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DAIRY_FARMING

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Dairy Farming

JOHN MICHELS, B. S.'A., M. S:

Editor: ‘‘Butter, Cheese & Egg Journal’’ and ‘‘The Milk Dealer.’’
Author and Publisher of ‘‘Creamery Buttermaking’’ and
‘Market Dairying.’’ Formerly Professor of Dairying
and Animal Husbandry in the North Carolina
State College of Agriculture.

THIRD EDITION, REVISED

ILLUSTRATED

MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
Published by the Author
1911
All Rights Reserved

©c.A305211

PREFACH FO" THIRD EDITION.

In the preparation of this work, the endeavor. has been
to arrange in a concise and systematic form the essential
facts relating to the science and practice of dairy farm-
ing. It embodies the Author’s twenty years’ experience,
both as a practical dairyman and as a student and teacher
of dairy husbandry. ‘Technical terms have been avoided
as far as possible, in order that the book may not only
meet the needs of the class-room, but also serve as a
convenient and useful handbook for farmers not versed
in the sciences.

In preparing the third edition of Dairy Farming, a
thorough revision has been made of the entire book and
about one hundred pages of new matter added. The addi-
tion of the large amount of important new matter should
materially increase the usefulness of the book.

The general adoption of the book as a text and refer-
ence book in American Dairy Schools and the warm re-
ception that has been generally accorded it, naturally has
been a source of much satisfaction to the author and has
prompted him more than ever to leave nothing undone
in the present revision to make the book worthy of the
confidence in which it is being held.

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

TABLE, OR VCON TEN Es;

[i i
Tif.
IV.
V.
VE
NEEE.
VITE:
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
CITY.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.

PART I. THE DAIRY HERD.

Page.
Dairy Farming a Profitable Business... 7
Evolution of the Dairy ‘Cow: 4, bw ssa a 9
Selection .ol¢ Datryn Wows. -ecteess ai II
Seleetion of Dairy, Pires)... 1 ohana s ae 17
Burding Upta, Dairy, Herd... done ac 20
Breeds of: Dairy, Cattle. set wee ta aciins 25
Peedine the Dairy Cow s2) 2. viuets hs cas 33
Slog san csssilamerns ek fac Lohan Aa cle 52
Method of Keeping Herd Records...... 60
ENCES OR acre wee Ree Eee eee Sen ha oa 68
Ferd: Wan aGeMmenes. bc, 2 Ws ace aerate closes 73
Rearine the’ Dairy \Calt... 2. 2 ea ca ehes
AMY MARI c clad sin aha cle Shoat he Cress eet 86
Handling Harn Manure... 7.1 .G25¢s3 5 IOI
Bower omy tie sParnt. .. . 2/.:)\jyavaevens 106
Diseases and Ailments of Dairy Cattle..110

PART II. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.

XVITL.
eV Ely
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.

XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.

|W To ts eape ta SRE AAO anaes reas Ny Giana 123
Thesbabprocic, Lest ess «carson eee 135
Bacteria and Milk Fermentations...... 146
Sanitary Wilk: Production! j.'s.) 2. Ess
Harm bemprer- Makiwig 622 3.285) fostene teh 165
Paro Cheese-Makine- $.3.322 4. eee tok 187
SSE SMe tes Lb. .5 eae PAS ete Soa 193
Soft and Fancy Cheese-Making........ 199
Cooling and Aeration of Milk and
CReamminre yf Fo ss Moeka ieee e cin teats ie 205
How to Secure a Good Market........ 213
Marketing viilk and. "Creat 2. cc2 0): ha 217
Teer Crean lake}. acic se ot i ou aeak 228

5 ‘

Chapter DAB, &
Chapter XXX.
Chapter XXXI.
Chapter XXXII.
Chapter XXXIII.
Chapter XXXIV.
Chapter XXXV.
Chapter XXXVI.
Chapter XXXVII.
Chapter XXXVIII.
Chapter XXXIX.
Chapter oF
yal yore Uh > aerate ee
Index

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Skimmilk-Buttermilk
Certified Milk
Relative Market Value of Milk and Its

Products. .).:.< i. Seek eee eee 239
PART III. SUPPLEMENT.
Valuine Dany otocks (325.260 soe 244
Resumes <(Alfaliai and* Clovers) sa.7ceee 253
he) Dairy -Eleuse: occ. a.2- aoe 256

Washing and Sterilizing Milk Vessels. .263

Keepime Accounts’. 05-02 3.4 ao eee 269
Water and Ice Supply <.).u-%- oer 274
DairysBy-Products. 22. «22 oa ieee 280
Machine® Millsine::... s3)..-1 4a. eee 282
Pasteurization of Milk and Cream..... 284
Sagar Dish y Aor steak cae ont tact ah nee a sa ee 287

PRE Loc
SA DAT R.Y. “Eb RD:

CHAP TER / 1:
DAIRY FARMING A PROFITABLE BUSINESS.

That dairy farming is a profitable business is fully at-
tested by its unprecedented growth during the past
decade and a half. No other branch of agriculture has
ever witnessed such rapid development in a similar period
of time. Its growth has not been confined to any par-
ticular section or sections of the country, but has been
noticeable in all sections.

The profits that have prompted this rapid and general
expansion of the dairy business have been derived from
two sources: (1) direct profits realized from the sale of
milk, cream, butter and cheese; (2) indirect profits ac-
cruing from an increased fertility of the land and the con-
sequent increased productiveness of the same.

Direct Profits. It is pretty well conceded that in gen-
eral dairy cows yield greater returns for feed consumed
than either swine, sheep or beef animals. A good cow
will yield not less than 300 pounds of butter a year, which,
at 25 cents per pound, is worth $75. Adding to this the
value of 6,000 pounds of skim milk at 20 cents per 100,

8 DAIRY FARMING

and $10 as the value of the calf, we have a total income
of $97 a year. Subtracting from this $50 as the average
cost of the feed, we have $47 remaining to pay for the
labor and interest on investments.

Where good milk and cream markets are available the
income from the sale of milk and cream may be actually
double that from butter at 25 cents per pound. More-
over, with cows of a higher productive capacity than that
here considered, the profits would be more than propor-
tionally increased.

Indirect Profits. The marvelous growth of the dairy
industry has in part been necessitated by the need of con-
serving and increasing the fertility of lands that have
been cultivated without due regard to maintaining soil
fertility. The selling of raw products from the farm,
such as hay and grains, has been a constant source of soil
impoverishment. This method of robbing the soil of its
natural plant food has made farming in many of the New
England and Southern States well nigh impossible with-
out the aid of commercial fertilizers. In some of these
states as much as $7,000,000 is expended annually for
these fertilizing materials.

By feeding the raw materials of the farm to dairy cows,
we are not only manufacturing high priced products as
compared with the value of the raw material, but we are
retaining upon the farm that valuable by-product, the
manure, which contains about 75% of the fertilizing con-
stituents originally present in the feed. Where only but-
ter is sold, practically all of the fertilizing ingredients of
the feed are recovered, since butter contains scarcely any
fertilizing material. Even where cream is sold about
95% of the fertilizing value of the feed is retained upon
the farm.

CHAE VER LE
EVOLUTION OF THE DAIRY COW.

The dairy cow is one of the most useful as well as one
of the most profitable of all our domestic animals. Her
products not only supply an indispensable want in the
human dietary, but they are also the source of much profit
to her owner.

Comparing the modern cow with her primitive ances-
tors a most interesting and instructive evolution in her
milk giving function is noted. In the wild or primitive
state her milk production was confined to a short period
following parturition and was barely sufficient for the
support of the calf. In her present form the amount of
milk necessary for the support of the calf constitutes but
a small part of her total possible production and its secre-
tion is almost incessant.

Like the race horse, the dairy cow has been bred and
handled for a specific purpose for a number of centuries.
Continued specialization has resulted not only in an
enormous increase of milk and butterfat production, but
as a result of such increased production there has been
created a specific conformation known as the dairy type.

At no period in the development of the dairy cow have
such great strides been made as in the past half a cen-
tury. Indeed, the period of general and systematic im-
provement in the common stock may be said to date from
the invention of the Babcock test. Fifteen years ago the
average butter production was approximately 125 pounds

10 DAIRY FARMING

per cow. ‘To-day the average production appoximates
175 pounds per cow.

There are hundreds of herds scattered over the
country that average 300 pounds of butter per cow and
many herds exceed even the 400 pound mark. Scores
of individual cows could be mentioned that have reached
the 600 and 700 pound mark, and the world’s champion
cow holds the phenomenal record of an even 1,000 pounds
of butter in one year.

Among the factors that have been instrumental in
bringing about the remarkable evolution in the milk pro-
ducing function of the cow, the following are the most
important: (1) selection, or breeding only from the
best milkers; (2) liberal and judicious feeding; (3)
proper milking; (4) suitable environment, including con-
ditions as to housing and sanitation; (5) good care and
management. These factors will always continue the:
most important in the improvement of our modern herds,
and will be discussed in the chapters which follow.

CHAPTER It
SELECTION OF COWS.

Success in dairying depends in a large measure upon
one’s ability to select the right animals in starting and
building up the herd. Unless adapted by nature for
dairy purposes, cows will remain unprofitable in spite of
the best feed and management. The first lesson the
dairyman has to learn, therefore, is to know how to dis-
criminate between good cows and ‘poor cows. The
cardinal points to consider in the selection of a cow are:
(1) butterfat production; (2) type; (3) purity of breed-
ing; (4) pedigree; and (5) health.

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION.

The best guide in the selection of cows is the actual
_butterfat record as determined by a pair of scales and a
Babcock tester. It is not enough to simply know the
quantity of milk yielded by a cow; one must also know
its fat content, for it is this that measures the value of
milk for commercial uses as well as for butter and cheese
production.

The method of determining the butterfat production
of cows is treated in detail in chapter IX.

CONFORMATION OR TYPE.

All dairy experts recognize a definite type as associated
with economical milk production. The judge in the
show ring bases his judgment entirely upon type or con-

12 DAIRY FARMING

formation. While there still may be differences of opin-
ion among breeders as to minor points, these are really
of little consequence. The points that go to make up
the ideal type will be treated under six heads: (1) dairy
temperament; (2) feeding capacity; (3). constitution;
(4) milk organs; (5) quality; and (6) pelvic region.

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Lea ae b | \ i \Y
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23 ---fy , G

Si aa Mena) ry Hilt Nth : y Ne Wil
a Lit | } I Se
Aen sae lh WA Aes Sy) bh Wel

Fig. 1.—Points ofa Walty Cou

1 Muzzle. 2. Korehead: (i3.)Neck. 45 Withers.) 95: Backsusouslotnse
7. Hip. 8. Pelvicarch. 9. Rump. 10. Pin bone. 11. Shoulder. 12. Chest.
13. Heart Girth. 14. Side. 15. Belly. 16. Flank. 17. Milk well. 18. Milk
vein. 19. Fore udder. 20. Udder. 21. Teats. 22. Hind udder. 23. Thigh.

Dairy Temperament. This is indicated by a rather
spare, angular form; large, bright, expressive eyes, far
apart and placid; a rather long, clean face slightly dished ;
forehead wide and rather long; wide juncture of head
and neck; a large, straight, prominent backbone with
well defined spinal processes; ribs and vertebrae wide
apart; sharp withers; spare, incurving thighs; and a high
arching flank: all of which indicates strong nerve develop-
ment, or power to do work.

Feeding Capacity. This is indicated by a long, broad,
deep, capacious barrel, showing well sprung ribs diverging
toward the rear; a broad muzzle; and a strong jaw.

Unlig fh f \

H a aU

yh A UI "
AMIE.

vii wea)

THE DAIRY HERD bigs:

Constitution. This is indicated by large, bright, clear
eyes; large, open nostrils; wide, deep chest; strong navel
development; strong abdominal walls; absence of ex-
treme refinement; and a soft, pliable skin with plenty of
secretion: all of which indicates strength and vitality.

A heavy milker is one of the hardest worked of all
animals, and unless possessed of a strong constitution,
she can never do her maximum work and an early break-
down may be expected.

Milk Organs. These include a large, evenly quartered,
elastic udder, running well forward and well up behind;
large, tortuous milk veins running well forward and
branched; numerous, large, capacious milk wells; and
medium sized teats, squarely placed, and far apart.

Large, feshy udders are undesirable, as they possess a
relatively small milk elaborating capacity, and are more
subject to disorders than moderately large, elastic udders.

The milk veins, which carry the blood away from the
udder, are deserving of careful attention. When the ori-
fices (milk wells) through which they enter the body are
large, the size of the milk veins may. be taken as a fair
indication of the amount of blood they carry.

A large flow of blood away from the udder presup-
poses a large flow into it, and since milk is secreted from
the blood, the quantity which flows through the veins
must be some indication of milk producing capacity.

Quality. This is indicated by a soft, oily, pliable skin,
of medium thickness; short, soft silky hair; yellow secre-
tion in the ears; fine textured bone; rather small and
refined ears and horns; yellowish wax at the base of the
horns; and a general absence of coarseness in any part.

Pelvic Region. This should be large to afford room
for the calf, especially during its delivery. A good pelvic

14 DAIRY FARMING

region is indicated by a high, long, broad rump, broad
hips and loins, and good width between the pin bones.

Additional observations on type should be directed
to the following: Shoulder, free from flesh and rather
sharp at the withers; tail, long and refined; hocks, clean,
well apart, and pointing straight backward, giving roomi-
ness for the udder; front legs, straight and well apart,
with toes pointing directly forward.

The escutcheon, which refers to the rear portion of the
animal where the hair turns up, was the subject of con-
siderable study by a Frenchman named Quenon, who
regarded the size and shape of it as the chief indication
of merit in dairy cows. At the present time, however,
very little importance is attached to this point.

PURITY OF BREEDING.

Selection is based upon the law that “like produces
like.’ According to this law the characters of the par-
ents are transmitted to the offspring with a greater or
less degree of certainty. The purer the breeding of the
parents the greater the certainty of such transmission.
Thus, for example, one can figure with much certainty
that the progeny of pure-bred parents of the same breed
will resemble its parents in all essential characteristics.
On the other hand, there is no certainty whatever that the
off-spring of parents of promiscuous breeding will resem-
ble its parents, either in important or unimportant particu-
lars. It may be like them or it may be totally unlike them.

It is the long period of breeding along one line without
admixture of foreign blood that gives the pure-bred
animal the superior power of transmitting its qualities to
its offspring, a power which is known as prepotency. In
the building up of a dairy herd it is of the highest im-

THE DAIRY HERD 15

portance to have animals which transmit their qualities
to their offspring with a high degree of certainty, and it
is for this reason that pure-bred animals are so much pre-
ferred to those of: promiscuous breeding.

PEDIGREE.

A pedigree is a recorded statement of the ancestry of
an animal. It is furnished in many cases simply as a
guarantee of purity of breeding. Its real value, however,
is determined by the merit of the animals which it repre-
sents. A 300 pound butter cow with an unbroken list of
noted dairy performers back of her is much to be pre-
ferred to a 300 pound cow among whose ancestors some
inferior individuals are found, and especially if the infer-
ior individuals are near ancestors.

While, generally, pedigreed animals are much to be
preferred to those of promiscuous breeding, it by no
means follows that all pedigreed animals are desirable.
Far from it. There probably are now-a-days as many poor
pedigreed dairy animals as good ones. ‘Scrubs’ are
found among pedigreed cows just as they are found
among common or native cows, though of course far
less frequently.

The reason of the existence of inferior individuals
among pure-bred dairy animals is found in the fact that

eligibility to registration in most cases is not based ‘upon +

production or individual excellence, but ‘uponnpurity of :
breeding. This fact has: made. iti: possible. for ;many:,
animals to enter thé herd: register which, by nature, were »

fit only.yfor the shambles.; In-the purchase of spure-bred

stock} therefore, no jtidicious selection can be made from :

a-mere list of names of individuals, no matter -how long

this list is or how, “high sounding” the names it contains |

16 DAIRY FARMING

may be.. One must know the production and individual
excellence of the animals represented in the pedigree.
The greatest stress should be laid upon the near or
immediate ancestry of the animal under consideration.

Fortunately there is what is known as an advanced
registry, or register of merit, the basis of admission to
which, in addition to pure breeding, is the merit of the
individuals as dairy performers. It is much to be hoped
that this method of registration will soon replace entirely
the common method whose sole requisite for registration
is purity of breeding.

HEALTH OF ANIMALS.

The prevalence of tuberculosis, contagious abortion,
and other diseases, makes it imperative to make the matter
of health an important consideration in the selection of
dairy animals. Indeed diseased animals, no matter how
valuable in other respects, should be rigidly excluded from
the herd.

It is the height of folly to select dairy animals without
making rigid inquiry as to their freedom from tuber-
culosis and contagious abortion. Yet there are many who
do not even inquire about these and other diseases, much
less make investigation such, for example, as a tuber-

culin test.
&

CHAPTER IV.
SELECTION OF DAIRY SIRES.

The importance of the dairy sire is recognized in the
expression, “The bull is half the herd.” Usually, how-
ever, the bull is more than half the herd, either for good
or bad. In the case of common or grade cows, for
example, the pure-bred bull may count for three-quarters
or more of the herd, by reason of his greater prepotency.
To so great an extent does the bull determine the improve-
ment or deterioration of the herd as to call for the utmost
caution in his selection, which should be based upon the
following: (1) purity of breeding; (2) pedigree; (3)
type; (4) prepotency; and (5) health.

Purity of Breeding. Under no circumstances should
anything but pure-bred sires be used. The value of purity
of breeding has already been discussed under the selection
of the dairy cow. It should be understdod, however,
that purity of breeding is of greater consequence in bulls
than in cows, for the reason that improvement in the herd
is usually expected to be brought about through the dairy
sire.

Pedigree. In the case of a dairy bull, especially a
young bull, his chief value is determined by the perform-
ance of his ancestry. The points of greatest importance
to consider in his pedigree are the following: (1) the
merit of his mother and his sire’s mother; (2) the merit
of the daughters of his sire and grand sire; (3) the
value of the daughters of his dam and his grand-dam;

18 DAIRY FARMING

(4) the value of his sisters, if he has any; and (5) the
value of his own progeny, if he has any.

The further back consecutively good records can be
traced the more valuable the animal. It should always
be remembered, however, that near ancestors count for
a great deal more than those more remotely related.

Type. The external qualities of a good sire are indi-
cated by a masculine head and neck; bright, prominent
eyes, far apart; a strong, sinewy jaw; broad muzzle;
wide open nostrils; deep, broad chest; deep, capacious
barrel; soft, loose, oily hide, of medium thickness; clean
bone; large rudimentary teats, squarely placed and far
apart; and a general spareness of flesh, especially in the
region of the shoulders, thighs, and hips. Indeed, from
the shoulders backward, the dairy bull should have the
same general outline as that possessed by the dairy cow.
He should have a strong, resolute appearance and an
active style, showing that abundance of vigor so neces-
sary in a good breeder.

Prepotency. It has already been stated that this term
signifies the power which an animal possesses of trans-
mitting its own qualities to its offspring. The possession
of this power is of the highest importance in a dairy bull,
for it matters little how good a pedigree or how fine an
individuality he may have, if he lacks in the power of
transmission he is a failure. Prepotency in an animal
increases with the purity and closeness of breeding, and
is indicated to some extent by a strong, resolute, vigorous
appearance, reflecting a strong constitution and an
abundance of nerve development.

The full extent, however, to which a sire is prepotent
can be determined with certainty only from his offspring.

THE DAIRY HERD 19

It is for this reason that a middle-aged bull is so much
more desirable than a young, untried bull.

A bull with descendants is always the safest animal
for the purchaser to buy. Nothing can speak more for a
bull than the satisfactory performance of his offspring.

Health. Everything that has been said with reference
to health in the selection of cows (p. 16) applies with
equal force to dairy sires.

CHAPTER.
BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD.

I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED.
II. STARTING THE HERD.
III. BREEDING UP THE HERD.

I, PRINCIPLES INVOLVED.

Underlying Law. The success in building up a dairy
herd depends to a great extent upon one’s ability to select
individuals with reference to the points considered in the
preceding two chapters; that is, the ability to make a
judicious selection of both males and females. To em-
phasize more fully the importance of rigid selection it
should be remembered that all selection is based upon
the law that “like produces like,” or that the offspring
will be like the parents. The essence of this law is that
good milkers will produce good milkers and poor milkers
will produce poor milkers.

The uniformity with which this law operates is depend-
ent upon three things: (1) purity of breeding; (2) close-
ness of blood relationship; and (3) similarity of parents.

Purity of Breeding. The purer the breeding the
greater the certainty with which animals will transmit
their own characteristics to their offspring. See p. 14.

Closeness of Blood Relationship. The characters of
parents of the same strain will reappear in the progeny
with greater regularity than those of parents of different
strains in. the same breed. ‘This fact is recognized in
in-and-in breeding, which is an attempt to secure and

THE DAIRY HERD — 21

speedily fix desirable characters by close breeding. In-
and-in breeding can be practiced with success, however,
only in the hands of skilled breeders.

In the case of crossing one breed upon another as, for
example, a Holstein-Friesian upon a Jersey, it is often
mistakenly supposed that the progeny of such a cross
partakes equally of the characters of both parents. This
may occur in some instances, but more often the offspring
will resemble either one parent or the other, or neither.
But even where the offspring does partake equally of the
characters of both parents, such a cross is undesirable
because the offspring is not capable of transmitting its
characteristics with any degree of certainty. In the hands
of the average dairyman transmission in crossing is uncer-
tain and unsatisfactory, and for this reason crossing
should not be attempted.

When a cow of nondescript or promiscuous breeding is
bred to a pure-bred sire, the progeny will largely partake
of the characters of the sire, by reason of his greater
prepotency. With what degree of regularity and to what
extent this occurs depends upon the degree of prepotency.
The offspring of a highly prepotent sire and a common or
native cow will take on nearly all the essential character-
istics of the sire. In such a case it is plainly seen that the
sire counts for a great deal more than half the herd.

In the case of grade cows the influence of the pure-
bred bull becomes less the closer the grade approaches
purity of blood. But only in the case where the cows are
pure-bred, or more strictly of equal prepotency with the
bull, can it be said that the bull is only half the herd.

Similarity of Parents. In mating animals it should
always be remembered that the greater the similarity of all
their characteristics the greater the certainty of trans-

22 DAIRY FARMING

mission. Where animals of great extremes of size, con-
formation, function, disposition, or nervous organization,
are mated, somewhat the same results may be looked for
that are obtained in crossing animals of different breeds.

Mating animals of highly dissimilar characteristics is
spoken of as violent mating and should be avoided.
Where there is much similarity in the parents there is
usually a satisfactory transmission of qualities and the
mating is often referred to as good “nicking.”

Il. STARTING THE HERD.

Grade Cows and Pure-bred Sires. With the average
farmer, the cheapest and most satisfactory way of start-
ing a dairy herd is to select as foundation stock good
grade cows and a pure-bred bull of one of the strictly
dairy breeds. The grading up will be most rapid when
the predominant blood in the grades corresponds with the
blood of the sire.

A foundation of this kind, of course, does not produce
stock that can be registered, but by continuing the use of
good, pure-bred bulls of the same blood, stock is soon”
obtained which, so far as milk and butter production is
concerned, very closely approaches in value that of pure
breeding.

Pure-Bred Cows and Sires. ‘To start with a pure-
bred herd is practically beyond the means of the ma-
jority of farmers. Furthermore, there is an objection
to placing well-cared-for, pure-bred cows under aver-
age conditions as to feed, care, and management, be-
cause under any such change the attainment of satis-
factory results wouid be practically impossible. Where
there is a gradual infusion of pure blood, as in the
case of grading up a herd with pure-bred sires the

oe BS, i Jam
4 ;

THE DAIRY HERD 23

new blood is gradually accustomed to the change of
environment and the herdsman is given the necessary
time to change his methods to meet the requirements of
pure-bred cattle.

Where the dairyman understands the management
of pure-bred stock and has the means with which to
purchase the right kind, a pure-bred herd may be started
to good advantage.

One of the chief dangers in starting with a pure-
bred herd is the lack of funds to procure the right sort
of animals. Instead of purchasing a pure-bred bull and
a number of pure-bred cows of common merit, it is better
policy to buy relatively cheap, grade cows, and to add the
money thus saved to that originally set aside for the bull.
This extra money is likely to be the means of securing a
bull of outstanding merit.

Ill. BREEDING UP THE HERD.

Importance of Sire. Whether the cows be grades or
pure-breds, it is of the highest importance in building up
a dairy herd to secure a pure-bred bull of outstanding
dairy merit. Unless the bull is descended from good milk-
ers it is folly to expect him to produce good milkers, no
matter how fine or ideal he may be as an individual.

It is, furthermore, of importance to remember that a
herd cannot be successfully built up unless the bulls that
are successively used belong to the same breed. If the
grading up is begun with a Jersey bull the process must
be continued uninterruptedly by the use of Jersey blood.

In the selection of a herd bull the points discussed in
the preceding chapter should be carefully considered.

Selecting the Best Calves. With a first-class bull at

‘the head of the herd, rapid improvement is effected by

24 DAIRY FARMING

selecting and retaining calves from only the best milkers,
at the same time culling out those cows whose records
have not been satisfactory. This work cannot be done to
best advantage unless records are kept of the quantity
and quality of milk from each cow for a whole lactation
period, as discussed in chapter IX.

Buying Cows. Where all of the cows in the founda-
tion stock are grades, none of the calves, of course, can
be registered. It is desirable, therefore, to add to the
herd from time to time, as means permit, some good
pure-bred cows of the same blood as the bulls that have
been used. This has the advantage of enabling the owner
to dispose of his calves to better advantage.

The purchase of cows, however, is always attended with ©
the danger of introducing contagious diseases into the
herd, especially tuberculosis and contagious abortion.
For this reason the purchasing of cows should be carried
on ina limited way only. It is, of course, always in order
to buy cows when the object is to add to the herd pure-
bred individuals of exceptional dairy merit. But the
practice of buying cows should never be carried to the
point of making it the principal means of replenishing the
herd, especially since the latter can be accomplished
much more satisfactorily by raising the calves from the
best cows,

CHAPTER: VI.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE.

JERSEY CATTLE.
The native home of this breed is the Island of Jersey,
situated otf the coast of France, and comprising 28,717

Flying Fox’s Foxhall.

Fig. 2.—Typical Jersey Bull.

26 DAIRY FARMING

acres. The climate is very mild and healthful, and the
soil is very productive. Here the Jersey cattle have been
bred pure for a number of centuries.

fu
%

4
A

aes

bes

;

me
Ns Ai
_ JACO

ee te
BA
’
Fig. 3.—Typical Jersey Cow. Jacoba Irene.

Characteristics. The color of Jerseys is usually some
shade of fawn. Cream, dun and yellow are common, and
these are frequently mixed with white. In form Jerseys

THE DAIRY HERD 26

are spare, possessing a rather large barrel, a refined head
and neck, and fine, clean-cut limbs. In size they are small
to medium, the average weight of cows being probably
somewhat less. than 900 pounds. The quantity of milk
produced by Jerseys is, as a rule, not very large, but the
milk is very rich, making them excellent butter producers.
The color of the milk and butter is a pleasing, rich yellow.

GUERNSEY CATTLE.

The native home of this breed is the Island of Guern-
sey, situated near the Island of Jersey, and, like it, is one

Fig. 4.—Typical Guernsey Bull. Benjamin.

of the group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In
size the Island of Guernsey ranks next to that of Jersey.
Its climate is very mild and healthful and the soil is pro-

28 DAIRY FARMING

ductive. Guernsey cattle have been bred pure for a long
period of time.

Characteristics. (Guernsey cattle are larger, stronger
in frame and constitution, and in general more rugged
than Jerseys. A noted characteristic of this breed is the
very rich, yellow color of the milk and skin. Their pre-
dominant color is a reddish fawn, with more or less white

Fig. 5.—Typical Guernsey Cow. Dolly Dimple.

markings. Colors bordering on a yellowish or brownish
fawn with white markings, are also common, The
cows average probably somewhat more than 1,000 pounds
in weight. They average a fairly large yield of milk,
which is practically as rich as that produced by Jerseys.
Guernseys are also noted for their quiet, gentle disposi-
tion.

THE DAIRY HERD 29

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE.

The native home of this breed is Holland, where it
has existed for many centuries. The low, level, rich lands
reclaimed from the sea, furnish an abundance of grazing

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2nd.

Cow.

iesian

Fig. 6—Typical Holstein-Fr

30 DAIRY FARMING

and have given rise to a large breed of cattle. The wintets

of Holland are rather cold but not severe.
Characteristics. The MHolstein-Friesian cattle are

white and black in color, have large, strong frames, and

Earl Korndyke De Kol.

Fig. 7.—Typical Holstein-Friesian Bull.

easily stand at the head in size and quantity of milk
yielded. The average weight of the cows approxi-
mates 1,300 pounds. While noted for their :pphenomenal
milk yields, the milk averages rather low in per cent of

THE DAIRY: HERD St

butterfat, being lower than that of any other dairy breed.
The udders and milk veins in this breed are conspicuously
large. ‘The shoulders are rather prominent and the hind
quarters as a rule, are rather thick and straight.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE,
The native home of this breed is Ayr county, Scot-
land, from which place the breed derives its name. The

Fig. 8.—Typical Ayrshire Cow. Flora 3d of Bonshaw, Imp.

pastures are good, but the climate is rather severe and
rough, giving this breed a high degree of hardiness.

32 DAIRY FARMING

Characteristics. The Ayrshire cattle are a rather
hardy, rugged breed, of medium size, the average weight
being about 1,000 pounds. They have a deep capacious
barrel, and the hind quarters are inclined to be fleshy.
In color they may be red, white, or brown, or a mixture of
these, each color being well defined. The cows give a
good yield of milk containing an average per cent of
butterfat. Their udders possess a high state of perfection.

Netherhall McDonald, Iinp.

Fig. 9.—Typical Ayrshire Bull.

CHAP EER WV IT:

FEEDING THE DAIRY COW.

I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING.
II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING.
III. FEEDING TABLES.

I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING.

No phase of the dairy industry has received so much
attention in recent years as that relating to the principles
and practice of feeding. We have come to learn that
certain underlying principles must be observed if any-
thing like a full measure of success is to be achieved.
The first lesson of the student in stock feeding concerns
itself with the following particulars regarding feeds: (1)
composition; (2) digestibility; (3) succulence and pal-
atability; (4) proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitro-
genous nutrients; (5) proportion of roughage* and con-
centratesy ; and (6) fertilizing constituents:

Composition. A knowledge of the composition of
feeds is necessary for two reasons: First, to enable the
feeder to determine tie relative value of the feeds at his
disposal; and secondly, to assist in determining what
quantity of feed is necessary to supply the required
amount of nutrients. P

In studying the composition of feeds we must first of
all familiarize ourselves with three important groups of

*Roughage includes the coarser and less nutritious feeds, such as hay,
straw, corn fodder, corn silage, etc.
_¢Concentrates include the more nutritious feeds, such as corn, wheat bran,
cotton seed meal, etc.
33

34 DAIRY FARMING

nutrients found in all feed stuffs; namely, protein, car-
bohydrates and ether extract.

Protein is the nitrogenous part of feeds and is by far
the most valuable of the different groups of nutrients.
Its characteristic element is nitrogen. ‘The white of egg
is almost pure protein. Cottonseed meal and linseed
meal are very rich in protein, and so are leguminous hays,
such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay.

Carbohydrates contain no nitrogen but are made up
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, containing the latter
two elements in the proportion to form water. Sugar and
starch are almost pure carbohydrates. Crude fiber is
another carbohydrate, which constitutes the woody, fibrous
part of plants.

Ether extract is the part of feeds extracted by means
of ether, and consists largely of fats or oils. This group
of nutrients bears a close similarity to carbohydrates,
both in composition and in function; but owing to its
higher carbon content, its fuel value is 2.25 times that of
carbohydrates. Cotton seed and flax seed are very rich
im ether extract:

Dry matter, as the term signifies, is the feed minus its
water.

The variation in nutrients in different feeds is illus-
trated in the following table:

TABLE I. Showing variation in nutrients in different
feeds.

Total nutrients in 10) pounds.

Dry MELRECIn Te
2: ? er j : arbo- Ether
ee iggmeunds Prot Hanae extract.
Lbs. Lbs.
Wheat Oram ice eae 88.1 15.4 62.9 4.0
Cottonseed meal ......... 91.8 pS 29.2 13.1
Gorn soto) ok: SERS VEE ove 89.4 10.3 i230 5.0
Cormysulage - 5 2).on geet 20.9 bet bet, 0.8
Com: StOVEr: shies ek 59 5 3.8 52.2 ae
Clover hay. (ied) igs iccrt « 34.7 12 3 62.9 3.3

THE -DAIRVY HERD 35

The table shows that feeds differ very widely in the
amount of nutrients they contain, especially in protein,
the most valuable portion of feeds.

Digestibility. While the total nutrients give some
idea as to the relative value of different feeds, it is of far
greater importance to know the total digestible nutrients
as determined by actual digestion experiments with
animals. That feeds differ widely in degree of digest-
ibility is shown in the following table which contains the
same list of feeds given in Table I.

TABLE II. Showing variation in the digestibility of
different feeds.

Total digestible nutrients in

100 pounds.
Feed teen
a, tt
he 1Gorpaanas Protein. Mistadde fe ak
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Wapme mi DEAT: 33.58.25 0k 88.1 12-2 o9.2 Belt
Cottonseed meal ......... 91.8 ole 16.9 1252
“TLTETLS aSG 7 a ay ae 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3
MEMS ATO. A ibn. yi eens 20.9 0:9 11.3 0.7
Pron StOVEL.). -).20k os ke os 59.5 £27 32 4 OCF
isver lay (red) 06... 84.7 6.8 30.8 1 eee

Comparing this table with Table I, we note that the
digestibility of the protein, for example, in corn stover,
clover hay and cottonseed meal is 44%, 55% and
88% respectively. These figures suffice to show the need
of knowing, not so much the total nutrients, as the total
digestible nutrients in feed stuffs.

Succulence and Palatability. The amount of digest-
ible nutrients does not always measure the feeding value

36 DAIRY FARMING

of feed stuffs. Palatability must also be considered.
Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that for
best results in milk production, a certain amount of suc-
culent feed must be fed as a part of the ration? @om
silage, which is so highly prized by dairymen, probably
owes its high rank as a dairy feed nearly as much to its
succulence and palatability as to the nutrients which it
contains.

Proportion of Nitrogenous to Non-Nitrogenous
Nutrients. In the production of milk, only the protein
or nitrogenous part of the feed can be utilized for the
production of the protein or nitrogenous part of the milk.
The non-nitrogenous constituents of the milk are largely,
if not entirely, produced from the non-nitrogenous con-
stituents of the feed, namely, the carbohydrates and ether
extract.

From this it must be obvious that the best results in
feeding can be obtained only from a proper balancing of
the nutrients fed. Moreover, since the different nutrients
are largely to be converted into milk, it is evident also
that the quantity which can be advantageously fed must
be gauged by the quantity and quality of milk produced.
Hence feeders have come to adopt what is known as
balanced rations or feeding standards.

Feeding Standards. ‘These refer to the amount of
digestible nutrients required per 1,000 pounds of live
weight in twenty-four hours. They recognize that the
nutrients fed must be in proportion to the quantity and
quality of milk yielded. This is shown by the Wolff-
Lehman standards presented in the following table:

THE DAIRY HERD a
"

TABLE III. Showing Wolff-Lehman feeding stand-
ards.

Digestible nutrients per 1,000
pounds live weight.

Daily milk] = Dry

Ration yield. matter.

aude Prien. |e anaten. | Sxteeoe

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Bl ts. sss 11.0 25 1.6 10.0 0.3
eS 16.6 27 20 11.0 0.4
| OR eee 22.0 29 2.5 13.0 0.5
tc Pa 27.9 32 ote 13.0 0.8

The standard that has generally been used as a guide
by feeders is that for ration No. 3. Researches during
recent years have shown, however, that the Wolff-Leh-
man standard calls for too much protein. These re-
searches make it quite clear that the amount of protein
required for 22 pounds of average quality milk is
nearer two pounds than two and a half pounds, and until
the matter is definitely settled, it may be well to adopt
two and one-fourth pounds of protein as the standard
for the milk yield referred to.

Feeding Standards as Guides. Standards for bal-
anced rations should always be used with considerable
flexibility. They should be looked upon only as guides
and as such are exceedingly useful. Every practical
feeder knows that the influence of individuality counts for
much in the feeding of dairy cattle. A ration that may be
satisfactory for one cow may not be suited to another.

We have also to consider the source of the nutrients.
It is known that the digestible nutrients in coarse feeds
yield smaller returns, pound for pound, than those in

38 DAIRY FARMING

grains. Then again the matter of proportioning the
quantity of nutrients to the weight of the animal can at
best give only approximate results. The actual milk and
butterfat production must always remain the principal
factor in determining the quantity of nutrients required
by the dairy cow.

Calculating Rations. By a ration is meant the amount
of feed required by an animal in twenty-four hours.
The method of compounding rations consists in selecting
from the feeds at our disposal such quantities as will con-
tain the amount of nutrients called for by the standard.
To illustrate, let us make up a ration for a cow yielding
daily 22 pounds of milk of average quality, using the
Wolff-Lehman standard (p. 37). The feeds at our dis-
posal are wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn meal, corn
silage, corn stover and clover hay.

By a number of trial calculations we find that the
required nutrients are obtained by selecting g Ibs. of
wheat bran, 4 lbs. of corn, 1 Ib. of cottonseed meal, 5 lbs.
of corn stover, 5. Ibs. of clover hay and 30 lbs: om Gcogn
silage. The calculation is made from Table II ¢p. 35) in
the manner shown below:

Amt. in

100 lbs.
Protein in 9 lbs. bran =—— st Qancegg = 1.098 sibs
Protein in 1 lb. cotton seed meal ete ace il —= 0.372 alos,
Protein in 4 lbs. corn sa et Oot 4: == "0: 306. tps:
Protein in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.9 x .30 = 0.270 Ibs.
Protein in 5 lbs. corn stover —— eile (eee = 0.085 lbs.
Protein in 5 lbs. clover hay = 6.8 x .05 = 0.340 Ibs.
Total protein 2.481 Ibs.

lI I

Standard 2.50 Ibs.

ed Rael lah atin 5,

THE DAIRY HERD 39

Amt. in

100 ibs.
Carbohydrates in 9 Ibs. bran = 39.2 x .09 = 3.528 Ibs.
Carbohydrates in 1 Ib. c. s. meal = 16.9 x .01 = 0.169 Ibs.
Carbohydrates in 4 lbs. corn 060.1 > x04 = 2.668 lbs.
Carbohydrates in 30 Ibs. corn silage = 11.3 x .3 = 3.390 lbs.
Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. corn stover = 22.4 x .05 = 1,620 lbs.
Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. clover hay = 35.8 x .05 = 1.790 lbs.
Total carbohydrates =13.165 !bs.
Standard =13.00 Ibs.

Amt. in

100 Ibs.
Ether extract in 9 lbs. bran =. 9:7 xi .09 ~ == 0.243 Ibs:
Ether. extract in 1 |b. -c. s. meal = 122 x 01 = 0.122 Ibs.
Ether extract in 4 lbs. corn == 4.3 x 04 9 = 0.172) Ibs:
Ether extract in 30 Ibs. corn silage = 0.7 x .30 = 0.210 lbs.
Ether extract in 5 lbs. corn stover — 0.7 x .05 = 0.035 lbs.
Ether extract in 5 Ibs. clover hay = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 Ibs.
Total ether extract = (0.867 lbs.
Standard = 0.50 Ibs.

To make the above calculation perfectly plain it should
be noted that the table on page 35 says that 100 lbs. of
bran contain 12.2 lbs. of protein. If 100 lbs. contain 12.2
lbs., 9 lbs. of bran will contain nine hundredths of 12.2
Ibs. or .09 x 12.2, which equals 1.008 Ibs. of protein. The
method is the same in the remaining computations.

Nutritive Ratios In speaking of rations, the terms
“wide” ration and “narrow” ration are frequently used.
The terms refer to the proportion of nitrogenous to non-
nitrogenous matter in the ration. This proportion is
spoken of as the nutritive ratio, which is obtained by
dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus 2.25 (heat
equivalent of carbohydrates) times the digestible ether

40 | DAIRY FARMING

extract, by the digestible protein. In the ration calculated
above the nutritive ratio equals 13.17 + (2.25 X .87) +

2.48 = 6.1; that is the nutritive ratio in this case is 1 :6.1.

When the amount of nitrogenous matter is small as
compared with the non-nitrogenous matter, the ration is
said to be ‘‘wide.’”’ When the reverse is true, the ration
is said to be “narrow.”

Proportion of Roughage and Concentrates. Accord-
ing to our feeding standard, a cow yielding 22 pounds of
‘milk requires a ration containing 16 pounds of digestible
nutrients and a total of 29 pounds of dry matter (digest-
ible and indigestible). This amount of dry matter means
that the ration must have a fairly definite bulk. Where
the ration contains a great deal of rich concentrates in
proportion to roughage, it is apt to lack in bulk. On the
other hand a ration containing a large proportion of corn
stover, oat straw and similar roughage, is likely to make
the ration so bulky as to make it impossible for a heavy
producer to consume enough of it to obtain the required
nutrients.

In the ration calculated on page 38 the proportion of
roughage and concentrates is about right. Under average
conditions a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk should have
a ration composed of about two-thirds roughage and one-
third concentrates. For greater yields it is best, as a
rule, to increase only the concentrates to meet the require-
ments of the additional flow of milk, thus making the pro-
portion of concentrates to roughage greater the larger
the yield of milk.

Fertilizing Constituents of Feed. ‘These are nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Feeds rich in these
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich
in them. In the selection of feeds, therefore, some atten-

FHE.'DATRY.. HERD 41

tion should be given to their manurial value, especially
since feeds differ so widely in this respect.

An illustration of the extent to which feeds differ in
their fertilizing or manurial constituents is given in the
following table, which shows the amount of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash contained in corn and cotton
seed meal. ‘The table also shows the value of these con-
stituents, which was obtained by rating the nitrogen at
I5 cents per pound, and the phosphoric acid and potash
at 41% cents per pound.

TABLE IV. Showing fertilizing constituents in
corn and cottonseed meal.

Fertilizing constituents in one ton.

Feed. Phos-

Nitrogen. Puen’ Potash. Total

Lbs Lbs. Lbs valine

Rec AA So vice Sie Saeieca's 36.4 14.0 8.0 $6.45
Cotton seed meal......... 139.8 57.6 17.4 23.75

The table shows that the fertilizing value of a ton of
cottonseed meal exceeds that of a ton of corn by $17.30,
an amount that certainly must appeal to the man who is
dairying on a business basis.

II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING.

Frequency of Feeding. The main part of-the ration
should be supplied in two feeds; one in the morning and
the other in the late afternoon. It is desirable to feed
some dry roughage at noon, especially when the roughage
in the morning and evening consists of silage. The cow,

42 DAIRY FARMING /

on account of her large store room, the paunch, is ca-
pable of storing up a large quantity of feed and, therefore,
does not require as many feeds as some other farm
animals.

Order of Feeding Concentrates and Roughage. As
a rule it is best to feed the concentrates just previous to
milking and the roughage immediately thereafter. The
grain helps to attract the cows to their stalls, and, by feed-
ing the roughage after milking, we avoid tainting the milk
with undesirable odors when the roughage contains these.
When corn silage, for example, is fed immediately before
milking, its odor is always perceptible in the milk. When
fed alter milking, the odor is. mever: detectedia gatas
belheved also that-feeding the concentrates by themselves
will result in a more thorough mixing of saliva with
them and thus increase their digestibility. Furthermore,
a great deal of dust can be avoided by feeding the rough-
age after milking, particularly when the roughage con-
sists of hay or dry fodder.

A prevailing opinion that heavy concentrates will form
an injurious, pasty mass in the cow’s stomach does not
seem to be well founded. When the concentrates are fed
directly before milking and the roughage directly after,
there will be sufficient mixing in the paunch before the
contents pass into the stomach proper. The author for
several years, has successfully followed the practice of
feeding concentrates and roughage separately when the
former consisted of as much as five pounds of cotton-
seed meal per day.

Feeding Before and After Calving? Toward the
close of the lactation period, the grain ration should be
eradually reduced, either because of the reduced flow of
milk, or on account of the desirability of drying up the

THEY DAIRY. (“HERD 43

cow so that she may have a month’s rest before calving.
It should be remembered, however, that even while the
cow goes dry she still requires nutritious feed to properly
nourish the foetus within her. The requirements as to
feed at this time call for plenty of succulent roughage,
and some grain which is rich in ash and protein, at the
same time laxative in character.

If the cow is feeding on good pasture the grain may
be entirely withheld a month previous to calving. Indeed,
if pasture is luxurious, it is desirable to restrict the time
during which she is allowed to graze lest she overfeed
and invite milk fever. When no pasture is available, a
ration consisting of corn silage, good hay and about four
pounds of grain will answer very satisfactorily. A desir-
able grain ration is made up of linseed meal, wheat bran
and ground oats, using these feeds in the proportion of
about one pound of linseed meal and one and a half
pounds each of bran and oats. This ration not only sup-
plies the proper nutrients for the development of the
foetus, but owing to its laxativeness, keeps the cow in
the best physical condition.

A few days before and after calving the grain is pref-
erably supplied in the form of a warm mash. Warm
water should also be freely supplied at this time. Three
to six days after calving the grain should be gradually
increased until the maximum amount consistent with
economical production has been supplied.

If the cow has been properly nurtured previous to
calving, she will have stored up a considerable amount of
reserve material which she draws on immediately after
calving, thus making a heavy grain ration at this time
not only not desirable but entirely unnecessary.

Feeding Silage. The cheapest and most satisfactory

44 DAIRY FARMING

roughage that can be produced upon most farms, is corn
silage. Its succulence and palatability make it an ideal
feed for milk production. ‘This feed should be available
upon the farm the larger portion of the year. In winter
it takes the place of summer pasturage; during the late
summer and fall it is needed to supplement the shortage
of pasturage which usually occurs about this time.

An average cow in full flow of milk will consume 40
pounds of silage daily to good advantage. This amount
of silage combined with 8 or 10 pounds of dry fodder or
hay makes a good combination of roughage for a dairy
cow.

Feeding Grain. It should be remembered that silage
contains a large amount of water, and where this feed
constitutes the main part of the roughage of the ration,
a considerable amount of grain must be fed to supply the
required nutrients of a heavy milk producer. The
amount of concentrates to be fed is, of course, largely
dependent upon the amount of milk and butterfat pro-
duced by the cow.

Water. An abundance of pure water is a prime neces-
sity with a dairy cow. This is to be expected from the
fact that milk is largely composed of water. Where cows
have no access to flowing water, they should be watered
regularly morning and night; and during hot weather a
third watering at noon is desirable. The fact that milk is
composed so largely of water should emphasize the im-
portance of supplying only pure water. We may reason-
ably expect the same bad effect on the health of the cow
and the flavor of the milk from stale, impure water which
is noticeable from the feeding of stale, odoriferous feeds.

Salt. Cows should have daily access to all the salt they

THE DAIRY HERD 45

care to lick. Either common granular salt or rock salt
will answer the purpose satisfactorily.

Feeding According to Flow. In the economical pro-
duction of milk, it is absolutely essential to feed cows
according to their productive capacity. Just what this
productive capacity is can be determined only by keeping
a careful account of the feed consumed and the milk and
butterfat yielded by each cow individually. Such a
record will soon show to what extent cows will profitably
respond to the feed given them.

Importance of Feeding a Full Ration. According to
the German feeding standard, a cow weighing 1,000
pounds requires for body maintenance 0.7 pound of
digestible protein, 8 pounds of cigestible carbohydrates
and o.1 pound of digestible ether extract. This shows
that about half the nutrients called for in a ration for an
average milker are used to sustain the body so that it
will neither gain nor lose in weight; the other half being
used to form milk. Returns for feed can, therefore, be
expected only from about 50% of the total nutrients
required by the cow. This means that a cow on a full
ration will yield practically twice as much milk as she
would on three-fourths of a ration. Yet there are thou-
sands of dairymen who fail to supply the last quarter
of a ration and thus bring ruin upon themselves and
their business.

III. TABLE GIVING COMPOSITION OF FEEDS.

At the beginning, it was stated that a knowledge of the
composition of feeds was necessary for two reasons:
First, to enable the feeder to determine the relative value
of the feeds at his disposal; and second, to assist in deter-
mining what quantity of feed is necessary to supply the

46 DAIRY FARMING

' required nutrients. To afford the feeder as wide a choice
as possible, a long table of feeds is herewith presented,
showing not only the digestible, organic nutrients, but
also the fertilizing constituents. This table is taken from
Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding,’ by permission of the
author.

TABLE V. Average digestible nutrients and fertiliz-
ing constituents in American feeding stuffs.

Digestible Fertilizing

ie nutrients in 10C} constituents in

= pounds. 1,000 pounds.

j=]

ena ae

Name of feed. a¢ ie Be abe 5 s 3

Sige fie (Eig (ea (a Fas) ag | a

rol 2 |fejes| 8 | $3] 2

By Seay Wey ele 7 A

Lbs.| Lbs:| Lbs.} Lbs| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs

CONCENTRATES.

Gorm alranalySesssac ae ceed 89.117. 9/66. 7) 4.8) 1829). 0 eae
DEWECOT te Ne Lee aceon eke 89)-41.7' 8i66. 7) 42 sh Gyles KE
PA tHCORI Bact 2 hus series ate hae! 882718. 0166.2) 4. Sh 16. 8a Hi
SWieet COMIe <) iel Nee ureneaein ote. 91 :21:8. 8163.9) 7.0) L856 ree
COLrmMCOD eI: ar eee ae 89.3] 0.4/52.5] 0.3) 5.0 .6| 6.0
Gornand.cob-meale 7. 424") 84.91-4.4/60.0| 2.97 14.117 57a
Worn dyanas: 25 pane Meee ae 90.9] 7.4/59.8) 4.6] 16.3) 12.1] 6 8
Gluten meade oh St eee aie ne 91 .8]25.8/43.3/11.0) 50.3) 38.3] 0.5
Germmmie als 6 iyo27 ee eee 89.6} 9.0/61.2} 6.21 26.5) 8.0} 5.0
Stine Fenuse.. =n eee ee 91 .8]11.4/58.4) 6.5] 22.4) 7.0) 5.2
CreMmO BN CB. He, sels se ial eee 94 .3)26.7/88.3)12.4] 49.8) 5.1) 1.5
EIOMitty CROPS .27./.0-2 ay se ee 88.9] 7.5)55.2} 6.8} 16.3) 9.8) 4.9
Glucose meadl.c: 00 cea tote. 91 9180 3/85. 3| 4. 5 57 Sileee eee
San Waals Nip Sats ayaid oyecchorslere 93.2)18.7)51.7/18.7] 36.3} 4.1) 03
Gluten weeds! eis ka es hess tak 92 .2|20.4/48.4) 8.8 38.4) 4.1] 0.3

THES DATRY “EE RD

TABLE V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents._Coz.

Name of feed.

Wheat
Beep etade HOUT... 16.0 5.0... 5.
Low-grade flour
ame feeding four. ...........
Wheat bran
Wheat bran, spring wheat....
Wheat bran, winter wheat.....
BA SMOTES. § ofiicis have dese 0
Meat middlings. ........5....
Wheat screenings

eoeereee ee wee ee ee ee ee seers
aoe eer eee ee vr ees

see e eee eer e eee eens

TES Se re

Barley
Malt sprouts
Brewers’ grains, wet
Brewers grains, dried.........

eoeereeeersce see ese ee eeee ee
see ee eoeee ee ee sess

eee ee eeee
ere eee eee ee et ee ese ee eee seoe
eee ee ee eens

Rice

Poe erN eS = 66 6 8 6c mt © © «s 2 «a mate.

ie (e1 eC Ry De, >. Cie 610 8)C 0 «ws

Cc Dry matter in 100

Ss
~

—— —aremry gg ag arg ry
er cO See ae |

DEAQNMQ oo RP HoH

Digestible
nutrients in 100

Protein.

Ut 00 00

COM RER CHORD WHMTED RORY CoUMDM BHONMwWoONUNODN

pounds.

Ether ex-
tract.

.| Lbs.

DRORMRIODON

HI Doe

MRR WoO

i Kt or bo
ATOR BISCO CONTR cee BDH NMwWWNMWNNMOOH

MOTO TWBmMW Deocn

Fertilizing
constituents in
1,000 pounds.

. |

dq be
iS 0° re)
a a
. | bs.) Lbs
23.61 7.91 5.0
18.9} 2.2) 1.5
28.9} 5.6] 3.5
31.8} 21.4/10.9
26.7| 28.9/16.1
28.2} 13.51 5.9
26.8] 9.5] 6.3
24.4) 11.7) 8.4
17.6] 8.2) 5.4
23 .2| 22.8]14.0
18.4] 12.6] 8.1
Pre 79/94. 8
ano) 14-36.3
8. 9F -3.1)0;5
36.2). 10.31°0.9
20.6). 8.26.2
EP eee eee!
D2) 9-153
Gh eA ee.
Boe Oates
10.8} 1.8] 0.9
Rosi tT) ae
Gidl x2" 9) 94
19. 726-81 7
14.4, 4.4) 2.1
A OL a be?
36.4] 17.8]12.8
42.8} 21.9|11.4

48 DAIRY FARMING

TABLE V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents—Com.

Name of feed.

Broom-corn seed............-
ReatiE COMM. 20-2 se can tear wor
MINSK es ak Ps Se aoe eee

Flaxiseed.c 2c Aau. ae eee
Linseed meal, old process.....
Linseed meal, new process....
Cottonmseedtakicn tc iho eos aer
Cotton-secd_ meals an. ides oe
Cottonseed hulls 7ais.ch56 55 eee
Gocoanut mealies sae eee
Palmenut- meal i seie. tees os

Suntlower: S@OG 6 Foti h ete loca aye
Sunflower-seed cakes.........
Peanmtemeadl iy iy hue eo es ee
Rape-seed meal...........-..

Peas t Lau Ses See acre cB
Soja. (soy) bean.) 2. ame 0!
COW PEA ae nie se eiecipsereatere
Horse bean tees oe acids es

ROUGHAGE.
Fodder corn.

Kodder)corn, green).os005. an
Fodder corn, field-cured......
Corn stover, field-cured.......

Fresh grass.

Pasture grasses (mixed).....
Kentucky blue grass.........
Timothy, different stages.....
Orchard grass, in bloom... .-
Redtopy in DIOGO. ae acu ee
Oat tOGGEE As Heian wie ieteleciyiejenie

Fertilizing

constituents in

1,000 pounds.

drates.

Dry matter in 100
pounds.

Protein.
Carbo-hy-

iS
a
wn
5
oS
n

@
oy
o

oe
ma
DS
=
S
Syl
iw)

oo
on SSS
Re}
CO CO
oP
oo DO DO CO
ato

WOW ACOoON= Or=t OO

20 00
to DOOD 00 BOOM OC WH COO OO

DS CO co © CO-t +t
ORE DL ee)

‘MOO NON HOAWNUN WE

H> OT DO Ot

Co ee DO DO LO

Do oO Ore 2
— ha

mt DO 0 6 OOF COO OO
ager

ao noen CSOD 20 WIM SH

ROH (So
DS 00 6 OD

=p =

ec 002 ce 0000 0 CO OC 00D
ee © HOM oOmoOor

DO > co

oOnNr

NWNRNOWWE WHOS
eo DO ©

—

DMR MowWoouMAINWWHOS

G0 OO 00 GO
Or OO
Om he

are on
Se
co Go
Re
> O> OD
a)
DO

CO ie ©

DO 2 Go BO
BIAOR OS

co go

De opow
= DR eee
CORR co CO ©
CON YO DO
-COo°occo
© SB 1 Sd OO Or

o
aulae
o ° ;
te) os
2 || 4
5 oY »
— gs lo}
Za | A 4

Sorghum seed...........++.:- Site

eceereto wee etovnee

co OD

Ne Nee we
DD = o> BD OC DD
Mme
Se DON ROONARON

eran
elite) Gore O1rot- CG Or

eco. 6 OWrF

—

—
bo
—
ine)
le)

THE DAIRY HERD

TABLE V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.—Con.

Name of feed.

BME OOOC CE oP a's aie oo fateh [oe
ES a ee ae a 20.6
Meadow fescue, in bloom...... 30.1
Peane@arian Grass... .......-. ...- 28.9
PCI AGICY. 2) os as ace ee ess 21.0
MeeaNAMG (ORT 2/2 dev cake es 2 16.0
peas and Darley... 66.040. 16.0
flay.
Pema o oe its ba nes 86.
ees PTASS 24 22... ees obts 90.
EIA eee cia yaie wid ook Bla wt ol.
Kentucky blue grass.......... fee
PiiepariaN Grass. ...5......5 +. 92.
WIRE GTASSES. .. fs. cn sine sate 87.
ewe (Mixed)... 6.006646 2 83.
Nieddow fescue,.... 02.0 6.253). 80.
mia eA WAY... si. is sees nee 88.
DONA hae sera) o5LPu 4 oid ws seiko OL.
Marsh or swamp hay......... 88.
Marsh or swamp hay......... 92.
MICE AIS). bs clave eo sede y 85.
Straw.
REEMA ere kts caine cake 90.
Beatie ot de bese alk biothowe als eid 92.
TNR eS i a oi 90.
ME ra cs On the slag oot 85.
eee VO MANE aoc sane = sn 20 Co gs 85.
A 28 eecdare i iclt-S ee seve be 85.
Fresh legumes.
Red clover, different stages. ..|29.
DENEVE 6) (eyo 6s a 25
Mermms@ncelOVER.. 2) .~sde'a ses Ey.
eS ee eee cee 28.
arm D i ici ys kg Bie lao, Be 4b. Saal 16.

eeoeceere see se ee ee ee ee es

Dry matter in 100

Digestible
nutrients in 100
pounds.

a [28/85
8 |83|58
2 | as |as

& |o &

Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.
2.1/14.1] 0.4
0.6)/12.2| 0.4
1.5/16.8] 0.4
2.0|/16.0} 0.4
1.9)10.2) 0.4
1S te tise
SES O22
2.8/43.4| 1.4
4.9/42.3] 1.4
4.8/46.9) 1.0
4.8/37.3] 2.0
4#SIOl Tho
0.9/40.9) 1.2
7.9140.1) 1.5
°4,2/43.3) 1.7
10.8)38.7| 1.5
4.3/46.4) 1.5
2.4/29.9} 0.9
3.0/44.7| 0.7
3.8/40.7) 1.2
0.4/36.3] 0.4
0.6|/40.6| 0.4
1.2/38.6] 0.8
0.7/41.2} 0.6
0.3/23.3] 0.5
1.5/38.0| 0.7
2.9/14.8) 0.7
2.7|13.1)] 0.6
2.4) 9.1] 0.5
3.9112 .7) 0.5
T8527) 022
3.2/11.0) 0.5

Fertilizing
constituents in
1,000 pounds.

in (ee

a ]

2) Se se
Z Ay Ay
Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
Biot Ties
2.3} 0 9) 2.8
8.9] 1.6] 5.5
12.6) (5-an9.0
13.1} 4.1/18.8
11 55)}.43:6)10.2
11.9) ALOT SSF
12.0) +S 5 1S-0
14.8) 2b
16.1] 4.3)14.9
9.9) 4.01210
23.2) 6.7/10.8
Oe NE CL Bi ea
4.61 2.8) 7.9
62) 2,018.4
13.1} 3.0/20.9
TiO EO 22
5.3), 1.3] 4:6
4.4, 1.1] 2.0
4.3) 1.3] 4.9
ti2t 1S ax6
Out LO) cen
2.9) Db) 52a

50 DAIRY FARMING

TABLE V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents._Coz,

Digestible Fertilizing
S nutrients in 100} constituents in
is pounds. 1,000 pounds.
oy easalatl 1 2
Name of feed. eT Wem leer a | 6 :
Se) (28i25] ® | au / 4
pS} eo |es(S8| & | ss] s
apm td GoM Za a,
Lbs | Lbs.| Lbs.} Lbs } Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs
Legume hay and straw.
Red clover, medium 2.6.02. 6: 84.71 6.8/385.8] 1.7] 20.7) 3.8/22.0
Red clover, mammoth,....... 78.8) 5.713920) 1 SP 2273) sbromaae
isikevClov erty seas ike _... |90.3] 8.4/42.5| 1.5] 23.4] 6.7/22.3
White clover es eos. onto: 90.3]11.5)/42.2) 1.5] 27.5} 5.2/18.1
Grimson: Clover. ac. 3.66 cles oe 90.4]10.5|84.9) 1.2] 20.5) 4.0)13.1
TAU lie te Be iii tie amar | rae 91 .6]11 .0/39.6] 1.2] 21.9] 5.1/16.8
Woyepeda tee Gayyenise viaaaa qaer 89.3}10.8/388.6) 1.1]19.5} 5.2/14.7
Soja-bean Straws... ase ss... 2: 89.9] 2.3/40.0} 1.0) 17.5) 4 0)18.2
Peaqvitle, Stra wince ce ve wre Sele 86.4] 4.3/82.3) 0.8] 14.3) 3.5)10.2
Silage.
GOH Fo No ease leek Centos ae ieee 20/9) 0.911.383) 0.7) 2.6)" Tenaan
GlOVera ae fee he cose econo mes 28.0] 2.0/138.5} 1.0]... aacilh
Sometime Mee aac cuss eee etlaee 25. 91°026|14. 79) 05 2). 7 eee ee
TENG ie ae Net tee A ROE Oy th 20. beo 0-8. 5) Te Ol al ee
GRASSt os. See ce ais 2s te eee ater 32.0) 1.9/13. 41-6)... alee eee
Cowpea Vine wie): vss eee ala 20.7] 1.5) 8.6) 0.9}. 4
Soja beanacs nae sts eee 20.81 2.78.0) 131) oe
Barn-yard millet and soja bean|21.0} 1.6) 9.2) 0.7).....).....]....
Corn and soja bean...... Cae 1240) 1 6)13.0) O09. aie eee
Roots and tubers.
Potato nna cts cere Pat ee Mi eh 21.17 0.9/16.3) 0.1) 3:2) eae
Beet, cOMMMNONA ae sence ats ©: 13.0]-1.2)-8.8]|-0.1) (24 eS eae
IE St SUC ak. eto pale ntsroretiats 6 ane 13.5] 1.1/10.2} 0.1] 2.2) 1.0) 4.8
Beet; mang els. costs hom «0.5 oe 9.1) 1.1) 5.4) OT) E29) “O23ieace
HilaG (uri. icy hoes et ctae oe ke, 9.5)1.0) 7.2) 0/2] “here tetioee
RU pa Aa. iho ceae on Ceeecene cues eae 11.4}-1..0) 8:4)0. 2 oe eae
GAaLhOt pe: Pays neki eerne sea ee cents 11.41. 0.8) 7-8] 0.2] “Tool Oc8)- on
BP Shad ke. ab ae Payer ee cet ete 11.7} 1.6/11.2] 0.2] 2.8) 2.0424
ING PICHOK Cid eevch eae awit Crone tedens 20.0} 2.0/16.8) 0.2] 2.6) 1.4) 4.7

THE DAIRY HERD
TABLE V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.— Con,

Pe COON -Rinew mOOWMD OMAR OO
won yse10d 4 WSO 1OrMD PIAS se wast eel GT
DM
fed Cease oe ce. Wala: SFE DS Se eae Seas ROSoOrH
OS poe fs MNS css NEeOOO HONNRHS
bso onoydsoud 4 | : - N
m2s COO “MAID - O@IDNWO MAoOOID
5 Bal ek aw og Maths gba Re cera muta G WrONeN: Gee) Cid is
° sre 1D eH OD nan nl
Eek as tse ee eh eee eet ea
aS i ee
3 ihe sz WMA ONNE int -O #0 Oma
2 x9 19011 O SSOSSSOSH ADS MOOOHS
ong ADOSOHOHH SOMOMD A-EAOo-E
aes hat el ee 00 OP xH 1d 00 <HO0 sH No Satin wa
O85 Ay-oqieg 4 es nS
5am - OinrOotFiOe DANO COMA AO
3 "Ujeold 5 IIA NOWTOD MOrONGS
= 19. sH

OOOnmN OO rt eanon Kon To | -Soac cS

MONARY ABBSOD aAwnaans
meNs sss Y OOOH FAN

‘spunod
OOT UL 1999eU AIG 4

we Saas) ee ee a Pe ed OL eee. i | Lote eme cia ated ae
Of 1m a8 5 8 Ore” Bie) ose ge ea eran GP ere alter ah se), eh ema
OP sien 6)” 8) er oS: fol aap. ae) nek mer! Oi, ne Ree) bh cet tank ae Ae
Br gO Agel es Tat NO th ee ek Peer e eres | ate Mee wh ee gah elk
Sea 8 Ay 8? Oe i Oa | d Ceniate. et are ey ween PAR fade elas io:
Ox Ree Ser) oe ruhy al, fe ae
Oe Re Sie e+ ee ea ees Se Me = UPR Velen neh leigh ae mliie, ice
eis JOB ew) Kae ore et em 6a ey Ne kere ae:
) njO rig Onsen Se Oe OL OMe lhe KO Mores Byer oe
oo 2) Cera ee Oe hes) gy. OL we eh | 8
WEI LOE Okie OY 6 = Meu el eens 6
ote gaee th ee, Cee RBG LS he Lee mer cele fe
ee ee ane eee Cree heim, wis itt in otk eters
a) 16-) ot em 36
a) 16> -e~ 8) “eo

peetitiiugal., .

PR AVILY 6's ase
rprermilic.. ooo... ean

Name of feed
MISCELLANEOUS.
y comfrey.

pep. :
eet molasses

Cow’s milk, colostrum
0 LSS See ee ee

Cow's milk....
Skim milk

SLs ee
Beet
Skim milk

Pumpkin, garden
B

Dried fish: ;..

Pumpkin, field ..
Prickl

Dried blood..
Meat scrap...

ge
S ;
Sugar-beet leaves

CRAP TER VILL
SILOS AND SILAGE.

A silo is an air-tight receptacle for preserving green
feeds in a succulent condition. Feed thus preserved is
known as silage, Clover, cow-peas and other forage
crops have been successfully made into silage, but expe-
rience has shown that the cheapest and most satisfactory
silage is made from corn cut in the denting or glazing
stage.

Silage is now universally recognized as one of the
cheapest and most indispensable feeds in economical milk
production. With the studious dairyman, it is no longer
aquestion of, “Can Ll atford to build.a‘silo,” but eanee
afford to be without one?”

Advantages of Silage. The advantages of feeding
silage may be briefly stated as follows:

I. It furnishes the cheapest roughage available upon
the farm.

2. It furnishes roughage, which, in degree of suc-
culence and palatability, more nearly approaches green
pasturage than anything else to be had upon the farm.

3. Owing to its kinship to grass in succulence and
palatability, it can readily be substituted for the latter
during periods of drought and during late summer and
fall when pasturage is nearly always inadequate.

4. It has made winter dairying a feasible and profit-
able business, because the silage readily takes the place
of summer pasturage.

5. It furnishes a uniform feed and makes uniformly

THE DAIRY HERD ate

good feeding a possibility the year round.

6. It permits the storage of a large amount of feed in
a comparatively small space.

7. Where the silo adjoins the barn it makes feeding
easy.

8. It permits housing the corn crop regardless of the
condition of the weather.

g. There is practically no waste in feeding.

10. It yields the largest amount of feed possible from
the corn plant.

Size of Silo. The size of the silo is determined by
the number of cattle to be fed. In general, a cow will
consume about 40 pounds of silage daily; and, if fed
silage 180 days in the year, she will consume a total of
7,200 pounds. At this rate 20 head of cattle would con-
sume 72 tons. But it should be remembered that it re- .
quires a silo of not less than 80 tons’ capacity to hold
72 tons of well made silage. A cylindrical silo of this
capacity will measure about 14 feet in diameter and 28
feet in height. (See appendix.)

A good rule to follow in determining the size of a silo
is to estimate the amount of silage that is to be fed dur-
ing the year and assume a weight of 40 pounds for every
cubic foot of silage.

Silos should not be built too large. Where 150 to 200
tons of silage are required, it is far better to put this
amount of silage into two silos than into one. The height
of the silo should be limited to thirty feet. Too much
power is required in elevating the silage higher than
this and those who have climbed high silos will be able to
testify to the fact that it is not an agreeable task.

Where a silo is built with a reasonable capacity, it is

54 DAIRY FARMING

also more restricted in diameter which permits a deeper
layer of silage to be removed daily. This has the ad-
vantage of keeping the silage fresher in summer and re-
ducing the amount of freezing in winter. Where only one
silo is used, silage is frequently carried over from one
year to another until the bottom part may be three to
eight years old before it is finally fed.

Location of Silo. For convenience of feeding, the
silo should be as near the manger as possible. It is
preferably joined to the barn at one end by means of a
chute, so that one can step into the silo without leaving
the barn. Where the silo is thus located, it is necessary
to prevent the escape of silage odors at milking time,
by providing doors for closing up the chute leading to
the silo.

Silos should be located to give them as much protection
from cold as possible. This is especially necessary with
concrete silos.

The location of silos with regard to keeping the silage
from freezing has been given too little consideration by
silo builders.

Construction of Silo. Silos should be round, having
the appearance of a cylinder whose height is about twice
its diameter. They may be built of wood, stone, brick,
concrete, or a combination of two or more of these. Asa
rule, the choice is determined by the relative cost and
availability of the materials mentioned.

In building a silo four things must be kept in mind.
First, it must be air-tight. Second, it must have sufficient
strength and rigidity to enable it to withstand the pres-
sure of the silage without yielding. ‘Third, it must have
a smooth inside surface to permit the silage to settle

AS ae i

= a

THE DAIRY HERD 55

readily. And, fourth, it must be deep so that the weight
of the silage will give compactness sufficient to expel the

-air which is held between the particles of silage.

It is desirable that the total depth of the silo be at
least 30 feet: Where the ground is dry, five or six feet
of this depth may be underground. When 30 feet is
selected as the fixed depth, the silo can be made of the
desired capacity by selecting the proper diameter, which
may vary from 12 to 24 feet.

CONCRETE SILOS.

Concrete has all the qualities sought in the construction
of an ideal silo when handled in the proper manner. There
are various forms of concrete silos built at the present
time. Some are built of hollow blocks, some with a
single solid wall, and others with a double wall and an air
space between. ‘The single solid wall has proven popular
where the silo can be so located as to give it good pro-
tection from the cold of the winter.

The following is a description of two single solid walled
silos built on “Michels’ Stock Farm.” (See Fig. 9%.)

The silos are each fourteen feet, ten inches in diameter
(inside) and thirty feet high. The walls up to within
three feet of the doors are six inches thick; from this
point they gradually increase in thickness to eight inches
at the doors. The doors are of the continuous kind,
extending from top to bottom. The break in the silo
caused by the continuous door is strengthened by running
three-quarter inch iron rods horizontally across the open-
ing at intervals of twenty-four inches. The ends of these
rods are embedded in the concrete wall a distance of four
,inches and fastened to them are the ends of No.-5 rein-

56 DAIRY FARMING

forcing wire. A reinforcing wire is laid every foot. The
roof is made of lumber and covered with prepared roof-
ing paper. It took three men six days to put up the silo
wall including the concrete bottom.
Cost of One Silo. The itemized cost of each silo is
as follows:
Labor diecing foundation... 02 26% se $16.00
Labor, putting up the concrete wall.... 65.00
Thirty-nine barrels cement at $1.20 a

ARON C.F cai st earn Aenea ots bade 40.807ee
One and one-half rolls No. 5 wire at

NOON Gene Nar gH Lacan will g Mean ae ty Om eiscaae ty 0 2.47
Twenty loads gravel (distance hauled

200: yards) at 4@ cents aload (no. ca! 8.00
TROO Es 3). 5 hie ane Saheim Sy Ea 35.00
Binding irons run horizontally across

door Openings. ies: A Nee tern 275
Total cost of silo, without doors..... $176.02

The labor in putting up the concrete work was per-
formed by silo builders who were paid by the day and
they furnished their own molds and concrete mixer. The
latter was run with a one and one-half horsepower gaso-
line engine. No account was taken of the cost of the
gasoline which, however, was small. Flowing water was
run right up to the silo.

Doors. On the inside, right at the edges of the con-
tinuous opening for the doors, a depression, two inches
- deep and two inches wide, is made to receive the doors.
This depression is made by putting a 2x2-inch stud in the
mold. ‘The doors consist of pieces of planks twelve inches
wide. To prevent entrance of air where the planks join,

ee .

THE *DAIRY?. HERD

c WIB A 4907S

STSUITA,,

1O SO[I

ayaIOMOD UM, 94} SUNT

246

58 DAIRY FARMING

a layer of heavy building paper is placed between the
silage and the doors when filling the silo.

Advantages of Twin Silos. Two silos, if built to-
gether at one side of the barn, have an advantage also in
dispensing with the building of a chute, as shown in the
accompanying illustration. Both silos when placed as
shown here can be filled with a single setting of the
machiner:’

BARN
Ground Plan of Silos.

The chute acts as an exit for the foul air from the barn.
The door which connects the barn and chute is tight-fit-
ting and slides up and down so that it can run to within
a foot of the floor; or, if desired, can be closed entirely.
Using the chute as an exit for the barn air will help to
keep the silage from freezing because of the comparative
warmth of this air. Sufficient light is provided in the
silos and chute by putting a window horizontally over
part of the top of the chute.

Where two silos are used one can certainly be emptied
every year so that silage in no case needs to be kept
longer than eighteen to twenty months. ‘Two silos are
desirable also for best results in feeding silage during the
summer or early fall, as well as during the winter.

CONCRETE-LINED SILO.

Fig. 10 shows a vertical section through such a silo.

THE DAIRY HERD 59b

Table VI—Showing nutrients in corn plant at different stages
of growth.

Dry matter,

Stage of growth. per acre
(tons)

limitasoeled ace yuck cr eratalrd ae es eee eee 0.8

an a SUNCCL SD oak Ne tata Sete ug amiga he Maca iets om oak tale ota bt 15

icenels watety to sl miible Sid. : gees \dtwale ae he 2.3

b SEURLTTS Sigal a0 te eR eg SR UN ea 3.6

| "INE SDN Ii sly A AE pee i RSA aoe tee aa PR aia to 4.0

This table teaches an important lesson, and should dis-
courage farmers from cutting young, immature corn,
either for silage or soiling purposes.

Postponing the cutting until the corn has reached the
denting or glazing stage also makes silage of better qual-
ity. At this stage the plant is less watery and the sugar
has been largely converted into starch, thus preventing
excessive fermentation and the formation of an undue
amount of acid in the silage.

Filling the Silo. When the corn reaches the right
stage of maturity, it should be cut at once and hauled
from the field to the silo, where the entire plant, ears and
all, is run through an ensilage cutter or shredder, cutting
it into pieces from % to 1 inch long. The ensilage cut-
ters are provided with carriers which carry the silage to
any height desired in the silo.

Where silos are rapidly filled, not less than two men
should remain constantly in the silo, leveling and dis-
tributing the silage. This is necessary to insure uniform
silage and an even settling. The silage should also be
tramped, especially along the edge of the silo where, ow-
ing to the friction of the wall, it will not settle as readily
as elsewhere.

In case of rapid filling it is best also to leave the silage

59c DAIRY FARMING

to settle a day or two and then refill. After such settling
there will be room for considerably more silage. |
Covering for Silage. The floor and walls of the silo
are air tight by construction, and where the silage has
been thoroughly packed, none should spoil at these places.
At the top, however, where the silage is exposed to the
air and where it is less solidly packed some of it will
naturally spoil. ‘To reduce this loss of silage to a mini-
mum, some cheap material that will pack well, such as
old, wet hay, for example, should be placed on top of the
silage immediately after filling, and this should be fol-
lowed by a thorough wetting so as to hasten the settling
and matting process. Usually a dozen barrels of water
may be run over the top of the silage to good advantage.

SILAGE TRUCK,

Depth of Silage that Must Daily Be Removed from
Top. Owing to the constant contact of the air with the
top layer of silage, it is necessary to remove a horizontal
layer of silage to a depth of not less than 1% inches daily
to prevent any from spoiling. If this fact is kept in mind
when building a silo, its diameter can be made such as to
make possible the feeding of a layer of this depth daily.

THE DAIRY HERD 50d

Cost of Silos and Machinery. ‘The cost of silos
varies with the cost of materials and the method of con-
struction. An 8o-ton silo of the Gurler type can be built
for about $150. Other silos of the same capacity, but
made of different materials may cost double this amount.

A moderate sized ensilage cutter that would answer for
an 8o-ton silo would also cost about $150.

Where some form of power must be purchased a gaso-
line engine is recommended because of the many other
uses it may serve on a dairy farm. (See Chap. XV.)

A moderate sized ensilage cutter when not too heavily
fed can be operated satisfactorily with an eight horse
power gasoline engine. The cost of such an engine is
about $250.

CHAPTER TX,
METHOD OF KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL COWS.

Necessity of Keeping Records. Through the efforts
of experiment stations, private individuals, and Hoard’s
Dairyman in particular, tests have been made of hundreds
of herds throughout the country, only to find that in
practically all of them some cows are kept at an actual
loss to their owners. The failure on the part-of the
owners to detect the unprofitable cows may be traced
to three causes: (1) it may be the result of reckoning
with the herd as a whole, rather than the individual
members composing it; (2) it may be the result of ignor-
ing the quality of the milk; or (3) it may be due to
attempts to estimate the value of the individual members
by guessing at the flow of milk for a week or two when
the cows are doing their best.

The lack of business method in reckoning with the
herd as a whole, rather than with the individuals com-
posing it, is too apparent to need further explanation.
The same may be said with reference to the practice
of ignoring the quality of the milk. Where the owner
guesses the annual yield from the quantity of milk pro-
duced for a week or two during the lactation period,
he is likely to err in three important respects a.)
guessing in itself is bound to lead more or less frequently
to grossly erroneous estimates; (2) yearly estimates based
upon a few weeks’ production ignore the fact that some
cows yield milk eleven or twelve months of the year,

Loe DAIRY -HERD 61

while others produce only seven or eight months; and
(3) estimates of this kind fail to consider that some
cows that yield heavily for a short time and then drop
off to a medium flow, may be exceeded in total pro-
duction by others that never yield heavily at any period,
but whose flow is quite steady from beginning to end
of the lactation period.

It is evident from what has been
said that there is but one method by
which we can tell with certainty the
char aa value of the individual cows in a
1 ae i) herd, and that method consists in

(| weighing and testing the milk and
keeping a record of the feed con-
sumed for the entire period of lacta-
tion.

Daily Record of Milk. Keep-
ing a daily record of the weight of
the milk of each cow is a very sim-
ple and inexpensive task. All that
is necessary is to have some form of
scales and a ruled sheet of paper
upon which to record the weights of
milk morning and night. Fig.
shows a cheap and convenient scales
which weigh from one-tenth pound
to 30 pounds. A convenient milk
record sheet is shown below.

The daily weighing of the milk
ro iiy ae from each cow is valuable also in
eee toe) pounds. — serving as a check upon the work of

the milkers. A rapid shrinking in the milk is easily
detected on the milk sheet and may be entirely due to

ce i

Date.

Total

Wel Upl up lurl up eel up |p| u>| up| >| up| pl uplupl ul up| y>| pup) ua|upluplup lo up|u> lop |nip lop

ES|55|5=|55|55|s5|=<|==|=5|=5|=2|=2|<5|e5|25/<5|<5|<<l85/55|25)/<5|5<|55/55|55|<=|=2|=e]e2

DAIRY FARMING

Milk Record for Month of......+::....005 Cy eae ene 190

Name of Cow.

Belle.
Daisy.

bs [Fos | [| a [i] | Ta Cs | tan on
Ss a re ae ee a a ee
(i Ge ie ee a ee es Pe

THE DAIRY HERD 63

careless milking. Great daily fluctuations in the yield
of milk are also in most cases the result of indifferent
and inefficient milkers.

Collecting Samples of Milk for Testing. The milk
from each cow should be tested about once a month dur-
ing the whole period of lactation. A satisfactory way of
doing this is to collect what is known as a composite
sample, which consists in securing about one-half ounce
of milk from each of six consecutive milkings and placing
this in a half pint composite sample jar (Fig. 12) con-

Fig. 12.—
Composite Sie Sa
Sample Jar. Fig. 13.—Test Bottle Rack.

taining a small amount of preservative. <A test of this
composite sample will represent the average per cent
of butterfat for the period during which the sample
was taken and will serve with sufficient accuracy as the
average test for the entire month.

Each composite sample jar should be carefully labeled
by placing the name or number of the cow upon it. A
convenient rack for these jars is shown in Fig. 13.

64 DAIRY FARMING

Sampling and Samplers. Immediately after milking
the milk is poured: from one pail into another several
times and then sampled at once. The sampling may be
done by either of two methods: (1) by means of a one-
half or one ounce dipper shown in Fig. 14; or (2) by
means of a narrow tube shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15.—
Dipper Samp- Thief Samp-
ler. ten

The dipper furnishes the simplest and easiest means
of sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed
and where the quantity is practically the same morning
and night, this method of sampling is accurate.

With the tube method the sample is always propor-
tionate to the quantity of milk and it will draw a rep-

PHE DAIRY “HERD 65

resentative sample even when the milk has stood undis-
turbed a few minutes. This method of sampling should
be employed, therefore, where there is much variation in
the quantity of night’s and morning’s milk, or where
the milk is not apt to be thoroughly mixed before samp-
ling.

Preservatives. Milk can not be satisfactorily tested
after it has soured, owing to the difficulty of securing
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to place a
small amount of preservative in the composite sample
jar before the sampling is begun.

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive
sublimate, formalin and bichromate of potash. All of
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them
where children and others unfamiliar. with their poisonous
properties, can not have access to them. For conve-
nience, the bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate
have been put up in tablet form, each tablet containing
enough preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet from
one to two weeks. ‘The bichromate of potash can be
procured from all druggists, and a quantity not to exceed
the size of a pea should be added to each pint composite
jar. A larger quantity is liable to interfere with the
testing.

Testing With the Babcock Test. The method of
operating the Babcock test is explained in detail in chap-
ter XVIII:

Calculating Butterfat and Butter Yield. The
monthly butterfat yield of each cow is determined by
multiplying the total pounds of milk for the month by
the per cent of butterfat it contains. For example, if
cow No. 1 produced 850 Ibs. of milk testing 4.27% fat, the

66 DAIRY FARMING

total fat in this milk would equal 8504.2, or 35.70
pounds.

Since butter contains salt, water, casein and only about
83% butterfat, it is to be expected that the yield of
butter will exceed that of butterfat, provided the losses
in skimming and churning are normal. ‘The general
rule in estimating the butter yield is to increase the but-
terfat by one-sixth. Thus the estimated butter yield
of the 35.70 pounds of fat given above would equal 35.70
XI 1-6 or 41.65 pounds. ‘The difference between the
butterfat and the actual butter yield is known as the
“overrun.”

Estimating the Cost of Feed. ‘The final test of the
value of a cow is the economy of production. In addition,
therefore, to knowing the butterfat yield, we must also
know the cost of the feed she consumed in producing it.
Obviously a daily weighing of the feed, especially as
concerns roughage, is not practical upon most dairy farms.
If the feed which each cow receives is weighed about
twice a month an approximate estimate of the feed
consumed can be obtained by considering the weighed
amount of feed as the average daily consumption for the
month. To illustrate, let us suppose that cow No. X is
doing full work on a ration consisting of 8 pounds of
wheat bran, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, 40 pounds
of corn silage and 8 pounds of corn stover. By carefully
observing the volume of the weighed amounts of each
feed, approximate quantities may be measured for two
weeks, after which a day’s feed is again weighed and the
measuring continued for the remainder of the month.
In this way an approximate estimate of the quantity of
feed consumed for the month can be obtained with a small
amount of labor. By multiplying the total quantities
of the different feeds fed during the month, by their

THE DAIRY HERD

respective values per ton, we obtain an approximate cost
of the feed fed each cow during that period.

Yearly Record of Milk, Butterfat and Feed. At the
end of each month a record of each cow’s milk, butterfat
test, and butterfat production, as well as an estimate
of the cost of feed, should be entered upon a yearly
record sheet like that shown below.

HERD RECORD FOR YEAR 190 .

NAME OF COW

Test, Per Cent
Butter Fat,
lbs

n
Month 2

c=!

=
Total

ew ee cece lsc es wees

ee ee ee

Estimated
Feed, Cost

NAME OF COW

Test, Per Cent

Milk, lbs.

Butter Fat,
lbs

Estimated

Feed, Cost

core ceeel| see coos

ccee ccoeloevea oeece

ee oe ee ee

Cs Ce

ee i ee ay

ee oe ee

CHAP Rec
MILKING.

Importance of the Milking Process. The profits
from a dairy herd are far more largely dependent upon
the conditions under which the milk is drawn than dairy-
men are commonly led to believe. For example, hundreds
of instances could be mentioned where milk drawn under
cleanly conditions has been sold for one hundred per
cent more than that drawn under uncleanly conditions.
But milking from the standpoint of cleanliness is
discussed in- the. chapter on sanitary ~“ailkegeene:
duction and will, therefore, not be considered here.
The conditions that will be treated in the following
pages are those which have a direct bearing upon the
yield of milk and butterfat, and which are no less import-
ant in determining the profits from the herd than are those
concerning cleanliness.

Milk Function Controlled by Nervous System. ‘The
various factors bearing upon the secretion of milk are
readily understood when it is remembered that the pro-
duction of milk is closely associated with the nervous
organization of the cow. Whatever reacts upon her nerv-
ous system will react in like degree upon the secretion
of milk.

Value of Kind and Gentle Treatment. It is owing
to her high nerve development that a cow is so very
sensitive to excitement, boisterousness, unkindness, rough
treatment and other allied abuses which always react

THE DAIRY HERD 69

so unfavorably upon the production of milk and butterfat.
Especially disastrous are the effects of abuses admin-
istered just previous to or during milking. Yet how fre-
quently are dogs allowed to chase the cows to the stable,
and how often are attendants seen with clubs which they
use as aids in getting the cows into their proper places!
In addition, the language and boisterousness that accom-
panies all this leaves no doubt that the animals are
treated as offending brutes, instead of willing, sensitive
mothers who are scarcely any less sensitive to harsh
words than are human mothers. Make pets out of your
cows by kind treatment, for kindness is never without
compensation, no matter how, when or where applied.

Elaboration of Milk During Milking, If, in addi-
tion to what has been said, it will be remembered that
the larger portion of the milk is secreted during the
process of milking, the importance of giving a cow the
very best care and treatment at this time will be fully
apparent. Furthermore, the fact that most of the milk
is formed during milking, materially assists in explaining
why different milkers secure such varying quantities of
milk and butterfat from the same cow.

Effect of Change of Milkers. From what has been
said it is easily seen that frequent changes of milkers are
certain to react unfavorably upon the milk and butterfat
production. A cow that has become thoroughly accus-
tomed to a certain milker will feel restless and uneasy
with a new milker, which is nowhere more plainly indi-
cated than on the milk sheet. A change of milkers,
furthermore, always means a change in the manner of
milking, and, therefore, a change in the stimulation of
‘the udder. Since the stimulation of the udder by the
milker is the cause of n.ilk secretion, it is evident that

70 DAIRY FARMING

a change in the method of stimulation will result in
a reduction of milk and butterfat production. The wise
dairyman will therefore avoid changing milkers as far
as possible, and will insist that the same milker always
milk the same cows.

Fast Versus Slow Milking. The larger yields are
secured from fast milking. This may possibly be ex-
plained upon the basis of udder stimulation. The fast
milker will stimulate the udder to a greater degree than
the slow milker, and the extra stimulus thus given evi-
dently favors the secretion in the milk glands, as indicated
by the actual increased production.

Importance of Withdrawing All the Milk. One
of the most important factors in milking is securing all
the milk at each milking; that is, milking a cow dry.
Whatever milk is left in the udder from one milking
to another is not only lost to the milker, but actually
acts'-as. a check. upon further secretion, so -fiat-=euc
habitual practice of not milking cows “clean” or “dry”
results in a gradual shrinking of the milk flow and an
early “drying up” of the cow. Furthermore, the loss
of the strippings means the loss of the very best milk.
The first milk drawn from a cow usually contains less
than 1% fat, while the strippings may contain as much
as 14%.

Regularity of Milking and Feeding. The man who
is looking for satisfactory returns from his dairy must
make regularity a watchword. Cows must be milked reg-
ularly at a fixed time morning and night. Milking
half an hour sooner or later than the fixed time interferes
much more seriously with the milk yield than is com-
monly supposed. Not only does irregularity of milking
reduce the yield of milk and butterfat, but irregularity in

THE DAIRY HERD 71

feeding leads to the same result. If, for example, cows
that have been accustomed to receive their concentrates
before milking, should receive them at times after milk-
ing, a reduction in the yield would be at once noticed.
This is just what might be expected. Withholding the
concentrates occasionally, will make the cows restless and
discontented, which will sufficiently jar their nervous sys-
tem to cause a perceptible drop in the milk flow. Sudden
changes of feeds will act in a similar manner.

Time Between Milkings. The periods between milk-
ings should be as nearly equal as possible. For example,
if cows are being milked at six o’clock in the morning,
they are also preferably milked at six o'clock at night.
The more uniform the periods between milkings, the more
uniform the secretion of milk, and consequently the
greater the production. The time between milkings also
influences the richness of the milk. If the two milking
periods are not equal, it will be found that the milk of the
shorter period will be the richer.

Frequency of Milking. As a rule nothing is gained
by milking a cow three times instead of twice daily. In
the case of exceptionally heavy milkers whose udders
become unduly distended, there is, however, a distinct
advantage in milking three times daily. The fact that
milk from the shorter intervals between milkings has
been found richer than that from the longer interva!s,
has driven some to the practice of milking average pro-
ducers three times a day, with the hope of permanently
increasing the test. While under such circumstances the
test may be raised somewhat, the raise is only a temporary
one.

The Value of a Good Milker. From what has already
been said, it is evident that the milker plays an important

72 DAIRY FARMING

part in the milk and butterfat production of cows. The
following data secured by H. B. Gurler from his own
herd fully illustrate the importance of a good milker. As
a result of two winters’ tests, Mr. Gurler found that
the cows milxed by the poorest milker had fallen off 9.5
pounds per head in three months, while the shrinkage
of the cows milked by the best milker during the same
period was only 1.88 pounds per head, a difference at
the end of three months of 7.62 pounds of milk per cow
daily in favor of the best milker. This fully explains
why some milkers are cheap at $40 per month, while
others are really expensive at less than half this amount.

The Milk Scales and Babcock Tester as a Teacher
of Correct Milking. The strongest searchlight used for
the discovery of leaks in the dairy herd consists of a pair
of scales and a Babcock tester. These will not only tell
which cows are profitable and which are not, but, if
rightly employed, will also tell which milkers are paying
for their salaries and which are not. Miulkers should be
paid according to the quality or their work, and not, as is
commonly the case, according to the number of hours’
service.

Milking Machines. Whether the milking machine
may be considered an unqualified success can not be posi-
tively stated at the present time. More time and tests are
needed to warrant a positive statement. It may be stated,
however, that many of our foremost dairymen have
endorsed the milking machine as a successful milker,
and this, too, after apparently thorough tests extending
over periods of many months. Experiment stations also
report favorable results from machine milking.

Pel eee ee eae eo ey a

at Go Nah Os

CHAPTER XE
HERD MANAGEMENT.

Winter Dairying. Producing the bulk of milk during
the winter has four distinct advantages: (1) prices for
butter and cheese are higher at this time of the year;
(2) cows will milk longer when calving in the fall than
in the spring; (3) labor is more plentiful at this time
of the year; and (4) it is possible to feed cows cheaper
during the winter than summer.

I. Asa rule prices for butter are from 50 to 75 per
cent higher in winter than in summer. Prices for cheese
average about 50 per cent higher in winter. Indeed
prices for milk in general are higher in winter than sum-
mer. It is evident that from the standpoint of higher
prices alone, it is the part of wisdom to produce the
bulk of the milk during the winter.

2. When cows calve in the spring, they usually
have pasturage enough for a good flow of milk until
about August. At this time pastures as a rule get short
and cows rapidly fall off in milk. By the time stable
feeding begins they have dropped off so much that they
can not be brought back-to a fair flow of milk even on
good feed. The result is a reduced yield of milk and an
early “drying up” of the cows.

When cows calve in the fall the expectation is to pro-
duce the main flow of milk during the winter and conse-
- quently the cows are well supplied with feed until they
are turned out on good pasturage in the spring. In this

(x:

74 DAIRY FARMING

way the cows maintain a good flow of milk until the best
period of grazing is over. ‘The inevitable result is an
extension of the period of lactation and a greater total
production of milk. An increased production is also
favored by the fact that cows yield the greater share
of their milk during a time when they are least troubled
with flies and excessive heat.

3. It is an important advantage to be able to do most
of the milking when other farm duties demand least
attention. By having the cows calve in the fall, most of
the milking is done during the winter.

4. An acre of land planted to corn ordinarily yields
as much feed as two or three acres in pasturage. When
the cows calve in the fall there is bound to be more silage
produced than when the cows calve in the spring, and
in So far as this is true, the cost of feed 1s lessemed: em
the case of high priced land, the saving effected by
reducing the acreage one-half or two-thirds by feeding
a great deal of silage in place of pasturage must be evi-
dent.

Feeding the Bull. During the early life of the bull
when he is reasonably tractable, there is no better place
for him than a strongly enclosed pasture. This will sup-
ply him with the right kind of feed, give him plenty of
fresh air and sunshine, and afford him needful exercise.
When siall-fed, he is preferably supplied with nitrogenous
roughage, such as good clean clover hay. When the
roughage consists of corn stover or oat straw, the bull
should be given a fair allowance of wheat bran, oats or
similar concentrates. It is always desirable to supply a
stall-fed bull a moderate amount of succulent roughage,
such as roots and silage.

Management of Bull. A bull should never be allowed

THE DAIRY HERD 75

to run with the herd, but is preferably kept where he is in
sight of the cows. He should have a ring placed in his
nose when ten or twelve months old. As a rule it is
best not to tie him by the ring, but to give him the free-
dom of a box stall. He should be given enough exercise
to keep him tractable and in good breeding condition. By
all means have him dehorned.

Never trifle with a bull. He should be treated gently
yet firmly. He must know he has a ‘master. It is 1m-
portant to teach him early to be led with a staff fastened
to the ring in his nose.

ELEVATED WALA.

Bull Pen
50X50

Breeding Pen

43x16

Raised watk
Hig. 16.—Bull Pens,

16 DAIRY FARMING

It is a great misfortune to have so many valuable —

bulls disposed of at the first signs of unruliness. When:
a bull has proven his value as a breeder by his own
offspring, he should be, and can be, retained even though
his disposition becomes threatening, by quartering him as
shown in Fig. 16.

B represents a pen which the author has successfully
used a number of years. It consists of an enclosure with
stable and breeding pen as shown in the preceding illus-
tration (B). The bull run is fifty feet square, including ~
the stable, and is enclosed by a solid board fence six and
one-half feet high. The cow is bred in this pen by tying
her to the front end and then letting in the bull by open-
ing the stable door. The latter closes the pen when
opened as shown in the cut.

While a bull can be managed in a pen such as is here
described without coming in contact with him, it is best
to lead him out occasionally with a stick snapped into the
ring of his nose.

A represents a yard or pen essentially as recommended
by the Illinois Station. At one end of the yard is located
a box stall in which the bull is fed and sheltered. The
other end is divided into two compartments, one con-
taining a tread power, the other serving as a breeding
pen. The gate H may be turned to the right or fo te
left, closing either of the two compartments as may be
desired.

The tread power furnishes the means of exercising
the bull. When he is wanted on the tread power, a
rope is attached to his ring while he is at the manger and
the attendant, who walks over the elevated narrow walk,
leads him onto the power and shuts the gate be-
hind him. While the bull is taking his exercise the
attendant cleans and prepares his stall. When the buli

agua roe eal he

THE DAIRY HERD Th

is wanted in the breeding pen he is similarly led along
the other side of the yard. Water and feed can be
supplied from the outside.

It is evident that a yard of this kind guarantees abso-
lute safety, provides good exercise for the bull, which
at the same time furnishes the power to pump water,
separate the milk, and do other useful things.

An important matter in the management of a bull
is to prevent excessive service. A bull should be over
one year old before he is allowed to serve and the services
the first season should be limited to 10 or 15, depending
upon the strength and vigor of the bull. he second
season he may serve 25 cows. And while some bulls
have apparently successfully served as many as 40 or
more cows in a season, it will be found good policy,
as a rule, to restrict the number of services as much as
possible, especially if the usefulness of the bull is to be
preserved for a long time.

- Breeding Rack. When heifers or small cows are bred
to heavy bulls, a breeding rack should be used. This
may be constructed as follows: Place two posts in the
ground 334 feet high and about 1% feet apart. In a line
parallel with these posts and 8 or 9 feet away, place two
more posts 1%4 feet high and 20 to 22 inches apart.
Connect the short and long posts with 2x12 inch planks,
leaving a space of 18 inches wide between the planks at
the higher end, and 20 to 22 inches wide at the lower ena,
which serves as the entrance. This space will fit most
cows, but it is desirable to have the planks adjustable so
that the space between may be increased or decreased
according to the size of the cows. The arrangement as
described permits the bull’s front feet to rest on the
planks during service. The planks should be provided

78 DAIRY FARMING

with cleats and must be strongly supported at the middle.
An adjustable stanchion is used to hold the cow in posi-
tion.

Age to Breed Heifers. Heifers should be bred to
drop their calves when about two years old. In cases
where there is a particular lack of development in growth
and general vigor, it would doubtless be a distinct
advantage to have heifers drop their calves at 26, 28 or
even 30 months of age.

Karly breeding has the effect of stunting the growth
of the animal, and thus making maximum development
impossible. ‘The heifer that is bred at one year of age
is obliged to turn a portion of the feed that is naturally
intended for her own development to that of the foetus.
After. the calf is dropped a still larger portion of the feed
intended for her own development is utilized for the
production of milk.

While the stunting effect from early breeding has its
drawback, there is also danger in delaying the breeding
too long. It is doubtless correctly maintained that early
breeding has the advantage of early stimulating the milk
giving function of the animal, and that heifers that drop
their calves at, say three years old, are apt to develop a
beefy tendency at the expense of the dairy tendency.

It is evident that this matter calls for a great deal of
judgment. If a heifer leans toward the beefy tendency,
doubtless it is policy to breed her rather young. If,
on the other hand, there is a complete absence of a beefy
tendency and an indication of a slow development and
delicacy, no one would question the wisdom of breeding
such an animal relatively late.

Record Date of Service and Calving. ‘This is import-
ant for three reasons: (1) it enables one to confine cows

THE DAIRY HERD 79

in box stalls about a week before calving; (2) it enables
one to tell the exact length of time cows have carried
their calves, and therefore makes possible the detection
of premature births and abortions; (3) one knows the
exact length of the lactation period of each cow.

I. Where the date of service is not known, it fre-
quently happens that cows are obliged to calve in their
stalls or stanchions. Such unfortunate occurrences should
be prevented by confining cows in roomy box stalls not
less than a week before they are due to calve.

2. In case the date of service is not known, it is
perfectly possible for cows to drop living abortions which
the owner may mistake for mature calves. Where the
abortion is of a contagious nature the danger of mistakes
of this kind is too evident to need further explanation.

3. Most dairymen appreciate the value of persistent
milkers, yet comparatively few are able to tell, even
approximately, the length of the lactation period of the
different cows in the herd. The only certain way of
knowing how long each cow produces milk after calving
is to record the date of calving.

“Drying Off’ Cows. As a rule it is desirable to
have cows “go dry” at least a month before calving.
This has the effect of increasing the supply of nutrients
for the development of the foetus, as well as enabling
the cow to store up some reserve energy which will put
her in better physical condition for the act of parturition
and the period immediately following.

Where it is desirable to hasten the “drying off,’ the
following method will be of value. Start drying off by
not milking the cow clean. This will quickly reduce
the flow to a point where it is safe to skip every other
milking. After a few days, or perhaps a week, the

80 DAIRY FARMING

milk will be sufficiently reduced to warrant milking only
every other day. A very short time after this, as a
rule, it will be found safe to stop milking entirely.

In case of very persistent milkers, it is better to milk
them close up to, if not up to, calving, rather than
force the “drying off” process too much.

Dehorning. The advantage of dehorning is-now pretty
generally recognized. The absence of horns makes cows
more quiet and docile, and saves them many tortures
that are ordinarily inflicted when the horns are retained.

The horns may be removed either by sawing them
off or by cutting them off with an instrument known as

a clipper. The simplest and most humane method of |

removing horns, however, is the use of caustic potash

soon after the calf is born. "The Author has dehorned -

a great many calves by this method which is briefly
described as follows:

When the calf is 24 to 36 hours old, clip the hair
from the invisible horns or buttons and rub them with a
stick of caustic potash. The potash should be kept in an
air-tight bottle until ready for use. As soon as removed
from the bottle, the upper part of the stick should be
wrapped with a piece of paper to prevent its burning
the hand. - After a few. minutes’ exposure to-thes am
the stick becomes moist. As soon as this becomes notice-
able, rub the exposed end of the stick over each button
for a minute or two, or until the spot begins to look
reddish or sore. If the calf is examined twelve hours
later, a scab will be found where the potash was applied,
showing that the potash has gradually eaten its way
into the button and thus destroyed it. Care should be
exercised not to allow the potash to touch any part but

erre TPs, ——

THE DAIRY HERD 81

the miniature horn, as a drop on the flesh would cause
unnecessary pain.

Cleanliness, Regularity and Kind Treatment. ‘The
subject of cleanliness is fully discussed in the chapter
on Sanitary Milk Production. The importance of regu-
larity and kind -treatment are fully considered in the
chapter on Milking.

Warm Housing. On account of their general spare-
ness of flesh, cows have little protection for their vital
organs and are therefore peculiarly susceptible to cold.
For this reason, warm housing during the winter season
is a matter of the highest importance. It matters little
how good a dairy machine a cow may be or how well
she may be fed, the returns from her will be unsatis-
factory if she is compelled to shiver in her stable the
larger portion of the winter and is possibly even denied
the protection of a stable during the cold drizzling rains
which usually precede and follow the severe cold of the
winter.

Cows in Heat. Cows, while in heat, should be kept
separate from the rest of the herd to avoid the usual
disturbances incident to k2eping them with the herd.

CHAPTER OSL.
REARING THE DAIRY CALF.

Prenatal Development. The making of a strong, vig-
orous, healthy calf begins before it is born. Unless the
pregnant mother is furnished with a sufficient amount
of good, wholesome feed, rich in ash and protein, the
foetus must necessarily suffer retarded development. Not
only should the pregnant cow be supplied with the proper
nutrients for the development of bone and muscle in
the foetus, but the ration should be such as will keep her
in the best physical condition, which requires some suc-
culent roughage and grain rather laxative in character.
(See page 42.) |

Time the Cow Should Suckle the Calf. As a rule
it is best to remove the calf from its mother before it
is three days old. The early removal of the calf has
several important advantages: (1) it prevents to a great
extent the excitement attendant on separating an older
calf from its mother; (2) it renders it easier to teach the
calf to drink from a bucket; (3) it permits regularity
of milking from the start; and (4) it makes possible
at the outset to milk the cow “clean” at each milking.
Calves never feed regularly, nor do they suck heavy
milkers dry at any time. The result is a continual
residue of milk in the udder which acts as ‘a check to
the secretion of this substance and leads to an early
shrinkage in the milk yield.

In cases of caked and inflamed udders it is best, how-
ever, to allow the calf to suckle the cow longer than

THE DAIRY HERD 83

the time stated, since this has a tendency to hasten the
disappearance of such trouble.

Feeding the Young Calf. The first milk drawn after
calving has purging properties which nature has provided
for the purging of the calf. It is important, therefore,
that the calf receive this milk which is known as colos-
trum. ,

As soon as removed from the cow, the calf should be
taught to drink from a clean bucket. It should be aided
in this for a day or two by holding the tip- of a finger
in its mouth. The milk should be fed as near body
temperature as possible. During the first two weeks
the calf should be fed not less than three times a day,
receiving eight to ten pounds of milk daily the first week,
and ten to twelve pounds the second week. After the
second week skim milk may be gradually substituted
for whole milk, bringing the calf to a full skim milk

Fig. 17,—Calf Stanchiouns.

84 DAIRY FARMING

feed at the end of four weeks. Beginning with the
substitution of skim milk, the calf should be fed a hand-
ful of ground oats, corn meal, or linseed meal after each
milk feed. At the age of one month, when feeding
wholly on skim milk, one-half pound of grain may be fed
daily to good advantage, and access should be given to
good clean hay: The feed should be gradually increased
with the growing needs of the animal.

Calf Stanchions. The feeding of milk to calves
becomes a comparatively easy task when the calves are
confined in cheap, rigid stanchions like those shown in
Fig. 17. When so confined one person can feed half a
dozen or more calves at the same time, and can do this
with less labor than is ordinarily required to feed one calf.
It is well, however, not to keep the calves in the stanch-
ions too long at any one time, because of the rigid con-
finement. Calves that have formed the “sucking” habit
may be confined to advantage in these stanchions during
the night, especially when no small separate pens are
available.

Importance of Correct Feeding. A young calf has a
delicate stomach, which is peculiarly liable to be upset by
the injudicious feeding of milk and skim-milk. In this
respect it differs little from the very young child. The
effect that usually follows the injudicious feeding of milk
is a case of scours. This trouble can be obviated in a
large measure by strictly observing the following precau-
tions: First, never feed calves cold milk, but have it as
near blood heat as possible; second, feed milk as fresh as
possible and under no circumstances feed it when sour;
third, feed milk only from vessels that have been thor-
oughly cleaned and scalded; and fourth, carefully avoid
over-feeding. Scours or diarrhea is one of the common-

THE DAIRY HERD 85

est ailments of calves and one that leaves a great stunting
effect upon their development.

While great.importance attaches to the correct feeding
of the calf in its early life, an ample allowance of feed
of the right kind should be supplied at all times. Fatten-
ing feeds should always be avoided.

General Care of the Calf. Calves should be given
all the outdoor exercise, fresh air and sunshine possible.
During cold and rainy weather they should be confined
in clean, dry stables with plenty of bedding. All the
comfort possible should be provided for calves at all
times. It is important also to see that they are not too
much annoyed by flies during the summer. When
changed from dry feed to pasture the change should be
made gradually, or trouble from scouring is likely to be
encountered. Plenty of good, pure water should be pro-
vided.. The skim-milk feeding may be continued with
profit for at least six months. When no pasture is avail-
able, it is desirable to feed a liberal amount of good,
nitrogenous hay and only a small amount of grain. This
will furnish the necessary nutriments for growth, at the
same time the large amount of roughage tends to de-
velop a large paunch in the young animal.

CHAPTER. XIII.

DAIRY BARN.

A Place Where Human Food is Prepared. In build-
ing a dairy barn it should be remembered that one is pro-
viding a place where human food is to be produced. San-
itary features should, therefore, have first consideration.
Among the most important of these are abundance of
light, ample ventilation and general regard to cleanli-
ness.

Contrary to general belief, a sanitary barn is not nec-
essarily an expensive barn. Indeed where everything is
considered, a sanitary barn is certain to prove actually
cheaper in the long run than one in which sanitation is
made an entirely secondary matter.

General Plan of Barn. This is illustrated in Fig. 18.
The plan shows two box stalls at the north end, which
are intended primarily for confining cows that are about
to calve, but may also be used for bulls. The front end
of the barn contains a milk and separator room, and a
feed room. ‘The latter contains stairs leading to the sec-
ond story, which is used as a storage for hay and fodder,
and also contains storage boxes for concentrates, which
communicate with the feed room below by means of
8x8 inch shafts.

The stalls are arranged to have the cows face out,
that is, away from each other. This has several advant-
ages over the common plan of having the feeding alley

THE DAIRY HERD

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in the middle of the barn. In the first place it is more
sanitary. Where the two rows of cows face each other
the foul breath from each must necessarily pass from one
side to the other, thus causing the cows to breathe more
or less impure air. When the cows face out the exhaled
air is more equally distributed through the barn and in
so far reduces the amount of impurities in it immediately
in front of the cows. Another advantage in facing cows _
out is the fact that the head is placed nearest the wall
where the temperature is lowest, leaving the portion of
the animal that must be most protected from the cold in
the warmer part of the stable.

The silo is placed where it is most convenient for feed-
ing. Fresh air inlets are built in the wall of the barn
and two main air outlets are placed in the two box stalls,
with a third at the ceiling in the middle of the barn. The
driveway is such as to permit a-team and wagon to
enter one end of the barn and pass out at the other.

Foundation and Floor. The barn should rest upon a
substantial foundation constructed of stone or concrete.
On the outside of the foundation and a little below it
should be placed tile drains to prevent any water from
working its way under the foundation.

For sanitary reasons, only concrete floors should be
permitted in a dairy barn. While the original cost may
be somewhat high, in the long run they are cheapest.
Aside from being easily cleaned, they also make possible
the saving of all the liquid manure, an important item to
consider in the management of a dairy. To prevent the
dampness commonly associated with a concrete floor it
should be constructed on a cobble stone and cinder foun-
dation underlaid with drain tile. The finish of the floor
should be rather rough to prevent cows slipping on it.

THE DAIRY HERD ga

The feeding alleys, that is, the part of the floor be-
tween the mangers and the walls, should be about three
inches higher than the platforms on which the cows
stand. Moreover they should slope slightly toward the
‘mangers. ‘The platforms and driveway should also slope
very slightly toward the gutters.

Light. Sunlight, because of its disinfectant action, is
of prime importance in making a stable sanitary. There
should be not less than four square feet of window space
per cow.

Walls. Cheap and reasonably air-tight walls are se-
cured by nailing matched lumber over good building
paper on both the inside and outside of the studding,
except the lower inside six feet. From the floor to a
height of six feet, nail cheap one-inch lumber over build-
ing paper and put lath and concrete on this as a finish.
This makes the lower portion of the wall readily clean-
able as it should be. The portion of the wall above the
concrete, as well as the entire ceiling, should be fre-
quently whitewashed. The air space in the wall should
be filled with some good non-conducting material. Dry
straw answers this purpose very satisfactorily.

Ceiling. This should be boarded on the inside with
matched lumber. The outside, or hay floor above, may
be built of common, cheap lumber. When, however, no
hay is stored above, the ceiling should have a dead air
space, which is secured by using matched lumber and
paper, both inside and outside, and filling the space be-
tween with dry straw.

Stalis and Ties. These should be arranged ana con-
structed with the following points in view: (1) keep-
ing the cows clean; (2) giving them as much comfort
as possible; (3) preventing cows from stepping on each

90 _ DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 19.—Iron Stall.

other’s teats; (4) giving the milker comfort during milk-
ing; (5) having a minimum amount of surface for lodg-
ment of dust; and (6) saving of time in tying.

Fig. 20.—Iron Stall.

LHR ODAIRY- HERD 93

The rope or chain is so fastened as to prevent forward
or backward movements by the cows but permits free
movement up and down.

Fig. 23.—Movable Halter Tie.

Stalls like those shown in Figs. 19 and 20 have the
advantage of being adjustable. The stanchion is movable,
thus permitting the stall to be shortened or lengthened,
according to the size of the cow. Furthermore, the swing
stanchions, in dispensing with the front end, reduce the
amount of stall surface, which is particularly noticeable
in the stalls shown in Figs. 19, 20 and 22.

In a cold climate, it is desirable to cover the concrete
floor on which the cows stand with a movable wood plat-
form. This may be the means of preventing udder

94 DAIRY FARMING

troubles and is certain to increase the comfort of cows
during the cold season.

Size of Stalls. An average-sized cow requires a stall
3% feet wide and 4% feet long. In nearly all herds,
however, there are some cows larger and some smaller
than the average. It is important, therefore, that one
row of stalls be made to taper somewhat from one end
to the other. For example, the stalls at one end may
have dimensions 3/x3'10”, which would nicely :accommo-
date two-year-old Jersey heifers. From this end the
dimensions may be gradually increased until they reach —
4’x4/10” at the opposite end. ‘The latter dimensions
would accommodate large Holstein-Friesian cows.

Mangers. ‘These should be constructed with four
points in view: (1) they should be easily cleanable;
(2) they should be provided with movable partitions so
as to prevent cows from stealing feed from each other ;
(3) they should be large enough to prevent cows from
scattering their feed over the barn floor; and (4) the top
should be below the cows’ noses so as not to interfere
too much with the circulation of the air in front of the
COWS.

All of the above features are embodied in the manger
illustrated in Fig. 22. This manger the Author has had
placed in the college dairy barn and has found it highly
satisfactory in all respects. The aim was to secure a
thoroughly efficient manger with as small an outlay of
capital as possible. Its construction is as follows: The
lower three inches are built into the concrete floor. The
superstructure, which is 20 inches high, 18 inches wide
at the floor and 36 inches wide at the top, is built of
34-inch matched lumber, except the partitions which are
built of 12-inch lumber. Both sides of the lumber are

THE DAIRY BERD 95

planed. The partitions fit snugly into the 3-inch con-
crete depression, and the entire manger is built in mova-
ble sections, each 21 feet long. The sections are held in
place by means of a small hook at each end, which is
fastened to the stanchion supports.

COW STABLE.

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CROSS-SECTION OF BU/LDING CROSS-SECTION OF BUILDING

SHOWING VENT/LATOR (INLET) SHOWING VENTILATOR (OV7TLET)
Fig. 24. Tig. 25.

The three-inch concrete depression makes it possible
to water the cows in their stalls. When it is desired to
clean the manger, the hooks are unfastened and the sec-
tions turned over, thus leaving the entire manger clear
for cleaning.

Gutters. These should be about 15 inches wide and
four inches deep. A greater depth is liable to injure the
cows when they happen to slip into the gutter. More-
Over any extra depth means just so much more lifting

96 DAIRY FARMING

in removing the manure. Gutters should be perfectly
tight to prevent loss of liquid manure.

Ventilation. The best method of stable ventilation
is that devised by F. H. King. The essential features
of this method are the admission of the fresh air near
the ceiling, and the withdrawal of the impure air from
near the: floor, as illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25. ~The
object of admitting the cold, fresh air near the ceiling
is to warm it before reaching the cows, by contact with
the warm air at the ceiling. By. having the main air
exits near the floor, less heat will be lost than would be
the case if the exits were placed at the ceiling; besides
it is argued that a considerable amount of the impurities
of the air are found at the floor to which the cows’ breath
is constantly directed. Recent experiments seem to in-
dicate, however, that at least so far as carbonic acid gas
is concerned, most of this gas is found at the ceiling.

Whether most of the impurities are found at the ceil-
ing or at the floor, it seems advisable to reinforce the
exits at the floor, by placing a ventilator opening pro-
vided with a register at the middle of the ceiling so
that some air may be withdrawn from this point. Dur-
ing very cold weather it may be desirable to reduce this
exit to a minimum by closing the register, but during
warm weather, or when it is desired to lower the barn
temperature, it should be opened entirely. By having
one large opening at the middle of the ceiling, there is
less likelihood of removing any fresh, incoming air than
would be the case if numerous smaller exits were placed
near the wall and opening into the same shaft that takes
up the floor air, an arrangement not infrequently recom-
mended and used.

The number and location of inlets and outlets (except

THE DAIRY=HERD 97

the outlet at the ceiling) are shown in Fig. 18. Numer-
ous small inlets have the advantage of causing a better
distribution of the cold, incoming air than could be se-
cured by fewer, but larger openings.

On the other hand, the outlets should be few and com-
paratively large, which will aid in creating draft.

The fresh air intakes consist of air-tight shafts with
cross-sectional areas of about 50 square inches. The
shafts are built right in the wall, and open near the
floor on the outside and near the ceiling on the inside.
It is absolutely necessary to have the outside openings
at least several feet below the inside openings, otherwise
the warm inside air would rush out instead of the cold,
outside air going in.

The main air outlets may be placed where they are
least troublesome. In the barn plans herewith presented,
they are placed in the box stalls and communicate with
the main barn floor by means of registers in the wall.

The size of these registers is that of the cross-sectional
area of the shafts.

To secure effective work with the King system of
ventilation three things are essential: (1) to have the
ventilating shafts air-tight; (2) to have the outlet shafts
extend to the highest point of the barn; and (3) to have
the barn as nearly air-tight as possible.

Hay Loft. With a perfectly tight ceiling and with
the hay chute in the feed room, there is no objection
whatever to having a loft above the stable for the stor-
age of roughage. Indeed such a loft has two distinct
advantages: it helps to keep the stable warm and re-
duces the labor in feeding.

Doors. Two doors should be provided at either end
of the barn, as shown in Fig. 18. The outside doors

98 DAIRY FARMING

may be of the roller type, but on the inside it is desir-
able to have swing doors. The latter fit tighter and thus
aid in making the barn warmer during the winter.

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Combination Barn. (From Hoard’s Dairyman.)

A “Switch” Board. This is an invention of Math.
Michels on whose farm it has proven an absolute protec-
tion to the milker against the cow’s switch (tail) during
fly season. It consists of an inch board, 8 inches wide
and 4 feet long suspended from a wire. The latter runs
close behind the cows and is fastened about 6% feet
above the floor. The board slides on the wire and is
pushed right opposite the milker.

Any farmer can fix up a board of this kind at a trifling
expense and positively protect himself from any annoy-
ance from the cow’s switch during milking.

A Cheap Home Made Stall. Stanchion supports are
made by running two 2x6-inch planks along both the bot-
tom and top of the stanchion and supporting the whole
structure by placing 2x6-inch planks upright, in front of
each partition. The lower end of these upright planks is

THE DAIRY HERD 99

embedded in the concrete floor while the upper end is
fastened to the ceiling.

Fig, 26.—A Cheap Home-made Stall.

Partitions are made of 1!4-inch gas pipes cut into
proper lengths and then bent. One end of the pipe is
double threaded and fastened to the upright planks by
means of locknuts. The other end is embedded in the
concrete floor. See Fig. 26.

100 DAIRY FARMING

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CHAPTER XIV.
HANDLING FARM MANURE.

Value of Manure Per Cow. The value of the
manure from a cow depends primarily upon the char-
acter of the feed supplied her. Feeds rich in fertilizing
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich
in them. On an average 75% of the fertilizing con-
stituents in feeds are recovered in the manure. The
Cornell station finds that the value of the manure from
cows averaging 1000 pounds live weight, is $29.27 per
cow per year. This may be regarded as a very fair
average.

Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure. ‘he
urine, as a rule, is much richer in fertilizing constituents
than the dung. It contains more than half the nitrogen
and nearly all of the potash voided by the animal. Prac-
tically all of the phosphoric acid, however, is found in
the solid excreta. The fact that the larger portion of
the fertilizing constituents is found in the urine, empha-
sizes the importance of carefully saving all this portion
of the voidings.

How to Save the Urine. To save all of the liquid
manure, it is necessary, in the first place, to have water-
tight gutters and floors. Nothing is better in this respect
than concrete.

The next requirement is a sufficient amount of clean,
porous bedding to absorb all of the liquid. Straw,
especially if cut up somewhat, makes excellent bedding

101

102 DAIRY FARMING

material. It is clean and holds a great deal of moisture.
Planer shavings also answer the purpose satisfactorily.

In addition to this it is desirable to use some powdered
absorbents like ground phosphate rock and gypsum.
These materials not only absorb moisture but also absorb
ammonia as it 1s liberated from the manure, thus saving
valuable volatile manurial constituents and at the same
time purifying the air of the barn.

Sources of Loss of Manurial Constituents. Losses
of manurial constituents may be considered under two
heads: (1) those occasioned by leaching, and (2) those
caused by bacterial action or fermentation processes.
Where no precaution against leaching and fermentation
are taken, more than half the value of the manure is
easily lost.

Loss Through Leaching. Experiments have shown
that manure as ordinarily placed in a pile will lose about
50% of its value when left exposed to the weather for a
period of six months. Every rain washes a certain per-
centage of the soluble manurial constituents away from
the pile. That heavy losses occur in this way is evident
from the dark liquor which runs away from a manure
heap that has been exposed to the rain. Frequently for
convenience of handling, the manure is piled close to the
barn and directly under the eaves, where the amount
of water that pours over it becomes very considerable

Losses from leaching can be entirely avoided by placing
the manure in a shallow concrete pit provided with a roof.
Even the concrete floor may be done away with if the
eround is clayey, closely packed and so sloped that no
water from without can drain into the pit. No farmer
can afford to be without a covered storage for manure.

EHR “DAIRY HERD 103

Losses Through Fermentation. Manure is a medium
exceedingly rich in bacterial* life. Many species of bac-
teria are at work decomposing the organic matter, break-
ing up higher compounds into lower compounds and
accomplishing what is ordinarily designated the rotting
of the manure. In the fermentation or rotting process
the nitrogen compounds are broken up into ammonia,
which readily escapes from the manure pile. Evidence
of such escape is found in the ammoniacal odors that
emanate from loosely packed manure, such, for example,
as that procured from horses.

This ammoniacal fermentation can be largely reduced
by packing the manure tight so as to exclude the air
as much as possible. Most of the bacteria concerned in
the liberation of ammonia must have air for their devel-
opment, and hence their action is reduced in proportion
as the air is excluded from the manure heap.

On the other hand, some species of bacteria con-
cerned in the liberation of nitrogen, namely, the denit-
rifying bacteria, require no air for their growth and
development. Yet the loss from this class of bacteria
is relatively so small that, while the exclusion of air
favors their development, every effort should be made to
keep the manure heap as air-tight as possible, so as to
minimize the loss from the air-loving bacteria.

Ammonia or Nitrogen “Fixers.” While the loss of
ammonia from the manure heap can be materially reduced
by tight packing, more or less of it is bound to be formed
under the best packing possible. To prevent the escape
of this ammonia it is necessary to add to the manure
something which will “fix” or hold the ammonia. Mate-
rials used for this purpose are known as nitrogen or am-

* For definition of bacteria, see page 146.

104 DAIRY FARMING

monia fixers. Ground phosphate rock and gypsum are
excellent materials to use for this purpose. These ma-
terials should be added to the gutter in the barn, since
they not only act as ammonia fixers, but are also excellent
absorbents. On the whole the ground phosphate rock
is preferable to the gypsum. ‘The latter is sulphate of
lime, and is commonly known as land plaster. Dry earth
containing a great deal of humus is also valuable as
an absorbent and ammonia fixer.

Hauling Manure Directly Upon the Land. If the
manure can be hauled upon ground where there is no
danger of its being washed away, the most economical
plan is to spread it upon the land as quickly as it is
formed. Under such conditions there will be practically
no loss from leaching and fermentation, and, moreover,
what is of no little importance, the manure is handled
with the least amount of labor. As a rule it is safest
to spread the manure upon some growing crop.

Manure Carriers. A convenient and _ labor-saving
piece of apparatus upon a dairy farm is an elevated
manure carrier like that shown in Fig. 27. This carrier

VE.

Fig. 27.—Liuer Carrier.

THE DAIRY. HERD 105

is suspended from a steel rope, and by a push of the
hand it can be sent a distance of several hundred feet
to unload itself and to return unaided to the barn. The
unaided return is made possible by slanting the rope
somewhat toward the barn. It dumps itself by means
of an automatic attachment placed at the point where it is
expected to unload. The convenience afforded by such
a carrier is especially great during the winter, when the
stable may be cleaned without leaving the barn. The
carrier cable should be placed between the two rows
of cows extending the full length of the stable.

Manure Spreaders. No dairy farmer can afford to
be without a manure spreader. It quickly pays for itself
in the saving of labor and has the additional advantage of
insuring an even distribution of manure on the field.

CHARTER ye
POWER ON THE FARM.

The use of some form of power upon farms has fre-
quently been recommended in the past, but never before
has its use been more urgent than at the present time.
The increasing scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of
hand separators and silos, and the general convenience
it affords, have made power an actual necessity upon
progressive-dairy farms.

The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends
upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for
exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for sep-
arating milk, pumping water, and doing other light work.
Where a milk house is used and butter is made upon the
farm a small steam engine may be made to do any light
work economically. But the use of either the tread power
or the small steam engine fails to provide the necessary
power for cutting corn for the silo, sawing wood, grind-
ing feed, or doing other heavy work.

Every modern dairy farm must have a silo, and it is
at silo filling time that we usually experience the great-
est need for some form of power. With none of our own
we are obliged to hire or borrow, a practice which often
compels us to wait till the corn is past its prime. More-
over it is frequently impossible to hire power, no matter
how much we may wish to do so. Where good silage is
desired it should be made at the proper time, and this
can be done with certainty only when we own the power.

Where power for the heavier work can not be con-

106

THE DAIRY HERD 107

veniently hired or borrowed, it is believed that the best
solution for the farm power problem is the gasoline en-
gine. Such an engine can be used for a great variety of
purposes and practically every day of the year.

Besides running the ensilage cutter, cream separator
and possibly a milking machine, the engine may be used
to pump water, to run the washing machine, corn sheller,
grindstone, saw, churn and grist mill. When placed as:

GR/INO . CORN
STONE SHELLER

Fig. 28.—Possible Uses of Gasoline Engine.

shown in Fig. 28 several of these machines may be run
at the same time.

Many dairy farmers have felt justified in going to the
expense of purchasing gasoline power solely for running
the cream separator. For this purpose a two-horse power
engine suffices; but it would be greater economy to in-
crease the original outlay somewhat and secure an eight-
horse power engine, one that could be used for the heavier

108 DAIRY FARMING

work of cutting ensilage and corn stover, as well as run-
ning a saw and grist mill.

This is an age of machinery, and we believe the time
is not far distant when the farmer will make use of
power whenever this can be made to take the place of
hired labor. Power will not only afford greater con-
venience but will curtail the running expenses of the
farm. |

If, for example, we assume that one hour is required
daily in running the separator, and another in pump-
ing water for stock, the total time consumed = am
this work in one year would be 730 hours, or 73 days of
to hours each. At $1 a day, the cost of separating and
pumping would amount to $73 a year. With a gasoline
engine running the pump and separator at the same
time, this work could be done in 365 hours. Allowing
6c per hour for gasoline and oil, which is a high esti-
mate, the cost of doing the above work with an engine
would be $21.90, or less than one-third of what it can
be done for with hired labor. This saving is equivalent
to about 25 per cent on the investment of the engine, if
used for no other purpose than separating milk and
pumping water.

At silo filling time the engine should be mounted on
a suitable base near the silo, where it is expected to re-
main only during the filling of the silo. The remainder
of the year it may be placed as indicated in the above.
illustration.

There are plenty of simple and smooth-running gaso-
line engines upon the market, and in purchasing care
should be taken to get one in which these two qualities
-are most conspicuous.

A possible objection to the use of gasoline engines for

PHE DAIRY. HERD ee OS

dairy purposes is the trouble from gas odor where there
is any tendency to laxness in the care of machinery.
Where precautions are taken against leakage of gas or

~ gasoline, and where the exhaust is properly conducted
away, there should be no trouble from gas odors.

The fuel cost of running a gasoline engine may be
stated as follows: When gasoline is worth Ioc per
gallon, gasoline power will cost Ic per brake horse
power per hour.

CHAPTER XVI.
DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF DAIRY CATTLE.

Prevention. The old adage, “An ounce of preven-
tion is worth a pound of cure,” is as true to-day as
ever. The common ailments with which cattle are
afflicted can be largely prevented by correct feeding,
comfortable and sanitary housing, gentle treatment, and
by using every precaution possible against infection from
contagious diseases.

Digestive disorders are the result of injudicious feed-
ing, and these may be the forerunner of a retinue of
various other disorders. Exposure to severe cold and
cold rains, and confinement in foul and unventilated
stables are predisposing causes to various diseases. Many
ailments are caused, either directly or indirectly, by al-
lowing cows to lie on cold concrete floors, by chasing
with dogs and by compelling them to walk and stand on
slippery, highly inclined floors.

Great aid has been rendered in the prevention of dis-
eases through the rapid development of medical science
in pointing out the nature and causes of the various dis-
eases with which cattle are afflicted. Every dairyman
should have an intelligent understanding of the role
which bacteria (for definition of bacteria see p. 146)
play in the dissemination of diseases which could be
largely avoided by proper quarantine and methods of-
disinfection.

Quarantine and Disinfection. By quarantining is
meant the separation of the diseased from the undiseased

116

THE DAIRY HERD rit

animals. If an animal is known to be affected with some
transmissible disease, its prompt removal will usually
spare the rest of the animals in the herd from the dis-
ease, especially if such removal is accompanied by proper
methods of disinfection. The latter refers to the destruc-
tion of the causal agents of the disease by the use of
germicides or disinfectants, substances which have the
power of killing bacteria and allied organisms.

Disinfectants. The following is a list of well-known
disinfectants :

Boiling water applied for 20 minutes.

A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid.

A 2 per cent solution of zenolium.

A 2 per cent solution of chloro-naptholeum.
A 5 per cent solution of copper sulfate.

A solution of 1-2000 of mercuric chloride.

A 2 per cent solution of creolin.

A 1-1000 solution of chlorid of zinc

So aL geen ee ee a

Purgatives. A purgative is a substance used to in-
duce action of the bowels. Among the common purga-
tives the following may be mentioned: 1 to 2 pints of
raw linseed oil; a mixture of I pound of Epsom salts
and 1 to 2 ounces of ginger dissolved in 2 pints of warm
water; I pound of Glauber salts dissolved in water; or
I pint of castor oil.

As a rule the best thing to do at the first signs of ill-
ness, such as loss of appetite, failure to chew the cud,
dull eyes, dry muzzle, parched skin, rough coat, etc.,
is to administer a good purgative. This alone is fre-
quently sufficient to relieve the trouble.

112 DAIRY FARMING

MILK FEVER.

Causes. Overfeeding, lack of exercise, impure air,
constipation, and drinking cold water are common causes
of milk fever. Withdrawing all the milk from the udder
during the first 24 hours after calving is claimed to be
conducive to the disease. Furthermore, heavy milkers
are far more subject to the .disease than medium or small
milkers.

Symptoms. Restlessness followed by a weakening of
the muscles, causing the animal finally to stagger and
fall. The cow usually lies on her breast bone with her
head completely drawn around to one side. The udder
becomes soft and empty, pulse weak and rapid, the tem-
perature falls below normal, and the animal may become
completely unconscious.

Treatment. Fortunately there is available now a very
simple, sure, and inexpensive treatment for milk fever.
The treatment consists in filling the udder with sterile
air by means of a syringe which draws the air through
a tube containing absorbent cotton. Such a syringe can
be obtained at very small cost from the manufacturers
who advertise extensively through the dairy press, and
every dairyman should possess one so as to be prepared
to meet emergencies promptly.

Before injecting the air, the hands, teats, udder, and
the tube that is to be inserted into the teats, should be
carefully disinfected. This done, each quarter of the
udder is thoroughly inflated with air, kneading and rub-
bing the udder as much as possible during the process
to secure a thorough and rapid diffusion of the air. As
soon as each quarter is filled, a wide band is tied around
the top of the teat to prevent leakage of air. These

LHES DAIRY BIRD Eis

bands should not be drawn any tighter than necessary
and may be removed soon after the cow gets on her feet.
Repeat the treatment if necessary.

The treatment above described usually brings relief
within a few hours. In a number of emergencies cows
have been successfully treated by pumping unfiltered air
into the udder with a bicycle pump; but this is liable to
result in serious infection of the udder and should be
practiced only in an emergency.

The injection of a gallon of warm, soapy water into
the rectum is also desirable. Never administer drenches
when the animal is: partially unconscious.

ABORTION.

By abortion is meant the premature birth of the calf.
Two forms of this ailment are common: (1) con-
tagious abortion caused by bacteria; and (2) accidental
abortion caused by a serious nervous shock. The latter
may result from external or internal injuries, drinking
cold or stagnant water, bad nutrition, exposure to in-
clement weather, impure atmosphere, and various con-
stitutional diseases. Whenever abortions occur appar-
ently without cause, they should be treated as contagious.

Contagious Abortion. This is a very menacing dis-
ease among dairy cattle. It is caused by bacteria which
find their way into the reproductive organs. The disease
can be successfully combatted only by rigid methods of
disinfection and prompt quarantining of the aborting
animals. ‘The dead offspring, afterbirth, and stable litter
should at once be burned, or buried and covered with
quick lime. The stalls and walls should be washed with
a 11-1000 solution of corrosive sublimate, while the floor
may be disinfected with a liberal amount of quick lime.

114 DAIRY FARMING

The vagina and uterus should be thoroughly disinfected
daily with chlorid of zinc, creolin, or corrosive sublimate
solution of proper strength until the cow ceases discharg-
ing. The same antiseptic treatment should be applied
frequently to the external genitals and adjacent region
of uninfected cows. If the afterbirth is retained longer
than 24 hours it should be removed by hand.

Cows that have aborted should not be bred until they
have ceased discharging, and it is important to keep them
from the rest of the herd until they have dropped a full-
grown calf.

A prolific means of spreading the infection of this dis-
ease is the bull. A bull that has served infected cows
will infect other cows he serves unless his penis and
sheath have been thoroughly disinfected. One to two
quarts of 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant worked up into
the sheath will answer the purpose satisfactorily.

GARGET.

Causes. Injuries of the udder, overfeeding, exposure
to severe cold, overcrowding of the udder by skipping a
milking, and germ infection.

Symptoms. Watery, stringy milk, frequently contain-
ing blood; swelling and hardening of one, two, or all
quarters of the udder, which has a more or less reddish,
inflamed appearance; and the formation of pus in the
more advanced stages.

Treatment. Give 11% pounds of Epsom salts and I
ounce of ginger, dissolved in a quart of tepid water. Sup-
port the udder by means of a wide bandage tied at the
top line of the animal, and pack a layer of bran between
the bandage and the diseased portion of the udder. Heat
the bran by pouring hot water over it. The hot water

THE DAIRY HERD 115

treatment should be repeated at short intervals and should
be followed by thorough rubbing of the udder with lard
or raw linseed oil, a treatment which may be continued
to advantage for 20 minutes. The rubbing -materially
relieves the swelling and stimulates the secretion of milk.
It is important also to milk the diseased quarter or quar-
ters clean at short intervals. The air treatment for milk
fever has also been recommended for garget.

NON-INFECTIOUS ‘‘CALF SCOURS.”

Causes. Feeding cold, dirty, old, or too much, milk;
drinking cold or impure water; irregularities in feeding ;
feeding from unscalded buckets ; and confinement in dark,
cold, or filthy stalls.

Treatment. Reduce the amount of milk; feed the
milk fresh and at body temperature; feed not less than
three times a day, and use only clean, sterilized milk
buckets. Give only pure water at body temperature, and
add formalin to the milk in the proportion of one part
formalin to 4,000 parts of milk until the diarrhea or
“scours” is checked. The scouring is usually due to the
action of fermentative or putrefactive bacteria which are
killed or checked by the action of the formalin.

INFECTIOUS “CALF SCOURS.”

This disease is commonly known as white scours and
is caused by bacteria. It affects calves usually from a
few hours to a few days old, and is very fatal. The dis-
charges are usually of a rather light color and have an
offensive odor. Medicine is of little avail. The disease
must therefore be combatted by methods of prevention.
Washing the vagina of the cow with disinfectant solu-
tion shortly before calving, disinfecting the navel of the

116 DAIRY FARMING

new-born calf at short intervals for a few days, and plac-
ing the calf in a disinfected stall, are good measures of
prevention.

INDIGESTION.

Causes. Overfeeding; feeding too much coarse, indi-
gestible feed ; sudden changes of feed; stale, moldy, frosted
or decomposing feeds; irregularities of feeding; and lack
of exercise. 3

Symptoms. Loss of appetite, suspended rumination,
dull, sickly appearance, and usually constipation.

Treatment. Feed light ration containing laxative and
green feeds, such as linseed meal, pasture, roots, silage,
etc. Supply plenty of water and give I to 1% pounds
of Epsom salts and I ounce ginger, or I to 2 pints of
raw linseed oil, according to the degree of constipation.

RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH.

If the afterbirth does not come away within 48 hours
it should be removed by hand. Carefully disinfect the
hand and arm, grease the same and insert into the womb,
where the afterbirth must be carefully loosened from the
button-like projections to which it is attached. As soon
as removed, flush out the vagina and womb with warm
disinfectant solution.

When cows are provided with laxative feed and warm
water shortly before and after calving, the afterbirth will
almost always drop away in due time. If the bowels are
not perfectly loose at calving time, administer a purga-
eiVien:

The retention of the afterbirth for a longer period than
48 hours -vill cause it gradually to decompose and slough
off, causing a foul discharge from the vagina and seri-

THE DAIRY HERD 117

ously impairing the health of the animal. Blood poison-
ing may also result from the prolonged retention of the
afterbirth.

INVERSION OF THE WOMB.

Severe straining after calving may cause the further
portion of the womb to protrude through the opening
leading into it, thus causing an inversion of the organ.
In this inverted condition a portion or all of it may pass
out of the vagina. As soon as this is noticed, wash and
disinfect the protruded portion and push it back into its
normal position. This done, apply a truss or pessary to
hold the womb in position until the straining or expul-
sive movements cease.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Cause. This disease is caused by a specific organism
known as the tubercle bacillus. The germs are commonly
inhaled, though they may also be taken into the body
through the food. Unsanitary stabling, lack of nourish-
ment, and inherent constitutional weakness, are greatly
responsible for the prevalence of this disease.

Symptoms. A short cough, enlargement of the lymph
glands at the throat, emaciation, and a general unthrifty
appearance. In its early stages it is difficult, however, to
detect the disease except by the tuberculin test.

The Tuberculin Test. The usefulness of this test as
a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact that when a sub-
stance called “tuberculin” is injected under the skin of
an animal, the injection is followed by a rise of tempera-
ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the
temperature remains the same. It must be added, how-
ever, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails

118 DAIRY FARMING

as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence
since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by
a physical examination.

Method of Making the Tuberculin Test. [In making
this test the following particulars must be observed:

I. Secure the necessary tuberculin from the govern-
ment.

2. secure a clinical thermometer, a sharp, hollow
needle, and a graduated, hypodermic syringe from deal-
ers in veterinary instruments.

3. Make the test during the cooler season of the year.

4. Do not test cows shortly before or after calving.

5. Do not test cows that are in heat, or suffering from
garget or other diseases.

6. Do not allow cows to drink very cold water.

7. keep the animals in a normal condition as to feed,
confinement, etce., during the test.

8. Do not test animals which show a temperature as
high jas 103° 3K.

Proceed with the test as follows: First ascertain the
normal temperature of the cows by holding a clinical
thermometer in the rectum for about five minutes. Three
observations are necessary: One at 6 a. m., another at
noon, and the last at 6 p.m. At 10 p. m., the same day,
inject under the skin at the neck or shoulder, 2 cubic
centimeters of tuberculin for animals of about 1,000
pounds live weight and proportionally more for heavier
cows. At 6 o’clock the next morning take the tempera-
ture again as before, but at intervals of two hours until
five or six readings have been taken. If the maximum
temperature after the injection is two or more degrees
higher than it was before the injection of the tuberculin,
the animal is considered tuberculous. If the rise of tem-

THE: DAIRY HERD 119

perature is one and a half degrees, the case may be con-
sidered suspicious.

The needle and place of injection should be disinfected,
and care should be exercised not to excite the cows dur-
ing any period of the test. Do not retest for tuberculosis
within 60 days. As a rule every cow in the herd should
be tested once a year for tuberculosis.

BARREN NESS.

Causes. Lack of exercise, improper feeding, in-and-
in breeding, closing of the mouth of the womb, and an
acid condition of the vagina.

Treatment. If overfat reduce the amount of feed and
give plenty of exercise. If the mouth of the womb is
closed, open by inserting the forefinger or by applying
solid extract of Belladonna to the part. An acid con-
dition of the vagina may be overcome by thorough syring-
ing with 2 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda a
few hours previous to service. A treatment much recom-
mended lately is known as the yeast treatment and is
used as follows : Dissolve an ordinary compressed yeast
cake in a cup of warm water and allow to ferment. Add
this to a quart of warm water and use to wash out the
vagina some hours before service. The vagina should
be washed out with soapy water just previous to the
injection of the yeast solution.

BLOAT OR HOVEN.

Causes. Overeating, suddenly turning cows on rich,
green feed, like clover pasture, and fermentation of the
feed. There is as a rule a great deal of gas produced,
causing a great distention of the left side.

Treatment. Immediately place a gag in the mouth,

120 DAIRY FARMING

and in mild cases, give an ounce of spirits of turpentine
and one-half pint of raw linseed oil. Keep the animal
moving and pour cold water on the loins. When relief
comes, administer a purgative.

In severe cases tap the left side (paunch) with a
slender knife or a trocar. Tap at a point equidistant
from the point of the hip, the last rib, and the spinal
column.

TEAT TROUBLES.

Hard Milkers. Hard milking is caused by too small
an opening in the teat. Enlarge the opening by using a
teat bistoury when the cow is in full flow of milk.

Sore or Chapped Teats. Due to exposure to cold,
wet weather and rough handling. Treat with lard or
vaseline.

Warts. May be removed by applying lunar caustic.

Closed or Obstructed Teats. Caused by injury or
clotted milk. Keep open by inserting a milk tube.

Leaky Teats. Prevent unusual distention by milking
three or four times daily. If this is not sufficient, a fairly
tight fitting bandage, like the finger of a glove, may be
placed around the teat. |

STRINGY OR ROPEY MILK.

This is due to certain species of bacteria which find
their way into the udder through the teats. These bac-
teria are associated with filth and the trouble must be
overcome by keeping cows away from filthy places.
This trouble should not be confused with garget.

BLOODY MILK.
This is usually due to an injury to the udder. Bathe
the udder with hot water and apply lard.

THE DAIRY HERD 121

SELF-SUCKING COWS.
Prevent by putting a halter on the cow with a strong,
stiff piece of leather running over the nose. Fill this
strip of leather with sharp nails.

LICE.

Two per cent coal tar disinfectants are usually used
for killing lice. The Oklahoma station recommends a
“kerosene emulsion,” which is made by using %4 pound
hard soap, 2 gallons of a cheap grade of kerosene and
I gallon of water. Cut up the soap and dissolve in hot
water ; then add the kerosene and thoroughly mix. Be-
fore applying to the animals dilute this mixture with
7 gallons of water. Apply by means of a sponge, brush,
or spray pump.

WARBLES OR GRUBS.

These are found just below the skin in the backs of
cattle and constitute the larval form of the ox bot-fly
or heel-fly. As they develop they cause swellings in
the back and are thus easily recognized. Wherever there
is a swelling there is also an opening in the skin through
which the grubs may be easily squeezed and killed. They
may also be destroyed by the application of kerosene.

PA eel:
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.

CEA Palins XV. LT
MILK.

Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle
their young. It is the only food found in Nature con-
taining all the elements necessary to sustain life. More-
over it contains these elements in the proper propor-
tions and in easily digestible and assimilable form.

Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and
bacteria.—Russell’s Dairy Bacteriology.

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive
of cows’ breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is,

123

124 DAIRY FARMING

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small
quantities of organic acids.

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032,
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 and 1.033. After
standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character.
Evidence of this we have in the “rising of the cream.”
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension.

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water,
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature.
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great
absorption properties. ‘This teaches the necessity of plac-
ing milk in clean pure surroundings.

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol-
lowing figures:

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com-
pilation of figures from various American Ex-
periment Stations.

Ua Brel yhelF teaaatea 578 4.2) eareceece ae aaa nernl at ae ee 87.1%
PSUGLCT: RAE So hitie oc eek eat hes melee ae eee 3.9%
@aiseitn eh tas isi oe ete ee ee teen a ae 2.9%
Aub wien? asic Gee A oaths ae Gh a ltteer cee 5%
SOC) ak SRN gt eR OR RN 9 i rai el? 4.9%
SERS ince aires oh hte eas ie ek ater ae ere 7%
BB ibrity neler has een hm os ee te A eee Trace.
Galactase4s jcisieeek face re ee eens aerate Trace.

100.0%

The great variations in the composition of milk are
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below:

MILK AND TES PRODUCTS 12

Maximum. Minimum.

oll Rta ah ae ey ae, smear eal th 90.69 80.32
Et | AO eR ks Retnegeaheg sane 6.47 1.67
Ba Se1 VTL at «site ae 4.23 L.70
PMUNEIIENN cat and Aregh a iagae 2 1.44 .25
eat e. hor ths Oona hes 6.03 Pe
Pata tet peas tidla win Oh é at ae 1.2% 35

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi-
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests
even higher than this.

BUTTER FAT.

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and
cheese production. ;

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con-
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five
times as large as others. The size of the globules is
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the
size decreases and the number increases with the advance
of the period. In strippers’ milk the globules are some-
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the
cream and the churning of same impossible.

The size of the fat globules also varies with different
breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule

126 DAIRY FARMING

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is
about one ten-thousandth.

Night’s milk usually has smaller globules than morn-
ing’s. The size of the globules also decreases with the
age of the cow. |

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at 100° F.
is .9I and is quite constant. Its melting point varies
between wide limits, the average being 92° F.

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond,
butter fat has the following composition :

BUty Chis aie eco on Sere en 3.85 :
Caproin oa. aetmen ce ea: 3.60 ' Soluble or volatile.
Gapeviitt. Ne tauenes sos hues 55

Capita aoe session oes oe 1.90
Wauiriitejnsnctes sy ae a 7.40

My SISEia ae cnth. sere so 20.20 Insoluble or
Palliairtii gates ic cae 25.70 non-volatile.
DECAE Ihe Serer ce re ae 1.80

Oleinvvetes fe ke de ee 35.00 |

This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty-
rin 1s a compound of glycerine and butyric acid; palmitin,
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, ete. The
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and
butyric.

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats.

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the
basis of soft fats.

MILK AND TES “PRODUCTS 127

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies
at —2° F. and melts again at 28° F.

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem-
perature is such a variable one.

The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ-
enced by:

iepreeds:

2. Feeds.

3. Period of lactation.

4. Individuality of cows.

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol-
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning
temperature, the difference being about six degrees.

Feeds have an important influence upon the character
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example,
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft
butter fat.

With the advance of the period of lactation the per-
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to-
gether with the physical change which butter fat under-
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac-
tation.

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent

128 DAIRY FARMING

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed.

Soluble Fats. The soluble or volatile fats, of which
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable
and other animal fats.

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo-
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of
June butter.

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par-
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly
due to abnormal volatile fats.

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom.
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking.

Albumenoids. ‘These are nitrogenous compounds
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen,
globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the
casein and albumen being by far the most important.

Casein. ‘This is a white colloidal substance, possessing
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue-
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an
almost endless variety of cheese.

MILK. AND ITS "PRODUCTS 129

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its
exact composition still undetermined.

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat.

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re-
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing
sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F.
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein
and albumen radically differ.

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste.
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom-
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in
milk rarely exceeds .g%, the germs usually being checked
or killed before this amount is formed. ‘There is there-
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk.
All of the milk sugar is in solution.

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in ceoideee Ls
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that

130 DAIRY FARMING

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble

lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to
“whip.” ‘Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig-
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent
of milk.

Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel-
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu-
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and
causes it to coagulate on application of heat.

According to Eugling the average composition of colos-
trum milk is as follows:

WATEI Ss oss hc Se alco Oe coe neae Seer heer 71.00%
Habra swe ates ikea ters ane wee Ce ees Bae 6
Casein a5. is edlila a exten ee rere 4.83
Aas 1a es satel Seer ciere aR Reon ee 15.85
SEALs to oy atd gon a ant Oe Reta 2.48
PRS otros elit ol cc shi bi Seen en ee 1.78

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura-
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases,
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of
the animal.

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis-
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness
for butter production.

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con-
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes

MILK ANDUVITS, PRODUCTS 131

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to
abriormal treatment. It is well known that a change of
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows
as gently as possible, especially during the process of
milking.

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con-
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup-
posed, however, that all the different constituents already
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein,
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi-
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac-
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known
as. osmosis. 3

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif-
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition,
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the

132 DAIRY FARMING

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo-
sition. ‘The causes of these variations may be assigned
to two sets of conditions: J.—Those natural to the cow.
II.—Those of an artificial nature. —

I. QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDI-
TIONS.

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes
a change with the advance of the period of lactation.
During the first five months the composition remains prac-
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes
gradually richer until the cow “dries up.” The following
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change:

Month of Per cent of fat

lactation. in milk.
Tl bi ae ROE, at) oe ht RO AR Seam Tea ar eal 4.54
ASTI ROH Pome eile OTR AB BA ELEY AS 32
TORS Era Senn ST EPR: ae tern POR Ce oe ee th 4.28
Ais ae UTIL RSet aes nes tira Gagan Me au Cpe ME 4.30
AG SRB Sao RR ena Pier ey ARGS hie Mates ee! 4.38
OSG RES CRN FY Geek So RU sare SA ve igh cog a a 4.53
FATE RAC Pa crny TOs Mere aA OY eee cay Ler 4.56
BRUT ae Laer zai, Reser AG AL a ec kee Pe 4.66
Dats Gia eias AMAT E soe tak See ero 4.79
116 PURI ARE AACA SH Dyr de Aaa fa en wa PUN IEE BE 5.00

It will be noticed from these figures that the milk
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries
up, it may test as high as 8%.

2. The quality of milk also differs with different
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those
of the individual cows of any particular breed.

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 133

milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey
_ Experiment Station illustrates these differences:

Breed. eis Fat. Sugar. Proteids.}| Ash.

Oe es

Per cent.|Per cent./Per cent./Per cent.|Per cent.

Ayshire........ 12.70 3.68 4.84 3.48 .69
Guernsey :..... 14.48 5.02 4.80 3.92 75
fepistein 55 5:. 12.12 3.51 4.69 3.28 .64
WERSCY hae ss 14.34 4.78 4.85 3.96 75

3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually
to be ascribed to the individuality or “make up” of the
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk,
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness,
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful
selection and breeding for a number of generations.

II, QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL CON-
DITIONS.

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as
high as 14%.

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers
are so much preferred to slow ones.

134 DAIRY FARMING

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general,
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for
the differences we often find in the richness of morning’s
and night’s milk. Sometimes the morning’s milk is the
richer, at other times the evening’s, depending largely
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Muiulk can not,
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times
in stead of twice a day.

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the qualify
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction
of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced.

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat.

6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the
richness of milk, but only temporarily.

So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter
what the character of feed composing the ration.

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity
and the quality of milk produced.

CHAPTER XOVEHT.

THE BABCOCK TEST.

This is a cheap and simple device for determining the
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk,
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M.
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may
be mentioned as follows:

1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord-
ing to its quality.

2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect
undue losses in the process of manufacture.

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds
by locating the poor cows.

4. It has, ina large measure, done away with the prac-
tice of watering and skimming milk.

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made
possible:

1. By the difference between the specific gravity of
butter fat and milk serum.

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester.

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid.

Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested,
always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires

135

136 DAIRY FARMING

too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob~

Fig. 29—’Two styles of Babcock testers.

tained by measuring which is the method universally em-
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance
to be tested.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS Sy

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following
parts: A, Babcock tester; B, milk bottle; C, cream bottle:
D, skim-milk bottle; E, pipette or milk measure; F, acid
measures ; G, cream scales; H, mixing cans; I, dividers.

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 29,
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi-
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles.
This wheel is rotated by means of a worm wheel (lower
machine) at the top of the tester. When the tester stops
the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up.
As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing
the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel is
enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover.

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones,
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled
with water it would hold two grams; but fat being only
.Q as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine-
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10%
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing.
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 30.

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 31. Since cream
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided
wher. the 30% bottles are used.

138 DAIRY FARMING

TT a)

mencnrn ss Date cacao ecncsasscecenaeenenel

* oo
TSSesces
eea-

Fig.30.—Milk Fig. 31.—Cream Fig. 32.—Skim-milk
bottle. bottle. bottle.

D. Skim-milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 32,
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into
ten subdivisions eacn subdivision reads .05%. The same
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. |

MILK AND-ITS PRODUCTS 139

Fig.34.— Fig.35.—
Acid meas- Acid meas-
ure. ure.

E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c., as shown
in Fig. 33. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex-
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c., which is equiva-
lent to 18 grams of normal milk.

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock
eee test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and

milk are used. The acid measure, shown in
Fig. 34, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one
test. ‘he one shown in Fig. 35 is divided into six divisions,
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where

140 DAIRY FARMING

many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time
in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges.
H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in
Fig. 36. :
Acid. ‘The acid used in the test is commercial sul-

Fig.36.—Cream scales.

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not
properly burned and particles of curd may
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has
a tendency to blacken or char the fat.

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the
medium in which it floats.

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- pig37_show-
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure ne ee
to the air materially weakens it. Bee

Making a Babcock Test. The different steps are
indicated as follows:

I. . Thoroughly mix the sample.

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark
on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 141

top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly
relieving the pressure of the finger.

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown
mm Pig. 37,

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk
was emptied into the bottle.

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a
slow rotary motion.

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes.

7- Shake or mix again and then place the bottle in
the tester.

8. Run tester four minutes at the
proper speed.

g. Add moderately hot water until
contents come to the neck of the
bottle.

10. Whirl one minute.

11. Add moderately hot water un-
til contents of the bottle reach about
the 8% mark.

12. Whirl one minute.

4." Read. test.

How to Read the Test. At the top
of the fat column is usually quite a
pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig.
38. A less pronounced one is found
at the bottom of the column. The fat
should be read from the extremes of
the fat column, 1 to 3, not from 2 to 4,
when its temperature is about 140° F. Wigs 26. wahawte
Too high a temperature gives too high Showing meniscuses.

142 DAIRY FARMING

a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat,
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading.

Precautions in Making a Test. 1. Be sure you have
a fair sample.

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 60
or 70 degrees.

3. Always mix twice after acid has-been added.

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed.

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling the
bottles.

6. Be sure the tester does not jar.

7. ‘Be sure the acid is of the right strength.

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk.

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before
reading the test.

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading.

The water added to the test bottles after they have been
whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing
much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of
sulphuric acid.

As stated before, skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that
the cream sample is weighed, not measured.

Testing Cream. Accurate tests of cream cannot be
secured by measuring the sample into the bottle as is
done in the case of milk. The reason for this is that
the weight of cream varies with its richness. The richer
the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. This is illus-
trated in the following table by Farrington and Woll:

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 143

Weight of fresh separator cream delivered by a 17.6 ¢. ¢.

Per cent. of fat
1m cream.

Io
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

pipette.

947

Specific gravity
(weighed).

Weight of cream
in grams.
17.9
17.7
1733
17-2
17.0
16.4
16.3
16.2
15.8

With cream testing below 30% the full 18 grams may
be added to one bottle and tested in the usual way. Where
the cream tests above 30% better results are obtained by
using only half the full sample of cream (9 grams)

and adding to this 9 grams of water.

To this mixture

the full amount of acid is added. Obviously in this case
the test must be multiplied by 2 to get the correct reading.

General Pointers.
Ee.
ap
3.
ae
c.

Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by
Insufficient mixing.

Too low speed of tester.
Too low temperature.

I.
2.

Too strong acid.
Too much acid.
Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk.

Not mixing soon enough.

Black fat is caused by

Dropping the acid through the miik.
Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can
be prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to

the water.

4. Too weak acid.

Curd particles in fat are caused by
E.

Too weak acid.

144 DAIRY FARMING

2. Not enough acid.
3. ‘Too low temperature.

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read,
the bottles are emptied by shaking them up and down so
as to remove the white sediment. Next wash them in
hot water containing some alkali, and finally rinse them
with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed
with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dis-
solving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one
pint of sulphuric acid. A small brush should also oc-
casionally be run up and down the neck of the bottle.

Making and Reading Cream Tests. The different
steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in test-
ing milk. However, as already stated, the cream must
be weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore,
special precautions must be used in reading the test.

It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat
column gives too high a reading. This error is due to
the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of
which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington
and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity
of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus.
This is the method commonly employed in reading tests.
Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus
by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red)
to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests add-
ing a few drops of fat-saturated alcohol to the top of
the fat as a means of removing the meniscus. Ordinary
alcohol has a solvent action on butter fat, hence the
necessity of using fat-saturated alcohol.

Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub-

*Bulletin 145, Indiana Experiment Station.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 145

ject, has found “glymol” best suited for the removal of
the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white
mineral oil and is used for typewriters, sewing machines,
etc. It will give satisfactory results without the addition
of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by plac-
ing a small cheese cloth bag containing ‘‘aikanet root”
in a bottle of glymol for a day or two. One ounce of
alkanet root will color one quart of glymol.

A few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should
be carefully added to the top of the fat column before
reading the test.

To get accurate readings the bottles should be read
. while the temperature of the fat is between 135° and 140°
F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed
in a water bath having a temperature of 140° F. and
kept there several minutes, or long enough to cool the
fat to 140° F. The water in the vessel should extend
to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably
a little above. Accurate readings cannot be obtained by
reading the bottles directly from the tester; the first
bottles removed have too high a temperature while those
removed last have too low a temperature. Where hand
testers are used, the bottles are usually too cold for sat-
isfactory reading and, therefore, must be heated to the
proper temperature.

CTAGP Vik OCD.

BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS.

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action
forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the
man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter
in the dark; his is chance work. Much attention will
therefore be given to the study of these organisms in
this work.

I, BACTERIA,

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a
single cell. These plants are so small that it would
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an
inch. ‘Their presence is almost universal, being found
in the air, water, and soil; in cold, hot, and temperate
climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic
matter.

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac-
terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times
in twenty-four hours. ‘They reproduce either by a simple
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells,
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore.
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to
endure a temperature of 212° F. for several hours.

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm,
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in

146

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 147

which an exceedingly varied and active life is possible.

In nature and in many of the arts and industries,
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable.
They play a most important part in the disintegration of
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into
their elemental constituents in which form they can again
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to:
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot
flourish without them.

II. MILK FERMENTATIONS.

Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn
says that, “In general, they are progressive chemical
changes taking place under the influence of certain
organic substances which are present in very small
quantity in the fermenting mass.”

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result
of the growth and multiplication of various classes of
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer-
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar
into lactic acid.

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol-
lowing:

Lactic.
( Normal..... 4 Curdling and Digesting.
| ke Butyric.

Bitter.

|
Milk Fermentations 4
|
|

| Slimy or Ropy.
Abnormal... + Gassy.
l P Poxic,
| Chromogenic.

148 DAIRY FARMING

NORMAL FERMENTATIONS.

We speak of normal fermentations because milk always
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and
kept under cleanly conditions. ‘These fermentations will
be discussed in the following pages.

I, LACTIC FERMENTATION.

This is the most common and by far the most important
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera-
ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases.
Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes
it is killed.

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned,
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro-
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches
about .g% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible
to secure milk free from them.

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria
always predominates in milk. When, however, miik is
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk.

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 149

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery
in a sweet condition. ‘They are therefore expected to
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the
abnormal species that might have gained access to the
milk.

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the
growth of these organisms in the process of cream
ripening. ‘There are a number of different species of
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid.

2. CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION.

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often,
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their
inability to thrive in an acid medium.

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria
secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former
has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. “As a
rule,” says Russell, “any organism that possesses the
digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein
in a manner comparable to rennet.”

It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms
are in a great minority, or when for some reason their
action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in
being soft and slimy.

150 DAIRY FARMING

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore
bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms.

3. BUTYRIC FERMENTATION.

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer-
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it -
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of
different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging
to the anaerobic type.

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu-
larly abundant in filth, They are almost universally
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found
in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been
excluded.

The influence of the butyric acid bacteria is felt mainly
in butter and in overripened cream. The latter frequently
possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these
bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened
cream possesses conditions favorable for their develop-
ment. Overripening should, therefore, be carefully

guarded against.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 151

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent
development in a highly acid cream is explained by
Russell as being “probably due, not so much to the pres-
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen,
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid
organisms.”

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly
made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi-
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria,
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to
this end.

ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS.

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta-
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus-
sion will be given of the most important.

I. BITTER FERMENTATION.

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted: it may

152 DAIRY FARMING

be due to strippers’ milk and to certain classes of feeds
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid |
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter-
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever,
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem-
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in
check.

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below
60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened
and then held at a temperature of 45° for twenty-four
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while
the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty-four hours
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop-
ment of the bitter fermentation.

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting
the boiling temperature. ‘This accounts for the bitter
taste that often develops in boiled milk.

2. SLIMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION.

This is not a common fermentation and_ rarely
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy.
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure
water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS . S35

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected
with them sours with great difficulty.

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be
strung out in threads several feet long.

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when
drawn from the cow. ‘The bacteria belonging to this class
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores.

3. GASSY FERMENTATION.

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in.
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to
the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid
development of the latter. They are found most abun-
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung.

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS.

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some
time at low temperature.

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. |!

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of

154 DAIRY FARMING

these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy
practice since the color usually does not appear until the
milk is several days old. The specific organism that
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other
colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but
these are of very rare occurrence,

Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk ; B, after
standing in a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides
the fat globules, many forms of bacteria.—Moore.

CHAPTER XX.

SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION.

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in
which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria,
is reduced to a minimum.

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of
clean milk is one of the most important subjects that con-
fronts the American dairyman at the present time. Fur-
ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must
largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk. With the
better appreciation by the public of the great nutritive
value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for
consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milk
produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for prac-
tically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less,
slip-shod conditions. So great is the clamor for cleaner
milk that any extra efforts expended in producing it are
certain to be richly compensated.

The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani-
tary milk are as follows: (1) Healthy cows; (2) sani-
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5)
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole-
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10)
dust-free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after
milking; (14) sanitary milk room.

Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im-
portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk

135

156 DAIRY FARMING

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro-
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms.
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application
of the tuberculin test.

Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be
discarded. | |

Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean-
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect-
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro-
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im-
portance.

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur-
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air.

To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters
should be built of concrete. ‘They should be scrubbed
daily, and care should be taken to keep the walls and
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must
also be cleaned after each feed.

The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible.
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut-

MIT AND ATS °PRODUCTL S: 157

ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows
clean.

The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible.
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a
striking sanitary appearance.

Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk.
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To
secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields,
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access
to it.

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani-
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every
precaution to guard against contamination from this
source.

To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu-
larly once a day. ‘This should be done after milking to
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean,
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to
drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles

158 DAIRY FARMING

and hairs at milking time. This practically means that
the milker must always have one or two cows washed
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean
water after each washing.

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest
source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing
instructions are rigidly followed.

Attention should also be given to the cow’s switch,
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual
switching during milking is no small matter in the con-
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean.

Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con-
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be
bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk.

Fig. 42. Unflushed seam. Fig. 43. Flushed seam.

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during
milking.

Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of

MIT AND: ITS PRODUCTS 159

milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and,
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig.
42 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam; Fig. 43
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value.
Fig. 44 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re-
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during

———r
i oe is
eee ld

ae
oe
tL

Sa
Sai
wat!

SiG A

betes
Z =

Fig. 44. Sanitary Milk Pail.

milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that
the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs
this disadvantage.

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of
cleaning them is as follows:

First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub

160 DAIRY FARMING

with moderately hot water containing some sal soda.
The washing should be done with brushes rather than
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding,
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust,
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun’s rays.

Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani-
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors
is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind
should always be fed after milking.

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex-
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored
water. The need of pure water is further evident from
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of
milk.

MILKIAND ITS*PRODUCTS 161

The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially
dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health
of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated
with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may
later find their way into the milk.

Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so
clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This
operation is frequently done under the delusion that so
long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been
entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves
as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them.
These bacteria are so small that no method of straining
will remove them. Straining can not even remove all
of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution.

A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese
cloth with a layer of absorbent cotton between. The
strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the
milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces
the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk-
ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would
be more than off-set by greater carelessness in milking ;
especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who
are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any
carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on
the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of
milker.

New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking
and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized.
Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once.

Dust-Free Air. (Great precaution should be taken not

162 DAIRY FARMING

to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should,
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just
before or during milking.

Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed
before or during milking may so charge the air with dust
as to make clean milk an impossibility.

Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre-
vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get-
ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made
even in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the
cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner
cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off-
set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later,
materially increases the germ content of the milk. The
carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min-
utes before the milking commences.

Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw
should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping
and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create
a dusty barn air.

Milking With Dry Hands. A _ prolific source of
milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where
the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound
to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil-
lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness
of the milker’s hands and the cow’s udder. There is no
excuse for the filthy practice of wet milking) ‘simeerde
is just as easy to milk with dry hands.

Fore-Miik. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de-
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat,
as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 163

for this rich development of germs is found in the favor-
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of
the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access.

Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a
dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests
visit places of the worst description and their presence
in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414
flies examined by the Bacteriologist of the Connecticut
Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly
was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly
excluded from all places where they are apt to come in
contact with the milk.

Experimental Data. To show to what extent the
bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting
the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few
experimental data are herewith presented.

In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment
Station, Stocking reports the following:

1. When the cows were milked before feeding the
number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im-
mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656,
or three times as many.

2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped
with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was
716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or ten times
as great.

3. When the cows were not brushed just before milk-
ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when
brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or
nearly twice as great.

4. When students who had studied the production of
clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per
c. c. was 914; when the milking was done by regular

164 DAIRY FARMING

unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or
three times as great.

Wiping or washing udders before milking not only
very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk,
but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent.
Frazer has shown that “the average weight of dirt which
falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times
as great as that: which falls from the same udder aiter
washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is
eighteen times as great.”

Fig. 45 —Clean Milking. (From Da. Div., U.S. Dept. of A.)

CELA FERS XT:

FARM BUTTER-MAKING.
CREAMING.

Cause. Creaming is due to the difference in the speci-
fic gravity of the fat and the milk serum. The fat being
light and insoluble rises, carrying with it some of the
other constituents of the milk. The result is a layer of
cream at the surface.

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk
is creamed may be divided into two general classes: (1)
That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming ;
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal
creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas-
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. -This force
is generated in the cream separator.

Shallow-Pan Method. The best results with this
method are secured by straining the milk directly after
milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter
and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain
undisturbed at room temperature (60° to 65° F.) for
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is
removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or
by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it
has been carefully loosened along the sides. The aver-
age loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%.

165

166 DAIRY FARMING

Deep-Cold-Setting Method. ‘The best results with
this method are secured by using a can like the Cooley
illustrated in Fig. 47. This can is provided with a cover
which allows it to be submerged in
water. It. also has a spout-atgene
bottom by which the skim milk is
gently removed, thus preventing the
partial mixing of cream and skim
milk incident to skimming with a
conical dipper.

The milk is put into the cans di-
rectly after milking and cooled to
as low a temperature as possible.
To secure the best results with this
method the water should be iced.
kia KE Where this is done the skim milk

Fig! 47 Cooley Gan will show only about 0.2% fat. It

it desirable to allow the milk to set
twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the
creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen
hours.

Dilution or Aquatic Separators. One of the most
unsatisfactory methods of creaming is the addition of
water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done
in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers
usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic sepa-
rators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal
separators are often lead to believe that they are buying
real separators at a low cost when they are investing five,
ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are
no more entitled to the term separator than are the com-
mon shallow pans. The average loss of fat with this
system of creaming is about 14%.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 167

Centrifugal Method (Hand Separator). Dairies hav-
ing four or more cows should cream their milk by the cen-
trifugal method, the hand separator. The saving of but-
ter fat with this method soon pays for the cost of a sep-
arator. Moreover it has the zdditional advantages over
the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet
skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of
any desired richness.

Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under
favorable conditions a separator should not leave more
than .05% fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency
of skimming and these must be duly considered in making
a separator test. The following are some of these con-
ditions :

Speed of bowl.

Steadiness of motion. .

Temperature of milk.

Manner of heating milk.

Amount of milk skimmed per hout.
Acidity of milk.

Viscosity of milk.

Richness of cream.

Stage of lactation. (Stripper’s milk.)

me mommoan

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream-
ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see that
the separator runs at full speed during the separating
process.

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the
skim milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of
the following conditions: (1) loose bearings, (2) sepa-

168 DAIRY FARMING

rator out of plumb, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4)
unstable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl.

C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa-
rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem-
perature of 85° to 98° F. is the most satisfactory for
ordinary skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest
skimming is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The
reason milk separates better at the higher temperatures is
that the viscosity is reduced.

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat
in skim-milk. The reason for this is that the fat heats
more slowly than the milk serum, which diminishes the
difference between their densities. When, for example,
milk is suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera-
ture to 85° F. by applying live steam, the ioss of fat in
the skim-milk may be four times as great as it is under
favorable conditions.

EK. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss
of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a marked
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result.

FE. The higher the acidity of milk the poorer }the
creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim-
milk becomes very great.

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy)
bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase
its viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming.
Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera-
LUNES.

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of
50%. <A richer cream is liable to result in 2 richer skim-

MILKOANED ATaaeRODUGTS 169

milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the skim-
milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim-milk
is richest.

I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules in
stripper’s milk, such milk is more difficult to cream than
that produced in the early period of lactation.

Regulating Richness of Cream. The richness of
cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepa-
rator bowl. When a rich cream is desired the screw is
turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream
it is turned away from the center.

Advantages of Rich Cream. To? sepatate sa’, rich
cream at the farm results in mutual benefit to pro-
ducer and manufacturer. The main advantages are as fol-
lows: (1) Less bulk to handle; (2) less cream.to cool;
(3) less transportation charges ; (4) more skim-milk for
the farmer; (5) better keeping quality ; (6) allows more
starter to be added; (7) gives better results in churn-
ing, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, especially with
sour cream.

Best Time to Separate Milk. The best results with
a separator are obtained by running the milk through
the machine immediately after milking.

Saving of Butter Fat with a Separator. That: the
owner of four good cows can afford to invest $50.00 in a
small cream separator is shown by the following: Four
good cows will yield not less than 24,000 pounds o:
milk a year. By the common shallow pan method of
creaming, the loss of butter fat will average 0.7 pound
for every 100 pounds of milk. With the centrifugal sepa-
rator the loss of fat will not average over 0.05 pound,
hence there will be effected a saving of 0.65 pound of

170 DAIRY FARMING

butter fat in each 100 pounds of milk by the use of the
separator. At this rate, the total saving of butter fat an-
nually on the 24,000 pounds of milk will be 156 pounds.
Since each pound of butter fat will yield approximately
I 1-6 pounds of butter, 183 pounds of butter will be saved
by the process, which, at 25 cents per pound, amounts to
$45.75. This saving in butter fat alone will almost pay
for the separator in one year.

Fastening a Separator. ‘To secure steady motion,
the separator must be fastened to a solid foundation.
There is nothing better in this respect than a concrete
floor, with which every dairy should be provided.

One of the best methods of fastening separators to con-
crete floors is the use of expansion bolts.

These consist of lag screws with tapering points pro-
vided with malleable shields, having threads on their in-
ner sides to fit the threads of the lag screws and pro-
jections on their outer sides to catch and hold in holes
made in the concrete. The shields expand as the lag
screw is screwed in.

CREAM RIPENING.

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream.
So important is this process that the success or failure of
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability
to exercise the proper control over it. In common practice
the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies from
twelve to twenty-four hours.

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime ob-
ject the development of flavor and aroma in butter, two
qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In addi-

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS EA

tion to this, cream ripening has several minor purposes,
namely: (1) renders cream more easily churnable; (2)
obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in churn-
ing; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; (4)
increases the keeping quality of butter.

Flaver. This, so far as known at the present time,
is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation.
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im-
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as
secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the in-
crease in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter,
for example, is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has
- reached .6%.

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour
cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro-
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob-
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A _ high
viscosity imipedes the movement of these globules. It is
evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity
of cream, will facilitate the churning.

Asa rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream the
smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk.

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream 1s
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream
and the consequent greater churnability of same.

rZ2 . DAIRY FARMING

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance
since it is difficult to get low enough temperatures for the
successful churning of sweet cream.

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream
that has been ripened a little too far will possess very
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed
as the limit when good keeping quality is desired.

CONTROL OF THE RIPENING PROCESS.

We have learned that the highly desirable flavor and
aroma of butter are produced by the development of the
lactic fermentation. In the following discussion we shall
take up the means of controlling this fermentation and
treat of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This
will include: (1) the mpening temperature; (2) time
in ripening; (3) agitation of cream during ripening.

Ripening Temperature. Since the lactic acid bac-
teria develop best at a temperature of go0° to 98° F.
it would seem desirable to ripen cream at these tem-
peratures. But this is not practicable because of the
unfavorable effect of high temperatures on the body
of the cream and the butter. Good butter can be pro-
duced, however, under a wide range of ripening tem-
peratures. The limits may be placed at 60° and 80°.
Temperatures below 60° are too unfavorable for the
development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any’ check
upon the growth of these germs increases the chances
for the development of other kinds of bacteria. But
it. may ‘be “added ’ that: when. cream has’ -geachedweam

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS , We

acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a
temperature between 55° and 60° with good results, In
general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives
the best results. This means that the main portion of the
ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is
always finished at temperatures lower than this.

Time in Ripening. As a rule quick ripening gives
better results than slow. The reason for this is evident.
Quick ripening means a rapid development of the lactic
fermentation and, therefore, a relatively slow develop-
ment of other fermentations. Practical experience shows
us that the growth of the undesirable germs is slow in
proportion as that of the lactic is rapid. Tor instance,
when we attempt to ripen cream at 55 i. a) bempeta-
ture unfavorable for the growth of the lactic acid bac-
teria, a more or less bitter flavor is always the result.
This is so because the bitter germs develop better at low
temperatures than the lactic acid bacteria.

Stirring Cream. It is very essential in cream ripen-
ing to agitate the. cream frequently to insure uniform
ripening. When cream remains undisturbed for some
time the fat rises in the same way that it does in milk,
though in a less marked degree. The result is that the
upper layers are richer than the lower and will sour less
rapidly, since the action of the lactic acid germs is
greater in thin than in rich cream.

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream.
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear coarse
and curdy when poured from a dipper. The importance
of stirring frequently during ripening should therefore
not be underestimated.

The Use of Sour Milk (Starter). Cream produced
under cleanly conditions ordinarily contains many kinds

174 DAIRY FARMING

of bacteria—good, bad, and indifferent—and to insure a
large predominance of the lactic acid type in the ripening
process, it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria. of this
type already existing in the cream by adding large quan-
tities of them in a pure form, that 1s, unmixed with un-
desirable species. Clean flavored sour milk or skim milk
at the point of curdling is practically a pure culture of
lactic acid organisms, and the addition of about 10 pounds
of such milk to every 100 pounds of cream will result
in a better and more uniform quality of butter.

Amount of Acid to Develop. Cream of average ricn-
ness should have an acidity of from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent.
when churned. A rich cream requires less acid than a
thin cream.

Sweet and Sour Cream. In small dairies, where only
a few churnings are made weekly, care should be taken
never to mix sweet and sour cream just before churning.
This always results in a heavy loss of fat in the butter-
milk on account of the difference in the churnability of
sweet and sour cream.

ACID TEST FOR CREAM.

Butter makers do not find it safe to rely upon their
noses in determining the ripeness of cream for churning.
They use in daily practice tests by which it is possible to
determine the actual amount of acid present. The method
of using these tests is based upon the simplest form of
titration, which consists in neutralizing an acid with an
alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines
when the point of neutrality has been reached.

In the tests for acidity of cream the alkali used is
sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite strength

MILK AND ATS *PRODUCTS 175

so that the amount of acid can be calculated from the
amount of alkali used.

Farrington’s Alkaline Tablet Test. In this test the
alkali is used in a dry tablet form in which it is easily
handled. Each tablet contains enough alkali to neutralize
.034 gram of lactic acid.

Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in Fig.
48, and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. pipette,
and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered, graduated glass cylinder.

PIPETTE
CYLIMDER.

Fig. 48. Farrington Acid Test Apparatus.

Making the Solution. The solution is made in the
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough water
to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dissolved,
which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution should
be well shaken and is then ready for use. The solution
of the tablets may be hastened by placing the graduate in
a reclining position, as shown in the cut.

176. DAIRY FARMING

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 cc. of
- cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution,
rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per-
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the
number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number of
hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. ‘Thus,
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu-
lation of any kind is necessary.

CHURNING.

Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat
it was mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form
of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,-
ooo per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in-
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk.

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re-
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense
layer of casein that surrounds them.

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur-
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process
which we call churning. In the churning of cream this

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 177

process of coalescing continues until the fat globules have
united into masses visible in the churn as butter granules.

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING.

There are a number of conditions that have an impor-
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may
be enumerated as follows:

me Pemperature:

Character of butter fat.

Acidity of cream.

Richness of cream.

Amount of cream in churn.

Speed of churn.

Abnormal fermentations.

Temperature. To have the miscroscopic globules
unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft-
ness or fluidity, which is greater the higher the tempera-
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best re-
sults the temperature must be such as to churn the cream
in from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought
about in different creams at quite different temperatures.

The temperature at which cream must be churned is
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream.
Most cream is churned between 55 and 60 degrees Fahr.

Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol-
low with regard to temperature is this: When the cream
enters the churn with a richness of 30 per cent and an
acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should be
such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty-
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning
and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be

Br Sa ae

178 DAIRY, FARMING

handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- -
termilk can then be easily removed, so that when a plug
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine
on it will be perfectly clear.

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in
cream from different sources and at different times have
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures.
This is so because of the differences in the relative amourt
of “soft” and “hard” fats of which butter fat is composed.
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat
will, of course, have a high melting point. Such fat may
be quite hard at a temperature of 60°, while a butter fat
of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred
to the discussion of the “insoluble fats’’ treated in the
chapter on milk.

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid
renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a
higher churning temperature than sweet, which is of great
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low
churning temperatures.

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred
that. the closer the “fat clobules are together themanere
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus-
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together,
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 179

The former can therefore be churned in the same length
of time at a lower temperature than the latter.

The ideal richness is about 30%. A cream much richer
than this will stick to the sides of the churn, which re-
duces the amount of concussion. ‘The addition of water
to the churn will overcome this stickiness and cause the
butter to come in a reasonable length of time. It is bet-
ter, however, to avoid an excessive richness when a ex-
haustive churning is to be expected.

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick-
est churning is secured when the churn is
one-third full. With more or less cream
than this, the amount of concussion is re-
duced and the length of time in churning
correspondingly increased. |

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the
churn should be such as to produce the great-
est possible agitation or concussion of the
cream. Too high or too low a speed reduces
the amount of concussion. The proper speed
for each particular churn must be determined
by experiment.

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy
or ropy fermentation sometimes causes trouble
in churning by rendering the cream exces-
sively viscous. Cream from single herds may
become so viscous as to render churning im-
possible.

Dairy Thermometer. One of the essen-
tials in making good butter is a thermometer

Fig. 49, ; ; ; :

Dairy like that shown in Fig. 49. It is necessary to
Thermom-

eter. watch the temperature of the cream dur-

ing ripening, and to secure uniform and exhaustive

180 DAIRY FARMING

churnings the temperature of the cream must always be
definitely known before it enters the churn.

CHURNING OPERATIONS.

Churns. Of the numerous styles of churns upon the
market there is none better than the barrel churn. For
large dairymen, however, who have 50 or more cows, a
combined churn and butter worker is recommended. Such
churns, or course, require some form of power to run
them, and no large dairy is expected to be without power.

Preparing the Churn.
Before adding the cream,
the churn shouldbe scalded
with hot water and then
thoroughly rinsed with
cold water. This will
“freshen” the churn and
fill the pores of the wood
with water so that the
cream and butter will not
stick.

Straining Cream. All
cream should be carefully
strained into the churn.
This removes the possibil-
ity of white specks in but-
ter which usually consist of curd or dried particles of
cream.

Adding the Color. The amount of color to be added
depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year
and the market demands.

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color
than Holstein because it contains more natural color.

Fig, 50.—Barrel Churn.

MILE AN DATS; BROBUCTS 181

During the summer when the cows are feeding on
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed-
ing on dry feed.

Different markets demand different shades of color.
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market
to which it is shipped.

In the winter time about one ounce of color is required
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient.

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter
the color will also be uniform throughout.

Gas in Churn. During the first five minutes of churn-
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure
according to Babcock, “is chiefly due to the air within
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free
from the cream.”

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per-
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the
granules have reached the right size, cold water may. be
added to the churn to cause the butter to float better. Salt
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off.

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much -
water is used as there was cream is usually sufficient.

182 DAIRY FARMING

When butter churns very soft two washings may be ad-
vantageous. ‘Too much washing is dangerous, however,
as it removes the delicate flavor of the butter.

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments
have shown that impure water seriously affects the flavor
of butter. When the water is not perfectly pure it should
be filtered or pasteurized.

Salting. It is needless to say that nothing but the best
grades of salt should be used in butter. This means salt
readily soluble in water and free from impurities. If there
is much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid ap-
pearance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumb-
ler of clear water.

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and ma-
terially increases its keeping quality. Very high salting,
however, has a tendency to detract from the fine, delicate
aroma of butter while at the same time it tends to cover
up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a-butteramaker
will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his butter
rather high.

Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon mar-
ket demands. The butter maker must cater to the mar-
kets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he does
with regard to color.

The rate of salt used does not necessarily deters
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per-
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions
by salting at the rate of one and a half ouncess)/@ius
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is
lost than under others.

MILK AND TTS? PRODUCTS 183

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent
upon:

1. Amount of drainage before salting.

2. Fineness of butter granules.

3. Amount of butter in churn.

I. When the butter is salted before the wash water
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better
under these conditions.

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows: The
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin
film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater.
Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuff-
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt.

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost.

Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in
butter is one ounce per pound.

WORKING BUTTER.

Object. The chief object in working butter is to evenly
incorporate the salt. It also assists in expelling any sur-
plus moisture.

How to Work Butter. Where only a small amount
of butter is made, the butter may be worked with a ladle
in the churn. For larger amounts it is desirable, however,
to have a separate worker like that shown in Fig. 56.

184 DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 51. Butter worker.

Butter is worked enough when the salt has been evenly
distributed. Just when this point has been reached can
not always be told from the appearance of the butter
immediately after working. But after four or six hours’
standing the appear-
ance of white streaks
or mottles indicates
that © the. buttes aha
not been — sufficiently
worked. The rule to
follow is to work the
butter just enough to
prevent the appearance
of mottles. To avoid

mottles it is best to

| work butter twice. The
Fig. 52. —Butter Printer. first time, it is worked

MILK. AND ITS PRODUCTS 185

just enough to fairly incorporate the salt. It is then
allowed to stand six or eight hours, after which white
streaks are usually noticeable on cutting the butter with
a string. The second working should cease as soon as
these streaks or mottles have been removed.

Difficult Churning. The causes of trouble in churn-
ing may be enumerated as follows: (1) thin cream, (2)
low temperature, (3) sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of
cream, (5) churn too full, (6) too high or too low speed
of churn, (7) colostrum milk, (8) advanced period of
lactation, and (9) abnormally rich cream.

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and
two churnings made instead of one.

Cleaning Churns. After the butter has been removed,
the churn shouid be washed, first with moderately hot
water, next with boiling hot water containing a little
alkali, and finally with hot water. If the final rinsing is
done with cold water the churn dries too slowly, which
is apt to give it a musty smell. This daily washing should
be supplemented occasionally with a washing with lime
water.

Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre-
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns
not so treated.

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned
with moderately hot water containing a smal] amount of

alkali.

186 DAIRY FARMING

MARKETING BUTTER.

For fancy trade, one-pound prints wrapped in parch-
ment -paper are the most popular. These prints are
made with a small hand printer (Fig. 54) which should
have the dairyman’s monogram cut into it. The im-
print of the monogram: in the butter, will sermeyasem
guarantee of its genuineness. It is also desirable to

Fig. 53.—Print Butter Box.

have some neat lettering on the parchment wrapper, such,
for example, as Fancy Dairy Butter, Cold Spring Dairy
Butter, Golden Jersey Butter, etc. Prints must be kept
cold to preserve their attractive rectangular appearance.

The best prices for butter are realized by selling it
direct to the consumer. With dairymen who retail milk

“MILK AND? ITS PRODUCTS 186a

and cream, this method of marketing not only yields the
best prices, but is also the most convenient, because the
butter can be disposed of at the same time as the milk
and cream. : :

A covered box like that shown in Fig. 55 is best
adapted for carrying print butter to market. Ice may: be
packed in the box with the butter during warm weather.

With the small butter producer the greatest trouble is
finding a suitable market for his product. It is custom-
ary with most of these producers to sell their butter to
the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimi-
nation in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor
selling for practically the same price. No producer of
good butter can afford to market his butter in the coun-
try stores. Those who have made farm butter-making a
success have invariably catered to private trade, or have
sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great
deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities
at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12
or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, pri-
vate customers who are willing to pay for a good product,
_and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to
reach them by rail.

Composition of Butter. According to analysis re-
ported by various experiment stations, American butter
has the following average composition:

Per cent
Beceie 260 NS ee ee an teal 13
He peg ehh 1 an Be ee ene Pet ig ar 83
POOLS s Sire ne eee ne tee es? I

Saline so won SC RIN COR ay ae RS

186b DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 54.—Butter Ladles. Fig. 55.—Butter Carton for
Wrapping One-pound
Butter Prints.

CHAPTER XXIL.

FARM CHEESEMAKING.

Apparatus and Materials Needed. For dairies from
10 to 75 cows, the following list is recommended: Steam
heating cheese vat; boiler; 134 inch press screws; cheese
hoops; horizontal and perpendicular cheese knives; one
gallon dipper; curd scoop; whisk broom; 100 cubic
centimeter graduate; acid test; dairy thermometer ; rennet
extract ; cheese color ; cheese salt ; bandages; press cloths;
cheese cloth circles, and a small scales.

Ripening the Milk. Place the night’s and morning’s
milk in the cheese vat and heat to a temperature of 86° F.
Next determine the acidity of the milk with the Far-
rington test described on page 175. (Other tests may be
used.) If less than 0.18% acid is found, the milk should
be held to develop more acid. If very sweet it is desirable
to add one or two pounds of good flavored, sour milk
(starter, see p. 173) per 100 pounds. A good starter will
not only hasten the ripening but will improve the flavor
of the cheese. |

Adding Color and Rennet Extract. As soon as the
milk shows an acidity of 0.18% to 0.2% add color at the
rate of one ounce (30 ¢c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk and
thoroughly mix. The amount of color to be used depends
upon the season of the year, the market demands and the
kind of milk. After the color is thoroughly incorporated,
add rennet extract (curdling agent) at the rate of about
four ounces (120 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk. The
rennet extract should be diluted with water to the extent

187

188 DAIRY FARMING

of four or five times its own volume before adding it to
the milk. After the rennet extract has been thoroughly
stirred in, the milk should be allowed to stand undis-

y iW

Fig. 56.—Cheesemaking Outfit.

e
\e

Gurbed until sufficiently curdled to cut. The tempera-
ture at the time of adding the rennet should be 86° to

go?) Be

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 189

The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined
by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a
quick ripening cheese is wanted, add 6 ounces per 1,000
pounds of milk. Ifa slow ripening cheese is desired, add
3 ounces for 1,000 pounds.

Cheese color and rennet extract are usually placed
upon the market in liquid form. ‘They are, however, also
procurable in dry, tablet form in which they are pre-
ferred for making cheese on a small scale.

Cutting the Curd. To determine when the curd is
ready to cut, insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd
with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of
the break and parallel to, and half an inch below, the
surface. If the whey in the break is clear, the curd is
ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed
far enough. The cutting is done as follows: First cut
the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife;
next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the
perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about three-
eighths of an inch on a side.

Warming and Stirring the Curd. Immediately after
cutting, stir the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent
the particles from matting together. Run the palm of
the hand along the sides and bottom of the vat to remove
any adhering curd. After 10 minutes stirring, gradually
apply heat and bring the temperature to 100° F. in about
30 minutes. After this temperature has been reached,
the curd may be stirred at intervals of 10 minutes until
ready to remove the whey. It is important to keep the
temperature as close to 100° F. as possible.

Drawing Off the Whey. When a bunch of curd is
pressed between the two hands and on relieving the pres-
sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for

190 DAIRY FARMING

the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached,
the whey should show about 0.17% acid. When the milk
is set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firmness and
amount of acid indicated above are reached in about two
and one-half hours after adding the rennet extract.

Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a
siphon. Place a perforated wooden rack about two
inches high at one end of the vat and cover it with a
piece of muslin or cheese cloth. Scoop the curd upon
the rack and stir. The rack has the advantage of drain-
ing the curd quickly and also permits the use of hot
water under the curd to assist in keeping the temperature
at 98° F., a temperature which should be maintained up
to within 10 or 15 minutes of salting.

If a rather moist, open textured cheese is desired, stir
30 minutes after the removal of the whey and salt. In
case a firm, close-textured cheese is wanted, the curd
must be stirred at frequent intervals for a period of about
two hours before salting, so as to allow more acid to
develop. A firm cheese is especially desirable during
warm weather because of its superior keeping quality.

When the milk is not of uniformly good quality, and
when an especially close-textured and uniform cheese is
desired, the curd should be allowed to mat upon the racks.
This is accomplished as follows: As soon as removed
from the whey the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread
about six inches deep upon the rack, and then allowed
to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about
8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 min-
utes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15
minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep.
Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the
curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 191

ready to cut into little strips the size of a finger. This
done, the curd is stirred about 30 minutes and then
salted.

Salting. If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at
the rate of 244 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of curd.
When a slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of
23%4 pounds. Use only the best grade of salt, and have
the curd at a temperature of about go° F. at the time of
salting.

Molding and Pressing. ‘Twenty to thirty minutes
after salting, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds)
which are prepared as follows: Place a piece of muslin
in the bottom of the hoop and on top of this a cheese
cloth circle somewhat less in ‘diameter than the hoop.
Now place the bandage on the bandager so that when
the latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over
the cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next
put in the curd. This done, cover with a piece of muslin
and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure very
gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure
(about 20 lbs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30
minutes’ pressing. Shortly after full pressure has been
applied, remove the follower, the muslin cloth, and
bandager. Turn the projecting bandage over onto the
cheese. Next place a cloth circle over the top, replace
the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure
for about 12 hours, when the cheese is taken out of the
hoop, any folds or irregularities in the bandage are
straightened out, the cheese is washed off with hot
water, and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about
ten hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop
and put it into a suitable place for curing. Leave the
cheese cloth circles on the cheese.

192 DAIRY FARMING

Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the
cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample
ventilation. Keep the temperature as near 60° F. as pos-
sible. The curing or ripening process, which consists of
the transformation of insoluble into soluble casein, re-
quires from two to eight months, according to the amount
of rennet extract and salt used, amount of moisture in
the cheese, and the temperature at which it is ripened.
The higher the temperature and moisture, the quicker
the cheese will ripen. During the first three weeks the
cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and if any
portion of it is not covered with cheese cloth, grease
should be applied to prevent cracking. If the curing
room is dry, the cheese should be covered with a thin
layer of paraffine about a week after it is made, to pre-
vent excessive loss of moisture.

Composition. Cured cheddar cheese has the follow-
ing average composition: Water, 34%; fat, 36.5% ; pro-
teids, 26% ; and ash, 3.5%.

CHAP TE Re cay.

STARTERS.

Definition: Starter is the general term applied to
cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been
selected artificially in a laboratory, or at dairies by pick-
ing out milk that seems to contain these organisms to
the exclusion of others. A good starter may be defined
as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour skim-milk.

The word starter derives its name from the fact that
a starter is used to “start” or assist the development of
the lactic fermentation in cream ripening.

Object of Starters. Cream and milk ordinarily con-
tain many kinds of bacteria—good, bad, and indifferent
—and to insure the predominance of the lactic acid type
in the ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the
bacteria of this type already existing in the cream or
milk by adding large quantities of them in a pure form,
that is, unmixed with undesirable species.

The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com-
pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find
plants of a desirable and undesirable character. The
weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations
of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated
vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or
suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of
cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other
fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The

193

194 DAIRY FARMING

use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures ~
a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority
the better the product.

NATURAL STARTERS.

Natural starters are those obtained by allowing milk
or skim-milk to sour in the ordinary way. If the milk
or skim-milk is produced and handled under cleanly con-
ditions, it will have a fairly good flavor when soured to
the point of thickening. But it is difficult, even under
cleanly condition, to get uniformly good flavored sour
milk or skim-milk by allowing it to sour in the usual
way and for this reason the following method of pre-
paring natural starters should be given preference.

Selected Natural Starters. The most satisfactory
natural starters are selected and prepared in the follow-
ing manner: Secure, say, one quart of milk from each
of half a dozen healthy cows not far advanced in lacta-
tion, and fed on good feed. Before drawing the milk,
brush the flanks and udders of the cows and then moisten
them with water, or preferably, coat thinly with vaseline
to prevent dislodgment of dust. Then, after rejecting the
first few streams, draw the milk into sterilized quart
jars provided with narrow necks. Now allow the milk
to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure atmosphere at a
temperature between 65° and 90° F. When loppered
pour off the top and introduce the sample with the best
flavor into about forty pounds of sterilized skim-milk
and sour at a temperature of about 70° F.

A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month
or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur-
ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 195

starter. Usually three or four pounds of the mother
starter added to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim-
milk will sour it in twenty-four hours at a temperature
of 65° F. Under certain conditions of weather this
amount may possibly have to be modified a little, for it
is well known that on hot sultry days milk -will sour
more quickly at a given temperature than on cooler days.
The best rule to follow is to use enough of the mother
starter to sour the milk in twenty-four hours at a tem-
perature of 65° F.

In the heating process all of the active bacteria in the
skim-milk have been destroyed, thus leaving a clean field
for the development of the lactic acid bacteria added to
it from the bottle.

From what has been said it will be seen that the
method of using the lactic acid bacteria is similar to
the use of yeast germs in bread making. ‘The original
germs obtamed in the way above described, or from the
manufacturer, may be propagated for weeks by daily
transferring a small amount of the thickened skim-milk
to newly pasteurized skim-milk.

COMMERCIAL STARTERS,

Commercial starters usually consist of a single species
of lactic acid organisms. These starters are prepared in
laboratories where the utmost precautions are taken to
keep them free from undesirable germs. The methods
by which the good bacteria are separated from the bad
are quite complicated and of too little practical value to
permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to say that
such separation is possible only with the skilled bac-
teriologist.

196 DAIRY FARMING

Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are
sent out in one-ounce bottles which are hermetically
sealed. The method of making starters from them is
the same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid
or in the dry form.

In making the first batch of commercial starter, the
entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim-
milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200°
F. for two hours, and then cooling to 80° which tem-
perature should be maintained until the starter has thick-
ened. A new starter is now prepared by introducing the
quart of starter into about forty pounds of skim-milk,
pasteurized by keeping it at a temperature of 170° to 185°
for thirty minutes and then cooling to 65° F. All sub-
sequent starters are prepared in the same way except
that the amount of mother starter for inoculation must
be reduced a little for a few days because the germs
become more vigorous after they have propagated several
days.

The first and second starters prepared from a new
culture seldom have the good flavor produced in sub-
sequent starters. The cause of this in all probability
is the inactive condition of the germs and the peculiar
flavor of the medium in which they are sent out.

RENEWAL OF STARTERS.

Under average farm conditions it is policy to
renew the starter at least once a month by purchasing
a new bottle of culture. It will be found that after the
starter has been propagated for two or three weeks bad
germs will begin to manifest themselves as a result of
imperfect pasteurization, contamination from the air, or

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197

from overripening, so that its original good flavor may
be seriously impaired at the end of one month’s use. It
is only where the utmost precautions are taken in pas-
teurizing the milk and ripening the starter, that it is
possible to propagate a starter for many weeks and still
maintain a good flavor.

POINTERS ON STARTERS.

I. Starters give best results when added to cream
or milk immediately after they have thickened. |

2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same
effect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are
usually the result of such starters.

3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter
vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept
under perfect control. |

4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters,
since this has undergone the cleansing action of the
separator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth
of lactic acid bacteria.

5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to in-
sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable
odors to escape.

6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before
inserting it into pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing pro-
_cess becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are
used for observing temperatures.

7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new
starter.

8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the milk
has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting
into it.

198 DAIRY FARMING

9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after
inoculation to insure uniform ripening.

to. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick-
ening until ready to use.

11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used,
the first two starters from it should not be used in cream
as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow
growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted
by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A
commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been
propagated a week.

12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture
before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk,

CHAPTER XXIV.

SOFT AND FANCY CHEESE MAKING.

There is a rapidly growing demand everywhere for the
soft varieties of cheese such as cottage, Neufchatel and
cream, and the manufacture of this class of cheese
is becoming a very remunerative branch of dairying.
The soft varieties of cheese are deservedly becoming pop-
ular because of their wholesomeness and palatability.

COTTAGE CHEESE MAKING.

Cottage cheese, which is made from skim-milk, may
be manufactured in either of two ways, namely, with
or without rennet extract. The cheese resulting from
the use of rennet extract is finer grained though some-
what more acid than that obtained without rennet.

Rennet Method: When rennet extract is used, the
night’s separator skim-milk is held at a temperature of
about 65 degrees F. until the following morning when
it should show about 0.2 per cent acid. The temperature
is then raised to 75 degrees F., and rennet extract
added to the skim-milk at the rate of one-twentieth of an
ounce (about one-half teaspoonful) per hundred pounds
of milk. ‘Tio insure an even distribution of the rennet,
it should be diluted with a cup of water before mixing
it with the milk. As soon as the rennet has been thor-
oughly mixed with the milk, the latter should be allowed

199

200 DAIRY FARMING

to stand quietly at a temperature of about 70 to 75 de-
erees F. for 24 hours, when a firm curd will have formed.
The curd is now carefully dumped into a cotton bag or
strainer and allowed to drain until all free moisture
has escaped. Salt is next added at the rate of one and
one-half ounces per ten pounds of cheese. The palat-
ability of the cheese is much improved by adding a small
amount of rich cream to it.

Fairly good results may be obtained by omitting the
rennet.

Starter Method. This method yields the highest
quality of cheese when fine flavored starter is used. Put
the skim-milk into a vat and sour it with a good starter
at a temperature of between 90 and 95 degrees F. The
more starter used, up to 25 per cent, the better the qual-
ity of the cheese. Thoroughly mix the starter with the
skim-milk and allow to remain undisturbed until firmly
curdled. When this stage is reached, cut the curd, the
same as in cheddar cheese making, and at once begin
stirring by hand. Raise the temperature to 104 degrees
F., keeping the curd constantly stirred during the heat-
ing process. After this the curd should be stirred occa-
sionally for about 40 minutes, when the whey may be
drained off.

The draining is best accomplished in a tin strainer
covered with a piece of cheesecloth. The curd must be
hand-stirred as soon as it has been dumped into the
strainer, btit the stirring should be done very gently at
the start to prevent loss by mashing the curd particles.
Continue the stirring until the curd is firm enough to pre-
vent the particles sticking together, which usually re-
quires about five minutes. As soon as the curd has been

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201

stirred dry enough it is wrapped in the cloth strainer
and squeezed with the hands until most of the free whey
has been removed, that is, until it is dry enough to per-
mit granulating it to fine particles by rubbing with the
hands.

When the curd has been squeezed dry enough and
thoroughly granulated by rubbing and stirring with the
hands, it should be salted at the rate of about one and
one-half ounces of salt per ten pounds of curd. After
salting the curd is soaked with skim-milk or milk; or
where a high quality of cheese is desired a thin cream
should be used.

Packing Cottage Cheese. The same packages will
answer for cheese made by either of the two methods.
For simplicity and cheapness there is no better method of
packing than the following: With an ordinary butter
printer, print the cheese in one-pound blocks and then cut.
the blocks in two. This will make packages weighing one-
half pound each. The half-pound blocks are wrapped
in thin parchment or oiled paper in a manner similar
to wrapping one-pound butter prints. The sheets of
parchment or oiled paper for this purpose should be six
inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Any dealer
in dairy supplies can furnish this paper at a very small
cost. If the cheese is to be sold in one pound packages
the wrapping paper should be eight and one-half inches
wide by ten and one-half inches long. Cottage cheese
may also be packed in water-proof packages such as are
used for carrying ice cream, oysters, etc. The fiber but-
ter boxes, made of pasteboard and lined with parchment
paper, will also be found satisfactory for this purpose.
Both of the above styles of package should be lined with

202 DAIRY FARMING

parchment paper before putting the cheese into them.

Some use wide-mouthed, single service milk bottles for
packing cottage cheese.

Marketing. When much cheese is made, it should
be marketed at fancy grocery stores and meat markets.
If made on farms that operate daily milk routes in the
city, much cheese can be sold on these routes to con-
sumers direct, thus saving the middleman’s profits. The
average retail price of the cheese is ten cents per pound.

The yield of cottage cheese, when made according to
the methods herein described will approximate 15 pounds
of cheese per 100 pounds of skim-milk.

MAKING NEUFCHATEL CHEESE.

There aré two methods by which American Neufchatel
cheese may be made, namely, with and without the use
of starter. ‘The method of making the cheese without
starter is as follows: Place the night’s milk preferably in
shotgun cans and cool to a temperature as near 70 de-
erees F. as possible. Next add at the rate of about one
teaspoonful of rennet extract for each hundred pounds of
whole milk. The rennet should first be diluted in a cup
of water and then thoroughly mixed with the milk. If
the temperature of the milk is kept at 70 degrees F. it
will be thoroughly curdled in from 15 to 20 hours, when
it should be perceptibly sour to the taste. The actual
amount of acidity at this stage should be about 0.3 per
cent. The curd is now poured onto a strainer rack cov-
ered with a cotton strainer cloth, or it may be poured
or dipped into cotton bags, to drain. After the curd has
drained an hour, light pressure should be applied to it
which may be gradually increased to hasten the draining.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 203:

As.a rule, it is desirable to have the draining com-
pleted in about three hours, the temperature during this
process being maintained at about 70 degrees F. Apply-
ing moderate pressure will hasten the draining and is
recommended for best results. As soon as the curd has
sufficiently drained, salt is added at the rate of one ounce
to every five or six pounds of cheese. The cheese should
be thoroughly kneaded with the hands to distribute the
salt evenly and to give it a smooth consistency. It is
now molded into cylindrical packages, 134x234 inches,
weighing one-fourth of a pound. These cylindrical
masses of cheese are first wrapped in thin parchment or
oiled paper and then wrapped in tin foil. These pack-
ages usually retail at five cents each.

Starter Method. When starter is used a better flav-
ored and more uniform cheese is possible. The starter
may consist of well thickened whole milk allowed to
sour in a natural way, but whole milk soured with pure
culture of lactic acid bacteria is preferable. Where pure
cultures are used the whole milk intended for starter
should be pasteurized before inoculating it with the cul-
ture.

When starter is used the cheese is made as follows:
Add at the rate of one pound of starter to four pounds
of fresh whole milk. The mixture should have a tem-
perature of about 80 degrees F. Next add at the rate
of one-half tablespoonful of rennet extract per hundred
pounds of milk, mixing the rennet with the milk as
previously explained. When thoroughly curdled, which
usually requires about one hour, the curd is ready to
drain. The rest of the process is carried out the same as
when no starter is used.

204 DAIRY FARMING

Neufchatel cheese yields from 18 to 20 pounds per
100 pounds of milk.
CREAM CHEESE.

Cream cheese is made from milk containing about ten
per cent butter fat; that is, milk reinforced with cream.
Like Neufchatel cheese, this cheese may be made with
and without starter, and the processes are the same as
with Neufchatel cheese, except that it will be found ad-
vantageous to have the temperature from three to five
degrees higher. Much butter fat is saved when making
cream cheese by the starter method. Cream: cheese 1s
molded in rectangular forms, 1144x2'%4x234 inches, hold-
ing about one-quarter of a pound. These packages us-
ually retail at ten cents each.

CLUB. CHEESE.

Another kind of cheese that is very much relished and
that can be made by anyone, is known as “club” or
“potted” cheese. The method of making this cheese is
as follows: Grind up with an ordinary meat grinder five
pounds of old, well-ripened cheddar cheese of good fla-
vor, and mix this with one pound of good butter. The
mixing is easily accomplished with a bread mixer. The
mixing should be continued until the cheese has a uni-
form consistency, free from lumps. Running the mix-
ture through the grinder a second time and working it
with the hands will assist in reducing the lumps. This
cheese can be packed in small tin-top jelly tumblers, cov-
ering the top of the cheese with parchment paper. This
makes an exceedingly palatable cheese which retails, as
a rule, at forty cents a pound. The cheese’ may also be
packed in the same manner as Neufchatel.

CHAPTER XXV.
COOLING AND AERATION OF MILK AND CREAM.

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always con-
tains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under
which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bac-
teria increase with marvelous rapidity; at low tempera-
tures their growth practically ceases. The effect of tem-
perature on bacterial development is graphically shown
in Fig. 57. ve

Kat}
\\ WINN

Fig. 57.—Relation of temperature to bacterial growth.
@ represents a single bacterium; 6, its progeny in twenty-four hours in

milk kept at 50° F.; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 70° F.
(Bul. 26, Storrs, Conn.)

At a temperature of 50° F. the bacteria multiplied five
times; at 70° F. they multiplied seven hundred and fifty
times.

Roughly speaking, at 98° F. bacteria multiply one hun-

205

206 DAIRY FARMING

dred times faster than at 70°F. At 32° F. bacterial de-
velopment practically ceases.

Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40°
to 45° F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop
growing at these temperatures. But there are other
classes of bacteria that can grow at these temperatures,
as evidenced by the production of undesirable flavors.
Such flavors usually become noticeable after thirty-six
hours. Where milk and cream are to be kept in the best
possible condition, it is necessary to reduce the tempera-
ture to within a few degrees of freezing.

Lack of thorough cooling necessitates two deliveries of
milk per day, and, what is still worse, requires many
dairymen to milk their cows shortly after midnight and
shortly after midday, a drudgery which casts a damper
upon the whole milk business. Lack of cooling also means
financial loss through souring of milk and leads to many
dissatisfied customers.

Prompt Cooling. Milk should be cooled as quickly
as possible after it is drawn. Indeed, the milk should be
taken directly from the cow to the cooling room and
promptly cooled. To do this conveniently it is necessary
to have the cooling room located as near the barn as is
consistent with freedom from barn odors.

Too often the milk is allowed to remain in the barn
until all the cows have been milked, and this may require
from two to three hours, depending upon the number
of cows milked by each milker. A few hours delay in
’ cooling reduces the keeping quality of milk to a far greater
extent than is commonly supposed.

Importance of Aeration. Milk not only con-
tains bacteria immediately after it is drawn, but it
also contains gases, chief among which, perhaps, is car-

- ‘COOLING AND AERATION 207

bonic acid gas. These gases should be removed as quickly
as possible after milking by exposing the milk in thin
sheets to the atmosphere. Fortunately the construction
of modern coolers is such as to make it possible to do
the cooling and aerating in one operation.

Formerly it was customary for dairymen to aerate
their milk before cooling. Such practice is known to give
somewhat better aeration than is possible where the cool-
ing and aerating are performed in the same operation ;
yet the difference is so slight that consumers cannot detect
it. The practice of aerating first and cooling afterward
is therefore being abandoned.

Coolers. All modern coolers permit cooling with ice
water. Without this a sufficiently low temperature can-
not be obtained to stop practically all bacterial growth.
To meet the requirements of dairies of different sizes, sev-
eral styles of coolers are herewith described and illus-
trated.

Corrugated Cooler. This style of cooler is shown in
Fig. 58, which also shows a desirable method of fastening
it. It is especially adapted to dairies having from fifteen
to thirty cows. The cooler consists of two parts: An
upper section which is used to cool milk and cream with
uniced water, and a lower section through which ice water
is circulated.

A storage tank for well water may be placed above
the ceiling. From this the water is admitted to the upper
section through the valve which is used to regulate
the flow. As shown by the arrows the water enters the
section at the bottom and discharges at the top. The
waste water may be conducted to the feed water tank of
the boiler, to a watering trough, or other places where
it may be useful.

908 DAIRY FARMING

WELL WATER
CooLeD SECTION

Ice WATER
CooLeDSEcTION

Fig. 58. Showing Corrugated Cooler and Method of Support.
By means of the pump at the left, the ice water is

forced back into the small tank at the right, which con-
tains finely crushed ice.

COOLING AND AERATION 209

Cone-Shaped Cooler. For dairies having fewer than
fifteen cows a cheap cooler like that shown in Fig. 59
may be used to advantage. The water enters the bottom
of the cooler and discharges at the top, while the milk
flows in a thin sheet over the outside. Ice may be placed
inside the cooler, if desired.
The :can ‘at the: top’ 1si-the
milk receiver, which has
small openings at the bot-
tom near ‘the outside,
through which the milk
discharges in fine streams,
directly upon the cone be-
low.

Cooling Without Spe-
cial Coolers. When no
special coolers are at hand
: milk and cream should be
Fi g. 59.—Cone Shaped Cooler. cooled in small cans by
placing them in a tank or an oil barrel cut in two. Cold
water is pumped into the tank or barrel in such a way
that the cold water drops into the bottom of the tank,
thus forcing out the warm surface water.

Water should be pumped into the tank at frequent in-
tervals until the milk or cream has nearly reached the
temperature of the water. The time of cooling is ma-
terially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very
essential part in cooling milk and cream in cans.

Where milk is placed in large cans and stirred little,
farmers lose in having the test lowered by hard par-
ticles of cream forming at the top. Where milk is
properly cooled, hard flakes of cream or churned cream
will not be found on top of the milk.

— 2s 2

210 DAIRY FARMING

Precautions in Cooling. While cooling milk or cream,
the room should be kept damp, especially the floor.
This will keep down any dust that may be in the room
and thus keep it from getting into the milk. Draughts
should be avoided during cooling for the same rea-
son. In this connection it is well to remember that
the real harm is not so much in the dust particles them-
selves as in the many bacteria which usually adhere to
them.

Where coolers are left exposed to the air of the room
after they have been cleaned and sterilized, they should
be rinsed off with boiling water just before using.

It is important also to use a reliable thermometer.
Ordinary cheap thermometers often read two to six de-
grees too high or too low. A standard thermometer
should be on hand, by which the cheaper ones may be
standardized.

Never Use Ice in Milk or Cream. Adding ice di-
rectly to milk and cream is a pernicious, though not un-
common, practice. The best of natural ice contains dirt
and bacteria. Even ice made by mechanical means from
distilled water often contains considerable quantities of
impurities. Ice also is an adulterant just as much as
water. In case of cream cooled with ice the body is un-
satisfactory, even if the cream contains the required
amount of fat.

COLD STORAGE.

Cold storage of some kind is indispensable to a well
equipped dairy. Many, however, lack this essential,
either because they do not appreciate its importance, or

COOLING AND AERATION 211

because of the rather high price of commercial refrig-
erators.
The construction of this box, shown in Fig. 60, con-

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Fig. 60.—Cross-Section of Cheap Ice Box.
sists essentially of two boxes separated by one-inch strips

placed at intervals of about one foot. Double thickness
of building paper is placed on both sides of the strips

212 DAIRY FARMING

and tacked to the boxes. A one-inch strip, two inches
wide, covers the upper space between the one-inch strips,
thus making a dead-air space between the two boxes.
The construction of the cover is the same as that of the
bottom, with the exception that there is a flange at the
front and sides of the cover. The sides, bottom and
cover of the refrigerator are built of three-quarter-inch
tongued and grooved lumber, five and a half inches
wide. ‘The ends are constructed of one and one-eighth
inch tongued and grooved flooring three and a_ half
inches wide. The inside of the ice box is lined with
galvanized iron.

CHAPTER XXVI.
HOW TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET.

Quality. Asa rule it is easy enough to secure some
kind of a market, but to secure the best frequently re-
quires considerable effort. To get fancy prices requires
first of all that the product be of superior quality. This
is particularly true of milk. The extensive agitation in
recent years for clean, pure milk has had the effect of
putting a high premium upon such milk. The public is
becoming aware of the dangers which lurk in dirty, un-
sanitary milk and is willing to pay a good price for milk
whose wholesomeness is unquestioned.

Value of Advertising. To obtain big prices it is not
enough to have products of superior quality, but what-
ever particular merits they have must be forcibly brought
to the attention of consumers. In other words, a certain
amount of advertising is necessary.

It is good policy to furnish prospective customers a
few free samples and to distribute leaflets describing the
conditions under which the products are produced and
handled. If the milk is produced in clean, ventilated,
whitewashed stables, and from cows which are regularly
tested for tuberculosis; if the milk is handled by clean,
healthy attendants and is thoroughly cooled and aerated
immediately after milking; and if, in addition, all this
is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in
prices and patronage is certain to follow when such facts
are placed before the public.

zis

214 DAIRY FARMING

The majority of city consumers have little conception
of the conditions under which average milk is produced.
For this reason the man who is producing clean milk will
find it highly profitable to place in contrast vivid pictures
of the conditions that yield average milk and those that
yield sanitary milk.

Investigate Outside Markets. Often outside mark-
ets offer better prices for milk and cream than does the
home market. This is especially true of cream. This
product permits of long distance shipping and many out-
side markets may be glad to get it at fancy prices when
the home market may be entirely overstocked.

Dairymen must not expect the market to come to them,
however ; they must seek the market. A visit or corre-
spondence with managers of cafés, hotels, restaurants,
drug stores and ice cream manufactories in different
cities, is frequently the means of securing more business
and better prices.

Where one is just starting in the dairy business or
trying new markets, it is good policy, as a rule, not to
ask very high prices at the start. First demonstrate the
merits of your products. If these are of a high order
consumers will gradually respond to demands for in-
creased prices rather than lose the products. Too high
prices at the start are likely to discourage prospective
buyers, and thus deprive you of an opportunity to prove
the value of your goods.

Uniformity: One of the essentials in building up a
good market is uniformity of product. Where this is
lacking, improvements in other directions will be of little
avail. On the other hand, products which-are uniformly
the same, week after week, and month after month, are

TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET 215

likely to command good prices even when of only medium
quality.

Punctuality. Another essential in building up a good
market is punctuality. If your customer expects his milk
at 7:30, do not deliver it at 7:40; deliver early rather
than late. If you are shipping cream or milk you cannot
afford to miss your train—even a single time. It gen-
erally means greater disappointment at the other end of
the line than one would anticipate.

Try to Please. Always put yourself in an attitude
to please. If criticisms come concerning your products,
you cannot afford to resent them. Usually there is reason
for the criticism. Try to discover the trouble and remedy
it.

Delivery Outfit. Cleanliness and neatness must char-
acterize the dairy business throughout. Milk wagons,
cans, bottles, drivers, etc., must present a clean appear-
ance. Where they do not, it is usually an easy matter
to surmise the condition of milk.

Use a Trade Mark: The name or monogram of the
dairy, placed upon the products and delivery wagons,
guarantees genuineness and will materially assist in se-
curing a better and more extended market. If as one
of the best ways of advertising a superior product.

Secure Your Market Early. If it is intended to sell
cream for manufacture into ice cream, it is important
to get a market early in the spring. It is difficult to find
one in the flush of the ice cream season, because ice cream
dealers, as a rule, contract considerably in advance of
the time they need the cream. [If it is intended to supply
winter resorts, apply for the market early in the fall.
What has been said here with reference to cream applies
also to milk,

216 DAIRY FARMING

Secure Reliable Customers. Where milk and cream
are shipped some distance, it is important to determine
beforehand the reliability of the buyer. As a rule it
is good policy not to make more than three shipments
before the first has been paid for. It is well, even where
milk and cream are sold locally, to investigate the stand-
ings of customers before their accounts have run up very
high.

Selling Direct to Consumers. No argument is need-
ed to show the advantage of selling dairy products direct
to consumers wherever this is possible. It means the
elimination of the middleman whose profits are saved to
the dairyman.

Letterhead Stationery. It is not only businesslike
to use stationery with a suitable letterhead, but it also
serves to advertise the business. The following is sub-
mitted as a suitable form of letterhead:

Springdale Sanitary Dairy.
© Boomey Prop:
Dealer in
Pure, Bottled, Jersey Milk and Cream
from Tuberculin Tested Cows.
Reicdswille; oe EA Aha erence 190%:

CHAPTER XXVIIL.

MARKETING MILK AND CREAM

RETAILING,

Dip Method. The old method of hauling milk to the
city in five, eight or ten gallon cans and removing each
patron’s allowance by means of a dipper or faucet, has
been found so objectionable that the practice has been
largely abandoned. ‘The principal objections to this
method are: (1) The admission of
dust and bacteria to the milk while
measuring it; (2) the use of unsteri- .
lized milk vessels by consumers; (3)
exposure of the vessels to dust while
on the steps of the consumer; (4) the
use of unclean vessels by milkmen in
measuring each customer’s share; (5)
lack of uniformity in the milk, espe-
cially if removed from the cans by
means of a faucet, in which case the
first drawn milk is likely to be lowest
in fat content; and (6) the possi-
bility of drivers tampering with the ———
milk. Fig. 61.—Milk Bottle.

The Use of Bottles. Milk and cream intended for re-
tail trade should be put into pint or quart bottles, like
that shown in Fig. 61. The advantages of this method
are apparent from the fact that the milk is bot-
tled immediately after cooling and that it may be

217

218 DAIRY FARMING

kept in the same bottle until it is to be consumed.
Whenever milk is changed from one vessel to another
there is always more or less contamination from dust and
bacteria.

Bottling: |For dairies having from ten to twenty
cows, a can or vat provided with a sanitary faucet will
do satisfactory work in filling bottles. A pouring can
with a slightly curved spout may also be used for this
purpose.

Fig. 62. —Filling Bottles with Machine. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.)

For large dairies a bottle filler like that shown in Fig.
62 will be found advantageous. This machine fills six
bottles at the same time. Larger or smaller fillers may be
had if desired. In selecting a bottle filler secure one of
simplest construction and preferably without rubber at-
tachments. ‘This is important for sanitary reasons.

Whatever method of filling is used, it is important to
keep the milk well stirred while filling, so as to insure
uniform quality in all the bottles.

RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 219

Immediately after filling, the bottles should be capped
with paraffned caps made for this purpose. Fig.
63 illustrates a cap provided with a little handle which
facilitates its removal
and leaves it intact.

During bottling the
room should’ be kept
damp to keep the air
free from dust and
bacteria. No air cur-
rent should be al-
lowed to sweep in
from the _ outside.
Only clean laundered
white suits should be
worn by those in
charge of the cooling Fig. 63. Bottle Cap with Handle.
and bottling.

Milk Bottle Delivery Cases. On delivery wagons
the bottles are carried in cases holding twelve or more

Fig. 64.—Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle Case.

bottles each. These cases are made of galvanized iron
or wood, or of both, and have light removable partitions
inside, separating the bottles to keep them from breaking.
Galvanized iron cases, like that shown in Fig. 64, are

220 DAIRY FARMING

the most sanitary and also permit putting crushed ice
around the bottles.

Fig. 65 shows a galvanized iron milk bottle case,
enclosed by a box made of one-inch boards and pro-
vided with a tight fitting cover. Cases of this kind should
be used in warm weather to keep the milk cool during

Fig. 65.—Insulated Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle
Case.
delivery. On especially warm days, crushed ice should
be used around the bottles. This style of case is also
recommended where bottles are shipped.

A great deal of milk is spoiled while in transit to the
consumer. ‘The last milk delivered on the route may
be on. the road five or. six hours before 1 finally
reaches its destination. If carried in open, uniced cases,
on warm days, an exposure of such duration may easily
shorten the keeping quality of the milk by eight or more
hours.

A matter of prime importance in delivering milk in
bottles is to have them thoroughly sterilized before using.
Unless this is done milk will not keep long and, what is
worse, 1s likely to disseminate disease along the route.

ae i oe.

RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 221

This danger is due to the bottles’ passing from one home
to another and eventually reaching a home in which there
is some cantagious disease. Ir such cases there is always
a probability that the bottles may become infected with
the disease germs.

Frequency of Delivering Milk: When milk is cooled
to 45° F. or below immediately after milking and is
held at this temperature until it reaches the consumer, one
delivery a day is sufficient. If it is desirable, however,
to make two deliveries a day, these should be made inde-
pendent of the milking; that is, the night’s milk should
be delivered in the morning and the morning’s milk in
the afternoon.

In some sections, especially in the south, milk is sold
with little or no cooling whatever. Hence, the practice
of delivering the morning’s milk before breakfast, and
the night’s milk before supper. This practice requires
the first milking to be done shortly after midnight and
the second milking shortly after midday, a drudgery
wholly unnecessary and easily obviated by thoroughly
cooling the milk.

Delivery Wagons. These should be clean, covered,
well painted, and provided with good springs. The name
of the dairy should be printed on each side. A neat and at-
tractive delivery wagon is essential in building up a good
trade.

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM.

This is a process by which milk and cream are brought
to a definite percentage of fat. Cream producers are
called upon to furnish cream of a definite richness, and
- different grades may be demanded by different buyers.
The simplest way to meet such demands is to have the
separator deliver cream somewhat richer than the rich-
est grade called for and to reduce this to the required
richness by adding skim-milk.

222 DAIRY FARMING

Reducing Cream with Skim-milk. When a definite
quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine
first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves the
separator) required according to the following rule:

Rule: Multiply the number of pounds of standardized
cream called for by its test and divide the product by the
test of the original cream.

The difference between the amounts of original and
standardized cream represents the amount of skim-milk
required.

Problem: How many pounds each of 45% cream and
skim-milk (zero test) are required to make 60 pounds of
18% cream?

Applying the above rule we get,
(60 X 18) + 45 = 24=— No. lbs. of original cream.
60 — 24 = 36 = No. lbs. of skim-milk.

Milk may be standardized in the same way.

Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and
Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding two
formulas the test of the skim-milk was considered zero.
When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the
calculation becomes more difficult. Pearson, however,
has devised a method by which calculations of this kind
are very much simplified. ‘This method is as follows:

Draw a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below.

At the left hand corners’ place the tests of the milks sone

creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM 293

desired. At the right hand corners place the differences
between the two numbers in line with these corners.
The number at the upper right hand corner represents
the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the
richness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Like-
wise the number at the lower right hand corner repre-
sents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with
the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner.

Example: How many pounds each of 30% cream
and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream?

3O% 21.5 LBs.
25%

35% 5 Les.

21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number
of pounds of 30% cream needed; and 5, the difference
between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5%
milk needed.

From the ratio of milk and cream thus found, any
definite quantity is easily made up. If, for example, 300
pounds of 25% cream is desired, the number of pounds
each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol-
lows:

at 1 5) '26.5

21.
26.5

X 300 = 243.4, the number of pounds
of 30% cream.

X 300 = 56.6, the number of pounds

a5 of 3.5% milk.

924 DAIRY FARMING

SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM.

The essential things in shipping milk and cream are
cleanliness and low temperature. It is possible to keep
milk and cream in good condition for two or three days,
if produced and handled under cleanly conditions and

DOUBLE
NEC

Fig. 66.—Milk Can. Fig. 67.—Felt Jacket on Can.

cooled directly after milking to 40° F. or below. This
low temperature must be maintained when long keeping
quality is desired. Every dairy should be provided with
a good ice box or refrigerator, into which milk and cream

SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 229

may be placed immediately after cooling and in which
they may be kept until ready for shipment.

Shipping in Cans. Various insulated cans are now
upon the market and a number of these have been tested
by the author. The tests showed that these cans possess
about the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that
ahe - commonly
wrapped around ordi-
nary milk cans. Since
the latter, as a rule,
are more durable and
more easily handled,
they will be found
more satisfactory
when wrapped with a
felt jacket than the so-
called insulated ship-
ping cans.

When milk and
cream are cooled close
to freezing and placed
in ordinary milk cans
wrapped in felt jack-
ets, they may be safe-
ly shipped to any
point that may be
Peached within
24, hours even
in warm weather.
If the temperature of the milk and cream at the time of
shipment is 50° F. or higher, then long distance ship-
ment is best accomplished by the use of an ordinary can
placed inside of a covered ice cream shipping tub con-
taining ice. Such a tub has practically the same in-

Fig, 68.—Screw Top Can.

226 DAIRY FARMING

sulating effect as a felt jacket, but is rather heavy and
cumbersome and should not be used except in cases where
it is necessary to pack ice around the cream or milk. The
best results from the ice are secured by packing it in
large lumps around the neck of the can. :

Shipping in Bottles. Where milk and cream are
shipped in bottles, the latter should be placed in insulated
delivery cases (Fig. 65) and surrounded with crushed
ice. ‘The cases should have the owner’s address on them
and must be kept locked while in transit.

Mode of Shipping: The usual way of shipping milk
and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections bag-
gage rates are available. These rates are lower than ex-
press rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by
special arrangement with the railroad companies.

Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance
of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A con-
siderable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly ad-
hering to this practice. Insist upon getting the lowest
rates possible.

Pointers on Shipping. Have the name and address
of your dairy permanently marked in brass upon every
can and cover; also have it sewed or stitched on the felt
jackets. ‘This is necessary to insure the return of your
own goods. The name and address will be put upon the
cans and covers by the dealer from whom they are pur-
chased, if so requested; or, in case unmarked cans are
already on the premises, the brass plates with the name
and address may be purchased from dairy supply firms
and placed upon the cans and covers by a local tinner.

Even when labeled as indicated above, cans will oc-
casionally get lost. Empty cans are usually returned free
of charge and, for this reason, express receipts are com-

SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 22

monly not taken for them. This is a mistake. If the
purchaser of your products will take a receipt for the
empty cans, ths express company becomes responsible for
them in the event they are lost. Without the receipt it
is next to impossible to claim damages for lost goods.

The empty cans should be washed before they are re-
turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well
as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived
unless washed and dried immediately after use.

Another matter of importance in shipping is to have
the cans full to prevent churning.

Fig. 69.—Lead Seal and Seal Press.

It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent
tampering with the contents. The sealing is easily accom-
plished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 69).

In delivering the cream or milk at the station the de-
livery man should see to it that the cans are put in as
cool a place as possible.

CHAPLER XXV IT.
ICK CREAM MAKING.

Kind of Cream. Select the best flavored sweet cream
containing about 20% butter fat. To secure the best
bodied ice cream and the proper swell, cream should be
kept as near the freezing point as possible for twenty-
four hours previous to freezing.

Freezing Process. With an initial temperature of
about 35° F., the time required to freeze ice cream should
average about twelve minutes, and to get the best con-
sistency the temperature at the close of the freezing
process should be approximately 28° F.

Too quick freezing causes the water to separate from
the cream, which results in a granular ice cream. Freez-
ing too slowly reduces the overrun and tends to make the
ice cream smeary.

To reduce the temperature of a mass of cream below
the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture of a low
temperature. Such a mixture is secured by mixing salt
and crushed ice in the proportion of one of salt to about
six to twelve of ice. The purpose of the salt is to lower
the freezing point of the melting ice and to hasten the
melting.

To melt one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the
same temperature requires 142 heat units. Rapidly melt-
ing ice, therefore, absorbs a large quantity of heat which

228

ICE CREAM MAKING 229

in the freezing of cream is largely extracted from the
cream.

The temperature of the ice cream mixture when start-
ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible to
prevent churning the cream. The tendency to churn is
also lessened by revolving the freezer slowly the first few
minutes in freezing.

In packing the freezing mixture around the cream
container, fill the freezer about half full of finely crushed
ice and finish the filling by using salt and ice in the
proportion of about one to three. As the ice mixture
works down during the freezing process, continue adding
more salt and ice as needed.

If the freezer is started while the cream is still warm
(about 60° F.), the speed of the freezer must be kept
down until a temperature of about 35° F. is reached.
After this the speed is increased to 150 to 200 revolutions
per minute until the cream is frozen. This speed insures
the proper incorporation of air and the desirable smooth-
ness of the finished product.

The freezer should be stopped before the cream be-
comes too thick, else it will lose some of the air that has
been incorporated as well as show a tendency to coarse-
ness in texture. Yield and quality therefore demand that
the freezer be stopped while the cream is still a trifle soft.

Vanilla Ice Cream. ‘T'o make three gallons of finished
ice cream, requires about two gallons of cream to which
should be added about three pounds of sugar, or one
and one-half pounds to the gallon. The sugar should be
well mixed with the cream and allowed to dissolve before
starting the freezer. Next add at the rate of about two-
thirds ounce of vanilla extract and freeze.

230 DAIRY FARMING

Chocolate Ice Cream. This can be made by adding
chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream.

Where a regular batch of chocolate ice cream is made,
the chocolate is added before starting to freeze.

Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice
cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from any
signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold water
and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind,
being careful not to grate off any of the white portion
which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with sugar,
using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. Next cut
the lemons in two and squeeze out the juice, removing
any seeds that may have dropped in from the squeezer.
Mix the juice with the sugared rind and add orange juice
to the mixture, using one orange to every three or four
lemons. Allow the mixture to stand for about one hour,
stirring it occasionally, and then strain. Use at the rate
of one-half pint per gallon of cream. ‘The flavor is added
to the cream when nearly frozen to prevent curdling it.
Use two pounds of sugar per gallon of cream.

Walnut Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, three
pounds of sugar, one and one-third ounces vanilla ex-
tract and one and one-third pounds of ground walnut
meats. Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream.

Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut,
pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be prepared
essentially as walnut ice cream.

Strawberry Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream,
three pounds of sugar and two-thirds quart of crushed
strawberries. The fruit should be added to the cream
after it is partially frozen so as not to curdle the cream
or to have the fruit settle to the bottom.

ICE CREAM MAKING 231

Other Fruit Ice Creams. Cherry, raspberry, pine-
apple, peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry ice
creams are made the same as strawberry, except that the
amount of sugar is varied according to the acidity of
the fruit.

Packing Ice Cream. Remove the ice cream from the
freezer while still in rather soft condition and put the
same in packing cans which have been thoroughly chilled
by having the ice and salt packed around them about ten
minutes before receiving the ice cream. Most of the
salt should be put near the top, the same as in freezing.
The ice cream should be held in the packing cans at a
temperature below 20° F.

Remove the brine and repack often enough to prevent
melting. In the melting process the water separates and
forms undesirable crystals when the cream is refrozen.
Always repack with a new freezing mixture just before
the ice cream leaves the dairy.

The Overrun or Swell. This refers to the excess of
ice cream over cream. Anything that tends to incorporate
and hold air in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus
excessive beating of the cream during freezing mixes a
great deal of air with it, and hence, increases the over-
run. A high viscosity of the cream holds the air incor-
porated during freezing. Fresh separator cream has a
low viscosity, that is, does not whip well, hence will not
swell up so much in freezing as cream that has been kept
cold for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has
a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping the
cream at a low temperature a number of hours before
freezing.

An overrun of from 50 to 60 per cent is large enough.

232 DAIRY FARMING

Overruns approximating 80 to 90 per cent are obtained
at the expense of quality.

Marketing Ice Cream. Hardly any attempt has yet
been made by cream producers living within driving dis-
tance of cities to convert their cream into ice cream
and sell this product direct to consumers. This is some-
what surprising, since the largest profits in the cream
business have hitherto been made by what may be called
the middleman, the city ice cream manufacturer.

It is a vital matter with producers to reach consumers
direct wherever this is possible, and thus save the mid-
dleman’s profits. With those who retail milk and cream,
the marketing of ice cream would entail no extra expense.

The essential thing in building up a good ice cream
trade is to make the best product possible. ‘The market
is glutted with cheap, inferior ice cream, and the call
now is for a high grade product. Fortunately the public
is beginning to realize that there is positive danger in
eating ice cream made from old, stale milk or cream, and
the public also seems to begin to understand that the
bulk of ice cream is made with so-called thickeners, like
gelatine, corn starch, tapioca, arrow root, and others.
Many so-called ice creams contain no cream whatever.
The highest quality of ice cream contains nothing put
good, pure cream, sugar and flavoring.

CHAPTER XXIX.
MAKING AND MARKETING SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK.

Souring the Skim-milk. As soon as the skim-milk
leaves the separator, whole milk is added at the rate of
one gallon to twenty gallons of skim-milk. his gives the
mixture a fat content, which approximates that of ordinary
buttermilk. A large quantity of pure culture of lactic
acid bacteria (starter, see p. 193) is next added and the
temperature brought to 70° F. Enough starter is added to
curdle the skim-milk in about six hours at the temperature
mentioned. This requires about one pound of culture for
every three pounds of skim-milk. When a temperature
above 70° F. is employed, there is a tendency for whey
to separate after the skim-milk has curdled.

Churning. When thoroughly curdled, the skim-milk
is placed in a churn and churned for about thirty minutes
in the same way that cream is churned in making butter.
The churning process thoroughly breaks up the curd clots,
resulting in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be dis-
tinguished from ordinary good buttermilk.

Cooling. Immediately after the buttermilk leaves the
churn, the temperature should be reduced below 50° F.
to prevent further development of acid and the separa-
tion of the whey. Ordinary milk and cream coolers with
enlarged holes in the distributing receptacle will answer
very satisfactorily.

Straining. As soon as cooled, the buttermilk should

23a

234 DAIRY FARMING

be run through a strainer consisting of one thickness of
cheese cloth to remove any unbroken curd clots.

Bottling. After it is strained the buttermilk is bottled
or put in tin cans holding from one to five gallons, after
which it is placed in the refrigerator where it is held until
ready for delivery.

Marketing Skim-milk Buttermilk. In trying to sell
skimmilk-buttermilk it is necessary in the first place, to ex-
plain that this product, when made as herein described, is
almost identical with the highest grade of natural butter-
milk, both in composition and physical properties, and,
therefore, in palatability and wholesomeness. Indeed, it
is not thought possible under average conditions to secure
natural buttermilk of as uniform a quality or as fine a
flavor as can be obtained from skim-milk. When these
facts are explained to dealers and consumers, any preju-
dices which might exist against this so-called artificial
product are certain to vanish.

The dealers in buttermilk should be furnished with
attractive signs, calling attention to the fact that the
product is for sale by them. Buttermilk is not found at
all soda fountains, and unless conspicuous signs are
posted at these places, the public may not call for it.

Buttermilk may readily be sold to drug stores, restau-
rants, hotels and boarding houses at from ten to thirty
cents per gallon, averaging about twelve cents per gallon.

As with cottage cheese, the most satisfactory way of
disposing of buttermilk is to sell it direct to the milk
and cream customers along the dairy route.

Where buttermilk is intended to be used as a beverage,
it is important to keep its temperature below 50° F. until
it is consumed.

Food Value of Buttermilk. When used as a bever-

SKIMMILK-B UTTERMILK 235

age, buttermilk is usually appreciated only for its palata-
bility. Aside from this, however, it has a high dietetic,
as well as high medicinal, value. In certain diseases,
especially those affecting the alimentary tract, buttermilk
is considered indispensable. Its nutritive value is high,
two quarts being approximately equal to one pound of
good beefsteak.
Buttermilk From Pasteurized Skim-milk. The best
buttermilk is obtained by adding the starter to pasteurized
skim-milk. Under such conditions the entire skim-milk
becomes virtually a starter or pure culture of lactic acid
bacteria. This not only means a better flavor but also
insures freedom from pathogenic organisms. Pasteuriza-
tion also lessens the tendency for the whey to separate.

CHAP TER XXX

CERTIFIED MILK.

Definition. Certified milk is milk produced under
conditions imposed by medical milk commissions, which
usually employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a
chemist to look after the production of the milk. It must

Fig. 70. —Sanitary Dairy Barn. (Da. Div., U.S. Dept. of A.)

be free from disease germs and preservatives, must have
a known chemical composition, and must be so produced
and handled as to insure a minimum number of bacteria,

230

CERTIFIED MILK 237

If the producer has complied with all the requirements
he is furnished a certificate by the commission, which
permits him to use the “certified” label on his products.

The term “certified milk’ is registered in the United
States patent office and its use is legally permitted only
on milk approved by medical milk commissions,

Uses. Certified milk is now largely used for infants
and invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increasing

Fig. 71.—Truman Sanitary Milk Pail. (Storrs, Conn. Station.)

use made of this milk by the better informed people who
realize the unsanitary condition of average market milk.
Certified milk is the means of saving the lives of thou-
sands of infants and its increasing use offers splendid
opportunities for dairymen who are in a position to
meet the requirements laid aown by medical commissions.

Production and Handling. The general conditions
called for in the production of ‘“‘certified’”’ milk are essen-
tially the same as those stated in the chapter on “sanitary
milk production.”

238 DAIRY FARMING

The cows, milkers and premises are regularly inspected,
and the milk is regularly subjected to chemical and bac-
teriological tests. The number of bacteria permitted by
different commissions varies from 10,000 to 30,000 per
cubic centimeter of milk; and the fat content ranges from
about 3.5 to 4.5 per cent.

The milk bottles are sealed preferably with metallic
caps bearing the date of bottling and the name of the
commission. Delivery should be made within twenty-
four hours after the milk is drawn and its temperature
during this time should not exceed 45° F.

In the dairy house arrangements must be such as to
reduce contamination to a minimum. A receiving can
placed in an ante-room is used by the milkers to empty
their pails, and from this the milk is conducted into the
milk room. A sterilizer with doors at both ends is pre-
ferably placed between the milk room and the wash room,
so as to enable the milkers to get their pails without enter-
ing the milk room and, at the same time, to allow the
sterilized bottles to be removed without entering the wash
room.

Profits. Obviously it costs more to produce certified
than average market milk, but the additional cost is less,
as a rule, than the increased price realized. Certified
dairies that have failed to make money have almost in-
variably invested more money in buildings and equipment
than was actually necessary. It has been shown that this
class of milk may be successfully produced in quite ordi-
nary buildings and with moderately cheap equipment.
What is of greatest importance is extreme cleanliness,
which is achieved mainly through intelligent care and
management of every detail of the work from start to
finish.

CHAPTER XXXII.
RELATIVE MARKET VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.

Many milk producers are so situated as to make it pos-
sible for them to sell either milk, cream, butter, cheese
or ice cream. ‘To those so situated the question naturally
arises, what method of disposal will yield the largest re-
turns? This, of course, will depend to a great extent
upon the relative market prices of these products.

To show how dairymen may determine for themselves
in what form they can realize most for their milk, a
simple method of calculation is here presented, in which,
for purposes of illustration, the following prices have
been adopted: Milk, seven cents per quart; 30% cream,
one dollar per gallon; butter, twenty-five cents per pound ;
cheese, thirteen cents per pound; and ice cream, made
from 15% cream, one dollar per gallon. Using these as
average prices for a given locality, determine the relative
returns from one hundred pounds of milk containing 4%
(4 lbs.) butterfat, (1) when retailed as milk, (2) when
sold as cream, (3) when sold as butter, (4) when sold
as cheese, and (5) when sold as ice cream.

1. Value of Milk. Since milk weighs 2.15 pounds per
quart, 100 pounds of 4% milk are equal to 46.5 quarts,
which, at 7 cents per quart, are worth $3.25.

2. Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk
will make 13.33 pounds of 30% cream, as determined by
the following rule:

239

240 DAIRY FARMING

Rule: To find the number of pounds of cream that
can be obtained from a given amount of milk, multiply
the milk by its test and divide the product by the test
of the cream. Thus the amount of 30% cream from
100 pounds of milk testing 4% equals

I0O X 4
30

Since a gallon of 30% cream weighs practically the
same as a gallon of water (8.35 lbs.), the 13.33 pounds
of cream are equal to 1.6 gallons which, at $1.00 per gal-
lon, are worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound
for skim-milk, we have 43 cents as the value of the 86
pounds of skim-milk, which gives a total value of $2.03
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk.

2. Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk
will yield 4 2-3 pounds of butter, because where up-to-
date methods of creaming and churning are followed
every pound of butterfat will make 1 1-6 pounds of
butter. Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 cents
per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk at the
same price as skim-milk (one-half cent per pound) 48
cents should be added to the $1.17 asthe value of the
skim-milk and buttermilk, making a total value of $1.65
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk.

4. Value of Cheese. Since one pound of butterfat yields
approximately 2.6 pounds of cured cheddar cheese, 100
pounds of 4% milk will make 4 X 2.6, or 10.4 pounds of
cheese, which, at 13 cents per pound, are worth $1.35.
Allowing 10 cents as the value of the whey from the 100
pounds of 4% milk, we get a total value of $1.45.

= 2.33; poutids.

VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 9A]

5. Value of Ice Cream. Since a gallon of 15% cream
weighs 8.45 pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make
3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see formula for calculating
cream, p. 240) or, allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2
gallons of ice cream. At $1.00 per gallon this is worth
$4.20. To this must be added the value of 73 pounds of
skim-milk which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth
37 cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds
of milk made into ice cream.

Summary. ‘The preceding calculations show that 100
pounds of 4% milk are worth

$1.45 when sold as cheese,
1.65 when sold as butter,
2.03 when sold as cream,
3.25 when retailed as milk,
4.57 when sold as ice cream.

It is to be remembered that the above figures show the
relative gross returns at the prices given. The net re-
turns will vary greatly, depending largely upon the near-
ness to market and the quantity of milk handled; also to
some extent upon the use to which the skim-milk is put.
If fed to pigs and calves the value of skim-milk is less
than one-half cent per pound; if made into buttermilk or
cottage cheese its value may range from one to two
cents per pound.

Table of Values. The following table of values has
been prepared for handy reference. The price of milk is
used as a basis, and the table shows at what prices cream
and butter must be sold to give the same returns as milk:

242 DAIRY FARMING
Per Cent. of When Milk 20% Cream 30% Cream Butter
Fat in Milk sells at must sell at must sell at must sell at
5c per quart | 25c per quart | 36c per quart | 50c per pound
6c ai ae 83le ce cc 43¢ ae ce 60ec oe ae
3.5 }
8c ce ce 42e cc cc 59c “ ce 84c “ ae
0c * oc 58e “c Te ¢ “ $1.06 a “
5e per quart | 22c per quart | 3lc per quart | 44c per pound
6c ce “ce 2% %e ec “ 38c ae ce 54e ce ce
4.0 8c ce ce 37c “ ce 50e ae ce 73¢ “ “
10c ce ce 46c ce ce 66c “ce cc 98¢c ce “e
5e per quart | 20c per quart | 28c per quart | 39¢e per pound
6c “oe “ce ee Wa) ce ce 34c ce as 47c “ ae
4.5 8c“ “ 32¢ ” & 4Ge “* “c 6de «“
10c cc ce 4dic ce ce 59ec “ce a3 82c oc oe
5e per quart | 18c per quart | 25c per quart | 35c per pound
6c “ “cc ' 21¢e “ee “ec 30ec “cc “cc 43¢ «e “cc
5.0 8c “Ge cc We « 7; 42c * « 59c ‘5 COS
10c ce a9 37¢c ce ce 538e ce ce 75e cc Lay

In calculating the above values, skim-milk and butter-
milk have been rated at 30 cents per 100 pounds. The
weight allowed per quart is as follows: Milk, 2.15 pounds ;
20% cream, 2.1 pounds; and 30% cream, 2.0 pounds.
The cost of handling and retailing these products, as well
~as the cost of making the butter, has not been considered.

From the table it will be seen that when 3.5% milk sells
at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must sell at 25 cents per
quart, 30% cream at 36 cents per quart, and butter at 50
cents per pound, to yield equivalent returns. Similarly,
when 5% milk sells at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must
sell at 18 cents per quart, 30% cream at 25 cents per
- quart, and butter at 35 cents per pound.

The table emphasizes the importance of selling milk on
the basis of its fat content.

PART III.
ar ee AE ENE.

GHAPTBR XXX

ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF DAIRY STOCK.
Valuing Cows.

To put dairying on a business basis requires that a
record be kept of each cow individually. This is im-
portant not only to determine which cows are paying for
their keep, but also to demonstrate to owners that high
producers, as a rule, are valued too low in comparison
with poor producers. Every cow must be valued ac-
cording: to the net returns obtained from her; tiaras
every item of expense must be deducted from the total
receipts in order to know whether a cow has been kept
at a profit or a loss. In the following paragraphs data
are presented to show the method of determining the net
profits as well as to give some idea of the relative value
of cows of different productive capacities. The figures
presented are based upon pure bred herds containing
thirty cows and one bull each. Furthermore, it is assumed
that all concentrated feeds are purchased at market prices
and that all roughage is raised on the farm and charged
at actual cost of production. To furnish the necessary
roughage and pasture, one and one-half acres of land are
allotted to each cow, one-half of which is devoted to pas-
ture and the other half to hay and forage production.
Fight years has been allowed as the period of usefulness
of a cow. |

244

VALUING DAIRY STOCK 245

Three cows have been selected whose annual butter fat
production is 200, 300 and 400 pounds respectively. The
receipts, expenditures and net profits from the three dif-
ferent producers, Cow I, Cow II and Cow III, are shown
as follows:

———~

Cow Cow Cow
De Il. Tif.
Annual butter fat production (Ibs.).. 200 300 400
Market value placed upon cow.........| $40.00 | $100.00 | $200.00
Annual Receipts—
Valuerof butter fat at 27c per Ib... =. 54.00] 81.00]\ 108.00
emer A GACT sch oe wee Se faa, sre ko eee 3.00 8.00} 20.00
Value of skim-milk at 30c per 100 lbs.| 14.00] 21.60} 28.80
Dealserot aAnaitires2c.r2 ace os oss) ss he 20.00}. )°22:50|= -25.00
One-eighth final value of cow for beef 3.00 3.00 3.00
Maggie as ns Fee wats GARY wets $94.00 | $136.10 | $184.80
Annual Expenditures—
EE 3 rah Raga AS RTE So as $40.00] $50.00] $60.00
Labor, feeding and milking........... 20.00] 20.00] 20.00
Interest on barn, silo, milk house and
equipment valued at $100 at 5%..... 5.00 5.00 5.00
Insurance and depreciation of build-
ings and equipment at 5%.......... 5.00 5.00 5.00
Reatest attention’. o.5 civ ss acne. ee. 1.00 1.00 1.00
Interest on value of cow at 5%...... 2.00 5.00} 10.00
Depreciation of cow at 124%4%........ A. G2 ES. It BASO2
Taxes on buildings and cow at 4%.. .70 1.00 1.50
RM E LA eto ss ete Fs ais Sake an aj 1.60 A OOO 228.00
Genvice teen. sa... 6 ss et Ret er NEL: 250 2.50 2.50
GT REN SS RR aa PAS a wehe 4 eae 42 SOs G2 st37 02
Amnual net prot’ 22S ae 6 $11.58] $30.48] $47.18

EXPLANATION OF ABOVE FIGURES.

Price of Butter Fat. Prevailing prices of butter and
cheese have been such as to yield farmers having their

246 DAIRY FARMING

milk made into these products, an average price for the
year of 27 cents per pound of butter fat.

Value of Calf. A calf from a cow producing only 200
pounds of butter fat a year must be valued at beef prices,
which amounts to about $3.00 at birth. When the produc-
tion reaches 300 pounds of butter fat and up, the value
of the calf rapidly increases, as indicated in the tables.
The price placed upon the calves from the larger pro-_
ducers it is believed, is a fair average market value. Their
actual value is considerably greater than this.

Value of Skim-Milk. For the purpose of this calcu-
lation, the amount of skim-milk credited to each cow is
based upon a 4% fat content of:the milk and represents
the total milk minus the butter fat it contains. While rat-
ing the value of skim-milk at 30 cents per 100 pounds
may be considered too high by some, it must be remem-
bered that skim-milk has a fertilizing value which alone
amounts to at least 10 cents per 100 pounds, and fully
three-fourths of this is recovered in the manure. For
poultry, young calves, and young pigs, the combined feed-
ing and fertilizing value of skim-milk is higher than 30
cents, especially when fed in a small quantity.

Value of Manure. The manure from cows considered
in the preceding table is valued according to its content
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, which according
to their present commercial ratings are worth 19, 5, and
5 cents per pound respectively. The fertilizing ingredi-
ents vary with the kind and amount of feed supplied, and
this again varies according to the productive capacity of
cows and, to some extent, the section of the country in
which the cows are fed. Largely because of these condi-

VALUING DAIRY STOCK 247

tions, the values here obtained are intended to be used
as general averages only.

In fixing the value of the manure from cows of different
productive capacities, $15 is allowed as the value of the
manure from the feed required for maintenance and for
the development of the foetus. In this connection it
should be remembered that the one and one-half acres of
land allotted per cow are intended to supply all of the
roughage needed, and this should contain nutrients suffi-
cient for maintenance requirements. On one-half of this
land there is grown, say, one ton of red clover hay and
three tons of corn silage, which contain fertilizing ingre-
dients to the value of $13.62. If one-half of this amount
is allowed as the value of the fertilizing ingredients con-
tained in the pasture from the other half of the land, the
total value of the fertilizing constituents contained in the
feed required for maintenance is $20.00. Some of the fer-
tilizing constituents enter into the foetus, but it is safe
to say that three-fourths of them, or $15 worth, pass into
the manure. ‘This maintenance feed, and its value as a
fertilizer, is quite constant for cows of different pro-
ductive capacities. Additional manurial value is, therefore,
obtained from the amount of concentrated feeds supplied
for milk production. According to European and Ameri-
can figures, this amount is approximately 800 pounds for
each 2,500 pounds of 4% milk, or for each 100 pounds of
butter fat, produced.

The manurial value of each pound of the common con-
centrates varies from three-eighths cent for corn to about
one and one-fourth cents for cottonseed meal and linseed
meal, with intervening values of three-fourths cent for
wheat bran, dried brewers grains and gluten feed, and

248 DAIRY FARMING

about one cent for gluten meal. From these values it is
safe to assume an average of five-eighths cent per pound
which gives the 800 pounds of concentrates a manurial
value of $5.00. Since milk has a manurial value of about
10 cents per 100 pounds, the manurial value of the 2,500
pounds of milk is $2.50, which leaves $2.50 as the value
of manurial constituents that actually enter into the
manure for each 2,500 pounds of milk, or each 100
pounds of butter fat, produced. For each too pounds of
butter fat produced, therefore, $2.50 is added to ‘Sr5
which is the estimated value of the manure from feed
required for maintenance.

The value of the manure from cows of different pro-
ductive capacities, as obtained in the above calculation, is |
based upon the assumption that all of the manure is saved.
Unfortunately, however, many dairymen allow one-half or
more of it to go to waste, but such carelessness on the
part of dairymen should not be charged against the cow.

While the value of the manure has been based solely
upon its content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash,
manure has values outside of these ingredients. Its me-
chanical effect upon the soil through the humus it sup-
plies, as well as the beneficial effects of the hosts of
bacteria it contains, should not be underrated.

Value of Cow for Beef. The final value of a cow to
the butcher may be placed at $24. Since the cow may be
milked on an average eight years, one-eighth of the $24,
or $3, should be credited to her annual receipts.

Cost of Feed. On arriving at the cost of feed, it is
to be remembered that one and one-half acres of land 1s
allotted to each cow. This land, valued at $80 per acre,
will undoubtedly furnish enough pasture and other rough

VALUING DAIRY STOCK 249

feeds to meet the usual maintenance requirements. In
determining the cost of the forage grown on this land,
$6.60 is charged as the interest and taxes on the value of
the land, $3.40 as the cost of fencing, and $10 as the cost
of the labor and seed required to raise the roughage on
three-fourths acre of land. This makes a total of $20,
the cost of maintenance.

As stated above, approximately 800 pounds of grain or
its equivalent, is required to produce 2,500 pounds of
milk testing 4 per cent butter fat. This grain has an
average market value of about $10. To the $20, the cost
of maintenance, must therefore be added $10 for each
2,500 pounds of milk, or for each 100 pounds of butter
fat, produced.

Net Profits: The market value placed upon the cows
is assumed to be the average price that one is obliged to
pay when purchasing them. Where the cows are valued
according to the actual cost of raising them, the net profits
would be considerably higher than those shown in the
preceding table, especially from the higher producers, as
witness the following table in which the “net profits when
the cow is raised,” are based upon the cost of the cow
as determined under “valuing calves,” page 250.

Annual Butter Fat Production ...... Pounds] 200 | 300 | 400

Met Profit when Cow is Bought...........-. $11.58|$30.48/$47.18
(From Table, Page 245)

Met Profit when Cow is Raised :........... 11.58] 42.38] 77.98

The higher net profits from cows raised upon the farm
are due to their lower cost to the dairymen, reducing the
following expenses based upon the cost of the cow; risk,
taxes, interest and depreciation.

250 DAIRY FARMING

VALUING CALVES.

As arule, calves from high-class cows are sold at prices
considerably below their actual value. This is so because
few dairymen appreciate the full value of calves from
high producers. Not until such calves have grown into
young cows is it possible to realize anywhere near their
full market value, and hence the wisdom of selling voung
milch cows instead of calves.

In the receipts from cows of different productive
capacities shown on page 245, the values assigned to the
calves from the higher producers are low as compared
with the market price of cows of similar productive
capacities. This is best shown by first calculating the
approximate cost of raising calves from cows of differ-
ent productive capacities, up to the time of dropping their
first calf, namely, two years old, as follows:

MateneStaatas. oieak iene cates tee $0. 30 $0.80 $2.00
RIS At Mio sc sheen wee teers hee 24 64 1.60
Interest, taxes, insurance and de-

Pteciation ot Warne .25 eee eee 1.50 150 1.50
Cost; ot feed soca esaee Fess My, ceca 40.00 40.00 40.00
Coston 1abon fiver tack een ee 10.00 10.00 10.00
Resistration tee? ste. eee tee 2.00 2.00 2.00
MIERVIGCE | SEOn ccs Senne hia 2.50 2.50 2°50
LaxesOn calli atari ee eee .20 . 20 .20
Medical attention s...-ae erste aie .20 .20 .20

‘otal icosts; . ries. $56.94 | $57.84 | $60.00
Value ot mantic. .c aac ece 20.00 20.00 20.00
Net cost at two years old ...... | $36.94 | $37.84 | $40.00

VALUING DAIRY STOCK 251

This table shows that the cost of raising an ordinary
two-year-old heifer may be taken on an average to be
$37 and that this cost is not materially increased for high-
class heifers.

The following table shows that the market value as-
signed to calves from the higher producing cows is low
in comparison with the market value of the cows them-

selves :
Offspring from
200-lb. | 300-lb. | 400-lb.
cow. cow. cow.
Market value of calf at birth....... $3.00 $8.00 | $20.00
Cost of raising calf up to two years
a eM te a 2c E ais andl cle sc a acinus 236.04 37.84 | $40.00
Total cost of two-year-old heifer....} $39.94 | $45.84 | $60.00
Market value two-year-old heifer...| 40.00] 100.00] 200.00
Increased net profit from selling
Peter iistead of cali. 0.3... 5. $0.06 | $54.16 | $140.00

The table shows that it is unquestionably more profit-
able to keep heifer calves until two years old than to sell
them as calves.

VALUING BULLS.

In estimating the relative value of bulls capable of pro-
ducing cows yielding annually 200, 300 and 400 pounds
of butter fat respectively, it is assumed that each bull will
produce fifteen heifer calves and fifteen bull calves an-
nually. The relative value of the heifers from the differ-
ent bulls, is based upon the relative net profits obtained
from the cows as determined under ‘Valuing Cows,”
page 244. The bull calves from the different bulls are

252 DAIRY FARMING

given values corresponding to those given the calves in
the calculation just referred to.

Since cows producing only 200 pounds of butter fat a
year are maintained at only a small profit, bulls capable
of producing such cows will not be considered here. By
referring to the figures showing the net profits from cows
of different productive capacities it will be found that cows
yielding 400 pounds of butter fat a year will produce an-
nually $16.70 more net profit than those yielding 300
pounds of butter fat. The immediate increased value of
the fifteen heifer calves from the 400-pound bull will,
therefore, amount to $16.70X15, or $250.50.

Since these heifers will produce for a period of eight
years, the real annual increased value represented by the
fifteen heifer calves from the better bull will amount to
$250.50X8 or $2,000.00. Adding to this $180 as the in-
creased value of the fifteen bull calves, we have a total
of $2,184 which represents the total annual increased value
of the offspring from the 400-pound bull over that of the
300-pound one. Allowing six years as the period of use-
fulness of bulls, we get a grand total of $13,104 in favor
of the 400-pound bull during his six-year period of use-
fulness.

If we value the 300-pound bull at forty dollars and the
400-pound bull at $150, it will be necessary to deduct from
the above the difference in the interest, taxes, risk and
depreciation of the two bulls. These items, if figured the
same as for cows, will amount to $172.68 for six years,
leaving a net profit of $13,031.32 in favor of the 400-
pound bull during his period of usefulness.

If we value heifer calves according to the net profits
obtained from cows when the latter are raised upon the
farm, the differences found above will be considerably
greater.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

LEGUMES (ALFALFA AND CLOVERS).

One of the greatest factors in successful dairying at
the present time is the growing of an ample supply of
leguminous crops, such as alfalfa and clovers. There are
several reasons for.this: (1) legumes improve the soil
by adding to its store of nitrogen; (2) legumes are rich®
in protein and can, therefore, take the place, to a great
extent, of high priced commercial feeds rich in protein.

The bacteria that live upon the roots of alfalfa and
clovers have the power of taking the nitrogen from the
air and putting it into the soil in a form in which it be-
comes available for plant growth. Nitrogen when pur-
chased in the form of commercial fertilizers, has a value
of about twenty cents per pound. The dairyman who
grows a sufficient quantity of clover and alfalfa gets the
nitrogen absolutely free and in sufficient quantity not only
to maintain the supply of nitrogen already in the soil,
but by feeding the clover and alfalfa to stock the nitrogen
content of the soil can be materially increased.

With the increasing cost of commercial feeds rich in
protein, it manifestly is a matter of economy for the dairy
farmer to raise crops upon his farm which can take the
place of expensive commercial feeds. There is no home
grown feed which can take the place of grain or concen-
trated commercial feeds to so great an extent as alfalfa.
This will be readily understood when it is known that

253

254 DAIRY FARMING

practical feeding trials have shown that good alfalfa hay
has, pound for pound, the same value for milk produc-
tion as wheat bran. It is generally known that red clover
and other kinds of clover are rich in protein, but alfalfa
is still richer in protein. -

Where conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa,
there is perhaps no general farm crop that yields so great
returns from an acre of land as alfalfa, especially when
considering its favorable effect upon the soil. In favored
localities alfalfa can be cut four times during each sea-
son, yielding from four to five tons per acre.

The roots of alfalfa penetrate the soil to great depths
and for this reason, when once established, alfalfa will
flourish during dry seasons when ordinary crops fail.
Moreover, the deep root system of alfalfa enables it to
obtain plant food from such soil depths as are entirely
beyond the reach of ordinary farm plants.

Alfalfa is a plant highly relished by all classes of live
stock, though it cannot be as successfully grazed, perhaps,
as red clover, at least not until it has passed through the
second season; but, unlike red clover, alfalfa will con-
tinue to yield good crops of hay many years without re-
planting. It is well to remember that alfalfa does not
thrive everywhere. It requires a well drained soil rich
in lime and containing the right kind of bacteria. In
limestone regions where sweet clover flourishes, alfalfa
probably grows at its best. This plant is so valuable to
dairymen that none can afford not to try to grow it.

LEGUME HAY AND CORN SILAGE.

Where a liberal allowance of rich legume hay is fed
in conjunction with corn silage, little grain or concen-

LEGUMES 25D

trates is required, except for heavy producers. Silage
helps to balance the legume ration and supplies the suc-
culence which the legume hay lacks. The two feeds,
therefore, nicely supplement each other, not only so far
as succulence is concerned, but also with respect to pro-
tein and carbohydrates.

For economical milk production it may be stated with-
out fear of contradiction that there is no combination of
winter feeds equal to legume hay and corn silage, sup-
plemented with grain or concentrates according the yield
of milk. It is economy also to feed silage and legume
hay during periods when pastures are short. Especially
important is it to have silage for summer feeding, a
matter which is recognized now-a-days by leading dairy-
men everywhere.

CHAPTER SOCkIVe
THE DAIRY HOUSE.

Location. In selecting a site for a dairy house, con-
venience and sanitation should be given first considera-
tion. A well drained spot, free from rubbish and bad
odors, and within reasonable distance from the barn
should be selected. An abundance of good, pure water
must be available.

Floor Plans Designed by the Author. Dairymen who
sell milk and cream occasionally have a surplus of these
products on their hands, which is usually made into butter.
Floor plans for dairy houses must therefore provide for
small buttermaking outfits in addition to all the necessary
apparatus for the handling of milk and cream.

The floor plan shown in Fig. 72 is designed to meet
the needs of small dairymen. Figs. 73 and 76 illustrate
plans which will answer the needs of dairymen having
from twenty to fifty cows. The first two plans provide
for retail milk; the last provides for farm buttermaking.
There is no question that refrigerating machinery can be
employed very advantageously in a great percentage of
the larger dairies.

Details of Construction. The foundation for the
walls may be constructed of stone, brick or concrete. It
should rest upon firm, solid ground below the frost line,
and the top must be at least one foot above ground.

In building the walls, place the studs two feet apart

256

DAIRY HOUSE 257

Extreme length, 16 feet.

Extreme width, 12 feet.

SNILSIL

BuTTER
WORKER

MNIC
ONISNIY

SS ree Tt
er

HSUAA

PRINTING
AND

HMNIS

BorTrTuinGe
TABLE

S3ATAHS

Fig. 72 —Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk.

and tack building paper on both sides. Weather
board the outside and finish the inside as_ follows:
30ard up preferably with tongued and _ grooved
lumber, and cover the boards with two thicknesses of

258 DAIRY FARMING

—————
ne SSS

TESTING fl
s TABLE
3 =
Au al
=
zm
2 BoiLeR
; :
ae
Zag
xX Oo :
DRAIN >
$ Drain (47) a
an > 4m
- uw m
zg = d
x F z |
r ; e
= NGIN
Gee IS ! ute
eae m
: : a pales
z2 vbr b-4--2-
q Me :
EES
PRINTING '
TABLE ;
jceE Box
Butter |
i]
1

WoR KER
| !
PE oS oS aes ooo SS enecaS
CSS SS SS 5 Sees oes sa sede
ES |

wsaloo%,

Fig. 73.—Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk Trade, Suitable for Fifty |
Cows. 18'x24’.

roofing paper. Next put on furring strips, one foot apart,

and to these fasten wire lathing. If the lathing is pro-

vided with one-inch steel ribs the furring strips are not

DAIRY HOUSE | 259

needed. Next apply one and one-half inches of cement
plaster consisting of one part cement, three parts clean,
coarse sand, and-one part slacked lime paste. Press the °

COOLER

( YDRAIN

8X l2
COLD WATER

TANK
(OR ICE BOx)

WASH SINK

Fig. 74.—Milk House for Cream Patrons.

concrete partly through the wire lathing. Finish with one
part cement and one part sand and trowel off as smoothly
as possible. This construction provides one three-fourths
inch and one four-inch dead air spaces.

260 DAIRY FARMING

<
=
0)

LU)
2
N
=
fag
bs
Y)
<
Z
9)
Se
Y
=

STARTER

Fig. 76.—Floor Plan of Dairy House for Farm Buttcrmaking.

SHELVES
OR
REFRIGERATOR

ICE BOX

DAIRY HOUSE 261

Construct a four-inch concrete floor upon a well tamped
foundation consisting of gravel, cobble stones and cinders.

U)
=
Nx
3IZ
=
wi
j—

SoM PeEIN
COOLER

Fig. 75.—Milk House Whole Milk Patrons.

These materials afford good drainage and thus prevent the
cold and dampness usually associated with concrete floors.
In preparing the concrete for the floor use one part

262 DAIRY FARMING

cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts
gravel or crushed stone. Finish with one part cement and
two parts sand.

All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in
the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor
with concrete to make them more easily cleanable.

The ceiling should be about twelve feet high and built
of the best ceiling lumber. Keep the ceiling well painted.

Enough windows must be provided to afford ample
light and to admit sunshine to all parts of the building.

Provide ventilation in the milk and wash rooms by
running tight ventilating shafts from the ceiling through
the top of the roof.

Sewerage: Effective sewerage must be provided at
the time the floor is laid. A bell trap should be placed
in the center of each room and carefully connected with
the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to
keep its odors a safe distance from the dairy house.

Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is
absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can
easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies
are a prolific source of milk contamination and must
therefore be rigidly excluded from the dairy.

CHAPTER XXXV.
WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK VESSELS.
Wash Sinks. A matter of importance in washing

milk vessels is to have the right kind of sinks, three of
which are needed for the most satisfactory work: One

Fig. 77.—Wash Sinks.

for rinsing before washing, one for washing and one for
final rinsing.
For convenience the wash sink should be thirty-six

263

264 DAIRY FARMING

inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide.
The bottom should be round and two feet from the floor.
When closer to the floor than this too much stooping is
required.

<2 roomy
Fig. 78. =A aed Gieani® Basen:

Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable ma-
terials for the construction of wash sinks. ‘They should
be provided with steam (or hot water) and cold water
pipes as shown in Fig. 77.

Method of Washing. All vessels should be thor-
oughly sri s.ed 410
warm water to re-
move small residues
of milk and cream.
The rinsing is fol-
lowed by washing
with moderately hot
water to which a
iar d)i tor “sone
cleaning powder has
been added. The
washing should be
done with brushes
rather than cloths be-
cause the bristles en-
ter into crevices which
a cloth could not possibly reach. Finally rinse the vessels
in clean water.

A bottle washer, like that shown in Fig. 80, saves much

Fig. 80.—Bottle Washer.

WASHING AND STERILIZING 265

labor and does very efficient work. The motive powcr
may be either steam or water.

Sterilizing. Vessels that have been washed in the man-
ner described above may look perfectly clean, but may
still be far from being free from bacteria. ‘These can be
destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling
temperature for some time.

= ——_—__

HOT WATER COLD WATER

HOT WATER TANK

‘ eo

SSG.

IC EK

oT GaN

Fig. 81.— Cheap Arrangement for Securing Hot Water.

The simplest method of sterilizing is to place the vessels
in boiling water for five minutes. This method com-
mends itself especially to small dairymen who have no
steam.

Where no steam is available, the best means of pro-
curing hot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 81.

The hot water tank is that commonly used in residences
for heating water for the bath tub and can be obtained

266 DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 82.—Sterilizing Truck and Front of Brick Sterilizer.

from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which
iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater.
The best method of sterilizing is to place the vessels

WASHING AND STERILIZING Dor

in a steam chamber of sufficient strength to withstand a
pressure of ten or more pounds to the square inch. ‘These
sterilizers are usually constructed of concrete or brick and

=>
wo ZG = LS
att

.
ay

,
4

ECS. OS.

A
pe
:

CAS

Kea hs
Wn OL

5s)

Fas

(eo)

Oo
Se

Ra SEAS Ae,

<os

HV: G'9:
beget

5 “CONCRE TE WALL

- Tie oe
ROG R 79, Saba eae.
None ve Lee ONES 05

set ‘ ae j 3S : Ss FO a
: ELIE ROUS RS rom SN Eee a NEAR =>

Fig. 83. —Cross-Section of Concrete Sterilizer.

are provided with a heavy iron door which is large enough
to admit a truck bearing the pails, cans, bottles, ete. Other
sterilizers of this type are constructed of galvanized iron.

The principal drawback to some of these sterilizers is

268 DAIRY FARMING

their high cost, which renders their use by small dairy-
men almost prohibitive.

Cheap Sterilizers. A cross section through a cheap
concrete sterilizer is shown in Fig. 83. It is essentially
a rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover which
is lined with zinc. ‘The sides and bottom are five inches
thick and are built of concrete, which is made up of one
part cement, two parts sand, and two parts coarse gravel.
A thin coat, consisting of one part cement and two parts
sand, is used as an inside finish. ;

Fig. 84 shows a common galvanized iron sterilizer
which answers the purpose for small dairymen.

Fig. 84.—A Cheap Sterilizer.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
KEEPING ACCOUNTS.

Various methods are followed in keeping accounts with
patrons, but nearly all of them involve the use of tickets,
route book, and some form of ledger. The method here
described is recommended because of its simplicity.

Tickets. Most customers prefer to settle their milk
and cream accounts daily. This they do by purchasing a
quantity of tickets from the milkman and handing them
out every time milk or cream is purchased.

The tickets should be used but once. Where they are
repeatedly used they become dirty and a real source of
danger. Passing from one household to another they
are likely to become contaminated with disease germs
and thus become the means of disseminating disease.

The coupon ticket presented on the next page is one of
the most satisfactory in use at the present time. The
portion of the ticket above the perforations is retained by
the milkman. If the ticket is paid for at the time of pur-
chase, this must be indicated on the stub retained by the
dairyman as well as on the customer’s ticket.

Coupon tickets are also used for cream and buttermilk.
Tickets for different products should have different
colors.

Tickets are not absolutely necessary; indeed, many cus-
tomers prefer to do without them. Where no tickets are

269

See eee es ene

DAIRY FARMING

To TICKETS $1.00.

MILK.

ow et em < we 6 ew Oe ee Sew 8 ee 2 Pee > to = yp ** eee

MILK.

Date

To SPRING VALLEY DAIRY, Dr.
J. L. JONES, Prop., Middleton, N. Y.

To TICKETS $1.00.

ean @e MP wg 4-S € 2 oS aaa = Gt =

= SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.
z ‘

| TONE QT. MILK
S MIDDLETON. N. Y.

enmmewewe On e|/ eae ew ea Rw

SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.

= ul
| «ONE OF. MILK

~
2

5 MIDDLETON. N. Y.
canqaectnasweres 2 ect ova
= SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.

=
w ONE OT. MILK

ro) MIDDLETON, N. Y.

ce eS ge se asaawe’ |

SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.

= ;
* ONE QT. MILK
S MIDDLEYON. N. Y.

Re Ce eee see ae -=s - “t= = @&

- SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.
= ONE QT. MILK

MIDDLEON N.Y.

}-LNid 3NO inid 3NO

= Ott 2 ae ase

tt 48 0 0 i 00 r e e, 9 ae ey Om ee

“INId JNO € LNId JNO y LNid JNO

ewe -

ee)

‘m2 tm @ @ ae ee @ | on we, “eos ED

oa SPRING Mies ia DAIRY. S
ae m
* ONE QT. MILK =
z z
ro) MIDDLETON, Nays: =
=| -S 2? e oa ae Oe ee ee Re ee |
SPRING gel EY DAIRY. =

ONE QT. MILK 2
MIDDLETON, N. Y. a
wee ee ga = gauss we
SPRING VAREEY DAIRY. 2

ONE QT. MILK 2x

MIDDLETON, N.Y.

SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.

ONE Qf. MILK

MIDDLETON, N. Y.

L)
‘
r
'
‘
'
i
i
.)
}
Q
|

NT. | ONE PINT. , ONE PINT. , ONE PINT.
g
a
'
j
,
(
{
L)
t

SPRING VALLEY DAIRY.

ONE Qf. MILK

pica N.Y.

a
w
z
°

“LNId JNO ¢ LNIld 3NO

Coupon Ticket,

KEEPING ACCOUNTS 5oaTt

used, an account is rendered at the end of the month
similar to that rendered by the grocer.

Route Book. It is evident that if customers were
always supplied with tickets and regularly paid for each
delivery of milk or cream, no further record would
be necessary. But customers will run out of tickets oc-
casionally as well as forget to regularly hand them out,
hence it is necessary for drivers to carry with them a
record or route book in which each transaction is recorded
at the time it is made. A form suitable for this purpose
is shown below.

g|
> <
| a
Fudan
a a
Eee |
EL |

Form of Route Book.

The route book consists of loose leaves, upon which
the names of customers are arranged alphabetically. The
leaves are renewed each month, the old one being placed
on file for future reference. The letters B. mM. stand for
buttermilk.

Ledger. As a rule all accounts are settled monthly.
The ledger form shown below serves satisfactorily as a
permanent monthly record.

On the debit side are recorded the sales and the total
value of the tickets purchased. On the credit side are

272 DAIRY FARMING

recorded all the receipts for the same period. The balance
represents the difference between the debits and credits.

REAX.
BOTTLES,

ILK.

f a °
ae ee eee
pam: eo/S lo 2 |e |

Fes. 1-29

Forin of Ledger.

Monthly Statement. At the end of each month a
statement should be rendered to customers showing their
indebtedness. A form like that herewith shown answers
the purpose satisfactorily.

SPRINGDALE SANITARY DAIRY,

J.C, BOONE, Proprtetor
of REIDSVILLE, N. a. Jha) eee

to SPRINGDALE SANITARY DAIRY, pz.

J C. BOONE, Proprietor

fos

3]
20|
30]
2s

Monthly Statement.

KEEPING ACCOUNTS pF bo.

Order Book for Supplies. For convenience as well
as for permanent record, all orders should be made in
duplicate in a book specially made for the purpose. ‘The
leaves in the order book are alternately marked “original”
and ‘duplicate,’ the duplicate being made at the same
time as the original by using carbon paper between the
two. A suitable form of order blank is shown below.

Original Springdale Sanitary Dairy.
J. C2 Boones Prop:
Baer NO. ess + ss Ieetciyille “Wah ok cat ek EGO:
ee ree rea eer a Pi cone hh ged
Mean oir? Pleace deliver, bby. 0 stu 2s the following:

MSeeine ee), «ea 6, s'\'s! 0% 's “e ((6) je! 6) ©, (ote a) @ (e.(0) 0.6 <6) «. 10: e701. ay <0) © 0) 6 6a eure) 6 sl 16
ee aw a el a eee) ee) 6) ies 16), A080 Le M6 ay 10) 6 0) We ws ee, et of ele Olts 6). 6.6, ene), aera e
Ese OO (ale) ae! Kmlia \'e' e676) .. Ole; (6° ©) 0" 6, (6) ©) ew wie) wile. fare; esque) le) @ 0. se) 16) e) eles. @
WOE Me CR Le eee (mw (6) tele “a see? ewie 6. (0 (04 6, 4e (0) 6. s,. on/6 Keaey (ey Se) 16 hele <e.veliet ee mae, 6

Invoice and ship to
Springdale Sanitary Dairy,

CHAPTER XXXVII.

WATER AND ICE SUPPLY.

WATER SUPPLY

Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease
in farm homes is directly traceable to infected water.
Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by pol-
luted well water that physicians at once look to this as
the probable cause wherever this disease is found to ex-
ist.

Where wells infected with disease germs happen to ex-
ist on dairy farms that supply milk to neighboring cities,
disease is not limited to the dairyman’s own family, but
may be spread along the entire milk route. Many typhoid
fever epidemics have been positively traced to milk which
has become infected through water containing the disease
germs. Nowhere is pure water so important, therefore,
as upon dairy farms. |

The disease germs usually find their way into the milk
through milk vessels which have been washed with in-
fected water. The use of such water for washing cows’
udders previous to milking may also be the means of in-
fecting the milk supply.

Location of Well. The most satisfactory location for
the well is at the dairy house where the coldest water is
required and where it will be most convenient. Here the
water for both the dairy, the home, and the stock can be
pumped with the dairy engine. Further, the well, like

274

WATER CAND ICE «SUPPLY BN ha

the dairy house, should stand on slightly elevated ground
so as to insure drainage away from it.

Construction of Well. In a properly constructed
well, no water should enter it except near the bottom.
This compels the water to pass through a thickness of
earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a
reasonable depth.

Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the

Be,

Ordinary Vell.
: erestan We

=
ees Jere seca | Eee a y
: —_ Se: lz

iS \ eK a

Fig. 85.—Soil Strata. (From Harrington’s “Practical Hygiene.’’)

water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well,
commonly known as the Abyssinian tube well, is the
cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by
driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower
end of which is pointed and perforated.

In case rocks and hard clay must be penetrated, or great
depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or
drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight
iron pipes, will be found most satisfactory.

276 DAIRY FARMING

Water from the upper pervious stratum should be
avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind
just described. Especially is this necessary where the
wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sink-
ing the well through an impervious stratum, like that
shown in Fig.85.

The most dangerous well is the common dug well with
pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into
it from outhouses, barnyards and cesspools. Wells of
this type are altogether too common on dairy farms.

Fig. 86.—Sources of Well Water Contamination. (From Bul. 143 Kan.
Exp. ota)

All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided

with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent
the entrance of impurities into the shaft.

ICE SUPPLY.

Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for

WATER AND ICE SUPPLY DE

mechanical refrigeration, ice is indispensible in furnish-
ing the best quality of milk and cream. A low enough
temperature cannot be secured with water alone, neither
can the cooling be accomplished as quickly as is desirable
for best results. Furthermore, a satisfactory cold storage
cannot be had without the use of ice.

Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can
be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This
is due to the latent or “hidden” cold in ice. Thus to
convert one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same
temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words,
enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of
142 pounds of water one degree Fahr.

Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily
three things are necessary, (1) good drainage at the bot-
tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation
at the top.

Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be se-
sured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole
being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust
should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly
upon the sawdust.

Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards
on the outside of the studs and common rough boards
on the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty.
The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of
sawdust.

Where no solid foundation walls are provided, earth
must be banked around the ice house to prevent the en-
trance of air along the base.

The space between the sawdust covering on top of the
ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the

278 DAIRY FARMING

gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro-
jecting through the roof should be provided to insure a
free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only
remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the
roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust.

The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust
except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on
top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one
foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the tice.

Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house will
depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used.
For a herd of 25 cows, in the North, an ice house 10
feet square by 14 feet high will usually answer. These
dimensions provide storage for 22 tons of ice, allowing
one-foot space all around the ice for sawdust. In the
South about 50% more ice is required than in the North.

In calculating the amount of storage space needed for
ice, it is necessary to know that one cubic foot of ice at 32°
F. weighs 57.5 pounds.

As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the
ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the
sill to the gable at one end of the building.

General Uses of Ice. Aside from the use of ice in
cooling milk and cream, it can be employed to good ad-
vantage in several other ways. Its value in the house-
hold, in preserving meats, vegetables, and fruits cannot
be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as cold
drinks and frozen desserts during the sumnier months!
Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness.

Cost of Making Ice. Where ice can be obtained with-
in a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling, and
packing should not exceed $1.50 per ton.

Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available.

WATER “AND- ICE “SUPPLY 2719

Where the source of ice is at too great a distance from
the dairy, an artificial pond should be made upon ground
with a reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural
concave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded
with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply
of ice will be available in a very short time.

CEVA THR OC

DATRY— BY-PRODUCTS:

COMPOSITION OF BY-PRODUCTS.

Water, Fat, [Milk Sugar,| Saseimand) ach,

PenCent. |) Pex’ Cent.) Per Cent. per Gene Per Cent.
Skint, os ee cates 90.50 0.10 4-95 2u67 0.78
Buktenni wage ae es 90.39 0.50 4.06 3.60 275
WILEY. eaves acnttee ters arent oe igeoue 0.30 en als 0.80 0.65

Skim-Milk as a Feed. This is a question in which
dairymen should take greater interest. because, as a
rule, the feeding value of skim-milk is underestimated.
Feeding trials show that five pounds of skim-milk are
equal to about one pound of grain (corn, barley, oats).
They also show that on an average four pounds of grain
will produce one pound of gain with young pigs, while
five pounds will produce the same gain with pigs from
six to twelve months old. On this basis twenty pounds
of skim-milk are required to produce one pound of gain
with young pigs and twenty-five pounds with older pigs.
With pork at eight cents a pound, one hundred pounds of
skim-milk will produce 40 cents worth of pork with young
pigs and 32 cents worth with older ones.

The amount of skim-milk required to produce a pound
of veal is shown by feeding trials to range on an average
from fifteen to twenty pounds. ‘Taking the latter figure

280

DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 281

and valuing veal at 7 cents a pound, skim-milk is worth
35 cents per 100 pounds for veal production.

The highest returns from the feeding of skim-milk
are secured when fed to poultry. Careful experimental
tests show that as high as 75 cents per 100 pounds may
be realized for skim-milk when fed to poultry

Skim-milk as a Fertilizer. Many who are selling
the skim-milk off the farm do not sufficiently appreciate
the fertilizing value of this material. At the lowest esti-
mate skim-milk has a fertilizing value of ten cents per
hundred pounds.

Buttermilk as a Feed. Buttermilk has _ essentially
the same composition as skim-milk. It contains a little
more fat, but less sugar, part of which has been changed
into lactic_acid. For pig feeding, except in the case
of very young pigs, it has practically the same feeding
value as skim-milk, as shown by numerous feeding ex-
periments. It is also a good poultry feed. It can not be
recommended, however, for calf feeding, though it has
been used with fair success in some instances.

Whey as a Feed. Whey when properly cared for has
practically one-half the feeding value of skim-milk.

CHAPTER: X21.

MACHINE MILKING.

Recent results secured by experiment stations and nu-
merous large dairymen indicate that the milking machine
may become an important factor in future dairying. ‘The
testimonials from these sources show that machines milk
quite as satisfactorily as average hand milkers ; and since
one attendant can milk four to six cows at the same time,
there is a material saving in labor, besides making labor
more agreeable. Many, however, have pronounced ma-
chine milking unsatisfactory.

Principle of Operation. Milking by machine 1s ac-
complished by suction similar to that produced by a suck-
ing calf. The suction
is intermittent and is
created by producing
a partial vacuum in a
system of pipes ‘to |
which the milking
machines are attached
during milking.

Apparatus. The
necessary apparatus

for machine milking
consists of a milker, Fig. 87. Milking Machine in operation.
which includes a tin

pail, teat cups, etc.; a vacuum pump; some form of
power ; a vacuum reservoir; two vacuum gauges; a safety

282

MILKING MACHINES 283

valve; and about 150 feet of gas pipes. Each machine
milks two cows.

Cost of Apparatus. The following may be considered
an approximate estimate of the cost of a milking outfit
for about 30 cows: Two milkers, $180; vacuum pump,
$50; vacuum reservoir, including two vacuum gauges
and a safety valve, $35; a two horse power gasoline
engine, $85; and pipes and piping, $50; The cost of
pipes depends largely upon the distance of the power
from the barn. It is not necessary to have the power in
the barn or even near it. (See Chapter on Farm Power. )

Operating Machine. When ready to begin milking
start the vacuum pump and place a milker between two
cows and open valve on main vacuum pipe. Bend over
teat cups and attach one by one to one cow and then
proceed to do the same with the other. Similarly attach
one or two more milkers, so as to keep four to six cows
milking at the same time. A short glass tube at the ma-
chine shows when the milking is completed.

The mouthpieces on the teat cups must be of a size
to correspond with the size of the teats. They must be
neither too small nor too large. It is important, also,
that the piping system be kept air tight and free from
moisture.

Details concerning the installation and operation of
the machines may be had for the asking by writing to
the manufacturers.

CRAP BER,
PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM.

The process known as pasteurization derives its name
from the eminent French scientist Pasteur. It consists
in heating and cooling milk and cream in a manner which
will destroy the bulk of bacteria in them, but which will
leave their chemical and physical properties unchanged
as far as possible.

Advantages of Pasteurization: The advantages to
be derived from pasteurization vary with the conditions
under which the milk is produced and the efficiency with
which the work is conducted. If the milk comes from
dairies where disease and uncleanliness prevail, pasteur-
ization will prolong the keeping quality of the milk and
also materially lessen the danger from disease germs.
If, on the other hand, healthfulness and cleanliness re-
ceive the exacting attention which prevails on certified
dairy farms, nothing can be gained by subjecting milk
to the pasteurizating process.

Disadvantages of Pasteurization. The principal dis-
advantages are as follows: (1) the cost of pasteurizing
apparatus; (2) the cost of pasteurizing; (3) the tendency
to promote uncleanliness on the part of the producer; (4)
the tendency to reduce the cream line on the milk;
(5) lessening of the whipping property of the cream;
and (6) the tendency to impart a “cooked” flavor to the
milk and cream.

Methods of Pasteurization. Two general methods

284

PASTEURIZATION 285 —

are now in vogue: (1) the discontinuous method by which
every particle of milk and cream is heated from ten to
thirty minutes according as the temperature is high or
low ; (2) the continuous method by which milk and cream
are permitted to pass in a constant stream through the
pasteurizer and are subjected on an average less than
one minute to the pasteurizing temperature.

In general the most efficient pasteurization is obtained
with the discontinuous method.

Pasteurizing Temperatures. Obviously° where milk
is heated only a minute or less, a higher temperature
must be employed than where it is heated for a much
longer period of time. With the continuous method
fie demperatite varies from: “160° to 180°. .F. With
the discontinuous method the temperature varies
ffom 140° to 155° F. Exposing milk or cream to
a temperature of 145° F. for twenty minutes results
in very satisfactory pasteurization. The temperature and
time of exposure should always be such as to insure the
destruction of the tubercle bacillus, which is one of the
most resistant of the disease bacteria most commonly
found in milk.

Quick Cooling. In pasteurizing the heating must be
quickly followed by thorough cooling. This is an ex-
tremely important part of the pasteurizing process. It is
desirable that the temperature be reduced at once to 45°
F. or below.

Viscogin. Thorough pasteurization reduces the vis-
cosity or whipping property of cream. ‘To restore the
original viscosity a solution of sucrate of lime is added,
which is known as viscogin. This solution is made by
adding an excess of slaked lime to three parts of sugar
dissolved in five parts of water. The mixture is al-

296 DAIRY FARMING

lowed to stand twenty-four hours, after which the clear
liquid at the top is poured from the sediment and pre-
served in a stoppered bottle.

Add one part viscogin to about 150 parts of cream.
Never add so much as to render the cream alkaline.

While viscogin is entirely harmless, it is nevertheless
an adulterant and cream treated with it must be so
labeled.

Inefficient Pasteurization, Milk that has been un-
derheated is more dangerous than that which has not
been heated at all. The reason for this is that inadequate
heat in pasteurizing may destroy the lactic acid bacteria
(which are easily killed) and by so doing actually better
the conditions for the growth of the more resistant and
obnoxious kinds. Lactic acid organ‘sms are antagonistic
to other classes of bacteria and are therefore a real safe-
guard to milk. This makes it plain that unless milk is
pasteurized at a temperature which will destroy the
pathogenic and non-acid bacteria as well as the acid bac-
teridieit-issrar better moteto. weal tt at ale

Pasteurization should be condemned where its only ob-
ject is to keep milk sweet. Its real object should be to
destroy all actively growing bacteria and especially all
disease-producing organisms such as the tubercle bacillus
which ‘is among the most resistant.

Pasteurizing inthe Home. If milk must be pas-
teurized to render it safe, there is no better place casde
this than in the home where it is to be consumed. The
pasteurizing is very easily and satisfactorily accomplished
by the use of a small double milk or rice boiler which
can be procured for about one dollar from hardware deal-
ers everywhere. It is essential to stir the milk while
heating and to use a reliable thermometer.

APPENDIX.

Period of Gestation. This refers to the time which
elapses between conception and calving. The average
period of gestation of a cow is 283 days.

Frequency of Heat. As a rule non-pregnant cows
will come in heat every 21 days. The period of heat lasts
from 2 to 3 days.

Metric System of Weights and Measures. This
system was devised by the French people and has very_
extensive application wherever accuracy in weights and
measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in ordinary
weights and measures are given in the following table:

Ordinary weights and measures. Equivalents in metrie system.
L. CHER (CAN) lopecte SOc nee caIben SOO ese onoeiae 28 35 grams.
1 TROT eae Sea nOe ee Boca eraiteraan Oc 0 9464 liter.
(| Be UNDA SSeS oos SeoomB ec On Sac area acEnecac 3.7854 liters.

29.57 cubic centimeters (c.c.)
0.4536 kilogram.

64.8 milligrams.
254 centimeters.
0.3048 meter.

ADDRESSES OF DAIRY CATTLE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS.

Breed. Secretary. Postoffiece.
PETSC Yes cise wires oes J. J. Hemingway....... 8 W. 17th st., New York,
INgaYC
Guernsey....-..:.-.....-| Wm. H. Caldwell...... | Teterboro, N. H.
Holstein-Friesian...... Pee Houchton.....-—-- Brattleboro, Vt.
mA VTSWIPO Nee a cnys cine Sse CM. Winslow....5.5: 5222. | Branden, Vt.

287

288 DAIRY FARMING

Rations According to Yield of Milk. The Connec-
ticut (Storrs) standard rations for varying yields of milk
are shown in the following table:

TABLE—-FEEDING STANDARDS.

Daily, per 1,000 pounds of live weight.

Live

weight, Total Digestible nutrients, pounds.

When giving
daily.

pounds. | dry mat- ee Nutritive
ter, ‘ arbohy- ; ratio.
pounds. Protein. drates. Fat.

10-20 lbs. milk. 700-950 20 22 20 10 12 0.3-0.5 1:6.0
20-25 ‘ Ke 700-950 21-23 23 10-12 0.4 0.6 1edeS
25-30 ‘‘ a 700 950 21-23 2.6 10 12 0.4-0.6 1:4.7
50) BEY ot ee 700-950 22-24 2.9 11-13 0.5-0.7 1:4.6
35-40 ‘‘ 700 950 22-24 3 2 11-13 0.5-0.7 1:4.2
10-20 ‘“ SS 950-1100 22-24 2.0 12-14 0.4-0 6 1:6.1
2025 “* ¥ 950-1100 22 25 2.6 12-14 0.5-0.7 1:5.5
25-30 ‘‘ “ 950-1100 23 25 2.9 12-14 0.5-0.7 1:5.0
30-35 ‘‘ 3 950-1100 24 26 3 2 13 15 0.6-0.8 1:4 9
35-40 ‘ sf $50-1100 24 26 Bod 13-15 0.6-0.8 1:4.4

Scale of Points for Judging Butter. Butter is
judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for flavor,
25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 for package,
total 100.

Scale of Points for Judging Cheese. Cheese, as a
rule, is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for
flavor, 30 for texture, 10 for salt, 10 for color, and 5 for
appearance, total 100.

Milk Solids. The solids of milk include everything
but the water. Ifa sample of milk be kept at the boiling
temperature until all the water is evaporated, the dry,
solid residue that remains constitutes the solids of milk.
It is convenient to divide the solids into two classes, one
including all the fat, the other all the solids which are not
fat. In referring, therefore, to the different solids of
milk, we speak of the “fat” and the “solids-not-fat”
which, together, constitute the “total solids.”

APPENDIX 289

Relationship of Fat and Solids-not-Fat. In normal
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat
and the solids-not-fat. For example, milk rich in fat is
likewise rich in solids-not-fat. On the other hand, milk
poor in fat is also poor in solids-not-fat. Hence the jus-
tice of paying for milk, delivered to cheese factories, on
the butterfat basis. See table on page 133.

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con-
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion.
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids-not-fat. Rich-
mond reports the following analysis of a thick cream:

Per cent.
NAMEN 2. eae ah 2.14 een GR ge a ean 20.37
pn een fee yee Ue os dios asec a 56.09
“Si j)37 17 SSS coli ge ee eet et eee ne ee ee 2.29
JPG SSIs aes eee ences ane Renney ok Eby
Jn) ate anes Rape na PT ae ae Ua ee 38

Capacity of Cylindrical Siloes. The approximate
capacity of cylindrical siloes for well-matured corn silage
is shown in the following table:

TABLE—CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOES, TONS.*

Inside diameter of silo, feet.

th of silo, feet.
BED ; 107) 12) | Tai | 165) 18020 21S" 623") 24" | one eG
20 26 | 38 51} 59} 67| 85} 105) 115) 127) 188) 151] 1@3) 177
et ic ysis slows 0s, wreteee 28 | 40 |} 55) 63] 72) 91] 112} 123) 135] 148) 161] 175} 189
PP COCO OEE 30 | 43 | 59} 67) 77| 97) 120) 132} 145] 158) 172] 187) 202
Bia SRS Oe 32 | 46 | 62] 72} 82) 103) 128] 141) 154] 169) 184} 199) 216
Di latin bie eae (at are 34 | 49 | 66) 76] 87} 110) 135} 149) 164) 179} 195} 212) 229
25 86 | 52 | 70} 81] 90} 116) 143) 158) 173] 190) 206} 224| 242
Pp ae eae a an 88 | 55 | 74! 85) 97] 123) 152) 168} 184} 201] 219) 237) 257
O(a Ree OCICS 40 | 58 | 78] 90) 103} 130} 160} 177] 194] 212} 231} 251) 271
oie GT Eee Ce ee 42 | 61 83} 95] 108] 137] 169] 186} 204] 223) 243) 264! 285
Oe Noe enc ocr ae ena 45 | 64 | 88] 100] 114] 144] 178] 196] 215) 235] 265) 278) 300
BOR arass iciche hota e« x orsste 47 | 68 | 93} 105] 119) 151] 187) 206} 226) 247] 269) 292) 315
Blears a Seat eeiacdeiss 49 | 70 | 96} 110] 125] 158] 195) 215} 236] 258] 282) 305) 330
Be ey ee ee eee 51 | 73 | 101} 115] 131) 166} 205] 226] 248) 271) 295) 320) 346

*From Modern Silage Methods.

290 DAIRY FARMING

Pasteurization of Milk. Where no ice is available,
the keeping quality of milk may be materially prolonged
by a process of heating and cooling known as pasteuriza-
tion. This process consists in exposing milk to a tem-
perature of about 150 degrees F. for thirty minutes, after
which it is immediately cooled to the lowest temperature
possible with water. ‘This treatment destroys practically
all of the bacteria in milk and thus not only materially in-
creases its keeping quality, but also renders it free from
harmful or disease-producing bacteria.

Definition of Technical Terms. A list of technical
terms not specially defined in the text is presented be-
low:

ALBUMENOIDS.—Substances rich in albumen, like the
white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen.

ANAEROBIC.—Living without free oxygen.

CENTRIFUGAL Force.—That force by which a body mov-
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion.

CueEmicalt Composition.—This refers to the elements or
substances of which a body is composed.

CoLLomAL.—Resembling glue or jelly.

Concussion.—The act of shaking or agitating.

Cupic CENTIMETER (c. c.).—See metric system p. 203.

Emutsion,—A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain-
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance.

Enzymes.—Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do
not possess life. :

Fiprin.—A substance which at ordinary temperatures
forms a fine network through milk which impedes
the rising of the fat globules.

ForEMILK.—The first few strearns of milk drawn from
each teat.

APPENDIX 291

GaLactasr.—An unorganized ferment in milk which di-
gests casein.

Mammary GLAND.—The organ which secrets milk.

Meniscus.—A body curved like a first quarter moon.

Mu,.«K SrruM.—Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk 1s
nearly pure milk serum.

Neutray.—Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop-
eres:

Non-conpucror.—A material which does not conduct
heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty.

Osmosis.—The tendency in ffuids to diffuse or pass
through membranes.

RENNE?T Extract.—The curdling and digesting principle
of calf stomach.

SECRETION.—The act of separating or producing from the
blood by the vital economy.

Sprcrric Graviry.—The weight of one body as compared
with an equal volume of some other body taken as
a standard.

SporE—The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain
kinds of bacteria.

STERILIZATION.—The process of destroying all germ life
by the application of heat near 212° F.

Srrrppers’ MiiK.—The milk from cows far advanced in
the period of lactation.

SrRIPPINGS.—The last few streams of milk drawn from
each. teat.

SusPENSION.—The state of being held mechanically in a
liquid, like butter fat in milk.

TUBERCULIN.—A sterile glycerine extract of the growth
products of the tubercule bacillus.

Vacuum.—Space devoid of air.

VEGETATIVE BactertA—Those bacteria that are in an
actively growing condition.

IBh Ereameries UM
DE LAVAL

CREAM SEPARATORS

Ten years ago there were a dozen different makes of creamery or factory sepa-
rators in use. Today over 98 per cent of the world’s creameries use DE LAVAL
separators exclusively.

It means a difference of several thousand dollars a year whether a DE LAVAL
or some other make of separator is used in a
creamery.

Exactly the same differences exist, on a smaller
scale, in the use of farm separators. Owing to the
fact, however, that most farm users do not keep as
accurate records as the creameryman, they do not
appreciate just what the difference between a good
and a poor separator means to them in dollars and
cents. Nine times out of ten the farmer can’t tell
whether or not he is wasting $50 or $100 a year in
quantity and quality of product through the use of
an inferior cream separator.

If you were in need of legal advice, you would
go to alawyer. If you were sick you would consult
a doctor. If you had the toothache you would see
a dentist. Why? Because these men are all
specialists in their line, and you rely upon their
judgment and skill. When it comes to buying a separator why not profit by the
experience of the creameryman ? His experience qualifies him to advise you cor-
rectly. He knows which separator will give you the best service and be the most
economical for you to buy. That’s why 98 per cent of the world’s creameries use
the DE LAVAL exclusively.

There can be no better recommendation for the DE LAVAL cream separator
than the fact that the men who make the separation of milk a business use the
DE LAVAL to the practical exclusion of all other makes.

THE DE LAVAL SEPARATOR CO.

165 Broadway 29 E. Madison Street Drumm & Sacramento Sts.
NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO
173-177 William Street 14 & 16 Princess Street 1016 Western Avenue

MONTREAL WINNIPEG SEATTLE

INDEX.

Page

PANTO RENO fae makenaiercteboens! Oe ecedsiarn seks skae 113
AGIs MEASUIGES\. c:<16 611. oveletersis sa\ 1389
INCIOROTESS cana op oc cenocOnn ocr 174
Afterbirth, retention of........ 116
Adimetits= Of CAtbIO® © «nec s eters «ie 110
I Naneortae Sta lGcr.o cis) obs eucy ee reel eletre 8 161
PNiiotiimetia ie mdllests § vis.6 <015,01<, o/oy- 129
PNUiea eclen eA dotanc vorcwer et avahohe at stsie te iol eens 253
/AnDG HVE! ben GEoopo sooo b OG 103
PRD PIC TEGNSG om « cnaucte ale.c'a¥alone Sexzys) ems 287
AG hiee Obs oti lIEes <5, elarsreisva cies 06 oe 0.0 29
Aveshice= Cattle: 2.0%). sec cc cies 31
characteristics. Of ........- 32
[ralbeucles tester .s.c.rovone s.sie srereletelotes 135
APPAratuSs LOL | edie cere suctd terest 137
method (of* makinga.. 0c... - 140
method of reading........ 141
pointers on making....... 142
DMnCi ples Of Os.02% 0 eet ese US
Samapler fOr ss. siepe ie eres) ch aeilers 135
Ba beCGCk *FESTETS! «ve: ci< 5 0.0) o'ejerehereiens 136
ibacteriay discussion Of-:.... «cs 146
seit set La May his lol oner a ctarsr ev ata le level 86
Pent nesyanCens Cleats sia craic wie clelenere 157
ArYeniweSS: = iso sie5 ss aa ss sete e'e os 119
Beddines for -COWS* .. 5s... 2 ass 162
Bitter fermentation. 2.......... aay L
CURE Neferatecs atoka' ahs aye les s-« aueeifeeree, s 119
leaciyasammtlls< soc. cites ccc a eine ss acer 120
Breeding punity Of... 6... oss. 14
Bree dre TACK tea aerevaie.. sieges oes 3% LET6
Buildings up herdios.. ss cs ed os 20
Bille sselections (O93 .1.)..206 cxclamte ove LG,
PECUITIOMFO yee ok cle oiler esas 74
manarementt OF >... 66s o 74
MECIETEC MOL fess \.:cte eo oe eile % alee
PICTIS acres eveleve che ene oxetetore versions 75

Page

Bull, prepoteney: of- «0.226000: 18
BV DEMOL “aie c.sie) aisisieveteieretous jeter 18
Nalkiihles Gi somooaston aocre PAs
Isiituwere [lerdest: Hide eoe somUcoaaoe 199
CALLONS Moree cieceiretorietobersiscere 186
COMP OSIOLMN Olin ome eeelterieron 186
ino <eahaled KOs Gaaacadanooos 186
Grilksharee ein onl cme eas ces Om 182
WiOstou Ofmeaerteie thers statsceus 183
Buttermilk, feeding value ..... 281
Buttermilk, skimmuille <5...<..-.0- 233
Stat etetict bar ere ots chenarertcteeeconev exer iorere 125
COMMPOSIELO Ne Ole cee er lenest- 126
method of estimating ..... 60
physical properties of ..... 125
PEOGUCHOME sii els se etetevsioieiers 11
PEStUMOGEOM: ~serstetetere: tye, cites ee 135
Bitterman. svetese «cveters wo siscer ats 165
BATE Eee TATA So ore.'<) vetiou slap clet stare tel 184
Butters mwOmkttio Ofer... sales 183
Butyric fermentation .........150
(Gaile, eek Chi RiGee IOC OOO” 85
prenatal development of.... 82

TE bs MOM eter «os Toneta ener veveto= 82
STNG, i Sicko CO Mee Ooo C sulelicy
SHAVNO MONS “Syahaoe au.cw oon D
Calves;+ feedinicw Off (cc... cinsete ile $3
Saleciaiory Oi ope oonecoon seco Dies
NANG Kiekee LONP. hares Crease Oe ote 250

WE AMIE as Olu v «lac, cdersicteuebaleiensne 82
Carbohydrates) <...,..--<feyoterstaereuer 34
Cattle, breeds of dairy:........ 25
Gertified: “mall: ..iJiciypmyepsieleyotornaeas 23
Cheese, amount of color in..... 187
amount of rennet in....... 187
COMPOSITON! Ofte tere eyeieieie 192
CLG UE © 5 Fen a ccotolat ener systedelasaiots Ie

294

INDEX

Page

Cheesemaking, Cheddar ....... 187
Glia Was texeiaracs-srals eitare aperorevenstons 204
COLLAR E Meiaricloontelere ccna ehuetere 199
CHAM el eidre let a ale tec sleceraror atest s 204
Netiichatelbercicueraeiacis over are 202
Sole, ana: fancys ce aoe ee ee 199
Chromogenic fermentations ....15é
(Gl niebaathalede a Geamla custo BotGo aoc 180
GIOVERE @ Ae tansnerais siehene eee totecetee 253
Club cheese aie cic « cwiataye svete istouene 204
Coldisstorarer ve cise a hotavoi here ereienete 205
Colostruta ails ere omer 130
Composite sample jar ......... 63
Conformation of (COwS.o+. see >: ia)
OE Tbitll swe Reis wrens evsvehoeeterers 18
Cooley (Can sasiasioesisicces oe aoe 166
(Cosma ier Guibieys Booobdacocadsce 52.
WiITETIHOICUEH crieleneteratePeiete er arte 56
Cottase’ cheeses scene ne 199
Cows. dairy. points ot sceieeeete 12
Cows stalls anid eties 7. raters eo 89
Cows: Dulyinoereaeresroe cece 24
Clears we stagescles suse. oberd oho e ale one 157
Gireyime Oth wercelars so ates eae 79
EvOlutlonmOte rors. jets ister 9
feedings Of ve. cers ehte ses a eee 33
gestation period of........ 287
health, sof cect sie: sr0s. o sisters inte 16
ManarementwmOb ys aces cele ie
ssauilke OMe Oi Shouoooncue 13
DOMMES MOL, Wears sye cies sero) snellarlens 12
SECLECEIONIMO Lame torelehers c/o si adele Uy

LV DESIOE Hele som oretels 3, on ee aketerene 11
EMKbNh Nee URS ccd CieO o.D.c.niS 244
Crean bottle yikes heolska o'oteuetene 195
Creams churaability tOf.c sce. 7a
lakaberatbalesy (een, OIE Goanocoe WT
COMPOSition! VOL se .neeeieeie 289
(Aoliiatet oman ase Din 205
ricodalhay=s (Ole Gm Gono Oooo oe alfa!
rachel anaen (Re snbohooodoodoe PUT
PECAN OLR saoncancGe 284
sCevebhikes TECIN ON. Goohoodcasac 144
AhSminnauada oe dg hogcco OC 170
SCALES ews as ihtarttis tense teregerelererenenete 140
Separators, sien vie ee sewer 167

Page

Cream, standardizing’ of .... ..0222
Stinninge’y er cia<reasssceeeie 173
CeSti me Ne. S <a jeceieeet wee 142
Creaming, centrifugal ......... 165
deep? cold); 2henst See ee 166
dilution, method of ........ 166
eficien@y: Of <).si.n. eae 167
QLAVAILYe sc snore <b vrs gvenseoeeeeetee 165
methods :Of Weh-.2 csi. ie cee 165
Shallow? pam asus. case eee 165
Curdling fermentation ......... 149
Dairy: bari 00/20) % tee eee 86
Ciopecceeimaal (Oye Gusaccoun-n- 100
sround plans for, eee 87
method of constructing .... 88
VerltilationmOr slice chee eeteete 96
Dairy by-products: 12cm 280
Dairy. cali; rearing. of... eee 82
Dairy cattle associations....... 287
Dairy herd, building up of..... 20
Starting : Of 5 \n) oxo svexoneneyereuenebene 22
Dairy hOUSeS! “saa si ole ttelel terete 256
Dairy, rations! a... cie eee 37, 288
Dairy: temperament +... terete ale
Dairy “type -..c &. Sesion eee eee alal
Dairying, direct profits in...... if
indinect. profits it cyepelcter rere 8
WATTLED ~.. 5) sce itsiss cetone edenonens ene oerone 73
DEhOrniINng we cieaie che wee ae 80
Diseases or Cattle) <i. nelersieeene 110
IDisittfectants,. sii cterehersseterceteroterele ASA:
Dry matter, definition of ...... 34
Escutcheon. ©. «2's tis scieiere er eeeteaene 14
Ether: extract sisi tr eer 34
Farm buttermakine: 2... 165
Harring tonyacidetest. <./sreielsrsteretee 175
Ap Pakatise tO asm cdeuedetoe rete 175
method of making jee 176
Fats ansoluble® <... «inne PA
SOlUDIE.. cis. sc.0) soles oiacene nee 128
Feed, estimating cost of....... 66
Eeeding: icalves scutes 83
eedinig, COWS *<.i-a.0ciier etek 33
according to flow .......... 45

INDEX 905
Page Page
Feeding cows before and after Lactic fermentation ..........- 148
CHUANG ean OB Cee BO OGL AD: | MECeUMEeS =. sncte s+ os See cus > 253
Frequency. Of -s.6 2-6 - 41 | Lice, treatment for. ..........- 121
IIS HTKe OLE cine wd IO DDO IO DG 41
PRIACIDICS MOE (oie cies, sae « 010) 33
MCEUINE GUAGE 4 .!\ere sess a s)e0' 43 | Mangers ....---.2++++seeeeeees 94
Feeding standards ............ 36 | Manure ...-.--eeeeeeeeeeeeeee 101
Meeding. tables: 2 sie ee sla seer eos 46 CALTI€L eee eee eee eee ees 104
Feeds, composition of.......... 33 fermentation of ......+++. 103
digestibility of ............ 25 Teaching -GF } is :5 <2 5,< ya's merelslss« 102
palatability of ............. 35 POSGES AN) sccine e oeiaaiobe's holes 102
ucCienees DE. cae oo Boke 35 | Marketing milk and cream......217
Ioaming of cream .........--. 185 | Markets ........- ese reeeees 213
Metric osystetar ss srr-iaicteinie walercieun = 287
Mme tare ade es oe lore wees ed 114 | Milk and its products ......... 239
SASOUMIG ENGI ~<.000.6.5.. 550650 107 relative value of .......-.. 239
(acsy fermentation ..<)..05+..% - 152 | Milk, colostrum .......++.++: 130
iGestation= period OL fe. nee 287 bottle ....eeeeee eee e cece 195
Glassware for Babcock test..... 136 certified ......+eeeeeeeeees 236
Gridhsin Seen aco ss eis eld ase ome es 121 COOLING «2 ccc eee eres eens 205
Guernseyo cattle a sctccle cies s1+.0le 28TG creaming Of ......+++++e+- 165
Characteristics Of ..2 «0s. 28 OS 112
atiers. for Pact «sivas <b 0%: ores 95 fermentations .....---+++-- 146
HOUSES metre ee ate nie cieie © © olerele 256
Platid: Separators: a %.cie ia's's'scn thee 167 keeping account of ......-. 269
SORTS 2 i Rees gi eae enter 97 marketing Of ......+++++-+ 217
EVE ALE (OL (COWS serers's tel <lehele «1 ovens « 16 DOE BATE Sear = ios ol eve) ee) ots coir yntenejerenei ale 13
Meat. frequency of )..... 55.5% 287 pail, sanitary .....--++-+-- 159
Meifers, age to breed ......... 78 pasteurization of .......... 284
Herd management ............- 73 physical properties of ...... 123
Helter det eGOLSy ass cucefa a tw eieietena ote 60 quality Of ..........00.00% 132
Holstein-Friesian cattle ........ 29 record sheet ......+++++e0- 62
characteristics of .......... 30 GECOPMS As os'n x, 90 alae io widen 6 60
VERON Sia Sic eee totes ok iatege soil ale So choise 119 room, sanitary ...........- 164
CRMIRIAy: nagenooouena cou: 155
fee cream, making <3. ./...6% sss 228 SCALES ehepewrees oy aie: Coie Ghaveletiorel sheds 61
WEP MRGISE |.) Sno. on « atolls) orein Ste, os OT SECECHOM cers ee a vince myetane 130
Me MESUIP PLY micas s sieeve. diisltiars sheets 276 Skye ~srncqooussocqncoot 224
MARAT SECSETO TAS crater a atei's s. 0c 0% o'sinistes 116 Standardizing ...6.s.s.snaeclee
Inversion “of -womb.... 0.66 s<)s«% a La krg Snpathkine Ope BEeuco cen oUCor 160
Withee Gicteere. FAaieeiromcoopia-o ba to 129
WenSeys Cattler aiz/- crsreveiet chores stole siete 25 HESTATUOIA sha teieisvene epeksioeerapeleeontets ies
Characteristics Of ps.|iiis se) 26 Wena Cpe oecnonccudcccoDes 158
Vuadeing Butter: 50. 65 6 Sey wineeine 288 WELISH siete rere stole ielpurerereicn Mentor 12
dfistalesiavem coliVese. A hao om OCU 288 | Milkers, value of good......... Tal
effect of change of........ 69
Rige. veritilator i... s ecn'ee ss ss 95 Gleart fasen co teietee ss o's 6 158

296

Page

Mis eikat 2s OeeABe a oo era como a aD ot 68
Cleatin sox. sresatcerae ter susio eeneioiere 70
LAS basViS set Owareeteraes fo cuerere toevole 70

THE LEROSNOS OE ineohe oOo SC al
TMA C MITES eater eescsuer a Teast oueieivonenere 282
treatment of cow during... 68
Waith--diny: shamds (0s). .5 + <\s le 158
Neufchatel cheese making ..... 202
INfiBalEhiee IO eocndode ude a0oC 39
Palatabilitystok sheeUs mrleteiateterorene 35
Paste tid zations teers ene creer rorelore 284
Re Cigre@ icin, ea ncretetetelta dio caten tebe leverons 15
IPalhintes Sacy-storals nt, polos So OU ooo 1133
12O\erm Gal sehr) ao condi ooddado7 106
MORI OUMIBKES, SHOP GSE ope sbo¢ 107
Prepotency, dete) =. srr. <1) ovelere 18
Principle of Babcock test ...+.. 135
Principlessor, feeding s.r... .1rtos 33
Protein, ad ehmitione Of vit. sere 34
IDE eEHENTES Pomoc bec cro G5 abioDc alal
1eysherhenye Cpe onseetabhaley % Arn Gh acca sdc 14

Quality of milk, variations in. .132

Olourevantartiles a dostocamaoeno suc 110
[RERNOB sb AcicnooeuCe ODT 39
Ration), sdefinitione One sci etel siete) > 38
Rations, method of calculating... 38

Gumckinal Soocasasmacaco0 uc 37
Ropy tenmentation 71)... le « 152
Salt @hon aStOGCkaaemterrereye stelersriererans 44
Seiilahaled rel ace tes ap oor ico ac 182
Samplers sammie poy icves4 ape atcreisteredane 64
Seramoinace sammie Geet dagqduolodccc 64
Seronhay glk Sasaoeocanoscess 155
Seales amills se sicievetovekescedslonoveesiercrcts 61
Secretion) woke atllliicimevserercdserertshe 130
Selection swolmComSmeteretisrereisiec oe 11
Selection) (OfiiSineSimapietelercercusieel Ibe
Selif-suckinie ) COWS a sieleretelenenelet ss 121

INDEX

Page
Shallow: pan creaming ........ 165
Skimmilk-buttermilk .......... 233

Skimmilk, feeding value of.....

Silos’ (Sieh cise lee ee Dei
advantages of twins ase Lai
Gapacity (ot Sees eece eee 289
conerete) .2.dnases Bee eee 55
concrete limeds rere 58
COnStTMuICtion vot sees aeeeee 54
CKehnanaver (Clepim Oe Soccoosuue 59a
fillinios Of | wig cmv sicverero cee 59b
location Ofm acon 54
Machels? Stwint ie eee 5T
SIZE“OFs sds salto eee 53

Slim; fermentation /s.aaeemeees 152

Stalls. cn are eee eee 89

Stalls. (sizeof Ate 94

Standardizing milk and cream. .222
formulas) fon i. eee eee 222,

Startérss ns. ait ote eee 1938

Sterilizing, vessels: ) 2.) ten 263

Stenilizenciecnrs cre rere 266, 267, 268

Siseimeny sre Cog nocncsc ore peared 0)

Treat. troubles) &..2). bese eee 120

Technical terms, definition of...290

thermometer, Cathie eres 179

Test bottles “\..sn, ‘cierto 138

MOSHI o,0.5 ensiasuelsic oheaen eens 135

‘oxic: stermentation: serine 153

Twuibenculin’ test... csendeeeiereene TAS,

“TahenculOSis;) (sivzie< seis eclenetheteeeeee 117

Wine, Saving fOr “cicisaeretettene 101

Ventilation (of sbarn) 732. 96

Ventilation, King system ...... 95

Wrarblesi- 5 artis, olstat scissors abeaeenenee ial

Washine (vessels cir. «ciersteretenns 263

Water ston Stock) mye cmis meee tor 44

Water heater « .« «5 s<)strenerenetornee 265

Water Jstppliya vers) stcvrerte chenetaterets 274

Everything
for the
Farm Dairy

Cararoc
or

| Here is a book every man in
| the business of producing milk
for profit should have. It is our
| catalog of equipment and sup-
plies for the farm dairy.

Use Modern Equipment—
Run a Model Dairy

Don’t let your equipment ‘‘run down.’”’ Things have moved
rapidly in the dairy business. Invest in modern utensils for
your dairy and barn and reap a big return in the way of added
profits. We handle everything that the modern dairy, creamery,
cheese factory or milk dealer requires. Most of the modern
machines used by large dairy establishments are of our inven-
tion. Every article we offer is reliable and backed by the
strongest kind of a guarantee. We make silos, cow stalls and
stable equipment, churns and butter workers, testers, tinware,
vats, and, in short, everything of a special dairy nature.

This is a Complete Dairy Supply House

No matter what your connection with the dairy business is—
as producer, manufacturer, milk dealer or ice cream maker—we
can serve you to our mutual advantage. We make a complete
line and if you have any equipment problems coming up please
feel free to make use of our long experience and countrywide
organization.

The Creamery Package Mfg. Company
Chicago, IIl.
Minneapolis, Minn. Albany, N. Y.
Kansas City, Mo. Omaha, Neb. Waterloo, Ia.

Dairy Cleanliness Made Easy |

Dairy Cleanliness is no longer a theory, but a
necessity. And the only question is how best may
it be accomplished. Dairy and Agricultural Col-
leges, Creameries, Cheese Factories and Large
Dairymen almost without exception are using

Wyandotte
Dairyman’s Cleaner & Cleanser

Its use does not end here, but the list includes thousands
of small dairies, milk men and farmers. With such endorse-
ment it is easy to determine that Wyandotte Dairyman’s
Cleaner & Cleanser is the right article for the dairy trade.

Do you use it, and know because you have tried it how
much real cleaning, how much sweetening of sour places
and how freshening of staleness it does for you? Or is it to

you a new article? Ifthe latter, can
you afford to leave it to others to have
these advantages while you work
harder trying to use some other clean-
ing material? Ask your dealer fora
small sack of this cleaner, or for larger
quantities, kegs or barrels, order from
your dairy supply house.

Indian in Circle

In every Package

The J. B. Ford Company Sele Mfrs.
Wyandotte, Mich., U. S. A.

This Cleaner has been Awarded the Highest Prize Wherever Exhibited

= .
SS

IN HALF

a=)

SEI Ae

— St

TLE CLEANING
‘ MANCER

The James Sanitary Barn Equipment has pat-
ented features that reduce barn expenses by cut-
ting squarely in two the labor and time required in cleaning stalls and caring for the

COWS.

And in addition to cutting the work in half, the cleaner stalls and barn possi-

ble with Jemes Sanitary Barn Equipment increase the yield and improve the quality

of the milk.
like dairy farmers.

This equipment is designed expressly to meet the needs of business-

JAMES SANITARY BARN EQUIPMENT

The five patented features of the James
Sanitary Barn Equipment save enough
on feed and labor to pay for the whole
equipment in a year.

Is A Money Maker

After this equipment has paid for itself
the first year, it makes money by saving
for you every year thereafter.

Five Patented Features

The Alignment Device lines up short,
long and medium cows evenly on the
gutter; the stall and cow are kept clean.
Greatest improvement ever made on
stanchions.

Guarantee
We guarantee everything we make to
the fullest extent. Money refunded if
the test in your barn does not prove the
truth of all our claims.

Two Valuable Books Free
If you are interested in Stalls, Stan-

KENT MFG. CO.

The Sure Stop Swinging Post prevents
the cow putting her head into the wrong
place.

The Lock Open Device, together with
the Sure Stop, when in position, forces
the cow to put her head into stanchion;
saves time and trouble.

The Double Chain Hanger makes pos-
sible a high level curb, thus preventing
waste of feed; saves labor and material
in building.

The Self Cleaning Manger enables you
to feed cows according to their individ-
ual need; prevents waste of feed and
lessens labor. It is made without a bot-
tom, and when raised trough can be
swept and used for watering.

chions, Bull Pens, and Calf Pens or Box
Stalls, ask for Book No.8. If you want
information about Litter, Feed or Milk
Can Carriers or Feed Trucks, ask for
book entitled ‘‘Barn Work Made Easy.”’
Ask for either one or both of these free
books and state number of cows owned.

3420 Cane St., Fort Atkinson, Wis.

The Champion
Milk Cooler

Used and Recommended
by Leading Dairy
Authorities

A high quality cooler at a very low price—
within reach of all. Can be used with and
without running water; also with ice. It is
as easy to clean as a milk pail, and will do
the work as well as the most expensive
coolers. Save money by insisting on the

GENUINE CHAMPION

The Champion Sanitary
Milk Pail

‘This, pail is the "TRU-
MAN or LOY type.
The simplest and best.
Price. so ke 2 oO

eRe =

The Champion Milk Coole Co.

Box M, Cortland, New York

— eget.
ast See
ee

ONGRESS

ay Ta

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