Efp. Bofk
Vielle, &c. Capecoly. Lath.
This bird inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and is alfo
found in the wo:ds in the fouthern parts of Africa. Its
length is rather more than ten inches; the bill is grey with
the tip black ; the head and neck purplih afh ; brealt vinace-
ous; upper tail coverts purplifh bay ; lower coverts, with.
the belly whitifh; lower wing-coverts black; legs grey, and
armed with black claws. : ;
SENEGALENSIs. Vinaceous-grevifh ; tail blueith; head
crefted. Gmel.. Colius fenegalenfis criftatus. Briff. Co-
liou huppeé du Senegal. Buff. Senegal Coly. Lath. ‘
According to Latham, this fpecies is the fame fize as the
preceding; Gmelin and Vielle defcribe it as being about
the fame bulk, but meafuring two inches more in length.
As in capenfis the bill is grey with the tip black; the head
is decorated with a crelt of long feathers of a fea green co-
lour, the reft of the head, neck, breaft, belly, and lower
part of the back grey; wings and tail grey brown; the
middle feathers of the tail cight in number, the outer ones
{carcely an inch in length.
Eryturopus. Blueith ath, beneath whitifh; head creft-
ed; rump purple, witha white ftreak in the middle; lefs
red; all the toes turned forward. Gmel. Le coliou a ecrou-
pion blanc. Vielle. White-backed coly. Lath. phe
This bird is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. Its
length is twelve inches, The head is ornamented with a
creit fimilar to that of the Senegal coly ; its back is of a
chefnut purple, with a large white band on the lower parr,
the reft of the plumage above is afh-colour, beneath whitifh ;
its legs are yellow with a reddifh tinge, aud the gir’ ie ;
- ac
COL
bleck. The fpecies is called by Dr. Latham, colius leuco-
notos, Ind. Orn.
Srriatus. Grey; abdomen rufous with tranfverfe black
ftreaks ; tail green. Colius ftriatus. Gmel. Le coliou rayé.
Boff. Radiated coly. Lath.
Rather larger than either of the former fpecies, meafuring
in length about thirteen inches; the two middle tail feathers
eight incheslong. This is an elegant bird, and inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope.
Panayensts. Cinereous tinged with yellowifh ; beneath
rufous; brealt ftriated with black; head crefted. Gmel.
Coliou de Pifle de Panay, Buff. Panayan coly. Lath.
A native of the Ifle of Panay. Size that of the common
grofyeak. The feathers on the head are ftraight and very
long, and fo-m a creft which the bird can elevate at pleacure.
The bill is black; le egs pale flefh colour.
Viripis. Shining green; hind head,
black ; wings and legs Blackith. Green Coly.
Coliou vert. Vicile.
A native of New Holland. The length is twelve inches.
The front and bill are bs wings and tal blackith, the
general colour of the plumage fiue green.
Inpicus. Cinereous, beneath rufous; hind head, chin,
lorrs, and Stead orbits of the eyes yellow. Indian coly.
Lath. Le Coliou des Indes. Vielle.
Length fourteen inches. General colour of the plumage
cinereous afh above, and redd:fh beneath ; black, except the
bafe, which is red; the legs are red with black claws
COLL, in ii See Cou.
COLLABANG, a town of Hindooftan, in the Malwa
country ; 44 miles W. of Chandaree.
COLLADO, Disco, in Biography, a Spanih Dominican,
was born at Eiframadura, at the clofe of the fixteenth cen-
tury, and fludied at Salamanca. He went as a miffionary
to Japan i in 1621, a time when Chriltians were expofed by
the natives to every {pecies of perfecution. Meeting with
little or no fuccefs, he returned to Rome in 162 ie and ater
fome years he obtained regular permiflion to preach the gof-
psl in China, Japan, and other eaftern countries. In 1635,
he failed with twenty-four of his brethren, and having ar-
rived at the Philippines, he attempted to eflablith feveral
convents, from which miffiovaries were to befent out. This
proj: did not fucceed, and Collado was recalled by the
king to Spain ; in his voyage home he was fhipwrecked, and
loft his {life at Manilla. He died in 1638, leaving behind
him many works; of thefe the principal are, a ‘ Japonefe
Grammar ard Digtionary in Latin”? ‘* A Soe ecion of
Hyacinth Orfanels Hitt, Eccletiattica Japon.’
arium Lingue Smenhs, cum expiicatione Latina ec Hifpa-
nea, charactere Sinenfi et Latino.”’? Gen. Biog.
COLLAERT, Anrian, an engraver and print-feller
of Ahtwerp. He is faid to have received the fi ft mitruc-
tions in his art, in the place of his nativity; after which
he repaired to Italy to complete his ftudies. He con-
tributed not alittle, by his affiduity, and the facility of his
graver, to the numberlefs fets of piints of facred ftories, hurt-
ings, landfcapes flowers, fifh, &c. with w hich the ftates of
Germany and [landers were at that time inundated. Many
of thefe are apparently from his own defi-rns, and others from
Martinde Vos, Theodore Bernard, P. Breughel, John
Stradanus, Hans Bol, and other maflers. H's ityic of
engraving is at the fame time majterly and neat, and his
knowledge of drawing appears to have been confiderable ;
but his prints partake of the d.fcéts of his contemporaries,
with refpect to effeét of Chiaro-fcuro; his mafl-s of light and
fha’e being too much feattered, and too equaliy powerful,
The following are among ft his numerous performances. ‘The
and eyelids filky
‘Bath. Le
« Dision. h
COE
¢ life of Chrift in 36 {mall prints.” “The twelve monthis,
{mail eircles from H. Bol.”” ** The women of Ifrael chanting
the pfalm of praife, after the deftruétion of the Egyptians
in the Red Sea.”? This arti flourifhed according to Strutt
and Heinecken about 1530—1550.
Corvarrt, Hans or Joun, an excellent dranghtf-
man and engraver, fon to the foreyoing artilt. He fludied
fome time in Rome, and afterwards fettled ia his native
place, Antwerp, where he affifted his father in moit of his
great works ; and afterwards pubithed a prodigious number
of prints of his own, nowife inferior to thofe of Adrian.
The works attributed by fome to one Herman Coblent, are
by Heinecken, fuppofed to» be by this matter. His prints,
according to Strutt, are dated from 1555, to 1622, fo that
he muft have lived to a great age.
We fhall only uotice the following amongtt his numerous
performances: ‘the life of St. Francis in 16 prints length-
ways, furrounded by grotefque borders.” ‘Time and truth,”
afmall upright print beautifully engraved, from J. Stra-
danus; ‘the laft Judgment,’’ a large print, encompafled with
{mall ftories of the life of Chrift. "M. Heinecken mentions
a print by an artilt, who figns himfelf William Coilaert, and
fuppofes him the fon of John Collaert. Strutt. Heinecken.
COLLAR fir Horfes, from coliter, Fr. and collum, Lat.
the neck, it being the part to which it isapplied. It is not
improbable that the ufe of the horfe in draft fervice was prior
to that of his being rode, and hence it is reafonable to infer,
that the ufe of. the collar, or fome fuch apparatus, was
near'y coeval with his firlt dometlication, or only fecond,
p-thaps, to the ufe of the dre or pannier, which, as being
the molt fimple way of employing the horfe, would firft fug-
geit itfelf to his pofleffor.
To any one employing horfes in draft, the conftruction:
of the collar, and the proper adjuftment of it, cannot be
a matter of indiffcrence, asthe quantity of force be can
exert, and of work which he may be made to perform, will
depend in fome degree upon the due application of it, as
well as it may ferve, work being made eafy to him, to pro-
long the ae of his fervices.
The collar at Haas in ufe for the lichter kind of draft
hories, may be thus deferibed : it confilts of a frame formed
of ftraw, of the exterior figure of the bafe or lower part of
the neck; this ftraw is brought together, and firmly bound
round by flrong leather, which is fewed over it; behind
this a fofter cufhion or pad 1s formed, and attached to the
former by its leather being reflected over it, and to which
it is Srmly fewed; as the Jraft could not be attached to fuch
materials, two rods, or ltays of iron, pafs between the collar
and pad, having ftaples, loops, or eyes, t» which the traces,
cords, or chams for draft, are affixed ; thele rods are eafily
opencd or cloled, and adapted to the fize of the neck by
itraps aud buckles at the upper or lower end, or both,
the elaftic materials of the collar and pad readily yielding
to the figure thefe deferibe ; fome of thefe are cloted only.
by an hinge at the end, and it mult be obvious that they will
admit of much variety of {truéture in this refpedt; thefe
irons are termed the ames, probably from carrying the ha-
mus or hook to which the traces are affixed, and on heavy
draft horfes, they are formed of two {tout pieces of wood,
plated with iron, to which the ftap'es are affixed, and thefe,
as the former, are drawn together or relaxed at either extre-
mity by itraps or chains, and as they are made to rife confi.
derably above the withers, it 1s ufual to place the bearing
rein over them, which, in horfes of lighter draft, are carried
to the hook of the faddle. All the coilars we recollect to
have feen, may be reduced to the above general princ'ples of
conitruétion. This collar fhould not be large enough to get
ypon
cou
upon the fhoulders, and good room fhould be left at its
lower part for the freedom of breathing. ,
For cattle employed in hufbandry, another defcription of
collar is ufed, termed the yoke, and which is ftill very much
in ufe in the weftern parts of England. It appears to be
conitru@ed nearly as follows: T'wo heavy pieces of wood
as large as a man’s arm, or larger, form an oblong arch,
whofe fides are nearly upright, and almoft parallel to each
other; this is placed over the withers of the beaft ; and
through a hole made in the two extremities of this yoke,
pailes along ftick or rod, which is tranfverfely perforated to
receive two pegs, which prevent the yoke from fliding along
upon thisrod. The two beatts being brought abreaft, the
{ame rod is made to pafs throuzh both the yokes, and being
faitened by the pegs, the cattle are prevented from going
from, or coming nearer to, each other; aring, fituated in
the middle between the two, and through which the fame
itick alfo paffes, ferves to attach the draft by a chain paflirg
between the two oxen.
This conftrudtion has a truly ruftic appearance, and, one
fhould fuppofe, would be but little liable to be out of order.
The heavy, and often unneceflary, weight of the yoke has
been objected to, as has alfo the effe& of the folid wood refl-
ing on the neck or fhoulders ; and it is becoming more ufual
to employ collars inftead of this; as, however, the head of
the ox, from its fize, will not admit a collar over it that
would fit the neck, it is made, on this account, fo open at
the top or bottom, and to clofe after it is on, by a chain or
aftrap. It is obvious, however, that the complication of
traces is prevented by the yoke, and the regularity and even-
nefs of the work are cafily feen by the fituation of the crofs-
piece or flick pafling ftraight through the two yokes.
The war-charict of the ancients appears to have been ufed
with the latter kind of tackling, ef which a lucid, ufeful
account has been given us by governor Pownall. (See Be-
renger’s Horfemanfhip, vol. 1. p. 271-) A pele in this in-
ftance pafled between the two horfes, refting, by its extremity,
upon the crofs-piece, from the yokes about breait-high; a
fpike rifing from this pafled through a perforation in the
extremity of the pole, which wasithen lafhed to it firmly
by a ftrong thong of leather; the axletree of the carriage
extended the whole width of the two horfes, or if four were
ufed, as in the guadriga, a pole paffed from the jugum be-
tween each pair of horfes, though on fome occafions one
pole ferved for the whole four, pafling in the middle between
them, fo that the two outfide horfes were lafhed to the ve-
hicle fomewhat in the manner of what, in modern days, are
termed outriggers.
The collar in ufe with them, termed /epadna, was a fort
of thick, broad, leathern belt, confiiling, according to the
reprefeutations of it on ancient feulptured buildings, to all
appearance “of feveral folds of leather fluck together and
bound at the edges, and fo cut and fhaped as to fit the neck
and brealt without prefling or pinching in one part more
than another when buttoned on ;”? and upon this fort of col-
lar, if we miftake not, appears to have refted the yoke.
To this apparatus alfo belonged the mafchalifleris, or body
girth, being a broad leathern belt paffing round the chelt,
and fixed to the jugum and the /epadna by the jugalia lora.
This body-girth appears to have becn ufeful principally in
ftopping and keeping the cerriage fteady, theyoke indrawing.
‘The reins pafied through the two rings placed on the top
of the jugum above the withers.
« The axletrees of thefe machines were made of extraordi-
nary Jength, which enabled them to pafs in full career over
all kinds of ground, over heaps of arms or flaughitered bodies,
without the danger of an over-turn.’?
COL
The body itfelf of this carriage was fimply fixed to the
axletree, without being, as in modern times, fufpended from
it by chains or fprings, and then again was fixed to the
pole, or temo, fo that the whole formed one fixed, and, in
re{peé to its parts, immoveable machine.
Of this nature it is evident, from the deferiptions of Ho-
mer, were thofe ufed in the fiege of Troy ; and of the fame
kind it is alfo clear were thofe in ufe with the ancient Britons
when fubdued by Julius Czfar, and to whpm this art ap-
pears to have been difclofed, by colonies arriving in Britain,
and trading with her from the eaftern parts of the Mediter-
ranean. The aftonifhing monuments of the Druids, who
were the prielts of thefe colonies, are alfo corroborating 7
proofs of this being the aétual fource of their communication.
To return, however, to. the fubje& of the collar, we
may, in conciuding this imperfe&t account, remark, that it <
is not every fervant, having the care of horfes, that knows '
better than that the collar fhould reft for its principal fup-
port againft the fhoulders, which, however, it ought in no
wife to do, or but in a very fecondary way, as in fuch cafe it ;
would tend to.opprefs the movements of the fhoulder, and : .
|
p
:
|
the prcminent points of bone upon the fhoulder-blade,
would get rubbed and fore, as there is nothing but fkin,
covering them; their folid refiftance would foon occafion
the {kin to be worn through, or be much injured and fore,
for the place where the collar fhould reft is not there, but
the bafe of the neck, which in this part is particularly well _ '
covered with ftout flefhy mufcles to a great depth, affording
a kind of elaflic cufhion, that effeCtuaily faves the fkin from |
irritation by the preffure or fri@tion of the collar, and which |
circumitance cannot be too much attendedto. = ©
Some horfes, it is true, have necks but ill calculated for
this kind of harnefs, being very lean and devoid of muicle, '
and with fuch we may often obferve the head is unufually
large, fo much fo, that a collar that would &t the neck |
could not pafs over it; in this cafe the breaft-harnefs muft
be had recourfe to, or a collar opening at the top, as we
have already defcribed for the oxen. eae
In refpe& to the ule of the horfes in draft, it might admit
of {ome inguiry to what point of the collar, or rather
hames, the draft fhould be moft properly fixed; one fhould,
however, on a firft view, be led to imagine, that about the
middle of the depth of the coliar, or rather below that, .
would be the moft advantegeous point for inferting the hook
for the draft; in the yoke it would appear that the point of
draft was too low, but we do not venture to form an opinion:
upon a fubjeét we have fo little confidered, but merely pre=
fent it as worthy the confideration of thofe who may be
intereited in its difcuffion. Where the horfe is much ufed =~
with the collar in hot weather, or indeed at all feafons,”
wafhing the parts preffed upon frequently with cold water
hardens them, aed prevents the {fweat from colle@ing and”
injuring the flin. aes bet edb
Cottar is an ornament worn by the kings and
heralds at arms, judges, chief magiflrates, and others; 7
as alfo by the knights of feveral orders, hanging over
their fhoulders on their mantle. Collars ufually conif—
of achain of gold enamelled, frequently fet with cyphers, — |
or other devices, appropriate to the feveral orders,
the badge fulpended at the bottom. The collar’o
mot, noble order of the Garter, weighs 30 ounces
is of gold, and contains 26 rofes, all within ¢
enamelled, and as many knots (in-allufion to the fover
and his companions), from which is pendant the badge,
ing the figure of St. George on horfeback, in armour, en=
countering a dragon with a tilting {pear; and we often find .
onold monuments and feals, the collar furrounding the arms ~
of b
COL
ofthe knight. Tor the collars of the other orders, fee an
account of them under their re{pedtive heads.
Cotuar, in Roman Antiquity, a chain fixed round the
necks of flaves who had run away, after they were taken,
with an infcription, denoting that they were deferters, and
requiring them to be reltored to their proper owners,
Corvars, in Antiquity, were not only worn by way of
ornament, but alfo-as amulets, again incantations, &c.
Coxxar, haights of the, a military order in the republic of
Venice, called alfo the order of St. Afark, which fee.
Coxuar, Lord Mayor's. See Cuain.
Gorvar of Brawn. See Brawn.
Coxrxar, in Building. See CrncTure.
Coruar of the plough, aterm ufed in agriculture to ex-
prefs aring of iron, which is fixed to the middle of the
beam, and ferves to receive the ends of two chains, the low-
er one called the fow chain, and the upper one called the
bridle-chain. ‘The lower chain is fixed at its other end to
the box, and the upper, or bridle-chain; to the ftake which
runs parallel with the left hand crow-ftaff. Th=fe chains,
by means of this collar, and their other infertions, ferve to
join the head and tail of the plough together. In fome
places the bridle-chain is not fixed to the collar, but to the
beam itfelf, by means of a pin; and this is the better way
on manyaccounts, See Proucu.
Corrar-beam, in Carpentry, a piece of timber placed ho-
rizontaily between the heads of two queen-pofts in a trufs.
See Roor.
Corxar,in Ship Building, the upper part of a flay; alfo a
rope formed into a wreath, by fplicing the ends together with
a heart or dead-eye, feized in the bight, to which the flay
is conned at the lower end. There is alfoa collar, or gar-
land, about the main-malt head, which is a rope wound about
there, to fave the fhrouds from galling.
COLLARED, or Gorcep, in Heraldry, fignifes the
wearing a collar round the neck cf any beatt.
COLLAREDO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, 4 miles W. otf Parana.
COLLARES, cr Corares, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Eftramadura, 10 miles N. of Cafcaes.
~COLLARINO, Gorcerin, or Neckine, in frchi-
tedlure, that part of a column which 1s included between the
lower fillet of the capical, and the upper aftragal of the
fhaft. Thus the collarino is only found in the modern
Tufcan order. the Roman, and modern Doric; (See Plate
XVL. of Architecture ;) and fometimes, though rarely, in the
Tonic order.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c. fitu-
ate by the fide of another. The word is compounded of
con, with, and Jatus, fide.
CoLiareErat arteries of the arm, in Anatomy. Under this
general name are included thoie branches, which, arifing
from the humeral artery in its courfe along the arm, com-
municate with the recurrent branches of the arteries in the
fore-arm. The profunda humeri major, is called col/ateralis
magna; the protunda minor, and one or two other {mall
branches, are named collaterales minores. See ARTERIES.
CouratreraLt Points, in Cofmography, the intermediate
points, or thofe between the cardinal points. The collateral
points are either primary, which are thofe removed by an
equal angle on each fide from two cardinal points, or fecond-
ary ; which, again, are either thofe of the firft or fecond or-
der. The firlk are thofe equally diftant from a cardinal and
firft primary ; the latter equally diftant from fome cardinal
primary, and the firft fecondary. 5
Corrarerat Winds, are thofe blowing frona collateral
points. Sce Winp.
CoOL
Such are the north-eat, fouth-eaft, north-weft, fouth.
welt, &c. with their fubdivifions.
ConvaTerRAL, in Genealogy, is underftood of thofe rela-
tions, which proceed from the fame ftock or anceflor, and
in this refpect they agree with thofe that are imeal; but
they differ in this felpect. that they do not cefcend one
from the other. Accordingly, collateral kinfmen are fuch
as lineally fpring from one and the fame anceltor, who is
the /firps, or root, the lives, trunk, or common {tock, from
whence thefe relations are branched out. "Thus, if John
Stiles hath two fons, who have each a numerous ftflue, both
thefe iffues are lineally defeended from John Stiles, as
their common ancettor; and they are collateral kinfaien to
each other, becaufe they are all defcended from this com-
mon anceftor, and all have a portion of his blood in their
veins, which denominates them ‘* confanguineous.’”’ See
CoNSANGUINITY.
Cottarerat Defeent. See Descent.
CouiaTeraL Afurance, in Law, is a bond, or other fe-
curity, made over, and beyond the deed itfelf, for the per-
formance of covenants between man and man; thus called,
as being external, and without the nature and effeace of the
cevenant. Crompton fays, that to be fubject to the feeding
of the kiny’s deer, is collateral to the foil within the foreft.
"It may be added, that liberty to pitch booths in a fair, or
another man’s ground, is colleteralto the ground.
Coxtrareran Condition. See Conpirion,
Cotraterau Warranty. See Warrasty.
Cortaterat Cut, in Artificial Navigation, fignifies the
fame with arm or branch of a canal. See Canat.
Cottarerar DBeeboxes,in Rural Economy. See Hive.
COLLATIA, in ducient Geography, a city that ftood
on the borders of Latium, and the country of the Sabines,
between the Preneitine way and the left bank of the Anio,
about fix miles from Rome.
This town was taken by Tarquinius Prifeus, who left in
it a garrifon to awe the inhabitants. Tarquinius Col-
latinus, the hufband of Lucretia, ravifhed by Sextus Tar-
quinius, was of this town, In Strabo’s time it was only a
village. M. PAbbe Chaupy has found its ruins in a place
ealled. Corcollo. Alfo, a town of Italy,-in Apulia, near
mount Garganus, according to Pliny. The inhabitants
were denominated Collatini; and the territory Collatinus
Ager.
COLLATIO Bonorum, in Law.
and Horcupor. )
COLLATION, in Canon Law, the conferring, or be-
{towing a benefice by a bifhop, who has it in his own gift, or
patronage, and this he dors, jure pleno.
Collation d:ffers from ini{titution in this, that the jatter is
performed by the bifhop, at the motion or prefentation of
another ; and the former on his own motion. ;
Befides, by collation, the church is not full; for the high-
eft patron may at any ‘time remove the collatee, except he
hath a right to collate, which plenary by collation may be
pleaded ; the bifhop’s collation, in this refpeét, is no more
than a temporary provilion for celebration of divine fervice,
till the patron prefents.
Collation alfo differs from prefentation, as the latter is pro-
perly the act of a patron, offering his clerk to the bifhop te
be inftituted into a benefice ; whereas the former is the a&t
of the bifhop himfelf. The coilator can never confer a be-
nefice on himlelf.
Collation differs from a common prefentation, as it is
the giving of the church to the parfon; and prefentation
is the giving, or offering of the parfon to the church. But
collation fupplies the place of prefentation and inttitutioa ;
and:
See DistripuTION
© OL
and amornts to the fame as infitution, where the bifhop is
r Lil. Abr. 273.
In the Romifh church the pope is the col'ator of ali the
beucfices, even elective ones, by prevention; fetting afite
confi tovial benefces, and thofe in the nomination of lay-pa-
trons. DPrelates and bifhops are called ordinaries, or ordinary
co le€tors.
If the ordinary collaror neglv& to exercife his right for Gx
movths. the fiiventor collator may collate by devolution.
Thus, if the hithop negieét, the metropolitan may confer ;
then the primate ; and fo on fram degree to degree. © In
France, the king, according to the old conflitution, was the
colator of all the benefices wherecf he is patron, excepting
confittorial ones, to which he ha? only the nomination, and
the pope, by virtue of the concordat, was obliged to confer
on whomf ever the king nomicates: For the reit, he was ¢i-
rect and abfolute collator ; and might confer them, by virtue
of a kind of priefthood annexed to the royalty.
Other lay-patrons have f-ldom more than a mere prefent-
ation ; the collation properly belouging to the bifhop: yet
there are fome abbots who have the full right of collation.
"The canonilts reckon two kinds of collation; the one tree
and voluntary, the other neceflary. The firlt depending on
the mere will of the collator, who may chule whom he
pleafes to fill the vacancy. In the latter, the collator is not
at his liberty ; which is the cafe where a benefice his been
refizned, or changed, and that refination or permutation al-
lowed of by the tuperior; for here the collator is obliged
to grant the provifion to the reflignatory, or compermu-
tant.
It is a maxim in the new canon law, collationes funt in fruc-
tibus ; “ Thofe who have the fruits of a benefice, have the
collation.”? But in that cafe, the word collation is ufed for
prefentation. See Lapse and Presentation.
Couvarion, in Common Law,is the comparifon, or pre-
fentation of a copy to its original, to fee whether or not it be
conformable: or the report, or at of the officer who made
the comparifon. A collated aét is equivalent to an ongi-
nal, provided all the parties concerned were prefent at the
collation.
Coxxatron is alfo ufed among the Romanifts for the
meal or repaft made ona faft-day, in lieu of a fupper.
Only fruits are allowed in a collation: F. Lobineau ob-
ferves, that anciently there was not allowed even bread in the
collations in lent: nor anything befide a few comfits, and
dried herbs, and fruits; which cuftom, he adds, obtained till
the year 1513. Cardinal Humbert obferves further, that in
the middle of the eleventh century, there were no collations
at all allowed in the Latin church in the time of Lent ; and
that the cuftom of collations was borrowed from the Greeks ;
who themfelves did not take it up till about the eleventh
century.
Cotrartion, in Scots Law, denotes the right which an
heir has of throwing the whole heritabe and moveable eftates
of the deceafed into one mafs, and fharing it equally with
others in the fame degree of kindred, when he thinks fuch
fhare will be more than the value of the heritage to which
he had an exclufive title.
Couration, collatio, cuuSorn, in Rhetoric, is ufed for
ComPaRisONn.
But Scaliger diftinguifhes, alleging, that in collation,
one thing is compared to another that has preceded it ; and
that the contrary happens in comparifon. ~That to which
any thing iscompared is called protafis, and that which is
compared is called antapodofis.
Coxtation is alfo popularly ufed for a repaft between
dinner and fupper.
both patron and ordinary.
coL
The word collaticn, in this fenfe, Du-Cange derives fram
coliocutio, conference; acd maintains, that onginally collation
was only a conference, or coovertation on fubjedts of picty,
held on faltedays in monafterics; but that, by deg-ees, the
cullom was introduzed, of bringing in a few refrefhments ¢
and thar by the exceffes to which thofe fober repatts were at
length carrned, ‘the name of the abufe was rétained, but that
of the thing loft.
Cotvation of frals, denotes one feal fet on the fame label,
on the reverfe of ano
COLLATIONE fada uni pot mortem alterius, in Lace, a
writ directed to the juitices of tne Common Pleas, commend-
ing them to iffue their writ to the bifhep, for the aduoffion
of aclerk, in the piace of another prefented by the king,
who did during the fuit between the king and the bifhep’s
clerk ; for, judgment once paffed for the king’s clerk, and
he dying before admittance, the kisg may bellow his prefent-
ation on another. Reg. Orig. gr.
Corratione heremitegli,a writ whereby the king confer-
red the keeping of an hermitage upon a clerk. J
»Corratione-Cut, denotes a fide arm or branch of a
Canav. d $
COLLATIONIS forma. See Conrra.
COLLATIVE Advow/ans. See Apvowson.
COLLE, Joun, in Biography, a voluminovs writer on
medicine, was born at Belluno, in 15583 he ttudied medi-
cinesat Padua, under Capivaccius, and was made door in
that faculty in 1584. At Venice he praétifed medicine
about fifteen years, when he was promoted to be firft phyfi-
cian to the duke of Urbino. In 1591, he was called to fill
the chair of profcfor of medicine at Padua, which poft he held
with diftinguiihed credit to the time of his death, which hap-
pened in 1630. ;
Among his works are ‘‘ Mediciva PraGtica, five Methodus
cognofcendorum et curandorum omnium affeétuum pettilen-
tlalium ;”’ contayning a hiltory of epidemic difeafes, fol. 16176
In 1610, a f{pecies of pleurify prevailed, he fays, which did
not bear bieeding in the arm. Tt was moft fuccefsfully com-
bated by cupping, gly{ters, and mild cathartics. ‘¢ Cofmitor
mediceus triplex in quo exercitatio totius artis medicx decifa,
ac confultationes medicinales, et queitiones practice enucleate
proponuntur,”’ Venet. 1621, foiio. The book is dedicated to
Cofmo the Second, and contains a rational fyftem of medi-
cine, with numerous ufeful praétical obfervations. **De mor
gallico, et ejus fymptomatibus,” 4to. 1628, contains a brief
hiltory of this difeafe. He gave the decoGion of the woods,
and when they failed he had recourfe to ointments and fumi-
gations, with mercury. For the titles of the remainder of
his works, fee Haller’s Biblioth. Med. Praét. &e. Eloy
Dis. Hitt.
Core, Rarrarzo pet, fo called from the place of his
nativity, a {mall town near the city of St. Sepolcro; was a
painter of very extraordinary merit, though the circumftance
of his chief performances exifting im the environs of the retired
{pot where he was born, has occafioned his being but little
known. He is faid to have been, in his youth, the difciple
of Raffaelle d’ Urbino, and to have painted from that great
mafter’s defigns, the ftories of the Deluge, and the Adora-
tion of the Golden Calf, in the Loggia of the Vatican.
After the death of Raff. d’ Urbino, he affitted Giulio Ro-
mano in many of his great works at Rome, as well as in
thofe of the palace of Te at Mantua.
At St. Sepolcro are two altar-pi€tures by Raffaello del
Colle which poffefs great {pirit and beauty, and are worthy
of that {chool in which his talents were matured : the firft in
the church of S. Rocco, reprefents the refurrection of our
Saviour, where the majefty and triumph in the figure of -
2
Chrift
C/O L
Chrik are finely contrafted by the aftonifhment and terror of
the guards employed to keep watch; the other, in the
church of St. Francefco outfide the city, deferibes the af-
fumption of the virgin, and is replete with all the graces of
defign and colouring. The periods of the birth and death
of this maiter are unknown; we find, however, that he af-
fifted Vafariin the decorations made for the reception of
Charles V. at Florence in the year 1536. Langi. Storia
Pitt. Orlandi.
Corre, Cuarces, fecretary and reader to the duke of
Orleans, was born at Paris in the year 1709. He exhi-
bited an early tafte for poetry, and was author of vations
dramatic pieces. He was alfo a fong writer, and obtained
the name of the French Anacreon. For his fong written
on the capture of Port Mahon, he was rewarded witha pen-
fion of 600 livres.. He died in 1783, and his works have
been colle€ted in 3 vols. 12mo; under the title of “* Theatre
de Societé :”? his verfes are neat, and in general well turned,
but they are not unfrequently chargeable with indecency.
Nouv. Di&. Hitt.
Coxve, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Tufeany, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Florence; 25
miles fouth of Florence.
Corre Dunenzo, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Citra; feven miles north of Civita Borella.
Corre Duo, a town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo
Ultra; 23 miles S.W. of Aquila.
‘Coxe Salvieta, a town of the duchy of Tufcany; 10
miles from Pifa.
COLLEAGUE, a companion, partner, or affociate in
the fame office, or magiftrature. See Apysuncr and As-
SOCIATE.
The word is particularly ufed in fpeaking of the Roman
eonfuls, and emperors.
~COLLECHIO, in Geography, a town of Italy in the
Farmefan ; four miles weft of Parma.
COLLECT, Courecrion, a voluntary gathering of
money, for fome pious or charitable purpofe.
a | ;the name colle, or colledtion, was ufed, becaufe
thofe gatherings were anciently made on the days of collects,
aud in col’e@s, i.e. in aflemblies of Chriftians; but it was
more probably, quia colligebatur pecunia.
Cotvécr is fometimes alfo uied for a tax, or impofition,
ifed by a prince for any pious defign.—Thus hiftories fay,
1166, the king of England, coming into Normandy,
ed a colleé& for the relief of the Holy Land, at the
delire, and after the example, of the king of France. See
-Crorsane.
* Coxveer, in the liturgy of the church of England, and
the mafs oi the Romaniits, denotes a prayer accommodated
to any particular day, occafion, or the like.
In, the general, all the prayers in each office are called
tolleds ; either becaufe the prieft {peaks in the name of the
whole aflembly, whofe fentiments and defires he {ums up by
the word oremus, let us pray, as is oblerved by pope Inno-
cent IIT., or becaufe thofe prayers are offered when the peo-
ple are affembled together ; which is the opinion of Pame-
hus on Tertuilian.
‘he congregation often is in fome ancient authors called:
eollet he popes Gelafius and Gregory are faid to have
been the Grft who eitablithed collects. Defpenfe, a doctor
of the facuty of Paris, has an exprefs treatife on colle&s,
their origin, antiquity, authors, &c
COLLECTION, Coxcecrio, in Logic, a term ufed by
fome for what is commonly called SyLLocism, and Rario-
CINATION. ; é
COLLECTIVE Idea, is acomplex idea, which unites
Vor. VIII.
C'OnL
many ideas of the fame kind under one name, or undet one
view: asarmy, di@tionary, flock, &e. Sce Compiex and
Comrounvep Jitea.
COLLECTIVE, in Grammar, a term applied toa word
that exprefles a multitude; though itfclf be fingular. “Thus,
troop, company, and army, are nouns colleélive.
COLLECTOR, a perfon nominated by the commiffioners
of any duty, the inhabitants of a parifh, or the like, to raife
or gather any tax, &c. See Recervers.
Couuector, in L£ledricity, isa {mall appendage to the
prime cordpcor of the cletrical machine, gentraily con=
filing of pointed wires, affixed to that end of the prime
conductor which {tands contiguous to the glafs globe, or
cylinder, or other electric of the machine. its office is to
receive the eletricity, whether pofitive or negative, from the
excited electric, much more readily than the blunt end of the
prime conduéter would be able to reccive it withcut that ap-
pendage.
In the fimple, or rather defective, conftruétion of electrical
machines towards the beginning of the laft ceytury, an iron
or brafs chain, fupported in an horizontal pofition by means
of filk ftrings, formed the prime conductor ; and one ex-
tremity of that chain hanging perpendicularly down before
the globe of glafs or fulphur, or other electric, performed
the office of cojleStor. Sometimes inftead of the chain, a
gun barrel, f{upperted horizontally upon filk ftrings, was ufed
fora prime conduGor, and from one end of the barrel a piece
of chain came down before the electric, by way of colle&or.
Several years ago, the late fir William Watfon, M. D. con«
ftruéied an ele@rical machine, in which four glafs globes,
fet one above the other, were excited at the fame time
This machine, it feems, is fill in exiftence at the Britith
Mufeum. A gun barrel formed the prime conductor, and
from one end of this barrel a fort of metallie fringe came
down and collected the cle€tricity from the four globes,
which it touched in the anterior part of their furface. In
other machines a fort of taffel of gilt paper formed the col-
lector. But, though this taffel, or chain, or fringe, might
ar{wer the purpofe fufficiently, at a time when the excitation
of the eleCtric was weak, in confequence of the imperfeét
conttruction of the machines, {mall fize of the ele&tric, and
elpecially for want of the amalgam, which, fince it was in-
troduced by Mr. Canton, has greatly increafed the power
of the machines; they were in procefs of time found lefs
ufeful, and as the fcience was improved, other methods were
adopted; for when the cleétricity is copioufly fupplied,
thole collectors diffipatea great portion of it into the fur-
rounding air, or the adjacent folids; fince the difperfion of
eleftricity from the furface of a certain body, feems to be
greater than in the fimple proportion of the quantity of clec~
ricity in that body.
In Dr. Prieftley’s ele&trical machine, which he defcribed in
his Hittotry of Electricity, (part v. fec. ii.) the prime conduct-
or is an hollow copper veffel of a pear-like form, the upper
part of which is furnifhed with a long bent wire in the form
of an arch. ‘he farther end of this wire comes near the
glafs globe, and is formed into a ring, in which are hung
{ome fharp pointed wires, that play lightly upon the furface
of the globe when it is in motion. This form of the prime
conductor, bent wire, &c. is, however, very improper on va-
rious accounts. But with refpeé to the colleétor, there is
no occafion to place the pointed wires fo near as to touch
the glafs globe or cylinder, In Nairne’s patent electrical ma-
chine, in. which the conduétors are placed parallel to the
axis of the giafs cylinder, a number of pointed wires, little
more than an inch in length, are fixed on the fide of the
condudtor, and are fituated fo as to come with their points
sE within
COL
within the diftance of about a quarter of an inch from the
furface of the glafs cylinder. Indeed pointed wires, fixed
immediately on the blunt end of the prime conduétor, from
abont one quarter of an inch to three inches in length, ac-
cording to the fize and fhape of the machine, and dire@tcd
towards the glafs globe, or cylinder, or piate, of the electri-
cal machine, fo that their pointed extremities may ftand
at the diltance of about half an inch from the glafs furface,
form the beft fort of colleGor; and fuch have been ufed
in the belt and mof powerful machines, conftruéted by
Nairne, Dollond, Adams, Cuthbertfon, Jones, and other
eminent philofophical inftrement makers.
In order to afcertain what number of pointed wires wou!d
be fufficient to form the colle&tor for any particular electric-
al machine, feveral experiments were made fome years ago,
by a few {cientific gentlemen. They fucceffively placed at
the end of the ‘prime condu€tor, one, two, three, and many
more, pointed wires ; and with each number examined: the
Jength and power of the {park drawn from the end of the
prime conduétor; the revolution and excitation of the cy-
linder being continued as equally as it was poffible. They
alfo repeated the fame experiments with machines of various
fizes. Upon the whole they found, that a fingle fharp
pointed wire between two and three inches in length, im-
bibed nearly as much ele&ricity from the largeft cylinder, as
any number of wires ; and two or three wires fet parallel to,
and at about one inch diftance from each other, (which in an
ele&trical machine with a very large cylinder a€ted Very little
better than a fingle wire) was the ucmoft number of wires,
that need be ufed for a colleGtor. A greater number, by
reaching too far beyond the protection of the biunt end of
the conductor, and by coming nearer to the pillars of the
machine, ferve only to diflipate the elericity.
The particular fhapes of the colleétors for the various
forms of eleStrical machines are exhibited in feveral of the
plates belonging to electricity in this Cyclopedia.
Couxectors, in Botany, {uch ftudents as have attempted
the knowledge of plants, without reducing it to any certain
fcience, being barely employedsabout obferving, or getting
together the various fpecies. Linnzi Fund. Bot. p. 1.
COLLEDA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and country of Thuringia, 12 miles
N. of Weimar, and 16 N.N_E. of Erfurt.
COLLEGATARY, in the Civil Law, a perfon to
whom is lefta legacy in common with one or more other
perfons. Ifthe thing be bequeathed in /olido, the portion
of a deceafed collegatary accrues to the reft. :
COLLEGE, an affemblage of feveral bodies, or focieties ;
or even of fevera] perfons into one fociety.
College, collegium, among the Romans, was ufed for an
aflemblage of feveral perfons employed inthe fame funétions,
and, as it were, bound together to a&, or ferve in concert.
The pontifices, augures, feptemviri epulones, and quinde-
cemviri, were called the four colleges of priefts. When di-
vine honours were decreed to Auguttus, after bis death, a
fifth college was added, compofed of his priefts, hence call-
ed * Collegium fodalium Auguitalium.”? (Tac. Annal, iit.
64. Dio. Ivi. 46. viii 12.). So * Flavialum coilegi-
um’? denoted the priefts of Titus and Vefpafian. (Suet.
Dom. 4.). To each of the colleges of pontitices, augures,
and quindecemviri, Julius Czfar added one, and to the fep-
temviri three. (Dio. xlii.). After the battle of Actium, a
power was granted to Auguttus, of adding to thele colleges
as many extraordinary members as he thought proper 5
which power was exercifed by the fucceeding emperors; fo
that the number of thefe colleges was from that time very
cOoL
uncertain, (Dio. li, 20. liii, 17.), They feem, however,
to have retained their ancient names. But the name of
collegium was applied not only to fome other fraternities of
pricits, befides thofe above enumerated, but to any number
of perfons joined in the fame office, as the confuls, pretors,
quettors, and tribunes. Moreover, it ferved indifferently
for.thofe employed in the offices of religion, of government,
the liberal arts, and even mechanical arts, or trades; fo that
the word properly fiznificd what we call a corporation, or
company. In the Roman empire, there were not only the
college of augurs, and the college of capitolini, i. e. of thote who
had the fuperintendence of the capitoline games; but alfo
colleges of artificers, collegia artificum ; college of carpenters, 5
fabricorum, ov fabrorum tignariorum ; of potters. figulorum ;
of founders, erariorum ; the college of lockfmiths, fabrorum
Jerrariorum; of evgineers of the army, tignariorum; of
butchers, /aniorum; of dendrophori, dendrophororum s of
centonaries, centonartorum; of makers of military cafques, —
fagariorum ; of tent-makers, tabernaculariorum ; of bakers,
piflorum ; ef muficians, tibicinum, &c.
Plutarch obferves, that it was Numa who firft divided the
people into colleges. Finding, upon his acceffion, the city
torn to pieces by the two rival faGtions of Sabines and Ro-
mans, he thought it a prudent and politic meafure to fub-
divide thefe two into many {maller ones, by inftituting fe-
parate focietics of every manual trade and profeffion. “This
he did to the end, that each confulting the intercits of their
college, whereby they were divided from the citizens of the —
other colleges, they might not enter into any general con-
{piracy againit the public repofe.
Thefe political conftitutions, originally invented by the
Romans, were afterwards much contidered by the civil laws
in which they were called ‘* univerlitates,’’ as forming one
whole out of many individuals; or ‘ collegia,”? from being
gathered together. They were adopted alfo by the canon
law, for the maintenance of ecclefialtical difcipline; and —
from them our {piritual corporations are derived. See Cor= —
PORATION. Motion H
Colleges were diftinguifhed from other focieties, HOt form=
ed into colleges by public authority, in this, that thofe who
compofed a college, were qualified to treat of the common
interelts of their college, which was, as it were, a member
of the ftate, and had a common purfle ; an agent to, negotiate -
their affairs ; fent deputies to the magiltrates when they
wanted to treat with them; might make ftatutes and by-
laws, for the adminiftration of their college, &c. +
There are various colleges on foot among the moderns, —
built on the model of thole of the ancients; as the three
colleges of the empire, viz. the college of eledors, college of
princes, and college of cities. This diltinction is faid to have _
been eltablifhed, at the diet of Frankfort, in the year 15S0. _
Coxusce of Eledors, is the body of eleCiors, or thew de-
puties, aflembled in the dict at Ratifbon. The eleétion of
emperor is required to be made at Frankfort by the
golden bull; though fome emperors have been elected at
Ratifbon. See Erector. Tag oy
Cottece of Princes, is the body of princes, or their —
deputies, at the diet of Ratifbon.
This college of the princes of the empire is more n+
five, as to number, but lefs powerful than the electoral cole
lege, which, with the emperor, is at the head of the Ger-
manic body. Thefe princes, as well as the electors, are di-
vided into two clafles, fecular, as dukes, margvaves, land-
graves, burgraves, counts, &c.; and ecclefiaitic, fuch 23
Wy 32:
archbifhops, bifhops, abbots, &c. that immedrstely hold of
the empire. Thole who compofe this coilege, ae
right
TRE wy
CHOU, EGE |
rahe of fitting in the Jiets, or ge~eralaff.mbites, with a de-
Kberative and decifive voice, and contribute to the nec fiities
of the empire, according to the tax eltablithed by the ma-
tricular book, or regilter of the ftates. ‘The princes of both
orders, in the former flate of the German empire, held im-
mediately of the emperor aid the empire; *they had power
to appoint judges for the admiviltration of jnflice, which
fom- of them exercifed as fovercigns, whie others were
Timited to certain fums, above which all caufes depending
mult be decided by appeal to the chamber of Spire. They
were allowed to eftablith new. laws, create magiftrates, grant
letters of xrace, refpite, fafe condué, majority, and legitima-
tion. They had the right to fucceed to baltards, to raife
and quarter foldiers, ere€t univerfities, coin money, make
arms, ‘and caft artillery, to increafe the number of their
ortrefivs, and fecure them with varrifons; make alliances
among themlelyes, as well as with flrangers, for their com-
mon defence ; and, ina wo-d, to reign in their territories as
the emperor reigned in the empire. For the change in the
German empire thet has recently occurred, fee Conrepera-
rion and Germany.
Cocrece of Cities, is, in like manner, the bedy of de-
puties which the feveral imperial and free cities fend to the
diet. Thefecities. which were formerly numerous and im-
portant, are now reduced to the following fix, US. Ham-
burgh, Avefberg Lubcck, Nuremburg, Frankfert, and
Bremen. The civies of Ratifb-n and Wetzlar are no long-
er confidered as imperial, but esjoy an abfolute neutrality,
even during the wars of the empire, the firlt as the feat of
the diet, and the fecond as that o! the imperial chamber. Sve
ConFeperarion and Germany.
Coirect, Lie@oral, in the late organization of the French
conttitution, denotes a certain clafs of perfons, nominated by
the affembly of canton (fee Canton) for each diftri@ and
department. ‘Whe eleGtoral colleges of diftri& have a mem-
ber for every 500 inhabitants domiciliated within thé diftrict ;
but the number of members cannot exceed 250, nor belefs than
120. The eleét>ral colleges of departments have a member
for every £000 inhabitants domiciliated within the depart-
ment; acd thefe members cannot exceed 300, nor be under
200. The members of the ele toral colleges are for life. If
any member of the electoral college be denounced to govern-
ment for any a contrary to honour or the interelt of the
couatry, the government invites the college to declare its
will; but no number under three fourths of the votes fhall
deprive the denounced member of his place in the college.
A place is loft in the electoral colleges for the fame caufes
that deprive a perfon of the right of citizen. It is alfo for-
forfeited without any legitimate obltruction, by non-attend-
ance at their fucceflive meetings. The firlt conful appoints
the prefidents of eleGtoral colleges for each feffion; and the
prefident alone has the police of the electoral coliege, after it
is aflemb'ed. The eleétoral colleges appoint for each feffion
two ferutineers and a fecretary.
For the purpofe of the formation of ele&oral colleges of
departments, there fhall be prepared in every department, un-
der the direétion of the minilter of finance, a lift of 600 of
the citizens, who ftand higheft in the rolls of contributions,
landed chattel, and fumptuary, and upon the roll of patents.
The aflembly of canton thall take from this lift the mem-
bers which it is to appoint to the electoral college of the de-
artment. The firft conful may add to the electoral colieges
of diftriéts 10 members, chofen from the citizens belonging to
the legion of honour, or who have rendered fervices. It may
alfo add to every eleétoral college of department 20 citizens,
of whom 1o fhall be taken from the jo ofthe firlt confidera-
tion in the department ; and the 10 others either from the
members of the legion of honowr, or citizens who have
rendered fervices. He is not confined for thefe nominations
to any fixed period in point of time. The electoral colleges
of dikn& prefent to the firft couful two citizens domiciliated
within the diftri@ for every vacant place in the council of dif-
trict. One at leait of thefe citizens ought to be neceffarily-
chofen from without the eleGtoral college that prefenes him.
The councils of diftrict are to be renewed, a third ata time,
every three years. The electoral colleges of difkriGs prefent ta
every meeting two citizens, to form part of the itt from
which the members of the tribunate are to be chofen: and
one at leaft of thefe citizens mult be chofen from without the
ele&toral college that prefents him. Both may be teken from
without the department. The eleoral colleges of department
prefent to the Arf conful two domiciliated within the depart-
ment for every vacant place in the council) general af depart-
ment. One of thefe, at leaft, muft be taken from without the
elecvoral college that prefents him. The councils-general of de-
partinent are to berenewed by a third every five years. The
electoral colleges of department prefent to every meeting
two citizens to form the lift from which are to be appointed
the members of the fenate, one of whom mutt be taken from
without the college that prefents him; ard bth may be
teken from without the department. The ele€torai colleges
of department and diftri& prefent, each of them, two citizens
domicthated within the department, to form: the lit from °
which are to be chofen the members of the deputation to the
legiflative body ; one of thefe maft be taken from without the
college that prefents him. There mult be three times as
many different candidates upon the lift formed by the enion of
the prefentations of the electoral college of de partment and
diltrict, as there are here vacant places. The fame perfon
may be a member of a council of commune, and of an elegto-
tral college of diltri€t or department. A perfon cannot be at
the fame time a member of a college of diltri, and of a
college of department. The mempers of the legiflative body
and tribunate cannot eflilt at the fittings of the eleGtoral col-
lege, of which they will make part. All the other public
fundtionaries have a right to affilt and vote at them. No af-
f-mbly of canton fhall proceed to the nomination of the places
b:longing to it in an elegioral college until thefe places are
reduced to two-thirds. The eleétoral colleges cannot af-
femble but by virtue of an aé of convocation iffued by go-
vernment, and in the place appointed for them. T'hey can-
not occupy themfelves with any operations except thofe for
which they are convened, nor continue their fittings beyond
the time fixed by the aét of convocation. If they exceed
thefe limits, the government has aright to diffolve them.
‘Tne ele&tora! colleges can neither directly nor indire@ly, uns
dcr auy pretext whatever, correfpond between themfelves.
The diffolution of an eleGoral body operates the rent wal of
allits members.
Courece of Cardinals, or the fucred college, is a body
compoled of the three orders of card'nals, viz. cardinale
b:fhops, cardinal-prictts, and cardinal-deacons.
Each order has its dean, or chief. The dean of the
cardinal-bifhops is always the bifhop of Qttia. See Cars
DINAL.
Courree tsalfoufed for a public place, endowed with cer-
ta'n revenues, where the feveral parts of learning, both divine
and human, are taught, in {chools, halls, or clafies, appointed
for that purpofe.
An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges conititutes an
univerfity. ;
Among the Greeks, the lyceum and academy were cele-
brated colleges: the latter of which has given its name to
our univertities, which in Latin are called academia. With
toa them
1
COU: |
them, the heufe or apartment of each philofopher, or
rhetor, might be efteemed a kind of college of itfelf, See
Acapemy, and Lyceum. t
*The Romans came late into the inftitution of fuch colleges 5
they had, however, feveral founded by their emperors ; ef-
pecially in Gaul; the chief whereof were thofe of Marfcilles,
Lyons, Befancon, and Bourdeaux.
The Jews, and Egyptians too, have had their colleges;
the chief of the firft were thofeof Jerufalem, Tiberius, Nar-
dea, Pompodita, Sura, and Babylon; the lat is faid to have
been initituted by Ezekiel, and to have fubfifted in the time
of Mahomet.
Colieges of this kind have been generally in the hands of
thofe confecrated to the offices of religion; the Magi in
Perfia, the Gymnofophitts in the Indies, and the Druids in
Gaul and Britain, had the care of educating youth in the
{ciences.:
After Chriftianity became eftablithed, there were almoft
as many colleges as monatteries ; Charlemagne, in his Ca-
pitulars, injoining the monks to inftroé& youth in mufic,
grammar, and arithmetic; but this calling the monks from
their folitude, and taking up too much of their time, the care
of the colleges was at length put into the hands of thefe who
had nothing elfe to do.
In the canon law, it is faid, three perfons make a college,
tres collegium faciunt.
The eftablifhment of colleges or univerfites is a remark-
able era in literary hiftory. The fchools in cathedrals and
monatteries confined themfelves chiefly to the teaching of
grammar. But in colleges, profeffors were appointed to
teach ail the different parts of {cience. The time that
ought to be allotted to the ftudy of each was afcertained.
A regular form of trying the proficiency of ftudents wes
prefcribed ; and academical titles and honours were con-
ferred on fuch as acquitted themfelves with approbation. A
good account of the nature and origin of thefe is given by
Seb. Bacmeifterus ** Antiquitates Roftochienfes, five, Hif-
toria Urbis et Academie Roftoch, ap. Monumenta inedita
Rer. Germ, per E. 5. de Wieitphalen,’”’ vol. iii. p. 751.
Leipf. 1743. The firft obfcure mention of thefe academical
degrees in the univerfity of Paris (from which the other
univerlities in Europe have borrowed moft of their cuftoms
and inflitutions) occurs A.D. 1215. (Crevier, ‘¢ Hitt. de
VUniv. de Paris,” tom.i. p. 296, &c.). They were com-
pletely eflablithed A.D. 1231. It is unneceffary to enume-
rate the feveral privileges to which bachelors, matters, and
doétors were entitled. One circumftance is fufficient to
demonftrate the high degree of eftimation in which they
were held. Doors in the different: faculties contended
with knights for precedence, and the difpute was terminat-
ed in many inflances by advancing the former to the dig-
nity of knighthood, which was accompanied with high pre-
rogatives. It was even afferted, that a doftor had
aright to that title without creation. Bartolus taught
—** doforum aétualiter rezentem in jure civili per decen-
nium efiici militem ipfo fatto.”? (Honoré de St. Marie,
Differt. p. 165.) This was called “ Chevalerie de Lec-
tures,”? and the perfons advanced to that dignity, ‘* milites
clerici.’ ‘Thefe new eflablifhments for education, together
with the extraordinary honours conferred on learned men,
greatly increafed the number of fcholars. In the year
1262, there were 10,000 ftudents in the univerfity of Bo-
Jogna; and it appears from the hiltory of that univerfity,
that law was the only fcience taught in it at that time. In
the year 13.40, there were 30,000 in the univerfity of Ox-
ford, (Speed’s Chron. ap. Anderfon’s “ Chron. Deduction
of Commerce.”? vol, i, p. 172.) In the fame century
10,c00 perfons voted ona queftion agitated in the univerfity:
of Paris, and as graduates“alone were admitted to that pri-
vilege, the number of ftudents mult have been valtly great. ‘
(Velly’s “ Hilt. de France.” tom. xi. p. 147.) There were,,
indeed, few univerfities in Europe at that time ; but fach a.
number of fludents may neverthelefs be produced as a proof
of the extraordinary ardour with which men turned to the |
ftudy of fcience in thofe ages. It thews likewile that they ;
began to coniider other profeffions befides thar of a foldter — -
as honourable and ufeful’ See Robertfon’s Hit. Ch. Vo
vo}. i. p. 359, &e. iy %
For an account of the colleges of Cambridge and Ox-__ |
ford; fee thefe articles. For thofe of Scotland, fee
AsexpDeen, St. Anprew’s, Epinpurcu, and Grascow.
For thofe of. Ireland, fee Dusiin and Ireraxm
In America they have alfo many colleges. The moltancient,
as well asthe principal, ‘literary eftabliihment ia this count:
is Harvard college, or univerfity, which was founded | |
Newtown, fince called Cambridze, in the province of Maf--
fachufetts, in the year 1638. It derives its name from the
Rev. John Harvard of Charlettown, who left a legacy of —
q79/. 175. 2d. fterling, being one half of his elate, to |
the further endowment of it. In 1650, this college re= 2
ceived its firft charter from the court, appointing a cérpora-_. :
tion confifting of feven perfons, viz. a prefident, five fele '
lows, and a treafurer, to have perpetual fucceffion by elec
tion to their offices, under the title of “The Prefident and |
Fellows of Harvard College.” After the declaration of —
the independence of the United States, the fore-mentioned
charter was eftablifhed by the conititution of Maffachufettess _
and the governor and licutenant governor for the time be-
ing, together with the council and fenate of the com- ¥
monwealth, the prefident for the time being, and the .
congregational minilters of the following fix towns, }
viz. Cambridge, Watertown, Charleflown, Bofton,
{
Roxbury, and Dorchefter, were .declared fucceffors of the
old board of overfeers, who had been appointed for its fue
perintendence inthe year 1642. The executive government _
confilts of the prefident, three profeffors, font tutors, and the
librarian, who fuperintend the morals of the ftudents and
the obfervance of the ftandine laws, and make difcretionary Bem
regulations in cafes not provided for by the laws. The
profeffors and tutors give inftruétion in the univerfity. He
has a profeffor of divinity, a profeffor of mathemati ah
natural philofophy, anda profeflor of Hebrew and | Ys
Oriental languages, who is alfo profeffor of the Englhifh lan- oe
guage. The ean firft of thefe profefforthips ele Fouiemenes ;
by Mr. Thomas Hollis ef London, merehant, who, toge- ‘ies
ther with others of his family, furnifhed the cel fe thee, ‘
the philofophical apparatus, and a number of altel ce “o
books; the divinity profefforfhip in 1722 ; the mathemat "a
profefforfhip in 1726; the profefforfhip of Hebrew, &c.
by the Hon. Thomas Hancock, efq. in 1765. The _feve- ie «
ral profeflorfhips bear the names of their founders. Fauna
ations are laid for two other profeflorfhips, miz. one of rhe- —
toric and oratory, and another of natural religion, moral _
philofophy, and civil polity, by the legacies of Nicolas.
Boyliton, efq. of Bolton; and the Hon. Johu Alford, efq,
of Charleftown. In 1782 a medical inftitution was fo:
in the univerfity. It confifts of three profefforthips,
one of anatomy and furgery, one of the theory and ]
of phyfic, and another of chemiftry and the materia m
ca. Among the prefidents and profeflors of this univerfity,
we find feveral perfons eminently diltingwifhed both by na-
tural abilities and acquired accomplifhments. The ftudents.
are annually examined in the feveral branches of education.
as far as their courfe has ee completed, before a com.
mittee
GroveL LE. Gok.
mittee of the corporation and overfeers. The courfe of edu-
cation is compicted in the univerfity in four years, at the
end of which term, thofe ftudents, who have complied with
other requifites, are candidates for the degree of bachelor
of arts, which is conferred after the public performance of
appointed literary exercifes; and at the end of three years
from the time of their receiving this degree, they may be ad-
mitted to that of mafter of arts, if there be no legal im-
pediment. All academical degrees are publicly conferred
by the prefident, on the commencement day, which is the
third Wednefday in July, annually. This, it is faid, is
one of the moft {plendid anniverfaries in the United States.
From the eltablifhment of this college to the year 1794,
3399 young perfons received its honours, of whom 1079
became minifters of the gofpel. This moft ancient cf all
the American literary intlitutions has furnifhed, both for
the church and flate, its full proportion of eminently
learned and ufeful men. The college pofleffes fome funds,
arifing from the eltate of Edward Hopkins, efqe of Great
Britain, for the fupport of graduates, and alfo from a le-
gacy of 400/., bequeathed by governor Bowdoin, for the
encouragement of refident graduates and under-graduates.
The public buildings belonging to the univerfity are Har-
vard hall, appropriated to public rooms, fuch as a chapel,
‘a dining-room, library, philofophy chamber, an apartment
for the philofephical apparatus, which is refpectable,
though deficient in aftronomical inftruments, Hollis hall
and Maffachufetts hall, which contain private, rooms, and
ave occupied by the tutors and ftudents, and Hoiden chapel,
now occupied by fome of the medical proteflors. The fum
of So00/. was railed by a lottery in 1794, towards ereéting
another hall, for the accommodaiion of ftudents. The hbra-
ry confills, as we are informed, of about 13,000 weil-felect-
ed and yaluable books, the number of which is increafing
by donations, and by the income of a legacy, bequeathed
by the late Thomas Hollis, efq. of London. The mufeam
of the univerfity, which has been indebted to the munifi-
cence of Dr. Lettfom of London in. 1794, and to that of
the French Republic in the following year, is furnifhed
with a handfome colleGtion of natural and artificial curioli-
ties. The colleges are fituated in a pieafant and healthful
part of Cambridge. Their diftance from the centre of
Bolton is eight miles by the way of Roxbury, 44 miles
over Charles river bridge, and 34 miles over Weft Botton
bridge. The latitude of Harvard hail, determined by. ob-
fervations, is 42° 23’ 28”, and W. longitude from Green-
wich 4" 44™.30° in time. or 71° 7! 30%.
An academy in Williamftown, in Berkfhire county,
founded and endowed f{everal years fince by Col. Ephraim
Williams, and in 1790 provided with a brick edifice, con-
taining 24 rooms for ttudenrs; a large {chool-room, a din-
ing-hall, and a room for public {peaking, was erected in
1793 into acollege by an a of the legiflature, under the
name of ‘¢ Williams’ College,” in honour of its liberal
founder.
The general affembly of the ftate granted a charter in
1764, for founding a college under the name of ‘* The
Trultees and Fellows of the College or Univerfity, in the
Englifh colony of Rhode ifland and Providence planta-
tions.”?’ The number of truftees is 36, of whom 22 are of
the Baptift denomination, 5 of the denomination of Friends,
5 Epiicopalians, and 4 Congregationalifts. ‘The prefident
muft be a Baptift; the profeffors and other officers for in-
ftrudtion are noc reftritted to any particular denomination.
This inftitution was firit founded at Warren, in the county
of Briftol; but removed in 1770 to Providence, where an
elegant building was erected for itsaccowmodation, It has
48 rooms for ftudents, and 8 of a larger fize for public ufe,
This inftitution is under the inftruction of a prefident, a
profeffor of divinity, a profeffor of natural and experimental
philofophy, a profeffor cf mathematics and altronomy, a
profeflor of natural hiltory, and three tutors, It has a
library of between two and three thoufand volumes, and a
valuable philofophical apparatus. The funds of the college,
at intereft in the treafury of the flate, amount to about
20001,
Yale college, in the flate of Connecticut, was founded in
1700; and remained at Killingworth until the year 1707 ;
then at Saybrook until 1716, when it was removed to New-
Haven, where it was fixed. Governor Yale was one of its
principal benefa€tors, and in honour of ‘him it was named,
wn 1718, “ Yale College.”? Its building furnifhes chambers
for lodging 120 fludents, a chapel, a dining-hall, a honfe
for the prefident, and another for the profeffor of divinity.
Its library confifts of about 3000 volumes, and it is pro-
vided with a competent philcfephical apparatus. The ‘col-
lege mufeum is a repofitory of many. natural curiofities.
The firft charter of incorporation was granted by the cene-
ral aflembly of Connecticut in T7013 renewed in 172 ai and
in 1745, the trultees were incorporated by. the name of
“ The Prefident and Fellows of Yale college, New-Ha-
ven.’””? And by an act of the general aflembly, paffed in
1792, the governor, licutenant-governor, and the fix fenior
affiltants in the council of ilate, are appointed to be for ever,
by virtue of their offices, truftees and fellows of the college,
in addition to the former corporation. The corporation is
empowered to make Jaws, to hold eftates, to continue their
fucceffion, to ele and conftitute all officers for inftru@ion
and government, and to confer all the learned degrees.
The immediate executive government is in the hands of the
prefident, profeflors, and tutors. The prefent officers and
inftruétors of the college dre, a prefident, a profeffor of di-
vinity, and a profeflor of natural philofophy and aftronomy,
and three tutors. ‘The number of ftudents, at an average,
is about 150, divided into four claffes. The funds of the
college, before the liberal addition made by a grant of the
general aflembly in 1792, confilted of rents of lands to the
amount of 8oo/, ayear, about Soo/. raifed by fees of the
ftudents for tuition, befides funds for the fupport of two
profefforfhips. The feveral claffes are examined twice in
the year ; and a public commencement is held annually on
the 2d Wednefday in September. From the year 1700 to
1793, there had been educated and graduated at this uni-
verity about 2303 perfons; about S00 of whom had been
ordained to the work of the miniftry.
King’s college, in the city of New York, was principally
founded by the voluntary contributions of the inhabitants
of the province, aflited by the general affembly aud the
corporation of Trinity church ; and in 1754, a royal charter,
and grant of money being obtained, anumber of gentlemen
were incorporated by the name of ‘* The governors of the
college of the province of New York, in the city of New
York, in cimerica ;”’ which charter granted various privi-
leges, and among others, that of conferring all fuch degrees
as are ufually conferred by the English univerfities, The-
charter provides, that the prefident fhall be always a mem-
ber of the church of Engiand; but at the fame time, no
teft of their religious perfuafion was required from any of
the fellows, profeffors, or tutors; and the advantages of.
education were equally extended to ftudents of all denomi-
nations. ‘The building is an elegant ftone edifice, with four
ftair-cafes, having in each 12 apartments, and containing alfo.
achapel, hall, library, mufeum, anatomical theatre, anda
{chool for experimental philofophy. Since the revolution,
the
C-OUL (LEG £.
the leg*flatuve has paffed an a, conflituting 12 gentlemen,
the governor and keutcnant-jrevernor always included “ ex
“us,”’ a body corporate and politic, by thé name of
“ The Regents of the Univerfity of the State of New
York.” This body has powers to zrant charters of incor-
poration for ereéting colleges and academies through the
itate, to vifit them whenever they think proper, and to
make a report of their ftate to the legiflature once a year.
King’s college is now called “* Columbia College ;”? and by
au act pafled in 1787, it was put under the care of 24 gen-
tiem-n, who are a body corporate by the name of “The
Truftses of Columbia college, in the city of New York.’’
Vhey poffefs all the powers vefted in the governors of King’s
college before the revolution, or in the regents of the uni-
verlity, fince the revolution. ‘The regents of the univerfity
have power to confer the higher degrecs, and them only.
The aunual revenue arifing from the eftate belouging to the
college amounts to 1,5357. currency. Columbia colleye
confitts of two faculties; one of arts and another of phyfic.
The ficit has a prefident and feven profeffors ; and the fe-
cond a dean and feven profeffors. Vhe ftudents attending
both the faculties in 1795, amounted to r4o. The officers
for initrnétion and government in the faculty of each. are
a prefident, a profeffor of mathematics and natural philo-
fophy, a profeflor of logic and geography, and a profcflor
of languages. To thefe have been lately added a profcffor
of elinftry and agriculture, a profeffor of oriental lan-
guages, a profeffor of law, and a profefor of the Freuch
language. Inthe faculty of phvfic, the dean is leCturer
en clinical medicine in the New York hofpital, and
there are the profefforfhips of botany, of anatomy, of
the ob‘tetric art, of materia medica, of the inflitutes of
medicine, of furgery, and the pra€tice of phyfic. The
library and mufevm were deftroyed during the war. Upwards
of Scol granted by the legiflature, has been expended in
books for augmenting the library. The philofophical ap-
paratus is new and complete.
Another college by the name of “ Union college, in the
town of Shenectady in the ftate @f New York,” was incor-
porated by the regents of the univerfity in 1794.
In New Jerfey there are two colleges. one at Princetown,
called Naflau hall; the other at Bronfwick, called Queen’s
college. The former was firft founded by charter about the
year 1738, and enlarged in 1747. The charter delegates a
power of granting “to ftudents of the faid college, or to
any others thought worthy of them,alfuch degrees as are
granted im either of our univerfites, or any other college in
Great Britain.’ It has 23 trultees, the governor of the
itate. and the prefident of the college, are, ‘‘ ex officiis,”
two of them. The eltablihment in 1796, confilted of a
prefident, who is alfo profeffor of moral philofophy, theo-
logy, natural and revealed, bsllory, and eloquence ; two pro-
t:flors, one of mathematics and natural philofophy, includ-
ing ‘attronomy, and another of chemiftry, conlidered not
only in its relation to medicine, but to agriculture and
manufactures; and a pranimar matter. Iu the winter fef-
fion there are generally from 70 to 80 ftudents in the four
claffes of the college; and in fummer from 80 to 90. | The
prefent annual income of the college is by fres of the {tudents,
and otherwife, about roco/.; and it has alfo funds in pof-
feffion. The hbrary of the college was almoft wholly de-
ftroyed by the late war; but it has colleled, by means of
donations, and out of the wreck of the former library, about
2,300 volumes. Its philofoohical apparatus, worth about
oo /, was deftroyed in the war. Tne college edifice is a
handlome ftone building,.containing 42 chambers, for the
accommodation of ttudents, adining-hall, chapel, and room
off
for the library. ts fituation is fingularly picafant and’
healthful, © This college has furnifhed a number of civilians,’
divines, and phyficians, of the frit rankin America. ‘The
charter for Queen’s college, at Brusfwick, was granted
jut before the war, in confequence of an application from’
a body of the Dutch church. Its funds, raifed wholly by
free donations, amounted, foon- after its eltablifhment, to
.4000/.; but they were confiderably dim:nifhed by the war. ‘
"This college at prefent exifts only in name. .
The univerfity of Pennfylvenia, founded and endowed by
the legiflature during the war, was lately united with the
colleye of Philadelphia. This college was founded by char-
ter about 50 yearsago. In the weltern part of this Ned at
Carlifle, is Dickinfon college, founded in 1783, and named
after his excellency John Dickinfon, author of the * Penn-
fylvania Farmer’s Letters,”? and formerly prefident of the
{upreme executive council of this ftate. It has a principal,
three prafeffors, a philofophical apparatus, a library, con-
fitting of nearly 3000 volumes ; 4000 /. in funded certificates,
2nd 10,000 acres of land, the lait, the donation of the ftate.
In 1787, the number of ftudents in this college amounted
to Sc ; and it has fince increafed every year. In 1787, a
college was founded at Lancafter, and honoured with the F
name of Franklin college, after Dr. Franklin. This col- :
lege is defigned for the Germans, in which they may edu-
cate their youth in their own language, and in conformity
to their own habits; the Envglifh lauguage, however, is |
taught in it. Its endowments are neatly the fame with |
thofe of Dickinfon college. Its truftees confift of Luther- |
aus, Prefbyterians, and Calvinifts, German and Englith, of
each an equal number. The principal isa Lutheran, and
the vice-principal a Calvinift. 1 Sa
In 1752, a college was inftituted at Cheftertown, in that
county, in the ftate of Maryland, and honoured with the
name of Wafhington colkege, after prefident Wafhington.
It is under the management of 24 vilitors, or governors,
with power to fupply vacancies, and hold ‘eftates, whole
yearly value fhall not exceed 6000/. current money. By a
law, cuacted in 1757, a permauent fund was granted to this.
irftitution, of 1250/4. a year, currency, out of the monies
ariling from marriage licenfes, fines, and forfeitures on the
ealtern fhore. Papal tech ces
St. John’s college was inftrtuted in 1784, under the care
of 24 tru‘tees, empowered to All up vacancies, aid to receive
an annual income of gooo/. A permanent fund is affizned
this college, of 1750/. a year, out of tre monies arifing from.
marriage licences, ordinary leences, tines, and forfiitures on
the weltern fhore. his college is eftablifhed at Annapolis,
The two colleges conftitute one univerfity, by the name of —
© the univenity of Maryland,” whereof the governor of the
ftate for the time being, is chancellor, and the principal of
one of them vice-chancelor, either by feniority or by elec= —
tion. The chancellor is empowered to calla meeting of the
truftees, under certain circumfiances, which meeting is
flyled “the convocation’ of the univerfity of Maryland,”
who are to frame the laws, preferve uniformity of manners
and literature in the colleges, confer the higher degrees, de»
termine appeals, &c. eit
The” Romao catholics have alfo ereéted a college at —
Georye-town, on Potomak river, for the promotion of g
neral literature. In 1785, the methodilts initituted a ec
lege at Abington, in Hartford county, by the name of
Cokefbury college, after the name of Thomas Coke, a
Francis Afbury, bifhops of the metlodiit epifeopal church,
The tludents are to confilt of the fons of travelling preach.
ers, the fons of annual fubferibers, the fons of the members
of the methodilt fociety, and orphans, and are to be inllruct. -
**
CroeL
ed in Enplith, Latin, Greek, logic, rhetoric, hiftory, geo-
graphy, natural philofophy, and altronomy ; and when the
finances of the coilege will admit, they are to be taught the
Hebrew, French, and German languages. Vhis college
was ereéted, and is fupported wholly by fubfeription and
voluntary donations.
The college of William and Mary, in the ftate of Vir-
ginia, was founded in the time of king William and queen
Mary, who granted to it 20,000 acres of land, and a penny”
per pound duty on certain tobaccos exported from Virginia
and Maryland, which had been levied by the itatute of 25
Car. II. The affembly alfo gave it, by temporary laws, a
duty on liquors imported, and ikcins and furs exported. From
thefe refources it received upwards of 3000/, The build-
ings are of brick, and fuflicient for the accommodation of
about 100 ftudents. By its charter, it was to be governed
by 20 vifitors, and to have a prefident and fix profeffors,
who were incorporated under this charter; aprofcflorthip
of the Greck and Latin languages, a profeflorfhip of ma-
thematics, one of moral plnlofophy, and two of divinity,
were eltablifhed. To thefe were annexed, for a fixth pro-
fefforfhip, a confiderable donation by Mr. Boyle of Eng-
land, for the inftruétion of the Indians, and their converfion
to Chriftianity. This was called the profefforfhip of Braffer-
ton, from an Englihh eftate purchafed with the monies given.
_ There are now fix profefforfhips, one of moral philofophy,
natural philofophy, and the belles lettres, one of mathemat-
ics, one of law, one of modcrn languages, and two of hu-
manity. The philofophical apparatus is complete, and the
library extenfive.
~ The academy, in Prince Edward county, has been ereéted
hy a college, by the name of ‘“* Hampden Sydney col-
@."?
The legiflature of Virginia, while Kentucky belonged
to that ftate, made provifion for a college in it, and endowed
it with very confiderable landed funds. A library was alfo
formed for its ufe. This college has not flourifhed of late ;
another has been eftablifhed, and confiderable funds collected
for its fupport.
The general affembly in North Carolina paffed a law in
1789, incorporating 40 gentlemen, five from each diftna,
as truftees of the univerfity of N. Carolina. ‘To this uni-
yerfity they gave, by a {ub{equent law, all the debts due to
the ftate, from fheriffs or other holders of public money, and
which had been due before the year 1783. They alfo gave
it all efcheated property within the ftate. A confiderable
quantity of land has alfo been given to the univerfity. ‘The
truftees have fixed on Chapel hill, in Orange county, for the
fite of the univerfity. ‘The buildings in this elevated and
agreeable fituation have been completed, and the academical
ftudies commenced in January, 1795.
In the {tate of Tenneffee they have now three co'leges
eftablithed by law, wiz. Greenville college in Greene county,
between Greenville arid Nolychuckey river, inftituted by act
of aflembiy in 1794, and placed under the management of 2
prefident, who has collected, in money and books for its
toundation, about 5000 dollars, and 14 truftees. ‘They
have alfo Blount college, at Nafhville, and Wafhington
college in the county of the fame name.
Three colleges have lately been incorporated by law in
Soath Carolina; one at Charieiton, one at Winnfborough,
ia the diftri&t of Camden, and the other at Cambridge,
in the diitrict of Ninety-fix.
In the ftate of Georgia, the charter containing their
prefent fyftem of education, fupported with funds ariling
from about 59,000 acres of land, was palled in the y-ar 1785;
L‘EvG
in confequence of which, a college, with ample and liberal
endowments, was inftituted in 1801 at Lourfville, a high
and healthy part of the country, near the centre of the
fate. The funds originally defigned to fupport the literary
orphan-houfe, feunded by the Rev. George Whitefield, have
been vetted by the legiflature, in 1792, on the demife of the
countefs of Huntingdon, to whom Mr. Whitefield be-
qeathed this property as truftee, in 13 commiffioners, with
independent powers, for carrying on the original intention
of Mr. Whiteheld into execution ; and, in complimeat to
the countefs, the feminary is called Huntingdon college.
In 1791, the legiflature of the ftate of Vermont paffed an
aét for eftablifhing an univerfity at Burlington, on lake
Champlain, in a delightful fituation, on the fouth fide of the
Winoufki, or Onion river, and appointed to truftees. "The
fum of 6o0c/. was fecured by donation, part of which is
to be applied to the erection of burdings, and part fettled
as a fund for the fupport of the inftitution. In the feveral
grants made by this ttate, about 33,000 acres of land have
been referved for the ufe of this univerfity.
Dartmouth college, fo called after the right honovrable
William, earl of Dartmouth, one of its principal benefactors,
is fituated in the townfhip of Hanover, and ftate of New
Hampfhire, on a beautiful plain, about half a mile E. of
ConneGticut river, in N. lat. 43° 33'. It was founded by
Dr. Wheelock in 1769, who obtained for it a royal charter,
with a view of civilizing and chriftianizing the children of
Pagans. After furviving many embarraffments during the
war, it is now one of the moft flourifhing feminaries in the
United States. Its funds confilt chicfly of lands, amount-
ing to about So,coo acres of increafing value. Its revenue
arifing from the lands, in 1793, amounted annually to 1404.
and by certain contracts then made, would amount in twelve
years to 650/. ‘The income from tuition is about 6oo/. per
annum. ‘lhe number of under-graduates, is, on an average,
about 150/. The ftudenis are under the immediate govern-
ment and inftruétion of a prefident, who is alfo profeffor of
hiftory ; a profeflor of mathematics; a profeflor of lan-
guages; and two tutors. he college is furnifhed with a
handfome library and a philofophical apparatus tolerably
complete. A new cellege built of wood, T50’by 59 feet,
and three ftories high, was ereéted in 1786, containing 36
rooms for fludents. ‘Three other public buildings belong
to the college.
In 1801, an a& paffed for eftablifhing an univerfity in
the town of Athens, in the {tate of Ohio, which now bzars
the name of the “ Ohio Univerfity.”’? ‘The corporation is.
to confilt of the governor of the ftate, for the time being,
the prefident, and not more than 15 nor Jefs than ro trultees.
The prefent endowment of this inititution confilts of two
townthips of land, amounting to 46,080 acres. Congrefs,
in 1787, covenants with the Ohio company to give thefe
lands in perpetuity for the purpofes of an univerfity.
Jefferfon college, fo named after the refpe@table end in-
teliigent prcfident, is a new foundation in the Mifliffippi
territory.
Bowdoin college is fituated in the diitri& formerly cailed
the province of Maine, in the village of Brunfwick, upon
the river called by the Indian natives Androfcoggin, which
name it flill retains. The lepiflature, about the year 17945
incorporated certain perfons for the purpofe of eitablifhing
an univerlity or college in the diltriét of Maine, under the
name of Bowdoin college, fo called after the honourable
James Bowdoin, efg. late governor of the Maflachufetts.
The legiflature granted feveral townfhips of unfettled lands
within the diltrict.of Maine to the college as a fund for its
{upport,
CoOn LIL EAG AE. a
fupport, and the fon of the gentleman above-named has been
a very liberal benefaGtor to the inftitution. buildings have
lately been ere&ted for the accommodation of the ftudents
and prefident. The library, apparatus, and protefforfhips of
the college are yet upon a limited feale; but its jituation is
favourable, and the activity of its patrons and friends, among
whom we may mention, Benjamin Vaughan and Charles
Vaughan, efqs. cannot fail to promote its growing pro-
{perity.
Coxtecez, Chelfea.
Coxxece of Civilians, commenly called Dodors Commons 5
a college founded by Dr. Harvey, dean of the arches, for
the profeffors of the civil law refiding in this city ; where
ufually, likewife, refides the judge of the arches court of
Canterbury, judge of the Admiralty, of the prerogative
court, &c. with other civilians ; who all ufed to live, as to
diet and lodging, in a collegiate manner, commoning toge-
ther: whence the appellation of Dodors Commons.
Their houfe being confumed in the great fire, they all re-
fided at Exeter-houfe in the Strand, tul 1672; when their
former houfe was rebuilt, at their own expence, in a very
fplendid manner. To this college belong, belides other
officers. a number of proctors: who make themfelves parties
for their clients, manage their cavfes, &c.: and feveral
cr
See Hospirau and Crer
LSEA.
ana
courts, maritime and ecclefiaftical, as thofe of arches, ad-
miralty, prerogatives, delegates, and confiltory. ‘The doétors
are fuch as haying gradvated at one of the univerfitics, are
afterwards admitted of the college of advocates belonging
to thefe courts.
Cotrece, Dulwich. See AuuEN.
Cotrece, Grefkam, or Cortece of Philofephy, a col-
lege founded by fir Thomas Grefham, and endowed with the
revenue of the Royal Exchange, and other premifits ; one
moiety of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the
mayor and alderren of London, and the:r fucceffors, in
truft, that they fhould find four able perfons to read, within
the college, divinity, geometry, altronomy, and mufic, who
are chofen by a committee of the common-council, confilting
of the lord-mayor and three aldermen and eight commoners,
and allowed each, befides lodgings fifty pounds, per annum.
The other moiety he left to the cosrpany of mercers, to find
three other perfons, chofen by a committee of that com-
pany, confifting of the malter and three wardens, dwiog
their office, and eight of the court of affiftants, to read law,
phyfic, and rhetoric, on the fame terms; with this limit-
ation, that the feveral leGures fhould be read in term-time,
every day in the week, except Sundays: in the moraing in
Latin, in the afternoon the fame in English: but that in
mufic to be read only in Englifh. As the fettlement of this
college could not take place till after the death both of fir
Thomas Grefham and his lady, the two corporations could
not proceed to aét till the month of December, 1596, after
the deceafe of lady Grefham. Accordingly, in the choice
-of the firft feven profcfiors, which was completed before the
31{t of March in the following year, when they took their
feveral apartments in the manfion-houfe, according to the
allotment then made, the eleGtors feem to have been defirous
of manifefling an equal regard to both the univerfities ; fo
that three were cholen from Oxford, and three from Cam-
bridge, and the feventh, who was a graduate of both, upon
the recommendation of queen Elizabeth.
By 8 Geo. 11]. cap. 32. the building appropriated to
this college was taken down, and the excife-office erected in
its room. Each of the profeffors is allowed fifty pounds
per ananm, in lieu of the apartments, &c. relinquithed by
them in the college, and is permitted to marry, notwithftand-
ing the reftri€tion of fir Thomas Grefham’s wil. The
_of their records, inrolments, and other documents an
* & 4
lectures are now read in a room over the Royal Exchan .
and the city and mercers’ company are required to ee
a proper place for this purpote. ’
In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that noble
academy, inilituted by king Charles II. and celebrated
throughout the world, for their improvements in natural
know ledge. See their hiftory and policy, under Rovan i
oociely. : ; -
Cozzece of Heralds, or Corurce of Arms, a cor= ‘
poration founded by king Richard Lil., who, by charter . 4
bearisg date the 2d of March, in the firlt year of his reign,
made the kings, heralds, and purfuivants of arms, one body.
corporate by the name of ** Le garter regis armorum Ans
glicorum, resis armorum partium aultralium, regis armorum
partium borealium, regis armorum walliz, et heraldorum,
profecutorum, five purievandoram armorum ;”? emp
them to have and ufe a common feal,-and granted to
and their fucceflors, for the ufe of the twelve “principa
officers of the corporation, a houfe with its appurtenances, |
then called Colde Arbor, and fituated within the parifh of — .
All-Hallows the Lefs, in the city of London ; they finding :
achaplain to celchrate mafs daily in the faid houfe, or Br Ss
where at their difcretion, for the good {tate of health of
Anne his queen, and Edward, prince of Waiea, dariog their
lives, and for their fouls after their deceafe. ~ 4 ‘sin
In confequence cf the A&t of Reiumption, paffed in the
firtt year of the ragn of king Heory VIL., this honfe was
feized into the king’s hands, becaufe in was fuppofed to
belong perfonally to John Writhe, garter, who then lived
in it, and not to the officers of arms in.their corporate
capacity. r
The officers of arms, during the reigns of Hen
and Heory VIII., frequently petitioned the thron
grant of fome houfe or place wherein to hold their
biies, but without fuccefs.. King Edward VL., how
a charter dated the 4th of June, in the third year
reign, and by authority of parliament, endeavoured to”
them fome amends, by confirming to them all their
privileges, as to be free and difcharged from all fubfidie
all realms where they make’ their demoure ; as alfo fror
tolls, taxes, cultoms, impofitions, and demands, as well
watch and ward, as from the eleGtion to any office of n
fheriff, ba:liff, contlable, feavenger, church-warden, or TS
other public office of what degree, nature, or con diti
foever. 4 ', aie
Philip and Mary, by their charter bearing date the -
day of July, in their.frft and fecond years, re-incorp
the kings, heralds, and purfuivants of arms by their
names; and to the intent that they might refide to
and con{ult and agree amonglt themfeives for the
their facuity, and for the depofiting and fecure
Con:
granted to them a mefluage, with its appurtenane
Derby Houf:, fituate in the parith of St. Be
St. Peter, within the city of London, and in |
leading from the fouth door of the cathedral chy
St. Paul, to a place there called Paul’s Wharf, an
fate in the tenure of fir Richard Sakevyle, knight,
theretofore parcel of the poffeffions of Edward
Derby, and to be by the faid corporation held in
age of the city of Lonzon.
In the great fire of London, anno 1666, the co
entirely confumed; but the heralds had the goo
to fave all their muniments and books, which were
in the palace at Whitehall; feom whence they wv
wards removed into the palace at Weltmintter,
Court of Requelts, whereupon public notice wa
* t CVO" LL EGE;
the London Gazette, that the Heralds’ Office was there
kept. The college was afterwards rebuilt, and, as a re-
gular quadrangular building, is confidered one of the beft de-
bgned and handfomeft brick edifices in London, particularly
the hollow archway of the great gate, which is efteemed a
fingular curiofity.
The corporation confilts of three kings of arms, Garter,
Clarenceux, and Norroy, fix heralds, Windfor, Chefter,
Lancafter, Somerfet, York, and Richmond, and four pur-
fuivants, viz. Portcullis, Rougedragon, Bluemantle, and
Rouge-Croix ; who all take precedency, according to the
dates of their refpective patents.
Arms of the college; argent, a crofg gules between four
doves rifing azure.
f?. Ona ducal coronet or, a dove rifing azure.
upporters. Two lions rampant guardant argent, du-
cally gorged or.
Coxzrece of Heralds in Scotland, confilts of Lyon king
at arms, fix heralds, and fix purfuivants, and a namber of
meflengers.
Courece of Fuflice. See Courr of Justice.
Courece of Merchants.. See Burse.
Corzece, Military, Royal, was inttituted in 1799, under
the direGtion of twelve commiffioners, a governor, and pro-
feffor of mathematics. It confifts of two departments,
the fenior, eftablifhed at Wycombe, and the junior at
Marlow, in Buckinghemfhire, each under the care of a com-
mandant, feperintendant, and adjutant, and under the in-
firuGtion of a number of profeflors, in different branches of
f{cience and literature.
Coirece of Phyficians, a corporation of phyfcians in
London; who, by feveral charters and aéts of parliament of
Henry VIII. and his fucceffors, have certain privileges,
whereby no man, though a graduate in phyfic of any uni-
verfity, may, without licence under the faid college feal,
practife phyfic in, or within feven miles of London, under
the penalty of paying 5/. for every month they praétifed ;
with power to adminilter oaths, fine and imprifon offenders
in that and feveral other particulars: to fearch the apothe-
earies fhops, &c. in and about London, to fee if their drugs,
&c. be wholefome, and their compofitions according to the
form preferibed by the faid college in their difperfatory.
By the faid charter they, and their licentiates, are alfo freed
from all troublefome offices: 2s to ferve on juries, be con-
ftable, keep watch, provide and bear arms, &c. ‘The pro-
ject and plan of this inftitution were formed by Dr.
Thomas Linacre, phylician to Henry VIIL., and patronized
by cardinal Wolfey, at whofe defire the king granted a
charter, Sept. 23d, A. D. 1518, incorporating feveral per-
fons of the medical clafs into a body, community, and per-
petual college. To this coilege Henry granted various
rights, powers, and immunities by his charter; fuch as a
night to el-é a prefident annually for the government of the
college ; to have a common feal; to purchafe lands to a
certain value; to fue and be fued by the name and title of
«©The prefident and community of the college of phy-
ficians in London ;” and to make laws and regulations for
the good government of the college, &c. &c. This charter
was confirmed by parliament, A. D. 1523, 15 Hen. VIII.
This inftitution was intended and calculated to raife the re-
putation of the medical profeflion, aud prevent the people
from being impofed upon by bold and ignorant adventurers,
who {ported with their lives, and robbed them of their
money. ‘Thefe two acts of parliament, which were for fome
time {triftly executed, had one remarkable efleét: by greatly
diminifhing the number of praGtitioners, they made the re-
ular praétice of phyfic and furgery exceedingly lucrative.
Vor. VIII.
=
VIZ.
“* The moft effe@ual fecurity againft poverty,” fays Eraf-
mus (Oper. t. v. p. 661.) ‘is the art of medicine, which
of all arts is the moft remote from mendicity.”’
The fociety had anciently & college in Knight: Rider-flreet,
the gift of Dr. Linacre. Since that they have had a
houfe built for them by the famous Dr. Harvey, in 1652,
at the end of Amen-Corner, which he endowed with his
whole inheritance in his life-time ; but this being burnt in
the great fire in 1666, a new one was ereéted at the expence
of the fellows, in Warwick-lane; with a noble library,
given partly by the marquis of Dorchetter, and partly by
fir Theodore Mayerne.
OF this college there are at prefent, a prefident, four cen-
fors, eight cleGors, a regifter, and a treafurer, chofen an-
nually in OGober: the cenfors have by charter power to
furvey, govern, and arrelt ail phyficians, or others practifing
phyfic, in, or within feven miles of London ; and to fine,
amerce, and imprifon them.at difcretion.
The number of fellows was anciently thirty, till king
Charles II., who renewed their charter in 1663, increafed
their number to forty; and king James IT. giving-them a
new charter, allowed the number of fellows to be enlarged,
{o as not to exceed fourfcore ; -referving to himfelf and fuc-
ceflors the power of placing and difplacing any of them
for the future. Since that time, they have becn limited to
no certain number, but remain candidates a year, before
their admiflion as fellows.
The college is not very rigorous in afferting their ptivi-
leces; there being a great number of phyficians, fome of
very good abilitics, who practife in London, &c. without
their heence, and are connived at by the college; yet, by
law, if any perfon, not exprefsly allowed to pracie, take
upon him the cure of any difeafe, and the patient die under
his hand, it is deemed felony in the praétifer.
According to the conftitution of the college, or at leaft
of certain by-laws which have been enaéted, not, however,
invariably adhered to, all phyficians, but the graduates
of Oxford and Cambridge, are excluded from the fellowship
of the college. A late writer, in favour of the licentiates,
aiter citing a variety of ftrong paflages from the fpeeches of
lord Mansfeld and other judges, proceeds to remark ; * It
is afferted then upon the highett legal authority, that the
college of pliyficians are unwarranted in making by-laws,
which infringe the defigu and intention of the crown and par-
liament in ticir inflitution ; and it has been proved that the
by-laws, which exciude all graduates but thofe of Oxford
and Cambridge from the fellowfhip of the college, without
any invefligation of their competency and fitnefs, are founded
in ufurpation ;—an ufurpation which cannot be juftified by
any poflible conftinéti » of the charter, or aéts confirming it.
Tt is, therefore, demonfrated, that fuch by-laws are illegal,
and that they may be annulied, and their pernicious’ con-
fequences abolithed.”’ Ths practical conclution, with refpect
to thefe.whom the college will at prefent admit only to the
rank of licentiates, is to claim admiffion to fellowthips
“under the charter of incorporation itfelf, on the broad
bafis of individual qualification, without the Teaft regard to
places of ftudy, or to local graduation.”” The claim, how-
ever, has not yet been allowed. See Dr. Ferris’s General
View of the Effablifhment of Phylic as a Science jn Eng-
land, &e.”” Svo. 1795.
Correce, Royal, of Phyicians, in Scotland, is a corpora=
tion of phyficians at Edi burgh, eftabithcd by patent of
Charles II, 29:h November, 1681. This col eve confilts of
a prefident, two cenfors, a fecretary, and the ordinary fociety
ot fellows. ‘They have fimilar nghts and privileges with
thofe of the Englifh college. .
5 \ In
C O:L jE Gi
In Ireland there is likewife a college of Phyficians, con-
fiting of a prefident, vice-prefident and cenfor, treafurer, and
a number cf fellows.
Coxxece of Singers, at Rome. It is allowed unanimonfly
by ecclefiaftical writers, that it was the learned and aCtive
pope Gregory the Great, whofe pontificate began in 590,
who collected the mufical fragments of fuch ancient hymns
and pfalms as the fir fathers of the church had ap-
proved, and recommended to the primitive Chriftians ; and
that he feleGted, methodized, and arranged them in the order
which was long coxtinued at Rome, and foon adopted by
the chief part of the weltern church.
The anonymous anthor of his life publifhed by Canifius,
{peaks of this tranfaétion in the following words: “ This
pontiff compofed, arranged, and conftituted the antiphona-
yium, and chants ufed in the morning and evening fervice.”
And Fleury, in his Hift. Ecclef. tom. vil. p. 150, givesa
circumfantial account of the /cola cantorum, initituted by St.
Gregory. It {ubfitled three hundred years after the death
of that pontiff, which happened in 604, as we are inf. rmed
by John Diaconus, author of his life. The original antipho-
narium of this pope was then fubfilling ; and the whip with
which he ufed to threaten to fcourge the boys; as well as
the bed on which he reclined in the latter part of his life,
when he vifited the {chooi in order to hear them praétife.
Two colleges were appropriated to thefe ftudies; one near
the church of Si. Peter, and one near that of St. John Late-
ran; both of which were endowed witu lands.
It feems as if a college of fingers for the education and
exercife of the fingers in the fervice of the papal chapel had
always fubiifted at Rome from the time of its eftablifhment
by Gregory. oe
It was from this college that the reft of Europe had malters
to inftru& the priefts and choral fingers in canto firmo. We
learn from Venerable Bede, and from William of Malmibury,
that Auftin the monk, commonly called the Enghth apottle,
who was fent from Rome by pope Gregory the Great, to
convert the Saxons, inftruéted them in ecclefiaftical mufic.
Bede telis us, that when Auftin and the companions of his
miffion, had their firit audience of Ring Ethelbert in the Ifle
of Thanet, they approached him in preceflion, finging lita-
nies; and that, afterwards, when they entered the city of
Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at the end of it, dlle/u-
jah.
: Venerable Bede was himfelf an able mufician; and ke in-
forms us, that in 680, John, Precentor of St.iPeter’s in Rome,
was fent over by pope Agatho to inftre& the monks of
Weremouth in the art of finging, and particularly to acquaint
them with the manner of performing the feftival fervices
throughout the year, according to that which was practifed
at Rome. And fuch was the reputation of his fill, that
“ the malters of mufic from all the other monatteries of the
north cameto hear him ; and prevailed on him to open {chools
for teaching mulic in other places of the kingdom of Nor-
thumberland.”
And Charlemagne, fiading the Roman chant fuperior to
that of France, procured maiters of pope Adrian, trom the
college of fingers, eftablifhed by Pope Gregory, to teach his
{ubjc@s throughout his extenfive dominions. And Theodore
and Benedi&, two chanters of great learning and abilities,
who had been infruéted by St. Gregory himfelf, were ele@-
ed for that purpofe. Adrian likewife granted to him antipho-
navia, or choral books of that faint, which he had written
himfelf in Roman notes.
Adrian ; Stephen, movk of Canterbury ; friar James, and
many others, are celebrated by Bede for their fkili in finging
afterthe Roman manner. It was then the cullom for the clergy
to travel to Rome for improvement in mufic, as well as ta. :
import matters of that art from the Roman college, At, 7
length the fucceffors of St. Gregory, and of Auttin his mif.
fionary, having eftablifhed a fchool for ecclefiaftical multe at»
Canterbury, the re‘ of the ifland was furnifhed with maflers,
from that feminary. ; nae
It would be eafy to prove, that good tale in-canto firmo,
as well as in dramatic mufic, has at all times been derived,
from the Italian fcheel. Much has-been faid by travellersy
and writers on mafic, of the refined and polifhed manner of,
performing the famous miferere of A legn, in the pontifical:
chapel ;. and it will be ealy to judge of the abilities of the.
fingers educated in the Roman college, to do juftice to every
compcfitionin that fervice, fromthe account given by Angelling,
Bontempi, in his ‘* Hiftory of Mufic,” of their education and
courfe of ftudy. ‘“ The difciples of the Roman {chool,’?”
{ays this author, “ were obliged to exercife themfelves in difs,
ficult intonations an hour every day, in order to acqnire a:
facility of execution ; another was {pent in the practice of. *
fhakes; another in rapid paflages ; another in the ftudy of.
literature, and another in tafte and exprefli+n, in the prefence
of the mafter, who obliged them to fing before a mirror, in.
order to avoid every grimace or improper motion of the-
mufeles, either by furrowing the forehead, knitting the brows, , :
or diftorting the mouth: and all thefe itudies were but the
employments of the morning. In the afternoon, half an
hour was {pent in harmonics, or the theory. of found; ano--
ther in counterpoint, upon a plain fong ; an hour in receive.
ing rules of compofition from the matter, and putting -
them in pra&ice on paper; another in the fludy of Jan=-
guages; and the reft of the day in practiling on le
barplichord, in compofing a motct or anthent, a fong, or eh:
fome other kind of writing, fuitable to the genius and progre
of the fcholar: and thefe were the common exercifes on. :
thofe days, when the ftudents were rot allowed to quit the |
college ; but when they were permitted to go out, they fre-_ j
quently went to fing at the echo, without the Porta-Ange=- |
lica, near mount Marius, where, by liffening to the anfwers, ~ :
or reflection of the peffizes, they conld judge of theirown
defeéts ; at other times they were either employed in finging — <
at the mufical performances in the churches ef Rome on da - 14 :
of feltivals, or. at lealt were allowed to go thither to bear aot oe
great profeflors who flourifhed in the pontificate of Urban=
VIII., who reigned from the year 1624 to 1644. At thar +
return to college, they employed the relt of their time im prac- i,
tiling after thefe models, and in giving reafons to the mafer
for what they did; who, in his turn, ufed to read leGtures.
upon the mott refined and ufeful myiteries of the mutical .
art.””? Hiltoria Mutica, Pcrugia, 1695 sel
Courece, Sion, or the college of the London elergy 5 —
which has been a religious hodfe time out of mind, fometimes — .,
under the denomination of a priory, fometimes under that of
a {pital, or hofpital ; at its diffolution under gr Hen, NikIeg, «*
it was called Lifyu’s Spital, from the name of its founder,a
mercer, in 1329. De eee os
At prefent it is a compofition of both, viz. a college fort.
the clergy of London, who were incorporated’ in 1630, in ah
purfuance of the will of Dr. White, under the name of th
Prefident and Fellows of SioN-COLLEGE ; andan hofpital fo r
ten poor men, and as many women. +4
The. officers of the corporation are the prefident.
deans, and four efiltants; who are annually chofen f
among the rectors and vicars of London ; and a
the vilitation of the bifhop. The fellows of this leer
all the incumbents of parithes within the city and its liberties.
They have a goad library, built and Rocked by Mr. |
' Simpfon, — :
and furnilhed by feveral other benefaétors, chiefly for the .
3 clergy
COL
velergy of the city, without excluding other fludents on cer-
“tain terms; aud a hall, with chambers for fludents. generally
occupied by the minifers of the neighbouring p arifhes.
Courece of Surgeons, Royal, was shader rane by charter
in 18co, under a malter, two governors, and 18 affiftants.
Tis houfe is in Lincoln’s Tan Fields. ae is alfo at Edin-
borgh a royal college of turgeons of late inftitution, under a
prelident. treafurer, and honorary fellows. This college is
authorifed forcarrying into execution a fcheme for providing a
for their wives and’chiidren, &c.; and for examining ard 1+
¢eifing, if found qualitied, all praétitioners in fargery, within
certain hmits.
Coiiesce de Propacanda Fide, was founded at Rome in
7622, by Gregory AV. and cnnched with ample revenues.
It confits of thirteen cardinals, two prictts, one monk,
anda fecretary ; ant was deligned for the propagation and
maintenance of the Roman religion in all parts of the
world. The funds of this college have been very confi-
derably augmented by Urban VIII. aud many private dona-
tions. Miffionaries are fupplied by this inftitution, together
with a variety of books fuited to their feveral appointments.
Seminaries for their inffru€tion are fupported by it, and a num-
ber of charitable eftablifhments couneéted with it, and con-
dacive to the main objeét of its inftithtion.
Another college of the fame denomination was eftablifhed
by Urban VIIT.in 1627, in confquence of the liberality of
iad Baptift Viles, a Spanifh nobleman. t
for the inftruétion of tote who are defigned for the foreign
miffions. It was at firft committed to the care of three canous
of the patriarchal churches ; but ever fince the year 1641, it
is under the fame government with the former inilitution.
Coxrrece, Veterinary, a recent inltitution formed at St.
Pancras, in the vicinity of London, for the reformation and
improvement of farriery, under the diredtion of a pretident,
- Io vice-prefidents, a profeflor, and treafurer. This inilitu-
tion cannot otherwife than be regarded by every reflecting
perion, as an object of national importance as well as of pri-
vate utility ; and in both thefe views merits liberal encou-
Tagement,
“CoLLEGEs of common law. See Inns of Court, and Cuan-
CERY.
CoxirecEs for difabled foldiers, feamen, Sc. See Hospi-
TALS.
CoLtitEcraL. See CoLLEGIATE.
COLLEGIANS, Corzrecian1, CoLieGiants, in
Lcclefiafical Hifory, a religious fe& formed among the Armi-
nians and Anabaptilts in Holland, aLout the beginning ofthe
feventeenth century 5 fo called, becaufe of their colleges or
meetings, twice every week, hee every one, females ex-
cepted, has the fame liberty of expounding the Scripture,
praying, &c.
They are faid to be all either Arians, or Socinians; they »
never Communicate in the college, but mect twice a year
fiom all parts of Holland at Rhinfbergh, whence they are
alfo called Khinfberghers, a village two miles from Leyden,
where they communicate together ; admitting every one that
prefents himfelf, profeffing his faith in the divinity of the
holy Scriptures, and relolution to live fuitably to their
precepts and doétrines, without regard to his fect or opi-
nion. They have no particular bitters. but each efi
efates as he is difpofed. ‘They never baptize without dip-
ping.
At Rhinfberg they have ample and convenient houfes for
the education of orphans, and the reception of ftrangers ; and
hére they remain together during the fpace of four ‘days,
which are employed in hearing difcourfes fist tend to edifica-
tion, aud exhortations that are principally defigned to incul-
This is fet apart —
COOL
cate brotherly love, and fanctity of manners. Thofe of the
brethren that refide in the province of Fricfland, have an an-
nual meeting at Lewarden, where they adminifter the facra-
ments, as the confiderable diftance at which they live from
Rhintberg renders it inconvenient for them to repair thither
twice a-year. “[heir community Caiaiee ends perfons of all
ranks, orders, and feéts, who pro! fefs themfelves Chriftians ;
though their fentiments concerning the perfon and doginve
of the divine founder of Chriftianity be extremely different. It
is ke pt together, and its union maintained, not by the autho.
rity of rulers and doétors, the force of ecclefiaftical laws, the
re training power of creedsand confeffions, or the ifincn es of
certain politive rites and uiflitutions, but eee by a zeal for
the agen rcement of pra&ical religion, and a defire of draw-
ing mnftruGion from the ttudy of the holy feriptures. In
fuch acommunity, in which opinion is free, and every one is
permitted to judge for himfelf in religious matters, d Uffenfions
aud controverfies can {earcely be fuppofed to occur. How-
ever diffenfions took place, the cosfequence of which was a
divifion of the collegiants into two p2rties 5» which held their
aflemblies feparately, at Rhinfberg.. This divifion happened
in the year 1686; but it was healed about the commences
ment of the following century, by the death of thofe who
had principally ace ina it ; and then the collegiants re-
turned to their former union and concord. Moth. E. H,
vol. v.
COLLEGIATE, or Correciat churches, are thofe
which have no bifhop’s fee, yet have the ancient retinue of the
bithops, the canons, and prebends. Such are, among us,
Weftminiter, Rippon, Windfor, &c. governed by deans and
chapters.
Of thefe collegiate churches, thers are two kinds ; fome
of royal foundation, DLs of ecclefiattical foundation $ each
of them, in matters of divine fervice, regulated in the fame
manner as the cathedrals.
‘There are even fome collegiate churches which have the
cpifcopal rights. Some of thefe churches were anciently
abbeys 3 which, in time, were fecularized. The church of
St. Peter’s, Weltminiter, was anciently a cathedral ; but the
revenues of the monaltery being, by act of parliament,
1 Eliz, velted in the dean and chaples it commenced a col-
legiate church.—In feveral caufes, the ftyling it cathedral,
initead ef collegiate church of Weltminfler, ‘has ocealioned
error in the pleadings.
Cotrectare auditors. See Aupiror.
CoLLeGIaTE binoiess wergers cf See VERGER.
COLLEONE, Barruoromew, in Biography, was born
in the year 1400, of a family of ciftinélion at Bergamo, in
Italy. He was. famous among the foldiers of fattint having
been trained from his youth in the military art. He frit
ferved under Bracchio de Montone, and then entered inte
the fervice of the queen of Naples, who was indebted to him
for the recovery of her dominions, He rendered important *
fervices to the Venetians, by whom he was handfomely re~
warded ; but owing to a quarrel with a noble Venetian, he
went over to the duke of Milan, and ferved with great repu-
tation, firft under Vifconti, and then under Francis Sforza,
He again enlilted in the Venetian fervice ; and was in 1458,
made their generaliflimo ; an office which he held twenty
years with the higheft reputation to himfelf, and to the terror
of the enemies of the republic. Colleone was a patron of li-
terature, and was fond of the company of learned men, to
whofe difcuffions on philofopbical fubjeéts he always paid
the moft marked attention. He founded monatteries, built
churches, and inftituted varions charities. Dut notwithftand~
ing thefe inftances of his liberality, he amafled great wealth,
which he bequeathed to public purpofes. He died in 1475,
5a at
COL
at his cafile of Malpaga; and the fenate of Venice ereéted an
equeltrian ftatue to his memory. Ia bis yeuth, Colleone
was diltinguifhed as well for his courage, 28 for bodi
flrength and agility ; and it is afferted that when comp
ly armed, he could run fafter than the lightelt footman, and
without arms he could furpafs a horfeman on full gailop.
This vigour he preferved to almott the laft. In the latter
part of his life he was heid in fo much eftimation, that no
prince or perfon of rank, however exalted, who travelled in
the part of the country in which he lived, ever negh Ged to
pay hima vifit. On his dying bed, he gave it, as advice to
the Venetiazs, that they fhould never give fo much power to
a general as he had poffefled. After his death 4020 foldiers
refufed to ob y any other chief, and ferved 15 years withovt
a leader, diligently praétifing the difcipline he had taught
them. Moreri.
COLLEONI, Grroramo, a painter of Bergamo,
whole ftyle fo much refembled rhat of Titian, that his
picturg of the marriage of St. Caterina in the yailery
of the Carrara family, was for a long time confidered
the work of that great malter; til at length the infcrip-
tion Hiernymus Colleo, 1555, was difeovered, and the credit
of the performance reltored to its right owner, It is faid of
this mafter, that having found inferior artifts and ftrangers
preferred to the honour of executing public works, whilft he
himfelf was pafled by usnoticed, he formed the refolution to
quit his ungrateful country, ard fought an afylum at the
court of Madrid. Before, however, he departed, he painted
the figure of a horfe, of the mert ef which no idea can now
be formed, except fram the prodigious encomiums beftowed
upon it by various writers: under the picture was this pro-
verb: nemo prophcta in patria. Brfides the picture above-
mentioned in the Carrara gallery, there are {till fome remains
of his fre{co in Bergamo. He flourifhed as early as 1532.
Lanzi. Storia Pitt.
COLLET, Joun, an Englith painter, whofe pitures of
ludicrous {ubjects, in the manner of Hogarth, are well
known. Heiecken mentions feveral prints from his works,
and two were etched by hin fell one of which reprefents
ant‘quarians {melling at the chamber-pot of queen Boadicea ;
and the other, a monkey, who is pointing to a very dark
picture of Mofes ftriking the rock, probably in ridicule of
the connoiffeurs of that period, who thought every piece
deferving of notice, in proportion as it was black and unin-
telligible. Strutt fays, that Collet flourithed in 1760, and
Heinecken informs us, that he died in 1780.
Cotvet, Puitiserrt, was the fon of a notary, and was
born at Chatillon les Dombes, in 1643. He purfued his
ftudies at Lyons, in the college of the Jefuits, of which
order lie became a novic'ate, but quitted their fociety at the
age of 22, and dedicated himfelf to the profeffion of the law,
By the wberality of fentiment which he difplayed in his
writings, he excited an ill-founded fufpicion, that he was an
enemy to religion. .This imputation has, indeed, been in all
ages the lot of thofe who have impugned ecclefiaftical abufes,
and could not fail to be levelled at Philibert, who attacked
the power of the priefts, in a “* Treatife on Excommuntca-
tions;” a * Tra& on Ufury ;” “ Difcourfes on Tythes
and Alms,” and on the ** Cloyltering of Nuns.”? He died
in 1718, after a folema declaration, that he did not repent
of any “of thefe publications which had excited againft him
no ordinary degree of prejudice.
Cotter, Ricwaxp, a performer onthe violin with a full
tone and {trong hand. Hewas leader of the band at Vaux-
hall, from its firft opening to the death of Jonathan Tyers,
where he executed the compolitions of Corelli, Handel,
te-
¢ OL |
Geminian?, very accurately, but wichout tafte or expreffion g
fo that he always remained an inelegant player. ‘
Courter, Tuomas, a fecond rate violoncello player, ina
much lower form than his brother. He was lame upon one
of his legs ; and upon his inftrumest his hand could hardly
be faid to be otherwife. ‘
Co.xer, Pirer, a prieft and doétor of theology, was _
born in the year 1693, at Ternay, a townin the province of
Vendome, in France. His works, which treat chiefly on
fuhjc&ts of costroverfial divinity, are very volumnious, but
not very valuable. ‘The principal of them are “ Theologia
Moralis Univerfa,” in 17 vols. 8vo. ; ‘* Inftitutiones Theo-
logice,’”’ in 7 vols. 12mo. ; and the * Life of St. Vincent
de Paul,’’ in 2 vols. 4to. He died in 1770, having fuftain-
ed, throvgha long and ative life, the charaéter of a pious
and learned divine.
Corvet, in the Glafs Trade, that part of a glafs veffel
which, in the menufaéture, flicks to the hollow iron by
which the metal is irft taken out of the melting pot. This
is broken off before the velfel is fathioned, and is never feen,
in the Jeaft mark, when finifhed. ;
Thefe they throw together, and afterwards grind down, —
and put into the green gla{s metal, for the pureft green glafe,
but never into any oth«r, though they be the produG of the
fineft virgin metal.
Covet, among Fewellers, the {mall horizontal plane, or |
face, at the bottom of the brilliant.
Co.xer de Canon, the {malic or moft diminifhed part of :
the cannon, lying between the aftragal and muzzle. z
Co.iEer-bE DEZzES, /e, in Geography, a town of France, in .
the department of the Lozere, and diftri&t of Mende, Iz,
miles S. of Villefort. 5 i wa
COLLETIA, in Botany, (fo named from Collet, a
French botanift.) Lam. Ill. 359. Willd. 4t1. Jul. 380. |
Vent. 3. 472. Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Nate
Ord. Rhamni, Jul. Rhamnoidee, Vent. sh |
Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, pitcher-fhaped, permanent at. 1
the bafe, furnifhed on the infide with five {quamiform plaits, |
called petals by Ventenat; border five-cleft; fegmentsegg= . .
fhaped, reflexed. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments five, awl. |
fhaped, very fhort, inferted at the top of the calyx between
the fegments of the border; anthers egg-fhaped. Pi. Germ
fuperior, trigoncus; ftyle cylindrical; {tigma threelobed.
Peric. Capfule tricoccous, feated on the permanent bafe ofa’
the calyx; cocci fomewhat kidney-fhaped, cohering at the
inner fide. Seeds folitary. - if Ay
Eff. Ch. Calyx pitcher-fhaped, five-cleft, with five fquami=
form plaits on the infide. Corolla none. Capfule tricoc-
cous, with three feeds. ; ;
Sp. 1. C. /pino/a. Lam. Iluft. tab. 129. Jofeph Juffieu,
Commerfon. <* Leaves oblong-elliptical, entire or flightly
toothed at the tip.”” A very {pinous, much-branched fhrub.
Branches nearly oppofite, without leaves on the upper parts,
and furnifhed with long lateral and terminal {pines. Leaves ~
near the bottom of the branches, fmall, on fhort petioles.
Flowers lateral, nodding; peduncles fhort, one-flowere ie
folitary, or two together, generally at the bafe of the fpines.
A native of Peru and Brazil. 2. C. ferratifolia. Vent. Choix
des plantes. ‘ Leaves oblong, obtufe, acutely ferrated ;
flowers without petals, z.e. without the {quamiform plaits.
A thrub, with the habit of a lycium. 3. C. ephedra. Vent.
Choix des plantes. ‘* Leaflefs; branches ereét, implicates
ending in{a fpine; flowers glomerated at the knats of
4
* the
4
branchlets.” ‘The two laft fpecies are natives of Peru, dif- .
covered by Dombey. Not having prefent accefsto Vente=, .
nat’s {plendid work, we have taken the fpecifie charaéters_
from the Annals of Botany. i
COLLETICS, B
#
cou
COLLETICS, Coxzerica, from xoddnrixos, fomething
that has the yirtue of gluing together, of xorre, gluten,
in Medicine, fach remedies 2s join and glue together the fe.
parated parts, or lips, of a wound or ulcer; and thus re-
efablith them in their natural union.
Among colletics are ranked litharge, aloes, myrrh, &c.
ze AGGLUTINANT. 7
COLLI, Lz, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Abruzzo Ultra; 15 miles weit of Celano,
Court interfpinales,in Anatomy. See INTERSPINALES.—
Intertranfverfales. See INTERTRANSVERSALES.—¥7 ran/ver-
falis. See TRANSVERSALIS.
COLLICIL&, is ufed by fome, as Steno, for the caruN-
cuLe lacrymales.
COLLIER, Jeremy, in Biography, an Englifh non-
jwing bilhop, was born at Stow Qui, or Quire ia Cam-
bridgefire, Sept. 23, 1650. Fie was educated by his fa-
* ther, a clergyman, and fome time matter of the free-{chool
at Ip{wich, and in 1669 he was admitted a poor {cholar of
Caius collese, under the tuition of Mr. John Ellys. Here
he took his degrees, and was afterwards fucceflively ordained
deacon and prieft, by the bifhops of Ely ani London. For
fome time he officiated as chaplain to the countels dowager
of J)orfet at Knowle; he was afterwards prefented with the
living of Ampton, in Suffolk, where he refided till 1635,
when he religned on being appointed lecturer at Gray’s Ina,
After the revolution he refufed to take the oaths, and be-
camea zealous partizan of the abdicated fovercign. On ac-
‘count of a pamphlet entitled «* The Defertion difcufled,”
which he pubhihed in 1688 in oppofition to one by Dr,
Burnet; he was imprifoned in Newgate, from whence he
was difcharg-d without trial, and between this period and
the year 1692, he publilhed feveral other pamphlets which
rendered him an objeé& of extreme jealoufy to the crown.
He became ftill more obnoxious to government by a jour-
ney at this time into Kent, which led to a fufpicion that he
held a correfpondence with the exiled James ; he was ac-
cordingly arrefted, examined before the earl of Nottingham,
and committed to the Gate-houfe. He was again releafed
for want of evidence of any criminal defizns, and was admit-
ted tobail. So ftri&, however, were Mr. Collier’s: princi-
ples, that he fhortly after condemned his own want of con=
filtency in giving bail; upon which he furrendered himfelf
before lord chief juttice Holt, in order that he might free: his
fureties, and was committed tothe King’s Bench, but upon
the application of his friends, that excellent and upright
judge difcharged him ina few days. He then publithed a
jultification of himfelf, ina work entitled « The Cale of
iving Bail to a Pretended Authority examined.” This
was followed by feveral other tracts, which, though hoitile
to the new order of affairs, do not appear to have excited
the attention of government. But, in 1696, he openly, in
conjunétion with two other nonjuring c ergymen, ablolved,
at the place of execution, fir John Friend, and fir W ihiam
Perkins, who had been convicted of engaging in the aflafiin-
ation plot. For this he was profecut<d to outlawry, in
which ftate of legal, incapacity he remained unmole‘ted
through the remainder of his ife. Between the years 1697
and 1707, Mr. Collter publithed three volumes of effays on
moral fubjeéts, which obtained a very favourable reception
by his contemporaries, but they are now fallen into d irepute.
‘In 1698, he obtained a large fhare of celebrity for his piece
entitled “* A fhort View of the Immorality and Prophane-
nefsof the Enghih Stage, together with the Senfe of Anti-
aity on this Argument.’? Mr, Collier in this work. at-
tacked mott of the dramatic writers of the day, with fo
much force and ability, that thofe who ventured to engage
2.
CoOL
with him in the controverfy, were, inthe public opinion, com=
pletely defeated. Without noticing the other tras which
he wrote on this fubjeét, we pals on to his éranflation of
Moreri’s Great Hittorical DiGionary, which confitted of four
volumes folio, publithed at different times, with the addition
of a great number of new articles. During the reign of
queen Anne, feveral ineffe&ual attempts were made to re=
concile Mr. Collier to the exiting government. Preferment
in the church was offered to him, which he rejected, and he
maintained his principles to the lait. In 1702, he publithed
the firk volume ‘* Of an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of Great
Britain,” which he followed by a fecond in 1714. This
work, on wheh he befowed great pains, was not remarkable
for the impartiality, which it behoves the faithful hiftorian
to maintain in ali fubjeéts of difpute. His attacks on the
principles and conduét of fome of the molt aSive promoters
of the reformation, and of others who held oppofite opinions
to thofe which he had himfelf embraced, expoled him to the
cenfures of literary charaéters of the firft refpeétability, par-
ticularly of the bifhops Nicholfon, Burnet, and Kennet.
Previoufly to the appearance of the fecond volume of his
hiftory, Mr. Collier had been privately confecrated a bifhop
by Dr. Hickes. In 1725. he publithed “ Difcourfes upon
PraGtical Subjeéts,”? which was his laft work of any moment,
and on the 26th of April, in the following year, he died of
the ftone, a difeafe to which he had been fubjeGt. many of. the
laft years of his life. /
Bifhop Collier was a man of intrepid courage, indefatiga=
ble indultry, and of the moft unfullied integrity. It is much
to be regretted that a perion of fuch talents, and poff-fled of
fo great a degree of ardour, had- not embarked in a better
caufe, and thus have been diftinguifhed on the fide of civil
and relizious liberty, on which the belt interelts of man de-
pend. Biog. Brit.
Conrier, in Geography a town of America, in North.
Carotina ; 11 miles N.E. of Wilmington.
Contier Rouge, of Buffon’s Natural Hiflory, the white»
tailed humming-bird, trochilus Jeucurus. Gmel.
Coxzizr’s Reach, in Géography, a place on the borders
of the Black-water river in Effex, at which the Chelmer and!
Black-water navigation up to Chelmsford commences. See
Canav.
COLLIERS, are veffels employed to carry coals from:
one port to another; and ferving as an excellent nurfery. for
feamen.
COLLIERY. Under the article Coat we'have recently
given the hiftory of its mines and trade in Britain, its laws,
the claffiication and defeription of diffrent forts of coal,
the practice of coal-mining, and fome- of the principles to
be obferved in fearching tor coals ; this lat part admitting of
farther and more general elucidation, we hall refume the
fubject in this place, and treat of the different Opinions
which naturalifts bave held, refpe@ting the origin and forma-
tion of coals.
Mr. Richard Kirwan, a moft indefatigable colle@or of
faGs relating to geology, when fovaking of carboniferons
foils or coal meafures (Geological Effay. p. 290, &c.), ttates
thefe to be either chiefly argillaceons or arenilitic, or both
together, or of the trap kind, or calcareous; the circum.
{tances of thefe, and of the coal found among them moft
worthy of*notice, he ftates to be the following 3 wre.
1°. They commonly form diltin& (trata, or beds, one over
the other to a great depth. The {trata of coal are ufually
called feams (beds); ic is very feldom found in irrewular
heaps (pipe-veins, bellies, nelts), or veins (loads, fiffures,
rake veins, &c.).
2°. Thefe feams are fearcely ever found fingle, but thofe
whofe thicknels does not exceed 14 or 15 inches, are rirely
worked!
CO Lobel Ep RY,
worked. At Whitehaven five were lately worked, at New-
caltle three, at Liege 20. | The higheft feams, andnext the
furface, are generally the worit (fee §. 7°), but the’ deepeit
are: uot alway s the belt.
The thicknefs of different beds of coal is variable, from
east inch or Jefs to 5 or 6 feet; but not unfrequently it
amounts to 25 or 30 feet, and in fome rare inftauces to So
feet or more. No fuch feam as this laft has occurred in
Great Britain.
4°. Seams of coal generally occupy a conliderable extent
both in.Jength and breadth, and whatever the thicknefs of
each may be, it is commonly con{tant for a corfiderable
{pace, as a mile or two miles; inftances of a contrary kind
feldom occur, unlefs the feam be difurbed by fome obfiruc-
tion (fee § 16°), or at the extremities of a coal-foil, (coal-
mealutes), or in an extent exceeding two miles.
In the fame ftratum (feam) if exceeding 3 or 4. feet in
thieknefs, the coal is feldom exa@ly of the fame quality.
6°.. Different feams of coal are {eparated from cach other,
by at leait one, but Bere by feveral ftrata of earth or
ftone {See article Coar); thefe, in aconfiderable extent,
anit alfo an uniform Hicknett
The uppermott feam of coal’is commonly foft and
duty ; it is vulgarly called /inut.
8°. Seams of coal, and alfo their concomitant ftrata, are
gencrally parallel to each other, unlefs an uncommonly thick
ftratum of earth, 150 or 200 feet thick, intervenes. Their
number and order are alfo-fimilar, to a coniiderable extent,
yet variable in the fame diftri& and foil.
9’. In many of the concomitant ftrata, particularly of
fhale, bituminous ‘hale, indurated. clay, and fand-ftone, par-
ticles of coal are found interfperfed.
vo’. The {trata that immediately cover coal, and'thence
called its roof (crop), are fhale, bituminous fhale, or fand-ftone;
rarely any other. .But they are alfo often found at a great
- diftance above it.
i. Vhe firata on which coal repofes, and thence called
its floor, fole, or pavement, are alfo farid-ftone, fhale, indurat-
ed clay, or femi-protolite (a reddith fand-{tone or breccia).
Thislalt would, fay s Mr. Kirwan,in mottcafes, be found in its
floor, if the mines were funk deep enough to reach it.
Granite has alfo been found in its floor in a few inftances.
In trap fouls, trap or bafalt is faid’to form fometimes the
roof, and fometimes the fole of a feam of coal, but, in
ftri€tnefs, it 13 believed, fhale moftly intervenes.
12°. Impreffions of Blunts, particularly of the ery ptogamic
and culmiferous kind, are moft frequently found in thale
and bituminous fhales that accompany coal, or which are
found in coal mines, fometimrs on {and ftone, but very rarely
on the coal itfelf. Roots alfo frequently appear in the in-
durated clay. Trees carbonated, or bituminated, fometimes
repofe on coal, or are found under it. Fluviatile (or river)
fhells, mufeles, and land-{nails, often occur ; fea-fhells feldom.
13°. Argillaceous ircn ore is fometimes met with among
the carboniferous {trata of-an argillaceous foil; and martial
pyrites, either found, or much oftencr oxygenated, and mix-
ed with the fubftance of the coal.
14°. The firetch or courfe (drift, run) of feams of coal,
and of their attendant ftrata, is cammonly between E. and
W. or N.E. and S.W. There are, however, a few excep-
tions to this rule. ‘
The dip (or pitch) of coal is exceedingly variable,
fomctimes nearly horizontal, fometimes from 25° to 45°,
fometimes 75”, rarely approaching {till more to the perpen-
dicular.
16°. The uniform courfe (or plane) of feams of coal, and
of the ftrata that accompany them, is frequently interrupted
by ob‘tructions, called /lips, dykes, troubles, faults, (hitches,
‘
traps, breaks, fiffures, loads, ‘krots). Thefe never fail te
clevate (rife, upeatt, uptrep)-or deprefs : (fink, downcak,
downtrap) the ftrata beyond them; or rather, the ftrata on
each fide of them are found at different heights. This ob-
fervation is general, being found to hold good in every
part of Britatn, as well as on the continent. The inequal-
ity of the height amounts from a few inches to 120 feets
but fo great an inequality is-rare, and has been found only
a Derby! tire. In Germany it feldom exceeds, and er
amourts to, 50 fret.
117°. It has been obferved in Britain, that if rhe fli &e,
overhangs (hades) on one jide, and confequently forms an
acute angle with the feam of coal which it cuts, the conti-
nuation of the ftra:um will be found /ower on the other fide
of the flip, and confequently, vice verfd, if it recedes from
(underlays), or forms an obtufe angle with the {eam of coal
on the one fide; the continuation of the feam will be found
higher on the other fide, as in Plate 1. fig. 1». 0f Geology,
where @ and J denote the interrupted feam of coal, and ¢¢,
the cbitruction or 7p, &e.
18°, The fe flips, &c. (or the matter filling them) fome-
times confift of indurated-clay, fometmes of fand-flone, both
different from fuch as form the ftrata, but more frequently
of fome {pecies of fone that never compels the trata of
coal-mines, except, perhaps, rocks of the trap fpecius; their
thicknefs amounts in various mines, from a few inches to fe-
veral yards. Nocéules of coal ave fometimes found in the
flios, and water is frequently lodged in them. They often
defeend from the furface to the greatelt known depths.
19°. The difpolition of the firata below the furface feldom
contorms to the figure of the furface. The former is often
regular, when the latter is broken and uneven; and wice werfas
very frequently the {trata dip into a hill, againfl the rile of
the furfece, or crofs it ina right or diagonal line.
20° he déepelt mines known are thofle of Namur, fome
of which are fad to defeend 2400 feet, or 400 fathoms.
21°. The feams of coal, where in Sentaes with their roof,
floor, or “fips have a {mooth, polifhed, gliftening furfacey
which thews they were originally foft.
To the above we have, gn parenthefis, added rod
veral fynonyms for rendering them more intelligible ‘in
dfferent diltrias; we {ubjoin other general conclufions
fional fynonyms of our own, and number themi a feries
fo slowing the above, for the conv-nience of reference:
viz.
22°. Thatthequantity of earthy or ftony matter in the moft
bituimmeus coal, bears no proportion to the weight of that.
coal; bituminous coal is capable of being charred (fee Coxe); _
and then it is a [ubllance almoit entirely refembling vegeta-
ble charcoal, which, on combuilion, fearceiy leaves =4th of
its weight of argil or Rony matter. Geol. Eff, p. 316. Mr
23°. Vhat mines of qood-coal (brown-coal,
ee Be
fareurbrand) have no uniformity in the thicknefe hee
feams of wood-coal (as in § 4"); on the contrary, in the mo
conliderable of thele, an uniform decreale of thicknefs from
the place in which the wood was frit heaped, is oblerved,
Ibid 321.
24°. That feams of real mineral coal, acd thofte of earth
or ttone that accompany them, are obferved to preferve thei
paraliclifm (noticed § 8") even after an interruption bya
or dyke, whether elevated or deprefled. But in mines
wood-voal, no fech parallelifm, nor even any diftin& nu
of trata prevail, but the whole appears to be one ttratut
regularly divided by matles of clay or ftone. lbid*
25°. ‘['hat mines of wood-coal prefent fudden elevations or
depreffions in the fame ftratum; mines of ie mineral coal
never. Lbid 322.
Sie 26°. That
i att ie
a
v4
of this ingenious author, relative to. coals, with occas —
CO. DP hE RY,
26°. That there are no flips or dykes in wood coal mines ;
thofe of genuine coal abound in them. Ibid.
27°. That wood-coal is frequently covered with round
fragments of quartz ; genuine coal never. Ibid.
28°. That there is in the mufeum of Florence, a cellular
fand-ftone, the cells of which are filled with genuine mincral
coal, Could thishave been wood?’ Ibid.
29°. That genuine coal is feldom found in plains, but
wood-coal frequently is, according to Voight Pratt. Ibid.
323s
go°. That the impreffidns obferved on real coal, are thofe
of herbaceous plants, as fern, &c.; the imprefiions of re-
finiferous plants have never been difcovered on the ftrata’that
accompany coal, and the trees found are commonly birch
or oak. Ibid. 3:8.
31°. That the traces of land vegetables, and not of marine
vegetab'es, are fuind on the {trata that cover feams of coal,
er on thofe on which thefe feams re{t, or on both. Sea-
fhells are fearcely ever found among them, and much lefs the
boncs of fifh: that, on the contrary, reeds or rufhes, and flu-
viatile fhells, have been found in the {trata that cover coal.
Ibid. 323.
32°. ‘That common falt is never found in coal-mines, ex-
cept when in the neighbourhood of falt fprings; but on the
contrary, alum and vitriol. Ibid. 324.
33°. Vhat carbonaceous {trata never prefent a conic eleva-
tion on both fides of a difruptured {tratum, as would be the
natural refult of an impreffion from below. Ibid. 337.
34°. That coalis never to be expected in primeval moun-
tains, as granite, gneifs, &c., but that on the fides of thefe,
particularly if very high, or in the hanging level that flopes
from them to fome river or valley, it may be fought. Ibid.
35°: That there is fill a greater probability of finding it
in the neighbourhood of mountains of argillaccous porphyry.
Ibid.
36°. That it may be fought with probability of fuccefs
in fand-ftone mountains, if fand-ftone aud clay alternate, or
fand-ftone, clay, and argillacco@Siron cre. Ibid. 348.
37°. That in any elevated land tn which fand-ttone and
fhale with vegetable impreflions, or indurated clay and fhale,
or bituminous fhale, form diftingt ftrata, or clay, iron ore,
and fhale, with or without ftrata of fand, coal may well be
expected. | Ibid.
35°. That if fand-ftone be found under lime-ftone, or if
they alternate with each other, and, particularly; if indurated
clay and fhale form any of the ttrata, they afford a probable
indication of coal; ctherwile coal is very rarely found in, or
underlime-ftone. Ibid.
39°. That coal is very feldom found with argillite, and
fuch as has been is of the uninflemmable kind. Ibid.
40°. That where trap, or whin and clay alternate, and
more efpecially trap and fand-itone, coal may be expeéted ;
it is often, but not regularly, found under bafalt; wood-coal
js fometimes found under both. Ibid.
41°. That coal frequently burfts out on the furface, or on
the fides of hills, in a withered itate, which diffufes itfelf to
a diftance from its origin, and requires an experienced miner
to traceit truly tothe feam to which it belongs. Ibid.
Such are the valuable obfervations of Mr. Kirwan, cn the
probable cxiftence cz coal in certain fituations, and on its
poefition and relation to the adjoining ftrata, &c. Thefe
obiervations are for the molt part unexeeptionably true, and
will be found conliftent with what we have delivered on this
fubje&, under the article Coar; buta few of them feem to
require fome remarks in this place,
§ 3°. Under the names of different collieries we fhall take
‘of the planes of the ruptured ftrata.
occafion to mention {uch feams of coal as are remarkable for
their thicknefs, or other properties. The limitation of
two miles, as the extent of rezularity in coal feams, men-
tioned in § 4°, feems inconfiltent with the multiplied obferva-
tions of Mr. Smith and other recent obfervers; fometimes
two cr more veins of coal which are feparated only by thin
beds of fhale, or other bituminous matter unft for nfe, are
found to unite, owing probably to the diffufion of the earthy
matter more generally among the coal, inftead of its forming
diftinct layers therein; but generaliy, in purfuing the feam
further, the coals feparate again; the extremities of a coal
foil, can, in ourepinion, only be found in the regular ending
or out-erop of the meafures, (fee Ending of Strata) ; or,
where the itrata on one fide of an obftruétion or fiffure have
been carried away by an abrafion or denudation of the ele-
vated ftyata, of which we fhall give fome account, and men-
tion feveral curions inflances in England, under the term
Denupation. We are not inclined to think, that thick
intervening meafures are more likely to alter the parallelifm
of feams of coal, as mentioned § 8°, than thin ones; the
contrary opinion has probably in fome cafes arifen from
comparing the feam on different fides of a fault or fiflure,
which hades or declines contiderably from a vertical pofition.
Under the article Coax, we have explained how different -
borings or finkings in the fame diftrict, may differ materially, .
or perhaps entirely, owing to one being begun higher up on:
the meaiures or feries of {trata than the other, otherwife, we
believe, that the fame flratum will be found to have the
fame fucceffion of ttrata under it. And here it may be ne--
ceflary to note, that a place being higher up on the feries of
ftrata, has no relation to its a€tual elevation compared with +
the centre of the earth, or with a level line, as truly obferved °
by Mr. Whitehurft, (Enquiry p. 153,) but the lowelt known
ftrata in many diftriéts are feen on the greateft heights; this -
we fhall amply illuftrate by examples, in the progrefs of our
work. See Order of the Strara. :
The femiprotolite, mentioned § 11°, certainly has no exe -
iftence in a large portion of the Britith coal-mines, if it ex-
ifts inany of them; the theory adopted by our author, of
granite forming the foundation in every inftance, and gene-
rally with a breccia or femiprotolite upen it, is difproved in >
innumerable inftances by Mr. Smith’s maps and f{edtions,
fhewing the aétual fucceffion of flrata throughout . the
country. *
We are of opinion with M. Blimenbach (Hanbuch der
Natur. Gefch 703), that molt, if noc ail, of the vegetable *
fofiil remains are incognita, and cannot be identified with any
recent or Known plants of the prefent race (§ 12° and go®).:
The recent determinations of M. Cuvier declaring mot of tie -
offeous remains from the ftrata, hitherto difcovered, to be «
incognita, will probably, we think, whe n the proper ditine-
tion is made between the regular {trata foflils, and :thofe -
which ought, according to our remark under the article
Coat, to be confidered as gravel, as recent, or as peat foilils, ,
be much further extended, perhaps fo faras to imclude every
animal remain which is-found actually lodged in the trata ;
the diftinétion, therefore, between river fhells and /and {nails
as accompaniments of coal, nearly to the exclufion of /2a
fhells or marine remains, we confider a mere hypothetis, as
we {hall take future opportunities of fhewing.
It is not univerfally true, as mentioned § 16°, that /lip:,
dykes, &c. never fail to elevate or deprefs the ftrata, or to
occafion an inequality in their levels; (fee our defcription of
dykes in the article Coat) ; the -inttances. being numerous
both in the coal meafures and other ftrata, where a ffure of -
confiderable width makes nc fentible alteration in the continuity
The alterations of
level which fiffures occafion, are ailo much greater in numer- -
ous
CoO Lili TETRO®,
ous inftances, than our author admits; befides thofe mentien-
ed, (Coat), we might ftate on the authority of Mr. Martin,
that down-calts of 40 to 100 fathoms are not uncommon
in the firata of what he deneminates the Mineral Bafon of
South Wales. (Phil. Trans. 1806. p.342). That the dil
locations of the ftreta (§ 17°) have been gentle and gradual,
(Geol. Effays, 333), we cannot fuppofe, much lefs that
the extraneous matters which fill the fiffures (§ 18°) were of
Prior origin to the ftrata themfelves, and occafioned the over-
hanging or hading of the fiffures, as our author has fuppofed,
pege 334. We have reafon to hope, that thefe and feveral
other hitherto unexplained phenomena of the ftrata, will
be fully made out by the new lights which we fhal] be
enabled to throw on the: fubjeét, arifing out of the difcove-
rics of Mr. Smith, above alluded to.
That fome rare mnftances have occurred of the ftrata un-
derneath, dipping in a contrary dire¢tion to thofe near the
furface, § 19, mult be admitted, and of which the Somerfet-
{sire coal-mines defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions,
N°, 360 and 391, by Mr. John Stracey, feem an inflance ;
but in general it will be found, that the plane of the {trata
beneath, conforms to any regular plane which is to be found
on the furface, either of a hill or vale, excepting only 1n the
firt cafe, infiances where a perfectly ftraight and {mooth frac-
ture of the {trata has happened, and, inthe latter cafe, where
dtagnant water hesin times long polterior to the formation of
the ftrata, made depolits of mud, &c. in regular horizontal
layers, or nearly fo. This cirenmitance is of the utmott
confequence to be attended to in tracing the ftrata of a
country, as alfo to note carefully the diftinétion between
thefe original planes ox facettes of a hill, and the curious
curving furfaces occafioned by the ending of ftrata, or the
lefs regular curving of the furface, occafioned by the fracture
(generally oblique or hading) and fubfequent abrafion or
rounding of the top and edges of the {trata by the aétion of
molt violent currents of water. The circumitance men-
tioned by ovr author, of the ftrata dipping into a hill, is
obfervable at the endings of moft of the ftrata, and on the
ruptured fide of a large portion of hills and mountains,
where the break or fiffure occ@fioning the hill was in the
run or courfe of the ftrata, as it lies at prefent, which, ac-
cording to the obfervations of Charpertier, p. 80, is very
generally the cafe; but where the prefent dip is in the dircc-
tion of the fiflu-e, or is inelined in any acute angle thereto,
the ftrata will crofs the nile of chehill, direét or obliqucly as
the cafe may bc.
The probability will be fhewn hereafter, that fome of the
Gifturbances, or ruptures in the ftrata, have been confined to
a certain number of the upper flrata, without affeting thofe
below, and hence regular {trata may fomctimes be found,
under thofe which are broken and uneven, as mentioned in
this {eGion ; and the Somerfethhire coal ftrata above men-
tioned may perhaps thus be accounted for, We have never
been able to difcover any thing, in the upper or under fnrface
of a feam of coal, which demonttrates its having originally
been foft, as mentioned § 21°; the gliftening appearance of
the furface in fome partings, fhews only the great regularity
and truth of the planes or lamina, in which the ftrata were
at firt depofited. The polifhed orrather rubbed furfaces of
the flips or dykes in coai“mines, and indeed in the ftrata gene-
rally, 1s a circumitance which feems moft furprifingly to have
been overlooked by writers on this fubject. r. Kirwan
only gives it the curfory notice contained in § 21°. This
subbing feems to have arifen from violent mechanical pref-
fure, and motion to and fro againft each other, and this feems
not confined to fiffures or joints, where the ttrata are lower
on ore fide than on the other, fo as to be explicable, as
the effet of the flip, or mere finking down of one part, when
in clofe conta& with the other; but this apparent wear in
the furfaces, of even the fmaller fiffures, is 2s obfervable in
marl and chalk pits, and all tolerably foft ftrata, where no
alteration of the level ofthe ftrata has taken place, as where
fuch depreffion of one fide of the fiflure is vifible. Sve
Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxv. p. 45 and 46, and vol.
XXviiil, p. 120. See allo Lievation of Strata. ‘The fads
and cbicrvations of Mr. Kirwan on coal, in feGions 23° to
25° above, agree with our remarks under the article Coat,
on the unequal and apparentiy accidental diffufion of the
wood-like {ub{tances which have formed the ftrata, or rather
accumulations of wood-ceal. That flips or dykes have never
been obferved in wood-coal mines, (§ 26°), canonly, we think
have artfen, from the limited extent of thefe accumulaneee
in the ftrata, at leaft of fuch as are worked; while the ex-
cavations in the planes of the {trata, as well as vertically in
fhafts, have been incomparably. greater in the’ proper coal
diftrits, than -in any other, and therefore, it is, that the
dykes &c. have there been beit afcertained ;' and from coal-.
working it has been, that almott all our knowledge of the
itrata has been derived ; they were the objeéts which firft
awakened Mr. Smith’s attention to the fubjeét of the
{tratificatior, aid by obfervations in the next moft extenfive —
field for thefe oblervations, wz. the cutting of navigable
canals, he was enabled to gencra‘ize and extend the import-
ant faéts, at prefent fo little known, but to coal-miners
within their own particular diftriét, F
Genvine coal is now very feidom worked at its out-crop, ;
as before oblerved, owing to the fuperior quality of ‘hic
fame feam, when deeper covered ; but wood-coal is generally
worked {fo near to the furface, as to be opened at top, or
uncallowed, inliead of being mined for; it is no wonder |
therefore that gravel has been obfervedin contaé with it, as”
obferved § 27°. ee
Perhaps the fpecimen mentioned § 28°, did not contain
genuine coal in its cells; we conjecture this, from havin :
jeen fpecimens of a reddifh foft fand-ftone, which Mr,
Farey brought laft fummer from the foot of the chff on
fea beach, about two miles cat of Haftings in Suffex, from —
the vicin'ty of a cottage called the Grovers, which contain-—
ed fo many detached pieccs of bitumenized wood, that were
an augre-bole to be bored into it, and fupplied with water, -
&c. fomething hke the appearance of penetrating a coal vein,
might be had in the borings; and it 1s this ftratum, dipping
under Bexhill, fituate about 64 miles to the weilward, which —
in the opinion of Mr, F. has been there miltaken in the bor-
ings for a feas: of coals, but which the improved boring
apparatus of Mr. Ryan, mentioned under Coax, would have >
deteGted, and faved, perhaps, a moit unparallelled waite of —
money, in the meafures now purfuing. Ay st aS
The remark in § 29°, that genuine coal is feldom found —
in plains, is by no means true ; the coal-{lreta about Bed- —
worth in Warwickthire, Whibfey Slack near Bradford in
Yorkfhire, and numerous other places which we could men= —
tion, form extenfive plains; a contrary remark to the above, —
would perhaps be much nearer to the truth. ant are
It will readily be gathered, from our remarks on § 12°,
that we have our doubts, on the diftin@tions between
reliniferous and non-refiniferous plants, land and mat
vegetables, and river and fea fhells, as accompaniments
coal, § 30 and 31, and that we incline to the opinion, | hat
further learches will clafs ail or moft of them among
incognita of a prior {tate of aquatic extitence. vee
I mprcflionstrom below the ftrata § 33, efpecially from ela
fluids, mult have formed conic elevations or craters in mak-
ing their efcape, and could not have produced that univerfal —
breaking of the {trata which we find; which is indeed fo.
univerfal, that a fingle acre of the furface can fearcely be —
found
ey
re
1
CoOpLebr LE oRey.
found without one, and fometimes numerous fiffures through
it, although the original plane of the {trata is {till maintained
by its fragments, fa¢ts which had a material influence on
the writer’s reafonings upon this fubjeét, which we have
hinted at above. ‘The feven following feGions beirg ftated,
as confequences of Mr. Kirwan’s particular tenets, which
we {hall mention prefently, on the origin of coal, we fhall
pafs them without comment for the prefent, and proceed to
thate the principal among the various opinions which have
been given, on the origin of the invaluable fub{tance, which
is the fubje@ of our prefent inquiry. In {tating the opinions
which have been held as to the origin of coal, we hall begin
with that of Arduino and fome others, who have fup-
poled coal to originate from the fat and un@uofity of the
Bumerous tribes of animals which have peopled the ocean ;
which matter being accumulated on the bottom of the fea,
became covered by various flrata,in confequence of the dif-
ferent changes which the furface of the earthand bottom of
the {tas have undergone. The moft obvious objeGions to
this hypothefis arife, from the total diffimilarity of coal to
animal fat, and the levity of the latter compared with water,
which fhould have occafioned it rather to rife to the top of
the water and float, than to difpofe itfelf in fuch extremely
regular beds at the bottom, as to form ftrata of coal. The
exiftence of a few fhells in or near to coal, in fome places,
which refemble fome of the recent fea fhells, we «conceive to
be as far from proving it to be of marine origin (as contended
by the author of this hypothefis) as the fuppofed refemblance
of ferns, reeds, rufhes, &c. and land and river fhells, with
the abfence of bones of fifth and fea falt in other places,
proves it to be of land origin, § 30 and 31 of Mr. Kirwan’s
obfervations above, and Geol. Eff. 323.
The next opinion which we fhall mention is that of M.
Genfanne and others, who, from the {pecific gravity and hard-
nefs of fome kind of coal, and its large quantity of bitumi-
mous matter, have concluded pit-coal to be a peculiar earth
of the argiilaceous genus, penetrated and impregnated with
petroleum. To this opinion Mr. Kirwan oppofes the re-
mark in the 22° § above, and adds, that fome known fpecies
of coal, that of Kilkenny for inftance, contain xo petrol or
other bitumen in their compofition, and are thence called
natural carbon. See Mr. Kirwan’s Mineralogy 1i. 49.
M. Tingry, Dr. Darwin, and others, have imagined, that
heat generated by the fermentation of immenfe beds of vege
table matters, have diftilled or feparated there from the oils,
naphtha, afphalttm, &c. which condenfed between the ftrata,
and have formed feams of coal, and bituminous {chifls. On
this fanciful theory it can fcarcely be neceflary to comment.
Dr. Hutton imagines coal to be formed by the flow
cepofitions of oily and bituminous matters at the bottom of
the fea, which matters he fuppofes to have originated in the
diffolution of the various animaland vegetable bodies, which
are continually perifhing on the furface of the earth, and in
the waters of the ocean. ‘The fuliginous matter which 1s
feparated during the combuttion of various bodies on the
furface of the earth, he fuppofes, is wafhed off the furfaces
on which it falls by the rain, and, being thus made to flow
into the rivers, is carried off by them into the fea; where it
alfo adds, by its depofition, to the mafs which is accumulat-
ing atits bottom. Another fource whence he fuppofes this
matter to be derived, 1s the water draining from peat moffes,
which, acco-ding to his ideas, is charged with bituminous
matter, very much refembling foffil coal, when precipitated.
The depofitions of thefe matters in thefea are fuppofed by
the Doctor to be fo regular, as to produce ftrata, which,
becominz covered by an immenfe weight of fuperincumbent
earth,“ mutt thereby become exceedingly comprefled and
Vion. VIII.
condenfed, and finally confolidated, by the powerful influ.
ence of fubterranean heat ; and ultimately, by the progref-
five change of fea into dry land, thefe become feams of coal,
fuch as we now find in the bowels of the earth. Granting
that oily and bituminous matters are thus conveyed by the
rivers into the fea, but which Mr. Kirwan has fhewn does
not take place, there is a manifelt abfurdity in fuppofing
thefe matters to fink to the bottom of the water ; while itis
fcarcely poflible to conceive, that diftin& beds or flrata of
coal and earth; efpecially fuch regular and extended ones as
we find of them, can be formed by depofition in an ocean
conftituted as our prefent one is. The operation of heat
upon thefe coal ftrata has been fhewn by Mr. Kirwan and
others, to be inconfiftent with all the circumftances attend-
ing them. It is true that fir James Hall (TranfaGtions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. vii.) has endeavoured
to remove the force of thefe objeétions, by fhewing, in the
detail of his chemical experiments, and by the f{pecimens
prefented to the Britifh Mufeum in June 1806, that wood,
or even born, may be converted to a fubftance refembiing
coal, by the aétion of an intenfe heat applied under a very
immenfe prefiure. Waluable and fatisfactory as we think fir
James’s experiments to be, in proving the poffibility of car-
bonat of lime being fufed without decompofition, and of
vegetable and animal {ubftances being melted or reduced to
a coal-like fob{tance, under the heat and confinement, as well
as preflure which he applied, yet we think, the difficulty of
Dr. Hutton and other Plutonifts to be ftill nearly as great
as everin fhewing, that fuch a degree of heat ever has exifted
in ftrata, not obvioufly volcanie ; certainly, lava, however
hot we may admit it to have been, could never by its mere
protrufion under beds of fea-fhells, as fir James Hall endea-
vours to explain, in his imaginary fection of a volcanic
mountain and adjoining fea, (fig. 41. in the T'ranfaétions,)
have heated their whole mafs, in the degree which his own
experiments have fhewn to be neceflary for the formation of
lime-ftone ; ner is it conceivable, that the fuppofed fuperin-
cumbent ftrata, much lefs any depth of water, could have fo
effeGually retained the carbonic gas, as.he himfelf has fhewn
to be neceflary, to form limeeftone or marble out of fhells or
chalk ; or the other gaffes, fo as to effect the converfion of
wood and vegetables into pit coal.
The ingenious Mr. Kirwan fuppofes, that a large clafs of
primeval rocks and mountains, containing carbon and petrol
in their compofition, have been either totally deftroyed, or
their heights and bulk confiderably leffened by difintegra~
tion and decompofition ; and that by the equable diffution
of the difintegrated particles, fucceflively carried down by the
gentle trickling of the numerous rills that flowed from thofe
mountains, the feams of coal and their attendant {trata were
formed, in lakes at their feet, we fuppofe, but this circum-
ftance it is difficult to gather from Mr. K’s account; ac-
cording to which, the decompofed felt{par and horn-
blende formed clay, the particles of bitumen were fet
free, and thefe, when united, funk through the moiit
pulpy, incoherent, argillaceous maffes, and formed the
{eams of coal beneath them. Mr. Parkinfon (Organic Re-
mains I. 248.) has commented on the abfurdity of fuch a
light fubftance as bitumen, being fuppofed to defcend
through a pulp of argillaceous matters, and depofit itfelf in
a ftratum below it.
The next hypothefis which we have to mention,
and which has numerous adherents, afcribes the forma-
tion of coal to foretts of antediluvian trees, and to peat
bogs, and other vegetable produtions of the dry land of
that period, buried uring the fuppofed violences of the
Mofaic deluge, under the ftrata which are found covering
5G thera
‘
COLLIERY.
them in the ftate of coal at this day. This hypothefis we
fhall examine, and ftate fome of the objections to which it
feems liable; and firft, they are mines of wood-coal, de-
{feribed in §s. 23° to 29° above, which alone have the appear-
ance of being formed by depofitions of foating wood and
other matiers, in the irregularity of their extent, and the va-
riable thicknefs of the feam, circumiftances extremely rare
in regular coal-feams, or in the matters alternating with
them. Some, we are aware, have contended, that this uni-
formity in the thicknefs of regular coal feams has arifen, from
the mafs of depofited wood and vegetables having, fince
they were covered by the fuperincunbent ftrata, been liqui-
fied, or nearly fo, by fome procefs, the exaé nature of which
has never been agreed upon by the advocates of this hypothe-
fis, and that im this foft ftate: (§ 21° above) they were
preffed into an uniform feam, or continued {tratum, An ob-
vious objection to this explanation, of the uniformity ob-
ferved in the thicknefs of a real coal-feam arifes from the
fa&t, that all coal-feams prefent themfelves at the furface in
the endings of the ftrata, and frequently alfo in the
fides of hills, occafioned by diflocations of the ftrata
(§s. 19° and 41°); and here it will be difficult, if not
impoffible, to conceive, how the coal, when in a foft
ftate, was prevented from f{queezing out by the weight
of the fuperincumbent ftrata, and forming mafles of
that fubftance at the furface, of which no traces are obferv-
able; for, the diffulion of the withered coal or {mut, below
the out-crop of coal feams (§ 41) has no fuch appearance,
but in all its circumftances agrees, with the withered remains
or rubble of other ftrata at their outcrop. We incline to the
opinion, that real wood, or other recent vegetable fubftances,
have never been found in the coal feams, or in their accom-
panying meafures or firata : a large portion of the bitumenized
vegetable impreflions there found certainly bear no refem-
blance to known woods, or plasts of the prefent race ; while
moft, if not all of fuch remains, that have been denomi-
nated after recent plants, have been fo named without that
care which a botanift would exercife, in claffing or naming a
new recent plant which was prefented to him for examina-
tion. Hence the {uppofed refemblance to land plants, rather
than to aquatic plants in thefe curious remains, has, as we
conceive, arifen. Our next objeGion to the above hypo-
thefis is founded, on the improbability of the accumulation
of fuch immenfe quantities of trees and vegetable matter in
the antediluvian world, in lefs than 17 centuries, when more
than 42 centuries fince have accumulated fo little: if they
had remained on the furface of the dry land aud not decay-
ed, a very large portion of the earth muft have been thereby
incumbered and rendered unfit for the habitation and ufe of
men or animals; it is highly improbable, that they were
progreflively removed from the dry land to the antediluvian
fea, and there preferved until the deluge. The probable
quantity of growing trees and vegetables exifting at the
commencement of the Mofaic deluge, feems quite infufh-
cient to account for even the Britifh coal ftrata, when it is
confidered how much the bulk or mals of the vegetable mat-
ter has, in all probability, been reduced, by its converfion
into real coal: and this laft fuppofition is alfo denied us,
by the Mofaic account of this event, from which ( Genefis,
Vi. J+ 17s 1s 203 Vil. 2,35 4. 8, 9. 14. 21, 22, 235 Ville
TI. 17. 19; ik. 3- 20.) we gather, that the exifting trees
and vegetables (as well as fith) were not deitroyed by the
deluge. (See Derucr.) Some writers on the formation
of coal have fpoken of it, as the remains of vegetable
matters, either growing in, or that were depofited in the
fea, in very diftant periods, and which have been immured
under layers of earth, &c. by certain convulfions and de»
luges (whether the Mofaic or others, fome of them have not
explained) which have fince occurred: infuperable ¢ifficuls
ties will, we apprehend, be found to attend any hypothefis,
which fuppofes the burial of the matters compofing coal,
at any period fince the earth has been divided into fea and
dry land as at prefent, let the origin of thofe matters be {ups
pofed whatever they may. :
The writer of this article begs leave to ftate another opi-
nion, which the recent difcoveries of Mr. Smith and himfelf
feem to render, in his judgment, moft probable, on the ori«
gin of mineral coal. This writer has feveral times taken
occafion to mention the probability, that the furface of the
earth, and as far below it as concerns us at prefent to con=
fider, originally confilted of parallel lamin of different mat-
ters, not concentric to the earth, but inclined, or dipping
towards the eaft, and ending towards the weit; each fuc-
ceeding lamina, in afcending the feries, being generally
fhorter towards the weft than. the eaft, in the fame
manner as the very minute laminez of cryftals are now
admitted to be, and thereby to form the flope, or inclina-
tion of the cryftalline furface; but with thefe differences,
that the laminz of the earth, or the different ftrata were dife
pofed to form indented or fingered endings, inftead of the
ftraight lines fo generally afflumed in cryftals of a {mall
fize, and that the terreftrial lamine are of very unequal
thicknefles. Various circumftances, befides the immenfe
maffes of unbroken fhells and other matters nearly fimilar to
the fea fhells, corals and other marine produétions of the
prefent time, fhew thefe {trata to have been depofited under
quiefcent and probably very deep water, anfwering, as he
conceives, to the ftate of the earth as deferibed by
the facred hiftorian, prior to the ninth verfe of the
firft chapter of Genefis, or in the two firft grand pe-
riods metaphorically calied days, after which God faid
** Let the waters under the heavens be gathered to-
gether into one place; and let the dry land appear.”
Abundant evidence will, as he apprehends, be furnifhed by
an examination of the various organic remains lodged in or
between the ftrata, that the animals, at leaft thofe of the tef-.
taceous, cruftaceous, and zoophytic kinds, whofe remains
they are, lived in the particular places where each is now.
found, at the time that the {trata, on or in which they are
lodged, formed the bottom of the univerfal ocean above-men-=
tioned; each newly depofited ftratum being a proper.
nidus for the produ@tion, and probably a pabulum tor.
the nourifhment of the animals peculiar to it, and which ap-
parently in moft inftances ceafed to exill, when new matter.
in procefs of time began to be precipitated, for the produe-
tion of a new ftratum upon the former one, which, allo, im
turn had its own peculiar animals, as their remains in fuch.
numerous inftances tedtify. .
The opinions of that able naturalift, M. Cuvier, in his
recent report to the national inftitute of France on the tran-
factions of that learned body in 1806, are in favour of the
animal incognita of the ftrata, having lived where their
bones are now found: and from an examination of the ace
counts from more than 600 places, where bones refembling
thofe of elephants and rhinocerofes have been dug up, be-
longing principally to the'clafs of gravel fo/fils, we believes
this able anatomitt is of opinion, that all thefe differ effentially
from the recent animals of thefe kinds and are of {pecies
now quite extinét. ae
Apparently, after long periods of fucceffive depofition
and animal exiftence, fuch ceafed for a time altogether, or -
nearly ; and the ftrata produced an immenfe variety and
quantity of vegetables, molt of them quite unlike the ve-
getable tribes of the prefent race; the immenfe forelts
3 of
COih
of weeds which have been difcovered at the bottom of the
prefent ocean, in fome places, probably bear no proportion
to the thicknels and magsitudes of many of thefe vegetable
prodvétions of the primitive or univerfal ocean, as ome of
them probably exceeded our trees in fize; their arborifer-
ous trunks, fo clofely imitating wood, as not hitherto to
have been diftingnifhed therefrom ; but the greater part of
the vegetables appeartohave beenof a {mall fize, efpecially on
ftrata, which feem to have been depofiting fo faft as to have
immured them fingly, as is often the cafe with the bitumin-
ous or coal fhales, mentioned under Coat, of which the
molt beautiful, various, and minute f{pecimens, might be ob-
tained in many coal workings. The fucceflive depofitions
in thefe vegetable, or carboniferous foils, appear to have
differed, as we have flated thofe of the animal, or epizootic,
to do, in their fitnefs for producing different kinds, and a fimt-
lar appearance and difappearance of different vegetable re-
mains will be obferved, in examining a feries of coal mea-
fures, or ftrata, upwards or downwards ; and, often; itrata
will be found intervening fuch, which contain no vegetable
impreffions, but in fome rare inftances, thole of animals
will therein be found, which obfervations, of too limited
an extent, awe fufpect, have denominated land and river
exuvia, § 12° and 30° above.
It is to beds of fub-aqueous vegetables, fuch as have been
mentioned above, uniformly and thickly covering large ex-
tenfions of the planes of trata, if not their whole extent, that
the writer of this article can alone look, in his view of the
fubject, for the true origin of vegetable coal; and ac-
cording, perhaps, to the nature of tnefe vegetables, as well
as to the kind or quantity of the mineral depofits, made
duving their growth, will the quality of different feams of
coal be found to vary, while their different thickneffes has
depended, on the quantity of vegetable matter accumulat-
ed, cither dead, as in our peat bogs, or then a€tually grow-
ing, when a depofition began to happen, either fo copious
or different, as to put a®“period to their growth, and ulti-
mately to immure them. That vegetable impreflions are
rarely found in the fubftance of a coal-feam, as remarked by
Mr. Kirwan in the paflage (§ 12°) above quoted, may,
we think, be perfectly accounted for, when the peculiar kind
of cryftallization, which all good mineral coals feem to have
undergone, is taken into confideration ; a change which
feems to have effectually deflroyed the organization of the
plants compofing the coal, but without a liquefaction having
happened, as in fome ftony cryftallizations, which have of
late years been noticed by mineralogitfts.
Mr. Parkinfon endeavours to account for this change,
which vegetable matters undergo in paffing into coal (Or-
ganic Remains, p. 253.) by a procefs which he calls ditu-
minous FERMENTATION, which fee. According to the obfer-
vations of this gentleman, foffil coal has alfo, in this change,
had numerons fepta, or thin fibres of uninflammable matter,
interpofed between the particles of pure bituminous matter,
of which it principaily confilts, which has modified its in-
flammability in the degree which renders pit coal fo well fit-
ted for the purpofes to which it is applied. Inthe f{pecimens
which Mr. P. examined, the inclofed particles of bitumen
were in form of rhomboids, or parallelep'peds, and the
feparating pellicles, or fepta, were formed of fulphate of lime,
containing a {mall portion of alumine, and fometimes of ful-
phuret of ironalfo, Organ. Rem. 269.
‘The newopinions which we have ventured to prefent, if fuch
they are, relating to the origin and formation of coal, in that
and the prefent article, will, as we truft, be candidly received
by our readers, and fubnuttted to that fovereign teft, an un-
prejudiced comparifon with the phenomena, by which it is
our fiscere wish that they fhould either ftand or fall, as it is
COL
alfo of the gentlemen above alluded to, through whofe valuable
labours and communications, we were enabled to give them.
The moft remarkable colliery, or coal-work, that we
have ever had in this ifland, was that wrought at Burrow-
{tonenefs, under the fea. The veins of coal were tound te
continue under the bed of the fea in this place, and the
colliers had the courage to work the vein aear half way
over; there being a mote half a mile from the fhore, where
was an entry that went down into the coal-pit, under
the fea. This was made into a kind of round key, or
mote, as they call it, built fo as to keep out the fea, which
flowed there twelve feet. Here the coals were laid, and a
fhip of that draught of water, could lay her fide to the
mote, and take in the coal.
This famous colliery belonged to the earl of Kinkardin’s
family. The frefh water which fprung from the bottom
and fides of the coal pit, was always drawn out upon the
fhore by an engine moved by water, that drew it forty fa~
thom. This coal pit continued to be wrought many years
to the great profit of the owners, and the wonder of all
that faw it; but, at laft, an unexpected high tide drowned
the whole at once, and the labourers had not time to efcape,
but perifhed init. Phil. Tranf. No. 98.
COLLIGAT, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ethio-
pia near Egypt, feated on the bank of the Nile, according
to Pliny.
COLLIGENDUM bona defunéti, letters ad.
MINISTRATION.
COLLIGUAJA, in Botany, Lam. Encyc.
Chil. p. 158. Clafs and order, monacia ofandria.
Ord. Euphorbia, Lam.
Gen. Ch. Flowersinacatkin. Males. Calyx four-cleft,
Stam. Filaments eight. Females below the males. Cal. as
in the males; ftyles three. Peric. Capfule triangular, elaf-
tic. Seedsthree, round, the fize of a pea.
Sp. C. Odorata. A fhrub. Stem five or fix feet high,
much branched. Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, on fhort pe-
tioles, toothed, one-nerved, {mooth, flefhy, permanent.
Flowers on fhort peduncles. A native of Chili.
COLLIMATION of a Telefcope, in Optics, is that line
which pafles through the tube, and cuts both the focus of the
eye piece and alfo the centre of the objeét glafs; the deriva-
tion of the term is from col, con, or cum, with ; and lima, a filey
in confequence pf the exa¢titude with which it ought to be
adjulted, at right angles to the axis of a telefcope, that is
moveable on pivots in any aftronomical inftrument. It is
in this line that the middle wire of the eye-picce ought to
be exaGily placed, in any telefcope for celettial obfervations ;
which pofition may be afcertained by reverfing the ends of
the axis, and noticing, in both fituations, a point in a dif-
tant obje& that is bifeéted by the faid wire; the deviation
from true bifeétion being always double to the error in colli-
mation, when the line of collimation is at right angles to
the axis of motion of the telefcope. ‘The lateral fcrews
of adjuftment, at the focusof the eye-piece, in the beft in-
ftruments, will readily bring the middle wire into the true
line of collimation with but little trouble.
COLLINS, Joun, in Biography, a mathematician of
confiderable eminence, was born at Wood Eaton, in Ox-
fordfhire, in March 1624. He was educated by his father,
a diffenting minilter, and at the age of 16 was bound ap-
prentice to a bookfeller at Oxford, but foon after the be«
ginning of the civil wars he was made a junior clerk of the
prince of Wales’s kitchen. In this fituation he was under
the fuperintendence of Mr. Marr, a good mathematician,
and famous for the dials with which he adorned the gardens
of king Charles. From hence young Collins embarked in
the fea fervyice, and having already made fome progrefs in
5 G2 mathematical
See Ap-
Molin,
Nat.
cOoOL
mathematical purfuits, he employed all his leifure time in
improving himfelf in the pra@tical branches. of fcience.
Upon his return to England he taught mathematics, and in
the year 1652 publithed an “ Introdu&ion to Merchants
Accounts.” From this period he frequently prefented the
public with treatifes in various departments of fcience,
which were all well receiged, and to a certain degree popu-
Jar, In 1667 Mr. Collins was made accountant to the
Excife Office, and chofen member of the Royal Society.
He had not been long a member of this learned and refpeét-
zbie body, when he laid before it fome papers on the fub-
jet of chronology, and in 1699, a differtation of his was
publifhed in the ‘* Tranfa&tions,’? on the refolution of
equations in numbers, in which are feteral important hints
on the doétrine of differences, and other topics. He was
nominated by lord Shaftefbury in divers references coucern-
ing fuits in Chancery, to affit in ftating intricate accounts ;
and was foon after appointed accountant to the Royal
Fithery Company. Mr. Collins, by many publications,
fhewed how deeply he was verfed in the principles of trade
and commerce. His works are numerous, and they difplay
the features of a liberal mind and a clear head. Befides thofe
already noticed we have treatifes on the ‘* Mariner’s Plane
Seale,’”” on ‘* Geometrical Dialling ;7? on ‘ Arithmetic ;”
oa “ The Quadrant ;” on ‘Salt and Fifhery,” and divers
papers in * The Philofophical Tranfa@tions.”’? Mr. Collins
was a great promoter of the works of others, and the
‘world is indebted to him for Barrow’s ‘* Optical and Geo-
metrical Leéture ;”? his edition of “* Archimedes ;”? and of
s‘ The Conics of Apollonius ;” ‘ Wallis’s Hiftory of Al.
gebra,’”’ and many other excellent works. He died in
London, November 1683, of con{umption, produced it was
thought by drinking cyder while he was hot from great ex-
ercife. His papers were, after feveral years, put into the
hands of Mr. William Jones, F. R.S., and it was from
thefe that the claims of fir Ifaac Newton to the invention
of fluaions was eftablifhed, in the “© Commercium Epiftoli-
cum D, Johannis Collins, et aliorum, &c.”? Mr. Collins was
indefatigable in the purfvit of ufeful truths, and {pared no
pains in tae promotion of real feience. Natural knowledge
is greatly indebted to him, for while he excited fome to
publifh ufeful inventions, he employed others to im-
prove them; but his own merit was not fufficiently rewarded
by thofe who had the means of patronizing him. Biog.
Brit.
Cotiins, -Ricwarp, an engraver, native of Luxem-
burgh, who fludied at Rome at the fame time with San-
drart, and engraved feveral plates for his work entitled
« The Academy.’? Upon his return from Italy he efta-
blifhed himfelf at Antwerp, and ultimately at Bruffels,
where he aflumed the title of engraver to the king of Spain.
According to an infcription copied by Heinecken from one
{urrounding his portrait, he was born in 1627. The dates
on his prints are from 1664 to 1685.. He made feveral in-
different engravings of portraits, as well as other prints
from the piéiures of Rubens, Murillo, S. Bourdon, and
others. Heinecken. .
Coruins, Samvuet, door in medicine, was educated
at Cambridge, and made fellow of King’s college in that
univerfity. In 1650 he was admitted of New college in
Oxford, by favour of the vifitors, Anthony Wood fays.
He foon after went to Ruflia, and refided at the court of
the czar for nine years. On his return to England be was
made fellow of the Royal College of Phyficians in Lon-
don. In 1671 he publifhed a “ Hiftory of the Prefent
State of the Court of Ruflia, in a Letter toa Friend,’’
illuflrated with engravings, and in 1685, “A Syftem of
CoOL
Anatomy, treating of the Body of Man, Beafts, Birds,
Fith, Infe&ts, and Plants,”? with numerous figures drawn
from the life, 2 vols. folio. In the comparative anatomy,
incomparably the moft valuable part of the work, he r&
ceived much affiftance from Dr. Edward Tyfon, particu-
larly in the anatomy of fifhes and birds, in which he ex»
celled. ‘ Nemo Collino melius de ea eft meritus,’? Hal.
ler fays. The work is now, however, little noticed,
There is a beautiful head of Collins, drawn and engrayed
by Faithorne, which gives it value to colle€tors of prints.
Wood’s Fafti Oxon. Haller’s Bib. Curat.
Coxuins, Joan, an engraver of Antwerp, who fpent
fome time.in Rome, and afterwards, according to Mr,
Strutt, relided in England. There are fome indifferent
portraits by this artift, one of which, reprefenting Keay Nabe
Naia Wi-praia, principal ambaflador from the Sultan Ab-
dulcahar, king of Surofoan, is dated 1682. He likewife
engraved the ‘ Funeral Proceffion of George, Duke of
Albemarle,’”’ and feveral other prints from various mafters,
Other artifts of the name of Collins are mentioned by
Heinecken.
Co.tiins, AnTHony, a writer of confiderable eminence,
was born at Hefton, Middlefex, on the 21ft of June 1676,
He was educated in grammar learning at Eton, and from
thence he was removed to King’s college Cambridge, under
the tuition of Mr. Hare, afterwards bifhop of Chichefter.
When he quitted the univerfity he entered himfelf a ftudent
in the Temple, but, difgufted with the purfuits of the law,
he quickly relinquithed all thoughts of that profeffion, In
1698 he married, and being poffcfled of confiderable pro-
perty, devoted himfelf to hterary pnrfuits. In 1703 and
1704 he maintained an epiflolary correfpondence with the
celebrated Mr Locke, who conceived for him a very high
regard, and in 1707, he publithed his “ Effay concerning
the Ule of Reafon, &c.”’ a work containing many valuable
obfervations, but which difcovered ftrong prejudices againft
divine revelation. About the fame period Mr. Collins en-
gaged in the controverfy carried on by Mr. Dodwell and
Dr. Clarke, concerning the natural immortality of the
foul. See Cuarxe. In 1709 he publifhed “ Priettcraft in
PerfeGtion, &c.”” and other controverfial pieces ; and in the
following year ‘¢ A Vindication of the Divine Attributes,”
in anfwer to a fermon, by the archbifhop of Dublin, on
“ Divine Predeftination, confiftent with the Freedom of
Man’s Will.”? He fpent a confiderable part of the year
1711 on the Continent, where be cultivated the aequaint-
ance and regards of M. Le Clerc and other men of emi-
nence. In 1713 he publifhed “A Difcourfe on Free
Thinking,” in which he vindicated the univerfal right of un=
limited freedom of inquiry, and expofed the tyranny exer-
cifed by the abettors of prieftcraft ; this was the profeffed
obje& of the work, but the author’s fecret intention was ws
undoubtedly to attack revealed religion; it therefore called
forth fome able replies from Mr. Whiiton, Dr. Hoadly,
and Dr. Bentley. Mr. Collins now paid another vifit %
Holland, and from thence he proceeded to Flanders, in
both which countries he was received by men of letters with
the moft marked attention. On his return he fettled in the
county of Effex, where he exercifed the important duties —
of magiftrate dnd deputy lieutenant of that county, —
About the year 1715 he publifhed his ‘ Philofophical In-
quiry concerning Liberty,” which is unqueltionably one 61
the belt treatifes on that fubje& ; it is highly methodical and
very concife, and its illuftrations are fimple and perfpicu-
ous. On this fmall tra& Dr. Clarke made fome remarks,
of which Mr. Collins took no notice. In the year 1718
he was ohofen treafurer of the county, an office which he
executed”
G
OY
executed with exact fidelity, to the great relief of nume-
rous claimants on the county rates. In the year 1724 he
publifhed an * Hiftorical and Critical Effay on the Thirty-
nine Articles,” and a ‘ Difcourfe of the Grounds and
Reafons of the Chriftian Religion ;”’ this laft work, being an
evident attack upon Chriftianity, was anfwered by many of
the leading men of that day, both of the eftablifhed
church, and among the diffenters. His work entitled
s©'The Scheme of Literal Prophecy,’? &c. called forth
alfo the pens of fome able advocates for the truth of revela-
tion, and it may be fafely affirmed that the controverfies
excited by Mr. Collins redounded to the honour and firm
eftablifhment of the caufe which he hoped to undermine,
Attter a life of activity, in which his talents had been frequent-
ly and zealoufly employed for the advantage of his country-
men, Mr. Collins died of a fevere attack of the flone, a
diforder which had for fome years been fapping away the
principles of his conftitution. As a writer his works will
fpeak for him, fome of which, befides his “ Inquiry con-
cerning Human Liberty,” are {till held in confiderable efti-
mation. As a man, bis moral conduct was exemplary for
the virtues of temperance, humanity, benevolence, and pa-
tient induflry. In the exercife of his magifterial functions
he was alive, upright, and impartial, and in domeltic life
he was a tender hufband, a kind parent, a good matter,
and atrue friend. Inthe canfe of true liberty he was an
ardent votary, and whatever his particular fentiments might
be on certain topics, he appears to be fincerely attached to
the inveitigation of truth, fo that on his dying bed he
could appeal to. his maker for the reétitude of his intentions,
declaring that he had always endeavoured, to the bett of
his ability, to ferve his God, his country, and his fovereign.
By fome of his contemporaries, and fome of thofe who
engaged in controverfy with him, he was charged with
atheilm, for which there feems to have been no foundation. It
mutt be admitted that he paid little regard to accuracy in the
mode of his quotations, adapting them, without {cruple, to
his own purpofes, however contrary they might be to the
meaning of the authors cited, or the conneGtion which the
pailages referred to ftood. ‘*So many facts’? fays the
amiable Dr. Kippis, ‘‘ of this kind were undeniably proved
againit him by his adverfaries, that he muft ever be recorded
as a flagrant inftance of literary difingenuity.”” Biog. Brit.
Hollis’s Memoirs, and Collins’s different T'reatifes.
Couzins, WitLiam, a poet of diftinguifhed eminence,
was born at Chicheiter in 17200r 1721. His father, who
carried on the trade of a hatter in that city, fent him to
Wincheiter {chool, where he made confiderable proficiency
in the learned languages. From Winchefter he went to
Queen’s college, Oxford, whence in 1741 he removed. to
Mapdalen’s. During his refidence at the univerfity he pud-
Jifhed his Oriental Eclogues which were not received by the
public with any extraordinary favour. This circumftance
did not, however, difcourage him trom relying on his pen
for {ubfiftence, and in 1744 he repaired to London in the
character of a literary adventurer. Soon after bis arrival in
the metropolis he publifhed propofals for a ‘ Hiftory of the
Revival of Literature,”? a work which he certainly never
accomplifhed, and which in all probability was never begun.
In 1746 he produced his ‘ Odes Defcriptive and Allego-
rical,”? which fo little {uited the talte of the day that their
immediate fale did not indemnify his publifher for the ex-
pence of printing. Indignant at the infenfibility manifefted
by the literary public to the merit of fome of the finett
compofitions in the Englifh language, and alarmed by the
puriuit of his creditors, he fecretly withdrew inio the coun.
CoOL
try. Not being fufficiently fecure in his retirement he fled
into Germany, when he put himfelf ander the prote@lon of
his uncle, lieut. colonel Martin, who was with the army.
On the death of that relation, which occurred foon after,
Collins inherited by his will a legacy of z2000/., He now
thought himfelf rich, and after honourably difcharging his
debts, refolved to live in decent retirement upon the re-
mainder of his capital. But fortune favoured him at too late
a period. ‘The vexations which he had experienced in earl
life, and the occafional irregularities of his conduét, had
gradually induced fuch a depreffion of f{pirits, that, though
his intelle€tual faculties were unimpaired, he was utterly de-
prived of the power of exertions After ftruggling in vain
to overcome his malady by a journey into France, he be-
came fo much worfe that his friends deemed it expedient
for atime to confixe him in an afylum for lunatics. Hav-
ing derived fome little benefit from the medical aid which
was adminiftered to him at this place, he was removed to
Chichefter, where his diftrefles were foothed by the tender
affiduities of his fifter, in whofe arms he expired in the year
1756.
Thus fhort and melancholy was the career of a poet, who
united in hiscompofitions the brilliancy of a vivid imagina-
tion and the correétnefs of claffic tafte. The tardy juftice
of pofterity has made amends for the contemptuous neglect
of his contemporaties, and the poems of Collins are now
acknowedged to abound in lofty flights of fancy, and in
the moft touching expreffion-of a feeling heart.
Corttns’s Quadrant. See QuaDrant.
COLLINSON, Perer, in Biography, an eminent natu- -
ralift and antiquary, was born January 14, 1693-4, moft pro-
bably in London. He was ofa quaker family, originally
from Weftmoreland. He carricd on the bufinefs of a whole-
fale woollen-draper, or man’s-mercer, in Grace-church. ftreet,
as his father appears to have done before him, and acquired
an ample fortune: This enabled him, about the year 1740,
if not earlier, to indulge in the luxury of a country houfe and
botanic garden, fituated at Mill Hill, in the panfh of Hen-
don, ten miles north of London, as well as to gratify his pre-
vailing tafte by an extenfive foreign correfpondence, and the
acquifition of fpecimens of natural hiltory, and books, from
various quarters. He very early obtained the notice and
friendfhip of the moft eminent naturalifts and philofophers of
his age and country, as well as of foreigners. Among the
former are to be reckoned, Derham, Woodward, Dale,
Lioyd, Sloane, and Ellis; among the latter, Klein and
the celebrated Linnezus. Perfons in a {uperior ftation to his
own, treated him with familiarity and refpeét ; as fir Charles
Wager, through whofe ative exertions in the caufe of natu-
ral {cience, at the fuggeftion of Mr. Collinfon, innumerable
exotic productions were, from time to time, brought to cn~-
rich the public and private mufeums of this kingdom ; and
the famous earl of Bute, whom he frequently vifited at Caen
wood, in his way to Mill Hill, and fome of whofe botanical
letters to Mr. Collinfon are in the hands of the writer of this
article. With America he had many conneétions ; and was
long the principal channel through which the learned and
{cientific difcoveries of Europe were conveyed to that rifing
country. He had the honour of communicating to the great
Franklin the firft knowledge of the eletrical difcoveries
of that day. With Mitchell, Colden, and other American
botanilts, he maintained a conitant correfpondence, and had
a principal hand in encouraging the indefatigable John Bar-
tram in his botanical travels through the fouthern provinces
of North America. Hence, as well as from the north of
Europe, bis garden derived ample fupplics. At the time of
6 his
COL
his death, and even for 30 years afterwards, many rare Ame-
rican and Alpine plants, accommodated with every poffible
contrivance for fhade, moifture, and a fuitable expofure, were,
in a manner, naturalized there, flourifhing in the greateft
luxuriance ; till an ignorant and taftelefs purchafer of this
clafiical fpot, rooted out its choicelt treafures, and felled
fome of its fineft trees, of {pecies fcarcely to be feen in per-
fection elfewhere. At length, however, it has found an
owner who knows its value; and many flowering Cembra
pines, with feveral American trees, are happily prelerved
trom deftruétion.
In December, 1728, Mr. Collinfon became a fellow of the
Royal Society. Of the fociety of antiquaries he was a fellow
from tts firft inftitution. The publications of both thefe
learned bodies aré enriched with his writings. He was alfo
aflociated with the academy of Berlin ; and, through the re-
commendation of his friend Linnezus, with that of Stock-
holm.
One of the inquiries, relating to natural hiftory, which
molt intereited him was the migration of fwallows, for which
he ftrenuoufly contended, in oppofition to the opinion, as
firenuonfly maintained by feveral other naturalifls, of their
remaining through the winter under water. At length,
however, in a letter to Linneus, dated September 15, 1763,
he profefles to be convinced by his illuftrious correfponcent
that thefe birds do live under water all winter; firbjoining
neverthelefs fo many hints refpeéting the anatomical inquiries
requilite to eftablifh this wonderful fat, and fo much dif-
f{atisfaGtion with what had hitherto been done, that he rather
betrays the doubt than the conviction of his own mind.
Concerning antiquarian ftudies, certain round towers, in
Treland, of whofe original ufe and defign the learned are ftill
doubtful, engaged his attention. But his moit valuable
communication in this line related to fome Tartarian anti-
guities, defcribed in the Archwologia.
Nor were Mr. Collinfan’s ttudies devoted merely to fpecu-
lative or amufing objects. No philofopher ever combined
utility with fcience more than himfelf. ‘The management of
fheep in Spain, of which he procured and publifhed an ac-
count in the Annual Regifter, and Gentleman’s Magazme,
for 1764, given at length in the Biographia Britannica, is
one of the moft valuable documents of which we are poffeff-
ed on that fubjeG&. All improvements in planting and
gardening were itudied and purfued by him with indefati-
gable zeal. His favourite luxury was fruit, and his paffion,
flowers. He writes with great complacency to Linneus,
the refult of an obfervation made in his own garden, which
proved the ne€tarine to be, as Linnaeus had thought, a va-
riety of the peach, a nectarine tree having fprung up at Mill
Hill from a ftone of the Jatter fruit. In the fame letter,
dated “ Ridgway Honfe, on Mill Hill, March 16, 1767,”
he thus details the progrefs of an Englifh {pring in the
flower garden: ‘ The hellebore, {fnowdrop, aconite, violet,
&c. thefe,” fays he, ** bloom in froft and fnow, like the
good men of Sweden. Then a tenderer tribe fucceeds, and
the garden is covered with more than 20 different fpecies of
crocus, produced from fowing feeds; and iris perfica, cycla-
men vernum, and polyanthos. Now plenty of Ayacinthus
ceruleus and albus in the open borders, and anemonies; and
now my favourites, the great tribe of Narciffus, and polyan-
thos, fhew all over the garden and fields. We have two
{pecies wild in the woods, that now begin to ower. Next
the tulipa precox is near flowering, and fo Flora decks the
garden with endlefs variety, ever charming. ‘The progrefs
of our fpring to the middle of March, I perfuade myfelf,
COL
will be acceptable to my dear baron.”? In the fequel of this
letter, the lait he ever wrote to Linnzus, he adverts to various
fubjeéts,. not forgetting the fwallows, and fubferibes,
« P. Collinfon, now entered into my 73d year, in perfeét
health and ftrength of body and mind. God Almiabty be’
praifed and adored for the multitude of his mercies !?? ©
His happy and ufeful life terminated on the sith of
Auguft, 1768, in confequence of a fuppreffion of urine, with
which he was feized while on a vifit in Effex, to his excellent
fricnd lord Petre, a nobleman for whom, and for his father,
both diftinguifhed promoters of botany, Mr. Collinfon had
the highett regard. One of his letters to Linnzus is partly
occupied with a long account of the charaéler and purfuita
of the laft-mentioned lord, who died at an early age, in
1742.
Mr. Collinfon married. in 1724, Mary, the daughter of
Michae! Ruffell, efq. of Miil Hill, with whom he lived very
happily till her death, in 1753. He left iffue, a fon, named
Michael, who refided at Mill Hiil, and died a few years”
fince, whofe fon is ftill living ; and a daughter, Mary, mar-
ried to the late John Cator, efq. of Beckenham, in Kent.
Both his children inherited much of the tafte and amiable
difpofition of their father. Biog. Brit. Fothergill’s account
ofthe late Peter Collinfon. P. Collinfon’s MS. letters to
Linnzus. S. x
COLLINSONIA, in Botany, (fo called in honour of
Peter Collinfon, F R.S. a very a€tive promoter of botdnical
fiudies, by whom the firft fpecies was introduced imto the
Englifh gardens.) Linn. Gen. 40. Schreb. 51. Willd. 64.
Tam. Il. 51. Gert. 405. Juff. 11a) SWenteean yoame
Clafs and order, diandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Labiate,
Juff. Vent.
Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, tubular, two-lipped, fhort,
permanent ; upper lip three-cleft ; fegments reflexed, broad-
er; lower lip bifid; fegments awl-fhapcd, more ereét.
Cor. monopetalous, unequal; tube funnel-fhaped, many
times longer than the calyx; border fomewhat two-lipped ;
upper lip very fhort, four-toothed; lower lip very long,
cloven into numerous capillary fegments. Stam. Filaments
two, briftle-fhaped, ere&t, very long ; anthers fimple, incum-
bent, comprefled, obtufe. Pi/?. Germs four, fuperior, three
of them abortive, with a largifh gland beneath them. Style
briftle-fhaped, the length of the ftamens, inclined to one
fide; fligma bifid, acute. Peric. the permanent calyx.
Seed one, globular.
Eff. Ch. Corolla unequal; lower lip with numerous
capillary feements. Seed only one; three of the germs
conftantly abortive.
Sp. 1. C. canadenfis. Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. 2. Willd. 1.
Cold. Noveb. 8. Kalm. It. ii. 317. Eng. Ed. i. 197.
Lam. Ill. tab. 21. Gert. tab. 66. (C. ferotina, Wait.
Car. 65?) ‘* Leaves egg-fhaped, fmooth ; ftems fmooth.”?
Root perennial. Stems three or four feet high, annual, ere&,
quadrangular. Leaves about fix inches long, oppofite, on
very fhort petioles, acute, bluntly ferrated, wrinkled.
Flowers yellowith, numerous, peduncled, in panicled racemes
with oppolite ramifications. A native of North America.
It has a peculiar, very ftrong, but agreeable feent ; and is ~
reputed to be an excellent remedy againit pains in the limb
occalioned by a cold, if the parts affected be rubbed with it
a decoétion of it is alfo faid to have cured the bite of the
rattlefnake. In New York it is called horfeweed, becaufe
the horfes eat it in the {pring before any other plant-comes
up. 2. C. fabriufcula. Mart. 2. Lam. Ill. 2. Willd. 2.
Hort. Kew. i.47. (C. precox. Walt. Car. 65?) ‘ Leaves
fomewhat
Pw
hs
..
vd at
a
| COL +
fomewhat cordate-ege-fhaped, rather hairy ; ftems fomes
what hairy, feabrous.’? Roof perennial. A native of
Eaft Florida, obferved by Bartram, cultivated b Dr.
Fothergill in 1776. \ cc
Propagation and Culture. The fir {pecies may eafily be
propagated by parting the roots in OGober. Thefe thouid
beplanted three feet diftant from each other in awarm fhelter-
ed fituation, and duly watered. With this treatment the
plants will thrive in the open ground, and if regularly watered,
will ripen their feeds in good feafons. The {econd {pecies is
more tender, and requires the protection of the green-houf
COLLIOURE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Eaftern Pyrenées, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri€t of Ceret, with a {mall port on the
Mediterranean ; defended by a caltle on a rock, and in-
habited chiefly by filhermen. Near this town the Spaniards
were defeated by the French in May, 17943 in confequence
of which the national convention decreed, that a column
fhould be ere&ed as a memorial, that ‘* 7000 Spaniards
laid down their arms before the republicans ;’’ 5 leagues
§.E. of Perpignan, and 5 E. of Ceret.
COLLIPO, in Ancient Geography, a municipal town of
the Luiitanians, at fome diftance from the fea, N. of
Scalabis. ,
CoOL
COLLIQUAMENTUM denotes a very tranfparent fluid
obfervable in an egg two or three days after incubation,
containing the firft rudiments of a chick. It is inclofed in
its own proper membrane, diftin@ from the albumen. Harvey
ealls it oculus.
COLLIQU ATION, from colliqueo, to melt, in Pharmacy,
the action of melting together two or more folid fubftances ;
or rendering them liquid by fufion, or diffolution ; as wax,
mucilages, &c. by heat; gums, &c. by moilture.
Coxrtiquarion is alfo ufed to exprefs fuch a tempera-
ment, and difpofition ef the animal fluids, as proceeds from
a too lax compages; whereby they flow off through the
feveral glands, and particularly through thofe of the fin, fafter
than they ought ; which occafions fluxes of many kinds, but
mottly profufe, greafy, clammy {weats.
If this coMliguation continue, it generally terminates in an
heétic fever, and is ufually a concomitant of one.
The curative intention in this cafe is the giving a better
confiftence to the juices by balfamics and agglutinants ; and
the hardening of the folids by fubaftringents. Hence,
COLLIQUATIVE fever is a fever attended with a
diarrhoea, or profufe {weats, from too loofe a contexture of
the fluids.
COLLISEUM. Sze Couistum.
END’ OF VOL. VIIli
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