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I'OLUME ONE
A DICTIONARY OF
E LECTRIC AL
WORDS, TERMS and PHRASES
BY
EDWIN J. HOUSTON, A.M., PH.D.
EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
IN THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL OF PHILADELPHIA J PROFESSOR OF
PHYSICS IN THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE OF PENNSYLVANIA ;
ELECTRICIAN OF THE INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION, ETC., ETC., ETC.
P ART ONE — A to S
NEW YORK
P. F. COLLIER fcf SON
1902
COPYRIGHT 1889, 1892, 1894, 1897
Bv THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY
APPENDIX B
COPYRIGHT 1897
BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON
S05T
WtflcL
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
THE rapid growth of electrical science, and the almost daily addition to it of new
words, terms and phrases, coined, as they too frequently are, in ignorance of
those already existing, have led to the production of an electrical vocabulary that is
already bewildering in its extent. This multiplicity of words is extremely discourag-
ing to the student, and acts as a serious obstacle to a general dissemination of elec-
trical knowledge, for the following reasons :
1. Because, in general, these new terms are not to be found eve^ in the unabridged
editions of dictionaries.
2. The books or magazines, in which they were first jroposed, are either inac-
cessible to the ordinary reader, or, if accessible, are often written in phraseology un-
intelligible except to the expert.
3. The same terms are used by different writers in conflicting senses.
4. The same terms are used with entirely different meanings.
5. Nearly all the explanations in the technical dictionaries are extremely brief as
regards the words, terms and phrases of the rapidly growing and comparatively new
science of electricity.
In this era of extended newspaper and periodical publication, new words are often
coined, although others, already in existence, are far better suited to express the same
ideas. The new terms are used for a while and then abandoned ; or, if retained,
having been imperfectly defined, their exact meaning is capable of no little ambiguity;
and, subsequently, they are often unfortunately adopted by^different writers with such
varying shades of meaning, that it is difficult to understand their true and exact
significance.
Then again, old terms buried away many decades ago and long since forgotten, are
\ dug up and presented in such new garb that their creators would most certainly fail
to recognize them.
It has been with a hope of removing these difficulties to some extent that the author
r has ventured to present this Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms and Phrases to his
^$ brother electricians and the public generally.
He trusts that this dictionary will be of use to electricians, not only by showing the
sjt wonderful extent and richness of the vocabulary of the science, but also by giving the
eral consensus of opinion as to the significance of its different words, terms or
phrases. It is, however, to the general public, to whom it is not only a matter of
interest but also one of necessity to fully understand the exact meaning of electrical
literature, that the author believes the book will be of the greatest value.
In order to leave no doubt concerning the precise meaning of the words, terms and
phrases thus defined, the following plan has been adopted of giving :
(i.) A concise definition of the word, term or phrase.
(2.) A brief statement of the principles of the science involved in the definition.
J— VOL. 1
853927
(3.) Where possible and advisable, a cut of the apparatus described or employed
in connection with the word, term or phrase denned.
It will be noticed that the second item of the plan makes the Dictionary ap-
proach to some extent the nature of an Encyclopedia. It differs, however, from
an Encyclopedia in its scope, as well as in the fact that its definitions in all cases
' are concise.
Considerable labor has been expended in the collection of the vocabulary, for
which purpose electrical literature generally has been explored. In the alphabetical
arrangement of the terms and phrases defined, much perplexity has arisen as to the
proper catch-word under which to place them. It is believed that part of the
difficulty in this respect has been avoided by the free use of cross references.
In elucidating the exact meaning of terms by a brief statement of the principles
of the science involved therein, the author has freely referred to standard textbooks on
electricity, and to periodical literature generally. He is especially indebted to works
or treatises by the following authors, viz. : S. P. Thompson, Larden, Gumming,
Hering, Prescott, Ayrton, Ayrton and Perry, Pope, Lockwood, Sir William Thom-
son, Fleming, Martin and Wetzler, Preece, Preece and Sivewright, Forbes, Max-
well, De Watteville, J. T. Sprague, Culley, Mascart and Joubert, Schwendler,
Fontaine, Noad, Smee, Depretz, De la Rive, Harris, Franklin, Cavallo, Grove,
Hare, Daniell, Faraday and very many others.
The author offers his Dictionary to his fellow electricians as a starting point only.
He does not doubt that his book will be found to contain many inaccuracies, ambig-
uous statements, and possibly doubtful definitions. Pioneer work of this character
must, almost of necessity, be marked by incompleteness. He, therefore, invites
the friendly criticisms of electricians generally, as to errors of omission and commis-
sion, hoping in this way to be able finally to crystallize a complete vocabulary of
electrical words, terms and phrases.
The author desires in conclusion to acknowledge his indebtedness to his friends,
Mr. Carl Henng, Mr. Joseph Wetzler and Mr. T. C. Martin, for critical exami-
nation of the proof sheets ; to Dr. G. G. Faught for examination of the proofs of
the parts relating to the medical applications of electricity, and to Mr. C. E. Stump
for valuable aid in the illustration of the book ; also to Mr. George D. Fowle,
Engineer of Signals of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, for information concern-
ing their System of Block Signaling, and to many others.
EDWIN J. HOUSTON.
» CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA.,
SEPTEMBER, 1889.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
THE first edition of the "Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms and Phrases" met
with so favorable a reception that the entire issue was soon exhausted.
Although but a comparatively short time has elapsed since its publication, electrical
progress has been so marked, and so many new words, terms and phrases have been
introduced into the electrical nomenclature, that the preparation of a new edition has
been determined on rather than a mere reprint from the old plates.
The wonderful growth of electrical science may be judged from the fact that the
present work contains more than double the matter and about twice the number of
definitions that appeared in the earlier work. Although some of this increase has
been due to words which should have been in the first edition, yet in greater part it
has resulted from an actual multiplication of the words used in electrical literature.
To a certain extent this increase has been warranted either by new applications of
electricity or by the discovery of new principles of the science. In some cases, how-
ever, new words, terms or phrases have been introduced notwithstanding the fact that
other words, terms or phrases were already in general use to express the same ideas.
The character of the work is necessarily encyclopedic. The definitions are given
in the most concise language. In order, however, to render these definitions intel-
ligible, considerable explanatory matter has been added.
The Dictionary has been practically rewritten, and is now, in reality, a new book
based on the general lines of the old book, but considerably changed as to order of
arrangement and, to some extent, as to method of treatment.
As expressed in its preface, the author appreciates the fact that the earlier book
was tentative and incomplete. Though the wide scope of the second edition, the
vast number of details included therein, and the continued growth of the electrical
vocabulary must also necessarily make this edition incomplete, yet the author ventures
to hope that it is less incomplete than the first edition. He again asks kindly criti-
cisms to aid him in making any subsequent edition more nearly what a dictionary of
so important a science should be.
The order of arrangement in the first edition has been considerably changed. The
initial letter under which the term or phrase is defined is in all caSjes that of the noun.
For example, "Electric Light " is defined under the term " Light, Electric " ;
" Diameter of Commutation " under "Commutation, Diameter of , " "Alter-
nating Current Dynamo- Electric Machine" under "Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Alternating Current ." As before, the book has numerous cross references.
Although the arrangement of the words, terms and phrases under the initial letter
of the first word, term or phrase, as, for example, " Electric Light" under the letter E,
might possess some advantages, yet, in the opinion of the author, the educational value
of the work would be thereby considerably decreased, since to a great extent such an
arrangement would bring together incongruous portions of the science.
Frequent cross references render it possible to use the Dictionary as a text-book in
connection with lectures in colleges and universities. With such a book the student need
nuke notes only of the words, terms or phrases used, and afterwards, by the use of the
definitions and explanatory matter connected therewith, work up the general subject
matter of the lecture. The author has successfully used this method in his teaching.
In order to separate the definitions from the descriptive matter, two sizes of type
have been used, the definitions being placed in the larger sized type.
In the descriptive matter the author has not hesitated to quote freely from standard
electrical works, electrical magazines, and periodical literature generally. Among the
numerous works consulted, besides those to which reference has already been made
in the preface to the first edition, he desires to acknowledge his indebtedness espe-
cially to "The Alternating Current Transformer," by J. A. Fleming ; to various works
of John W. Urquhart ; to "Modern Views of Electricity," by Prof. O. J. Lodge; to
"A Text-book of Human Physiology," by Landois & Sterling; and to "Practical
Application of Electricity in Medicine and Surgery, " by Liebig & Rohe.
The cuts or diagrams used in the book have either been drawn especially for the
work or have been taken from standard electrical publications.
The chart of standard electrical symbols and diagrams has been taken from Prof.
F. B. Crocker's paper on that subject.
The definition of terms used in systems of electric railways have been taken
mainly from a paper on " Standards in Electric Railway Practice," by O. T. Crosby.
The author desires especially to express his obligations to Prof. F. B. Crocker of
the Electrical Engineering Department, Columbia College, New York, and to Carl
Hering, of Philadelphia, for critical examination of the entire manuscript and for many
valuable suggestions ; also to The Electrical World and the Electrical Engineer of New
York, and to Prof. Elihu Thomson, Edward Caldwell, T. C. Martin, Dr. Louis Bell,
Joseph Wetzler, Nikola Tesla, Wm. H. Wahl, Prof. Wm. D. Marks, Prof. A. E.
Dolbear, C. W. Pike, John Hoskin, and numerous others, for aid in connection with
new words or phrases. So far as they relate to the medical applications of electricity,
the proof sheets were revised by Dr. G. G. Faught, of Philadelphia.
The author desires to thank critics of the first edition and the electrical fraternity in
general for valuable suggestions. He presents this second e lition of his Dictionary in the
hope that it may to some extent properly represent the vocabulary of electrical science.
CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, EDWIN J. HOUSTON.
PHILADELPHIA, May, 1892.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
THE second edition of the "Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms, and Phrases"
was exhausted in such a comparatively short time that the publishers believed
that what new matter might be required for a third edition could best be added in
the form of an appendix.
Although not quite two years have elapsed since the issue of the second edition,
yet the growth of electrical science has continued at so rapid a pace, and new words,
terms, and phrases have of necessity been introduced so rapidly, that fully twenty per
cent., both of new words and new matter, have been found necessary for the third
edition. Had this fact been known in time, it might have been better to have
developed the additional matter throughout the text, rather than placing it at the end
of the book as an appendix.
Should a demand be made for a fourth edition, the author contemplates re-
writing and re-arranging the entire volume. He is thoroughly aware of the inaccuracies
and incompleteness of many of the definitions in the second edition, and hopes, in
the event of a demand for a fourth edition, to produce a volume more nearly ap-
proximating to what an electrical dictionary should be. In the meantime, he again
asks the kindly criticisms of his fellow laborers in the electrical field to aid him in the
work.
In order to facilitate the use of the cross-references, all words, terms, and phrases
referred to in the appendix are so marked; i. e., (See Appendix — Insulation, Kilo-
metric, of Cable. ) All references not so marked will be found in the main text of the
dictionary.
The author desires to express his obligations to numerous authors and technical
journals for information as to new words, terms, and phrases, and to the significance
generally given to them in actual use. He desires especially to acknowledge his
obligations to his colleague, Mr. A. E. Kennelly, and to Professors R. A. Fessenden,
C. Wellman Park; to Messrs. C. P. Steinmetz, J. F. Kelly, O. B. Shallenberger, Carl
Hering, H. W. Frye, W. D. Weaver, W. F. C. Hasson, Townsend Wolcott, J. B.
Cahoon, and many others, for reading of proof sheets and suggestions.
The author presents this third edition of the Dictionary with the hope that it
may prove of value to the electrical fraternity.
EDWIN J. HOUSTON.
PHILADELPHIA, May, 1894.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
TN preparing the fourth edition of his " Dictionary of Electrical
1 Words, Terms and Phrases," the author soon found that the
recent marvellous growth in the electrical vocabulary was such that
it would be impossible to add, in the shape of a separate appendix,
the new words, terms and phrases only, that it was necessary to
introduce into the book. This will be evident from the fact that
the added words exceed in number those already contained in the
first, second and third editions. Since it was deemed inadvisable
by the publisher to recast the entire book, the only course left open
to the author was to alphabetically arrange all the old and new
words, and to present them in concise definitions without any ency-
clopaedic matter, referring the reader to the matter contained in
the earlier editions for illustration and detail.
It has also been thought advisable to introduce a change in the
manner of arrangement, the words, terms and phrases being alpha-
betically arranged according, either to the word, or to the first word
of the term or phrase. This has permitted the entire suppression
of all cross references, which, in view of the author's past expe-
rience, he believes will prove an advantage.
The author desires to acknowledge the very valuable assistance
afforded him by his colleague, Dr. A. E. Kennelly, in the prepa-
ration of the matter for the fourth edition, both in collecting new
terms, as well as in preparing the definitions, and reading the
proof.
The author trusts, that the fourth edition of his electrical Diction-
ary will prove of benefit not only to the electrical world but to the
reading public generally.
All criticisms will be gladly received.
EDWIN J. HOUSTON.
PHILADELPHIA, December, 1897.
A DICTIONARY
OF
ELECTRICAL
WORDS, TERMS AND PHRASES.
A. or An. — An abbreviation sometimes used
in medical electricity for anode. (See Anode.)
A. C. C. — An abbreviation used in medical
electricity for Anodic Closure Contraction.
(See Contraction, Anodic Closure.)
A. D. C. — An abbreviation used in medical
electricity for Anodic Duration Contraction.
(See Contraction, Anodic Duration)
A. 0. C. — An abbreviation used in medical
electricity for Anodic Opening Contraction.
(See Contraction, Anodic Opening.)
Abscissa of Rectilinear Co-ordinates. — A
line or distance cut off along axis of abscissas.
The abscissa of the point D, Fig. i, on the curve
O D R, is the distance D I, or its equal A 2,
measured or cut off on the line A C, the axis of
abscissas; or, briefly, A 2, is the abscissa of the
point D.
Abscissas, Axis of — One of the
axes of co-ordinates used for determining the
position of points on a curved line.
Thus the position of
the point D, Fig. i, on
the curved line O D R,
is determined by the per-
pendicular distances, D I
and D 2, of such point
from two straight lines,
A B and A C, called the
ax fs of co-ordinates. AC, A 2 C
is called the axis of ab- F*-r; **<**/ Co-ordinate*,
scissas, and AB, the axis of ordinates. The point
A, where the lines are considered as starting or
originating, is called fat point of origin, or, gen-
erally, the origin.
The use of co-ordinates was first introduced by
the famous mathematician, Des Cartes.
Absolute.— Complete in itself.
The terms absolute and relative are used in
electricity in the same sense as ordinarily.
Thus, a galvanometer is said to be calibrated
absolutely when the exact current strengths re-
quired to produce given deflections are known ;
or, in other words, when the absolute current
strengths are known ; it is said to be calibrated
relatively when only the relative current strengths
required to produce given deflections are known.
The word absolute, as applied to the units em-
ployed in electrical measurements, was introduced
by Gauss to indicate the fact that the values of
such units are independent both of the size of the
instrument employed and of the value of gravity at
the particular place where the instrument is
used.
The word absolute is also used with reference
to the fact that the values of the units could
readily be redetermined from well known con-
stants, in case of the loss of the standards.
The absolute units of length, mass, and time
are more properly called the C. G. S. units, or
the centimetre-gramme-second units. (See Units,
Absolute.)
An absolute system of units based on the milli-
gramme ^ millimetre, and second, was proposed by
Weber, and was called the millimetre -milli-
gramme-second units. It has been replaced by
Abs.]
[Ace.
the C. G. S. units. (See Units, Centimetre-
Gramme- Second. Units, Fundamental.)
Absolute Block System for Railroads.—
(See Block System for Railroads, Absolute)
Absolute Calibration.— (See Calibration,
Absolute)
Absolute Electrometer. — (See Electrome-
ter, Absolute?)
Absolute Galvanometer. — (See Galva-
nometer, Absolute?)
Absolute Unit of Current.— (See Current,
Absolute Unit of.) •
Absolute Unit of Electromotive Force.—
(See Force, Electromotive, Absolute Unit
of.)
Absolute Unit of Inductance.— (See In-
ductance, Absolute Unit of)
Absolute Unit of Resistance.— (See Re-
sistance, Absolute Unit of)
Absolute Unit of Self-induction.— (See
Induction, Self, Absolute Unit of)
Absolute Units.— (See Units, Absolute.)
Absolute Vacuum. — (See Vacuum, Ab-
solute)
Absorption. — The taking, or, literally,
drinking in, of one form of matter by another,
such as a gas, vapor or liquid by a solid ; or
of the energy of sound, light, heat, or elec-
tricity by ordinary matter.
Absorption, Acoustic The taking
in of the energy of sound waves produced by
one sounding or vibrating body by another
vibrating body.
Acoustic absorption may result in the dissipa-
tion of the absorbed energy, as heat, or in sym-
pathetic vibrations. (See Vibrations, Sympathetic.)
Absorption, Electric The appar-
ent soaking of an electric charge into the
glass or other solid dielectric of a Leyden jar
or condenser. (See Condenser.)
The capacity of a condenser varies with the
time the condenser remains charged and with the
time taken in charging. Some of the charge
acts as if it soaked into the solid dielectric, and
this is the cause of the residual charge. (See
Charge, Residual.) Therefore, when the con-
denser is discharged, less electricity appears than
was passed in ; hence the term electric absorption.
Absorption, Luminous The ab-
sorption of the energy of light in its passage
through bodies.
When sunlight falls on an opaque colored body,
such for example as a red body, all the colors but
the reds are absorbed. yThe reds are then thrown
off and thus cause the color. In the same manner,
when sunlight falls on a transparent colored body,
such for example as red, all colors but the reds are
absorbed, and the reds are transmitted.
When sunlight falls on a phosphorescent body,
a part of the light is absorbed as heat ; another
part is absorbed by the molecules being set into
motion sufficiently rapid to cause them to emit
light or to become luminous.
A mass of glowing gas or vapor absorbs waves
of light of the same length as those it itself emits.
This is the cause of the dark lines of the solar
spectrum, called the Fraunhoffer lines.
The amount of light absorbed by the glass globe
of an incandescent lamp, according to Urquhart,
is as follows, viz.:
Clear glass 10 per cent.
Ground glass 35 "
Opalescent glass 50 "
Absorption, Selective The absorp-
tion of a particular or selected character of
waves of sound, light, heat, or electricity.
Absorption, Thermal The ab-
sorption of heat energy in its passage through
a body.
The phenomena of thermal absorption are
similar to those of luminous absorption. A sub-
stance that is transparent to heat, or which allpws
heat waves to pass through without absorption,
is called diathermanous, or diathermanic, or
is said to be transparent to heat.
Absorptive Power. — (See Power, Absorp-
tive)
Acceleration. — The rate of change of
velocity.
Acceleration is thus distinguished from velocity:
velocity expresses in time the rate- of- change of
position, as a velocity of three metres per second ;
acceleration expresses in time the rate-of-change
of velocity, as an acceleration of one centimetre
per second.
Since all matter is inert, and cannot change its
Ace.]
[Ace.
condition of rest or motion without the applica-
tion of some force, acceleration is necessarily due
to some force outside the matter itself. A force
may therefore be measured by the acceleration it
imparts to a given mass of matter.
Acceleration is positive when the velocity is in-
creasing, and negative when it is decreasing.
Acceleration, Dimensions of The
value of the acceleration expressed in terms
of the length or of distance by the time. (See
Acceleration, Unit of.}
Acceleration, Unit of That ac-
celeration which will give to a body unit-
velocity in unit-time; as, for example, one
centimetre-per-second in one second.
Bodies falling freely in a vacuum, and ap-
proximately so in air, acquire an acceleration
which in Paris or London, at the end of a second,
amounts to about 981 centimetres per second, or
nearly 32.2 ft. per second.
V
A = — , or, in other words,
The acceleration equals the velocity divided by
the time.
But, since velocity equals the Distance, or the
Length traversed in a Unit of Time, V = t .
L
Therefore, A = X = -I. = ^ , Or
The acceleration equals the length, or the dis-
tance passed through, divided by the square of the
time in seconds.
These formulae represent the Dimensions of
Acceleration.
Accumulated Electricity.— (See Electri-
city, Accumulated^}
Accumulating1 Electricity. — (See Electri-
city, Accumulating?)
Accumulation of Electricity.— (See Elec-
tricity, Accumulation of.}
Accumulator. — A -word sometimes applied
to any apparatus in which the strength of a
current is increased by the motion past it of a
conductor, the currents produced in which
tend to strengthen and increase the current
which causes the induction.
The word accumulator is sometimes applied to
Sir Wm. Thomson's Electric Current Accumu-
lator.
Current accumulators operate on the reaction
principle of dynamo-electric machines. In this
sense, therefore, a dynamo-electric machine is an
accumulator. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Reaction Principle of.}
Fig. 2. Barltrw's Whtel.
The copper disc D, Fig. 2, has freedom of
rotation, on a horizontal axis at O, in a magnetic
field, the lines of force of which, represented by
the dotted lines in the drawing, pass downward
perpendicularly into the plane of the paper.
If, now, a current from any source be passed
in the direction A, O, B, C, A, through the circuit
A, O, B, C, A, which is provided with spring
contacts at O, and A, the disc will rotate in the
direction of the curved arrow. This motion is
due to the current acting on that part of the disc
which lies between the two contacts — A and O.
This apparatus is known as Barlow's Wheel.
If, when no current is passing through the
circuit, the disc be turned in the direction of the
arrow, a current is set up in such a direction as
would oppose the rotation of the disc. (See
Law, Lenz's.)
If, however, the disc be turned in the opposite
direction to that of the arrow, induction currents
will as before be produced in the circuit. As
this rotation of the disc tends to move the circuit
O A, towards the parallel but oppositely directed
circuit B C, these two circuits being parallel and
in opposite directions tend to repel one another,
and there will thus be set up induced currents
that tend to oppose the motion of rotation, and
the current of the circuit will therefore increase
in strength. (See Dynamics, Electro.} Should
then a current be started in the circuit, and the
original field be removed, the induction will be
continued, and a current which, up to a certain
extent, increases or accumulates, is maintained in
the circuit during rotation of the disc. (Larden.)
Barlow's Wheel, when used in this manner, is
known as Thomsons Electric Current Accumu-
lator.
Acc.]
[Ace.
Accumulator. — A word often applied to
a Leyden jar or condenser, which permits the
gradual collection from an electric source of
a greater charge than it would otherwise be
capable of containing.
A condenser. (See Condenser?)
The ability of a source to accumulate an in-
creased charge when connected to a condenser is
due to the increased capacity which a plate or
other conductor acquires when placed near
another plate or conductor. (See Condenser.
Jar, Leyden.}
Accumulator, Capacity of -- The
capacity of a condenser, expressed in micro-
farads. (See Condenser, Capacity of.)
Accumulator or Condenser ; Laws of Ac-
cumulation of Electricity.— Sir W. Snow
Harris, by the use of his Unit-Jar and Elec-
tric Thermometer, deduced the following
laws for the accumulation of electricity, which
we quote from Noad's " Student's Text-Book
of Electricity," revised by Preece :
(l.) "Equal quantities of electricity are given
off at each revolution of the plate of an electrical
machine to an uncharged surface, or to a surface
charged to any degree of saturation."
(2. ) "A coated surface receives equal quantities
of electricity in equal times ; and the number of
revolutions of the plate is a fair measure of the
relative quantities of electricity, all other things
remaining the same."
(3.) " The free action of an electrical accumula-
tion is estimated by the interval it can break
through, and is directly proportional to the quan-
tity of electricity."
(4.) " The free action is inversely proportional
to the surface."
(5.) " When the electricity and the surface are
increased in the same ratio, the discharging in-
terval remains the same ; but if, as the electricity
is increased, the surface is diminished, the dis-
charging interval is directly as the square of the
quantity of electricity."
(6.) " The resistance of air to discharge is as
the square of the density directly. "
According to some later investigations, the
quantity a plane surface can receive under a given
density depends on the linear boundary of the
surface as well as on the area of the surface.
" The amount of electrical charge depends on
surface and linear extension conjointly. There
exists in every plane surface what may be termed
an electrical boundary, having an important rela-
tion to the grouping or disposition of the electric
particles in regard to each other and to surrounding
matter. This boundary in circles or globes is
represented by their circumferences. In plane
rectangular surfaces, it is by their linear extension
or perimeter. If this boundary be constant, their
electrical charge varies with the square root of
the surface. If the surface be constant the charge
varies with the square root of the boundary. If
the surface and boundary both vary, the charge
varies with the square root of the surface multi-
plied into the square root of the boundary."
These laws apply especially to continuous sur-
faces taken as a whole, and not to surfaces divided
into separate parts.
By electrical charge Harris meant the quantity
sustained on a given surface under a given elec-
trometer indication ; by electrical intensity, he
meant the indication of the electrometer corre-
sponding to a given quantity on a given surface.
(See Condenser, Capacity of. Capacity, Elec-
trostatic. Capacity, Specific Inductive. )
Accumulators of this character are now
generally called Condensers. (For more modern
principles concerning their construction and
capacity see Condenser. Condenser, Capacity of.)
Accumulator, Secondary or Storage
Cell -- Two inert plates partially sur-
rounded by a fluid incapable of acting cham-
ically on either of them until after the passage
of an electric current, when they become
capable of furnishing an independent electric
current.
This use of the term accumulator is the one
most commonly employed. A better term for
such a cell is a secondary or storage cell. (See
Cell, Secondary or Storage.)
Commercially, an accumulator consists of a
single jar and its electrolyte, in which a single
set of positive and negative plates is properly
placed.
Accumulator, Water-Dropping --
An apparatus devised by Sir W. Thomson for
increasing the difference of potential between
two electric charges.
The tube X Y, Fig. 3, connects with a reser-
voir of water which is maintained at the zero
potential of the earth. The water escapes from
Ach.]
the openings at C and D, in small drops and falls
on funnels provided, as shown, to receive the
separate drops and again discharge them.
The vessels A, A', and B,
B', which are electrically
connected as shown, are
maintained at a certain small A hj
difference of potential, as
indicated by the respective
-f- and — signs.
Under these c i r c u m -
stances, therefore, C and D, A '
will be charged inductively FiS- 3- Water-Drop-
with charges opposite to ting Acatmulator-
those of A and B, or with — and -f- electricities
respectively. As the drops of water fall on the
funnels, the charges which the funnels thus con-
stantly receive are given up to B' and A', before
the water escapes. Since, therefore, B, B', and
A, A', are receiving constant charges, the differ-
ence of potential between them must continually
increase. This apparatus operates on the same
principle as the replenisher. The drops of water
act as the carriers, and A, A', and B, B', as the
hollow vessels. (See Replenisher.)
Achromatic. — Free from false coloration.
Images formed by ordinary lenses do not pos-
sess the true colors of the object, unless the edges
of the lenses are cut off by the use of a diaphragm ;
i. f., an opaque plate with a central circular
opening. The edges of the lenses disperse the
light like an ordinary prism, and so produce rain-
bow colored (prismatic) fringes in the image.
The use of an achromatic lens is to obviate this
false coloration.
Achromatizable. — Capable of being freed
from false coloration.
Achromatize. — To free from false color-
ation.
Achromatizing. — Freeing from false color-
ation.
Acid, Spent A battery acid, or other
acid, that has become too weak for efficient
action.
In a voltaic cell the acid of the electrolyte
becomes spent by combining with the metal of
the positive plate.
Acidometer. — A special form of hydrom-
eter used in determining the specific gravity
of the acid liquid in a secondary or storage
cell. (See Areometer or Hydrometer. Cell.
Storage?)
The scale on the acidometer tube is made to in-
dicate the density according to the distance the
floating instrument sinks in the liquid.
Aclinic Line.— (See Line, Aclinic)
Acoustic Absorption. — (See Absorption,
Acoustic?)
Acoustic Engraving. — (See Engraving,
Acoustic?)
Acoustic Telegraphy. — (See Telegraphy,
Acoustic?)
Acoustic Tetanus. — (See Tetanus, Acous-
tic:)
Acoutemeter, Electric An ap-
paratus for electrically testing the delicacy of
hearing.
The Acoutemeter is one of the many applica-
tions of Hughes' sonometer. It consists of three
flat coils placed parallel to one another on a grad-
uated rod, passing through their axes. The
central coil, which is used as the primary of an
induction coil, is fixed. The other two, which are
employed as secondary coils, are movable. (See
Sonometer, Hughes*. Coil, Induction. Micro-
phone.} A microphone, electrical tuning fork,
switches, plugs, and other accessories, are suitably
placed and connected. The subject whose hear-
ing is to be tested is placed with his back to tke
apparatus, and with two telephone receivers tightly
fixed to his ears. As various sounds are produced,
the outer or movable coils are moved gradually
away from the central coil, until no sound is
heard in the telephone receivers. This distance
is in the inverse ratio of the delicacy of hearing of
the individual.
Actinic Photometer. — (See Photometer,
Actinic?)
Actinic Ray.— (See Ray, Actinic?)
Actinism. — The chemical effects of light,
as manifested by the decomposition of various
substances.
Under the influence of the sun's light, the car-
bonic acid absorbed by the leaves of plants is de-
composed in the living leaves into carbon, which is
retained by the plant for the formation of its
woody fibre or ligneous tissue, and oxygen, which
is thrown off.
Act,]
[Act.
The bleaching of curtains, carpets, and other
fabrics exposed to sunlight is caused by the actinic
power of the light. The photographic picture is
impressed by the actinic power of light on a plate
covered with some sensitive metallic salt.
Actinograph. — An apparatus for measur-
ing and recording the intensity of the chemi-
cal effects of light.
Actinography. — The method of measuring
and recording the intensity of the chemical
effects of light.
Actinometer. — A word sometimes applied
to a pyrheliometer. (See Pyrheliometer)
Actinometer, Electric An appa-
ratus for electrically measuring the intensity
of the chemically active rays present in any
luminous radiation.
The rays from the luminous source are per-
mitted to fall on a selenium resistance, and their
intensity determined by the change observed in
the resistance as indicated by the deflections of a
galvanometer placed in circuit with the selenium
resistance. Or, a thermo-electric pile is employed,
and the amount of heat present determined by the
indications of a galvanometer placed in its
circuit.
Action, Cataphoric The action
of electric osmose or cataphoresis. (See
Cataphoresis.)
Action Currents. — (See Currents, Action?)
Action, Inductive, Lines of —
Lines within the space, separating a charge
and a neighboring body, along which elec-
trostatic inductive action takes place.
Lines of electrostatic force.
Lines of inductive action pass through the
dielectric, separating the two bodies, and termi-
nate on the surfaces of the conductor. According
to the now generally received notions, the elec-
trostatic charge exists in the mass of the dielectric,
and not in that of the conductor. The lines of
inductive action terminate against the surfaces,
one at the positive, and the other at the negative
surface. A true E. M. F. exists in the space
traversed by lines of inductive action. A con-
ductor brought into this space becomes electri-
fied, or is strained in such a manner that a
momentary current is produced by the rearrange-
ment of the electrification brought about by
electrostatic induction.
Action, Local, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine The loss of energy in a dy-
namo-electric machine by the setting up of
eddy currents in its pole pieces, cores, or
other conducting masses. (See Currents,
Eddy.}
In a dynamo-electric machine local action is
obviated by a. lamination of the pole pieces, arma-
ture core, etc. (See Core, Lamination of.)
Action, Local, of Voltaic Cell
An irregular dissolving or consumption of the
zinc or positive element of a voltaic battery, by
the fluid or electrolyte, when the circuit is
open or broken, as well as when closed, or in
regular action.
Local action is due to small particles of such
impurities as carbon, iron, arsenic, or other
negative elements, in the positive plate. These
impurities form with the positive element minute
voltaic couples, and thus direct the corrosive
action of the liquid to portions of the plate near
them. Local action causes a waste of energy.
It may be avoided by the amalgamation of the
zinc. (See Zinc, Amalgamation of.)
Action, Magne-Crystallic A term
proposed by Faraday to express differences
in the action of magnetism on crystalline
bodies in different directions.
A needle of tourmaline, if hung with its axis
horizontal, is no longer paramagnetic, as usual,
but diamagnetic. The same is true of a crystal
of bismuth. Faraday concluded from these ex-
periments that a force existed distinct from either
the paramagnetic or the diamagnetic force. He
called this the magne crystallic force.
Pltlcker infers from these phenomena that a
definite relation exists between the ultimate form
of the particles of matter and their magnetic be-
havior. The subject may be regarded as yet
somewhat obscure. (See Polarity, Diamagnetic.}
Action of a Current on a Magnetic Pole.
— (See Current, Action of, on a Magnetic
Pole)
Action, Refreshing, of Current
The restoration, after fatigue, of muscular and
nervous excitability obtained by the action of
Act.]
voltaic alternatives. (See Alternatives, Vol-
taic)
Activity. — The work done per second by
any agent. (This term is but seldom used.)
Work-per-second, or, as generally termed
in the United States, Power, or Rate of
Doing Work. (See Power.)
Activity, Unit of — —A rate of work-
ing that will perform one unit of work per
second.
In C. G. S. units, the activity of one erg per
second.
The C. G. S. unit of activity is very small.
One Watt, the practical unit of activity or power,
is equal to ten million ergs per second. (See
Watt.)
The unit of activity generally used for mechan-
ical power is the horse-power, or 746 watts.
(See Horse- Power.)
Actual Cautery.— (See Cautery, Actual)
Acute Angle. — (See Angle, Acute)
Adapter. — A screw nozzle fitted to an elec-
tric lamp, provided with a screw thread to en-
able it to be readily placed on a gas bracket
or chandelier in place of an ordinary gas
burner.
Adherence. — The quality or property of
adhering. (See Adhesion)
Adherence, Magnetic Adhesion be-
tween surfaces due to magnetic attraction.
Magnetic adhesion has been applied, among
other things, to a brake action on car wheels,
either by causing them to adhere directly to the
track or to a brake-block.
Adhesion. — The mutual attraction which
exists between unlike molecules. (See At-
traction, Molecular?)
The phenomena of adhesion are due to the
mutual attraction of dissimilar molecules.
Adhesion, Electric Adhesion be-
tween surfaces due to the attraction of unlike
electrostatic charges.
Molecular adhesion must be distinguished from
the attraction which causes a piece of dry and
warmed writing paper, that has been rubbed by a
piece of india-rubber, to stick to a papered wall.
In this latter case the attraction between the wall
[Aer.
and the paper is due to the mutual attraction of
two dissimilar electrostatic charges. Molecular
adhesion must also be distinguished from the at-
traction of opposite magnetic poles.
Adhesion, Galvanoplastic -- The ad-
hesion of a galvanoplastic deposit or coating
to surfaces subjected to electroplating. (See
Plating, Electro)
Adiathermaiicy. — Opacity to heat.
A substance is said to be diathermanous when
it is transparent to heat. Clear, colorless crys-
tals of rock salt are very transparent both to light
and to heat. Rock salt, covered with a layer or
deposit of lampblack or soot, is quite transparent
to heat. An adiathermanous body is one which
is opaque to heat.
Heat transparency varies ndt only with differ-
ent substances, but also with the nature of the
source from which the heat is derived. Thus, a
substance may be opaque to he it from a non-
luminous source, such as a vessel filled with boil-
ing water, while it is comparatively transparent
to heat from a luminous source, such as an incan-
descent solid or a voltaic arc.
A similar difference exists as regards transpar-
ency to light. A colorless glass will allow light
of any color to pass through it. A blue glass will
allow blue light to pass freely through it, but will
completely prevent the passage of any red light ;
and so with other colors.
Adiathermauic. — Possessing the quality of
adiathermancy. (See Adiathermancy)
Adjustable Condenser. — (See Condenser,
Adjustable)
Adjuster, Cord --- A device for ad-
justing the length of a pendant cord.
Adjustment. — Such a regulation of any
apparatus as will enable it to properly perform
its functions.
.Epinus' Condenser. — (See Condenser,
Aerial Cable.— (See Cable, Aerial)
Aerial Cable, Suspending Wire of —
(See Wire, Suspending, of Aerial Cable)
Aerial Line.— (See Line, Aerial.)
Aerolites. — A name sometimes given to
meteorites.
Meteorites are masses of solids which pass
Aff.]
10
[Ago.
through the upper portions only of the earth's
atmosphere on their approach to the orbit of the
earth, or which fall through the air on the earth's
surface from the sky. They are luminous at
night and are followed by a train of fire. The
luminosity is due to heat produced by friction
through the air. Meteors frequently burst from
the sudden expansion of their outer portions.
Some meteorites are composed of nearly pure
iron alloyed with nickel. The majority of them,
however, are merely stones or oxidized sub-
stances. Their average velocity is about 26 miles
a second.
Affinity, Chemical — —Atomic attrac-
tion.
The force which causes atoms to unite and
form chemical molecules.
Atomic or chemical attraction generally results
in a loss of the characteristic qualities or proper-
ties which distinguish one kind of matter from
another. In this respect chemical affinity differs
from adhesion, or the force which holds unlike
molecules together. (See Adhesion. Attraction,
Molecular.} If, for example, sulphur is mixed
with lampblack, no matter how intimate the
mixture, the separate particles, when examined
by a magnifying glass, exhibit their peculiar color,
lustre, etc. If, however, the sulphur is chemi-
cally united with the carbon, a colorless, transpar-
ent, mobile liquid, called carbon bisulphide, re-
sults, that possesses a disagreeable, penetrating
odor.
Chemical affinity, or atomic combination, is in
fluenced by a variety of causes, viz. :
(I.) Cohesion. Cohesion, by binding the mole-
cules more firmly together, opposes their mutual
atomic attraction.
A solid rod of iron will not readily burn in the
flame of an ordinary lamp ; but, if the cohesion be
overcome by reducing the iron rod to filings, it
burns with brilliant scintillations when dropped
into the same flame. In this case the increase of
surface and the increased temperature of the
smaller particles also contribute to the result.
(2.) Solution. Solution, by giving the molecules
greater freedom of motion, favors their chemical
combination.
(3.) Heat. Heat sometimes favors atomic com-
bination possibly by decreasing the cohesion, and,
possibly, by altering the electrical relations of the
atoms. If too great, heat may produce decom-
position. There is for most substances a critical
temperature below wh^h chemical combination
will not take place. (See Thermolysis. )
(4.) Light. Decomposition, or the lessening of
chemical affinity, through the agency of light, is
called Actinism, Light also causes the direct
combination of substances. A mixture of equal
volumes of hydrogen and chlorine unites explo-
sively when exposed to the action of full sunlight.
(See Actinism.)
(5.) Electricity. An electric spark will cause
an explosive combination of a mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen. Electricity also produces chemi-
cal decomposition. (See Electrolysis.)
Helmholtz accounts for the electro-chemical
attraction of oxygen for zinc by supposing that all
substances possess a definite amount of attraction
for electricity, and that the attraction of zinc in
this respect exceeds that of copper and the other
metals. He thus regards the zinc as attracting
its electric charge rather than as attracting the
oxygen. Since both zinc and copper are dyad
metals, this view, as will be seen, is at variance
with later views.
Chemical affinity may be caused by the opposite
attractions of electrical charges naturally possessed
by the atoms of matter. This would appear to be
rendered probable by the law of electro-chemical
equivalence. (See Equivalence, Electro-Chemical,
Law of. Electricity, Atom of.)
After Currents.— (See Currents, After.}
Aging of Alcohol, Electric (See
Alcohol, Electric Aging of.)
Agonal.— Pertaining to the agone. (See
Agone.)
Agone. — A line connecting places on the
earth's surface where the magnetic needle
points to the true geographical north.
The line of no declination or variation of
a magnetic needle. (See Needle, Magnetic,
Declination of.)
As all the places on the earth where the mag-
netic needle points to the true north may be ar-
ranged on a few lines, it will be understood that
the pointing of the magnetic needle to the true
geographical north is the exception and not the
rule. In many places, however, the deviation
from the true geograpical north is so small that
the direction of the needle may be regarded as
approximately due north.
Agonic. — Pertaining to the agone.
Air.
11
[Ala.
Air-Blast for Commutators. — An inven-
tion of Prof. Elihu Thomson to prevent the
injurious action of destructive flashing at the
commutator of a dynamo-electric machine.
A thin, forcible blast of air is delivered through
suitable tubes at points on the three-part commu-
tator cylinder of the Thomson- Houston dynamo,
where the collecting brushes bear on its surface.
The effect is to blow out the arc or prevent its for-
mation and thus avoid its destructive action on
the commutator segments. The use of the air-
blast also permits the free application of oil, thus
further avoiding wear.
Fig. 4. Air-Blast on Commuta
The blast-nozzles are shown at B3, B8, Fig. 4,
near the collecting brushes.
The air-supply is obtained from a blower at-
tached directly to the shaft of the machine. Its
construction and operation will be readily under-
stood from an inspection of Fig. 5, in which the
Fig. f. The Thomson Blower.
top is removed for ready examination of the
interior parts.
Air Churning. — (See Churning, Air)
Air Condenser. — (See Condenser, Air)
Air Field.— (See Field, Air)
Air-Gap.— (See Gap, Air)
Air-Line Wire.— (See Wire, Air-Line)
Air Magnetic Circuit.— (See Circuit, Air
Magnetic)
Air-Pump.— (See Pump, Air)
Air-Pump, Oeissler's Mercurial
(See Pump, Air, Geissler's Mercurial)
Air-Pump, Mechanical (See Pump,
Air, Mechanical)
Air-Pump, Mercurial (See Pump,
Air, Mercurial)
Air-Pump, Sprengel's Mercurial
(See Pump, Air, SprengeFs Mercurial)
Air-Space Cut-Out— (See Cut-Out, Air-
Space)
Alarm, Burglar A device, generally
electric, for automatically announcing the
opening of a door, window, closet, drawer, or
safe, or the passage of a person through a
hallway, or on a stairway.
Electric burglar-alarm devices generally consist
of mechanism for the operation of an automatic
make -and -break bell on the opening or closing of
an electric circuit. The bell may either continue
ringing only while the contact remains closed, or,
may, by the throwing on of a local circuit or
battery, continue ringing until stopped by some
non-automatic device, such as a hand-switch.
The alarm-bell is stationed either in the house
when occupied, or on the outside when the house
is temporarily vacated, or may connect directly
with the nearest police station.
Burglar-alarm apparatus is of a variety of
forms. Generally, devices are provided by means
of which, in case of house protection, an annunci-
titor shows the exact part where an entrance has
been attempted. (See Annunciator, Burglar-
Alarm) Switches are provided for disconnecting
all or parts of the house from the alarm when so
desired, as well as to per-
mit windows to be partly
raised for purposes of ven-
tilation without sounding
the alarm. A clock is fre-
quently connected with the
alarm for the purpose of
automatically disconnect-
ing any portion of the
house at or for certain in-
tervals of time.
Fig. 6 shows a burglar- Fig. 6. Burglar-Alarm
alarm with annunciator, Annunciator.
switches, switch-key, cut-off, and clock.
Alarm, Burglar, Central-Station
A burglar-alarm, the contact points of which
are placed in the places to be protected, and
Ala.]
[Ate.
connected by suitable circuits with alarms
placed in a centrally located station.
In a system of central-station burglar-alarms, a
number of houses, factories, banks, etc., are all
connected telegraphically with the nearest police
station, or other central station, constantly pro-
vided with police officers. A series of contacts are
placed on doors, windows, safes and money draw-
ers, and connected with alarms and annunciators
placed in the central station. An unauthorized
entrance, therefore, is automatically telegraphed
to the central station and its exact location indi-
cated on the annunciator. Systems of central-
station fire-alarms are constructed on a similar
plan.
Alarm, Electric An automatic de-
vice by which attention is called to the occur-
rence of certain events, such as the opening
of a door or window; the stepping of a person
on a mat or staircase; the rise or fall of tem-
perature beyond a given predetermined point;
or, a device intended to call a person to a tel-
egraphic or telephonic instrument.
Electric-alarms are operated by means of the
ringing of an electro-magnetic or mechanical bell,
Fig. 7. Electrically Started Mechanical Alarm.
which is electrically called into action by either
closing or opening an electric circuit, generally
the former.
Electric-alarms may be divided into two classes,
viz.:
(I.) Mechanically operated alarms, or those in
which the alarm is given by clock-work, started
by means of an electric current.
(2.) Those in which the alarm is both set in ac-
tion and operated by an electric current.
In Fig. 7 is shown the general construction of
an electrically started mechanical alarm. The
attraction of the armature B, by the electro-mag-
net A, moves the armature lever pivoted at C,
and thus releases the catch e, and permits the
spring or weight connected with the clock move-
ment to set it in motion and strike the bell.
Electrically actuated alarm-bells are generally
of the automatic make-and-break form. The
striking lever is operated by the attraction of the
armature of an electro-magnet, and is provided
with a contact-point, so placed that when the
hammer is drawn away from the bell, by the ac-
tion of a spring, on the electro-magnet losing its
magnetism, a contact is made, but when the ham-
mer is drawn towards the bell the contact is open-
ed. When, therefore, the hammer strikes the
bell, the circuit is opened, and the electro-magnet
releases its armature, permitting a spring to again
close the contact by moving the striking lever
away from the bell. Once set into action, these
movements are repeated while there is battery
power sufficient to energize the magnet.
In Fig. 8, in which is shown an electrically ac-
tuated alarm-bell, the battery terminals are con-
Fig. 8. Automatic Make-and-Break.
..ected with the right and left hand binding-posts,
P and M. The hammer, K, is connected with a
striking lever, which forms part of the circuit,"
and which is attached toihe armature of the elec
tro-magnet e. A metallic spring, g, bears against
the armature when the latter is away from the
magnet, but does not touch the armature when
it is moved towards the magnet. A small spring
draws the lever away from the magnet when no
current is passing. The movements of the arma
13
[AlCo
ture thus automatically open and close the circuit
of the electro-magnet.
This form of make-and-break is called an auto-
matic make-and-break.
Alarm, Electrically Operated — —An
alarm that is maintained in operation by the
electric current. (See Alarm, Electric^)
Alarm, Electro-Mechanical - - —A
mechanically operated alarm that is started
or set in operation by means of an electric
current. (See Alarm, Electric^)
Alarm, Fire, Automatic An in-
strument for automatically telegraphing an
alarm from any locality on its increase in tem-
perature beyond a certain predetermined point.
Fire-alarms are operated by thermostats, or by
means of mercurial contacts; i. e., a contact
closed by the expansion of a column of mercury.
(See Thermostat. Contact, Mercurial.)
In systems of fire-alarm telegraphs, the alarm
is automatically sounded in a central police sta-
tion and in the district fire-engine house. (See
Telegraphy, Fire-Alarm. )
Alarm, Mercurial Temperature
An instrument for automatically telegraphing
an alarm by means of a mercurial contact on
a predetermined change of temperature.
The action of mercurial contacts is dependent
on the fact that, as the mercury expands more
than glass by the action of heat, the mercury level
reaches a contact-point placed in a glass tube and
thus completes the circuit through its own mass,
which forms the other or movable contact.
Sometimes both contacts are placed on opposite
sides of a tube and are closed when the mercury
reaches them.
Mercurial temperature or thermostat alarms
are employed in hot-houses, incubators, tanks
and buildings for the purpose of maintaining a
uniform temperature.
Alarm, Telegraphic — — An alarm-bell
for calling the attention of an operator to
a telegraphic instrument when the latter is of
the non-acoustic or needle type.
In acoustic systems of telegraphy the sounds
themselves are generally sufficient.
Alarm, Telephonic An alarm-bell
for calling a correspondent to the receiving
telephone.
These alarms generally consist of magneto-
electric bells. (See Bell, Magneto-Electric.)
Alarm, Temperature — —An electric
alarm automatically operated on a change of
temperature. (See Alarm, Fire, Automatic)
Alarm, Thermostat— —An electric
alarm that is thrown into action by a thermo-
stat. (See Thermostat)
Alarm, Water or Liquid Level
A device for electrically sounding an alarm
wnen a water surface varies materially from
a given level.
An electric bell is placed in a circuit that is au-
tomatically closed or broken by the movement of
contact-points operated by the change of liquid
level.
A form of electric alarm for a water-level is
shown in Fig. 9. The float is provided with
contacts for closing an electric circuit, when it
either rings a bell, or, by its action on some form
of automatic cut-off, stops the water.
Fig: 9. Water- Level Alarm. Fig. 10.
When arranged with a double float, as shown
in Fig. 10, the alarm may be made to signal
either a too high or a too low water level.
Alarm, Yale-Lock-Switch Burglar —
— An apparatus whereby the opening of a
door by an authorized party provided with the
regular key will not sound an alarm, but any
other opening will sound such alarm.
Fig. n. Yale-Lock-Switch.
A Yale-lock burglar-alarm switch is shown in
Fig. II.
Alcohol, Electric Aging of A pro-
cess for the rapid aging of alcohol, by rx-
Ale.]
14
[All.
posing it to the action of electrically produced
ozone.
Instead of the ordinary process of aging alco-
hol, by exposing it in partially closed vessels to
the action of air, it is exposed to the action of
ozone, electrically produced.
The ozone employed is obtained in substan-
tially the usual way by the passage of a rapid
succession of electric sparks through air.
Alcohol, Electric Rectification of —
A process whereby the bad taste and odor of
alcohol, due to the presence of aldehydes,
are removed by the electrical conversion of
the aldehydes into true alcohols through the
addition of hydrogen atoms.
An electric current sent through the liquid
between zinc electrodes liberates oxygen and hy-
drogen from the decomposition of the water.
The nascent or atomic hydrogen converts the
aldehydes into alcohol and deprives the pro-
ducts of their fusel oil, while the oxygen forms
insoluble zinc oxide.
Algebraic Co-efficient— (See Co-efficient,
Algebraic?)
Algebraic Notation.— (See Notation, Al-
gebraic?)
All-Night Arc Lamp.— (See Lamp, All-
Night Arc?)
All-Night Electric Lamp.— (See Lamp,
All-Night Arc.}
Allotropic.— Pertaining to allotropy. (See
Allotropy.}
Allotropic State.— (See State, Allotropic).
Allotropy. — A variation of the physical
properties of an elementary substance with-
out change of composition of its molecules.—
(See State, Allotropic.)
Alloy. — A combination, or mixture, of two
or more metallic substances.
Alloys in most cases appear to be true chemi-
cal compounds. In a few instances, however,
they may form simple mixtures.
The composition of a few important alloys is
here given:
Solder, plumber's; Tin 66 parts, Lead 34 parts.
Pewter, hard; Tin 92 parts, Lead 8 parts.
Britannia metal; Tin 100 parts, Antimony 8
parts, Copper 4 parts, Bismuth, I part.
Type metal; Lead 80, Antimony 20 parts.
Brass, white; Copper 65, Zinc 35 parts.
Brass, red; Copper 90, Zinc I o parts.
Speculum metal ; Copper 67, Tin 33 parts.
Bell metal; Copper 78, Tin 22 parts.
Aluminium bronze; Copper 90, Aluminium 10
parts.
Alloy. — To form a combination or mixture
of two or more metallic substances.
Alloy, German Silrer — An alloy
employed for the wires of resistance coils,
consisting of 50 parts of copper, 25 of zinc,
and 25 of nickel.
German silver wire is suitable for resistance
coils, because its resistance varies but slightly with
changes of temperature. It is cheaper than plati-
num-silver alloy, and is therefore employed ex-
tensively. Platinum silver alloy, however, has
more resistance for a given size of wire, and its re-
sistance varies somewhat less than German silver
with changes of temperature, and is therefore used
where greater accuracy is desired.
Alloy, Palladium An alloy of pal-
ladium with other metals.
Palladium forms a number of useful alloys with
various metals. Some of the palladium alloys are
as elastic as steel, are unaffected by moisture or
ordinary corrosive agencies, and are entirely de-
void of paramagnetic properties; that is to say,
they cannot be magnetized after the manner of
iron.
These properties have been utilized by their
discoverer, Paillard, in their employment for the
hair-springs, escapements and balance wheels of
watches, in order to permit the watches to be car-
ried into strong magnetic fields without any ap-
preciable effects on the rate of the watch. A
number of careful tests made by the author, by
long continued exposure of watches, thus pro-
tected by the Paillard alloys, in extraordinary
fields, show that the protection thus given the
watches enables them to be carried into the strong-
est possible magnetic fields without appreciably
affecting their rate.
The Paillard palladium alloys have the follow-
ing composition, viz.:
Alloy No. i.
Palladium 60 to 75 parts.
Copper 151025 "
Iron i to 5 "
All.]
15
[Alp.
Alloy No. 2.
Palladium .............. 50 to 75 parts.
Copper 20 to 30 "
jron c to 20 "
Alloy No. j.
Palladium .............. 65 to 75 "
,
Copper ................ 151025 "
Nickel ................ ito 5 "
Gold .................. ito 2* «
Platinum ............... i to 2 "
Silver .................. 3toio «
Steel .............. i to 5 "
Alloy No. 4.
Palladium .............. 45 to 50 "
Silver .................. 201025 "
Copper ................ l5to2S <«
Gold ................... 2 to 5 "
Platinum ............... 2 to 5 "
Nickel ................. 2105 "
Steel ................... 2 to 5 "
The great value of the palladium alloys, when
employed for the hair-springs of watches, arises
not only from their non -magnetizable properties,
and their inoxidizability, but particularly from the
fact that their elasticity is approximately the same
for comparably wide ranges of temperature.
Alloy, Platinum-Silver -- An alloy
consisting of one part of platinum, and two
parts of silver.
Platinum- silver alloy is now extensively em-
ployed for resistance coils from the fact that
changes in temperature of the alloy produce but
comparatively small changes in its electrical re-
sistance. (See Alloy, German Silver.}
Alphabet, Telegraphic -- An arbi-
trary code consisting of dots and dashes,
sounds.deflections of a magnetic needle, flashes
of light^ or movements of levers, following one
another in a given predetermined order, to
represent the letters of the alphabet and the
numerals.
Alphabet, Telegraphic: International
n A T-i. j t • if i
Code -- The code of signals for letters,
etc., employed in England and on the Euro-
pean continent generally.
Similar symbols are employed for the numerals
and the punctuation marks.
It will be observed that it is mainly in the
characters of the American Morse, in which spaces
** used> that the Continental characters differ
from the American. This is due to the use of the
needle instrument, with which a space cannot well
be represented. A movement or deflection of the
S'nK'e *"**
Printing Needle Printing .Needle
* — x/ n— <\
* — •'- o --- "/
c~* — /X/N p --- • *'' x
«— '- « ---- ^
International Telegraphic Code.
needle to the left signifies a dot; a movement to
the right» a dash-
Alphabet, Telegraphic : Morse's __
Varkms ^ of dots and dashes> Qr
deflections of a ma tic needle to the rf ht
^ ^ ^.^ represent ^ lettere Q£ ^
alphabet or other signs.
In t^ Morse alphabet dots and dashes are em-
ployed in recording systems, and sounds of
varying intervals, corresponding to the dots and
dashes, in the sounder system.
A dash is equal in length of time to three dots.
The space between the separate characters of a
single letter is equal to one dot, except in the
American Morse, in which the following letters
contain longer spaces: c> o> R? Y> and z. The
lengthened spaces are equal to two dots. L is
one and a half times the length of T.
The sound produced by the down stroke of the
sounding lever in the Morse sounder is readily
distinguishable from the up stroke. When these
differences are taken in connection with the inter-
vals between successive sounds there is no diffi-
culty in reading by sound.
(For methods of recdving the alphabet> see
Sounder, Morse Telegraphic. Recorder, Morse.
Recorder, BaMs Chemical. Recorder, Siphon.
Relay. Magnet, Receiving. ) In the needle tele-
graph, the code is similar to that used in the Morse
Alphabet. (See Telegraphy, Single-Needle.}
Alt.]
AMERICAN MORSE CODE.
ALPHABET.
h ---.
o - -
P
q
r - --
s
t —
u
v
w
m
& - ---
NUMERALS.
i
2
3
4
PUNCTUATION MARKS.
Period
Comma
Interrogation
Exclamation
Printing
SingJe Needle
X ////
xx ///
xxx //
xxxx/
10
Period ------ NX \\ \x
Comma ______ x A A /
Interrogation ______ xx / / \\
Exclamation ______ /Ax//
Colon ______ ///NNN
Semicolon ______ /\/\/\
Alteration Theory of Muscle or Nerve
Current— (See Theory, Alteration, of
Muscle or Nerve Current?)
Alternating Arc. — (See Arc, Alternat-
ing.}
Alternating Current Circuit.— (See Cir-
cuit, Alternating Current?)
16 [Alt.
Alternating Current Condenser. — (See
Condenser, Alternating Current?)
Alternating Current Dynamo-Electric
Machine. — (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Alternating Current?)
Alternating Current Electric Motor.—
(See Motor, Electric, Alternating Current?)
Alternating Currents. — (See Currents,
Alternating?)
Alternating Currents, Distribution of
Electricity by — —(See Electricity, Dis-
tribution of, by Alternating Currents?)
Alternating Discharge. — (See Discharge,
Alternating?)
Alternating Dynamo-Electric Machine. —
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Alternat-
ing Current?)
Alternating Electrostatic Field.— (See
Field, Alternating Electrostatic?) ,
Alternating Electrostatic Potential.—
(See Potential, Alternating Electrostatic?)
Alternating Field.— (See Field, Alternat-
ing?)
Alternating Influence Machine, Wims-
hurst's — — (See Machine, Wimshurst's
Alternating Influence?)
Alternating Magnetic Field.— (See Field,
Alternating Magnetic?)
Alternating Magnetic Potential.— (See
Potential, Alternating Magnetic?)
Alternating Potential.— (See Potential,
Alternating?)
Alternating Primary Currents. — (See
Currents, Alternating Primary?)
Alternating Secondary Currents.— (See
Currents, Alternating Secondary?)
Alternation. — A change in direction or
phase.
Alternations. — Changes in the direction of
a current in a circuit.
A current that changes its direction 300 times
per second is said to possess 300 alternations per
second.
Alternations, Complete — —A change
in the direction of a current in a circuit from its
Alt]
[A mm.
former direction and back again to that
direction. A complete to-and-fro change.
Complete alternations are sometimes indicated
by the symbol ~.
Alternations, Frequency of — A
phrase employed to denote the number of al-
ternations per second.
Alternative Path.— (See Path, Alterna-
tive^
Alternatives, Yoltaic A term used
in medical electricity to indicate sudden re-
versals in the polarity of the electrodes of a
voltaic battery.
An alternating current from a voltaic bat-
tery, obtained by the use of a suitable com-
mutator.
Sudden reversals of polarity produce more
energetic effects of muscular contraction than do
simple closures or completions of the circuit.
The muscular contraction produced by a voltaic
current is much stronger when the direction of the
current is rapidly reversed by means of a com-
mutator than when the current is more slowly
broken and the poles then reversed.
The effect of voltaic alternatives is to produce
quick contractions that are in strong contrast to
the prolonged contractions that result from the
faradic current. In the faradic machine, the
reversals are so rapid that the muscle fails to
return to rest before it is again contracted.
Voltaic alternatives are sometimes indicated by
the contraction V. A.
Alternator. — A name commonly given to
an alternate current dynamo. (See Machine,
Dynamo-Electric, Alternating Current?)
Alternator, Compensated Excitation of
— An excitation of an alternating current
dynamo-electric machine, in which the field is
but partially excited by separate excitement,
the remainder of its exciting current being
derived from the commuted currents of a
small transformer placed in the main circuit
of the machine.
The object of compensated excitation of an
alternator is to render the machine self-governing.
Amalgam. — A combination or mixture
of a metal with mercury.
Amalgam, Electric — A substance
with which the rubbers of the ordinary fric-
tional electric machines are covered.
Electric amalgams are of various compositions.
The following formula produces an excellent
amalgam :
Melt together five parts of zinc and three of
tin, and gradually pour the molten metal into
nine parts of mercury. Shake the mixture until
cold, and reduce to a powder in a warm mortar.
Apply to the cushion by means of a thin layer of
stiff grease.
Mosaic gold, or bisulphide of tin, and powdered
graphite, both act as good electric amalgams.
An electric amalgam not only acts as a con-
ductor to carry off the negative electricity, but,
being highly negative to the glass, produces a far
higher electrification than would mere leather or
chamois.
Amalgamate. — To form into an amalgam.
Amalgamating. — Forming into an amal-
gam.
Amalgamation. — The act of forming into
an amalgam, or effecting the combination of
a metal with mercury.
Amalgamation of Zinc Plates of Yoltaic
Cell.— (See Plates, Zinc, of Voltaic Cell,
Amalgamation of,}
Amber. — A resinous substance, generally
of a transparent, yellow color.
Amber is interesting electrically as being be-
lieved to be the substance in which the proper-
ties of electric attractions and repulsions, imparted
by friction or rubbing, were first noticed. It was
called by the Greeks r/\Enrpov, from which the
word electricity is derived. This property was
mentioned by the Greek, Thales of Miletus, 600
B. c., as well as by Theophrastus.
American System of Telegraphy.— (See
Telegraphy, American System of.)
American Twist-Joint— (See Joint,
American Twist?)
American Wire Gauge. — (See Gauge,
Wire, American?)
Ammeter. — A form of galvanometer in
which the value of the current is measured
directly in amperes. (See Galvanometer?)
An ampere-meter or ammeter is a commercial
form of galvanometer in which the deflections* of
Amm.J
18
[Amp.
a magnetic needle are calibrated or valued in am-
peres. As a rule the coils of wire in an ammeter
are of lower resistance than in a voltmeter. The
magnetic needle is deflected from its zero position
by the field produced by the current whose strength
in amperes is to be measured. This needle is held
in the zero position by the action of a magnetic
field, either of a permanent or an electro-magnet,
by the action of a spring, or by a weight under the
influence of gravity. There thus exist a variety
of ammeters, viz. : permanent-magnet ammeters,
electro-magnetic ammeters, spring ammeters and
gravity ammeters.
In the form originally devised by Ayrton and
Perry, the needle came to rest almost imme-
diately, or was dead-beat in action. (See Damp-
ing.') It moved through the field of a permanent
magnet. The instrument was furnished with a
number of coils of insulated wire, which could
be connected either in series or in multiple-arc by
means of a commutator, thus permitting the scale
reading to be verified or calibrated by the use of a
single voltaic cell. (See Circuits, Varieties of.
Commutator. Calibration, Absolute. Calibra-
tion, Relative.) In this case the coils were
turned to series, and a plug pulled out, thus intro-
ducing a resistance of one ohm.
c
Fig. ra. Ayrton and Perry Ammeter.
Fig. 12 represents an ampere-meter devised by
Ayrton and Perry. A device called a commutator
for connecting the coils either in series or parallel
is shown at C. Binding-posts are provided at
P, PS, and S. The dynamo terminals are con-
nected at the posts P, PS, and the current will
pass only when the coils are in multiple, thus
avoiding accidental burning of the coils. In this
case the entire current to be measured passes
through the coils so coupled. The posts S and
PS, are for connecting the single battery cell cur-
rent.
A great variety of ampere-meters, or ammeters,
have been devised. They are nearly all, how-
ever, constructed on essentially the same general
principles.
Commercial ammeters are made in a great va-
riety of forms. When the currents to be meas-
ured are large, as is generally the case in electric
light or power stations, they consist of a coil of
insulated wire, often of a single turn, or even of
but a part of a turn, having a balanced core of
iron or steel capable of moving freely within it.
Ammeter, Electro-Magnetic A
form of ammeter in which a magnetic needle is
moved against the field of an electro-magnet
by the field of the current it is measuring.
(See Ammeter?)
Ammeter, Gravity A form of am-
meter in which a magnetic needle is moved
against the force of gravity by the field of the
current it is measuring. (See Ammeter?)
Ammeter, Magnetic- Vane An
ammeter in which the strength of a magnetic
field produced by the current that is to be
measured is determined by the repulsion ex-
erted between a fixed and a movable iron
vane, placed in said field and magnetized
thereby. (See Voltmeter, Magnetic- Vane.}
Ammeter, Permanent-Magnet A
form of ammeter in which a magnetic needle
is moved against the field of a permanent mag-
net by the field of the current it is measuring.
(See Ammeter?)
Ammeter, Reducteur for (See Re-
ducteur, or Shunt for Ammeter?)
Ammeter, Spring A form of am-
meter in which a magnetic needle is moved
against the action of a spring by the field of
the current it is measuring. (See Ammeter.}
Amorphous. — Having no definite crys-
talline form.
Mineral substances have certain crystalline
forms, that are as characteristic of them as are the
forms of animals or plants. Under certain cir-
cumstances, however, they occur without definite
crystalline form, and are then said to be amor-
phous solids.
Amperage. — The number of amp&res pass-
ing in a given circuit.
The current strength in any circuit as indi-
cated by an ampere-meter placed in the circuit.
Amp.]
19
[Amp.
Ampere. — The practical unit of electric
current.
Such a rate-of-flow of electricity as trans-
mits one coulomb per second.
Such a current (or rate-of-flow or trans-
mission of electricity) as would pass with an
electromotive force of one volt through a cir-
cuit whose resistance is equal to one ohm.
A current of such a strength as would
deposit .005084 grain of copper per second.
A current of one ampere is a current of such
definite strength that it would flow through a cir-
cuit of a certain resistance and with a certain
electromotive force. (See Force, Electromotive.
Volt. Resistance. Ohm.}
Since the ohm is the practical unit of resistance,
and the volt the practical unit of electromotive
force, the ampere, or the practical unit of current,
is the current that would flow through unit resist-
ance, under unit pressure or electromotive force.
To make this clearer, take the analogy of water
flowing through a pipe under the pressure of a
column of water. That which causes the flow is
the pressure or head ; that which resists the flow
is the friction of the water against the pipe, which
will vary with a number of circumstances. The
rate-of-flow may be represented by so many cubic
inches of water per second.
As the pressure or head increases, the flow in-
creases proportionally; as the resistance increases,
the flow diminishes.
Electrically, electromotive force corresponds to
the pressure or head of the water, and resistance
to the friction of the water and the pipe. The
ampere, which is the unit rate-of-flow per second,
may therefore be represented as follows,
viz. : C = _, as was announced by Ohm in his
R
law. (See Law of Ohm.}
This expression signifies that C, the current in
amperes, is equal to E, the electromotive force in
volts, divided by R, the resistance in ohms.
We measure the rate-of-flow of liquids as so
many cubic inches or cubic feet per second — that is,
in units of quantity. We measure the rate-of-flow
of electricity as so much electricity per second.
The electrical unit of quantity is called the Coul-
omb. (See Coulomb.} The coulomb is such a
quantity as would pass in one second through a
circuit in which the rate-of-flow is one ampere.
An ampere is therefore equal to one coulomb per
The electro-magnetic unit of current is such a
current that, passed through a conducting wire
bent into a circle of the radius of one centimetre,
would tend to move perpendicular to its plane a
unit magnetic pole held at its centre, and
sufficiently long to practically remove the other
pole from its influence, with unit force, i. <?., the
force of one dyne. (See Dyne.) The ampere, or
practical electro-magnetic unit, is one-tenth of
such a current ; or, in other words, the absohite
unit of current is ten amperes.
An ampere may also be defined by the chemical
decomposition the current can effect as measured
by the quantity of hydrogen liberated, or metal
deposited.
Defined in this way, an ampere is such a cur-
rent as will deposit .00111815 gramme, or
.017253 grain, of silver per second on one of the
plates of a silver voltameter, from a solution of
silver nitrate containing from 15 to 30 per cent, of
the salt (See Voltameter], or which will decompose
.00009326 gramme, or .001439 grain of dilute
sulphuric acid per second, or pure sulphuric acid
at 59 degrees F. diluted with about 15 per cent, of
water, that is, dilute sulphuric acid of Sp. Gr. of
about I.I. The present scientific and commercial
practice is to take the ampere to be such a current
as will deposit 4. 024 grammes of silver in one hour.
Ampere Arc. — (See Arc, Ampere?)
Ampdre-Feet.— (See Feet, Ampere.}
AmpSre-Hour. — (See Hour, Ampere.}
Ampere-Meter. — An ammeter. (See Am-
meter.}
Ampere-Meter, Balance or Neutral Wire
An ampere-meter placed in the cir-
cuit of the neutral wire, in the three-wire sys-
tem of electric distribution, for the purpose of
showing the excess of current passing over
one side of the system as compared with the_
other side, when the central wire is no longer
neutral.
Ampere-Minute. — (See Minute, Ampere}
Ampere Ring. — (See king, Ampere?)
Ampere-Second. — (See Second, Ampere?)
Ampdre Tap7— (See Tap, Ampere?)
Ampere-Turn. — (See Turn, Ampere?)
Ampere-Turn, Primary (See Turn,
Ampere, Primary?)
Amp.]
20
[Ane.
Ampere-Turn, Secondary — (See
Turn, Ampere, Secondary?)
Ainpdre-Yolt. — A watt, or the -7-5^ of a
horse-power.
This term is generally written volt-ampere.
(See Volt-Ampere.}
Ampdre-Winding. — (See Winding, Am-
pere)
Ampere's Bule for Effect of Current on
Needle.— (See Rule, Amperes, for Effect of
Current on Needle?)
Ampere's Theory of Magnetism. — (See
Magnetism, Ampere's Theory of)
Amperian Currents. — (See Currents, Am-
perian)
Amplitude of Vibration or Wave.— (See
Vibration or Wave, Amplitude of)
Ammunition-Hoist, Electric An
electrically operated hoist for raising ammu-
nition to the deck of a ship.
In the electric ammunition-hoist the electric
motor which moves the hoist is made to follow the
motions of the operator's hand, both as regards
direction and speed. The motion of a crank, or
wheel, causes a switch to start an electric motor in
a certain direction, which tends to close the switch,
thus necessitating a race between the operator
and the motor. Shpuld the operator begin to
close the switch more slowly, the motor will over-
take him, will partially close the switch, and thus
* lower the speed of the motor.
Analogous Pole. — (See Pole, Analogous)
Analysis. — The determination of the com-
position of a compound substance by separ-
ating it into the simple or elementary sub-
stances of which it is composed.
Analysis, Electric The determin-
ation of the composition of a substance by
electrical means.
Various processes have been proposed for elec-
tric analysis; they consist essentially in decompos-
ing the substance by means of electric currents,
and are either qualitative or quantitative. (See
Electrolysis . )
Analysis, Electrolytic A term
sometimes used instead of electric analysis.
(See Analysis, Electric)
Analysis, Qualitative A chemical
analysis which merely ascertains the kinds of
elementary substances present.
Analysis, Quantitative A chemical
analysis which ascertains the relative propor-
tions in which the different components enter
into a compound.
Analyzable. — Separable into component
parts.
Analyze. — To separate into component
parts.
Analyze, Electrically To separate
electrically into component parts.
Analyzer, Electric A gridiron of
metallic wires which is transparent to electro-
magnetic waves, when its length is perpendic-
ular to them, but opaque to them — /. e.,
possessing the ability to reflect them — when
rotated 90 degrees from its former position.
The electric analyzer, it will be observed, is
analogous to an analyzer for polarized light. A
reflecting surface, for example, being able to re-
flect polarized light in a given position, and unable
to reflect it when rotated 90 degrees from such
position, is capable of acting as an analyzer for
pjlarized light.
Analyzer, Gray's, Harmonic Telegraphic
An electro-magnet, the armature of
which consists of a steel ribbon stretched in
a metallic frame and capable through regula-
tion, as to tension, by means of a screw, of
being tuned to a certain note.
The steel ribbon is thrown into vibration when-
ever pulsations from the transmitting instruments
are sent over the line corresponding to the rate of
motion of the ribbon, but is not set into vibration
by any others. If, therefore, a number of different
analyzers, tuned to different notes, are placed on
the same line, each will be operated only by the
pulsations sent into the line corresponding to its
rate of motion, and thus multiple transmission in
the same direction is possible. In order to
strengthen the tones of the analyzers, each is pro-
vided with a resonant air column. (See deton-
ator. Telegraphy, Multiplex)
Analyzing. — Separating into component
parts.
Anelectric. — A word formerly applied to
bodies (conductors) which it was believed
could not be electrified by friction.
Ane.]
[Ani.
This term is now obsolete. Conductors are
easily electrified, when insulated.
Anelectrotonic State.— (See State, Anelec-
trotonic)
Anelectrotonic Zone. — (See Zone, Anelec-
trotonic^)
Anelectrotonus. — In electro-therapeutics,
the decreased functional activity which occurs
in a nerve in the neighborhood of the anode,
or positive electrode, when applied therapeu-
tically. (See Electrotonus)
Anemometer, Electric An appa-
ratus to electrically record or indicate the direc-
tion and intensity of the wind.
In the electric recording anemometer, the force
or velocity of the wind, or both, are recorded on
a moving sheet of paper, on which the time is
marked, so that the exact time of any given
change is known.
Anemoscope. — An instrument which indi-
cates, but does not measure the intensity or
record the direction of the wind.
The word is often, though improperly, used in-
terchangeably for anemometer.
Angle. — The deviation in direction between
two lines or planes that meet.
Angles are measured by arcs of circles. The
angle at B A C, Fig. 13, is the deviation of the
straight line A B, from A
C. In reading the let-
tering of an angle the
letter placed in the mid-
dle indicates the angle
referred to. Thus B A
C, means the angle be- D~
tween A B and A C ; B A Fig- 13- Angles.
D, the angle between B A and A D. Angles are
valued in degrees, there being 360 degrees in an
entire circumference or circle. Degrees are in-
dicated thus: 90°, or ninety degrees.
Angle, Acute An angle whose value
is less than a right angle or 90 degrees.
B A E, or E A D, in Fig. 13, is an acute angle.
Angle, Complement of — —What an
angle needs to make its value 90 degrees, or a
right angle.
Thus in Fig. 13, B A E, is the complement of
the angle E A D, since BAE4-EAD = 9O
degrees.
Angle, Obtuse An angle whose
value is greater than a right angle or 90
degrees.
E A C, Fig. 13, is an obtuse angle.
Angle of Declination or Variation. — (See
Declination, Angle of. Variation, Angle of.)
Angle of Difference of Phase Between
Alternating Currents of Same Period. —
(See Phase, Angle of Difference of, Between
Alternating Currents of Same Period?)
Angle of Dip.— (See Dip. Dip or Incli-
nation, Angle of)
Angle of Inclination.— (See Dip or Incli-
nation, Angle of)
Angle of Lag of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Lag, Angle of, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine)
Angle of Lead.— (See Lead, Angle of)
Angle of Variation.— (See Variation,
Angle of.}
Angle, Plane An angle contained
between two straight lines.
Angle, Solid An angle contained
between two surfaces.
Angle, Supplement of What an
angle needs to make its value 180 degrees, or
two right angles.
Thus in Fig. 13, E A C, is the supplement of
E A D, because EAD-f-EAC = i8o degrees,
or two right angles.
Angle, Unit An angle of 57.29578°
or 57° 17' 44.8" nearly. — (See Velocity, An-
gular.)
Angnlar Currents. — (See Currents, An-
gular.)
Angular Velocity.— (See Velocity, Angu-
lar)
Animal Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Animal)
Animal Magnetism.— (See Magnetism,
Animal)
Anion. — The electro-negative radical of a
molecule.
Literally, the term ion signifies a group of
wandering atoms. An union is that group of
atoms of an electrically decomposed or electro lyzed
Ani.]
[Ann.
molecule which appears at the anode. (See
Electrolysis. Anode. )
As the anode is connected with the electro-
positive terminal of a source, the anion is the
electro-negative radical or group of atoms, and
therefore appears at the electro-positive terminal.
A kathion, or electro-positive radical, appears
at the kathode, which is connected with the
electro-negative terminal of the battery. Oxygen
and chlorine are anions. Hydrogen and the
metals are kathions.
Anisotropic Conductor. — (See Conductor,
Anisotropic?)
Anisotropic Medium. — (See Medium,
Anisotropic?)
Annealing, Electric — — A process
for annealing metals in which electric heating
is substituted for ordinary heating.
Annual Inequality of Earth's Magnet-
ism.— (See Inequality, Annual, of Earth's
Magnetism.
Annual Variation of Magnetic Needle.
— (See Needle, Magnetic, Annual Variation
of.)
Annunciator, Burglar-Alarm An
annunciator used in connection with a system
of burglar-alarms. (See Alarm, Burglar?)
Annunciator Clock, Electric — - —
(See Clock, Electric Annunciator?)
Annunciator Drop. — (See Drop, Annun-
ciator?)
Annunciator Drop, Automatic —
(See Drop, Automatic Annunciator?)
Annunciator, Electro-Magnetic
An electric device for automatically indicating
the points or places at which one or more
electric contacts have been closed.
The character of the annunciator depends, of
course, on the character of the places at which
these points, places or stations are situated.
Annunciators are employed for a variety of
purposes. In hotels they are used for indicating
the number of a room the occupant of which
desires some service, which he signifies by push-
ing a button, thus closing an electric circuit.
This is indicated or announced on the annuncia-
tor by the falling of a drop, on which is printed a
number corresponding with the room, and by the
ringing of a bell to notify the attendant. The num-
ber is released by the movement of the armature
of an electro-magnet. The drops are replaced in
their former position by some mechanical device
operated by the hand. In the place of a drop a
Fig. 14. Electro -Magnetic Annunciator.
needle is sometimes used, which, by the attraction
of the armature of an electro-magnet, points to
the number signaling.
Annunciators for houses, burglar-alarms, fire-
alarms, elevators, etc., are
of the same general con-
struction.
Annunciators are general-
ly operated by electro-mag-
netic attraction or repulsion,
and are therefore some-
times called electro -magnetic
annunciators.
Fig. 14 shows an annun-
ciator suitable for use in
hotels.
The numbers 28 and 85
are represented as having
been dropped by the closing
of the circuit connected
with them.
Annunciator, Eleva-
tor — An annuncia-
tor connected with an
elevator to indicate the
floor signaling.
One form of elevator annunciator is shown in
Fig. 15.
Fig. z$. Elevator
Annunciator.
Ann.]
23
[Ann.
Annunciator, Fire-Alarm An
annunciator used in connection with a system
of fire-alarms.
Annunciator, Gravity-Drop An
annunciator whose signals are operated by
the fall of a drop.
Fig. ib. Gravity-Drop Annunciator.
A form of gravity-drop annunciator is shown
in Fig. 16. The armature mechanism for the
release of the drop will be understood by an in-
spection of the drawing.
Annunciator, Hotel An annun-
ciator connected with the different rooms of a
hotel.
A hotel-annunciator is generally provided with
a return bell and guest-call.
Annunciator, House An annun-
ciator connected with the rooms of a house.
Annunciator, Needle An annun-
ciator, the indications of which are given by
the movements of a needle instead of the fall
of a drop.
A form of needle-annunciator is shown in
Fig. 17.
Annunciator, Oral or Speaking Tube
An annunciator electrically operated
by means of a puff of breath transmitted
through an ordinary speaking tube.
The oral-annunciator is a contrivance whereby
a central office is placed in communication with a
number of speaking tubes coming from different
points in a hotel or other place. A person
in any room, who wishes to cpmmunicate
with the central office, blows through the
speaking tube in his room, and thus, by
effecting an electric contact, rings a bell and
operates a drop at the annunciator, thus indicat-
ing the exact tube at which the attendant is to
receive the message. The attendant can thus be
placed in easy communication with each of the
rooms whose speaking tubes connect with the
annunciator.
Annunciator, Pendulum or Swinging —
— An annunciator, the indicating arm of
which consists of a pendulous.or swinging arm,
Fig. 77. Needle- Annunciator.
which, when at rest, points vertically down-
ward, and which is moved to the right or left
by the action of the current.
Pendulous, or swinging-annunciators are gen-
erally so arranged as to need no replacement.
Ano.]
[App.
On the cessation of the current the indicator arm
drops vertically downward.
A relay is preferably used with pendulum-
annunciators, since the rapid makes and breaks
of the current by the bell alarm interfere with
their satisfactory action.
Anodal. — Pertaining to the anode. (See
Anode)
Anodal Diffusion.— (See Diffusion,
Anode. — The conductor or plate of a de-
composition cell connected with the positive
terminal of a battery, or other electric source.
That terminal of an electric source out of
which the current flows into the liquid of a
decomposition cell or voltameter is called the
anode.
That terminal of an electric source into
which the current flows from a decomposition
cell or voltameter is called the kathode.
The anode is connected with the carbon or
positive terminal of a voltaic battery, and the
kathode with the zinc, or negative terminal.
Therefore the word anode has been used to
signify the positive terminal of an electric source,
and kathode, the negative terminal, and in this
sense is employed generally in electro-thera-
peutics. It is preferable, however, to restrict the
use of the words anode and kathode to those
terminals of a source at which electrolysis is
taking place.
The terms anode and kathode in reality refer
to the electro-receptive devices through which
the current flows. Since it is assumed that the
current flows out of a source from its positive
pole or terminal, and back through the source at
its negative pole or terminal, the pole of any
device which is connected with the positive pole
of a source is the part or place at which the
current enters and flows through it, and that
connected with the negative pole, the part at
which it leaves. Hence, probably, the change
in the use of the words already referred to.
Since the anion, or the electro-negative radical,
appears at the anode, it is the anode of an electro-
plating bath, or the plate connected with the
positive terminal of the source, that is dissolved.
When the term anode was first proposed by
Faraday, voltaic batteries were the only available
electric source, and the term referred only to the
positive terminal of a voltaic battery when
placed in an electrolyte.
Anodic. — Pertaining to the anode. (See
Anode)
Anodic Electro-Diagnostic Reactions.—
(See Reactions, Kathodic and Anodic Elec-
tro-Diagnostic?)
Anodic Opening Contraction.— (See Con-
tration, Anodic Opening.)
Anomalous Magnet. — (See Magnet, An-
omalous)
Anomalous Magnetization. — (See Mag-
netization, Anomalous)
Anti-Induction Cable (See Cable,
Anti-Induction)
Anti-Induction Conductor. — (See Con-
ductor, Anti-Induction)
Antilogous Pole.— (See Pole, Antilogous)
Anvil. — The front contact of a telegraphic
key that limits its motion in one direction.
(See Key, Telegraphic)
Aperiodic Galvanometer. — (See Galva-
nometer, Aperiodic)
Apparatus, Faradic-Induction
An induction coil apparatus for producing
faradic currents.
A voltaic battery is connected with the primary
of an induction coil, and its current rapidly
broken by an automatic break, or by a hand
break. The alternating or faradic currents thus
produced in the secondary coils are used for
electro-therapeutic purposes. (See Coil, Induc-
tion.)
Faradic-induction apparatus is made in a great
variety of forms. They all operate, however, on
essentially the same principles.
Apparatus, Faradic, Magneto-Electric
A small magneto-electric machine
employed in electro-therapeutics for producing
faradic currents.
Magneto-electric faradic machines consist essen-
tially of a coil of wire wrapped on an armature
core that is rotated before the poles of permanent
magnets. No commutator is employed, since it is
desired to obtain rapidly alternating currents.
Apparatus, Interlocking — —Devices
for mechanically operating from a distant signal
App.]
[Arc.
tower, railroad switches and semaphore signals
for indicating the position of such switches,
by means of a system of interlocking levers,
so constructed that the signals and the
switches are so interlocked as to render it
impossible, after a route has once been set up
and a signal given, to clear a signal for a
route that would conflict with the one previ-
ously set up. (See Block System for Rail-
roads^)
Apparatus, Magneto-Electric Medical
A term applied to small magneto-
electric machines employed in medical elec-
tricity for the production of uncommuted
or faradic currents. (See Apparatus, Fara-
dic, Magneto-Electric)
Apparatus, Registering-, Electric —
Devices for obtaining permanent records by
electrical means.
Apparatus, Registering, Telegraphic
— A name sometimes given to a telegraphic
recorder. (See Recorder, Chemical, Bain's,
Recorder, Morse. Recorder, Siphon?)
Apparent Co-efficient of Induction. —
(See Induction, Apparent Co-efficient of.)
Arago's Disc. — (See Disc, Arago's)
Arc.— A voltaic arc. (See Arc, Voltaic)
Arc. — To form a voltaic arc.
A dynamo-electric machine is said to arc at the
commutator, when the current passes as visible
sparks across the spaces between adjacent seg-
ments.
This action at the commutator is more gener-
ally called sparking or burning.
Arc, Alternating A voltaic arc
formed by means of an alternating current.
In order to avoid the extinction of the arc a
certain number of alternations per second is nec-
essary. The alternating arc produces a loud
singing noise. At very high frequencies, how-
ever, the noise disappears.
The alternating arc, not possessing a fixed posi-
tive crater, requires to be covered by a good
reflector to throw the light downward.
Arc, Ampe're A single conductor
bent in an arc of a circle, and used in electric
balances for measuring the electric current.
Arc Blow-Pipe.— (See Blow-Pipe, Elec-
tric Arc.}
Arc, Compound An arc formed
between more than two separate electrodes.
Arc, Counter Electromotiye Force of
An electromotive force generally be-
lieved to be set up on the formation of a
voltaic arc, opposed in direction to the electro-
motive force maintaining the arc. (See Force,
Electromotive, Counter?)
This counter electromotive force is believed to
have its origin partly in the energy absorbed at
the crater of the positive carbon, where the car-
bon is volatilized, and given out at the nipple on
the negative carbon, where it is deposited or
solidified. It is to be noted in this connection
that the apparent resistance of the carbon voltaic
arc is not directly proportional to the length of
the arc.
Arc, Electric A term sometimes
used for the voltaic arc. (See Arc, Voltaic)
Arc, Frying of — — A frying sound at-
tending the formation of a voltaic arc when
the carbons are too near together.
The cause of the frying sound is probably the
same as that of hissing. (See Arc, Hissing of '.)
Arc, Hissing of A hissing sound
attending the formation of voltaic arcs when
the carbons are too near together.
The cause of the hissing is not entirely under-
stood. Prof. Elihu Thomson suggests that it is
due to a too rapid volatilization of the carbons.
Arc Lamp. — (See Lamp, Arc)
Arc Lamp, Electric (See Lamp,
Electric Arc)
Arc Lamp, Triple Carbon Electric
—(See Lamp, Arc, Triple Carbon Electric)
Arc Lighting. — (See Lighting, Arc)
Arc, Metallic A voltaic arc formed
between metallic electrodes.
When the voltaic arc is formed between metallic
electrodes instead of carbon electrodes, a flaming
arc is obtained, the color of which is characteristic
of the burning metal ; thus copper forms a brill-
iant green arc. The metallic arc, as a rule is
much longer than an arc with the same current
taken between carbon electrodes.
Arc Micrometer. — (See Micrometer, Arc)
Arc.]
[Arc.
Arc, Noisy A voltaic arc, the
maintenance of which is attended by frying,
hissing, or spluttering sounds.
Arc, (Juiet A voltaic arc which is
maintained without sensible sounds.
Arc, Roaring of — • — A roaring sound
attending the formation of a voltaic arc when
the carbons are too near together and a very
powt rf ul current is used.
Arc, Simple An arc formed be-
tween two electrodes.
Arc, Spluttering of A spluttering
sound attending the formation of a voltaic
arc.
Prof/Elihu Thomson suggests that the cause of
spluttering is due to the presence of impurities in
the carbons, or from the sudden evolution of gas
from insufficiently baked carbons.
Arc, Yoltaic — —The brilliant arc or
bow of light which appears between the elec-
trodes or terminals, generally of carbon, of a
sufficiently powerful source of electricity, when
separated a short distance from each other.
The source of light of the electric arc lamp.
It is called the voltaic arc because it was first
obtained by the use of the battery invented by
Volta. The term arc was given to it from the
shape of the luminous bow or arc formed between
the carbons.
To form the voltaic arc the carbon electrodes
are first placed in contact and then gradually
separated. A brilliant arc of flame is formed be-
tween them, which consists mainly of volatilized
carbon. The electrodes are consumed, first, by
actual combination with the oxygen of the air;
and, second, by volatilization under the combined
influence of the electric current and the intense
heat.
As a result of the formation of the arc, a crater
is formed at the end of the positive carbon, and
appears to mark the point out of which the
greater part of the current flows.
The crater is due to the greater volatilization
of the electrode at this point than elsewhere.
It marks the position of highest temperature of the
electrodes, and is the main source of the light of
the arc. When, therefore, the voltaic arc is em-
ployed for the purposes of illumination with
vertically opposed carbons, the positive carbon
should be made the upper carbon, so that the
focus of greatest intensity of the light may be
favorably situated for illumination of the space
below the lamp. When, however, it is desired to
illumine the side of a building above an arc lamp,
the lower carbon should be made positive.
The positive carbon is consumed about twice as
rapidly as the negative, both because the negative
oxygen attacks the points of the positive carbon. '
and because the positive carbon suffers the most
rapid volatilization.
The electric current passes through the space
occupied by the voltaic arc because—
(I.) The heated arc is a partial conductor of
electricity.
(2.) Because small charges of electricity are
carried bodily forward from the positive to the
negative carbon through the space of the voltaic
arc, by means of the minute particles which are
volatilized at the positive electrode.
S. P. Thompson has shown that the tempera-
ture of the light-emitting surface of the carbon is
the temperature of the volatilization of carbon,
and is therefore constant/
Dr. Fleming found that " A rise of potential
along the arc takes
place very suddenly,
just in the neighbor-
hood of the crater. ' '
The crater in the
end of the positive car-
bon is seen in Fig. 18.
On the opposed end
of the negative carbon
a projection or nipple
is formed by the de-
posit of the electrical-
ly volatilized carbon.
Fig. r8. Voltaic Arc. The rounded masses
or globules that appear on the surface of the elec-
trodes are due to deposits of molten foreign mat-
ters in the carbon.
The carbon, both of the crater and its opposed
nipple, is converted into pure, soft graphite.
Arc, Voltaic, Resistance of— —The
resistance offered by the voltaic arc to the
passage of the current.
As in all other conductors, the ohmic resistance
of the arc increases with its length, and decreases
with its area of cross-section. The apparent
resistance, however, is not directly proportional
to the length. An increase of temperature de-
creases the resistance of the voltaic arc.
Arc.]
[Arm.
The total apparent resistance of the voltaic arc
is composed of two parts, viz. :
(I.) The true ohmic resistance. (See Resist-
ance, Ohtnic.)
(z.) The counter electromotive force, or spuri-
ous resistance. (See Resistance, Spurious.)
Arc, Watt A voltaic arc, the elec-
tric power of which is equal to a given number
of watts.
The ordinary long-arc, as employed in arc
lighting, has a difference of potential of about 45
volts and a current strength of about 10 amperes.
It is, therefore, a 45O-watt arc.
Arch, Auroral The archlike form
sometimes assumed by the auroral light. (See
Aurora Borealis?)
Arcing. — Discharging by means of voltaic
arcs. (See Arc, Voltaic?)
Arcing at the commutator of a dynamo-electric
machine not only prevents the proper operation
of the machine, but eventually leads to the de-
struction of the brushes and the commutator.
Areometer, Bead — A form of are-
ometer suitable for rapidly testing the density
of the liquid in a storage cell.
The bead areometer consists of a glass tube,
open at both top and bottom, containing a few
glass beads, so weighted as to float at liquid
densities such as 1.105, 1.170, 1.190
and 1. 200. To use the instrument,
it is immersed in the liquid of the
storage cell, and then withdrawn.
The finger being kept in the upper
opening, the liquid does not escape
through the small opening at the
bottom. The density is then ascer-
tained by noting the beads that
float.
Areometer or Hydrometer.
— An instrument for determin-
ing the specific gravity of a liquid.
A common form of hydrometer
consists, as shown in Fig. 19, of a
closed glass tube, provided with a
bulb, and filled at the lower end V
with mercury or shot, so as to in- ®
sure its vertical position when Fig. 19. Hy-
floating in a liquid. When placed drometer.
in different liquids, it floats with part of the tube
out of the liquid. The lighter the liquid, the
2— Vol. 1
smaller is the portion that remains out of the
liquid when the instrument floats. The specific
gravity is determined by observing the depth to
which the instrument sinks when placed in different
liquids, as compared with the depth it sinks when
placed in water.
Areometry. — The measurement of specific
gravity by means of an areometer.
Argand Burner, Electric Hand-Lighter
-(See Burner, Argand, Electric Hand-
Lighter?)
Argand Burner, Electric Plain-Pendant
— (See Burner, Plain Pendant, Argand,
Electric?)
Argand Burner, Electric Ratchet-Pen-
dant — —(See Burner, Ratchet-Pendant,
Argand) Electric?)
Argyrometry. — The art of determining
the weight of electrolytically deposited silver.
(See Balance, Plating?)
Arm, Balance One of the resist-
ances of an electric balance. (See Arms,
Bridge or Balance. Bridge, Electric?)
Arm, Bridge — — A bridge arm. (See
Arms, Bridge or Balance?)
Arm, Cross — — A horizontal beam at-
tached to a pole for the support of the in-
sulators for telegraph, electric light or 'other
electric wires.
A telegraphic arm. (See Arm, Tele-
graphic?)
Arm, Rocker — An arm on which the
brushes of a dynamo or motor are mounted
for the purpose of shifting their position on
the commutator.
Arm, Semaphore The movable
arm of the signal apparatus employed in block
systems for railroads, for the purpose of in-
forming engineers of trains of the condition
of the road as regards other trains.
In the absolute block system, as used on some
roads, there are two positions for the semaphore
arm, viz. :
(i.) For Danger — when in a horizontal position,,
or at 90 degrees with the vertical supporting pole.
(2. ) Clear — when dropped below the horizontal
position through an angle of 75 degrees.
In the Permissive Block System, a third position
Arm.]
[Arm.
intermediate between the ist and the zd, or at an
angle of 37 degrees 30 minutes with the horizontal
position, is used for caution. (See Block System
for Railroads. ,)
Arm, Signal A semaphore arm.
(See Arm, Semaphored)
Arm, Telegraphic — —A cross-arm
placed on a telegraphic pole for the support
of the insulators.
These arms are generally called cross-arms.
Armature. — A mass of iron or other
magnetizable material placed on or near the
pole or poles of a magnet.
In the case of a permanent magnet, the arma-
ture, when used as a keeper, is of soft iron and is
placed directly on the magnet poles. In this case
it preserves or keeps the magnetism by closing
the lines of magnetic jorce of the magnet through
the soft iron of the armature, and is then called a
keeper. (See Force, Magnetic, Lines of.}
In the case of an electro-magnet, the armature
is placed near the poles, and is moved toward
them whenever the magnet is energized by the
passage of the current through the magnetizing
coils. This movement is made against the action
of a spring or weights, so that on the loss of
magnetism by the magnet, the armature moves
from the magnet poles. (See Magnet, Permanent.
Magnet, Keeper of .}
When the armature is of soft iron it moves to-
ward the magnet on the completion of the circuit
through its coils, no matter in what direction
the current flows, and is then called a non-polar-
ized armature. (See Armature, Non-Polarized. )
When made of steel, or of another electro-mag -
Fig.2O. Bi-polar Armature.
net, it moves from or toward the poles, accord-
ing to whether the poles of the armature are of
the same or of a different polarity from those of
the magnet. Such an armature is called a
polarized armature. (Set Armature, Polarized.)
Armature, Bi-polar An armature
of a dynamo-electric machine the polarity of
which is reversed twice in every revolution
through the field of the machine.
A form of bi-polar armature is shown in Fig. 20.
The word bi-polar armature is not generally
employed. The term applies rather to the field-
magnet poles than to the armature.
Armature Bore. — (See Bore, Armature.}
Armature Bore, Elliptical — —(See
Bore, Elliptical Armature?)
Armature Chamber. — (See Chamber,
Armature?)
Armature Coils, Dynamo - — (See
Coils, Armature, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine?)
Armature Core, Dynamo - — (See
Core, Armature, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine?)
Armature, Cylindrical — — A term
sometimes applied to a drum armature.
(See Armature, Drum. Armature, Dy-
namo-Electric Machine?)
Armature, Cylindrical Ring.— A ring
armature with a core in the shape of a com-
paratively long cylinder.
Armature, Disc An armature of a
dynamo-electric machine, in which the arma-
ture coils consist of flat coils, supported on
the surface of a disc. (See Armature, Dy-
namo-Electric Machine?)
Armature, Dissymmetrical Induction of
— Any induction produced in the arma-
ture of a dynamo-electric machine that is un-
equal in amount on opposite halves, or in sym-
metrically disposed portions of the armature.
Dissymmetrical induction in the armature may
cause annoying or injurious sparking at the com-
mutator. It may arise —
(i.) From a lack of symmetry in the amount of
the armature windings.
(2.) From a lack of symmetry in the arrange-
ment of the armature windings on the armature
core.
(3. ) From a lack of symmetry of the pole pieces
of the machine.
(4.) From an improper position of the brushes
Aroi.]
29
[Arm,
as regards the neutral point on the commutator,
causing a temporary short-circuiting of one or
more of the armature coils.
Armature, Drum — — An armature of
a dynamo-electric machine, in which the
armature coils are wound longitudinally over
the surface of a cylinder or drum. (See
Armature, Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
A form of drum-armature is shown in Fig. 21.
Fig. 21. Drum- Armature.
Armature, Dynamo-Electric Machine
The coils of insulated wire together
with the iron armature core, on or around
which the coils are wound.
That part of a dynamo-electric machine in
which the differences of potential which
cause the useful currents are generated.
Generally, that portion of a dynamo-elec-
tric machine which is revolved between the
pole pieces of the field magnets.
The armature of a dynamo-electric machine
usually consists of a series of coils of insulated
wire or conductors, wrapped around or grouped
on a central core of iron. The movement of
these wires or conductors through the magnetic
field of the machine produces an electric cur-
rent by means of the electromotive forces so gen-
erated. Sometimes the field is rotated ; some-
times both armature and field rotate.
The armatures of dynamo-electric machines
are of a great variety of forms. They may for
convenience be arranged under the following
heads, viz.:
Cylindrical or drum-armatures, disc-arma-
tures, pole or-radial armatures, ring armatures,
and spherical- armatures . For further particulars
see above terms. Armatures are also divided
into classes according to the character of fee
magnetic field through which they move — viz.:
unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar- armatures.
The English sometimes use the word cylindrical
armature as a synonym of ring-armature.
A unipolar-armature is one whose polarity is
never reversed. A bipolar-armature is one in
which the polarity is reversed twice in every
rotation; multipolar armatures have their po-
larity reversed a number of times in every rota-
tion.
The term armature as applied to a dynamo-
electric machine was derived from the fact that
the iron core acts to magnetically connect the
two poles of the field magnets in the same
manner that an ordinary armature connects the
poles of a magnet.
Armature, Flat Ring — —A ring-arma-
ture with a core in the shape of a short cylin-
drical ring.
Armature, Girder — — An armature
with an H -shaped or girder-like core.
An H -shaped armature.
Armature, Intensity — —An old term
for an armature with coils of many turns and
of a comparatively high resistance.
Armature, Lamination of Core of —
— A division of the iron core of the armature
of a dynamo-electric machine or motor, so as
to avoid the formation of eddy-currents
therein. (See Core, Lamination of. Cur-
rents, Eddy.)
Armature, Mnltipolar — —A dynamo-
electric machine armature whose polarity is
reversed more than twice during each rotation
in the field of the machine.
Armature, Neutral A non-polarized
armature. (See Armature, Non-Polarized.)
Armature, Neutral-Relay A relay
armature, consisting of a piece of soft iron,
which closes a local circuit whenever its elec-
tro-magnet receives an impulse over the main
line. (See Artnature, Polarized?)
This term is applied in contradistinction to a
polarized relay armature.
Armature, Non-Polarized — An
armature of soft iron, which is attracted toward
the poles of an electro-magnet on the comple
Arm.]
30
[Arm.
tion of the circuit, no matter in what direc-
tion the current passes through the coils.
The term non-polarized is used in contradistinc-
tion to polarized armature. (See Armature,
Polarized.}
Th. non-polarized armature of a relay magnet
is generally called the neutral -relay armature.
Armature of a Cable, or Cable-Armature.
— A term sometimes employed for the sheath-
ing or protecting coat of a cable.
The term armor sheathing or coating is prefer-
able.
Armature of a Condenser, or Condenser
Armature. — A term sometimes applied to
the metallic plates of a condenser or Leyden
jar.
The use of this term is unnecessary and ill-
advised. The term coating or plate would appear
to be preferable.
Armature of Holtz Machine, or Holtz-
Machine Armature. — The pieces of paper
that are placed on the stationary plate of the
Holtz and other similar electrostatic induction
machines.
Armature Pockets.— (See Pockets, Arma-
ture)
Armature, Polarized An armature
which possesses a polarity independent of
that imparted by the magnet pole near which
it is placed.
In permanent magnets the armatures are made
of soft iron, and therefore, by induction, become
of a polarity opposite to that ol the magnet poles
that lie nearest them. They have, therefore, only
a motion of attraction toward such pales. (See
Induction, Magnetic. )
In electro-magnets the armatures may either be
made of soft iron, in which case they are attracted
only on the passage of the current; or they may
be formed of permanent steel magnets, or may be
electro-magnets themsehes, in which case the pas-
sage of the current through the coils of the elec-
tro-magnet, or electro-magnets, may cause either
attraction or repulsion, according as the adjacent
poles are of opposite polarity or are of the same
polarity.
Armature, Pole — — An armature the
coils of which are wound on separate poles
that project radially from the periphery of a
disc, drum or ring.
A pole-armature showing the arrangement of
Fig. Z2. Pole- Armature.
the coils and their connection to the commutator
segments is seen in Fig. 22.
Armature, Quantity An old term
for an armature wound with but a few coils
of comparatively low resistance.
Armature, Radial — — A term some-
times used instead of pole-armature. (See
Armature, Pole.)
Armature, Ring A dynamo-electric
machine armature, the coils of which are
wound on a ring-shaped core.
c
Fig- 23- Ring-Armature.
A ring-armature is shown in Fig. 23, together
with the disposition of the coils and their connec-
tion to the segments of the commutator.
Armature, Shuttle A variety of
drum armature in which a single coil of
wire is wound in an H -shaped groove formed
in a bobbin shaped core.
The old form of Siemens-armature.
Armature, Single-Loop A closed
conducting circuit consisting of a single loop,
capable of revolving in a magnetic field so as
to cut its lines of force.
Armature, Spider. — (See Spider, Arma-
ture)
Arm.]
31
Arr.
Armature, Spherical A dynamo-
electric machine armature, the coils of which
are wound on a spherical iron core.
The Thomson- Houston dynamo, which is the
only machine employing an armature of this type,
has its armature formed by wrapping three coils
of insulated wire on a core of iron so shaped as
to insure an approximately spherical armature
when wrapped.
Armature, Toothed-Ring — — An ar-
mature, the core of which is in the shape of
a ring, provided with a number of teeth in the
spaces between which the armature coils are
placed.
Armature, Unipolar — — A dynamo-
electric machine armature whose polarity is
not reversed during its rotation in the field
of the machine.
Armature, Ventilation of — — A pro-
cess for insuring the free passage of air
through the armature of a dynamo-electric
machine in order to prevent overheating.
Armor of Cable. — (See Cable, Armor of.)
Armored Cable. — (See Cable, Armored?)
Armored Conductor. — (See Conductor,
Armored!)
Arms, Bridge or Balance — — The
electric resistances, in the electric balance or
bridge. (See Bridge, Electric!)
Zn C
Fig. 24. Arms of Balance.
An unknown resistance, such, for example, as
D, Fig. 24, is measured by proportioning the
known resistances, A, C and B, so that no current
flows through the galvanometer G, across the
circuit or bridge M G N.
Arms, Proportionate The two re-
sistances or arms of an electric bridge whose
relative or proportionate resistances only are
required to be known in order to determine,
in connection with a known resistance, the
value of an unknown resistance placed in the
remaining arm of the bridge.
Thus is Fig. 24, A and B, are the proportionate
arms.
Arrangement or Deyice, Electromotive
A term sometimes employed to rep-
resent a dynamo-electric machine, voltaic cell
or other electric source, by means of which
electromotive force can be produced.
Electric sources do not produce electric cur-
rents, but differences of potential or electro-
motive force. Electric sources are therefore very
properly termed electromotive devices.
Arrester, Lightning — — A device by
means of which the apparatus placed in any
electric circuit is protected from the destruc-
tive effects of a flash or bolt of lightning.
In the phenomena of lateral induction and
alternative path, we have seen the tendency of a
disruptive discharge to take a short-cut across an
intervening air space, rather than through a
longer though better conducting path. Most
lightning arresters are dependent for their opera-
tion on this tendency to lateral discharge. (See
Induction, Lateral. Path, Alternative.}
A form of lightning arrester is shown in Fig. 25.
Fig. 23- Comb Lightning- Arrester.
The line wires, A and B, are connected by two
metallic plates to C and D, respectively.
These plates are provided with points, as shown,
and placed near a third plate, connected to the
ground by the wire G. Should a bolt strike the
line, it is discharged to the .earth through the
wire G.
Various forms are given to lightning arresters
of this type. The projections are sometimes placed
on the ground-connected plate as well as on the
plates connected to line wires. This form is
sometimes called a comb arrester, or protector.
Arr.]
[Ast.
Arrester, Lightning, Comb - —A
term sometimes applied to a lightning ar-
rester in which both the line and ground
plates are furnished with a series of teeth,
like those on a comb. (See Arrester, Light-
ning)
Arrester, Lightning, Counter-Electro-
motive Force — — A lightning arrester,
in which the passage of the discharge through
the instruments to be protected is opposed
by a counter-electromotive force, generated
by induction on the passage of the discharge
of the bolt to earth.
The counter-electromotive force lightning ar-
rester is an invention of Professor Elihu Thomson.
It assumes a variety of forms. In the shape
shown in Fig. 26, the line circuit of the dynamo,
Fig. 26. Counter-Electromotive Force Lightning
Arrester.
D, has one end connected to ground, and the
other end has two conducting paths to ground.
One of these paths is through the ordinary comb-
protector at P, by the ground plate E; this cir-
cuit includes a few turns
of wire C'. The other
path is through a corres-
ponding coil C, either
interior or exterior to C',
so as to be within its in-
ductive field. As will be
[ E I seen from the figure, C, is
Fig. 27. Counttr-Elec- connected through the
tromotive force Light- machine to the ground.
ning Arrester. The induction coils C
and C', are thoroughly insulated from each
other.
Should a lightning flash or other static discharge
pass through the circuit C', which is of compara-
tively low self-induction, a counter-electromotive
force is produced in the other coil C, which
protects the line circuit.
In the form of lightning arrester shown in
Fig. 27, the coil in the path of the direct light-
ning discharge is formed into an exterior mesh or
net work surrounding the dynamo to be pro-
tected. In this case, the coils of the dynamo act
as the secondary coils in which the counter elec-
tromotive force is set up.
Arrester, Lightning, Transformer
— A form of lightning arrester designed for
the protection of transformers.
The Thomson arrester for transformers oper-
ates on the same principle as his arc-line pro-
tector. In the latter the arc, when formed,
is blown out by the action of the field of an
electro-magnet. This arc is formed on curved
metallic bows, one of which is connected to line
and the other to earth. The arc is formed at the
smallest interval between the bows, and is extin-
guished by being driven by action of a magnetic
field toward greatest interval.
Arrester Plate of Lightning Protector.—
(See Plate, Arrester, of Lightning Pro-
tector^
Arrester Plates. — (See Plates, Arrester^
Articulate Speech. — (See Speech, Articu-
lated,
Artificial Carbons.— (See Carbons, Arti-
ficial^
Artificial Illumination.— (See Illumina-
tion, Artificial.}
Artificial Line.— (See Line, Artificial.}
Artificial Magnet— (See Magnet, Arti-
ficial.}
Asphyxia. — Suspended respiration, result-
ing eventually in death, from non-aeration of
the blood.
In cases of insensibility by an electric shock a
species of asphyxia is sometimes brought about.
This is due, probably, to the failure of the nerves
and muscles that carry on respiration. The exact
manner in which death by electrical shock results
is not known. (See Death, Electric. }
Assy m metrical Resistance. — (See Resist-
ance, Assymmetrical.)
Astatic. — Possessing no directive power.
Usually applied to a magnetic or electro-mag-
netic-device which is free from any tendency to
take a definite position on account of the earth's
magnetism.
Ast,]
[Ato.
Astatic Circuit.— (See Circuit, Astatic}
Astatic Couple.— See Couple, Astatic.}
Astatic Galvanometer. — (See Galvanom-
ster, Astatic.)
Astatic Needle.— (See Needle, Astatic.}
Astatic Pair.— (See Pair, Astatic}
Astatic System.— (See System, Astatic}
Astronomical Meridian. — (See Meridian,
Astronomical}
Asymptote of Curve. — (See Curve, Asymp-
tote of}
Atmosphere, An A unit of gas or
fluid pressure equal to about 1 5 pounds to the
square inch.
At the level of the sea the atmosphere exerts a
pressure of about 15 pounds avoirdupois, or,
more accurately, 14.73 pounds, on every square
inch of the earth's surface. This value has there-
fore been taken as a unit of fluid pressure.
For more accurate measurements pounds to the
square inch are employed.
In the metric system of weights and measures
an atmosphere is considered equal to 1,033
grammes per square centimetre.
Atmospheric pressures are measured by instru-
ments called Manometers. (See Manometer.)
Atmosphere, Residual The traces
of air or other gas remaining in a space which
has been exhausted of its gaseous contents
by a pump or other means.
It is next to impossible to remove all traces of
air from a vessel by any known form of pump or
other appliance. (See Vacuum, Absolute.)
Atmosphere, The — The ocean of
.air which surrounds the earth.
The atmosphere is, approximately, composed,
by weight, of oxygen 23 parts, and nitrogen 77
parts. Besides these there are from 4 to 6 parts
in 10,000 of carbonic acid gas (or about a cubic
inch of carbonic acid to a cubic foot of air), and
varying proportions of the vapor of water.
The oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid form
the constant ingredients of the atmosphere, the
vapor of water the variable ingredient. There
are in most localities a number of other variable
ingredients present as impurities.
Atmospheric Electricity. — (See Electric-
ity, Atmospheric.)
Atmospheric Electricity, Origin of
— (See Electricity, Atmospheric, Origin of.)
Atom. — The smallest quantity of elemen-
tary or simple matter that can exist.
An ultimate particle of matter.
Atom means that which cannot be cut. It is
generally believed that material atoms are abso-
lutely unalterable in size, shape, weight and den-
sity ; that they can neither be cut, scratched,
flattened, nor distorted ; and that they are un-
affected in size, density, or shape, by heat or
cold, or by any known physical force.
Although almost inconceivably small, atoms
nevertheless possess a definite size and mass.
According to Sir William Thomson, the smallest
visible organic particle, 1-4000 of a millimetre in
diameter, will contain about 30,000,000 atoms.
Atom, Closed-Magnetic Circuit of —
(See Circuit, Closed-Magnetic, of Atom}
Atom, Gramme - — Such a number
of grammes of any elementary substance as is
numerically equal to the atomic weight of
the substance.
The gramme-atom of a substance represents
the number of calories required to raise the tem-
perature of one gramme of that substance through
I degree C. (See Heat, Atomic. Calorie.) Thus,
in the case of chlorine, whose atomic weight is
35.5, its gramme-atom is 35.5 ; consequently
35.5 small calories of heat would be required to
raise one gramme-atom of chlorine through i
degree C.
Atom of Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Atom of}
Atom, Vortex A number of particles
of the universal ether moving in the manner
of a vortex ring.
The theory of vortex atoms, so formed from
vortex rings, was propounded by Sir William
Thomson in order to explain how a readily mov-
able substance, like the universal ether, could be
made to possess the properties of a rigid solid. If
it be granted that a vortex motion has once been
imparted to the universal ether, Thomson shows
that such rings would be indestructible. (See
Matter, Thomson's Hypothesis of.)
Atomic Attraction. — (See Attraction,
Atomic}
Ato.]
34
[All.
Atomic Capacity. — (See Capacity, Atom-
ic)
Atomic Currents. — (See Currents, Atom-
ic)
Atomic Energy. — (See Energy, Atomic)
Atomic Heat— (See Heat, Atomic)
Atomic or Molecular Induced Currents.
— (See Currents, Induced, Molecular or
Atomic)
Atomic Weight.— (See Weight, Atomic)
Atomicity. — The combining capacity of
the atoms.
The relative equivalence of the atoms or
their atomic capacity.
The elementary atoms do not always combine
atom for atom. Some single atoms of certain
elements will combine with two, three, four, or
even more atoms of another element.
The value of the atomic capacity of an atom is
also called its quantivalence or valency.
Elements whose atomic capacity is —
One, are called Monads, or Univalent.
Two, " Dyads, " Bivalent.
Three, " Triads, " Trivalent.
Four, " Tetrads, " Quadrivalent.
Five, " Pentads, " Quinquivalent
Six, " Hexads, " Sexivalent.
Seven, " Heptads, " Septivalent.
Atomization. — The act of obtaining liquids
in a spray of finely divided particles.
In most cases the term is not literally correct,
as each of the smallest particles so obtained usu-
ally consist of many thousands of atoms.
Atomize. — To separate into a fine spray by
means of an atomizer. (See Atomizer)
Atomizer. — An apparatus for readily ob-
taining a finely divided jet or spray of liquid.
A jet of steam, or a blast of air, is driven across
the open end of a tube that dips below the surface
of the liquid to be atomized. The partial vacuum
so formed draws tip the liquid, which is then
blown by the current into a fine spray.
Attract. — To draw together.
Attracted-Disc Electrometer.— (See Elec-
trometer, Attracted-Disc)
Attract ins?. — Drawing together.
Attraction.— Literally the act of drawing
together.
In science the name attraction is given to a
series of unknown causes which effect, or are as-
sumed to effect, the drawing together of atoms,
molecules or masses.
Attraction and repulsion underlie nearly all
natural phenomena. While their effects are well
known, it is doubtful if anything is definitely
known of their true causes.
Since attraction, pure and simple, necessitates
the belief in action at a distance, an action which
is now generally discredited, we must, strictly
speaking, regard the term attraction as being but
a convenient substitution of the effect for the
cause.
It would appear much more reasonable to re-
gard the effects of attraction as produced by a
true push exerted from the outside of the bodies.
According to this notion, two masses of matter
undergoing attraction are pushed together rather
than drawn or attracted together.
It has been suggested that gravitation may per-
haps be an effect of a longitudinal motion or vibra-
tory thrust in the universal ether. If this is the
case, and the ether is sensibly incompressible, the
velocity of gravitation, it would appear, should be
almost infinite.
Attraction, Atomic — —The attraction
which causes the atoms to combine. (See
Affinity, Chemical)
In the opinion of Lodge, atomic attraction is
the result of the attraction of dissimilar charges of
electricity possessed by all atoms, which are capa -
ble of uniting or entering into chemical combi-
nation. (See Electricity, Atom of)
Attraction, Capillary — —The molec-
ular attractions that are concerned in
capillary phenomena. (See Capillarity)
Attraction, Electro-Dynamic — —The
mutual attraction of electric currents, or of
conductors through which electric currents
are passing. (See Dynamics, Electro)
Attraction, Electro-Magnetic — —The
mutual attraction of the unlike poles of
electro-magnets. (See Magnet, Electro.}
Attraction, Electrostatic - —The
mutual attraction exerted between unlike
electric charges, or bodies possessing unlike
o'ectric charges.
Alt.]
35
[Aur.
For example, the pith ball supported on an in-
sulated string is attracted, as shown at A, Fig. 28,
Fig. 28. Electrostati
Attraction.
Fig: 29. Electrostati
Repulsion.
by a bit of sulphur which has been briskly rubbed
by a piece of silk. As soon, however, as the ball
touches the sulphur and receives a charge, it is
repelled, as shown at B, Fig. 29.
These attractions ai d repulsions are due to the
effects of electrostatic induction. (See Induction,
Electrostatic.}
Attraction, Magnetic — — The mutual
attraction exerted between unlike magnet
poles.
Magnetic attractions and repulsions are best
shown by means of the magnetic needle N S,
Fig. 30. The N. pole of an approached magnet
Fig. 30. Magnetic Attraction.
attracts the S. pole of the needle but repels the
N. pole.
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion
may be stated as follows, viz.:
(i ) Magnet poles of the same name repel each
other; thus, a north pole repels another north
pole, a south pole repels another south pole.
Fig. 31. floating
Magnet.
(2.) Magnet poles of unlike names attract each
other; thus a north pole
attracts a south pole, or
a south pole attracts a
north pole.
A small bar magnet,
N S, Fig. 31, laid on the
top of a light vessel floating on the surface of a
liquid, may be readily employed to illustrate the
laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion.
Attraction, Mass — —The mutual at-
traction exerted between masses of matter.
(See Gravitation}
Attraction, Molar A term some-
times employed for mass attraction.
Gravitation is an example of mass attraction,
where the mass of the earth attracts the mass of
some body placed near it. (See Gravitation.}
Attraction, Molecular The mutual
attraction exerted between neighboring
molecules.
The attraction of like molecules, or those of the
same kind of matter, is called Cohesion ; that of
unlike molecules, Adhesion.
The tensile strength of iron or steel is due to
the cohesion of its molecules. Paint adheres to
wood, or ink to paper, by cohesion or the attrac-
tion between the unlike molecules.
Attraction of Grayitation. — A term gen-
erally applied to the mutual attraction be-
tween masses. (See Gravitation^)
Attractions and Repulsions of Currents.
— (See Currents, Attractions and Repulsions
of}
Audiphone. — A thin plate of hard rubber
held in contact with the teeth, and maintained
at a certain tension by strings attached to one
of its edges, for the purpose of aiding the
hearing.
The plate is so held that the sound-waves from
a speaker's voice impinge directly against its flat
surface. It operates by means of some of the
waves being transmitted , to the ear directly
through the bones of the head.
The audiphone is sometimes called a denti-
phone.
Aural Electrode. — (See Electrode, Aural}
Aurora Australis. — The Southern Light.
A name given to an appearance in the south-
Aur.]
[Aut.
ern heavens similar to that of the Aurora
Borealis. (See Aurora Borealis.}
Aurora Borealis. — The Northern Light.
Luminous sheets, columns, arches, or pillars
of pale, flashing light, generally of a red color,
seen in the northern heavens.
The auroral light assumes a great variety of ap-
pearances, to which the terms auroral arch, bands,
cor once, curtains and streamers are applied.
The exact cause of the aurora is not as yet
known. It would appear, however, beyond any
reasonable doubt, that the auroral flashes are due
to the passage of electrical discharges through the
upper, and therefore rarer, regions of the atmos-
phere. The intermittent flashes of light are prob-
ably due to the discharges being influenced by the
earth's magnetism.
Auroras are frequently accompanied by mag-
netic storms. (See Storm, Magnetic. )
The occurrence of auroras is nearly always
simultaneous with that of an unusual number of
sun spots. Auroras are therefore probably con-
nected with outbursts of the solar energy. (See
Spots, Sun.)
The auroral light examined by the spectroscope
gives a spectrum characteristic of luminous gaseous
matter, i. e., contains a few bright lines; but, ac-
cording to S. P. Thompson, this spectrum is pro-
duced by matter that is not referable with cer-
tainty to that of any known substance.
Whatever may be the exact cause of auroras,
their appearance is almost exactly reproduced by
the passage of electric discharges through vacua.
Aurora Polaris. — A general term some-
times applied to aurora in the neighborhood
of either pole, or in either the northern or
the southern hemisphere.
Auroral Arch. — (See Arch, Auroral?)
Auroral Bands. — (See Bands, Auroral}
Auroral Coronse. — (See Corona, Au-
roral?)
Auroral Curtain. — (See Curtain, Au-
roral.}
Auroral Flashes. — (See Flashes, Auroral.}
Auroral Light — (See Light, Auroral?)
Auroral Storm.— (See Storm, Auroral}
Auroral Streamer. — (See Streamer, Au-
roral}
Auroras and Magnetic Storms, Peri-
odicity of Observed coincidences be-
tween the occurrence of auroras, magnetic
storms, and sun-spots.
The occurrence of auroras, or magnetic storms,
at periods of about eleven years apart, corre-
sponds to the well-known eleven-year sun-spot
period.
The period also agrees with a variation in the
magnetic declination of any place, which, accord-
ing to Sabine, occurs once in every eleven years.
Austral Magnetic Pole.— (See Pole, Mag-
netic, Austral}
Autographic Telegraphy. — (See Teleg-
raphy, Autographic}
Automatic Annunciator Drop. — (See
Drop, Annunciator, Automatic}
Automatic Bell.— , See Bell, Automatic
Electric}
Automatic Contact Breaker.— (See Con-
tact Breaker, Automatic}
Automatic Cut-Out.— (See Cut-Out, Au-
tomatic}
Automatic Cut-Out for Multiple-Connect-
ed Electro-Receptive Devices. — (See Cut-
Out, Automatic, for Multiple-Connected
Electro-Receptive Devices}
Automatic Cut-Out for Series-Connected
Electro-Receptive Devices. —(See Cut-Out,
Automatic , for Series-Connected Electro-Re-
ceptive Devices}
Automatic Drop. — (See Drop, Auto-
matic}
Automatic Electric Burner. — (See Burn-
er, Automatic Electric}
Automatic Electric Safety System for
Railroads. — (See Railroads, Automatic Elec-
tric Safety System for}
Automatic Fire-Alarm. — (See Alarm,
Fire, Automatic}
Automatic Gas Cut-Off. — (See Cut-Off,
Automatic Gas}
Automatic Indicator. — (See Indicator,
Automatic}
Automatic Make-and-Break.— (See Make-
and-Break, Automatic}
Automatic Oiler. — (See Oiler, Automatic.
Aut.]
37
[B. A, U.
Automatic Paper-Winder. — (See Winder,
Telegraphic Paper.}
Automatic Regulation. — (See Regulation,
Automatic.)
Automatic Regulator. — (See Regulator,
Automatic?)
Automatic Search-Light. — (See Light,
Search, Automatic?)
Automatic Switch for Incandescent Elec-
tric Lamp. — (See Switch, Automatic, for
Incandescent Electric Lamp?)
Automatic Telegraphy. — (S e e Teleg-
raphy, Automatic?)
Automatic Telephone Switch. — (See
Switch, Telephone, Automatic?)
Automatic Time Cut-Outs.— (See Cut-
Out, Automatic Time?)
Automatic Variable Resistance.— (See
Resistance, Variable, Automatic?)
Automatically Regulable. — (See Regula-
ble, Automatically?)
Automobile Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Au-
tomobile?)
Average or Mean Electromotive Force. —
(See Force, Electromotive, Average, or
Mean?)
Axes of Co-ordinates. — (See Co-ordinates,
Axes of?)
Axial Magnet.— (See Magnet, Axial?)
Axis, Magnetic The line around
which a magnetic needle, free to move, but
which has come to rest in a magnetic field,
can be turned without changing the set or
direction in which it has come to rest.
Axis, Magnetic, of a Straight Needle
— A straight line drawn through the magnet,
joining its poles.
The magnetic axis of a straight needle may be
regarded as a straight line passing through the
poles of the needle and its point of support.
The magnetic axis may not correspond with
the geometric axis of the
needle. This leads to
an error in reading the
true direction in which
the needle is pointing,
which must be cor-
rected. Thus, the nee-
dle N S, Fig. 32, points
to 31 degrees on the
scale. In reality, if the
magnetic axis of the
needle lies in the line
N' S', the true deflec-
tion of the needle is only
28 degrees.
Fig-. 33. Magnet!
Axis.
Axis of Abscissas. — (See Abscissas, Axis
of?)
Axis of Ordinates.— (See Ordinates, Axis
of?)
Azimuth. — In astronomy, the angular dis-
tance between an azimuth circle and the
meridian.
The azimuth of a heavenly body in the North-
ern Hemisphere is measured on the arc of the
horizon intercepted between the north point of
the horizon and the point where the great circle
that passes through the heavenly body cuts the
horizon.
Azimuth Circle.— (See Circle, Azimuth?)
Azimuth Compass. — (See Compass, Azi-
muth?)
Azimuth, Magnetic The arc inter-
cepted on the horizon between the magnetic
meridian and a great circle passing through
the observed body.
B. — A contraction used in mathematical
writings for the internal magnetization, or the
magnetic induction, or the number of lines of
force per square centimetre in the magnetized
material.
This contraction for internal magnetization is,
in most mathematical treatises, printed in bold-
faced type.
B. A. Ohm.— (See Ohm, B. A?)
B. A. U. — A contraction sometimes em-
ployed for the British Association unit or ohm.
B. W. G.]
[Bal.
B. W. G.— A contraction for Birmingham
wire gauge. (See Gauge, Birmingham
Wire.)
A contraction sometimes used for the new
British wire gauge.
Back Electromotive Force.— (See Force,
Electromotive, Back?)
Back-Stroke of Lightning.— (See Light-
ning, Back- Stroke of.)
Bain's Chemical Recorder.— (See Re-
•corder, Chemical, Bain's.)
Bain's Printing Solution.— (See Solution,
Bain's Printing.)
Balance Arms. — (See Arms, Bridge or
Balanced)
Balance, Bi-fllar Suspension An
instrument similar in construction to Cou-
lomb's torsion balance, but in which the
needle is hung by two separate fibres instead
of by a single one. (See Balance, Coulomb's
Torsion. Suspension, Bi-filar.)
Balance, Centi-AmpSre An arr-
meter in the form of a balance, whose scale is
graduated to give direct readings in centi-
amperes.
Ampere balances giving readings in various
decimals or multiples of amperes have been de-
vised by Sir William Thomson. The strength of
current passing is determined by the action on a
movable ring or coil, placed between two fixed
rings or coils.
The movable ring is in a horizontal plane
nearly midway between the two fixed rings.
The fixed rings are traversed by the current
in opposite directions, so that one attracts
and the other repels the movable ring. The
movable ring is attached to one end of a horizon-
tal balance arm, and a similar movable ring, also
provided with attracting and repelling fixed rings,
is attached to the opposite end of the balance arm.
In order to avoid disturbance of horizontal com-
ponents of terrestrial, or of local magnetic force,
the current is sent in the same direction through
the two movable rings. The balancing is effected
by means of a weight, sliding on a nearly hori-
zontal arm attached to the balance. A counter-
poi^e weight is used in connection with the sliding
weight.
A standard Thomson centi-ampere balance
is shown in Fig. 33. In measuring a current,
F'S- 33- Centi-Amplre Balance.
the weight is moved along the scale until the
balance comes to rest.
Balance, Composite — A balance
form of ammeter devised by Sir William Thom-
son, which can be used for an ampere-meter, a
watt-meter, or a volt-meter, according to the
manner in which its sets of fine and coarse
wire coils are connected. (See Balance,
Centi- Ampere.)
Balance, Coulomb's Torsion An
apparatus to measure the force of electric or
magnetic repulsion between two similarly
charged bodies, or between two similar mag-
net poles, by opposing to such force the tor-
sion of a thin wire.
The two forces balance each other ; hence the
origin of the name.
Fig. 34. Coulomb's Torsion Balance.
Fig. 34 represents a Coulomb torsion bal-
ance, adapted to the measurement of the force
Bal.]
39
[Bal.
of electrostatic repulsion. A delicate needle of
shellac, having a small gilded pith ball at one of
its ends, is suspended by a fine metallic wire. A
proof -plane, B, is touched to the electrified surface
whose charge is to be measured, and is then
placed as shown in the figure. (See Plane, Proof.)
There is a momentary attraction of the needle,
anvx t..^~« a repulsion, which causes the needle to
be moved a ^.'^in distance from the ball on the
proof-plane. This distance is measured in degrees
on a graduated circle a a, marked on the instru-
ment. The force of the repulsion is calculated by
determining the amount of torsion required to
move the needle a certain distance toward the
ball of the electrified proof-plane.
This torsion is obtained by the movement of the
torsion head D, the amount of which motion is
measured on a graduated circle at D. The
measurement is based on the fact that the force re-
quired to twist a wire is proportional to the angle
of torsion.
Balance, Deci-Ampere An ammeter
in the form of a balance, whose scale is
graduated to give direct readings in deci-
amperes. (See Balance, Centi-Ampere^)
Balance, Deka-Ampere — An am-
meter in the form of a balance, whose scale is
graduated to give direct readings in deka-
amperes. (See Balance, Centi-Ampere^)
Balance, Electric A term fre-
quently used for Wheatstone's electric bridge.
(See Bridge, Electric!)
The electric bridge is sometimes called a balance
because, when in use in measuring resistances,
one resistance or set of resistances balances an-
other resistance or set of resistances.
Balance, Hekto-Ampdre An am-
meter in the form of a balance, whose scale
is graduated to give direct readings in hekto-
amperes. (See Balance, Centt'-Ampere.)
Balance Indicator.— (See Indicator, Bal-
ance.)
Balance, Induction, Hughes'
An apparatus for the detection of the presence
of a metallic or conducting substance by the
aid of induced electric currents.
Hughes' induction balance is shown in Fig. 35.
A, B, C and D are bobbins, wound with about
300 feet of No. 32 copper wire. The coils are
connected as shown, A and B, in the circuit of a
battery, and C and D, in the circuit of a telephone.
The coils, A and B, and C and D, are placed at
Fig 33. Hughes' Induction Balance.
such a distance apart as to prevent any mutual
induction occurring between them. The coils
are so joined that the direction of the induction
of A, on C, is opposite to that of B, on D.
The coils, A and B, then act as primaries, and C
and D, as secondaries. In the battery circuit is an
interrupter I, which is caused to continually make
and break the circuit.
The coils are so adjusted that the opposing
secondary coils produce but little noise to one
listening at the telephone. This can readily be
done by the adjusting of a single pair of coils.
If a single coin or mass of metal be introduced
between either A and C, or B and D, or even
above one of the coils, as at d, the balance
will be disturbed, since some of the induction is
now expended in producing electric currents in
the interposed metal, and a sound will therefore
be heard in the telephone. But if precisely similar
metals are placed in similar positions, between A
and C, and B and D, no sound is heard in the
telephone, since the inductive effects due to the
two metals are the same.
The slightest difference, however, either in
composition, size or position, destroys the balance,
and causes a sound to be heard in the telephone.
A spurious coin is thus readily detected when
compared with a genuine coin.
A somewhat similar instrument has been em-
ployed to detect and locate a bullet or other for-
eign metallic substance in the human body.
In order to determine the amount of the dis-
turbance, an instrument called a sonometer is .
used (See Sonometer, Hughes'), in which a single
secondary coil, placed in the circuit of a telephone,
slides on a graduated bar between two fixed
primary coils, so wound as to exert equal and op-
posite inductions on the secondary. When, there-
fore, the secondary is exactly in the middle of the
Bal.]
40
[Bal.
graduated bar, and consequendy exactly midway
between the two fixed primary coils, no sounds are
heard in the telephone, but when moved to one
side or the other the sounds are heard. Switches
are so arranged that the telephone can be readily
switched from the induction balance to the tele-
phone, or vice versa. When, therefore, a metallic
disc is> placed in one of the coils of the induction
balance, and a noise is heard in the telephone,
the coil of the sonometer is shifted so that the
noise heard in this telephone is judged by the
ear to be equal, and the comparison can then be
made by means of simple calculations.
The following table gives, in arbitrary values,
the results of various experiments as to the sensi-
tiveness in this respect of discs of different
metals, of various sizes and shapes :
Silver, chemically pure 125
Gold 117
Silver, commercial 115
Aluminium 112
Copper too
Zinc 80
Bronze 75
Tin 74
Iron, ordinary 53
German silver 5°
Iron, pure 40
Copper, alloyed 40
Lead ; 58
Antimony 35
Bismuth IO
Zinc, alloyed 6
Carbon 2
; —(Fleming.)
An inspection of this table shows that the values
found for different metals do not correspond with
their electric conducting power, although, roughly
speaking, the best conductors stand at the top of
the table, and the worst at the bottom. The
effects appear to be dependent for their action on
the phenomena of magnetic screening, for —
(i.) If slots are cut in the middle of the plate
its disturbing action is either removed or very
much decreased.
(2.) If a flat coil of copper wire replaces a disc
of metal no effect is produced on the induction
balance when its ends are open, bui when closed
the coil acts just like a disc, or continuous plate
of metal.
(3.) The difference between various metals in-
serted as discs in the induction balance is less at
high speeds of reversal than at low speeds.
Balance, Kilo-Ampere — An am-
meter in the form of a balance, whose scale is
graduated to give direct readings in kilo-am-
peres. (See Balance, Centi- Ampere.}
Balance of Induction in Cable. _o
Induction, Balance of, in Cab! . J
Balance, Plating — — An automatic
device for disconnecting the current from
the article to be plated, as soon as a certain
increase in weight has been obtained.
The objects to be plated are suspended at one
end of a balance, and when a certain increase in
weight has been gained, the balance tips and
breaks the circuit Edison's electric meter is
based on this principle.
Balance, Thermic, or Bolometer. — An
apparatus constructed on the principle of the
differential galvanometer, devised by Professor
Langley for determining small differences of
temperature. (See Galvanometer, Differen-
tial)
A coil composed of two separately insulated
wires, wound together, is suspended in a mag-
netic field, and has a current sent through it.
Under normal conditions, this current separates
into two equal parts, and runs through the wires
in opposite directions. It therefore produces no
sensible field, and suffers no deflection by the field
in which it is suspended.
Any local application of heat producing a dif-
ference in temperature in these coils, causing a
difference in resistance, prevents this equality. A
field is therefore produced in the suspended coil,
which, though extremely small, is rendered meas-
urable by means of the powerful field produced
in the coil, within which the double coil is sus-
pended.
Differences of temperature as small as one-
fourteen thousandth of a degree Fahrenheit are
detected by the instrument.
Balance, Wheatstone's Electric — —A
name often given to the electric bridge or
balance. (See Bridge, Electric.}
Balanced-Metallic Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Balanced-Metallic)
Balanced Resistances.— (See Resistances,
Balanced^
Bal.
41
[Bar.
Balata. — An insulating material.
Balata, when prepared for use as an insulating
material, is somewhat like gutta-percha.
Ball, Electric Time — — A ball, sup-
ported in a prominent position on a tall pole,
and caused to fall at the exact hour of noon,
or at any other predetermined time, for the
purpose of thus giving correct time to an
entire neighborhood.
The release of the ball is effected by the closing
of an electric circuit, either automatically, or
through the agency of an observer.
Ball, Fire A term sometimes ap-
plied to globular lightning. (See Lightning,
Globular?)
Ball Lightning.— (See Lightning, Ball.}
Ballistic Curve.— (See Curve, Ballistic}
Ballistic Galvanometer.— (See Galva-
nometer, Ballistic.}
Balloon, Electric A balloon, or
air ship, provided with electric power so as
to be able to be steered or moved against the
direction of the wind.
Electric balloons have been moved against the
wind and steered with a certain amount of success,
by the use of electric motors driven by storage
batteries. All that is needed to make aerial navi-
gation a commercial success is the ability to ob-
tain great power with a small weight. The storage
battery does this to a limited extent.
Bearing in mind the high efficiency of the elec-
tric motor, it would appear that the problem of
successful aerial navigation will be solved when
the discovery is made of means for directly con-
verting the chemical potential energy of coal into
electrical energy.
Balloon Signaling for Military Pur-
poses.— (See Signaling, Balloon, for Mil-
itary Purposes}
Balls, Pith — —Two balls of pith, sus-
pended by conducting threads of cotton to
insulated conductors, employed to show the
electrification of the same by their mutual
repulsion.
The pith balls connected with the insulated
cylinder A B, Fig. 36, not only show the electri-
fication of the cylinder, but serve also to roughly
indicate the peculiarities of distribution of the
charge thereon.
Fig. 36. Pith Ball Cylinder.
Bands, Anroral Approximately
parallel streaks of light sometimes seen
during the prevalence of the aurora. (See
Aurora Borealis^)
Bank of Lamps.— (See Lamps, Bank of}
Banked Battery.— (See Battery, Banked}
Bar, Detorsion — —A bar placed in a
magnetic instrument called a declinometer for
the purpose of removing the torsion of the
suspending thread of the magnet.
The detorsion ^ar of the declinometer is gen-
erally made of gun metal of the same weight as
that of the suspended magnet. A small magnet
is placed in a rectangular aperture in the middle
of the bar.
Bar Electro-Magnet.— (See Magnet,
Electro, Bar}
Barad. — A unit of pressure proposed by
the British Association.
One barad equals one dyne per square centi-
metre.
Barometer. — An apparatus for measuring
the pressure or weight of the atmosphere.
Barometric Column. — (See Column, Baro-
metric.)
Bars, Bus Omnibus bars. (See
Bars, Omnibus}
Bars, Krizik's — Cores of various
shapes, provided for solenoids, in which the
distribution of the metal in the bar is so pro-
portioned as to insure as nearly as possible a
uniform attraction or pull while in different
positions in the solenoid.
Ban]
42
[Bat.
Krizik's bars of various shapes are shown in
Fig. 37. It will be observed that in all cases the
Fig. 37. Krizik's Bars.
mass of metal is greater toward the middle of
the core than near the ends.
When a core of uniform diameter is drawn into
a solenoid, the attraction or pull is not uniform in
strength for different positions of the bar. When
the bar is just entering the solenoid, the pull is
strongest ; as soon as the end passes the middle of
the core the attraction decreases, until, when the
centres of the bar and core coincide, the motion
ceases, since both ends of the solenoid attract
equally in opposite directions. By proportioning
the bars, as shown in the figure, a fairly uniform
pull for a considerable length may be obtained.
Bars, Negative-Omnibus — The
bus-bars that are connected with the negative
terminal of the dynamos. (See Bars, Omni-
bus)
Bars, Neutral-Omnibus The bus-
bars that are connected with the neutral
dynamo terminal in a three-wire system of
distribution.
Bars, Omnibus Heavy bars of con-
ducting material connected directly to the
poles of dynamo-electric machines, in electric
incandescent light or electric railway installa-
tions, and therefore receiving the entire current
produced by the machine.
Main conductors common to two or more
dynamos in an electrical generating plant.
The terms bus and omnibus bars refer to the
fact that the entire or whole current is carried by
them.
Bars, Positive-Omnibus — —The bus-
bars that are connected with the positive
terminal of the dynamos.
Bath, Bi-polar — — An electro-thera-
peutic bath, the current applied to which
enters at one part of the tub, and leaves at
another part.
The electrodes for the bi-polar bath consist of
suitably shaped copper plates, generally called
shovel electrodes.
Bath, Copper— —An electrolytic bath
containing a readily electrolyzable solution
of a copper salt, and a copper plate acting as
the anode, and placed in the liquid near the
object to be electro-plated, which forms the
kathode. .(See Plating, Electro)
The sulphate, the cyanide and the acetate of cop-
per are used for copper baths. The use of the sul-
phate is objectionable. The cyanide is expensive.
The acetate is therefore very generally employed.
Wahl gives the following formula for a copper
bath, viz. :
Water i ,000 parts.
Acetate of copper, crystal-
lized 20 "
Carbonate of soda 20 "
Bisulphite of soda 20 "
Cyanide of potassium (pure) 20 "
Bath, Electro-Plating — —Tanks con-
taining metallic solutions in which articles
are placed so as to be electro-plated. (See
Plating, Electro)
Strictly speaking a plating bath includes not
only the vessel and its metallic solution, but also
the metallic plate acting as the anode and the
article to be plated forming the kathode.
Bath, Electro-Therapeutic — — A bath
furnished with suitable electrodes and used
in the application of electricity to curative
purposes.
Such baths should be used only under the advice
of a regular physician.
Bath, Gold — An electrolytic bath
containing a readily electrolyzable solution of
a gold salt and a gold plate acting as the
anode, and placed in the liquid opposite the
object to be plated, which forms the kathode.
(See Plating, Electro)
Electro gilding may be accomp'islied either with
or without the aid of heat. Hot gilding appears
to give a smoother and cleaner deposit.
The following is a fairly good solution for a
gold bath:
Water 1,000 parts.
Cyanide of potassium, pure. . 20 "
Gold 10 "
— (Wahl.)
Bat.]
43
[Bat.
The gold is first converted into neutral chloride
by dissolving it in 25 parts of pure hydrochloric
acid to which 12.5 parts of pure nitric acid has
been added. When the gold is completely dis-
solved, the liquid is heated until of a dark red
color, in order to expel any excess of acid.
Bath, Head, Electric A variety
of electric breeze, applied therapeutically to
the head of the patient.
The patient is placed on an insulating stool and
connected with one pole of an electrostatic induc-
tion machine, the other pole of which is con-
nected to a circle of insulated points suspended
over the head.
Bath, Hydro-Electric A bath in
which electro-therapeutic treatment is given
by applying one electrode to the metallic lining
of the tub, and the other electrode to the body
of the bather.
Bath, Multipolar-Electric An
electro-therapeutic bath, in which more than
two electrodes are employed.
It is not clear that the multipolar-electric bath
possesses any decided advantages over the bi-polar
bath.
Bath, Nickel An electrolytic bath
containing a readily electrolyzable salt of
nickel, a plate of nickel acting as the anode
of a battery and placed in the liquid near the
object to be coated, which forms the kathode.
(See Plating, Electro)
The double sulphate of nickel and ammonium
(from 5 to 8 parts dissolved in 100 parts of water)
is used for the bath. Some prefer to add
sulphate of ammonium and citric acid to the above
solution.
Bath, Shower, Electric A shower
bath in which the falling drops carry 'electric
charges to the patient subjected thereto.
The water is rendered slightly alkaline. One
pole is immersed in the alkaline water and the
other connected to a metallic stool on which the
patient is placed.
Bath, Silver An electrolytic bath
containing a readily electrolyzable salt of
silver and a plate of silver acting as the
anode of an electric source and placed in the
liquid near the object to be coated, which
forms the kathode. ^See ^lating, Electro?)
The double cyanide of silver and potassium
is the salt usually employed in the silver bath.
The following bath is recommended by Rose-
leur:
Water 1,000 parts.
Cyanide of potassium (pure) 50 "
Pure silver 25 "
The silver (granulated) is treated with pure nitric
acid (43 degrees Beaum€) and converted into
nitrate of silver. The solution is then heated to
drynessand subsequently fused. The fused nitrate
so obtained is dissolved in fifteen times its weight
of distilled water and treated with a solution of
cyanide of potassium (10 per cent, of the cyanide),
by means of which silver cyanide is thrown down
as a precipitate. This precipitate is then sepa-
rated and washed. It is added to the 1,000 parts
of water, dissolved, and the cyanide of potassium
afterward added, thus forming the double cyan-
ide required for the bath.
Bath, Stripping — — A bath for remov-
ing an electro-plating of gold, silver, or other
metal, either by simple dipping or by electric
action.
Bath, Ungilding — — A stripping bath
suitable for the removal of a coating of gold.
(See Bath, Stripping)
Bath, Unipolar-Electric An electro-
therapeutic bath, the water of which forms
one of the electrodes of the source, and the
other electrode is attached to a metallic rod
fixed at a convenient height above the tub.
The bath tub is formed of non-conducting sub-
stances. The terminals of the electrode con-
nected with the water terminate in metal plates
located at suitable points in the tub. The cur-
rent is applied by the patient making and break-
ing contact at the vertical metal rod with his
hands.
The unipolar-electric bath is employed instead
of local galvanization where it is desired to limit
the application to especial organs or particular
parts of the body. In general galvanization the
patient is placed on an electrode of large sur-
face, formed of a large spxjnge- covered metallic
plate, on which he sits or rests. This electrode is
connected with the kathode of the battery. The
anode is connected with a large sponge electrode,
which is moved regularly over the body of the
patient; sometimes the moistened hand of the
operator is used in place of the sponge electrode.
Bat.]
[Bat.
Bath, UnsilTering — — A stripping bath
suitable for the removal of a coating of silver.
(See Bath, Stripping^
Bathometer. — An instrument invented by
Siemens for obtaining deep-sea soundings
without the use of a sounding line.
The bathometer depends for its operation on
the varied attraction of the earth for a suspended
weight in parts of the ocean differing in depth.
As the vessel passes over deep portions of the
ocean, the solid land of the bottom, being further
from the ship, exerts a smaller attraction than it
would in shallow parts, where it is nearer; for,
although in the deep parts of the ocean the water
lies between the ship and the bottom, the smaller
density of the water as compared with the land
causes it to exert a smaller attraction than in the
shallower parts, where the bottom is nearer the
ship. The varying attraction of the earth is
caused to act on a mercury column, the reading
of which is effected by means of an electric con-
tact.
Battery, Banked — A term some-
times applied to a battery from which a num-
ber of separate circuits are supplied with cur-
rents.
The term banked-battery is sometimes ap-
plied to a multiple-arc connected battery.
Battery, Cautery — —A term some-
times employed in electro-therapeutics, for a
multiple connected voltaic battery adapted for
producing electric incandescence for cautery
effects.
Battery, Closed-Circuit - —A voltaic
battery which may be kept constantly on
closed-circuit without serious polarization.
The gravity battery is a closed -circuit battery.
As employed for use on most telegraph lines, it is
maintained on a closed circuit. When an operator
wishes to use the line he opens his switch, thus
breaking the circuit and calling his correspondent.
Such batteries should not polarize. (See Cell,
Voltaic, Polarization of.)
Battery, Connection of, for Quantity —
— A term, now generally in disuse, formerly
employed to indicate the grouping of voltaic
cells, now known as parallel or multiple.
The arrangement or coupling of a number of
voltaic cells in multiple reduces the internal resist-
ance of the battery, and thus permits a greater
current, or quantity, of electricity to pass ; hence
the origin of the term.
Battery, Dynamo The combina-
tion or coupling together of several separate
dynamo-electric machines so as to act as a
single electric source.
The dynamos may be connected to the leads
either in series, in multiple, in multiple-series or
in series-multiple.
Battery, Dynamo, Electric Machine —
— A dynamo battery. (See Battery, Dy-
namo?)
Battery, Electric A general term
applied to the combination, as a single source,
of a number of separate electric sources.
The separate sources may be coupled either in
series, in multiple, in multiple-series, or in series-
multiple. ( See Circuits, Varieties of.)
The term battery is sometimes incorrectly ap-
plied to a single voltaic couple or cell.
Battery, Floating, De la Rive's — —A
floating voltaic cell, the terminals of which are
connected with a coil of insulated wire, em-
ployed to show the attractions and repul-
sions between magnets and movable electric
circuits.
The cell, shown in Fig. 38, consists of a vol-
Fig. 38. Floating Cell.
taic couple of zinc and copper, the terminals of
which are connected to the circular coil of insu-
lated wire, as shown, and the whole floated by
means of a cork, in a vessel containing dilute sul-
phuric acid.
When the current flows through the coil in the
direction shown by the arrows, the approach of
the N-seeking pole of a magnet will cause the
cell to be attracted or to move towards the mag-
net pole, since the south face or end of the coil is
nearer the north pole of the magnet. If the other
Bat.]
[Bat.
end were nearer, repulsion would occur, the cell
turning round until the south face is nearer the
magnet, when attraction occurs.
This is, strictly speaking, a floating cell, and
not a battery. (See Battery, Voltaic.}
Battery, Galvanic Two or more
separate voltaic cells so arranged as to form
a single source.
This is more correctly called a Voltaic Battery.
(See Battery, Voltaic.)
Battery, Gas A battery in which
the voltaic elements are gases as distinguished
from solids.
The electrodes of a gas battery generally con-
sist of plates of platinum, or other solid substance
which possesses the power of occluding oxygen
and hydrogen. The lower parts of these plates
dip into dilute sulphuric acid, and the upper parts
are respectively surrounded by oxygen and hydro-
gen gas derived from the electrolytic decompo-
sition of the dilute acid.
A gas battery consisting of plates of platinum
dipping below into acid liquid, and surrounded
in the space above the liquid by hydrogen and
oxygen H, H' and O, O', etc., respectively is
shown in Fig. 39.
Fig- 39- Gas Battery.
In charging this battery an electric current is
sent through it until a certain quantity of the
gases has been produced. If, then, the charging
current be discontinued, a current in the oppo-
site direction is produced by the battery. The
gas battery is in reality a variety of storage bat-
tery. (See Electricity, Storage of. Cell, Secon-
dary. Cell, Storage.")
Gas batteries can also be made by feeding con-
tinually into the cell a gas capable of acting on
the positive elements.
Battery Gauge. — (See Gaugi, Battery?)
Battery, Leyden Jar The combina-
tion of a number of separate Leyden jars so
as to act as one single jar.
A Leyden jar battery is shown in Fig. 40,
Fig. 40, Leyden Jar Battery.
where nine separate Leyden jars are connected
as a single jar by joining their outer coatings by
placing them in the box P, the bottom of which
is lined with tin foil. The inner coatings are
connected together by the metal rods B, as
shown.
A discharging rod A, may be employed for
connecting the opposite coatings. The handles
are made of glass or any other good insulating
material.
A number of Leyden jars can be coupled in
series by connecting the inner coating of the first
jar to the outer coating of the second, the inner
coating of the second to the outer coating of the
third, and so on. The battery so obtained is
then discharged by connecting the outer coat,
ing of the first jar with the inner coating of the
last.
Battery, Local A voltaic battery
used at a station on a telegraph line to
operate the Morse sounder, or the register-
ing or recording apparatus, at that point
only. (See Telegraphy, American or Morse
System of.)
The local battery is thrown into or out of action
by the telegraphic relay. (See Relay.}
Battery, Magnetic -The combina-
tion, as a single magnet, of a number of sep-
arate magnets.
A magnetic battery, or compound magnet, is
Bat.]
[Bat.
Fig, J.T, Magneti
Battery, or Com
shown in Fig. 41. It consists of straight bars of
steel, p, p, p, with their similar poles placed near
together and inserted in
masses of soft iron, N and
S, as shown.
Battery, Main
The battery, in a system
of telegraphic communi-
cation, that is employed
for sending the signals
over the main line, as dis-
tinguished from any bat-
tery employed for any
other particular work,
such, for example, as that
of the local battery. (See
Battery, Local.)
Battery, Multiple-Con- found Magnet.
nected A battery the single cells of
which are connected to one another and to the
mains or conductors in multiple. (See Cir-
cuit, Multiple)
Battery, Open-Circuit A voltaic
battery which is normally on open-circuit,
and which is used continuously only for com-
paratively small durations of time on closed-
circuit.
Leclanche'-cells form an excellent open-circuited
battery. 'They have a comparatively high electro-
motive force, but rapidly polarize. They cannot
therefore be economically used for furnishing
currents continuously for long durations of time.
When left on open-circuit, however, they readily
depolarize. They therefore form an excellent
battery for such work as annunciator bells, burg-
lar alarms, etc., where the current is only
required for short periods of time, separated by
comparatively long intervals of rest. (See Cell,
Voltaic, Leclanche.)
Battery Plates of Secondary or Storage
Cell, Forming of (See Plates of
Secondary or Storage Cell, Forming of.)
Battery, Plunge A number of
separate voltaic cells connected so as to form
a single cell or electric source, the plates of
which are so supported on a horizontal bar
as to be capable of being simultaneously
placed in, or removed from, the exciting
liquid.
The plunge battery shown in Fig. 42, consists
Fig. 42. Plunge Battery,
of a number of zinc-carbon elements immersed in
an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid, or in elec-
tropoion liquid, contained in separate jars, J, J.
(See Liquid, Electropoion.)
The mode of support to the horizontal bar
will be understood from an inspection of the
drawing.
Battery, Primary The combina-
tion of a number of separate primary cells so
as to form a single source.
The term primary battery is used in order to
distinguish it from secondary or storage battery.
(See Cell, Secondary. Cell, Storage.)
Battery, Secondary The combina-
tion of a number of separate secondary or
storage cells, so as to form a single electric
source. (See Electricity, Storage of.)
Battery, Selenium The combina-
tion of a number of separate selenium cells so
as to form an electric source. (See Cell,
Selenium.)
Battery, Series-Connected A bat-
tery, the separate cells of which are con-
nected to one another and to the line or
conductor in series. (See Circuit, Series.)
Battery Solution.— (See Solution, Bat-
tery)
Battery, Split A voltaic batten'
connected in series, but having one of its
middle plates connected with the ground.
By the employment of the device of a split-
battery, the poles of the battery are maintained
at potentials differing in opposite directions from
the potential of ihe earth.
Battery, Storage — —A number of
separate storage cells connected so as to
form a single electric source.
Bat.]
[Bel.
A cell of a storage battery is shown in Fig.
43-
Fig. 43. Storage Battery.
Battery, ' Storage, Element of A
single set of positive and negative plates of a
storage cell connected so as to be ready for
placing in the acid liquid of the jar or cell.
A term sometimes applied to one of the
storage cells in a storage battery.
This latter use of the term element is unfortu-
nate, since from the analogous case of a primary
•cell, an element would consist of a single plate,
either positive or negative, and not of both. That
is, every voltaic couple consists of two elements,
the positive and the negative.
Battery, Thermo A term often
applied to a thermo-electric battery. (See
Battery, Thermo- Electric)
Battery, Thermo-Electric The
combination, as a single thermo-electric cell,
of a number of separate thermo-electric cells
or couples. (See Couple, Thermo-Electric)
Battery, Voltaic The combina-
tion, as a single source, of a number of sepa-
rate voltaic cells.
Battery, Water A battery formed
of zinc and copper couples immersed in an
electrolyte of ordinary water.
Any voltaic couple can be used, the positive
element of which is slightly acted on by water.
When numerous couples are employed consider-
able difference of potential can be obtained.
Water batteries are employed for charging
electrometers. They are not capable of giving
any considerable current, owing to their great in-
ternal resistance.
Bead Areometer or Hydrometer. — (See
Areometer, Bead.)
Bec-Carcel. — The Carcel. or French unit
of light. (See Carcel)
Bell, Automatic-Electric An elec-
tric bell furnished with an automatic contact-
breaker. (See Contact-Breaker, Automatic)
A form of automatic-electric bell is shown m
Fig. 44. The relation of the electro- magnet, its
armature and the bell
lever, will be readily
understood from an in-
spection of the draw-
ing.
Bell, Call
An electric bell used
to call the attention
of an operator to the
fact that his corre-
spondent wishes to
communicate with
him.
Bell, Circular
— A bell so construct-
ed that all its moving
parts are contained in Figt 44, Automatic EUctrii
the gong. Bell.
Bell, Continuous-Sounding Electric —
— An electric bell, which, on the completion
of the circuit, continues striking until stopped
either by hand or automatically.
On the completion of the circuit, the attraction
of an armature throws a catch off from a lever,
and thus permits the lever to fall and complete a
contact and allows the current to ring the bell; or
the bell is rung by clockwork, which is thrown
into action by the passage of a current through an
electro-magnet. (See Bell, Electro-Mechanical.}
Bell, Differential Electric An
electric bell, the magnetizing coils of which
are differentially wound.'
Differential winding is ot advantage where a
very strong current is required, as this winding
decreases the sparking at the contacts, on the
opening of the circuit.
Bell, Electro-Magnetic, Siemens-Arma-
ture Form A form of electro-mag-
Bel.]
48
[Bel.
netic bell in which the movements of the bell
armature are obtained by the reversal of
polarity that takes place when alternating cur-
rents are pass-
ed through the
coils of a sim-
ple, single coil,
Siemens - arma-
ture> Fig. 4$. Siemens-Armature Form
The details of Electro-Magnetic Bell.
will be readily understood from an examination
of Fig. 45.
Bell, Electro-Mechanical A bell,
the striking apparatus of which is driven by
a weight or spring, called into action by the
movement of the armature of an electro-
magnet. (See Alarm, Electric?)
Bell, Extension-Call A device for
prolonging the sound of a magneto call.
An alarm bell is automatically connected with
Fig. 46. Extension-Call Bell.
the circuit of a local battery by means of the cur-
rent generated by the magneto-call, and continues
sounding after the current of the magneto call
has ceased.
A form of extension-call bell is shown in Fig. 46.
Bell, Indicating- An electric bell
in which, in order to distinguish between
different bells in the same office, a number
is displayed by each bell when it rings.
Bell, Magneto-Electric An electric
bell, the curre.it employed to operate or
strike which is obtained by the motion of a
magneto-electric machine.
Bell, Night In a telephone ex-
change, a bell, switched into connection with
the shunted circuit of an annunciator case, and
intended, by its constant ringing, to call the
attention of the night operator to the falling
of a drop.
Bell, Belay, Electric --- An electric
bell in which a relay magnet is employed to
switch a local battery into the circuit of the
sounding apparatus of the bell.
The relay bell is suitable for use when the bell
to be sounded is situated at a great distance. As
the current from the 1 ine, when this is long, is
too weak to ring the bell, it throws into action a
local battery by the action of a relay.
Relay bells were used in the early forms oi
acoustic telegraphs as employed in England with
relay sounders.
The dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet were
indicated by the sounds of two bells, a tap on
one bell indicating a dot, and a tap on the other
a dash. This system is now practically aban-
doned.
Bell-Shaped Magnet.— (See Magnet, Sell-
Bell, Shunt, Electric -- An electric
bell, the magnetizing coils of which are placed
on the line in shunt.
In the case of shunt-connected electric bells,
one of the bells must make and break the circuit
for all the rest. The series-connected electric
bell is used where the distance between the sepa-
rate bells is great, in order to save the expense of
multiple connections.
In most cases, where a number of electric bells
are to be simultaneously sounded, connection in
multiple is adopted.
Bell, Single-Stroke Electric --- An
electric bell that gives a single stroke only for
each make of the circuit.
Kg. 47. Single-Stroke Bell.
Since the bell gives a single stroke for each
completion of the circuit, its use permits of ready
communication between any two places by any
Bel.]
40
[Bla.
system of prearranged signals. A buzzer may be
used for the same purpose. A form of single-
stroke bell is shown in Fig . 47 . On completing the
circuit, the current, through its coils, attracts the
armature and causes a single stroke of the bell.
Bell, Telephone-Call - —A call bell
used to call a correspondent to the telephone.
The telephone-call bell is generally a magneto-
electric bell.
Bell, Trembling A name some-
times given to a vibrating or an automatic
make-and-break bell. (^ezMake-and-Break,
Automatic •)
Bell, Yibrating — — A trembling bell.
(See Bell, Trembling)
Bias of Relay Tongue. — (See Tongue,
Relay, Bias of.}
Bichromate Toltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Vol-
taic, Bichromate.)
Bi-fllar Suspension. — (See Suspension,
Bi-filar.}
Bi-fllar Suspension Balance.— (See Bal-
ance, Bi-filar Suspension)
Bi-fllar Winding.— (See Winding, Bi-
filar)
Binary Compound.— (See Compound, Bi-
nary)
Binding Coils.— (See Coils, Binding)
Binding-Post— (See Post, Binding)
Binding-Screw.— (See Screw, Binding)
Binding Wire for Telegraph Lines.— (See
Wire, Binding, for Telegraph Lines)
Biology, Electro That branch of
electric science which treats of the electric
conditions of living animals and plants, and
the effects of electricity upon them.
Electro-Biology includes :
(I.) Electro-Physiology.
(2.) Electro-Therapy, or Electro-Therapeutics.
Bioplasm.— Any form of living matter pos-
sessing the power of reproduction.
Bioscopy, Electric The determina-
tion of the presence of life or death by the
passage of electricity through the nerves and
muscles.
Bi-polar. — Having two poles.
Bi-polar Armature. — (See Armature,
Bi-polar)
Bi-polar Bath.— (See Bath, Bi-polar)
Birmingham Wire Gauge.— (See Gauge,
Wire, Birmingham)
Bi-Telephone.— (See Telephone, Bi)
Bitite. — A variety of insulating material.
Black Electro-Metallurgical Deposit—
(See Deposit, Black Electro-Metallurgical)
Black Lead. — A variety of carbon em-
ployed in various electrical processes.
Black lead is also termed plumbago or graphite.
(See Plumbago. Graphite)
The term black lead is a misnomer, since the
substance is carbon and not lead. The term is an
old one, and is still very generally used.
Blasting, Electric — —The electric
ignition of powder or other explosive material
in a blast. (See Fuse, Electric)
The current required for the ignition of the
fuse is generally obtained by means of a magneto-
electric machine. In the form of magneto-blast-
ing machine, shown in Fig. 48, the movement
Fig. 48. Magneto-Blasting Machine.
of the handle shown at the top of the figure
causes the rapid rotation of a cylindrical armature
constructed on the Wheatstone and Siemens prin-
ciple. The magnets are of iron, and are furnished
Ble.J
50
[Boa.
with coils of insulated wire. On the rotation of
the armature the current developed therein in-
creases the field of the field magnet, and, when
of the proper degree of intensity, is thrown into the
outer circuit, and ignites the fuse.
Bleaching, Electric Bleaching pro-
cesses in which the bleaching agents are
liberated, as required, by the agency of electro-
lytic decomposition.
In the process of Naudin and Bidet, the cur-
rent from a dynamo-electric machine is passed
through a solution of common salt between two
closely approached electrodes. The chlorine and
sodium thus liberated react on each other and
form sodium hypochloride, which is drawn off
by means of a pump and used for bleaching.
(See Electrolysis.)
Block, Branch A device em-
ployed in electric wiring for taking off a branch
from a main circuit. (See Wiring.)
A form of branch-block, with its fuses attached,
is shown in Fig. 49.
Fig. 49. Branch-Black.
Block, Cross-Over A device to
permit the safe crossing of one wire over
another in molding or cleat wiring.
Block, Fuse A block containing
a safety fuse or fuses for incandescent light
circuits. (See fuse, Safety.)
Block System for Railroads.— (See Rail-
roads, Block System for.)
Block Wire.— (See Wire, Block)
Blow-Pipe Electric— —A blow-pipe
in which the air-blast is obtained by a stream
of air particles produced at the point of a
charged conductor by a convection dis-
charge.
The candle flame, Fig. 50, is blown in the di-
P
Fig. 50. Convection Blow-Pipe.
rection of the stream of air particles passing off
from the point P. (See Convection, Electric.)
Blow-Pipe, Electric-Arc A de-
vice of Werdermann for cutting rocks, or
other refractory substances, in which the heat
of the voltaic arc is directed* by means of a
magnet, or a blast of air, against the substance
to be cut.
The cartons are placed parallel, so as to readily
enter the cavity thus cut or fused. This inven-
tion has never been introduced into extensive
practice.
In the welding process of Benardos and
Olzewski, the welding temperature is obtained by
means of an electric arc taken between two suit-
ably shaped electrodes.
In t!ie electric-arc
blow - pipe, shown in
Fig. 51, the voltaic arc,
taken between two ver-
tical carbon electrodes,
is deflected into a hori-
zontal position under the
influence of the inclined
poles of a powerful elec-
tro-magnet.
The highly heated car-
bon vapor which consti-
tutes the voltaic arc is deflected by the magnet in
the same direction as would be any other mov-
able circuit or current.
Board, Cross-Connecting' In a
system of telegraphic or telephonic communi-
cation, a board to which the line terminals are
run before entering the switchboard, so as to
Fig. 5f. Electric- Arc
Blmv-Pipe.
Boa.]
51
[Boa.
readily place any subscriber in connection
with any desired section of the switchboard.
Board, Fuse A board of slate or
other incombustible material on which all
the safety fuses in an installation are as-
sembled.
The fuse board is used for avoiding accidents
from the firing of the fuses.
Board, Hanger A form of board
provided for the ready placing or removal of
an arc lamp from a circuit.
Fig, <fs* Hanger- Board.
A hanger-board contains a switch or cut-out for
the ready opening or closing of the circuit. A
form of hanger-board is shown in Fig. 52.
Board, Key Any board to which
are connected electric keys or switches.
Board, Legging-Key A key boaid
employed for the purpose of legging an
operator into a circuit connecting two or more
subscribers. (See Leg.)
Board, Multiple Switch A board
to which the numerous circuits employed in
systems of telegraphy, telephony, annunciator
or electric light and power circuits are con-
nected.
Various devices are employed for closing these
circuits, or for connecting or cross-connecting
them with one another, or with neighboring cir-
cuits.
A multiple switchboard, for example, for a tele-
phone exchange, will enable the operator to con-
nect any subscriber on the line with any other
subscriber on that line, or on another neighbor-
ing line provided with a multiple switchboard.
To this end the following parts are necessary:
(I.) Devices whereby each line entering the ex-
change can readily have inserted in its circuit a
loop connecting it with another line. This is
accomplished by placing on the switchboard a
separate spring-jack connection for each sepa-
rate line. This connection consists essentially
of one or two springs made of any conducting
metal, which are maintained in
metallic contact when the plug
key is not inserted, but which are
readily separated from one another
by the introduction of the plug-
key, Fig. 53, the terminals, a and
b, of which are insulated from
each other, and are connected to
the ends of a loop coming from
another line. As the key is in- Fis'53^e Plug'
serted, the metallic spring or
springs of the spring-jack are separated and the
metallic pieces, a and b, are brought into good
sliding contact therewith, thus introducing the
loop into the circuit. (See Spring- Jack.)
(2.) As many separate annunciator-drops as
there are separate subscribers. These are pro*
vided so as to notify the Central Office of the par-
ticular subscriber who desires a connection.
Alarm-bells to call the operator's attention to the
calling subscriber, or to the falling of a drop, are
generally added. (See Bell, Call.)
(3. ) Connecting cords and keys for connecting
the operator's telephone, and means for ringing
subscribers' bells, and clearing out drops.
Fig. S4- Multiple Switchboard1 for Electric Light.
In Multiple Switchboards for the Electric Light
or Distributing Switches, spring-jack contacts are
connected with the terminals of different circuits.
Boa.]
[Bod.
and plug switches with the dynamo terminals.
By these means, any dynamo can be connected
with any circuit, or a number of circuits can be
connected with the same dynamo, or a number
of separate dynamos can be placed in the same
circuit without interference with the lights.
Board, Switch A board provided
with a switch or switches, by means of which
electric circuits connected therewith may be
opened, closed, or interchanged.
Board, Switch, Telegraphic A
device employed at a telegraph station by
means of which any one of a number of tele-
graph instruments, in use at that station, may
be placed in or removed from any line con-
nected with the station, or by means of which
one wire may be connected to another.
The ability to readily connect one wire with
another is of use in case of interruption to tele-
graph lines, in which case a through circuit may
be made up of sections of
different circuits.
In the switchboard shown
fa Fig. 55, the upper left-
hand binding-post is con-
nected to earth; the four
remaining binding - posts
are connected to two sepa- Fig. ss- Telegraphic
rate instruments— the sec- Switchboard.
ond and third from the top to one instrument,
and the fourth and fifth to another instrument.
The four posts at the top of the figure are con-
nected to two lines running east and west.
Various connections are made by the insertion
of plug keys in the various openings.
Board, Switch, Trnnking —A
switchboard in which a few subscribers only
are connected with the operator, thus enabling
him to obtain any other subscriber by means
of trunk wires extending to the other sections.
(See Wire, Trunk)
Boat, Electric —A boat provided
with electric motive power.
Electric power has been applied both to ordi-
nary vessels and to submarine torpedo boats.
Boat, Submarine Electric A boat
capable of being propelled and steered while
entirely under water.
The motive power of such boats is generally
electricity. The requisite buoyancy is obtained
by means of an air chamber. Artificial ventila-
tion is maintained, the fresh air requisite for
breathing being derived from a compressed air
cylinder.
Boat, Torpedo — A boat used for
carrying and discharging torpedoes. (See
Torpedo)
Bobbin, Electric An insulated coil
of wire for an electro-magnet.
Body, Charged A body containing
an electric charge.
Charges are bound or free. ' (See Charge,
Bound. Charge, Free.}
Body, Electrified —A body con-
taining an electric charge.
Body, Human, Resistance of •
The resistance which the human body offers to
the passage of an electric current.
The resistance of the human body to the passage
of a current varies with the time. The re-
sistance rapidly decreases after a short time.
"The resistance diminishes because of the con-
duction of water in the epidermis under the action
of the constant current and the congestion of the
cutaneous blood vessels in consequence of the
stimulation. ' ' ( Landois and Stirling. )
The resistance also varies markedly with the
condition of the surface, the condition of the skin,
and with the shape, area, position and material
of the electrodes by which the current is led into
and carried out of the parts. It very seldom is
less than 1,000 ohms under the most favorable
conditions, and with ordinary contacts is many
times that amount.
The muscles offer nearly nine times the resist-
ance in a direction transverse to the fibres than
longitudinally to them. (Hermann.)
The resistance of the epidermis is greater than
that of any other tissue of the body.
The human body probably possesses a true
assymmetrical resistance; that is to say, when
taken after the current has been passing for some
time, its resistance is different in different direc-
tions. This variation in the apparent resistance
is believed by some to be due to polarization
effects.
Body, Insulated —A body sup-
ported on an insulator, or non-conductor of
electricity.
Bod.]
[Box.
Body-Protector, Electric . —A de-
vice for protecting the human body against the
accidental passage of an electric discharge.
To protect the human body from the acciden-
tal passage through it of dangerous electric cur-
rents, Delany places a light, flexible, conducting
wire, A A B L L, in the posi-
tion shown in Fig. 56, for
the purpose of leading the
greater part of the current
around instead of through
the body. The body-pro-
tector thus provides a by-
path, or shunt of low resist-
ance, around the body, and
protects it from the effects
of an accidental discharge, f'f- S6. Electric
The resistance of the con- Body-Protector.
tacts of the protecting conductor with the skin
may interfere somewhat with the efficacy of the
device. Inside insulating shoe-soles for lessening
the danger from accidental contacts through
grounded circuits have also been proposed.
Boiler-Feed, Electric —A device
for automatically opening a boiler-feed appar-
atus electrically when the water in the boiler
falls to a certain predetermined point.
Boiling of Secondary or Storage Cell. —
(See Cell, Secondary, or Storage, Boiling of,}
Bole. — A unit, seldom or never used, pro-
posed by the British Association.
One bole is equal to one gramme-kine. (See
Kine.)
Bolometer.— An apparatus devised by
Langley for measuring small differences of
temperature.
A thermal balance. (See Balance, Ther-
mic)
Bpmbardment, Molecular — The
forcible rectilinear projection from the nega-
tive electrode, of the gaseous molecules of the
residual atmospheres of exhausted vessels on
the passage of electric discharges. (See
Matter, Radiant, or Ultra-Gaseous)
Bonsalite. — An insulating substance.
Bore, Armature • —The space pro-
vided between the pole pieces of a dynamo
or motor for the rotation of the armature.
Boreal Magnetic Pole.— (See Pole, Mag~
netic, Boreal?)
Bot. — A term sometimes used as a con-
traction for Board of Trade unit of electric
supply, or the energy contained in a current
of 1 ,000 amperes flowing in one hour under a
pressure of one volt.
The term appears inadmissible. If used at all,
it should be B. O. T. The usage of giving the
names of distinguished dead electricians to new
units is a good one, and should be followed here.
Boucherize. — To subject to the boucheriz-
ing process. (See Boucherizing?)
Boucherizing. — A process for the preser-
vation of wooden telegraph poles, by inject-
ing a solution of copper sulphate into the
pores of the wood. (See Pole, Telegraphic?)
Bound Charge.— (See Charge, Bound)
Box Bridge.— (See Bridge, Box)
Box, Cable —A box placed on a
large terminal pole and provided to receive the
separate conductors where the air-line wires
join a cable.
The wires are distributed in the cable box so
as to be readily attached to the air-line wires.
Box, Cooling, of Hydro-Electric Ma-
chine. — A box provided in Armstrong's
hydro-electric machine for the steam to pass
through before leaving the nozzle.
In passing through the cooling-box some of the
steam suffers condensation. The cooling-box,
therefore, always contains some water, the pres-
ence of which seems to be necessary to the opera-
tion of the machine.
Box, Distributing, of Conduit. — A name
generally applied to a handhole of a conduit.
(See Handhole of Conduit)
Box, Distribution, for Arc Light Cir-
cuits.— A device by means of which arc
and incandescent lights may be simultane-
ously employed on the same line from a con-
stant-current dynamo-electric machine or
other source of constant currents.
A portion of the line circuit, whose difference
of potential is sufficient to operate the electro-
receptive device, as, for example, an incandescent
lamp, is divided into such a number of multiple
Box.]
[Box.
circuits as will provide a current of the requisite
strength for each of the devices. For example, if
the normal current on the line is seven amperes,
then each of the seven multiple-connected electro-
Fig. J7. Series- Multiple Circuit.
receptive devices shown in Fig. 57 will have a cur-
rent of one ampere passing through it, provided
the resistance of each branch is the same,
In order to protect the remaining devices from
variations in the current on the extinguishment of
any of the devices, automatic cut-outs are pro-
vided, which divert the current thus cut off
through a resistance equivalent to that of the
device.
A variety of distribution boxes are in use. (See
Circuits, Varieties of.)
Box, District-Call A box by
means of which an electric signal is auto-
matically sent over a telegraphic line and
received by an electro-magnetic device at the
other end of the line.
motion by the pulling of a lever, makes and
breaks an electric circuit and sends over the line
a succession of electric impulses of varying length,
separated from one another by varying intervals
of time. These impulses may be received at the
central station as a series of dots and dashes, or
may, by means of a Morse sounder, produce suc-
cessive sounds. By pulling the lever or handle
through different distances, different signals may
be sent to the central station and serve as calls for
various services, such as messenger boys, fire
alarm, police, special, etc.
The general appearance of a four-call district
box is shown in Fig. 58. In order to transmit
a call for any particular one of these four services
the handle is pulled until it comes opposite to the
letters indicating the required service, and is then
released. The service required is then indicated
at the receiving, or central station, through the
varying signals sent over the line by the move-
ment of the break-wheel, on the release of the
handle.
Box, Fire-Alarm Signal — —A signal
box provided for the purpose of automatically
sending an alarm of fire.
The fire-alarm box shown in Fig. 59, operates
Fig. 38. District Call Box.
A system of district calls includes a number of
call boxes connected by telegraphic lines with a
central station, A wheel, or its equivalent, set in
Fig. j-p. Fire- Alarm Signal-Box.
on the same principle as the district call box. The
movement of the handle in the direction of the
arrow drives a wheel that makes and breaks a
circuit at certain intervals.
The fire-alarm signal boxes are connected
Box.]
[Box.
either with a central station, or with the engine
houses of the district in which the alarm is
sounded, or with both.
Box, Fire- Alarm Telegraph An
automatic-call signal-box employed for send-
ing an alarm of fire to a central station.
A form of fire-alarm telegraph box is shown in
Fig. 60. It consists essentially of a circuit-breaker
Fig. 6O. Fire- Alarm Telegraph Box.
that is moved by pulling down a lever. The
release of the lever repeats the signal to the fire
department at the central station a certain number
of times. The box also contains a relay bell,
lightning arrester and signal-bell key.
Box, Fishing A term sometimes
used instead of junction box. (See Box,
Junction. )
Box, Flush A box or space, flush
with the surface of a road-bed, provided in a
system of underground wires or conduits,
to facilitate the introduction of the conduct-
ors into the conduit, or for the examination
of the conductors.
Box, Fuse The box in which the
fuse-wire of a safety-fuse is placed.
The fuse-box should be formed of moisture-
proof, Incombustible, insulating materials.
Box, Junction A moisture-proof
box provided in a system of underground con-
the feeders and the mains, and from which
the current is distributed to the individual
consumer. (See Feeder. Main, Electric^)
A form of junction box for coupling lengths of
conductors is shown in Fig. 6l.
Box, Patrol Alarm An automatic-
signal call-box provided for use on the out-
side of buildings.
The call-box is placed inside a box, the outer
door of which is furnished with a Yale lock.
Fig. 6 1. Junction Box.
ductors to receive the terminals of the feed-
ers, in which connection is made between
Fig. 62. Patrol Box.
A form of patrol box is shown in Fig. 62.
Box, Resistance A box containing
a number of separate coils of known resist-
ances employed for determining the value of
an unknown resistance, and for other pur-
poses. (See Bridge, Electric, Box Form of.)
Box-Sounding Relay.— (See Relay, Box-
Sounding)
Box-Sounding Telegraphic Relay.— (See
Relay, Box-Sounding Telegraphic.)
Box, Splice A box provided for
holding splice joints and loops, and so ar-
ranged as to be readily accessible for exami-
nation, re-arranging, cross-connecting, etc.
Splice-boxes vary in shape and construction
according to the purposes for which they are
designed.
Box, Splice, Four-way A splice-
box piovided with four ways or tubular con-
duits.
Box, Splice, Two Way A splice-
Box.J
[Bra.
box provided with but two tubular conduits or
ways.
Box, Tumbling A rotating box
in which metallic articles that are to be
electroplated are placed so as to be polished
by attrition against one another.
Boxing the Compass. — (See Compass,
Boxing the?)
Bracket, Lamp, Electric A de-
vice similar to a bracket for a gas burner for
holding or supporting an electric lamp.
Fig. 63. Lamp Bracket. Fig. 6 4. Lamp Bracket.
Lamp brackets are either fixed or movable.
Fig. 6j. Lamp Bracket, Movable Arms.
Those shown in Figs. 63 and 64 are fixed. That
shown in Fig. 65 is movable.
Bracket, Telegraphic A support
or cross piece placed on a telegraph pole
for the support of the insulators of tele-
graphic lines.
Telegraphic insulators are supported either on
wooden arms, or on iron or metal brackets.
Fig. 66 shows a form of iron bracket. Fig. 67
shows a form of wooden arm.
Fig. 66. Telegraphic
Bracket.
Fig. 67. Telegraphic
Cross- Arm.
Various well known modifications of these
shapes are in common use. (For details, see Fole,
Telegraphic. )
Braid, Tubular A braid of fibrous
insulating material, woven in the form of a
tube, and provided for drawing over a splice
after two wires have been connected.
Braided Wire.— (See Wire, Braided)
Brake, Electro-Magnetic A brake
for car wheels, the braking power for which
is either -derived entirely from electro-magnet-
ism, or is thrown into action by electro-mag-
netic devices.
Electro-magnetic car brakes are of a great va-
riety of forms. They may, however, be arranged
in two classes, viz. :
(l.) Those in which magnetic adhesion, or the
magnetic attraction of the brake to the wheels, is
employed.
(2.) Ordinary brake mechanism in which the
force operating the brake is thrown into action by
an electro-magnet.
Brake, Friction A name some-
times given to a Prony brake. (See Brake,
Prony.)
Brake, Magneto-Electric A device
for checking the swing of a galvanometer, in
which a slight inverse current is sent through
the coils of the galvanometer.
The Frey magneto-electric brake, as shown in
Fig. 68, consists of a small coil, connected by a
Fig. 68. Electric Brakt.
contact-key with the galvanometer terminals. A
small adjustable magnet coil is provided for
regulating the action ot the inverse current. To
avoid disturbance, the brake is placed at least
4 or 5 feet from the galvanometer. Manipulation
of the ordinary galvanometer key attains the same
end in a much simpler manner.
Brake, Prony A mechanical de-
vice for measuring the power of a driving
shaft.
Bra.j
57
[Bre.
An inflexible beam, Fig. 69, is provided at one
end with a clamping device for clamping the
driving shaft or pulley, and at the other end A,
with a pan for holding weights.
If the brake be arranged as shown in Fig. 69,
and the shaft rotate in the direction of the arrow,
the tendency will be to carry the beam around
with the shaft, placing it at some given moment
Fig, 69, Pr any Brake.
in the position shown by the dotted line. If a
sufficiently heavy weight be placed at x, in a pan
hung at A, the beam will assume a position ver-
tically downwards. If, however, the torque, or
Fig. 70. Prony
twisting force of the driving shaft, be balanced by
the weight, the bar will remain horizontal. The
power can then be calculated by multiplying the
weight in pounds by the circumference in feet of
the circle of which the bar is a radius, and this
product by the number of turns of the driving
shaft per minute. The product will be the num-
» V
Fig. 7 TC Prony Brake.
ber of foot-pounds per minute, and, when divided
by 33,000, will give the horse-power.
Some modified forms of the Prony brake are
shown in Figs. 7° and 71.
A simple form of brake consists of a cord passed
over the pulley of the machine to be tested. A
weight is hung at one end of the cord. The other
end of the cord is attached to the top of a spring
balance, the other end of which is fastened to the
floor. A reading of the spring balance is taken
while the pulley is at rest and when it is in motion,
and the result calculated.
Branch. — A term applied to any principal
distributing conductor from which outlets
are taken or taps made.
Branch-Block.— (See Block, Branch)
Branch Conductors. — (See Conductor,
Branch)
Branch Fuse.— (See Fuse, Branch.}
Branch, Sub —A distributing con-
ductor taken from a branch.
Branding, Electric - - — A process
whereby the branding tool is heated by elec-
trical incandescence instead of by ordinary
heat.
The branding tool consists essentially of a small
transformer with devices for regulating the cur-
rent strength by switches and choking coils.
Brassing, Electro — Coating a sur-
face with a layer of brass by electro-plating.
(See Plating, Electro)
The plating bath contains a solution of copper
and zinc ; a brass plate is used as an anode.
Break. — A want of continuity in a circuit.
Break, Circuit Loop — — A device for
introducing a loop in any part of a line
circuit.
A form of circuit loop-break is shown in Fig. 72-
Fig. T3. Circuit Loop Break.
It consists essentially of a rigid frame with two
porcelain or other suitable insulators for the sup-
port of the loop wires.
Bre.]
58
[Bri.
Break-Down Switch.— (See Switch,Break-
Down?)
Break-Induced Current. — (See Current,
Break-Induced?)
Break, Mercury — —A form of circuit
breaker operated by the removal of a conduc-
tor from a mercury surface.
Mercury breaks assume a variety of forms. One
end of the circuit is connected with the mercury,
and the other with the conductor.
Break Shock.— (See Shock, Break\
Breaker, Circuit Any device for
breaking a circuit.
Breaking the Primary.— (See Primary,
Breaking the.)
Breaking Weight of Telegraph Wires.—
(See Wires, Telegraph, Breaking Weight
of.)
Breath Figures. — (See Figures, Breath?)
Breeze, Electric — — A term some-
times employed in electro-therapeutics for a
brush discharge.
One of the electrodes, consisting of a single
point or a number of points, is held near the
parts to be treated so that the con vective discharge
is received thereon. The other electrode is con-
nected to the body of the patient.
Breeze, Electro-Therapeutic — —An
electric breeze. (See Breeze, Electric?)
Breeze, Head, Electro-Therapeutic —
— A form of electric convective discharge,
or electric breeze, applied to the head. (See
Breeze, Electric?)
Breeze, Static — — An electric breeze
obtained by the convective discharge of an
electrostatic charge.
Bridge-Arms. — (See Arms, Bridge or
Balance?)
Bridge, Box A box of resistance
coils so arranged as to be capable of being
used directly as a Wheatstone electric balance.
(See Bridge, Electric, Box Form of?)
The commercial form of Wheatstone's
balance.
Bridge, Electric —A device for
measuring the value of electric resistances.
The electric bridge is also called the Electric
Balance.
This is called a bridge because the wire M, G,
N, bridges or joins points of equal potential.
A, B, C and D, Fig. 73, are four electric re-
sistances, any one of which can be determined in
ohms, provided the absolute value of one of the
others, and the relative values of any two of the
remaining three are known in ohms.
A voltaic battery, Zn C, is connected at O
and P, so as to branch at P, and again unite at
Zn C
Fig. 13. Electric Balance.
Q, after passing through the conductor D C, and
B A.
A sensitive galvanometer, G, is connected at
M N, as shown.
The passage of a current through any resistance
is attended by a fall of potential proportional to
the resistance. (See Potential, Electric.) If, then,
the resistances A, C and B, are so proportioned
to the value of the unknown resistance D, that no
current passes through the galvanometer G, the
two points, M and N, in the two circuits, Q M P
and Q N P, are at the same potential. That is to
say, the fall of potential along Q M P and Q N P,
at the points M and N, is equal. Since the fall
of potential is proportional to the resistance, it
follows that
A : B : : C : D,
or A X D = B X C,
•">=(!)
If then we know the values of A, B and C, the
value of D, can be readily calculated.
T>
By making the value iL some simple ratio, the
value of D, is easily obtained in terms of C.
The resistances A, B and C, may consist of
coils of wire whose resistance is known. To
avoid their magnetism affecting the galvanometer
needle during the passage of the current through
them, they should be made of wire bent into two
C.
Bri.]
59
[Bri.
parallel wires and wrapped in coils called resist-
ance coils; or a resistance box may be used. (See
Coil, Resistance. Box, Resistance,)
There are two general forms of Wheatstone's
Bridge, the box form, and the sliding form.
Bridge, Electric, Armg of The
resistances of an electric bridge or balance.
(See Bridge, Electric)
Bridge, Electric, Box Form of —
A commercial form of bridge or balance in
which all the known arms or branches of the
bridge, except the unknown arm, consist of
standardized resistance coils, whose values are
given in ohms. (See Coil, Resistance?)
The box form of bridge or balance is shown in
Fig. 74. Box Balance.
perspective in Fig. 74, and in plan in Fig. 75.
The bridge arms, corresponding to the resistances
Fig.
Box Balance.
A and B, of Fig. 73, consist of resistance coils of
10, 100 and 1,000 ohms each, inserted in the
arms q z, and q x, of Fig. 75. These are
called the froportional coils. The arm corre-
sponding to resistance C, of Fig. 73, is composed
of separate resistances of I, 2, 2, 5, 10, 10, 20, 50,
loo, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 1,000, 2,000 and 5,000
ohms. In some forms of box bridges additional
decimal resistances are added.
The resistance coils are wound, as shown in
Fig. 76, after the wire has been bent on itself in
the middle. This is done in order to avoid the
effects of induction, among which are a disturb-
ing action on a galvanometer used near them,
and the introduction of a spurious resistance in
the coils themselves. (See Resistance, Spurious.}
3— Vol. 1
To avoid the effects of changes of resistance oc-
casioned by changes of temperature, the coils are
made of German silver, or, preferably, of alloys
called Platinoid or Platinum silver. Even when
these alloys are used, care should be taken not to
allow the currents to pass continuously through
the resistance coils longer than a few moments.
The coils, C, C', are connected with one another
in series by soldering their ends to the short
Fig. 76.
ce Coils.
thick pieces of brass, E, E, E, Fig. 76. On the in-
sertion of the plug-keys, at S, S, the coils are cut-
out by short-circuiting. Care should be taken to
see that the plug-keys are firmly inserted and free
from grease or dirt, as otherwise the coil will not be
completely cut out. As each plug-key is inserted
it should be turned slightly in the opening, so
as to insure good contact.
The following are the connections, viz.: The
galvanometer is inserted between q and r, Fig. 77,
Jit
Fig. 77. Electric Balance.
the unknown resistance between z and r ; the bat-
tery is connected tox and z. , A convenient pro-
portion being taken for the value of the propor-
tional coils, resistances are inserted in the arm C,
until no deflection is shown by the galvanometer
G. The similarity between these connections and
those shown in Fig. 75 will be seen from an
inspection of Fig. 77. The arms, A and B, corre-
spond to q x and q z, of Fig. 75; C, to the arm
Bri.]
[Bri.
x r, Fig. 75 ; and D, to the unknown resistance.
We then have as before:
A:B::C:D, orAxD = BxC. .-. D = f—\ Q.
The advantage of the simplicity of the ratios, A
and B, or 10, 100 and 1,000 of the bridge box,
will therefore be manifest. The battery terminals
may also be connected to q and r, and the gal-
vanometer terminals to x and z, without disturb-
ing the proportions.
Bridge, Electric, Commercial Form of
A name sometimes given to the box
form of Wheatstone's electric balance. (See
Bridge, Electric, Box Form of.)
Bridge, Electric Duplex An ar-
rangement of telegraphic circuits in the form
of a Wheatstone electric bridge for the pur-
poses of duplex telegraphy. (See Teleg-
raphy, Duplex, Bridge Method of )
Bridge, Electric, Proportionate Arms
of (See Arms, Proportionate)
Bridge, Electric, Slide-Form of
A balance in which the proportionate arms of
the bridge are formed of a single thin wire, of
uniform diameter, generally of German silver,
of comparatively high resistance. The length
of this wire is usually one metre ; hence this
apparatus is often called the metre bridge.
A Sliding Contact Key slides over the wire; one
terminal of the key is connected with the galva-
nometer and the other with the wire when the key
is depressed. As the wire is of uniform diameter
the resistances of the arms, A and B, Fig. 78, will
Fig
be directly proportional to the lengths. A scale
placed near the wire serves to measure these
lengths. A thick metal strip connected with the
slide wire has four gaps at P, Q, R and S.
When in ordinary use, the gaps at P and S, are
either connected by stout strips of conducting ma-
terial or by known resistances, in which latter case
they act simply as ungraduated extensions of the
slide wire, and, like lengthening the slide wire,
increase the sensibility of the instrument.
The unknown resistance is then inserted in the
gap at Q, and a known resistance, generally the
resistance box, in that at R. The galvanometer
has one of its terminals connected to the metal
strip between Q and R, and its other terminal to
the sliding key. The battery terminals are con-
nected to the metal strips between P and Q, and
R and S, respectively.
These connections are more clearly seen in the
form of bridge shown in Fig. 79. The slide wire,
w w, consists of three separate wires each a metre
Fig. 79. SuU Form of Bridge.
in length, so arranged that only one wire, or two
in series, or all three in series, can be used. Mat-
ters being now arranged as shown, the sliding
key is moved until no current passes through the
galvanometer when the key is depressed.
The slide form of bridge is not entirely satis-
factory, since the uncertainty of the spring-con-
tact causes a lack of correspondence between the
point of contact and the point of the scale on
which the index rests.
The loss of uniformity in the diameter of the
wire, due to constant use, causes a lack of corre-
spondence between the resistance of the wire and
its length. With care, however, very accurate
results can be obtained by the slide form.
Bridge, Inductance An appara-
tus for measuring the inductance of a circuit
similar to a Wheatstone bridge. (See /«</?/£•-
tance)
Professor Hughes employed an inductance
bridge of the following description:
Four resistances, Q, S, R and P, arranged as
shown in Fig. 80, form the bridge. The re-
sistances, Q, S and R, consist of sections of Ger-
man silver wire, one metre in length, each of
the resistance of 4 ohms. P, is a coil of wire pos-
sessing sensible inductance. The object of tha
Bri.]
61
[Bri,
bridge is to measure the value of this inductance.
I, is an interrupter placed in the circuit of the
battery B.
Suppose the interrupter, I, be placed in the tele-
phone circuit between T and c. By shifting the
sliding contact so as to alter the value of R, a bal-
Fig. 80. Inductance Bridge.
ance can be effected and silence obtained in the
telephone.
Now remove the interrupter and place it in the
battery circuit between b and a, as shown in Fig.
80. If now, the interrupter, I, be made to rapidly
interrupt the battery current, this balance is
destroyed, and cannot be again obtained by any
variation in the value of the resistance, R.
The reason of this is evident. On the closing
or opening of the battery current, the inductance
of P, produces a counter electromotive force in
P, which produces differences of potential between
a and c. If an attempt be made to prevent this,
Fig. St.
Bridge.
by altering the value of R, the steady balance is
destroyed, and the telephone wfll be traversed by
a current during the time the currents have be-
come steady. In order to obtain a balance
during rapid alternations of the battery current,
Professor Hughes placed a pair of mutually in-
ductive coils in the battery and the telephone
circuits, as shown in Fig. 81.
The resistances, Q, S, R and P, are the same
as already described. The mutually inductive
coils, M1 and M2, are placed respectively in the
telephone and battery circuits in the manner
shown. The coil M2, in the battery circuit is
fixed, while that in the telephone circuit is so
arranged that it can be maintained, with its centre
coincident with that of M3, while its axis can be
placed at any desired angle with M2. When the
axes of the coils are at right angles, the inductance
is zero. When they are co-linear, the inductance
is at its maximum.
When the coils Mlf and M8, are in any inter-
mediate position, the inductive electromotive
force produced in the telephone circuit can, if
the value of R, be changed, be made to balance
the impulsive electromotive force due to the in-
ductance of P, and the value of this latter can,
therefore, be inferred.
Bridge, Magnetic An apparatus in-
vented by Edison for measuring magnetic
resistance, similar in principle to Wheatstone's
electric bridge.
The magnetic bridge is based on the fact that
two points at the same magnetic potential, when
connected, fail to produce any action on a mag-
netic needle. The magnetic bridge consists, as
shown in Fig. 82, of four arms or sides made of
Fig. 82. Magnetic Bridge.
pure, soft iron. The poles of an electro-magnet
are connected to projections at the middle of
the short side of the rectangle. By this means
a difference of magnetic potential is main-
tained at these points. The»two long sides are
formed of two halves each, which form the four
arms of the balance. Two of these only are
movable.
Two curved bars of soft iron, of the same area
of cross-section as the arms of the bridge, rest on
the middle of the long arms, in the arched shape
shown. Their ends approach near the top of the
Bri.]
[Bru.
arch within about a half inch. A space is hol-
lowed out between these ends, for the reception of
a short needle of well-magnetized hardened steel,
suspended by a wire from a torsion head.
The movements of the needle are measured on
a scale by a spot of light reflected from a mirror.
The electro-magnet maintains a constant dif-
ference of magnetic potential at the two shorter
ends of the rectangle. If, therefore, the four
bars, or arms of the bridge, are magnetically
identical, there will be no deflection, since no
difference of potential will exist at the ends of the
bars between which the needle is suspended. If,
however, one of the bars or arms be moved even
a trifle, the needle is at once deflected, the motion
becoming a maximum when the bar is entirely
removed. If replaced by another bar, differing
in cross-section, constitution, or molecular struc-
ture, the balance is likewise disturbed.
The magnetic bridge is very sensitive. It was
designed by its inventor for testing the magnetic
qualities of the iron used in the construction of
dynamo-electric machines.
Bridge Method of Duplex Telegraphy.^
(See Telegraphy, Duplex, Bridge Method
of.)
Bridge Method of Qnadrnplex Teleg-
raphy. — (See Telegraphy, Quadruples,
Bridge Method of.)
Bridge, Metre A slide form of
Wheatstone's electric bridge, in which the
slide wire is one metre in length. (See
Bridge, Electric, Slide Form of.)
Bridge, Resistance A term some-
times applied to an electric bridge or balance.
(See Bridge, Electric)
Bridge, Reversible A bridge or
balance so arranged that the proportionate
coils can be readily interchanged, thus per-
mitting the bridge coils to be readily tested by
reversing.
Bridge, Wheatstone's Electric
A name given to the electric bridge or balance.
(See Bridge, Electric)
Bridges. — Heavy copper wires suitably
shaped for connecting the dynamo-electric
machines in an incandescent light station to
the bus-rods or wires.
Bright Dipping.— (See Dipping, Bright?)
Bright Dipping Liquid.— (See Liquid,
Bright Dipping :)
Britannia Joint.— (See Joint, Britannia)
Broken Circuit.— (See Circuit, Broken)
Bronzing, Electro Coating a sur-
face with a layer of bronze by electro-plating.
(See Plating, Electro)
The plating bath contains a solution of tin and
copper.
Bmsh-and-Spray Discharge.— (See Dis-
charge, Brush-and-Spray)
Brush Discharge. — (See Discharge,
Brush)
Brush Electrode.— (See Electrode, Brush)
Brush, Faradic An electrode in
the form of a brush employed in the medical
application of electricity.
The bristles are generally made of nickelized
copper wire.
Brush-Holders for Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chines.— Devices for supporting the collecting
brushes of dynamo-electric machines.
As the brushes require to be set or placed on
the commutator in a position which often varies
with the speed of the machine, and with changes
in the resistance of the external circuit, all brush -
holders are provided with some device for moving
them concentrically with the commutator cylin-
der.
Brush Rocker.— (See Rocker, Brush)
Brush, Scratch A brush made
of wire or stiff bristles, etc., suitable for clean-
ing the surfaces of metallic objects before
placing them in the plating bath.
Scratch brushes are made of various shapes and
are provided with wires or bristles of varying
coarseness.
Some forms of scratch and finishing brushes
are shown in Fig. 83. They are circular in outline
Fig. 83. Scratch Brushes.
and are adapted for use in connection with a
lathe.
Bru.J
63
[Bui.
Brush, Scratch, Circular —A
scratch brush of a circular shape, so fitted as
to be capable of being placed in a lathe and
set in rapid rotation.
Brush, Scratch, Hand A scratch
brush operated by hand, as distinguished
from a circular scratch brush operated by a
lathe.
Brushes, Adjustment of Dynamo-Electric
Machines Shifting the brushes into
the required position on thr commutator
cylinder, either non-automatically by hand, or
automatically by the current itself. (See
Regulation, Automatic, of Dynamo-Electric
Machines?)
Brushes, Carbon, for Electric Motors
Plates of carbon for leading current
to electric motors. (See Brushes of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
These are generally known simply as brushes.
Brushes, Collecting, of Dynamo-Electric
Machine Conducting brushes which
bear on the commutator cylinder, and take off
the current generated by the difference of
potential in the armature coils. (See Brushes
of Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Brushes, Lead of The angle through
which the brushes of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine must be moved forward, or in the
direction of rotation, in order to diminish
sparking and to get the best output from
the dynamo.
The necessity for the lead arises from the coun-
ter magnetism or magnetic reaction of the arma-
ture, and the magnetic lag of its iron core. (See
Lead, Angle of.)
The position of the brushes on the commutator
to insure the best output is practically the same
in a series dynamo for any current strength.
In shunt and compound dynamos it varies with
the lead.
Brushes of Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
Strips of metal, bundles of wire, slit plates of
metal, or plates of carbon, that bear on the
commutator cylinder of a dynamo-electric
machine, and carry off the current generated.
Rotary brushes consisting of metal discs are
sometimes employed. Copper is almost univer-
Fig. 84. Brushes
sally used for the brushes of dynamo-electric
machines. Carbon brushes are often used for
dynamo-electric motors.
The brush shown at B, Fig. 84, is formed of
copper wires, soldered
together at the non-
bearing end. A copper
plate, slit at the bear-
ing end, is shown at C,
and bundles of copper
plates, soldered together
at the non-bearing end,
are shown at D.
The brushes should
bear against the com-
mutator cylinder with
sufficient force to pre-
vent jumping, and con-
sequent burning, and
yet not so hard as to
cause excessive wear.
Brushes, Rotating, of Dynamo-Electric
Machines Discs of metal, employed
in place of the ordinary brushes for carry-
ing off the current from the armatures of
dynamo-electric machines.
Brushing, Scratch Cleansing the
surface of an article to be electroplated, by
friction with a scratch brush.
Scratch brushing is generally done with the
brushes wet by various solutions.
Buckling.— Irregularities in the shape of
the surfaces of the plates of storage cells, fol-
lowing a too rapid discharge.
Bug. — A term originally employed in quad-
ruplex telegraphy to designate any fault in
the operation of the apparatus.
This term is now employed, to a limited extent,
for faults in the operation of any electric appa-
ratus.
Bug-Trap. — A device employed to over-
come the " bug " in quadruplex telegraphy.
Bulb, Lamp — The chamber or
globe in which the filament of an incan-
descent electric lamp is placed.
The chamber or globe of a lamp must be of
such construction as to enable the high vacuum
necessary to the operation of the lamp to be main-
tained.
Bun.]
(54
[Bur.
Bunched Cable.— (See Cable, Bunched?)
Bunched Cable, Straightaway —
(See Cable, Bunched, Straightaway?)
Bunched Cable, Twisted - —(See
Cable, Bunched, Twisted?)
Bunsen Yoltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Bunsen's)
Buoy, Electric A buoy on which
luminous electric signals are displayed.
Burglar Alarm.— (See Alarm, Burglar?)
Burglar Alarm Annunciator. — (See An-
nunciator, Burglar Alarm?)
Burglar Alarm Contacts. — (See Contacts,
Burglar Alarm.)
Burglar Alarm, Yale Lock Switch for
—(See Alarm, Yale-Lock-Switch Burglar)
Burner, Argand Electric An ar-
gand gas-burner that is lighted by means of
an electric spark.
The argand electric burner assumes a variety
of forms, such as the plain pendant, the ratchet-
pendant and the automatic. They are also used
in systems of multiple gas lighting.
Burner, Argand Electric, Automatic
— An argand burner arranged for automatic
electric lighting. (See Burner, Automatic-
Electric:)
Burner, Argand Electric, Hand-Lighter
— A plain-pendant electric burner
adapted for lighting an argand gas-burner.
(See Burner, Plain-Pendant Electric?]
Burner, Argand-Electric, Plain-Pendant
— A plain-pendant electric burner
adapted for lighting an argand gas burner.
(See Burner, Plain-Pendant Electric?)
Burner, Argand-Electric, Ratchet-Pend-
ant A ratchet-pendant electric burner
adapted for lighting an argand gas-burner.
(See Burner, Ratchet-Pendant Electric?]
Burner, Automatic-Electric An
electric device for both turning on the gas
and lighting it, and turning it off, by alter-
nately touching different buttons.
The gas-cock is opened or closed by the motion
of an armature, the movements of which are con-
trolled by two separate electro-magnets. One
push-button, usually a white one, turns the gas on
by energizing one of the electro-magnets and,
at the same time, lights it by means of a suc-
cession of sparks from a spark coil. Another
push-button, usually a black one, turns the gas
off by energizing the other electro-magnet.
The turning on or off of the gas is accom-
plished by positive
motions. Automatic
burners are also made
with a single button.
An Argand Electric
Burner is shown in
Fig. 85.
Burner, Electric
Candle - —A
device for electri-
cally lighting a gas
jet in a burner sur-
rounded by a por-
celain tube in imita-
tion of a candle.
Electric candle bur-
ners are either simple
or ratchet candle bur-
ners.
Burner, Hand-
Lighting Electric
A name sometimes applied to a plain-
pendant electric burner. (See Burner, Plain-
Pendant Electric?)
Burner, Jump-Spark — A term
sometimes applied to a gas burner in which
the issuing gas is ignited
by a spark that jumps be-
tween the metallic points
placed on it.
Jump-spark burners are
used in systems of multiple
gas lighting. (See Light-
ing, Electric Gas.)
Burner, Plain-Pen-
dant Electric A
gas - burner provided
with a pendant for the
purpose of lighting the
gas by means of a spark, Fig. 8t>. Plain.
after the gas has been Burner.
turned on by hand.
The gas is first turned on by hand at the ordi-
Fig. Sj. Argand Electr
Burner.
Bur.]
65
[But
nary key, and is then lighted by pulling the pend-
ant C, Fig. 86. A spark from a spark coil ignites
the gas.
This is sometimes called an electric hund-
Jighting burner,
Burner, Ratchet-Pendant Candle Elec-
tric A burner for both lighting and
extinguishing a candle gas jet.
Burner, Ratchet-Pendant Electric —
— A gas-burner in which one pulling of a
pendant turns on the gas and ignites it by
means of an electric spark from a spark coil,
and the next pulling of the pendant turns off
the gas.
A ratchet-wheel and pawl are operated by the
motion of the pendant. The first pull of the
pendant chain moves the ratchet so as to open a
four- way gas cock, and at the same time light
the gas at the burner tip by a wipe-spark from a
spark coil. On the next pull ot the pendant, the
four- way cock is turned so as to turn off the g?s.
Alternate pulls, therefore, light and extinguish
the gas.
Burner, Simple Candle Electric
A plain-pendant electric burner. (See Bur-
ner, Plain Pendant Electric?)
Burner, Thumb-Cock Electric —
An electric gas-
burner, in which
the turning of an
ordinary thumb-
cock turns on the
gas, and ignites it
by a spark pro-
duced by a wiping
contact actuated
by the motions of
the thumb-cock.
A form of thumb-
cock burner is
shown in Fig. 87.
Burner, Vi-
brating-Elec-
triC —An Fig. 87. Thumb- Cock Burner.
electric gas-burner in which the gas is lighted
after it is turned on by hand, by means of the
spark from a spark coil produced on the rapid
making and breaking of the circuit by a
vibrating contact.
The vibrating-electric burner has a single elec-
tro-magnet. It is operated by means of a button
or switch, and may be used on single lights or on
groups of lights. It bears the same relation to
the automatic burner that the plain-pendant
burner does to the ratchet burner.
Burnetize. — To subject to the Burnetizing
process. (See Burnetizing?)
Burnetizing. — A method adopted for the
preservation of wooden telegraph poles by
injecting a solution of zinc chloride into the
pores of the wood. (See Pole, Telegraphic?)
Burning at Commutator of Dynamo. —
An arcing at the brushes of a dynamo-elec-
tric machine, due to their imperfect contact,
or improper position, which results in loss of
energy and destruction of the commutator
segments.
Bus. — A word generally used instead of
omnibus. (See Omnibus?)
Bus-Bars.— (See Bars, Bus?)
Bus-Rod Wires.— (See Wires Bus-Rod.)
Bus-Wire.— (See Wire, Bus?)
Butt Joint.— (See Joint, Butt?)
Button, Carbon — A resistance of
carbon in the form of a button.
A button of carbon is used as an electric resist-
ance in a variety of apparatus; its principal use,
however, is in the transmitting instrument of the
electric telephone. In the telephone transmitter,
the button is so placed between contact-plates that
when the plates are pressed together by the
sound-waves, the electrical resistance is decreased
by a decrease in the thickness of the carbon button,
an increase in its density, and an increase in the
number of points where the carbon touches the
plates. Rheostats, or resistances, have been
made by the use of a number of carbon buttons or
discs piled one on another and placed in a glass
tube. Discs of carbonized cloth form excellent
resistances for such purposes.
Button, Press A push button.
(See Button, Push?)
Button, Push A device for closing
But]
[Cab.
In electric circuit by the movement of a
button.
A button, when pushed by the hand, closes the
Buzzer, Electric A call, not as
loud as that of a bell, produced by a rapid
Fig. 88. Push Button. Fig, 89. Push Button.
contact, and thus completes a circuit in which
some electro-receptive device is placed. This
circuit is opened by a spring,
on the removal of the pressure.
Some forms of push-buttons are
shown in Figs. 88, 89 and 90.
A.floor-push for dining-rooms
and offices is shown in Fig.
90.
Fig. 88 shows the general
appearance of an ordinary bell-
push. The arrangement of the
interior spring contacts will be
understood by an inspection of Fig. 91
Fig. 9 /. Spring Contact of Bell Push.
automatic make-and-break. (See Make-and'
Break, Automatic?)
The buzzer is generally pkced inside a resonant
Fig. 90. Floor
Push.
Fig. 92. Buzzer.
case of wood in order to strengthen the sound by
resonance. A form of buzzer is shown in Fig. 92.
C. — An abbreviation for centigrade.
TIUS, 20 degrees C. means 20 degrees of the
centigrade thermometric scale. (See Scale, Cen-
tigrade Thermometer.')
C. — A contraction for current.
Generally a contraction for the current in
amperes, as C = ^.
C. C. — A contraction for cubic centimetre.
(See Weights and Measures, Metric System
of.)
C. G. S. Units.— A contraction for centi-
timetre-gramme-second units. (See Units,
Centimetre-Gramme- Second.)
C. P. — A contraction for candle power.
(See Candle, Standard.)
Cable.— An electric cable. (See Cable,
Electric.)
Cable.— To send a telegraphic dispatch,
by means of a cable.
Cable, Aerial A cable suspended
in the air from suitable poles.
Cable, Anti-Induction, Waring
A form of anti-induction cable.
In the Waring an ti- induction cable the separate
conductors are covered with a fibrous insulator,
from which all air and moisture is expelled, and
the fibre then saturated with an insulating ma-
Cab.]
67
[Cab.
terial called ozite. The conductors are then pro-
tected from the inductive effects of neighboring
conductors by a continuous sheath of lead alloyed
with tin.
Where the cables are bunched, the bunches
are sometimes again surrounded by insulating
material, and the whole then covered by a con-
tinuous lead sheathing ; generally, however, the
separately insulated conductors are bunched,
and then covered by a single sheathing of lead
alloyed with tin.
Cable, Armature of The armor of
a cable. (See Armature of a Cable)
Cable, Armor of The protecting
sheathing or metallic covering on the outside
of a submarine or other electric cable.
Cable, Armored An electric cable
provided, in addition to its insulating coat-
ing, with a protective coating or sheathing,
generally of metal tubing or wire.
Cable-Box.— (See Sox, Cable.)
Cable, Bunched A cable contain-
ing more than a single wire or conductor.
Some forms of bunched, lead-covered cables,
are bhown in Fig. 93.
Fig. 93. Bunched Cables.
Cable, Bunched, Straightaway
A bunched cable the separate conductors of
which extend in the direction of the length of
the cable without any twisting, being placed
in successive layers.
In arranging the separate conductors in suc-
cessive layers an advantage is gained in testing
for a given wire in order to make a loop, splice,
or branch with the next adjoining section. This is
rendered still easier by giving the conductors
of the successive layers some distinctive form of
braiding in the fibrous insulating material, or
some distinctive color.
Cable, Bunched, Twisted —A
bunched cable, the separate conductors of
which are twisted-pairs placed in successive
layers.
Each twisted-pair of a bunched cable acts as a
metallic circuit, and, moreover, possesses the ad-
vantage of avoiding the ill effects of induction, so
disadvantageous in telephone circuits.
In laying up the twisted-pairs in successive
layers in a bunched cable, the direction of twist-
ing is reversed in each successive layer. This
form is especially desirable on all long cable lines.
In the case of twisted cables for telephone lines,
the twists are sometimes made as frequent as one
in every three or four inches. In such cases the
cross-talk of induction is inappreciable.
Cable, Capacity of The quantity
of electricity required to raise a given length
of a cable to a given potential, divided by the
potential.
The amount of charge for a given potential
that any single conductor will take up with
the rest of the conductors grounded. (See
Capacity, Electrostatic^)
The ability of a wire or cable to permit a
certain quantity of electricity to be passed
into it before acquiring a given difference of
potential.
Before a telegraph line or cable can transmit a
signal to its further end, its difference of potential
must be raised to a definite amount dependent on
the character of the instruments and the nature of
the system.
The first effect of electricity being passed into a
line is to produce an accumulation of electricity
on the line, similar to the charge in a condenser.
Cables especially act as condensers, and from the
high specific inductive capacity of the insulating
materials employed, permit considerable induc-
tion to take place between the core and the
metallic armor or sheathing, or the ground.
The capacity of a cable depends on the capacity
of the wire ; *. e. , on its length and surface, on
the specific inductive capacity of its insulation,
and its neighborhood to the earth, or to other
conducting wires, casings, armors, or metallic
coatings. Submarine or underground cables
therefore have a greater capacity than air lines.
This accumulation of electricity produces a re-
tardation in the speed of signaling, because the
wire must be charged before the signal is received
at the distant end, and discharged or neutralized
before a current can be sent in the reverse direc-
tion. This latter may be done by connecting
each end to earth, or by the action of the reverse
current itself.
Cab.J
[Cab.
The smaller the electrostatic capacity of a cable,
therefore, the greater the speed of signaling. (See
Retardation. )
The capacity of a cable is measured in micro-
farads. (See Farad, Micro.)
Cable Clip.— (See Clip, Cable)
Cable-Core.— (See Core of Cable)
Cable, Core-Ratio of The ratio be-
tween the diameter of the insulation of a cable
and the mean diameter of the strand.
D
The core- ratio is represented by ^-; where D,
is the diameter of the insulation, and d, the mean
diameter of the strand. Should the extreme
diameter of the strand of a cable be used in cal-
culations for insulation resistance, inductive capa-
city, etc., erroneous values would be obtained.
The measured diameter of the copper conductor
is consequently decreased some five per cent., and,
in this way, correct values are approximately
obtained.— (Clark <&•> Sabine.)
Cable, Duplex A conductor con-
sisting of two separate cables placed parallel
to each other.
The duplex cable is used especially in the al-
ternating current system.
Cable, Electric • —The combination
of an extended length of a single insulated
conductor, or two or more separately insu-
lated electric conductors, covered externally
with a metallic sheathing or armor.
Strictly speaking, the word cable should be
limited to the case of more than a single con-
ductor. Usage, however, sanctions the employ-
ment of the word to indicate a single insulated
conductor.
The conducting wire may consist of a single
wire, of a number of separate wires electrically
connected, or of a number of separate wires in-
sulated from one another.
An electric cable consists of the following parts,
viz.:
(i.) The conducting wire or core.
(2.) The insulating material for separating the
several wires; and
(3.) The armor or protecting covering, consist'
Ing of strands of iron wire, or of a metallic coat-
Ing or covering of lead.
As to their position, cables are aerial, sub-
marine, or underground. As to their purpose,
they are telegraphic, telephonic, or electric light
and power cables. As to the number of their
conductors they are single-wire or bunched
cables. Bunched cables are straightaway or
twisted.
Fig. 94 shows a form of submarine cable the
Fig. 94. Electric Cablt.
armor of which is formed of strands of iron
wire.
Cable, Electric Light or Power
A cable designed to distribute the electric cur-
rent employed in electric light or power sys-
tems.
Electric light cables are generally underground.
They may be submarine. (See Cable, Electric.)
Cable, Flat A cable, the separate
conductors of which are laid-up side by side
so as to form a flat conductor.
A flat cable is suitable for house work as being
less objectionable in appearance when placed OB
the outside of ceilings or walls.
Cable, Flat Duplex A flat, laid-up
cable containing two wires.
Cable-Grip.— (See Grip, Cable)
Cable-Hanger.— (See Hanger, Cable)
Cable-Hanger Tongs.— (See Tongs, Cable-
Hanger)
Cable Laid-TJp in Layers. — A term applied
to a cable, all the conducting wires of which
are in layers.
Cab.]
[Cab.
Cable Laid-TJp in Reversed Layers. — A
term applied to a cable in which the conduct-
ors, in alternate layers, are twisted in opposite
directions. (See Cable, Bunched, Straight-
away)
Cable Laid-Up in Twisted Pairs.— A term
applied to a cable in which every pair of wires
is twisted together. (See Cable, Bunched,
Twisted?)
Cable Lead.— (See Lead, Cable}.
Cable, Multiple-Core A cable corn-
tainir.g more than a single core.
Cable-Protector.— (See Protector, Cable?)
Cable-Serving.— (See Serving, Cable)
Cable, Single-Wire A cable con-
taining a single wire or conductor.
Cable, Sub-Aqueous An electric
cable designed for use under water.
The term submarine is more frequently em-
ployed.
Cable, Submarine A cable designed
for use under water.
Submarine cables are either shallow-water, or
deep-sea cables. Gutta-percha answers admirably
for the insulating material of the core. Various
other insulators are also used.
Strands of tarred hemp or jute, known as the
cable-serving, are wrapped around the insulated
core in order to protect it from the pressure of the
galvanized iron wire armor afterwards put on.
To prevent corrosion the iron wire is covered
with tarred hemp, galvanized, or otherwise
Coated.
Submarine cables are generally employed for
telegraphic or telephonic communication. (See
Cable, Electric.')
Cable, Submarine, .Deep-Sea A
submarine cable designed for use in deep
water.
This form of cable is not so heavily armored as
the shallow-water submarine cable.
Cable, Submarine, Shallow- Water
A submarine cable designed for use in shallow
water.
This cable is provided with a heavier armor or
sheathing than a deep-sea cable to protect it
from chafing due to the action of the waves and
tides in shallow water. (See Cable^ Submarine.)
Cable Support, Underground (See
Support, Underground Cable.}
Cable Tank.- (See Tank, Cable)
Cable, Telegraphic A cable de-
signed to establish telegraphic communication
between different points.
Telegraphic cables may be aerial, submarine,
or underground. (See Cable, Electric.)
Cable, Telephonic A cable de-
signed to establish telephonic communication
between different points.
Telephonic cables may be aerial, submarine,
or underground, (See Cable, Electric.)
Cable-Terminal.— (See Terminal, Cabled
Cable, Torpedo —A cable, in the
circuit of which a torpedo is placed. (See
Torpedo, Electric)
Cable, Twisted-Pair A cable
containing a single twisted pair, suitable for
use as a lead and return, thus affording a
metallic circuit.
Cable, Two, Three, Four, etc., Conductor
A cable containing two, three, four,
or more separate conducting wires.
Cable, Underground An electric
cable placed underground.
The conducting wires of an underground cable
are surrounded by a good insulating, water-proof
substance, and protected by a sheathing or armor.
A coating of lead is very generally employed for
the sheathing or armor. Underground cables, in
order to be readily accessible, should be placed
in an underground conduit or subway. (See
Cable, Electric, Conduit^ Underground Electric.
Subway^ Electric.)
Cable- Worming.— (See Worming, Cable)
Cablegram. — A message received by means
of a submarine telegraphic cable.
Cables, Lajlng-Up The placing or
disposing of the separate cables or conduc-
tors in a bunched cable.1
The separate conductors in cables may be laid-
up "straightaway" or "twisted." (See Cable,
Bunched* Twisted. Cable% Bunched, Straight-
away. )
Cabling.— Sending a telegraphic dispatch
bv means of a cable.
CaL]
70
[Cal.
Calahaif s Stock Printer.— (See Printer,
Stock, Calahan's.)
Calamine, Electric A crystalline
variety of silicate of zinc that possesses pyro-
electric properties. (See Electricity, Pyro.)
Cal-Electricity.— (See Electricity, Cal)
Calibrate. — To determine the absolute
or relative value of the scale divisions, or of
the indications of any electrical instrument,
such as a galvanometer, electrometer, vol-
tameter, wattmeter, etc.
Calibrating. — The act of determining the
absolute or relative value of the deflections,
or indications of an electric instrument.
Calibration, Absolute The deter-
mination of the absolute values of the read-
ing of an electrometer, galvanometer, volt-
meter, amperemeter, or other similar instru-
ment.
The calibration of a galvanometer, for ex-
ample, consists in the determination of the law
which governs its different deflections, and by
which is obtained in amperes, either the absolute
or the relative currents required to produce such
deflections.
For various methods of calibration, see stan-
dard works on electrical testing, or on elec-
tricity.
Calibration, Invariable, of Galvanom-
eter In galvanometers with absolute
calibration, a method for preventing the oc-
currence of variations in the intensity of the
field of the galvanometer, due to the neigh-
borhood of masses of iron, etc.
Calibration, Relative The deter-
mination of the relative values of the reading
of an electrometer, voltmeter, amperemeter,
or other similar instrument.
Caliper, Mi-
erometer
— A name some-'
times given to a
vernier wire
gauge. (See
Gauge, Vernier
Wire) Fig, 95. Micrometer Califer.
A form of micrometer caliper is shown in Fig. Q
Call-Bell, Extension (See Sell,
Extension Call.)
Call-Bell, Magneto-Electric An
electric call-bell operated by currents pro-
duced by the motion of a coil of wire before
the poles of a permanent magnet.
A well known form of magneto call-bell is shown
Fig. 96. Magneto Call Bell.
in Fig. 96. The armature is driven by the rota-
tion of the handle.
Call-Bell, Telephone An electric
bell, the ringing of which is used to call a
person to a telephone.
Call, Electric Bell —An electric
bell sometimes used to call the attention of an
operator to the fact that his correspondent
wishes to communicate with him, or to notify
an attendant that some service is desired.
Call, Messenger A district call-
box. (See Box, District Call.)
Call, Thermo-Electric An instru-
ment for sounding an alarm when the tem-
perature rises above, or falls below, a fixed
point.
In one form of thermo-electric call a needle is
moved over a dial by a simple thermic device and
rings a bell when the temperature for which it
has been se is attained. The thermo-call is appli-
cable to the regulation of the temperature o/
Cal.]
71
[Cal.
dwellings, incubators, hot houses, breweries, dry-
ing rooms, etc.
Callaud Voltaic Cell.— (See CeH, Vol-
taic, Callaud's.}
Calling-Drop.— (See Drop, Calling.}
Calorescence. — The transformation of
invisible heat-rays into luminous rays, when
received by certain solid substances.
The term was proposed by Tyndall. The light
from a voltaic arc is passed through a hollow
glass lens filled with a solution of iodine in bisul-
phide of carbon.
This solution is opaque to light but quite trans-
parent to heat.
If a piece of charred paper, or thin platinum
foil, is placed in the focus of these invisible rays,
it will be heated to brilliant incandescence. (See
Focus.)
Caloric. — A term formerly applied to the
fluid which was believed to be the cause or
essence of heat.
The use of the word caloric at the present time
is very unscientific, since heat is now known to
he an effect of a wave motion and not a material
thing. (SeeA^a/.)
Calorie. — A heat unit.
There are two calories, the small and the large
calorie.
The amount of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of one gramme of water from o degree
C. to I degree C. is called the small calorie.
The amount of heat required to raise 1,000
grammes, or a kilogramme, of water from o de-
gree C. to I degree C. is called the great calorie.
The first usage of the word is the commoner.
This word is sometimes spelled calory.
Calorie, Great — The amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogramme of water from o degree C. to I
degree C.
Calorie, Small — The amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one
gramme of water from o degree C. to I
degree C.
Calorimeter — An instrument for measur-
ing the amount of heat or thermal energy
contained or developed in a given body.
Thermometers measure temperature only. A
thermometer plunged in a cup full of boiling
water shows the same temperature that it would
in a tub full of boiling water. The quantity of
heat energy present in the two cases is of course
greatly different, and can be measured by a cal-
orimeter only.
Various forms of calorimeters are employed.
In order to determine the quantity of heat in
a given weight of any body, this weight may be
heated to a definite temperature, such as the boil-
ing point of water, and placed in a vessel con-
taining ice. The quantity of ice melted by the
body in cooling to the temperature of the ice, is
determined by measuring the amount of water
derived from the melting of the ice. Care must
be observed to avoid the melting of the ice by ex-
ternal heat.
In this way the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a given weight of a body
a certain number of degrees, or the capacity of
the body for heat, may be compared with the
capacity of an equal weight of water. This ratio
is called the specific heat. (See Heal, Specific.)
The heat energy, present in a given weight of
any substance at a given temperature, can be de-
termined by means of a calorimeter; for, since a
pound of water heated i° F. absorbs an amount
of energy equal to 772 foot-pounds, the energy can
be readily calculated if the number of pounds of
water and the number of degrees of temperature
are known. (See Heat, Mechanical Equivalent
of-}
Calorimeter, Electric An instru-
ment for measuring the heat developed in a
conductor or any piece of electrical apparatus,
in a given time, by an electric current.
Fig. 97. Electric Calorimeter.
A vessel containing water is provided with a
thermometer T, Fig. 97. The electric currenl
Cal.]
[Can,
passes for a measured time through a wire im-
mersed in the liquid.
The quantity of heat is determined from the
increase of temperature, and the weight of the
water heated.
According to Joule, the number of heat units
developed in a conductor by an electric current
is proportional:
(I.) To the resistance of the conductor.
(2.) To the square of the current passing.
(3.) To the time the current is passing.
(See Heat Unit, English.)
The heating power of a current is as the square
of the current only when the resistance remains
the same. (See Heat, Electric.)
Calorimetric. — Pertaining to or by means
of the calorimeter.
Calorimetric measurement is the measurement
of heat energy made by means of the calorimeter.
(See Calorimeter.}
Caloriinetrically. — In a Calorimetric man-
ner.
Calorimetric Photometer.— (See Photom-
eter, Calorimetric)
Calorimotor. — A name applied to a defla-
grator. (See Deflagrator^
Calory. — A term used for calorie.
Calorie is the preferable orthography. (See
Calorie.)
Cam, Electro-Magnetic A form
of magnetic equalizer, which depends for its
operation on the lateral approach of a suita-
bly shaped polar surface. (See Equalizer,
Magnetic?)
Cam, Listening In a telephone
exchange system, a metallic cam by means of
which an operator is placed in circuit with
a subscriber.
Candle. — The unit of photometric intensity.
Such a light as would be produced by the
consumption of two grains of a standard
candle per minute.
An electric lamp of 1 6 candle-power, or one of
2,coo candle-power, is a light that gives respect-
ively 16 or 2,000 times as much light as one stand-
ard candle.
Candle Bnrner, Electric (SeeJBur-
ner. Electric Candle^
Candle, Electric A term applied
to the Jablochkoff candle, and other similai
devices. (See Candle, Jablochkoff,')
Candle, Foot A unit of illumina-
tion equal to the illumination produced by a
standard candle at tlv distance of i foot.
According to this unit, the illumination pro-
duced by a standard candle at the distance of
2 feet would be but the one-fourth of a foot-
candle; at 3 feet, the one-ninth of a foot-candle,
etc.
The advantage of the proposed standard lies in
the fact that knowing the illumination in foot-
candles required for the particular work to be
done, it is easy to calculate the position and
intensity of the lights required to produce the
illumination.
Candle, Jablochkoff An electric
arc light in which the two carbon electrodes are
placed parallel to each other and maintained
a constant distance apart by means of a sheet
of insulating material placed between them.
The Jablochkoff electric candle consists of twa
parallel carbons, separated by a layer of kaolin or
other heat-resisting insulating material, as shown
in Fig. 98. The current is passed into and out of
the carbons at one end of the
candle, and forms a voltaic arc at
the other end. In order to start
the arc, a thin strip called the
igniter, consisting of a mixture of
some readily ignitable substance,
connects the upper ends of the
carbons.
An alternating current is em-
ployed with these candles, thus
avoiding the difficulty which Fig- <)S Ja"
would otherwise occur from the ****** Candu'
more rapid consumption of the positive than the
negative carbon. (See Current^ Alternating.)
Candle, Metre The illumination pro-
duced by a standard candle at the distance of
one metre. (See Candle, Foot?)
Candle-Power.— (See Power, Candle.)
Candle-Power, Bated (See Power,
Candle, Rated.)
Candle -Power, Spherical (See
Power, Candle, Spherical?)
Candle, Standard A candle of
Cao.]
definite composition which, with a given con-
sumption in a given time, will produce a light
of a fixed and definite brightness.
A candle which burns 120 grains of sperma-
ceti wax per hour, or 2 grains per minute, will
give an illumination equal to one standard candle.
Unless considerable care is taken, erroneous re-
sults will be obtained from the use of the stand-
ard candle. According to SJingo and Brooker
the following are among the most important
causes of these errors :
(i.) Defective forms of candle which cause a
varying consumption of the material per second,
and consequently a varying light for the standard
candle.
(2.) Variations in the composition of the sper-
maceti of which the candle is composed. Sper-
maceti is not a definite chemical compound, but
consists of a mixture of various substances ;
therefore, even if the consumption is maintained
constant, the light-giving power is not necessarily
constant.
(3.) Variations in the composition and charac
ter of the wick, such as the number and size of
the threads of which it is formed and the closeness
of the strands, all of which circumstances influence
the amount of light given off by the candle.
(4.) The light emitted in certain directions va-
ries in a marked degree with the shape of the
wick. The mere bending of a wick may, there-
fore, cause the amount of light to vary consider
ably.
(5.) The light varies with the thickness of the
wick. Thick wicks give less light than thin
wicks.
(6.) The light given by the standard candle va-
ries with the temperature of the testing-room.
As the temperature rises the light given by the
standard candle increases.
(7.) Currents of air. by producing variations
in the amount of melting wax in the cup of the
candle, vary the amount of light emitted.
These difficulties in obtaining a fixed amount of
light from a standard candle, together with the
difficulty of comparing the feeble light of a single
candle with the light of a much more powerful
source, such as an arc lamp, coupled with the
additional difficulty arising from the difference in
the colors of the lights, have led to the use of
other standards of light than those furnished by
the standard candle.
Caoutchouc, or India-Rubber.— A resin-
73
[Cap.
ous substance obtained from the milky juices
of certain tropical trees.
Caoutchouc possesses high powers of electric
insulation, and is used either pure or combined
with sulphur.
Cap, Insulator A covering or cap
placed some distance above an insulator, but
separated from it by an air space.
Insulator caps are intended for protection of the
insulators from injury by the throwing of stones
or other malicious acts. Insulator caps are gen-
erally made of iron. They are highly objection-
able, owing to the facility they offer for the ac-
cumulation of dust and dirt.
Capacity, Atomic The quantiva-
lence or valency of an atom. (See Atomi-
city)
Capacity, Dielectric A term em-
ployed in the same sense as specific inductive
capacity. (See Capacity, Specific Indwtive.}
Capacity, Electro-Dynamic —A
term formerly employed by Sir William
Thomson for self-induction. (See Induction,
Self.}
Capacity, Electrostatic The quan-
tity of electricity which must be imparted to a
given body or conductor as a charge, in order
to raise its potential a certain amount. (See
Potential, Electric.}
The electrostatic capacity of a conductor is not
unlike the capacity of a vessel filled with a liquid
or gas. A certain quantity of liquid will fill a
given vessel to a level dependent on the size or
capacity of the vessel. In the same manner a
given quantity of electricity will produce, in a
conductor or condenser, a certain difference of
electric level, or difference of potential, dependent
on the electrical capacity of the conductor or
condenser.
Or, taking the analogous case of a gas-tight
vessel, the quantity of gas that can be forced into
such a vesssl depends on the size of the vessel
and the pressure with whfch it is forced in. A
tension or pressure is thus produced by the gas
on the walls of the vessel, which is greater the
smaller the size of the vessel and the greater the
quantity of gas forced in.
In the same manner, the smaller the capacity
of a conductor, the smaller is the charge required
Cap.]
[Cap.
to raise it to a given potential, or the higher the
potential a given charge will raise it.
The capacity K, of a conductor or condenser,
is therefore directly proportional to the charge Q,
and inversely proportional to the potential V; or,
K.2.
V
From which we obtain Q = KV; or,
The quantity of electricity required to charge a
(onductor or condenser to a given potential is
tqual to the capacity of the conductor or condenser
multiplied by the potential through which it is
raised.
Capacity, Electrostatic, Unit of
Such a capacity of a conductor or condenser
that an electromotive force of one volt will
charge it with a quantity of electricity equal
to one coulomb.
The farad. (See Farad?)
Capacity of Cable.— (See Cable. Capacity
of)
Capacity of Condenser. — (See Condenser,
Capacity o/.)
Capacity of Leyden Jar.— (See Jar,
Leyden, Capacity of.)
Capacity of Line.— (See Line, Capacity
°tt
Capacity of Polarization of a Voltaic
Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic, Capacity of Polar-
ization of.)
Capacity, Safe Carrying, of a Conductor
The maximum electric current the
conductor will carry without becoming unduly
heated.
Capacity, Specific Inductive
The ability of a dielectric to permit induction
to take place through its mass, as compared
with the ability possessed by a mass of air of
the same dimensions and thickness, under
precisely similar conditions.
The relative power of bodies for trans-
mitting electrostatic stresses and strains
analogous to permeability in metals.
The ratio of the capacity of a condenser
whose coatings are separated by a dielectric
of a given substance to the capacity of a
similar condenser whose plates are separated
by a plate or layer of air.
The inductive capacity of a dielectric is com-
pared with that of air.
According to Gordon and others, the specific
Inductive capacities of a few substances, com-
pared with air, are as follows:
Air i. oo
Glass 3.013 to 3.258
Shellac 2.740
Sulphur 2.580
Gutta-percha 2.462
Ebonite 2.284
India-rubber 2.220 to 2.497
Turpentine 2.160
Petroleum 2.030 to 2.070
Paraffin (solid) 1.994
Carbon bisulphide 1.810
Carbonic acid 1.00036
Hydrogen 0.99967
Vacuum 0.99941
Faraday, who proposed the term specific in-
ductive capacity, employed in his experiments a
condenser consisting of a metallic sphere A, Fig.
99, placed inside a large
hollow sphere B.
The concentric space
between A and B was filled
with the substance whose
specific inductive capacity
was to be determined.
Capacity, Specific
Magnetic A term
sometimes employed in
the sense of magnetic
permeability.
Conductibility for lines
of magnetic force in the
same sense that specific
inductive capacity is con-
ductibility for lines of
electrostatic force.
This term has received
the name of specific mag- 'f "'
netic capacity in order to distinguish it from specific
inductive capacity. The velocity of propagation
of waves in any elastic medium is proportional to
the quotient obtained by extracting the square
root of the elasticity of the medium divided by
the square root of its density; or,
Cap.]
75
[Car.
Similarly, the speed with which inductive waves
travel depends on the relation between the elas-
ticity and the density of the medium. Calling ^,
the electric elasticity, then its reciprocal, K, corre-
sponds with the dielectric capacity. The elec-
trical density, /*, corresponds with the magnetic
permeability. The velocity of wave transmission
is therefore,
Capacity, Storage, of Secondary Cell
— (See Cell, Secondary or Storage, Capa-
city of.)
Capillarity. — The elevation or depression
of liquids in tubes of small internal diameter.
The liquid is elevated when it wets the walls,
and depressed when it does not wet the walls of
the rube.
The phenomena of capillarity are due to the
mutual attractions existing between the mole-
cules of the liquid for one another, and the
mutual attraction between the molecules of the
liquid and those of the walls of the tube.
In capillarity, therefore, the approximately
level surface caused by the equal attraction of all
the molecules towards the earth's centre is dis-
turbed by the unequal attraction exerted on each
molecule by the walls of the tube and by the re-
maining molecules.
Capillarity, Effects of, on Toltaic Cell
. — Efrects caused by capillary action
which disturb the proper action of a voltaic
cell.
These effects are as follows:
(i.) Creeping, or efflorescence of salts. (See
Creeping, Electric. Efflorescence.)
(2. ) Oxidation of contacts and consequent in-
troduction of increased resistance into the battery
circuit. The liquid enters the capillary spaces
between the contact surfaces and oxidizes them.
Capillary. — Of a small or hair-like diame-
ter or size.
A capillary tube is a tube of small hair-like di-
ameter. (See Capillarity.)
Capillary Attraction.— (See Attraction,
Capillary)
Capillary Contact-Key.— (See Key, Cap-
illary Contact?)
Capillary Electrometer.— (See Electrom-
eter, Capillary)
Carbon. — An elementary substance which
occurs naturally in three distinct allotropic
forms, viz.: charcoal, graphite and the dia-
mond. (See Allotropy)
Carbon-Brushes for Electric Motors. —
(See Brushes, Carbon, for Electric Motors)
Carbon Button.— (See Button, Carbon)
Carbon-Clutch or Clamp of Arc Lamp.
—(See Clutch, Carbon, of Arc Lamp)
Carbon-Electrodes for Arc Lamps. — (See
Electrodes, Carbon, for Arc Lamps)
Carbon-Holders for Arc Lamps. — (See
Holders, Carbon, for Arc Lamps)
Carbon Points. — (See Points, Carbon)
Carbon Transmitter for Telephones. —
(See Transmitter, Carbon, for Telephones)
Carbonic Acid Gas.— (See Gas, Carbonic
Acid)
Carboning Lamps. — (See Lamps, Carbon-
ing)
Carbonizable. — Capable of being carbon-
ized. (See Carbonization, Processes of)
Carbonization. — The act of carbonizing,
(See Carbonization, Processes of)
Carbonization, Processes of
Means for carbonizing material.
The carbonizable material is placed in suitably
shaped boxes, covered with powdered plumbago
or lamp-black, and subjected to the prolonged
action of intense heat while out of contact with
air.
The electrical conducting power of the carbon
which results from this process is increased by the
action ot the heat, and, probably, also, by the de-
posit in the mass, ot carbon resulting from the
subsequent decomposition of the hydro-carbon
gases produced during carbonization.
When the carbonization is for the purpose of
producing conductors for incandescent lamps, in
order to obtain the uniformity of conducting
power, electrical homogeneity, purity and high
refractory power requisite, selected fibrous ma-
terial, cut or shaped in at least one dimension
€ar.J
76
[Car.
prior to carbonization, must be taken, and sub-
jected to as nearly uniform carbonization as pos-
sible.
Carbonize. — To reduce a carbonizable ma-
terial to carbon. (See Carbonization, Pro-
cesses of.)
Carbonized Cloth Discs for High Resist-
ances.— (See Cloth Discs Carbonized, for
High Resistances)
Carbonizer.— Any apparatus suitable for
reducing carbonizable material to carbon.
Carbonizing. — Subjecting a carbonizable
substance to the process of carbonization.
(See Carbonization, Processes of)
Carbons, Artificial Carbons ob-
tained by the carbonization of a mixture of
pulverized carbon with different carbonizable
liquids.
Powdered coke, or gas-retort carbon, some-
times mixed with lamp-black or charcoal, is made
into a stiff dough with molasses, tar, or any other
hydro-carbon liquid. The mixture is molded
into rods, pencils, plates, bars or other desired
shapes by the pressure of a powerful hydraulic
press. After drying, the carbons are placed in
crucibles and covered with lamp-black or pow-
dered plumbago, and raised to an intense heat at
which they are maintained for several hours. By
the carbonization of the hydro-carbon liquids, the
carbon paste becomes strongly coherent, and by
the action of the heat its conducting power in-
creases.
To give increased density after baking, the
carbons are sometimes soaked in a hydro-carbon
liquid, and subjected to a re-baking. This may
be repeated a number of times.
Carbons, Concentric-Cylindrical
A cylindrical rod of carbon placed inside a hol-
low cylinder of carbon but separated from it
by an air space, or by some other insulating,
refractory material.
Jablochkoff candles sometimes are made with a
solid cylindrical electrode, concentrically placed
in a hollow cylindrical carbon.
Carbons, Cored A cylindrical carbon
electrode for an arc lamp that is molded
around a central core of charcoal, or other
softer carbon.
Much of the unsteadiness of the arc light is due
to changes in the position of the arc. Cored car-
bons, it is claimed, render the arc light steadier,
by maintaining the arc always at the softer carbon
and hence af. the central point of the electrode.
A core of harder carbon, or other refractory
material, is sometimes provided for the negative
carbon.
Carbons, Flashed Carbons which
have been subjected to the flashing pro-
cess, (See Carbons, Flashing Process for)
Carbons, Flashing Process for A
process for improving the electrical uniformity
of the carbon conductors employed in in-
candescent lighting, by the deposition of car-
bon in their pores, and over their surfaces at
those places where the electric resistance is
relatively great.
The carbon conductor or filament is placed in
a vessel filled with the vapor of a hydrocarbon
liquid called rhigolene, or any other readily de-
composable hydrocarbon liquid, and gradually
raised to electric incandescence by the passage
through it of an electric current. A decomposi-
tion of the hydrocarbon vapor occurs, the car-
bon resulting therefrom being deposited in and on
the conductor.
As the current is gradually increased, the
parts of the conductor first rendered incandes-
cent are the places where the electric resist-
ance is the highest, these parts, therefore, and
practically these parts only, receive the deposit
of carbon. As the current increases, other
portions become successively incandescent and
receive a deposit of carbon, until at last the
filament glows with a uniform brilliancy, in-
dicative of its electric homogeneity.
A carbon whose resistance varies considerably
at different parts could not be successfully em-
ployed in an incandescent lamp, since if heated
by a current sufficiently great to render the points
of comparatively small resistance satisfactorily
incandescent, the temperature of the points of
high resistance would be such as to lower the life
of the lamp, while if only those portions were
safely heated, the lamp would not be economical.
The flashing process is therefore of very great
value in the manufacture of an incandescent
lamp.
The name " flashing " was applied to the pro-
cess by reason of the flashing light emitted by the
Car.]
[Cas.
carbons when they have been sufficiently treated.
The process requires so little time that the dull red
which first appears soon flashes to the full lumin-
osity required.
The term "flashing" is sometimes applied to
the electrical heating to incandescence, while the
carbons are in the lamp chambers, and on the
pumps. This flashing is for the purpose of
driving off all the gases occluded by the carbon,
so that these gases may be carried off by the
operation of pumping. This process is more
properly called the process for driving off the
occluded gases.
The carbons are sometimes flashed in the liquid
itself instead of in its vapor.
Carbons, Paper Carbons, of textile
or fibrous origin, obtained from the carboniza-
tion of paper.
The carbonization of paper is readily effected
by submitting the paper to the prolonged action
of a high temperature while out of contact with
air.
For this purpose the paper is packed in retorts
or crucibles, and covered with lamp-black, or
powdered plumbago, in order to exclude the air.
Since paper consists of a plane of material uni-
formly thin in one direction, formed almost en-
tirely of fibres of pure cellulose, the greatest
length of which extends in a direction nearly par-
allel to that in which the paper is uniformly thin,
it is clear that sheets of this substance, when car-
bonized, should yield flexible carbons of unusual
purity and electrical homogeneity, since such
carbons are structural in character, and are uni-
formly affected by the heat of carbonization to an
extent that would be impossible by the carboniza-
tion of any material in a mass.
Carcase of Dynamo-Electric Machine. —
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Carcase of.)
Carcel. — The French unit of light. The
light emitted by a lamp burning 42 grammes
of pure colza oil per hour, with a flame 40
millimetres in height.
The bec-carcel. One carcel = 9.5 109.6 stand-
ard candles.
Carcel Lamp.— (See Lamp, Carcel)
Carcel Standard Gas Jet.— (See/?/, Gas,
Carcel Standard.)
Card, Compass A card used in the
mariner's compass, on which are marked the
four cardinal points of the compass N, S, E
and W, and these again divided into thirty-
two points called Rhumbs. (See Compass,
Azimuth.)
Cardew Voltmeter. — (See Voltmeter,
Cardew.)
Carriage, Pen The carriage in an
electric chronograph which holds the pen and
moves over the sheet of paper on which the
record is made. (See Chronograph, Elec-
tric.)
Carriers of Replenisher.— (See Replen*
isher, Carriers of.)
Cascade, Charging Leyden Jars by
— A method of charging jars or condensers
by means of the free electricity liberated by
induction from one coating, when a charge is
passed into the other coating.
The jars are placed as shown in Fig. 100, with
the inside coating of the first jar connected with
the outside coating of the one next it. There is in
Fig. 100. Cascade Charging of Leyden Jars.
reality no increase in the entire charge obtained
in charging by cascade, since the sum of the
charges given to the separate jars is equal to
the same charge given to a single jar separately
charged.
The energy of the discharge in cascade can be
shown to be less than that of the same charge
when confined to a single jar. This i= of course
to be expected, since it is energy that 'P charged
in the jar and not electricity, and, of course, the
energy charged in the jar can never exceed the
energy employed in charging the jar. There is
a small loss for each jar, and this increases ne-
cessarily with each jar added.
Cascade, Connection of Electric Sources
in • — A term sometimes used for series-
connection of electric sources.
The term series -connection is the preferable
one. (See Connection^ Series^)
Case-Hardening, Electric Super.
ficially converting a piece of wire into steel
by electrically produced heat.
Cas.]
78
[Can.
In electric case-hardening, the superficial layers
of a piece of iron are converted into steel by
electrically heating the same, while surrounded
by a layer of case-hardening flux and carbonaceous
substances such as animal charcoal, shavings of
horn, leather cuttings or other similar substances.
In the case of a readily oxidizable metal like
iron, oxidation is prevented by surrounding the
metal by a hydrocarbon gas, which, when suffi-
ciently heated, deposits on the surfaces a pro-
tective coating of carbon. This layer of carbon
gradually carbonizes the iron.
Case Wiring.— (See Wiring, Case.)
Cataphoresis.— A term sometimes em-
ployed in place of electric osmose. (See Os-
mose, Electric?)
The word cataphoresis applies to the cases where
medicinal substances, such as iodine, cocoaine,
quinine, etc., are caused to pass through organic
tissues in the direction of flow of an electric cur.
rent, or from the anode to the kathode. This
action is probably due to an electrolytic action.
Cataphoric Action.— (See Action, Cata-
phoric.)
Catch, Safety A wire, plate, strip,
or box of readily fusible metal, capable of con-
ducting, without fusing, the current ordinarily
employed on the circuit, but which fuses and
thus breaks the circuit on the passage of an
abnormally large current.
Safety -catches are generally placed on multiple,
arc and multiple -series circuits. (See Fuse%
Safety.)
Catelectrotonns.— An orthography some-
times applied to Kathelectrotonus. (See
Kathelectrotonus.)
Cathetometer.— An instrument for the ac-
curate measurement of vertical height.
The cathetometer consists essentially of an
accurately divided vertical rod which carries a
sliding support for a telescope. The telescope is
provided with two spider lines at right angles to
one another, so placed as to be seen in front of
the object whose height is to be measured. From
observations taken in different positions, the
measurement of the true vertical height is readily
obtained.
Cathlon.— A term sometimes used instead
ul Kathion.
More correctly written Kathion. (See
Kathion)
Cathode.— A term sometimes used instead
of Kathode.
Catoptrics. — That branch of optics which
treats of the reflection of light.
Causty, Galvano A term some-
times used for galvano-cautery. (See Cautery,
Galvano)
Cauterization.— The act of cauterizing, or
burning with a heated solid or caustic sub-
stance.
Cauterization, Electric Subject-
ing to cauterization by means of a wire elec-
trically heated. (See Cautery, Electric.}
Cauterize.— To subject to cauterization, or
burning with a heated solid or caustic sub-
stance.
Cauterizer, Electric A term some-
times applied to an electric cautery. (See
Cautery, Electric.)
Cautery, Actual A burning or sear-
ing with a white-hot metal.
Cautery Battery.— (See Battery, Cautery •.)
Cautery, Electric An instrument
used for electric cauterization.
In electro-therapeutics, the application ol
variously shaped platinum wires heated to in-
candescence by the electric current in place
of a knife, for removing diseased growths, ot
for stopping hemorrhages.
The operation, though painful during applies-
tlon, is afterward less painful than that with a
knife, since secondary hemorrhage seldom occurs,
and the wound rapidly heals.
Electric cautery is applicable in cases where
the knife would be inadmissible owing to the
situation of the parts or their surroundings.
Cautery, Galvano A term fre-
quently employed in place of electric cautery.
(See Cautery, Electric)
Cautery, Galvano Electric An
electric cautery. (See Cautery, Electric)
Cautery, Galvano Thermal A
term sometimes used for an electric cautery.
(See Cautery, Electric*
tail, f
79
[CeL
Cautery-Knife Electrode.— (See Electrode
Cautery- Knife.}
Cautery, Thermal —A cautery
heated by heat other than that of electric ori-
gin, as distinguished from an electric cautery.
(See Cautery, Electric)
Ceiling Rose.— (See Rose, Ceiling}
Cell, Depositing An electrolytic
cell in which an electro-metallurgical deposit is
made (See Metallurgy, Electro}
Cell, Electrolytic A cell or vessel
containing an electrolyte, in which electrolysis
is carried on.
An electrolytic cell is called a voltanuter when
the value of the current passing is deduced from
the weight of the metal deposited.
Cell, Impulsion A photo-electric
cell whose sensitiveness to light may be re-
stored or destroyed by slight impulses given
to the plates, such as by blows or taps, or elec-
tro-magnetic impulses.
An impulsion cell may be prepared by pasting
pieces of tin-foil, the opposite faces of which are
respectively polished and dull, on the opposite
faces of a plate of glass, so as to expose dissimi-
lar sides to the light, when the cells are dipped
in alcohol.
Cell, Photo-Electric A cell capa-
ble of producing differences of potential
when its opposite faces are unequally exposed
to radiant energy.
Photo -voltaic cells are made in a variety of
forms, both with selenium and with different me-
tallic substances. (See Cell, Selenium.}
Cell, Porous — A jar of unglazed
earthenware, employed in double-fluid voltaic
cells, to keep the two liquids separated.
The use of a porous cell necessarily increases
the internal resistance of the cell, from the de-
crease it produces in the area of cross section of
liquid between the two elements. When the bat-
tery is dismantled, the porous cells should be
kept under water, otherwise the crystallization of
the zinc sulphate or other salt is apt to produce
serious exfoliation, or scaling off, or even to
crumble the porous cell.
A porous cell is sometimes called a diaphragm,
but only properly so when the cell is reduced to
a single separating plate. (See Cell, Voltaic.}
Cell, Secondary — A term sometimes
used instead of storage cell.
The term secondary cell is used in contradis-
tinction to primary or voltaic cell.
Cell. Secondary or Storage, Boiling of
A term sometimes applied to the
gassing of a storage cell. (See Cell, Storage,
Gassing of}
Cell, Secondary or Storage, Capacity of
The product of the current in am-
peres, by the number of hours the battery is.
capable of furnishing said current, whea
fully charged, until exhausted.
The capacity of storage cells is given in ampere-
hours. A storage battery with a capacity of i,ooa
ampere-hours can furnish, say a current of fifty-
amperes for twenty hours, or a current of one
hundred amperes for ten hours ; or a current of
twenty-five amperes for forty hours.
Cell. Secondary or Storage, Gassing of
An escape of gas due to the decom-
position of water on passage of too strong a
charging current.
Cell, Secondary or Storage, Renovation
of The revivifying or recharging of a
run-down, or discharged storage cell.
Cell, Secondary or Storage, Time-Fall
of Electromotive Force of (See
Force. Electromotive of Secondary or
Storage Cell, Time-Fall, of}
Cell, Secondary or Storage, Time-Ris^
of Electromotive Force of (See
Force, Electromotive of, Secondary or
Storage Cell, Time-Rise, of}
Cell, Selenium A cell consisting
of a mass of selenium fused in between two
conducting wires or electrodes of platinized
silver or other suitable metal.
A convenient manner of forming a selenium
cell is to wind two separate spirals of platinized
silver wire around a cylinder of hard wood, tak-
ing care to maintain them a constant distance
apart, so as to avoid contact between them. The
space between these wires is filled with fused sele-
nium, which is allowed to cool gradually.
Exposure to sunlight reduces the resistance of
a selenium cell to about one-half its resistance ia-
lei.]
80
[del.
the dark, but neither the resistance nor the reduc-
tion ratio long remains constant.
A selenium cell produces a difference of poten-
tial, or electromotive force, when one of its elec-
trode faces is exposed to light, while the other is
kept in darkness.
According to Von Uljanin, who experimented
with selenium melted in between two parallel
platinized piates, cooled under pressure, and then
reduced from the amorphous to the sensitive crys-
talline variety by gradual cooling after two or
three heatings in a paraffine bath up to 195 de-
grees, the following peculiarities were observed:
(I.) Exposure of one of the electrodes to sun-
light produced an electromotive force which
causes a current to flow from the dark to the
illumined electrode.
(2.) The maximum electromotive force was
o.i 2 volt.
(3.) The electromotive force disappeared instan-
taneously and completely on the darkening of the
electrodes^
(4.) A slight difference in the electromotive
force was observed when the positive and nega-
tive electrodes were alternately exposed to the
light, the maximum electromotive force being
attained by the exposure of the negative electrode.
(5.) If both electrodes are similarly illumined
the resulting current strength is decreased and
may reach zero.
(6.) The action of light is instantaneous.
(7.) Most of the selenium cells experimented
with exhibited an electromotive force of polariza-
tion.
(8.) The electromotive force of polarization is
diminished by exposure to light.
(9.) The electrical resistance and sensitive-
ness to light as regards the production of an
electromotive force decrease with time. This
is probably due to a gradual change in the allo-
tropic state of the selenium. (See State, Allo-
tropic.)
(10.) The electromotive force produced is pro-
portional to the intensity of the illumination only
when the obscure rays or heat rays are absent.
(II.) Of different wave lengths the orange-yel-
low rays in the diffraction spectrum, and the
greenish-yellow in the prismatic ppectrum pro-
duced the greatest effect.
Among some of the more recent applications
of selenium cells are the following:
(i.) A selenium cell is so placed in a circuit
containing an electro-magnet and switch, that on
one of its electrodes being exposed to the de-
creased illumination of coming night it automat-
ically turns on an electric lamp, and, conversely,
on the approach of daylight, and the consequent
illumination of the electrode, turns it off.
(2.) A device whereby the presence of light,
as for example that carried by a burglar, auto-
matically rings an alarm and thus calls the atten-
tion of the watchman of the building.
Cell, Standard (See Cell, Voltaic,
Standard?)
Cell, Storage Two relatively inert
plates of metal, or of metallic compounds,
immersed in an electrolyte incapable of acting
considerably on them until after an electric
current has been passed through the liquid
from one plate to the other and has changed
their chemical relations.
A single one of the cells required to form
a secondary battery.
Sometimes, the jar containing a single cell
is called a storage cell.
This latter use of the word is objectionable.
A storage cell is also called an accumulator.
On the passage of an electric current through
the electrolyte, its decomposition is effected and
the electro-positive and electro- negative radicals
are deposited on the plates, or unite with them,
so that on the cessation of the charging current,
there remains a voltaic cell capable of generating
an electric current.
A storage cell is charged by the passage through
the liquid from one plate to the other of an elec-
tric current, derived from any external source.
The charging current produces an electrolytic de-
composition of the inert liquid between the
plates, depositing the electro-positive radicals, or
katkions, on the plate connected with the negative
terminal of the source, and the electro-negative
radicals, or anions, on the plate connected with
the positive terminal.
On the cessation of the charging current, and
the connection of the charged plates by a con-
ductor outside the liquid, a current is produced,
which flows through the liquid from the plate
covered with the electro-positive radicals, to that
covered with the electro -negative radicals, or in
the opposite direction to that of the charging cur-
rent.
The simplest storage cell is Planters cell, which,
as originally constructed, consists of two plates of
Cel.]
81
[Cel.
lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
On the passage of the charging current, the plates
A and B, Fig. 101, dipped in H2SO4, are covered
respectively with lead peroxide, PbO2, and finely
divided, spongy lead. The peroxide is formed on
the positive plate, and the metallic lead on the
negative plate. The acid and water should have
a specific gravity of about 1.170. When the cell
is fully charged the acid solution loses its clear-
ness and becomes milky in appearance, and the
Figs. 10 1 and 102. Storage Cell.
specific gravity increases to 1. 195. This increase
is a good sign of a full charge.
When the charging current ceases to pass, the
cell discharges in the opposite direction, viz.,
from B' to A', that is, from the spongy lead plate
to the peroxide plate through the electrolyte, as
shown in Fig. 102.
As a result of this discharging current the per-
oxide, PbOg, on A', gives up one of its atoms of
oxygen to the spongy lead on B', thus leaving
both plates coated with a layer of PbO, lead
monoxide, or litharge. When this change is
thoroughly effected, the cell becomes inert, and
will furnish no further current until again charged
by the passage of a current from some external
source.
In order to increase the capacity of the storage
cells, and thus prolong the time of their discharge,
the coating of lead monoxide thus left on each
of the plates, when neutral, is made as great as
possible. To effect this, a process called ' 'forming
the plates11 is employed, which consists in first
charging the plates as already described, and
then reversing the direction of the charging cur-
rent, the currents being sent through the cell in
alternately opposite directions, until a consider-
able depth of the lead plates has been acted on.
It will be noticed that during the action of the
charging current, the oxygen is transferred from
the PbO, on one jjlate, to the PbO, on the other
plate, thus leaving one Pb, and the other PbO,;
and that on discharging, one atom of oxygen is
transferred from the PbOz, to the Pb, thus leav-
ing both plates covered with PbO. In reality
this is but the final result of the action, hydrated
sulphate of lead, PbO, H4SO4, being formed,
and subsequently decomposed. Other com-
pounds are formed that are but imperfectly un-
derstood.
In order to decrease the time required for form-
ing, accumulators, or secondary cells, have been
constructed, in which metallic plates covered with
red lead Pb3O4 replace the lead plates in the
original Plant<§ cell. On charging, the Pb8O4
is peroxidized at the anode, i. e., converted into
PbOz, and deoxidized, and subsequently con-
verted into metallic lead at the kathode. Or, in
place of the above Pb3O4, red lead is placed on
the anode and PbO, or litharge, on the kathode.
Plates of compressed litharge have also been
recently used for this purpose. Storage cells so
formed have a greater storage capacity per unit
weight than those in which a grid is employed,
but a higher resistance.
In all cases where a metal plate is employed
various irregularities of surface are given to the
plates, in order to increase their extent of surface
and to afford a means for preventing the separa-
tion of the coatings. The metallic form thus
provided is known technically z&z.grid.
Unless care is exercised, the plates will buckle
from the difference in the expansion of the lead
and its filling of oxide. This buckling is attended
with an increase in the resistance of the cell and
the gradual separation of the oxides that cover ot
fill it.
Cell, Thermo-Electrlo A name
applied to a thermo-electric couple. (See
Couple, Thermo-Electric^
Cell, Voltaio The combination of
two metals, or of a metal and a metalloid,
which, when dipped into a liquid or liquids
called electrolytes, and connected outside the
liquid or liquids by a conductor, will produce
a current of electricity.
Different liquids or gases may take the place of
the two metals, or of the metal and metalloid.
(See Battery ', Gas.)
Plates of zinc and copper dipped into a solu-
tion of sulphuric acid and water, and connected
outside the liquid by a conductor, form a simple
voltaic cell.
If the zinc be of ordinary commercial purity:
Cel.]
[Cel.
and is not connected outside the liquid by a con-
ductor, the following phenomena occur:
(i.) The sulphuric acid or hydrogen sul-
phate, HZSO4, is decomposed, zinc sulphate,
ZnSO4, being formed, and hydrogen, H,, liber-
ated.
(2.) The hydrogen is liberated mainly at the
surface of the zinc plate.
(3.) The entire mass of the liquid becomes
heated.
If, however, the plates are connected outside
the liquid by a conductor of electricity, then the
phenomena change and are as follows, viz. :
(i.) The sulphuric acid is decomposed as be-
fore; but,
(2.) The hydrogen is liberated at the surface of
the copper plate only.
(3.) The heat no longer appears in the liquid
only, but in all parts of the circuit.
(4.) An electric current now flows through the
entire circuit, and will continue so to flow as long
as there is any sulphuric acid to be decomposed,
and zinc with which to form zinc sulphate.
The energy which previously appeared as heat
only, now appears in part as electric energy.
Therefore, although the mere contact of the
two metals with the liquid will produce a differ-
ence of potential, it is the chemical potential
energy which became kinetic during chemical
combination that supplies the energy required to
maintain the electric current. (See Energy,
Kinetic. Energy, Potential.)
A voltaic cell consists of two plates of different
metals, or of a metal and a metalloid (or of two
gases, or two liquids, or of a liquid and a gas),
each of which is called a
voltaic element, and which,
taken together, form what is
called a voltaic couple.
The voltaic couple dips in-
to a liquid called an electro-
lyte, which, as it transmits
the electric current, is de-
composed by it. The ele-
ments are connected outside
the electrolyte by any con-
ducting material.
Direction of the Current.— la. any voltaic cell
the current is assumed to flow through the liquid,
from the metal most acted on to the metal least
acted on, and outside the liquid, through the out-
side circuit, from the metal least acted on to the
metal most acted on.
Fig. 103. Voltaic
Couple.
In Fig. 103 a zinc-copper voltaic couple is
shown, immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. Here,
since the zinc is dissolved by the sulphuric acid,
the zinc is positive, and the copper negative in
the liquid. The zinc and copper are of opposite
polarities out of the liquid.
There is still a considerable difference of opinion
as to the exact cause of the potential difference of
the voltaic cell. There can be no doubt that a
true contact force exists, but the chemical poten-
tial energy of the positive plate is the source
of energy which maintains the potential differ-
ence.
The difference in the polarity of the zinc and
copper in and out of the liquid is generally de-
nied by most of the later writers on electricity,
since tests by a sufficiently delicate electrometer
show that the entire zinc plate is negative and
the entire copper plate positive. Remembering,
however, the convention as to the direction of
the flow of the current, since the current flows
from the zinc to the copper through the liquid,
we may still fairly regard the zinc as positive and
the copper as negative in the liquid. It will be
remembered, that in every source the polarity
within the source is necessarily opposite to the
polarity outside it. The copper plate is there-
fore called the negative plate, and the wire con-
nected to its end out of the liquid, the positive
electrode. Similarly, the zinc plate is called the
positive plate, and the wire connected to it the
negative electrode.
It will of course be understood that in the
above sketch the current flows only on the com-
pletion of the circuit outside the cell; that is,
when the conductors attached to the zinc and
copper plates are electrically connected.
Amalgamation of the Zinc Plate. — When zinc
is used for the positive element, it will, unless
chemically pure, be dissolved by the electrolyte
when the circuit is open, or will be irregularly
dissolved when the circuit is closed, producing
currents in little closed circuits from minute vol-
taic couples formed by the zinc and such impuri-
ties as carbon, lead, or iron, etc., always found
in commercial zinc. (See Action, Local, of Vol-
taic Cell.) As it is practically impossible to ob-
tain chemically pure zinc, it is necessary to amal-
gamate the zinc plate; that is, to cover it with a
thin layer of zinc amalgam.
Polarization of the Negative Plate.— Since the
evolved hydrogen appears at the surface of the
negative plate, the surface of this plate, unless
Cel.J
83
means are adopted to avoid it, will, after a while,
become coated with a film of hydrogen gas, or
as it is technically called, will become polarized.
(See Cell, Voltaic, Polarization of,)
The effect of this polarization is to cause a fall-
ing off or weakening of the current produced by
the battery, due to the formation of a counter,
electromotive force produced by the hydrogen-
covered plate; that is to say, the negative plate,
now being covered with hydrogen, a very highly
electro-positive element, tends to produce a
current in a direction opposed to that of the
cell proper. (See Force, Electromotive, Coun-
ter.)
This decrease in current strength is rendered
still greater by the increased resistance in the cell,
due to the bubbles of hydrogen, and to the de-
creased electromotive force, due to the increase
in the density of the zinc sulphate, in the case of
zinc in hydrogen sulphate.
In the case of storage cells, the counter-elec-
tromotive force of polarization is employed as the
source of secondary currents. (See Electricity,
Storage of. Cell, Secondary. Cell, Storage.)
In order to avoid the effects of polarization in
voltaic cells, and thus insure constancy of cur-
rent, the bubbles of gas at the negative plate are
mechanically carried off either by roughening its
surface, by forcing the electrolyte against the
plate as by shaking, or by a stream of air; or else
the negative plate is surrounded by some liquid
or solid substance which will remove the hydro-
gen, by entering into combination with it. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Polarization of .)
Voltaic cells are therefore divided into cells
with one or with two fluids, or electrolytes, or
into:
(I.) Single-fluid cells; and
(2.) Double-fluid cells.
Very many forms of voltaic cells have been de-
vised. The following are among the more im-
portant, viz. : Of the Single-Fluid Cells, the
Grenet, Poggendorff, or Bichromate, the Zinc-
Copper, the Zinc- Carbon and the Smee. Of the
Double-Fluid Cells, Grove's, Bunsen's, Callaud
or Gravity, DanielFs, Leclanche, Siemens- Hals ke
and the Meidinger,
Of all the voltaic cells that have been devised
two only, viz., the Gravity, a modified Daniell,
and the Leclanche, have continued until now in
very general use, the gravity cell being used on
closed-circuited lines, and the Leclanche on open-
circuited lines ; the former being the best suited
of all cells to furnish the continuous constant cur.
rents employed in most systems of telegraphy,
and the latter for furnishing the intermittent cur-
rents required for ringing bells, operating annun-
ciators, or for similar work.
Cell, Voltaic, Absorption and Genera-
tion of Heat in (See Heat, Absorption
and Generation of, in Voltaic Cell.)
Cell, Yoltaic, Bichromate A zinc-
carbon couple used with an electrolyte
known as electropoion, a solution of bichro-
mate of potash and sulphuric acid in water.
(See Liquid, Electropoion^}
Bichromate of sodium or chromic acid are
sometimes used instead of the bichromate of
potassium.
The zinc, Fig. 104, is amalgamated and placed
between two carbon plates.
The terminals connected
with the zinc and carbon
are respectively negative
and positive. In the form
shown in the figure, the zinc
plate can be lifted out of
the liquid when the cell is
not in action.
The bichromate cell is
excellent for purposes re-
quiring strong currents
where long action is not
necessary. As this cell
readily polarizes it cannot
be advantageously employ-
ed continuously for any
considerable period of time. It becomes depolar-
ized, however, when left for some time on open
circuit
The following chemical reaction probably takes
place when the cell is furnishing current, viz. :
jo 4. Bichromate
Cell.
K8S04 -f 3ZnS04 + Cr83(So4) -j- 7H2O.
This cell gives an electromotive force of about
1. 9 volts.
Cell, Voltaic, Bunsen's A zinc-
carbon couple, the elements of which are
immersed respectively in electrolytes of dilute
sulphuric and strong nitric acids.
Bunsen's cell is the same as Grove's, except
that the platinum is replaced by carbon. The
zinc surrounds the porous cell containing the car-
Cel.]
[Cel.
bon. The polarity is as indicated in Fig. 105.
(See Cell, Voltaic, Grove.)
Fig. 1 03. Bunsen Cell.
The Bunsen cell gives an electromotive force
of about 1.96 volts.
Cell, Voltaic, Callaud's A name
sometimes given to the gravity cell. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Gravity.)
Cell, Toltaic, Capacity of Polarization of
The quantity of electricity required
to be discharged by a voltaic cell in order to
produce a given polarization. (See Cell, Vol-
taic, Polarization of.)
During the discharge of a voltaic cell an electro -
motive force is gradually set up that is opposed
to that of the cell. The quantity of electricity
required to produce a given polarization de-
pends, of course, on the condition and size of
the plates. Such a quantity is called the capacity
of polarization.
Cell, Yoltalc, Closed-Circuit A
voltaic cell that can be left for a considerable
time on a closed circuit of comparatively
small resistance without serious polarization.
The term closed-circuit voltaic cell is used in
contradistinction to open-circuit cell, and applies
to a cell that can only be kept on closed circuit
for a comparatively short time.
Daniell's cell and the gravity cell are closed-cir-
cuit cells. Leclanchd's is an open-circuit celL
Cell, Voltaic, Contact Theory of
A theory which accounts for the production
of difference of potential or electromotive
force in the voltaic cell by the contact of the
elements of the voltaic couple with one an-
other by means of the electrolyte.
The mere contact of two dissimilar substances
through the electrolyte will produce a difference
of potential, but the cause of the current which a
voltaic cell is able to maintain is the chemical
potential energy which becomes kinetic during
combination. (See Cell, Voltaic. Series, Contact,)
Most authorities explain the difference of
potential produced by the contact of different
metals by the fact that the metals are sur-
rounded by air. They point out the fact that the
order of the metals in the contact-series is
almost identical with the order of their electro-
chemical power as deduced from their chemical
equivalents, and their heat of combination with
oxygen. It would appear, therefore, that the
difference of potential between a metal and the
air which surrounds it, is a measure of the tend*
ency of the metal to become oxidized.
The origin of the electromotive force of a zinc-
copper couple, in an electrolyte of hydrogen sul-
phate, is the superior affinity of the zinc for the
oxygen, over that of the copper for the oxygen.
Cell, Voltaic, Creeping in The
formation, by efflorescence, of salts on the sides
of the porous cup of a voltaic cell, or on the
walls of the vessel containing the electrolyte.
Paraffining the portions of the walls out of the
liquid, or covering the surface of the liquid with
a neutral oil , obviates much of this d ifficulty . (See
Efflorescence.)
Cell, Voltaic, Daniell's A zinc-
copper couple, the elements of which are im-
mersed respectively in electrolytes of dilute
sulphuric acid, and a saturated solution of
copper sulphate.
In the form of Daniell's cell, shown in Fig. 106,
the copper element is made in the form of a cylin-
der c, and is placed in a porous cell. The cop-
per cylinder is provided with a wire basket near
the top, filled with crystals of blue vitriol, or cop-
per sulphate, so as to maintain the strength of the
solution while the cell is in use. The zinc is in
the shape of a cylinder and is placed so as to sur-
round the porous celL This cell gives a nearly
constant electromotive force.
The constancy of action of Daniell's cell
depends on the fact that for every molecule of
sulphuric acid decomposed in the outer cell, an
additional molecule of sulphuric acid is supplied
by the decomposition of a molecule of copper sul-
phate in the inner cell. This will be better un-
Cel.]
85
ICel.
derstood from the following reactions which take
place, viz.:
Zn + H2S04 = ZnS04 -f- H,
H» -f CuS04 = H3S04 + Cu.
The H8SO4, thus formed in the inner cell,
passes through the porous cell, and the copper is
deposited on the surface of the copper plate.
Fig 1 06. Daniell s Cell.
The Daniell cell gives an electromotive force
of about 1.072 volts.
A serious objection to this form ot cell arises
from the fact that the copper is gradually de-
posited over the surface and in the pores of the
porous cell, thus greatly increasing its resistance.
This difficulty is avoided in the gravity cell. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Gravity.)
Cell, Voltaic, Double-Fluid A
voltaic cell in which two separate fluids or elec-
trolytes are employed.
One of the elements of the voltaic couple is
dipped into one ot the fluids and the other ele-
ment into the other fluid. In order to keep the
fluids separate and distinct, they are either sep-
arated by means of porous cells, or by the action
of gravity. (See Cell, Porous. Cell, Voltaic,
Gravity.)
In the double-fluid cell the negative element is
surrounded by a liquid which is capable ot pre-
Yenting polarization by combining chemically
with the substance that tends to collect on its
surface. In the Daniell cell this substance is the
same as that of the negative plate. (See Cell,
Voltaic^ Polarization of.)
Cell, Yoltaic, Dry A voltaic cell
in which a moist material is used in place of
the ordinary fluid electrolyte.
The term dry cell is in reality a misnomer,
since all such cells are moistened with liquid
electrolytes.
The dry cell, like other cells, is made in a
variety of forms. The ab-
sence of free liquid permits
the cell to be closed. A well
known form of dry cell is|
shown in Fig. 107.
Cell, Yoltaic, Effects of I
Capillarity in (See
Capillarity, Effects of. m \
Voltaic Cell.)
Cell, Yoltaic, Exciting
Liquid of— —The elec-
trolyte of a voltaic cell. ng, f07. Dry ceil
A voltaic cell may have a single electrolyte, in
which case it is called a single-fluid cell, or it may
have two electrolytes, in which case it is called a
double-fluid cell.
Cell, Yoltaic, Fuller's Mercury Bichro
mate — A zinc-carbon couple im-
mersed in an electrolyte of electropoion liquid.
The zinc is attached to a copper rod by being
cast thereto, and is placed at the bottom of a
porous .cell, where it is covered by a layer of
mercury. The carbon plate is placed in electro-
Pig. M08 Fuller's Mercury Bichromate Cell.
poion liquid, diluted with wajer in the proportion
of three of the former to two of the latter,, The
zinc is generally placed in pure water, which
rapidly becomes acid.
The mercury effects the continuous amalgama-
tion of the zinc.
A Fuller mercury bichromate cell is shown
in Fig. 108.
Cel.J
86
[CeL
Cell, Toltaic, Gravity A zinc-
copper couple, the elements of which are em-
ployed with electrolytes of dilute sulphuric acid
or dilute zinc sulphate, and a concentrated
solution of copper sulphate respectively.
The use of a porous cell is open to the objection
of increased internal resistance. Moreover, the
porous cell is apt to receive a coating of copper
which often deposits on the cell instead of on the
copper plate. The gravity cell was devised in
order to avoid the use of a porous cell. As its
name indicates, the two fluids are separated from
each other by gravity.
The copper plate is the lower plate, and is sur-
rounded by crystals of copper sulphate. The
zinc, generally in the form of an open wheel, or
crow-foot, is sus-
pended near the top
of the liquid, as
shown in Fig. 109.
When the cell is
set up with sul-
phuric acid, the re-
actions are the same
as in the Daniell
cell. When copper
sulphate and zinc
sulphate alone are
used, zinc replaces
the copper in the
copper sulphate.
The action is then
merely a substitution process. (See Cell, Voltaic,
Daniels.)
A dilute solution of zinc sulphate is generally
used to replace the dilute sulphuric acid. It
gives a somewhat lower electromotive force, but
ensures a greater constancy for the cell.
Cell, Toltaic, Grenet A name
sometimes given to the bichromate cell. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Bichromate!)
Cell, Voltaic, Grove A zinc-plati-
num couple, the elements of which are used
with electrolytes of sulphuric and nitric acids
respectively.
The zinc, Z, Fig. HO, is amalgamated and
placed in dilute sulphuric acid, and the platinum,
P, in strong nitric add (HNOt) in a forous tell
to separate it from the sulphuric acid. (See C ell,
Porous.) In the Grove cell the current is moder-
ately constant, since the polarization of the plati*
Fig. 109. The Gravity Cell.
num plate is prevented by the nitric acid, which
oxidizes and thus removes the hydrogen that
tends to be liberated at its surface. The con-
stancy of the current
is not maintained for
any considerable time,
since the two liquids
are rapidly decom-
posed, or consumed,
zinc sulphate forming
in the sulphuric acid,
and water in the nitric
acid.
The chemical reac-
tions are as follows,
viz.:
Zn + HaSO4 =
ZnSO4 + H8;
6H -f 2HNO8=
4H8O -f- 2NO;
2NO + O, = N804.
Nitrate of ammo-
nium is sometimes formed when the nitric acid
becomes dilute by decomposition. The reaction
is as follows :
2HNO, -f 4H, = 3H80 + NH4NO,.
The cell gives an electromotive force of 1.93
volts.
When the porous cell is good, the resistance of
the Grove cell may be calculated according to
the following formula of Ayrton:
Grove's Cell.
R =
ohms,
where d, is the distance in inches between the
platinum and zinc plates, and A, the square inches
of the immersed portion of the platinum plate.
Cell, Yoltaic, LeclanchS A zinc-
carbon couple, the elements of which are used
in a solution of sal-ammoniac and a finely
divided layer of black oxide of manganese
respectively.
The zinc is in the form of a slender rod and
dips into a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac,
NH4C1.
The negative element consists of a plate of car-
bon, C, Fig. ill, placed in a porous cell, in which
is a mixture of black oxide of manganese and
broken gas-retort carbon, tightly packed around
the carbon plate. By this mean? a greatly ex
tended surface of carbon surrounded by black
CeL]
oxide of manganese, MnO,, is secured. The entire
outer jar, and the spaces inside the porous cell are
filled with the solution of sal-ammoniac.
Fig. in. The Ledanchl Cell.
This cell, though containing but a single fluid,
belongs, in reality, to the class or type of double-
flwd cells, being one in which the negative ele-
ment is surrounded by an oxidizing substance,
the black oxide of manganese, which replaces the
nitric acid or copper sulphate in the other double-
fluid cells.
This reaction is generally given :
Zn + 4NH4C1 + 2Mn02 = ZnCl, -j- 2NH4Cl
+ 2NH8 -f- Mn808 -1- H80.
This reaction is denied by some, who believe
the following to take place :
Zn + 2(NH4Cl) = ZnCla + aNH, + H2.
The ZnCl2 and NH8 react as follows :
ZnCl, -|- 2(NH3) = 2 (NHZ) ZnCl2 + H,.
2H -f 2(Mn2O2) = H2O -f MnaO3;
or, possibly, 4H -f 3MnOa = MnaO -f- 2H,O.
The Leclanche' cell gives an electromotive force
of about 1.47 volts. It rapidly polarizes, and
cannot, therefore, give a steady current for any
prolonged time. When left on open circuit, how-
ever, it quickly depolarizes.
Cell, Toltaic, Local Action of
(See Action, Local, of Voltaic Cell.)
Cell, Yoltaic, Meidinger A zinc-
copper couple, the elements of which are em-
ployed with dilute sulphuric acid, or solution
of sulphate of magnesia, and strong nitric
acid, respectively.
The Meidinger cell is a modification of the
Daniell cell. The zinc-copper couple is thus ar-
ranged : Z Z, Fig. 112, is an amalgamated zinc
ring placed near the walls of the vessel, A A,
constricted at b b. The copper element, c, is
similarly placed with respect to the walls of the
vessel d d. The glass cylinder h, filled with
[Cel.
crystals of copper sulphate, has a small hole in
its bottom, and keeps the vessel, d d, supplied
with saturated so- 4.
lution of copper
sulphate. The cell
is charged with di-
lute sulphuric acid,
or a dilute solution
of Epsom salts, or
magnesium sul-
phate.
Cell, Voltaic,
Open-Circuit
A voltaic
cell that cannot be
kept on closed cir-
cuit, with a com-
paratively small
resistance, for any Fig. 112. The Meidinger Cell.
considerable time without serious polariza-
tion.
A Leclanch^ cell is an open-circuit cell. The
term open-circuit cell is used in contradistinc-
tion to closed-circuit cell, such as the Daniell.
^See Cell, Voltaic, Closed-Circuit.)
Cell, Voltaic, Poggendorff A
name sometimes given to the Grenet cell. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Grenet.)
Cell, Voltaic, Polarization of The
collection of a gas, generally hydrogen, on the
surface of the negative element of a voltaic
cell.
The collection of a positive substance like hydro-
gen on the negative element or plate of ?• voltaic
cell sets up a counter -electromotive force, which
tends to produce a current in the opposite direc-
tion to that produced by the cell. (See Force,
Electromotive, Counter.)
Polarization causes a decrease in the normal
current of a voltaic cell:
(l.) On account of the increased resistance of
the cell from the bubbles of gas which form part
of its circuit.
(2.) On account of the counter-electromotive
force, produced by polarization.
There are three ways in which the iH effects of
the polarization of a voltaic cell can be avoided.
These are :
(i.) Mechanical. — The negative plate is fur-
nished with a roughened surface which enables the
CeL]
[Cel.
bubbles of gas to escape from the points on such sur-
face ; or, a stream of gas, or air, is blown through
the liquid against the plate and thus mechanically
brushes the bubbles off.
(2.) Chemical. — The surface of the negative
plate is surrounded by some powerful oxidizing
substance, such as chromic or nitric acid, which
is capable of oxidizing the hydrogen, and thus
thoroughly removing it from the plate.
The oxidizing substance may form the entire
electrolyte, as is the case of the bichromate solution
employed in the zinc-carbon couple. Generally,
however, it has been found preferable to employ
a separate liquid, like nitric acid, to completely
surround the negative plate, and another liquid for
the positive plate, the two liquids being generally
kept from mixing by a porous cell, or diaphragm.
Such cells are called double-fluid cells. (See
Cell, Voltaic, Double-Fluid.)
(3.) Electro-Chemical.— This also necessitates a
double-fluid cell. The negative element is im-
mersed in a solution of a salt of the same metal as
that forming the negative plate. Thus, a cop.
per plate, immersed in a solution of copper sul-
phate, cannot be polarized, since metallic copper
is deposited on its surface by the action of the
hydrogen which tends to be liberated there.
The constancy of action of a Daniell cell depends
on a deposition of metallic copper on its copper
plate as well as on the formation of hydrogen
sulphate, and the solution of additional copper
sulphate from the crystallized salt placed in the
cell (SeeO//, Voltaic, Daniell's.)
Cell, Voltaic, Primary, Exhaustion of
The inability of a primary voltaic
cell to furnish any further current, unless
fresh electrolyte, or fresh positive element, or
both, are supplied to it.
In the case of exhaustion of a primary voltaic
cell the stock of fresh energy is supplied to the
cell from the chemical potential energy of the
positive element, or of the electrolyte or elec-
trolytes. (See Energy, Chemical Potential.)
In most voltaic cells a marked decrease in the
current strength is observed soon after the cir-
cuit is closed, and, therefore, long before the
cell is exhausted. This decrease is due—
(i.) To the increased internal resistance due to
the bubbles of hydrogen on the negative plate.
(2.) To the counter-electromotive force of po-
larization, where zinc is employed with an elec-
trolyte of sulphuric acid.
(3.) To the decrease in the electromotive force
due to an increase in the density of the zinc sul-
phate.
Cell, Voltaic, Secondary, Exhaustion of
The inability of a secondary cell to
furnish any further current, unless fresh
electro-positive and electro-negative materials
are formed in it by the passage of the
charging current.
In the case of the exhaustion of a secondary
voltaic cell, the stock of fresh energy supplied
to the cell is derived from the electric energy
of the charging current. (See Energy, Electric.)
Cell, Voltaic, Siemens-Halske -
A zinc-copper couple, the elements of which
are employed with dilute sulphuric acid and
saturated solution of copper sulphate respect-
ively.
The Siemens-Halske cell is a modification of
Darnell's. A ring of zinc, Z Z, Fig, 113, sur-
Fig IT3. Siemens-Halske Cell.
rounds the glass cylinder, c c. The porous
cell is replaced by a diaphragm, ff, of porous
paper, formed by the action of sulphuric acid on
a mass of paper pulp. Crystals of copper sul-
phate are placed in the glass jar, c c, and rest
on the copper plate, k, formed of a close copper
spiral. Terminals are attached at b and h. The
entire cell is charged with dilute sulphuric acid.
The resistance of the cell is high ,
Cell, Voltaic, Silver Chloride A
zinc and silver couple immersed in electro-
lytes of sal-ammoniac or common salt and
silver chloride.
Cel.]
89
[Cel.
The zinc acts as the positive element, and a
silver wire, around which a cylinder of fused
silver chloride is cast, as the negative element.
The zinc, and the silver wire and silver chloride,
are placed in a small glass test-tube and covered
with the sal-ammoniac or common salt, and
the tube closed by a cork of paraffin, to prevent
the evaporation of the electrolyte. When sal-
ammoniac is used, the strength of the solution is
that obtained by dissolving 23 grammes of pure
sal-ammoniac in I litre of water. The silver
chloride acts as a depolarizer.
This cell is used as a standard cell, known as
De la Rue's standard cell, from its inventor,
Warren De la Rue. Its electromotive force is
1. 068 volts.
Cell, Voltaic, Simple Any voltaic
cell formed of a single couple immersed in a
single exciting liquid.
Cell, Voltaic, Single-Fluid A vol-
taic cell in which but a single fluid or elec-
trolyte is used.
Single-fluid voltaic cells possess the disadvan-
tage of polarizing during action. This polariza-
tion is due to the electro-positive element of the
electrolyte collecting on the surface of the nega-
tive plate, or within its mass. For example,
where dilute sulphuric acid is the electrolyte,
hydrogen gas collects on the negative plate and
lowers the electromotive Jorce produced by the
cell, by a counter -electromotive force thereby
generated. (See Force, Electromotive. Force,
Electromotive, Counter.)
Cell, Voltaic, Smee A zinc-silver
couple used with an electrolyte of dilute sul-
phuric acid, H2SO4.
A form of Smee cell is shown in Fig. 1 14. Here
the plate of silver is placed between two zinc
plates.
The silver plate is roughened and covered with
a coating of metallic platinum, in the condition
known as platinum alack. (See Platinum Black. )
This cell was formerly extensively employed in
electro-metallurgy but is now replaced by dynamo-
tlectric -machines. (See Metallurgy, Electro.
Machine, Dynamo -Electric. )
A zinc -carbon couple is sometimes used to re-
place the zinc-silver couple. A couple of zinc-
lead is also used, though not very advanta-
geously.
The Smee cell was one of the earliest forms
of voltaic cells.
In the zinc-silver couple the chemical reaction
that takes place when the
cell is furnishing current is
as follows, viz. :
Zn -f HaS04 = ZnS04
+ H2.
The Smee cell gives an
electromotive force of about
.65 volt.
Cell, Voltaic, Stand-
ard —A voltaic cell
the electromotive force of
which is constant, and Fig. IT 4. Smee Cell.
which, therefore, may be used in the measure-
ment of an unknown electromotive force.
Absolute constancy of electromotive force is
impossible to attain, but if the current of the
standard cell is closed but for a short time the
electromotive force may be regarded as practically
invariable.
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Clark's
The form of standard cell shown in Fig. 115.
Latimer Clark's standard cell assumes a
variety of forms. The H-form is arranged as
shown in Fig. 115. The vessel to the left con-
tains, at A, an amal-
gam of pure zinc. The
other vessel contains,
at M, mercury covered
with pure mercurous
sulphate, Hg8 SO4.
Both vessels are then
filled, above the level
of the cross tube, with
a saturated solution of
zinc sulphate Z, Z, to
which a few crystals
of the same are added.
Tightly fitting corks
C, C, prevent loss by Fig. 113. Clark's Stand-
evaporation. *rd Cell.
The voltage of this cell in* legal volts is 1.438
[1—0.00077 (t— IS degrees C.)]— (Ayrton.)
The value t, is the temperature in degrees of
the centigrade scale.
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Kayleigh's Form
of Clark's A modified form of Clark's
cell.
Ccl.]
[Cel.
Il(>_ Rayleigh'*
Form of Clark's
Standard Cell.
Lord Rayleigh's form of Clark's standard cell
is shown in Fig. 1 16. The electrodes pass respect-
ively through the bottom and top of the test tube
of glass. On the lower
electrode a layer of mer-
cury, Hg, is placed. On
this rests a layer of mercu-
rous sulphate paste made
sufficiently semi-fluid with
a solution of zinc sulphate
to form an approximately
level surface. The zinc,
Zn, is attached to the up-
per electrode and is im-
mersed in this semi-fluid
paste.
The mercurous sulphate
appears to act to keep the
mercury free from impuri-
ties.
The electromotive force j
of this cell has been care-
fully determined by Ray-
leigh. Its value in true
Volts is :
E= 1.435 t1 — -00077 (t — 15)] when t, is the
temperature in degrees Centigrade.
This cell is often called Clark's normal element.
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, De la Rue's -
— A form of silver-chloride cell. (See Cell,
Voltaic, Silver-Chloride.}
Cell, Voltaic, Stand-
ard, Fleming's --
The form of standard
cell shown in Fig. 117.
The U-tube, Fig. 117,
is connected, as shown,
by means of taps, with
two vessels filled with
chemically pure solutions
of copper sulphate of sp.
gr. i.i at 15 degrees C.,
and zinc sulphate of sp.
gr. 1.4 at 15 degrees C.
respectively. To use the
cell the zinc rod Zn, con-
nected with a wire pass-
ing through a rubber
stopper, is placed in the
left-hand branch. The tap A, is opened and
the entire U-tube is filled with the denser
zinc sulphate solution. The tap at C, is then
Fig. z if. Fleming's
Standard Cell.
opened, and the liquid in the right-hand branch
above the tap is discharged into the lower vessel,
but, from this part only. The tap C, is then
closed, and the tap B, opened, and the lighter
copper sulphate allowed to fill the right-hand
branch above the tapC. The copper rod Cu, fitted
to a rubber stopper and connected with a con-
ducting wire, is then placed in the copper solution.
Tubes are provided at L and M, for the recep-
tion of the zinc and copper rods when not in use.
The copper rod is prepared for use by freshly
electro-plating it with copper. The electro-
motive force of this cell is 1.074 volts. If the line
of demarkation between the two liquids is not
sharp, the arms of the vessels are emptied, and
fresh liquid is run in.
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Lodge's
A form of standard Daniell cell.
Lodge's standard cell is shown in Fig. 118.
Through the tube T, in a
wide mouthed bottle, is
passed the glass tube, in the
mouth of which is placed a
zinc rod. To the bottom of
the tube T, a small test-tube
t, containing crystals of cop -
per sulphate, is fastened by
means of a string or rubber
band. The uncovered end
of a gutta-percha insulated
copper wire projects at the
bottom of t, through a tube
in a tightly fitting cork, and
forms the copper electrode. The bottle is partly
filled as shown with a solution of zinc sulphate.
The internal resistance of this cell is so high
that it is only employed in the use of zero methods
with a condenser.
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Sir William
Thomson's — A form of standard
Daniell cell.
Fig. 118. Lodge's
Form of Daniel!' t Cell.
Cu
Fig. u<). Thomson's Form of Daniell' s Cell.
Sir Wm. Thomson's standard cell is shown in
Fig . 1 1 9. A zinc disc is placed at the bottom of the
Cel.]
cylindrical vessel and a solution of zinc sulphate
of sp. gr. 1.2 poured over it. By means of the
funnel F, a half-saturated solution of copper
sulphate is carefully poured over this and floats
on it owing to its smaller density. The electro,
motive force of this cell is 1.072 true volts at
15 degrees C.
Cell,Yoltaic, Standardizing a De-
termining the exact value of the electromotive
force of a voltaic cell, in order to enable it to
be used as a standard in determining the
electromotive force of any other electric
source.
Cell, Voltaic, Two-Fluid A term
sometimes employed in place of double-fluid
cell. (See Cell, Voltaic, Double-Fluid)
Cell, Voltaic, Water A voltaic
cell in which the exciting liquid is merely
water.
Any voltaic couple can be used, the positive
element of which is acted on by water. (See
Battery, Voltaic.)
Cell, Voltaic, Zinc-Carbon A
cell in which zinc and carbon form the posi-
tive and negative elements respectively.
A name sometimes given to the bichro-
.nate cell.
Cell, Voltaic, Zinc-Copper A
cell in which zinc and copper form the posi-
tive and negative elements respectively.
Cell, Voltaic Zinc-Lead A zinc-
lead couple sometimes used, though not very
advantageously, to replace the zinc-silver
couple in a Smee cell. (See Cell, Voltaic,
Smee?)
Cells, Coupled A number of sep-
arate cells connected in any way so as to
form a single source.
Cells, Voltaic, Series-Connected
A number of separate voltaic cells connected
in series so as to form a single source. (See
Circuit, Series.)
Cement-Lined Conduit. — (See Conduit.
Cement-Lined?)
Cements, Insulating — Various
mixtures of gums, resins and other substances,
possessing the ability to bind two or more
4— Vol. 1
[Ch*
substances together and yet to electrically in-
sulate one from the other.
Cent!. — (As a prefix) — The one-hundredth
part of.
Centi-Ampdre. — One-hundredth of an am-
pere.
Centi-AmpSre Balance. — (See Balance.
Centi-Ampere?)
Centigrade Thermometer Scale. — (See
Scale, Centigrade Thermometer?)
Centigramme. — The hundredth of a
gramme
One centigramme equals 0.1544 grains avoir-
dupoise. (See Weights and Measures^ Metric
System of.)
Centilitre. — The hundredth of a litre.
One centilitre equals 0.6102 of a cubic inch.
(See Weights and Measures, Metric System of.)
Centimetre. — The hundredth of a metre.
One centimetre equals 0.3937 inch. (See
Weights and Measures, Metric System of.)
Centimetre-Gramme-Second Units. — (See
Units, Centimetre-Gramme-Second?)
Central Galvanization. — (See Galvaniza-
tion, Central?)
Central Station.— (See Station, Central?)
Central Station Burglar Alarm.— (See
Alarm, Burglar, Central Station?)
Central Station Lighting.— (See Light-
ing, Electric Central Station?)
Centre of Gravity.— (See Gravity, Centre
of.)
Centre of Oscillation.— (See Oscillation,
Centre of.)
Centre of Percussion.— (See Percussion
Centre of)
Centrifugal Force.— (See Force, Centrifu-
gal?)
Centrifugal Governor.-t-(See Governor
Centrifugal?]
Chain Lightning. — (See Lightning,
Chain?)
Chain, Linked Magnetic and Electric
A chain of three links, the separate
links of which consist of the primary circuit.
Cha.j
LCha.
the magnetic circuit, and the secondary cir-
cuit respectively, of an induction coil.
The conception of a linked magnetic and elec-
tric chain, in studying the action of an induction
coil, was first developed by Kapp. A linked
magnetic and electric chain is shown in Fig. 120.
Fig. 120. Linked Magnttic and Electric Chain.
tf, in such a case, the magnetic core or circuit is
of varying magnetization, when one of the electric
circuits has a periodic current passed through
it, the various phenomena of the induction coil
are produced. (See Coilt Induction.)
Chain, Molecular A polarized chain
oi molecules that is supposed to exist in an
electrolyte during its electrolytic decomposi-
tion, or in a voltaic cell on closing its circuit.
(See Hypothesis, Grotthus.)
Chain Pull.— (See Pull, Chain)
Chamber, Armature The armature
bore. (See Bore, Armature?)
Chamber of Lamp.— (See Lamp, Cham-
hrof.)
Change, Chemical Any change in
matter resulting from atomic combination
and the consequent formation of new mole-
cules.
Some chemical changes are caused by atomic
combinations and the formation of new molecules.
They are necessarily attended by 9 loss of the spe-
cific identity of the substances involved in the
change. Thus carbon, a black solid, combined
with sulphur, a yellow solid, produces carbon
disulphide, a colorless, odorous liquid. (See
Atom.)
Change, Physical Any change in
matter resulting from a change in the relative
position of its molecules, without the forma-
tion of new molecules.
Ice, when heated, is turned into water; steel,
when stroked by a magnet, is rendered perma-
nently magnetic; a piece of vulcanite or hard
rubber stroked by a piece of cat skin becomes
electrified. In all these cases, which are instances
of physical changes, the substances retain their
specific identity , This is true in all cases of phys-
ical changes. (See Molecule.)
Changing-over Switch. — (See Switch,
Changing-over?)
Changing Switch. — (See Switch, Chang-
ing.']
Characteristic Curve. — (See Curve,
Characteristic^)
Characteristic Curve of Parallel Trans-
former.— (See Citrve, Characteristic, of
Parallel Transformer!)
Characteristic Curve of Series Trans-
former.— (See Cur've, Characteristic, of
Series Transformer?)
Characteristics of Sound. — (See Sound,
Characteristic of.)
Charge, Bound The condition of
an electric charge on a conductor placed near
another conductor, but separated from it by
a medium through which electrostatic induc-
tion can take place. (See Induction, Elec~
trostatic?)
When a charged conductor is placed near an-
other conductor, but separated from it by a di-
electric or medium through which induction can
take place, a charge of the opposite name is in-
duced in the neighboring conductor. This charge
is so held or bound on the conductor by the mu-
tual attraction of the opposite charge that it is
not discharged on connection with the earth
unless both conductors are simultaneously touched
by any good conductor. The bound charge was
formerly called dissimulated or latent electricity.
(See Electricity, Dissimulated or Latent. )
Charge, Density of The quantity
of electricity per unit of area at any point on
a charged surface.
Coulomb used the phrase surface density to
mean the quantity of electricity per unit of area
at any point on a surface.
Charge, Dissipation of — — The gradual
but final loss of any charge by leakage, which
occurs even in a well insulated conductor.
This loss is more rapid with negatively charged
conductors, than with those positively charged.
[Cha.
Crookes, of England, has retained a charge on
conductors for years, without appreciable leakage,
by placing the conductors in vessels in which a
high vacuum was maintained. (See Vacuum,
pi.)
Charge, Distribution of The vari-
ations that exist in the density of an electrical
charge at different portions of the surface of
all insulated conductors except spheres.
The density of charge varies at different points
of the surface of conductors of various shapes. It
is uniform at all points on the surface of a sphere.
It is greater at the extremities of the longer
axis of an egg-shaped body, and greatest at the
sharper end.
It is greater at the corners of a cube than at
the middle of a side.
It is greatest around the edge of a circular disc.
It is greatest at the apex oi a cone
Charge, Electric The quantity of
electricity that exists on the surface of an in-
sulated electrified conductor.
When such a conductor is touched by a good
conductor connected with the earth, it is <#*-
charged. (See Condenser.)
Charge, Free The condition of an
electric charge on a conductor isolated from
any other conductor.
It is impossible to obtain a perfectly free charge,
since it is impossible to complete!; isolate an
insulated conductor. The charge, however, can
be comparatively free.
The charge, on a completely isolated conductor,
readily leaves it when it is put in contact with a
good conductor connected with the ground. (See
Charge, Bound.}
Charge, Induced Electrostatic
The charge produced by bringing a body
into an electrostatic fiel
In order to obtain a permanent charge, i. e., a
charge which will be maintained when the body
is withdrawn from an electrostatic field, it is nec-
essary to connect the body with the earth so that
it may lose, or'part with, a charge of the same
mame as the inducing charge. Then, on the with-
drawal of this charge, it will possess a charge op-
posite in name to the inducing charge. (See
Condenser. )
Charge, Influence A charge pro-
duced by electrostatic induction. (Sec /«•
duction, Electrostatic)
Charge, Negative According to the
double-fluid hypothesis, a charge of negative
electricity.
According to the single-fluid hypothesis,
any deficit of an assumed electrical fluid.
Charge, Positive According to the
double-fluid hypothesis, a charge of positive
electricity.
According to the single-fluid hypothesis,
any excess of an assumed electrical fluid.
Charge, Residual The charge pos-
sessed by a charged Leyden jar for a few
moments after it has been disruptively dis-
charged by the connection of its opposite
coatings.
The residual charge is probably due to a species
of dielectric strain, or a strained position of the
molecules of the glass caused by the charge.
Such residual charge is not present in air con«
densers. In other words, a Leyden jar does not
give up all the electric energy charged in it, on a
Single disruptive discharge.
Charge, Return A charge induced
in neighboring conductors by a discharge of
lightning.
Under the influence of induction a lightning
stroke produces during its discharge an electric
shock in the human body, or a charge in neigh*
boring bodies, which is called the back or re-
turn stroke of lightning. (See Stroke^ Light-
ning, Back or Return.}
Charged Body.— (See Body, Charged)
Charging Accumulators. — Sending an
electric current into a storage battery for the
purpose of rendering it an electric source.
There is, strictly speaking, no accumulation of
electricity in a storage battery, such, for example,
as takes place in a condenser, but a mere storage
of chemical energy, which may .afterward become
electric. (See Cell, Storage.)
Charging Leyden Jars 1>7 Cascade.— (See
Case ad*, Charging Leyden Jars by)
Chart, Inclination A map or chart
on which the isoclinic lines are marked. (See
Map or Chart, Inclination. Lints, Isocltnie)
Cha.]
94
[Chr.
Chart, Isodynamie A map or chart
on which the isodynamic lines are marked.
(See Map or Chart, Isodynamic. Lines,
Isodynamic?)
Chart, Isogonal An isogonic chart.
(See Map or Chart, Isogonal)
Chart, Isogonic A map or chart
on which the isogonic lines are marked. (See
Map or Chart, Isogonic. Lines, Isogonic)
Chatterton's Compound. — (See Com-
pound, Chatterton's)
Chemical Change. — (See Change, Chem-
ical)
Chemical Effect.— (See Effect, Chemical)
Chemical Equivalent.— (See Equivalent,
Chemical)
Chemical Galvano-Cautery.— (See Cau-
tery, Galvano-Chemical)
Chemical Phosphorescence.— (See Phos-
phorescence, Chemical)
Chemical Photometer.,— (See Photometer,
Chemical)
Chemical Potential Energy.— (See En-
ergy, Chemical Potential)
Chemical Recorder, Bain's (See
Recorder, Chemical, Bains)
Chemistry, Electro That branch
of electric science which treats of chemical
compositions and decompositions effected by
the electric current. (See Electrolysis. De-
composition, Electrolytic)
That branch of chemistry which treats of
combinations and decompositions by means
of electricity.
Electro-chemistry treats of the formation of
new molecules, by the combination of atoms under
the electric force, as well as the decomposition of
molecules by electricity.
The action of a series of sparks passed through
air, in forming nitric acid, is an instance of the
former, and electrolytic decompositions fax gen-
eral afford instances of the latter.
Chimes, Electric Bells rung by
the attractions and repulsions of electrostatic
charges.
The bells B and B, Fig. 121, are conductively
connected to the prime or positive conductor -\-,
of a frictional machine. The bell C, is insulated
from this conductor by means of a silk thread,
but is connected with the ground by the metallic
chain. Under these
circumstances th e
clappers, 1, 1, insu-
lated by silk threads,
t, t, are attracted to
B, B, by an induced
charge and repelled
to C, where they lose
their charge only to
be again attracted to
B, B. In this way
the bells will con-
tinue ringing as long
as the electric ma-
chine is in operation.
Choking Coil.— (See Coil, Choking)
Chronograph, Electric • —An elec-
tric apparatus for automatically measuring
and registering small intervals of time.
Chronographs, though of a variety of forms,
generally register small intervals of time by
causing a tuning fork or vibrating bar of steel,
whose rate of motion is accurately known, to
trace a sinuous line on a smoke-blackened sheet
of paper, placed on a cylinder driven at a uni-
form rate of motion by clockwork. If the fork
is known to produce, say, 256 vibrations per
second be used, each sinuous line will represent
y|3 part of a second.
Fig. tSf. Electric Chimes.
Fig. 122. Electric Chronograph.
An electro-magnet is used to make marks on
the line at the beginning and the end of the
observation, and thus permit its duration to be
measured.
In the form of electric chronograph shown
Clir.]
95
[Cir.
in Fig. 122, an electro-magnet, the armature of
which carries a pen, is supported on a carriage
moved by clockwork over a sheet of paper
wrapped on a rotating cylinder. A clock is so
connected with the circuit of the electro-magnet
that it makes or breaks the circuit at the end of
every second second, and so moves, or displaces,
the armature, as to cause an elevation or depres-
sion in the otherwise continuous sinuous line, that
would be drawn on the paper by the double
motion of its rotation and the movement of the
pen-carriage.
When it is desired to know with great precision
the exact time of occurrence of any event,
such, for example, as the transit of a star over the
meridian, the observer, who carries in his hand a
push button, or other form of electric key, closes
or opens the circuit at the exact moment and so
superposes an additional mark on the sinuous
line. Since the exact time of starting the clock
is known, and the intervals between the regular
successive marks are two seconds each, it is easy to
estimate from its position between any two such
marks the exact value of the additional mark inter-
posed. Fig. 122, taken from Young, shows a form
of chronograph by Warner & Swasey. The de-
tails of this apparatus will be understood from
an inspection of the drawing.
Chronograph Record. — (See Record,
Chronograph)
Chronoscope, Electric An appa-
ratus for electrically indicating, but not
necessarily recording, small intervals of time.
This term is often used for chronograph.
The interval of time required for a rifle ball
to pass between two points may be determined
by causing the ball to pierce two wire screens
placed a known distance apart. As the screens
are successively pierced, an electric circuit is
thus made or broken, and marks are registered
electrically on any apparatus moving with a
known velocity.
Cigar-Lighter, Electric —(See
Lighter, Cigar, Electric)
Cipher Code.— (See Code, Cipher)
Circle, Azimuth The arc of a
great circle passing through the point of the
heavens directly overhead, called the Zenith,
and the point directly beneath, called the
Nadir.
Circle, Dipping — A term some-
times applied to an inclination compass. (See
Compass, Inclination)
Circle, Galvanic A term some-
times used for galvanic circuit. (See Circuit,
Galvanic)
Circle of Reference.— The circle, by refer-
ence to which simple harmonic motion may
be studied, by comparison with uniform mo-
tion around such circuit. (See Motion,
Simple Harmonic)
Circle, Voltaic A name formerly
employed for voltaic cell or circuit. (See
Cell, Voltaic. Circuit, Voltaic)
Circuit, Air-Magnetic That part
of the path of a line of magnetic induction
which takes place wholly through air.
Circuit, Alternating Current A
circuit in which an alternating current of
electricity is flowing. (See Current, Alter-
nating)
Circuit, Astatic A circuit consist-
ing of two closed curves enclosing equal sur-
faces.
Such a circuit is A
not deflected by the *jL
action of the earth's — »_|[l
field. The circuit dis- J
posed, as shown in
Fig. 1 23, is astatic and
produces two equal
and opposite fields at
S and S'. (See Mag- Fig. 123. Astatic Circuit,
netism, Ampere's Theory of.)
Circuit, Balanced-Metallic A me-
tallic circuit, the two sides of which have
similar electrical properties.
Circuit Breaker.— (See Breaker, Circuit)
Circuit, Broken An open circuit.
A circuit, the electrical continuity of which
has been disturbed, and through which the
current has therefore ceased' to pass.
Circuit, Closed A circuit is closed,
completed, or made when its conducting
continuity is such that the current can pass.
Circuit, Closed Iron-Magnetic
The name applied to the path of any line
dr.]
96
[Cir.
of magnetic force, which takes place entirely
through iron, steel, or other paramagnetic sub-
stance.
Circuit, Closed-Loop Parallel A
variety of parallel circuit in which the lead
and the return circuit are arranged in the
form of concentric circuits, with the recep-
tive devices placed radially between them.
Circuit, Closed-Magnetic A mag-
netic circuit which lies wholly in iron or other
substance of high magnetic permeability.
All lines of magnetic force form closed circuits.
The term closed-magnetic circuit is used in con-
tradistinction to a divided circuit, or one in which
an air gap exists in the substance of high mag-
Fig. 124.* Closed-Magnetic Circuit.
netic permeability forming the remainder of the
circuit. This introduces so high a resistance that
such a circuit is sometimes called an open-mag-
netic circuit. An iron ring, such as shown in
Fig. 124, forms a closed -magnetic circuit.
Circuit, Closed-Magnetic, of Atom
A closed-magnetic circuit, or closed lines
of magnetic force supposed to lie entirely in
the atom itself.
The assumption of closed lines of magnetic
force in atoms or molecules was made in order to
explain the original polarity of the same, and to
account for some of the other phenomena of
magnetism.
When the atom is subjected to a magnetizing
force, such, for example, as the field of an electric
current, these closed lines of force are assumed
to open out and produce lines of polarized atoms.
According to Lodge, for every single line of force
produced by the current passing through a coil
of wire surrounding an iron core, some 3,000
lines of magnetic force are added to it from the
iron. Therefore an iron core greatly increases
the magnetic strength of a hollow coil of wire.
Circuit, Closed-Magnetic, of Molecule
— A closed-magnetic circuit assumed to lie
wholly within the molecule.
As it is not known whether the assumed mag.
netic circuit lies within the atom or the molecule,
it is called indifferently the closed-atomic or
closed-molecular circuit. (See Circuit, Closed-
Magnetic, of Atom.)
Circuit, Completed A closed
circuit.
A circuit, the conducting continuity of
which is unbroken.
A completed circuit is also called a made or
closed circuit.
Circuit, Compound A circuit con-
taining more than a single source, or more
than a single electro-receptive device, or both,
connected by conducting wires.
The term compound circuit is sometimes ap-
plied to a series circuit. (See Circuit, Series.)
The term, however, is a bad one, and is not
generally adopted.
Circuit, Constant-Current A cir-
cuit in which the current or number of am-
peres is maintained constant notwithstanding
changes occurring in its resistance.
The series-circuit, as maintained for arc-lamps,
is a constant-current circuit. (See Regulation,
Automatic.)
Circuit, Constant-Potential — —A
circuit, the potential or number of volts of
which is maintained approximately constant.
The multiple-arc or parallel circuit is an ap-
proximately constant-potential circuit.
Circuit, Derivative A derived or
shunt circuit. (See Circuit, Shunt.)
Circuit, Derived
A term applied to a shunt
circuit.
If, in addition to the galva-
nometer G, the conductor S,
Fig. 125, be connected with
the circuit of the battery B, a
derived circuit will thus be
established, and a current will
flow through S, diminishing
the current in the galvanom-
eter. (See Circuit, Shunt.)
J2j. Derivtd
Circuit.
Cir.]
97
[Cir.
Circuit, Divided-Magnetic A
magnetic circuit which lies partly in iron, or
qther substance of high magnetic perme-
ability, and partly in air.
A divided-magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 126.
Fig. I2b. Divided Magnetic Circuit.
Where the iron ring is separated by the air gap,
a high magnetic resistance is introduced, owing
to the fact that the iron is at these points replaced
by air, whose magnetic reluctance is great.
Circuit, Double-Wire A term
sometimes used for a simple multiple circuit
with two conductors or wires. (See Circuit,
Multiple')
The term double-wire circuit is used in contra-
distinction to single-wire circuit. (See Circuit,
Single -Wire.-)
Circuit, Earth A circuit in which
the ground or earth forms part of the con-
ducting path.
Circuit, Earth, Telegraphic — '-
That portion of a telegraphic circuit which is
completed through the earth or ground.
Circuit, Electric The path in
which electricity circulates or passes from a
given point, around or through a conducting
path, back again to its starting point.
All simple circuits consist of the following
parts, viz.:
(I.) Of an electric source which may be a
voltaic battery, a thermopile, a dynamo-electric
machine, or any other means for producing elec-
tricity.
(2.) Of leads or conductors for carrying the
electricity out from the source, through whatever
apparatus is placed in the line, and back again to
the source.
(3.) Various electro-receptive devices, such as
electro-magnets, electrolytic baths, electric
motors, electric heaters, etc., through which
passes the current by which they are actuated or
operated.
Circuit, Electrostatic The circuit
formed by lines of electrostatic force.
Lines of electrostatic force, like lines of mag.
netic force, form closed circuits. Hence the
origin of the phrase electrostatic circuit. (See
Force, Electrostatic, Lines of.)
Circuit, External That part of a
circuit which is external to, or outside the elec-
tric source.
The circuit external to the source consists of
two distinct parts, viz. :
(i.) The conductors or leads.
(2.) The electro-receptive or translating de-
vices.
It is in the external circuit only that useful
work is done by the current.
Circuit, Forked A term sometimes
used in telegraphy for a number of circuits
that radiate from a given central point.
Circuit, Galvanic A term some-
times employed instead of voltaic circuit.
The term galvanic in place of voltaic is unwar-
ranted by the facts of electric science. (See Cir-
cuit, Voltaic. )
Galvani thought he had discovered the vital
fluid or source of animal life. Volta first pointed
out the true explanation of the phenomena ob-
served in Galvani's frog, and devised means
for producing electricity in this manner. The
terms voltaic battery, cell, circuit, etc., are there-
fore preferable.
Circuit, Ground A circuit in which
the ground forms part of the path through
which the current passes.
As the ground is not always a good conductor,
the terminals should be connected with the gas or
water pipes, or with metallic plates, called ground
plates. Such connection, or any similar ground
connection, is usually termed the ground or earth.
Circuit, Ground, Telegraphic
An earth circuit used in any system of telegra-
phy. (See Circuit, Earth, Telegraphic!)
Circuit, Grounded A ground cir-
cuit.
Circuit, Incomplete An open 01
broken circuit.
Cir.]
A circuit whose conducting continuity is
incomplete.
Circuit, Inductive Any circuit in
which induction takes place.
Circuit, Internal That part of a
circuit which is included within the electric
source.
The electric current passing through the inter-
nal circuit does no useful work.
Circuit, Leg of One part of a
twisted or metallic circuit.
Circuit, Line The wire or other
conductors in the main line of any telegraphic
or other electric circuit.
Circuit, Line, Telegraphic The
conductor or line connecting different tele-
graphic stations.
Circuit, Local-Battery The cir-
cuit, in a telegraphic system, in which is
placed a local battery as distinguished from a
main battery. (See Telegraphy \ American
or Morse System of.)
Circuit, Loop A term sometimes
applied to a circuit in parallel or multiple-arc.
(See Circuit, Multiple^
Circuit Loop Break.— (See Break, Circuit
Loop.)
Circuit, Made A completed circuit.
A circuit, whose conducting continuity is
unbroken.
A made circuit is often called a completed or
closed circuit. (See Circuit, Closed.)
Circuit, Magnetic The path through
which the lines of magnetic force pass.
All lines of magnetic force form closed circuits.
[Cir.
is often placed around the magnet. The magnet
is then said to be iron-clad.
The armature of a magnet lowers the magnetic
resistance by affording a better path for the lines
of magnetic force than the air between the
poles.
The magnetic circuit always tries to shorten its
path, or to render itself as compact as possible.
This is seen in the action of an armature drawn
towards a magnet pole.
Circuit, Main-Battery —A term
sometimes used for line circuit. (See Circuit.
Line) .
Circuit, Metallic A circuit in which
the ground is not employed as any part of the
path of the current, metallic conductors being
employed throughout the entire circuit.
Circuit, Multiple —A compound cir-
cuit, in which a number of separate sources
or separate electro-receptive devices, or both,
have all their positive poles connected to a
single positive lead or conductor, and all their
negative poles to a single negative lead or
conductor.
The connection of three Bunsen cells, in mul.
tiple, is shown in Fig. 128, where the three car-
Fig. t2j. Magnetic Circuit.
In the bar magnet, shown in Fig. 127, part of
this path is through the air. In order to reduce
or lower the resistance of a magnetic circuit, iron
Fig. 1 28. Batteries connected in a Multiple Circuit.
bons, C, C, C, are connected together so as to form
the positive, or -\- terminal of the battery, and
the three zincs, Zn, Zn, Zn, are similarly con-
nected together so as to form the negative, or —
terminal.
The electromotive force is the same as that of
a single cell, or source. The internal resistance
of the source is as much less than the resistance of
any single source as the area of the combined
negative or positive plates is greater than that of
any single negative or positive plate ; or, in othet
words, is less in proportion to the number of cells,
or other separate sources so coupled.
The connection of six cells in multiple or
parallel circuit, is shown in Fig. 129.
Cir.J
[Cir.
In the case of the six cells, the current would
be,
B
where E, is the electromotive force, r, the in-
ternal, and r', the external resistance.
1 H fl2fi 031} 848 ISB M
Fig. 129. Six Cells Connected in Multiple.
In the case of voltaic cells the effect of multiple
connection on the internal resistance of the source
is to increase the area of cross-section of the
liquid in the dirert proportion of the number of
cells added, and consequently to decrease the re-
sistance in the same proportion.
When strong or large currents of low electro-
motive force are required, connections in multi-
ple-arc are generally employed.
The multiple-arc connection was formerly
called connection-f or -quantity. This term is now
abandoned.
The total resistance for the parallel circuit is
obtained as follows: calling the separate resist-
ances of the separate electro-receptive devices,
R', R", R'", etc., etc., etc., total resistance,
R' X R" X R'"
R=
R' R"
R" R'" R' R'"
or, what is the same thing, the conductivity is the
sum of the reciprocal of the separate resistances,
Conductivity
The joint resistance of only two separate resist-
ances joined in a multiple-circuit is equal to the
product of the separate resistances divided by
their sum.
When the separate resistances joined in multiple
arc are all of the same value, the joint resistance is
equal to the resistance of one of them divided by
their number.
Circuit, Multiple- Arc A term often
used for multiple circuit. (See Circuit, Mul-
tiple^
Circuit, Multiple-Series . —A com-
pound circuit in which a number of separate
sources, or separate electro-receptive devices,
or both, are connected in a number of sepa-
rate groups in series, and these separata
groups subsequently connected in multiple.
In Fig. 130, a multiple-series circuit of six
_ _ _ _ c
X
Fig. 130. Mulliple-Series-Connected Cells.
sources is shown, in which three separate groups
of two series-connected cells are coupled in multi-
ple. The current takes the paths indicated by the
arrows. The electromotive force of the source
will be increased in proportion to the number of
cells in series, and the internal resistance de-
creased in proportion to the number in parallel.
Fig. 13 r. Cells Connected in Multiple- Series.
c_ 3E
In Fig. 131, six cells are arranged in two
groups of three series-connected cells, and these
three groups connected in parallel.
Calling r, the resistance of each separate cell,
the total resistance for the multiple-series circuit
for a circuit containing three cells in parallel and
two in series is,
for three in series and two in parallel,
If, therefore, the circuit of this battery be
closed by a resistance equal to r, the current
would be in the case of Fig. 130,
c_ 2E
Cir.]
100
[Cir.
Circuit, Negative Side of The side
olt a circuit opposite to the positive side.
(See Circuit, Positive Side of.)
That side or half of a circuit connected to or
leading from the positive terminal of the source of
Current.
Circuit, Open A broken circuit.
A circuit, the conducting continuity of
which is broken.
Circuit, Open-Iron Magnetic —
The path of a line of magnetic induction,
which passes partly through iron, and partly
through an air space.
The magnetic circuit is always closed, that is
the lines of magnetic force always form closed
paths. The term " open " is used in contradis-
tinction only to "closed " iron magnetic circuit,
in which the entire path of a line of force passes
through iron. (See Circuit, Magnetic.)
Circuit, Parallel A name some-
times applied to circuits connected in mul-
tiple. (See Circuit, Multiple.)
Circuit, Parallel-Tree A form of
parallel circuit in which the receptive devices
are placed in parallel between the leads and
returns, and the branches and sub-branches
arranged in a tree-like form.
Circuit, Positive Side of That side
of a circuit, bent in the form of a circle, in
which, if an observer stood with his head in
the positive region, he would see the current
pass round him from his right hand towards
his ldt—(Dam'etZ.)
Circuit, Recoil A term sometimes
applied to the circuit that lies in the alterna-
tive path of a discharge. (See Path, Alter-
native^
Circuit, Return That part of a
circuit by which the electric current returns to
the source.
In a multiple-circuit the lead that is con-
nected to the negative terminals of the
separate sources.
Circuit, Series A compound cir-
cuit in which the separate sources, or the sep-
arate electro-receptive devices, or both, are so
placed that the current produced in each, or
passed through each, passes successively
through the entire circuit from the first to the
last.
• The six cells, shown in Fig. 132, are connected
in series by joining the positive pole of each cell
with the negative pole of the succeeding cell, the
negative and positive poles at the extreme ends
Fig. 132. Series Circuit.
being connected by conductors with the external
circuit.
The connection of three Leclanche' cells iit
series is clearly shown in Fig. 133. The carbons,
- C+Z«- C>
Altaic Cells Connected in Series.
C, C, of the first and second cells are connected to
the zincs, Zn, Zn, of the second and third cells,
thus leaving the zinc, Zn, of the first cell, and the
carbon, C, of the third cell, as the terminals of
the battery. The direction of the current is
shown by the arrows.
The resistance of such a connection is equal to
the sum of the resistances of all of the separate
sources.
The electromotive force is equal to the sum of
the separate electromotive forces.
If the electromotive force of a single cell is
equal to E, its internal resistance to r, and the
resistance of the leads and electro -receptive de-
vices to r', then the current in the circuit,
If six of such cells are coupled in series, the cur-
rent becomes
6E
If, however, the internal resistance of each cell be
so small as to be neglected, the formula becomes
r 6E-
C=_,
Cir.]
101
[Cir.
or the current is six times as great as with one
cell.
The total resistance of the separate sources or
electro-receptive devices of the series circuit is
as follows, calling R', R", R'", etc., the-separate
resistance and R, the total resistance,
R = R' -f R" + R "', etc.
The series connection of battery cells is used
on telegraph fines, where a high electromotive
force is required in order to overcome a consider-
able resistance in the circuit, or in similar cases
where the resistance in the external circuit is
great, on account of a number of electro-receptive
devices being connected to the line in series.
The series connection was formerly called
connection for intensity. The term is now aban-
doned.
Circuit, Series-Multiple -- A com-
pound circuit, in which a number of separate
sources, or separate electro-receptive devices,
or both, are connected in a number of sepa-
rate groups in multiple-arc, and these sepa-
rate groups subsequently connected in series.
In the series-multiple circuit the resistance of
each multiple group is equal to the resistance of
a single branch divided by the number of branches.
If, for example, r, is the resistance of each sepa-
rate branch of say seven parallel circuits in each
of the separate groups of multiple circuits, then
the resistance, R, of each separate multiple
group is — •
The total resistance of the series-multiple cir-
cuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of the
separate multiple groups. The total resistance of
the three groups is — -
R' = ^ + JL + Jl^JL.
777 7
An example of the series-multiple circuit is
shown in Fig. 134, which is the method adopted
Fig. 134- Series-Multiple Circuit.
in the use of distribution boxes. Here a number
c multiple groups or circuits are connected with
each other in series, as shown. (See Box, Dis-
tribution, for Arc Light Circuits. )
Circuit, Short A shunt, or by-path.
of comparatively small resistance, around the
poles of an electric source, or around any
portion of a circuit, by which so much of the
current passes through the new path, as vir-
tually to cut out the part of the circuit around
which it is placed, and so prevent it from re-
ceiving an appreciable current.
Circuit, Shunt A branch or addi-
tional circuit provided at any part of a cir-
cuit, through which the current branches or
divides, part flowing through the original cir-
cuit, and part through the new branch.
A shunt circuit is in multiple circuit with the
circuit it shunts.
In the case of branch circuits each of the cir-
cuits acts as a shunt to the others. Any number
of additional or shunt circuits may be thus pro-
vided. (See Lams, JGrcAAofs.)
Circuit, Simple A circuit containing
a single electric source, and a single electro-
receptive device, connected by a conductor.
The term simple circuit is sometimes applied
to a multiple circuit. The term is not, however,
a good one, and is not in general use.
Circuit, Single- Wire A term some-
times used for a grounded circuit. (See
Circuit, Grounded?)
The single-wire circuit is sometimes used in the
distribution of incandescent lamps in multiple-arc.
One pole of the dynamo is put to ground, and the
other pole to a single wire or lead. The electro-
receptive devices have one of their poles con.
nected to this lead and the other pole to earth.
The single-wire circuit is a very objectionable
circuit so far as safety is concerned.
It is frequently used, however, in the wiring of
ships.
Circuit, Through A telephonic or
telegraphic circuit that has been completed
through to a given station by cutting out inter-
ruptions or breaks in the line by the connec-
tion together of sections of different wires.
Circuit, Time-Constant of —The
time in which a current due .to a constant
electromotive force will rise in a conductor
to a definite fraction of its maximum value.
The ratio of the inductance of a circuit to
its resistance.
Cir.J 1
The time required from the moment of
closing the circuit, for a current to rise to
a value equal to e * of the full value, or
.632 of the maximum value.
In the above, e, equals 2.71828, or the base of
the Napierian system of logarithms.
The time-constant is proportional to the con-
ductivity of the circuit and its formal resistance.
Approximately the time constant of a circuit is
the time from closing the circuit, in which the
current rises to two-thirds of its maximum value,
this maximum value being determined by the
formula, C = -.
R
The time- constant of a circuit may be reduced —
(i.) By decreasing the self-induction of the cir-
cuit.
(2.) By increasing the resistance.
In the case of a magnetic conductor the time-
constant is proportional to a quantity (the perme-
ability) which is determined by the capacity of
the conductor to utilize part of the energy in
producing magnetization of its substance.— (Flem-
ing-)
Circuit, Voltaic The path through
which the current flows out from a voltaic cell
or battery, through the translating devices
and back again to the cell or b?>tery.
Circuits, Forked A term employed
in telegraphy to indicate circuits that radiate
from any single point.
Forked circuits are employed in simultaneously
transmitting messages to several stations.
Circuits, Varieties of » — Conducting
paths provided for the passage of an electric
current.
Electric circuits may be divided, according to
their complexity, into—
(i.) Simple.
(2.) Compound.
According to the peculiarities of their connec-
tions, into —
(i.) Shunt or derived.
(2.) Series.
(3.) Multiple, multiple-arc or parallel.
(4.) Multiple-series.
(5.) Series-multiple.
Either the circuits, the sources, or the electro-
® [Cle.
receptive devices may be connected in series, in
multiple, in multiple-series or in series-multiple.
According to their resistance, circuits are
divided into—
(i.) High-resistance.
(2.) Low-resistance.
According to their relation to the electric
source, into —
(I.) Internal circuits.
(2.) External circuits.
According to their position, or the work done,
circuits are divided into very numerous classes;
thus, in telegraphy, we have the following, viz.:
(i.) The line-circuit.
(2.) The earth or ground circuit.
(3.) The local-battery circuit.
(4.) The main -battery circuit, etc.
Circular Bell.— (See Bell. Circular)
Circular Units.— (See Units, Circular)'
Circular Units (Cross-Sections), Table
of (See Units, Circular (Cross-Sec-
tions), Table of)
Clamp, Carbon A carbon clutch,
(See Clutch, Carbon, of Arc Lamp)
Clamp for Arc Lamps.— A clamp for
gripping the lamp-rod, /. e., the rod that sup-
ports the carbon electrodes of arc lamps.
(See Lamp, Electric, Arc.)
Clamp, Rod A carbon clutch. (See
Clamp for Arc Lamps)
Clark's Compound. — (See Compound,
Clark's)
Clark's Standard Voltaic Cell.— (See
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Clark's)
Clark's Standard Voltaic Cell, Ray-
leigh's Form of (See Cell, Voltaic,
Standard, Rayleigh's Form of Clark's)
Clay Electrode.— (See Electrode, Clay)
Cleansing, Fire — —The removal of
grease from metallic articles, that are to be
electro-plated, by subjecting them to the action
of heat.
This cleansing is for the purpose of obtaining \
uniform, adherent coating.
Clearance-Space.— (See Stace. Clearance)
Cle.]
103
[Clo.
Clearing-Out Drops.— (See Drops, Clear-
ing-Out)
Cleat, Crossing A cleat so arranged
as to permit the crossing of one pair of wires
under or over another pair without contact
with each other.
Cleat-Wiring.— (See Wiring, Cleat)
Cleats, Electric Suitably shaped
pieces of wood, porcelain, hard rubber or
other non-conducting material used for fasten-
ing and supporting electric conductors to
ceilings, walls, etc.
A simple form of wooden cleat is shown in
Fig. 135-
.W
Fig- '35' Wooden Cleat.
Clepsydra, Electric An instrument
for measuring time by the escape of water or
other liquid under electrical control.
Climbers, Pole
—Devices employed by
linemen for climbing
wooden telegraph poles.
A climber with straps
for attachment to the leg
and foot is shown in Fig.
I36.
Clip, Cable A
term sometimes used for
cable hanger. (See
Hanger, Cable?)
Clock, Electric
— A clock, the works of
which are moved, COn- Fig. 136. Climber and
trolled, regulated or *"**•
wound, either entirely or partially, by the elec-
tric current.
Electric clocks may be divided into three
classes, viz.:
(i.) Those in which the works are moved en-
tirely or partially by the electric current.
(2.) Those which are controlled or regulated
by the electric current
Fig. Jjf. Controlling
Clock.
(3-) Those which are merely wound by the
current.
A clock moving independently of electric power
is prevented from gain-
ing or losing time, by
means of a slight re-
tardation or acceleration
electrically imparted .
The entire motion of
the balance wheel is
sometimes imparted by
electricity.
An example of one of
many forms of controll-
ing electric clocks is
shown in Fig. 137,
where the split battery
(See Battery, Split), P
N, is connected, as
shown, to the spring
contacts S and S'. In this way currents are sent
into the circuit in alternately opposite directions.
The pendulum bob, Fig. 138, of the con-
trolled clock is formed of a hollow coil of insu-
lated wire, which encircles one or both of two
permanent magnets, A and A', placed with their
opposite poles facing each other.
When the pendulum of the controlling clock is
in the position shown in Fig. 137, the current
passes in the direction E P Sn W, etc., and through
the coil C, Fig. 138. When the pendulum of the
controlling clock is in con-
tact with S', the current
flows through Wn S' N E,
etc., and through the coil
C in the opposite direc-
tion. In this manner a
slight motion forwards or
backwards is imparted to
the pendulum, which is
thus kept in time with the
controlling clock.
Mercury contacts are
sometimes employed in
place of the springs S and
S'. Induction currents may A
also be employed.
Clocks of non-electric ac- Fig. 138.
tion may be electrically
controlled, or correctly set at certain intervals,
either automatically by a central clock, or by the
depression of a key operated by hand from an
astronomical observatory.
Controlled
Clock'
Clo.]
104
[Clo,
In a system of time-telegraphy, the controlling
clock is called the master clock, and the con-
trolled clocks, the secondary clocks.
Secondary clocks are generally mere dials, con-
Fig. 139. Mechanism of Secondary Clock.
taining step-by-step movements, for moving the
hour, minute and second hands, as shown in
Fig. 139-
In Spellier's clock, a series of armatures H,
Fig. 140, mounted on the circumference of a
E
Fig. 140. Spellier's Electric Clock.
wheel, connected with the escapement wheel,
pass successively, with a step-by-step movement,
over the poles of electro-magnets. On the com-
pletion of the circuit, they are attracted towards
the magnet, and on the breaking of the circuit
they are drawn away by the fall of the weight F,
placed on the lever D, pivoted at E. A pulley at
E, runs over the surface of a peculiarly shaped
cog on the escapement wheel.
Clock, Electric Annunciator A
clock, the hands or works of which, at cer-
tain predetermined times, make electric con-
tacts and thus ring bells, release drops, trace
records, etc.
Clock, Electrical-Controlling In
a system of time telegraphy, the master clock,
whose impulses move or regulate the second-
ary clocks. (See Clock, Electric.}
Clock, Electrically-Controlled In
a system of time telegraphy, a secondary
clock, that is either driven or controlled by
the master clock. (See Clock, Electric.}
Clock, Electrolytic, Tesla's A time
piece in which the rotation of the wheel work
is obtained by the difference in weight of the
two halves of a delicately pivoted and well-
balanced wheel placed in an electrolytic
bath.
In the electrolytic clock of Nikola Tesla, a deli- '
cately formed and balanced disc of copper is sup-
ported on a horizontal axis at right angles to the
shortest distance between the two electrodes, and
placed in a bath of copper sulphate. Its two
halves become respectively electro-positive and
electro-negative when a current is passed through
the bath, and consequently metal is deposited on
one half and dissolved from the other half. The
rotation of the disc under the influence of gravity
is caused to mark time.
An electrolytic clock could therefore be made
to answer roughly as an electric meter.
Clock, Master The central or con-
trolling clock in a system of electric time-dis-
tribution, from which the time is transmitted
to the secondary clocks in the circuit. (See
Clock, Electric.}
Clock, Secondary Any clock in a
system of time telegraphy that is controlled
by the master clock. (See Clock, Electric.}
Clock, Self-Winding A clock that
at regular intervals is automatically wound by
the action of a small electro-magnetic motor
contained within it.
This motor is usually run by one or more vol-
taic cells, concealed in the case of the clock.
Cloged-Circuit.— (See Circuit, Closed)
Closed-Circuit Battery.— (See Battery,
Closed-Circuit)
Closed-Circuit, Single-Current, Signal-
ing (See Signaling, Single-Current,
Closed-Circuit^
Clo.]
105
[Coe.
Closed-Circnit Thermostat.— (See Ther-
mostat, Closed-Circuit)
Closed-Circuit Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Closed-Circuit)
Closed-Circuit Voltmeter.— (See Volt-
meter, Closed-Circuit)
Closed-Circuited. — Placed in a closed or
completed circuit.
A voltaic battery, or other source, is closed- cir-
cuited when its poles or terminals are electrically
connected with each other.
Closed-Circuited Conductor.— (See Con-
ductor, Closed-Circuited)
Closed-Circular Current. — (See Current,
Closed- Circular)
Closed-Coil Disc Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Closed-Coil Disc)
Closed-Coil Drum Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Closed-Coil Drum)
Closed-Coil Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Closed-
Coil)
Closed-Coil Ring Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Closed-Coil Ring)
Closed-Iron-Circuit Transformer.— (See
Transformer, Closed-Iron-Circuit)
Closed-Loop Parallel-Circuit.— (See Or-
ttu't, Closed-Loop Parallel)
Closed-Magnetic Circuit. — (See Circuit,
Closed-Magnetic)
Closed-Magnetic Core. — (See Core, Closed-
Magnetic)
Closure. — The completion of an electric
circuit.
Cloth Discs, Carbonized, for High Re-
sistances Discs of cloth carbonized by
heating to an exceedingly high temperature
in a vacuum, or out of contact with air.
After carbonization the discs retain their flex-
ibility and elasticity and serve admirably for high
resistances. When piled together and placed in
glass tubes, they form excellent variable resist*
> vrhen subjected to varying pressure.
Club-Footed Magnet. — (See Magnet,
Club-Footed)
Clutch, Carbon, of Arc Lamp A
clutch or clamp attached to the rod or other
support of the carbon of an arc lamp, pro-
vided for gripping or holding the carbon.
(See Lamp, Electric Arc)
Clutch Rod.— (See Rod, Clutch)
Coating, Metallic A covering or
coating of metal, usually deposited from
solutions of metallic salts by the action of an
electric current . (See Plating, Electro)
Coating of Condenser.— A sheet of tin
foil on one side of a Leyden jar or condenser,
directly opposite a similar sheet on the other
side for the purpose of receiving and collecting
the opposite charges. (See Jar, Leyden.
Condenser)
Coatings of Leyden Jar. — The sheets of
tin foil or other conductor on the opposite
sides of a Leyden jar or condenser. (See
Jar, Leyden. Condenser)
Code, Cipher A code in which a
number of words or phrases are represented
by single words, or by arbitrary words or syl-
lables.
The message thus received requires the posses-
sion of the key to render it intelligible.
Code,Telegraphic The pre-arranged
signals of any system of telegraphy. (See
Alphabet, Telegraphic. Alphabet, Tele-
graphic, Morse's. Alphabet, Telegraphic,
International Code)
Co-efflcient, Algebraic A number
prefixed to any quantity to indicate how
many times that quantity is to be taken.
The number 3, in the expression 33, is a co-
efficient and indicates that the a, is to be taken
three times, asa4-a4-a = 3a.
Co-efficient, Economic, of a Dynamo-
Electric Machine The ratio between
the electrical energy, or the electrical horse-
power of the current produced by a dynamo,
and the mechanical horse-power expended in
driving the dynamo.
The economic co-efficient is usually called the
efficiency.
Coe.]
106
[Coi.
The efficiency may be the commercial effi.
ciency, which is the useful or available energy in
the external circuit divided by the total mechan-
ical energy; or it may be the electrical efficiency,
which is the available electrical energy divided
by the total electrical energy.
The efficiency of conversion is the total elec-
trical energy developed, divided by the total
mechanical energy applied.
If M, equals the mechanical energy,
W, the useful or available electrical energy,
and
w, the electrical energy absorbed by the
machine, and
m, the stray power, or the power lost in
friction, eddy currents, air friction, etc.
Then, since
The Commercial Efficiency
_ W_. W
~~ "M ~~ W + w -f m"
The Electrical Efficiency
W
The Efficiency of Conversion
^ W + w = W -f w
M W + w -f m'
Co-efficient of Electro-Magnetic Inertia.
— (See Inertia, Electro-Magnetic, Co-effi-
cient of.)
Co-efficient of Expansion. — (See Expan-
sion, Co-efficient of.)
Co-efficient of Expansion, Linear --
(See Expansion, Linear, Co-efficient of)
Co-efficient of Magnetic Induction. — (See
Induction, Magnetic, Co-efficient of.)
Co-efficient of Magnetization. — (See
Magnetization, Co-efficient of.)
Co-efficient of Mutual- Inductance. — (See
Inductance, Mutual, Co-efficient of.)
Co-efficient of Mutual-Induction. — (See
Induction, Mutual, Co-efficient of)
Co-efficient of Self-induction.— (See In-
duction, Self, Co-efficient of)
Coercitive Force.— (See Fora, Coerci-
tive)
Coercive Force.— (See Force, Coercive)
Coil, Choking -- A coil of wire so
wound on a core of iron as to possess high
self-induction.
Choking-coils are used to obstruct or cut oft an
alternating current with a loss of power less than
with the use of a mere ohmic resistance.
Fig. 141 shows a choking-coil. It consists of
a circular solenoid of insulated wire, wound
on a core of soft iron wire. A thorough divis-
ion of the core is obtained by forming it of coils
of insulated iron wire. In this way, no eddy
currents are produced in the coil. When a simple
periodic electromotive force is applied to the
terminals of such a coil, if
the magnetic permeability
of the coil is constant, a
simple periodic current is
produced, which lags be-
hind the phase of the im-
pressed electromotive force
by a constant angle. If Fig. 14.1. Choking-
the impressed electromo-
tive force is sufficiently great to more than satu-
rate the core, the choking coil ceases to choke
the current. The higher the periodicity the
greater is the choking effect of a given coil, or the
smaller the coil may be made to produce a given
effect.
Since an open-magnetic circuit requires a
greater current to saturate it than a closed-mag-
netic circuit, the complete throttling or choking
power of such a coil is increased by forming its
core of a closed -magnetic circuit, z\ e., of a circuit
in which there is no air space or gap. (See Circuit,
Divided-Magnetic. Circuit, Closed- Magnetic.)
Coil, Electric A convolution of in-
sulated wire through which an electric current
may be passed. (See Magnet, Electro?)
The term coil is usually applied to a number
of turns or to a spool of wire.
Coil, Impedance A term sometimes
applied to a choking-coil. (See Coil, Chok-
ing)
Such a coil has a high self-induction. Its im-
pedance is therefore high. (See Induction, Self.
Impedance. )
Coil, Induction An apparatus con'
sisting of two parallel coils of insulated wire
employed for the production of currents by
mutual induction. (See Induction, Mutual.
Induction, Electro-Dynamic)
Coi.]
107
[Coi.
A rapidly interrupted battery current, sent
through a coil of wire called the primary coil,
induces alternating currents in a coil of wire called
the secondary coil.
As heretofore made, the primary coil consists of
a few turns of a thick wire, and the secondary
coil of many turns, often thousands, of fine wire.
Such coils are generally called Ruhmkorff coils,
from the name of a celebrated manufacturer of
them.
In the form of Ruhmkorff coil, shown in Fig.
142, the primary wire, wound on a core formed
Fig . 142. Ruhmkorff Coil.
of a bundle of soft iron wires, has its ends brought
out as shown at f, f. The fine wire, forming the
secondary coil, is wrapped around an insulated
cylinder of vulcanite, or glass, surrounding the
primary coil. This wire is very thin, and in some
coils is over one hundred miles in length.
If the core of an induction coil were made solid
it would heat considerably and therefore cause a
loss of energy. The core is therefore laminated,
usually by forming it of a bundle of soft iron wire.
Too great a division of the core, however, is
inadvisable, since, although the eddy currents
therein are thereby avoided, yet, too great a
division of the core acts practically so to
decrease the magnetic permeability that the
greatest efficiency cannot be obtained.
The ends of the secondary coil are connected
to the insulated pillars A and B.
The primary current is rapidly broken by
means of a mercury break, shown at L and M.
The commutator, shown to the right and front
of the base, is provided for the purpose of cutting
off the current through the primary, or for chang-
ing its direction. When a battery which produces
a comparatively large current of but a few volts
electromotive force is connected with the pri-
mary, and its current rapidly interrupted, a
torrent of sparks will pass between A and B,
having an electromotive force of many thousands
of times the number of volts of the primary cur-
rent, but of a correspondingly smaller current
strength.
In such cases, excepting losses during conver.
sion, the energy in the primary current, or C E,
is equal to the energy in the secondary current,
or C' E'. As much therefore as E', the electro-
motive force of the secondary current, exceeds E,
the electromotive force of the primary current,
the current strength C', of the secondary, will ba
less than the current strength C, of the primary.
This is approximately true only, and only in in.
duction coils possessing a closed magnetic circuit.
(See Transformer.')
Fig. 143 shows diagramatically the arrange.
Fig. 143. Circuit Connections of Induction Coil.
ment and connection of the different parts of an
induction coil.
The core II', consists of a bundle of soft iron
wires, each of which is covered with a thin insu-
lating layer of varnish or oxide. A primary wire
P P, consisting of a few turns of comparatively
thick wire, is wound around the core, and a
greater length of thin wire S S, is wound upon the
primary. This is called the secondary. So as
not to confuse the details of the figure it is repre-
sented as a few turns.
The terminals of the battery B, are connected
to the primary wire, through the automatic inter-
rupter, in the manner shown. It will be seen that
the attraction of the core I.I', for the vibrating
armature H, will break contact at the point o, and
cause a continued interruption of the battery
current
The condenser c c', is connected as t>>.own. It
acts to diminish the sparking at the contact points
on breaking contact, and thus, by making the
battery current more sudden, to make its in-
ductive action greater.
The reactions which take place when a simple
Coi.]
108
[Coi.
periodic electromotive force is impressed on the
primary of an induction coil are substantially
thus stated by J. A. Fleming :
(i.) The application of a simple periodic im-
pressed electromotive force produces a simple
periodic current, moving under an effective elec-
tromotive force of self-induction, and brings into
existence a counter-electromotive force of self-
induction, which causes the primary current to
lag behind, by an angle called the angle of lag.
(2.) The field around the primary, and, there-
fore, the induction through the secondary, is in
consonance with the primary current, and the im-
pressed electromotive force in the secondary is
in quadrature with the primary current. (See
Consonance. Quadrature, In.}
(3.) The secondary-impressed electromotive
force gives rise to a secondary current moving
under an effective electromotive force and creat-
ing a counter electromotive force of self-induc-
tion.
(4. ) This secondary current reacts in its turn
on the primary, and creates what is called the
back -electromotive force, or the reacting-induc-
tive-electromotive force of the primary circuit.
(5.) There is then a phase-difference between
the primary and secondary currents, and also be-
tween the primary-impressed electromotive force
and the primary current.
If, as in Fig. 144, two electric circuits are
Fig. 144. Electric and Magnetic Link.
linked with a magnetic circuit, and a small
periodic electromotive force be impressed on the
primary, the following phenomena occur:
(I.) A periodic primary current is set up in
the primary circuit, which, though of the same
periodic time as the impressed electromotive
force, differs from it in phase.
(2.) A wave of counter electromotive force is
produced in the primary circuit by the inductive
action, which does not coincide either with the
impressed electromotive force, nor with the
primary current.
(3.) A wave of magnetization is produced in
the iron core, which lags behind the primary
current by somewhat less than 90 degrees of
phase.
(4.) A wave of impressed electromotive force
is produced in the secondary circuit, due to and
measured by the rate of change of magnetic in-
duction in the core, and lagging 90 degrees, o*
more, behind the magnetization wave.
(5.) A wave of secondary current, lagging be-
hind the secondary electromotive force in phase;
except where the circuit consists of a few turns o!
conductor, or is connected with an external cix -
cuit of practically no inductance. — (Fleming.)
Coil, Induction, Inverted An
induction coil in which the primary coil is
made of a long, thin wire, and the secondary
coil of a short, thick wire.
By the use of an inverted coil, a current of high
electromotive force and comparatively small cur-
rent strength, /. t., but of few amperes, is con-
verted or transformed into a current of compar-
atively small electromotive force and large cur-
rent strength. For advantages of this conversion
see Electricity* Distribution of, by Alternating
Currents.
Inverted induction coils are called converters or
transformers. (See Transformer.)
Coil, Induction, Medical An
induction coil used for medical purposes.
A form of induction coil used for medical pur*
poses is shown in Fig. 145.
Fig. 145. Medical Induction Cmt.
Coil, Induction, Microphone Ar«
induction coil, in which the variations in the
circuit of the primary are obtained by means
of microphone contacts. (See Microphone^
The carbon -button telephone transmitter is a
microphone in its action, its electric resistance
varying with the varying pressure caused by the
sound waves. The carbon-button is in the prim-
ary circuit of an induction coil, variations in
Coi.]
109
[Coi.
primary of which, under the influence of the
sound waves, produce corresponding variations
in the currents induced in the secondary.
Coil, Kicking A term sometimes
applied to a Choking-Coil. (See Coil, Chok-
ing^
The term kicking-coil has arisen from the fact
that the impedance due to self-induction opposes
the starting or stopping of the current somewhat
in the manner of an opposing kick.
Coil, Magnet A coil of insulated
wire surrounding the core of an electro-mag-
net, and through which the magnetizing cur-
rent is passed. (See Magnet, Electro^)
Coil, Primary - —That coil or con-
ductor of an induction coil or transformer,
through which the rapidly interrupted or alter-
nate inducing currents are sent.
In the Ruhmkorff induction coil the primary
coil consists of a comparatively short length of
thick wire, the secondary coil being formed of
a comparatively great length of fine wire. In
the transformer or converter, the primary coil
consists of wire that is longer and thinner than
that in the secondary coil. In other words, the
transformer or converter consists of an inverted
induction coil. (See Coil, Induction. Trans-
former. )
Coil, Reaction A magnetizing coil,
surrounded by a conducting covering or
sheathing, which opposes the passage of
rapidly alternating currents less when directly
over the magnetizing coil than when a short
distance from it.
A term often used for choking-coil. (See
Coil, Choking?)
Coil, Reaction, Balanced A coil
employed in a
system of distri-
bution by means
of transformers
for maintaining
a constant cur-
rent in the sec-
ondary Circuit, FiS- Z4(>- Balanced-Reaction Grit.
despite changes in the load placed therein.
A balanced -reaction coil is shown in Fig. 146.
A reaction coil is placed in the circuit of lamps in
series in a constant potential system. The sheath-
ing of this coil is maintained in a balanced position
by the counter weight P, and the spring S. If now
a lamp is extinguished in the circuit, the increase
of current, due to decreased resistance, causes the
sheath to be deflected, and, thus increasing the
self-induction of the coil, reduces the lamp current
to its normal value.
Coil, Resistance A coil of wire
of known electrical resistance employed for
measuring resistance.
In order to avoid self-induction and the mag-
netizing effects of the coils on the needles of the
galvanometer used in electric measurements, as
well as the disturbing effects of self-induction, the
wire of the resistance coil is doubled on itsell
before being wound, and its ends connected
with the brass bars, E, E, Fig. 147. The inser-
Fig. f4J. Connections of Resistance Coils.
tion of the plug -key cuts the coil out of the cir-
cuit by short-circuiting. (See Box, Resistance.
Bridge. Electric. Coil, Resistance, Standard.)
The coils are made of German silver, or plati-
noid, the resistance of which is not much
affected by heat.
Coil, Resistance, Standard A coil
the resistance of which is that of the stand-
ard ohm or some multiple or sub-multiple
thereof.
The standard ohm, as issued by the Electric
Standards Committee of England, has the form
shown in Fig. 148. The coil of wire is formed of
an alloy of platinum and silver, insulated by silk
covering and melted pararfine. Its ends are sol-
dered to thick copper rods, r, r', for ready con-
nection with mercury cups. The coil is at B.
The space above it, at A, is filled with paraffine.
A hole, at t, runs through the coil for the readv
Coi.]
110
[Coi.
insertion of a thermometer. The lower part of
the coil, B, is immersed in water up to the shoul-
der of A, and the water stirred from time to
Fig, 148. Standard Ohm.
time. Since the coil is heated by the current, sue-
cessive observations should be at least ten minutes
apart. Only mild currents should be passed
through the coils.
Coil, Resistance, Standardized
Resistance coils whose resistances have been
carefully determined by comparison with a
standard ohm or other standard coils.
Coil, Ruhmkorff A term some-
times applied to any induction coil, the
secondary of which gives currents of higher
electromotive force than the primary. (See
Coil, Induction?)
Coil, Secondary That coil or con-
ductor of an induction coil or transformer,
in which alternating currents are induced by
the rapidly interrupted or alternating currents
in the primary coil. (See Coil, Induction.
Transformer?)
Coil, Shunt — —A coil placed in a de-
rived or shunt circuit, (See Circuit, Shunt)
Coil, Spark A coil of insulated wire
connected with the main circuit in a system
of electric gas-lighting, the extra spark pro-
Fig. 149. Spark Coil.
duced on breaking the circuit of which is em-
ployed for electrically igniting gas jets.
Spark coils are employed where the number of
gas jets to be simultaneously lighted is not too
great. When this number exceeds certain limits,
the spark from an induction coil is more advan-
tageously used.
A spark coil is shown in Fig. 149.
Coils, Armature, of Dynamo-Electric
Machine The coils, strips or bars that
are wound or placed on the armature core.
To avoid needless resistance the wire, or other
conductor, of the armature coils, should be as
short and thick as will enable the desired electro-
motive force to be obtained without excessive
speed of rotation.
The armature coils should enclose as many
lines of force as possible (/. e., they should have
as nearly a circular outline as possible). In
drum-armatures, the breadth of the armature is
frequently made nearly equal to its length, unless
other considerations prevent.
When the armature wire consists of rods or
bars, it should be laminated or slit in planes
parallel to the lines of force so as to avoid
eddy currents. Other things being equal, the
Fig. 1^0. Series Connection of Armature Coils.
greater the number of coils, the more uniform
the current generated. The separate coils should
be symmetrically disposed; otherwise irregular in-
duction, and consequent sparking at the commu-
tator results.
The coils of pole-armatures should be wound near
the poles rather than on the middle of the cores.
In order to avoid undue heating, spaces for
air ventilation are not inadvisable. Various con-
nections of the armature coils are used.
In some machines all the coils are connected in
a closed circuit. In some, the coils are independ-
ent of one another, and, either for the entire
revolution, or for part of a revolution, are on an
open-circuit.
Coi.]
Ill
[Col.
In alternating current dynamos in order to ob-
tain the rapid reversals or alternations of current,
which in some machines are as high as 12,000
per minute, a number of poles of alternate polar-
ity are employed. The separate coils that are
used on the armature may be coupled either in
series or in multiple-arc.
Where a comparatively low electromotive force
is sufficient, such as for incandescent lamps in
multiple-arc, the separate coils are united in
parallel; but for purposes where a considerable
electromotive force is necessary, as for example,
in systems of alternate current distribution, with
converters at considerable distances from the
generating dynamo, they are often connected in
series, as shown in Fig. 150.
Coils, Binding Coils of wire wound
on the outside of the armature coils, and at
right angles thereto, to prevent the loosening
of the armature wires by the action of cen-
trifugal force.
The binding coils are generally made of hard
brass wire.
Coils, Compensating' A term some-
times applied to the series coils placed on a
shunt-wound dynamo.
Coils, Conjugate —Two coils so
placed, as regards each other, that an interrup-
tion of the current in one produces no induced
current in the other.
When two coils are conjugate to each other, the
lines of force of one do not pass through the other.
Consequently such coils can produce no induc-
tion in one another.
Coils, Henry's A number of sepa-
rate induction coils so connected that the
currents induced in the secondary wire of
the first coil, are caused to induce currents
in the secondary wire of the second coil, with .
whose primary it is connected in series, and
so on throughout all the coils.
A series of three of Henry's coils is shown in
Fig. 151. An intermittent battery current is sent
secondary, d, of the second coil, is connected with
the primary, e, of the third coil, and the cur-
rents finally induced in f, are employed for any
useful purpose, such as the magnetization of a
bar of iron at g.
The current in b, is sometimes called a Secon-
dary Current, or a Current of the Second Order;
that induced by this secondary current in d, is
called a Tertiary Current^ or a Current of the
Third Order ; that in f, a Current of the Fourth
Order. Henry carried these successive induc-
tions up to currents of the Seventh Order.
Henry's coils in reality consist of separate in-
duction coils, connected, as above explained, in
series.
In Fig. 152, the tertiary current induced in
Fig, I J '2. Tertiary Currents of Coils.
IV, may be employed to give shocks to a person
grasping the handles, e and f.
Coils, Proportional Pairs of re-
sistance coils, generally of 10, 100 and 1,000
ohms each, forming the proportional arms of
the balance or bridge, and employed in the box,
or commercial form of Wheatstone's bridge.
(See Bridge, Electric, Commercial Form
of.}
Cold, Production of, by Electricity
— An absorption of energy and consequent
reduction of temperature at a thermo-electric
junction by the passage of an electric current
across such junction in a certain direction.
When an electric current passes across a thermo-
electric junction, the junction is either heated or
cooled. In the case of an antimony-bismuth
couple, if the current passes from the antimony
Fig. Jjr. Henry's Coils.
into a, the secondary, b, of which is connected
with the primary, c, of the second coil. The
A B
Fig. fjf. Freezing of Water by Electricity.
to the bismuth the junction is heated ; if it passes
from the bismuth to the antimony it is cooled.
In the apparatus shown in Fig. 153, the antimony-
bismuth couple is arranged as shown for the
Col.]
112
[Com.
freezing of water by means of the electric cur-
rent. A and B, represent plates of antimony and
bismuth respectively. A small cavity, at E, serves
to hold a drop of water. When a current has
passed in the direction shown by the arrows, a
drop of water, previously cooled to the tempera-
ture of melting ice, is solidified by the lowering
of the temperature at the junction.
Collecting Brushes of Dynamo-Electric
Machine. — (See Brushes, Collecting, of
Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Collectors, Electric Devices em-
ployed for collecting or taking off electricity
from a moving electric source.
Collectors of Electric Frictional Ma-
chines.—The metallic points that collect the
charge from the glass plate or cylinder of a
frictional electric machine.
Collectors of Dynamo Electric Machines.
— The brushes that rest on the commutator
cylinder, and carry off the current generated
on the rotation of the armature.
Collectors are properly called commutators
when they are employed to cause an alternate
current to become continuous, or to flow in one
and the same direction.
Colloids. — One of the two classes into
which substances are separated by dialysis.
By dialysis bodies are separated into crystal-
loids, or bodies capable of crystallizing, and col-
loids or jelly-like bodies, incapable of crystallizing.
Colloids possess great cohesion and but slight
diffusibility. (See Dialysis.)
Colombin. — An insulating substance, con-
sisting of a mixture of sulphate of barium
and sulphate of calcium, placed between the
parallel carbons of the Jablochkoff candle.
Column, Barometric A column,
usually of mercury, approximately 30 inches
in vertical height, sustained in a barometer,
or other tube, by the pressure of the atmos-
phere.
The space above the barometric column con-
tains a vacuum known as the Torricellian vac-
uum. (See Vacuum, Torricellian.)
Column, Electric A term formerly
applied to a voltaic pile. (See Pile, Voltaic.}
Colza Oil.— (See Oil, Colza.)
Combination Gas Fixtures— (See Fix-
tures, Gas, Combination?)
Combined Tangent and Sine Galvanom-
eter.— (See Galvanometer, Combined Tan«
gent and Sine.)
Comb Lightning Arrester. — (See Arrester,
Lightning, Comb.)
Comb Protector.— (See Protector, Comb.)
Commercial Efficiency. — (See Efficiency,
Commercial?)
Commercial Efficiency of Dynamo. —
(See Efficiency, Commercial, of Dynamo?)
Commercial Form of Electric Bridge.—
(See Bridge, Electric, Commercial Form of.)
Communicator, Electric A term
formerly employed for a telegraphic key. (See
Key, Telegraphic?)
Commutating Transformers, Distribu-
tion of Electricity by (See Elec-
tricity, Distribution of, by Commutating
Transformers?)
Commutation.— The act of commuting, as
of currents.
Commutation, Diameter of —In a
dynamo-electric machine a diameter on the
commutator cylinder on one side of which
the differences of potential, produced by the
movement of the coils through the magnetic
field, tend to produce a current in a direction
opposite to those on the other side.
That diameter on the commutator cylinder
of an open-circuited armature that joins the
points of contact of the collecting brushes.
Thus in Fig. 154, the directions of the induced
electromotive forces are indicated by the arrows.
The diameter of commutation is therefore the line
n n'. The term neutral line is also sometimes
given to this line. It lies at right angles to the
line of maximum magnetization m m.
In a closed-circuited armature, that is, in an arm.
ature the coils of which are connected in a closed
circuit, the collecting brushes rest on the commu-
tator cylinder at the neutral line, or on the diame*
ter of commutation.
In an open-circuited armature, however, where
the coils are independent of each other, the
collecting brushes must be set at m m, at right
angles to the neutral line n n. The term diame-
Com.]
113
[Com.
ter of commutation is, therefore, often applied to
this second position. According to this use of the
Fig. 134. Diameter of Commutation.
term, the diameter of commutation is that diameter
on the commutator which joins the points of con-
tact of the collecting brushes.
The neutral linenn', Fig. 154, it will be noticed
does not occupy a vertical position, but is dis-
placed somewhat in the direction of rotation, thus
necessitating the shifting of the brushes forward
in the direction of rotation. This necessary shift-
ing of the brushes is known technically as the
lead of the brushes. (See Lead, Angle of.)
It will thus be seen that the term diameter of
commutation is used in two different senses.
In reality, the term refers to the position of cer-
tain points on the commutator as distinguished
from points on the armature coils. On the com-
mutator, the diameter of commutation is the line
drawn through the two commutator bars at which
the currents from the two sides are opposed to
each other.
It is evident that the commutator may be inten-
tionally twisted with respect to the armature, so
as to bring its diameter of commutation into any
desired convenient position.
Commutation, Dissymmetry of
A commutation in which the neutral line does
not coincide with a diameter of the commu-
tator. (See Commutation, Diameter of.)
Commutator. — In general, a device for
changing the direction of an electric current.
Commutator, Burning* at Arcing
and consequent destructive action on the
commutator segments of a dynamo-electric
machine.
When the arcing is pronounced, the intense
heat soon destroys the commutator.
Commutator Cylinder, Neutral-Line of
(See Line, Neutral, of Commutator
Cylinder^
Commutator, Dynamo-Electric Machine
— That part of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine which is designed to cause the alter-
nating currents produced in the armature to
flow hi one and the same direction in the ex-
ternal circuit.
One end of an armature coil is connected with
A', Fig. 155, and the
other with A. The brushes
are so set that A, and A',
are in contact with B',
and B, respectively, as .1
long as the current flows
in the same direction in the
armature coil connected
therewith, but enter into
contact with B, and B', Fig. 155. Commutator
when the current changes of Dynamo - Electric
its direction, and continue Machine.
in such contact as long as it flows in this direc-
tion. J3y the use of a commutator the furrent
•will therefore flow throttgh any circuit connected
•with the brushes in one and tJie same constant
direction.
Two-fart Commutator
In action, the commutator is subject to wear
from the friction of the brushes, and the burning
action of destructive sparks. The commutator
Fig. 1ST- Two-part
Commutator.
Fig. 158. Two-part
Commutator.
segments are, therefore, made of comparatively
thick pieces of metal, insulated from one another
Com.]
114
[Com.
and supported on a commutator cylinder usually
placed on the shaft of the armature.
The ends of the armature coils are connected
to commutator strips or segments.
The number of metallic pieces or segments, A.
and A', on the commutator cylinder depends on
the number, arrangement and connection of the
armature coils, and on the
disposition of the magnetic
field of the machine.
Figs. 156, 157 and 158
show the connections of an
armature coil to the plates of
a two-part commutator.
A four-part commutator
for a ring-armature, and the
connections of the coils
thereto, are shown in Fig. 159.
The commutator strips may either connect the
separate coils in a closed-circuited armature, in
which the coils are all connected with one an-
other, or, in an open-circuited armature, in which
the separate coils are independent of one another.
Commutator, RuhmkorfTs A name
given by Ruhmkorff to a device placed on his
induction coil for the purpose of changing or
reversing the direction of the battery current
through the primary.
This reverser is shown in Fig. 160. (See
Coil, Ruhmkor/.}
Fig. 1 60. Ruhmkorjf's Commutator
Two metallic strips, V, V, supported on a
cylinder of insulating material, are in contact with
the battery terminals A, and D, through Iwo
vertical springs that bear on them. On a half
rotation of the cylinder by the thumb screw L,
the strips V, V, change places as regards the ver-
tical springs, and thus reverse the direction oi
the battery current.
Commuted Currents. — (See Currents,
Commuted)
Commuter, Current Any appa-
ratus by means of which electrical currents,
flowing alternately in different directions,
may be caused to flow in one and the same
direction.
A Commutator.
Commuting.— Causing to flow in one and
the same direction.
Commuting Currents. — (See Currents,
Commuting)
Compartment Manhole of Conduit.— (See
Manhole, Compartment, of Conduit)
Compass, Azimuth A compass
used by mariners for measuring the horizon-
tal distance of the sun or stars from the mag-
netic meridian. (See Azimuth, Magnetic)
A mariner's Compass.
A single magnetic needle, or several magnetic
needles, are placed parallel to one another on the
lower surface of a card, called the compass card.
This card is divided into the four cardinal points,
N, S, E and W, and these again subdivided into
thirty-two points called Rhumbs.
In the azimuth compass these divisions are sup-
plemented by a further division into degrees.
A form of azimuth compass is shown in Fig.
l6l. In order to maintain the compass box in a
Fig. 1 6 1. Azimuth Compass.
horizontal position, despite the rolling of the ship,
the box, A B, is suspended in the larger box, P
Q, on two concentric metallic circles, C D, and
Com.
115
[Com,
E F. pivoted on two horizontal axes at right angles
to each other. This kind of support is technic-
ally termed Gimbals. Sights G, H, are provided
for measuring the magnetic azimuth of any ob-
ject.
Compass, Boxing the Naming,
Consecutively, all the different points or
rhumbs of the compass from any one of them.
(See Compass, Points of.)
Compass-Card.— (See Card, Compass)
Compass, Inclination A magnetic
needle moving freely in a single vertical plane,
and employed for determining the angle of
dip at any place.
An Inclinometer. (See Inclinometer^
A dipping circle. (See Circle, Dipping)
The needle M, Fig. 162, is supported on knife
Fig. 162. Inclination Cbmpast.
tdges so as to be free to move only in the vertical
plane of the graduated vertical circle C C. This
circle is movable over the horizontal graduated
circle H H. In order to determine the true angle
of dip, the vertical plane in which the needle is
free to move must be placed exactly in the plane
of the magnetic meridian.
To ascertain this plane the vertical circle is
moved until the needle points vertically down-
wards. It is then in a plane 90 degrees from the
magnetic meridian. The vertical circle is then
moved over the horizontal circle 90 degrees, in
which position it is in the plane of the magnetic
meridian, when the true angle of the dip is read off.
For an explanation of the reason of thib see
Component^ Horizontal and Vertical, of tht
Earth's Magnetism.
Compass, Mariner's A name often
applied to an azimuth compass. (See Com-
fass, Azimuth?)
Compass, Points of The thirty-two
points into which a compass card is divided.
Sixteen of these points are shown in Fig. 163.
Fig. 163. Points of Compass.
The position of the remaining points will be
readfly seen by an inspection of the figures.
These points are as follows:
1. North. 17. South.
2. N. by E. 18. S. by W.
3. N. N. E. 19. S. S. W.
4. N. E. by N. 20. S. W. by S.
5. N. E. 21. S. W.
6. N. E. by E. 22. S. W. by W.
7. E. N. E. 23. W. S. W.
& E. by N. 24. W. by S.
9. East. 25. West.
10. E. by S. 26. W. by N.
11. E. S. E. 27. W. N. W.
12. S. E. by E. 28. N. W. by W.
13. S. E. 29. N. W.
14. S. E. by S 30. N. W. by N.
15. S. S. E. 31. N. N. W.
16. S. byE. 32. N.byW.
Boxing the Compass consists in naming aD
these points consecutively from any one of them.
The direction in which the ship is sailing is de.
termined by means of a point fixed on the inside ol
the compass box, directly in the line of the ves-
sel's bow.
Compass, Rhumbs of — —The points
of a mariner*3 compass. (See Compass
Points <?/.)
Com.]
116
[Com.
Compensated Alternator.— (See Alter-
nator, Compensated)
Compensated Excitation of Alternator.
— (See Alternator, Compensated Excita-
tion of.)
Compensating Coils.— (See Coils, Com-
pensating)
Compensating Magnet — (See Magnet.
Compensating)
Complement of Angle.— (See Angle, Com-
plement of.)
Completed-Circuit— (See Circuit, Com-
pleted.)
Component.— One of the two or more sep-
arate forces into which any single force may
be resolved ; or. conversely, the separate forces
which together produce any single resulting
force.
When two or more forces'act simultaneously to
produce motion in a body, the -body will move
,'D
n
Fig. 164. Composition of Forcet.
with a given force in a single direction called the
resultant. The separate forces, or directions of
motion, are called the components*
Two forces acting simultaneously on a body at
A, Fig. 164, tending to move it in the direction
B E
Fig.tbf. Rttfluiion o/Fortts.
of the arrows, along A B, and A C, with Intensl-
tiesproportioned to the lengths of the lines A B,
and A C, respectively, wfll move It in the dlrec-
tion A D, obtained by drawing B D, and D C,
parallel to A C, and A B, respectively, and then
drawing A D, through the point of intersection,
D. This is called the Composition of Forces.
A D, is the resultant force, and A B and A C,
are its components.
Conversely, a single force, acting in the direc.
tion of D B, Fig. 165, against a surface, B C,
may be regarded as the resultant of the two sep-
arate forces, D E, and D C, one parallel to C B,
and one perpendicular to it. D E, being parallel
to C B, produces no pressure, and the absolute
effect of the force will, therefore, be represented
by CD.
This separation of a single force into two or
more separate forces is called the resolution of
forces, the force, D B, being resolved into the
components, D E and D C.
Component Currents. — (See Currents,
Component)
Component, Horizontal, of Earth's Mag-
netism That portion of the earth's
directive force which acts in a horizontal di-
rection.
That portion of the earth's magnetic force
which acts to produce, motion in a com-
pass needle free to move in a horizontal plane
only.
Let A B, Fig. 166, represent the direction and
magnitude of the earth's magnetic field on a mag-
netic needle. . The magnetic force will lie in the
plane of the magnetic merid-
ian, which will be assumed to
be the plane of the paper C A
D. The earth's field, A B, can
be resolved into two compo-
nents, A D, the horizontal com-
ponent, and A C, the vertical
component
In the case of a magnetic
needle, like the ordinary com-
pass needle, which is free to
move in ahorizontal plane only,
the horizontal component alone
directs the needle. A weight
is applied to balance the vertical Magnetism .
component.
When the needle Is free to move in a vertical
plane, and this plane corresponds with that of
the magnetic meridian, the entire magnetic force,
A B, acts to place the needle, supposed to be
properly balanced, in the direction of the lines of
force of the earth's magnetic field at that point.
Com.]
117
[Con.
Component, Tertical, of Earth's Magnet-
ism -- That portion of the earth's
directive force which acts in a vertical direc-
tion.
In the vertical plane at right angles to the plane
of the magnetic meridian, the vertical component
alone acts, and the needle points vertically down-
wards, in no matter what part of the earth it
may be. In Fig. 166, A C, is the vertical com-
ponent of the earth's directive force.
Composite Balance.— (See Balance. Com-
Composite-Field Dynamo. — (See Dynamo.
Composite-Field)
Composition of Forces.— (See Forces,
Composition 0f.)
Compound Arc. — (See Arc, Compoztnd^
Compound, Binary -- In chemistry,
a compound formed by the union of two
different elements.
Water is a binary compound, being formed by
the union of two atoms of hydrogen with one
atom of oxygen. Its composition is expressed in
themical symbols, H2O, which indicates that two
atoms of hydrogen are combined, or chemically
united, with one atom of oxygen. Water is
therefore a binary compound, because it is formed
of two different elementary substances.
Compound, Chatterton's -- A com-
pound for cementing together the alternate
coatings of gutta-percha employed on a cable
conductor, or for filling up the space between
the strand conductors.
The composition of Chatterton's compound is
as follows:
Stockholm tar ........ I part by weight.
Resin ............... I " "
Gutta-percha ......... 3 "' "
—(Clark &• Sabine.)
Compound Circuit.— (See Circuit, Com-
pound^
Compound, Clark's -- A compound
for the outer casing of the sheathing of sub-
marine cables.
The composition of Clark's compound is as fol-
lows:
Mineral pitch 65 parts by weight.
Silica 4.30 « •'
Tar 5 « «•
— (Clark S> Sabine.)
Compound - Horseshoe Magnet.— (See
Magnet, Compound-Horseshoe)
Compound Magnet. — (See Magnet, Com-
pound?)
Compound Radical.— (See Radical, Com-
pound?}
Compound- Winding of Dynamo-Electric
Machines.— (See Winding, Compound, ef
Dynamo- Electric Machine?)
Compound-Wound Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Compound- Wound?)
Compound-Wound Motor.— (See Motor,
Compound- Wound.)
Concentration of Lines of Force.— (See
Force, Lines of, Concentration of.)
Concentric Carbon Electrodes.— (See
Electrodes, Concentric Carbon.)
Concentric Cylindrical Carbons.— (See
Carbons, Concentric Cylindrical)
Condenser. — A device for increasing the
Capacity of an insulated conductor by bring-
ing it near another insulated earth-connected
conductor, but separated therefrom by any
medium that will readily permit induction to
take place through its mass.
A variety of electrostatic accumulator.
If the conductor A, Fig. 167, standing alone
Fig: r67. &pirtus Air Condenser.
and separated from other conductors, be con-
nected with an electric machine, it will receive
only a very small charge.
Con.]
118
[Con.
If, however, it be placed near C, but separated
from it by a dielectric, such as a plate of glass
B, and C, be connected with the ground, A, will
receive a much greater charge. (See Dielectric.')
Suppose, for example, that A, be connected
with the positive conductor of a frictional electric
machine, it will by induction establish a negative
charge on the surface C, nearest it, and repel
a positive charge to the earth. The presence of
these two opposite charges on the opposed sur-
faces of A and C, permits A, to receive a fresh
charge from the machine. (See Induction,
Electrostatic. )
The charge in a condenser in reality resides
on the opposite surfaces of the glass, or other
dielectric separating the metallic coatings, as can
be shown by removing the coatings after charg-
ing.
The condenser resulted from the discovery of
the Leyden jar. (See Jar^ Ley/den.}
The capacity of a condenser is measured in
microfarads. (See Farad.}
In practice condensers are made of sheets of
tin foil, connected to A and B, respectively, and
separated from one another by sheets of oiled
silk, paraffined paper, or thin plates of mica, as
shown in Fig. 168.
Fig. rb8. Condenser.
A Leyden jar or condenser does not store elec-
tricity any more than a storage battery does.
The same quantity of electricity passes out of the
opposite coating of the jar that is passed into the
other coating. The jar, therefore, possesses no
store of electricity. What it really possesses is a
store of electrical energy.
According to Ayrton, if the capacity of a con-
denser,' in farads, be F, and the difference of po-
tential, with which it is charged, be V, volts, the
store of electric energy it possesses, or the work it
can do when discharged, is,
In order to obtain a comparatively wide range
of adjustability, a condenser is composed of say
four separate sections: consisting of one of 2
microfarads, one of I microfarad and two of }
microfarad, thus making in all 4 microfarads.
Condenser, JEpinus A name given
to an early form of condenser. (See Con-
denser?)
Condenser, Air — A condenser in
which layers of air act as the dielectric.
A form of air condenser is shown in Fig. 169.
Work
2.712
foot-pounds.
Condenser, Adjustable A con-
denser, the plates of which can be readily
adjusted so as to obtain the same capacity
as that of the conductor to be measured.
Fig. 769. Air Condenser.
It consists essentially of one set of thin plates of
glass partially coated on both sides with sheets of
tin foil, so as to leave uncoated a space of about
one inch around the edge of the glass. The glass
plates do not act as dielectrics, but merely as sup.
ports for the tin foil, hence the foil on both sides
of the plates is connected electrically.
Another set of plates alternating with the above
have the tin foil placed over the whole surface of
the glass.
These plates are placed, alternately, over one
another on a stand between guide rods of vuIcan-
ite E, E, E, E, in the manner shown, and are
separated from one another by fragments of glass
of the same thickness. The plates with the foil
over their entire surface are all connected to-'
gether and to the terminal B, to form the outer
coating, and the plates with the foil over nearly
all their surfaces are all connected together and
to the terminal A, to form the inner coating oi
the condenser.
There is thus formed a condenser in which
practically two extended conducting surfaces an
Con.]
119
[Con.
separated from each other by a thin layer of air,
which acts as the dielectric.
Condenser, Alternating-Current --
A condenser suitable for use in connection with
a system for the distribution of electric energy
by means of alternating currents.
Alternating-current condensers must have a very
thin dielectric in order to avoid too great bulk.
This, of course, introduces a difficulty as regards
liability of failure of insulation, which must be
carefully avoided.
Condenser, Armature of -- (See Arm-
ature of a Condenser?)
Condenser, Capacity of ---- The quan-
tity of electricity in coulombs a condenser is
capable of holding before its potential in volts
is raised a given amount.
The ratio between the quantity of electric-
ity in coulombs on one coating and the poten-
tial difference in volts between the two coat-
ings. — (Ayrton.)
The capacity is directly proportional to the
charge Q, and inversely proportional to the po-
tential V, or,
or, since Q = K V, the quantity of electricity re-
quired to charge a condenser to a given potential
is equal to the capacity of the condenser multi-
plied by the potential through which it is carried.
The capacity of a condenser increases in direct
proportion to the increase in the area of its coat-
ings.
When the Coatings are plane and parallel to
each other, the capacity of the condenser is in the
inverse ratio to the distance between the coatings.
Condenser, Coating of -- (See Coat-
ing of Condenser.}
Condenser, Plate - -A condenser, the
metallic coatings of which are placed on
suitably supported plates.
Condenser, Poles of - - — (See Poles of
Condenser.}
Condenser, Time-Constant of --
The time in which the charge of a condenser
falls to the 1-2.71828 part of its original
value.
Condensers, Distribution of Electricity
by Means of -- .(See Electricity. Distrt
button of. by Alternating Currents, by means
of Condensers . Electricity, Distribution of,
by Continuous Currents, by means of Con-
densers!)
Conduct.— To pass electricity through con-
ducting substances.
To determine the general direction in which
electricity shall pass through the ether or
dielectric surrounding the so-called conduct-
ing substance. (See Conduction, Electric.)
Conductance. — A word sometimes used in
place of conducting power.
Conductivity.
Conductance, Magnetic A word
sometimes used instead of magnetic permea-
bility. (See Permeability Magnetic.)
The magnetic conductance is equal to the total
induction through the circuit divided by the
magnetizing force.
Conducting Cord.— (See Cord, Conduct-
ing.)
Conducting, Electrical Possessing
the power of passing electricity through any
conducting substance.
Possessing the power of determining the
direction in which electricity shall pass through
the ether surrounding a substance. (See
Conductor.)
Conducting Power.— (See Power. Con-
ducting.)
Conducting Power for Electricity.— (Se*
Power, Conducting, for Electricity.)
Conducting Power for Lines of Mag
netic Force. — (See Force, Magnetic, Lines
of. Conducting Power of.)
Conducting Power, Tables of
(See Power, Conducting, Tables of.)
Conduction Current.— (See Current, Con-
duction^
Conduction, Disruptive A species
of conduction in which the resistance of ?*•«
conductor is suddenly overcome.
Disruptive conduction is seen in the disruptive
discharge of a condenser, or Leyden jar.
Conduction, Electric The so
Con.]
120
[Con.
called flow or passage of electricity through
a metallic or other similarly acting substance.
The ability of a substance to determine the
direction in which electric energy shall be
transmitted through the ether surrounding it.
The ability of a substance to determine the
direction in which a current of electricity
passes from one point to another.
When a conducting wire has its ends connected
with an electric source, a current of electricity is,
in common language, said to flow through the wire,
and this was formerly believed to be a correct
statement. According to modern views, however,
the electric energy is believed to pass through the
ether or other dielectric surrounding the con-
ductor, the so-called conductor forming merely
a sink, where the electrical energy dissipates
itself. The conductor simply acts to direct the
current.
Since, however, the energy practically passes
by means of, and in the general direction of the
conductor, there is no objection in speaking of
the electricity as flowing through the conductor.
Conduction, Electric, Disruptive
A conduction of electric energy which ac-
companies a disruptive discharge. (See
Discharge, Dismpti've^
Conduction, Electric, Metallic A
conducting of electric energy of the same char-
acter as that which occurs in metallic sub-
stances.
Conduction, Electrolytic A terra
sometimes employed to indicate the passage
of electricity through an electrolyte.
There is no passage of electricity through an
electrolyte in the same sense as through an ordi-
nary conductor.
When, through electrolysis, an electromotive
force is brought to bear on a molecule of say
HC1, it is assumed by some that the liberated
hydrogen atoms travel on the whole in one di-
rection, and the liberated chlorine atoms in the
opposite direction. The atoms thus moving
through the liquid may by their electric charges
be assumed to convey electricity, and this fact
has given rise to the term electrolytic conduc-
tion.
In electrolytic conduction the charges are
necessarily equal, but the speeds of their motion
are unequal. In a given liquid, each atom has
its own rate of motion, no matter with what it
has been combined. Hydrogen travels faster
than any other kind of atom. The conductivity
of a liquid depends on the sum of the speeds with
which the two opposed atoms travel.
This assumed double stream of oppositely mov-
ing atoms is denied by most physicists. (See
Hypothesis , Grot t hits.)
Cond uctive-Discharge. — (See Discharge.
Conductive^
Conductivity, Electric The recip-
rocal of electric resistance.
Since the conductivity is greater the less the re-
sistance, the conductivity will be equal to the recip.
rocal of the resistance, and may be so defined. The
conductivity is therefore equal to — B
•L
Conductivity, Equivalent A con-
ductivity equal to the sum of several conduc-
tivities.
Conductivity per Unit of Mass.— The re-
ciprocal of the resistance of a substance per
unit of mass.
Conductivity per Unit of Volume.— The
reciprocal of the resistance of a substance
per cubic centimetre or per cubic inch.
The resistance is measured from one face of
the cube to the opposite face.
Conductivity Resistance.— (See Resist-
ance, Conductivity?)
Conductivity, Specific The par-
ticular conductivity of a substance for elec-
tricity.
The specific or particular resistance of a
given length and unit of cross-section of a
substance as compared with the same length
and area of cross-section of some standard
substance.
Conductivity, Specific Magnetic
The specific or particular permeability of a
substance to lines of magnetic force.
The specific magnetic conductivity is measured
by the ratio of the magnetization produced to tke
magnetizing force which produces it.
The specific magnetic conductivity is the an-
alogue of specific inductive capacity, or conduc-
tivity for lines of electrostatic force. It is also th«
analogue for specific conducting power for heat*
Con.]
121
[Con.
Conductor. — A substance which will per-
mit the so-called passage of an electric current.
A substance which possesses the ability of
determining the direction in which electricity
shall pass through the ether or other dielec-
tric surrounding it.
Some electrolytes, such, for example, as vari-
ous mixtures of sulphuric acid and water, possess
a true power of conducting electricity, and there-
fore have a specific resistance. Generally, how-
ever, the passage of the electrolyzing current is
regarded as different from that of a current which
merely heats the conductor.
The space or region around a conductor
through which an electric current is passing has
a magnetic field produced in it.
The term conductor is opposed to non-conductor,
or a substance which will not permit the passage
of an electric current through it after the manner
of a conductor.
The terms conductors and non-conductors are
only relative. There are no such things as
either perfect conductors or perfect non-con-
ductors.
Conductors in general, are distinguished from
electrolytes, in that the latter do not allow the
electricity to pass save by undergoing a chemical
decomposition.
Conductor, Anisotropic A con-
ductor which, though homogeneous in struc-
ture like crystalline bodies, has different
physical properties in different directions, just
as crystals have different properties in the
direction of their different crystalline axes.
Anisotropic conductors possess different powers
of electric conduction in different directions.
But in opposite directions along the same axis their
conductivity is equal. They differ in this respect
from isotropic conductors. (See Conductor, Iso-
tropic.)
Conductor, Anti-Induction A con-
ductor so constructed as to avoid injurious
inductive effects from neighboring telegraphic
or electric light and power circuits.
Such anti-induction conductors sometimes con-
sist of a conductor for constant currents and a
metallic shield surrounding the conductor, and
designed to prevent induction from taking place
in the wire itself.
The anti-induction conductor generally con-
sists of twin conductors surrounded by ordinary
insulation and sometimes enclosed by some form
of metallic shield, in order to prevent the action
of electrostatic induction.
When a periodic current is to be transmitted
through a conductor, the most effective way of
annulling its inductive effects on neighboring cir-
cuits is to place the lead of the conductor in the
axis of another conductor, used as a return. In
other words, to employ concentric cylinders, in-
sulated from one another and from the earth.
Under these conditions, calling the current in one
direction positive, and in the other direction
negative, the shielding action will be perfect
when the algebraic sum of the currents in the
core and sheath are zero.
The same effect is obtained in metallic circuits,
by placing the leads parallel to the return, and
crossing and recrossing the wires repeatedly.
(See Connection, Telephonic Cross.)
Elihu Thomson renders ordinary telephone
conductors, arranged as single lines with earth
returns, free from induction by means of the
counter-electromotive force produced in a coil of
wire by the disturbing cause.
In applying this system to the case of an elec-
tric arc or power line passing alongside a tele-
phone line, a wire coil, whose turns are pro-
portioned in number to the induction to be bal-
anced, is introduced into the electric light line
and placed near another coil of finer wire inserted
as a loop in the telephone circuit. The second coil
is placed parallel to or inclined at an angle to the
first coil. In practice, the second coil is inclined
until the counter-induction set up in the tele-
phone wire is equal to that produced in the main
line, and silence is thus produced, so far as in-
duction is concerned, in the telephone.
Conductor, Armored A conduc-
tor provided with a covering or sheathing of
metal placed over the insulating covering for
protection from abrasion or external wear.
Armored conductors are used in situations
where the conductor is exposed to abrasion or
other external wear.
Conductor, Branch —A conductor
placed in a shunt circuit. (See Circuit,
Shunt.)
Conductor, Closed-Circuited A
conductor connected as a closed or com-
pleted circuit.
Con.]
122
[Con.
Conductor, Conjugate In a system
of linear conductors, any pair of conductors
that are so placed as regards each other that
a variation of the resistance or the electro-
motive force in the one causes no variation in
the current of the other.
Conductor, Earth-Circuited —A
conductor connected to the ground, or to an
earth-connected circuit.
Conductor, House-Service A term
employed in a system of multiple incan-
descent lamp distribution for that portion of
the circuit which is included between the ser-
vice cut-out and the centre or centres of dis-
tribution, or between this cut-out and one or
more points on house mains.
Conductor, Isotropic A conduc-
tor which possesses the same powers of elec-
tric conduction in all directions.
An electrically homogeneous conducting
medium.
Conductor, Leakage A conductor
placed on a telegraph circuit for the purpose
of preventing the disturbing effects of leakage
into a neighboring line by providing a direct
path for such leakage to the earth.
The leakage conductor, as devised by Varley
consists of a thick wire attached to the telegraph
pole. The lower end of the conductor is grounded,
and its upper end projects above the top of the
pole.
There exists some doubt in the minds of expe-
rienced telegraph engineers whether it is well to
apply leakage conductors to telegraphic or tele-
phonic lines of over 12 or 15 miles in length,
since such conductors greatly increase the electro-
static capacity of the line, and thus cause serious
retardation.
Conductor, Lightning — A term
sometimes used for a lightning rod. (See
Rod, Lightning?)
Conductor, Open-Circuited A con-
ductor arranged as an open or broken circuit.
Conductor, Potential of —The rela-
tion existing between the quantity of elec-
tricity in a conductor and its capacity.
A given quantity of electricity will raise the
potential of a conductor higher in proportion as
the capacity of the conductor becomes less.
Conductor, Potential of, Methods of
Tarying The potential of a conductor
may be varied in the following ways :
(I.) By varying its electric charge.
(2.) By varying its size or shape without alter-
ing its charge.
(3.) By varying its position as regards neigh-
boring bodies.
This resembles the case of a gas whose tension
or pressure may be varied as follows, viz. :
(I.) By varying the quantity of gas.
(z.) By varying the size of the gas holder in
which it is kept, and
(3.) By varying the temperature.
Difference of potential, therefore, correspondsr-
(I.) With difference of level in liquids.
(2. ) With difference of pressure in gases.
(3.) With difference of temperature in heat.
— (Ayrton,)
Conductor, Prime —The positive
conductor of a frictional electric or electro-
static machine. (See Machine, Frictional
Electric?)
Conductor, To Short-Circuit a
To shunt a conductor with a circuit of com-
paratively small resistance.
Conductor, Underground An elec-
tric conductor placed underground by actual
burial or by passing it through underground
conduits or subways.
Underground conductors, though less unsightly
than the ordinary aerial conductors, require to
be laid with unusual care to render them equally
safe, since, when contacts do occur, all the wires
in the same conduit are apt to be simultaneously
affected, thus spreading the danger in many dif-
ferent directions. They are, however, less liable to
dangers arising from occasional accidental crosses
or contacts.
Conductors, Service Conductors
employed in systems of incandescent lighting
connected to the street mains and to the
electric apparatus placed in the separate
buildings or areas to be lighted.
Conduit, Cement-Lined A cable
conduit, the separate ducts of which are sur-
rounded by any suitable cement.
Con.]
123
[Con.
Conduit, Handhole of (See Hand-
hole of Conduit)
Conduit, Manhole of (See Man-
hole of Conduit?)
Conduit, Multiple —A conduit
formed of concrete or other insulating mate-
rial, and furnished with a number of separate
ducts.
Conduit, Open-Box — A conduit
consisting of an open box of wood placed in
a trench and closed with a wooden cover
after the introduction of the cable.
Cables or wires may be drawn through such
conduits in the usual manner.
Conduit, Rodding a Introducing a
wire or rope into the duct of a closed conduit
preparatory to drawing the cable through.
Various methods are in use for rodding a con-
duit One much followed consists in using sec-
tions of gas pipe, the ends of which are furnished
with screw threads.
The sections are about four feet in length. One
section is pushed into the duct at one manhole
and the successive sections are introduced into
the duct and screwed onto the section in the duct
and pushed through until a sufficient length is
obtained to reach the next manhole, a rope or
cable is then pulled through from one manhole to
the next.
Conduit, Underground Electric
An underground passageway or space for
the reception of electric wires or cables. (See
Subway, Electric?)
Congelation.— The act of freezing, or the
change of a liquid into a solid on loss of heat,
or change of pressure.
Conjugate Coils.— (See Coils, Conjugate)
Connect. — To place or bring into electric
contact.
Connecting. — Placing or bringing into elec-
tric contact.
Connection for Intensity. — Connection in
series. (See Connection, Series)
This term is now nearly obsolete.
Connection for Quantity. — Connection in
multiple. (See Connection, Multiple)
This term is now nearly obsolete.
5— Vol. 1
Connection, Mercurial —A form
of readily adjustable connection obtained by
providing the poles of one piece of electric
apparatus with cups or 'cavities filled with
mercury, into which the terminals of another
piece of apparatus are dipped in order to
place the two in circuit with each other.
This form of connection is used particularly
when a very perfect contact or one free from
friction is desired.
Connection, Multiple Such a con-
nection of a number of separate electric
sources, or electro-receptive devices, or circuits,
that all the positive terminals are connected
to one main or positive conductor, and all the
negative terminals are connected to one main
or negative conductor.
In the multiple connection of a number of
electro-receptive devices, when the devices are
connected as above described to positive and
negative leads that are maintained at a constant
difference of potential, the current passes through
the devices from one lead to the other by branch-
ing and flowing through as many separate cir-
cuits as there are separate receptive devices,
and the opening or closing of one of these cir-
cuits does not affect the others. (See Circuits,
Varieties of. )
Connection, Multiple-Series Such
a connection of a number of separate electric
sources, or separate electro-receptive de-
vices, or circuits, that the sources or devices
are connected in a number of separate groups
in series, and each of these groups connected
to main positive and negative conductors or
leads in multiple arc. (See Circuits, Varie-
ties of)
Connection of Battery for Quantity. —
(See Battery, Connection of , for Quantity)
Connection of Electric Sources in Cas-
cade.— (See Cascade, Connection of Electric
Sources in)
Connection of Toltaic Cells for Inten-
sity.— (See Intensity, Connection of Voltaic.
Cells for)
Connection, Series The connec-
tion of a number of separate electric
sources, or electro-receptive devices, or cir-
Con.]
124
[Con.
cuits, so that the current passes successively
from the first to the last in the circuit. (See
Circuits, Varieties of.}
Connection, Series-Multiple Such
a connection of a number of separate electro-
receptive devices, that the devices are placed
in multiple groups or circuits, and these
separate groups connected with one another
in series.
Connection, Telephonic Cross
A device employed in systems of telephonic
communication for the purpose of lessening
the bad effects of induction, in which equal
lengths of adjacent parallel wires are alter-
nately crossed so as to alternately occupy the
opposite sides of the circuit.
Connector. — A device for readily con-
necting or joining the ends of two or more
wires. (See Post, Binding?)
Connector, Double
A form of bind-
ing screw suitable for
readily connecting two
wires together.
A form of double con-
nector is shown in Fig.
170.
Conning Tower. —
(See Tower, Conning.)
Consequent Points. — (See Points, Conse-
quent)
Consequent Poles. — (See Poles, Conse-
quent)
Conservation of Energy. — (See Energy,
Conservation of)
Consonance, "In Consonance." — A term
employed to express the fact that one simple
periodic quantity, /. e., a wave or vibration,
agrees in phase with another.
Constant. — That which remains invariable.
Constant-Current. — (See Current, Con-
stant)
Constant-Current Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Constant Current)
Constant-Current, Distribution of Elec*
trieity by (See Electricity, Distri-
bution of, by Constant Currents)
Fig. i TO. Double
Connector.
Constant, Dielectric A term some-
times employed in place of specific inductive
capacity. (See Capacity, Specific Inductive)
Constant, Galvanometer —The
numerical factor connecting the current pass-
ing through a galvanometer with the deflec-
tion produced by such current.
Sometimes a distinction is made between the
galvanometer constant and the reduction factor,
the former being used to indicate the relation
between the current and the geometrical constant
of the galvanometer, while the latter is used in
the sense just defined of galvanometer constant.
Constant Inductance. — (See Inductance,
Constant)
Constant Potential.— (See Potential,
Constant)
Constant-Potential Circuit.— (See Cir-
cuit, Constant-Potential)
Constant, Time, of Electro-Magnet
— The time required for the magnetizing
current to rise to the of its final value.
e
Contact-Breaker, Automatic A
device for causing an electric current to
rapidly make and break its own circuit.
The spring c, Fig. 171, carries an armature of
soft iron, B, and is
placed in a circuit in
such a manner that
the circuit is closed
when platinum con-
tacts placed on the
ends of D and B,
touch each other. In
this case the arma-
ture, B, is attracted to
the core A, of the
electro-magnet, thus
breaking the circuit
and causing the magnet to lose its magnetism.
The elasticity of the spring C, causes it to fly back
and again close the contacts, thus again energiz-
ing the electro-magnet and again attracting B,
and breaking the circuit. The makes and breaks
usually follow each other so rapidly as to produce
a musical note. (See Alarm, Electric)
Contact, Dotting An electric con
Ftg. 17 r. Automatic
Contact Breaker.
Con.]
125
[Con.
tact obtained by the approach of one con-
tact point towards another.
The term dotting contact is used in contradis-
tinction to a rubbing contact. The rubbing
contact is generally to be preferred, since it tends
automatically to remove dust and keep the con-
tact surfaces polished and free from oxides.
Contact Dynamo. — (See Dynamo. Con-
tact)
Contact Electricity. — (See Electricity,
Contact.}
Contact, Fire- Alarm A contact so
arranged that an alarm is given when any
predetermined temperature is reached.
Fire-alarm contacts are generally operated by
the expansion of a metal or of a conducting fluid,
such as mercury. (See Thermostat.)
Contact Force.— (See Force, Contact)
Contact, Fnll-Metallic A contact,
which from its small resistance establishes a
good or complete connection. (See Contact,
Metallic)
Contact, Intermittent The occa-
sional contact of a telegraphic or other line
with other wires or conductors by swing-
ing, or by alternate contraction or expansion
under changes of temperature.
Contact, Metallic A contact of
a metallic conductor produced by its coming
into firm connection with another metallic
conductor.
Contact, Partial —A contact of a
telegraphic, or other line, arising from defect-
ive insulation, bad earths, or connection with
an imperfect conductor.
Contact, Rolling -A contact con-
nected with one part of an electric circuit,
that completes the circuit by being rolled over
a conductor connected with and forming
another part of the circuit.
Rolling contacts are employed on electric rail-
roads. (See Railroad, Electric.)
Contact, Rubbing —A contact
effected by means of a rubbing motion,
Contact Series.— (See Series, Contact!)
Contact, Sliding A contact con-
nected with one part of a circuit that closes
or completes an electric circuit by being slid
over a conductor connected with another
part of the circuit.
Sliding contacts are employed in electric rail-
roads, in rheostats, switches, and a variety of other
apparatus. (See Railroad, Electric. Rheostat.
Key, Discharge.)
Contact, Spring A spring-sup-
ported contact connected with one part of a
circuit that completes said circuit by being
moved so as to touch another contact con-
nected with the other part of the circuit.
The movement required to bring the two con-
tacts together may be non-automatic, as in the case
of a push-button, or automatic, as in the case of
a thermostat (See Button, Push. Thermostat.')
Contact Theory of Yoltaic CelL— (See
Cell, Voltaic, Contact Theory of)
Contact, Yibrating A spring con-
tact, connected with one part of a circuit and
so supported as to be able to vibrate towards
and from another contact connected with
another part of the circuit, thus automatically
closing and opening said circuit.
A vibrating contact is used in the automatic
contact-breaker in which the movement of aa
armature towards an electro-magnet is caused to
break the circuit of the coils of the electro-magnet,
and, on its movement away from the magnet, to
close another contact which again completes the
circuit of the electro-magnet. (See Coutect
Breaker, Automatic.)
Contact, Wiping A contact ob-
tained by a wiping movement of one con-
ductor against another.
The spark for electrically igniting a gas jet \s
obtained by means of a wiping contact of a spring
moved by the motion of the pendant. (See
Burner, Plain-Pendant Electric. )
Contacts. — A variety of faults occasioned
by the accidental contact of a circuit with any
conducting body.
The word contacts as employed above is in die
sense of accidental contacts as distinguished from
predetermined contacts.
Contacts of an accidental character are of the
following varieties, viz.:
(I.) Full, or metallic, as when the circuit is
Con.]
126
[Con.
Accidentally placed in firm connection with *n-
other metallic circuit.
(2.) Portia/, as by imperfect conductors being
placed across wires, or bad earths, or defective
insulation.
(3.) Intermittent, as by occasional contacts of
swinging wires, etc.
Contacts, Burglar • Alarm — —Con-
tacts fitted to windows, doors, tills, steps,
floors, etc., so that a movement of the parts
from their natural position gives an alarm by
sounding a conveniently located bell.
Contacts, Lamp Metallic plates or
rings connected with the terminals of an incan-
descent lampf or ready connection with the line.
Contacts, Mercurial Electric con-
tacts that are opened or closed by the ex-
pansion or contraction of a mercury column.
In the commonest forms of mercurial con-
tacts, on the expansion of the mercury by heat it
reaches a contact point placed in the tube, and
thus completes the circuit through it own mass.
Or, on contraction it breaks a contact, and thus
disturbing an electric balance, sounds an alarm.
Continental Code Telegraphic Alphabet.
—(See Alphabet. Telegraphic, International
Code)
Continuity of Current— (See Current,
Continuous.)
Continuous Current— (See Current, Con"
tinuous)
Continuous Current, Distribution of
Electricity by (See Electricity, Dis-
tribution of, by Constant Currents)
Continuous Current, Dynamo-Electric
Machine (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Continuous Current)
Continuous-Sounding Electric Bell.—
(See Bell, Continuous-Sounding Electric.)
Continuous Wires or Conductors.— (See
Wires or Conductors, Continuous)
Contraction, Anodic Closure The
muscular contraction observed on the closing
of a voltaic circuit, the anode of which is placed
over a nerve, and the kathode at some other
part of the body.
This term is generally written A. C. C.
Contraction, Anodic Duration
The length of time the muscle continues in
contraction on the opening or closing of a
circuit, the anode of which is placed over the
part contracted.
This term is generally written A. D. C.
Contraction, Anodic Opening
The muscular contraction observed on the
opening of a voltaic circuit, the anode of which
is placed over a nerve, and the kathode at
some other part of the body.
This term is generally written A. O. C.
When the anode is placed over a nerve and a
weak current is employed, if the circuit be kept
closed for a few minutes, it will be noticed that,
on opening the circuit the contraction will be
much greater than if it had been opened after
being closed for only a few seconds. The effect
of the A. O. C. therefore depends not only on the
current strength, but also on the time during
which the current has passed through the nerve.
Contraction of Lines of Magnetic Force.
— (See Force, Magnetic, Contraction of
Lines of)
Contractures. — In electro-therapeutics,
prolonged muscular spasms, or tetanus, caused
by the passage of electric currents.
Contraplex Telegraphy.— (See Telegra-
phy, Contraplex)
Controlled Clock.— (See Clock, Electric)
Controller. — A magnet, in the Thomson-
Houston system of automatic regulation,
whose coils are traversed by the main cur-
rent, and by means of which the regulator
magnet is automatically thrown into or out of
the main circuit on changes in the strength
of the current passing. (See Regulation,
Automatic)
Controlling Clock.— (See Clock, Electric)
Controlling Magnet— (See Magnet, Con-
trolling)
Convection Currents.— (See Currtnts.Con-
vection)
Convection, Electric The air par-
ticles, or air streams, which are thrown off
from the pointed ends of a charged, insulated
conductor.
Con.]
[Cop.
Convection streams, like currents flowing
through conductors, act magnetically, and are
themselves acted on by magnets. The same thing
is true of the brush discharge, of the voltaic arc,
and of convective discharges in vacuum tubes.
Convection, Electrolytic A term
proposed by Helmholtz to explain the appa-
rent conduction of electricity by an electro-
lyte, without consequent decomposition.
Helmholtz assumes that the atoms of oxygen or
hydrogen, adhering to the electrodes during elec-
trolysis, are mechanically dislodged and diffused
through the liquid, thus carrying off the elec-
tricity by the charges received while in contact
with the electrodes.
Convection of Heat, Electric — —(See
Heat, Electric Convection of.)
Convection Streams. — (See Streams, Con-
vection^)
Convective Discharge. — (See Discharge,
Convective?)
Conversion, Efficiency of, of Dynamo
— The total electric energy developed by a
dynamo, divided by the total mechanical
energy required to drive the dynamo. (See
Co-efficient, Economic, of a Dynamo-Electric
Machine?)
The efficiency of conversion
W-f w _ W + w
M~~ ~~ W + w + m,
where W, equals the useful or available electrical
energy, M, the total mechanical energy, w, the
electrical energy absorbed by the machine, and
m, the stray power, or the power lost in friction,
eddy currents, air friction, etc.
Converted Currents. — (See Currents,
Converted.)
Converter. — The inverted induction coil
employed in systems of distribution by means
of alternating currents.
A term sometimes used instead of trans-
former. (See Transformer?)
Converter, Closed-Iron Circuit
A closed-iron circuit transformer. (See
Transformer, Closed-Iron Circuit.)
Converter, Constant-Current —
A constant-current transformer. (See Trans-
former, Constant-Current.)
Converter, Efficiency of The effi-
ciency of a transformer. (See Transformer,
Efficiency of.)
Converter Fuse. — (See Fuse, Converter.)
Converter, Hedgehog A form of
transformer. (See Transformer, Hedgehog.)
Converter, Multiple A multiple
transformer. (See Transformer, Multiple.)
Converter, Open-Iron-Circuit An
open-iron-circuit transformer. (See Trans-
former, Open-Iron-Circuit.)
Converter, Series A series trans-
former. (See Transformer, Series.)
Converter, Step-down A step-down
transformer. (See Transformer, Step-down.)
Converter, Step-up — A step-up
transformer. (See Transformer, Step-up?)
Converter, Welding — A welding
transformer. (See Transformer, IVelding.)
Converting Currents.— (See Currents,
Converting.)
Cooling Box of Hydro-Electric Machine.
—(See Box, Cooling, of Hydro-Electric
Machine?]
Co-ordinates, Axes of The axes of
abscissas and ordinates.
The two straight lines, usually perpendicular
to each other, to which distances representing
values are referred for the graphic represen-
tation of such values. (See Abscissas, Axes of.)
Copper Bath.— (See Bath, Copper?)
Copper Plating.— (See Plating, Copper?)
Copper Ribbon. — A variety of strap cop-
per. (See Copper, Strap?)
Copper, Strap Copper conductors
in the form of straps or flat bars.
Strap copper is used on the armatures of some
dynamos. Heavy copper conductors for such
purposes are divided into strap copper so as to
avoid eddy currents. The straps are placed
alongside one another and insulated by a coating
of varnish.
Copper Wire, Hard-Drawn (See
Wire, Copper, Hard-Drawn?)
Copper Wire, Soft-Drawn (See
Wire, Copper, Soft-Drawn.)
Cop.]
128
[Cor.
Copper Voltameter.— (See Voltameter,
Copper.)
Coppered Plumbago. — (See Plumbago,
Coppered.)
Coppering, Electro Electro-plating
with copper. (See Plating, Electro.)
Cord-Adjuster— (See Adjuster, Cord.)
Cord, Conducting A small flexible
cable, usually containing several conductors
separated from one another by insulating ma-
terial.
Cord, Electric A flexible, insulated
electric conductor, generally containing at least
two parallel wires.
Electric cords are named from the purposes for
which they are employed, battery cords, dental
cords, lamp cords, motor cords, switch cords, etc.
Fig. 172. Flexible Cord.
A two-conductor flexible cord, in which each
cord is composed of a number of bare copper wires
placed parallel to and in contact with one another,
is shown in Fig. 172. The several separate wires
give flexibility to the cord.
Cord, Pendant A flexible conductor
provided for conveying the current to a hang-
ing electric lamp supported by it,
Cords, Telephone — — Flexible con-
ductors for use in connection with a tele-
phone.
Fig' '73- Telephone Cards.
Telephone cords, attached to an articulating
telephone, are shown in Fig. 173.
Core, Armature, Filamentous
An armature core, the iron of which consists
of wire.
Core, Armature, H An armature
core in the shape of the letter H, generally
known as the shuttle armature, and some-
times as the girder armature.
This form is also called an I armature.
The H armature core was the form originally
given to the Siemens armature. In this form a
single coil of wire was secured on the cross-bar
of the H armature core, so as to fill up the entire
space inside the letter, and the ends of the wire
connected to a two-part commutator,
Core, Armature, Lamination of
The subdivision of the core of the armature
of a dynamo-electric machine into separate
insulated plates or strips for the purpose of
avoiding eddy or Foucault currents.
This lamination must always be perpendicular
to the direction of the eddy currents that would
^otherwise be produced. (See Currents, Eddy.}
Core, Armature, of Dynamo-Electric
Machine The iron core, on, or around
which, the armature coils of a dynamo-electric
machine are wound or placed.
The armature core is laminated for the pur-
pose of avoiding the formation of eddy or Fou-
cault currents.
In drum, and" in ring-armatures, the laminae
should be in the form of thin insulated discs or
plates of soft iron; in pole-armatures they should
be in the form of bundles of insulated wires.
The iron in the cores should be of such an area
of cross-section, as not to be readily o versa turated.
Core, Armature, Radially-Laminated
An armature core, the iron of which
consists of thin iron washers.
Core, Armature, Ribbed A cylin-
drical armature core provided with longi-
tudinal projections or ribs that serve as
spaced channels or grooves for the reception
of the armature coils.
Core, Armature, Tangentiallj -Laminated
— An armature core, the iron of which
consists of a coiled ribbon.
Core, Armature, Ventilation of
Means for passing air through the armature
Cor.]
129
[Con.
cores of dynamo-electric machines in order to
prevent undue accumulation of heat.
A properly proportioned dynamo-armature
may need no ventilation, since in such the
amount of heat generated is small as compared
with the extent of the radiating surface.
Since, however, in practice all armatures tend
to heat at full load, especially in certain installa-
tions in heated situations, ventilation of the ar-
mature is desirable.
Core, Closed-Magnetic A mag-
netic core so shaped as to provide a complete
iron path or circuit for the lines of magnetic
force of its field.
Core, Laminated A core of iron
which has been divided or laminated, in order
to avoid the injurious production of Foucault
or eddy currents.
Core, Lamination of Structural
subdivisions of the cores of magnets, arma-
tures, and pole-pieces of dynamo-electric
machines, electric motors, or similar appa-
ratus, in order to prevent heating and subse-
quent loss of energy from the production of
local, eddy or Foucault currents.
These laminations are obtained by forming the
cores of sheets, rods, plates, or wires of iron in-
sulated from one another.
The cores of dynamo-electric machine arma-
tures should be subdivided in planes at right
angles to the armature coils; or in planes parallel
to the direction of the lines of force and to the
motion of the armature; or, in general, in planes
perpendicular to the currents that would otherwise
be generated in them.
Pole-pieces should be divided in planes per-
pendicular to the direction of the currents in the
armature wires.
Magnet cores should be divided in planes at
right angles to the magnetizing current.
Core of Cable. — The conducting wires of
an electric cable. (See Cable, Electric?)
Core, Open-Magnetic — Any mag-
netic core so shaped that the lines of magnetic
force of its field complete their circuit partly
through iron and partly through air.
Core Ratio of Cable.— (See Cable, Core
Ratio of.)
Core, Ring1 A hollow, cylindrical
core of short length.
Core, Ring, Elongated A hollow,
cylindrical core of comparatively great length.
Core, Solenoid A core so arranged
as to be drawn into a solenoid on the passage
of the current through its coils, and to be
withdrawn therefrom, on the stopping of the
current by the action of a spring or weight.
(See Solenoid?)
Core, Stranded, of Cable The
conducting wire or core of a cable formed of
a number of separate conductors or wires in-
stead of a single conductor of the same weight
per foot as the combined conductors.
Core Transformer. — (See Transformer,
Core.}
Cored Carbons. — (See Carbons, Cored.)
Cored Electrodes.— (See Electrodes,
Cored.)
Coronae, Auroral A crown-shaped
appearance, sometimes assumed by the auro-
ral light. (See Aurora JBorealis.)
Corposant. — A name sometimes given by
sailors to a St. Elmo's Fire. (See Fire, St.
Elmo's.)
Correlation of Energy. — (See Energy,
Correlation 0f.)
Corresponding Points.— (See Points, Cor-
responding?)
Cosine. — One of the trigonometrical func-
tions. (See Trigonometry?)
Cotangent. — One of the trigonometrical
functions. (See Trigonometry?)
Coulomb. — The unit of electrical quantity.
A definite quantity or amount of the thing
or effect called electricity.
Such a quantity of electricity as would pass
in one second in a circuit whose resistance is
one ohm, under an electromotive force of
one volt.
The quantity of electricity contained in a
condenser of one farad capacity, when sub-
jected to an electromotive force of one volt.
The quantity of electricity that flows per
second past a cross-section of a conductor
Con.]
130
[Coii.
conveying an ampere.— (Ayrton.) (See Am-
pere. Farad. Volt.)
Coulomb's Torsion Balance. — (See Bal-
ance, Coulomb's Torsion.)
Coulomb-Volt.— A Joule, or .7373 foot-
pound.
The term is generally written volt-coulomb.
(See Volt-Coulomb.)
Counter, Electric A device for
counting and registering such quantities as
the number of fares collected, gallons of water
pumped, sheets of paper printed, revolutions
of an engine per second, votes polled, etc.
Various electric devices are employed for this
purpose. They are generally electro-magnetic
in character.
Counter-Electromotive Force. — (See
Force, Electromotive, Counter?)
Counter Electromotive Force Lightning
Arrester. — (See Arrester, Lightning, Coun-
ter-Electromotive Force.)
Counter-Electromotive Force of Convec-
tive Discharge. — (See Force, Electromotive,
Counter, of Connective Discharge?)
Counter-Electromotive Force of Mutual
Induction. — (See Force, Electromotive,
Counter, of Mutual Induction?)
Counter-Electromotive Force of Self-in-
duction.—(See Force, Electromotive, Coun-
ter, of Self -Induction?)
Counter-Electromotive Force of Self-In-
duction of the Primary.— (See Force,
Electromotive, Counter, of Self-Induction of
the Primary?)
Counter-Electromotive Force of Self-In-
duction of the Secondary.— (See Force,
Electromotive, Counter, of Self-induction of
the Secondary?)
Counter-Electromotive Force of the
Primary.— (See Force, Electromotive,
Counter, of the Primary?)
Counter Inductive Effect.— (See Effect,
Counter Inductive?)
Couple. — In mechanics, two equal parallel
forces acting in opposite directions but not in
the same line, and tending to cause rotation.
The moment, or effective power of a couple, is
equal to the intensity of one of the forces multiplied
by the perpendicular distance between the direc-
tions of the two forces.
Couple, Astatic • —Two magnets of
exactly equal strength so placed one over the
other in the same vertical plane as to com-
pletely neutralize each other.
An astatic couple has no directive tendency. A
pair of magnets combined as an astatic couple is
called an astatic needle. (See Needle, Astatic.)
Couple, Magnetic The couple which
tends to turn a magnetic needle, placed in the
earth's field, into the plane of the magnetic
meridian.
If a magnetic needle is in any other position
than in the magnetic meridian, there will be two
parallel and equal forces acting at A and B, Fig.
174, in the directions shown by the arrows.
Their effect will be to ro-
tate the needle until it
comes to rest in the mag-
netic meridian N S.
The total force acting
on either pole of a needle
free to move in any direc-
tion, is equal to the
strength of that pole mul-
tiplied by the total inten-
sity of the earth's field at
that place ; or, if free to move in a horizontal
direction only, is equal to the intensity of the
earth's horizontal component of magnetism at
that place, multiplied by the strength of that pole.
The effective power or moment of a magnetic
couple is equal to the force exerted on one of the
poles multiplied by the perpendicular distance,
P Q, between their directions.
Couple, Moment of The effective
power or force of a couple.
The moment of a couple is equal to the inten-
sity of one of the forces multiplied by the perpen-
dicular distance between the direction of the
forces.
Couple, Thermo-Electric Two dis-
similar metals which, when connected at their
ends only, so as to form a completed electric
circuit, will produce a difference of potential,
and hence an electric current, when one of the
ends is heated more than the other.
Thus if a bar of bismuth be soldered to a bar
Fig. 174. Magnttic
Couple.
Con.]
131
[Cre.
of antimony the combination will form a thermo-
electric couple, and the circuit so formed will
have a current passing through it when one junc-
tion is hotter or colder than the other.
There is, according to Lodge, a true contact
force, at a thermo-electric junction, as is shown by
the reversible heat effects produced when an
electric current is passed across such junction; for,
in one direction more heat is produced, and in the
opposite direction less heat. This, as is well
known, differs from the irreversible heat produced
by a current through a homogeneous metallic
conductor. The reversible heat effects, or as they
are called the Peltier effects, may overpower and
conceal the heating effects. But, in addition to
these effects, since a difference of potential, called
a Thomson effect, exists in a substance unequally
heated, currents are so produced, and these are
also influential in causing the difference of poten-
tial of a thermo-electric couple.
" There are then," says Lodge, " in a simple
circuit of two metals with their junctions at differ-
ent temperatures, altogether four E. M. Fs., one
in each metal, from hot to cold, or vice versa, and
one at each junction, and the current which flows
around such a circuit is propelled by the resultant
of these four." * * * "These four forces,
two Thomson forces in the metals, and two Peltier
forces at their junctions, may some of them help
and some hinder the current. " * * * "When-
ever they help, the locality is to that extent cooled ;
whenever they hinder, it is to that extent
warmed."
The action of a thermo-electric couple in pro-
ducing a difference of potential is therefore a
complicated one, and depends on Peltier and
Thomson effects, as well as on the thermo-electric
effect. (See Effect, Peltier. Effect, Thomson.
Effect, Tkermo-Electric.)
Couple, Yoltaic Two materials,
usually two dissimilar metals, capable of
acting as an electric source when dipped in
an electrolyte, or capable of producing a
difference of electric potential by mere con-
tact.
Liquids and gases are capable of acting as
voltaic couples.
All voltaic cells have two metals, or a metal and
a metalloid, or two gaseous or liquid substances
which are of such a character that, when dipped
into the exciting fluid one only is chemically
acted on.
Each one of these two substances is called an
element of the cell, and the two taken collectively
form a voltaic couple.
The elements of a voltaic couple may consist of
two gases or two liquids. (See Battery, Gas.)
Coupled Cells.— (See Cells, Coupled)
Coupler, Yoltaic Any device by
means of which voltaic cells may be readily
coupled or connected in different forms of
circuits. (See Circuits, Varieties of)
Coupling of Voltaic Cells or Other
Electric Sources. — A term indicating the
manner in which a number of separate
electric sources may be connected so as to
form a single source. (See Circuits, Varie-
ties of)
Cramp, Telegrapher's An affec-
tion of the hand of a telegrapher due to im-
moderate and excessive use of the same
muscles, somewhat similar to the disease
known as writer's cramp.
Telegrapher's cramp, like writer's cramp, may
be defined as a professional neurosis of co-ordina-
tion. It appears not only in certain groups of
muscles, but is limited to such groups, only when
they are performing certain complicated opera-
tions. For example, telegrapher's cramp is
practically a paralysis of certain muscles of the
hand and wrist of the operator. These muscles,
when called on to perform the somewhat delicate
movements required in sending a telegraphic dis-
patch, are incapable of performing their proper
functions, but when called on to perform in part
other similar actions, provided all these actions
are not required to be used, appear to be un-
affected.
The ability of the operator to send with either
hand would lessen the liability to this disease.
Crater in Positive Carbon. — A depression
at the end of the positive carbon of an arc
lamp which appears when a voltaic arc is
formed. (See Arc, Voltaic?)
Creep, Diffusion The flow of an
electric current in portions of a conducting
substance, outside the parts that lie in the
direct lines between the points where the
terminals of the same are applied to the con-
ducting substance.
Oe.J 132
Creeping, Electric A term some-
times applied to the creeping of a current.
(See Current, Creeping of.)
Creeping in Yoltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Vol-
taic, Creeping in.)
Creeping of Current. — (See Current,
Creeping of, Electric.)
Creeping, Saline The formation
of salts by efflorescence on the walls of a solid
immersed in a solution of a salt.
Creosoting. — A process employed for the
preservation of wood, as, for example, tele-
graph poles, by injecting creosote into the
pores of the wood. (See Pole, Telegraphic.)
Crith. — A term proposed by A. W. Hoff-
man, as a unit of weight, or the weight of
one litre, or cubic decimetre, of hydrogen at
O^ C. and 760 mm. barometric pressure.
Critical Current. — (See Current^ Crit-
ical.)
Critical Current of a Dynamo.— (See
Current, Critical, of a Dynamo^
Critical Distance of Lateral Discharge
through Alternative Path.— (See Distance,
Critical, of Lateral Discharge through
an Alternative Path.)
Critical Speed of Compound-Wound Dy-
namo.—(See Speed, Critical, of Compound-
Wound Dynamo.)
Crookes' Dark Space.— (See Space, Dark,
Crookes'.)
Crookes' Electric Radiometer.— (See Ra-
diometer, Electric, Crookes'?)
Cross Arm. — (See Arm, Cress.)
Cross-Connecting Board. — (See Board,
Cross-Connecting?)
Cross, Electric A connection, gen-
erally metallic, accidentally established be-
tween two conducting lines.
A defect in a telegraph, telephone or other
circuit caused by two wires coming into
contact by crossing each other.
A swinging or intermittent cross is caused by
wires, which are too slack, being occasional^
blown into contact by the wind.
[Cro.
A weather cross arises from defective action ot
the insulators in wet weather.
Cross, Swinging or Intermittent
An accidental contact, generally metallic,
caused by wires being brought into occasional
contact with one another, or with some other
conductor, by the intermittent action of the
wind.
Cross, Weather A contact or leak
occurring in a telegraphic or other line dur-
ing wet weather, from the defective action of
the insulators.
Crossing Cleat— (See Cleat, Crossing.)
Crossing, Live-Trolley A device
whereby a trolley moving over a line that
crosses a second line at an angle is enabled
to maintain its electrical connection with the
line while crossing.
A live-trolley crossing is necessitated where one
line of electric railway crosses another. The
upper line must, of course, provide a space or
opening for crossing the lower line at the points
of intersection. This is effected in the Bagnall
live-trolley crossing, shown in Fig. 175, by attach -
Fig'175- Livt- Trolley Crossing.
ing to the upper trolley wire a bridge piece of
light lathe casting, provided at its centre with a
gap through which the trolley wire passes. This
bridge piece is insulated from the trolley wire by
means of a disc of insulating material at the cen-
tre of the bridge, which is provided with a hinged
curved lever, that in its normal position rests un-
der the influence of gravity in the position shown
in the figure. The passage of the trolley wheel
along the wire carries the line under it and thus
bridges the gap, as shown by the position of the
dotted lines.
Crossing Wires. — (See Wires, Crossing.)
Cross-Over Block.— (See Slock, Cross-
Over.)
Cross-Over, Trolley A device by
means of which a trolley is enabled to pass
over the points where different lines cross one
another without serious interruption.
Cro.]
133
[Cur.
A trolley cross-over, for trolley lines, is shown
in Fig. 176.
Fig. 176. Trolley Cross Over.
Crow-foot Zinc.— (See Zinc, Crow-foot.')
Crucible, Electric A crucible in
which the heat of the voltaic arc, or of elec-
tric incandescence, is employed either to per-
form difficult fusions, or for the purpose of
effecting the reduction of metals from their
cres or the formation of alloys. (See Fur-
nace, Electric?)
Crystal.— A solid body bounded by sym-
metrically disposed plane surfaces.
A definite form or shape is as characteristic of
an inorganic crystalline substance as it is of an
animal or plant. Each substance has a form in
which it generally occurs. There are, however,
certain modifications of the typical forms which
cause plane surfaces to appear curved, and the
eymmetrical airangement of the faces to disap
pear. These modifications often render it ex
tremely difficult to recognize the true typical
fornv
For the different fundamental crystalline forms,
or systems of crystals, see any standard work on
chemistry.
Crystal, Heniihedral —A crystal
whose shape or form has been modified by
the replacement of half its edges or solid
angles,
A hemihedral crystal possesses different forms
at the ends or extremities of its axes. Hemi
hedral Crystals, when unequally heated, develop
electrical charges.
Electricity produced in this way was formerly
called pyro-electricity. (See Electricity, Pyro.)
Crystal, Holohedral —A crystal
whose shape or form has been modified by
the replacement of all its edges or solid
angles.
Crystalline Electro-Metallurgical De-
posit.—(See Deposit. Crystalline. Electro-
Met allurgic al.)
Crystallization.— Solidification from a state
of solution or fusion in a definite crystalline
:orm
The crystallization of a dissolved solid is fa-
vored by any cause that gives increased freedom
of movement to its molecules, such for example as
solution, fusion, sublimation, or precipitation,
Crystallization by Electrolytical Decom-
position.— The crystalline deposition of vari-
ous metals by the passage of an electric cur-
rent through solutions of their salts under
certain conditions.
A strip of zinc immersed in a solution of sugar
of lead (acetate of lead) soon becomes covered
with bright metallic plates of lead, that are elec-
trolytically deposited by the weak currents due to
minute voltaic couples formed with the zinc by
particles of iron, carbon, or other impurities in
the zinc. The deposit assumes at times a tree-
like growth, and is therefore called a lead tree.
(See Couple, Voltaic.}
Crystallization, Ele«tro — — —Crystalli-
zation effected during elect rolytic deposition.
Crystallize.— To separate from a liquid
or vapor, in the form of a crystalline solid.
Crystalloid.— Those portions of a mixed
substance subjected to dialysis, that are capa-
ble of crystallization. (See Dialysis.)
Cube, Faraday's —An insulated
room cubic in shape, covered on the inside
with tin foil, which, when charged on the
outside gives no indications to an observer on
the inside, though furnished with delicate in-
struments.
Faraday's cube illustrates the fact that an elec-
trostatic charge resides on the outside of an insu-
lated conductor. (See Net, Faraday* s.)
Cup, Mercury A cup or cavity
filled with mercury and connected with the
pole of an electric apparatus for the ready
placing of the same in circuit with other elec-
tric apparatus.
To connect apparatus it is only necessary to
insert the free terminal of one apparatus in the
mercury cup of the other.
Cup, Porous A porous cell. (See
Cell, Porous)
Curb, Double A device for in-
creasing the speed of signaling, by means of
which the line is rid of its charge before the
next signal is sent, by sending an opposite
charge, then another in the same direction,
Cur.]
134
[Cur.
then finally another in the same direction
before connecting with the ground.
The effect of the third charge is to reduce the
potential of the line more nearly to zero at the
end of the signal.
Curb, Single A device for in-
creasing the speed of signaling telegraphic-
ally by ridding the line of its previous charge
by sending a reversed current through it be-
fore connecting with the ground.
In single-curb signaling the operator in dis-
charging the line before sending another signal
through it, before putting the line to earth, re-
verses the battery, and then connects to earth.
Current, Absolute Unit of A cur-
rent of 10 amperes. (See Ampere. Units,
Practical)
A current of such a strength that when
passed through a circuit of a centimetre in
length bent in the form of an arc of a circle
one centimetre in radius, will act with the
force of a dyne on a magnetic pole of unit
strength, placed at the centre of the arc.
The ampere, the practical unit of current, is
but ^5 the value of the absolute unit of current.
Current, Action of, on a Magnetic Pole
An attraction or repulsion depend-
ent on the name of the pole and the direction
of the current.
Two currents of electricity attract or repel each
other according to the direction in which they
are flowing, and the mutual positions of their
circuits. A current and a magnetic pole exert an
action on each other which, strictly speaking, is
neither attraction nor repulsion, but which is ro-
tation, that may, however, be regarded as being
produced by the combined action of attraction
and repulsion.
Current, Alternating A current
which flows alternately in opposite directions.
A current whose direction is rapidly re-
versed.
The non-commuted currents generated by the
differences of potential in the armature of a
dynamo-electric machine are alternating or
simple-periodic-currents.
In a characteristic curve of the electromotive
forces of alternating currents, positive electro-
motive forces, or those that would produce cur-
rents in a certain direction, are indicated by
values above a horizontal line, and negative elec-
tromotive forces, by values below the line.
The curves A B C, and C D E, Fig. 177, are
B
Fig. 177. Curve of Electromotive Forces of Alternating
-Currents.
often called phases, and represent the alternate
phases of the current.
Current, Alternative —A voltaic
alternative. (See Alternatives, Voltaic.)
Current, Assumed Direction of Flow
of The direction the current is as-
sumed to take, z*. e., from the positive pole of
the source through the circuit to the negative
pole of the source.
The electricity is assumed to come out of the
source at its positive pole, and to return or flow
back into the source at its negative pole. This
convention as to the direction of the electric cur-
rent is in accordance with the assumption of the
direction of flow of lines of magnetic forces.
The old idea'of a dual or double current flowing
in opposite directions is still maintained by some.
(See Force, Lines of, Direction of.)
Current, Axial In electro-thera-
peutics a current flowing in a nerve in the
opposite direction to the normal impulse in
the nerve.
Current, Break-Induced The cur-
rent induced by a current in its own, or in
another circuit, on breaking or opening the
same.
The current induced in the secondary on
the breaking of the primary circuit.
The break-induced current set up by a current
in its own circuit is sometimes called the direct-
induced current.
Lord Rayleigh has shown that within certain
limits the break-induced current has a greater
effect in magnetizing steel needles, the smaller
the number of turns of wire in the secondary. In
Cur.]
135
[Cur.
the case of a galvanometer, it is well known that
the opposite is true. The deflection of the gal-
vanometer needle depends on the strength of the
whole current. The magnetizing power depends,
for the greater part, on the strength of the cur-
rent at the beginning of its formation.
Current, Closed-Circular A cur-
rent flowing in a circular circuit.
A small closed-circular current may be replaced
magnetically by a thin disc of steel, magnetized in
a direction perpendicular to its lace, and the edge
of which corresponds to the edge of the circular
conductor.
Current-Commuter. — (See Commuter,
Current?)
Current, Conduction —The current
that passes through a metallic or other con-
ducting substance, as contradistinguished
from a current produced in a non-conductor
or dielectric. (See Current, Displacement)
Current, Constant A current that
continues to flow in the same direction for
some time without varying in strength,
This term is sometimes used to mean a con
tinuous or direct current m contradistinction to
an alternating current, but it ought to be applied
only to unvarying currents, such, for example as
a constant current of 10 ampdres.
Current, Continuous —An electric
current which flows in one and the same
direction.
Although the term continuous current is used
as synonymous with constant current, it is not
entirely so; a continuous current flows constantly
in the same direction. A constant current not
only flows continuously in the same direction, but
maintains an approximately constant current
strength
This term continuous current is used in the
opposite sense to alternating current, and in the
same sense as a direct current.
Current, Creeping of Electric
A change in the direction of path of a current
from the direct line between the points of
connection with the source.
When the terminals of any electric source are
placed in contact with any two points of a metallic
sheet of conducting material, the flow of the cur-
rent is not confined to the direct line between the
points of contact, but creeps or diffuses into por-
tions of the conducting plate surrounding this
direct line. (See Current ', Diffusion of.)
In a somewhat similar manner, the current
is said to creep, or to establish a partial short-
circuit around the poles of a poorly insulated
voltaic battery, or other electric source.
Current, Critical
— The current at which a
certain result is reached,
Current, Critical, of a
Dynamo That value
of the current at which the
characteristic curve begins
to depart from a nearly -^
straight line. — (Silvanus Fig 178. Critical
P. Thompson.} &**• & Dynatno
In Fig. 178 the critical
current is shown in three different cases, as oc-
curring where the dotted vertical line cuts the
characteristic curves.
The speed at which a series dynamo excites
itself is often called the critical speed.
Current, Demarcation — A term
sometimes applied to an electric current ob-
tained from an injured muscle.
" Every injury of a muscle or nerve causes at
the point of injury a dying surface, which benaves
negatively to the positive intact substance." —
(Landois dr» Stirling.)
Current Density. — The current of elec-
tricity which passes in any part of a circuit as
compared with the area of cross-section of
that part of the circuit.
In a dynamo- electric machine the current den-
sity in the armature wire should not, according to
Silvanus P. Thompson, exceed 2,500 ampdres
per square inch of area of transverse section of
conductor.
The current density in a dynamo wire, of
necessity depends on the sectional area of the
coils. If, for example, a current of 50 ampdres
be safe in an armature section of eight tu.us it
may be safely increased to 100 amperes ii the
conductors are cross- sectioned so as to make but
four turns. — (Urquhart.)
In electro-plating, for every definite current
strength that passes through the bath, or in other
words, for a definite number of coulombs, a
definite weight of metal is deposited, the charac-
Cor.]
136
[Cur:
ter of which depends on the current density. The
character of an electrolytic deposit will therefore
depend on the current density at that part of the
circuit where the deposit occurs.
-The following table from Urquhart gives the
practical working value for the current density
for electro-metallurgical deposits :
CURRENT DENSITY (OR AMPERES ON
CATHODE).
Amperes
Solution of per square foot.
Copper, acid bath 5 . o to 10.0
Copper, cyanide bath 3.0 " 5.0
Silver, double cyanide 2.0 " 5.0
Gold, chloride in cyanide i.o " 2.0
Nickel, double sulphate 6.0 " 8.0
Brass, cyanide 2.0 " 3.0
Tin
Current, Diacritical - —Such a
strength of the magnetizing current as pro-
duces a magnetization of an iron core equal
to half-saturation.
The diacritical current is the current which,
flowing through the diacritical number of ampere-
turns, will bring up the magnetism produced to
half -saturation.
The diacritical number of ampere-turns is such
a number of ampere-turns as would reduce the
magnetic permeability to half its iull value.
Current, Diffusion of A term em-
ployed to designate the difference in the
density of current in different portions of a
conductor. (See Current, Creeping of, Elec-
tric.)
Current, Diffusion of Electro-Therapeu-
fic The difference in the density of
current in different portions of the human
body between the electro-therapeutic elec-
trodes.
When the electrodes are placed at any two
given points of the human body, the current
branches through various paths, extending in a
general direction from one electrode to the other,
according to the law of branched or derived cir-
cuits, and flowing in greater amount, or with
greater density of current, tlirough the relatively
better conducting paths. (See Current Density.)
This is sometimes called the creeping of the
current. (See Current, Creeping of .)
Current, Direct — A current con-
stant in direction, as distinguished from an
alternating current.
A continuous current.
Current, Direct-Induced — — The cur-
rent induced in a circuit by induction on it-
self, or self-induction, on breaking or opening
the circuit. (See Currents, Extra?)
This is called the direct-induced current because
its direction is in the same direction as the induc-
ing current.
Current, Direction of— —The direc-
tion an electric current is assumed to take
out from one pole of any source through the
circuit and its translating devices back to the
source through its other pole.
Conventionally, the current is assumed to come
out from the positive pole of the source and to go
back to the source at the negative pole.
Current, Displacement — — The rate
of change of electric displacement.
A brief conduction current produced in a
dielectric by an electric displacement. (See
Displacement, Electric?)
This is called a displacement current in order
to distinguish it from a conduction current in any
conductor.
The displacement current continues while the
displacement of electricity is going on. Dis-
placement currents have all the properties of con-
duction currents, and, like the latter, produce a
magnetic field; in fact, they resemble extremely
brief conduction currents.
The difference between conducting substances
and dielectrics, lies in the fact that the conducting
substances do not possess an elastic force, en-
abling them to resist electric displacement. In
other words, conducting substances possess no
electric elasticity, and can have no true displace-
ment current established in them. (See Elasti-
city, E let trie.}
A displacement current, like a conduction cur-
rent, possesses a magnetic field, or is encircled by
lines of magnetic force. (See Field, Magnetic, of
an Electric Current. )
Current, Electric — —The quantity of
electricity which passes per second through
any conductor or circuit.
The rate at which a definite quantity of elec-
tricity passes or flows through a conductor or
circuit.
Car.]
137
[Cur.
The ratio existing between the electro-
motive force, causing the current, and the
resistance which may, for convenience, be
regarded as opposing it, expressed in terms
of quantity of electricity per second.
The unit of current, or the ampere, is equal to
one coulomb per second. (See Ampere. Coulomb. )
The word current must not be confounded
with the mere act of flowing; electric current
signifies rate of flow, and always supposes an
electromotive force to produce the current, and a
resistance to oppose it.
The electric current is assumed to flow out
from the positive terminal of a source^ through
the circuit and back into the source at the nega-
tive terminal. It is assumed to flow into the
positive terminal of an electro-receptive device
such as a lamp, motor, or storage battery, and
out of its negative terminal ; or, in other words,
the positive pole of the source is always con-
nected to the positive terminal of the electro-re-
ceptive device.
Professor Lodge draws the following com-
parison between the motions of ordinary mat-
ter, heat and electricity: "Consider the modes
in which water may be made to move from place
to place; there are only two. It may be pumped
along pipes, or it may be carried about in jugs.
In other words, it may travel through matter, or,
it may travel with matter. Just so it is with heat,
also. Heat can travel in two ways: it can flow
through matter, by what is called ' conduction, '
or, it can travel with matter, by what is called
'convection.' There is no other mode of con-
veyance of heat." * * * "For electricity
the same is true. Electricity can travel with
matter, or it can travel through matter, by con-
vection, or by conduction, and by no other way."
In the above, the radiation of heat is apparently
lost sight of.
In the opinion of some, an electric current con-
sists of two distinct currents, one of positive and
the other of negative electricity, flowing in oppo-
site directions. Each of these currents is supposed
to be equal in amount to the other.
The electric current is now regarded as passing
through the dielectric surrounding the conductor,
rather than through the conductor itself. (See
Current, Electric, Method of Propagation of,
Through a Circuit.')
The current that flows or passes in any circuit
is, in the case of a constant current, equal to the
electromotive force, or difference of potential,
divided by the resistance, as—
f. See Law of Ohm.)
Current, Electric, Method of Propagation
of, Through a Circuit When an
electric current is propagated through a wire
or other conductor, it is not sent or pushed
through the conductor, like a fluid through
a pipe or other conductor, but is, so to speak,
rained down on the surface of the conductor
from the medium or dielectric surrounding it.
Poynting, who has carefully studied this mat-
ter, remarks as follows, viz.: "A space contain-
ing electrical currents may be regarded as the
field where energy is transformed at certain points
into the electric or magnetic kind, by means of
batteries, dynamos, thermopiles, etc., and in
other parts of the field this energy is being again
transformed into heat, work done by the electro-
magnetic forces, or any other form yielded by
currents.
"Formerly the current was regarded as some-
thing traveling in the conductor, and the energy
which appeared at any part of the circuit was
supposed to be conveyed thither through the
conductor by the current But the existence of in-
duced currents and electro-magnetic actions have
led us to look on the medium surrounding the
conductor as playing a very important part in the
development of the phenomena. If we believe in
the continuity of the motion of energy, we are
forced to conclude that the surrounding medium
is capable of containing energy, and that it is
capable of being transferred from point to point.
We are thus led to consider the problem, how
does the energy about an electric current pass
from point to point; by what paths does it travel,
and according to what laws? Let us take a spe-
cific case. Suppose a dynamo at one spot gen-
erates an electric current, which is made to operate
an electric motor at a distant place. We have
here, in the first place, an absorption of energy
from the prime motor into the dynamo. We find
the whole space between and around the conduct-
ing wires magnetized and the seat of electro-
magnetic energy. We have further a retrans-
formation of energy in the motor. The question
which presents itself for solution is to decide how
the energy taken up by the dynamo is trans-
mitted to the motor, by what path it travels
Cur.]
138
[Cur.
and according to what laws ? Briefly stated, the
tendency of recent views is that this energy is
conveyed through the electro-magnetic medium
or ether, and that the function of the wire is to
localize the direction or to concentrate the flow in
a particular path, and thus provide a sink or place
in which the energy can be dissipated. * * * "
Taking again, for instance, the case of the dis-
charge of a condenser by a conductor. He says:
"Before the discharge we know that the energy
resides in the dielectric, between the conducting
plates. If these plates are connected by a wire,
according to these views, the energy is transferred
outwards along the electrostatic, equipotential sur-
faces, and moves on to the wire and is there con-
verted into heat. According to this view we
must suppose the lines of electrostatic induction,
running from plate to plate, to move outwards, as
the dielectric strain lessens, and while still keep-
ing their ends on the plates, to finally converge
in on the wire and be there broken up and their
energy dissipated as heat."
In other words, some of the energy of the ex-
panding lines of induction is changed into mag-
netic energy; this energy is contained in ring-
shaped tubes of force, which expand outwards
from between the plates and then contract on
some other part of the conductor.
The time of the discharge, then, consists of the
following steps, viz. :
(I.) The time during which the energy of the
charge is nearly all electrostatic and is repre-
sented by the energy contained in the lines or
tubes of electrostatic induction, running from
plate to plate of the condenser.
(2.) The time during which the discharge is at
its maximum and the energy consists of two parts,
viz.: energy associated with the outward ex-
panding lines of electrostatic induction, and energy
associated with the closed lines or tubes of mag-
netic force, which at first are expanding and after-
wards contracting.
(3.) The time when the energy has been ab-
sorbed, or the period in which the energy in the
wire or the conductor has either been dissipated
in the form of non -luminous radiation or obscure
heat.
(4.) The time during which this non-luminous
heat gives up its energy again to the surrounding
medium in the shape of heat waves.
Current, Electro-Therapeutic Polarizing
The current which produces the
phenomena of electrotonus. (See Electro-
tonus.)
Current, Element of A term
employed in mathematical discussions to in-
dicate a very small part of a current for ease
in considering its action on a magnetic needle
or other similar body.
Current, Faradic In electro-
therapeutics, the current produced by an in-
duction coil, or by a magneto-electric machine.
A rapidly alternating current, as distin-
guished from a uniform voltaic current.
A voltaic current that is rapidly alternated by
means of any suitable key or switch is sometimes
called a voltaic alternative. The discharge from
a Holtz machine is sometimes called a Franklinic
Current. (See Alternatives, Voltaic. Current,
Franklinic.}
Current • Filaments. — (See Filament,
Current)
Current, Franklinic —A term some-
times used in electro-therapeutics for a cur-
rent produced by the action of a frictional
electric machine.
The term, Franklinic current, is used in con-
tradistinction to Faradic current, or that produced
by induction coils, or, in contradistinction to a
galvanic or voltaic current, or that produced by
a voltaic battery.
Current, Generation of, by Dynamo-Elec-
tric Machine — The difference of
potential developed in the armature coils
by the cutting of the lines of magnetic
force of the field by the coils, during the rota-
tion of the armature.
If a loop of wire whose ends are connected to
the two-part commutator, shown in Fig. 179, be
A
Fig. ifQ. Induction in Armature Loop.
rotated in the magnetic field between the magnet
poles N and S, in the direction of the large arrow,
differences of potential will be generated which
Car,]
139
[Cur.
will cause currents to flow in the direction indi-
cated by the small arrows during its motion past
the north pole from the top to the bottom, but in the
opposite direction during its motion past the south
pole — from the bottom to the top. If, now, col-
lecting brushes rest on the commutator in the
positions shown in the Fig. 1 80. the vertical line
—18P1...
Fig. 180. Action of Commutator.
of the gap between the poles corresponding with
the vertical gap between the commutator seg-
ments, the currents generated in the loop will be
caused to flow in one and the same direction, and
B', will become the positive brush, since the end
of the loop is connected with it only so long as it
is positive. As soon as it becomes negative, from
the current in the loop flowing in the opposite
direction, the other end, which is then positive,
is connected with the positive brush.
A similar series of changes occur at the nega-
tive brush B.
Theoretically, the neutral points, where the
brushes rest, would be in the vertical line coincid -
ing with that of the gap between the poles. An
inspection of the figure shows that the neutral
line, or the diameter of commutation, is dis-
placed in the direction of rotation. (See Commu-
tation, Diameter of.) The displacement of the
brushes, so necessitated, is called the lead.
The cause of the lead is the reaction that occurs
between the magnetic poles of the field magnets
Fig i8r Cause of Lead of Brushes.
and those of the armature, the result of which is
to displace the field magnet poles, and to cause a
change in the density in the field. This is shown
in Fig. 181, where the density of the lines offeree
indicates the position of the diameter of commu-
tation as being near, or at right angles to the di-
ameter of greatest average magnetic density.
(See Lead, Angle of. Lag, Angle of.)
Current-Governor. — (See Governor, Cur-
rent.)
Current, Homogeneous Distribution of
Such a distribution of a current through
any conductor in which there is an equal
density of current at all portions of any
cross-section of the conductor.
When the flow of a constant current is estab-
lished in a solid conducting wire, there is a
homogeneous distribution of current in that con-
ductor.
Current, Induced — The current
produced in a conductor by cutting lines of
force.
The induced current results from differences of
potential produced by electro-dynamic induction.
(See Induction, Electro- Dynamic.)
Current • Induction. — (See Induction,
Current.)
Current, Intensity of An old
term sometimes employed to indicate the
current which resulted from a considerable
difference of potential, or a great electromotive
force.
This term was also formerly used as synony-
mous with strength of current.
This use of the term is now abandoned.
Voltaic batteries, connected in series so as to
give a considerable difference of potential, were
spoken of as being connected for intensity.
This term has also been used for the quantity
of electricity conveyed per second across a unit
area of cross -section.
Intensity of current is more properly called
density of current. (See Current Density.)
Current, Intermittent A current
that does not flow continually, but which flows
and ceases to flow at intervals, so that elec-
tricity is practically alternately present and
absent from the circuit.
Current, Inverse-Secondary The
make-induced current. (See Current, Make-
Induced?)
Current. Jacobi's Unit of -—Such
a current that when passed through a volta-
meter will liberate a cubic centimetre of
Cur.J
140
[Cur.
oxygen and hydrogen at O degrees C. and
760 mm. barometric pressure.
One Tacobi's unit of current equals
10.32
ampere. (Obsolete.)
Current, Make-Induced —The
current induced by a current in its own circuit
on making or closing the same.
The current produced in the secondary of
an induction coil on the making or com-
pletion of the circuit of the primary.
The make-induced current is also called the
inverse-secondary current, because its direction
is opposite to that of the inducing current.
Current, Make or Break Induced, Dura-
tion of The time during which the
induced inverse or direct -secondary currents
continue.
Blaserna made a number of experiments, which
he claims shows :
(i.) The greater the distance apart of the pri-
mary and the secondary, that is, the less their
mutual-induction, the less the maximum value of
the secondary current, and the greater the delay
in establishing that maximum.
(2.) The delay in establishing the maximum of
the break or direct -secondary current is not as
great as in the case of the make, or inverse-sec-
ondary current.
(3.) When the coils are near together, the in-
duced currents at starting are established by a
series of electric oscillations.
(4 ) The primary current establishes itself by a
series of electrical oscillations.
(5.) That the interposition of dielectric sub
stances, such as glass between ^.he coils, reduces
the time between tht making or breaking of the
primary current and the beginning of the sec-
ondary current. This last conclusion was nega
tived by some experiments of Bernstein,
Blaserna determined in the case of certain ex -
periments the following value for the durations of
the secondary currents :
In verse -secondary current lasts .000485 second.
Direct -secondary current lasts .000275 second.
Helmholtz contradicts the results of Blaserna,
and asserts :
(I.) That no perceptible difference in the zero
points of the currents is produced by varying
the distance between the primary and secondary .
(2.) That the sparks produced by the breaking
of the primary last for an appreciable time, some
thing like T545ff to
a second.
(3.) The duration of the break-spark is never
constant, but depends in great part on the amount
of platinum given off from the contacts at each
spark.
Current- Meter.— A form of galvanometer.
(See Galvanometer,}
Current, Momentary - —A current
that continues to flow but for a short time.
Current, Multi-Phase - —A rotating
current, (See Current, Rotating.)
Current, Muscle -- In electro-thera-
peutics, the current flowing through a muscle.
Muscle currents are produced either by stimu
lation, or during activity of a muscle. According
to L. Hermann, uninjured muscles, or perfectly
dead muscles, yield no currents, but such cur-
rents result only from an injury. (See Current,
Demarcation . )
Current, Non- Homogeneous Distribution
of - —Such a distribution of current pass-
ing through a conductor in which there is an
unequal density of current at all portions of
any cross-section of the conductor.
When a rapidly alternating current is passed
through any solid conductor, the current density
is greater at the surface and less towards the
centre. The current distribution in such a con •
ductor is non homogeneous, and the want of uni
formity of current density is greater as the rapid
ity of alternation or periodicity is greater.
Current, Outgoing - —The current
sent out over the line from a station provided
with a duple < or quadruplex transmission, as
distinguished from the received current. (See
Current, Received?)
Current, Periodic - —A simple
periodic current. (See Currents, Simple
Periodic!)
Current, Periodic, Power of -- An
amount of work, per second, equal to the
product of the electromotive force taken at
successive moments of time during a com-
plete cycle, multiplied by the current strength
taken at the corresponding moments during
the cycle.
Since the electromotive force and current in
Cur.]
141
[Cur.
a periodic circuit may be represented by two
simple harmonic functions, the mean value of
the two, when of different amplitude and phase,
is equal to the product of their maximum value
by the cosine of their difference of phase divided
by two.
Current, Polarization In electro-
therapeutics, the constant current which when
passed through a nerve produces in it the
electrotonic stite. (See Elecfrolonus.}
Current. Pulsating A pulsatory
current. (See Current, Pulsatory?)
Current, Pulsatory A current, the
strength of which changes suddenly.
The pulsatory current usually consists of sudden
and distinct impulses, or rushes of current, in
contradistinction to an undulatory or harmonically
varying current.
Current, Received The current
received from the distant end of the line at a
station provided with a duplex or quadruplex
transmission as distinguished from the out-
going current.
A term sometimes used in telegraphy to
distinguish between currents that come in over
the line from a distant station, and those
that are sent out to a distant station.
Current. Rectilinear A current
flowing through straight or rectilinear por-
tions of a circuit.
In studying the effects of the attractions or repul-
sions produced by electric currents the name ex-
pressing the peculiarity of shape of any part of
the circuit is often applied to the current flowing
through that part of the circuit. Thus we speak
of a rectilinear current, a sinuous current.
Current, Reverse-Induced — - — The
current induced by a current in its own cir-
cuit at the moment of making or closing the
circuit.
The current induced in the secondary on
closing or making the circuit of the primary.
This is called the reverse-induced current, be-
cause its direction is opposite to that of the current
in the inducing circuit.
Current, Reversed A current whose
direction is changed at intervals. (See Cur-
rent, Alternating.}
Current Reverser.— (See Reverser, Cur-
rent.}
Current, Reversing a Changing the
direction of an electric current.
Current, Rotating A term applied
to the current which results by combin-
ing a number of alternating currents, whose
phases are displaced with respect to one an-
other.
A rotating current is sometimes called a poly-
phase or multiple-phase current, particularly if
there are three or more currents combined.
The rotating current is employed by Tesla,
Dobrowolsky and others in a system of distribu-
tion by transformers in place of the ordinary
alternating current. In practice, three alternating
current are combined. The currents and their
combination are obtained by means of a specially
constructed alternator. When three currents are
combined the displacement between each set of
phases is 120 degrees. A rotating current, unlike
an alternating current, possesses, in a certain
sense, a definite direction of flow. Its effect on a
magnetic needle is to cause rotation. Hence
motors constructed on the principle of rotating
currents will start with a load.
Current, Rotatory • Phase • Alternating
A term sometimes employed for a
rotating electric current. (See Current, Ro-
tating^)
Current, Secretion • — In electro-
therapeutics, a current following stimulation
of the secretory nerves.
Current, Simple-Harmonic A term
sometimes used instead of simple-periodic
current. (See Currents, Simple Periodic.}
Current, Sinuous A term some-
times applied to currents flowing through a
sinuous conductor.
Sinuous currents exert the same effects of attrac-
tion or repulsion on magnets, or on neighboring
circuits, as would a rectilinear current whose
length is that of the axis of such sinuous current.
This can be shown by approaching the circuit
A' B', Fig. 182, consisting of the sinuous con-
ductor A', and rectilinear conductor B', to the
movable conductor A B C, on which it produces
no effect. The current A', therefore, neutral-
Car.]
142
[Cur.
izes the effects of the current B'; or, it is equal to
it in effect.
Fif. 182. Rectilinear Equivalent of Sinuous Current.
In calculating the effects of sinuous currents it
is convenient to consider them as consisting of a
Fig. 183. Sinuous Currents.
succession of short, straight portions at right an-
gles to one another, as shown in Fig. 183.
Current, Steady A current whose
strength does not vary from time to time.
In a steady current the quantity of electricity
flowing through each unit of area of the equi-
potential surface of the conductor is the same for
each succeeding interval of time. Such a current
is sometimes called a uniformly distributed cur-
rent.
Current Streamlets.— (See Streamlets,
Current^
Current Strength.— The product obtained
by dividing the electromotive force by the
resistance.
The current strength for a constant current
according to Ohm's law is—
r_E
C_R.
Current strength is proportional to the amount
of the magnetic or chemical (electrolytic) effects
it is capable of producing.
For a simple-periodic current, the current
strength necessarily varies from time to time.
The average current strength of a simple-
periodic current is equal to the average impressed
electromotive force divided by the impedance.
(See Impedance. )
The maximum current strength is equal to the
maximum impressed electromotive force divided
by the impedance.
Current, to Transform a To
change the electromotive force of a current
by its passage through a converter, or trans-
former.
To convert a current.
Current, Transforming a Chang-
ing the electromotive force of a current by its
passage through a converter or transformer.
Current, Undulating An undu-
latory current. (See Currents, Undulatory^
Current, Uniformly-Distributed .
A term sometimes employed in the same
sense as steady current. (See Current.
Steady.)
Current, Unit Strength of Such
a strength of current that when passed
through a circuit one centimetre in length,
arranged in an arc one centimetre in radius,
•will exert a force of one dyne on a unit mag-
net pole placed at the centre.
This absolute unit is equal to ten amperes or
practical units of current (See Ampere.)
Current, Variable Period of
The period which exists while an electric
current is being increased or decreased in
strength, or while it is being reversed.
Currents, Action Physiological cur-
rents obtained during the activity of a muscle
or nerve.
Currents, After In electro-thera-
peutics, currents produced in nervous or
muscular tissue when a constant current,
which has been flowing through the same,
has been stopped.
After currents are due to internal polarization.
Currents, Alternating-Primary —
The currents employed in the primary of a
Cur.]
143
[Cnr.
transformer to induce alternating currents in
the secondary. (See Transformer)
Currents, Alternating-Secondary
The currents induced in the secondary of a
transformer by the alternating currents in the
primary. (See Transformer)
Currents, Alternating, Shifting of Phase
of (See Phase, Shifting of, of Alter-
nating Currents?)
Currents, Ampdrian The electric
currents that are assumed in the amperian
theory of magnetism to flow around the mole-
cules of a magnet. (See Magnetism, Amperes
Theory of.)
The amperian currents are to be distinguished
from the eddy, Foucault, or parasitical currents,
since, unlike them, they are directed so as to pro
duce useful effects. (See Currents, Eddy.)
It is not believed that the amperian currents
are produced in magnetizable substances by the
act of magnetization. The atoms or molecules
were magnetic originally. All the magnetizing
force does is to arrange the molecules or atoms,
or to set them in one and the same direction.
Currents, Angular Currents flow-
ing through circuits that cross or are inclined
to one another at any angle, (See Dynamics,
Electro)
Currents, Atomic A term some-
times used instead of molecular or amp&rian
currents. (See Currents, Amperian)
Currents, Attractions and Repulsions
Of The mutual attractions or repul-
sions exerted by currents on one another
through the interaction of their magnetic
fields. (See Dynamics, Electro?)
Currents, Commuted Electric cur-
rents that have been caused to flow in one
and the same direction. (See Commutator)
Currents, Commuting — Causing
several currents to flow in one and the same
direction.
Currents, Component The two or
more currents into which it may be conceived
that a single current can be divided, so as
to produce the same effects of attraction or
repulsion that the single current would do.
The idea of component currents is based on the
similar idea of the components of any single
force.
Currents, Continuity of The
freedom from variation in current strength or
current direction.
Currents, Convection — Currents
produced by the bodily carrying forward of
static charges in convection streams. (See
Streams, Convection)
In a convection current, the static charge is--
bodily carried forward.
Rowland has shown experimentally that a.
moving electric charge is the equivalent of an
electric current. He rotated a gilded ebonite
disc between two gilt glass discs, near which
were placed a number of delicate magnetic
needles. When certain rapidity of rotation was
obtained, the discs were found to affect the mag-
netic needles the same as would a current of elec-
tricity flowing in a circular conductor, whose-
form coincided with the periphery of the disc.
Currents, Converted Electric cur-
rents changed either in their electromotive
force or in their strength, by passage through
a converter or transformer. (See Trans-
former)
Currents, Converting Changing
the electromotive force of currents by their
passage through a converter or transformer.
(See Transformer)
Currents, Diaphragm Electric cur-
rents produced by forcing a liquid through
the capillary pores of a diaphragm. (See
Osmose, Electric)
Currents, Earth Electric currents
flowing through the earth, caused by a differ-
ence of potential at different parts.
The causes of these differences of potential are
various and are not well understood.
Currents, Eddy Useless currents
produced in the pole pieces, armatures, field-
magnet cores of dynamo-electric machines or
motors, or other metallic masses, either by
their motion through magnetic fields, or by
variations in the strength of electric currents
flowing near them.
Sensible eddy currents are producd in the mass
Cnr.l
144
U'ur.
of the conducting wire on the armature of a
dynamo-electric machine when the wire is com-
paratively heavy.
Such currents are called eddy currents, local
currents, Foucault currents^ or parasitical cur-
rents. They form closed -circuits of comparatively
low resistance, and tend to cause undue heating of
armatures or pole pieces. They not only cause a
Fig. 184. Foveautt Currents in PoCe Pieces.
useless expenditure of energy, but interfere with
the proper operation of the device.
To reduce them as far as practicable, the pole
pieces, armature cores or armature wires, are
laminated. (See Core, Lamination of.)
These local currents are perhaps preferably
called Foucault currents when they take place
in magnetic cores, pole pieces or armature
cores, and eddy currents when they occur in the
armature wire or conductor. When the armature
conductor is made up of copper bars, for exam-
ple, the eddy currents in the latter are usually
considerable.
Since Foucault currents in dynamo-electric ma-
chine cores are due to variations in the magnetic
Fig. rSj. Fouca»U Currents in Pole Pieces.
strength of the field magnets, or of the arma-
ture, they will be of greatest intensity when the
changes in the magnetic strength are the greatest
and most sudden.
These changes are most marked, and conse-
quently the Foucault currents are strongest at those
corners of the pole pieces of a dynamo from which
the armature is moved in its rotation, as will be
seen from an inspection of Fig. 184.
Fig. 185, shows Foucault currents generated in
pole pieces.
Currents, Eddy-Conduction —A
term employed for ordinary eddy currents in
conductors, in order to distinguish them from
eddy-displacement currents. (See Currents,
Eddy-Displacement?)
Currents, Eddy Deep Seated Eddy
currents set up in the mass of a conductor sub-
jected to electro-dynamic induction in con-
tradistinction to superficially seated eddy cur-
rents. (See Currents, Eddy, Superficial^
Currents, Eddy-Displacement —
Eddy currents produced in the mass of a
dielectric or insulator, when lines of magnetic
or electrostatic force pass through the di-
electric or insulator.
Eddy -displacement currents are produced in
a dielectric or non-conductor, when it is moved
across a magnetic field, so as to cut the lines of
magnetic force.
Eddy displacement currents would also occur
if a dielectric is subjected to varying electrostatic
induction.
Currents, Eddy, Superficial Eddy
currents produced in conducting substances
that are limited to the outer layers thereof.
The eddy currents produced by alternating
currents are superficial if the alternating currents
are sufficiently rapid. The oscillatory currents pro-
duced during the discharge of a Leyden jar are
more superficial in proportion as the discharge
takes place rapidly. When currents are pro-
duced in a magnetizable body by the discharge
of a Leyden jar, they are more and more super-
ficial, as the discharge of the jar is more and more
rapid. The reason a slow discharge of a jar or
condenser produces a greater magnetizing effect
is, because of the checking or screening action
the superficial eddy currents exert on the interior
of the mass of the magnetizable substance when
the discharge is very rapid.
Currents, Electrotonic In electro-
therapeutics, currents due to internal polariza-
tion in the nerve fibre between the conduct-
ing core of the nerves and the enclosing
sheaths.
Currents, Extra Currents pro-
duced in a circuit by the induction of the
current on itself on the opening or closing of
Car.]
145
ICur.
the circuit. (See Currents* Extra. Induc-
tion, Self.)
The extra current induced on breaking, flows
in the same direction as the original current and
acts to strengthen and prolong it.
The extra current induced on making or com-
pleting a circuit flows in the opposite direction
to the original current and tends to oppose or re •
tard the current.
Both of these currents are called induced or
extra currents. The former is called the direct-
induced current, and the latter the reversed-in-
duced current. (See Current, Direct-Induced.
Current ', Reversed-Induced.*)
In order to distinguish this induction from that
produced in a neighboring conductor by the pas-
sage of the electric current, it is called selj -induc-
tion. (See Induction, Self. Induction, Afutttal.)
The effect on a telegraphic line of the self-in-
duced or extra currents is to decrease the speed ot
signaling by retarding the beginning of a signal,
and prolonging its cessation .
The greater the number of turns of wire in a
circuit, or magnet, and the greater the mass of
iron in its core, the greater the strength of the
extra currents.
Currents, Foucault • — A name some-
times applied to eddy currents, especially m
armature cores. (See Currents, Eddy!)
Currents, Heating Effects of The
heat produced by the passage of an electric
current through any circuit. (See Heat, Elec-
tric)
Currents, Imbibition — Currents
produced in tissues by the imbibition or ab-
sorption of a fluid.
Imbibition currents are a species of diaphragm
currents. The absorption of a fluid at the
demarcation surface of an injured nerve or
muscle, or at the contracted portion of muscles,
produces imbibition currents.
Such currents are also produced in plants by
the movement of fluids produced by bending the
stalk or leaves, or by active movements of certain
sensitive plants.
Currents, Induced-Molecular or Atomic
Currents induced in the atoms or
molecules of a magnetizable substance on its
being brought into a magnetic field.
These currents are called induced-molecular
or induced-atomic currents in order to distin-
guish them from the molecular, atomic or amperian
currents, or the currents which are assumed to be
always" present. It is by the presence of these
assumed induced-molecular currents that the
phenomena of diamagnetism are explained by
Weber. (See Diamagnetism, Weber's Theory
*f-)
Currents, Local A name sometimes
applied to eddy currents. (See Currents,
Eddy.)
Currents, Molecular or Atomic
A term sometimes employed for amperian
currents. (See Currents, Amperian.)
Currents, Natural A term some-
times applied to earth currents. (See Cur-
rents. Earth)
Currents, Negative A term em-
ployed in single-needle telegraphy for cur-
rents sent over a line in a negative direction
by depressing a key that connects the line
with the negative pole of a battery and so
deflects the needle to the left. (See Teleg-
raphy, Single-Needle)
Currents, Network of — - — A term
sometimes applied to a number of shunt or
derived circuits. (See Circuit, Shunt. Cir-
cuit, Derived. Laws, Kirchhoff's)
Currents of Motion. — A term sometimes
employed in electro-therapeutics for the cur-
rents of electricity that traverse healthy
muscle or nerve tissue during the sudden con-
traction or relaxation thereof.
The existence of these currents is denied by
some.
Currents of Rest. — A term sometimes em-
ployed in electro-therapeutics for the cur-
rents of electricity that traverse healthy
muscle or nerve tissue while the muscles are
passive.
The existence of these currents is denied by
some.
Currents, Orders of Induced elec-
tric currents named from the order in which
they are induced, as currents of the first,
second, third, fourth, etc., orders.
An induced current can be caused to induce an-
other current in a neighboring circuit, and this a
third current, and so on. Such currents are dis-
Cur.]
146
[Cur.
tinguished by the term, currents of the second,
third, fourth, etc., order. (See Coils, Henry's.)
Currents, Parasitical A name
sometimes applied to eddy currents. (See
Currents, Eddy.)
Currents, Positive A term em-
ployed in single-needle telegraphy for currents
sent over the line in a positive direction by de-
pressing a key that connects the line with
the positive pole of a battery and so deflects
the needle to the right. (See Telegraphy,
Single-Needle)
Currents, Reversed A name some-
times applied to alternating currents. (See
Current, Alternating.)
Currents, Secondary —The currents
produced by secondary batteries in contra-
distinction to the currents produced by
primary batteries.
The currents produced by the secondary
conductor of an induction coil, as distinguished
from the currents sent into the primaries.
This second use of the term secondary current
is more usual.
Currents, Self-Induced —A current
produced by self-induction.
An extra current. (See Induction, Self.
Currents, Extra.)
Currents, Simple Periodic Cur-
rents, the flow of which is variable, both in
strength and duration, and in which the flow
of electricity, passing any section of the con-
ductor, may be represented by a simple peri-
odic curve.
A current of such a nature that the con-
tinuous variation of the flow of electricity
past any area of cross-section of the con-
ductor, or the variations in the electromotive
force of which can be expressed by a simple-
periodic or harmonic curve. (See Curve,
Simple-Harmonic^)
Alternate currents are simple-periodic currents.
The average current strength of simple-periodic
currents is equal to the average impressed electro,
motive force divided by the impedance.
The transmission of rapidly varying or sim-
ple-periodic currents through conductors differs
very greatly from the transmission of steady cur-
rents. With a steady current, the current density
is the same for all areas of cross-section of the
conductor. For a rapidly intermittent current,
the current density is greater near the surface,
and when the rate of intermission is sufficiently
great, the current is entirely absent at the centre
of the conductor.
Lord Rayleigh has shown that when the rate of
intermission is 1,050 per second, the effective re-
sistance of a wire l6omm. in length, and 30 mm.
in diameter, is i . 84 times its resistance to steady
currents. He found that the increase of resist-
ance is greater in the case of conductors of great
diameter than in those of small diameter.
As regards the character of conductor best
suited for transmitting rapidly alternating cur-
rents, it can be shown :
(I.) That for transmitting alternate currents of
moderate frequency, say of about 1,000 per sec-
ond, copper conductors should be used in prefer-
ence to rods of iron.
(2.) That the conductor should be in the form
of thin strips, or if tubular, of thin walls.
(3.) That the mere stranding of the conductor,
*'. *., forming it of separate insulated conductors
connected in parallel, will be of no effect in pre •
venting the current from acting on the outside of
the conductor, unless the conductor be arranged
in the form of a cable, in which one part forms a
lead, and another part the return.
Stephan draws the following analogy between
the flow of alternating currents in a conductor
and the flow of heat in a hot wire :
' ' Suppose a wire or conductor, uniformly heated
from centre to circumference, be suddenly taken
into a space where the temperature is high, the
outer portions of the wire first rise in temperature,
and afterwards the inner portions. In the case of
a conductor of circular cross-section, the heat
penetrates successive concentric layers. The same
phenomena occur when an electromotive force is
suddenly set up between the ends of a cylindrical
conductor. The current gradually penetrates the
conductor from the outside to the centre.
" Now suppose the heated wire is carried into a
cooler space, the heat waves pass out radially
from the centre towards the circumference. The
cooling wire corresponds to the case of a con-
ductor in which the external electromotive force
is suddenly removed."
According to this conception, the heat conduct-
ing power of any substance corresponds to its
electrical conducting power.
Cnr.]
147
[Cur.
According to Stephan, in the case of a con-
ductor of iron of 4 mm. in diameter, traversed by
an alternating current of 250 alternations per
second, the current density on the surface is about
twenty-five times as great as that at its axis.
Where the conductor is of non-magnetic mate-
rial, the difference in the current density is not so
marked.
Rapidly intermittent currents produce a real
increase in the resistance of the conductor, which
must not be confused with the fact that the impe-
dance is greater than the ohmic resistance, but
rather as an actual increase in the rate at which
energy is dissipated per unit of current.
Since current density is greatest at the outside
portions of a conductor, and the central portions
are nearly, if not entirely, deserted by the cur-
rent, we may regard the conductor as having
the ohmic resistance of a hollow cylinder of the
same diameter as the conductor, with a cor-
respondingly smaller area of cross-section, and
therefore, of greater ohmic resistance per unit of
length.
The condition of affairs in the case of a con-
ductor in which a current of electricity is begin-
ning to flow, is now very generally regarded
somewhat as follows, viz.:
The current begins at the surface of the con-
ductor, and more or less slowly soaks through
towards the centre. If the current is constant, the
current soon reaches the deepest layers; but, if it
is rapidly intermittent, before it can soak very far
into the conductor towards its axis, it is turned
back towards the surface, and so becomes con-
fined to layers which will be more and more super-
ficial, as the rapidity of reversal increases.
Therefore, for convenience, we may regard a
solid conductor, through which a rapidly inter-
mittent current of electricity is flowing, as being
practically converted into a hollow cylinder of
the same diameter as the solid conductor, the
area of cross-section of which hollow cylinder
becomes smaller and smaller, as the rapidity of
alternation is increased.
Another, and perhaps the more correct concep-
tion of the condition of affairs in a solid conductor
traversed by a rapidly alternating current of elec-
tricity, has been pointed out by Maxwell, and after-
wards by Heavyside, Rayleigh and Hughes. This
conception is to regard the central portions of the
conductor as possessing a counter electromotive
force greater than the outer portions. The entire
current flowing across any section of a conductor
may be regarded as made up of little current
streamlets, parallel to one another.
The central streamlets, or filaments, from their
mutual induction on one another, experience a
greater resistance in reaching their full strength
than the surface filaments do. Taken in this
sense, we may state generally that the transmis-
sion of rapidly alternating currents through con-
ductors depends on the inductance, rather than
on the resistance; but for steady currents, it de-
pends more on the resistance than on the induct-
ance.
In periodic or oscillatory currents, as those
produced by the discharge of a Leyden jar, or
condenser, the surface streamlets have a current
density far greater than the central streamlets.
The true or ohmic resistance of the circuit is a
minimum when the current is uniformly distrib-
uted through all parts of the cross-section of the
conductor, and the dissipation of energy through
the generation of heat is less than for any other
distribution.
The conception of a periodic current flowing
through a conductor, starting from the surface
and gradually soaking in towards the centre,
regards the energy of an electric current — not as
being pushed through the conductor, as water
through a pipe, but as actually being absorbed at
its surface, from the surrounding dielectric, or as
being, so to speak, rained down on the conductor
from the space outside of it.
Currents, Swelling In electro-
therapeutics, currents that begin weak and are
gradually made stronger and then weaker.
Currents, Swelling-Faradic A
term employed in electro-therapeutics for fara-
dic currents that are caused to gradually in-
crease in strength and then to gradually de-
crease to zero strength.
Currents, 'Transient Currents that
are but of momentary duration.
Currents, Undulatory Currents the
strength and direction of whose flow gradually
change.
The term undulatory currents is used in con-
tradistinction to pulsatory currents, hi which the
strength changes suddenly. In actual practice,
such currents differ from undulatory currents
more in degree than in kind, since, when sent
into a line, the effects of retardation tend to
obliterate, to a greater or less extent, the sudden
Car.]
148
[Cur.
differences in intensity on which their pulsatory
character depends.
The currents produced in the coils of the Sie-
mens magneto-electric key, in which the me-
chanical to-and-fro motion of the key sends elec-
trical impulses into the line, are, in point of fact,
undulatory in character, when they follow one an-
other rapidly.
The currents in most dynamo-electric machines,
the number of whose armature coils is compara-
tively great, are, so far as the variations in their
intensity or strength are concerned, undulatory
in character even when non--commuted.
The currents on all telephone lines that trans-
mit articulate speech are undulatory. This is
true, whether the transmitter employed merely
varies the resistance by variations of pressure, or
actually employs makes-and-breaks that rapidly
follow one another. — (See Current, Pulsatory.
Current, Intermittent.)
Curtain. Auroral — A sheet of
auroral light having the shape of a curtain.
(See Aurora B credits?)
Curre, Asymptote of A straight
line which continually approaches a curved
line, but meets or becomes tangent to such
curved line only at an infinite distance.
In Fig. 186, the curve C D, continually ap-
proaches the asymptote y z, but never meets it.
It is at first difficult to un-
derstand how one line can
continually approach an-
other and yet never meet it.
But it will be readily under-
stood if it is remembered v
that in all cases of asymp- F*f- *86>
totic approach each advance °f Curve'
becomes smaller and smaller.
This mathematical conception is like a value
which, although constantly reduced to one-half
of its former value, is nevertheless never reduced
to zero or no value.
Curve, Ballistic The curve ac-
tually described by a projectile thrown in
any other than a vertical direction through
the air.
The path of a projectile in a vacuum is a para-
bola— that is, the path A E B, Fig. 187. In air,
the effects of fluid resistances cause the projectile
to take the path A C D, called a ballistic curve.
The ballistic curve has a smaller vertical height
than the parabola. The projectile also has a
Fig. 187. Ballistic Curve.
smaller vertical range. Instead of reaching the
point B, it continually approaches the perpen-
dicular E F.
Curve, Characteristic A diagram
in which a curve is employed to represent
the ratio of certain varying values.
The electromotive force generated in the arma-
ture coils of a dynamo-electric machine, when the
magnetic field is of a constant intensity, is theo-
retically proportional to the speed of rotation. In
practice this is modified by a number of circum-
stances.
The relation existing between the speed
and electromotive force may be graphically rep-
resented by referring the values to two straight
lines, one horizontal and the other vertical, called
respectively the axes of abscissas and ordinates.
(See Abscissas, Axis of.} If, in a given case, the
number of revolutions
is marked off along
the horizontal line J ;
from the point o, Fig. I
RerolutioM.
Fig. 188. Charactt
Curve.
188, in distances from
o, proportional to the
number of revolu-
tions, and the corre-
sponding electromo-
tive forces are marked
off along the vertical line in distances from o,
proportional to the electromotive forces, the
points where these lines intersect will form the
characteristic curve as shown in Fig. 188.
Curre, Characteristic, of Parallel Trans-
former A curve so drawn that its
ordinate and abscissa at any point represent
the secondary electromotive force and the sec-
ondary current of a multiple connected trans-
former, when the resistance of the secondary
circuit has a certain definite value.
With a constant electromotive force in the pri-
Car.]
149
[Car.
mary circuit, i. e., with the transformers in parallel,
the characteristic curve is a straight line parallel
to the axis of the current. This curve, as shown
in Fig. 189, is practically a straight line. The par-
allel transformer will be
practically self- regulatin g
under a constant primary
electromotive force.
According to Forbes, if Q' jj X
a transformer has its lamp p^gf fg9. character-
load in parallel with the istir of Parallel Trans-
secondary circuit, the ex- former.
tinction of its lamps will decrease the efficiency
of the transformer. The efficiency is therefore
less for light loads than for heavy loads of parallel
lamps up to a certain point.
Curre, Characteristic, of Series Trans-
former A curve so drawn that its
ordinate and abscissa at any point represent
the secondary electromotive force and second-
ary current of a series-connected transformer,
when the resistance of the secondary current
has a certain definite value.
Fig. 190 shows characteristic curve of a series
Fig. i go. Characteristic of Series Transformer.
transformer. O a, is drawn perpendicular to the
line representing the secondary current, and a b,
perpendicular to O a, represents the correspond-
ing secondary electromotive force. The various
positions of b, as different values are given to O a,
produce the elliptic curve which is the character-
istic curve of the series transformer.
" A series transformer, " says Fleming, "with
a core sufficiently large to avoid saturation, can
never be self-regulating if so used. It can only
be made self-regulating with a non saturated core,
when working near the extremities of its charac-
teristic, either with a small secondary current
or a low electromotive force. Both of these con-
ditions are uncommercial."
Curre, Life, of Incandescent Lamp
—A curve in which the life of an electric
lamp is represented by means of abscissas and
ordinates proportional to the life in hours and
the candle-power or the volts respectively.
Carre, Logarithmic A curve in
which the rate of increase or decrease of the
ordinate is proportional to the ordinate itself.
On the line O X, Fig. 191, mark off the time
Y-
in lengths, reckoned from O. Represent the
current strength by lines drawn vertically to the
jr
time-line. Let O Y, equal C = g-
Applying the electromotive force, the current
grows in the wire as represented by the graphic
curve.
According to Fleming, the growth of this cur-
rent takes place according to the following law,
viz. : ' ' The current strength at any instant,
added to the rate of growth of the current strength
at that instant multiplied by the time-constant, is
equal to the current which would exist if induc-
tion were zero."
Carve, Permeability A curve repre-
senting the magnetic permeability of a mag-
netic substance.
There is a certain temperature for every para-
magnetic substance, at which its permeability is
no greater than that of air. This temperature
for iron is reached at about 750 degrees C. ; for
nickel, at about 400 degrees C.
Carve, Simple-Harmonic — The
curve which results when a simple-harmonic
motion in one line is compounded with a uni-
form motion in a straight line, at right angles
thereto.
A harmonic curve is sometimes called a curve
of sines, because the abscissas of the curve are
proportional to the times, while the ordinates are
proportional to the sines of the angles, which are
themselves proportional to the times.
Car.]
150
[Cut.
Curves, IsocluLsmeu Curves drawn
on the earth's surface between zones having
equal frequency of auroral discharges.
The isochasmen curves are nearly at right
angles to the magnetic meridian.
Curves, Magnetic — Curved lines
showing the direction of the lines of mag-
netic force in any field, formed by sprinkling
iron filings on a sheet of paper or glass held
in the field of a magnet, and gently tapping
the support so as to permit the filing* to prop-
-erly arrange themselves. (See Figures,
Magnetic?)
Cut-In, To To introduce an electro-
receptive device into the circuit of an electric
source by completing or making the circuit
through it.
Cut-Off, Automatic Gas A device
for automatically cutting out the battery
from an electric gas-lighting circuit on the
accidental grounding of the circuit.
Unless the battery is disconnected from the cir-
cuit on the establishing of a ground, the battery
will polarize and soon become useless.
Cut-Out, A A device by means of
which an electro-receptive device or loop may
'be thrown out of the circuit of an electric
source.
In any system of light or power distribution, a
cut-out is generally placed outside a building
into which a loop or branch of the main circuit
runs, so as to permit that loop or branch to be
readily disconnected therefrom. In the same way
cut-out keys or switches are generally placed in
the circuit of the loop and each electro-receptive
device.
Cut-Out, Air-Space A modified
form of paper cut-out, in which the disc of
paper or mica is replaced by the resistance of
an air-space.
Although the resistance of an air-space is so
high as to be practically immeasurable, yet it is
overcome or broken by a much lower differ-
ence of potential than an equal thickness of
paper or mica. (See Path, Alternative. Cut-
Out, Film.)
Cut-Out, Automatic Any device
that will automatically cut-out, or remove, a
translating device, or an electric source, from
an electric circuit, whenever any predeter-
mined effect is produced.
Cut-Out, Automatic, for Multiple-Con-
nected Electro-Receptive Devices
A device for automatically cutting an electro-
receptive device, such as a lamp, out of the
circuit of the leads.
Automatic cut-outs for incandescent lamps,
when connected to the leads in multiple-arc, con-
sist of strips of readily melted metal called safety
/uses, which on the passage of an excessive cur-
rent fuse, and thus automatically break the cir«
Fif. f<?2. Ceiling Cut- Out.
cuit in that particular branch. (See Catck,
Safety.)
A form of ceiling cut-out, made of porcelain, is
shown in Fig. 192, with the two halves separated
Fif. 193. Ceiling Cut-Out.
to show interior details, and in Fig. 193, with the
two halves placed together.
CntJ
151
[Cyc.
Cut-Oat, Automatic, for Series-Connected
Electro-Beceptire Devices A device
whereby an electro-receptive device, such
as an electric arc lamp, is, to all intents and
purposes, automatically cut out, or removed
from the circuit, by means of a shunt of low
resistance, which permits the greater part of
the current to flow past the lamp.
It will be observed that the lamp, though still in
the circuit, is to all practical intents cut out from
the same, since the proportion of the current
that now passes through it is too small to oper-
ate it.
In most series arc lamps, cut-outs are oper-
ated by means of an electro-magnet placed in a
shunt circuit of high resistance around the car-
bons. If the carbons fail to properly feed, the
arc increases in length and consequently in resist-
ance. More current passes through the shunt
magnci, until finally, when a certain predeter-
mined limit is reached, the armature of the elec-
tro-magnet is attracted to the magnet pole and
mechanically completes the short circuit past the
lamp.
In some automatic cut-outs the fusion of a
readily fused wire, placed in a shunt circuit
around the carbons, permits a spring to complete
the short circuit.
The automatic cut-out prevents the accidental
extinguishing of any single lamp in a series cir-
cuit from extinguishing the remaining lamps on
that circuit.
Cut-Out, Automatic Time A
device arranged so as to automatically cut out
a translating device, or an electric source, from
a circuit, at the end of a certain predetermined
time.
Cut-Out, Duplex A cut-out so
arranged that when one bar or strip is fused
or melted by an abnormal current another can
be immediately substituted for it.
Cut-Out, Film A cut-out in which
a film, or sheet of paper or mica, is interposed
between a line plate and an earth plate, which,
when punctured by a spark, short circuits the
instruments on the line.
Cut-Out, Main-Line —An auto-
matic cut-out placed on the main line. (See
Cut-Out, Automatic)
A form of main-line cut-out is shown in Fig.
Fig. IQ4. Main-Line Cut-Out.
194. The fuses are shown as attached to the fuse-
block.
Cut-Out, Paper A term sometimes
employed instead of film cut-out. (See Cut-
Out, Film.')
Cut-Out, Rosette A rosette for an
electrolier, containing a cut-out. (See Ro-
sette.)
Cut-Out, Spring-Jack A device
similar in general construction to a spring-
jack, but employed to cut out a circuit.
An insulated plug is thrust between spring
contacts, thus breaking the circuit by forcing
them apart.
Cut Out, To To remove an elec-
tro-receptive device from the circuit of an
electric source by disconnecting or diverting
the circuit from it.
Cutting: Lines of Force.— (See Force,
Lines of. Cutting.}
Cycle. — A period of time within which a
certain series of phenomena regularly recur,
in the same order.
Cycle, Magnetic A single round
of magnetic changes to which a magnetizable
Cyc.]
152
[Dam.
substance, such as a piece of iron, is subjected
when it is magnetized from zero to a cer-
tain maximum magnetization, then decreased
to zero, reversed and carried to a negative
maximum, and then decreased again to zero.
Cyclical Magnetic Yariation.— (See Va-
riation, Cyclical Magnetic?)
Cyclotrope. — A name proposed in place
of transformer or converter. (See Trans-
former^)
Cylinder, Yortex A number of
vortex stream-lines grouped parallel to one
another about a straight line which forms the
axis or core of the vortex.
Cylindrical Armature. — (See Armature,
Cylindrical?)
Cylindrical Carbon Electrodes.— (See
Electrodes, Cylindrical Carbon?)
Cylindrical Electro-Magnet.— (See Mag-
net, Electro, Cylindrical?)
Cylindrical Magnet— (See Magnet, Cyl-
indrical?)
Cylindrical Ring Armatnre.— (See Arm-
ature, Cylindrical Ring?)
Cymogene. — An extremely volatile liquid
which is given off from crude coal oil during
the early parts of its distillation.
The two liquids which are obtained from the
condensation of the vapors given off during the
first parts of the distillation of coal oil are called-
cymogene, and rhigolene. These liquids are em-
ployed on account of their extreme volatility for
the artificial production of cold.
Rhigolene is employed by some for the treat-
ment or flashing of the carbons used in incan-
descent lamps. (See Carbons, Flashing Process
for.)
Cystoscopy, Electric — A name given
to Hitze's method of ocular examination
of the human bladder by electric illumina-
tion.
Damped Magnetic Needle.— (See Needle,
Magnetic, Damped.)
Damper. — A metallic cylinder provided in
an induction coil so as to partially or com-
pletely surround the iron core, for the purpose
of varying the intensity of the currents induced
in the secondary.
The metallic cylinder acts as a screen or shield
for the rapidly alternating currents traversing the
field of the primary. (See Screening, Magnetic.)
As the damper is pulled out, a greater length of
the core is exposed to the induction.
Damper. — A term sometimes applied to a
dash-pot or other similar apparatus provided
for the purpose of preventing the too sudden
movement of a lever or other part of a device.
(See Dash-Pot.)
Some form of damper or dash-pot is used on
most electric arc lamps, the upper carbon of
which is fed by a direct fall.
The double use of this word is unfortunate.
Damping. — The act of stopping vibratory
motion such as bringing a swinging mag-
netic needle quickly to rest, so as to deter-
mine the amount of its deflection, without
waiting until it comes to rest after repeated
swingings to and fro.
Damping devices are such as offer resistance
to quick motion, or high velocities. Those gen-
erally employed in electrical apparatus are either
air or fluid friction, obtained by placing vanes
on the axis of rotation, or by checking the move-
ments of the needle by means of the currents it
sets up, during its motion, in the mass of any con-
ducting metal placed near it. These currents, as
Lenz has shown, always tend to produce motion
in a direction opposed to that of the motion caus-
ing them. Bell-shaped magnets are especially
suitable for this kind of damping. (See Magnet^
Bell Shaped.)
The needle of a galvanometer is dead-beat when
its moment of inertia is so small that its oscillations
in an intense field are very quick, and the mirrcr,
acting as a vane, causes the movements to die out
very rapidly, and the needle therefore moves
sharply over the scale from point to point and
comes quickly to a dead stop. When the needle
or swinging coil is heavy and moves in an intense
Bam.]
153
[Dea.
Geld, as in the Deprez-d'Arsonval galvanometer,
the movements are dead-beat.
Damping by means of pieces of India rubber is
often applied to telephone diaphragms to prevent
their excessive or continued vibration.
Damping, Electric A term some-
times employed to express a decrease in
the intensity of the electric oscillations pro-
duced in a conductor by electric resonance,
under circumstances where higher overtones
are set up in the conductor.
Daniell's Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Vol-
taic, Daniell's.}
Dark-Space, Crookes' (See Space,
Dark, Crookes'.}
Dark-Space, Faraday's (See Space,
Dark, Faraday's?)
Dash-Pot. — A mechanical device to prevent
too sudden motion in a movable part of any
apparatus.
The dash-pot of an automatic regulator, or of
an arc -lamp, is provided to prevent too sudden
movements of the collecting brushes on the com-
mutator cylinder, or the too sudden fall of the
upper carbon. Such devices consist essentially of
a loose fitting piston that moves through air or
glycerine.
Dash-pots are species of damping devices, and,
like the damping arrangements on galvanometers
or magnet needles, prevent a too free movement
of the parts with which they are connected. (See
Damper. Damping. }
Day, Normal Magnetic A day dur-
ing which the value of the earth's magnetic
elements does not vary greatly from their
mean value. (See Elements, Magnetic, of a
Place^
Day of Disturbance, Magnetic —
A day during which the mean departure of
the readings of a declinometer at any place,
from the normal monthly value at that place,
is once and a half the average. — (Lloyd.}
Dead-Beat. — Such a motion of a galvanom-
eter needle in which the needle moves sharply
over the scale from point to point and comes
quickly to rest. (See Damping!)
Dead-Beat Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Dead-Beat^
Dead-Beat Galvanometer. — (See Galva-
nometer, Dead-Beat?) /
Dead Dipping.— (See Dipping, Dead.}
Dead Earth.— (See Earth, Dead or Total.}
Dead Turns of Armature Wire, or Dead
Wire.— (See Turns, Dead, of Armature
Wire.}
Death, Electric — Death resulting
from the passage of an electric current
through the human body.
The exact manner in which an electric current
causes death is not known. When the current is
sufficiently powerful, as in a lightning flash, or a
powerful dynamo current, insensibility is prac-
tically instantaneous.
Death may be occasioned:
(I.) As the direct result of physiological shock.
(2.) From the action of the current on the res-
piratory centres.
(3.) From the actual inability of the nerves or
muscles, or both, to perform their functions.
(4.) From an actual electrolytic decomposition
of the blood or tissues of the body.
(5.) From the polarization of those parts of the
body through which the current passes.
(6.) From an actual rupture of parts by a dis-
ruptive discharge.
The current required to cause death will de-
pend on a variety of circumstances, among
which are:
(i.) The particular path the current takes
through the body, with reference to the vital
organs that may lie in this path.
(2.) The freedom or absence of sudden varia-
tions of electromotive force.
(3. ) The time the current continues to pass
through the body.
In some fatal cases, it is probably the extra-
current, or the induced-direct current on break-
ing, that causes death, since, as is well known,
its electromotive force may be many times
greater than that ot the original current.
A comparatively low-potential continuous-cur-
rent, cannot, therefore, be properly regarded
as entirely harmless, simply because its electro-
motive force is necessarily small. In the case of
alternating currents the danger increases after a
certain point with the number of alternations per
second. When, however, the number of alter-
nations per second reaches a given number, the
danger decreases as the frequency of alternations
Dec.]
154
[Deg.
increases. This was conclusively shown by the
independent investigations of Tatum and Tesla.
Decalescence. — A term proposed by Prof.
Elihu Thomson for an absorption of sensible
heat, which occurs at a certain time during
the heating of a bar of steel.
Decalescence will thus be observed to be the
reverse of recalescence, which is the phenome-
non of the emission of sensible heat at a certain
time during the cooling of a heated bar of
steel. (See Recalescence.)
Deci (as a prefix). — The one-tenth.
Deci-Ampe"re. — One-tenth of an ampere.
Deci-Ampdre Balance. — (See Balance,
Deci- A mpere)
Deci-Lux.— The one-tenth of a lux. (See
Lux)
Declination. — The variation of a mag-
netic needle from the true geographical north.
The magnetic declination is east or west. (See
Needle, Magnetic, Declination of)
Declination, Angle of The angle
which measures the deviation of the mag-
netic needle to the east
or west of the true geo-
graphical north.
The angle of variation
of a magnetic needle.
In Fig. 195, if N S, rep-
resents the true north and
south line, the angle of de-
clination is N O A, and Fig. 195. Declination
the sign of the variation is °f Needle,
east, because the deviation of the needle is to-
ward the east. (See Needle, Magnetic, Declina-
tion of.)
Declinometer. — A magnetic needle suit-
ably arranged for the measurement of the
value of the magnetic declination or varia-
tion at any place.
Decomposition. — In chemistry the separa-
tion of a molecule into its constituent atoms
or groups of atoms. (See Molecule. Atom)
Decomposition, Electric Chem-
ical decomposition by means of an electric dis-
charge or current.
This decomposition may result from an increase
of temperature produced by the electric discharge,
or from the passage of the current. In the latter
case it is more properly called electrolytic decom-
position.
Decomposition, Electric, Crystallization
by (See Crystallization by Electro-
lytical Decomposition?)
Decomposition, Electrolytic — — The
separation of a molecule into its constituent
atoms or groups of atoms by the action of
the electric current.
These atoms or groups of atoms are either
electro-positive or electro-negative in character.
(See Electrolysis. Anion. Kathion)
De-energize. — To deprive an electro-recep-
tive device of its operating current.
De-energizing. — Depriving an electro-
receptive device of its operating current.
Deep-Seated Eddy Currents.— (See Cur-
rents, Eddy, Deep-Seated)
Deep-Water Submarine Cable.— (See
Cable, Submarine, Deep- Sea)
Deflagration, Electrical — — The fusion
and volatilization of metallic substances by the
electric current.
Deflagrator. — The name given to a voltaic
battery, of small internal resistance, employed
by Hare in the electric deflagration of metal-
lic substances.
Deflection Method.— (See Method, Deflec-
tion)
Deflection of Magnetic Needle. — (See
Needle, Magnetic, Deflection of)
Degeneration. — Such a degeneration of the
muscular or cellular structure of any cell or
organ that incapacitates it from performing its
functions.
Degeneration of Energy. — (See Energy,
Degeneration of)
Degeneration, Partial, Reaction of —
— That form of alteration to electric stimula-
tion, in which the nerves show no abnormal
reaction to electric stimulation, while the
muscles, when directly stimulated by the con-
stant current, exhibit the reaction of degen-
eration. (See Degeneration, Reaction of^
Deg.]
155
[Dep.
Degeneration, Reaction of —A
qualitative and quantitative alteration of
nerves and muscles to electric stimulation.
According to Landois and Stirling the following
conditions characterize essentially the reaction of
degeneration : "The excitability of the muscles
is diminished or abolished for the faradic cur-
rent, while it is increased for the galvanic current
from the third to the fifty -eighth day ; it again
diminishes, however, with variations, from the
seventy-second to eightieth day ; the anodic clos-
ing contraction is stronger than the kathodic
closing contraction." * * * "The diminu-
tion of the excitability of the nerves is similar for
the galvanic and faradic currents. ' '
Deka (as a prefix). — Ten times.
Deka-Amp&re. — Ten amperes.
Deka-Ampere Balance. — (See Balance,
Deka- Ampere.)
De la Rue's Standard Voltaic Cell.— (See
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, De la Rue's.)
Deliquescence. — The solution of a crystal-
line solid arising from its absorption of vapor
of water from the atmosphere.
Demagnetizable. — Capable of being de-
prived of magnetism.
Demagnetization. — A process, generally di-
rectly opposite to that for producing a magnet,
by means of which the magnet may be de-
prived of its magnetism.
A magnet may be deprived of its magnetism,
or be demagnetized —
(i.) By heating it to redness.
(2. ) By touching to its poles magnet poles of the
same name as its own.
(3.) By reversing the directions of the motions
by which its magnetism was originally imparted,
if magnetized by touch, by stroking it with a
magnet in the opposite direction from that which
would have to be given in order to produce the
magnetization which is to be removed from it.
(4.) By exposing it in a helix to the influence of
currents which will impart magnetism opposite to
that which it originally possessed.
Avria claims that a smaller magnetizing force is
required to demagnetize a needle than is required
to magnetize it.
Demagnetization of Watches.— (See
Watches, Demagnetization of.)
o-Vol. 1
Demagnetize. — To deprive of magnetism.
Demagnetizing. — Depriving of magnetiza-
tion.
Demarcation Current. — (See Current, De-
marcation.)
Demarcation Surface. — (See Surface, De-
marcation^)
Density, Electric The quantity of
free electricity on any unit of area of surface.
The density is said to be positive or negative
according as to whether the charge is positive or
negative. (See Charge^ Density of. Plane,
Magnetic Proof.) %
Density, Magnetic The strength
of magnetism as measured by the number of
lines of magnetic force that pass through a
unit area of cross-section of the magnet, /. e.,
a section taken at right angles to the lines of
force. (See Field, Magnetic)
Density of Charge. — (See Charge, Den-
sity of.)
Density of Current. — (See Current
Density?)
Density of Field.— (See Field, Density of.)
Density, Surface A phrase used
by Coulomb to mean the quantity of eiec-
tricity per unit of area at any point on a sur-
face. (See Charge Density. Density^
Electric.)
Dental-Mallet, Electro-Magnetic
A mallet for filling teeth, the blows of which
are struck by means of electrically-driven
mechanism.
Electro-magnetism was first employed for this
purpose by Bonwill, of Philadelphia.
Dentiphone. — An audiphone. (See Audi-
phone)
Depolarization. — The act of reducing or
removing the polarization of a voltaic cell
or battery. (See Cell, Voltaic, Polarization
of)
Depolarize. — To deprive of polarization.
Depolarizing. — Depriving of polarization.
Depolarizing Fluid.— (See Fluid, De-
polarizing.)
Dep.J
156
[D«T.
Deposit, Black, Electro-Metallurgical
— A crystalline variety of electro-
metallurgical deposit. (See Deposit, Electro-
Metallurgical^
Deposit, Crystalline, Electro-Metallurgi-
cal A non-adherent, non-coherent
film of tlectrolytically deposited metal. (See
Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical?)
Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical
The deposit of metal obtained by any electro-
metallurgical process.
To obtain a good metallic deposit the density
of the current must be regulated according to the
strength of the metallic solution employed.
Electro -metallurgical deposits are either —
(I . ) Reguline, or flexible, adherent and strongly
coherent metallic films, deposited when neither
the current nor the solution is too strong; or,
(2.) Crystalline; or non-adherent and non-co-
herent deposits.
The crystalline deposit may either be of a loose,
sandy character, which is thrown down when too
feeble a current is used with too strong a metallic
solution, or it may consist of a black deposit, which
is thrown down when the current is too strong as
compared with the strength of the solution. This
latter character of deposit is sometimes technically
called burning, and takes place most frequently
at sharp corners and edges, where the current
density is greatest. (See Current Density.)
Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical Nodular
A coherent, irregular electro-metal-
lurgical deposit which occurs whenever the
current density falls below its normal value.
Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical, Reguline
A flexible, adherent and strongly
coherent film of metal electrolytically de-
posited. (See Deposit, Electro-Metallur-
gical)
Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical, Sandy
A non-coherent electro-metallurgical
deppsit which occurs whenever the current
density exceeds its normal value.
Depositing Cell.— (See Cell, Depositing)
Depositing Tat— (See Vat, Depositing)
Deposition, Electric The deposit-
ing of a substance, generally a metal, by
the action of electrolysis. (See Electrolysis)
The electric deposition of a metal on any con-
ducting surface is sometimes called an electro-
metallurgical deposition. (See Metallurgy,
Electro.)
Deprez-d'Arsonval Galvanometer.— (Sec
Galvanometer, Deprez-d'Arsonval)
Derivative Circuit— (See Circuit, De-
rivative)
Derived Circuit— (See Circuit, Derived)
Derived Units.— (See Units, Derived)
Destructive Distillation.— (See Distilla-
tion, Destructive)
Detector Galvanometer.— (See Galva-
nometer, Detector)
Detector, 0 round In a system
of incandescent lamp distribution, a device
placed in the central station, for showing by
the candle-power of a lamp the approximate
location of a ground on the system.
Fig. 196, shows a form of ground -detector, in
Kg. 706. Ground- Detector.
which a small transformer is placed on a board in
connection with a lamp and a two-way switch.
One terminal of the primary of the transformer is
put to ground, while the other can be connected
by means of the switch to one or the other of the
two primary mains of the distribution circuit.
Should an earth exist on either main, then when
the testing transformer has its pole connected to
the other main, the lamp in its secondary circuit
will light up, providing the leak is of sufficient
magnitude to permit a sufficiently great current
to pass through the primary circuit.
Detorsion Bar. — (See Bar, Detorsion)
Device, Electro-Receptive Various
De?.]
157
[Dey.
devices placed in an electric circuit, and
energized by the passage through them of the
electric current.
A translating device.
The following are among the more important
electro-receptive devices, viz. :
(I.) Electro magnets.
(2.) Electric motors.
(3.) Electro-magnetic signal apparatus.
(4.) Telegraphic or telephonic apparatus.
(5 . ) An arc or incandescent lamp.
(6. ) An electric heater.
(7. ) A plating bath or voltameter.
(8.) An uncharged storage cell.
(9.) A converter or transformer.
ELECTRO-RECEPTIVE DEVICES.
Motion Reproduced.
(I.) Electric motor.
(2.) Telpherage system.
(3.) Telephone receiver.
(4.) Telegraphic apparatus.
(5.) Telephote receiver.
Radiant Energy Produced.
(6.) Arc or incandescent electric lamp.
(7.) Electric heater.
(S.) Electric welder.
(9.) Leyden jar or battery.
Chemical Decomposition Effected,
(10.) Electrolytic bath.
(n.) Uncharged storage battery.
Electro-Magnetism Produced.
(12.) Electro-magnet.
Device, Feeding, of an Arc Lamp
A device for maintaining the carbon electrodes
of an arc lamp at a constant distance apart
during their consumption. (See Lamp,
Electric Arc,}
Device, Magneto-Receptive Any
device that is capable of being energized
when placed in a magnetic field.
The term magneto-receptive device is used in
contradistinction to electro-receptive device. (See
Device ) Electro- Receptive.")
Device or Arrangement, Electromotive
A term sometimes employed instead
of an electric source. (See Source, Electric.
Arrangement or Device, Electromotive^
Device, Safety, for Arc Lamps, or Series
Circuits Any mechanism which auto-
matically provides a path for the current
around a lamp, or other faulty electro-recep-
tive device in a series circuit, and thus pre-
vents the opening of the entire circuit on the
failure of such device to operate. (See Lamp,
Electric Arc.)
Device, Safety, for Multiple Circuits
—A wire, bar, plate or strip of readily
fusible metal, capable of conducting, without
fusing, the current ordinarily employed on the
circuit, but which fuses and thus breaks the
circuit on the passage of an abnormally great
current.
The terms safety -catch, safety-plug, safety-
strip and safety -fuse are also used for this safety
device. (See Fuse, Safety.}
Device, Translating- — — — A term em-
bracing electro-receptive and magneto-recep-
tive devices. (See Device, Electro-Recep-
tive)
Translating devices are placed in an electric
circuit, and when traversed by the current effect
a change, or translation in the form of the electric
energy whereby useful work is accomplished.
Translating devices depend for their operation
on the luminous, heating, magnetic, or chemical
effects of the current.
Devices, Electro-Receptive, Multiple-
Connected — — — A connection of electro-
receptive devices, in which the positive poles
of a number of separate devices are all con-
nected with a single positive lead or conduc-
tor, and the negative poles all connected with
a single negative lead or conductor.
The multiple-arc-connection of electro-receptive
devices is suitable for constant potential circuits, or
those in which the electromotive force is main-
tained approximately constant. In such circuits
the energy absorbed by each device wilt increase
as its resistance decreases, since the energy ab-
sorbed is proportional to the current passing.
(See Circuits, Varieties of.)
Multiple-arc-connected electro-receptive devices
are employed m incandescent lamp distribution.
Each device added reduces the resistance of the
entire circuit.
Dev.]
158
[Dia.
Devices, Electro-Receptive,Multiple-Arc-
Counected A term used in place of
multiple-connected electro-receptive devices.
(See Devices, Electro-Receptive, Multiple-
Connected?)
Devices, Electro-Receptive, Multiple-
Series-Connected — A connection of
electro-receptive devices in which a number of
separate etectro-receptive devices are con-
nected in groups in saries, and each of these
separate groups afterwards connected in mul-
tiple-arc.
The multiple-series connection permits electro-
receptive devices to be placed on mains whose
electromotive force would be too high to permit
a single service to be connected directly to them.
It is of great value in the distribution of incandes-
cent lamps by constant currents, since by per-
mitting a higher electromotive force to be em-
ployed on the main conductors, it reduces the
dimensions of the conductors required for the
economical distribution of the current. (See
Circuits ', Varieties of.)
Devices, Electro-Receptive, Series-Con-
nected 'The connection of electro-
receptive devices in which the devices are
placed consecutively in the circuit, so that the
current passes successively through all of
them from the first to the last.
The series-connection of electro-receptive de.
vices is suited to cons I ant -current circuits. The
work done in the device is developed by the fall
of potential in each device. This kind of con-
nection is used in most systems of arc light and
telegraphic lines. (See Circuits, Varieties of .)
Devices, Electro-Receptive, Series-Mul-
tiple-Connected • —A connection of
electro-receptive devices in which a number
of separate electro-receptive devices are joined
in separate multiple groups, and each of these
groups subsequently connected with one an-
other in series.
The effect of series-multiple connections is to
split up the current into a number of separate
currents of smaller strength, but of the same
electromotive force. It is applicable to such cases
as the combination of arc and incandescent lamps
m the same circuit. (See Circuits, Varieties of .)
Devices, Translating, Multiple-Con-
nected — — A term sometimes used for
multiple-connected electro-receptive devices.
(See Devices, Electro-Receptive, Multiple-
Connected^
Devices, Translating, Multiple-Arc-Con-
nected — A term used in place of
multiple-connected electro-receptive devices.
(See Devices, Electro-Receptive, Multiple-
Connected^
Devices, Translating, Multiple-Series-
Connected •• — A term sometimes used
instead of multiple-series-connected electro-
receptive devices. (See Devices, Electro-
Receptive, Multiple-Series-Connected?)
Devices, Translating, Series-Connected
—A term sometimes used for series-
connected electro-receptive devices. (See
Devices, Electro - Receptive, Series - Con-
nected^)
Devices, Translating, Series-Multiple-
Connected — A term sometimes used
for series-multiple-connected electro-recep-
tive devices. (See Devices, Electro-Recep-
tive, Series-Multiple-Connected?)
Dextrorsal Helix.— (See Helix, Dex-
trorsai?)
Dextrorsal Solenoid.— (See Solenoid, Dex*
trorsaL}
Diacritical Current.— (Sae Current, Dia-
critical?)
Diacritical Number.— (See Number, Dia-
critical^)
Diacritical Point of Magnetic Satura-
tion.— (See Saturation, Magnetic, Diacrit-
ical Point of.)
Diagnosis, Electro. — Diagnosis by means
of the exaggeration or diminution of the re-
action of the excitable tissues of the body-
when subjected to the varying influences of
electric currents.
The electric current has also been applied in
order to distinguish between forms of paralysis,
and as a final test of death.
Diagnostic, Electro Pertaining to
electro-diagnosis. (See Diagnosis, Electro?)
Diagometer, Rousseau's An ap-
paratus m which an attempt is made to
Dia.]
159
determine the chemical composition and con-
sequent purity of certain substances by their
electrical conducting powers.
The arrangement of the apparatus is shown in
Fig 197. A dry pile. A, has its negative, or —
Fig. K)7- Rousseau' s Diagometer .
terminal, m', grounded. Its positive, or -j- ter-
minal is connected to a delicately supported, and
slightly magnetized needle, M, terminated by a
conducting plate, L. Opposite L, and at the same
height, is a fixed plate of slightly larger size. The
needle M, when at rest in the plane of the magnetic
meridian, is in contact at L, with the fixed plate.
If, therefore, the upper plate of the pile is con-
nected with the needle M, both plates are similarly
charged and repulsion takes place, the needle
coming to rest at a certain distance from the fixed
plate.
The substance whose purity is to be determined
is placed in the cup G, which is connected,
through L, with* the fixed plate, A branch wire
from the -{- terminal of the pile is then dipped into
the substance in G, and its purity determined
from the length of time required for the two plates
at L, to be t ischarged through the material in G.
It is claimed that the instrument will detect the
difference between pure coffee and chicory. Its
practical application, however, is very doubtful.
Diagram, Thermo-Electric — A
diagram in which the thermo-electric power
between different metals is designated for
different temperatures.
The differences of potential, produced by the
mere contact of two metals, varies, not only with
the kind of metals, and the physical state of each
metal, but also with their temperature. This
difference of potential, maintained in conse-
quence of the difference of temperature between
the junctions of a thermo-electric couple^ is ap-
proximately proportional to the differences of
temperature of these junctions, if these differences
are not great, and is equal to the product of such
differences of temperature and a number depend en t
on the metals in the couple. This number is
called the thermo-electric power. (See Couple^
Thermo-Electric. Thermo-Electric Power.)
In Fig. 198 (after Tait), the thermo-electric
0°c K*. 100°c lJO°e 200=,, 250°e 30<>o« 350°« 400°e 450",,
M*
Fig. 198. Thermo-Electric Diagram.
power is shown between lead and iron, and lead
and copper. The numbers at the top of the table
represent degrees of the centigrade thermometer.
Those at the sides represent the differences of
potential in micro -volts.
The thermo-electric power of the copper-iron
couple decreases from the freezing point of water,
O degrees C., to a temperature of 274.5 degrees
C., when it becomes zero. Beyond tha* temper-
ature the thermo-electric power incre? ,es, but in
the opposite direction. The point at which this
occurs is called the neutral point.
Dial Telegraph.— (See Telegraphy, Dial.)
Dialysis.— The act of separating a mixture
of crystalloids and colloids by diffusion
through a membrane.
If, for example, the contents of a stomach, in a
case of suspected poisoning, be placed in a vessel,
the bottom of which is formed of a sheet of
parchment paper and floated in water, the
crystalloid or substances capable of crystalliz
ing, will pass into the water and the colloid, an
uncrystallized jelly-like substance, will remain in
the vessel. This process has been used to detect
the presence of poison in the stomach in post-
mortem cases.
Diamagnetic. — The property possessed by
•substances like bismuth, phosphorus, anti-
mony, zinc and numerous others, of being
apparently repelled when placed between the
poles of powerful magnets
When diamagnetic substances in the form of
rods or bars are placed, as in Fig. 199, between
the poles of a powerful electro-magnet, they
place themselves at right angles to the poles, or
are apparently repelled.
Paramagnetic substances like iron or steel, on
the contrary, come to rest under similar circum-
Dia.]
160
[Dia.
Fig. 799 Effect of Para-
magnetism,
stances in a straight line joining the poles, at
right angles to the position shown in Fig. 199.
Paramagnetic substances are sometimes called
ferro-magnetic, or substances magnetic after the
manner of iron. This word is unnecessary and
ill-advised. The term sidero-magnetic, which has
also been proposed in place of paramagnetic, is
also unnecessary.
Paramagnetic substances appear to concentrate
the lines of magnetic force on them ; that is, their
magnetic resistance is
smaller than that of the
air or other medium in
which the magnet is
placed. They, there-
fore, come to rest with
their greatest dimen-
sions in the direction of
the lines of magnetic
force.
Diamagnetic sub-
stances appear to have
a greater nagnetic re-
sistance than that of
the air around them.
They, therefore, come
to rest with their least
dimensions in the direction of the lines of mag-
netic force.
The difference between paramagnetic and dia.
magnetic substances is generally believed to be
due to the varying resistance these substances
thus offer to lines of magnetic force as compared
with that offered by air or by a vacuum.
Tyndall comes to the conclusion as the result of
extended experimentation: «• That the diamag-
netic force is a polar force, the polarity of dia-
magnetic bodies being opposed to that of para-
magnetic ones under the same conditions of
excitement."
This view, however, is not generally accepted
by scientists.
Diamagnetism is also possessed by certain liquid
and gaseous substances.
Diamagnetic Polarity.— (See Polarity,
Diamagnetic.}
Diamagnetically. — In a diamagnetic man-
ner.
Diamagnetism.— A term applied to the
magnetism of diamagnetic bodies. (See Dia-
magnetic?)
Diamagnetism, Weber's Theory of •
— A theory to account for the phenomena
of diamagnetism.
Weber's theory of diamagnetism, like Ampere's
theory of magnetism, supposes that magnetic
substances consist of originally magnetized mole-
cules or atoms, and that the act of magnetization
consists of polarizing these atoms or molecules,
or turning them in one and the same direction.
That the original condition of the molecules or
atoms is probably due to the passage of electricity,
which continually circulates through their mass,
the atoms being supposed to possess perfect con-
ductivity.
Suppose the substance through whose mole-
cules or atoms these currents are flowing be
immersed in a magnetic field. AH of the mole :
cules or atoms which can turn so as to look along
lines of force in the right direction will have the
current flowing in them thereby weakened so long
as they remain in the field. When drawn out of
it, however, these currents will regain their nor-
mal strength.
Suppose now the case of a substance, in which
the currents are normal 'but weak, immersed in a
strong magnetic field. There may thereby be
effected a complete reversal of the direction of
these currents, and others may be produced
which flow in the opposite direction, and which
will continue so to flow as long as the substance
remains in the field. Such currents would then
be sufficient to explain the phenomena of diamag -
netic action.
An electric current produced in a circuit near
which a momentary current of electricity is sud •
denly brought has now the opposite direction to
that which produces it, and this momentary cur-
rent would tend to produce repulsion. When,
Fig. 200. Weber's Theory of Diamagnetism.
too, the circuit is drawn out of the neighborhood
in which another current is flowing, another mo
Bfau]
161
[Die.
mentary current is produced in the same direc-
tion. This produces attraction.
Now, regarding the same phenomena from the
standpoint of lines of magnetic force, when a
conductor through which a current is passing is
placed in a magnetic field, any increase in the
number of lines of magnetic force passing through
it tends to move the conductor out of the magnetic
field, while any decrease in the number of lines
of force tends to move the conductor into the
fieH. To experimentally show the attractions
and repulsions produced by magnetization or
demagnetization, the following apparatus may be
employed:
A stout disc of copper, Fig. 200, is supported
on a horizontal arm in the position shown in front
of the pole of a powerful electro-magnet. When
the current is sent through the electro-magnet the
disc of copper is repelled from the magnetic pole.
When the magnetism is being destroyed by the
opening of the circuit and by the weakening of
the current, the copper disc is attracted.
Diamagnetometer. — An apparatus de-
signed for studying diamagnetism. (See Dta-
magnetism. )
The apparatus for the study of paramagnetism
generally receives simply the name of magnet-
ometer.
Diamagnets..— Diamagnetic substances
subjected to magnetic induction and formerly
called diamagnets in contradistinction to or-
dinary magnets.
Diamagnets are supposed by some to possess a
polarity the same as that of the inducing pole,
instead of the opposite polarity, as in paramagnetic
substances. (See Diamagnetism.')
Diaphragm. — A sheet of some solid sub-
stance, generally elastic in character and cir-
cular in shape, securely fixed at its edges and
capable of being set into vibration.
The receiving diaphragm of a telephone is
generally a thin plate or disc of iron, fixed at its
edges, placed near a magnet pole and set into
vibration by variations in the magnetic strength
of the pole, due to variations in the current that
is passed over the line.
The transmitting diaphragm of the telephone
or of a phonograph, consists of a plate fixed at its
edges and set into vibration by the sound waves
striking it.
Diaphragm. — A term sometimes employed
for a plate form of porous cell.
Diaphragm Currents.— (See Currents,
Diaphragm. Cell, Porous?)
Diaphragm of Voltaic Cell.— A term
sometimes used for the porous cell of a
double fluid voltaic cell when in the form of
a plate.
Dice-Box Insulator. — (See Insulator^
Dice-Box.)
Dielectric. — A substance which permits
induction to take place through its mass.
This word is sometimes, but improperly, writ-
ten Di-Electric.
The substance which separates the opposite
coatings of a condenser is called the dielectric.
All dielectrics are non-conductors.
All non-conductors or insulators are dielectrics,
but their dielectric power is not exactly propor-
tional to their non-conducting power.
Substances differ greatly in the degree or ex-
tent to which they permit induction to take place
through or across them. Thus, a certain amount
of inductive action takes place between the insu-
lated metal plates of a condenser across the layer
of air between them.
A dielectric may be regarded as pervious to
rapidly reversed periodic currents, but opaque to
continuous currents. There is, however, some
conduction of continuous currents.
According to Swinburne, there are three species
of conduction that may take place in dielectrics,
all of which produce a heating of the dielectric,
viz.:
(i.) Metallic Conduction, i. e., such a conduc-
tion as takes place in a metal. This kind of con-
duction arises from the presence of metallic par-
ticles embedded in the dielectric.
(2.) Disruptive Conduction, or a momentary
current accompanying a disruptive discharge.
(3.) Electrolytic Conduction, • or that kind of
conduction which accompanies the electrolysis
of a conductor. This kind of conduction may
take place in some kinds of glass.
Faraday regarded the dielectric as the true seat
of electric phenomena. Conducting substances
he considered as mere breaks in the continuity of
the dielectric. This is the view now generally
held.
Dielectric Capacity.— (See Capacity, Di-
electric.)
Die.
162
[Dim.
Dielectric Constant— (See Constant.
Dielectric.)
Dielectric Density of a Gas.— (See Gas,
Dielectric Density of)
Dielectric, Polarization of A
molecular strain produced in the dielectric of a
Leyden jar or other condenser, by the attrac-
tion of the electric charges on its opposite
faces, or by the electrostatic stress. (See
Strain, Dielectric)
A term formerly employed in place of
electric displacement.
Faraday, in his study of the action of induction,
in denying the possibility of action at a distance,
thought that the dielectric through which indue-
tion takes place was polarized, and that in this
way the induction was transmitted across the
intervening space between the inducing and the
induced body, by the action of the contiguous
particles of the dielectric.
The polarization of the glass of a Leyden jar,
and the accompanying strain, are seen by the
frequent piercing of the glass, and by the
residual charge of the jar. (See Charge, Resid-
ual.}
Dielectric Resistance.— (See Resistance,
Dielectric)
Dielectric Strain.— (See Strain, Dielec-
tric)
Dielectric Strength of a Gas.— (See Gas,
Dielectric Strength of)
Dielectric Stress. — (See Stress, Dielec-
tric)
Difference of Potential.— (See Potential,
Difference of)
Differential Electric Bell.— (See Bell,
Differential Electric)
Differential Galvanometer. — (See Gal-
vanometer, Differential)
Differential Inductometer. — (See Induc-
tometer, Differential)
Differential Method of Duplex Teleg.
raphy.— (See Telegraphy, Duplex, Differ-
ential Method of )
Differential Relay.— (See Relay, Differ-
ential)
Deferential Thermo-Pile. — (See Pile,
T^'.-mo, Differential)
Differential Voltameter.— (See Voltam-
eter, Siemens' Differential.}
Differentially Wound Motor. — (See
Motor. Differentially Wound.)
Diffusion, Anodal A term applied
to the introduction of any drug into the human
body by electricity.
The cataphoretic introduction of drugs
into the body. (See Cataphoresis)
A sponge or other similar electrode, saturated
with a solution of the drug, is connected with
the anode of a source and placed over the part
to be treated and its kathode connected to
another part of the body in a nearly direct line
with the anode and the current passed,
Diffusion Creep. — (See Creep. Diffusion)
Diffusion of Electric Current— (See
Current, Diffusion of)
Diffusion of Lines of Force.— (See Force.
Lines of, Diffusion of)
Dimensions of Acceleration.— (See Ac-
celeration, Dimensions of)
Dimensions of Units — (See Units, Dimen-
sions of)
Diminished Electric Irritability.— (See
Irritability, Electric, Diminished)
Dimmer A choking coil, employed
in a system of distribution by converters or
transformers, for regulating the potential of
the feeders.
The dimmer consists essentially of a choking
coil wound around a laminated ring of soft iron,
Fig. 20 T. Rf action Coil Dimmer.
and provided with an envelope of heavy copper.
The copper ring, by its position as regards the
choking coil, adjusts or regulates the self-induc-
tion of the coil, and consequently regulates the
potential of the feeders. The dimmer is used in
theatres or similar situations to turn the lights up
or down.
Dio.]
163
[Dip.
The reaction coil or dimmer is shown in Fig.
201. The choking coil is wound on a ring of
iron. The copper sheath is furnished with a
handle to permit its position to be readily
changed with respect to the coil of insulated wire.
A laminated iron drum is supported on bearings
inside the ring. When the sheath is over the
coil, the coil offers but a small resistance to the
passage of the current. When away from it the
self-induction of the coil is increased.
Dioptre. — A unit of refracting power.
A lens of one dioptre has a focal length of
one metre. One of two dioptres has a focal
length of 50 centimetres; one of four dioptres
25 centimetres. This is also spelled dioptry.
Dioptric. — Relating to dioptrics.
Dioptrics. — The science which treats of
the refraction of light.
Dioptry. — A word sometimes used for di-
optre. (See Dioptre?)
Dip, Magnetic — — The deviation of a
magnetic needle from a true horizontal posi-
tion.
The inclination of the magnetic needle to-
wards the earth.
The magnetic needle shown in Fig. 202, though
//I
Fig. 20 2. Angle of Dip.
supported at its centre of gravity, will not retain
a horizontal position in all places on the earth's
surface.
In the northern hemisphere its north-seeking
end will dip or incline at an angle B O C, called
the angle of dip. In the southern hemisphere
its south seeking end will dip.
The cause of the dip is the unequal distance of
the magnetic poles of the earth from the poles of
the needle.
The magnetic equator is a circle passing
around the earth midway (in intensity) between
the earth's magnetic poles. There is no dip at
the magnetic equator. At either magnetic pole
the angle of dip is 90 degrees.
Dip, or Inclination, Angle of
The angle which a magnetic needle, free to
move in both a vertical and a horizontal plane,
makes with a horizontal line passing through
its point of support.
The angle of dip of a magnetic needle.
(See Inclination, Angle of.}
Diplex Telegraphy.— (See Telegraphy.
Diplex)
Dipping. — An electro-metallurgical process
whereby a deposit or thin coating of metal
is obtained on the surface of another metal
by dipping it in a readily decomposable
metallic salt.
Cleansing surfaces for electro-plating pro-
cesses by immersing them in various acid
liquors.
Dipping, Bright Dipping in acid
liquors for the purpose of obtaining a bright
electro-metallurgical coating.
Dipping Circle.— (See Circle, Dipping^
Dipping, Dead Dipping in acid
liquors for the purpose of obtaining a dead or
unpolished surface on an electro-metallurgical
coating.
Dipping, Electro-Metallurgical —
A process for obtaining an electro-metallur-
gical deposit on a metallic surface by dipping
it in a solution of a readily decomposable
metallic salt.
A bright, polished iron surface, when simply
dipped into a solution of copper-sulphate, re-
ceives a coating of metallic copper from the elec.
trolytic action thus set up.
This process is known technically as dipping.
The term dipping is also used in electro -metal-
lurgy to indicate the process of cleaning the
Dir.]
164
[Dis.
articles, that are to be electro-plated, by dipping
them in various acid or alkaline baths.
Direct Current.— (See Current, Direct)
Direct-Current Electric Motor.— (See
Motor, Electric, Direct-Current)
Direct Electromotive Force. — (See Force,
Electromotive, Direct?)
Direct Excitation.— (See Excitation,
Direct)
Direct-Induced Current. — (See Current,
Direct-Induced)
Direct, or Break-Induced Current
—(See Current, Direct. Current, Break-
Induced)
Direct Working.— (See Working, Direct)
Direction, Negative, of Electrical Con-
Tection of Heat A direction in which
heat is transmitted through an unequally
heated conductor by electric convection,
during the passage of electricity through the
conductor, opposite that of the current. (See
Heat, Electric Convection of)
Direction of Lines of Force.— (See Force,
Lines of, Direction of)
Direction, Positive, of Electrical Con-
Tection of Heat A direction in
which heat is transmitted through an un-
equally heated conductor by electric convec-
tion, during the passage of electricity through
the conductor, the same as that of the cur-
rent. (See Heat, Electric Convection of)
Direction, Positive, Round a Circuit
In a plane circuit looked at from
one side, a direction opposite to that of the
hands of a clock.
This is a convention which has been made in
order to conveniently connect the direction of the
electromotive force produced by induction, with
the direction of the induction.
Direction, Positive, Through a Circuit
In a plane circuit, looked at from
one side, a direction through the circuit away
from the observer.
Directive Tendency of Magnetic Needle.
— (See Needle, Magnetic, Directive Ten-
dency of)
Disc, Arago's A disc of copper
or other non-magnetic metallic substance,
which, when rapidly rotated under a mag-
netic needle, supported independently of the
disc, causes the needle to be deflected in the
direction of rotation, and, when the velocity
of the disc is sufficiently great, to rotate with it.
Such disc is shown in Fig. 203 at b. The move-
Fig. 203. Arago's Disc.
ment of the needle is due to electric currents, in-
duced by the disc moving through the field of the
needle so as to cut its lines of magnetic force. To
obtain the best results the disc must move very
rapidly, and should be near the needle. More-
over, the needle should be powerful.
This effect was discovered by Arago, in 1824.
Since a magnetic needle moving over a metalHc
plate produces electric currents in a direction
which tends to stop the motion of the needle, a
damping of the motion of a magnetic needle is
sometimes effected by causing it to move near a
metal plate. The induced currents, which the
needle produces in the plate by its motion over it,
tend to retard the motion of the needle. (See
Damping. Law, Lenz's.)
Disc Armature.— (See Armature, Disc)
Disc, Faraday's A metallic disc
movable in a magnetic field on an axis
parallel to the direction of the field.
Such a disc is shown in Fig. 204, and moves,
Fig. 304- Faraday's Disc.
as will be seen, so as to cut the lines of magnetic
force at right angles.
The difference of potential generated by the
motion of such a disc may be caused to produce
a current, by providing a circuit which is com-
pleted through the portion of the disc that at any
Dis.]
165
[Dis.
moment of its rotation is situated between spring
contacts resting on the axis of rotation and the
circumference of the disc, respectively.
In Barlow's or Sturgeon's wheel, Fig. 205, the
Fig. 2 OS- Barlow's Wheel.
wheel itself rotates in the direction shown, when
a current is sent through it in a direction indicated
by the arrows.
Discharge. — The equalization of the dif-
ference of potential between the terminals of
a condenser or source, on their connection by
a conductor.
The removal of a charge from the surface
of any charged conductor by connecting it
with the earth, or another conductor.
The removal of a charge by means of a
stream of electrified air particles.
The discharge of an insulated conductor, a
cloud, a condenser, or a Leyden battery, is oscil-
latory. The oscillatory currents continue but for
a short time. The discharge is therefore often
spoken of as producing momentary currents.
The discharge of a voltaic battery, or a stor-
age battery, is nearly continuous, and furnishes a
current which is practically continuous, as dis-
tinguished from the momentary currents produced
by the discharge of a condenser.
A discharge may be alternating, brush, brush
and spray, conductive, convective, dead-beat,
disruptive, flaming, glow, lateral, oscillatory,
periodic, stratified, streaming, impulsive and
periodic.
Discharge, Alternating An elec-
tric discharge which changes its direction at
regular intervals of time.
A periodic discharge.
Discharge, Brush A faintly lu-
minous discharge that occurs from a pointed
positive conductor.
The brush discharge is a species of convective
discharge. In it, the streams of electrified air
particles assume the characteristic brush shape.
(See Discharge, Convective. )
Discharge, Brush-and-Spray A
form of streaming discharge obtained by in-
creasing the frequency of the alternations
of a high potential current which assumes
the appearance of a spray of silver-white
sparks, or a bunch of thin silvery threads
around a powerful brush.
Some idea of the brush-and-spray discharge
may be obtained from Fig. 206, taken from
Fig. 206. Brush-and-Spray Discharge ( Tesla.).
Tesla, who has carefully studied these phenom-
ena.
The brush-and-spray discharge is best obtained,
according to Tesla, by bringing the terminals
of a source of rapidly alternating electrostatic
currents of high potential somewhat nearer to-
gether, when the streaming discharge has been
obtained, and preferably increasing the frequency
of the alternations.
The brush-and-spray discharge, when power-
ful, closely resembles a gas flame from gas escap-
ing under great pressure. Says Tesla: "But
they do not only resemble, they are veritable
flames, for they are hot. Certainly they are not
as hot as a gas-burner, but they would be so if the
frequency and the potential would be sufficiently
high."
The brush-and-spray discharge, at higher fre-
quencies, passes into a form of discharge for which
Tesla has proposed no particular name. He de-
scribes this form, in a publication of a lecture
before the American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers, as follows, viz. :
'•If the frequency is still more increased, then
the coil refuses to give any spark unless at com-
paratively small distances, and the fifth typical
form of discharge may be observed (Fig. 207).
The tendency to stream out and dissipate is then
so great that when the brush is produced at one
terminal no sparking occurs, even if, as I have re-
peatedly tried, the hand, or any conducting ob-
ject, is held within the stream ; and, what is more
Dis.]
166
[Dis.
singular, the luminous stream is not at all easily
deflected by the approach of a conducting body.
"At this stage the streams seemingly pass with
the greatest freedom through considerable thick-
nesses of insulators, and it is particularly interest-
ing to study their behavior. For this purpose it
is convenient to connect to the terminals of the
coil two metallic spheres, which may be placed at
any desired distance ( Fig . 208) . Spheres are pref -
Fig. 207. Fifth. Typical Farm of Discharge ( Tetla).
erable to plates, as the discharge can be better
observed. By inserting dielectric bodies between
the spheres, beautiful discharge phenomena may
be observed. If the spheres be quite close and a
spark be playing between them, by interposing a
thin plate of ebonite between the spheres the
spark instantly ceases and the discharge spreads
into an intensely luminous circle several inches in
diameter, provided the spheres are sufficiently
large. The passage of the stream heats, and,
after a while, softens the rubber so much that two
Fig. 208. Luminous Discharge with Interposed
Insulators.
plates may be made to stick together in this man-
ner. If the spheres are so far apart that no spark
occurs, even if they are far beyond the striking
distance, by inserting a thick plate of glass the
discharge is instantly induced to pass from the
spheres to the glass in the form of luminous
streams. It appears almost as though these
streams pass through the dielectric. In reality
this is not the case, as the streams are due to the
molecules of the air which are violently agitated
in the space between the oppositely charged sur.
faces of the spheres.
" When no dielectric other than air is present,
the bombardment goes on, but is toD weak tc
be visible; by inserting a dielectric the indiX
tive effect is much increased, and besides, the
projected air molecules find an obstacle and the
bombardment becomes so intense that the streams
become luminous. If by any mechanical means
we could effect such a violent agitation of the
molecules we could produce the same phenom-
enon. A jet of air escaping through a small
hole under enormous pressure and striking
against an insulating substance, such as glass,
may be luminous in the dark, and it might be
possible to produce phosphorescence of the glass
or other insulators in this manner.
" The greater the specific inductive capacity of
the interposed dielectric, the more powerful the
effect p. oduced. Owing to this the streams show
themselves with excessively high potentials even
if the glass be as much as one and one-half to two
inches thick. But besides the heating due to bom-
bardment, some heating goes on undoubtedly in
the dielectric, being apparently greater in glass
than in ebonite. I attribute this to the greater
specific inductive capacity of the glass in conse-
quence of which, with the same potential differ-
ence, a greater amount of energy is taken up in it
than in rubber. It is like connecting to a battery
a copper and a brass wire of the same dimen-
sions. The copper wire, though a more perfect
conductor, would heat more by reason of its tak-
ing more current. Thus what is otherwise con-
sidered a virtue of the glass is here a defect.
Glass usually gives way much quicker than ebo-
nite ; when it is heated to a certain degree tht
discharge suddenly breaks through at one point,
assuming then the ordinary form of an arc."
Discharge, Conductive - — A dis-
charge effected .by leading the charge off
through a conductor placed in contac* with
the charged body.
Discharge, Conrective - — A dis-
charge which occurs from the points on the
surface of a highly charged conductor,
through the repulsion by the conductor of air
particles that in this manner carry off minute
charges.
Dis.]
167
[Dis.
A convective discharge, though often attended
by a feeble sound, is sometimes called a silent
discharge, in order to distinguish it from the
noisy, disruptive discharge, which is attended by
a sharp snap, or when considerable, by a loud
report.
A convective discharge is also called a glow or
brush discharge. The latter is best seen at the
small button at the end of the prime or positive
conductor of a factional electric machine.
The positive discharge from a point or small
rounded conductor is always brush-shaped; the
negative discharge is always star shaped.
In rarefied gases, the discharge is convective in
character and produces various luminous effects
of great beauty, the color of which depends on
the kind of gas, and the size, shape and material
of the electrodes, and on the degree of the vacuum .
Thus in the rarefied
space of the vessel shown
in Fig. 209, the discharge I
becomes an ovoidal mass
of light, sometimes called
the Philosopher's Egg.
When the discharges
in rarefied gases follow
one another very rapid-
ly, alternations of light
and darkness, or stratifi-
cations, or stria are pro- ]
duced.
The breadth of the I
dark bands increases as j
the vacuum becomes
higher. The light por-
tions start at the positive I
electrode, and are hotter f
than the dark portijns.
The effects of luminous
convecti ve discharges are
best seen in exhausted glass tubes, called Geissler
tubes, containing residual atmospheres of various
gases. (See Tubes, Geissler.)
Discharge, Dead-Beat A non-
oscillatory discharge. (See Discharge,
Oscillatory^)
Discharge, Disruptive A sudden,
and more or less complete, discharge that
takes place across an intervening non-con-
ductor or dielectric.
A mechanical strain of the dielectric occurs,
which suddenly breaks down as it were and per-
mits the discharge to pass as a spark, or raplc*
succession of sparks.
In air, the spark, when long, generally takes
the zigzag path, as shown in Fig. 210.
The sparks produced by disruptive discharges
consist of heated gases,
together with portions of
the conductor that are
volatilized by the heat.
The discharge of a Ley-
denjar or condenser may
be disruptive, as when
the discharging rod is
held with one knob con-
nected with one coating,
and the other near the
other coating. It may
be gradual, as when the
two coatings are alter-
nately connected with the
ground. The discharge
of a Leyden jar as, in-
deed, the disruptive dis-
charge in general, is os-
cillatory.
The stress is often suf-
ficient to pierce the glass.
Discharge, Dura-
tion of — The
time required to effect a complete disruptive
discharge.
The disruptive discharge is not instantaneous;
some time is required to effect it. Estimates of
the duration of a flash of lightning based on the
duration of a Leyden jar discharge, are mislead-
ing from the enormous difference in the quantity
and the potential in the two cases. The fact that
the disruptive discharge is oscillatory and consists
of a number of discharges taking place in alter,
nately opposite directions shows that the discharge
is not instantaneous.
Leyden jar discharges, are, however, accom-
plished in very small periods of time.
Discharge, Flaming The white
and flaming arc-like discharge that occurs
between the terminals of the secondary of an
induction coil, when, with a great number of
alternations per second, the current through
the primary is increased beyond that required
for the sensitive-thread discharge. (See Dis>
charge, Sensitive- Thread!)
Fig. 210. Disruptive
Discharge.
Dis.]
168
[Dis.
According to Tesla the flaming discharge is
best produced when the number of alternations is
not too great and certain relations between ca-
pacity, self-induction and frequency are observed.
These relations must be such as will permit the
flow through the circuit of the maximum current,
and thus may be obtained with wide variations in
the frequency. The flaming discharge develops
considerable heat, and is characterized by the
absence of the shrill note accompanying less pow-
erful discharges. This is probably due to the
enormous frequency.
Some idea of the flaming discharge may be had
Fig. si i. Flaming Discharge ( Tesla).
from an inspection of Fig. 211, taken from Tesla.
Discharge, Glow A form of con-
vective discharge. (See Discharge, Con-
nective)
Discharge, impulsive A dis-
charge produced in conductors by suddenly
created differences of potential.
Impulsive discharges are influenced more by the
inductance of a conductor than by its true ohmic
resistance. (See Inductance. Resistance, Ohmic.)
A mass of guncotton simply ignited in the
open air, produces but little effect on any resisting
object placed below it. If, however, itbe rapidly
ignited by means of a detonator, and is thus fired
with much greater rapidity, it may shatter any-
thing placed beneath it.
In a similar manner, a rapidly discharged cur-
rent, or impulsive discharge, produces, through the
inductance of the conductor, a series of effects
somewhat similar to the above, in which a great
impedance is produced by a sudden change of
direction.
Discharge, Induced Currents, Effects
Produced by — Varying classes of
effects produced by the discharges of induced
The effects produced by discharges of induced
currents are classified by Fleming as follows:
(i.) Effects depending on the entire quantity of
the discharge.
a. Galvanometric effects.
If the needle of the galvanometer has a period
or time of oscillation that is long, as compared
with the time of duration of the discharge, the sine
of one-half the angle of deflection is proportional
to the whole quantity of the discharge.
b. Electro-chemical effects.
The quantity of an electrolyte broken up is
proportional to the quantity of electricity which
passes through it.
(2.) Effects depending on the average of the
square of the current strength at any instant dur-
ing the discharge.
a. Heating effects.
The rate of dissipation as heat, according to
Joule's law, is proportional to the square of the
current strength passing.
b. Electro-dynamic effects.
When a discharge passes through a circuit,
part of which is fixed and part movable, the forces
of attraction and repulsion which take place be-
tween them at any instant are proportional to
the square of the current strength.
(3.) Effects depending on rate of change of
the current.
a. Physiological effects.
The effect of the discharge in producing physi-
ological shock increases with the suddenness of
the discharge. Of two discharges which reached
the same maxima that which reached it first would
produce the greatest physiological effect. Recent
investigations by Tesla and others would appear to
partly disprove the above statement
b. Telephonic effects.
The telephone, like the body of an animal, is
affected more by the rate of change than by the
current strength at any instant.
c. Magnetic effects.
Rayleigh has shown that the magnetic effects of
the discharge depend upon the maximum current
strength during the discharge, or upon the initial
current strength, in cases where the current dies
away gradually. Since the time required for the
permanent magnetizing of a steel wire is small
compared with the duration of the induced cur-
rent, the amount of magnetism acquired depends
essentially on the initial or maximum current
strength during the discharge, irrespective of the
time during which said discharge lasts.
Dis.]
169
[Dis.
d. Luminous effects.
These are also dependent in the case of induced
discharges on the rate of change of the current.
Discharge-Key. — (See Key, Discharged)
Discharge, Lateral • — A discharge,
taking place on the discharge of a Leyden jar,
or other disruptive discharge, between parts
of the jar or conductors, not in the circuit of
the main discharge.
If a charged Leyden jar is placed on an insulat-
ing stool, and is then discharged by the discharg-
ing rod, the lateral discharge is seen as a small
spark that passes between the outside coating of
the jar and a body connected with the earth at
the moment of the discharge through the rod.
A lateral discharge is also seen in the sparks
that can be taken from a conductor in good con-
nection with the earth, by holding the hand near
the conductor, while it is receiving large sparks
from a powerful machine in operation. These
discharges are due to induction.
If a Leyden jar be discharged by means of a con-
ducting wire bent as shown in Fig. 212, in which
E
Fig. 212.
two parts of the circuit are closely approached as at
A, whenever a spark occurs at B, another spark
produced by a lateral discharge occurs at A.
Although the resistance of the metallic circuit is
enormously less than the resistance of the air
space through which the lateral discharge occurs,
yet the counter electromotive force produced in
the metallic circuit by the impulsive discharge,
renders its resistance far greater than that of
the air space. The path of a lateral discharge
is called the alternative path. (See Path, Al-
ternative. )
Discharge, Luminous Effects of — •
The luminous phenomena attending and pro-
duced by an electric discharge.
The luminous effects vary as to color, intensity,
shape and accompanying acoustic phenomena
according to a variety of circumstances, the prin-
cipal of which are as follows, viz. :
(i.) With the kind of gaseous medium through
which the discharge passes. Thus, a spark passed
through hydrogen has a crimson or reddish color;
through carbonic acid or chlorine, a greenish
color.
(2.) With the density of the medium. In a
partial vacuum, the discharge from an induction
coil becomes an ovoidal mass of light. As the
vacuum increases, the light at first grows brighter,
but as a higher vacuum is reached, striae of al-
ternate dark and light bands appear. Finally,
with very high vacua the discharge fails to pass.
(See Discharge^ Connective.)
(3.) With the nature of the substances forming
the points from which the discharge is taken.
This is due to the partial volatilization of the ma-
terial of the electrodes.
(4.) With the kind of electricity, *'. <?., whether
positive or negative. A positive charge assumes
the shape of a fan; a negative discharge, that of
a star.
(5.) On the density of the discharge. The in-
troduction of a Leyden jar or condenser in the
circuit of a Holtz machine, for example, causes
the spark to change from the faint bluish to the
silvery white.
(6. ) The disruptive discharge through air is at-
tended by snapping or crackling sound, which, in
the case of lightning, reaches the intensity of thun-
der. When the disruptive discharge takes place
through a vacuum a faint hissing sound is heard,
or all sound may entirely disappear.
(7. ) Luminous effects resulting from molecular
bombardment occurring in comparatively high
vacua. These luminous effects may result :
(a.) From actual incandescence of some refrac-
tory material produced by the blows of the mole-
cules; or,
(b.) As a result of phosphorescence or fluores-
cence due to such blows.
Canary glass, or glass stained by uranium oxide,
fluoresces and emits a yellowish green light; solu-
tion of sulphate of quinine emits a bluish light.
Discharge, Non-Oscillatory A
dead-beat discharge. (See Discharge, Dead-
Beat.}
Discharge, Oscillating A number
of successive discharges and recharges which
occur on the disruptive discharge of a Leyden
jar, or condenser.
A discharge which periodically decreases
by a series of oscillations.
A discharge which produces a dying-away-
backwards and forwards current.
Dis.]
170
[Dis
The disruptive discharge ot a Leyden jar, or
condenser, is not effected by a single rush of elec-
tricity. When discharged through a compara-
tively small resistance, a number of alternate
partial discharges and recharges occur, which
produce true oscillations or undulatory discharges.
These oscillations are caused by the induction
of the discharge on itself, and are similar to the
self-induction of a current.
The existence of the oscillating discharge hi the
case of a Leyden jar or condenser, proves, in the
opinion of some, that electricity, taken along
with matter, possesses a property similar to
inertia.
Discharge, Oscillatory A term
sometimes used for an oscillating discharge.
{See Discharge, Oscillating)
Discharge, Periodic — An electric
•discharge which changes its direction at reg-
ular intervals or periods.
An alternating discharge.
Discharge, Periodically-Decreasing
— An oscillating discharge whose decrease is
periodic. (See Discharge, Oscillating^
Discharge, Sensiti re-Thread The
thin, thread-like discharge that occurs be-
tween the terminals of the secondary of an in-
duction coil of high frequency.
The sensitive-thread discharge occurs, accord-
ing to Tesla, when the number of alternations per
Fig. 2 13- Sensitive- Thread Discharge ( Tesla).
second is high and the current through the
primary small. This discharge has the form of
a thin, feebly -colored thread. Though very sensi-
tive, being deflected by a mere breath, it is never-
theless quite persistent, if the terminals be at
one-third of the striking distance apart. Tesla
ascribes its extreme sensitiveness, when long, to
the motion of suspended dust particles in the air.
The general appearance of the sensitive-thread
discharge is shown in Fig. 213, taken from Tesla.
Discharge, Silent A name given
to a convective discharge in order to distin-
guish it from the more noisy disruptive dis-
charge.
The convective discharge in reality is attended
by a feeble sound, which, however, is quiet when
compared with the more pronounced sound of the
disruptive discharge. (See Discharge, Convec-
tive.)
Discharge, Stratified The form
of alternate light and dark spaces assumed by
the discharges of an induction coil through a
partially exhausted gas. (See Tube, Strati-
fication^)
The striae are explained by Curtis as follows:
" Under the influence of the electric rhythm of
the rapidly following discharges the molecules
of the residual gas collect in alternately dense
and rarefied spaces. The light bands correspond to
the spaces where the molecules are comparatively
crowded together, and their concomitant friction
produces the luminous disturbance. The dark
spaces are where the molecules are further apart,
and where their collisions are consequently less
frequent. ' '
Discharge, Streaming A form as-
sumed by the flaming discharge between the
terminals of the secondary of an induction
coil when the frequency of the alternations
increases beyond a certain limit, and the
potential has consequently increased.
The streaming discharge partakes of the general
characteristics of the flaming discharge. Lumi-
nous streams pass in abundance, not only between
the terminals of the secondary, but, according to
Tesla, who has carefully studied these phe-
nomena, between the primary and the secondary,
through the insulating dielectric separating
Fig. 214. Streaming Discharge (Tesla).
them. The streams not only pass between the
terminals, but also issue from all points and pro-
Dis.]
171
[Dis.
jections, as will be seen from Fig. 214, taken from
Tesla.
When the streaming discharge reaches a cer-
tain higher limit it becomes a brush-and spray
discharge. (See Discharge, Brush-and- Spray.)
The streaming discharge obtained from an in-
duction coil with high frequencies differs from that
of an electrostatic machine in that it neither pos-
sesses the violet color of the positive static dis-
charge nor the brightness of the negative, but is
intermediate in color.
Discharge, Surging A term some-
times applied to an oscillatory discharge. (See
Discharge, Oscillatory?)
Discharge, to Electrically To
equalize differences of potential by connecting
them by means of a conductor.
Discharge, Undnlatory A dis-
charge, the strength and direction of which
gradually change. (See Currents, Undn-
latory?)
Discharge, Unidirectional • — An
electric discharge which takes place from the
beginning to the end, in one and the same di-
rection.
Discharge, Telocity of The time
required for the passage of a discharge
through a given length of conductor.
According to modern views it is the ether sur-
rounding the wire or conductor which conveys
the electric pulses. All the energy which gets into
the conductor is dissipated as heat.
The velocity of propagation of discharge of the
pulses produced by the oscillating discharge of a
Leyden jar through the inter atomic or inter-
molecular ether, i.e. , through the fixed ether within
different substances, varies with the substance.
Through free ether the velocity is that of light, or
185,000 miles a second.
The velocity of discharge through long con-
duct jrs or cables is much lessened by incapacity
of the cable, and the effects of induction, and will
therefore vary in different cases. (See Retard-
ation.)
Discharger, Universal An appa-
ratus for sending the discharge of a powerful
Leyden battery or condenser in any desired
direction.
The universal discharger consists essentially of
metallic rods, supported on insulated pillars and
capable of ready motion, both towards and from
one another, as well as in vertical and horizon-
tal planes. The object which is to receive the
discharge is placed on an insulated table between
the rods, and the latter connected with the
opposite coatings of the battery or condenser,
when the discharge passes through it.
The term universal discharger is sometimes ap-
plied to the discharging tongs.
Discharging, Electrically The
act of equalizing differences of potential by
connection with a conductor.
Discharging Bod.— (See Rod, Discharg-
ing*
Discharging Tongs.— (See Tongs, Dis-
charging?]
Disconnect. — To break or open an electric
circuit.
Disconnecter. — A key or other device for
opening or breaking a circuit.
Disconnecting. — The act of opening or
breaking an electric circuit.
Disconnection. — A term employed to des-
ignate one of the varieties of faults caused
by the accidental breaking or disconnection
of a circuit.
Disconnections of this kind may be :
(I.) Total ; as by a switch inadvertently left
open ; or by the accidental breaking of a part of
the circuit.
(2.) Partial ; as by a dirty contact; a loose, or
badly soldered joint; a poorly clamped binding
screw; a loose terminal, or a bad earth.
(3.) Intermittent; as by swinging joints, alter-
nate expansions or contractions on changes of
temperature; the collection of dust and dirt in dry
weather, and then- washing out in wet weather.
Disconnection, Intermittent
Any fault in a line which occurs at intervals
or intermittently.
Disconnection, Partial A partial
fault in a line caused by any imperfect con-
tact.
Disconnection, Total A fault in
a line occasioned by a complete break in the
circuit.
Disguised Electricity. -(See Electricity,
Dis.J
172
[Dis.
Disjunctor.— A device employed in a sys-
tem for the distribution of electric energy by
means of continuous currents by condensers,
for the purpose of periodically reversing the
constant current sent over the line. (See
Electricity, Distribution of, by Continuous
Current by Means of Condensers?)
Dispersion Photometer. — (See Photome-
ter, Dispersion?)
Displacement Current. — (See Current,
Displacement?)
Displacement, Electric A displace-
ment of electricity in a uniform and non-
crystalline dielectric when lines of electro-
static or magnetic force pass through it.
The quantity of electricity displaced in any
homogeneous, non-crystallizable dielectric,
by the action of an electric force through
the unit area of cross-section, taken perpen-
dicular to the direction of the electric force.
Electric displacement is produced under an
elastic strain, which continues only while the elec-
tric force is acting.
Displacement, Electric, Lines of
Lines of electric induction along which elec-
tric displacement takes place.
Displacement, Electric, Oscillatory
— A displacement of electricity in a di-
electric or non-conductor of an oscillatory
character.
Displacement, Electric, Theory of
— A theory which regards the electricity
produced on an insulated conductor, by in-
duction through a dielectric, as displaced out
of the dielectric on to the conductor, or into
the dielectric from the conductor, by the in-
fluence of the electric force.
This conception was introduced into science by
Maxwell, after a careful study of Faraday's denial
of action at a distance.
Suppose a small insulated sphere to receive a
charge of electricity -f Q. It will, by induction,
produce an equal and opposite charge — Q, on
the inner surface, and a similar charge on the
outer surface of the small hollow sphere, placed
near it, but separated by the dielectric. There
has, therefore, been a displacement of electricity
through the dielectric. The medium of the
dielectric has connected the two bodies, and the
phenomena have appeared by the action of the
electric force on the substance of the dielectric;
or, in other words, there has been no action at
a distance.
According to this conception, an electric cur-
rent, called a displacement current, exists in the
dielectric, while displacement is taking place.
Displacement Waves. — (See Waves, Dis-
placement.]
Disruptive Electric Conduction.— (See
Conduction, Electric, Disruptive?)
Dissimulated or Latent Electricity.—
(See Electricity, Dissimulated or Latent?)
Dissipation of Charge.— (See Charge,
Dissipation of?)
Dissipation of Energy. — (See Energy,
Dissipation of.)
Dissipation of Energy, Hysteresial
— (See Energy, Hysteresial, Dissipation of.
Hysteresis.)
Dissipation, Specific Hysteresial
The specific loss of energy by hysteresis in
the case of a particular substance. (See
Hysteresis.)
Dissociate. — To separate a compound sub-
stance into its constituents.
Dissociation. — The separation of a chemi-
cal compound into its constituent parts.
Dissymmetrical Induction of Armature.
— (See Armature, Dissymmetrical Induc-
tion of.)
Dissymmetrical Magnetic Field.— (See
Field, Magnetic, Dissymmetrical.)
Dissymmetry of Commutation.— (See
Commutation, Dissymmetry of.)
Distance, Critical, of Lateral Discharge
Through an Alternative Path The
distance at which a discharge will take place
through an air space of given dimensions, in
preference to passing through a metallic cir-
cuit of comparatively small resistance.
Distance, Explosive A term some-
times employed for sparking distance. (See
Distance, Sharking?)
Distance, Sparking The distance
Bis.]
173
[Dot
at which electrical sparks will pass through
an intervening air space. (See Spark, Length
.of.)
Distant Station.— (See Station, Distant?)
Distillation, Destructive - —The
action of heat on an organic substance,
while out of contact with air, resulting in the
decomposition of the substance into simpler
and more stable compounds.
The different products resulting from destruc-
tive distillation may be successively collected by
the ordinary processes of distillation.
Distillation, Dry A species of de-
structive distillation. (See Distillation, De-
structive?)
Distillation, Electric - —The dis-
tillation of a liquid in which the effects of
heat are aided by an electrification of the
liquid.
Beccaria discovered that a liquid evaporates more
rapidly when electrified than when unelectrified.
Crookes has shown that evaporation is aided
by negative electrification, or that evaporation
takes place more rapidly at the negative terminal
during a discharge than at the positive. (See
Evaporation, Electric. )
Distributing Box of Conduit— (See Box,
Distributing, of Conduit?)
Distributing Station.— (See Station, Dis-
tributing?)
Distributing Switch for Electric Light.
—{See Switch, Distributing, for Electric
Lights.)
Distribution-Box for Arc Light Circuits.
— (See Box, Distribution, for Arc Light
Circuits?)
Distribution, Centre of In a sys-
tem of multiple-distribution, any place where
branch cut-outs and switches are located in
order to control communication therewith.
The electrical centre of a system of distri-
bution as regards the conducting network.
Distribution of Charge.— (See Charge,
Distribution of?)
Distribution of Electricity.— (See Elec-
tricity, Distribution of)
Distribution of Electricity by Alternate
ing Currents (See Electricity, Dis-
tribution of, by Alternating Currents.)
Distribution of Electricity by Alternat-
ing Currents by Means of Condensers. —
(See Electricity, Distribution of, by Alter-
nating Currents by Means of Condensers.)
Distribution of Electricity by Cammu-
tating Transformers. — (See Electricity,
Distribution of, by Commutating Trans-
formers^)
Distribution of Electricity by Constant
Potential Circuit.— (See Electricity, Multi-
ple Distribution of, by Constant Potential
Circuit?)
Distribution of Electricity by Contin-
uous Current by Means of Transformers.—
(See Electricity, Distribution of, by Contin-
uous Current by Means of Transformers.)
Distribution of Electricity by Motor-
Generators. — (See Electricity, Distribution
of, by Motor-Generators.)
Distribution, Series, of Electricity by
Constant Current Circuit.— (See Electricity,
Series Distribution of, by Constant Current
Circuit?)
District Call-Box.— (See Box, District
Call?)
Diurnal Inequality of Earth's Magnet-
ism.— (See Inequality, Diurnal, of Earth's
Magnetism?)
Divided Magnetic Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Divided Magnetic?)
Door-Opener, Electric — A device
for opening a door from a distance by elec-
tricity.
Various devices consisting of electro-magnets,
acting against, or controlling springs or weights,
are employed for this purpose.
Dosage, Electro-Therapeutical
The apportioning of the amount of the cur-
rent and the duration of its application to the
body for the treatment of disease.
Dosage, Galvanic — Electro-thera-
peutical dosage. (See Dosage, Electro-
Therapeutical] .
Dotting Contact.— (See Contact, Dotting.)
Dou,J
(Dr.).
Double-Break Knife Switch.— (See
Switch, Double-Break Knife?)
Double-Carbon Arc Lamp. — (See Lamp,
Electric Arc, Double-Carbon)
Double-Cone Insulator. — (See Insulator,
Double-Cone?)
Double- Connector. — (See Connector,
Double)
Double-Contact Key.— (See Key, Double-
Contact)
Double-Cup Insulator. — (See Insulator,
Double-Cup)
Double-Curb.— (See Curb, Double)
Double-Curb Signaling.— (See Signaling,
Curb, Double)
Double-Current Signaling.— (See Signal-
ing, Double-Current)
Double-Current Translator. — (See Trans-
lator, Double-Current)
Double-Cur r ent Transmitter. — (See
Transmitter, Double-Current)
Double-Current Working —The
employment, in systems of telegraphy, by
means of suitable keys, of currents from
voltaic batteries, in alternately opposite
directions, thus increasing the speed of
signaling. (See Working, Reverse-Current)
Double-Fluid Electrical Hypothesis.—
(See Electricity, Double-Fluid Hypothesis
of)
Double-Fluid Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Double-Fluid)
Double-Magnet Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Double-Magnet)
Double-Pen Telegraphic Register.— (See
Register, Double-Pen, Telegraphic)
D o u b 1 e-Refraction. — (See Refraction,
Double)
Double-Refraction, Electric.— (See Re-
fraction, Double, Electric)
Double-Shackle Insulator.— (See Insula-
tor, Double-Shackle)
Double-Shed Insulator.— (See Insulator,
Double-Shed)
Double-Tapper Key.— (See Key, Double-
Tapper)
DJ able-Touch, Magnetization by
A method for producing magnetization by
the simultaneous touch of two magnet poles.
(See Magnetization, Methods of)
Double-Transmission. — (See Transmis-
sion, Double)
Double-Trolley.— (See Trolley, Double)
Doubler of Electricity.— An early form of
continuous electrophorus. (See Electro-
phorus.)
Drifting Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Drift-
ing)
Drill, Electro-Magnetic A drill
applied especially to blasting or mining opera-
tions, operated by means of electricity.
Drip Loop.— (See Loop, Drip)
Driven Pulley.— (See Pulley, Driven)
Driven Shaft. — (See Shaft, Driven)
Driving Pulley. — (See Pulley, Driving)
Driving Shaft.— (See Shaft, Driving)
Driving Spider.— (See Spider, Driving)
Drop, Annunciator — A movable
signal operated by an electro-magnet, and
placed on an annunciator, the dropping of
which indicates the closing or opening of the
circuit with which the electro-magnet is con-
nected.
The falling of the drop may be attended by the
sounding" of a bell or other alarm, or, it may give
a silent indication.
Drop, Annunciator, Automatic A
drop for an annunciator, which on the closing
of a circuit, falls and holds the circuit closed
until the drop is raised.
Drop, Annunciator, Gravity - — A
drop for an annunciator, acted on by gravity
when released by the movement of the arma-
ture of an electro-magnet.
Drop, Automatic A device for au-
tomatically closing the circuit of a bell and
holding it closed until stopped by resetting a
drop.
Dro.J
175
[Dyn.
The automatic drop is especially applicable to
burglar alarms. On the opening of a door or
shutter, the closing of the circuit moves the
armature of an elec-
tro - magnet, and,
by the falling of a
drop, closes the cir-
cuit and holds it
closed until me-
chanically opened
by the replacing of
the drop. The
general appearance
of the automatic
drop is shown in
Fig. 215.
Drop, Calling-
Ari an- Fig' 2*3' Automatic Dr°f-
nunciator drop employed to indicate to the
operator in a telegraphic or telephonic system
that one subscriber wishes to be connected
with another.
Drop of Potential.— (See Potential, Drop
of-}
Drops, Clearing Out — Restoring
the drops of annunciators to their normal
position after they have been thrown out of
the same by the closing of the circuits of their
magnets.
These clearing-out devices as placed on most
forms cf annunciators are generally mechanical in
operation.
Drum Armature. — (See Armature,
Drum.}
Drum, Electro-Magnetic A drum,
usied in feats of legerdemain, operated by
an automatic electro-magnetic make and
break apparatus.
Dry Distillation.— (See Distillation,
Dry.}
Dry Electrode.— (See Electrode, Dry.}
Dry Pile.— (See Pile, Dry.}
Dry Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Dry.}
Dub's Laws. — (See Laws, Dub's}
Duplex Cable.— (See Cable, Duplex)
Duplex Cut-Out.— (See Cut-out, Duplex)
Duplex Flat Cable.— (See Cable, Flat
Duplex)
Duplex Telegraphy.— (See Telegraphy,
Duplex)
Duplex Wire.— (See Wire, Duplex)
Duration of Electric Discharge.— (See
Discharge, Duration of)
Duration of Make-Induced Current.—
(See Current, Make or Break Induced, Du-
ration of)
Dust Figures, Lichtenberg's
(See Figures, Lichtenberg's Dust)
Dyad. — A chemical element which has two
bonds by which it can unite or combine with
another element.
An element whose atomicity is bivalent.
Dyeing, Electric The application
of electricity either to the reduction or the
oxidation of the salts used in dyeing.
GoppelsrSder, in his processes of electric dyeing,
forms and fixes aniline black on cloth as follows,
viz. : the cloth, saturated with an aniline salt, is
placed on an insulated metallic plate, inert to the
aniline salt, and connected with one pole of a
battery or other electric source. The other pole
is connected with a metallic plate on which the
required design is drawn. On the passage of the
current, the design is traced in aniline black on
the cloth. A minute or two suffices for the
operation.
A species of electrolytic writing is obtained on
cloths arranged as above by substituting a carbon
pencil for the metallic plate. On writing with
this pencil, as with an ordinary pencil, the pas-
sage of the current so directed is followed by the
deposition of aniline black.
By means of a somewhat similar process writ-
ing in white on a colored ground is obtained.
Dynamic Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Dynamic?)
Dynamics, Electro That branch
of electric science which treats of the action
of electric currents on one another and on
themselves or on magnets.
The principles of electro -dynamics were dis-
covered by Ampere in 1821.
A convenient form of apparatus, for showing
experimentally the action of one current on
another, consists of two upright metallic columns
Dyn.J
176
[Dyn.
or pillars, which support horizontal metallic arms
containing mercury cups, y, and c, Fig. 216.
. 216. Deflection of a Circuit by a Current.
The circuit is bent in the form of a rectangle,
circle or solenoid, and terminates in points that
dip in the mercury cups. The current is led into
and out of the apparatus at the points -f- and —
at the base of the upright supports.
When a magnet, or another circuit, is ap-
proached to the movable circuit thus provided,
attractions or repulsions are produced according
to th2 position of the magnet, or the direction of
the currents in the two circuits.
If a magnet A B, Fig. 217, be placed, as shown,
Fig. 217. DtflectioH of Circuit by a Magntt.
below the movable circuit C C, the circuit will
tend to place itself at right angles to the axis of
the magnet. This movement is the same as
would occur if electric currents were circulating
around the magnet in the direction of the assumed
Amperian currents. It also illustrates the prin-
ciple of the electric motor. (See Magnetism, Am-
pere's Theory of.)
Ampere has given the results of his investigations
as to the mutual attractions and repulsions of cur-
rents in the following statements, which are
known as Ampere's Laws :
(I.) Parallel portions of a circuit attract one
another if the currents in them are flowing in the
same direction, and
repel one another if
the currents are flow-
ng in opposite direc-
tions.
A current flowing
through a spiral tends A B
to shorten the spiral **•*'*• Action of Solenoid
from the attraction of
the parallel currents in contiguous turns.
Similar poles of two solenoids repel each other,
as at A, A', Fig. 218, because, when opposed to
each other, the currents that produce these poles
Fig. 2IQ. Ampere's Stand.
are flowing in opposite directions, as may be
seen from an inspection of the drawing.
Dissimilar solenoid poles, on the contrary, at-
tract each other as at A, B, in Fig. 218, since
C
Fig. 2 20. Electro- Dynamic Attraction.
the currents which produce them flow in the same
direction.
In Fig. 219, a form of Ampere's stand is shown,
in which one of the circuits is in the form of the
177
coil M N ; its action on the movable circuit C B,
is to repel it, since the currents, as shown, are
flowing in an opposite direction in the adjacent
portions of the fixed and movable circuits.
(2.) Two portions of a circuit intersecting each
Other mutually attract each other when the cur-
rents in both circuits flow
either towards or from
the point of intersection,
but repel each other f
they flow in opposite di-
rections from this point.
Thus, in Fig. 220, the ^/
currents in both circuits P
P Q and A. B C D, flow
towards and from the
point of intersection Y, and attract one another
and cause a motion until the two circuits are
parallel,
If the currents flow in opposite directions they
repel each other, and, if free to move, will come
to rest when parallel to each other ; therefore,
two portions of a circuit crossing each other tend
to move until they are parallel, and their currents
are flowing in the same direction.
(3.) Successive portions of the circuit of the
same rectilinear current ', that is, a current flowing
in the same straight line, repel one another.
A circuit O A, Fig. 221, movable on O, as a
Fig. 22 T. Continuous
Rotation of Current.
Fig. 222. Mutual Action of Magnetic Fields.
centre, will be continuously rotated in the direc-
tion of the curved arrow by the rectilinear cur-
rent, P Q; for, the directions of the currents being
as shown by the arrows, there will be attraction
in the positions (i) and (2), and repulsion in po-
«ition(4).
The cause of the mutual attractions and repul-
sions of electric circuits will readily appear from
a consideration of the mutual action of their
magnetic fields.
Thus an inspection of Fig. 222 shows :
(I.) That parallel currents flowing in the same
direction attract, because their lines of force have
opposite directions in adjoining parts of the cir-
cuit of these lines.
(2.) That parallel currents flowing in opposite
directions repel, because their lines of force have
the same directions in adjoining parts of the cir-
cuit.
These laws may therefore be generalized thus,
viz. : Lines of magnetic force extending in oppo-
site directions attract one another; lines of
magnetic force extending in the same direction
repel one another.
Ampere proved that a circuit, doubled on itself
so that the current flows in opposite directions in
the two parts, exerts no force on external objects.
This expedient is adopted in resistance coils to
prevent any disturbance of the galvanometer
needles. He also showed that a sinuous circuit,
or one bent into zigzags, produces the same effects
of attraction or repulsion as it would if it were
straight. (See Coil, Resistance.)
The term sinuous current is sometimes applied
to the current in a sinuous circuit. (See Current,
Sinuous.) This must be distinguished from the
term sinusoidal current, which applies to fluctua-
tions in the current and not to peculiarities in the
shape of the conductor.
When two inclined magnets, free to move, are
left to their mutual attractions and repulsions, they
gradually come to rest with their axes parallel to
each other.
Two conductors through which electric cur-
rents are flowing act on one another as two
magnets would.
A conductor conveying a current of electricity
tends to rotate round a magnetic pole. A mag-
netic pole tends to rotate continuously round an
electric current.
The motion of a magnet near a conductor
produces an electromotive force in that conductor
provided the conductor cuts the lines of force.
A magnetized substance becomes magnetized
when placed in a magnetic field.
A conductor through which a current of elec-
tricity is passing tends to wrap itself around a
neighboring magnetic pole. The following ex-
periments illustrate this tendency :
(I.) The experiment suggested by Lodge: A
powerful current of electricity is passed through
some eight feet in length of gold thread such as
is employed for making lace. The thread is
hung in a vertical position, near a vertical bar
Dyn.]
magnet. As soon as the current passes, the
thread will wrap itself around the -bar magnet,
one half of it twisting itself round the north pole,
the other half round the south pole.
(2.) The experiment suggested by Professor S.
P. Thompson: An electric current is sent through
a stream of mercury while it is flowing between
two poles of a powerful electro-magnet; when
the current is sent through the magnet, the
stream is twisted in spiral directions which vary,
either with the direction of the current, or with
the direction of the magnetic polarity.
(3.) Somewhat similar effects can be shown by
the rotation of a stream of gas round a magnetic
pole placed in an exhausted glass receiver.
Dynamo. — The name frequently applied to
a dynamo-electric machine used as a gener-
ator. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric?)
Dynamo Balancing Rheostat. — (See
Rheostat, Dynamo Balancing?)
Dynamo-Battery. — (See Battery, Dy-
namo?)
Dynamo Brush Trimmer. — (See Trim-
mer, Dynamo Brush?)
Dynamo, Composite-Field — A
dynamo whose field coils are series and
separately excited.
Additional separately excited coils placed on
the field of a series wound dynamo render it self-
regulating.
A composite dynamo is a form of compounded
dynamo.
Dynamo, Compound-Wound.— A com-
pound-wound dynamo-electric machine. (See
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound-
Wound:)
Dynamo, Contact — — A form of dyna-
mo in which the space between the arma-
ture and field magnet poles is so reduced that
they actually touch one another.
In contact dynamos both field and armature
revolve. This form of dynamo has not been very
successful in practice.
Dynamo-Electric Machine.— (See Ma-
chine, Dynamo-Electric?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Alternating
Current — (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Alternating Current?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine Armature.—
(See Armature, Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine Armature
Coils. — (See Coils, Armature, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine Armature
Core. — (See Core, Armature, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine Battery.—
(See Battery, Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Bi-Polar
— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Bi-
Polar?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Collecting
Brushes of — — (See Brushes, Collecting,
of Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine Commutator
(See Commutator, Dynamo-Electric
Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Compound-
Wound — (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Compound- Wound?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Generation of
Current by — — 'See Current, Genera-
tion of, by Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Field Mag-
nets — — ( See Magnets, Field, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Methods ol
Increasing the Electromotive Force Gene-
rated by (See Force, Electromotive,
Generated by Dynamo-Electric Machine,
Method of Increasing?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Mouse-Mill,
Sir William Thomson's — —(See Ma-
chine, Dynamo-Electric, Mouse-Mill, Sir
William Thomson's?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Multipolar
— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Multipolar?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Pole-Pieces of
(See Pole-Pieces of Dynamo-Electric
Machine?)
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Reversibility
of (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Reversibility of?)
Dyn.J
179
Dynamo-Electric Machine, Varieties of
• — (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Varieties of.}
Dynamo, Inductor A dynamo-
electric machine for alternating currents in
which the differences of potential causing the
currents are obtained by magnetic changes in
the cores of the armature and field coils by
the movement past them of laminated masses
of iron inductors.
The coils corresponding to the armature and
field magnets of the ordinary dynamo are sta-
tionary. The laminated masses of iron, employed
to cause magnetic changes in the cores of the field
and armature coils, are fixed on an inductor wheel
which is rapidly revolved in front of them. The
magnets corresponding to the field magnets are
called the primary poles, and are magnetized by
an exciter. The magnets corresponding to the
armature are called the secondary poles and are
placed so as to alternate with the primary poles.
The inductors are so shaped that they carry the
magnetism of one pole of the primary magnet
to the secondary poles when the inductor is in
one position, and of the opposite pole when in a
slightly different position. The inductor wheel
therefore acts as a magnetic commutator and
changes the position of the secondary magnet as
it rotates, thus producing electromotive force.
The number of alternations per revolution is
equal to twice the number of inductors placed on
the inductor wheel.
Dynamo, Inverted A dynamo-elec-
tric machine in which the armature bore or
chamber is placed below the field magnet
coils.
The term inverted is used in contradistinction
to the overtype dynamo. (See -Dynamo, Over-
type.}
Dynamo, Mouse Mill A form of
dynamo-electric machine designed by Sir
William Thomson to act as the replenisher of
one of his electrometers. (See Replenisher •.)
Dynamo, Multiphase A polyphase
dynamo. (See Dynamo, Polyphase. Dyna-
mo, Rotating Current?)
Dynamo, Overtype A dynamo-
electric machine, the armature bore or cham-
ber of which is placed above the field magnet
coils instead of below them as in many forms.
The overtype form of dynamo possesses the
advantage of better avoiding magnetic leakage.
Dynamo, Polyphase A name some-
times applied to a rotating current dynamo.
(See Dynamo, Rotating Current!)
Dynamo, Pyromagnetic A name
sometimes applied to a pyromagnetic gen-
erator. (See Generator, Pyromagnetic!)
Dynamo, Rotary-Phase —A term
sometimes employed for a rotating current
dynamo. (See Dynamo, Rotating Current.}
Dynamo, Separately-Excited A
separately-excited dynamo-electric machine.
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Separ-
ately-Excited^
A series-wound
Dynamo, Series
dynamo- electric
machine. (SeeJ/a-
chine, Dynamo-
Electric, Series-
Wound?)
Dynamo, Shunt
— A shunt-
wound dynamo-
electric machine.
(See Machine,
Dynamo - Electric,
Shunt- Wound?]
Dynamograph.
— A term some-
times applied to a
type-writing tele-
graph that records
the message in
type-written char-
acters, both at the
sending and the
receiving ends.
Dynamometer. ^
— A name given to
a variety of appar- /•£-. 223. Parsons' Dyna.-
atus for measuring mometer.
the power of an engine or motor.
In all dynamometers the strain on the belt or
other moving part is measured, say in pounds,
and the speed of the moving part is also measured
in feet per second. The product of the strain in
Dyn.]
180
pounds by the velocity in feet per second, di-
vided by 550, will give the horse power.
One of the many forms of dynamometers is
shown in Fig. 223. It is known as Parsons' Dy-
namometer.
The driving pulley is shown at A, and the
driven pulley at C. Weights hung at Q1? are va-
ried so as to maintain the axes of the suspended
pulleys, D and B, as nearly as possible at the
same height. Then the tension Tx and T8, on
the sides O and O', of the belts, will be repre-
sented by the following equation :
from which, knowing the belt speed, the horse
power may be deduced.
There are several other forms of dynamometer,
such as the cradle dynamometer, in which the
machine is supported on knife edges and the
torque or pull exerted on or by the machine is
balanced by weights sliding on a lever. In these
dynamometers the power is transmitted through
them and they are therefore called transmission
dynamometers.
Dynamometer, Electro A form of
galvanometer for the measurement of electric
currents.
In Siemens' Electro-Dynamometer, shown in
Fig. 224, there are two coils ; a fixed coil, C, se-
cured to an upright support, and a movable coil,
L, consisting often of but a single turn of wire.
The movable coil is suspended by means of a
thread and a delicate spring, S, capable of being
twisted by turning a milled screw-head through
an angle of torsion measured on a scale by means
of an index connected to the screw-head. The
two ends of the movable coil dip into mercury
cups so connected that the current to be measured
passes through the fixed and movable coils in
series.
When ready for use the movable coil is at right
angles to the fixed coil. The current to be meas-
ured is then sent into the coils, and their mutual
action tends to place the movable coil parallel to
the fixed coil against the torsion of the spring, S.
The amount of this force can be ascertained by
determining the amount of torsion required to
bring the movable coil back to its zero position.
Since the same cm-rent passes through both th«
fixed and movable coils, and they both act on
each other, the deflecting force here is evidently
proportional to the square of the strength of the
Fig. 224. Siemens' Electro- Dynamomet,
current to be measured. The deflecting force,
and consequently the current strength, is there,
fore proportional to the square root of the angle
of torsion, and not directly to the angle of tor-
sion.
Dyne.— The unit of force.
The force which in one second can impart
a velocity of I centimetre per second to a
mass of I gramme.
The dyne is the unit of force, or a force capa-
ble, after acting for one second on a mass of i
gramme, of giving it a velocity of I centimetre
per second. The -weight of a body in dynes, or the
force with which it gravitates, is equal to its
mass in grammes, multiplied by the acceleration
imparted to it in centimetres per second. For
this latitude the acceleration is about 981 centi-
metres per second.
181
[Edd.
E
E. — A contraction sometimes used for
earth.
A contraction sometimes used for electro-
motive force, or E. M. F., as in the well-
known formula for Ohm's law,
K. M. D. P. — A contraction for electro-
motive difference of potential. (See Poten-
tial, Difference of, Electromotive)
Eo M. F. — A contraction generally used for
electromotive force. (See Force, Electro-
motived)
Earth. — A fault in a telegraphic or other
line, caused by accidental contact of the line
with the ground or earth, or with some con-
ductor connected with the latter.
This is more frequently called a ground.
Earths are of three kinds, viz.:
(I.) Deader Total Earth.
(2.) Partial Earth.
(3.) Intermittent Earth.
The term earth is also applied to a plate buried
in the ground, and intended to make a good con-
tact between the earth and a wire circuit, which
is connected with the plate.
Earth Circuit.— (See Circuit, Earth)
Earth-Circuited Conductor.— (See Con-
ductor, Earth-Circuited)
Earth Currents. — Electric currents flow-
ing through different parts of the earth caused
by a difference of potential at different points.
The causes of these differences of potential are
•various and are not well understood.
Earth, Bead or Total -- A fault in
a telegraphic or other line in which the line
is thoroughly grounded or connected with
the earth.
Dead earih is sometimes called total earth.
Earth-Grounded Wire.— (See Wire,
Earth-Grounded. )
Earth, Intermittent -- A swinging
earth. (See Earth, Swinging or Intermit-
tent^
Earth or Ground.— That part of the earth
or ground which forms part of an electric
circuit.
A circuit is put to earth or ground when the
earth is used for a portion of the circuit.
The resistance of an earth connection may vary
in time from the following causes, viz.:
( I. ) The corrosion of the ground plate. This is
especially apt to occur in the case of a copper
plate.
(2.) From polarization, a counter-electro-
motive force being produced, thus introducing a
spurious resistance into the circuit. (See Resist-
ance, Spurious.)
Earth, Partial A fault in a tele-
graphic or other line in which the line is in
partial connection with the earth.
The term partial earth is used in contradistinc-
tion to dead or total earth.
Earth, Return A circuit in which
the return current passes back to the source
through the earth.
Earth, Swinging or Intermittent
— A fault in a telegraphic or other line in
which the action of the wind, or occasional
expansion by heat, brings the line into inter-
mittent contact with the earth.
Earth, Total A term sometimes
used for dead earth. (See Earth, Dead or
Total)
Ebonite. — A tough, hard, black substance,
composed of india rubber and sulphur, which
possesses high powers of insulation and of
specific inductive capacity.
Ebonite is often called vulcanite.
Vulcanite rubbed with cat-skin acts as one of
the best known substances for becoming electri-
fied by friction. For this purpose both substances
should be thoroughly dried.
Economic Co-efficient of Dynamo-Elec-
tric Machine— (See Co-efficient, Economic,
of a Dynamo-Electric Machine)
Eddy Currents.— feee Currents, Eddy.)
Eddy Currents, Deep-Seated (See
Currents, Eddy, Deep-Seated)
Eddy Currents, Superficial (See
Currents, Eddy, Superficial)
Edd.j
182
[Eft
Eddy-Displacement Currents.— (See Cur-
rents, Eddy-Displacement.)
Eel, Electric An eel possessing
the power of giving powerful electric shocks,.
The gymnotus electricus.
The electricity is produced by an organ ex-
tending the entire length of
the body.
According to Faraday, the
shock given by a specimen
of the animal examined by
him was equal to that of 15
Leyden jars, having a total
surface of 25 square feet.
Fig. 225 shows the general
appearance of the animal.
Effect, Acheson
The increase in the electro-
motive force of the sec-
ondary of a transformer by
the action of the changes
in temperature of its core.
(See Electricity, Cat.)
Fig. 2ZS- Electric
Effect, Chemical Eel,
—The effect occasioned by atomic combina-
tion, which results in a loss of those properties
or peculiarities by which the substances en-
tering into combination are ordinarily recog-
nized.
Atomic combination, resulting in the for-
mation of new moleculeSo
The formation of new molecules necessitates the
possession by the new substance of properties dis-
tinct and separate from those of its constituents.
Black carbon, and yellow sulphur, for example,
both solids, unite chemically to form a trans-
parent colorless liquid.
Chemical changes differ from physical changes,
which latter can occur in a substance without the
formation of new molecules, and consequently
without the loss by it of the properties it ordi-
narily possesses.
Thus a sheet ot' vulcanite, electrified by friction,
still retains its characteristic density, shape, color,
etc.
Effect, Counter-Inductive The
opposal of current or charge by means of a
counter-electromotive force produced by 'n-
duction.
In the Thomson counter-electromotive force
lightning arrester, a counter-electromotive force,
produced by the inductive effects of the passage
of the bolt to earth, protects the instrument by
opposing the passage of the bolt. (See Arr ester %
Lightning, Counter- Electromotive Force.)
Effect, Edison An electric dis-
charge which occurs between one of the ter-
minals of the incandescent filament of an
electric lamp, and a metallic plate placed near
the filament but disconnected therefrom, as
soon as a certain difference of potential is
reached between the lamp terminals.
The effect of the discharge is to produce a cur-
rent in a circuit connected to one pole of the lamp
terminals and the metallic plate, as may be shown
by means of a galvanometer.
Effect, Electrotonic An altered
condition of excitability of a nerve produced
when in the electrotonic state. (See Elec-
trotonus.)
Effect, Faraday The rotation of
the plane of polarization of a beam of plane
polarized light by its passage through a
magnetic field.
Lodge suggests the following explanation for
the Faraday effect : As is well known, a strongly
magnetized medium possesses a different magnetic
susceptibility to additional magnetizing forces in
the same direction than it does in the opposite
direction. It therefore follows that the vibra-
tions are resolved into two opposed circular com-
ponents, which travel through the medium with
different rates of velocity, since one tends to mag-
netize it and the other to demagnetize it. The
plane of rotation will therefore be rotated.
He also suggests the following explanation for
the Faraday effect, viz.: He assumes that the
Amperian molecular currents in such substances
as exhibit rotation in a magnetic field do not
consist of two equal and opposite electrical cur-
rents, but that one of the currents is slightly
stronger than the other. Suppose, for example,
that in iron the positive Amperian current is
weaker than the negative, and that the ether as
a whole is rotating with the negative current.
Any ethereal vibration entering such a medium
will begin to screw itself in the direction opposed
to that of the magnetizing current. In copper,
or other similar substances, the rotation should
take place in the opposite direction.
Eff.
183
[Eff,
Effect, Ferranti • —An increase in the
electromotive force, or difference of potential,
of mains or conductors towards the end of the
same farthest from the terminals that are con-
nected with a source of constant potential.
The Ferranti effect refers to the increase of the
electromotive force on the mains employed in
systems for the transmission of electrical energy
by means of alternating currents. It was found,
for example, in the currents used on the
mains connected with one of Mr. Ferranti' s alter-
nating dynamos and leading to the town of Dept-
ford, that instead of finding a drop of potential at
the ends of the mains farthest from the dynamo,
as was expected, a notable increase in the poten-
tial occurred. These effects were observed dur-
ing the laying of the mains. Testing the poten-
tial by placing an incandescent lamp in the circuit
across the mains, the increase of the potential
with the increase of the length of the main was
shown by the increased brilliancy of the light of
the incandescent lamp.
Various explanations have been given as the
cause of the Ferranti effect.
Effect, Hall A transverse elec-
tromotive force, produced by a magnetic
field in substances undergoing electric dis-
placement.
This transverse electromotive force is probably
Fig. 226. Hall Effect.
due to magnetic whirls, in a manner similar to
the Faraday effect.
The Hall effect is produced by placing a very
thin metallic strip, conveying an electric current,
in a strong magnetic field.
The cross A B C D, Fig. 226, is cut out of a
gold leaf or other very thin metallic sheet. The
ends A and B, are connected with the terminals
of a battery S, and the ends C and D, with the
galvanometer G.
None of the battery current can therefore flow
through the galvanometer.
If, now, the metallic cross be placed in a power-
ful magnetic field, the lines of force of which are
perpendicular to the plane of the cro^s, the deflec-
tion of the galvanometer needle will show the
existence of a current, which, if the battery cur-
rent flows in the direction of the arrow, or from A,
to B, and the lines of magnetic force pass through
the paper from the front to the back of the sheet,
when the cross is formed of gold, silver, platinum
or tin-foil, will flow through C D, from C to D,
but in the opposite direction if formed of iron.
These effects cease if the conductor is increased
in thickness beyond a certain extent.
As regards the production of the Hall effect by
the influence of a magnetic field on conductors,
Mr. Shelford Bidwell suggests that since magnet-
ism affects the conductivity of metals in a
complicated manner, it is possible that metallic
substances conveying an electric current in a
magnetic field are more or less strained by the
mechanical forces, and that, therefore, heat may
be unequally developed, and that the resistance
thus being modified in places, there may be pro-
duced disturbances of the flow which may
rapidly produce in part a transverse electromotive
force.
Effect, Hall, Real A transverse elec-
tromotive force produced in conductors con-
veying electric currents, by magnetic whirls,
in a manner similar to that in which the Far-
aday effect is produced. (See Effect, Fara-
day)
Effect, Hall, Spurious An appa-
rent transverse electromotive force produced
in conductors conveying electric currents in
magnetic fields, by changes, produced by mag-
netism, in the conductivity of the metals, and
the consequent production of local distur-
bances in the electrical flow, thus resulting
in an apparent transverse electromotive force.
Effect, Impulsion The restoration
or loss of sensitiveness of a photo-voltaic cell
to the action of light, produced by means of
an impulse such as that of a tap or blow, or
electro-magnetic impulse.
Eff.]
184
[Eff.
Effect, Joule The heating effect
produced by the passage of an electric cur-
rent through a conductor, arising merely from
the resistance of the conductor.
The rate at which this occurs is proportional to
the resistance of the conductor through which
the current is passing multiplied by the square
of the current. (See Heat, Electric. )
Effect, Kerr A term applied to
the electrostatic optical effect discovered by
Dr. Kerr, viz., that a beam of plane polarized
light is elliptically polarized when transmitted
across an electrostatic field.
The Kerr effect does not take place in free space,
but occurs in different senses or directions in dif-
ferent media.
Like the Faraday effect, the Kerr effect de-
pends on the presence of a dense medium, and the
direction of the effect depends on the character of
the medium.
Effect, Mordey — A term some-
times applied to a decrease in the value of
hysteresis in the iron of a dynamo armature at
full load.
Effect, Peltier The heating ef-
fect produced by the passage of an electric
current across a thermo-electric junction or
surface of contact between two different met-
als. (See Junction, Thermo-Electric.)
The passage of the current across a thermo-
electric junction produces either heat or cold. If
heat is produced by its passage in one direction,
told is produced by its passage in the opposite
direction. The Peltier effect may, therefore,
mask the Joule effect.
The Peltier effect is the converse of the thermo-
electric effect, where the unequal heating of metal-
lic junctions results in an electric current. (See
Effect, Joule. Effect, Thomson.)
The quantity of heat absorbed or emitted by
the Peltier effect is proportional to the current
strength, and not, as in the Joule effect, to the
square of the current.
Effect, Photo-Yoltaic The change
in the resistance of selenium or other
substances effected by their exposure to
light. The photo-voltaic effect is seen in
the case of the selenium cell. (See Cell,
Selenium!)
Effect, Seebeck A term sometimes
used instead of thermo-electric effect. (See
Effect, Thermo-Electric.)
This term has nearly passed out of use.
Effect, Skin The tendency of alter-
nating currents to avoid the central portions
of solid conductors and to flow or pass mostly
through the superficial portions.
The so-called skin effect is more pronounced
the more frequent the alternations.
Effect, Thermo-Electric The pro-
duction of an electromotive force at a
thermo-electric junction by a difference of
temperature between that junction and the
other junction of the thermo-electric couple.
(See Couple, Thermo-Electric. Junction,
Thermo-Electric^)
Effect, Thomson — Th'e production of
an electromotive force in unequally heated
homogeneous conducting substances.
A term also applied to the increase or de-
crease in the differences of temperature in an
unequally heated conductor, produced by the
passage of an electrical current through the
conductor.
The Thomson effects vary according to whether
the current passes from a colder to a hotter part
of the conductor, or the reverse.
The Thomson effects differ in direction in differ-
ent metals, and are absent in lead. Thomson has
pointed out the similarity between this species of
thermo-electric phenomena, and convection by
heat, or the phenomena of a liquid circulating in
a closed rectangular tube, under the influence of
differences of temperature, in which the heated
fluid gives out heat in the cooler parts of the cir-
cuit, and takes in heat in the -warmer parts.
This would presuppose that positive electricity
carries heat in copper like a real fluid, but that
in iron it acts as though its specific heat were a
negative quantity, in which respect it is unlike a.
true fluid.
" We may express," says Maxwell, " both the
Peltier and the Thomson effects by stating; that
when an electric current is flowing from places of
smaller to places of greater thermo-electric power,
heat is absorbed, and when it is flowing in the
reverse direction heat is generated, and this
whether the difference of thermo-electric power
in the two places arises from a difference in the
Eff.]
185
[Ele.
nature of the metals, or from a difference of tem-
perature in the same metal."
Effect, Yoltaic A difference of
potential observed at the point of contact of
two dissimilar metals.
This difference of potential was formerly as-
cribed to the mere contact of dissimilar metals,
and is even yet believed by some to be due to
such contact. It is, however, perhaps more ac-
curately ascribed to the greater affinity of oxygen
of the air for the positive metal than for the
negative metal; that is, to a chemical action on
the positive element of a voltaic couple.
Effective Electromotive Force.— (See
Force, Electromotive, Effective)
Effective Secondary Electromotive
Force. — (See Force, Electromotive, Second-
ary, Effectived)
Effects of Capillarity on Voltaic Cells.—
(See Capillarity, Effects of, on Voltaic Cell)
Efficiency, Commercial —The useful
or available energy produced divided by the
total energy absorbed by any machine or ap-
paratus.
The Commercial Efficiency =
W _ W
M W -J- w -J- m,
when W = the useful or available energy; M =
the total energy; w, the energy absorbed by the
machine, and m, the stray power, or power lost
in friction of bearings, etc., air friction, eddy cur-
rents, etc.
Efficiency, Commercial, of Dynamo
—The useful or available electrical energy in
the external circuit, divided by the total
mechanical energy required to drive the
dynamo that produced it. (See Co-efficient,
Economic, of a Dynamo-Electric Machine)
Efficiency, Electric The useful or
available electrical energy of any source,
divided by the total electrical energy.
W
The electric efficiency
where W,
equals the useful or available electrical energy,
and w, the electrical energy absorbed by the
machine.
Efficiency of Conversion. — The ratio be-
tween the energy present in any result and
*he energy expended in producing that result.
Efficiency of Conversion of Dynamo.—
(See Conversion, Efficiency of, of Dynamo^
Efficiency of Transformer. — (See Trans-
former, Efficiency of.)
Efficiency, Quantity, of Storage Battery
The ratio of the number of ampere-
hours taken out of a storage or secondary
battery, to the number of ampere-hours put in
the battery in charging it.
Efficiency, Real, of Storage Battery
— The ratio of the number of watt-hours
taken out of a storage battery, to the number
of watt-hours put into the battery in charg-
ing it.
Efflorescence. — The drying of crystals by
losing their water of crystallization and be-
coming pulverulent or crumbling.
The term is sometimes loosely applied to
the deposition of solid matter by the crystal-
lization of a salt, above the line of the liquid,
on the surface of a vessel containing a vaporiz-
able saline solution.
The liquid, by capillarity in a porous vessel, or
by adhesion to the walls of an impervious vessel,
rises above the level of the main liquid line, and,
evaporating, deposits crystals on the vessel.
This process is technically called creeping, and
is often the cause of much annoyance in voltaic
cells.
Egg, Philosopher's A name given
to the ovoidal, or egg-shaped mass of light
that appears when a convective discharge is
taken between two electrodes in a partial
vacuum.
The philosopher's egg is but one of the shapes
assumed by the convective discharge. (See Dis-
charge, Convective.)
Elasticity, Electric— —The quotient
arising from dividing the electric stress by
the electric strain.
It can be shown mathematically that the elec-
tric elasticity is equal to 4, or 4 x 3. 1416, divided
by the specific inductive capacity.
Electrepeter. — An instrument for chang-
ing the direction of an electric current.
The old term for switch, key, or pole changtr.
(Obsolete.)
Electric. — Pertaining to electricity.
Ele.]
186
[Ele.
Electric Absorption.— (See Absorption,
Electric)
Electric Acoutemeter. — (See Acouteme-
ter, Electric)
Electric Actinometer. — (See Actinomeier,
Electric)
Electric Adhesion. — (See Adhesion, Elec-
tric)
Electric Aging of Alcohol.— (See Alco-
hol, Electric Aging of)
Electric Alarm.— (See Alarm, Electric)
Electric Alarm Speaking-Tube Mouth-
Piece. — (See Speaking-Tube Mouth-Piece,
Electric Alarm)
Electric Amalgam. — (See Amalgam,
Electric)
Electric Ammunition Hoist. — (See Hoist,
Ammunition, Electric)
Electric Analysis.— (See Analysis, Elec-
tric)
Electric Analyzer. — (See Analyzer, Elec-
tric)
Electric Anemometer. — (See Anemome-
ter, Electric)
Electric Annealing. — (See Annealing,
Electric)
Electric Annunciator Clock. — (See
Clock, Electric Annunciator)
Electric Arc.— (See Arc, Electric)
Electric Arc Blow-Pipe.— ( See Blow-
Pipe, Electric Arc)
Electric Argand Burner, Hand-Lighter
(See Burner, Argand Electric, Hand-
Lighter)
Electric Argand Burner, Plain-Pendant
— (See Bttrner, Argand Electric,
Plain-Pendant)
Electric Argand Burner, Ratchet-Pend-
ant (See Burner, Argand Electric,
Ratchet-Pendant)
Electric Balance. -(See Balance, Elec-
tric)
Electric Balloon.— (See Balloon, Elec-
tric)
Electric Battery.— (See Battery, Elec-
tric^
Electric Bell, Continuous-Sounding
— (See Bell, Continuous-Sounding Electric)
Electric Bell, Differential.— (See Bell,
Differential Electric)
Electric Bell, Mechanical.— (See Bell,
Electro-Mechanical)
Electric Bell Pull.— (See Pull, Bell, Elec-
tric)
Electric Bioscopy. — (See Bioscopy, Elec-
tric)
Electric Bi-Polar Bath.— (See Bath, Bi-
Polar)
Electric Blasting.— (See Blasting, Elec-
tric)
Electric Bleaching. — (See Bleaching,
Electric)
Electric Blow-Pipe.— (See Blow-Pipe.
Electric)
Electric Boat.— (See Boat, Electric)
Electric Bobbin.— (See Bobbin, Electric)
Electric Body-Protector.— (See Body-Pro-
tector, Electric)
Electric Boiler-Feed.— (See Boiler-Feed,
Electric)
Electric Branding. — (See Branding, Elec-
tric)
Electric Breeze. — (See Breeze, Electric)
Electric Bridge.— (See Bridge, Electric)
Electric Buoy.— (See Buoy, Electric)
Electric Burner. — (See Burner, Auto-
matic Electric)
Electric Buzzer.— (See Buzzer, Electric)
Electric Cable.— (See Cable, Electric)
Electric Calamine. — (See Calamine, Elec-
tric)
Electric Call-Bell.— (See Bell, Call)
Electric Calorimeter. — (See Calorimeter,
Electric)
Electric Candle.— (See Candle, Electric)
Electric Case-Hardening.— (See Case-
Hardening, Electric)
Electric Cauterization. — (See Cauteriza'
tion, Electric)
Electric Cauterizer. — (See Cauterizer,
Electric)
Ele.]
187
[Ele.
Electric Cautery.— (See Cautery, Elec-
tric^
Electric Charge- (See Charge, Electric?)
Electric Chimes.— (See Chimes, Electric.}
Electric Chronograph.— (See Chrono-
graph, Electric?)
Electric Chronoscope. — (See Chronoscope,
Electric?)
Electric Cigar-Lighter.— (See Lighter,
Cigar, Electric?)
Electric Circuit.— ( See Circuit, Electric,)
Electric Cleats.— (See Cleats, Electric?)
Electric Clepsydra. — (See Clepsydra, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Clock.- (See Clock, Electric?)
Electric Coil.- (See Coil, Electric?)
Electric Column.— (See Column, Elec-
tric?}
Electric Communicator. — (See Commu-
nicator, Electric?)
Electric Conducting.— (See Conducting,
Electrical?)
Electric Conduction.— (See Conduction,
Electric.}
Electric Convection of Heat.— (See Heat,
Electric Convection of?)
Electric Cord.— (See Cord, Electric?)
Electric Counter. — (See Counter, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Creeping. — (See Creeping, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Cross.— (See Cross, Electric?)
Electric Crucible.— (See Crucible, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Current.— (See Current, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Cystoscopy. — (See Cystoscopyt
Electric?)
Electric Damping.— (See Damping, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Death.— (See Death, Electric?)
Electric Decomposition. — (See Decom-
position, Electric?)
1 -Vol. 1
Electric Density.— (See Density, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Deposition.— (See Deposition,
Electric?)
Electric Determination of Longitude.—
(See Longitude, Electric Determination
of.)
Electric Displacement. — (See Displace-
ment, Electric?)
Electric Distillation.— (See Distillation,
Electric?)
Electric Door-Bell Pull.— (See Pull,
Electric Door-Bell?)
Electric Double-Refraction. — (See
Double-Refraction, Electric?)
Electric Dyeing.— (See Dyeing, Electric?)
Electric Dynamometer, Siemens'. — (See
Dynamometer, Electro?)
Electric Eel.— (See Eel, Electric?)
Electric Efficiency.— (See Efficiency, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Elasticity.— (See Elasticity, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Elevator.— (See Elevator, Elec-
tric.)
Electric Endosmose.— (See Endosmose,
Electric?)
Electric Energy. — (See Energy, Electric?)
Electric Entropy.— (See Entropy, Elec-
tric?)
Electric Escape. — (See Escape, Electric?)
Electric Etching.— (See Etching, Elec-
tro?)
Electric Evaporation.— (See Evapora-
tion, Electric?)
Electric Excitability of Nerve or Mns-
cular Fibre.— (See Excitability, Electric,
of Nerve or Muscular Fibre?)
Electric Exhaustion.— (See Exhaustion,
Electric?)
Electric Expansion.— (See Expansion,
Electric?)
Electric Exploder.— (See Exploder, Elec-
tric Mine?)
Ele.]
188
[Ele.
Electric Explorer.— (See Explorer, Elec-
tric)
Electric Field.— (See Field, Electric)
Electric Figures, Breath - —(See
Figures, Electric, Breath)
Electric Figures, Lichtenberg's —
(See Figures, Electric, Lichtenberg's)
Electric Fishes.— (See Fishes, Electric)
Electric Fly.— (See Fly, Electric)
Electric Flyer.— (See Flyer, Electric)
Electric Fog.— (See Fog, Electric)
Electric Force.— (See Force, Electric)
Electric Furnace. — (See Furnace, Elec-
tric)
Electric Fuse.— (See Fuse, Electric)
Electric Gas-Lighting.— (See Gas-Light-
ing, Electric)
Electric Gas-Lighting, Multiple —
(See Gas-Lighting, Multiple Electric)
Electric Gas-Lighting Torch.— (See
Torch, Electric Gas-Lighting)
Electric Gastroscope. — (See Gastroscope,
Electric)
Electric Gilding.— (See Gilding, Electric)
Electric Governor. — (See Governor, Elec-
tric)
Electric Hand-Lighter for Argand
Burner. — (See Burner, Argand Electric
Hand-Lighter)
Electric Head-Bath.— (See Bath, Head,
Electric)
Electric Head-Light— (See Head-Light,
Locomotive, Electric)
Electric Heat— (See Heat, Electric)
Electric Heater.— (See Heater, Electric)
Electric Horse Power. — (See Power,
Horse, Electric)
Electric Hydrotasimeter.— (See Hydro-
tasimeter, Electric)
Electric Ignition.— (See Ignition, Elec-
tric)
Electric Images.— (See Images, Electric)
Electric Incandescence. — (See Incandes-
cence, Electric)
Electric Indicator for Steamships. — (See
Indicator, Electric, for Steamships)
Electric Indicators. — (See Indicators,
Electric)
Electric Inertia,— (See Inertia, Electric)
Electric Insolation. — (See Insolation,
Electric)
Electric Installation.— (See Installation,
Electric)
Electric Insulation. — (See Insulation,
Electric)
Electric Irritability.— (See Irritability,
Electric)
Electric Jar.— (See Jar, Electric)
Electric Jewelry.— (See Jewelry, Elec-
tric)
Electric Lamp, Arc (See Lamp,
Electric, Arc)
Electric Lamp-Bracket— (See Bracket,
Lamp, Electric)
Electric Lamp, Incandescent (See
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent)
Electric Lamp, Semi-Incandescent —
— (See Lamp, Electric, Semi-Incandescent)
Electric Lamp, Socket for.— (See Socket,
Electric Lamp)
Electric Launch. — (See Launch, Elec-
tric)
Electric Letter-Box.— (See Letter-Box,
Electric)
Electric Light— (See Light, Electric)
Electric Lighting, Central Station —
— (See Station, Central)
Electric Lighting, Isolated (See
LigJtting, Electric, Isolated)
Electric Light or Power Cable.— (See
Cable, Electric Light or Power)
Electric Lock.— (See Lock, Electric)
Electric Locomotive. — (See Locomotive.
Electric)
Electric Log.— (See Log, Electric)
Electric Loom. — (See Loom, Electric)
Electric Loop.— (See Loop, Electric)
Electric Machine, Frictional — —(See
Machine, Frictional Electric)
Ele.]
189
LEle,
Electric Main.— (See Main, Electric)
Electric Masses. — (See Masses, Electric.)
Electric Measurements. — (See Measure-
ments, Electric?)
Electric Megaloscope. — (See Megalo-
scope, Electric)
Electric Meter.— (See Meter, .Electric)
Electric Mine-Exploder.— (See Mine-Ex-
ploder, Electro-Magnetic. Fuse, Electric)
Electric Motor.— (See Motor, Electric)
Electric Motor, High-Speed — —(See
Motor, Electric, High-Speed)
Electric Motor, Low-Speed — —(See
Motor, Electric, Low-Speed)
Electric Multipolar Bath - —(See
Bath, Multipolar, Electric)
Electric Musket.— (See Musket, Electric)
Electric Organ.— (See Organ, Electric)
Electric Oscillations.— (See Oscillations,
Electric)
Electric Osmose.— (See Osmose, Electric)
Electric Osteotome.— (See Osteotome,
Electric)
Electric Overtones.— (See Overtones,
Electric)
Electric Pen.— (See Pen, Electric)
Electric Pendant— (See Pendant, Elec-
tric)
Electric Pendani^Lamps.— (See Lamps,
Electric Pendant)
Electric Pendulum. — (See Pendulum,
Electric)
Electric Permeancy. — (See Permeancy,
Electric)
Electric Phosphorescence. — (See Phos-
phorescence, Electric)
Electric Photometer.— (See Photometer)
Electric Piano.— (See Piano, Electric)
Electric Plow.— (See Plow, Electric)
Electric Position-Finder.— (See Finder,
Position, Electric)
Electric Potential.— (See Potential, Elec-
tric)
Electric Power. — (See Power, Electric.}
Electric Probe.— (See Probe, Electric)
Electric Prostration. — (See Prostration,
Electric.}
Electric Protection.— (See Protection,
Electric, of Houses, Ships and Buildings.}
Electric Protection of Metals.— (See
Metals, Electrical Protection of)
Electric Pulse.— (See Pulse, Electrical)
Electric Pyrometer, Siemens'.— (See
Pyrometer, Siemens ' , Electric)
Electric Radiometer, Crookes' —
(See Radiometer, Electric, Crookes')
Electric Range-Finder.— (See Finder,
Range, Electric)
Electric Ratchet-Pendant for Argand
Burner. — (See Burner, Argand Electric,
Ratchet-Pendant)
Electric Bay. — (See Ray, Electric)-
Electric Reaction Wheel.— (See Wheel,
Reaction, Electric)
Electric Rectification of AlcohoL— (Sec
Alcohol, Electric Rectification of)
Electric Refining of Metals.— (See Metals,
Electric Refining of.)
Electric Register, Watchman's —
(See Register, Watchman's Electric)
Electric Registering Apparatus.— (See
Apparatus, Registering, Electric)
Electric Relay-Bell.— (See Bell. Relay,
Electric)
Electric Repulsion. — (See Repulsion,
Electric)
Electric Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Electric)
Electric Resonance. — (See Resonance,
Electric)
Electric Retardation.— (See Retardation,
Electric.}
Electric Rings.— (See Rings, Electric)
Electric Safety Lamps.— (See Lamp,
Electric Safety.}
Electric Saw.— (See Saw, Electric)
Ele.]
190
[Ele.
Electric Seismograph.— (See Seismo-
graph, Electric.}
Electric Shadow. — (See Shadow, Elec-
tric}
Electric Shock.— (See Shock, Electric}
Electric Shower Bath.— (See Bath,
Shower Electric}
Electric Shunt Bell.— (See Bell, Shunt,
Electric}
Electric Single-Stroke Bell.— (See Bell,
Single-Stroke Electric}
Electric Siphon.— (See Siphon, Electric}
Electric Soldering.— (See Soldering,
Electric}
Electric Sphygmograph.— (See Sphygmo-
graph, Electrical}
Electric Sterilization.— (See Steriliza-
tion, Electric}
Electric Storm.— (See Storm, Electric}
Electric Striw.— (See Stria, Electric}
Electric Submarine Boat. — (See Boat,
Submarine, Electric}
Electric Sunstroke.— (See Sunstroke,
Electric}
Electric Snrgings. — (See Surgings, Elec-
tric}
Electric Swaging.— (See Swaging, Elec-
tric}
Electric Tanning.— (See Tanning, Elec-
tric.}
Electric Target— (See Target, Electric}
Electric Teazer.— (See Teazer, Electric
Current}
Electric Telehydrobarometer.— (See 7V/-
ehydrobarometer, Electric}
Electric Tell-Tale Signal.— (See Signal,
Electric Tell-Tale}
Electric Tempering. — (See Tempering,
Electric.}
Electric Tension. — (See Tension, Elec-
tric}
Electric Thermo-Call.— (See Thermo-
Call, Electric}
Electric Thermometer. — (See Thermom-
eter, Electric}
Electric Throwback-Indicator.— ( See
Indicator. Electrical Throwback}
Electric Time-Ball.— (See Ball, Electric
Time}
Electric Time-Meter. — (See Meter. Elec-
tric Time}
Electric Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Elec-
tric}
Electric Tower. — (See Tower, Electric}
Electric Tramway. — (See Tramway, Elec-
tric}
Electric Transmitters.— (See Transmit-
ter, Electric}
Electric Trumpet— (See Trumpet, Elec-
tric}
Electric Turn-Table. — (See Turn-Table,
Electric}
Electric Typewriter. — (See Typewriter,
Electric}
Electric Valve.— (See Valve, Electric}
Electric Valve Burner, Argand —
(See Valve Burner, Argand Electric}
Electric Varnish.— (See Varnish, Elec-
tric}
Electric Vibrating Burner.— (See Burner
Vibrating, Electric}
Electric Volatilization.— (See Volatiliza-
tion, Electric}
Electric Water or Liquid Level Alarm.—
(See Alarm, Water or Liquid Level}
Electric Welding.— (See Welding, Elec-
tric}
Electric Whirl.-(See Whirl, Electric}
Electric Whistle, Automatic Steam —
— (See Whistle, Steam, Automatic Elec-
tric)
Electric Wood Mouldings.— (See Mould-
ings, Electric Wood}
Electric Work.— (See Work, Electric)
Electrical Controlling Clock.— (See
Clock, Electrical Controlling)
Electrically. — In an electrical manner.
Electrically Controlled Clock. — (See
Clock, Electrically Controlled)
191
[Ele.
Electrically Discharge, To (See
Discharge, To Electrically?)
Electrically Discharging. — (See £>t's-
charging, Electrically?)
Electrically Energizing. — (See Energiz-
ing, Electrically?)
Electrically Operated Alarm.— -(See
Alarm, Electrically Operated?)
Electrically Retarding.— (See Retard-
ing, Electrically?)
Electrician. — One versed in the principles
and applications of electrical science.
Electrician, Electro-Therapeutical
—A medical electrician.
Electrician, Medical One skilled
in the application of electricity to the human
body for diagnosis or curative purposes.
A medicai electrician should possess a full
knowledge, not only of the principles and appli-
cations of electric science, but also of physics and
chemistry and of the medical sciences.
Electricity. — The name given to the un-
known thing, matter or force, or both, which
is the cause of electric phenomena.
Electricity, no matter how produced, is oe-
lieved to be one and the same thing.
The terttuJriftioHaf-elfetrieity, pyro-electricity,
magneto -electricity ', -voltaic or galvanic electricity •,
thermo-electricity, contact-electricity, animal or
vegetable-electricity, etc., etc., though convenient
for distinguishing LLeir origin, have no longer
the significance formerly attributed to them as
representing different kinds of the electric force.
(See Electricity, Single-Fluid Hypothesis of.)
Electricity, Accumulated — Elec-
tricity collected in or by means of accumula-
tors.
Electricity, Accumulating —Ob-
taining successively increasing electrical
charges. (See Electricity, Accumulation of.)
Electricity, Accumulation of A
general term applied indifferently to —
(l.) The gradual collecting of electric
energy in a Leyden jar or condenser.
(2.) The increase of an electric charge by
the action of various devices called accumu-
lators.
(3.) The production of a charge by the use
of machines called influence machines.
(4.) The collection of electric energy in the
so-called storage batteries or accumulators.
Electricity, Animal —Electricity
produced during life in the bodies of animals.
All animals produce electricity during life. In
some, such as the electric eel or torpedo, the
amount is comparatively large. In others, it is
small.
Some of these animals, when of full size, are able
to give very severe shocks, and use this curious
power as a means of defense against their enemies.
If the spinal cord of a recently killed frog be
brought into contact with the muscles of the
thigh, a contraction will ensue. — (Matteucci.)
The nerve and muscle of a frog, connected
by a water contact with a sufficiently delicate
galvanometer, show the presence of a current
that may last several hours. Du Bois-Reymond
showed that the ends of a section of muscular
fibres art negative, and their sides positive, and
has obtained a current by suitably connecting
them.
In the opinion of some electro-therapeutists no
electric current exists in passive, normal nerve or
muscular tissue. In an injured tissue a current,
called a demarcation current, is produced. (See
Current, Demarcation.)
All muscular contractions, however, apparently
produce electric currents.
In electro-therapeutics, it is probable that
greater success would accrue in practice if the
human body were regarded as an electric source
as well as an electro-receptive device.
Electricity, Atmospheric The free
electricity almost always present in the atmos-
phere.
The following facts have been discovered con-
cerning atmospheric electricity, viz. :
(i.) The free electricity of the atmosphere is
generally positive, but often changes to negative
on the approach of fogs and clouds.
(2.) It exists in greater quantity in the higher
regions of the air than near the earth's surface.
(3.) It is stronger when the air is still than
when the wind is blowing.
(4.) It is subject to yearly and daily changes
in its intensity, being stronger in winter than in
summer, and at the middle of the day than eithex
at the beginning or the close.
iws
[£l<s
Electricity, Atmospheric, Origin of
—The exact cause of the free electricity of
the atmosphere is unknown.
Peltier ascribes the cause of the free electricity
,>f the atmosphere to a negatively excited earth,
which charges the atmosphere by induction. (See
Induction, Electrostatic.) Free atmospheric elec-
tricity has also been ascribed to the evaporation
of water; to the condensation of vapor; to the
friction of the wind; to the 'motion ot terrestrial
objects through the earth's magneiic field; to in-
duction from the sun and other heavenly bodies;
to differences of temperature; to combustion, and
to gradual oxidation of plant and animal life. It
is possible that all these causes may have some
effect in producing the free electricity of the at-
mosphere.
Whatever is the cause of the free electricity of the
atmosphere, there can be but little doubt that it
is to the condensation of aqueous vapor that the.
high di/erence of potential of the lightning flash
is due. (See Potential, Difference of. ) As the
clouds move through the air they collect the free
electricity on the surfaces of the minute drops of
water of which they are composed, and when
many thousands of these subsequently collect in
larger drops the difference of potential is enor-
mously increased in consequence of the equally
enormous decrease in the surface of any single
drop over the sum of the surfaces of the drops
that have coalesced to form it.
Electricity, Atom of A quantity
of electricity equal in amount to that pos-
sessed by any chemical monad atom.
Professor Lodge points out the fact that the
charge of a monad atom of any element is the
smallest charge a body can possess, and i> possibly
as indivisible as the atom itself. He points out ihe
fact that chemical affinity or atomic attraction may
bedue to the electrical attraction of atoms contain-
ing unlike charges; that although the difference of
potential between the atoms is small, probably
somewhere between I and 3 volts, the distances
separating them are so very small that their
mutual attractive force must be almost infinitely
great.
As D'Auria has pointed out, if the centres of at-
traction of the atoms be the centres of the
atoms themselves, then the atoms, if approached
to actual contact, would be separated fom one
another by a distance equal to half the sum of
their diameters. If, however, the centre of at-
traction be situated at any point on the surface of
the atoms the distance of separation would be-
come equal to zero, calling d, the distance be-
tween them, m and m1, their respective masses,
and S, a co-effecient varying with the substance,
and f, the force of mutual attraction, then :
(m m'
~6T
from which we see that the value of f i becomes
infinite when the atoms are in contact.
Electricity, Cal - —Electricity pro-
duced by changes of temperature in the core
of a transformer.
The changes of temperature in the transformer
core can produce a difference of potential in the
secondary circuit which increases the electro-
motive force induced in the secondary by the
variations in the primary. This is sometimes
called the Acheson effect. (See Effect, Achesan.}
Electricity, Conservation of A
term proposed by Lippman to express the
fact that when a body receives an electric
charge in the open air, the earth and heavenly
bodies receive an equal and opposite charge,
thus preserving the sum of the total positive
and negative electricities in the universe.
Electricity, Contact - —Electricity
produced by the mere contact of dissimilar
metals.
The mere contact of two dissimilar metals re-
sults in the production of opposite electrical
charges on their opposed surfaces, or in a differ-
ence of electric potential between these surfaces.
The cause of this difference of potential is now
very generally ascribed to the voltaic couple being
surrounded by the atmosphere, the oxygen of
which acts more energetically on the positive
element than it does on the negative element.
The mere contact of dissimilar metals cannot
produce a constant electric current. An electric
current possesses kinetic energy. To produce a
constant electri<" current, therefore, energy must
be expended.
The voltaic pile through the contact of dis-
similar metals produces a difference of potential,
yet the cause of the current is to be found in
chemical action. (See Cell, Voltaic.}
Electricity, Disgnised - —Dissimu-
lated electricity. (See Electricity, Dissimu-
lated or Latent?)
193
Electricity, Dissimulated or Latent --
— The condition of an electric charge when
placed near an opposite charge, as in a Leyden
jar or condenser.
In this case, merely touching one of the
charged surfaces will not effect its complete dis>
charge.
Electricity in the condition of a bound charge
was formerly called latent electricity. This term
is now in disuse. Such a charge io r.ow called a
bound charge. (See Charge, Bound. Chargt,
Free.)
Electricity, Distribution of — - —Va-
rious combinations of electric sources, circuits
and electro-receptive devices whereby elec-
tricity generated by the sources iS carried or
distributed to more or less distant electro-
receptive devices by means of the various cir-
cuits connected therewith.
A number of different systems for the distribu-
tion of electricity exist. Among the most import-
ant are the following, viz. :
(i.) Direct or continuous-current distribution.
(2.) Alternating-current distribution.
(3.) Storage battery or secondary distribution.
(4. ) Distribution by means of condensers.
(5.) Distribution by means of motor-gener-
ators.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Alterna-
ting Currents -- A system of electric
distribution by the use of alternating currents.
A system of electric distribution in which
lamps, motors, or other electro-receptive de-
vices are operated by means of alternating
currents that are sent over the line, but which,
before passing through said devices, are modi-
fied by apparatus called transformers or con-
verters.
Such a system embraces :
(I.) An alternating-current dynamo-electric
machine or battery of machines. v
(2.) A conductor or line wire arranged in a
metallic circuit.
(3.) A number of converters or transformers
whose primary coils are placed in the circuit of
the line wire.
(4. ) A number of electro-receptive devices
placed in the circuit of the secondary coil of the
converter. (See Transformer.)
Electricity, Distribution of, by Alterna-
ting- Currents by Means of Condensers
— A system of alternate current distribution
in which condensers are employed to trans-
form current of high potential received from
an alternating current dynamo to currents
of low potential which are fed to <he lamps or
other electro-receptive devices.
In the system of McElroy the conversion from
high to low potential is obtained by making the
primary plates of the condensers charged by
the dynamo smaller than the secondary plates,
the ratio of the area of the primary plates to that
of the secondary plates being made in accordance
with the ratio of conversion desired.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Commuta-
ting- Transformers A system of elec-
trical distribution in which motor-generators
are used, but neither the armature nor the
field magnets are revolved, a special commu-
tator being employed to change the polarity
of the magnetic circuits.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Constant
Currents A system for the distribution
of electricity by means of direct, /. e., con-
tinuous, steady or non-alternating currents,
as distinguished from alternating currents.
Distribution by means of direct currents may
be effected in ?, number of ways ; the most im-
portant are:
(I.) Distribution with constant current or
series - distribution .
(2.) Distribution with constant potential or
multip le- distribution.
Strictly speaking, these, as, indeed, all systems,
are systems for the distribution of electric energy
rather than the distribution of electricity.
In a system of series-distribution, the electro-
receptive devices are placed in the main line in
series, so that the electric current passes succes-
sively through each of them. In such a system
each device added increases the total resistance of
the circuit so that the .total resistance is equal to
the sum of the separate resistances on the line.
In order, therefore, to maintain the current
strength constant, independent of the number of
devices added to or removed from the circuit, the
electromotive force of the source must increase
with each electro-receptive device added, and de-
crease with each electro-receptive device taken
Ele.]
194
[Ele.
Out- If the number of electro-receptive devices
be great, such a circuit is necessarily character-
ized by a comparatively high electromotive force.
Since the current passes successively through
all the electro-receptive devices, an automatic
safety device is necessary in order to automatically
provide a short circuit of comparatively low resist-
ance past a faulty device, and thus prevent a
single faulty device from invalidating the action
of all other devices in the circuit
Arc lamps are usually connected to the line
circuit in series.
]na.sysi&motmultiple-distribution, the electro-
deceptive devices are connected to the main line
or leads in multiple-arc, or parallel, so that each
device added decreases the resistance of the circuit.
In order, therefore, to maintain a proper current
through the electro-receptive devices, the mains
must be kept at a nearly constant difference of
potential. The electro-receptive devices employed
in such a system of distribution are generally of
high electric resistance, so that the introduction or
removal of a few of the electro-receptive devices
will not materially alter the resistance of the whole
circuit, and will not, therefore, materially affect
the remaining lights.
In this system automatic safety devices, opera-
ting by the fusion of a readily melted alloy or
metal, are provided for the purpose of preventing
too powerful currents from passing through any
branch connected with the main conductors or
leads. (See /%<£-, Fusible.)
Incandescent lamps are generally connected
with the main conductors or leads in parallel or
multiple-arc.
Distribution of incandescent lamps by series
connections is sometimes employed. Such lamps
are usually of comparatively low resistance, and
are provided each with an automatic cut-out,
which establishes a short circuit past the lamp on
its failure to properly operate.
During the passage of an electric current
through any series-distribution circuit, energy is
expended in different portions of the circuit, in
proportion to the resistance of these parts. In
any system, economy of distribution necessitates
that the energy expended in the electro-receptive
devices must bear as large a proportion as prac-
ticable to the energy expended in the source and
leads. In series-distribution, this can readily be
accomplished even if the resistance of the leads is
comparatively high, since the total resistance of
the circuit increases with every electro-receptive
device added. Comparatively thin wires can
therefore be employed for a very considerable
extent of territory covered, without very great
loss.
In systems of multiple-distribution, however,
this is impossible ; for, since every electro-recep ,
tive device added decreases the total resistance of
the circuit, unless the resistance of the leads is
correspondingly decreased the economy becomes
smaller, unless the resistance of the leads was orig<=
inally so low as to be inappreciable when com-
pared with the change of resistance.
In systems of distribution by alternating cur-
rents this is avoided by passing a current of but
small strength and considerable difference of
potential over a line connecting distant points,
and converting this current in to a current of large
strength and small difference of potential at the
places where it is required for use.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Contin-
uous Current, by Means of Condensers
A system of distribution devised by
Doubrava, in which a continuous current is
conducted to certain points in the line where
a device called a " disjunctor " is employed, to
reverse it periodically, and the reversed cur-
rents so obtained directly used to charge con-
densers in the circuit of which induction coils
are used.
This method of distribution is a variety of dis-
tribution by means of constant currents.
The condensers are used to feed incandescent
lamps or other electro-receptive devices.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Continu-
ous Current, by Means of Transformers
— A system for the transmission of elec-
tric energy by means of continuous or direct
currents that are sent over the line to suitably
located stations where motor-dynamos are
used for transformers.
The dynamo armature is used with two sepa
rate circuits, one of a short and coarse wire, and
one of a long fine wire. This construction will
permit the conversion of a high to a low potential
or vice versa; or two separate dynamos can be
placed on the same shaft and one used as the
motor.
It is evident that a motor generator can be con-
structed to convert continuous currents into alter-
nate, or alternate currents into continuous cur
Ele.]
195
[Ele.
rents. In this last case the armature and fixed
circuits must be kept separate.
Another form of continuous current conversion
is effected by means of the motion of a commutator
which effects a rotation of magnetic polarity in a
double- wound armature of fine and coarse wire.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Motor
Generators A system of electric dis-
tribution in which a continuous current of
high potential, distributed over a main line, is
employed at the points where its electric en-
ergy is to be utilized for driving a motor,
which in turn drives a dynamo, the current of
which is used to energize the electro-recep-
tive devices.
This method of distribution is a variety of dis-
tribution by means of continuous or direct cur-
rents.
In another system of distribution by means of
motor generators, the motor and dynamo are
combined in one with a double-wound armature,
the fine wire coils in which receive the high po-
tential driving current and the coarse wire coils
furnish the low potential current used in the dis-
tribution circuits.
Electricity, Double Fluid Hypothesis of
A hypothesis which endeavors to ex-
plain the causes of electric phenomena by the
assumption of the existence of two different
electric fluids.
The double fluid hypothesis assumes:
(i.) That the phenomena of electricity are due
to two tenuous and imponderable fluids, the posi-
tive and the negative.
(2.) That the particles of the positive fluid repel
one another, as do also the particles of the nega-
tive fluid ; but that the particles of positive fluid
attract the particles of the negative and vice versa.
(3.) That the two fluids are strongly attracted
by matter, and when present in it produce elec-
trification.
(4.) That the two fluids attract one another and
unite, thus masking the properties of each.
(5.) That the act of friction separates these
fluids, one going to the rubber and the other to
the thing rubbed.
Professor Lodge is disposed to favor the double
rather than the single fluid hypothesis. He states
in support of this belief the following facts, viz.:
(I.) An electric wind or breeze is produced
both at the positive and negative terminals of an
electrical machine, and this whether the point be
attached directly to these terminals, or whether
it be held in the hand of a person near them.
(2.) The well known peculiarities connected
with the spark discharge, seen in Wheatstone's
experiments on the velocity of electricity.
(3.) An electrostatic strain scarcely affects the
volume of the dielectric, thus suggesting or show-
ing a distorting stress, which alters the shape of
the substance of the dielectric, but not its size.
(4.) The effects of electrolysis in what he as-
sumes the double procession of the atoms past
each other in opposite directions.
(5.) The phenomena of self-induction, or the
behavior of a thick wire on an alternating current.
(6.) The apparent absence of momentum in the
electric current, or moment of inertia in an elec-
tro-magnet so far as tested.
Electricity, Dynamic A term some-
times employed for current electricity in con-
tradistinction to static electricity.
Electricity, Franklinic —A term
sometimes employed in electro-therapeutics,
for the electricity produced by a factional
or an electrostatic-induction machine. (See
Current, Franklinic!)
Electricity, Frictional Electricity
produced by friction.
This term as formerly employed to indicate
static charges as distinguished from currents, is
gradually falling into disuse, and the frictional
electric machines are being generally replaced by
continuous-induction machines, like those of
Holtz, TOpler-Holtz, or Wimshurst.
The character of the charge produced by fric-
tion depends on the nature of the rubber as well
as on that of the thing rubbed.
In the following table the substances are so ar-
ranged that any one in the list becomes positively
electrified when rubbed by any which follows it:
Positive.
Cat's fur.
Polished glass.
Wool.
Cork at ordinary temperatures.
Coarse brown paper.
Cork heated.
White silk.
Black silk.
Shellac.
Rough glass. — (Forbes.")
Ele.]
196
[Ele.
Negative.
It will be seen that the character of the charge
produced by friction depends on the character of
the surfaces rubbed. This is seen from the fore-
going table, where—
(i.) The roughness of the surface, as in the
case of glass, produces a difference in the nature of
the charge; thus, rough glass is at the bottom of
the table, and smooth, polished glass near the top.
(2.) The state of the surface as shown by the
color. Black silk rubbed with white silk is nega-
tive to it.
(3.) The state of the surface, as varied by the
temperature. Hot cork receives a negative charge
when rubbed against a piece of cold cork.
Forbes has pointed out that these differences
are probably due to the change produced in the
ability of the surface to radiate heat or light. A
substance or body which radiates the most light
or heat is negative. Thus, a hot body radiates
more heat than a cold body, and is negative to it.
A rough surface is negative to a smooth surface
because it radiates more heat than a smooth sur-
face. For the same reason a black surface is neg-
ative to a white surface. In this latter case, how-
ever, the black surface is the worse radiator of
light.
The contact of dissimilar substances has long
been considered by some as one of the requisites
for the ready production of electricity by friction.
In fact, the production of electricity by friction
has been ascribed as an effect due to a true contact
force at the points of junction of the rubber and
the thing rubbed. Others, however, deny the
existence of a true contact force of this nature.
(See Force, Contact.)
Electricity, Galvanic A term used
by some in place of voltaic electricity. (See
Electricity, Voltaic)
The use of the term galvanic electricity would
appear to be less logical than the word voltaic,
since Volta, and not Galvani, was the first to find
out the true origin of the difference of potential
produced in the voltaic pile.
Electricity, Hertz's Theory of Electro-
Magnetic Radiations or Waves A
theory, now generally accepted, which regards
light as one of the effects of electro-magnetic
pulsations or waves.
The recent brilliant researches of Dr. Hertz, of
Carlsruhe, show that when an impulsive discharge
is passing through a conductor, ether waves are
radiated or propagated in all directions in the
space surrounding the conductor, and that these
waves are in all respects similar to those of light,
except that they are much longer.
The electro-magnetic waves are set up in the
luminiferous ether, and move through it wuh the
same velocity as that of light. Moreover, electro-
magnetic waves possess the same powers of reflec-
tion, refraction, interference, resonance, etc., etc.,
as are possessed by waves of light. (See Resona-
tor, Electric.}
When an alternating or simple faradic current
or pulse of electricity is transmitted from one end
to the other of a long metallic conductor, the
pulses are believed to travel through the universal
ether surrounding the conductor rather than
through the conductor itself. The velocity of this
propagation in free ether is the same as that of
light, and, indeed, is identical with that of light
itself. In the inter-atomic or inter-molecular
ether, whether of conductors, or of dielectrics, the
velocity of propagation varies with the nature of
the medium.
The waves produced by electric pulses are of
much greater length than those of light.
According to Lodge a condenser of the capacity
of a micro-farad, if discharged through a coil hav-
ing the self-induction of I ohm, will give rise
to waves in the ether 1,200 miles in length, and
will possess a rate of oscillation equal to about 157
complete wave-lengths per second.
A common pint Ley den jar discharged through
an ordinary discharging rod, will produce a se-
ries of waves about 15 to 20 metres in length,
and will possess a rate of oscillation equal to about
ten million per second.
Lodge calculates that in order to obtain the short
waves requisite to influence the retina of the eye,
and thus produce light, the circuit in which the
electrical oscillations take place must have at least
atomic dimensions, and that the phenomena of
light may therefore be due to local oscillations or
surgings in circuits of atomic dimensions. (See
Light, MaxwclPs Electro-Magnetic Theory of.)
Electricity, Latent A term for-
merly applied to bound electricity.
Electricity, Magneto — —Electricity
produced by the motion of magnets past con-
ductors, or of conductors past magnets.
Electricity produced by magneto-electric
197
[Ele.
induction, (See Induction, Electro-Dyna-
Electricity, Multiple-Distribution of, by
Constant Potential Circuit Any
system for the distribution of continuous cur-
rents of electricity in which the electro-
receptive devices are connected to the leads
in multiple-arc or parallel. (See Electricity,
Distribution of, by Constant Currents?)
Electricity, Natural TJnit of A
term sometimes used in place of an atom of
electricity.
The natural unit of electricity is an amount
equal to the charge possessed by any monad atom
of a chemical element.
The natural unit of electricity is equal to the
hundred thousand millionth of the ordinary
electrostatic unit, or less than a hundred tril-
lionth of a coulomb. (See Electricity, Atom of.)
Electricity, Negative One of the
phases of electrical excitement.
The kind of electric charge produced on
sesin when rubbed with cotton.
Electricity, Photo Electrical dif-
ferences of potential produced by the action
of light
Electricity, Plant Electricity pro-
duced in plants during their growth.
Electricity, Positive One of the
phases or electric excitement.
The kind of electric charge produced on
cotton when rubbed against resin.
Electricity, Production of, by Light
— The production of electric differences of
potential by the action of light.
Hallwachs nas noticed that a clean metallic
plate oecomes electrified when light falls upon it.
Differences of potential are produced in a
selenium cell when its electrodes are unequally
illumined. A thermo cell is an illustration of a
difference of potential produced by non-luminous
radiation.
Electricity, Pyro Electricity de-
veloped in certain crystalline bodies by un-
equally heating or cooling them.
Tourmaline, in the crystalline state, possesses
Biis property in a marked degree. When a
crystal of tourmaline is heated or cooled, it
acquires opposite electrifications at opposite
ends or poles.
In the crystal of tourmaline shown in Fig. 227,
the end A, called the analogous pole, acquires a
positive electrification,
and the end B, called the
antilogous pole, a nega-
tive electrification, while
the temperature of the
crystal is rising. While
cooling, the opposite
electrifications are pro-
duced.
A heated crystal of
tourmaline, suspended by
a fibre, is attracted or
repelled by an electrified
body or by a second
heated tourmaline, in the F'f- *27- Pyro Electric
same manner as an elec- Crystal.
trifled body.
Many crystalline bodies possess similar prop-
erties. Amnng these are the ore of zinc known
as electric calamine or the silicate of zinc, b ra-
cite, quartz, tartrate of potash, sulphate of
quinine, etc.
Electricity, Radiation of The
radiation of electric energy by means of elec-
tro-magnetic waves. (See Electricity, Hertz's
Theory of Electro-Magnetic Radiations or
Waves.)
Electricity, Resinous A term
formerly employed in place of negative elec-
tricity.
It was at one time believed that all reii.ious
substances are negatively electrified by frict 0:1.
This we now know to be untrue, the nature of
electrification depending as much on the char-
acter of the rubber as on the character of the
thing rubbed. Thus resins rubbed with cotto:i,
flannel or silk, become negatively excited, but w' rn
rubbed with sulphur or gun cotton, positively
excited. The teims positive and negative are
now exclusively employed.
Electricity, Series Distribution of, by
Constant Current Circuit Any sys-
tem for the distribution of constant currents
of electricity in which the electro-receptive
devices are connected to the line-wire or
circuit in series. (See Electricity, Distribu-
tion of, by Constant Currents?)
file.]
198
[Elc.
Electricity, Single-Fluid Hypothesis of
A hypothesis which endeavors to ex-
plain the cause of electrical phenomena by
the assumption of the existence of a single
electric fluid.
The single-fluid hypothesis assumes:
(i.) That the phenomena of electricity are due
to the presence of a single, tenuous, imponder-
able fluid.
(2.) That the particles of this fluid mutually
repel one another, but are attracted by all matter.
(3.) That every substance possesses a definite
capacity for holding the assumed electric fluid,
and, that when this capacity is just satisfied no
effects of electrification are manifest.
(4.) That when the body has less than this
quantity present, it becomes negatively excited,
and when it has more, positively excited.
(5.) That the act of friction causes a redistribu-
tion of the fluid, part of it going to one of
the bodies, giving it a surplus, thus positively
electrifying it, and leaving the other with a
deficit, thus negatively electrifying it.
The single-fluid hypothesis has been provis-
ionally accepted by some with this modification,
that a negatively excited body is thought to be
the one which contains the excess of the assumed
fluid, and a positively excited body the one which
contains the deficit.
They make this change on account of the
phenomena observed in Crookes' tube, where
the molecules of the residual gas are observed to
be thrown oft" from the negative and not from the
positive terminal. (See Tube, Crookes\)
Another view considers electricity to be due to
differences of ether pressure, electricity being the
ether itself, and electromotive force, the differences
of ether pressures. Positive electrification is as-
sumed to result from a surplusage of energy, and
negative electrification from a deficit of energy.
At the present time the views of Hertz are
generally accepted. (See Electricity, Hertz's
Theory of Electro-Magnetic Radiations or Waves.}
Electricity, Specific Heat of A
term proposed by Sir William Thomson to
indicate the analogies existing between the
absorption and emission of heat in purely
thermal phenomena, and the absorption and
emission of heat in thermo-electric phe-
nomena. (See Heat, Specific)
As we have already seen heat is either given
out or absorbed, when an electric current passes
from one metal to another across a junction be-
tween them. (See Effect, Peltier.}
So, too, when electricity passes through an un-
equally heated wire, the current tends to increase
or decrease the differences of temperature, ac-
cording to the direction in which it flows, and
according to the character of the metal. (See
Effect, Thomson.')
" If electricity were a fluid," says Maxwell,
"running through the conductor as water does
through a tube, and always giving out or ab-
sorbing heat till its temperature is that of the
conductor, then in passing from hot to cold it
would give out heat, and in passing from cold to
hot it would absorb heat, and the amount of this
heat would depend on the specific heat of the
fluid."
Electricity, Static A term applied
to electricity produced by friction.
The term static electricity is properly em-
ployed in the sense of a static charge but not as
static electricity, since that would indicate a par-
ticular kind of electricity, and, as is now gen-
erally recognized, electricity, from no matter
what source it is derived, is one and the same
thing.
Electricity, Storage of A term
improperly employed to indicate such a
storage of energy as will enable it to directly
reproduce electric energy.
A so-called storage battery does not store elec-
tricity, any more than the spring of a clock can
be said to store time or sound. The spring stores
muscular energy, i. e., renders the muscular
kinetic energy potential, which, again becoming
kinetic, causes the works of the clock to move
or strike.
In the same way in a so-called storage battery,
the energy of an electric current is caused to
produce electrolytic decompositions of such a
nature as independently to produce a current on
the removal of the electrolyzing current. (See
Cell, Secondary. Cell, Storage.)
Electricity, Thermo Electricity
produced by differences of temperature at the
junctions of dissimilar metals.
If a bar of antimony is soldered to a bar of bis-
muth, and the free ends of the two metals art-
connected by means of a galvanometer, an appli-
cation of heat to the junction, so as to raise its
Ele.j
199
temperature above the rest of the circuit, will pro-
duce a difference of potential, which, if neutral-
ized, will cause a current to flow across the junc-
tion from the bismuth to the antimony (against
the alphabet, or from B to A). If the junction be
cooled below the rest of the circuit, a current is
produced across the junction from the antimony
to the bismuth (with the alphabet, or from A to B).
These currents are called thermo-electric currents,
and are proportional to the differences of tem-
perature.
Even the same metal, in different physical
states or conditions, such as a wire, part of which
is straight and the remainder bent into a spiral as
at H C, Fig. 228, if heated at F by the flame of
Fig. 228. Thermo- Electricity.
a lamp will have a difference of potential devel-
oped in it.
The same thing may also be shown by placing
a Cylinder of bismuth J, Fig. 229, in a gap in a
A
Fig. 229. Thermo-Electric Circuit.
hollow rectangle of copper A B, inside of which
a magnetic needle, M, is supported.
The rectangle of copper being placed in the
magnetic meridian, on heating the junction by the
flame of a lamp F, the needle will be deflected
by a current produced by the difference of tem-
perature.
Thermo-electricity is generally obtained by
means of the combination of a thermo-electric
couple, in a thermo-electric cell. (See Couple,
Thermo -Electric. Cell, Thermo- Electric.)
Since the difference of potential produced by
a single thermo-electric couple is small, a number
of such couples or cells are generally connected in
[Ele,
(See
series to produce a thermo-electric battery.
Battery ', Thermo-Eleclric.)
Electricity, Unit Quantity of
The quantity of electricity conveyed by unit
current per second.
The practical unit quantity of electricity is the
coulomb, which is the quantity conveyed by a
current of one ampere in one second.
Electricity, Unit Quantity of, Natural
The quantity of electricity pos-
sessed as a charge by any elementary monad
atom. (See Electricity, Atom of.)
Electricity, Tarieties of A classi-
fication of electricity according to its state of
rest or motion, or to the peculiarities of its
motion.
Lodge classifies the different varieties of elec-
tricity as follows, viz. :
(I.) Electricity at Rest, or Static Electricity.
This branch of electric science treats of phenom-
ena belonging to stresses and strains in inflated
media, when brought into the neighborhood of
electric charges, together with the modes ot ex-
citing such electric charges, and the laws of their
interactions.
(2.) Electricity in Locomotion, or Current Elec-
tricity.
This branch of electric science treats of the phe-
nomena produced in metallic conductors, chem-
ical compounds and dielectric media, by the pas-
sage of electricity through them, and the modes
of exciting electricity into motion, together with
the laws of its flow.
(3.) Electricity in Rotation, or Magnetism.
This branch of electric science treats of the phe-
nomena produced in electricity in whirling or
vortex motion, the manner in which such whirls
may be produced, the strains and stresses which
they produce, and the laws of their interactions.
(4.) Electricity in Vibration, or Radiation.
This branch of electric science treats of the study
of the propagation of periodic or undulatory dis-
turbances through various kinds of media, the
laws regulating wave velocity, wave length, re-
flection, interference, dispersion, polarization and
other similar phenomena generally studied under
light.
A misleading classification of electricity is
sometimes made according to the sources which
produce it. This is misleading, since electricity,
no matter how produced, is one and the same.
Ele.]
200
[Ele.
The so-called varieties of electricity may be di-
vided into different classes according to the nature
of the source. The principles of these are as fol-
lows :
(I.) Frictional-Electricity, or that produced by
the fricti >n of one substance against another.
(2.) Voltaic-Electricity, or that produced by
the contact of dissimilar substances under the in-
fluent of chemical action.
(3.) Thermo-Electricity, or that produced by
differences of temperature in a thermo couple.
(4.) Pyro-Electricity, or that produced by dif-
ferences of temperature in certain crystalline
solids.
(5.) Magneto-Electricity, or that produced by
the motion of a conductor through the field of
permanent magnets. This is a variety of —
(6.) Dynamo-Electricity, or that produced by
moving conductors so as to cut lines of magnetic
force.
(7.) Vital-Electricity, or that produced under
the influence of life or accompanying life.
Electricity, Yitreons A term for-
merly employed to indicate positive elec-
tricity.
It was formerly believed that the friction of
glass with other bodies always produces the
same kind of electricity. This, however, is now
known not to be the case.
The term is now replaced by positive elec-
tricity. (See Electricity, Resinous.)
Electricity, Voltaic Differences of
potential produced by the agency of a vol-
taic cell or battery.
Electricity is the same thing or phase of energy
by whatever source it is produced.
Electrics. — Substances capable of becom-
ing' electrified by friction.
Substances like the metals, which, when held
in thj hand cou'd not be electrified by friction
were f irmcrly ca'l^d non-electrics.
These terms were used by Gilbert in the early
history of the science.
This distinction is not now generally employed
since conducting substances if insulated, maybe
electrified by friction.
Electriftable.— Capable of being endowed
with electric properties.
Electrification.— The act of becoming
electrified.
The production of an electric charge.
Electrified Body.— (See Body, Electri-
fied)
Electrify. — To endow with electrical prop-
erties.
Electrine. — Relating to electrum, or am-
ber.
Electrization, Therapeutical —Sub-
jecting different parts of the human body to
the action of electric currents for the cure of
diseased conditions.
Electro-Biology.— (See Biology, Electro)
Electro-Brassing.— (See Brassing, Elec-
tro)
Electro-Bronzing.— (See Bronzing, Elec-
tro.)
Electro • Capillary Phenomena.— (See
Phenomena, Electro-Capillary)
Electrocesis. — A word proposed for cur-
ing by electricity.
Electro-Chemical Equivalent, — (See
Equivalent, Electro-Chemical)
Electro-Chemical Meter.— (See Meter,
Electro- Chemical)
Electro-Chemical Telephone.— (See Tele-
phone, Electro-Chemical)
Electro-Chemistry. — (See Chemistry,
Electro)
Electro-Chromic Rings.— (See Rings,
Electro-Chromic)
Electro-Contact Mine.— (See Mine, Elec-
tro-Contact)
Electro-Coppering. — (See Coppering,
Electro)
Electro-Crystallizal ion.— (See Crystalli-
zation, Electro)
Electrocution. — Capital punishment by
means of electricity.
Electrode. — Either of the terminals of an
electric source.
The term was applied by Faraday to cither of
the conductors placed in an electrolytic bath and
conveying the current into it, and this is its strict
meaning. The terms pole or terminal apply to
the ends of a break in any electric circuit.
Electrode, Aural — — A therapeutic
electrode, shaped for the treatment of the
Ele.]
201
[Ele.
ear. (See Electrode, Electro-Thera-
peutic^)
Electrode, Brush A therapeutic
electrode fashioned like a wire brush or other
conducting brush. (See Electrode, Electro-
Therapeutic^]
Electrode, Cautery-Knife — —A knife-
shaped electrode, that is rendered incan-
descent by the passage of the electric cur-
rent.
Electrode, Clay A therapeutic elec-
trode of clay shaped to fit the part of the
body to be treated. (See Electrode, Electro-
Therapeutic.}
Electrode, Disc A disc-shaped elec-
trode employed in electro-therapeutics. (See
Electrode, Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electrode, Dry A therapeutic elec-
trode applied in a dry state. (See Electrode,
Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electrode, Electro-Therapeutic —
In electro-therapeutics the electrode mainly
concerned in the treatment or diagnosis of the
diseased parts.
Either the positive or the negative electrode
may be the therapeutic electrode, and one or the
other is employed according to the particular
character of the effect it is desired to obtain.
The other electrode is placed at any convenient
and suitable part of the body, and is called the
indifferent electrode.
The therapeutic electrode is generally placed
nearer the organ or part to be treated than the
indifferent electrode.
Electrode-Handle, Pole-Changing and
Interrupting — — A handle provided for
the ready insertion of electro-therapeutic
electrodes, and provided with means for inter-
rupting or changing the direction of the cur-
rent.
Electrode, Illumined - —That elec-
trode of a selenium cell which is exposed to
the light. (See Cell, Selenium!)
Electrode, Indifferent In electro-
therapeutics the electrode that is employed
merely to complete the circuit through the
organ or part subjected to the electric cur-
rent, and is not directly concerned in the
treatment or diagnosis of the diseased parts.
Either the positive or the negative electrode
may be the indifferent electrode. (See Electrode,
Electro- Therapeutic.}
Electrode, Moist —A therapeutic-
electrode applied in a moist condition. (See
Electrode, Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electrode, Needle A therapeutic
electrode in the shape of a needle, and em-
ployed for electrolytic treatment. (See Elec-
trode, Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electrode, Negative — —The electrode
connected with the negative pole of an elec-
tric source.
Electrode, Non-Illumined - —That
electrode of a selenium cell that is protected
from the direct action of light. (See Cell, Sel-
enium!)
Electrode, Non-Wasting A term
sometimes applied to the negative electrode
of an arc-lamp when made of iridium or other
similar material.
Electrode, Positive — —The electrode
connected with the positive pole of an electric
source.
Electrode, Rectal - —A therapeutic
electrode, suitably shaped for the treatment of
the rectum. (See Elec trade, Electro-Thera-
peutic^
Electrode, Sponge — — A moistened
sponge connected to one of the terminals of
an electric source and acting as the electro-
therapeutic electrode.
Electrode, Urethral An electro-
therapeutic electrode suitably shaped for the
treatment of the urethra. (See Electrode,
Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electrode, Yaginal An electro-
therapeutic electrode suitably shaped for the
treatment of the vagina. (See Electrode,
Electro- Therapeutic!)
Electro-Deposi's.— (See Deposits, Elec-
tro^
Electrodes. — T^e terminals of an electric
source.
The positive electrode is sometimes called the
Eie.J
202
[Ele.
Anode, and the negative electrode the /Cathode.
No matter for what purposes employed, they are
generally in electro-therapeutics termed electrodes.
In precise use these terms should be restricted
to the electrodes when used for electrolytic de-
composition.
The electrodes are made of different shapes and
of different materials according to the character of
the work the current is to perform.
Electrodes, Carbon, for Arc-Lamps
Rods of artificial carbon employed in arc
lamps.
These are more properly called simply arc-
lamp carbons.
Arc-lamp carbons are moulded into the shape
of rods, from plastic mixtures of carbonaceous
materials and carbonizable liquids. On the sub-
sequent carbonization of these rods the ingredients
are caused to cohere in one solid mass by the de-
posit of carbon derived from the carbonizable
materials. (See Carbons^ Artificial.)
Carbons for arc-lamps are generally copper-
coated, so as to somewhat decrease their resist-
ance, and insure a more uniform consumption.
Arc-lamp carbons are sometimes provided with a
central core of softer carbon, which fixes the po-
sition of the arc and thus insures a steadier light.
(S& Zarbons, Cored.)
Electrodes, Cored Carbon elec-
trodes of a cylindrical shape provided with a
central cylinder of softer carbon.
The use of cored electrodes for arc lamps is
for the purpose of steadying the light by maintain-
ing the arc in a central position. This is effected
by the greater vaporization of the softer carbon
of the core.
Electrodes, Cylindrical Carbon
Carbon cylinders used for electrodes of arc-
lamps, or for battery plates.
Electrodes, Electro-Therapentic
Electrodes of various shapes employed in
electro-therapeutics.
The electro- therapeutic electrode, as distin-
guished from the indifferent electrode, is especially
shaped for the particular purpose for which it is
designed.
When the electricity is intended to affect the
skin or superficial portions of the body only, it is
applied dry, and is then generally metallic. To
reach the deeper structures, such as the muscle
or nerve trunks, moistened sponge electrodes are
employed. Before their use the skin should be
thoroughly moistened. Sponge-electrodes are
generally made conducting by a solution of some
saline substance, such as common salt.
Electrodes, Erb's Standard Size of
— Standard sizes of electrodes generally
adopted in electro-therapeutics.
The following standard sizes have been pro-
posed by Erb, viz. :
(i.) Fine electrode ^ centimetre diameter.
(2.) Small •« ....2
(3.) Medium '« 7.5 " "
(4.) Large " ....6x2 " «'
(SO Very large do. . . .8 x 16 «
Electrodes, Non-Polarizable —
Electrodes employed in electro-therapeutics,
that are so constructed as to avoid the effects
of polarization.
Non-polarizable electrodes are obtained by
employing two amalgamated zinc wires, dipped
into saturated solution of zinc chloride placed in
glass tubes, and closing the lower ends of the
tubes by a piece of potter's clay. The contact of
an electrode so prepared with the tissues of the
body does not produce a polarization.
Electro-Diagnosis.— (See Diagnosis, Elec-
tro?)
Electro-Diagnostic. — (See Diagnostic,
Electro?)
Electro-Dynamic Attraction.— (See At-
traction, Electro- Dynamic?)
Electro-Dynamic Capacity.— (See Ca-
pacity, Electro-Dynamic?)
Electro-Dynamic Induction. — (See Induc-
tion, Electro- Dynamic?)
Electro-Dynamic Repulsion. — (See Re-
pulsion, Electro-Dynamic?)
Electro-Dynamics. — (See Dynamics,
Electro?)
Electro-Dynamometer. — (See Dynamom-
eter, Electro?)
Electro-Etching.— Electric etching. (See
Etching, Electro)
Electrogenesis. — Results following the
application of electricity to the spinal cord or
nerve after the withdrawal of the electrodes.
Electro-Gilding.— (See Gilding, Electro?,
Ele.]
203
[Ele.
Electro-Kinetics.— (See Kinetics, Elec-
tro)
Electrolier. — A chandelier for holding
electric lamps, as distinguished from a chan-
delier for holding gas-lights.
Electrology. — That branch of science
which treats of electricity. (Obsolete.)
Electrolysis. — Chemical decomposition
effected by means of an electric current.
When an electric current is sent through an
electrolyte, i. e. , a liquid which permits the cur-
rent to pass only by means of the decomposition
of the liquid, the decomposition that ensues is
called electrolytic decomposition,
The electrolyte is decomposed or broken up
into atoms or groups of atoms or radicals, called
ions.
The ions are of two distinct kinds, viz. : The
electro-positive ions, or kathions, and the electro-
negative ions, or onions.
Since the anode of the source is connected with
the electro-positive terminal, it is clear that the
onions, or the electro-negative ions, must appear
at the anode, and the kathions, or electro-positive
ions, must appear at the kathode.
Hydrogen, and the metals generally, are
kathions. Oxygen, chlorine, iodine, etc., are
unions.
The vessel containing the electrolyte, in which
these decompositions take place, is sometimes
called an electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell is called a voltameter when
it is arranged for measuring the current passing
by means of the amount of decomposition it
effects. (See Voltameter.}
Electrolysis by Means of Alternating
Currents. — Electrolytic decomposition ef-
fected by means of alternating currents.
When an alternating current is passed through
dilute sulphuric acid, in a voltameter provided
with large platinum electrodes, no visible decom-
position occurs. If, however, the size of the
electrodes be decreased below a certain point,
then visible decomposition occurs.
Verdet showed that when no other break ex-
ists in the circuit of the alternating current
within the voltameter, no indications of elec-
trolysis are obtained, unless the alternating
current is very powerful. If, however, a break is
made in the secondary circuit, so that the dis-
charge has to pass as a spark, then visible signs
of electrolysis are produced by comparatively
feeble alternating currents.
When electrolysis occurs by means of alternat-
ing currents —
(I.) The gases collected at both electrodes
have the same composition.
(2.) Where the quantities of electricity that al-
ternately pass in opposite directions are unequal,
the electrodes show manifest polarization, and,
when connected by a conductor, yield a current
like a secondary battery.
(3.) The electrodes manifest no sensible polari-
zation where the quantities of electricity that al-
ternately pass in opposite directions are equal.
Electrolysis, Faraday's Laws of
The principal facts of electrolysis are given
in the following laws:
(I.) The amount of chemical action in any
given time is equal in all parts of the circuit.
(2.) The number of ions liberated in a given
time is proportional to the strength of the cur-
rent passing. Twice as great a current will
liberate twice as many ions. The current may
be regarded as being carried through the elec-
trolyte by the ions: since an ion is capable of
carrying a fixed charge only of -(-or — electri-
city, any increase in the current strength necessi-
tates an increase in the number of ions.
(3.) When the same current passes successively
through several cells containing different elec-
trolytes, the weights of the ions liberated at the
different electrodes will be equal to the strength
of the current multiplied by the electro-chemical
equivalent of the ion. (See Equivalence, Elec-
tro-Chemical, Law of.}
The chemical equivalent is proportional to the
atomic weight divided by the valency. (See
Equivalent, Chemical.}
The electro-chemical equivalent of any element
is equal to the weight in grammes of that element
set free by one coulomb of electricity, and is found
by multiplying the electro-chemical of hydrogen
by the chemical equivalent of that element. (See
Equivalent, Electro-Chemical.}
Electrolyte, Polarization of The
formation of molecular groups or chains, in
which the poles of all the molecules of any
chain are turned in the same direction, viz.:
with their positive poles facing the negative
plate, and their negative poles facing the
Ele.]
204
[Ele,
positive plate. (See Cell, Voltaic. Hypoth-
esis, Grotthus' )
Electrolytic or Electrolytical. — Pertain-
ing to electrolysis.
Electrolytic Analysis. — (See Analysts,
Electrolytic)
Electrolytic Cell.— (See Cell, Electro-
lytic, Tesla's)
Electrolytic Clock.— (See Clock, Electro-
lytic.)
Electrolytic Conduction.— (See Conduc-
tion, Electrolytic)
Electrolytic Convection.— (See Convec-
tion, Electrolytic)
Electrolytic Decomposition.— (See De-
composition, Electrolytic)
Electrolytic Hydrogen. — (See Hydrogen,
Electrolytic)
Electrolytic Writing.— (See Writing,
Electrolytic)
Electrolytically. — In an electrolytic man-
ner.
Electrolyzable. — Capable of being elec-
trolyzed, or decomposed by means of elec-
tricity.
Electrolyzed. — Separated or decomposed
by means of electricity.
Electrolyzing. — Causing or producing
electrolysis.
Electro-Magnet. — (See Magnet, Electro)
Electro-Magnetic Ammeter. — (See Am-
meter, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Annunciator. — (See
Annunciator, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Attraction.— (See At-
traction, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Bell-Call.— (See Call,
Bell, Magneto-Electric)
Electro-Magnetic Bell, Siemens' Arma-
tnre (See Bell, Electro-Magnetic,
Siemens' Armature Form)
Electro-Magnetic Brake.— (See Brake,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Cam.— (See Cam,
Electro-magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Dental-Mallet— (See
Dental-Mallet, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Drill.— (See Drill,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Engine.— (See Engine,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Exploder.— (See Ex-
ploder, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Eye.— (See Eye, Elec-
tro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Impulse. — (See Im-
pulse, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Induction. — (See In-
duction, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Medium.— (See Me-
dium, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Meter. — (See Meter,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Momentum of Sec-
ondary Circuit. — (See Momentum, Elec-
tro-Magnetic, of Secondary Circuit)
Electro-Magnetic Pop-Gun. — (See Pop-
Gun, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Radiation. —(See Ra-
diation, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Repulsion. — (See Re-
pulsion, Electro- Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Resonator. — (See Res-
onator, Electro- Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Shunt.— (See Shunt,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Solenoid.— (See Sole-
noid, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Strain.— (See Strain,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Stress. — (See Stress,
Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light, Max-
well's — —(See Light, Maxwell's Elec-
tro-Magnetic Theory of)
Electro-Magnetic Vibrator.— (See Vi-
brator, Electro-Magnetic)
Electro-Magnetic Voltmeter.— (Sec TW/-
meter, Electro-Magnetic)
Ele.]
205
[Ele.
Electro-Magnetic Units.— (See Units,
Electro-Magnetic?)
Electro-Magnetics. — (See Magnetics,
Electro?)
Electro-Massage. — (See Massage, Elec-
tro^
Electro-Mechanical Alarm.— (See Alarm,
Electro-Mechanical?)
Electro-Mechanical Gong.— (See Gong,
Electro-Mechanical?)
Electro-Metallurgical Crystalline De-
posit— (See Deposit, Crystalline, Electro-
Metallurgical?)
Electro-Metallurgical Galvanization.—
(See Galvanization, Electro- Metallurgical?)
Electro-Metallurgical Nodular Deposit.
— (See Deposit, Electro - Metallurgical
Nodular?)
Electro - Metallurgical Reguline De-
posit.— (See Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical
Reguline?)
Electro-Metallurgical Sandy Deposit—
(See Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical Sandy?)
Electro-Metallurgy.— (See Metallurgy,
Electro?)
Electrometer. — An apparatus for measur-
ing differences of potential.
Electrometers operate, in general, by means
of the attraction or repulsion of charged conduc-
tors on a suitably suspended needle or disc. As
no current is required to flow through the appa-
ratus electrometers are especially adapted to many
cases where voltmeters could not be so readily
used.
Electrometer, Absolute An elec-
trometer the dimensions of which are such
that the value of the electromotive force can
be directly determined from the amount of
the deflection of the needle.
A form of attracted-disc electrometer.
(See Electrometer, Attracted- Disc.}
Electrometer, Attracted-Disc A
form of electrometer devised by Sir William
Thomson, in which the force is measured by
the attraction between the two discs.
Thomson's Attracted-Disc Electrometer is
shown in Fig. 230. It consists of a plate C, sus-
pended from the longer end of a lever 1, within the
fixed guard plate, or guard ring B, immediately
above a second plate A, supported on an insulated
stand, and capable of a measurable approach
Fig. 230. Attracted-Disc Electrometer.
towards C, or a movement away from it. The
plate, C, is placed in contact with B, by means of
a thin wire. By means of this connection the
distribution of the charge over the plate, C, is
uniform. The electrostatic attraction is meas-
ured by the attraction of the fixed disc, A, on the
movable disc, C, connected respectively to the two
bodies whose difference of potential is to be
measured. One of these may be the earth. The
fulcrum of the lever 1, is formed of an aluminium
wire, the torsion of which is used to measure the
force of the attraction; or, it may be measured
directly by the counterpoise weight Q.
This instrument is sometimes called an absolute
electrometer, because, knowing the dimensions < i
the apparatus, the value of the difference of poten-
tial can be directly determined from the amount
of the motion observed.
Electrometer, Capillary An elec-
trometer in which a difference of potential i.c
Fig. 231. Capillary Electrometer
measured by the movement of a drop of
sulphuric acid in a tube filled with mercury.
206
[Ele.
A form of capillary electrometer is shown in
Vig. 231, in which a horizontal glass tube with
a drop of acid at B, has its ends connected with
two vessels M and N, filled with mercury. If
a current be passed through the tube, a move-
ment of the drop towards the negative pole
will be observed. Where the electromotive
force does not exceed one volt, the amount of
the movement is proportional to the electro-
motive force.
Electrometer, Quadrant An elec-
trometer in which an electrostatic charge is
measured by the attractive and repulsive
force of four plates or quadrants, on a light
needle of aluminium suspended within them.
The sectors or quadrants are of brass, and are
so shaped as to form a hollow cylindrical box
when placed together. The four sectors, or quad-
rants, are insulated from one another, but the
opposite ones are connected, by a conducting wire,
as shown in Fig.
232. A light needle
of aluminium, u,
maintained at some
constant potential,
by connection with
the inner coating
of a Leyden jar, is
suspended, gener-
ally by two par- Fig. 232- Quadrant Elec-
allel silk threads, trometer.
so as to freely swing inside the hollow box. This
needle, when at rest, is in the position shown by
the dotted lines, with its axis of symmetry exactly
under one of the slots or spaces between two
Apposite sectors. (See Suspension^ Bi- Filar.)
The quadrant electrometer, shown in Fig. 233,
~.ias one of its quadrants removed so as to show
the suspended aluminium needle.
A similar form of instrument is shown in Fig.
234, with all the quadrants in place, and the
whole instrument covered by a glass shade.
To use the quadrant electrometer the pairs of
sectors are connected with the two bodies whose
difference of potential is to be measured, and the
deflection of the needle observed, generally
through a telescope, by means of a spot of light
reflected from a mirror attached to the upper part
of the needle.
Sometimes the segments are made in the shape
of a cylinder, and the needle in the shape of a
suspended rectangle.
Electrometer, Registering An elec-
trometer, the deviations of the needle oi
which are automatically registered.
Fig. 233. Quadrant Electrometer, Showing Suspended
Needle.
The registration of this class of electrometer is
obtained by means of photography. The spot oi
Fig. 234. Quadrant Electrometer.
light, reflected from the mirror of the electrometer,
falls on a fillet of sensitized paper, moved by
clockwork.
Eh'. I
207
[Ele.
Electromotive Arrangement or Device.
— (Sae Arrangement or Device, Electromo-
tive^
Electromotive Difference of Potential.—
(See Potential, Difference of Electromotive?)
Electromotive Force.— (See Force, Elec-
tromotive^)
Electromotive Force, Average (See
Force, Electromotive, Average or Mean.)
Electromotive Force, Back or Counter
(See Force, Electromotive. Sack.)
Electromotive Force, Direct (See
Force, Electromotive, Direct.)
Electromotive Force, Inductive
(See Force, Electromotive, Inductive.)
Electromotive Force, Secondary-Im-
pressed — (See Force, Electromotive,
Secondary-Impressed.)
Electromotive Force, Simple-Periodic
— (See Force, Electromotive, Simple-
Periodic.)
Electromotive Force, Transverse
(See Force, Electromotive, Transverse.)
Electromotive Impulse. — (See Impulse,
Electromotive?)
Electro-Motograph. — (See Motograph,
Electro?)
Electro-Muscular. — (See Muscular, Elec-
tro?)
Electro-Muscular Excitation.— (See Ex-
citation* Electro-Muscular?)
Electronecrosic. — Pertaining to capital
punishment by means of electricity.
Electronecrosis.— A word proposed for
capital punishment by means of electricity.
Electro-Negative Ions.— (See Ions, Elec-
tro-Negative?]
Electronegatives. — The atoms or radicals
that appear at the anode or positive terminal
during electrolysis.
The anions. (See Electrolysis. Anton?)
Electro-Nervous Excitability.— (See Ex-
citability, Electro-Nervous?)
Electro- Nickeling. — (See Nickeling,
Electro?)
Electro-Optics.— (See Optics, Electro?)
Electrophanic. — Pertaining to capital pun-
ishment by means of electricity.
Electrophanical. — Pertaining to capital
punishment by means of electricity.
Electrophanize.-To inflict capital pun-
ishment by means of electricity.
Electrophany. — Capital punishment by
means of electricity.
The word electrophany would appear to be far
preferable to the word electrocution, since it is in
accordance with etymological usage, while elec-
trocution is not
Electrophila. — A devotee of electricity.
Electrophobia. — A word proposed for fear
of electricity.
Electrophoric. — Pertaining to an electro-
phorus. (See Electrophorus.?)
Electrophorus. — An apparatus for the
production of electricity
by electrostatic induc-
tion. (See Induction,
Electrostatic?)
A disc of vulcanite, or
hard rubber B, contained
in a metallic form, is rub-
bed briskly by a piece of
cat's skin and the insu-
lated metallic disc, A, is Fig. 233- Eltdrophorus,
placed on the centre of the Charging.
vulcanite disc, as shown in Fig. 235.
The negative charge produced in B, by fric-
tion, produces by induction a positive charge on
the part of A, nearest it,
and a negative charge
on the part furthest from
it.
In this condition, if
the disc be raised from
the plate by means of its
insulating handle, as
shown in Fig. 236, no
electrical effects will be
noticed, since the two op-
posite and equal charges
unite and neutralize each fv>
other. If, however, the
disc A, be first touched by the finger, and then
raised from the disc B, it will be found to be pos-
itively charged.
Electrophorus,
Discharging,
Kle.]
208
[Ele.
E 1 e c t r o-Physiology.— (See Physiology,
Electro)
Electropic Medium.— (See Medium, Elec-
tropic)
Electro-Plating.— (See Plating, Electro)
Electro-Plating Bath.— (See Bath, Elec-
tro-Plating)
Electro-Pneumatic Signals.— (See Sig-
nals, Electro-Pneumatic)
Electro-Pneumatic Thermostat. — (See
Thermostat, Electro-Pneumatic.}
Electropoion Liquid.— (See Liquid, Elec-
tropoion)
Electro-Positive Ions.— (See Ions, Elec-
tro-Positive)
Electropositives. — The atoms or radicals
that appear at the kathode or negative termi-
nal of any source during electrolysis.
Thekathions. (See Electrolysis. Kathion)
E 1 e c t r o-Prognosis. — (See Prognosis,
Electric)
Electro-Puncture.— (See Puncture, Elec-
tro)
Electro-Receptive Devices.— (See Device,
Electro-Receptive)
Electro-Eeceptive Devices, Multiple-Arc-
Connected (See Devices, Electro-
Receptive, Multiple-Arc-Connected)
Electro-Receptive Devices, Multiple-Se-
ries-Connected — —(See Devices, Elec-
tro-Receptive, Multiple-Series-Connected)
Electro-Receptive Devices, Series-Con-
nected (See Devices, Electro-Recep-
tive, Series-Connected)
Electro-Receptive Devices, Series-Mnl-
tiple-Connected — —(See Devices, Elec-
tro-Receptive, Series-Multiple-Connected)
Electroscope. - An apparatus for showing
the presence of an electric charge, or for de-
termining its sign, whether positive or nega-
tive, but not for measuring its amount or
value.
In the gold-leaf electroscope, two gold leaves,
n, n, Fig. 239, suspended near each other, show
by their repulsion the presence of an electric
charge. Two pith balls may be used for the same
purpose.
The pith balls B, B, shown in Fig. 237, form
a simple electroscope. If repelled by a charge,
when approached by a similar charge in S, they
will at once be still further repelled, as shown by
the dotted lines.
To use an electroscope for determining the sign of
Fig- 237- &** Bal1 Electroscopt.
an unknown charge, the gold leaves or pith balls are
first slightly repelled by a charge of known name,
as, for example, positive, applied to the knob C,
Fig. 239. They are then charged by the electrified
body whose charge is to be determined. If they
are further repelled, its charge is positive. If
they are first attracted and afterwards repelled,
its charge is negative.
Two posts B, Fig. 239, connected with the
earth, increase the amount of divergence by in-
duction.
Electroscope, Condensing, Yolta's - —
An electroscope employed for the detection
of feeble charges, the leaves of which are
charged by means of a condenser.
The condensing electroscope, Fig. 238, is
formed of two metallic
plates, placed at the
top of the instrument,
and separated by a
suitable dielectric.
The upper plate, P, is
removable by means
of the insulated han-
dle, G.
To employ the elec
troscope, as for exam-
ple, to detect the free (
charge in an unequal-
ly heated crystal of
tourmaline, the crystal is touched to the lower
plate, while the upper plate is connected to the
ground by the finger. On the subsequent re-
moval of the upper plate an enormous decrease
Condensing Elec.
Ele.J
209
[Ele.
ensues in the capacity of the condenser, and the
charge now raises the potential of the lower
plate, and causes a marked divergence of the
t leaves L, L. (See Electricity, Pyro.)
Electroscope, Gold-Leaf An elec-
troscope in which two leaves of gold are used
to detect the presence of an electric charge,
or to determine its character whether positive
or negative.
When a charge is imparted to the knob C, Fig.
239, the gold leaves n, n, diverge. This will oc-
cur whether the charge be
positive or negative.
To determine the char-
acter of an unknown
charge, the leaves are first
caused to diverge by means B|
of a known positive or neg-
ative charge. The un-
known charge is then given Fig. 239- Gold-Leaf
to the leaves. If they di- Electroscope.
verge still further, then the charge is of the same
name as that originally possessed by the leaves.
If, however, they first move to-
gether and are afterwards re-
pelled, the charge is of the
opposite name.
Electroscope, Pith - Ball
— An electroscope
which shows the presence of
a charge by the repulsion of
two similarly charged pith
balls. (See Electroscope)
Any two pith balls, suspend-
ed by conducting threads, but
insulated from the earth, will
serve as an electroscope.
Electroscope, Quadrant,
Henley's An electro-
scope sometimes employed
to indicate large charges of
electricity.
A pith ball placed on a light
arm A, of straw or other simi-
lar material, Fig. 240, is pivoted
at the centre of a graduated
circle B. The arm, C, is at- Fig. 24.0. Henley's
tached by means of the screw Electroscope.
to the prime conductor of an electric machine.
The similar charge imparted to A, by contact
with C, causes a repulsion which may be i
ured on the graduated arc.
This instrument approaches the electrometer in
the character of its operation, since by its means,
approximately correct measurements may be made
of the value of the repulsion. It should not, how-
ever, be confounded with the quadrant electrom-
eter. (Set Electrometer, Quadrant.)
Electroscopically. — By means of the elec-
troscope. (See Electroscope)
Electroscopy. — The art of determining the
kind of charge a body possesses, by means
of an electroscope.
Electro - Sensibility.— (See Sensibility,
Electro)
Electro-Silvering:.— (See Silvering, Elec-
tro)
Electro-Smelting.— {See Smelting, Elec-
tro)
Electrostatic Attraction.— (See Attrac-
tion, Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Capacity.— (See Capacity,
Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Electrosta tic )
Electrostatic Field.— (See Field, Electro-
static)
Electrostatic Induction. — (See Induction,
Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Induction Machine. — (See
Machine, Electrostatic Induction)
Electrostatic Leakage. — (See Leakage,
Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Lines of Force.— (See Force,
Electrostatic, Lines of)
Electrostatic Repulsion.— (See Repulsion,
Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Screening.— (See Screening,
Electrostatic)
Electrostatic Stress.— (See Stress, Elec-
trostatic)
Electrostatic Units.— (See Units, Electro-
static)
Electrostatics.— That branch of electric
science which treats of the phenomena and
measurement of electric charges.
Ele.]
210
[Ele.
The principles of electrostatics are embraced
in the following laws, viz. :
(i.) Charges of like name, *. *?., either positive
or negative, repel each other. Charges of unlike
name attract each other.
(2.) The forces of attraction or repulsion be-
tween two charged bodies are directly propor-
tional to the product of the quantities of elec-
tricity possessed by the bodies and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance be-
tween them.
These laws can be demonstrated by the use of
Coulomb's torsion balance. (See Balance, Tor-
sion.}
Calling q, and q1, the quantities of electricity
possessed by the two bodies, and r, the distance
between them, then, if f, is the force exerted by
their mutual action,
Electro-Technics.— (See Technics, Elec-
tro.)
Electrothanasing.— Producing death by
electricity.
Electrothanasis.— A word proposed for
death by electricity.
The death referred to here is death other than
that caused by capital punishment.
Electrothanasise.— To produce death by
electricity.
The death here referred to is other than that
caused by capital punishment.
Electrothanatose.— To cause death by
electricity.
Electrothanatosic.— Pertaining to capital
punishment by means of electricity.
Electro thanatosing. — Causing death by
electricity.
Electrothanatosis. — A word proposed for
death by electricity.
The death here referred to is death other than
that caused by capital punishment
Electro-Therapeutic Bath.— (See Bath,
Electro- Therapeutic)
Electro-Therapeutic Breeze. — (See
Breeze, Electro- Therapeutic)
Electro-Therapeutic Diffusion of Cur-
rent.—(See Current, Diffusion of, Electro-
Therapeutic^)
Electro-Therapeutic Dosage. — (S e e
Dosage, Electro- Therapeutical)
Electro-Therapeutic Electrode.— (See
Electrode, Electro- Therapeutic.)
Electro-Therapeutic Electrodes.— (See
Electrode, Electro- Therapeutic)
Electro-Therapeutic Galvanization. —
(See Galvanization, Electro- Therapeutical)
Electro-Therapeutic Head-Breeze. —
(See Breeze, Head, Electro- Therapeutic)
Electro-Therapeutics. — (See Therapeu-
tics, Electro)
Electro-Therapeutist. — (See Therapeu-
tist, Electro)
Electro-Therapy.— (See Therapy, Elec'
tro)
Electro-Thermal Meter.— (See Meter,
Electro- Thermal)
Electro-Tinning.— (See Tinning, Elec-
tro)
Electrotisic. — Pertaining to capital pun-
ishment by means of electricity.
Electrotising.— Producing capital punish-
ment by means of electricity.
Electrotisis. — A word proposed for capi-
tal punishment by means of electricity.
Electrotonic Current. — (See Current.
Electrotonic)
Electrotonic Effect— (See Effect, Electro-
tonic)
Electrotonic Excitability.-(See Excita-
bility, Electrotonic)
Electrotonic State.— (See State, Electro-
tonic)
Electrotonus.— A condition of altered
functional activity which occurs in a nerve
when subjected to the action of an electric
Ele.J
211
[Ele.
The electrotonic state is produced by the
passage through a nerve of a constant current
Called the polarizing current.
Electrotonus is attended by the modification of
the nerve in the following respects, viz. :
(i.) In its electromotive force.
(2.) In its excitability.
The passage of the constant current produces
a change in the electromotive force of that part of
the nerve traversed by the current.
This alteration in muscular excitability may
consist in either an increased or a decreased func-
tional activity. The decreased functional activity
occurs in the neighborhood of the anode, or the
positive terminal, and is called the anelectrotonic
state. The increased functional activity occurs in
the neighborhood of the kathode, or the negative
terminal, and is called the kathclectrotonic state.
(See Anelectrotomis. Katheleclrotonus.)
This altered functional activity affects not only
the intra-polar parts of the nerve, or that part
between the electrodes, but also the extra-polar
portions, or, in other words, the remainder of the
nerve.
The electrotonic state is characterized by two
varieties, viz.: those in which the electromotive
force of the nerve is decreased, and those in which
the electromotive force of the nerve is increased.
These varieties of electrotonus are called respec-
tively the negative and positive phase of electro-
tonus. (See Electrotonus, Negative Phase of,
Electrotonus, Positive Phase of.}
Electrotonus, Negative Phase of
A decrease in the electromotive force of a.
nerve effected by sending a current through
the nerve in the opposite direction to the
nerve current. (See Current, Nerved)
Electrotonus, Positive Phase of
An increase in the electromotive force of a
nerve effected by sending a current through
the nerve in the same direction as the nerve
current.
The increase in the electromotive force not only
affects the portions of the nerve in the intra-polar
regions, but in the extra-polar regions as well.
Electrotype. — A type, cast, or impression
of an object obtained by means of electro-
metallurgy. (See Metallurgy, Electro. Elec-
trotypmg)
Electrotyping, or the Electrotype Pro-
cess Obtaining casts or copies of
objects by depositing metals in molds by
the agency of electric currents.
The molds are made of wax, or other plastic
substance, rendered conducting by coating it with
powdered plumbago.
The mold is connected with the negative
battery terminal, and placed in a metallic solu-
tion, generally of copper sulphate, opposite a
plate of metallic copper, connected with the posi-
tive battery terminal. As the current passes, the
metal is deposited on the mold at the kathode,
and dissolved from the metallic plate at the
anode, thus producing an exact copy or cast and
at the same time maintaining constant the strength
of the bath.
Electrozemia.— A word proposed for capi-
tal punishment by means of electricity.
Electrum. — A name given by the ancients
to various substances that could be readily
electrified by friction.
The term electrum included a number of sub-
stances, but was applied mainly either to amber
or to an alloy of gold and silver.
Element. — Any kind of matter which can-
not be decomposed into simpler matter.
Matter that is formed or composed of but
one kind of atoms.
Oxygen and hydrogen are elements or varie-
ties of elementary matter. They cannot be de-
composed into anything but oxygen or hydrogen.
Water, on the contrary, is compound matter,
since it can be decomposed into its constituent
parts, oxygen and hydrogen.
There are about seventy well-known elements,
some of which are very rare, occurring in ex-
tremely small quantities.
The evidence of the true elementary condition
of many of the elements is based, to a great ex-
tent, on the fact that so far they have resisted all
efforts made to decompose them into simpler sub-
stances. We should bear in mind, however, that
until Davy's use of the voltaic battery, potash,
soda, and many other similar compounds were re-
garded as true elements. It is not improbable
that many of the now so-called elements, may
hereafter be decomposed into simpler constitu-
ents.
The following table gives the names, chemical
Ele.] 212
symbols, approximate atomic weights and equiva-
lents of the principal elements :
[Ele.
Names ot
Elements.
w"
Approximate
Atomic
Weight.
Chemical Equivalent.*
Aluminium .......
Antimony
At
Sb.
As.
27.
9 [compounds
40 in e>us, 24 in fr
Barium
Ba.
136.8
68 4 ' S U
Beryllium
Bismuth
Be
Bi.
B.
9.1
207.5
10.0
4.1
69.2
3-6
Cadmium
Cd.
79-8
ni. 8
79-8
Caesium.
Calcium...
Cs.
Ca.
C.
132.6
40.
li:S
20
6
Cerium
Chlorine
Chromium
Ce.
Cl.
Cr.
140.4
35-4
§:«
35-4
26 (nous, 17.3 iafe
Copper
Didymium
Cu.
D
144! 6
31.6
Erbium
Fluorine
Gallium
E.
F.
Ga.
165.9
19.
68.9
19.
Germanium. ......
Glucmum
Gold
Hydrogen
Ge.
G.
Au.
H.
72-3
196.2 \i\ous, 65.4 In ic
I.
Je'I
Iridium
Ir
Fe
192.7
96.4, 64.2, 48.2
28 in out 18 6 in ic
Lanthanum
Lead
La.
Pb
138.5
Lithium
Li.
Magnesium
Manganese
Hg
«4-
53-9
12
27
M olybdenum
Nickel...
Mo.
Ni.
95-5
28
Niobium
Nb
93.8
N
Osmium
Os
o
*
Oxygen
Palladium
0.
Pd.
16.
8
Phosphorus
Platinum
P.
Pt.
3'-
6.2 in phosphates
K.
Rhodium
R
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Rb.
Ru.
Sin.
Sc.
85
104.3
150.02
85-3.
52.1 mous, 34.7inz<r
Selenium
Se
78! 8
Silicon
Silver
bi.
Ag-
28.3
107.7
7-
107.7
Mrontium
Sulphur
Tantalum.
Telluiium . . .
Sr.
S.
Ta.
Te
87-4
128!
23
43-7
Thallium
Thorium
Tl.
Th.
203.7
233-4
203.7 ino*j,67.9m*?
Ti
48.
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanad.um
Ytterbium
Yttrium
W.
u.
Va.
Yb.
y
,83.6
238-5
'i'f
91.8 mous
119.2 in ous
ij.lino**
Zinc
Zn.
64,
Zirconium
Zr.
89.4
* Atotnzc wtigkt divided by the valency.
Element, Negative One of the
substances forming a voltaic couple. (See
Couple, Voltaic.}
Element, Negative, of a Yoltaic Cell
— That element or plate of a voltaic cell into
which the current passes from the exciting
fluid of the cell.
The plate that is not acted on by the elec-
trolyte during the generation of current by
the cell
The copper or carbon plate, respectively,
in a zinc-copper or zinc-carbon couple.
It must be carefully borne in mind that the
conductor attached to the negative element of a
voltaic pile is the positive conductor or electrode
of the pik, since the current that flows into the
plate from the liquid or electrolyte must flow out
of the plate where it projects beyond the liquid.
Element of Current— (See Current, Ele-
ment of.)
Element of Storage Battery.— (See Bat-
tery, Storage, Element of.)
Element, Positive That element or
plate of a voltaic cell from which the current
passes into the exciting fluid of the cell.
The element of a voltaic couple which is
acted on by the exciting fluid of the cell.
(See Couple, Voltaic^
Element, Thermo-Electric One of
the two metals or substances which form a
thermo-electric couple. (See Couple, Ther-
mo-Electric!)
Element, Toltaic One of the two
metals or substances which form a voltaic
couple. (See Couple, Voltaic!)
Elements, Electrical Classification of
A classification of the chemical ele-
ments into two groups or classes according
to whether they appear at the anode or kathode
when electrolyzed.
The chemical elements may be arranged into
electro-positive and electro- negative according to
whether, during electrolysis, they appear at the
negative or positive terminal of the source respec-
tively.
The electro-positive elements or radicals are
Called kathions, and appear at the kathode or
electro-negative terminal. The electro-negative
Ele.J
213
[Eue.
dements are called onions, and appear at the
anode, or the electro-positive terminal. (See
AMT.J
The metals generally are electro- positive; oxy-
gen, chlorine, iodine, fluorine, etc., are electro-
negative.
Elements, Magnetic, of a Place
The values of the magnetic intensity, the mag-
netic declination or variation, and the mag-
netic inclination or dip at any place.
Elevator Annunciator. — (See Annuncia-
tor, Elevator?)
Elevator, Electric —An elevator
operated by electric power.
Elongated Ring Core.— (See Core, Ring,
Elongated?)
Elongation, Magnetic An increase
in the length of a bar of iron on its magnetiza-
tion.
This increase in length is thought to greatly
strengthen Hughes' theory of magnetism. (See
Magnetism, Hughes' Theory of.)
Elongation of Needle.— (See Needle, Elon-
gation of.)
Embosser, Telegraphic An appa-
ratus for recording a telegraphic message in
raised or embossed characters.
Emptied.— A term sometimes applied to a
completely discharged secondary or storage
cell.
It is difficult to determine exactly when a stor-
age cell is completely emptied or "discharged."
The cell is generally regarded as discharged
when its voltage falls below a certain point.
Endosmose. — The unequal mixing of two
liquids or gases through an interposed me-
dium.
The presence of an electric current affects the
endosmose. (See Currents, Diaphragm.)
Endosmose, Electric. — Differences in the
level of liquids capable of mixing through the
pores of a diaphragm separating them, pro-
duced by the flow of an electric current
through the liquid.
Wiedemann, who investigated these phenom-
ena, employed a porous earthenware vessel closed
at the bottom and terminated at its upper end by
a glass bell provided with a glass tubulure, to
which was attached a horizontal arm for the es-
cape of the liquid raised in the tubulure. The
battery terminals were attached to platinum elec-
trodes placed respectively inside the porous cell,
and in a vessel of water outside of the porous cell,
in which the porous cell was placed ; on the passage
of the current from the outside of the cell to the
inside the liquid rose in the glass tubulure and ran
over the horizontal tube into a vessel placed ready
to receive it.
Energizing, Electrically Causing
electricity to produce any effect in an electro-
receptive device.
An electro-magnet is energized by the passage
of a current through its coils.
Energy. — The power of doing work.
The amount of work done is measured by the
product of the force, by the space through which
the force moves. Thus one pound raised verti-
cally through ten feet, ten pounds raised through
one foot, or five pounds raised through two feet, all
represent the same amount of work; viz., ten foot-
founds.
If a weight of ten pounds be raised through a
vertical height of one foot, by means of a string
passing over a pulley, there will have befn ex-
pended an amount of energy represented by the
work often foot-pounds. If the weight be pre-
vented in any way from falling, as by securing
the string to a fixed support, the weight will have
stored in it an amount of energy equal to ten foot-
pounds, and if permitted to fall, will be capable
of doing an amountof work which, leaving out air
resistance and friction, is exactly equal to that
originally expended in raising it to the position
from which it fell; viz., ten foot-pounds of work.
Energy, Actual Energy actually
employed in doing ^work as distinguished
from energy that only possesses the power of
doing work, but not actually doing such
work.
This term is also used in the sense of kinetic
energy or energy due to motion, but kinetic en-
ergy is no more actual than potential energy.
Energy, Atomic • — Chemical-potential
energy. (See Energy, Chemical-Potential.}
Energy, Chemical-Potential The
potential energy possessed by the elementary
chemical atoms. (See Energy, Potential?)
If a weight of one pound be raised vertically
Ene.]
214
[Ene.
against the earth's attraction, through a distance
of say ten feet, and placed on a suitable support,
an amount of energy, equal to the ten foot-pounds
of work done on the weight, becomes potential.
In the same manner if the elementary atoms of
carbon and oxygen, when combined so as to form
carbonic acid, are raised or separated from one
another sufficiently to decompose the carbonic
acid and separate the carbon from the oxygen, the
amount of potential energy the carbon and oxygen
possess, as a result of having been separated, is
equal precisely to that originally required to sepa-
rate them. In this manner each chemical element
possesses a store of chemical-potential energy
peculiar to it, and any element with which it may
subsequently enter into combination. When ele-
ments combine chemically this potential energy is
expended in producing heat.
Energy, Conservation of The in-
destructibility of energy.
The total quantity of energy in the universe is
unalterable.
The total energy of the universe is not, how-
ever, available for the production of work useful
for man.
When energy disappears in one form it reap-
pears in some other form. This is called the con-
servation or indestructibility of energy. The com -
monest form in which energy reappears is as heat,
and in this case some of the heat is lost to the
earth by radiation. This degradation or dissipa-
tion of energy causes some of the energy of the
earth to become non-available to man.
Energy is therefore available and non-available.
(See Entropy.)
Energy, Correlation of A term
sometimes applied to the different phases un-
der which energy may appear.
Since energy is indestructible, when it disap-
pears in one form or phase, it must reappear in
another form or phase. The correlation of the
different phases of energy, therefore, necessarily
follows from the fact that all energy is indestruc-
tible.
Energy, Degradation of Such a
dissipation of energy as to render it non-
available to man. (See Energy, Conserva-
tion of. Entropy?)
Energy, Dissipation of The ex-
penditure or loss of available energy.
Energy, Electric —The powei
which electricity possesses of doing work.
In the case of a liquid mass at different levels,
the liquid at the higher level possesses a certain
amount of potential energy measured by the
quantity of the liquid at the higher level, and the
excess of its height over that of the lower level;
or, by the difference between the two levels. Any
difference of level will produce a flow of the liquid
from the higher to the lower level, and during
the flow of this current of liquid, potential energy
will be lost, and a certain amount of work will be
done.
In the case of electricity, the difference of elec-
tric level, or potential, between any two points of
a conductor, causes an electric current to flow
between these points toward the lower electric
level, during which electric potential energy is
lost, and work is accomplished by the electric
current. (See Potential, Electric.}
The amount of this electric work is measured by
the quantity of electricity that flows, multiplied
by the difference of potential under which it
flows. (See Joule. Volt-Coulomb.)
Electric energy, however, is generally meas-
ured in electric power, or rate of doing electric
work.
Since an ampere is one coulomb-per-second, if
we measure the difference of potential in volts,
the product of the amperes by the volts will give
the electrical power in volt-amperes, or watts, or
units of electric power. C E = Watts. (See
Ampere. Volt. Watt.)
One horse -power equals 550 foot-pounds per
second. One watt or volt-ampere = ,Jf of a
horse-power, or one horse-power equals 746 volt
amperes or watts, therefore:
The current in amperes, multiplied by the dif-
ference of potential in volts, divided by 746,
equals the rate of doing work in horse-powers.
Thus, if .7 ampere is required to operate a
16 candle, no volt, incandescent lamp, it requires
4.8 watts per candle.
One Watt — 44.2394 foot-pounds per minute.
One Watt = .737324 foot-pound per second.
The Heat Activity, or the heat-per-second
produced by an electric current, is also propor-
tional to the product C E, or the watts, for the
heat is proportional to the square of the current
in amperes multiplied by the resistance in ohms,
or C* R = the watts. (See Calorimeter, Elec-
tric.)
Ene.] 215
By Ohm's Law (See Ohm's Law}
C = |- (i), or C R = E (2),
K.
But the electric power, or the watts, = C E (3).
If, now, we substitute the value of E, taken
from equation (2) in equation (3) we have
[Ene.
therefore C" R = Watts.
To determine the heating power of a current
in small calories, calling H, the amount of heat
required to raise i gramme of water through I °
Cent., and C, the current in amperes —
H = C* RX -24.
Or, for any number of seconds, /,
H = C2 Rt X .24.
(See Cabrie.)
But from Ohm's Law.
(i),
and the formula for electric power or the watts
= C E. (2) By substituting in equation (2)
and the value of C, in equation (i),
C E = E X — = 5-*= Watts.
R R
That is to say, the electric power in any part of
a circuit varies directly as the square of the
electromotive force.
We, therefore, have three expressions for the
value of the watt, or the unit of electric power,
•ro.:
C E = Watts. (i)
C»R = Watts. (2)
|^= Watts. (3)
(li) C E = Watts; or the electric power is pro-
portional to the product of the quantity of elec-
tricity per-second, that passes, in amperes, and
the difference of electric potential or level,
through which it passes, in volts.
(2.) C» R = Watts; or the electric power
varies directly as the resistance R, when the cur-
Tent is constant, or as the square of the current,
if the resistance is constant. That is to say, if
with a given resistance the power of a given
current has a certain value, and the current
flowing through this same resistance be doubled,
the power is four times as great, or is as the
equare of the current.
E»
(3.) =- = Watts, or the electric power is in-
versely as the resistance R, when the electro-
motive force is constant, and is directly propor-
tional to the square of the electromotive force if
the resistance is constant.
A circuit of one ohm resistance will have a
power of one watt, when under an electromo-
tive force of one volt, since it would then have
a current of one ampere flowing through it, and
C E = i . If, however, the resistance be halved
or becomes .5 ohm, then two amperes pass, or
the power equals 2 watts.
The power varies as the square of the electro-
motive force in any part of a circuit, when tht
resistance is constant in that part. Thus 2 am-
peres, and 2 volts, in a circuit of one ohm
resistance, give a power, C E=2X2=4 watts.
If now, R, remaining the same, the electro-
motive force be raised to 4 volts, then since E, is
doubled, C, or the amperes, is doubled, and C
=i6 watts, or -- = — = 16.
Energy, Electric, Transmission of -
— The transmission of mechanical energy be-
tween two distant points connected by an
electric conductor, by converting the me-
chanical energy into electrical energy at one
point, sending the current so produced
through the conductor, and reconverting the
electrical into mechanical energy at the other
point.
A system for the electric transmission of energy
embraces:
(i.) A conducting circuit between the two
stations.
(2.) An electric source or battery of electric
sources or machines at one of the stations, gener.
ally in the form f a dynamo-electric machine
or machines, for converting mechanical energy
into electric energy.
(3.) Electro-receptive devices, generally electric
motors, at the other station for reconverting the
electric into mechanical energy. (See Motor,
Electric.)
Energy, Flow of -- The flow or trans-
mission of energy from the medium or die-
lectric surrounding a conductor which is
directing a current of electricity on to the
conductor. (See Law, Poynt ing's!)
Energy, Hysteresial, Dissipation of -
— The dissipation of energy by means of
Ene.]
216
[Ent.
hysteresis. (See Energy, Dissipation of.
Hysteresis?)
Energy, Kinetic Energy which is
due to motion as distinguished from potential
energy. (See Energy, Potential!)
Energy-Meter.— (See Meter, Energy?,
Energy of Position.— (See Position, En-
ergy of.)
Energy of Stress.— (See Stress, Energy
of-)
Energy, Potential Stored energy.
Potency, or capability of doing work.
Energy possessing the power or potency of
doing work, but not actually performing such
work.
The capacity for doing work possessed by
a body at rest, arising from its position as
regards the earth, or from the position of its
atoms as regards other atoms, with which it
is capable of combining.
A pound of coal, if raised vertically one foot,
possesses, as a mere weight, an amount of energy
capable of doing an amount of work equal to one
foot-pound. The atoms of carbon, however, of
which it is composed, have been raised or sepa-
rated from those of oxygen, or some other elemen-
tary substance, and when the coal is burned, or
the carbon atoms fall towards the oxygen atoms
(*'. e., unite with them), the coal gives up the
potential energy of its atoms in the form of heat.
All elementary substances possess in the same
way atomic or chemical-potential energy, or the
energy with which they tend to fall together,
or enter into combination. This energy varies in
amount in different elements and becomes kinetic,
as heat, on combination with other elements. (See
Energy, Chemical- Potential.)
Energy, Radiant Energy trans-
ferred to or charged on the universal ether.
Radiant energy is of three forms, viz.:
(I.) Obscure radiation, or heat.
(2.) Luminous radiation, or light.
(3.) Electro-magnetic radiation.
Energy, Static A term used to ex-
press the energy possessed by a body at rest,
resulting from its position as regards other
bodies, in contradistinction to kinetic energy
or the energy possessed by a body whose
atoms, molecules or masses are in actual
motion.
Potential energy.
The general term for static energy is potential
energy. (See Energy, Potential.)
Energy, Storage of — —The change
from any form of kinetic energy, to any form
of potential energy. (See Energy. Kinetic.
Energy, Potential.)
Engine, Electro-Magnetic A mo-
tor whose driving power is electricity. (See
Motor, Electric?)
Engraving, Acoustic Engraving
by the human voice.
In the Phonograph, Graphophone and Gramo-
phone, a diaphragm, set in vibration by the
speaker's voice, cuts or engraves a record of its
to-and-fro movements on a sheet of tin foil, a
cylinder of hardened wax, or a specially coa.ted
plate of metal or glass. This record is employed
in order to reproduce the speech. (See Phonograph. )
Engraving, Electric A method
for electrically etching or engraving a me-
tallic plate by covering it with wax, tracing
the design on the wax so as to expose the
metal, connecting the metal with the positive
terminal of a battery, and placing it in a
bath opposite annther plate of metal.
By the action of electrolysis the metal is dis-
solved from the exposed portions and deposited
on the plate connected with the other terminal
of the battery. (See Electrolysis. )
In this manner the design is obtained in the
form of an etching or cutting of the plate.
By connecting the waxed plate to the negative
terminal of the electric source, the metal will be
deposited on the exposed portions of the plate,
thus producing the design in relief. Unless
great care is taken, this latter method is not,
however, apt to produce a sufficiently unif>>rm
deposit to enable the plate so formed to bj u-ed
for printing from.
Electric engraving is sometimes called electro-
etching.
Entropy. — In thermo-dynamics the non-
available energy in any system. — (Clausiu*
and Mayer?)
In thermo-dynamics, the available energy
in any system. — ( Tait, Thomson and Max
well?)
Ent.]
217
[Eqn.
As will be noticed, this term is used in entirely
different and opposite senses by different scientific
men. The latter sense is, perhaps, the one most
generally taken.
Heat energy is available for doing useful exter-
nal work only when the source of heat utilized is
hotter than surrounding bodies, that is, when the
heat is transferred from a hotter to a colder body.
When all bodies have acquired the same temper-
ature, they can do no more external work. In
the various transformations of energy some of the
energy is converted into heat, and this heat is
gradually diffused through the universe and thus
becomes non-available to man. Therefore, the
entropy of our earth is decreasing.
"Entropy, in thermo.dynami7s," says Max-
well, "is a quantity relating to a body such that
its increase or diminution implies that heat has
entered or left the body. The amount of heat
which enters or leaves the body is measured by the
product of the increase or diminution of entropy
into the temperature at which it takes place."
Entropy, Electric — A term pro-
posed by Maxwell for use in thermo-elec-
tric phenomena to include the doctrine of
entropy in electric science.
"When an electric current," says Maxwell,
"passes from one metal to another, heat is
emitted or absorbed at the junction of the metals.
We should, therefore, suppose that the electric
entropy has diminished or increased when the
electricity passes from one metal to the other, the
electric entropy being different according to the
nature of the medium in which the electricity is,
and being affected by its temperature, stress,
strain, etc."
Equalizer, Feeder An adjustable
resistance placed in the circuit of a feeder for
the purpose of regulating the difference of
potential at the junction box.
Equalizer, Magnetic A device for
equalizing the otherwise unequal force ex-
erted between a magnet pole and its arma-
ture at varying distances.
Since the force of magnetic attraction increases
rapidly with the decrease of the distance, it fol-
lows that any force sufficiently. great to cause the
motion of an armature towards a pole, against the
force of gravity, will result in the movement of the
armature to the pole, and that, therefore, no dif-
ferentiation as to the final result will be produced
by a powerful current, and a current just strong
enough to start the action. If, however, the
armature move against the action of a spring, the
latter can be so arranged that the force with
which it opposes the motion of the armature in •
creases, the nearer the armature is to the pole,
and in this way the movement of the armature
can be made proportional to the strength of the
current energizing the electro-magnet.
A similar method consists in mechanical devices
that cause the armature to work with lessened
mechanical advantage as it approaches the pole.
Or, the polar surfaces may be so shaped by cut-
ting, or by the addition of suitable projections,
as to cause the approach of the armature to be
attended by a nearly constant force.
Equator, Geographical An imag-
inary great circle passing around the earth
midway between its poles.
Equator, Magnetic The magnetic
parallel or circle on the earth's surface where
a magnetic needle, suspended so as to be free
to move in a vertical as well as in a horizontal
plane, remains horizontal.
An irregular line passing around the earth
approximately midway between the earth's
magnetic poles. (See Dip or Inclination,
Angle of ^
Equator of Magnet. — (See Magnet, Equa-
tor of.)
Equatorial. — Pertaining to the equator.
Equatorially. — In the direction of the
equator.
Equipotential Surface of a Conductor
through which a Current is Flowing. —
(See Surface, Equipotential, of a Conductor
through which a Current is Flowing?)
Eqnipotential Surface, or Level Surface
Of Escaping Fluid.— (See Surface, Equipo-
tential, or Level Surface of Escaping Fluid.)
Equipotential Surfaces,Electrostatic
— (See Surfaces, Equipotential, Electro-
static^
Eqnipotential Surfaces, Magnetic —
• — (See Surfaces, Equipotential, Magnetic?}
Equivalence, Electro-Chemical, Law of
The amount of chemical action pro-
duced by an electric current, passed through
various chemical substances, is proportional
to the chemical equivalent of each substance,
Equ.]
218
that is, to its atomic weight, divided by its
valency. (See Valency.)
Thus, the atomic weight of oxygen is sixteen
times greater than the atomic weight of hydrogen.
Oxygen is a diad; that is, has twice the combin-
ing power of hydrogen. The passage of a given
quantity of electricity will liberate eight times, by
weight, as much oxygen as hydrogen ; or, to put
it in another way, the passage of a given quan-
tity of electricity will liberate two atoms of
hydrogen for every atom of oxygen.
The atomic weight of chlorine is 35.4. The
passage of a given amount of electricity will
liberate a weight of chlorine 35.4 greater than the
weight of hydrogen; or, for every atom of
chlorine it will liberate one atom of hydrogen.
Here the passage of a given amount of electricity
liberates one atom of the monad element hydrogen
for every atom of the monad element chlorine.
The atomic weight of gold is 196.2, and its
atomicity or valency is 3. The passage of a
given amount of electricity will liberate — — =
65.4 in ic compounds as great a weight of the
triad element gold as of hydrogen ; or, will liberate
them in the proportion of one atom of gold for
every three atoms of hydrogen.
Generalizing, it appears, therefore, that the
passage of the same quantity of electricity through
an electrolyte liberates the same number of atoms
of a monad element, no matter what their nature
may be. It liberates one-half as many of the diad
atoms as it does of the monads, and one-third as
many of the triad atoms as of the monads.
Professor Lodge points out, that assuming the
truth of the theory that a current of electricity
flows in an electrolyte by means of a true electric
convection, each atom carrying an electric
charge, then it would seem that every monad
atom carries an equal charge of electricity,
whether it be an atom of hydrogen, chlorine,
potassium, silver, or mercury. That each diad
element carries twice as much, and that each
triad element carries three times as much.
In general, the number of atoms liberated by a
given current of electricity is equal to the num-
ber of atoms of hydrogen, divided by the valency
of the atom. ' ' The electric charge, ' ' says Lodge,
•'belonging to each atom of matter, is a simple
multiple of a definite quantity of electricity, which
quantity is an absolute constant, quite independent
of the nature of the particular substance to which
the atom belongs."
The specific charge thus hypothetically given to
each atom of matter is believed never to be lost.
Atoms capable of entering into combination are
supposed to be oppositely charged, and chemical
affinity is, according to this supposition, believed
to be the result of the mutual attractions of opposite
electric charges naturally and originally pos-
sessed by the atoms of matter.
Lodge points out the following results which
naturally flow from the hypothesis that the atoms
of matter possess definite positive and negative
charges of electricity, viz. :
(I.) That the amount of electricity possessed
by each monad atom is exceedingly small, being
about the hundred thousand millionth part of
the ordinary electrostatic unit, or less than the
hundred trillionth of a coulomb.
(2.) The charge being small, the potential is
necessarily low.
Probably something between one and three
volts is a high difference of potential between two
oppositely charged atoms.
(3.) The nearness of the attracting atoms, how-
ever, can cause a very strong electrostatic attrac-
tion between them.
(4. ) That chemical affinity, or atomic attraction,
is caused by the presence of these electric charges.
(5.) That the electrical force between two
atoms at any distance is ten thousand million
billion billion times greater than their gravitation
attraction at the same distance, or, the force has
an intensity per unit of mass capable of producing
an acceleration, nearly one trillion times greater
than that of gravity at the earth's surface.
Equivalent, Chemical The quo-
tient obtained by dividing the atomic weight
of any elementary substance by its atomicity.
(See Weight, Atomic. Atomicity?)
The ratio between the quantity of an ele-
ment and the quantity of hydrogen it is
capable of replacing.
That quantity of an elementary substance
that is capable of combining with or replac-
ing one atom of hydrogen.
The chemical equivalent has a different value
from the atomic weight whenever the valency
is greater than unity. Thus the atomic weight
of gold is 196.2, but since in ic compounds one
atom of gold is capable of combining with three
atoms of hydrogen, the weight of the gold equiva-
lent to that of one atom of hydrogen is one-third
of 196.2, or 65.4.
Eqn.
219
[Esc.
Conductivity.— (See Conduc-
tivity, Equivalent?)
Equivalent, Electro-Chemical A
number representing the weight in grammes
of an elementary substance liberated during
electrolysis by the passage of one coulomb of
electricity. (See Electrolysis. Coulomb?)
The chemical equivalent of a substance
multiplied by the electro-chemical equivalent
of hydrogen.
The electro- chemical equivalent is, therefore,
found by multiplying the electro-chemical equiva-
lent of hydrogen by the chemical equivalent of
the element.
It may be determined experimentally that one
coulomb of electricity, expended electrolytically,
will liberate .0000105 gramme of hydrogen.
Therefore a current of one *mperet or one coulomb-
per-second, will liberate .0000105 gramme of hy-
drogen per second. The number .0000105 is the
electro-chemical equivalent of hydrogen.
In the same manner the electro-chemical equiva-
lents of the other elements are obtained by multi-
plying the electro-chemical equivalent of hydrogen
by the chemical equivalent of the substance.
Thus, the chemical equivalent of potassium is
-39.1, therefore its electro-chemical equivalent is
39.1 X .0000105 = .00041055. By multiplying
the strength of the current that passes by the
•electro-chemical equivalent of any substance we
obtain the weight of that substance liberated by
electrolysis. (See Equivalence, Electro-Chemical,
Law of.}
TO determine the electro-chemical equivalent
of the other elements see table of chemical equiva-
lents on page 212.
Equivalent, Joule's The mechan-
ical equivalent of heat. (See Heat, Mechan-
ical Equivalent of.)
Equivalent of Heat, Mechanical
(See Heat, Mechanical Equivalent of.)
Equivalent Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Equivalent.)
Equivolt. — A term proposed by J. T.
Sprague for the unit of electrical energy, ap-
plied especially to chemical decomposition.
Sprague defines an equivolt as follows : ' ' The
mechanical energy of one rolt electromotive force
exerted under unit conditions through one equiva-
lent of chemical action in grains."
8— Vol. 1
This term has not been generally accepted.
(See Volt -Coulomb. Joule.)
Erb's Standard Size of Electrodes.— (See
Electrodes, Erb's Standard Size of.)
Erg. — The unit of work, or the work done
when unit force is overcome through unit
distance.
The work accomplished when a body is
moved through a distance of one centimetre
with the force of one dyne. (See Dyne.)
A dyne centimetre.
The work done when a weight of one gramme
is raised against gravity through a vertical height
of one centimetre is equal to 981 ergs, because
the weight of one gramme is i X 981 dynes, or
981 ergs.
The following values for the erg, the unit of
work, and the dyne, the unit of force, are taken
from Hering:
I erg = i dyne centimetre.
i erg = o.ooooooi joule.
981 ergs = i gramme centimetre.
1,937.5 ergs = i foot grain.
13,562,600 ergs = i foot-pound.
i dyne = 1 .0194 milligrammes.
I dyne = 0.015731 grain.
i dyne = 0.0010194 grammes.
i dyne = 0.00003596 ounce avoirdupois.
63.568 dynes = I grain.
981 dynes = I gramme.
Ergmeter. — An apparatus for measuring
the work of an electric current in ergs.
Erg-ten. — A term proposed for ten million,
ergs or i X 10 10= 10,000,000,000.
In representing large numbers containing many
ciphers the following plan is generally adopted for
representing the number of ciphers that are to be
added to a given number. Thus, suppose it is
desired to represent the number 3,800,000,000.
When written 38 X lo8 it indicates that 38 is to
be multiplied by lo8 or 100,000,000, or, in other
words, that 38 is to be followed by 8 ciphers,,
thus 3,800,000,000.
A negative exponent, as 3 X io~8 represents
the corresponding decimal thus, .00000003.
I erg X io10, or 10,000,000,000 is called an
erg-fen. I X i°6 = an erg-six. These terms
are not in general use. Ten meg -ergs is a pref-
erable phrase to an erg-ten. (See Meg-erg. )
Escape, Electric A term some-
Esc.]
220
[Ev*
times employed to indicate the loss of charge
on an insulated conductor. (See Leakage,
Electric^
Escaping Fluid, Flow-Lines of —
(See Flow-Lines of Escaping Fluid.}
Escaping Fluid, Stream-Lines of —
(See Stream-Lines of Escaping Fluid.)
Essential Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Essential.).
Etching, Electro — A term some-
times employed instead of electro-engraving.
(See Engraving, Electric.)
Etching, Galvanic — — ElectroTEn-
graving. (See Engraving, Electric.)
Ether.— The 'tenuous, highly elastic fluid
that is assumed to fill all space, and by vibra-
tions or waves in which light and heat are
transmitted.
Although the existence of the ether is assumed
in order to explain certain phenomena, its actual
existence is very generally credited by scientific
men, and, in reality, proofs are not wanting to
fairly establish such existence.
Light and heat are believed to be due to trans-
verse vibrations in the ether. Magnetism appears
to be due to whirls or whirlpools, and an elec-
tric current is believed by some to be due to
pulses of waves of ether ^set in motion by differ-
ences in the ether pressures.
It is not correct to regard the luminiferous
ether as possessing no weight, or as being im-
ponderable. Maxwell estimates its density as
?*- that of water. It
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
is very readily moved or set into vibration, its
rigidity being estimated at about , ^^^
that of steel.
According to the speculations of some physi-
cists the ether is not discontinuous or granular,
but it is similar to what might be regarded as an
almost impalpable jelly.
Ethereal.— Pertaining to the universal
ether.
Eudiometer. — A voltameter in which sep-
arate graduated vessels are provided for the
reception and measurement of the gaseous
products evolved during electrolysis. (See
Voltameter.)
In all cases electrodes for eudiometers must be
used which do not enter into combination with the
evolved gaseous products. In the case of oxygen
and hydrogen, platinum is generally used.
A form of eudiometer is shown in Fig. 241.
Two separate glass ves-
sels, provided at the top
with stop cocks, and
open at their lower
ends, rest in a vessel of
water A, over platinum
electrodes, connected
electrically with binding
posts K, K. Both ves-
sels are filled with water
slightly acidulated with
sulphuric acid, and,
when connected with
a battery of sufficient
electromotive force (not
less than 1.45 volts),
electrolysis takes place, Fig. 241. Eudiometer.
and hydrogen gas collects in the vessel over
the platinum electrode connected with the neg-
ative battery terminal, and oxygen in the vessel
over the electrode connected with the positive
battery terminal. The volume of the hydrogea
is approximately twice as great as that of the
oxygen. (See Water, Electrolysis of.)
The proportion is not exactly 2 to i, because,
(I.) Some of the hydrogen is occluded or ab-
sorbed by the platinum electrode.
(2.) Some of the oxygen is given off as tri-
atomic oxygen, or ozone, which is denser and
occupies less space than free atomic oxygen.
Eudiometric. — Pertaining to the eudiom-
eter. (See Eudiometer^
Eudiometrically.— By means of the eudi-
ometer.
Evaporation.— The change from the liquid
to the vaporous state.
Wet clothes exposed to the air are dried by the
evaporation of the water.
Evaporation is greater:
(I.) The more extended the surfaces exposed.
(2.) The higher the temperature of the air.
(3.) The dryer the air, or the smaller the
quantity of vapor it contains already.
(4.) The stronger the wind.
(5.) The smaller the barometric pressure.
Evaporation, Electric The forma-
EYH.]
221
LExc.
tion of vapors at the surfaces of substances
by the influence of negative electrification.
The term electric evaporation was proposed by
Crookes (or the formation of metallic vapors of
such substances as metallic platinum, exposed in
high vacua to the effects of negative electrifica-
tion. He shows that under these circumstances
the surface molecules of the platinum lose their
power of cohering and fly off into the space
around them, /. t , suffer true evaporation. This
action takes place under atmospheric pressures,
butj like ordinary evaporation, is greatly facili-
tated by the presence of a high vacuum.
True electric evaporation takes place with
liquids as well as with solids. In an experiment
with water, the influence of the kind of the elec-
trification was clearly shown. A vessel of water
,A
Fig. 242. Electrical Evaporation.
exposed to the air was first positively electrified,
but after an exposure of i| hours only a trifling
evaporation was noticeable. The water was
then negatively electrified, and at the end of i^
kours had lost -j^ViF part of its weight more than
did the positively charged water.
Professor Crookes experimented with cadmium,
and, in order to show that electric evaporation is
different from evaporation produced by the agency
•f heat, tried the following, viz. : A high vacuum
U-tube, shaped as shown in Fig 242, was pro-
243. Electrical Evaporation.
Tided with platinum poles sealed in the glass at
A and B. Two pieces of cadmium, C and D,
were placed in the tube in the position shown,
and the Cube uniformly heated by means of % gas-
burner ;.nd air bath, and maintained at a constant
temperature. The current was then passed for
%bout an hour, B, being made the negative pole.
No metal was deposited in the neighborhood of
the positive pole, the portions of the tube sur-
rounding the positive pole being quite clean,
while the corresponding portions of the other limb
of the tube were thickly coated, as shown by the
shading in the drawing.
In another experiment, in which the tempera-
ture was kept lower than in the preceding, viz.,
just below the melting point of the cadmium,
after the current had passed for an hour, the limb
of the tube through which the current had passed
had received a thick coating, while the other was
nearly free from coating, as shown in Fig. 243.
Here the increase in the amplitude of the mole-
cular oscillation under the influence of the elec-
tricity is manifest.
Evaporation, Electrification by • —
An increase in the difference of potential ex-
isting in a mass of vapor attending its sudden
condensation.
The free electricity of the atmosphere is be-
lieved by some to be due to the condensation of
the vapor of the air that results in rain, hail,
clouds, etc. It is probable, however, that the
true effect of condensation is mainly limited to
the increase of a feeble electrification already
possessed by the air or its contained vapor. The
small difference of potential of the exceedingly
small drops of water in clouds is enormously in-
creased by the union or coalescing of many
thousands of such drops into a single rain drop.
(See Electricity, Atmospheric.}
Exchange, Telephonic, System of •
— A combination of circuits, switches and
other devices, by means of which any one of
a number of subscribers connected with a
telephonic circuit, or a neighboring telephonic
circuit or circuits, may be placed in electrical
communication with any other subscriber
connected with such circuit or circuits.
A telephone exchange consists essentially of a
multiple switchboard, or a number of multiple
switchboards, furnished with spring-jacks, an-
nunciator drops, and suitable connecting cords. A
call bell, or bells, is also provided. The annun-
ciator drops are often omitted. (See Board^
Multiple Switch.)
Excitability. Electric, of Nerve or Mns-
cnlar Fibre The effect produced by an
electric current in stimulating the nerve of a
Exc.J
[Exh.
living animal, or in producing an involuntary
contraction of a muscle.
Du Bois-Reymond has shown that these effects
depend :
(i.) On the strength of the current employed.
The excitability occurs only when the current
begins to flow, and when it ceases flowing ; or,
when the electrodes first touch the nerves, and
when they are separated from it. Subsequent
investigations have shown that this is true only
for the frog's nerves, and is true for the human
nerves only in the case of moderate currents,
strong currents producing tetanus.
(2.) On the rapidity with which the current
used reaches its maximum value, that is, on the
rapidity of change of current density, (See
Current Density,")
Excitability, Electro-Nervous
In electro-therapeutics the electric excitation
of a nerve.
Excitability, Electrotonic - —The
actual excitability of a nerve when in the
electrotonic condition. (See Electrotonus,
Anelectrotonus. Kathelectrotonus)
Excitability, Faradic Muscular or
nervous excitability following the employment
of the rapidly intermittent currents produced
by induction coils. (See Coil, Induction,}
Faradic excitability is different from galvanic
excitability, or that produced by means of a con -
tinuous voltaic current. (See Excitability, Gal-
vanic, )
Excitability, Galvanic A term
sometimes employed for electric excitability
of nerve or muscular fibre. (See Excitability,
Electric, of Nerve or Muscular Fibre?)
Excitation, Compensated, of Alternator.
— (See Alternator, Compensated Excitation
of.)
Excitation, Direct The excitement
of a muscle by placing an electrode on the
muscle itself.
Excitation, Electro-Muscular —
In electro-therapeutics the galvanic or faradic
excitation of the muscle, or its excitation by
the continuous currents of a voltaic battery, or
the alternating currents of an induction coil.
Excitation, Faradic — —Excitation of
nuscle or nerve fibre by means of rapidly
alternating currents of electricity. (See
Excitability, Faradic)
Excitation, Indirect— —The excite-
ment of a muscle from its nerve.
Exciter of Field.— (See Field, Exciter of}
Exciting Liquid of Voltaic Cell.— (See
Cell, Voltaic, Primary, Exciting Liquid of.)
Execution, Electric Causing the
death of a criminal, in cases of capital pun-
ishment, by means of the electric current.
Electric execution has been adopted by the
State of New York, in accordance with the
following law :
"The Court shall sentence the prisoner to
death within a certain week, naming no day or
hour, and not more than eight nor less than five
weeks from the day of sentence. The execution
must take place in the State prison to which con-
victed felons are sent by the Court, and the execu-
tioner must be the agent and warden of the prison.
"No newspaper may print any details of the
execution, which is to be inflicted by electricity.
A current of electricity is to be caused to pass
through the body of the condemned of sufficient
intensity to kill him, and the application is to be
continued until he is dead."
Exhaustion, Electric — — Physiological
effects resembling those produced by sun-
stroke, resulting from prolonged exposure
to the radiation of unsually large voltaic arcs.
(See Sun- Stroke, Electric}
Exhaustion Of Primary Voltaic Cell.—
(See Cell, Voltaic, Primary, Exhaustion of}
Exhaustion of Secondary Voltaic Cell.—
(See Cell, Voltaic, Secondary, Exhaustion of.)
Exhaustion of Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Exhaustion of,)
Exhaustion, Reaction of — — A con-
dition of nervous and muscular irritability to
electric excitation when a certain reaction,
produced by a given current strength, cannot
be reproduced without an increase of current
strength.
The reaction of exhaustion may be regarded as
a special variety of the reaction of degeneration.
(See Degeneration, Reaction of)
The reaction of degeneration embraces thf
following modifications of irritability, viz.:
Exp.J
[Eye.
(i.) Disappearance or diminution of nervous
irritability to both galvanic and faradic currents.
(2.) Disappearance of faradic and increase of
galvanic irritability of muscles, generally associ-
ated with an increase of mechanical irritability.
(3 ) Disappearance of faradic and increase of
galvanic muscular irritability associated generally
with increased mechanical irritability.
(4.) Tardy, delayed contraction of muscles in-
stead of quick reaction of normal muscle.
(5.) Marked modifications of normal sequence
of contraction. — Liebig 6° Rohe.
Expanding Magnetic Whirl.— (See
Whirl, Expanding Magnetic)
Expansion, Co-efficient of —The
fractional increase in the dimensions of a bar
or rod when heated from 32 degrees to 33
degrees F. or from o degree to I degree C.
The fractional increase in the length of the bar
is called the Co-efficient of Linear Expansion.
The fractional increase in the surface is called
the Co-efficient of Surf ace Expansion.
The fractional increase in the volume is called
the Co-efficient of Cubic Expansion.
Expansion, Electric — — The increase
in volume produced in a body on giving such
body an electric charge.
A Leyden jar increases in volume when a
charge is imparted to it. This result is due to an
expansion of the glass due to the electric charge.
According to Quincke, some substances, such as
resinous or oily bodies, manifest a contraction of
volume on the reception of an electric charge.
Expansion Joint — (See Joint, Expan-
sion?)
Expansion, Linear, Co-efficient of
A number expressing the fractional increase in
length of a bar for a given increment of heat.
The co-efficients of expansion of a few sub-
stances are given in the following table:
Temp.
Aluminium 16 to ico degrees C . .0.0000235
Copper
German silver
Glass
Iron
Lead
0
o
o
13
o
ICO
ICO
IOO
100
IOO
" . .0.0000167
" ..0.0000184
" . .0.0000071
" . .0.0000123
" . .0.0000280
Platinum ....
Silver
Zinc...
o
o
o
IOO
IOO
IOO
" ..0.0000089
" ..0.0000194
" ..0.0000230
(Anthony &> Brackett.)
Exploder, Electric Mine A small
magneto-electric machine used to produce the
currents of high electromotive force employed
in the direct firing of blasts.
Exploder, Electro-Magnetic A
small magneto-electric machine used to pro-
duce the currents of high electromotive force
employed in the direct firing of blasts.
Explorer, Electric An apparatus
operated by means of induced currents, and
employed for the purpose of locating bullets
or other foreign metallic substances in the
human body. (See Balance, Induction,
Hughes')
Explorer, Magnetic — —A small, flat
coil of insulated wire, used, in connection with
the circuit of a telephone, to determine the
position and extent of the magnetic leakage
of a dynamo-electric machine or other similar
apparatus. (See Magnetophone)
Explosive Distance. — (See Distance, Ex-
plosive.)
Extension Call-Bell.— (See Sell, Exten-
sion Call.)
External Circuit— (See Circuit, Exter-
nal.)
External Secondary Resistance. — (See
Resistance, External Secondary.)
Extra Currents.— (See Currents, Extra)
Extraordinary Resistance. — (See Resist-
ance, Extraordinary)
Extra-Polar Region.— (See Region, Ex-
tra-Polar)
Eye, Electro-Magnetic A term pro-
posed for a certain form of spark-micrometer
employed by Hertz in his experiment on elec-
tro-magnetic radiation.
This apparatus has received the above name
because it enables the observer to see or localize
an electromagnetic disturbance.
The particular spark -micrometer that has re-
ceived the name of the electro-magnetic eye had
the form of a circle 35 centimetres in radius, and
was formed of a copper wire 2 millimetres in di-
ameter. Like all spark-micrometer circuits, it
had its terminals separated by a small air-space.
Eye, Selenium An artificial eye in
Fac.]
which a selenium resistance takes the place
of the retina and two slides the place of the
eyelids.
The selenium resistance is placed in the circuit
of a battery and a galvanometer. When the
slides L, L, Fig. 244, are shut, the galvanometer
deflection is less than when they are open.
The opening of the aperture between the slides
L, L, may be automatically accomplished by the
action of the light itself, by moving them by an
electro-magnet placed in the circuit of a local bat-
tery, and a selenium resistance may be so arranged
that when light falls on it the slides L, L, are
moved together, and when the amount of such
aght is small they are moved apart, by the action
224
[Far.
of a spring. In this way there is obtained a
device roughly resembling the dilatation or con-
traction of the pupil of the eye from the action of
light on the iris. (See Photometer, Selenium.)
Fac-Simile Telegraphy, or Panteleg-
raphy. — (See Telegraphy, Fac-Simile)
Fahrenheit's Thermometer Scale. — (See
Scale, Thermometer, Fahrenheit's?)
Fall of Potential.— (See Potential, Fall
of.)
False Magnetic Pole (See Pole,
Magnetic, False.)
False Resistance. — (See Resistance,
False.)
False Zero.— (See Zero, False.)
Fan Guard.— (See Guard, Fan.)
Farad. — The practical unit of electric
capacity.
Such a capacity of a conductor or condenser
that one coulomb of electricity is required to
produce in the conductor or condenser a
difference of potential of one volt.
As in gases, a quart vessel will hold a quart of
gas under unit pressure of one atmosphere, so, in
electricity, a conductor or condenser, whose capa-
city is one farad, will hold a quantity of electricity
equal to one coulomb when under an electromotive
force of one volt.
It may cause some perplexity to the student to
understand why there should be in electricity one
unit of capacity to represent the size of the vessel
or conductor, and another to represent the
amount or quantity of electricity required to fill
such vessel. But, like a gas, electricity acts, in
effect, as if it were very compressible, so that the
quantity required to fill any condenser will de-
P' N
Fif. 245. Elevation of Standardized Condenser.
pend on the electromotive force under which it is
put into the conductor or condenser.
For purposes of measurement, capacities of
conductors are compared with those of condensers
Fig. 24.6. Plan of Standardized Condenser.
whose capacities are known in microfarads, or
fractions thereof. The microfarad, or tke
of a farad, is used because of the very
1,000,000
great size of a farad.
far,]
[Fan.
Fig. 245 shows an elevation, and Fig. 246 a
plan of the form often given to a standardized
condenser or microfarad. The condenser is
charged by connecting the terminals of the elec-
tric source to the binding posts N and N. It is
discharged by means of the plug key P', that
connects the brass pieces A and B, when pushed
firmly into the conical space between them.
The condenser is made by placing sheets of tin
foil between sheets of oiled silk or mica in the
box and connecting the alternate sheets to one of
the brass pieces B, and the other set to the brass
piece A, as will be better understood from an
inspection of Fig. 247.
5
Fig. 247 Met kod of Construction of a Condenser.
Condensers are generally made of the capacity
of the \ of a microfarad. Sometimes, however,
they are made so that either all or part of the
condenser may be employed, by the insertion of
the different plug keys.
The form of condenser shown in Fig. 248 is
Fig. 248. Standard Condenser
capable of ready division into five separate val-
ues, viz.: .05, .05, .2, .2 and .5 microfarad.
Farad, Micro The millionth part
of a farad. (See Farad.}
Faraday Effect.— (See Effect, Faraday)
Faraday's Cube.— (See Cube, Faraday's)
Faraday's Dark Space.— (See Space,
Dark, Faraday's)
Faraday's Net— (See Net. Faraday's)
Faradic Apparatus, Magneto-Electric
(See Apparatus, Faradic Mag-
neto-Electric)
Faradic Brush.— (See Brush, Faradic)
Faradic Current. — (See Current Fara-
dic)
Faradic Excitation.— (See Excitation,
Faradic)
Faradic Induction Apparatus.— (See
Apparatus. Faradic Induction)
Faradic Irritability.— (See Irritability,
Faradic)
Faradic Machine.— (See Machine, Fara-
dic)
Faradization. — In electro-therapeutics, the
effects produced on the nerves or muscles
by the use of a faradic current, in order to
distinguish such effects from galvanization
or those produced by a voltaic current. (See
Galvanization)
Faradization, General A method
of applying the faradic current similar to
that employed in general galvanization.
(See Galvanization, General)
Faradization, Local A method of
applying the faradic current in general simi-
lar to that employed in local galvanization.
(See Galvanization, Local)
Fault. — Any failure in the proper working
of a circuit due to ground contacts, cross-
contacts or disconnections. (See Contacts.
Cross)
Faults are of three kinds, viz. :
(i.) Disconnections. (See Disconnection)
(2.) Earths. (See Earth)
(3.) Contacts. (See Contacts)
Various methods are employed for detecting
and localizing faults, for the explanation of
which reference should be had to standard elec-
trical works on testing or measurements.
Fault, Ironwork, of Dynamo A
ground or connection between the current of
a dynamo and any part of its ironwork.
Fan.]
[Fie.
If the dynamo is in good connection with the
ground, as is frequently the case in marine plants,
this fault is the same as a ground.
Faults, Localization of Determin-
ing the position of a fault on a telegraph line
or cable by calculations based on the fall in
the potential of the line measured at different
points, or by loss of charge, etc.
For details, see standard works on electrical
measurements.
Feed, Clockwork, for Arc Lamps
An arrangement of clockwork for obtaining
a uniform feed motion of one or both elec-
trodes of an arc lamp.
The clockwork is automatically thrown into or
out of action by an electro-magnet, usually placed
in a shunt circuit around the carbons.
Feed, To To supply with an electric
current, as by a dynamo or other source.
Feeder. — One of the conducting wires or
channels through which the current is dis-
tributed to the main conductors.
Feeder, Standard or Main —The
main feeder to which the standard pressure
indicator is connected, and whose pressure
controls the pressure at the ends of all the
other feeders.
The term pressure in the above definition is
used in the sense of electromotive force or differ-
ence of potential.
Feeder-Wires.— (See Wires, Feeder)
Feeders. — In a system of distribution by
constant potential, as in incandescent elec-
tric lighting, the conducting wires extend-
ing between the bus-wires or bars, and the
junction boxes.
A feeder differs from a main in that a main
consists of a conductor that may be tapped at any
point to supply a customer, while a feeder leads
direct from the dynamo or other source to a main
and is not tapped at any point.
Feeders, Negative The feeders
that are connected with the negative terminal
of the dynamo. (See Feeders?)
Feeders, Positive The feeders that
are connected with the positive terminal of
the dynamo. (See Feeders?)
Feeding Device of Electric Arc Lamp.—
(See Device, Feeding, of an Arc Lamp.
Feed, Clockwork, for Arc-Lamps?)
Feeding-Wire.— (See Wire, Feeding)
Feet, Ampere The product of the
current in amperes by the distance in feet
through which that current passes.
It has been suggested that the term ampere-
feet should be employed in expressing the strength
of electro-magnetism in the field magnets of
dynamo-electro machines or other similar ap-
paratus.
Ferranti Effect— (See Effect, Ferranti)
Ferro-Magnetic Substance. — (See Sub-
stance, Ferro-Magnetic)
Fibre, Quartz A fibre suitable for
suspending galvanometer needles, etc., made
of quartz.
The quartz fibre is obtained by fusing quartz and
drawing out the fused material as a fine thread,
in a manner similar to the production of glass
fibres. Quartz fibres possess marked advantage
over silk fibres, in that they are 5.4 times stronger
for equal diameters, and especially, in that they
return to the zero point, after very considerable
deflections.
Quartz fibres are readily obtained by fusing
quartz pebbles together in the voltaic arc, and
drawing them apart with a rapid, but steady, uni-
form motion.
Fibre Suspension. — (See Suspension,
Fibre)
Fibre, Vulcanized A variety of in-
sulating material suitable for purposes not
requiring the highest insulation.
Vulcanized fibre is, however, seriously affected
by long exposure to moisture.
Fibrone. — An insulating substance.
Field, Air — — That portion of a mag-
netic field in which the lines of force pass
through air only.
Field, Alternating An electrostatic
or magnetic field the positive direction of the
lines of force in which is alternately reversed
or changed in direction.
Field, Alternating Electrostatic —
An electrostatic field, the potential of which
is rapidly alternating.
Fie.]
227
[Fie.
An alternating electrostatic field is, according
to Tesla's experiments, produced in the neighbor,
hood of the terminals of the secondary of an in-
duction coil, through whose primary, alternations
of high frequency are passing.
Field, Alternating Magnetic.— A mag-
netic field the direction of whose lines of
force is alternately reversed.
Field, Density of — —The number of
lines of force that pass through any field, per
unit of area of cross-section.
Field, Electric A term sometimes
used in place of an electrostatic field. (See
Field, Electrostatic?)
Field, Electro-Magnetic The space
traversed by the lines of magnetic force pro-
duced by an electro-magnet. (See Field,
Magnetic?)
Field, Electrostatic The region of
electrostatic influence surrounding a charged
body.
Electrostatic attractions or repulsions take
place along certain lines called lines of electro-
static force. These lines of force produce a field
called an electrostatic field. Electric level or
potential is measured along these lines, just as
gravitation levels are measured with a plumb line
along the lines of gravitation force. (See Poten-
tial, Electric.)
Work is done when a body is moved along the
lines of electrostatic force in a direction from an
oppositely charged body, or towards a similarly
charged body, just as work is done against
gravity when a body is moved along the lines of
gravitation force, away from the earth's centre,
or vertically upwards.
Field, Exciter of In a separately
excited dynamo-electric machine, the dyna-
mo-electric machine, voltaic battery, or other
electric source employed to produce the field
of the field magnets. (See Machine, Dyna-
mo-Electric^)
Field, Intensity of The strength
of a field as measured by the number of lines
of force that pass through it per unit of area
of cross-section. (See Field, Electrostatic.
Field, Magnetic?)
Field, Magnetic The region of
magnetic influence surrounding the poles of a
magnet.
A space or region traversed by lines of
magnetic force.
A place where a magnetic needle, if free
to move, will take up a definite position, under
the influence of the lines of magnetic force.
Unit strength of magnetic field is the field
which would be produced by a magnetic pole of
unit strength at unit distance.
Magnetic attractions and repulsions are assumed
to take place along certain lines called lines of
magnetic force. The directions of these lines in
any plane of a magnetic field may be shown by
sprinkling iron filings over a sheet of paper held
in a horizontal position to a magnet pole inclined
*Fig. 249. Magnetic Field.
to the paper in the desired plane and then gently
tapping the paper.
The groupings of iron filings so obtained are
sometimes called magnetic figures.
The directions of the lines of force thus shown
will appear from an inspection of Fig. 249, taken
in a plane joining the two poles of a straight bar
magnet, and Fig. 250, taken in a plane at right
angles to the north pole of a straight bar magnet.
In Fig. 249, the repulsion of the lines of force
at either pole is shown by the radiation of the
chains ot magnetized iron particles. The mutual
attraction of unlike polarities is shown by the
curved lines.
In Fig. 250, the repulsion of the similarly mag-
netized chains is clearly shown.
Lines of magnetic force are assumed to pass
out from the north, pole and back again into the
magnet at its south pole. This assumed direction
Fie.]
is called the direction of the lines of magnetic
force.
Faraday expressed his conception of lines of
magnetic force as follows:
" Every line of force must therefore be consid-
ered as a closed circuit, passing, in some part of
its course, through a magnet and having an equal
amount of force in every part of its course. There
Fig. 230. Magnetic Field.
exist lines of force within the magnet of the same
nature as those without. What is more, they are
exactly equal in amount to those without. They
have a relation in direction to those without' and
are, in fact, continuations of them."
When a conductor, such as a wire through
which a powerful current of electricity is flowing,
is dipped in a mass of iron filings, a chain of iron
filings is formed, the north end of which is urged
around the conductor in one direction and the
south end in the opposite direction, so that the
movable chain of filings surrounds or grips the
conductor in concentric rings or circles.
The density of a magnetic field is directly pro-
portional to the number of lines of force per unit
of area of cross-section.
A single line of force, or a unit line of force, is
»uch an intensity of field as exists in each square
centimetre of cross-section of a unit magnetic
field.
A magnetic field is uniform, or possesses uni-
form intensity, when it possesses the same num-
ber of lines of force per square centimetre of area
of cross-section.
Field, Magnetic, Alternating The
magnetic field produced by means of an
alternating current.
Field, Magnetic, Dissymmetrical
A field whose lines of force are not symmet-
rically distributed in adjacent halves.
Field, Magnetic, Expanding of —
An increase in the length of the lines of mag-
netic force in any field, or an increase in the
length of their magnetic circuit.
Field, Magnetic, of an Electric Current
The magnetic field surrounding a cir-
Fig. 251. Field of Current.
cuit through which an electric current is flow-
ing.
An electric current produces a magnetic field.
This was discovered by Oersted
in 1819, and may be shown by
sprinkling iron filings on a sheet
of paper, placed on the wire
conductor conveying the cur-
rent, at right angles to the direc-
tion in which the current is pass-
ing. Here the lines of force
appear as concentric circles, ex-
tending around the conductor,
as shown in Fig. 251. Their
direction, as regards the length
of the conductor, is shown in
Fig. 252. The electric current
sets up these magnetic whirls
around the conductor on its
passage through it.
The direction of the lines of
magnetic force produced by an tion of Lines oj
electric current, and hence its Force,
magnetic polarity, depends on the direction in
which the electric current flows. This directi^-i
Fie.
229
[Fie.
may be remembered as follows: If the current
flows towards the observer, the directions of the
lines of magnetic force is opposite to that of the
kands of a watch, as shown in Fig. 253.
Fig 233. Direction of Lines of Force
It is from the direction of the lines of magnetic
force that the polanty of a helix carrying a cur-
rent is deduced. (See Solenoid, Magnetic. Mag.
net, Electro, )
A magnetic field possesses the following prop-
erties, viz.:
(I.) All magnetizable bodies are magnetized
when brought into a magnetic field. (See Induc-
tion, Magnetic.)
(2.) Conductors moved through a magnetic
field so as to cut its lines of force have differences
of potential generated in them at different points,
and if these points be connected by a conductor,
an electric current is produced. (See Induction,
Electro-Magnetic. )
Field, Magnetic, Pulsatory A field,
the strength of which pulsates in such manner
as to produce oscillatory currents by induc-
tion.
Field, Magnetic, Reversing That
portion of the field of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine, produced by the field-magnet coils, in
which the currents flowing in the armature
coils are stopped or reversed after the coil has
passed its theoretical position of neutrality.
Sparkless commutation is obtained by placing
the brushes on the commutator so as to corre-
spond with the reversing field.
Field, Magnetic, Shifting A term
proposed by Professor Elihu Thomson to ex-
press a field of magnetic lines of changing
position with respect to the axis of the pole
from which they emanate.
* . A shifting magnetic field is especially a phe-
nomenon of a rapidly alternating magnetic field
occurring in a substance like hardened steel in
which the coercive force is lairly nigh. It, for
example, a single magnet pole of an electro-
magnet, whose coils are traversed by a rapidly
alternating current of electricity, is placed near one
end of a steel file, the changing polarity developed
thereby moves or shifts trom the point directly
over the pole towards the distant end. The
presence of this shifting field can be shown by the
rotation of discs of copper suitably inclined to the '
end of the file. In a similar manner a prismatic
mass of steel, placed with one of its flat sides
on the pole of a rapidly alternating magnetic
field, will have a magnetic field developed in it,
which will move or shift from the flat base
towards the upper edge. Movable masses of good
conducting metal, such as copper, will be set in
rotation in a direction such as would be caused
by an escape of gas therefrom.
The shifting magnetic field travels from the
upper portions of the prism just as a stream of
escaping gaseous substance would.
Field, Magnetic, Spreading-Out A
term sometimes used to represent an expand-
ing magnetic field. (See Field, Magnetic,
Expanding of.)
Field, Magnetic, Stray That por-
tion of the field of a dynamo-electric machine
which is not utilized for the development of
differences of potential in the armature, be-
cause its lines of force do not pass through
the armature.
Field, Magnetic, Strength of — —The
dynamic force acting on a free magnetic pole,
placed in a magnetic field.
If a free magnetic pole could be placed in a
magnetic field, it would begin to move towards
the opposite pole of the field, under its magnetic
attraction, just as an unsupported body, free to
move, would begin to fall towards the earth.
The strength of a magnetic field corresponds to
the acceleration of the force of gravity in the
case of a falling body. The strength of the mag-
netic pole corresponds tto the mass of the falling
body. The force impressed m the case of the
magnetic field is equal to the strength of the pole
multiplied by the strength of the field.
Field, Magnetic, Symmetrical A
field whose lines of force are symmetrically
distributed in adjacent halves.
Fie.]
[F1L
Field, Magnetic, Uniform A field
traversed by the same number of lines of
magnetic force in all unit portions of area of
cross-section. (See Field, Magnetic^
Field, Magnetic, Waste A term
sometimes employed for stray field. (See
Field, Magnetic, Stray ^
Field, Rotating-Current A mag-
netic field produced by means of a rotating
current. (See Current, Rotating)
Field, Uniform Density of A uni-
form density in all equal areas of cross-
section of field.
Field, Tortex-Ring The field of
influence possessed by a vortex-ring.
Professor Dolbear points out the fact that the
direction of the rotation of a fluid constituting a
Tortex-ring resembles the magnet flux in a mag-
netic field, and shows, from the action of such rings
on one another, that they possess a true field, or
atmosphere of influence outside their actual
bodies. He infers that such rings possess true
polarity, since the motions producing them have
different directions on opposite sides or ends.
Figure of Merit of Galvanometer. — (See
Galvanometer, Figure of Merit of)
Figures, Breath Faint figures of
condensed vapor produced by electrifying a
coin, placing it momentarily on the surface of
a sheet of clean, dry glass, and then breath-
ing gently on the spot where the coin was
placed.
The moisture collects on the electrified portions
of the plate and lorms a iairly distinct image ot
the coin.
Figures, Electric Figures of various
shapes produced on electrified surfaces by the
arrangement of dust particles or vapor
vesicles under the influence of electric charges.
Electric figures are ot two varieties, viz. :
(I.) Dust figures.
(2.) Breath figures.
Figures, Lichtenberg's Dust -
Figures produced by writing on a sheet of shel-
lac with the knob of a charged Leyden jar and
then sprinkling over the sheet dried and
powdered sulphur and red lead, which have
been previously mixed together, and are so
rendered, respectively negative and positive.
The red lead collects on the negative parts of
the shellac surface, and the sulphur on the posi-
tive parts, in curious figures, known as Lichten-
berg's Dust Figures, one of which is shown in
Fig. 254.
Fig' 254.. Lichtenberg's Dust Figures.
These figures show very clearly that an electric
charge tends to creep irregularly over the surface
of an insulating substance*
Figures, Magnetic A name some-
times applied to the groupings of iron filings
on a sheet of paper so held in a magnetic field
as to be grouped or arranged under the in-
fluence of the lines of force of the same. (See
Field, Magnetic.)
Filament. — A slender thread or fibre.
The term is applied generally to threads or
fibres varying considerably in diameter.
Filament, Current A term some-
times employed in place of current streamlet.
(See Streamlets Current.)
Filament, Magnetic A polarized
line or chain of ultimate magnetic particles.
This is sometimes called a uniform magnetic
filament.
A bar-magnet possesses but two iree poles.
When broken ai its neutral point or equator, the
bar will develop iree poles at the broken ends.
This is explained by considering the magnet to
be composed of a number of separate particles,
separately magnetized. A single chain or fila-
ment of such particles is called a magnetic
filament. (See Magnet, Neutral Point of. Mag-
netism, Hughes' Theory of. Magnetism,
Riving1 s Theory of.)
Filament of Incandescent Electric Lamp,
Fil.J
231
[Fir.
— (See Lamp, Incandescent Electric, Fila-
ment of.)
Filament, Uniform Magnetic —A
term sometimes applied to a magnetic fila-
ment. (See filament, Magnetic.)
Filaments, Flashed Filaments for
an incandescent lamp, that have been sub-
jected to the flashing process. (See Carbons,
Flashing Process for .)
Filamentous Armature Core. — (See Core,
Armature, Filamentous?)
\ Film Cut-Out— (See Cut-Out, Film.}
Finder, Induction — — A term some-
times employed for a magnetic explorer.
Finder, Position, Electric A de-
vice by means of which the exact position of
an object can be obtained.
By means of a position-finder a gunner can
be telephoned or otherwise ordered to fire at ob-
jects he cannot see, and yet obtain a fair degree
of accuracy.
Finder, Range, Electric A de-
vice by means of which the exact distance of
an enemy's ship or other target can be readily
determined.
The operation of an electric range-finder is based
on a method somewhat similar to the solving of a
triangle for the purpose of determining distances.
If the base line of a triangle and the two angles
at the base are known, the other two sides and
the included angle can be determined.
In the range-finder, the resistance of a German
silver wire corresponds to the graduated arc ot
the theodolite used to measure the angles, and a
rheostat, as a receiving instrument, measures the
values of the angles. The base line is a constant,
so that the receiving instrument is marked in
yards instead of angles. To use the range-finder,
two observers watch the target object continu-
ously through a telescope. They do this and
nothing else, while a third observer watches a
galvanometer and so alters a resistance, by moving
a contact or slide key along a resistance wire, as
to keep the needle of the galvanometer constantly
at zero. The exact distance being thus ascer-
tained, the gunner can make the proper allowance
in firing.
Finder, Wire Any form of galva-
nometer used to locate or find the corre-
sponding ends of different wires in a bunched
cable.
The different wires in a cable are usually tagged
and numbered at the end of the cable and at the
joints. The telephone has been successfully em-
ployed as a wire finder.
Fire Alarm Annunciator. — (See Annun-
ciator, Fire Alarm.)
Fire Alarm, Automatic (See
Alarm, Fire Automatic?)
Fire Alarm Contact— (See Contact, Fire
Alarm?)
Fire Alarm Signal Box.— (See Box, Fire
Alarm Signal.)
Fire Alarm Telegraph Box.— (See Box,
Fire Alarm Telegraph.)
Fire Ball.— (See Sail, Fire.)
Fire Cleansing.— (See Cleansing, Fire.)
Fire Extinguisher, Electric A
thermostat or mercury contact, which auto-
matically completes a circuit and turns on a
water supply for extinguishing a fire, on a
certain predetermined increase of tempera-
ture.
Fire, Hot, St. Elmo's A term pro-
posed by Tesla for a form of powerful brush
discharge between the secondary terminals of
a high frequency induction coil. (See Dis-
charge, Brush-and- Spray?)
This form of St. Elmo's fire differs from the
ordinary form in being hot. Its general appear-
ance is shown in Fig. 255, taken from Tesla.
Fig. 253. St. Elmo's Hot Fire.
Describing its production he says : '• In many of
these experiments, when powerful effects are
wanted for a short time, it is advantageous to use
Fir.]
232
[Flo.
iron cores with the primaries. In such case a
very large primary coil may be wound and placed
side by side with the secondary, and, the nearest
terminal of the latter being connected to the
primary, a laminated iron core is introduced
through the primary into the secondary as far as
the streams will permit. Under these conditions
an excessively powerful brush, several inches
long, which may be appropriately called ' St.
Elmo's hot fire, ' may be caused to appear at the
other terminal of the secondary, producing strik-
ing effects. It is a most powerful ozonizer ; so
powerful indeed, that only a few minutes are suf-
ficient to fill the whole room with the smell of
ozone, and it undoubtedly possesses the quality of
exciting chemical affinities. "
Fire, St. Elmo's Tongues of faintly
luminous fire which sometimes appear on the
pointed ends of bodies in connection with the
earth, such as the tops of church steeples or
the masts of ships.
The appearance of the St. Elmo's fire is due to
brush discharges of electricity.
Fishes, Electric A term applied to
various fishes, such as the eel and the ray,
which possess the ability of protecting them-
selves by giving electric shocks to objects
touching them. (See Eel, Electric!)
Fishing Box.— (See Box, Fishing)
Fittings or Fixtures, Electric Light —
< — The sockets, holders, arms, etc., required
for holding or supporting incandescent electric
lamps.
Fixed Secondary. — (See Secondary,
Fixed.)
Fixtures, Telegraphic A term gen-
erally limited to the variously shaped supports
provided for the attachment of telegraphic
wires.
Fixtures, Telegraphic House-Top —
Telegraphic fixtures placed on the roofs of
buildings for the support of the lines.
Flaming Discharge. — (See Discharge,
Flaming.)
Flash, Side A sparking or lateral
discharge taking place from the sides of a
conductor, when an impulsive rush of elec-
tricity passes through it.
The phenomenon of siae flashing is due to a
lateral discharge which takes the alternative path,
instead of a path of much smaller obmic re^ist-
ance. The tendency to side flash results from
the fact that the metallic circuit possesses induct-
ance. (See Path, Alternative. Discharge, Lat-
eral. Inductance. )
Flashed Carbons. — (See Carbons,
Flashed.)
Flashed Filaments. — ( See Filaments,
Flashed)
Flashes, Auroral Sudden variations
in the intensity of the auroral light.
Intermittent flashes of auroral light that
occur during the prevalence of an aurora.
(See Aurora Borealis.)
Flashing of Carbons, Process for the
— (See Carbons, Flashing Process for.)
Flashing of Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Flashing
of.)
Flat Cable.— (See Cable, Flat.)
Flat Duplex Cable.— (See Cable, Flat
Duplex.)
Flat Ring Armature. — (See Armature,
Flat Ring)
Flats. — A name sometimes applied to those
parts of commutator segments the surface of
which, through wear, has become lower than
the other portions. (See Commutator)
Fleming's Gauss. — (See Gauss, Flem-
ing's)
Fleming's Standard Yoltaic Cell.— (See
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Fleming's)
Flexible Electric Light Pendant.— (See
Pendant, Flexible Electric Light)
Flexible Lead.— (See Lead, Flexible)
Floating Battery, De la Rive's.— (See
Battery Floating, De la Rives)
Flow.— In hydraulics, the quantity of
water or other fluid which escapes from an
orifice in a containing vessel, or through a
pipe, in a given time.
Flow-Lines of Escaping Fluid. — Lines
within the mass of a fluid in motion, drawn at
Flo.]
[Fly.
a. number of points, so that the flow at any
instant is tangential at such points to the
curved path.
Flow, Magnetic — The magnetic
flux. (See Flux, Magnetic)
Flow of Current, Assumed Direction of
— (See Current, Assumed Direction
of Flow of)
Flow of Energy.— (See Energy, Flow of?)
Flow of Lines of Electrostatic Force. —
(See Force, Electrostatic, Lines of, Assumed
Flow of)
Flow of Magnetic Induction. — (See In-
duction, Magnetic^ Flux or Flow of)
Fluid, Depolarizing An electro-
lytic fluid in a voltaic cell that prevents polari-
zation. (See Cell, Voltaic, Polarization of)
Fluid Insulator.— (See Insulator, Fluid)
Fluoresce. — To become self-luminous
when exposed to light.
A body is said to fluoresce when it shines, by
means of the light it produces. In this respect it
differs from an illumined body, which shines by
reflected light.
Fluorescence. — A property possessed by
certain solid or liquid substances of becoming
self-luminous while exposed to light.
In fluorescence the refrangibility of rays of
light is changed. The invisible rays beyond the
violet, the ultra-violet, become visible, so that
the light is transformed, the particles absorbing
one wave length and emitting another. (See Incan-
descence.}
Canary glass, or glass colored yellow by oxide
•f uranium, or a solution of sulphate of quinine,
possesses fluorescent properties. The path of a
pencil of light brought to a focus in either of these
substances, or a beam or cone of light passed
through them, is rendered visible by the particles
lying in this path becoming self-luminous. The
path of a beam of light entering the dusty air of
a darkened chamber is visible from the light being
diffused or scattered in all directions by the float-
ing dust particles.
In a fluorescent substance, the path of the light
is also rendered visible by the particles which lie
in its path, throwing out light in all directions.
There is, however, this difference, that in the
case of the dust particles the light which comes
directly from the beam is reflected ; while in the
case of the fluorescent body the light comes from
the particles themselves, which are set into vibra-
tion by the light that is passing through, and has
been absorbed by their mass.
Fluorescence is, therefore, a variety of phos-
phorescence. (See Phosphorescence.}
Fluorescent.— Possessing the capability of
fluorescing.
Fluorescing. — Exhibiting the property of
fluorescence.
Flush Box.— (See Box, Flush)
FluTiograph. — An apparatus for electri-
cally registering the varying height of water
in a tidal stream or in the ocean ; or, in general,
differences of water levels.
Flux, Magnetic The number of
lines of magnetic force that pass or flow
through a magnetic circuit.
The total.number of lines of magnetic force
in any magnetic field.
The magnetic flux is also called the magnetic
flow.
A Committee of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers on " Units and Standards "
proposed the following as the definition of mag-
netic flux.
" The magnetic flux through a surface bounded
by a closed curve is the surface integral of mag-
netic induction taken over the bounded surface,
and when produced by a current is also equal to
the line integral of the vector potential of the cur-
rent taken round the boundary."
" The uniform and unit time rate of change in
flux through a closed electric circuit establishes
unit electromotive force in the circuit."
Fluxes range in present practical work from
100 to 100,000,000 C. G. S. lines, and the working
units would perhaps prefix milli- and micro-.
Flux of Magnetic Induction.— (See In-
duction, Magnetic, Flux or Flow of)
Flux or Flow of Magnetism. — (See Mag-
netism, Flux or Flow of)
Fly, Electric A wheel or other de-
vice driven by the reaction of a convective
discharge. (See Flyer, Electric. Convec-
tion, Electric.}
Fly.]
234
[For.
"Z
Flyer, Electric A wheel arranged
so as to be set into rotation by the escape of
convection streams from its points when
connected with a charged conductor.
A wheel formed of
light radial armsP, P, P,
etc., shaped as shown in,
Fig. 256, and capable of
rotation on the vertical
axis A, is set into rapid
rotation when connected
with the prime conduc-
tor of a frictional or in-
fluence machine, through
the convection streams of
air particles, which are Fig' 236- Electric Flyer.
shot off from the points or extremities of the
radial arms. The wheel is driven by the reac-
tion of these streams in a direction opposite to
that of then- escape. (See Discharge, Connective.)
Focus. — A point in front or back of a lens
or mirror, where all the rays of light meet or
seem to meet. (See Lens, Achromatic.)
Fog, Electric A dense fog which
occurs on rare occasions when there is an
unusual quantity of free electricity in the
atmosphere.
During these electric fogs the free electricity of
the atmosphere changes its polarity at frequent
intervals.
Following Horn of Pole Pieces of
Dynamo-Electric Machine.— (See Horns,
Following, of Pole Pieces of a Dynamo-
JElectric Machined)
Foot-Candle.— (See Candle, Foot.)
Foot-Pound. — A unit of work. (See
Work.)
The amount of work required to raise I
pound vertically through a distance of i foot.
The same amount of work, viz., 3 foot-pounds,
is done by raising i pound through a vertical
distance of 3 feet, or 3 pounds through a verti-
cal distance of I foot.
Apart from air friction, the amount of work
done in raising I pound through I foot, viz., I
foot-pound, is the same whether this work be
done in one second or in one day. The power ,
or the rate of doing work, is, however, very dif-
ferent in the two cases. (See Power.)
Force. — Any cause which changes or tends
to change the condition of rest or motion of
a body.
Force, Centrifugal — —The force that
is supposed to urge a rotating body directly
away from the centre of rotation.
If a stone be tied to a string and whirled around,
and the string break, the stone will not fly off di-
rectly away from the centre, but will move along
the tangent to the point where it was when the
string broke.
The centrifugal force in reality is the force
which is represented by the tension to which the
string is subjected during this rotation.
Force, Coercitire A name some-
times applied to coercive force. (See Force,
Coercive?)
Force, Coercive The power of re-
sisting magnetization or demagnetization.
Coercive force, in the sense of resisting demag-
netization, is sometimes called magnetic reten-
tivity.
Hardened steel possesses great coercive force;
that is, it is magnetized or demagnetized with
difficulty.
Soft iron possesses very feeble coercive force.
It is on account of the feeble coercive force of
the soft iron :ore of an electro- magnet that its
main value depends, since it is thereby enabled to
rapidly acquire its magnetization, on the comple-
tion of a circuit through its coils, and to rapidly
lose its magnetization on the opening of such
circuit.
Force, Contact A difference of elec-
trostatic potential, produced by the contact of
dissimilar metals.
That a difference of potential is produced by
the mere contact of dissimilar metals is now gen-
erally recognized. Such a force is generally
called the true contact force. (See Force, True
Contact. )
According to Lodge, a true contact force has
no existence. There is no evidence, he thinks,
of a peculiar electromotive force at the point of
contact, but that the phenomena are due simply
to the fact that the metals are immersed in air or
oxygen, which is capable of combining with one
of them, and that, therefore, the cause of the
phenomena is the greater action, for instance, of
the oxygen of the air on the zinc than on the
copper.
For.]
235
[For.
According to this view, the voltaic effect is
due not to the difference of potential between
the zinc and copper, but to the difference of the
action of the air or moisture.
Force de Cheral or Cheral Vapeur.—
The French term for horse-power.
The force de cheval is equal to 75 kilogramme-
metres per second, or 32,549 foot-pounds per
minute.
The English horse-power is equal to 33,000
foot-pounds per minute. I force de cheval equals
.98634 horse-power; I horse-power equals 1.01385
force de cheval. — (Hering.)
Force, Electric The force developed
by electricity.
This term is generally limited to the force of
attraction or repulsion produced by an electro-
static charge.
Force, Electromotive The force
"starting electricity in motion, or tending to
start electricity in motion.
The force which moves or tends to move
electricity.
The term is an unfortunate one. Strictly speak-
ing, electromotive force is not a force at all :
at least, it is not a force in the Newtonian sense,
where force is only that which acts on matter.
The term electromotive force is generally writ-
ten thus : E. M. F.
The unit of electromotive force is the volt.
When electric induction takes place, there
results a change in the distribution of the thing
called electricity, whereby a movement occurs that
results in a positive and a negative charge. The
cause which produces this movement is called the
electromotive force.
There is an unfortunate want of uniformity at
present in the use of the term "electromotive
force. ' ' By some, the electromotive force is re-
garded as something which causes the difference
of potential ; by others the electromotive force is
regarded as being produced by the difference of
potential; and, by still others, electromotive force
is regarded as the entire electric moving cause
produced by any source; while anything less than
this is called by them potential difference.
Those who regard the electromotive force as
the cause which produces the potential difference
look on the electromotive force as acting within
the source and maintaining a potential difference
at its terminals.
Silvanus P. Thompson uses the term electro-
motive force in his "Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism" as follows: "The
term ' electromotive force ' is employed to denote
that which moves or tends to move electricity
from one place to another. For brevity we some-
times write it E. M. F. In this particular case it
is obviously the result of difference of potential
and proportional to it ; just as in water pipes, a
difference in level produces a pressure, and the
pressure produces a flow as soon as the tap is
turned on, so difference of potential produces
electromotive force, and electromotive force sets
up a current as soon as a circuit is completed for
the electricity to flow through."
Mascart and Joubert, in their work on ' ' Elec-
tricity and Magnetism," Vol. I., say: "In all
cases the difference of potential Vt — V2, may be
considered as producing the motion of electrical
masses ; it is often called the electromotive force. ' '
Maxwell, in his "Elementary Treatise on Elec-
tricity," speaking of the potential differences
which may be shown to exist at the terminals of
a Daniell voltaic cell when on open circuit, says :
' ' This difference of potential is called the electro-
motive force of a Daniell cell."
Balfour Stewart, in his " Electricity and Mag-
netism," says : • " This difference of electric level
we shall call E, and, indeed, it is merely a manner
of expressing the cause of electromotive force."
Prof. Fleming, in his "Short Lectures to Elec-
trical Artisans," says: "The difference of elec-
trical level or potential must be caused by some
electromotive force acting in the conductor."
Prof. Anthony, in "A Review of Modern
Electrical Theories," regards the potential dif-
ference as due to electromotive force. He says :
' ' Difference of potential results from a changed
electrical distribution, an electrical strain, and
represents the tendency to return to the state of
equilibrium. Electromotive force is the some-
thing from without that produced the electric
strain."
Hering, in his "Principles of Dynamo -Electric
Machines," says : " Difference of potential is, as
the name implies, the difference of electrical po-
tential between any two points of a circuit, and
may, therefore, be applied to that at the poles of
a machine, battery or lamp, or at the ends of
leads, or, in general, to any two points in a cir-
cuit. The term 'electrom >tive torce,' however,
For.]
236
[For.
applies only to the maximum difference ot potential
which exists in the circuit, or, in other words, the
total generated difference of potential."
This laht paragraph expresses the distinction
between the two terms as ordinarily used in con-
nection with dynamos and batteries.
Force, Electromotive, Absolute Unit of
A unit of electromotive force ex-
pressed in absolute or C. G. S. units.
The one-hundred millionth part of a volt,
since i volt equals ios C. G. S. units of elec-
tromotive force. (See Units, Practical?)
Force, Electromotive, Average or Mean
The sum of the values of a number of
separate electromotive forces divided by their
number.
The square root of the mean square of the
electromotive force of an alternating or vari-
able current.
When a wire in the armature of a dynamo-
electric machine cuts the lines of magnetic force
in the field of the machine, the electromotive
force produced depends on the number of lines
of force cut per second. This will vary for dif-
ferent positions of the coil. The mean value of
the varying electromotive forces between the
brushes is the average electromotive force.
Force, Electromotive, Back— —A
term sometimes used for counter electro-
motive force.
Counter electromotive force is the preferable
term. (See Force, Electromotive, Counter.)
Force, Electromotive, Counter —
An opposed or reverse electromotive force,
which tends to cause a current in the oppo-
site direction to that actually produced by
the source.
In an electric motor, an electromotive force
contrary to that produced by the current
which drives the motor, and which is pro-
portional to the velocity attained by the
motor.
Counter electromotive force acts to diminish
the current in the same manner as a resistance
would, and is therefore sometimes called spurious
resistance in order to distinguish it from an ohmic
or true resistance.
Counter electromotive force is sometimes ex-
pressed in ohms, though it is not a true ohmic
resistance. (See Resistance, Spurious.)
The counter electromotive force of a voltaic
battery is due to the polarization of the cells.
Since this force is due to the current in the cell, it
can never exceed such current or reverse its direc-
tion. It may, however, equal it and thus stop its
flow. (See Cell, Voltaic, Polarization oj .)
In a storage cell, the charging current produces
an electromotive force counter to itself, which, as
in a motor, is a true measure of the energy stored
in the cell. Economy requires that the electro-
motive force of the charging current should be as
little as possible greater than that of the counter
electromotive force of the cell it is charging.
In a voltaic arc a counter electromotive force is
believed to be set up by polarization.
Force, Electromotive, Counter, of Con-
vective Discharge Resistance to the
passage of an electric discharge through a
high vacuum, somewhat of the nature of a
counter electromotive force.
The resistance to the passage of convective dis-
charges, therefore, is due to the following causes:
(i.) True ohmic resistance.
(2.) Counter electromotive force.
Force, Electromotive, Counter, of Mutual
Induction — — The counter electromotive
force produced by the mutual induction of
the primary and secondary circuits on each
other.
Force, Electromotive, Counter, of Self-
induction That part of the impressed
electromotive force which is producing, or
which tends to produce, at any instant a
change in the current strength.
Force, Electromotive, Counter, of Self-
Induction of the Primary — — A counter
electromotive force produced in the primary
circuit of an induction coil by the action
thereon of a simple periodic electromotive
force.
The counter electromotive force produced
in the primary circuit of an induction coil by
the application of a simple periodic impressed
electromotive force to the primary circuit.
Force, Electromotive, Counter, of Self-
induction of the Secondary — A
counter electromotive force produced in ike
secondary by the periodic variations in Ihe
effective electromotive force in the secondary.
Tor.]
Force, ElectromotiYe, Direct — An
electromotive force acting in the same direc-
tion as another electromotive force already
existing.
The term direct electromotive force is em-
ployed in contradistinction to counter electromo-
tive force. (See Force, Electromotive, Counter. )
Force, Electromotive, Effective
The difference between the direct and the
counter electromotive force.
Force, Electromotive, Effective, of Sec-
ondary — The difference between the
direct and the counter electromotive force in
the secondary of an induction coil.
Force, Electromotive, Generated by Dy-
namo-Electric Machine, Method of Increas-
ing The electromotive force of a dy-
namo-electric machine may be increased in
the following ways, viz :
(I.) By increasing its speed of rotation.
(2.) By increasing the strength of the magnetic
field in which the armature rotates.
(3. ) By increasing the size of the field through
which the armature passes in unit time, the in-
tensity remaining the same.
(4.) By increasing the number of armature
windings, i. e., by making successive parts of the
same wire pass simultaneously through the field.
Force, Electromotive, Impressed
The electromotive force acting on any cir-
cuit to produce a current therein.
The impressed electromotive force may be re-
garded as producing two parts, viz. : The effective
electromotive force and the counter electromotive
force.
Force, Electromotive, Inductive —
A term sometimes used in place of counter
electromotive force of self-induction.
Force, Electromotive, Inverse An
electromotive force which acts in the oppo-
site direction to another electromotive force
already existing. (See Force, Electromotive,
Counter.}
Force, Electromotive, Motor A
term proposed by F. J. Sprague for the coun-
ter electromotive force of an electric motor.
,(See Force, Electromotive, Counter?)
This term was proposed by Sprague as express-
237 [For.
ing the necessity for the existence of a counter
electromotive force in an electric motor, in order
to permit it to utilize the energy of the electric
current which drives it
Force, Electromotive, of Induction
— The electromotive force developed by any
inductive action.
In a coil of wire undergoing induction, the
value of the induced electromotive force does not
depend in any manner on the nature of the ma-
terial of which the coil is composed .
It has been shown:
(I.) That the electromotive force of induction is
independent of the width, thickness or material of
the wire windings. — (Faraday.)
(2.) That it is dependent on the form of the
conductor, and the character of the change it ex-
periences as regards the magnetic induction which
takes place through it.
Since any increase in the strength of a current
flowing through a coiled circuit, produces a coun-
ter electromotive force, which opposes the electro-
motive force producing the current, it is clear
that the impressed electromotive force must do
work against this counter electromotive force all
the time the current strength is increasing.
The movement of a circuit of a given length
through a given field with a given velocity pro-
duces the same electromotive force whether the
circuit be formed of conducting material or non-
conducting material, or consists of an electrolyte.
Force, Electromotive, of Secondary or
Storage Cell, Time-Fall of A gradual
decrease in the potential difference of a stor-
age battery observed during the discharge of
the same.
When a secondary or storage battery is first
discharged, a slight decrease of its potential dif-
ference takes place and a potential difference of a
slightly decreased value is maintained nearly con-
stant during a protracted period of discharge.
Force, Electromotive, of Secondary or
Storage Cell, Time-Rise of A gradual
increase in the potential difference of a
secondary or storage dell observed on begin-
ning the discharge after a prolonged rest
When a secondary or storage cell is discharged
and then given a prolonged rest by opening its
circuit, a gradual but decided rise in its potential
difference is observed on again beginning its dis-
charge.
For.j
238
[For.
Fore*, Electromotive, Photo An
electromotive force produced by the action of
light on selenium. (See Cell, Selenium?)
Force, Electromotive, Reacting Induc-
tive, of the Primary Circuit The back
or counter electromotive force produced in the
primary circuit by the current set up by in-
duction in the secondary.
Force, Electromotive, Secondary Im-
pressed An electromotive force pro-
duced in the secondary coil or circuit by a
periodic electromotive force impressed on the
primary.
Force, Electromotive, Simple-Periodic
An electromotive force which varies
in such manner as to produce a simple
periodic current, or an electromotive force the
variations of which can be correctly repre-
sented by a simple-periodic curve.
Force, Electromotive, Thermo An
electromotive force, or difference of potential,
produced by differences of temperature
acting at thermo-electric junctions.
Force, Electromotive, Transverse —
An electromotive force excited by a mag-
netic field in a substance in which electric
displacement is occurring.
It is to a transverse electromotive force that the
Hall effect is due. (See Effect % Hall.}
Force, Electromotive, Zigzag An
electromotive force, the curve of which would
have the general form of a zigzag.
Force, Electrostatic The force pro-
ducing the attractions or repulsions of charged
bodies.
Force, Electrostatic, Lines of
Lines of force produced in the neighborhood
of a charged body by the presence of the
charge.
Lines extending in the direction in which
the force of electrostatic attraction or repul-
sion acts.
An insulated charged conductor produces
around it an electrostatic field, in a manner some-
what similar to the magnetic field produced by
a magnet or an electric current. (See Field,
Electrostatic.)
Lines of electrostatic force pass through dielec-
trics. Whether the force acts to produce electro-
static induction, by means of a polarization of the
dielectric, or by means of a tension set up in the
substance of the dielectric, is not known.
Force, Electrostatic, Lines of, Assumed
Flow of A mathematical conception in
which the phenomena of electricity are com-
pared with the similar phenomena of heat.
In heat no flow of heat occurs over isothermal
surfaces, or surfaces at the same temperature.
Between different isothermal surfaces, the flow
will vary with the power of heat conduction. In
electricity, no flow occurs over equipotential sur-
faces. Specific inductive capacity corresponds to
heat conductivity, and the lines of force to the
lines of heat conduction. (See Capacity, Specific
Inductive. )
Force, Lines of, Contraction of —
A decrease that occurs in the length of the
circular lines of force that surround a circuit
through which an electric current is passing,
while the current is decreasing in intensity or
strength.
The contraction or decrease in the average
diameter of the circular lines of force of an elec-
tric circuit is similar to the expansion or growth
of lines of force, excepting that the movement is
one of decrease in diameter, and takes place in
the opposite direction, *'. <?., towards the circuit,
instead of away from it. (See Force, Lines of,
Growth or Expansion of.}
Force, Lines of, Cutting Passing a
conductor through lines of magnetic force, so
as to cut or intersect them.
The cutting of lines of magnetic force produces
differences of potential. This is true whether the
conductor moves through a stationary field or
whether the field itself moves through the
stationary conductor, so that the lines of force and
the conductor cut one another. This cutting is
mutual. Each line of force cuts and is cut by the
circuit Since all lines of force form closed-cir-
cuits or paths, the cutting of the circuit by the
lines of force, or the reverse, forms a link or chain,
and the cutting takes place at the moment of
linking or unlinking, *'. e., of cutting.
Force, Lines of, Diffusion of— —The
deflection of the lines of magnetic force from
For. I
239
[For,
their ordinary position, between the poles
that produce them.
Force, Lines of, Direction of The
direction in which it is assumed that the lines
of magnetic force pass.
It is generally agreed to consider the lines of
magnetic force as coming out of the north pole of
a magnet and passing into its south pole, as
shown in Fig. 257.
Fig. 237. Direction of Lines of Force.
This is sometimes called the positive direction
of the lines of force and agrees in general with the
direction in which the electric current is assumed
to flow, which is from the positive to the nega-
tive. That is to say, the lines of magnetic force
are assumed to flow or pass out of the north pole
and into the south pole of a magnet. Of course
there is no direct evidence of any flow, or of any
particular direction characterizing the lines of
force. (See Field, Magnetic.)
The lines of electrostatic force are assumed to
pass out of a positively charged surface and into
a negatively charged surface.
Force, Lines of, Growth or Expansion of
The increase in the length of path
through which lines of force pass, consequent
on an increase in the strength of the mag-
netization of a magnet, or on an increase in
the strength of the magnetizing current.
The circular lines of force which surround a con-
ductor through which a current is flowing, may be
regarded as starting from the surface of the con-
ductor and growing in size as they spread out-
wards, at the same time new lines of force being
formed in their places. This action continues while
the strength of the current is increasing, somewhat
like the series of concentric waves which are
formed on the surface of water, when a stone is
dropped into it.
In their growth or expansion outwards from
the conductor, if the lines of force cut or pass
through neighboring conductors, they produce
therein differences of electric ootential, capable,
on being connected by a conductor, of produc-
ing electric currents.
Force, Lines of, Radiation of —The
passing of lines of force out of the north
pole of a magnet or solenoid.
In gross matter all lines of magnetic induction
either pass through magnetized iron, or other
paramagnetic substance which surrounds an
electric circuit. Since lines of force pass through
a vacuum, the ether which occupies such a space
must also be regarded as permitting the passage
of lines of force.
Force, Loops of A term sometimes
employed in the sense of lines of force. (See
Force, Magnetic, Lines of.)
The term "Lines of Force" is generally
adopted in place of Faraday's term "Loops of
Force."
Force, Magnetic — —The force which
causes the attractions or repulsions of mag-
netic poles.
Force, Magnetic, Line of Arbitra-
rily a single line of magnetic force.
Practically the lines of magnetic force
which pass through a unit area of cross-sec-
tion of a magnetic field of unit strength.
Force, Magnetic, Lines of Lines
extending in the direction in which the mag-
netic force acts.
Lines extending in the direction in which
the force of magnetic attraction or repulsion
acts. (See Field, Magnetic^
Faraday regarded the lines of magnetic force as
possessing tension along one direction. Lines of
force act as if they were stretched elastic threads,
possessed of the property of lengthening or short-
ening, and of repelling one another.
Force, Magnetic, Lines of, Conducting
Power for A term employed by Fara-
day for magnetic permeability. (See Perme-
ability, Magnetic?)
Force, Magnetic, Lines of, Positive
Direction of The direction in which
a free north-seeking pole would move along
the lines of force when placed in a magnetic
field.
For.]
240
[For.
Force, Magnetic, Telluric The
earth's magnetic force.
Force, Magneto-Motive The force
that moves or drives the lines of magnetic
force through a magnetic circuit against the
magnetic resistance.
A Committee of the American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers on "Units and Standards" pro-
posed the following definition.
The magneto-motive force in a magnetic cir-
cuit is 47T multiplied by the flow of the current
linked with that circuit. The magneto-motive
force between two points connected by a line is
the line integral of the magnetic force along that
line. Difference of magnetic potential constitutes
magneto-motive force. ' '
The same committee gave the electro-magnetic
dimensional formula L* M* T-I.
The flow or flux of lines of magnetic force in
any magnetic circuit is proportional to the mag-
neto-motive force divided by the magnetic resist-
ance ; or, expressing the law in the form of Ohm's
law for current:
Magnetic Flux =. Magneto -Motive Force
Reluctance.
In this formula the word reluctance is used in
place of magnetic resistance. In the case of an
electro-magnet, the magneto-motive force is pro-
portional to the strength of the current which flows
and the number of times it circulates ; or, more
simply, is proportional to the number of ampere
turns. (See Turns, Ampere.)
Force, Magneto-Motive, Absolute Unit of
— 4?r multiplied by unit current of one
turn.
Force, Magneto-Motive, Practical Unit
of A value of the magneto-motive force
equal to 4* multiplied by the amperes of one
turn, or to iV of the absolute unit.
Force, Motor Electromotive — - — A
term proposed by F. J. Sprague for the
counter electromotive force of a motor.
During the rotation of the armature of an
electric motor in its field, a counter electromotive
force is produced in its coils, which acts as a
spurious resistance and opposes the flow or pass-
age of the driving current through its coils. As
the speed of the motor increases, this counter
electromotive force increases and the strength of
the driving current decreases until a certain
Fig. 238. Resolution of
Force.
maximum speed is reached, when, theoretically,
no current passes.
When a load is placed on the electric motor,
the speed, and consequently the counter electro-
motive force, is decreased and more driving cur-
rent is permitted to pass. It was this considera-
tion, viz. : that the load automatically regulates
the current required to drive the motor, that led
to the name motor-electromotive force. (See
Force, Electromotive, Counter.)
Force, Resolution of The separa-
tion of a single force, acting with a given
intensity in a given direction, into a number
of separate forces -,
acting in some other
direction.
Thus the force D B,
Fig. 258, acting with
the intensity and in the
direction shown, may c
be resolved into two
component forces, D
E and D C, acting in the directions and having
the intensities shown. The single force D B, has
been resolved into two separate forces D E and
CD.
Force, True Contact A force or
effect entirely distinct from the voltaic effect,
which exists at the points of contact be-
tween two dissimilar metals.
The truth of the existence of a true contact force
at the junction of dissimilar metals is seen by the
reversible heat effects observed, when a current
of electricity is passed across a junction of two
dissimilar metals. When the current is passed in
one direction, an increase of temperature is pro-
duced, but when passed in the opposite direction,
a decrease of temperature. (See Effect, Peltier.)
Hence there would appear to be a force existing
at the junction, helping the electricity along in
one direction, but opposing it in the opposite di-
rection. In one direction the electricity does
work and consumes its own energy in so doing.
In the other direction it opposes the passage of
the current, and there results a generation of
heat.
Force, Tubes of Tubes bounded by
lines of electrostatic or magnetic force.
Lines of force never intersect one another.
Hence a tube of force may be regarded as con-
For.]
241
teining the same number of lines of force at any
and every cross-section.
Tubes of electrostatic force always terminate
against equal quantities of positive and negative
electricity respectively. They terminate when
they meet a conducting surface.
The term tubes of force is somewhat mislead-
ing, since such so-called tubes are in general
cones rather .than tubes.
Force, Twisting A term sometimes
used for torque. (See Torque?)
Force, Unit of A force which, act-
ing for one second on a mass of one
gramme, will give it a velocity of one centi-
metre per second.
Such a unit of force is called a dyne. (See
Dyne.}
Forces, Composition of Finding
the direction and intensity of a single force
which represents the total effect of two or
more forces acting simultaneously on a body.
(See Component.)
Forces, Parallelogram of — — A paral-
lelogram constructed about the two lines that
represent the direction and intensity with
which two forces are simultaneously acting
on a body, in order to determine the direction
and intensity of the resultant force with
which it moves.
If the two forces A C and A B, Fig. 259, simul-
taneously act in the direc-
tion of the arrows on a
body at A, the direction
and intensity of the re-
tultant A D, is deter-
mined by drawing C D
f*f- 25Q- Parallelo-
gram of Forces.
and B D, parallel respectively to A B and A C.
The diagonal A D, of the parallelogram A C D B,
thus produced, gives this resultant. (See Com-
ponent.)
Fork, Trolley The mechanism
which mechanically connects the trolley wheel
to the trolley pole. (See Trolley.)
Forked Circuits.— (See Circuits, Forked?)
Forked Lightning. — (See Lightning,
Forked?]
Formal Inductance of Circuit— (See In-
ductance, Formal, of Circuit?)
Forming Plates of Secondary or Stor-
age Cells.— (See Plates of Secondary or Stor-
age Cells, Forming of.)
Formulae. — Mathematical expressions for
some general rule, law, or principle.
Formulae are of great assistance in science in
expressing the relations which exist between cer-
tain forces or values, and the effects that result
from their operations, since they enable us to ex
press these relations in clear and concise forms.
Thus in the formulation of Ohm's law:
r _E
-R
we see that the continuous current C, in any cir-
cuit, is equal to the electromotive force E, divided
by the resistance R. Again, we see that the cur-
rent is directly proportional to the electromotive
force, and inversely proportional to the resistance.
Formulae are usually written in the form of an
equation and therefore contain the sign of equality
or =.
Formulae, Photometric (See Pho-
tometric Formula?)
Foucault Currents.— (See Currents, Fou-
cault?)
Four- Way Splice Box.— (See Box, Splice,
Four- Way?)
Frames, Sectional Plating Frames
employed for so holding the objects to be
plated that they shall receive a greater depth
of deposit on certain portions of their surface
than elsewhere.
Sectional printing frames depend for their
action on the fact that the portions receiving the
greater depth of deposit are nearer one of the
electrodes than the rest of the surface.
Franklinic Electricity. — (See Elec-
tricity, Franklinic?)
Franklinization. — Electrization by means
of a frictional or influence machine as distin-
guished from faradization or electrization by
means of an induction coil.
This term is used only in 'medical electricity.
Free Charge.— (See Charge, Free.}
Free Magnetic Pole.— (See Pole, Mag-
netic, Free.)
Frequency of Alternations.— (See Alter-
nations, Frequency of)
FrL]
242
[Fun.
Friction Brake.- (See Brake, Friction^
Frictional Electrical Machine.— (See
Machine. Frictional Electric^
Frictional Electricity.— (See Electricity ,
Frictional?)
Frog1, Galvanoscopic The hind legs
of a recently killed frog employed as an elec-
troscope or galvanoscope, by sending an elec-
tric current from the nerves to the muscles.
(See Electroscope^
In 1786, Luigi Galvani made the observation
that when the legs of a recently killed frog were
touched by a metallic conductor connecting the
nerves with the muscles, the legs were convulsed
as though alive. He repeated this experiment
and found the move-
ments were more pro-
nounced when two dis-
similar metals, such as
iron and copper, were
employed in the manner
shown in Fig. 260.
The classic experi-
ment created intense
excitement in the scien-
tific world, and Galvani
at first believed that he
had discovered the true vital fluid of the animal,
but afterwards recognized it as electricity, which
he believed to be obtained from the body of the
animal. Volta claimed that the movements were
due to electricity caused by the contact of dissimi-
lar metals, and thus produced his famous voltaic
pile. (See/*/*, Voltaic.}
Frog, Trolley — The name given to
the device employed in fastening or holding-
together the trolley wires at any point where
the trolley wire branches, and properly guiding
the trolley wheel along the trolley wire on the
movement of the car over the track.
Frog, Trolley, Right-Hand A trol-
ley frog used at the point where the branch
trolley wire leaves the main line on the right
of the direction in which the car is moving.
Frog Trolley, Standard The trol-
ley frog used at the point where two branch
lines make equally converging angles to the
main line.
Frog, Trolley, Three-Way A trol-
Fig.zbo. Galvanoscopic
Frog.
ley frog used where the line branches in three
directions.
Frying of Arc.— (See Arc, Frying of.}
Fulgurite.— A tube of vitrified sand, be-
lieved to be formed by a bolt of lightning.
The fulgurite consists of an irregular shaped
tube of glass formed of sand which has been
melted by the electric discharge.
Full Contact- (See Contact, Metallic.}
Fuller's Mercury Bichromate Voltaic
Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic, Fuller's Mercury
Bichromate^
Fulminate.— The name of a class of highly
explosive compounds.
Fulminating gold, silver and mercury are
highly explosive substances. Fulminates are
employed in percussion caps.
Function, Trigonometrical Cer-
tain quantities, the values of which are de-
pendent on the length of the arcs subtended
by angles, which are taken for the measures
of the arcs or angles instead of the arcs
themselves.
The trigonometrical functions are the sine, the
co-sine, the tangent, the co-tangent, the secant
and the co-secant.
These are generally abbreviated thus, viz. : sin.,
cos., tan., cot., sec. and co-sec.
The sine of an angle or arc is the perpendic-
ular distance from one L C
extremity of the arc to
the diameter passing
through the other ex-
tremity.
Thus in Fig. 261 B D, G
is the sine of the angle
B O A, or of the arc,
B A.
The co-sine of an an •
gleor arc is that part of Fig-. 26 r. Trigonometri-
the diameter which lies cal Functions.
between the foot of the sine and the centre. Thus,
D O, is the co-sine of the angle B O A, or of the
arc B A.
The co-sine of an arc is equal to the sine of its
complement. Thus E O B, or B E, the comple
ment of B A, has for its sine I B, which is equal
to O D. (See Angle, Complement of .}
If the arc is greater than a right angle, or 90
T/
Fnn.]
243
[Pus.
degrees, such, for instance, as the angle TOG,
or the arc B E F G, B D, is its sine. This is also
the sine of B O A, or B A, which is the supple-
ment of T O G, or B E F G. Hence the sine of
an arc is equal to the sine of its supplement.
The same is true of the co-sine.
The tangent of an angle or arc is a straight
line touching the arc at one extremity, drawn
perpendicular to the diameter at that end of the
arc, and limited by a straight line connecting the
centre of the circle and the other end of the arc.
Thus C A, is the tangent of the angle B O A, or
the arc B A.
The co-tangent of an angle or arc is equal to
the tangent of its complement. Thus E T, is the
co-tangent of the angle B O A, or the arc B A.
The tangent of an angle or arc is equal to the
tangent of its supplement. Thus A C, is the tan-
gent of the angle B O A, or the arc B A. It is
also equal to the tangent of the angle B O G, or
the arc B E F G, the corresponding supplement of
the angle B'O A, or the arc B A.
The secant of an angle or arc is the straight
line drawn from the centre of the circle through
one extremity of the arc and limited by the tan-
gent passing through the other extremity. Thus
O C, is the secant of the angle B O A, or of the
arc B A.
The secant of an angle or arc is equal to the
secant of its supplement.
The co-secant of an angle or arc is equal to
the secant of its complement.
Thus O T, is the co-secant of the angle BOA,
or of the arc B A.
It will be observed that the co-sine, the co-
tangent and the co-secant a.e respectively the
sine, tangent and secant of the complement of
the arc, or in other words, the complement-sine,
the complement-tangent and the complement-
secant.
Fundamental Units. - (See Units, Funda-
mental.')
Furnace, Electric — A furnace in
which heat generated electrically is employed
for the purpose of effecting difficult fusions
for the extraction of metals from their ores,
or for other metallurgical operations.
In electric furnaces, the heat is derived either
from electric incandescence or from the voltaic arc.
The latter form is frequently adopted.
The substance to be treated is, exposed directly
to the voltaic arc. In some forms of furnace the
crushed ore is permitted to fall through the arc,
and the melted matter received in a suitable ves-
sel in which the separation of the substances so
formed is afterwards completed. In other forms
of furnace, the ore is placed between two elec-
trodes of carbon or other refractory substance,
between which a powerful current is passed. In
the Cowles furnace, when aluminium is reduced,
molten copper forms an alloy with the aluminium
as soon as separated.
Very numerous applications of electricity to
furnace operations have been made.
Fuse Block. — (See Block, Fuse.)
Fuse Board.— (See Board, Fuse.)
Fuse Box. — (See Box, Fuse.)
Fuse, Branch —A safety fuse or
strip placed in a branch circuit. (See Fuse,
Safety.)
Fuse, Converter A safety fuse con-
nected with the circuit of a converter or
transformer.
Fuse, Electric A device for elec-
trically igniting a charge of powder.
Electric fuses are employed both in blasting
operations and for firing cannon.
Electric fuses are operated either by means of
the direct spark, or by the incandescence of a
thin wire placed in the circuit. They are there-
fore either high tension, or low tension fuses.
The advantages of an electric fuse consist in
the fact that its use permits the simultaneous fir-
ing of a number of charges in a mining operation,
thus obtaining a greater effect from the explosion.
A fulminate of mercury is frequently employed
in connection with some forms of electric fuses.
Fuse, Electric, High-Tension A
fuse that is ignited by the heating power of
an electric spark.
High-tension fuses, therefore, require a high
electromotive force. This is obtained either by
means of induction coils or by some form of
electrostatic induction machine.
Fuse, Electric, Low-Tension A
fuse that is ignited by heating a wire to incan-
descence by the passage through it of an
electric current.
Fuse, Electric, Stratham's
Fas.]
244
[GaL
of fuse, in which the ignition is effected by the
electric spark, is shown in Fig. 262.
The spark passes through a break A B, in the in-
sulated leads D. Since gunpow-
der is not readily ignited by an
electric spark, a peculiar priming
material is employed at A B, in the
place of ordinary powder.
Fuse Links. — (See Links,
Fuse.}
Fuse, Magazine — A
safety fuse so arranged as to
readily permit the replacement
of the fuse when burned out.
A spool contains a coil of fuse Fig z()3
wire. In order to release the stratham's
burned-out fuse, a wedge-shaped Fuse.
device is provided to open the clamps that hold
the fuse strip to release the portions of burned -
out fuse left, and connection with the fuse strip
is severed while the attachment of the new strip
is being made.
Fuse, Main A safety fuse or strip
placed in a main circuit. (See Fuse, Safety?)
Fuse, Flat ilium • — A thin platinum
wire rendered incandescent by the passage of
an electric current and employed for the igni-
tion of a charge of powder. (See Fuse,
Electric?)
Fuse, Safety A strip, plate or bar
of lead, or some readily fusible alloy, that au-
tomatically breaks the circuit in which it is
placed on the passage of a current of suf-
ficient power to fuse such strip, plate or bar,
when such current would endanger the safety
of other parts of the circuit.
Safety fuses are often called safety strips or
safety plugs.
Safety fuses are made of alloys of lead, and
are placed in boxes lined with non-combustible
material in order to prevent fires from the molten
metal.
Fig. 263 shows a fusible strip F, connected with
leads L, L. Safety fuses are placed on all branch
circuits, and are made of sizes proportionate to
the number of lamps they guard.
Fig. 263. Safety fuse.
Since incandescent lamps are generally placed
in the circuit in multiple- arc, or in multiple-series,
one or more of the circuits can be opened by the
fusion of the plug without interfering with the
continuity of the rest of the circuits. In series
circuits, however, such as arc-light circuits, when
a lamp is cut out, a short circuit or path around
it must be provided in order to avoid the extin-
guishing of the rest of the lights.
Fuse Wire.— (See Wire, Fuse.)
Fusible Plug. — A term commonly applied
to a safety plug. (See Fuse, Safety
Gains. — The spaces cut in the faces of
telegraph poles for the support or placing of
the cross arms.
Galvanic Battery.— (See Battery, Gal-
vanic.)
Galvanic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic.)
Galvanic Circle.— (See Circle, Galvanic.)
Galvanic Circuit— (See Circuit, Gal-
vanic?)
Galvanic Dosage. — (See Dosage, Gal-
vanic?)
Galvanic Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Galvanic?)
Galvanic Excitability of Nerve or Mus-
oular Fibre.— (See Excitability, Electric,
of Nerve or Muscular Fibre)
Galvanic Irritability.— (See Irritability,
Galvanic)
tfal.l
245
[Gal.
Galvanic Multiplier.— (See Multiplier,
Galvanic?)
Galvanic Polarization. — (See Polariza-
tion, Galvanic?)
Galvanic Taste.— (See Taste, Galvanic)
Galvanism. — A term sometimes employed
to express the effects produced by voltaic
electricity.
Galvanization, Central A variety
of general galvanization in which the kathode
is placed on the epigastrium and the anode
moved over the body.
Galvanization, Electro-Metallurgical
The process of covering any conduc-
tive surface with a metallic coating by elec-
trolytic deposition, such, for example, as the
thin copper coating deposited on the carbon
pencils or electrodes used in systems of arc
lighting.
The term is borrowed from the French, in
which it has the above signification. It is prefer-
ably replaced by the term electro-plating. (See
Plating, Electro.}
The term galvanization is never correctly ap-
plied to the process for covering iron with zinc or
other metal by dipping the same in 'a bath of
molten metal.
Galvanization, Electro-Therapeutical
—In electro-therapeutics, the effects
produced on nervous or muscular tissue by
the passage of a voltaic current.
Galvanization, General A method
of applying a current therapeutically by the
use of electrodes of sufficient size to direct
the current through practically the entire
body.
Galvanization, Labile - — A term
employed in electro-therapeutics, in contradis-
tinction to stabile galvanization, to designate
the method of applying the current by keep-
ing one electrode at rest in firm contact with
one part of the body, and connecting the other
electrode to a sponge which is moved over
the parts of the body that are to be treated.
Galvanization, Local — -> The applica-
tion of galvanization to parts or organs of the
body in contradistinction to general galvani-
zation.
Galvanization, Stabile A term
employed in electro-therapeutics in which the
current is caused to pass continuously and
steadily through the portions of the body un-
dergoing galvanization.
In stabile galvanization, the current is applied
to and removed from the body gradually, in order
to avoid shocks at the beginning and end of the
application.
Galvanized Iron. — (See Iron, Galvan-
ized?)
Galvano. — A word sometimes used in
France in place of the word electro, to signify
an article reproduced in copper by electro-
metallurgy, especially an electrotype or wood-
cut.
Galvano-Causty. — (See Causty, Galvano?)
Galvano-Cautery.— (See Cautery, Gal-
vano?)
Galvano-Cautery, Chemical — A
term sometimes applied to electro puncture
or the application of electrolysis to the treat-
ment of diseased growths. (See Cautery,
Electric. Puncture, Electro?)
The term chemical galvano-cautery would ap-
pear to be poorly chosen, as it would imply the
existence of a cautery action, which in point of
fact does not exist
Galvano-Faradization. — In electro-thera-
peutics, the simultaneous excitation of a nerve
or muscle by both a voltaic and a faradic cur-
rent.
Galvano-Magnet. — A term sometimes used
for electro-magnetic.
Electro magnetic is by far the preferable term,
and is almost universally employed in the United
States.
Galvanometer. — An apparatus for meas-
uring the strength of an electric current by
the deflection of a magnetic needle.
The galvanometer depends for its operation on
the fact that a conductor, through which an elec-
tric current is flowing, will deflect a magnetic
needle placed near it. This deflection is due to
the magnetic field caused by the current. (See
Field, Magnetic, of an Electric Current.}
This action of the current was first discovered
by Oersted. A wire conveying a current in the
Gal.]
246
[GaL
direction shown by the straight arrow, Fig. 264,
or from + to — , will deflect a magnetic needle in
the direction shown by the curved arrows.
The following rules show the direction of the
Fig 2t>-t. Oersted's Experiment.
deflection of a magnetic pole by an electrical cur-
rent:
(I.) Place the right hand on the conductor
through which the current is flowing, with the
palm facing the north pole, and with the fingers
pointing in the direction of the current. The
thumb will indicate the direction in which the
north pole tends to move.
(2.) Suppose an ordinary corkscrew so placed
along the conductor, through which a current of
electricity is passing, that when twisted, it will
move in the direction of the current. The han-
dle will then turn in the direction in which the
north pole of the magnet tends to move.
(3.) Imagine one swimming along the con-
ductor in the direction of the current and facing
the magnet. The north pole will tend to move
towards the left hand of the swimmer.
Prof. Forbes has shown that the direction of
the deflection of a magnet by a current is such
A B C
Fig. 265. Antplre's Apparatus.
that if the magnet were flexible, it would wrap
itself round the current.
If the wire be bent in the form of a hollow rec-
tangle F, D, E, G, Fig. 265, and the needle, M,
be placed inside the circuit, the upper and lower
branches of the current will deflect the needle in
the same direction, and the effect of the current
will thus be multiplied. Mercury cups are pro-
vided at A, B and C, for a ready change in the
direction of the current. (See Needle, Astatic.")
This principle of the multiplication of the de-
flecting power of a current was first applied to gal-
vanometers by Schweigger, who used a number of
turns of insulated wire for the purpose of obtain-
ing a greater deflection of the needle. He called
such a device a multiplier. In extremely sensi-
tive galvanometers, very many turns of wire are
employed, in some cases amounting to many
thousands. Such galvanometers are of high re-
sistance. Others, of low resistance, often con-
sist of a single turn of wire and are used in the
direct measurement of large currents.
A Schweigger's multiplier or coil C, C, oi
many turns of insulated wire, is shown in Fig. 266.
The action of such a coil on the needle M, is com-
paratively great, even when the current is small.
Fig. 266. Schweigger's Multiplier.
In the case of any galvanometer, when no cur-
rent is passing, the needle, when at rest, should in
general occupy a position parallel to the plane of
the coil. On the passage of the current, the
needle tends to place itself in a position at right
angles to the direction of the current, or to the
length of the conducting wire in the coil. The
strength of the current passing is determined by
observing the amount of this deflection as meas-
ured in degrees on a graduated circle over which
the needle moves.
The needle is deflected by the current from a
position of rest, either in the earth's magnetic
field or in a field obtained from a permanent or
an electro magnet In the first case, when in use
to measure a current, the plane of the galvanom-
eter coils must coincide with the planes of the
magnetic meridian. In the other case, the instru-
Gal.]
247
[Gal.
ment may be used in any position in which the
needle is free to move.
Galvanometers assume a variety of forms ac-
cording either to the purposes for which they are
employed, or to the manner in which their deflec-
tions are valued.
Galvanometer, Absolute A galva-
nometer whose constant can be calculated
with an absolute calibration. (See Calibra-
tion, Absolute?)
Such a galvanometer is called absolute because
if the dimensions of its coil and needle are known,
the current can be determined directly from the
observed deflection of the needle.
Galvanometer, Aperiodic A gal-
vanometer the needle of which comes to its
position without any oscillation.
A dead-beat galvanometer. (See Galva-
nometer, Dead-Seat.}
Galvanometer, Astatic A galva-
nometer, the needle of which is astatic. (See
Needle, Astatic.}
Nobili's astatic galvanometer is shown in Fig.
267. The astatic needle, suspended by a fibre b,
has its lower needle placed inside a coil, a, con-
sisting of many turns of insulated wire, its upper
needle moving over the graduated dial. The cur-
rent to be measured is led into and from the
coil at the binding posts, x and y.
Fig. 267. Astatic Galvanometer.
In this instrument, if small deflections only are
employed, the deflections are sensibly propor-
tional to the strength of the deflecting currents.
Galvanometer, Ballistic A galva-
nometer designed to measure the strength of
currents that last but for a moment, such, for
example, as the current caused by the dis-
charge of a condenser.
The quantity of electricity passing in any cir-
cuit is equal to the current multiplied by the time.
Since the current caused by the discharge of a
condenser lasts but for a small time, during which
it passes from zero to a maximum and back again
to zero, the magnetic needle in a ballistic galva-
nometer takes the form of a ballistic pendulum,
i. <?., it is given such a mass, and acquires such a
slow motion, that its change of position does not
Fig. 2b8. Ballistic Galvanometer.
practically begin until the impulses have ceased
to act.
. In the ballistic galvanometer of Siemens and
Halske, the coils R, R, Fig. 268, have a bell-
shaped magnet, M, suspended inside them by
means cf an aluminium wire. The magnet is pro-
vided with a mirror S, for measuring the deflec-
tions. The bell-shaped magnet is shown in ele-
vation at M, and in plane at n, s.
In using the ballistic galvanometer, it is neces-
sary to see that the needle is absolutely at rest be-
fore the charge is sent through the coils.
A form of ballistic galvanometer by Nalder is
shown in Fig. 269.
The ordinary form of compensating magnet
is, in this galvanometer, replaced by the small mag-
net A, capable of rotation in a horizontal plane, but
incapable of being raised or lowered, as is usual
in such magnets. This form of compensating mag-
net possesses the advantage of being able to alter
the direction of the field on the needle system,
Gal.]
248
[Oal.
without considerably altering its intensity. When
the galvanometer is for ready use the magnet A, is
turned until the needle is brought to zero. The
Fig. 269. Nalder's Galvanometer
combined field of earth and magnet A, are then
brought to the degree of sensitiveness required
Fig. 270. Nalder's Galvanometer,
by rotating magnet B, on its shaft, or altering
its distance from the needle. In order to insure
ease in replacing the fibre, the front coil is hinged
as shown. The fibre D, is supported on E, one
end of which it is free to turn, so as to permit of
the removal of torsion; D, being twisted can be
raised or lowered at E. The needle system with
heavy bell-shaped magnet is shown in Fig. 270.
Galvanometer, Combined Tangent and
Sine A galvanometer furnished with
two magnetic needles of different lengths.
The small needle is used for tangent measure-
ments, and the long needle for sine measure-
ments.
Galvanometer Constant.— (See Constant,
Galvanometer?)
Galvanometer, Dead-Beat — —A gal-
vanometer, the needle of which comes quickly
to rest, instead of swinging repeatedly to-and-
fro. (See Damping?)
Galvanometer, Deprez-D'Arsonval
— A form of dead-beat galvanometer.
The movable part of the Deprez-D'Arsonval
galvanometer consists of a light rectangular coil
C, Fig. 271, of many turns of wire, supported
by two silver wires H J and D E, between tbe
poles of a strong permanent horseshoe magaet
A A. The position of
the coil may be altered
as to height by screws
at H and E. The sup-
porting wires, prevent
by their torsion the
swinging of the coil, as
does also the cylinder
of soft iron B, placed
inside the coil, and sup-
ported independently
of it. The movements If
of the coil are observed
by means of a spot of
light reflected from a
mirror J, attached to
the wire H J.
Galvanometer, Detector -- A form of
galvanometer employed for rough testfa^
work.
A form of detector galvanometer is show* in
Fig. 272.
27 1- Deprez-l? Arson-
val Galvanometer.
Fig. 2^ 2. Detector Galvanometer.
Galvanometer, Differential — — A gal-
vanometer containing two coils so wound as
to tend to deflect the needle in opposke
directions.
The needle of a differential galvanometer shows
no deflection when two equal currents are scat
through the coils in opposite directions, since,
under these conditions, each coil neutralizes the
other's effects. Such instruments may be used
in comparing resistances. The Wheatstoae
Bridge, however, in most cases, affords a prefer-
able method for such purposes. (See Bridge
Electric.')
Gal.]
249
[Gal.
A form of differential galvanometer is shown in
Fig- 273-
Sometimes the current is so sent through the
two coils, that each
coil deflects the nee-
dle in the same di-
rection. In this case
the instrument is no
lunger differential in
action.
If the magnetic
needle, in such cases,
is suspended at the
exact centre of the
line which joins the
centres of the coils,
the advantage is
gained by obtaining
a field of more nearly
uniform intensity FiS-273- Differential Galva-
arwund the needle.
Galvanometer, Figure of Merit of
The reciprocal of the current required to pro-
duce a deflection of the galvanometer needle
through one degree of the scale.
The smaller the current required to produce a
deflection of one degree, the greater the figure
of merit, or the greater the sensitiveness of the
galvanometer.
Galvanometer, Marine — A galva-
nometer devised by Sir William Thomson for
use on steamships where the motion of mag-
netized masses of iron would seriously disturb
the needles of ordinary instruments.
An unscreened needle would be so much af-
fected by the motion of the engines, the shaft and
the screw, as to be useless for galvanometric
measurement.
The needle of the marine galvanometer is
shielded or cut off from the extraneous fields so
produced, by the use of a magnetic screen or
shield, consisting of an iron box with thick sides,
inside of which the instrument is placed.
The needle is suspended by means of a silk
fibre attached both above and below, in line with
the centre of gravity of the needle. In this man-
ner, the oscillations of the ship do not affect the
needle.
Galvanometer, Mirror A galva-
nometer in which, instead of reading the de-
flections of the needle directly by its move-
ments over a graduated circle, they are read
by the movements of a spot of light reflected
from a mirror attached to the needle.
This spot of light moves over a graduated
scale, or its movements are observed by means of
a telescope.
Fig. 274. Mirror Galvanometer.
A form of mirror galvanometer designed by Sir
William Thomson is shown in Fig. 274. The
needle is attached directly to the back of a light,
silvered glass mirror, and consists of several small
magnets made of pieces of a watch spring. The
needle and mirror are suspended by a single sflk
fibre and are placed inside the coil. A compen-
sating magnet N S, movable on a vertical axis, is
used to vary the sensitiveness of the instrument.
The lamp L, placed back of a slot in a wide
screen, throws a pencil of light on the mirror Q,
from which it is reflected to the scale K.
A form of lamp and scale with slot for light is
shown in Fig. 275.
Fig. 275. Galvanometer Lamp and Scale.
Galvanometer, Potential — —A term
sometimes applied to a voltmeter. (See
Voltmeter^
Galvanometer, Reflecting A term
sometimes applied to a mirror galvanometer.
(See Galvanometer, Mirror?)
Gal.]
250
[GaL
Galvanometer, Sensibility of The
readiness and extent to which the needle of a
galvanometer responds to the passage of an
electric current through its coils. (See Gal-
vanometer.)
Galvanometer-Shunt. — (See Shunt, Gal-
vanometer^)
Galvanometer, Sine — A galva-
nometer in which a vertical coil is movable
around a vertical axis, so that it can be made to
follow the magnetic needle in its deflections.
In the sine galvanometer, the coil is moved so
as to follow the needle until it is parallel with the
coil. Under these circumstances, the strength
of the deflecting currents in any two different
cases is proportional to the sines of the angles of
deflection.
A form of sine galvanometer is shown in Fig.
276. The vertical wire coil is seen at M. A
needle of any length less than the diameter of the
coil M, moves over the graduated circle N. ' The
coil M, is movable over the graduated horizontal
circle H, by which the amount of the movement
Fig. 276. Sine Galvanometer.
necessary to bring the needle to zero is measured.
The current strength is proportional to the sine
of the angle measured on this circle, through
which it is necessary to move the coil M, from its
position when the needle is at rest in the plane of
the earth's magnetic meridian, until the needle
is not further deflected by the current, although
parallel to the coil M.
Galvanometer, Tangent An instru-
ment in which the deflecting coil consists of
a coil of wire within which is placed a needle
very short in proportion to the diameter of
the coil, and supported at the centre of the
coil.
Fig. 2TJ. Tangent Galvanometer.
A galvanometer acts as a tangent galvanometer
only when the needle is very small as compared
with the diameter of the coil. The length of the
needle should be less than one-twelfth the diameter
of the coil.
A form of tangent galvanometer is shown in
Fig. 277. The needle is supported at the exact
centre of the coil C.
Under these circumstances, the strengths of
two different deflecting currents are proportional
to the tangents of the angles of deflection. Tan-
gent galvanometers are sometimes made with
coils of wire containing many separate turns.
Galvanometer, Tangent, Obach's
A form of galvanometer in which the deflect-
ing coil, instead of being in a fixed vertical
position, is movable about a horizontal axis,
so as to decrease the delicacy of the instru-
ment, and thus increase its range of work.
Galvanometer, Torsion — — A galva-
nometer in which the strength of the deflecting
current is measured by the torsion exerted on
the suspension system.
A ball-shaped magnet, shown at the right of
Fig. 278, is suspended by a thread and spiral
Gal.]
251
[Gal.
spring between two coils of high resistance,
placed parallel to each other in the positions
shown. On the deflection of the magnet, by the
current to be measured, the strength of the current
is determined by the amount of the torsion re-
quired to bring the magnet back to its zero point.
Pig. 278. Torsion Galvanometer.
The angle of torsion is measured on the horizontal
scale at the top of the instrument.
In the torsion galvanometer, unlike the electro-
dynamometer, the action between the coils and the
movable magnet is as the current strength causing
the deflection. In the electro-dynamometer,
since an increase of current in the deflecting coils
also takes place in the deflected coil, the mutual
action of the two is as the square of the current
strength causing the deflection.
Galvanometer, Upright A gal-
vanometer, the needle of which moves in a
vertical plane. (See Galvanometer, Ver-
tical.
Galvanometer, Yertical A gal-
vanometer the needle of which is capable of
motion in a vertical plane only.
In the vertical galvanometer, the north pole of
the needle is weighted so that the needle as-
sumes a vertical position when no current is pass-
ing. In the form shown in Fig. 279, two needles
9- Vol. 1
are sometimes employed, one of which is placed
inside the coils C, C.
The vertical galvanometer is not as sensitive as
the ordinary forms. It is employed, however,
in various forms for an
electric current indica-
tor, or even for a
rough current meas-
urer.
Galvanometer
Voltmeter. — An in-
strument devised by
Sir William Thom-
son, for the meas-
urement of differ-
ences of electric
potential.
Fig. 279. Vertical Galva-
nometer.
This instrument is so arranged that by a single
correction for the varying strength of the earth's
field in any place, the results are read at once in
volts.
A coil of insulated wire shown at A, Fig. 280,
has a resistance of over 5,000 ohms. A magnetic
needle, formed of short parallel needles placed
above one another, and called a magnetometer
needle, is attached to a long but light aluminium
index, moving over a graduated scale. A mova-
ble, semi-circular magnet B, called the restoring
magnet, is placed over the needle, and is used
for varying the effect of the earth's field at any
point. The sensitiveness of the instrument may
be varied either by the restoring magnet or by
sliding the magnetometer box nearer to or further
away from the coil.
The voltmeter galvanometer depends for its
operation on the fact that when a galvanometer
of sufficiently high resistance is introduced be-
Fig. 280. Galvanometer Voltmeter.
tween any two points in a circuit, the current that
passes through it, and hence the defiection of its
needle, is directly proportional to the difference
of potential between such two points.
tiaL]
[Gas.
Galvanometers for the commercial measure-
ments of currents assume a variety of forms.
They are generally so constructed as to read off
the amperes, volts, ohms, watts, etc., directly.
They are called amperemeters or ammeters, volt-
meters, ohmmeters, wattmeters, etc. For their
filler description reference should be had to
standard works on electrical measurement.
Galranometric. — Of or pertaining to the
galvanometer. (See Galvanometer?)
Galvanometrical. — Of or pertaining to the
galvanometer. (See Galvanometer?)
Galranometrically. — In a galvanometric
manner.
Galyano-Plastics.— (See Plastics, Gal-
vano.)
Galvanoplasty. — The art of galvano-
plastics. (See Plastics, Galvano?)
Galrano-Puncture.— (See Puncture, Gal-
vano?)
Galvanoscope. — A term sometimes im-
properly employed in place of galvanometer.
A galvanoscope, strictly speaking, is an instru-
ment intended rather to show the existence of an
electric current than to measure it in degrees.
It may, however, be roughly calibrated, and then
it differs from a galvanometer only in delicacy
and accuracy.
Galvano-Therapentics. — A term some-
times used for electro-therapeutics.
Electro- therapeutics is by far the preferable
term and is almost universally employed in the
United States.
Gap, Air A gap, or opening in
a magnetic circuit containing air only. (See
Gap, Air, Magnetic?)
The air gap between two magnetic poles may
be regarded as the space in which an armature
acting as a magneto- receptive device is placed,
which by the action upon it of the lines of mag-
netic force passing through the gap has differ-
ences of potential generated in its coils of insulated
wire.
Gap, Air, Magnetic A gap filled
with air which exists in the opening at any
part of a core of iron or other medium of high
permeability.
The space between the pole pieces and arma-
ture core is called the air gap in dynamos or
motors even though partly filled with copper con-,
ductors. It is also called the interference space.
The gap or air space of an electro-magnet de-
creases the strength of its magnetization be-
cause—-
The increased reluctance of the air gap causes
a decrease in the number of lines of magnetic
force which pass through the magnetic circuit.
Gap, Spark A gap forming part of
a circuit between two opposing conductors,
separated by air, or other similar dielectric
which is closed by the formation of a spark
only when a certain difference of potential
is attained.
Gap, Wire-Gauge - —(See Gauge,
Wire, Gap.)
Gas-Battery. — (See Battery, Gas.)
Gas Burner, Argaml, Plain-Pendant,
Electric — (See Burner, Argand
Electric, Plain-Pendant?)
Gas Burner, Argand, Ratcliet-Pendant,
Electric (See Burner, Argand Elec-
tric, Ratchet-Pendant?)
Gas Burner, Automatic Electric •
(See Burner, Automatic Electric?)
Gas Burner, Plain-Pendant, Electric
— (See Burner, Plain-Pendant Elec-
tric?)
Gas Burner, Ratchet-Pendant, Electric
(See Burner, Ratchet-Pendant Elec-
tric?)
Gas, Carbonic Acid A gaseous sub-
stance formed by the union of one atom of
carbon with two atoms of oxygen.
Carbonic acid gas is formed during the com-
bustion of carbon by a sufficient supply of air.
Gas, Dielectric Density of — —A term
sometimes emploved instead of dielectric
strength of gas. (See Gas, Dielectric
•• Strength of?)
Gas, Dielectric Strength of The
strain a gas is capable of bearing without
suffering disruption, or without permitting a
disruptive discharge to nass through it.
The dielectric strength of a gas depends —
(I.) On the nature of the gas.
(2.) On its pressure.
Gas.]
253
[Gau.
It has been calculated roughly that it requires
40,000 volts per centimetre to pass a disruptive
discharge through dry air at ordinary pressures.
Gas-Jet, Carcel Standard (See
Car eel Standard Gas- Jet)
Gas-Jet Photometer.— (See Photometer)
Gas-Lighting, Electric The electric
ignition of a gas-jet from a distance.
Gas-Lighting, Multiple Electric
A system of electric gas-lighting in which a
number of gas-jets are lighted by means of
a discharge of high electromotive force,
derived from a Ruhmkorff coil or a static
induction machine.
Such devices are operated by means of minute
electric sparks which are
caused to pass through
the escaping gas-jets.
The spark for this pur-
pose is obtained either by
means of the extra current
from a spark coil, by means
of an induction coil or by
static discharges. (See
Currents, Extra. Coil,
Spark. Coil, Induction.)
A gas tip for use in multiple gas-lighting ap-
paratus is shown in Fig. 281. The spark is
formed immediately over the slot in the burner,
and therefore ignites the escaping gas.
Gas, Occlusion of The absorption
or shutting up of a gas in the pores, or on the
surfaces of various substances.
Carbon possesses in a marked degree the prop-
erty of occluding or absorbing gases in its pores.
These occluded gases must be driven out from the
carbon conductor employed in an incandescent
lamp, since otherwise their expulsion , on the in-
candesence of the carbon, consequent on the light-
ing of the lamp, will destroy the high vacuum of
the lamp chamber and thus lead to the ultimate
destruction of the filament (See Lamp, Electric,
Incandescent)
Gassing. — The evolution of gas from the
plates of a storage or secondary cell.
Gastroscope.— An electric apparatus for
the illumination and inspection of the human
stomach.
The light is obtained by means of a platinum
spiral in a glass tube surrounded by a layer of
water to prevent undue heating. The platinum
spiral is placed at the extremities of a tube, pro-
vided with prisms, and passed into the stomach
of the patient. A separate tube for the supply
of air for the extension of the stomach is also
provided.
Gastroscopy. — The examination of the
stomach by the gastroscope. (See Gastro-
scope)
Gauge, Battery. — A form of portable gal-
vanometer, suitable for ordinary testing work.
A form of battery gauge is shown in Fig. 282.
Fig. s82. Battery Gauge.
Gauge, Electrometer A device em-
ployed in connection with some of Sir Wil-
liam Thomson's electrometers to ascertain
whether the needle, connected with the layer
of acid that acts as the inner coating of the
Leyden jar used in connection therewith, is at
its normal potential.
Gauge, Wire, American A name
sometimes applied to the Brown & Sharpe
Wire Gauge. (See Ganges, Wire, Varieties
of)
Gauge, Wire, Birmingham A term
sometimes applied to one of the English wire
gauges.
Gauge, Wire, Gap A wire gauge in
which gaps are left for the introduction of the
wire to be measured.
Gail.]
254
[dan.
Gauge, Wire, Micrometer A gauge
employed for accurately measuring the di-
ameter of a wire in thousandths of an inch,
based on the principle of the vernier or mi-
crometer. (See Fig. 283.)
The wire to be measured is placed between a
fixed support B, and the end C, of a long mova-
ble screw, which accurately fits a threaded tube a.
A thimble D, provided with a milled head, fits
over the screw C, and is attached to the upper
part. The lower circumference of D, is divided
into a scale of twenty equal parts. The tube A, is
graduated into divisions equal to the pitch of the
screw. Every fifth of these divisions is marked
as a larger division.
The principle of the operation of the gauge is
as follows: Suppose the screw has fifty threads to
the inch, the pitch of the screw, or the distance
between two contiguous threads, is therefore ^
or .02 of an inch.
One complete turn of the screw will, therefore,
advance the slteve D, over the scale a, the .02 of
an inch. If the screw is only moved through
one of the twenty parts marked on the end of
the thimble or sleeve parts, or the ^ of a com-
plete turn, the end C, advances towards B, the
sV of A» *'• '•» TffW or -001 inch-
Suppose now a wire is placed between B and
C, and the screw advanced until it fairly fills the
Fig. 283. Vernier Wire Gattg>e.
space between them, and the reading shows two
of the larger divisions on the scale a, three of the
smaller ones and three on the end of the sleeve
D, then
Two large divisions of scale a = .2 inch
Three smaller divisions of scale a.. = .06 "
Three divisions on circular scale
onD = .003 "
Diameter of wire .263
Serious inconvenience has arisen in practice
NEW LEGAL STANDARD WIRE GAUGE (ENGLISH).
Tables of Sizes, Weights, Lengths and Breaking Strains of Iron Wire.
Size oi
Wire
Gauge
Diameter.
i
Sectional
area in
sq. inches.
Weight of
Length of
Cwt.
Breaking Strains.
Size on
Wire
Gauge.
Inch.
Millimetres.
100 yards.
Mile.
Annealed.
Bright.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Yards.
Lbs.
Lbs.
5/0. •••
.500
.464
•432
XI.
.1963
.1691
.1466
144.
34°4
2930
2541
I
10470
9017
7814
15700
13525
11725
$
5/o
4/0. .
.400
XO.2
.1257
123.
2179
* 91
6702
10052
4/o
•37*
.348
h
.1087
.0051
107.
§3-
25
1649
xos
5796
5072
8694
7608
3/o
2/0
*£ :
.324
8.3
.0824
81.
1429
38
4397
6595
I/O
i.
a.
3«
.252
7.6
.0707
.0598
.0499
69.
58.
49-
1225
•g
61
28
377°
23
5655
4785
2
3
4-
.232
5-9
5-4
4-9
.0423
•°353
.0290
41-
11:
III
502
269
322
393
38
1544
&4
4
1
1:
.192
?•
•35
4-5
•0243
24.
22
467
!298
1946
7
8.
.160
4-1
.0201
*9-
48
566
1072
1608
X
9-
.144
3-7
.0163
16.
700
869
1303
9
to.
.128
3-3
.0129
12.
23
882
687
1030
10
i.
• 1x6
3-
.0106
xo.
83
1077
564
845
it
2.
.104
2.6
•°°85
8-4
48
1333
454
680
12
3-
.002
2.3
.0066
6-5
14
1723
355
532
13
4-
.080
a.
.0050
5-
88
2240
268
402
14
I:
.072
.064
.8
.6
.0041
.0032
4-
3-2
56
2800
3500
218
172
326
257
11
7.
.056
.4
.0025
42
4667
"97
'7
8.
.048
.2
.0018
i .8
32
6222
97
'45
A
19.
.040
.0013
I .2
21
9333
67
100
'9
»o.
.036
id
.0010
*'
18
II200
55
82
20
(Issued by the Iron and Steel Wire Manufacturers' Association.)
(Jan.]
255
[Gau.
from the numerous arbitrary numbers of sizes of
wires employed by different manufacturers.
These differences are gradually leading to the
abandonment of arbitrary sizes for wires and em-
ploying in place thereof the diameters directly in
inches or thousandths of an inch.
Gauge, Wire, Round —A device for
accurately measuring the diameter of a wire.
The round wire gauge shown in Fig. 284 is
very generally used for telegraph lines. Notches
Fig. 284. Round Wire Gauge.
for varying widths, cut in the edges of a circular
plate of tempered steel, serve to approximately
measure the diameter of a wire, the sides of the
wire being passed through the slots. Numbers,
indicating the different sizes of the wire, are
affixed to each of the
openings.
Gauge, Wire, Self-
Registering A
wire gauge arranged
to give the exact di-
ameter of the wire to
be measured directly
without calculation.
A form of self -register-
ing wire gauge is shown
in Fig. 285. The wire
or plate is inserted in the
gap between a fixed and
a movable plate. The
Fig. 28s. Wire and
Plate Gauge.
Gauge, Wire, Standard A wire
gauge adopted by the National Telephone
Exchange Association at Providence, R. I.,
and by the National Electric Light As-
sociation, at Baltimore, Md., in February,
1886.
The value of the standard as compared with
the other gauges will be seen from an inspection
of the table in this column:
Gauges, Wire, Tarieties of The
following table gives a comparison of the
principal wire gauges in use.
COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT WIRE
GAUGES.
numbers corresponding to the diameter of the
wire or plate are shown on one side of the gauge
and the gauge numbers on the other side.
.40964
.3648
•32495
.2893
•25763
.22942
.2043!
.18194
. 16202
.14428
071961
.064084
.057068
.05082
•045257
.040303
.035390
.022571
.0201
.0179
.01394
.014195
.012641
.011257
.010025
.008928
.006304
.005614
.005
.004453
.003965
•003531
.003144
a
.46
•43
•393
.362
•331
•307
.283
.225
.207
.192
•i?7
. i62
.148
•'35
.072
.063
.052
.047
.o4I
.035
.033
.028
.025
.023
•o 5
.o 4
.0135
•0095
:^S
.008
.0075
.007
ron
ton,
en
;.
Tren
Co.,
•MS
•13
•«75
.105
•0925
•0525
•045
.039
•034
.03
•27
.024
.0215
.'oil
.013
.012
.Oil
:3
.00725
.0065
•00575
.005
.018
.0164
.o,48
.0136
.0124
.0116
.006
.0052
.0048
it
.083
•0155
•01375
.01235
.01135
.01025
.0095
.009
.0075
.0065
•00575
•0045
256
[Gi
NUMBER, DIAMETER, WEIGHT, LENGTH AND RESISTANCE OF PURE COPPER
WIRE.
American Gauge.
No.
Diameter.
Inches.
Wetght.sp.gr. =8.889.
Length.
Resistance of Pure Copper at 70° Fahrenheit.
Grs. per It.
Lbs. per ,,ooo
feet.
Ft. per Ib.
Ohms per 1,000 ft.
Feet per ohm.
Ohms per Ib.
0000. ..
.46000
4475-33
640.40
,.56
.051
,9605.69
.0000798
000...
.40964
3549.07
507.0,
i-97
.064
I5547.87
.000127
00...
.36480
28,4.62
402.09
2-49
.081
,2330.36
.000202
0...
.32486
2233.28
319.04
3-13
.102
0783.63
.000320
I...
.28930
,770.13
252.88
3-95
.129
7754-66
-00051
2. . .
•25763
1403.79
2OO-54
4.99
•l63
6,49.78
.0008,1
3...
.22942
11,3.20
159-03
6.29
.205
4876.73
.001289
4...
.2043,
882.85
,.26.12
7-93
.259
3867.62
.00205
.,8194
700.10
,00.0,
,0.00
.326
3067.06
.00326
6. . .
. 16202
555- o
79-32
12.6,
2432.22
.00518
I*"
• 14429
440-27
O2.9O
15-90
.519
1928.75
.00824
8...
9...
.12849
•"443
349-18
276.94
49.88
39-56
£3
•654
.824
1529-69
12,3.22
.013,1
.02083
10...
.10190
219.57
3'-37
31.88
1.040
961.91
-03314
XI. ..
.09074
174-15
24.88
40.20
I.3II
762.93
.05269
12.
.0808,
,38.11
19-73
50.69
I-653
605.03
.08377
13...
14...
.07,96
.06408
•8:8
15-65
12.41
63.91
80.59
2.084
2.628
479.80
380.51
•13321
.21,8
«...
.05707
68.88
9.84
,01.63
3-3H
301-75
.3368
16...
3-::
19...
.05082
-04525
43-32
34-35
26 49
7.8!
6.19
4.9,
3-78
128.14
161.53
203.76
264 . 26
4-179
5-269
6.645
8.6,7
239.32
,89.78
,50.50
116.05
•5355
• 8515
'•3539
2.2772
30...
31...
.02846
31. 6l
i .13
3.09
2-45
324.00
408.56
10. 566
,3.323
94.65
75.06
5.443
22'. . .
•025347
i -59
1.94
5'5-i5
16.799
59-53
8.654
23...
.022572
10.77
1-54
649.66
2,. l8S
47-20
24...
.0201
•54
1.22
819.2,
26.713
37-43
2,; 885
25...
.0,79
.78
•97
,032.96
33 684
29.69
34-795
26...
27...
•01594
.014,95
3
•77
.6,
1302.6,
1642.55
42-477
53-563
23
55-331
87.979
28...
29...
.0,2641
.01,258
£
"S
2071.22
26,1.82
67.542
85., 70
M-8,
139.893
222.449
30...
.010025
•13
.30
3293-97
107.391
9-31
353-742
31...
.008928
.69
• 24
4,52.22
,35.402
7-39
562 . 22 I
33...
.00795
•34
.19
5236.66
170.765
5.86
894.242
33- ••
.00708
.06
•*5
660.271
215.3,2
4.64
M2I.646
34---
.0063
.84
8328.30
271-583
3.68
2261.82
35- ••
.00561
•67
.10
10501 . 35
342.413
2.92
3596.104
36...
37- ••
.005
•00445
•53
•42
.08
.06
13258.83
16691.06
43I-7I2
544-287
1:11
9084.71
38...
.003965
•34
.°5
20854.65
686.5,,
,.46
14320.26
39- ••
•003531
.27
.04
26302.23
865.046
,.,6
22752.6
40...
.003,44
.2,
.03
33I75-94
,091.865
.92
36223.59
Gauss. — The unit of intensity of magnetic
field.
The term gauss for unit of intensity of mag-
netic field was proposed by S. P. Thompson as
being that of a field whose intensity is equal to
lo8 C. G. S. units, that is, lo1* lines of force per
square centimetre.
J. A. Fleming proposes, for the value of the
gauss, such strength of field as would develop an
electromotive force of one volt in a wire one
million centimetres in length, moving through
such a field with unit velocity.
Fleming's value for the gauss was assumed on
account of the small value of the gauss proposed
by S. P. Thompson. It is one hundred times
greater in value than Thompson's gauss.
Sir William Thomson proposes, for the value ol
the gauss, such an intensity of magnetic field as is
produced by a current of one weber (ampere) at
the distance of one centimetre.
Gauss, Fleming's Such a strength
of magnetic field as is able to develop an
electromotive force of one volt in a wire one
million centimetres in length moved through
the field with unit velocity. (See Gauss.)
Gauss, S. P. Thompson's — —Such a
strength of magnetic field that its intensity
is equal to 10" C. G. S. units. , (See Gauss.)
Oau.]
257
[Gen.
Gauss, Sir William Thomson's
Such an intensity of magnetic field as would be
produced by a current of one ampere at the
distance of one centimetre. (See Gauss.)
Geissler Mercurial Pump. — (See Pump,
Air, Geissler, Mercurial.}
Geissler Tubes. — (See Tubes, Geissler.}
General Faradization. — (See Faradiza-
tion, General.)
General Galvanization. — (See Galvaniza-
tion, General.}
Generation of Current by Dynamo-Elec-
tric Machine. — (See Current, Generation of,
by Dynamo-Electric Machined)
Generator, Dynamo-Electric An
apparatus in which electricity is produced by
the mechanical movement of conductors
through a magnetic field so as to cut the
lines of force.
A dynamo-electric machine. (See Machine,
Dyna mo-Electric?)
A dynamo electric machine operates on the
general principles of electro-dynamic induction.
Strictly speaking, however, in a dynamo-electric
generator the conductors are actually moved
through the lines of force. In this respect, there-
fore, a dynamo-electric generator differs from a
transformer, in which the lines of force are moved
through the conductor. (See Induction, Electro-
Dynamic. Transformer. Induction, Mutual.)
Generator, Motor A dynamo-elec-
tric generator in which the power required to
drive the dynamo is obtained from an elec-
tric current.
Motor generators are used in systems of elec-
trical distribution for the purpose of changing
the potential of the current. They consist of
dynamos, the armatures of which are furnished
with two separate windings, of fine and coarse
wire respectively. One of these, generally the
fine wire, receives the driving or motor cur-
rent, usually of high potential, and the other,
the coarse wire, furnishes the current used, usu-
ally of low potential.
The advantage of having the windings, which
receive the driving current, of fine wire, is to
enable a current of high potential to be dis-
tributed over the line from distant stations to
places where it is desired to use the energy of the
current at a much lower potential.
Motor generators often consist simply of two
distinct machines mechanically connected, one
acting as a motor and the other as a dynamo.
Motor generators are sometimes called dynamo-
motors or dynamotors.
Aldrich draws the following distinction between
a dynamo-motor and a dynamotor :
(I.) A dynamo-motor is an energy transformer
with the dynamo and motor in the same electric
circuit.
(2.) A dynamotor is an energy transformer with
the dynamo and motor in the same magnetic cir-
cuit.
Fig. 286. Edison's Pyro-Magnetic Generator.
Generator, Pyro-Magnetic An ap*
paratus for producing electricity directly from
heat derived from the burning of fuel.
Gen.]
258
[Gil.
The operation of the pyro-magnetic generator
is dependent upon the fact that any variation in
the number of lines of magnetic force that pass
through a conductor will develop differences of
electric potential therein. Such variations may
be effected either by varying the position of the
conductor as regards the magnetic field, or by
varying the magnetic field itself. The latter
method of generating differences of potential is
utilized in the pyro-magnetic generator, and is
effected in it by varying the magnetization of rolls
of thin iron or nickel by the action of heat.
A form of pyro-magnetic generator devised by
Edison is shown in Figs. 286 and 287.
Fig. 287, Edison's Pyro- Magnetic Generator.
This apparatus is sometimes called a pyro-
magnetic dynamo.
Eight electro-magnets are provided, each with
an armature consisting of a roll of corrugated
iron. Each of these armatures is provided with
a coil of insulated wire wound on it and pro-
tected by asbestos paper. The armatures pass
through two iron discs as shown. The armature
coils are connected in series in a closed-circuit,
the wires from the coils being connected with
metallic brushes that rest on a commutator sup-
ported on a vertical axis. A pair of metallic
rings is provided above the commutator to carry
off the current generated.
The vertical axis is provided below with a semi-
circular screen called a guard plate which rotates
with the axis and cuts off or screens one-half the
iron armatures from the heated air.
When the axis is rotated, the difference in the
magnetization of the armatures, when hot and
cold, develops electromotive forces which result
in the production of an electric current.
Generator, Secondary A term fre-
quently employed for a converter or trans-
former.
The word transformer is now almost univer-
sally employed. (See Transformer.)
Generator, Watt A term sometimes
employed for stating the power in watts that
any electric source is capable of producing.
Estimating the power of a dynamo-electric
machine by the number of watts it is capable of
producing is very convenient in practice, and is
now very generally adopted. A dynamo capable
of furnishing a difference of potential of 1,000
volts, and a current of 10 amperes, would be said
to be a 10,000 watt-generator.
The term watt-generator, though applicable to
the case of any electric source, is in practice
generally limited to the case of dynamo-electric
machines or secondary batteries.
Generators, Motor, Distribution of Elec-
tricity by (See Electricity, Distribu-
tion of, by Motor Generators?)
Geographical Distribution of Thunder
Storms. — (See Storms, Thunder, Geograph-
ical Distribution of.)
Geographical Equator. — (See Equator,
Geographical?)
Geographical Meridian. — (See Meridian,
Geographical?)
German Silver Alloy.— (See Alloy, Ger-
man Silver?)
Gilding, Electric The electrolytic
deposition of gold on any object.
Electro-plating with gold. (See Plating,
Electro)
The surfaces of the object to be gilded are
made electrically conducting, if not already so,
and are then connected to the negative terminal
of a voltaic cell or other source, and immersed in
a plating bath containing a solution of a salt of
gold, directly opposite a plate of gold, connected
with the positive terminal of the source. The
objects to be plated thus become the kathode, and
the plate of gold the anode of the plating bath.
On the passage of a suitable current, the gold is
dissolved from the plate at the anode and deposited
Oil.]
259
[Gov.
on the object at the kathode. (See Bath, Gold.
Kathode. Anode.}
Gilt Plumbago.— (See Plumbago, Gilt.)
Gimbals. — Concentric rings of brass, sus-
pended on pivots in a compass box, and on
which the compass card is supported so as to
enable it to remain horizontal notwithstand-
ing the movements of the ship. (See Com-
pass, Azimuth.)
Each ring is suspended on two pivots placed
directly opposite each other, that is, at the ends
of a diameter, which in one ring is at right angles
to that in the other.
Girder Armature. — (See Armature, Gir-
der)
Globe, Vapor, of Incandescent Lamp
A glass globe surrounding the cham-
ber of an incandescent electric lamp, for the
purpose of enabling the lamp 'to be safely
used in an explosive atmosphere, or to permit
the lamp to be exposed in places where water
is liable to fall on it.
Such a vapor globe is shown in Fig. 288. In
the event of accidental breakage of the outside
globe, the lamp chamber
proper prevents the igni-
tion of the explosive
gases. In such cases,
however, the outer pro-
tecting chamber should
be promptly replaced.
In some forms of vapor
globes, a valve is pro-
vided, opening outwards,
in order to permit the ex-
panded air to escape
when a given pressure is
reached, and yet, at the
same time, to prevent the
entrance of gas or vapor
from without.
Glow Discharge.—
(See Discharge, Glow.)
Glow Lamp. — (See Lamp, Electric Glow.)
Gold Bath.— (See Bath, Gold.)
Gold-Leaf Electroscope.— (See Electro-
scope, Gold-Leaf)
Gold-Plating.-(See Plating, Gold.)
Gong, Electro-Mechanical A gong
Fig- 288 Vapor Globe.
struck or operated by mechanical force at
times which are dependent on the passage of
an electric current.
The motive power is the mechanical force, de-
veloped by a bent spring, the fall of a weight,
etc. , and, by suitable mechanism, is permitted to
act only on the passage of an electric current.
Governor, Centrifugal A device for
maintaining constant the speed of a steam
engine or other prime mover, despite sudden
changes in the load or work.
In a ball governor, any increase in speed
causes the balls to fly out from the centre of rota-
tion by centrifugal force. This motion is utilized
to control a valve or other regulating device. If
the speed of the engine falls, the balls move
towards the centre, shifting the valve or regulat-
ing device in the opposite direction.
Governor, Current A current regu-
lator.
A device for maintaining constant the cur-
rent strength in any circuit.
Current governors are either automatic or non-
automatic. (See Regulation, Automatic.)
Governor, Electric A device for
electrically controlling the speed of a steam
engine, the direction of current in a plating
bath, the speed of an electric motor, the re-
sistance of an electric circuit, the flow of
water or gas into or from a containing vessel,
or for other similar purposes.
The particular form assumed by the apparatus
varies with the character of the work it is intended
to accomplish. In some cases an ordinary ball
or centrifugal governor is employed to open or
close a circuit; or, a mass of mercury in a rotat-
ing vessel is caused, at a certain speed, to open or
close a circuit; or, the resistance of a bundle of
carbon discs is caused to vary, either by pressure
produced by centrifugal force, or by the move-
ment of an armature.
Governor, Periodic A name ap-
plied by Ayrton & Perry to a form of gover-
nor for an electric motor, in which the cur-
rent is automatically cut out for a certain
portion of each revolution.
Governor, Spasmodic A name
given by Ayrton & Perry to a form of gover-
nor for an electric motor, in which the cur-
Gov.J
260
[Gra-
rent is automatically cut off in proportion as
the work is cut off.
The spasmodic governor consists essentially of a
cone dipping into the surface of mercury in a rotat-
ing vessel. As the speed of the governor increases
on a lightening of the load, the surface of the mer-
cury is curved by the increased centrifugal force,
until finally the mercury leaves the contact point
and thus cuts off the current.
Governor, Steam, Electric A de-
vice used in connection with a valve to so
electrically regulate the supply of steam to an
engine, that the engine shall be driven at
such a speed as will maintain either a con-
stant current or a constant potential.
In the electric governor, the steam valve is
operated by an electro-magnet, whose coils, in
the case of a constant current machine, are of
thick wire placed in the main circuit, and, in
that of a constant potential machine, are of thin
wire placed in a shunt around the mains.
Gradnators. — Devices, generally electro-
magnetic, employed in systems of simultane-
ous telegraphic and telephonic transmission
over the same wire, so inserted in the line cir-
cuit as to obtain the makes and breaks re-
quired in a system of telegraphic communi-
cation so gradually that they fail to sensibly
influence the diaphragm of a telephone placed
in the same circuit.
Gramme. — A unit of weight equal to
I5-43235 grains.
The gramme is equal to the weight of one cubic
centimetre of pure water at the temperature of its
maximum density. It has various multiples and
decimal divisions— of the former, the kilogramme
or one thousand grammes is the most frequently
used; of the latter, the centigramme or the one-
hundredth of a gramme, and the milligramme or
the one -thousandth of a gramme. (See Weights
and Measures i Metric System of.)
Gramme Atom.— (See Atom, Gramme?)
Gramme Molecnle.— (See Molecule.
Gramme?)
Gramophone. — An apparatus for record-
ing and reproducing articulate speech. (See
Phonograph .)
Gramophone Record. — (See Record,
Gramophone?)
Graphite.— A soft variety of carbon suit-
able for writing on paper or similar surfaces.
Graphite is the material that is employed for
the so-called black lead of lead pencils. It is
sometimes called plumbago. Strictly speaking,
the term, graphite is only applicable to the variety
of plumbago suitable for use in lead pencils.
Graphite is used for rendering surfaces to be
electro-plated, electrically conducting, and also for
the brushes of dynamos and motors. For the
latter purpose it possesses the additional advantage
of decreasing the friction by means of its marked
lubricating properties.
Graphophone, Micro A modifica-
tion of the phonograph in which, instead of a
single diaphragm, a number of separate non-
metallic diaphragms are caused to act on a
single diaphragm to record the speech, so that
the separate diaphragms can be thrown into
strong vibration when reproducing the speech.
Graphophone, Phonograph A term
sometimes applied to the graphophone. (See
Graphophone, Micro. Phonograph^)
Graphophone Record. — (See Record,
Graphophone?)
Gray's Harmonic Telegraphic Analyzer.
— (See Analyzer, Grays Harmonic Tele-
graphic?)
Gray's Harmonic Telegraphy.— (See Te-
legraphy, Grays Harmonic Multiple?)
Gravitation. — A name applied to the force
which causes masses of matter to tend to
move towards one another.
This motion is assumed to be that of attraction,
that is, the bodies are assumed to be drawn to-
gether. It is not impossible, however, that they
may be pushed together.
Gravitation, like electricity, is well known, so
far as its effects are concerned ; but, as to the true
cause of either, particularly the former, we are in
comparative ignorance.
The general facts of gravitation may be suc-
cinctly stated by the following law, generally
known as Newton's law.
Every particle of matter in the universe is at-
tracted by every other particle of matter, and
itself attracts every other particle of matter, with
a force which is directly proportional to the pro-
duct of the masses of the two quantities of matter
tira.]
261
[Gna.
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Gravity Ammeter. — (See Ammeter, Grav-
ity)
Gravity, Centre of The centre of
weight of a body.
Bodies supported at their centres of gravity are
in equilibrium, since their weight is then evenly
distributed around the point of support.
Gravity-Drop Annunciator.— (See An-
nunciator, Gravity-Drop?)
Gravity, Voltaic Cell (See Cell,
Voltaic, Gravity?)
Gravity Voltmeter. — (See Voltmeter,
Gravity?)
Great Calorie. — (See Calorie, Great '.)
Grenet Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Grenet?)
Grid. — A lead plate, provided with perfor-
ations, or other irregularities of surface, and
employed in storage cells for the support of
the active material.
The support provided for the active material
on the plate of a secondary or storage cell.
The grid receives its name from its resemblance
to a gridiron. The active material is generally
maintained on the grid by means of variously
shaped apertures or holes. These are generally
larger near the centre, so as to prevent the falling
out of the material after it has been hardened by
compression. (See Cell, Secondary. Cell, Star-
<«*•)
Various forms have been given to the grid.
The object of these iForms, in general, is to in-
sure the retention of the active material by the
grid.
The grids are preferably suspended from suit-
able supports fastened to the top of the battery
jars, instead of resting on the bottom of the bat-
tery jars.
Grip, Cable A grip provided for
seizing the end of a cable when it is to be
drawn into a duct or conduit.
Grove's Yoltaic CelL— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Grove.}
Grothuss' Hypothesis.— (See Hypothesis,
Grothuss'.}
Ground Circuit— (See Circuit, Ground}
Ground Detector. —(See Detector,
Ground?)
Ground or Earth.— A general term for
the earth when employed as a conductor, or
as a large reservoir of electricity.
The term ground is also applied to a fault
caused by an accidental and undesired connection
between an electric circuit, line or apparatus and
the ground. (See Fault.}
Ground Plate of Lightning Protec-
tor.— (See Plate, Ground, of Lightning
Protector?]
Ground-Return. — A general term used
to indicate the use of the ground or earth
for a part of an electric circuit.
The earth or ground which forms part of
the return path of an electric circuit.
The ground-return is generally used in the
Morse system of telegraphy as practiced in the
United States.
Ground-Wire.— The wire or conductor
leading to or connecting with the ground or
earth in a grounded circuit.
This is sometimes called an earth-grounded
wire.
A circuit is grounded when it is completed in
part by the ground or earth.
Grounded Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Grounded?)
Growth or Expansion of Lines of Force.
— (See Force, Lines of, Growth or Expan-
sion of?)
Guard, Fan — A wire netting placed
around the fan of an electric motor for the
purpose of preventing its revolving arms
from striking external objects.
Guard, Lightning A term some-
times used for lightning rod. (See Rod,
Lightning?)
Guard, Transformer, Lightning
A transformer lightning arrester. (See Ar*
rester, Lightning, Transformer?)
Gua.]
262
[Hal.
Guard, Wire Shade A guard of
wire netting provided for the protection of a
shade.
A form of wire shade is shown in Fig. 289.
Fig. 289. Wire Shade Guard.
Gutta-Percha. — A resinous gum obtained
from a tropical tree, and valuable electrically
for its high insulating powers.
Gutta-percha readily softens by heat, but on
cooling becomes hard and tough. Unlike India-
rubber, it possesses but little elasticity. Its
specific inductive capacity is 4.2, that of air being
I, and of vulcanized rubber, 2.94. (See Capacity,
Specific Inductive.)
Gutta-percha is obtained largely from the East
Indies, from a tree which yields a brownish gum.
It is a fibrous and tenacious substance with but
little flexibility, and is unaffected by acids. Oils
produce less effect upon it than on India-rubber.
Gutta-percha is one of the best insulating mate-
rials known for sub-aqueous cables.
Gymnotns Electricus.— The electric eel.
(See Eel, Electric)
Gyrometer.— A speed indicator. (See In-
dicator, Speed^
H. — A contraction for the horizontal inten-
sity of the earth's magnetism.
H. — A contraction proposed for one unit
of self-induction.
H. — A contraction used in mathematical
writings for the magnetizing force that exists
at any point, or, generally, for the intensity of
the magnetic force.
The letter H, when used in mathematical
writings or formulae for the intensity of the
magnetic force, is always represented in bold or
heavy faced type, thus : H .
H-Armature Core. — (See Core, Arma-
ture, H.)
Hail, Assumed Electric Origin of
A hypothesis, now generally rejected, framed
to explain the origin of the alternate coatings
of ice and snow in a hail stone, by the alter-
nate electric attractions and repulsions of
the stones between neighboring, oppositely
charged, snow and rain clouds.
It is now generally recognized that the electric
manifestations attending hail storms are the
effects and not the causes of the hail. (See Para-
grtfts.)
Hair, Electrolytic Removal of
The permanent removal of hair from any part
of the body, by the electrolytic destruction of
the hair follicles.
A platinum negative electrode is inserted in the
hair follicle and the positive electrode, covered with
moist sponge or cotton, is held in the hand of the
patient. A current of from two to four milli.am-
peres from a battery of from eight to ten Le-
clanche elements is then passed for from ten to
thirty seconds. A few bubbles of gas appear,
and the hairs are then removed from the follicles
by a pair of forceps. (See Milli- Ampere. )
When the work is properly done there is no
destruction of the skin and therefore no marks or
scars.
In the removal of hair from the face, it is pref-
erable that the current should slowly reach its
maximum strength.
Half-Shades for Incandescent Lamps.
— Sbr/tes for incandescent electric lamps, in
which one-half of the lamp chamber proper
is covered with a coating of silver, or other
reflecting surface for reflecting the light, or is
ground for the purpose of diffusing the light.
The half-shade is applicable to cases where it
is desired to throw out the light, not in all direc-
tions, but on one side only of any plane. Some-
times the dividing plane is taken parallel to the
length of the incandescing filament and sometimes
at right angles to it. When the lamp is placed
Hal.J
[ttea.
within a surrounding globe the reflecting surface
may be placed on this globe instead of on the
lamp chamber.
Hall Effect.-(See Effect, Hall.}
Halle) an Lines.— (See Lines, Halleyan)
Halpine-Savage Torpedo.— (See Torpedo,
Halpine-Savage)
Hand hole of Conduit.— A box or opening
communicating with an underground cable,
provided for readily tapping the cable, and
of sufficient size to permit of the introduction
of the hand.
Hand-Lighting Argand Electric Burner.
— (See Burner, Argand Electric, Hand-
Lighter)
Hand-Lighting Electric Burner.— (See
Burner, Hand-Lighting Electric)
H a n d • R e gulation.— ( See Regulation,
Hand)
Hand-Regulator.— (See Regulator,
Hand)
Hanger-Board. — (See Board, Hanger)
Hanger, Cable A hanger or hook
suitably secured to the cable and designed to
sustain the weight
of the cable by
intermediately sup-
porting it on iron or
steel wires strung
above the cable.
A cable hanger or
cable clip is shown in
Fig. 290. The mode
of supporting the cable
C, by the hanger hook
H, will be readily un-
derstood from an in-
spection Of the figure. &**<><>• Cable Hanger.
The weight per foot of an aerial cable is gener-
ally so great that the poles or supports would re-
quire to be very near together, unless the device
of intermediate supports, by means of cable clips
or hangers, were adopted.
Hanger, Double-Curve Trolley A
trolley hanger generally employed at the ends
of single and double curves, and on inter-
mediate points on double track curves, sup-
ported by lateral strain in opposite directions.
Hanger, Single-Carre Trolley A
trolley hanger supported on a single track
curve, except at the ends and on the inside
curve of a double track line, by lateral strain
in one direction.
Hanger, Straight-Line Trolley A
trolley hanger on a straight trolley line suit-
ably supported by a span wire so as to have
a vertical strain only.
Hanger, Trolley A device for sup-
porting and properly insulating trolley wires.
Hard-Drawn Copper Wire.— (See Wire,
Copper, Hard-Drawn)
Harmonic Receiver.— (See Receiver, Har-
monic)
Harmonic Telegraphy.— (See Telegraphy.
Gray's Harmonic Multiple)
Head Bath, Electric (See Bath.
Head, Electric)
Head Breeze, Electro-Therapeutic
(See Breeze, Head, Electro-Therapeutic.)
Head Light, Locomotive, Electric
An electric light placed in the focus of a par-
abolic reflector in front of a locomotive eajine.
The lamp is so placed that its voltaic ar is a
little out of the focus of the reflector, so Mar. by
giving a slight divergence to the reflected light,
the illumination extends a short distance on either
side of the tracks.
Heat. — A form of energy.
The phenomena of heat are due to a vbratory
motion impressed on the molecules of matter by
the action of some form of energy.
Heat in a body is due to the vibrations or
oscillations of its molecules. Heat is transmitted
through space by means of a wave motion in the
universal ether. This wave motion is the same
as that causing light.
A hot body loses its heat by producing vave
motion in the surrounding ether. Tin ...ess
is called radiation. (See Radiation.)
The energy given off by a heated body . >)ing
is called radiant energy.
Radiant energy is transmitted by means of
ether waves; it is of two kinds, viz. :
(l.) Obscure Heat, or heat which does not
affect the eye, although it can impress a photo-
graphic image on a sufficiently sensitive photo-
graphic plate.
Hca.J
264
[Hea,
(z.) Luminous Heat, or heat which accompanies
tight (Sze Energy, Radiant.)
Heat is conducted, or transmitted through
bodies, with different degrees of readiness.
Some bodies are good conductors of heat,
others are poor conductors.
Heat is transmitted through liquids by means
of currents occasioned by differences in density
caused by differences ot temperature. These
currents are called convection currents.
Heat is measured as to its relative degree of in-
tensity by the thermometer. It is measured as to
its amount or quantity by the calorimeter. (See
Thermometer, ELctric. Calorimeter.}
The heat unit n.ost commonly employed is,
perhaps, the calorie, or the amount of heat re-
quired to raise one gramme of water one degree
centigrade.
Another heat unit, very generally employed in
the United States and England, is the quantity of
heat required to raise one pound of water one de-
gree Fahrenheit. This is called the English heat
unit (See Calorie. Units, Heat. Joule. Volt-
Coulomb.)
Heat, Absorption and Generation of, in
Voltaic Cell The heat effects which
attend the action of a voltaic cell.
The chemical action of the exciting liquid or
electrolyte on the positive plate or element of a
voltaic cell, like all cases of chemical combination,
is atiend> d by a development of heat.
When, however, the circuit of the cell is closed,
the energy liberated during the chemical combi-
nation appears as electricity, which develops heat
in all parts of the circuit. (See Heat, hlectric.
Cell, Voltaic.)
Heat, Atomic A constant product
obtained by multiplying the specific heat of
an elementary substance by its atomicwetght.
(See Weight, Atomic.)
Dulong and Petit have discovered the remark-
able fact that the product of the specific heat of
all elementary substances by their atomic weights
•s nearly the same. The product is called the
atomic heat, and is about equal to 6.4.
Dulong and Petit's law may be stated as fol-
ows, viz. : All elementary atoms require the same
quantity of heat to heat them to the same number
of degrees.
The atomic heat of any body divided by its
specific heat gives its atomic weight.
The heat imparted to any body performs three
kinds of work, viz. :
(I.) That expended in external work, such,
for example, as in overcoming the atmospheric
pressure.
(2.) That expended in internal work, or in
overcoming the attractions of the atoms and driv-
ing them apart
(3.) That expended in overcoming the temper-
ature, or the true specific heat, or heat expended
in increasing the molecular vis-viva.
The expenditure of energy is greatest in the
third head. The exact value of the three factors
is as yet unknown, and in the opinion of Weber
and others the correctness of Dulong and Petit's
law cannot be regarded as being satisfactorily
established.
Regnault has proved that Dulong and Petit's law
is true for compound bodies, i. e., in all compounds
of similar composition the product of the specific
heat by the total chemical equivalent is constant.
The following table from Anthony and Bracket
illustrates the law of Dulong and Petit:
Elements.
Specific Heat
of Equal Weight.
Atomic
Weight.
Product of
Specific
Heat into
uomic
Weight.
Iron
Copper
M-rcury
Silver
Gold
0.0314 (Solid)
0.057
63.17
199.71
107.67
6.001
6. 28
6- 37
Tin
Lead
0.056
117.7
6. 91
6 83
Zinc
,- ^'
"This product -the atomic heat of elements,
the molecular heat of compounds —has the follow-
ing physical meaning: Of any substance whose
atomic or molecular weight we kn>>w, we may
take a number of grammes numerically equal to
the atomic or molecular weight; lor example,
35-5 grammes of chlorine, 1 6 grammes of marsh
gas; we may call such quantity the gramme atom
or the gramme molecule of the substance. The
atomic heat or the molecular heat of a substance
is the number of calories of heat necessary to
raise the temperature of a gramme atom or a
gramme molecule of the substance through i
d eg ree C . " — ( Daniell. )
Heat, Electric — —The heat developed
by the passage of an electric current through
a conductor.
Hea.J
265
[lie*.
Heat is developed by the passage of a current
through any conductor, no matter what its resist-
ance may be.
If the conductor is of considerable length, and
of good conducting power, the heat developed is
not very sensible, since it is spread over a consid-
erable area, and is rapidly lost by radiation.
H, the heat generated in any conductor of a
resistance R, by the passage through it of an elec-
tric current C, is equal to
H = C3 R, in watts.
But one watt = .24 small calorie per second.
Therefore, the heat which is generated,
H = C2 R X .24 calories per second.
For the case of a uniform wire of circular cross-
section the resistance R, in ohms is directly pro-
portional to the length 1, and inversely propor-
tional to the area of cross -section jrr8, or
The temperature to which a wire of a given re-
sistance is raised, will of course vary with the
mass of the wire, its radiating surface, and its
specific heat capacity. If the same number of
heat calories are generated in a small weight of a
conductor, whose radiating surface is small, the
resulting temperature will of course be far higher
than if generated in a larger mass provided with
a much greater radiating surface. In general,
however, its temperature increases as the square
of the current strength when the resistance is con-
stant, and increases as the resistance of ihe wire
per unit of length is greater.
The temperature a wire acquires by the passage
of a current through it varies inversely as the
third power of the radius. If two wires of the
same material have the same lengths, but different
radii, the temperature, acquired by the pas-
sage of an electric current, will depend on the
heat developed per second, less that radiated per
second. Since the former varies as —^ and the
latter as r, that is, as 1 X 2jrr, the temperatures
attained vary as L, and not as _£, as frequently
stated. — (Larden.)
The current required to raise the temperature
of a bare copper wire a given number of degrees
above the temperature of the air is given in the
following tab1* •
BARE COPPER WIRES.
Current required to increase the temperature of a copper
wire t° Centigrade above the surrounding air, the
copper wire being bright polished or blackened.
Centimetres
and Mils
(thousandths of
an inch).
t = i° C.
t = 9'C.
t = 2S«C.
Cm.
Mils.
Bright
Black
Bright
Black
Bright
Black
.1
40
I 0
1.4
3.0
4.1
4.8
6.6
,2
80
2.8
3-9
8-3
11.5
r3-5
18.7
•3
•4
120
160
5-2
7-
15-3
23-6
31.2
32.7
33
34-4
S3-o
200
II. I
15-
33-o
45-7
53-5
74-1
240
14.6
20.
43-4
60.0
7°-3
97-4
•7
18.5
25-
S46
75.6
88.7
123
31Q
22.6
31-
66.7
92.4
108
150
•9
35°
26.()
37-
79.6
129
179
i.
39°
3T*5
43-6
93-3
129
210
790
89.2
123
264
428
593
4-
1180
157°
164
252
327
349
746
671
1035
787
,090
'675
5-
1970
353
488
i°43
1444
,699
2343
2360
463
642
1828
2225
3080
7.
2760
584
808
1728
2392
2803
3882
8.
3150
714
O88
2922
3422
474 «
9-
3540
8si
1.78
2519
,486
4088
S6SO
10.
394°
997
1380
2950
4084
4788
6626
Diameter in
Cent metres
CURRENT IN AMPERES.
and Mils
(thousandths of
an inch).
t = 49° C.
t = Sz" C.
Cm.
Mils.
Bright.
Black.
Bright.
Black.
.1
40
6-5
8.9
7-9
II. O
• 2
80
18.3
25-3
22.4
31.0
-3
-4
1
120
160
aoo
240
33-5
5i-7
72.2
94-9
46.4
99-9
ii
116
:78
280
310
3
165
202
"47
179
3
•9
174
24I
214
296
I.O
39°
204
25 i
347
2.0
790
577
79i
709
081
3.O
1180
1061
i468
1303
1803
4.0
1570
'633
2260
2006
2776
1970
2283
3i6o
2802
3880
7.0
2360
2760
3°oo
4154
36*5
4642
Sioo
6426
315°
4620
6396
5671
7850
9.0
354°
55"
7630
6769
9370
10. 0
3940
6425
8935
7926
10973
34-4
— (Forbes.)
Heat, Electric Convection of — — A
term employed to express the dissymmetrical
distribution of temperature that occurs when a
Hea.]
266
[Hea.
current of electricity is sent through a
metallic wire, the middle of which is main-
tained at a constant temperature, and the
ends at the temperature of melting ice.
The distribution of heat during the pas-
sage of a current through an unequally
heated conductor.
If the central portions of a metallic bar are
heated the curve of heat distribution is sym-
metrical. On sending an electric current through
the wire it is heated according to Joule's law,
and the curve of heat distribution is still sym-
metrical. But the current in passing from the
colder to the hotter parts of the wire produces
an additional heating effect at this point, and in
passing from the warmer to the colder parts of
the wire produces a cooling effect. (See Effect,
Peltier. Effect, Thomson.) The curve of heat
distribution is then no longer symmetrical. The
term Electrical Convection of Heat, has been
given to the dissymmetrical distribution of heat
so effected.
Sir William Thomson, who studied these
effects, found that the electrical convection of
heat in copper takes place in the opposite
direction to that in iron; that is to say, the elec-
trical convection of heat is negative in iron, (i. e.,
the direction is opposite to that of the current),
and positive in copper.
Heat, Irreversible Heat pro-
duced in a homogeneous conductor by the
passage of electricity through it.
This heat, according to Joule's law, is propor-
tional to the square of the current, and is produced
no matter in what direction the current is pass-
ing. In this respect it is unlike the heat pro-
duced by the passage of electricity through a
heterogeneous conductor, in which case heat is
developed or liberated only by the passage of the
current in a given direction : on the passage of the
current in the opposite direction, heat being
absorbed and the temperature lowered. (See
Heat, Reversible.}
Heat Lightning.— (See Lightning, Heat.)
Heat, Luminous A variety of radi-
ant energy which affects the eye, as light.
Radiant heat and light are, in reality, different
effects produced by one and the same cause, viz.,
by vibrations or waves in the universal ether.
In general the waves producing heat are of
greater length and smaller frequency than are
those producing light.
Heat, Mechanical Equivalent of —
The amount of mechanical energy, converted
into heat, that would be required to raise the
temperature of I pound of water i degree
Fahr.
The mechanical equivalence between the
amount of energy expended and the amount
of heat produced, as measured in heat units.
Joule's experiments, the results of which are
generally accepted, gave 772 foot-pounds as the
energy equivalent to that expended in raising the
temperature of I pound of water I degree Fahr.
Heat, Molecular The number of
calories of heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of one gramme-molecule of any sub-
stance i degree C. (See Molecule, Gramme.
Heat, Atomic.)
Heat, Obscure A variety of radiant
energy which does not effect the eye.
Radiant heat is sometimes divided into lumi-
nous heat and obscure heat. (See Heat, Lumi-
nous.)
Heat, Red The temperature at
which a body, whose temperature is gradually
increasing, begins to glow or to emit red rays
of light.
When a refractory solid body is gradually
heated to incandescence, the red waves of light
are first emitted, then the orange, and successively
afterwards the yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet, when the body emits white light or is
white hot.
Heat, Reversible The heat pro-
duced in a heterogeneous conductor by the
passage through it of an electric current in a
certain direction.
Reversible heat is produced at the junction of
two metals, where a difference of potential exists
between them, or where their heterogeneity is
greatest. It is called reversible because it de-
pends upon the direction in which the current
is passing. If the current be passed in a certain
direction across the junction, heat is liberated;
while, if it be passed in the opposite direction,
heat is absorbed, or cold results.
Reversible heat effects are seen in the Peltier
effect. (See Effect, Peltier.)
Hea.]
267
[Hel.
Heat, Specific The capacity of a
substance for heat as compared with the
capacity of an equal quantity of some other
substance taken as unity.
Water is generally taken as the standard for
comparison, because its capacity for heat is greater
than that of any other common substance.
Different quantities of heat are required to
raise the temperature of a given weight of dif-
ferent substances through I degree. The spe-
cific heats of substances are generally compared
with water or with hydrogen, the capacity of
these substances for heat being very great.
According to Dulong and Pettit, the specific
heat of all elementary atoms is the same. For
example, the heat energy of an atom of hydrogen
is equal to that of an atom of oxygen, but since
a given mass of hydrogen, under similar condi-
tions of temperature and pressure, contains sixteen
times as many atoms as an equal mass of oxygen,
therefore, when compared weight for weight,
hydrogen has a specific heat sixteen times greater
than that of oxygen.
Or, in general, comparing equal weights, the
specific heat of an elementary substance is in-
versely proportional to its atomic weight. (See
Heat, Atomic.}
Heat, Specific, of Electricity (See
Electricity, Specific Heat of.)
Heat Unit— The quantity of heat required
to raise a given weight of water through
a single degree.
There are a number of different heat units.
The most important are:
(I.) The British Heat Unit, or Thermal Unit, or
the amount of heat required to raise I pound
of water I degree Fahr. This unit represents an
amount of work equal to 772 foot-pounds.
(2.) The Greater Calorie, or the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1,000
grammes of water I degree C. (See Calorie.)
(3.) The Smaller Calorie, or the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one gramme
of water I degree C.
(4.) The Joule, or the quantity of heat developed
in one second by the passage of a current of one
ampere through a resistance of one ohm.
l joule equals .0002407 large calories.
I joule equals . 2407 small calories.
I foot-pound equals 1.356 joules.
I pound-Centigrade equals 1884.66 joules.
I " '• 1389.6 foot pounds.
I " Fahrenheit -1 1047.03 joules.
Heat Unit, English (See Units,
Heat)
Heat Unit or Calorie.— (See Calorie)
Heat Unit or Joule.— (See Joule)
Heat, White The temperature at
which light of all wave lengths from the red
to the violet is emitted from a heated body,
and the body, therefore, glows with a white
light.
A solid substance heated to white incandescence
emits a continuous spectrum, *'. e., a spectrum in
which all the wave lengths of light from the red
to the violet are present.
Heater, Electric A device for the
conversion of electricity into heat for purposes
of artificial heating.
Electric heaters consist essentially of coils or
circuits of some refractory metal through which
the current is passed. These coils or circuits are
surrounded by air or finely divided solids, and are
placed inside metallic boxes or radiators, which
throw off or radiate the heat produced.
When employed for the heating of liquids the
coils are placed directly in the liquid to be
heated, or are surrounded by radiating boxes
placed in the liquid.
Heating Effects of Currents.— (See Cur-
rents, Heating Effects of)
Hedgehog Transformer. — (See Trans-
former, Hedgehog)
Hecto-Ampdre One hundred am-
peres.
Heliograph.— An instrument for tele-
graphic communication that operates by em-
ploying flashes of light to represent the dots
and dashes of the Morse alphabet, or the
movements of the needles of a needle tele-
graph to the right or the left. (See Alphabet,
Telegraphic)
The flashes of light are thrown from the sur-
face of a plane mirror. Motions to the right or
left may be employed in order to distinguish
between the dots and dashes, or the same may be
effected by the relative durations of the flashes of
Hel.]
268
[Hol.
light, or by the intervals between successive
flashes.
Telegraphic communication has been carried
on betweeh steamers during foggy weather by
means of their fog horns; or between locomotives
by their steam whistles.
Helix, Dextrorsal A name some-
times applied to a dextrorsal solenoid. (See
Solenoid, Dextrorsal?)
The magnetic polarity of a helix or solenoid
depends not only on the direction in which the
current is passed, but also on the direction in
which the wire is coiled or wound . (See Magnet,
Electro.}
Helix, Sinistrorsal A name some-
times applied to a sinistrorsal solenoid. (See
Solenoid, Sinistrorsal?)
Hemihedral Crystal.— (See Crystal, Hem-
ihedral.)
Henry, A — — The practical unit of self-
induction.
It has been generally agreed in the United
States to call the practical unit of self-induction
a henry, in place of a secohm or quadrant.
The name henry should be adopted, not only by
American electricians, but also by those of other
countries, since the terms secohm or quadrant
are contrary to the generally adopted usage of
employing for such the names of distinguished
electricians, who have passed from their labors.
The fact that of all discoverers in the field of self-
induction, none possesses so great a claim as that of
Prof. Henry, must be generally acknowledged.
As early as 1832 he published in Silliman's Jour-
nal a paper in which he described experiments,
showing clearly that the spark obtained by break-
ing the current of a battery, in which along wire
was interposed, was greater than when a short
wire was employed, and that this increased length
of spark was further increased by coiling the wire,
and that the phenomena were ascribed to the ac-
tion of the current on itself.
A committee of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, after careful consideration,
recommended to the Institute that the value of
the practical unit of inductance should be equal to
lo» C. G. S. units of inductance, usually ex-
pressed by a length equal to one earth quadrant
or 1,000,000,000 centimetres.
The value of the practical unit of inductance,
or the "henry," may in some cases be too high for
convenience; in such cases it may be expressed
by some fractional dimension, such, for example,
as milli-henry.
Hercules Stone. — (See Stone, Hercules.}
Herinetical Seal.— (See Seal, Hermeti-
cal.}
Hertz's Theory of Electricity.— (See Elec-
tricity, Hertz's Theory of.)
Heterostatic.— A term applied by Sir
William Thomson to distinguish a form of
electrometer in which the electrification is
measured by determining the mutual influ-
ence of the attraction exerted by the charge
to be measured and the attraction of an oppo-
site charge imparted to the instrument by a
source independent of the charge to be meas-
ured.
The term heterostatic distinguishes this form of
electrometer from an idiostatic instrument, or one
in which the measurement is effected by deter-
mining the repulsion between the charge to be
measured and the repulsion of a charge of the
same name, i. e., positive or negative, imparted
to the instrument from an independent source.
(See Electrometer.)
Hick's Automatic Button Repeater.—
(See Repeaters, Telegraphic?)
High-Bars. — A term applied to those com-
mutator segments, or parts of commutator
segments, which, through less wear, faulty
construction or looseness, are higher than ad-
joining portions. (See Commutator.)
High-Frequency Currents, Electric Light-
ing by (See Lighting, Electric, by
High-Frequency Currents?)
High Resistance Magnet— (See Magnet,
High Resistance?)
High Speed Electric Motor.— (See Mo-
tor, Electric, High Speed?)
High Tension Electric Fuse.— (See Fuse,
Electric High Tension?)
Hissing of Arc. — (See Arc, Hissing of.)
Holder for Safety Fuse. — A box or other
receptacle of refractory material for holding
a safety fuse, and catching the molten metal
when fused.
The holder or fuse box is provided to prevent the
Hoi.]
269
[Eor.
molten metal of the fuse from setting fire to any
combustible material on which it might other-
wise fall.
Holders, Carbon, for Arc Lamps —
A clutch or clamp attached to the end of the
lamp rod or other support, and provided to
hold the carbon pencils used on arc lamps.
(See Lamp, Arc, Electric!)
Holders for Brushes of Dynamo-Electric
Machine.— A device for holding the collect-
ing brushes of a dynamo-electric machine. —
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric!)
Hole, Armature A term sometimes
applied for armature bore or chamber. (See
Bore, Armature!)
Hole, Armature Bore, Elliptical —
An armature bore or chamber ellipsoidal in
shape.
Holohedral Crystal.— (See Crystal, Holo-
hedral.)
Holtz Machine.— (See Machine, Holtz.)
Home Station.— (See Station, Home.)
Homogeneous Current Distribution. —
(See Current, Homogeneous Distribution of.)
Hood for Electric Lamp. — A hood pro-
vided for the double purpose of protecting the
Fig. 2QT. Arc Lamp Hood.
body of an electric lamp from rain or sun,
and for throwing its light in a general down-
ward direction.
Hoods for arc lamps are generally conical in
shape.
A form of hood for an exposed arc lamp is
shown in Fig. 291.
Horizontal Component of Earth's Mag-
netism.— (See Component, Horizontal, of
Earth's Magnetism,)
Horns, Following, of Pole Pieces of
a Dynamo - Electric Machine The
edges or terminals of the pole pieces of a dy-
namo-electric machine towards which the
armature is carried during its rotation.
According to S. P. Thompson, the following
horns, b, d, Fig. 292, are those towards which
the armature is carried ; the leading horns, a, c,
those from which it is carried.
As the change in the magnetic intensity is more
sudden when the armature is moved from the
pole pieces, and least when moved towards them,
it is clear that the leading horns in a dynamo -
electric machine, and the following horns in an
electric motor, become heated during rotation by
the production of Foucault currents. (See Cur.
rents, Foucault. Machine, Dynamo Electric.)
Horns, Leading, of Pole Pieces of a Dy-
namo-Electric Machine The edges
or terminals of the pole pieces of a dynamo-
electrical machine from which the armature
is carried during its rotation.
Thus, in Fig. 292, a and c, are the leading horns
of the pole pieces.
Horns of Pole Pieces of Dynamo-Electric
Machine.— The edges of the pole pieces of a
dynamo-electnc machine towards or from
which the armature is carried during its rota-
tion.
These are called the following and the leading
horns.
Horse-Power. — A commercial unit
powe- or rate of doing work.
for
Hor.]
270
[Hoa
A rate of doing work equal to 33,000 pounds
raised i foot per minute, or 5 50 pounds raised
I foot per second.
A rate of doing work equal to 4,562.33
kilogrammes raised i metre per minute.
A careful distinction must be drawn between
work and power. The same amount of work
is done in raising I pound through 10 feet
whether it be done in one minute or in one hour.
The power expended or the rate of doing work
is, however, quite different, being in the former
case sixty times greater than in the latter.
I horse-power = 550 foot-pounds per second.
" =33,000 foot-pounds per min-
ute.
" = 4,562.33 kilogramme-metres
per minute.
«« = 745.941 watts.
" = 1.01385 metric horse-power.
Horse-Power, Electric (See Power,
Horse, Electric)
Horse-Power Hour. — (See Hour, Horse-
Power).
Horse-Power, Metric A unit of
power in which rate of doing work is equal
to 75 kilogramme-metres. (See Horse-
Power.)
Horseshoe Electro-Magnet. — (See Mag-
net, Electro, Horseshoe.)
Horseshoe Magnet. — (See Magnet, Horse-
shoe.)
Hot, Red Sufficiently heated to
emit red light only. (See Heat, Red.)
Hot St. Elmo's Fire.— (See Fire, Hot. St.
Elmo's)
Hot, White Sufficiently heated to
emit all the colored lights of the spectrum.
(See//«z/, White.)
Hotel Annunciator. — (See Annunciator,
Hotel.)
Hour, Ampere — • A unit of electrical
quantity equal to one ampere flowing for one
hour.
The ampere-hour is in reality a unit of quanti-
ty like the coulomb. It is used in the service of
electric currents, and is equal to the product of
the current delivered by the time in hours. The
ampere hour is not a measure of energy, but when
combined with the volt, and expressed in watt
hours, it is a measure of energy.
The capacity of any service for maintaining a
flow of current is measured in ampere-hours.
Thus, if any service, such as a primary or sec-
ondary battery, has a capacity of 80 ampdre-
hours, it will supply 8 amperes for ten hours, or
it may give 10 amperes for eight hours.
The storing capacity of accumulators is gener
ally given in ampere-hours. The same is true ol
primary batteries.
One coulomb equals .0002778 ampere-hours.
One ampere-hour equals 3,600 coulombs.
Hour, Horse-Power A unit of work.
An amount of work equal to one horse-
power for an hour.
One horse- power is equal to 1,980,000 foot-
pounds, or 745.941 watt hours.
Hour, Kilo- Watt A unit of electri-
cal power equal to a kilo-watt maintained for
one hour.
Hour, Lamp Such a service of elec-
tric current as will maintain one electric lamp
during one hour.
The number of lamp-hours is obtained by mul-
tiplying the number of lamps by the average
number of hours during which the lamps are
burning.
The use of lamp-hours is for the purpose of
estimating the current supplied to a consumer by
counting the number of hours each lamp is in.
service.
To convert lamp-hours to watt-hours, multiply
the number of lamp-hours by the number of
watts per lamp. The watt hours, divided by 746^
will then give the electrical horse-power hours.
(Seeffour, Watt.)
Hour, Watt A unit of electrical
work.
An expenditure of an electrical work of
one watt for one hour.
Lamp-hours are converted to watt-hours by
multiplying the number of lamp-hours by the
number of watts per lamp. (See Hour, Lamp.)
House Annunciator. — (See Annunciator.
House.)
House Main.— (See Main, House.)
House-Service Conductor.— (See Conduc-
tor, House-Service.)
Hon.]
271
[Hyp.
House-Top Fixtures, Telegraphic
(See Fixtures, Telegraphic House- Top.)
House Wire.— (See Wire, House.)
Hughes' Electro-Magnet— (See Magnet,
Electro, Hughes')
Human Body, Electric Resistance of
— (See Body, Human, Resistance of)
Hydro-Electric Bath.— (See Bath, Hydro-
Electric)
Hydro-Electric Machine, Armstrong's
(See Machine, Armstrong's Hydro-
Electric)
Hydrogen, Electrolytic Hydrogen
produced by electrolytic decomposition.
It is the electrolytic hydrogen liberated in a
voltaic cell at the surface of the negative plate,
which causes polarization and consequent de-
crease in the resulting current strength, by rea-
son both of the counter-electromotive force it
produces and the increased resistance it produces
in the cell.
Electrolytic hydrogen is atomic hydrogen; i. e.,
hydrogen with its bonds open or free. It there-
fore possesses much stronger chemical affinities
than does molecular hydrogen. Electrolytic
oxygen which is evolved at the same time as the
electrolytic hydrogen has been successfully em-
ployed in electric bleaching. Hydrogen per-
oxide is also formed and acts as a bleaching agent.
Hydrometer or Areometer. — An appa-
ratus for determining the specific gravity of
liquids. (See Areometer or Hydrometer)
Hydro-Plastics.— (See Plastics, Hydro)
Hydro-Plasty. — The art of hydro-plastics.
(See Plastics, Hydro)
Hydrotasimeter, Electric An elec-
trically operated apparatus designed to show
at a distance the exact position of any water
level.
In most forms of the electric hydrotasimeter a
float placed in the liquid and connected with an
electric circuit breaks this circuit, and, at intervals,
sends positive impulses into the line when rising
and negative impulses when falling. These are
registered by means of an index moved by a step-
by-step motion, positive currents moving it hi
one direction and negative currents moving it in
the opposite direction.
Hygrometer. — An apparatus for determin-
ing the amount of moisture in the air.
Hygrometrical. — Of or pertaining to the
hygrometer.
Hygrometrically. — In the manner of the
hygrometer.
Hypothesis. — A provisional assumption of
facts or causes the real nature of which is
unknown, made for the purpose of studying
the effects of such causes.
When the facts assumed by a hypothesis can
be shown to be presumably true the hypothesis
becomes a theory. A theory, therefore, gives a
more correct expression of the relations between
the causes and effects of natural phenomena than
does a hypothesis.
Hypothesis, Double-Fluid Electric
—(See Electricity, Double-Fluid Hypothesis,
of)
Hypothesis, Grothiiss' A hypothe-
sis proposed by Grothiiss to account for the
electrolytic phenomena that occur on closing
the circuit of a voltaic cell.
Grothttss' hypothesis assumes:
(I.) That before the electric circuit is closed
the molecules of the electrolyte are arranged in
an irregular or unpolarized condition, as repre*
Fig. 293. GrothVus- Hypothesis of Electrolytic Polari-
zation.
sented at (i), Fig. 293. These molecules are
shaded as shown in Fig. 294, to indicate their com-
position and polarity.
(2.) When the circuit is closed and a current
Hyp.]
272
[Hys.
begins to pass, a polarization of the electrolyte, as
shown at (2), ensues, whereby all the negative
ends of the molecules of hydrogen sulphate, o
sulphuric acid, are turned towards the positive
or zinc plate, and all the positive ends towards
the negative or copper plate. This, as will be
seen, will turn the SO4 ends towards the zinc,
and the H2 ends towards the copper.
(3.) A decomposition of the polarized chain,
whereby the SO4
unites with the zinc
and the H£ liberated /
reunites with the SO4
of the molecule next
to it in the chain, and
its liberated Ha with Fig, 294. Conventionalized
the one next to it, and Molecule.
so on until the last liberated Hz in the chain is
given off at the surface of the copper or negative
plate. This leaves the chain of molecules as
shown at (3).
(4.) A semi-rotation of the molecules of the
chain, as at (3), until they assume the position
shown at (4). This rotation is required, since all
the molecules in (3) are turned with their similar
poles towards similarly charged battery plates.
Hypothesis, Single-Fluid Electric —
—(See Electricity, Single-Fluid Hypothe-
sis of.)
Hypothetical. — Of or pertaining to a hy-
pothesis.
Hypsometer. — An apparatus for determin-
ing the height of a mountain or other eleva-
tion by ascertaining the exact temperature at
which water boils at such elevation.
The use of a thermometer to measure the
height of a mountain or other elevation is based
on the fact that a given decrease in the tempera-
ture of the boiling point of water invariably at-
tends a given decrease in the atmospheric press-
ure. Therefore, as the observer goes further
above the level of the sea, the boiling point of
water becomes lower, and from this decrease the
height of the mountain or other elevation may be
calculated.
HypsometricaL— Of or pertaining to the
hypsometer.
Hypsometrically.— -In the manner of the
hypsometer.
Hysteresial Dissipation of Energy. — (See
Energy, Hysteresial Dissipation of.}
Hysteresis. — Molecular friction to mag-
netic change of stress.
A retardation of the magnetizing or de-
magetizing effects as regards the causes
which produce them.
The quality of a paramagnetic substance
by virtue of which energy is dissipated on the
reversal of its magnetization.
The ratio of magnetic induction to the mag-
netizing force producing it, or, in other words,
the magnetic permeability, is greater when the
magnetizing force is decreasing, than when it is
increasing. This phenomenon is seen in the well
known retention of magnetism in iron after the
withdrawal of the force causing the magnetization,
and was called by Ewing hysttresis, from
'vdr-£fJ£(o, to lag behind.
If a curve is constructed in which the hori-
zontal abscissas represent the magnetizing force,
or the magnetizing current to which they are
proportional, and the vertical ordinates the
number of lines of induction passing through the
body that is being magnetized, both in the case
of gradually increasing and gradually decreasing
currents, the curve will be found to have greater
values for the decreasing than for the increasing
current Constructing a curve in this manner for
the case of a ring of
iron, which has been
first suddenly magnet-
ized and then demag-
netized, taking the
magnetizing force along
the line F H, Fig.
295, and the result-
ing magnetization
along the line M N, a
loop is formed in the
curve, as shown in the
figure. The arrows
show the direction of j?ig. 395. Curves of Hys.
the magnetizing force; teresis (Ewing}.
the shaded area the work done due to hysteresis.
The area of this loop represents the amount of
energy pur unit of volume expended in perform-
ing a magnetic cycle, * e., in carrying the iron
ring through a magnetization and subsequent
demagnetization.
The physical meaning of the loop is that a lag-
273
[Hys.
ging of magnetization has occurred. This lag-
ging of the magnetization is due to hysteresis.
Ewing gives the value for the energy in ergs
dissipated per cubic centimetre, for a complete
magnetic cycle for a number of substances, as
follows :
Energy dissipated
in ergi per cubic
centimetre, during
a complete cycle of
doubly reversed
strong magnetiza-
Somple of Iron operated upon. don.
Very soft annealed iron 9,30x5 ergs.
Less soft annealed iron 16,300 ' '
Hard drawn steel wire 60.000 "
Annealed steel wire 70,500 "
Same steel, glass hard 76,000 ' '
Piano-forte steel wire, normal
temper 116,000 "
Same, annealed , 94,000 ' '
Same, glass hard 117,000 "
Approximately 28 foot-pounds of energy are
required to make a double reversal of strong
magnetization in a cubic foot of iron. Energy
expended in this way takes the form of heat.
This heat, however, is to be distinguished from
heat produced by Foucault currents.
According to Ewing, hysteresis is greatly de-
creased by keeping the iron in a state of mag-
netic vibration. In this way, the energy dis-
sipated in a complete magnetic cycle is corre-
spondingly decreased. This observation of Ewing
agrees with the prior observation of Hughes, who
noticed that tapping or twisting a bar of iron
greatly accelerates the removal of its residual
magnetism.
The phenomena of hysteresis, according to
Fleming, accounts for part of the energy which
is dissipated in a dynamo-electric machine:
(i.) In the field magnets.
In an ordinarily constructed continuous- current
dynamo, work is done in magnetizing the field
magnets, not only to give the iron its initial mag-
netism, but also to constantly reproduce the mag-
netism which the machine loses by reason of the
continual vibrations to which it is subjected dur-
ing its run. If sufficient residual magnetism
were retained, on the withdrawal of the magneti-
zing torce there would be no necessity for the
current in the field magnets ; but, since this is
removed by even a small vibration, the energy of
the exciting current must needs be expended.
(2.) In the armature of the dynamo.
The soft iron of the core is subjected to succes-
sive magnetizations and demagnetizations. Ac-
cording to Fleming, in the case of a core having
a volume of 9,000 cubic centimetres, with fifteen
reversals per second, the loss is equal to about £
horse-power.
Hysteresis, Static — —That quality in
iron, or other paramagnetic substance, by
virtue of which energy is dissipated during
every reversal of its magnetization.
Static hysteresis is so named in order to dis-
tinguish it from viscous hysteresis. (See Hystere-
sis, Viscous.)
Hysteresis, Viscous The time-lag
observed in magnetizing a bar of iron,
which is referable neither to induction in the
iron, nor to self-induction in the magnetizing
current, but to the magnetic viscosity of the
substance.
A sluggishness exhibited by iron for mag-
netization or demagnetization due to magnetic
viscosity.
The difference between static and viscous
hysteresis is thus stated by Fleming in consider-
ing the analogous mechanical case of lifting a
weight in a viscous fluid. "Apart from fluid
resistance, the work done in lifting the weight
against gravity, say one hundred times, is a hun-
dred times the work required to be spent to lift
it once ; but if fluid resistance comes into play,
and if this varies as the square of the velocity of
the moving body, then the total work done in
lifting the weight through the fluid will be de-
pendent also upon the rate at which the cycle is
performed."
274
[111.
I. H. P. — A contraction for indicated horse-
power, or the horse-power of an engine as
obtained by the means of an indicator card.
I. W. G.— A contraction for Indian wire
gauge.
Idio-ElectricSo — A name formerly applied
to such bodies as amber, resin or glass, which
are readily electrified by friction, and which
were then supposed to be electric in them-
selves.
This distinction was based on an erroneous
conception, and the word is now obsolete.
Idiostatic.— A term employed by Sir Wil-
liam Thomson to designate an electrometer
in which the measurement is effected by de-
termining the repulsion between the charge
to be measured and that of a charge of the
same sign imparted to the instrument from
an independent source. (See Heterostatic)
Idle Poles.— (See Poles, Idle)
Igniter, Jablochkoff A small strip
of carbon, or some carbonaceous material
that is readily rendered incandescent by the
current, placed between the free ends of the
parallel carbons of a Jablochkoff candle, for
the establishment of the arc on the passage
of the current.
The igniter is necessary in the Jablochkoff elec-
tric candle, since the parallel carbons are rigidly
kept at a constant distance apart by the insulat-
ing material placed between them, and cannot
therefore be moved together as in the case of the
ordinary lamp. (See Candle, Jablochkoff.)
Ignition, Electric The ignition of
a combustible material by heat of electric
origin.
The electric ignition of wires is generally ac-
complished by electric incandescence. Ignition
may be accomplished by the heat of the voltaic
arc. (Seefftat, Electric. Furnace, Electric,}
The ignition of combustible gases is accom-
plished by the heat of the electric spark. (See
Burner, Automatic, Electric.)
Illumination. Artificial The em-
ployment of artificial sources of light.
A good artificial illuminant should possess the
following properties, viz. :
(i.) It should give a general or uniform illumi-
nation as distinguished from sharply marked
regions of light and shadow.
To this end a number of small lights well dis-
tributed are preferable to a few large lights.
(2.) It should give a steady light, uniform in
brilliancy, as distinguished from a flickering,
unsteady light. Sudden changes in the intensity
of a light injure the eyes and prevent distinct
vision.
(3.) It should be economical, or not cost too
much to produce.
(4.) It should be safe, or not likely to cause
loss of life or property. To this intent it should,
if possible, be inclosed in or surrounded by a
lantern or chamber of some incombustible mate-
rial, and should preferably be lighted at a dis-
tance.
(5.) It should not give off noxious fumes or
vapors when in use, nor should it unduly heat
the air of the space it illumines.
(6.) It should be reliable, or not apt to be un-
expectedly extinguished when once lighted.
The electric incandescent lamp is an excellent
artificial illuminant.
(i.) It is capable of great subdivision, and can,
therefore, produce a uniform illumination.
(2. ) It is steady and free from sudden changes
in its intensity.
(3.) It compares favorably in point of economy
with coal oil or gas, provided its extent of use is
sufficiently great.
(4.) It is safer than any known illuminant,
since it can be entirely inclosed and can be
lighted from a distance or at the burner without
the dangerous friction match.
The leads, however, must be carefully insu-
lated and protected by safety fuses. (See Fuse,
Safety.}
(5.) It gives off no gases, and produces far less
heat than a gas-burner of the same candle power.
It perplexes many people to understand why
the incandescent electric light should not heat
the air of a room as much as a gas light, since it
is quite as hot as the gas light. It must be re-
membered, however, that a gas-burner, when
lighted, not only permits the same quantity of
111.]
275
[Imp.
gas to enter the room which would enter it if
the gas were simply turned on and not lighted,
but that this bulk of gas is still given off, and is,
indeed, considerably increased by the combina-
tion of the illuminating gas with the oxygen of the
atmosphere ; and, moreover, this great bulk of
gas escapes as highly heated gases. Such gases
are entirely absent in the incandescent electric
light, and consequently its power of heating the
surrounding air is much less than that of gas
lights.
(6.) It is quite reliable, and will continue to
burn as long as the current is supplied to it.
Illumination, Lighthouse, Electric
— The application of the electric arc light
to lighthouses.
A powerful arc light is placed in the focus of
the dioptric lens now commonly employed in
lighthouses. Since the consumption of the carbon
electrodes would alter the position of the focus of
the light, electric lamps for such purposes are
constructed to feed both of their carbons, instead
of the upper carbon only, as in the case of the
ordinary arc lamp. Such lamps are called focus-
ing lamps.
Illumination, Unit of A standard
of illumination proposed by Preece, equal to
the illumination given by a standard candle
at the distance of 12.7 inches.
According to Preece, the illumination of the
average streets of London, where gas is employed,
is equal to about one- tenth of this standard in the
neighborhood of a gas lamp, and about one-
fiftieth in the middle space between two lamps.
The term unit of illumination, in place of in-
tensity of light, was proposed by Preece in order
to avoid the very great difficulty in determining
the intensity of a light in a street or space where
there were a number of luminous sources, and
where the directions of incidence of the different
lights vary so greatly.
A carcel standard at the distance of a metre
will illumine a surface to the same intensity of
illumination as a standard candle at the distance
of 12.7 inches. (See Candle, Foot.)
Illumined Electrode.— (See Electrode,
Illumined?)
Imbibition Currents.— (See Currents, Im-
bibition^
Images, Electric A term some-
times applied to the charge produced on a
neighboring surface by induction from a
known charge.
A positive charge produces, by induction, on a
flat metallic surface near it, a negative charge
which is distributed with varying density over the
surface, but acts electrically as would an equal
quantity of negative electricity placed back of the
plate at the same distance the positive charge is
in front of it. The correspondence of this charge
with the image of an object seen in a plane mirror,
has led to the term electric image.
Maxwell defines electric image as follows: " An
electric image is an electrified point, or system of
points, on one side of a surface, which would pro-
duce, on the other side of that surface, the same
electrical action which the actual electrification oi
the surface really does produce. ' '
Impedance.— Generally any opposition to
current flow.
The sum of the ohmic resistance and the
spurious resistance of a circuit measured in
ohms.
A quantity which is related to the strength
of the impressed electromotive force of a sim-
ple periodic or alternating current, in the same
manner that resistance is related to the steady
electromotive force of a continuous current.
In the case of steady currents, the current
strength is equal to the electromotive force dl.
vided by the resistance; or,
_ Electromotive force
Current strength = =— :
Resistance.
In the case of a simple periodic or alternating cur*
rent, the average current strength is equal to the
average impressed electromotive force divided by
the impedance; or,
Average current strength =
Average impressed electromotive force
Impedance.
Since impedance, like true resistance of the cir-
cuit, can be measured in ohms, it is sometimes
called the virtual resistance.
Impedance is a quantity equal to the square
root of the sum of the squares of the inductive
resistance of the circuit and the ohmic resistance.
In the case of simple periodic or alternating
currents, the average current strength is equal to
the average impressed electromotive force, divided
by the impedance; the maximum current strength
lmp.J
276
[Inc.
it
is equal to the maximum impressed electromotive
force, divided by the impedance.
The impedance of a circuit can be repre-
sented geometrically as fol
lows: Draw a right angled
triangle (Fig. 296), the base
of which represents the
ohmic resistance of the cir-
out, and the perpendicular,
the inductive resistance;
then the hypothenuse will
represent the impedance.
Since the ohmic resistance equals R, and the in-
ductive resistance equals the inductance L, mul-
tiplied by 2 it n, in which n, is the frequency, the
value of the impedance is equal to
Representation of I
Impedance Coil. — (See Coil, Impedance.)
Impedance, Impulsive or Oscillatory
-- The impedance which a conductor
offers to an impulsive or oscillatory dis-
charge.
The impulsive impedance varies in simple pro-
portion to the frequency of the periodic current.
It depends on the form and size of the circuit, but
it is independent of its resistance or permeability.
Imponderable. — That which possesses no
weight.
A term formerly applied to the luminiferous
or universal ether, but now generally aban-
doned.
It is very questionable whether it is possible for
any form of matter to be actually imponderable
or to possess no attraction for other matter.
An imponderable fluid, as, for example, the
universal ether, as the term is now generally em-
ployed, is a fluid whose weight is comparatively
small and insignificant, and not a fluid an infinite
quantity of which would be entirely devoid of
weight.
Impressed Electromotive Force. — (See
Force, Electromotive, Impressed.)
Impulse, Electro-Magnetic -- An im-
pulse produced in the ether surrounding a
conductor by the action of an impulsive dis-
charge, or by a pulsating field.
Impulse, Electromotive -- An im-
pulse producing an impulsive rush of elec-
tncity.
The term is employed to distinguish between
the ordinary electromotive force which produces a
steady current of electricity and an electromotive
impulse which produces an impulsive rush of elec-
tricity or impulsive discharge.
Impulsion Cell.— (See Cell, Impulsion.)
Impulsion Effect— (See Effect, Impul-
sion?)
Impulsive Impedance. — (See Impedance,
Impulsive or Oscillatory)
Incandesce. — To shine or glow by means
of heat.
Incandescence. — The shining or glowing of
a substance, generally a solid, by reason of a
sufficiently high temperature.
Incandescence, Electric — — The shin-
ing or glowing of a substance, generally a
solid, by means of heat of electric origin.
Electric incandescence of solid substances differs
from ordinary incandescence, in the fact that un-
less the substance is electrically homogeneous
throughout, the temperature is not uniform in all
parts, but is highest in those portions where the
resistance is highest and the radiation smallest.
The deposition of carbon in and on a carbon
conductor by \h.s flashing process is quite different
as performed by electrical incandescence, than it
would be if the carbons were heated by ordinary
furnace or other heat. (See Carbons, Flashing
Process for.)
Incandescence, Thermal The shin-
ing or glowing of a substance, generally a
solid, by means of heat other than that of
electric origin.
Incandescent. — Shining or glowing with
heat.
Incandescent Ball Electric Lamp.— (See
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent JBall.)
Incandescent Electric Lamp, Life Curve
of (See Curve, Life, of Incandescent
Lamp.)
Incandescent Electric Lamp, Life of —
— (See Lamp, Electric, Incandescent, Life
of.)
Incandescent Straight Filament Lamp.
— (See Lamp, Incandescent, Straight
ment.\
Inc.J
277
[Ind
Incandescing.— Glowing or shining by
means of heat.
Inclination, Angle of — —The angle
which a magnetic needle, free to move in a
vertical and horizontal plane, makes with a
horizontal line passing through its point of
support.
The angle of magnetic dip.
A magnetic needle, supported at its centre of
gravity, and capable of moving freely in a ver-
tical as well as in a horizontal plane, does not
retain a horizontal position at all parts of the
earth's surface.
The angle which marks its deviation from the
korizontal position is called the angle of dip or
inclination. (See Dip, Magnetic.)
Incandescent Electric Lamp. — (See
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent.)
Inclination Chart.— (See Chart, Inclina-
tion.)
Inclination Compass. — (See Compass, In-
clination.)
Inclination, Magnetic — The an-
gular deviation from a horizontal position of
a freely suspended magnetic needle. (See
Dip, Magnetic. Chart, Inclination^
Inclination Map. — (See Map or Chart,
Inclination?]
Inclination of Magnetic Needle. — (See
Needle, Magnetic, Inclination of)
Inclinometer. — A name sometimes given
to an inclination compass. (See Compass,
Inclination.)
Incomplete Circuit. — (See Circuit, In-
complete.)
Increased Electric Irritability.— (See
Irritability, Electric, Increased?)
Increment Key. — (See Key, Increment?]
Increment Key of a Qnadruplex Tele-
graphic System. — (See Key, Increment, of
Quadruplex Telegraphic System.)
India Rubber. — A resinous substance ob-
tained from the milky juices of several tropi-
cal trees.
India rubber or caoutchouc is obtained from
tfhe Siphonia elastica of South America.
India rubber is quite elastic and possesses high
powers of electric insulation. When vulcanized
or combined with sulphur, it still retains its
powers of electric insulation in a high degree.
In this state it is highly electrified by friction.
(See Caoutchouc.)
Indicating Bell.— (See Bell, Indicating?]
Indicator, Automatic Any auto-
matic device for electrically indicating the
number of times a circuit has been opened or
closed, and thus the number of times a given
operation has occurred which has caused the
opening or closing of such circuit.
An annunciator with an automatic drop is
sometimes called an automatic indicator. (See
Annunciator, Electro-Magnetic. Annunciator
Drop, Automatic.)
Indicator, Electric A name ap-
plied to various devices, generally operated
by the deflection of a magnetic needle, or the
ringing of a bell, or both, for indicating, at
some distant point, the condition of an electric
circuit, the strength of current that is passing
through it, the height of water or other liquid,
the pressure on a boiler, the temperature, the
speed of an engine or line of shafting, the
working of a machine or other similar events
or occurrences.
A term sometimes used in place of annun-
ciator. (See Annunciator, Electro-Magnetic.)
Indicators are of various forms. They are
generally electro-magnetic in character. They
are automatic in action.
Indicator, Electric Circuit A de-
vice, generally in the form of a vertical gal-
vanometer, employed to indicate the presence
and direction of a current in a circuit, and
often to roughly measure its strength. (See
Galvanometer, Vertical.)
Indicator, Electric, for Steamships —
— An electric indicator operated by circuits
connected with the throttle valve and revers-
ing gear of the steam engine.
The signal "stop," for example, sent by the
navigating officer to the engineer, causes him to
close the throttle. This act places the indicator
needle at "etop," and thus informs the officer
that his signal has been obeyed. In the same
Ind.]
278
[Ind.
manner, the opening of the throttle sets the in-
dicator needle to "ahead," etc.
Indicator, Electric Throwback
An annunciator with a drop that is electrically
replaced. (See Annunciator, Electro-Mag-
netic^
Indicator, Lamp An apparatus
used in the central station of a system of in-
candescent lamp distribution to indicate the
presence of the proper voltage or potential
difference on the mains.
c
Fig. 397. Edison-Howell Lamp Indicator.
The lamp indicator of Edison and Howell is
shown in Fig. 297. It consists essentially of a
Wheatstone bridge with the resistances arranged
as shown. A galvanometer at G, serves, by the
movements of its magnetic needle, to act as an
indicator. This needle remains at zero, when
the potential difference is the exact voltage re-
quired on the circuit with which the indicator is
connected. The incandescent lamp at L, being
one of the resistances, and being constantly
traversed by the current, will have a fixed resist-
ance for the temperature at which it is designed
to run. The other resistances are so proportioned
as to insure the needle at G, remaining at zero.
If, however, the potential varies, the temperature
of the lamp L, varies, and, being carbon, its re-
sistance also varies, a rise of temperature cor-
responding to a fall of lamp resistance, which
destroys the balance of the bridge and deflects
the galvanometer needle. The attendant then
regulates the potential to bring the needle back to
zero.
Indicator, Mechanical Throwback
— An annunciator with a mechanical drop.
(See Annunciator, Electro-Magnetic. An-
nunciator, Drop. Annunciator, Gravity)
Indicator, Pendulum An annun-
ciator, the indicating arm of which is operated
by means of a pendulum. (See Annunciator,
Pendulum)
Indicator, Potential An apparatus
for indicating the potential difference between
any points of a circuit.
A voltmeter is a potential indicator. It is,
however, more than an indicator, since it gives
the value of the potential difference in volts. (See
Voltmeter. ) A lamp indicator is a potential in-
dicator. (See Indicator ', Lamp)
Indicator, Semaphore An annun-
ciator in which a gravity drop or shutter is
caused to fall by the action of the electric
current, thus exposing a number of other
signals back of the drop or shutter.
Indicator, Speed A name some-
times applied to a tachometer. (See Tachom-
eter)
A form of speed indicator is shown in Fig.
298. The endless screw drives the wheel when
the triangular point is held firmly against the
centre of the revolving shaft or pulley.
Fig. 298. Speed Indicator.
Indicator, Voltaic Battery A de-
vice for indicating the condition of a voltaic
battery.
Indifferent Point.— (See Point, Indif-
ferent)
Indirect Excitation.— (See Excitation,
Indirect)
Induced Atomic Currents.— (See Cur-
rents, Induced, Atomic or Molecular)
Induced Current. — (See Current, In-
duced)
Induced Direct Current. — (See Current,
Direct, Induced)
Induced Electrostatic Charge. — (See
Charge, Induced Electrostatic)
Induced Molecular Currents. — (See Cur-
rents, Induced Molecular)
Ind.]
279
[Ind.
Induced Rererse Currents.— (See Cur-
rent, Reverse, Induced!)
Inductance • The induction of a
circuit on itself, or on other circuits.
Self-induction.
A term now generally employed instead of
self-induction.
That property in virtue of which a finite
electromotive force, acting on a circuit, does
not immediately generate the full current due
to its resistance, and when the electromotive
force is withdrawn, time is required for the
current strength to fall to zero. — (Fleming?)
A quality by virtue of which the passage of
an electric current is necessarily accompanied
by the absorption of electric energy in the
formation of a magnetic field.
The inductance of a circuit depends:
(i.) On the form or shape of the circuit.
(2.) On the magnetic permeability of the space
surrounding the circuit.
(3.) On the magnetic permeability of the circuit
itself.
For the variations of current strength in elec-
tric circuits, inductance is not unlike mass, or
moment of inertia, as regards variations of velo-
city. Time is required to produce velocity in a
heavy body by the action of any force; so also
time is required to produce a current by the
action of an electromotive force.
The electro-magnetic energy present in any
given current is equal to the square of the current
multiplied by the inductance. Since one of these
factors (the current strength) represents the
force, the other, the inductance, must have the
dimension of a distance or length. Inductance,
therefore, is measurable in units of length. If
the circuits are formed of magnetizable materials,
the inductance of a circuit is the ratio between the
total inductance taking place through the circuit
to the current producing it.
If the circuit is formed entirely of non-magnetic
material, surrounded entirely by materials of
constant magnetic permeability (such as air, in-
sulators and diamagnetic materials generally), the
inductance is a constant quantity and depends
only on the form or shape of the circuit. In this
case, the total inductance through the circuit is pro-
portional to the magnetizing force, and the mag-
netic resistance, or the magnetic conductance of
the magnetic circuit, is equal to the total induc-
tion through the circuit, divided by the magnetiz-
ing force.
In cases where the magnetic circuit is partly or
wholly of paramagnetic substances, where the
induction bears no constant ratio to the magnetiz-
ing force, and where the induction takes place
partly or wholly in media of variable permeability,
the co-efficient of self- induction, or the inductance,
must be denned in three ways:
(i.) As the ratio between the counter electro-
motive force in any circuit and the time rate of
variation of the current producing it.
(2.) As the ratio between the total induction
through the circuit and the current producing it.
(3.) As the energy associated with the circuit
in the form of magnetic field, due to unit current
in that circuit, or as the co-efficient by which half
the square of the current must be multiplied to
obtain the electro-kinetic energy of the circuit at
that instant. — (Fleming.)
A flat sheet or strip of metal possesses less in-
ductance than a round conductor of equal cross-
section.
This may be explained by conceiving that a
flat conductor presents a greater absorption sur-
face to the dielectric.
Therefore, the perfect form for a conductor
transmitting rapidly alternating currents is that
of a flat sheet or strip of copper, or preferably a
copper tube.
The experiments of Hughes show that the in-
ductance of a conductor may be regarded as an
effect due to the time required for the rapidly
periodic current to penetrate the conductor, and
that the decrease in the inductance, produced by
forming the conductor of a strip or bar, is due
to the decreased distance the current has to pass
to the inner parts.
Inductance, Absolute Unit of A
unit of length equal to one centimetre.
A length equal to an earth quadrant or IO»
centimetres is called the practical unit of induct-
ance. The practical unit of inductance was form-
erly called a secohm or quadrant It is now gen-
erally called a henry. (See Henry, A.)
Inductance Bridge. — (See Bridge, In-
ductance,)
Inductance, Co-efficient of A con-
stant quantity, such that when multiplied by
the current strength passing in any coil or cir-
cuit, will represent numerically the induction
through the coil or circuit due to that current
Ind.]
280
rind.
A term sometimes used for co-efficient of
self-induction. (See Induction, Co-efficient
of.)
Inductance, Constant The induct-
ance which occurs in circuits formed wholly
of non-magnetic materials, immersed in or
surrounded by media of constant magnetic
permeability or magnetic conductance for
lines of magnetic force. (See Permeability,
Magnetic?)
When the lines of magnetic force pass through
such materials as ordinary insulators, or diamag-
netic materials, such as copper, the inductance is
constant, provided the geometric form of the cir-
cuit remains the same.
Inductance, Formal, of Circuit
That part of the counter electromotive force
of a circuit which depends on the form of the
circuit.
Inductance, or Self-induction, Practical
Unit of A length equal to the earth
quadrant or lo'1 centimetres.
The absolute unit of inductance is equal to I
centimetre.
Inductance, Oscillatory, Electric
Inductance produced by electric oscillations.
Inductance, Unit of A term now
generally used for unit of self-induction.
The value of the inductance may be given
either in absolute or in practical units of induct
ance. The'absolute unit of inductance is equal
to a length of one centimetre. The practical unit
of inductance is equal to 1,000,000,000 centi-
metres or IO1 centimetres.
The practical unit of inductance was formerly
called a secohm. The term henry is generally
used for this unit. (See Henry, A.)
Inductance, Variable The induc-
tance which occurs in circuits formed partly
or wholly of substances like iron or other
paramagnetic substances, the magnetic
permeability of which varies with the inten-
sity of the magnetic induction, and where the
lines of force have their circuit partly or
wholly in such material of variable magnetic
permeability.
Induction. — An influence exerted by a
charged body or by a magnetic field on neigh-
boring bodies without apparent communica-
tion.
A medium is necessary to connect the body
producing the induction and that in which the
induction is produced. (See Induction, Electro-
static. Induction, Magnetic. Induction, Electro-
Dynamic.}
Induction, Apparent Co-efficient of —
— A term sometimes used for co-efficient of
apparent magnetic induction. (See Induc-
tion, Magnetic, Apparent Co-efficient of.)
It is called the apparent co efficient of induction
because its value is different from what it would
be if the eddy currents were entirely suppressed.
The eddy currents increase the resistance of the
primary and decrease its inductance.
Induction-Balance, Hughes' — —(See
Balance, Induction, Hughes'?)
Induction, Balance of, in Cable —
The removal of induction in a cable by
neutralization by the presence of equal and
opposite effects.
A balance is obtained of the inductive effects of
the neighboring conductors, whether in the
bunched cable or outside of it.
Induction-Bridge.— (See Bridge, Induc-
tance?)
Induction, Coefficient of — — A term
sometimes used for co-efficient of magnetic
induction. (See Induction, Magnetic, Co~
efficient of.)
Induction Coil.— (See Coil, Induction?)
Induction Coil, Inyerted — (See
Coil, Induction, Inverted. Transformer?)
Induction, Current A term some-
times used for voltaic induction. (See Induc-
tion, Voltaic. Induction, Electro-Dynamic?]
Induction, Dissymmetrical, of Armature
An induction produced by the passage
of a different number of lines of magnetic
force through adjoining halves of the arma-
ture.
Induction, Electro-Dynamic Elec-
tromotive forces set up by induction in con-
ductors which are either actually or practically
moved so as to cut the lines of magnetic
force.
Ind.j
281
[In<L
These electromotive forces, when permitted to
act through a circuit, produce an electric current.
Electro-dynamic induction may be produced in
any circuit in two ways:
(i.) By causing expanding or contracting lines
of magnetic force to pass through that circuit.
(2.) By causing the circuit or conductor to pass
through the lines of magnetic force.
In all cases the lines of force are made to pass
through the conductor or wire.
There are four cases of electro -magnetic induc-
tion:
(I.) That in which expanding or contracting
lines of magnetic force, produced by rapidly vary-
ing the current in any circuit, are caused to pass
through or cut that circuit and consequently to
produce differences of potential therein.
(2.) That in which expanding or contracting
lines of magnetic force produced by any circuit by
the rapidly varying strength of the electric
current passing through that circuit, are caused
to pass through another neighboring circuit and
thus produce differences of potential therein.
(3.) That produced by moving a conductor
through a magnetic field so as to cut its lines of
magnetic force. In this way the strength of the
magnetic field may remain practically constant,
but this strength as regards the field of the fixed
conductor is varying, as the magnet producing
such a field is moved toward or from such cir-
cuit, and m this way differences of potential are
produced in the circuit.
(4.) That "produced by moving an inducing field
past a fixed conductor. This may be accom-
plished by moving an electro-magnet, an electric
circuit, or a permanent magnet past the conductor
in which the difference of potential is to be in-
duced.
There are therefore four distinct varieties of
electro-dynamic induction:
(i.) Self-induction or inductance. (SeeSnduct-
ance.)
(2.) Mutual induction, or, as it is sometimes
called, voltaic current induction. (See Induction^
Mutual.}
(3.) Electro-magnetic induction, or, as it is
sometimes called, dynamo-electric induction.
(4.) Magneto-electric induction.
If the terminals of a voltaic cell be connected
with the ends of a comparatively long coil of in-
sulated wire, no appreciable spark will be observed
on closing the cell, because the current induced
by self-induction is in the opposite direction to the
current of the cell and weakens it. On breaking
contact, however, a spark is readily observed.
This is due to the induced current on breaking,
which, flowing in the same direction as the cur-
rent of the cell, strengthens it.
Fig. 299. Mutual In
The coil B, Fig. 299, consists of two parallel
coils of insulated wire, the terminals of one of
which, called the primary coil, are connected
with the battery cell P N, and those of the
other, called the secondary coil, with the galva-
nometer G.
Under these circumstances it is found:
(i.) That at the moment of closing the circuit
through the primary coil, a momentary current
is produced in the secondary coil in a direction
opposite to that of the current through the primary,
as is shown by the direction of the deflection of
the needle of the galvanometer.
(2.) At the moment of breaking the circuit
through the primary coil, an induced current is
produced in the secondary coil in the same direc-
tion as that flowing thYough the primary coil.
(3.) These induced currents are momentary,
and continue in the secondary only while the in-
tensity of the current in the primary is varying,
*. t., while variations are occurring in the strength
of the magnetic field in which the secondary coil
is placed, therefore while the expanding or con-
tracting lines of force are passing through the sec-
ondary coil.
If, for instance, when the current is established
in the primary coil, and no current exists in the
Fig. 300. Mutual Induction.
secondary, the intensity of the current in the
primary be varied by establishing a shunt circuit
across the battery terminals, as by placing a short
wire d, Fig. 300, in the mercury cups g, g, thus
£nd.]
282
[Ind.
decreasing the intensity of the current in the
primary, an induced current will be set up in the
secondary circuit in the same direction as the
primary current.
From all of these phenomena, we see that any
increase of current in a conductor produces in a
neighboring conductor an induced inverse current,
or one in the opposite direction to the inducing
current, while a decrease of such current produces
a direct induced current, or one in the same
direction as the inducing current.
If the induction coil be made, as in Fig. 301,
with its primary coil movable into and out of the
secondary coil, then the following phenomena will
occur:
(I.) When the primary coil is moved toward
the secondary coil an inverse current is induced
in the secondary ; and,
(2.) When the primary coil is moved away from
the secondary coil a direct current is induced in
the secondary.
The movements of permanent magnets towards
or from a coil will also produce an Induced cur-
rent.
If, for example, the apparatus be arranged as
in Fig. 302, then:
These facts may be expressed by the following
laws :
(I.) &ny increase in thenumber of lines of force
Fig. $OI. Electro- Dynamic Induction.
(I.) A motion of the magnet towards the coil
produces an induced current in the coil in one
direction, and
(2.) Its motion away from the magnet produces
an induced current in the coil in the opposite
direction.
The directions of these induced currents are
respectively inverse and direct as compared with
the direction of the amperian currents which are
assumed to produce the magnetic poles of perma-
nent magnets, or of the currents that actually
produce electro-magnets. (See Magnetism, Am-
fitrSs Theory of.}
Fig. 302. Magneto-Electric Induction.
which pass through a circuit produces an inverse
current in that circuit, while any decrease in the
number of such lines of force which pass through
any circuit produces a direct current in that
circuit.
D/HECT/OA
Of UN£
OF
MOTION
303. Fleming's Rule.
(2.) The intensity of the induced current, or,
more correctly, the difference of potential pro-
duced, is proportional to the rate of increase or
decrease of the lines of force passing through the
circuit.
A conductor, therefore, when moved through
283
[Ind.
a magnetic field so as to cut the lines of magnetic
force, will have a difference of potential generated,
and if its circuit is closed so that the difference of
potential can neutralize itself, it will have a cur-
rent produced in it by induction.
A simple but effective manner of remembering
the direction of such currents is that proposed by
Fleming.
If the hand be held with the fingers extended,
as in Fig. 303, and the direction of the forefinger
represent the positive direction of the lines of
force, *. e., those coming out of the N. pole of a
magnet, then, if a wire or other conductor be
moved in the direction in which the thumb points,
so as to cut these lines of force at right angles,
that is, if the conductor have its length moved
directly across these lines, it will have an induced
current developed in it in the direction in which
the middle finger points. (See Force, Lines of,
Direction of.)
Or, the same thing can, perhaps, be even more
readily remembered by p
cutting a piece of paper
In the shape shown in-w
Jig. 304, marking it as H
shown, and then bending ^
the arm P, upward at the ji
dotted line, so as to form Q
three axes at right angles
to one another.
As has been already
remarked, a difference of
potential, and not a cur- ,
rent, is produced by mov-
ing a conductor through
a magnetic field so as to ~ _" F2emin 's Rule
cut its lines of force.
It can be shown that in order to generate a dif-
ference of potential of one -volt, 100,000,000 C. G.
S. lines of force must be cut per second.
In electro-dynamic induction, the induced cur-
rent is produced by the energy absorbed in moving
the conductor through the magnetic field. Lenz
has shown that in all cases of electro-dynamic
induction, produced by the movement either of
the circuit or of the magnet, the current induced
in the circuit is in such a direction as to produce
a magnet pole which would tend to oppose the
motion.
Induction, Electro-Magnetic A
variety of electro-dynamic induction in which
electric currents are produced by the motion
10_ Vol. l
«,_,
Direction of
Motion.
of electro-magnets or electro-magnetic sole-
noids. (See Induction, Electro-Dynamic.)
Induction, Electrostatic The pro-
duction of an electric charge in a conductor
brought into an electrostatic field.
If the insulated conductor A B, Fig. 305, be
brought into the positive electrostatic field of the
insulated conductor C, then,
(I.) A charge will be produced on A and B, as
will be indicated by the divergence of the pith
balls.
(2.) This charge is negative at the end A,
nearest C, and positive at the end B, furthest
from C, as can be shown by an electroscope. (See
Electroscope. )
(3.) The charges at A and B, are equal to each
other ; for, if the conductor A B, be removed from
the field of C, without touching it, the opposite
charges completely neutralize each other.
(4.) If, however, the conductor A B, be touched
at any place by a conductor connected with the
earth, it will lose its positive charge, and will
remain negatively charged when removed from
the field of C. It is in this manner that an electro-
phorus is charged. (See Electrophorus. )
(5.) The amount of the charges produced in the
conductor, A B, can never be greater than that
in the inducing body C. That is to say, the
Kg. 306. Induction Precedes Attraction.
negative electricity at A, may be sufficient in
ampunt to neutralize the positive charge on C, if
allowed to do so. In point of fact the charge in-
Ind.J
284
[Ind.
duced is less in amount than the inducing charge,
according to the distance between C and A, and
the nature and condition of the medium which
separates them.
The attraction? of light bodies by charged sur-
faces are due to the opposite charge produced on
those parts of thf light bodies that are nearest the
charged body
The pith ball B, Fig. 306, suspended by a silk
thread between an insulated positively charged
conductor A, and the uninsulated conductor C,
will receive by induction a negative charge on
the side nearest A, and a positive charge on the
side nearest C. It is therefore attracted to A,
where, receiving a positive cnarge, it is repelled to
C, where it is discharged and again assumes a
vertical position. Induction again occurs, and
consequent attraction and repulsion. These
movements follow one another so long as a suffi-
cient charge remains in A.
Induction, Faradic, Apparatus
(See Apparatus, Faradic Induction.)
Induction-Finder. — (See Finder, Induc-
tion^
Induction, Lateral An induction
observed between closely approached portions
of a circuit through which- an impulsive dis-
charge, such as the disruptive discharge of a
Leyden jar, is passed as a long spark, thereby
making the resistance of the circuit high.
A long copper wire, bent in the form of a rec-
tangle, has its free ends near their extremities
bent so as to approach within half an inch of each
other. One of the ends of the wire is provided
with a metallic ball and the other end connected
with the earth. If, now, a Leyden jar charge is
passed through the wire by connecting the outer
coating with the end of the earth-connected wire
and holding the inside coating near the knob, a
spark will pass through the half inch of space be-
tween the approached portions of the circuit.
This discharge is due to what was formerly
called lateral induction. The discharge of a
Leyden jar is an oscillatory discharge, and it
passes through the intervening air space instead
of through the conductor because the resistance
of the latter to the rapid alternations produces a
counter electromotive force which acts as a re-
sistance whose value is greater than that of the
airspace itself. (See Path, Alternative.)
Induction, Magnetic The produc-
tion of magnetism in a magnetizable substance
by bringing it into a magnetic field.
Suppose a small portion of a magnetizable body
is placed in a magnetic field produced in a gap
separating two closely approximated poles. To
simplify matters, suppose this small portion to be
a free unit pole. It will be acted on by two
forces:
(I.) The force due to the magnetic field.
(2.) The force dae to the free magnetism,
which appears at the surface of the gap or cut.
The force on the unit pole is compounded of
these two separate forces, and is called the magnetic
induction of the space. Magnetic induction is,
therefore, strictly speaking, a quantity.
The direction of magnetic force and the mag-
netic induction are the same in an air space out-
side a magnet. Within a bar of iron or other
paramagnetic material, under induction in a mag-
netic field, the magnetic force at any point is due
not only to the external or original field, but also
to the field produced by the polarity induced,
which acts opposed to the magnetic force at
points. Magnetic force and magnetic induction
are identical only where there is no magnetism.—
(Fleming.)
When a magnetizable body is brought into a.
magnetic field the following phenomena occur,
viz.:
(i.) The lines of magnetic force pass through
the body and are condensed upon it. (See Field^
Magnetic. Paramagnetic.)
(2.) If the body is free to move around an axis,
but is not free to move bodily towards the magnet
pole, il will come to rest with its greatest extent
or length in the direction oi the lines of force;
i. f.t in the direction in which it will offer the
least resistance to the lines oi force that thread
through it.
(3. ) The body will therefore become a magnet,
its south pole being situated where the lines of
force enter it and its north pole where they pass
out from it. Since the lines of magnetic force
are assumed to come out of the north pole of a
magnet and to enter its south pole, if a magnet-
izable substance is brought near a north pole,
the lines of force from that north pole will enter
it at those parts nearest such north pole, thereby
rendering such points south, and will pass out of
its further end, which will thereby become north.
(4.) The intensity of the induced magnetism
Tnd.]
285
will depend on the number of lines of force that
pass through it.
(5.) The direction of the axis of magnetization
will depend on the directions in which the lines
«f force thread through the body. (See A.\ is,
Magnetic.)
Fig. 307. Magnetic Induction.
If abarofiron, N' S' ,Fig. 307, be brought near
the magnetized bar, N S, poles will be produced
in it by induction, as may be shown by throwing
iron filings on it.
The nearer the body to be magnetized is brought
to the magnetizing pole the greater will be the
number of lines of'torce that thread through it.
Consequently, the intensity of the induced mag-
netism will be greater ; this will be greatest when
the bodies actually touch each other.
The production of magnetism, therefore, by
contact or touch is only a special case of the pro-
dtiction of magnetization by induction.
The attraction of a magnetizable body by a
magnet pole is caused by the mutual attraction
which exists between the pole produced by induc-
tion and the pole producing the induction. This,
it will be seen, is similar to the attraction caused
by an electric charge.
The following terms are given by Fleming as
employed in the same sense as magnetic induc-
tion of an area:
(I.) The number of unit tubes of induction
passing through the area.
(2.) The number of lines of force (induction)
passing through the area. — (Faraday.)
(3.) The total magnetic induction through the
area. — (Maxwell. )
(4.) The flux or flow of magnetic induction
through an area. — (Mascart 6° Joubert.}
(5.) The surface-integral of magnetic induction
over an area. — (Fleming.}
Induction, Magnetic, Apparent Co-effi-
cient of • — The co-efficient of induction
as influenced by the presence of eddy cur-
rents.
This is called the co-efficient of apparent in-
duction, because its value is not the same as it
would be if the eddy currents were entirely sup-
nressed.
The value of the co-efficient of apparent induc-
tion depends on the amount of the retardation of
the magnetism; or, what is the same thing, on,
the strength of the eddy currents.
Induction, Magnetic, Co-efficient of
— A term sometimes used instead of magnetic
permeability. (See Permeability, Magnetic?)
The ratio existing between the number of
lin.es of magnetic induction that pass through
any area of cross-section of a magnetic cir-
cuit and the magnetizing force producing
such induction.
If B, equals the magnetic induction, or the num-
ber of lines of force that pass through any area of
cross-section, and H, equals the magnetizing force,
and //, equals the permeability, or the co-efficient
of magnetic induction; then,
_B_
Induction, Magnetic, Dynamic
The induction which takes place in the field
of a magnet whose field is moving as regards
the body in which induction is occurring.
This movement of the field may be attained,
(i.) By the movement of the magnet.
(2.) By the movement of the body in which
induction is taking place.
(3.) By the expansion or contraction of the lines
of magnetic force produced by variations of the
strength of the magnetic field; or, in other words,
by the movement of the field. (See Induction,
Electro-Dynamic. )
Induction, Magnetic, Flux or Flow of
A term employed in the same sense
as the magnetic induction which takes place
through any given area.
The flux or flow of magnetic induction is equal
to the magnitude of the area multiplied by the
normal induction which takes place in one unit
of that area.
Induction, Magnetic, Lines of •
Lines which show not only the direction in
which magnetic induction takes place, but
also the magnitude of the induction.
A line of induction may be regarded as a line
along which induction takes place, or as the axis
of a tube of induction.
This term is often loosely used for lines of force.
Induction, Magnetic, Static The
Ind.j
286
[Ind.
induction which takes place in the field of a
magnet whose field is stationary as regards
the body in which induction is occurring.
The term static magnetic induction is used in
contradistinction to dynamic magnetic induction
which occurs in a moving field. (See Induction,
Electro-Dynamic. )
Induction, Magnetic, Surface-Integral
of A term employed in the same sense
as the magnetic induction which takes place
over a given area.
Induction, Magneto • Electric A
variety of electro-dynamic induction in which
electric currents are produced by the motion
of permanent magnets, or of conductors past
permanent magnets. (See Induction, Elec-
tro-Dynamic?)
Induction, Mutual Induction pro-
duced by two neighboring circuits on each
other by the mutual interaction of their mag-
netic fields. (See Induction, Electro-Dy-
namic. Currents, Extra?)
Induction produced in neighboring charged
conductors by the mutual interaction of their
electrostatic fields. (See Field, Electro-
static?)
The mutual induction of two conductors or cir-
cuits, is equal to the ratio of the induction which
takes place through one of the circuits, to the
strength of current in the other circuit, which is
producing the induction
Induction, Mutual, Co-efficient of
The quantity which represents the number
of lines of force which are common to or
linked in with two circuits, which are pro-
ducing mutual induction on each other.
The maximum value the co-efficient of mutual
induction can have, is equal to the square root of
the product of the inductance of the two circuits,
or "yii X N, in which L and N, are the constant
co-efficients of self-induction of the two circuits.
Induction, Mutual, Loops of Loops
or lines of induction produced in any circuit
by variations 141 the intensity of the current
flowing in a neighboring circuit.
The lines of induction produced by a circuit, in
which a current of electricity is flowing, are
closed loops or circles surrounding the circuit
once or more. The wire or circuit is formed by
coiling a conductor a number of times in a cir-
cular coil, and this circular coil is placed near
another coil in which a varying current is flowing.
As the lines of induction grow or increase,
they cut the circular coil, forming lines of induc-
tion in the shape of loops, a number of which pass
around it. They are called loops of mutual in-
duction.
Induction, Open-Circuit The in-
duction produced in an open circuit by means
of electric pulses in neighboring circuits.
The researches of Hertz have shown that when
an impulsive discharge, or an oscillatory dis-
charge, occurs, an induction occurs even in open
circuited conductors. He shows that these induc-
tive effects are due to electro-magnetic waves or
oscillations set up in the surrounding ether,
which are propagated through free ether with the
velocity of light. When these electro-magnetic
waves or radiations impinge on any circuit, if it?
dimensions be such that sympathetic vibration?
can be excited therein, such vibrations are set up
and cause similar phenomena to those of the ex-
citing cause, viz., oscillatory discharges or elec-
tro-magnetic vibrations. Hertz calls these sym-
pathetic circuits, resonators, from their resem-
blance to acoustic resonators. (See Resonators,
Electric.)
Induction, Oscillatory A name
sometimes applied to open-circuit induction.
(See Induction, Open-Circuit?)
Induction, Reflection of A term
proposed by Fleming to express an action
which resembles a reflection of inductive
power.
The coils A and B, Fig. 308, are arranged a3
I'l'l
f.joS. Reflection of Induction.
shown, so as to act as the primary and secondary
respectively of an induction coil, and are placed
Ind.]
287
[Ind.
conjugate or perpendicular to each other. (See
Coils, Conjugate.) Therefore, no sounds are
heard in the telephone T, when the current is
rapidly reversed. If, however, a plate of copper,
C, is placed in the position shown, then sounds
are heard in the telephone. The action here
resembles a reflection of the inductive action from
A to B, by means of the plate C. The explana-
tion is, of course, simple. Though A, can exert
no action on B, because the two coils are conju-
gate to each other, yet A, can produce secondary
currents in C ; and these reacting on B, produce
tertiary currents in C, and, therefore, sounds in
the telephone.
Induction, Self Induction produced
in a circuit at the moment of starting or stop-
ping the currents therein by the induction of
the current on itself. (See Currents, Extra.)
A coil having unit self-induction, is sometimes
said to have one tube of induction, or line of force
added to its field for each increase of one unit of
current.
Induction, Self, Absolute Unit of
A term sometimes employed for absolute unit
of inductance. (See Inductance, Absolute
Unit of.)
Induction, Self, Ayrton & Perry's
Standard of A standard for the com-
parison of values of self-induction.
The standard of self-induction of Ayrton &
Perry consists of three bobbins of wire, two fixed
and one movable. The movable bobbin is so ar-
ranged as to be capable of motion through 1 80
degrees within the fixed bobbins. The coils are
wound on the surface of the zone of a sphere.
This apparatus permits of the ready compari-
son of the self-induction in different circuits, or in
ihe same circuit under different conditions.
Induction, Self, Co-efficient of
The number of lines of force the current would
induce or enclose in itself when the current
flowing through it is equal to one absolute
unit.
A term sometimes employed in the sense
of inductance of a circuit
The co-efficient of self-induction is defined by
Fleming as follows : "In the case of circuits con-
veying electric currents, which are wholly made
of non-magnetic material, and wholly immersed
in a medium of constant magnetic permeability,
the total induction through the circuit per unit of
current flowing in that circuit, when removed
from the neighborhood of all other magnets and
circuits, is called the co-efficient of self-induction;
otherwise the ratio of the numerical values of the
electro-magnetic momentum of such circuit, and
the current flowing in it, when totally removed
from all other currents and magnets, is the nu-
merical value of the inductance of the circuit."
Since the magnetic lines due to a current in a
circuit thread through the convolutions of the cir-
cuit itself, any variation in the current induces
a difference of potential in the circuit itself, since
the lines of force produced by the current in the
circuit pass through or cut the circuit.
The ratio between this self-induced electromo-
tive force, and the rate of change in the current
which causes it, is called the co-efficient of self-
induction.- -(5. P. Thompson.)
For a given coil the co-efficient of self-induction
is, according to S. P. Thompson :
(I.) Proportional to the square of the number
of convolutions.
(2.) Is increased by the use of an iron core.
(3.) If the magnetic permeability is assumed as
constant, the co-efficient of self-induction is nu-
merically equal to the product of the number of
lines of magnetic force due to the current, and
the number of times they are enclosed by the
circuit.
Induction, Self, Magnetic • —A re-
tardation in the appearance of magnetization,
after the application of the magnetizing force,
due to the influence of the magnetic lag.
Magnetic retardation.
This retardation in the magnetization has re-
ceived the name of magnetic self-induction or re-
tardation because it corresponds to the retarda-
tion in the starting or stopping of a current, in a
conducting circuit, due to the self-induction of the
current.
Induction, Self, Unit of The unit
of inductance. (See Inductance, Unit of)
The unit of self-induction is now generally
called the unit of inductance.
Induction, Symmetrical, of Armature
An induction produced by the simul-
tane ous passage of the same number of lines
of magnetic force through adjoining halves of
the armature.
Ind.]
288
[lad.
Induction Telegraphy, Current Indue-
tion System of (See Telegraphy, In-
duction, Current Induction System of,)
Induction Telegraphy, Static Induction
System of (See Telegraphy, Induc-
tion, Static Induction System of)
Induction Top.— (See Top, Induction)
Induction, Total Magnetic —The
total magnetic induction of any space is the
number of lines of magnetic induction which
pass through that space, where the magnetiz«
able material is placed, together with the lines
added by the magnetization of the magnetic
material.
Induction, Tubes of A portion of
a magnetic field containing a number of
closely contiguous lines of induction termi-
nated by equipotential surfaces, or surfaces
perpendicular to the lines of induction.
Tubes of induction possess the following char-
acteristics :
(I.) The product of a normal cross-section of a
tube and the mean magnetic induction which
takes place over that section is the same for all
tross-sections of the tube. In other words, the
flux or flow of induction is constant throughout
the entire length of the tube.
(2.) The normal cross-section of any equipoten-
tial surface at any point of a tube of induction is
inversely proportional to the magnetic induction
at that point.
(3.) All tubes of induction form endless tubes.
This is necessary, since all lines of induction form
closed circuits.
(4.) All tubes of induction may be expressed
by a single line of induction, which, in the case of
a uniform field, occupies the centre of the tube.
(See Force, Tubes of.)
Induction, Toltaic A variety of
electro-dynamic induction produced by cir-
cuits on themselves or on neighboring circuits.
Mutual induction. (See Induction, Elec-
tro-Dynamic.)
This kind of induction is usually called current
induction.
Induction, Unipolar A term some-
times applied to the induction that occurs
when a conductor is so moved through a
magnetic field as to continuously cut its lines
of force.
If the conducting wire, ABC, Fig. 309, be ro-
3°<)' Unipolar Induction.
tated (in a direction toward the observer) around
the pole N, of a magnet, it will continuously cut
its lines of magnetic force in practically the same
direction, and will therefore produce a difference
of potential that will result in a continuous cur-
rent in the direction of the arrows. The end A,
is supported in a recess in N, while the end near
C, slides on a projection on the middle of the
magnet.
Unipolar induction occurs in the case of Stur-
geon's wheel, in which a metallic disc mounted
on an axis is rotated between the poles of a mag-
net so as to cut the lines of magnetic force. In
this case a difference of potential is generated
which will produce a current that flows from the
axis to the periphery, provided contact points are
placed on the axis of rotation and the periphery
of the disc connecting these parts of the disc in a
closed circuit
Unipolar dynamos operate by the continuous
cutting of lines of magnetic force.
Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a
unipolar dynamo or unipolar induction, since a
single magnetic pole cannot exist by itself. Con-
tinuous cutting of lines of magnetic force, how-
ever, can exist, and produces, unlike the ordinary
bipolar induction, a continuous current without
the use of a commutator.
Inductionless Resistance. — (See Resist-
ance, Inductionless)
Inductive Capacity, Specific (See
Capacity, Specific Inductive)
Inductive Circuit.— (See Circuit, Indue-
Ind.j
289
[Ine.
Inductive Electromotive Force.— (See
Force, Electromotive. Inductive)
Inductive Retardation.— (See Retarda-
tion, Inductive.)
Inductive Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Inductive.)
Inductivity, Specific Magnetic
A term sometimes employed for specific mag-
netic conductivity. (See Conductivity. Spe-
cific Magnetic?)
Indnctometer, Differential An
apparatus for measuring, by means of a gal-
vanometer, the momentary currents produced
by the discharge of a cable.
Currents produced by the discharge of a cable
are of so short a duration that they do not pro-
duce much more than a momentary effect on a
galvanometer needle.
The inductive charge in a cable, or the quan-
tity of electricity produced in it by induction, is:
(i.) Directly as the electromotive force of the
charging battery;
(2.) Inversely is the square root of the thick«
ness of the coating of gutta-percha or other insu-
lating material between the conducting wires and
the metallic sheathing;
(3.) Directly as the square root of the diameter
of the copper wire of the conductor; and
(4. ) Dependent on the specific inductive capa-
city of the insulating material employed in the
cable.
In order to cause the cable discharge to more
thoroughly affect the galvanometer needle, Mr.
Latimer Clark employed a differential instrument
with a large battery and three reversing keys, by
means of which he gave a rapid succession of
charges to the cable. He called the instrument a
Differential Inductometer.
Inductophone,,— A device, suggested by
Mr. Willoughby Smith, for obtaining electric
communication between moving trains and
fixed stations by means of the currents devel-
oped by induction in a spiral of wire fixed on
the moving engine, by its motion past spirals
on the line, into which intermittent currents
are passed.
The spiral on the engine is placed in the circuit
of a telephone. (See Telesratk . 7 ductive.)
Inductor Dynamo.— (See Dynamo, Induc-
tor.)
Inductor inm. — A name sometimes applied
to a Ruhmkorff induction coil. (See Coil,
Induction.)
Inequality, Annual, of Earth's Magnetic
Tariatiou or Inclination Annual
variations in the value of the magnetic varia-
tion or inclination at any place. (See Varia-
tion, Magnetic. Inclination, Magnetic)
Inequality, Annual, of Earth's Magnet-
ism Variations in the value of the
earth's magnetism during the earth's revolu-
tion depending on the position of the sun.
Annual variations in the earth's magnetism.
(See Variations, Magnetic, Annual)
Inequality, Diurnal, of Earth's Magnetic
Variation or Inclination Diurnal
variations in the value of the earth's magnetic
variation or inclination. (See Variation,
Magnetic. Inclination, Magnetic)
Inequality, Diurnal, of Earth's Magnet-
ism Inequalities or variations in the
value of the earth's magnetism, dependent on
the position of the sun during the earth's
rotation.
Inequality, Lunar, of Earth's Magnetic
Variation or Inclination Small va-
riations in the value of the magnetic variation
or inclination, dependent on the position of
the moon as regards the magnetic meridian.
Inequality, Lunar, of Earth's Magnet-
ism Small variations in the value of
the earth's magnetism dependent on the po-
sition of the moon as regards the magnetic
meridian.
Inertia. — The inability of a body to change
its condition of rest or motion, unless some
force acts on it.
The inertia of matter is expressed in Newton's
first law of motion, as follows :
"Every body tends to preserve its state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line, except in
so far as it is acted on by an impressed force."
All matter possesses inertia.
Inertia, Electric A term some-
times employed instead of electro-magnetic
inertia. (See Inertia, Electro-Magnetic?)
Ine.J
290
[Ins.
A term employed to indicate the tendency
of a current to resist its stopping or starting.
By self-induction an electromotive force is pro-
duced in a wire or other conductor at the moment
of starting the current in it that tends to oppose
the starting of such current, and also an electro-
motive force at the moment of stopping the cur-
rent, in such a direction as to prolong or continue
the current. In other words, self-induction tends
to retard the rise or fall of the current.
Fleming traces the following comparison be-
tween the moment of inertia of a rotating wheel
and the energy of its rotation on the one side, and
the inductance of a circuit and the electro-mag-
netic energy of the circuit on the other.
(I.) The angular momentum of a fly-wheel is
equal to the numerical product of its moment of
inertia and the angular velocity of the wheel.
Similarly the electro-magnetic momentum is equal
to the product of the inductance of the circuit by
the current flowing through it at any instant.
(2.) The rate of change of the angular mo-
mentum of the wheel, at any instant, is a measure
of the rotational force of the couple acting at that
instant
Similarly the rate of change of the electro-mag-
netic momentum of the circuit is the measure of
the electromotive force acting on it so far as
mere change of current is concerned, and irre-
spective of that part of the electromotive force re-
quired to overcome the ohmic resistance.
An electric current does not start or stop in-
stintaneously. It requires time to do either, just
as a stream of water or other fluid does, and it is
this property which is referred to by the term
electric inertia. Inertia does not appear to be
possessed by electricity apart from matter. "It
is doubtful," says Lodge, "whether electricity
of itself, and disconnected from matter, has any
inertia "
Inertia, Electro-Magnetic A term
sometimes employed instead of inductance,
or the self-induction of a current. (See In-
ductance. Inertia, Electric?)
Inertia, Electro-Magnetic, Co-efficient of
A term sometimes employed in place
of the co-efficient of inductance or self-induct-
ance of a circuit.
Inertia, Magnetic The inability of
a magnetic core to instantly lose or acquire
magnetism.
A magnet core tends to continue in the mag-
netic state in which it was placed.
The magnetic inertia is sometimes called the
magnetic lag.
To decrease the magnetic inertia, the strength
of the magnetizing current is increased and the
length of the iron core decreased. The iron
should also be quite soft. (See Lag, Magnetic.
Force, Coercive.}
Inferred Zero. — (See Zero, Inferred)
Infinity Plug.— (See Plug, Infinity)
Influence. — A term sometimes used instead
of electrostatic induction. (See Induction,
Electrostatic)
The word influence is used by some to apply
to the case of electrostatic induction, as distin-
guished from electro-magnetic or magnetic induc-
tion.
Influence Charge. — (See Charge, Influ-
ence)
Influence Machine. — (See Machine, In-
fluence)
Inker, Morse A form of tele-
graphic ink-writer. (See Ink- Writer, Tele-
graphic)
Ink-Writer, Telegraphic — A device
employed for recording the dots and dashes
of a telegraphic message in ink on a fillet or
strip of paper.
A telegraphic ink-xvriter is a form of telegraphic
recorder. (See Recorder, Morse)
Inside Wiring.— (See Wiring, Inside)
Insolation, Electric A term some-
times employed for electric sunstroke, or
electric prostration. (See Sunstroke, Elec-
tric. Prostration, Electric)
Installation. — A term embracing the
entire plant and its accessories required to
perform any specified work.
The act of placing, arranging or erecting
a plant or apparatus.
Installation, Electric The estab-
lishment of any electric plant.
An electric light installation, for example, in-
eludes the steam engine and boilers, or other
prime movers, the dynamo-electric machines, the
line wires or leads, and the lamps.
Insulated Body.— (See Body, Insulated)
Ins.]
291
[Ins.
Insulating Cements. — (See Cements, In-
sulating.)
Insulating Sleeve. — (See Sleeve, Insula-
ting.)
Insulating Stool.— (See Stool, Insula-
ting.)
Insulating Tape.— (See Tape, Insula-
ting.)
Insulating Tube.— (See Tube, Insula-
ting.)
Insulating Tarnish.— (See Varnish, Elec-
tric.)
Insulation, Electric — Non-conduct-
ing material so placed with respect to a con-
ductor as to prevent the loss of a charge, or
the leakage of a current.
In the case of coils the character of the insula-
tion of the coil of wires through which the cur-
rent is to pass must be considered from the stand-
point of the cooling of the coil by radiation.
In considering the safest and most economical
current density to employ in any dynamo or
motor, the depth of the coil, *'. <«•., the thickness of
its coils, must be considered, as well as the char-
acter of the materials employed for the insulation.
Such substances as silk or wool, which are char-
acterized by low heat conduction, retain the heat
longer than cotton. Hence the depth of a silk
covered coil should necessarily be less than that of
one covered with cotton.
Insulation Joint. — (See Joint, Insula-
tion.)
Insulation, Porous — - — An insulating
material containing air or gas placed between
the conductor and the insulating covering.
A strip of perforated paper is used for cover-
ing the bare conductor, and the insulating ma-
terial is placed on the outside of this ; or, a cord
is wrapped separately around che conductor, and
the insulating material is placed on the outside of
this. By these means, as will be seen, a layer of
air exists between the conductor and its insulating
covering.
Insulation Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Insulation.)
Insulation, Static — A term em-
ployed in electro-therapeutics for a method
of treatment by convection stream0 or dis-
charges, in which the patient is seated on an
insulated stool connected to one pole or
electrode of an influence marline, while the
other pole or electrode is connected to the
ground.
Insulator Cap.— (See Cap, Insulator)
Insulator, Dice-Box A name some-
times applied to a double-cone insulator. (See
Insulator, Double-Cone.)
Insulator, Double-Cone An insu-
lator in which the line wire passes through and
is supported by means of a tube consisting of
two inverted cones joined at their smaller
bases.
Insulator, Double-Cup An insula-
tor consisting of two funnel-shaped cups,
placed in an inverted position on the sup-
porting pin and insulated from one another
by a free air space, except near the ends,
which are cemented.
The wire is wrapped in a groove on the outside
of the outer cup. This possesses the advantage
of exposing it to the rain, which thus cleanses the
insulator and improves its power of insulation.
The inner cup is supported on a pin and the outer
cup cemented to it. Any leakage must, there-
fore, pass over the entire surface of both cups.
Insulator, Double-Shackle A form
of insulator used in shackling a wire, consist-
ing of two single-shackle insulators.
Insulator, Double-Shed A double-
cup insulator. (See Insulator, Double-Cup.)
Insulator, Fluid An insulator pro-
vided with a small, internally placed, annular,
cup-shaped space, filled with an insulating
oil, thus increasing the insulating power of the
support.
The line wire is wrapped in a groove on the
outside of the insulator. Any surface leakage
between the wire and ground in wet weather
must occur between the outer surface of the insu-
lator, which is kept cleansed by the rain, and the
inner surface, where it is supported by the pin.
But to do this, the current must cross the oil in
the cup, which, from its high power of insulation,
effectually prevents leakage.
Insulator, Invert — An insulator
I -is.]
292
[Int,
placed on the top of the wire instead of under-
neath it, as was formerly done.
Insulator, Oil A fluid insulator
filled with oil. (See Insulator, Fluid.).
Insulator Pins. — (See Pins, Insulator.}
Insulator, Single-Shackle A form
of insulator used for shackling a wire. (See
Shackling a Wire)
Insulator, Single-Shed — —An insula-
tor with a single inverted cup.
The wire is wrapped around a groove on the
outside of the cup, where it is exposed to the
cleansing action of the rain. The cup is inverted
and supported on a pin, to which it is screwed and
cemented.
Insulator, Telegraphic or Telephonic
A non-conducting support of tele-
graphic, telephonic, electric light or other
wires.
Insulators are generally made of glass, earthen-
Fig.3io. Glass
Insulator.
Fig. 311. Porcelain
Insulator.
ware, porcelain or hard rubber, and assume a
variety of forms, some of which are shown in Figs.
310, 311 and 312. Of whatever material they are
made, it is necessary that the
surface on which the wire rests,
or around which it is wrapped,
should be smooth, so as to avoid
abrasion, either of its insulat
ing covering or of the wire it-
self.
Two things are to be con-
sidered in the selection of an
insulator, viz. :
(I.) The insulating power of
the material of which the in-
sulator is composed, so as to Fig. 3 12. Hard
reduce the leakage as much as Rubber Insulator.
possible. (See Leakage, Electric.}
(2.) The tensile strength of the material, so
that in case of heavy wires no breaks may resuk
from the fracture of the insulator
Some forms of insulators are shown hi Figs.
310, 311 and 312.. They are screwed to the pins
by the threads shown. The insulating materials
of which they are formed are of glass, porcelain
and hard rubber respectively.
Insulator, Window-Tube A tube
of vulcanite or other insulating material pro-
vided for the insulation of a wire entering a
room.
The wire conductor passes through the middle
of the tube, which is firmly faxed in an opening
passing through the window frame.
Insulator, Z A form of double-cup
insulator in which the insulating material,
earthenware or porcelain, is made in a single
piece, instead of in two separate pieces.
The body of the insulator is conical in form,
and the interior air space presents a shape ap-
proximately that of the letter Z.
The double form is used in order to diminish
the leakage.
Intensity Armature. — (See Armature,
Intensity}
Intensity, Connection of Toltaic Cells for
— A term formerly employed for series-
connected voltaic battery cells. (Obsolete.)
Intensity, Magnetic < — Density of
magnetic induction.
Magnetic flux per square centimetre.
A committee of the American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers on "Units and Standards," pro-
poses the following definition for magnetic inten-
sity:
The induction density at a point within an ele-
ment of surface is the surface differential at that
point.
The practical unit of magnetic intensity is
lo« or 100,000,000 C. G. S. lines per square cen-
timetre.
In practice, excluding the earth's field, intensi-
ties range from too to 20,000 C. G. S. lines per
square centimetre, and the working unit should,
perhaps, have the prefix milli or micro.
Intensity, Magnetic, Pole of The
earth's magnetic poles as determined by
means of the oscillations of a magnetic
needle.
Int.]
293
[Ion.
The points of the earth's greatest magnetic
intensity.
Intensity of Current. — (See Current, In-
tensity of.}
Intensity of Field.— (See Field, Inten-
sity of )
Intensity of Light— (See Light. Inten-
sity oj '.)
Intensity of Magnetization.— (See Mag-
netization, Intensity of)
Intensity, Photometric, Unit of
The amount of light produced by a candle
that consumes two grains of spermaceti wax
per minute. (See Candle!)
Inter Air Space.— (See Space, Inter Air)
Intercrossing. — In a system of telephonic
communication, a device for avoiding the dis-
turbing effects of induction by alternately
crossing equal sections of the line. (See
Connection, Telephonic Cross.}
Interference of Electro-Magnetic
Waves. — (See Waves, Electro-Magnetic,
Interference of.)
Interlocking Apparatus.— (See Appa-
ratus Interlocking)
Intermittent Contact— (See Contact. In-
termittent)
Intermittent Cross.— A form of electric
cross. (See Cross, Electric)
Intermittent Current— (See Current, In-
termittent)
Intermittent Disconnection.— (See Dis-
connection, Intermittent)
Intermittent Earth.— (See Earth, Inter-
mittent)
Internal Circuit— (See Circuit, In-
ternal)
Internal Polarization of Moist Bodies.—
(See Polarization, Internal, of Moist
Bodies)
Interrupter.— Any device for interrupting
or breaking a circuit.
Interrupter, Automatic An auto-
matic contact breaker, (See Make-and-
Break, Automatic)
Interrupter, Reed A term some-
times applied to a tuning-fork interrupter.
(See Interrupter, Tuning-Fork)
Interrupter, Tuning-Fork —An in-
terrupter in which the successive makes and
breaks are produced by the vibrations of a
tuning-fork or reed.
The tuning-fork or reed is maintained in vibra-
tion by any suitable means. Such interrupters
are applied to various uses. Synchronous mul-
tiplex telegraphy affords an example of such uses.
Invariable Calibration of Galvanometer.
— (See Calibration, Invariable, of Galva-
nometer)
Inverse Electromotive Force. — (See Force,
Electromotive, Inverse)
Inverse or Make-Induced Current — (See
Current, Make-Induced)
Inverse Secondary Current— (See Cur-
rent, Inverse Secondary)
Inversion, Thermo-Electric An
inversion of the thermo-electric electromotive
force of a couple at certain temperatures.
(See Diagram, Ther mo-Electric)
Invert Insulator.— (See Insulator, In-
vert)
Inverted Induction Coil.— (See Coil.
Induction, Inverted)
Inverted Type of Dynamo. — (See Dy-
namo, Inverted)
Invisible Electric Floor Matting.— (See
Matting, Invisible Electric Floor)
Ions. — Groups of atoms or radicals which
result from the electrolytic decomposition of
a molecule.
The ions are respectively electro-positive and
electro-negative. The electro-positive ion ap-
pears at the plate connected with the electro-
negative terminal^ or at the kathode, and is called
the kathion.
The electro-negative ion appears at the plate
connected with the electro-positive terminal, or
at the anode, and is called the anion, (See
Electrolysis. Kathion. Anion.}
Ions, Electro-Negative • —The neg-
ative atoms, or groups of atoms, called rad-
icals, into which the molecules of an electro-
lon.J
294
[ISO.
lyte are decomposed by electrolysis. (See
Electrolysis^
The electro-negative ions are called the anions,
because they appear at the anode of a decompo-
sition cell. (See Anions, Anode.}
Ions, Electro-Positive - —The pos-
itive atoms, or groups of atoms, called rad-
icals, into which the molecules of an electro-
lyte are decomposed by electrolysis. (See
Electrolysis?)
The electro-positive ions are called the kathions,
because they appear at the kathode of a decom-
position cell. (SeeJEStfifah Kathode.}
Iron-Clad Electro-Magnet.— (See Mag-
net, Electro, Iron-Clad?)
Iron-Clad Magnet.— (See Magnet, Iron-
Clad)
Iron Core, Effect of, on the Magnetic
Strength of a Hollow Coil of Wire —
An increase in the number of lines of mag-
netic force, beyond those produced by the
current itself, due to the opening out of the
closed magnetic circuits in the atoms or
molecules of the iron.
The atoms or molecules of the iron possess
naturally closed magnetic circuits, or closed lines
of magnetic force, lying entirely within the mass
of the iron. When the iron is placed in a magnetic
field, these minute closed circuits open out and
are added to the lines of force produced by the
circuit itself. The opening out of these closed
atomic or molecular lines of magnetic force is at-
tended by the formation of lines of polarized
molecules or atoms.
Roughly speaking, according to Lodge, for
each single line of magnetic force produced by the
electric current, there are some 3,000 lines of
magnetic force added to it from the iron, the ex-
act number varying with the kind of iron, the
physical condition of the iron and the degree of
magnetization.
Iron, Galvanized -- Iron covered by
a layer of zinc by dipping it in a bath of
molten zinc.
The process of galvanizing iron is designed to
Vrevent the corrosion or rusting of the iron on
exposure to the air. (See Metals, Electrical Pro-
tection of.}
The word galvanized probably had its origin in
an assumed galvanic or voltaic action, in causing
the zinc to adhere to the iron. The true galvanic
or voltaic action, viz., the galvanic protection,
comes after the galvanizing process is completed.
Iron-Work Fault of Dynamo. — (See
Fault, Iron- Work, of Dynamo?)
Irreversible Heat.— (See Heat, Irreversi-
ble?)
Irritability, Electric - —Irritability
of nervous or muscular tissue by an electric
discharge.
Irritability, Electric, Diminished —
A decreased irritability of nervous or muscu-
lar tissue, produced by an electric current of
given strength.
Diminished electric irritability is often present
in certain diseases of the motor apparatus.
Irritability, Electric, Increased
An irritability of nervous or muscular tissue
produced by a much weaker electric current
than that required to produce it in normal
tissue.
Irritability, Faradic Muscular
contractions produced by the action of a
faradic current on a nerve.
The action of the faradic current is to cause a
prolonged tonic contraction, which continues
while the current continues. Though the natural
action is to produce a contraction, followed by a
relaxation on each make and break, yet the makes
and breaks follow one another so rapidly that the
relaxation has not time to occur before the next
contraction follows.
Irritability, Galvanic Muscular
contractions produced by the action of a gal-
vanic current.
The action of a galvanic current is to cause a
single, quick, momentary contraction of a muscle
on each starting or completion of the circuit.
The contractions are stronger in the case of
galvanic currents when the direction of the cur
rent is reversed with a commutator instead of by
an actual break at the poles. Such a break is
called a voltaic alternative, and the currents so pro-
duced voltaic alternatives. (See Alternatives,
Vottaic.}
Isobaric Lines. — (See Lines, Isobaric?)
Isobars. — Lines connecting places on the
ISO.]
295
[Jar.
earth's surface which have the same barome-
tric pressure.
The isobaric lines are generally corrected for
differences of elevation of the surface.
Isobars are often called isobaric lines.
A study of the isobaric lines, or isobars, is of
great assistance in making forecasts or predictions
of coming changes in the weather.
Isocnasmen Curres. — (See Curves, Iso-
chasmen)
Isochronism. — Equality of time of vibra-
tion or motion.
Isochronize. — To produce equality of
Jime of vibration or motion. — (See Isochron-
Isochronizing. — Producing equality of
time of vibration or motion. (See Isochron-
ism)
Isochronous Yibrations or Oscillations.
— (See Vibrations or Oscillations, Isochron-
Mtf.)
Isoclinic Chart.— (See Chart, Inclina-
tion)
Isoclinic Lines. — (See Lines, Isoclinic)
Isodynamic Chart. — (See Chart, Isody-
namic)
Isodynamic Lines. — (See Lines, Isody-
namic)
Isodynamic Map. — (See Chart, Isody-
namic)
Iso-Electric Points.— (See Points, Iso-
Electric)
Isogonal. — Pertaining to the isogonic lines.
Isogonal Lines. — (See Lines, Isogonal)
Isogonal Map or Chart.— (See Map or
Chart, Isogonal)
Isogonic.— Pertaining to the isogonal lines.
Isogonic Chart — (See Chart, Isogonic)
Isogonic Lines. — (See Lines, Isogonic)
Isogonic Map.— (See Map, Isogonic)
Isolated Electric Lighting.— (See Light-
ing, Electric, Isolated)
Isolatine. — A kind of insulating material.
Isothermal Surfaces.— (See Surfaces, Iso-
thermal)
Isotropic Conductor. — (See Conductor,
Isotropic)
Isotropic Medium.— (See Medium, Iso-
tropic)
J. — A contraction proposed for Joule.
Jablochkoff Candle.— (See Candle, Jab-
tochkoff)
Jacketed Magnet.— (See Magnet, Jack-
eted)
Jacobi's Law. — (See Law, Jac obi's)
Jar, Electric — A name formerly
given to the Leyden jar.
Jar, Leyden A condenser in the
form of a jar, in which the metallic coatings
are placed opposite each other on the outside
and the inside of the jar respectively.
The metal coatings should not extend to more
than two-thirds of the height of the jar, the rest
of the glass being varnished to avoid the creeping
of the charges over the glass in damp weather.
The inside coating is connected by means of a
metallic chain to a knob on the top of the jar, as
shown in Fig. 313. The conductor supporting
the knob passes through a dry cork or plug of
some insulating material.
To charge the jar, the outside coating is con-
nected with the earth, as
by holding it in the hand,
and the outside coating
is connected with the
conductor of a machine.
(See Condenser. Accu-
mulator. )
The inner coating of
the jar is usually con-
nected with the knob by
means of a chain or wire Ke'3*3'
as shown above. This necessitates a support for
the ball and stem, which is generally obtained by
a cork or wooden plug inserted in the mouth of
Jar.T
296
[Jet.
the jar. Such a form, however, is extremely ob-
jectionable, since, although the top of the jar be
Covered with shellac varnish to avoid leakage, it
affords fcut a poor insulation in damp weather, be-
cause both the metallic rod supporting the ball and
Sir WiUiam Thomsons Leydt* Jar.
the damp wood or cork are in connection with the
glass and thus facilitate leakage.
To overcome these objections a form of jar has
been devised by Sir William Thomson, in which the
knob is supported on three feet, which rest on the
inner coating. In this form the uncoated glass
<:an be readily kept dry and clean. This form is
;shown in Fig. 314.
A layer of sulphuric acid is sometimes employed
for the inner coating of the Leyden jar. This
serves the double purpose of acting as a coating
,and an absorber of moisture during damp
weather.
Jar, Leyden, Capacity of The
quantity of electricity a Leyden jar will hold
at a given difference of potential.
The capacity of a jar is equal to the quantity
of electricity divided by the difference of potential
such quantity produces in the jar; or the capacity
= ^j, where Q = the quantity, and V, the differ-
ence of potential.
Jar, Leyden, Coatings of (See
Coatings of Leyden Jar.)
Jar, Lightning A Leyden jar, the
coatings of which consist of metallic filings.
As the discharge passes, an irregular series of
sparks appear, which somewhat resemble in their
shape a lightning flash. Hence the origin of the
term.
Jar of Secondary Cell. — The containing
vessel in which the plates of a single secondary
cell are placed.
Jar, Porons A porous cell. (See
Cell, Porous.)
Jar, Scintillating A Leyden jar.
the coatings of which, instead of being formed
of continuous sheets of tin-foil or other con-
ducting substances, are formed of small pieces
of such substances, placed at regular intervals
on the glass or dielectric so as to leave a small
space between them.
Such a jar has received the name of scintillat-
ing jar, because when discharged by connecting
its two opposite coatings the discharge appears as
minute sparks, which jump across the space
between the metallic pieces.
Jar, Unit A small Leyden jar some-
times employed to measure approximately the
quantity of electricity passed into a Leyden
battery or condenser.
As shown in Fig. 315, the unit jar consists of a
small Leyden jar j, whose outer coating is con-
nected with a sliding metallic
rod b, provided at each end
with a rounded knob, and the
inner coating of which is con-
nected with a metallic knob c,
placed as shown, inside a
glass jar d, opposite a ball on
the lower end of b.
When, now, the inside of
the unit jar, or the end con-
nected with c, is connected
with the charging source, such
as a machine, and the outside
at a, is connected with the jar
or jars to be charged, for
every spark that passes be-
tween d and c, a definite quantity has passed a.
The value of this unit charge may be varied by
varying the distance between d and c.
The smaller the unit jar is in proportion to the
jar to be charged, and the shorter the distance
between c and d, the more reliable are the com-
parative results obtained.
Jars, Leyden, Charging, by Cascade
— (See Cascade, Charging- Leyden Jars by.)
Jet, Cfas, Carcel Standard - —A
lighted gas jet employed for determining the
candle-power of gas by measuring the height
Unit Jar.
Jet.]
297
[Joi.
of a jet of gas burning under a given press-
ure, and used in connection with the light of
a larger gas burner, burning under similar
conditions, for the photometric measurement
of electric lights.
The twisted joint is sometimes subsequently
soldered.
Fig 3ib. Seven- Car eel
Standard Gas Jet.
Fig. 317. Carcel Candle
Burner-.
In Fig. 316 is shown a section of a seven-carcel
standard gas jet, and in Fig. 317, a section of a
candle burner, connected within the same service
pipe. The gas for both burners is received in a
chamber, from whence it passes by an opening to
the burner, under the constant pressure obtained
by the weight of the bell C, and the tube A. The
burner shown in Fig. 317, which is used as the
standard of comparison, will give a candle-power
determined from the height of the jet of the
burning gas. This height is measured in milli-
metres by the motion of a circular screen.
The determination of the candle-power of gas by
means of a jet photometer is only approximately
correct, unless many precautions are taken.
Jet Photometer.— (See Photometer, Jet^
Jewelry, Electric — — Minute incan-
descent electric lamps substituted for the
rarer gems in articles of jewelry.
The lamps are lighted by means of small pri-
mary or storage batteries, carried in the pocket or
elsewhere on the person.
Joint, American Twist A tele-
graphic or telephonic joint in which each of
the two wires is twisted around the other.
(See/0/«/, Telegraphic or Telephonic^
Fig. 318. America* Twist Joint.
The American twist joint is shown in Fig. 318.
This joint is easily made and is very serviceable.
Joint, Bell-Hanger's A joint for
telegraphic or telephonic wires in which the
ends are merely looped together. (See Joint,
Telegraphic or Telephonic!)
Joint, Britannia A telegraphic or
telephonic joint in which the wires are laid
side by side, bound together and subsequently
soldered. (See Joint, Telegraphic or Tele-
phonic^
Fig. 319. Brit:
Joint.
The Britannia joint is shown in Fig. 319. No,
16 wire, B. W. G., is used as the binding wire.
Joint, Butt An end-to-end joint.
A joint effected in wires by placing the
wires end on and subsequently soldering.
Butt joints are formed by bringing the ends to
be joined together and securing them while in
such position.
Joint, Butt and Lap, of Belts The
joint in a leather belt, employed for transmit-
ting power from a line of shafting where the
ends are simply brought together and laced,
is called a butt joint, in contradistinction to a
lap joint, or a joint formed by placing one end
of the belt over the other and lacing or rivet-
ing the two.
In using delicate galvanometers, the slightest
change in the speed of the engine driving the
dynamo-electric machine producing the current,
causes an annoying fluctuation of the needle that
prevents accurate reading, when lap joints are used
in the belt instead of butt joints, unless the former
are very carefully made. Lap joints may also cause
a flickering in the lights. When, however, lap
joints are made by cutting the belt by an oblique
section and properly securing them so that their
Joi.]
[Joi.
elevation at the joint is no greater than elsewhere,
the lap joint is preferable to the butt joint.
Joint, Expansion A joint for under-
ground conductors, tubes or pipes, exposed
to considerable changes of temperature, in
which a sliding joint is provided to safely
permit a change of length on expansion or
contraction.
Joint, Insulation A joint in an insu-
lating material or covering in which a conti-
nuity is insured in the conducting as well as
the insulating substance.
Joint, Lap A joint effected by over-
lapping short portions near the ends of the
things to be joined, and securing them while
in such position.
Joint, Lap, for Wires A joint
effected between two wires by overlapping
their ends and subsequently soldering.
Joint, Magnetic The line of junc-
tion between two separate parts of magnetiza-
ble materal.
Magnetic joints should be of such a nature as
to permit the passage of the lines of magnetic
force with the least increase in the resistance of
the magnetic circuit
Magnetic joints in the field magnets of a dynamo-
electric machine should be as few as possible, since
the resistance of the best magnetic joint to the
passage of the lines of force is necessarily greater
than that of the same material without such
joints.
Joint, Metallic Conducting A joint
in a conductor in which a continuity of con-
ducting power is secured.
Joint Resistance of Parallel Circuits.—
($&i Resistance, Joint, of Parallel Circuits^
Joint, Sleeve A junction of the
ends of conducting wires obtained by passing
them through tubes and then twisting and
soldering.
All joints should be soldered, but in so doing
care must be taken that the soldering liquid or
solid employed is free from acids or other corro-
sive materials, and that all traces of the soldering
liquid or solid are removed from the wire before
the joint is covered with insulating material.
Kerite, okonite or other insulating tape, should
preferably be wrapped around the joint after
it is soldered.
In making a joint in a gutta-percha covered
wire, such as a submarine cable, the following
method may be employed: The bared and
cleansed wires are twisted together and soldered.
The soldered joint is then covered with a layer
of plastic insulating material made of a mixture
of gutta-percha, tar and rosin. (See Chatterton's
Compound.) In order to insure a good junction
between this and the gutta-percha covering on the
rest of the wire, the outer surface of the gutta-
percha is removed for about two inches from each
side of the joint, so as to remove its oxidized sur-
face. After the coating is put on, it is warmed
gently by a warm joining tool, not by the flame
of a lamp. A sheet of -warmed gutta-percha is
then wrapped around the joint, and while it and
the joint are still hot, another coating of the
plastic insulating material is applied. Successive
layers of gutta-percha and some other insulating
material are generally applied in the case of sub-
marine cables. — (Culley.)
Joint, Telegraphic, Mclntire's Parallel
Sleeve A joint for telegraphic or other
wires, in which the ends to be joined are
slipped into parallel sleeves or tubes, which
are afterward twisted around each other.
A general view of the parallel sleeve joint, both
before and after twisting, is shown in Fig. 320.
Fig. 320. Mclntirfs Parallel Sleeve Joint.
The twisting is done by means of the specially
devised twisting clamp shown in Fig. 321.
Fig. 321. Tansting CZamf/or Mclntire's Parallel Joint.
Joint, Telegraphic or Telephonic
A juncture of the ends of two electric con-
ductors so as to insure a permanent junc-
tion whose resistance shall not be appreci-
ably greater per unit of length than that of
the rest cf the wire.
Joi.J
299
[Kao.
In making a joint, care should always be taken
to scrape the insulating material from the wires
and clean their surfaces before twisting them to-
gether.
Telegraph wires were formerly joined by the
ordinary bell- hangers' joint; that is, the wires were
simply looped together. The constant vibrations
to which the wires are subjected caused such a
joint to be abandoned and an improvement intro-
duced by bolting the ends together, as shown in
Fig. 322.
Fig. 332. Teleg,
Joint.
Joint, Testing of Ascertaining the
resistance of the insulating material around
a joint in a cable.
The resistance of the insulating material of a
cable at a joint is necessarily high, since the
joint forms but a small part of length of the cable.
It should not, however, be large as compared with
an equal length of another part of the cable with
a perfect core.
Two methods for testing cable joints are gener-
ally employed, viz. :
(I.) A conductor is charged through the joints
for a given time, and the deflection obtained by
its discharge compared with the discharge of the
same condenser charged for an equal length of
time through a few feet of perfect cable.
(2.) A charged conductor is permitted to dis-
charge itself through the joint, and the amount
lost in a given time noted.
For description of different methods, see
Kempe's " Handbook of Electrical Testing."
Joulad. — A term proposed for the Joule.
This term is not generally adopted. (See
Joule.}
Joule. — The unit of electric energy or
work.
The volt-coulomb.
The amount of electric work required to
raise the potential of one coulomb of elec-
tricity one volt.
The joule may be regarded as a unit of energy
or work in general, apart from electrical work or
energy.
i joule ..... , .... = 10,000,000 ergs.
I joule .......... = . 73732 foot-pounds.
I joule .......... = I volt-coulomb.
I joule .......... = .24 calorie.
4.2 joules ......... = i small calorie.
i joule per second = i watt.
The British Association proposed to call one
joule the work done by one watt in one second.
Joule, as a Heat Unit.— The quantity of
heat developed by the passage of a current
of one ampere through a resistance of one
ohm.
Joule Effect.— (See Effect, Joule)
Joule's Cylindrical Electro-Magnet—
(See Magnet, Electro, Joules Cylindrical?)
Joule's Law. — (See Laws of Joule)
Junction Box. — (See Box, Junction)
Jump-Spark Burner. — (See Burner,
fump-Spark)
Junction, Thermo-Electric. — A junction
between any thermo-electric couple. (See
Cell, Thermo-Electric^
K. — A contraction for electrostatic capa-
city. (See Capacity, Electrostatic)
K. C. C. — In electro-therapeutics, a brief
method of writing kathodic closure contrac-
tion, or the effects of muscular contraction
observed at the kathode on the closure of a
circuit.
K. D. C. — In electro-therapeutics, a brief
method of writing kathodic duration con-
traction, or the effects of muscular contrac-
tion observed at the kathode after the current
has been passing for some time.
K. W. — A contraction for kilo-watt. (See
Watt, Kilo)
Kaolin. — A variety of white clay some-
times employed for insulating purposes.
Jablochkoff sometimes employed kaolin be-
tween the parallel carbons of his electric candle
Kap.]
[Key.
for the purpose of insulating them from each
other. He also devised an electric lamp in which
a spark of considerable difference of potential,
obtained from an ordinary induction coil, was
caused to raise a surface of kaolin to incan-
descence by passage over it.
Kapp Lines.— (See Lines, Kapp)
Kartavert — A kind of insulating material.
Katelectrotonus. — A word sometimes used
instead of kathelectrotonus. (See Kathe-
lectrotonus)
Kathelectrotonic State. — (See State,
Kathelectrotonic)
Eatheleetrotonic Zone. — (See Zone,
Kathelectrotonic)
Kathelectrotonus. — In electro-therapeu-
tics, the condition of increased functional ac-
tivity that occurs in a nerve in the neighbor-
hood of the kathode or negative electrode.
(See Electrotonus.)
Kathion. — The electro-positive ion, atom
or radical into which the molecule of an
electrolyte is decomposed by electrolysis.
(See Electrolysis. Ions.]
Kathion is sometimes written cathion.
In electrolysis the kathion, or the electro-posi-
tive ion or radical, appears at the kathode or
electro-negative electrode. Similarly, the anion,
or the electro-negative ion or radical, appears at
the anode or the electro-positive electrode.
Kathodal. — Pertaining to the kathode.
(See Kathode)
Kathode. — The conductor or plate of an
electro-decomposition cell connected with the
negative terminal or electrode of a battery or
other source.
The word kathode is sometimes applied to the
negative terminal of a*battery or source, whether
connected with a decomposition cell or not. It
is preferable, however, to restrict its use to de-
composition cells. (See Anode.)
The word kathode is sometimes written cathode.
Kathodic.— Pertaining to the kathode.
(See Kathode)
Kathodic Electro-Diagnostic Reactions.
—(See Reactions, Electro-Diagnostic)
Keeper of Magnet— (See Magnet, Keeper
Kerite. — An insulating material.
Kerr Effect— (See Effect, Kerr)
Key Board.— (See Board, Key)
Key, Capillary Contact A form of
fluid contact in which the circuit is closed or
broken by means of a wire which is dipped
into or removed from the surface of a mass
of mercury.
In order to avoid an increase in the resistance
of the circuit, due to the formation of oxide of
mercury, the contact surface of the mercury is
kept covered with a layer of dilute alcohol.
Key, Discharge • A key employed to
enable the discharge from a condenser or
cable to be readily passed through a galva-
nometer for purposes of measurement.
Key, Discharge, Kempe's A dis-
charge key constructed as shown in Fig. 323.
. 323. Kempe's Discharge Key.
The solid lever, hinged at one extremity, plays
between two contacts connected to two terminals,
and has two finger triggers at its free end marked
"Discharge" and "Insulate," connected respec-
tively to two ebonite hooks. The hook attached
to that marked " Discharge " is a little higher than
the other, so that when the lever is caught against
it, the key rests in an intermediate position be-
tween the contacts, and, when caujht against the
lower trigger, it rests against the bottom contact.
When in the last position, a depression of tke
" Insulate " trigger causes the lever to spring np
against the second hook, thus insulating it from
either contact, and on the depression of the '« Die-
charge " trigger, the lever springs up against the
top contact.
Key, Discharge, Webb's -- A dk-
charge key constructed as shown in Fig. 324.
A horizontal lever L, Fig. 324, passing between
two contacts and hinged at J, is pressed upward
by a spring. The free end of this lever termi-
nates in two steps, i and 2. A vertical lever, pro-
301
[Key.
vided with an insulating handle, is jointed at J',
aadhasat C, a projecting metallic tongue that
engages in the upper step when the lever H, is
vwtical, and on the lower step when it is slightly
naored from the free end.
When the projection C, rests on the lower step
2, the lever L, is intermediate between the top
and bottom contacts, and is, therefore, discon-
pieces, I, 2, 3 and 4, serve to make contacts with
apparatus used in connection with the key.
The battery circuit is connected to I and 2,
and the galvanometer to 3 and 4, so that the bat-
tery circuit is closed first, and the galvanometer
afterwards. This form of key is used in connec-
tion with the Wheatstone Bridge.
Key, Double-Contact, Lambert's
A key used in cable-work, and constructed
as shown in Fig. 326.
Fig. 324. Webb's Disdiarge Key.
nected from either of them; but, when it rests on
the upper step, it is in contact with the lower
contact.
When the lever H, is so moved as to have the
projection C, away from both steps, the lever L,
is pressed by its spring against the upper contact.
The battery terminals are connected with the
condenser terminals when the lever L, is touching
the lower contact, but when the lever L, touches
the top contact, the condenser is connected with
the galvanometer terminals.
Key, Double-Contact Form of Bridge,
Spragne's A key designed to succes-
sively close two separate circuits.
i 2
Fig. 325.
3 4,
Spragve's Double-Contact Key.
Sprague's double-contact key is shown in Fig.
325. On depressing K, the contacts c, c, are first
closed and afterwards contacts at c', c'. Metallic
In Thomson's method for the determination of
electrostatic capacity, the capacity of the cable
is compared with that of a condenser containing
a known charge. These two charges are so con-
nected electrically as to discharge into and
neutralize each other if equal, but if not, to pro-
duce a galvanometer deflection by a charge
equal to their difference.
A Lambert double contact key is shown in Fig.
326. The connections are such that the pushing
forward of K, depresses keys that permit a bat-
tery to simultaneously charge the condenser and
the cable. On drawing K, back, the two charges
are allowed to mix. Then on depressing K, the
difference of the charges, if any, is discharged
through the galvanometer.
Key, Double-Tapper The key used
in a system of needle telegraphy to send
electric impulses through the lines in alter-
nately opposite directions. (See Telegraphy,
Single-Needle^
Key, Increment A telegraphic key
so connected that an increase or increment
in the line current occurs whenever the key is
depressed.
The increment key is used in duplex and quad-
ruplex systems of telegraphic transmission.
Key, Increment, of Quadruples Tele-
graphic System A key employed to
increase the strength of the current and so
operate one of the distant instruments in a
Key.]
302
[Key.
quadruplex system by an increase in the
strength of the current. (See Telegraphy,
Quadruplex^)
Key, Magneto-Electric A tele-
graph key for sending an electric impulse
into a line, so arranged that a coil of wire on
an armature connected with the key lever is,
by the movements of the key, moved toward
or from the poles of a permanent magnet, the
movements of the key thus producing the
currents sent into the line.
Key, Plug A simple torm of key in
which a connection is readily made or broken
by the insertion of a plug of metal between
two metallic plates that are thus introduced
into a circuit.
A form of plug key is shown in Fig. 327.
Fig. 327- Plus Key.
Key, Reversing A key inserted in
the circuit of a galvanometer for obtaining
deflections of the needle on either side of the
galvanometer scale.
A form of reversing key is shown in Fig. 328.
The galvanometer terminals are connected to the
binding posts 2 and 3, and the circuit terminals
to the other two posts. On depressing K, the
Fig. 328. Reversing Key.
current flows m one direction and on depressing
K', it flows in the opposite direction. Clamps,
operated by handles, are provided so as to close
either of the keys permanently, if so desired.
Key, Reversing, of Quadruples Tele-
graphic System A key employed to
reverse the direction of the current and so
operate one of the distant instruments, in a
quadruplex system, by a change in the
direction of the current. (See Telegraphy,
Quadruplex.)
Key, Short-Circuit A key which
in its normal condition short circuits the gal-
vanometer.
Ftg. 329. Short- Circuit Key.
Such a short-circuit key is provided for the
purpose of protecting the galvanometer from in-
jury by large currents being accidentally passed
through its coils. In the form shown in Fig. 329,
the spring S, rests against a platinum contact ;
but when depressed by the insulated head at K,
it rests against an ebonite contact, and throws
the galvanometer into the desired circuit.
The key is provided with double binding posts
at P and N, for convenience of attachment to re-
sistance coils, batteries, etc.
In the form of a short-circuit key shown in Fig.
330, a catch is provided for the purpose of keep-
ing the key down when once depressed. Its
arrangement will be readily understood from an
inspection of the figure.
Fig. 330. Short-Circuit Key.
Key, Sliding-Contact The key em-
ployed in the slide form of Wheatstone
bridge, to make contact with the wire over
which the sliding contact passes. (See
Bridge, Electric, Slide Form of^
Key.]
303
[Kit.
Key, Stationary Floor An electric
key or push button placed on the floor so as
to be reatlily closed by the foot.
This form of key is especially suitable for use
in connection with an electric bell and annuncia-
tor for readily calling an attendant. (See Annun-
ciator, Electro-Magnetic.)
Key, Telegraphic The key em-
ployed for sending over the line the successive
makes and breaks that produce the dots and
dashes of the Morse alphabet, or the deflec-
tions of the needle of the needle telegraph.
(See Telegraphy, American System, of.}
Kick.— A recoil.
Kicking Coil.— (See Coil, Kicking.}
Kilo (as a prefix}. — One thousand times.
Kiloampere. — One thousand amperes.
Kiloampgre Balance.— (See Balance,
Kiloampere.}
Kilodyne. — One thousand dynes. (See
Dyne.}
Kilogramme. — One thousand grammes,
or 2.2046 pounds avoirdupois. (See Weights,
French System of.}
Kilojoule. — One thousand joules.
Kilometre. — One thousand metres.
Kilowatt. — One thousand watts.
Kilowatt Hour.— (See Hour, Kilowatt.}
Kine. — A unit of velocity proposed by the
British Association.
A kine equals I centimetre per second.
Kinetic Energy. — (See Energy, Kinetic.}
Kinetic Theory of Matter.— (See Matter,
Kinetic Theory of.}
Kinetics, Electro A term some-
times applied to the phenomena of electric
currents, or electricity in motion, as distin-
guished from electrostatics, or the phenom-
ena of electric charges, or electricity at rest.
Kinetograph. — A device for the simultane-
ous reproduction of a distant stage and its
actors under circumstances such that the
actors can be heard at any distance from the
theatre.
The sounds heard by the distant audience are
actual reproductions of those uttered during the
performance, though not at the time of their
utterance. The appearance of the stage and its
actors represents the appearance of a previous
reproduction of the play or opera or other per-
formance, as taken by means of a Kodak camera
with a film cylinder and drop shutter, operated
by an electric motor, exposing, say, forty plates
a second. By means of a projecting lantern these
photographic pictures are thrown on a curtain on
a stage at the distant theatre in regular order of
sequence, while a loud- speaking phonograph
puts song and speech into the mouths of the
mimic actors and thus gives the phantom stage
the semblance of life and reality.
Kite, Franklin's A kite raised in
Philadelphia, Pa., in June, 1752, by means of
which Franklin experimentally demonstrated
the identity between lightning and electricity,
and which, therefore, led to the invention of
the lightning rod.
It is true that Dalibard, on the loth of May,
1752, prior to Franklin's experiment, succeeded
in drawing sparks from a tall iron pole he had
erected in France. This experiment was, how -
ever, tried at the suggestion of Franklin, to whom
it must properly be ascribed.
A description of this kite is given by Franklin
in the following letter:
Letter XI, from BENJ. FRANKLIN, Esq., of Phil-
adelphia, to PETER COLLINSON, Esq.,
F. R. S., London.
"OCT. 19, 1752.
"As frequent mention is made in public papers,
from Europe, of the success of the Philadelphia
experiment for drawing the electric fire from
clouds by means of pointed rods of iron erected
on high buildings, etc., it may be agreeable to
the curious to be informed that the same experi-
ment has succeeded in Philadelphia, though
made in a different and more easy manner, which
is as follows:
" Make a small cross of two light strips of cedar,
the arms so long as to reach to the four corners of a
large thin handkerchief when extended ; tie the
corners of the handkerchief to the extremities of
the cross, so you have the body of a kite, which,
being properly accommodated with a tail, loop
and string, will rise in the air like those made of
paper, but this, being of silk, is fitter to bear the
wet and wind of a thunder gust without tearing.
To the top of the upright stick of the cross is to
KnLJ
304
[Lag.
be fixed a very sharp pointed wire rising a foot
OT more above the wood. To the end of the
twine, next the hand, is to be tied a silk ribbon,
and where the silk and twine join, a key may be
fastened. This kite is to be raised when a thun-
der gust appears to be coming on, and the per-
son who holds the string must stand within a
door or window, or under some cover, so that
the silk ribbon may not be wet, and care must be
taken that the twine does not touch the frame of
the door or window. As soon as any of the
thunder clouds come over the kite the pointed
wire will draw the electric fire from them, and
the kite, with all the twine, will be electrified,
and the loose filaments of the twine will stand
out every way, and be attracted by an approach-
ing finger. And when the rain has wet the kite
and twine so that it can conduct the electric fire
freely, you will find it stream out plentifully from
the key on the approach of your knuckle. At
this key the phial may be charged, and from
electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled,
and all the other electric experiments be per-
formed, which are usually done by the help of a
rubbed glass globe or tube, and thereby the
sameness of the electric matter with that of light-
ning completely demonstrated.
"B. FRANKLIN."
Knife Break Switch.— (See Switch, Knife
Break)
Knot or Nautical Mile.— A length equal
to 6,087 feet.
The English statute mile is equal to 5,280 feet.
The value of the nautical mile is therefore in excess
of that of the statute mile.
Kohlrausch's Law. — (See Law of Kohl-
rausch.)
Krizik's Bars.— (See Bars, Krizik's)
Kyanized. — Subjected to the kyanizing
process. (See Kyanizing?)
Kyanizing. — A process employed for the
preservation of wooden telegraphic poles by
injecting a solution of corrosive sublimate
into the pores of the wood. (See Pole, Tele-
graphic?)
L. — A contraction for co-efficient of in-
ductance. (See Inductance, Co-efficient of.)
L. — A contraction for length.
Labile Galvanization.— (See Galvaniza-
tion, Labile.)
Lag, Angle of The angle through
which the axis of magnetism of the armature
of a dynamo-electric machine is shifted by
reason of the resistance its core offers to sud-
den reversals of magnetization.
An armature of a bi-polar dynamo -electric ma-
chine has its magnetism reversed twice in every
rotation. The iron of the core resists these mag-
netic reversals. The result of this resistance is to
shift the axis of magnetism in the direction of ro-
tation. The angle through which the axis has
thereby been shifted is called the angle of lag.
The term, angle of lag, is sometimes incorrectly
applied so as to include a similar result produced
by the magnetization due to the armature current
itself. It is this latter action which, in armatures
With soft iron cores, is the main cause of the angle
of lead. (See Brushes, Lead of. Lead, Angle
of.)
Lag, Angle of, of Current An
angle whose tangent is equal to the ratio of
the inductive to the ohmic resistance.
An angle, the tangent of which is equal to
the inductive resistance of the circuit, divided
by the ohmic resistance of the circuit.
An angle, the co-sine of which is equal to
the ohmic resistance of the circuit, divided
by the impedance of the circuit.
Lag, Magnetic A magnetic viscos-
ity as manifested by the sluggishness with
which a magnetizing force produces its mag-
netizing effects in iron.
The tendency of the iron core of a magnet,
or of the armature of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine, to resist, and, therefore, retard mag-
netization.
This retardation, or lag, is called the magnetic
lag.
The lead necessary to give the brushes of a dy-
namo-electric machine to insure quiet action has by
Lam.]
Borne been erroneously ascribed to the magnetic
lag. The lead, though due to lag in part, in reality
is mainly due to the resultant magnetization of
the armature both by the field magnets and by its
own current. (See Lead, Angle of.) This dis-
placement of the brushes is measured by an angle
sometimes, though erroneously, called the angle
of lag. (See Lag, Angle of.)
Lamellar Distri-
bution of Magnet-
ism.—(See Magnet-
ism, Lamellar Dis-
tribution of.}
Laminated Core.
— (See Core, Lami-
natedl)
Laminating Core.
— (See Core, Lami-
nation of.)
Lamination of
Armatnre Core. —
(See Core, Armature,
Lamination 0f.)
Lamination of
Cores. — (See Core,
Lamination of.)
Lamp, Ail-Night
A term some-
times applied to a
double - carbon arc
lamp. (See Lamp,
Electric Arc, Double-
Caroon.)
A form of all-night
arc lamp is shown in
Fig. 331. When the
consumption of the first
pair of carbons has Kg. 331. Au-Night Arc
reached a certain limit Lamp.
the current is automatically switched over to the
other pair.
Lamp, All-Night Electric A lamp
provided with carbon electrodes so as to burn
all night without recarboning.
A double-carbon electric lamp, (See
Lamp, All-Night)
Lamp, Arc An electric lamp, the
source of whose light is a voltaic arc.
305 [Lam.
Lamp, Arc, Electric An electric
lamp in which the light is produced by a vol-
taic arc formed between two or more carbon
electrodes.
The carbon electrodes are placed in various
positions, either parallel, horizontal, inclined
to one another or vertically one above the other.
The latter is the form most generally adopted,
since it permits the ready feeding of the upper
carbon.
The carbons are maintained during their con-
sumption at a constant distance apart, by the aid
of various feeding devices. Such devices are op-
erated generally by trains of wheel- work, by me-
chanical or electrical motors, or by the simple
action of a spring, by gravity or by the attraction
of a solenoid.
The carbon pencils or electrodes are held in
carbon holders, consisting of clutches or clamps,
attached to the end of the lamp rods.
When the lamp is not in operation the carbons
are usually in contact with one another; but, on
the passage of the current, they are separated
the required distance by the action
of an electro-magnet whose coils
are traversed by the direct or main
current.
In order to maintain the elec-
trodes a constant distance apart,
the upper carbon in some lamps is
held in position by the operation of
a clutch, or, in others, by a detent,
that engages in a toothed wheel.
The position of this clutch or de-
tent is controlled by the action of
an electro-magnet whose coils are
usually situated in a shunt or de-
rived circuit, of high resistance,
around the electrodes. When the
carbons are at their normal dis-
tance apart, the shunt current is
not of sufficient strength to move
the clutch or detent from the position in which
it prevents the downward motion of the upper
carbon rod. When, however, by the burning
or consumption of the carbons, the resistance
of the arc has increased to an extent which can
be predetermined, the increased current that is
thereby passed through the shunt circuit is now
sufficiently strong to release the clutch or de-
tent, thus permitting the fall or feed of the upper
carbon. In a well designed lamp this occurs
Lam.]
306
[Lam.
so gradually as to produce no perceptible effect
on the steadiness of the light.
Arc lamps are generally placed in series circuits,
that is, in circuits in which the current passes suc-
cessively through all the lamps in the circuit, and
returns to the source. In order to avoid the break-
ing of the entire circuit through the extinguish-
ing of a single arc, on the breaking of its cir-
cuit, an automatic safety device is provided for
each lamp. This safety device consists essentially
of an electro-magnet so placed in a shunt circuit,
that, as the resistance of the arc becomes too
great, the increased current, which will then flow
through the coils of the electro-magnet, at last
produces a movement of its armature which closes
a short circuit around the lamp, and thus cuts it
out of the circuit.
Arc lamps assume a great variety of forms. A
well known form is shown in Fig. 332.
Lamp, Arc, Triple Carbon An arc
lamp in which three carbon electrodes are
used.
The positive carbons consist of two ordinary
cylindrical carbons, placed parallel to each other.
The negative carbon is shaped like the figure 8.
The arc is established between one of the positive
carbons and the corresponding side of the nega-
tive carbon. The feeding of the lamp is attended
by a shifting back and forth of the arc between
the positive carbons and from side to side of the
negative carbons.
The design of the triple carbon arc lamp is to
produce a lamp of long life.
Lamp Bracket, Electric
— (See Bracket, Lamp,
Electric)
Lamp Bulb.— (See Bulb,
Lamp)
Lamp, Carcel An
oil lamp employed in France
as a photometric standard.
Fig. 333 shows a formofcar-
cel lamp. Like the standard
candle, the carcel is a standard
only when it consumes a given
weight of the light-producing
substance in a given time,
Lamp, Chamber of '
The glass bulb or chamber of
an incandescing electric lamp
in which the incandescing
conductor is
placed, and in which is maintained a high
vacuum.
The transparency of the lamp chamber and
consequently the efficiency of the lamp may de-
crease—
( I . ) From the settling of dust or dirt on its outer
walls.
(2.) From the deposit of carbon or metal on its
inner walls.
To obviate the first cause of diminished trans-
parency the outside of the lamp chamber should
be frequently cleansed. The diminished trans-
parency, due to the second cause, cannot be
removed. When it has reached a certain point, it
is more economical to replace the old lamp by a
new lamp.
In a properly made lamp the dimming of the
lamp chamber is not apt to occur unless a stronger
current than the normal current is passed through
the lamp.
Lamp Clamp. — (See Clamp for Arc
Lamps)
Lamp, Contact A form of semi-
incandescent electric lamp in which a carbon
pencil is pressed against a slab of carbon or
other refractory material.
The source of light in an electric contact lamp
is twofold, viz.:
(i.) A minute arc formed at the points of im-
perfect contact.
(2.) The incandescence of the carbon pencil,
and the points of the slab of carbon against which
it is pressed.
Lamp Contacts.— (See Contacts, Lamp.)
Lamp, Electric, Arc, Carbon Elec-
trodes for (See Electrodes, Carbon,
for Arc Lamps)
Lamp, Electric, Arc, Differential
An arc lamp in which the movements of
the carbons are controlled by the differential
action of two-magnets opposed to each other,
one of whose coils is in the direct and the
other in a shunt circuit around the carbons.
Sometimes the differential coils are placed on
the same magnet core.
Lamp, Electric, Arc, Donble Carbon
— An electric arc lamp provided with two
pairs of carbon electrodes, so arranged that
when one pair is consumed, the circuit is auto-
matically completed through the other pair.
lam.!
307
[Lam.
Lamp, Electric Glow A "erm em-
ployed mainly in Europe for an incandescent
electric lamp. (See Lamp, Electric, Incan-
descent^
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent An
electric lamp in which the light is produced
by the electric incandescence of a strip or
filament of some refractory substance, gener-
ally carbon.
The carbon strip or filament is usually bent into
the form of a horseshoe or loop, and placed inside
a glass vessel called the lamp chamber. The
lamp chamber is exhausted by means of a mercury
pump, generally to a fairly high vacuum.
Jn order to insure the complete removal from
the lamp chamber of all the air it originally con-
tained, the carbon strips that are placed within it
are maintained at a high temperature during the
process of exhaustion. This temperature, in
practice, is obtained by sending the current
through the carbon strip as soon as nearly all
the air is removed. Towards the end of the
pumping operation the current is increased so
as to raise the carbons to their full bril-
liancy.
The lamp chamber is also maintained at a
fairly high temperature.
To insure this heating of the walls of the lamp
chamber by the incandescent carbons during
pumping, for the purpose of driving off all the
air adhering to the walls of the chamber, they are
sometimes covered with some readily removable
preparation of lamp black.
The operation of driving off the gases absorbed
by the carbons is termed the occluded gas process,
and is essential to the successful sealing of an
incandescent lamp. By its means, a considerable
quantity of air or other gaseous substances shut
up or occluded by the carbon is driven out of the
raroon, which it would be impossible to get rid of
by the mere operation of pumping. In order to
insure the success of the operation, it is necessary
that the heating must take place while the lamp
is being exhausted, since otherwise the expelled
gases -would be re-absorbed. (See Gas, Occlu-
lion of. )
Both the exhaustion and the incandescence con.
tinue up to the moment the lamp chamber is
hermetically sealed; otherwise, some of the air
might remain in the lamp chamber.
The lamp chamber is hermetically sealed,
usually by the fusion of the glass in the manner
adopted in the sealing of Geissler tubes or
Crookes' radiometers.
For the preparation of the carbon strip, its
carbonization and the flashing of the strip, see
Carbonization, Processes of. Carbons, Flashing
Process for.
The ends of the carbon strip,
or filament, are attached to lead-
ing-in wires of platinum that pass
through the glass walls of the
lamp chamber, and are fused
therein by melting the glass
around them in the same manner
as are the leading-in wires of the I
Geissler tubes and other similar
apparatus.
Incandescent lamps are gener-
ally connected to the leads or cir- Fig. 334. In can-
cuits in multiple-arc or in multi- <*««*' Electric
pie-series. They are, however, •£«*»/•
sometimes connected to the line in series. (See
Circuits, Varieties of.)
In the case of multiple-arc or multiple-series
connection, the resistance of the filament is com-
paratively high. In the case of series-connec-
tion the resistance is comparatively low.
Incandescent electric lamps assume a variety of
different forms. In all cases, however, the shape
of the filament is such,
that the leading-in
wires that carry the
current to and from
the filament shall en-
ter and leave the lamp
chamber at points that
are comparatively
near together. This
is for the purpose of
avoiding the unneces-
sary production of
shadows.
Commercial incan-
descent electric lamps
are generally marked
with the potential dif-
ference in volts that
must be applied at the
terminals in order to
furnish the current
necessary to properly
operate them. If this
potential difference is
made greater, the can-
Lam.]
[Lam.
ffle-power of the lamp is greatly increased, but its
life greatly decreased.
The lamp chamber is more liable in such cases
to become less transparent from the deposit of a
thin layer of carbon or metal on its inner surfaces.
In the Swan lamp the filament is made of cot-
ton thread. These threads are immersed in a
mixture of two parts of sulphuric acid and one of
water, which converts the cellulose of the thread
into artificial parchment. The filaments are rap-
idly washed as soon as they are removed from the
sulphuric acid until all traces of the acid are re-
moved. They are then passed through discs so
as to insure a uniform area of cross-section, and
are then wrapped on rods of carbon or earthen-
ware of the required outline, packed in a crucible
filled with powdered charcoal, and carbonized.
The form generally given to the Swan filament
is that shown in Fig. 335.
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent Ball -
— An incandescent electric lamp in which
the light is produced by a sphere or ball of
carbon placed in an exhausted receiver of
glass.
When subjected to the effects of electrostatic
waves of high frequency of alternation, such a
lamp becomes luminous
from the incandescence of
the carbon ball or sphere.
Tesla's incandescent ball
electric lamp is a modifica-
tion of his straight filament
lamp. (See Lamp, Incan-
descent, Straight Filament .)
The construction of Tes-
la's ball incandescent elec-
tric lamp will be readily
understood from an inspec-
tion of Fig. 336.
Lamp, Electric, In-
candescent, Half-Shades
for -- (See Half-
Shades for Incandescent Lamps?)
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent, Life of
-- The number of hours that an incan-
descent electric lamp, when traversed by the
normal current, will continue to afford a good
commercial light.
The failure of an electric incandescent lamp
results either from the volatilization or rupture
of the carbon conductor, or from the failure of the
vacuum of the lamp chamber. Since the em-
ployment of the flashing process, and the process
for removing the occluded gases, it is not unusual
for incandescent lamps to have a life of several
thousand hours. (See Carbons, Flashing Pro-
cess for .)
The life of an incandescent electric lamp should
not be considered as continuing until the filament
actually breaks. As soon as the lamp chamber
has become covered with such a deposit of car-
bon or coating of metal as to considerably de-
crease the amount of light which passes through
the chamber, the lamp should be considered as
useless.
Lamp, Electric, Incandescent, Three-
Filament, for Multi-Phase Circuits
— An incandescent lamp for use on multi-
phase circuits, provided with three leading-la
wires, connected to the free ends of three
filaments, the other ends of which are con-
nected in a common joint.
When properly acting, the current passing
through each filament should, at any instant,
equal the sum of the currents in the other two
filaments, which, as is well known, is the property
of any three-phase circuit.
Lamp, Electric, Ontrigger for f —
(See Outrigger for Electric Lamp.)
Lamp, Electric, Pendant An in-
candescent electric lamp suspended by flexible
twin-wire.
Lamp, Electric, Safety An in-
candescent electric lamp, with thoroughly
insulated leads, employed in mines, or other
similar places, where the explosive effects of
readily ignitable substances are to be feared.
Such lamps are often directly attached to a
portable battery, in which case they can be read-
fly carried about from place to place.
Lain]), Electric, Semi-Incandescent
— An electric lamp in which the light is due
to the combined effects of a voltaic arc and
electric incandescence.
In the Reynier semi-incandescent lamp, shown
in Fig. 337, a thin pencil of carbon C, is gently
pressed against a block of graphite B. A lateral
contact is provided at L, through a block o*
graphite I, by means of which the current xs COO-
Lam.]
309
[Lam.
•veyed to the lower part only of the movable rod
C, which part alone is rendered incandescent.
In this lamp, the light is due both to the incan.
• C
&*£• 337' Semi- Incandescent Lamp,
descence of the rod C, and to the small arc formed
at J, between its lower end and the contact block
B, though mainly from the latter. The semi-
incandescent electric lamp has not as yet been in-
troduced to any considerable extent.
Lamp, Electric, Series-Connected Incan*
descent An incandescent electric lamp
adapted for use in series circuits.
Fig. 338. Series Incandescent Electric Lamp.
A form of series incandescent lamp, attached
to pendant and shade, is shown in Fig. 338.
In the series connected incandescent lamp, un-
ite the multiple-connected incandescent electric
lamp, the resistance of the filament is low. This
is done .in. order to prevent the total resistance of
the circuit from requiring too high an electro-
motive force for operation. In order to preserve
the continuity of the circuit on the failure of any
lamp to operate, some form of automatic cut-out
is employed. This is generally some form of
film cut-out. (See Cut-Out, Film.}
Lamp Hour. — (See Hour, Lamp.}
Lamp, Incandescent, Electric Filament
Of A term now generally applied to the
incandescing conductor of an incandescent
electric lamp, whether the same be of very
small cross-section or of comparatively large
cross-section.
The term filament is properly applied to a con-
ductor containing fibres or filaments extending in
the general direction of the length of the incan-
descing conductor. Such a conductor is made of
carbonizable fibrous material, cut or shaped prior
to carbonization so as to have its fibres extend-
ing with their greatest length in the direction of
length of the filament.
Lamp, Incandescent, Straight Filament
An incandescent electric lamp in
which a straight filament, placed in an ex-
hausted glass chamber, is rendered luminous
by the effects of electro-
static waves or thrusts of
high frequency.
The straight filament in
candescent lamp is the in-
vention of Tesla. One
form of such a lamp is
shown in Fig. 339.
The glass globe b, of the
lamp is provided with a
cylindrical neck, inside of
which is placed a tube m,
of conducting material, on
the side and over the end
of the insulating plug n.
The light-giving fila.
ment e, is a straight car-
bon stem, connected to the
plate by a conductor cov-
ered with a refractory in-
sulating material k. An
insulated tube-socket p,
provided with a metallic lining s, serves to sup
port the lamp and connect it with one pole of the
source of current. It will be noticed that the coat
339- Tesla's
Straight Filament In-
candescent Lamp.
Lam.]
310
[Law.
ings s and m, form the plates of a condenser.
The other terminal of the machine may be con-
nected to the metal coated walls of the room,
or to metallic plates suspended from the ceiling.
Lamp Indicator.— (See Indicator, Lamp?)
Lamp, Pilot -- In systems for the
operation of electric lamps, an incandescent
lamp employed in a station to indicate the
difference of potential at the dynamo ter-
minals, by means of the intensity of its emitted
light.
Lamp Bod.— (See Rod, Lamp)
Lamp Socket Switch.— (See Switch,
Lamp Socket?)
Lamps, Bank of - • —A term applied
to a number of lamps, equal to about half the
load, that were formerly placed in view of the
attendant in circuit with a dynamo that is to
be placed in a parallel circuit with another
dynamo, one of the lamps of which is also
in view.
When the lamps "in bank " were judged to be
of the same brilh'ancy as the one fed by the other
dynamo, the attendant switched the dynamo par-
allel with the other, and at the same time cut off
the bank of lamps from the switched in dynamo.
The method is, however, wrong. The proper
way is to make the voltage of the dynamo equal
to that of the circuit. Then connect it and
finally raise its electromotive force until it takes
its share of the load.
Lamps, Carboning -- Placing carbons
in electric arc lamps.
When the carbons are consumed, the lamp
requires recarboning. The old carbon ends are
replaced by new carbons, and the lamp rods
cleansed.
Large Calorie. — (See Calorie, Great?)
Latent Electricity. — (See Electricity,
Latent?)
Lateral Discharge. — (See Discharge,
Lateral.)
Lateral Induction. — (See Induction, Lat-
eral?)
Lateral Leakage of Lines of Magnetic
Force.— (See Leakage, Lateral, of Lines of
Magnetic Force?}
Lateral Magnetic Leakage.— (See Leak-
age, Lateral, of Lines of Magnetic Force.)
Latitude, Magnetic -- The distance
a place is situated north or south of the mag-
netic equator.
All places that have the same magnetic latitude
have the same value for the magnetic inclination
and magnetic intensity, or are on the same isocli-
nal and isodynamic lines. The magnetic latitude
is the same at all points of a magnetic parallel.
Launch, Electric -- A boat, the mo-
tive power for which is electricity, suitable for
launching from a ship.
Up to the present time electric launches have
been propelled by means of electric motors, driven
by means of powerful storage batteries.
A form of electric launch constructed for the
English Government is shown in Fig. 340. It is
Fig 34-O- Electric Launch.
48^ feet in length over all, by 8 feet 9 inches
beam, with an average draft of 2 feet 3 inches.
Its speed is 8 knots per hour. It will carry forty
fully equipped soldiers.
Law, Jacobi's - - — The maximum work
done by a motor is reached when the counter-
electromotive force is equal to one-half of the
impressed electromotive force, or,
Law, Joule's --- Tha heating power of
a current is proportional to the product of
the resistance and the square of the current
strength. (See Heat, Electric?)
Law, Natural -- A correct expression
of the order in which the causes and effects
of natural phenomena follow one another.
The law of gravitation, for example, correctly
• expresses the order of sequence of the phenomena
which result when unsupported bodies fall to the
earth. It should be carefully borne in mind, how-
ever, that natural laws cannot be regarded as
explaining tiie ultimate causes of natural phcnc-
Law.]
311
[Lai
mena, but merely express their order of occur-
rence or sequence.
We are ignorant, for example, of the true cause
of gravitation and are only acquainted with its
effects. This is true of all ultimate physical
causes, save for our belief in their origin in a
Divine will.
Law of Electro-Chemical Equivalence.
—(See Equivalence, Electro-Chemical, Law
of.)
Law of Kohlrausch. — In electrolytic con-
duction, each atom has a rate of motion for
a given liquid, which is independent of the
element with which it may have been com-
bined.
In the following table, the rate of motion of
various kinds of atoms through nearly pure water
for a difference of potential of one volt per linear
centimetre, is given:
H 1. 08 centimetres per hour.
K 0.205 centimetre "
Na 0.126 " "
Li 0.094 " "
Ag 0.166 " "
C 0.213
1 0.216 " "
NO8 0.174
Law of Ohm, or Law of Current
Strength. — The strength of a continuous
current is directly proportional to the differ-
ence of potential or electromotive force in the
circuit, and inversely proportional to the re-
sistance of the circuit, /'. e., is equal to the
quotient arising from dividing the electromo-
tive force by the resistance.
F*S- 34 r. Current Strength in Circuit.
Ohm's law is expressed algebraically thus:
C = 5; or, E = C R.
R
If the electromotive force is given in volts, and
the resistance in ohms, the formula will give the
current strength directly in amperes.
The resistance of any electric circuit, as, for
example, that shown in Fig. 341, consists of three
parts, viz.:
(i.) The internal resistance of the source, r.
(2.) That of the conducting wires or leads, r';
and
(3.) That of the electro-receptive, r", energized
by the current. Ohm's law applied to this case
would be:
- r + r' + r".
That is, the resistance of the entire circuit is
equal to the sum of the separate resistances of its
different parts.
Since C= 5, (x); then E = C R, (2);
R
and R = 5, (3).
But, since a current of one ampere is equal to
one coulomb per second, then, in order to deter-
mine in coulombs the quantity of electricity pass-
ing in a given number of seconds, it is only neces-
sary to multiply the current by the time in seconds,
orQ = CT(4).
Hence, referring to the above equations (i),
(2), (3) and (4); according to Ohm's law:
(I.) The current in amperes is equal to the
electromotive force in volts divided by the resist-
ance w\ohms.
(2.) The electromotive force in volts is equal to
the product of the current in amperes and the
resistance in ohms.
(3.) The resistance in ohms is equal to the elec-
tromotive force in volts divided by the current in
amperes.
(4.) The quantity of electricity in coulombs is
equal to the current in amperes multiplied by the
time in seconds.
Law of Volta, or Law for Contact-Series.
— A law for the differences of electric potential
produced by the contact of dissimilar metals
or other substances.
" The difference of potential between any two
metals is equal to the sum of the differences of
potential between the intervening substances in
the contact series" (See Electricity, Contact.
Series, Contact.)
Law, Pfliiger's A given tract of
nerve is stimulated by the appearance of
kathelectrotonus and the disappearance of an-
eiectrotonus ; not, however, by the disap-
Law.J
312
[Law,
pearance of kathelectrotonus nor by ihe ap-
pearance of anelectrotonus. — (Landois and
Stirling!)
Law, Pointing's At any point in
a magnetic field, or a conductor conveying
current, the energy moves perpendicularly to
the plane containing the lines of electric force
or the lines of magnetic force, and the amount
of energy crossing the unit of area of this
plane per second is equal to the product of
the intensities of the two forces multiplied by
the sine of the angle between them, divided
by 4*.
If E, represents the electric force of a small body
charged with positive electricity, and H, the
magnetic force or forces of a smaller free unit
north pole, and, if these forces at any point in
the magnetic field are inclined at an angle, 0,
then e, the flow of energy per second at this point,
in a direction t>erpendicular to the planes of E and
His,
EH sin. 9
e = -^T—
There is, therefore, a difference in the direction
of the flow of electricity and the flow of electric
energy. Electricity may be conceived as passing
through the conductor something like water
through a pipe, but electrical energy does not
travel in this way. Electrical energy travels
through the surrounding dielectric, which is
thereby strained, and it propagates this strain
from point to point until it reaches the conductor
and is there dissipated.
Law, Yoltametric The chemical
action produced by electrolysis in any elec-
trolyte is proportional to the amount of elec-
tricity which passes through the electrolyte.
This is called the Voltametric law, because any
vessel containing an electrolyte, and furnished
with electrodes, so that electrolysis may take place
on the passage of the current, and is provided
with means for measuring the amount of the
electrolysis which occurs, is called a Voltameter.
(See Voltameter. Electrolysis.}
Laws, Ampere's, or Laws of Electro-
Dynamic Attraction and Repulsion —
Laws expressing the attractions and repul-
sions of electric circuits on one another or
en magnets.
Laws, Dub's The magnetism ex-
cited at any transverse section of a magnet is
proportional to the square root of the distance
between the given section and the near end
of the magnet."
*' The free magnetism at any given trans-
verse section of a magnet is proportional to
the difference between the square root of half
the length of the magnet and the square root
of the distance between the given section and
the nearest end."
Laws, Kirchhofifs —The laws for
branched or shunted circuits.
These laws may be expressed as follows:
(I.) In any number of conductors meeting at a
point, if currents flowing to the point be considered
as -j-> and those flowing away from it as — , the
algebraic sum of the meeting currents witt be
zero.
This is the same thing as saying as much elec-
tricity must flow away from the point as flows to-
ward it.
(2.) In any system of closed circuits the alge-
braic sum of the products of the currents into the
resistances is equal to the electromotive force in
the circuit.
In this case all currents flowing in a certain
direction are taken as positive, and those flowing
in the opposite direction as negative. All elec-
tromotive forces tending to produce currents in
the direction of the positive current are taken as
positive, and those tending to produce currents in
the opposite direction, as negative.
E
This follows from Ohm's law; for, since C = — ,
R
the electromotive force E = CR, and this is tr»e,
no matter how often the circuit is branched.
Laws, Lenz's Laws for determining
the directions of currents produced by electro-
dynamic induction.
The direction of the currents set up by electra-
dyriamic induction is always such as to oppose
the tiotions by which such currents were pro-
duced.
Laws of Becquerel, or Laws of Mag-
neto-Optic Rotation. — Laws for the mag-
neto-optic rotation of the plane of polarization
of light. (See Rotation, Magneto-Optic>.
Laws of Coulomb, o»* Laws of Electro-
Law.]
313
[Lea.
static and Magnetic Attractions and Re-
pulsions. — Laws for the force of attraction
and repulsion between charged bodies or be-
tween magnet poles.
The fact that the force of electrostatic attrac-
tion or repulsion between two charges, is directly
proportional to the product of the quantities of
electricity of the two charges and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between them,
is known as Coulomb"1 's Law. Coulomb also as-
certained that the attractions and repulsions be-
tvreen magnet poles are directly proportional to the
product of the strength of the two poles, and in-
versely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This is also called Coulomb's
Law.
Coulomb's law, in order to be accurate, must
take into account the specific inductive capacity
of the intervening medium. The correct expres-
sion for the force between two quantities q and q',
of electricity -would be, therefore,
'-3ft
-where K, is equal to the specific inductive capacity
of the medium separating the two charges.
In a similar manner when the force is exerted
between two magnet poles, to be accurate, we must
take into account the magnetic permeability of
the medium between the two magnets. The cor-
rect expression for the force between two magnet
poles is, therefore,
mm;
r*j* '
-when //, is the magnetic permeability.
Laws of Faraday, or Laws of Electrolysis
Laws for the effects of electrolytic
decomposition. (See Electrolysis.)
These laws are as follows:
(I.) The amount of an electrolyte decomposed
is directly proportional to the quantity of elec-
tricity which passes through it ; or, the rate at
which a body is electrolyzed is proportional to
the current strength producing such electrolysis.
(2.) If the same current be passed through dif-
ferent electrolytes, the quantity of each ion
evolved is proportional to its chemical equivalent.
Laws of Joule.— Laws expressing the de-
velopment of heat produced in a circuit by an
electric current.
Tliese laws may be expressed as follows :
(I.) The amount of heat developed in any cir-
cuit is proportional to its resistance, providing
the current strength is constant.
(2.) The amount of heat developed in any cir-
cuit is proportional to the square of the current
passing, providing the resistance is constant.
(3.) The amount of heat developed in any cir-
cuit is proportional to the time the current con-
tinues.
Or, H = Cs RtX0.24.
Where H, equals the heat in small calories, C,
equals the current in amperes, R equals the re-
sistance in ohms, t, equals the time in seconds,
and 0.24, the heat-units per second developed in
a resistance of I ohm by the passage of I am-
pere.
Lay Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Lay.)
Layer, Crookes' - —A layer, or
stratum, of the residual atmosphere of a
vacuous space, in which the molecules, recoil-
ing from a heated or electrified surface, do
not meet other molecules, but impinge on the
walls of the vessel directly opposite such
heated or electrified surface.
A Crookes layer may result as the effect of
two different causes, viz. :
(I.) The rarefaction of the gas is such that the
distance between the walls of the vessel and the
heated surface is less than the mean-free-path of
the molecules.
(2.) The wall is so near the heated surface that
the distance between the two is less than the ac-
tual mean-free-path of the molecules. Under
these last-named circumstances Crookes' layers
may result, whatever be the density of the gas.
Laying-Up Cables.— (See Cables, Lay-
ing-Up.)
Lead, Angle of — —The angular devia-
tion from the normal position, which must be
given to the collecting brushes on the com-
mutator cylinder of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine, in order to avoid destructive burning,
(See Commutator, Burning at.)
The necessity for giving the collecting brushes
a lead, arises both from the magnetic lag and from
the distortion of the field of the machine by the
magnetization of the armature current. The
angle of lead is, therefore, equal to the sum of the
angle of lag, and the angular distortion due to th e
magnetization produced by the armature current .
Lea.]
314
[Lea.
Lead, Cable A lead containing a
conductor formed of several stranded con-
ductors, as distinguished from a wire lead or
a lead containing a single conductor.
Lead, Flexible A conductor formed
of a number of small stranded conductors for
the purpose of obtaining flexibility.
Lead, Flexible Twin A flexible
conductor in which two parallel and sepa-
rately insulated wires are placed.
Lead of Brushes of Dynamo-Electric
Machine. — The angular deviation from the
normal position, which it is necessary to give
the brushes on the commutator of a dynamo-
electric machine, in order to obtain efficient
action. (See Lead, Angle of.)
Lead Scoring Tool.— (See Tool, Scoring,
Lead)
Lead Sleeve.— (See Sleeve, Lead.)
Lead, Tee.— (See Tee, Lead)
Lead, Wire A lead consisting of a
single conductor, as distinguished from a
cable lead, or a lead containing a number of
stranded conductors.
Lead Wire.— (See Wire, Lead)
Leading Horn of Pole Pieces of Dynamo-
Electric Machine. — (See Horns, Leading, of
Pole Pieces of a Dynamo-Electric Machine)
Leading-Ill Wires.— (See Wires, Lead-
ing-In)
Leading-Up Wires.— (See Wires, Lead-
ing- up)
Leads. — The conductors in any system of
electric distribution.
In distribution by parallel, the conductors
through which the current flows from the source
are sometimes called the leads in contradis-
tinction to those through which it returns to
the source.
The leads, or main conductors, in a multiple
system of electric lighting, must maintain a con-
stant potential at the lamp terminals. The dimen-
sions of the leads are, therefore, so proportioned as
to absorb as small an amount of potential as pos-
sible. Since, in incandescent lighting, where the
lamps are connected to the leads in multiple-arc,
the total resistance of the lamps is comparatively
small, the resistance of the leads must be quite
small in order to avoid a marked drop of poten-
tial. Comparatively large conductors must,
therefore, be used.
The main conductor for series circuits, such as
for arc-lights, has in all parts the same current
strength. Since the sum of the resistances of the
lamps in such a circuit is quite high, a compara-
tively high resistance in the conductor may be
employed without a proportionally large absorp-
tion of potential. Comparatively small conduc-
tors can therefore be used. (See Electricity, Dis-
tribution of, by Constant Currents. Electricity,
Distribution of, by Alternating Currents)
Leads, Armature, Twist in — —A dis-
placement of the ends of the wires connected
to the commutator segment, with respect to
the position of the coils on the armature, for
the purpose of obtaining a more convenient
position for the diameter of commutation,
that is, for the collecting brushes.
Leak, Oscillatory -A leak or grad-
ual loss of electricity which takes place in
alternately opposite directions.
Leak, Unidirectional — A gradual
loss or leakage of electricity which takes place
in one and the same direction.
The term has been employed to distinguish
such a leak from an oscillatory leak.
Leakage Conductor.— (See Conductor,
Leakage)
Leakage, Electric The gradual
dissipation of a current due to insufficient in-
sulation.
Some leakage occurs under nearly all circum-
stances. On telegraphic lines, during wet
weather, the leakage is often so great as to inter-
fere with the proper working of the lines.
Leakage, Electrostatic • —The grad-
ual dissipation of a charge due to insufficient
insulation.
The leakage of a well insulated conductor,
placed in a high vacuum, is almost inappreciable.
Crookes has maintained electric charges in high
vacua for years without appreciable loss.
Leakage, Lateral, of Lines of Magnetic
Force The failure of lines of magnetic
Lea.]
315
[Leu.
force to pass approximately parallel to one
another through a bar of iron or other mag-
netizable material, when it has come to rest
in a magnetic field in which it is free to
move.
The escape of the lines of magnetic force
from the sides of a bar or other similar
magnet, instead of from the poles at the
end.
When a bar of magnetizable material, sus-
pended so as to be free to move, comes to rest in
a magnetic field in which it is undergoing mag-
netization, it has its greatest length parallel to
the direction of the lines of force. If the bar is a
long, thin, straight bar, the lines of force do not
all pass in or come out at its ends. On the con-
trary, many of these lines of force or induction
pass in or come out at other points. The mag-
metic induction is, therefore, unequal at different
sections of the bar. In other words, the mag-
netic flux or intensity is not constant per unit of
all cross-sections of such bar.
Leakage, Magnetic A useless dis-
sipation of the lines of magnetic force of a
dynamo-electric machine, or other similar
device, by their failure to pass through the
armature where they are needed.
Useless dissipation of lines of magnetic
force outside that portion of the field of a
dynamo-electric machine through which the
armature moves.
Such a leakage can be detected by an instru-
ment called a magnetophone. (See Magneto-
phone.}
Magnetic leakage results in lowering the effi-
ciency of the dynamo. (See Co-efficient, Econo-
mic, of a Dynamo-Electric Machine. )
Leclanche-'s Voltaic Cell.— (See Ceff,
Voltaic, Lcclancht)
Leg. — In a system of telephonic exchange,
where a ground return is used, a single wire,
or, where a metallic circuit is employed, two
wires, for connecting a subscriber with the
main switchboard, by means of which any
subscriber may be legged or placed directly
in circuit with two or more other parties.
Leg of Circuit.— (See Circuit, Leg of.)
Legal Earth Quadrant— (See Quadrant,
Legal Earth.)
H_Vol. i
Legal Ohm.— (See Ohm, Legal)
Legging-Key Board.— (See Board, Leg-
ging-Key)
Length of Spark.— (See Spark, Length
Lens, Achromatic A lens the
images formed by which are free from the
false coloration produced in other lenses by
dispersion.
An ordinary lens can be rendered approxi-
mately achromatic by the use of a diaphragm.
Achromatic lenses generally consist of the com
D
A
Fig. 342. Equal and Opposite Refracting Angles.
bination of a double convex lens of flint glass am?
a concave lens of crown glass.
The ray of light entering the prism A B Cj
Fig. 342, suffers dispersion (separation into pris-
matic colors). This dispersion in the samr
B
A C
Fig. 3 43- Principle of Achromatism.
medium is proportional to the angle g, between
the incident and emergent faces, called the re-
fracting angle.
If, now, another prism B C D, of the same ma-
terial, with a refracting angle g', equal to g, is
combined with the first prism in the manner
shown in Fig. 342, it will produce an equal but
opposite dispersion, so that the ray of light will
emerge at R', free from rainbow tints, but par-
allel to its original direction.
The variety of glass called crown glass pro-
duces only half as great dispersion of light as the
variety called fiint glass, under the same refract-
ten.] 316
ing angle g. If the prism A B C, of crown glass,
Fig. 343, whose angle g, is twice as great as the
refracting angle g , of the prism B C D, of flint
glass, be placed together in the manner shown,
then the ray R, will be transmitted at R', free from
color, but will not emerge par ailed to its original
direction ; in other words, it suffers refraction or
bending. Consequently such a combination can
be used to free a pencil of light from false colora-
tion and yet permit it to undergo refraction,
and thus act as a lens. (See Refraction.")
The construction ot achromatic lenses is based
on this principle.
The crown glass is generally made with two
fig. 344. Piano-Convex
Achromatic Lens.
345. Ach
Lens.
convex surfaces ; the flint glass, with one con-
cave and one plane surface, as shown in Fig.
344-
Sometimes both surfaces of the flint glass are
made curved, as in Fig. 345.
Lenz's Law. — (See Law, Lenz's.)
letter Box, Electric - —A device
that announces the deposit of a letter in a
box by the ringing of a bell, or by the move-
ment of a needle or index.
These devices generally act by the closing or
opening of an electric circuit on the fall of the
letter into the box.
Leyden Jar. — (See Jar, Ley den.}
Leyden Jar Pattery.— (See Battery, Ley-
den Jar!)
Lichtenberg's Dust Figures.— (See Fig-
ures, Lichtenberg' s Dust.)
Life Curve of Incandescent Electric
Lamp. — (See Curve, Life, of Incandescent
Electric Lamp.)
Life of Electric Incandescent Lamp. —
(See Lamp, Incandescent, Life of.)
Light, Auroral — — The light given off
during the prevalence of an aurora. (See
Aurora Eorealis.)
Light, Electric — —Light produced by
the action of electric energy.
Electric light is produced by electric energy in
various ways, the most important of which are as
follows, viz.:
(I.) By the passage of an electric discharge
through a gas or vapor, either in a rarefied condi-
tion, at ordinary atmospheric pressure, or at pres-
sures higher than that of the ordinary pressure.
In any of these cases the gas or vapor is heated to
incandescence by the passage of the discharge.
(2.) By the incandescence of a solid by the
heating power of the current, as in the incandes-
cent lamp.
(3.) By the incandescence of a solid by the ac-
tion of a rapidly alternating electrostatic field, as
in Tesla's incandescent lamp.
\4. ) By the volatilization of a solid and the form-
ation thereby of a voltaic arc.
(5.) By the combination of the effects of incan-
descence and the voltaic arc.
The amount of light produced in proportion to
the amount of energy expended to produce it
is probably least in the case of light produced
by the sparks of a Wimshurst or Holtz machine,
or as in (i), than in any other case in which electric
energy acts to produce luminous energy.
Light, Electric, Pumping of — —(See
Pumping of Electric Light)
Light, Intensity of— —The brilliancy
or illuminating powtr of a light as. measured
by a photometer in standard candles or other
standard units. (See Photometer. Candle,
Standard)
Light, Maxwell's Electro - Magnetic
Theory of — A hypothesis for the
Us.]
317
cause oi light proposed by Maxwell, based
on the relations existing- between the phe-
nomena of light and those of electro-magnet-
ism.
Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light as-
sumes that the phenomena of light and magnet-
ism are each due to certain motions of the ether,
electricity and magnetism being due to its rota-
tions, and light to oscillations, or its to-and-fro
motions.
Maxwell proposed this theory to show that the
phenomena of light, heat, electricity and magnet-
ism could all be explained by one and the same
cause, viz., a vibratory or oscillatory motion of
the particles of the hypothetical ether. Maxwell
died before completing his hypothesis, and it has
never since been sufficiently developed to thor-
oughly entitle it to the name of a theory. This
theory has more recently been elaborated by
Hertz. (See Electricity, Hertz's Theory of Elec-
tro-Magnetic Radiations or Waves)
There are, however, numerous considerations
which render it probable that electric and mag-
netic phenomena, like those of light and heat,
have their origin in a vibratory or oscillatory mo-
tion of the luminiferous ether. A few of these,
as pointed out by Maxwell, S. P. Thompson,
Lodge, Larden and others, are as follows:
(i.) It is possible that the thing called elec-
tricity is the ether itself, negative electrification
consisting in an excess of the ether, and positive
electrification in a deficit. (See Electricity, Sin-
gle-Fluid Hypothesis of. )
(2.) It is possible that electrostatic phenomena
consist in a strain or deformation of the ether.
A dielectric may differ from a conductor in that
the former may have such an attraction for the
ether as to give it the properties of an elastic
solid, while in the latter the ether is so free to
move that no strain can possibly be retained by
it. (See Dielectric. Conductor.)
(3.) Dielectrics are transparent and conductors
are opaque.
There are exceptions to this in the case of vul-
canite and many other excellent dielectrics. Nor
should this similarity be expected to be general in
view of the well known differences that exist be-
tween diathermancy and transparency.
(4.) It is possible that an electric current con-
sists of a real motion ot translation of the ether
through a conductor.
(5.) It is possible that electromotive force re-
sults from differences of ether pressures. This
would of course follow from (4).
(6.) The vibrations of light are propagated in
a direction at right angles to the direction in
which the light is moving. The magnetic field
of a current is propagated in planes at right
angles to the direction in which the current is
flowing.
(7.) It is possible that lines of electrostatic and
magnetic force consist of chains of polarized ether
particles.
(8. ) The velocity of propagation of light agrees
very nearly with the velocity of propagation of
electro-magnetic induction. (See Ratio Velocity.)
(9. ) In certain axial crystals the difference of
transparency in the direction of certain axes,
corresponds with the direction in which such
crystals conduct electricity.
Recent investigations render it almost certain
that light and electro-magnetic waves or radia-
tions are one and the same, and, therefore, have
the same velocity of propagation through free
ether. Through fixed ether, that is, through the
ether that exists between the molecules of differ-
ent kinds of matter, as is well known, the velocity
of propagation differs with different substances.
(See Electricity, Hertz's Theory of Electro-Mag-
netic Radiations or Waves. )
Light, Northern (See Aurora
Eorealis.)
Light, Platinum-Standard The
light emitted by a surface of platinum one
square centimetre in area, at its temperature
of fusion.
This is called the Violle Standard and is ex-
tensively used in France.
Light, Search, Automatic A search
light in which a parallel or slightly diverging
beam of light is automatically caused to
sweep the horizon, and thus disclose the ap-
proach of a torpedo boat or other similar
danger.
This is called an automatic search light because
it may be caused to automatically sweep the hori-
zon, instead of being manipulated by hand, as
usual.
Light, Search, Electric An electric
arc light placed in a focusing lamp before a
lens or mirror, so as to obtain either a parallel
beam or a slightly divergent pencil of light
318
for lighting the surrounding space for pur-
poses of exploration.
Light, Southern —(See Aurora
Australis?)
Light, Tail A light displayed at the
rear end of trains in order to avoid rear colli-
sions. (See Railroads, Block System for.}
Lighter, Cigar, Electric An ap-
paratus for electrically lighting a cigar.
A cigar lighter consists essentially of a wire or
rod of refractory substance, rendered incandes-
cent by the passage of a current obtained from a
voltaic battery, secondary generator, or other
electric source.
Lighter, Electric, Argand A name
sometimes given to an argand electric plain-
pendant burner. (See Burner, Argand-
Electric, Plain-Pendant?)
Lighter, Electric, Argand Talve
A name sometimes given to an argand elec-
tric ratchet-pendant burner. (See Burner,
Argand-Electric, Ratchet-Pendant!)
Lighthouse Illumination, Electric
^-(See Illumination, Lighthouse, Electric)
Lighting, Arc Artificial illumina-
tion obtained by means of an arc light.
The term arc lighting is used in contradistinc-
tion to incandescent lighting. In the United
States, and, indeed, generally, a number of arc
lights are placed in series on the line circuit, con-
nected generally with a series dynamo. Each
of the lamps is provided with a safety cut-out,
which cuts out or removes a defective lamp from
the circuit by automatically turning or switching
the current through a shunt of low resistance.
Lighting, Electric, by High Frequency
Currents A system of electric lighting,
in which rods, bars or filaments of carbon or
other refractory substances are raised to in-
candescence when placed in a rapidly alternat-
ing electrostatic field.
This system of electric lighting was invented
by Nikola Tesla. Its general principles will be
understood from an inspection of Fig. 346.
G, is a dynamo producing alternating currents
. of comparatively low potential. A portion of its
current P, acting as the primary of an induction
coil, induces alternating currents of high
potential in the secondary circuit S, which,
charging the condenser C, is disruptively dis-
charged into the circuit A, provided with an air
gap at A' through P'. The inductive action
of P', on S', produces oscillatory currents of
Tesla' s High Frequency Currents
System of Light ing.
enormous frequency and potential in the second-
ary circuits connected therewith. In the ap-
paratus shown in Fig. 346, two incandescent
electric lamps are connected with the secondary
circuit, one with a single straight filament, and
the other with a ball conductor. The other
terminal of S', is connected to the walls of the
room to be lighted. (See Lamp, Incandescent,
Straight Filament. Lamp, Electric, Incandes-
cent Ball.}
Lighting, Electric, Central Station
— The lighting of a number of houses or other
buildings from a single station, centrally lo-
cated.
Central station lighting is distinguished from iso-
lated lighting by the fact that a number of sepa-
rate buildings, houses or areas, are lighted by the
current produced at a single station, centrally
located, instead of from a number of separate
electric sources located in each of the houses, etc.,
to be lighted. (See Electricity, Distribution of.)
Lighting, Electric Gas Igniting
gas jets by means of electric discharges.
Electric sparks are caused to pass through a
jet of escaping gas, and thus to light it. These
sparks are obtained from a spark-coil, *. e., a
coil of insulated wire connected in series with
the circuit so as to produce an extra current on
the sudden breaking of the circuit, the discharge
of which produces a spark capable of igniting the
gas. In cases where a number of burners are to
be simultaneously lighted the sparks required for
Lig.]
319
[Lig.
lighting the gas are obtained from the secondary
of an induction coil (See Burner, Automatic
Electric.)
Lighting, Electric, Isolated A
system of electric lighting where a separate
electric source is placed in each house or
area to be lighted, as distinguished from the
central station lighting, where electric sources
are provided for the production of the current
required for an entire neighborhood.
Lighting, Electric, Long-Arc System of
A system of electric lighting in which
long arcs are maintained between the carbon
electrodes.
Lighting, Electric, Short-Arc System
A system of electric lighting in which
short voltaic arcs are maintained between the
carbon electrodes.
Systems of short arcs require an electromotive
force of about 25 volts, which is about one-half
that employed in long arcs. To develop an
equal amount of heat energy in a short arc as in
a long arc, therefore, requires that the current be
of double strength.
The greater part of the light of a voltaic arc
is given off from a tiny crater, which is formed in
the end of the positive carbon. In the short- arc
system the crater lies so near the negative carbon
that much of its light is necessarily obscured, and
troublesome shadows are sometimes produced.
The long-arc system avoids these difficulties.
Lightning. — The spark or bolt that results
from the disruptive discharge of a cloud to
the earth, or to a neighboring cloud. (See
Electricity, Atmospheric. Kite, Franklin's?)
Lightning Arrester. — (See Arrester,
Lightning?)
Lightning, Back-Stroke of An
electric discharge, caused by an induced
charge, which occurs after the direct dis-
charge of a lightning flash.
The shock is not caused by the lightning flash
itself, but most probably by a charge which is in-
duced in neighboring conductors by the discharge.
A similar effect may be noticed by standing near
the conductor of a powerful electric machine,
when shocks are felt at every discharge.
The back-stroke has been ascribed by many to
the oscillations by which a disruptive discharge
is effected. (See Discharge, Oscillating.)
The effects of the return shock are sometimes
quite severe. They are often experienced by
sensitive people, on the occurrence ot a lightning
discharge, at a considerable distance from the
place where the discharge occurred.
In some instances, the return stroke has been
sufficiently intense to cause death. In general,
however, its effects are much less severe than
those of the direct lightning discharge.
Lightning, Ball A name some-
times given to globular lightning. (See
Lightning, Globular?)
Lightning, Chain A variety of
lightning flash in which the discharge takes
a rippling path, somewhat resembling a
chain.
Lightning Conductor.— (See Rod, Light-
ning?)
Lightning, Forked A variety of
lightning flash, in which the discharge, on
nearing the earth or other object, divides into
two or more branches.
Lightning, Globular A rare form
of lightning, in which a globe of fire appears,
which quietly floats for a while in the air and
then explodes with great violence.
The exact cause of globular lightning is un-
known. Phenomena allied to it, however, have
been observed by Plants during the series dis-
charge of his rheostatic machine. Similar pheno-
mena are sometimes, though rarely, observed
during the discharge of a powerful Leyden battery.
Sir Wm. Thomson ascribes the effect to an optical
illusion due to the persistence of the visual impres-
sion of a bright flash. This, however, would not
account for the explosion which almost invariably
attends globular lightning.
Lightning Guard.— (See Guard, Light-
ning?)
Lightning, Heat— —A variety of
lightning flash in which the discharge lights
up the surfaces of the neighboring clouds.
Sheet lightning is unaccompanied by thunder.
It may be regarded as a brush discharge from one
cloud to another.
Heat lightning is a variety of sheet lightning.
(See Lightning, Sheet.)
320
[Lin.
Lightning Jar.— (See Jar, Lightning)
Lightning, Return-Stroke of— —A
term sometimes applied to the back-stroke of
lightning. (See Lightning, Back-Stroke of.}
Lightning Rod.— (See Rod, Lightning)
Lightning Rod for Ships.— (See Rod,
Lightning, for Ships.)
Lightning, Sheet A variety of
lightning flash unaccompanied by any thunder
audible to the observer, in which the entire
surfaces of the clouds are illumined.
The cause of sheet lightning has been ascribed
to reflection from clouds of lightning flashes
that occur too far below the horizon either to
permit them to be directly seen, or the thunder
to be heard.
If a Geissler tube, which contains several con-
centric tubes, be charged by a Holtz machine,
and then touched at different parts by the hands,
a succession of luminous discharges will be seen
in the dark, that bear a remarkable resemblance
to the flashes of heat or sheet lightning.
Lightning Stroke.— (See Stroke, Light-
ning.)
Lightning Stroke, Back or Return
— (See Stroke, Lightning, Back or Return)
Lightning, Summer A name some-
times given to heat lightning. (See Light-
ning, Heat)
Lightning, Volcanic The lightning
discharges that attend most volcanic erup-
tions.
Volcanic lightning is possibly sometimes due to
the friction of volcanic dust particles against one
another, or against the air, but is more probably
caused by the sudden condensation of the water
vapor that is generally disengaged during volcanic
eruptions.
Lightning, Zigzag — —The common-
est variety of lightning flashes, in which the
discharge apparently assumes a forked zig-
zag, or even a chain-shaped path.
This form is seen in the discharge of a Holtz
machine, or of a Ruhmkorff Induction Coil.
Photographic pictures of such lightning dis-
charges appear to show that these discharges are
in reality zigzag curves, rather than sharp angu-
lar zigzags.
Limiting Stop.— (See Stop, Limiting)
Limb, Rheoscopic A term some-
times applied to a sensitive nerve muscle prep-
aration, employed to detect the presence of
an electric current. (See Frog, Galvano-
scope)
Line. — A wire or other conductor connect-
ing any two points or stations.
Line, Aclinic A line connecting
places on the earth's surface which have no
magnetic inclination.
The magnetic equator of the earth. (See
Equator, Magnetic)
Line Adjuster. — An instrument invented
by Delany for overcoming the effects of leak-
age on the adjustment of the relays in a way
line.
When any key is opened, the line circuit is
simultaneously broken at both ends so that there
is a moment of no current, which causes all the
relays to respond.
Line, Aerial An air line as dis-
tinguished from an underground conductor.
Line, Agonic A line connecting
places on the earth's surface where the mag-
netic needle has no declination, or where it
points to the true geographical north. (See
Agonic)
Line, Artificial A line so made up
by condensers and resistance coils as to have
the same inductive effects on charging or dis-
charging as an actual telegraph line.
In duplex telegraphy by the differential method,
the artificial line used must have its capacity
balanced against that of the line, so as to avoid
the effects of self-induction, and other effects pro-
duced by charging and discharging.
Line, Capacity of — —The ability of a
line or cable to act like a condenser- and
therefore like it to possess a capacity. (See
Cable, Capacity of)
Line Circuit.— (See Circuit, Line)
Line Circuit, Telegraphic (See
Circuit, Line, Telegraphic)
Line, Neutral, of a Magnet A line
joining the neutral points of a magnet o«f
Lin.J
321
[Lin.
points approximately midway between the
poles.
This is sometimes called the equator of the
magnet.
The neutral point is the point where the lines
of force outside the magnet extend parallel to the
surface of the magnet. — (Hering.)
Line, Neutral, of Commutator Cylinder
A line on the commutator cylinder of
a dynamo-electric machine connecting the
neutral points, or the points of maximum
positive and negative difference of potential.
(See Mac/izne, Dynamo-Electric.}
Line of Least Sparking.— (See Sparking,
Least Line of.)
Line, Single-Wire A term some-
times used for a solid-wire conductor. (See
Line, Solid.)
Line, Solid — A line formed of a
single conductor, as distinguished from a line
formed of several conductors or by a stranded
cable.
Line, Stranded A line formed of
several strands or separate conductors twisted
into one.
Line, Telegraphic, Telephonic, etc.
— The conducting circuit provided for the
transmission of the electric impulses or cur-
rents employed in any system of electric
transmission.
Line, Telpher The conducting line
used in a system of telpherage. (See Tel-
pherage.)
Line, Through A line extending
between two terminal points, as distinguished
from a line containing way stations.
Line, Trunk In a system of tele-
phonic communication any line connecting
distant stations and used by a number of
subscribers at each end for purposes of inter-
communication.
Line, Way A line communicating
with way stations.
Line Wire.— (See Wire, Line.)
Lineman.— One who puts up and repairs
line circuits and attends to the devices con-
nected therewith.
In a system of electric lighting the lineman
attends to carboning the lamps, cleaning the
lamp rods, and, generally, to the minor details of
the lines, insulators and the electro- receptive de-
vices placed on the line.
Lines, Halleyan A term sometimes
applied to the isogonal lines.
The isogonal lines are sometimes called the
Halleyan lines, from Halley, who published the
first chart of such lines in the year 1701.
Lines, Isobaric Lines connecting
places on the earth's surface which simulta-
neously have the same barometric pressure.
The isobaric lines are sometimes called isobars.
Lines, Isoclinic — —Lines connecting
places that have the same angle of magnetic
dip or inclination. (See Dip, Magnetic)
Lines, Isodynamic Lines connect-
ing places which have the same total mag-
netic intensity.
The magnetic intensity of a place is determined
by the number of oscillations that a small mag-
netic needle, moved from its position of rest in
the magnetic meridian of any place, makes in a
given time. This method is similar to that em-
ployed for determining the intensity of gravity at
any place by observing the number of oscillations
that a pendulum of a given length makes in a
given time at that place. If, for example, a mag-
netic needle at one place makes 211 oscillations in
ten minutes, and 245 in the same time at another
place, then the relative intensities of magnetism
at these places are as the squares of those num-
bers, or as 44,521 : 60,025, or as I : 1.348.
Lines, Isogonal Lines connecting
places that have the same magnetic declina-
tion. (See Declination^)
Lines, Isogonic A term sometimes
used for isogonal lines. (See Lines, Isogonal^}
Lines, Isothermal Lines connect-
ing points or places which have the same
mean temperature.
Lines, Kapp A term proposed by
Mr. Gisbert Kapp for a unit of lines of mag-
netic force.
One Kapp line = 6,000 C. G. S. magnetic lines.
Since there are 6.4514 square centimetres in a
square inch, i Kapp line per square inch
6,000
'-45 14
Lin.]
322
[Loc.
The total number of Kapp lines passing through
a magnet and air space is equal to the ampere
turns divided by the total magnetic reluctance in
the magnetic circuit. — (Urquhart.)
Lines of Electric Displacement.— (See
Displacement, Electric, Lines of.)
Lines of Electrostatic Force.— (See Force,
Electrostatic, Lines of.)
Lines of Force, Cutting — —(See Force,
Lines cf, Cutting?)
Lines of Force, Direction of — —(See
Force, Lines of, Direction of.)
Lines of Inductive Action.— (See Action,
Inductive, Lines of)
Lines of Magnetic Force. — (See Force,
Magnetic, Lines of.)
Lines of Magnetic Force, Conducting
Power for (See Force, Magnetic,
Lines of. Conducting Power for.)
Lines of Magnetic Induction. — (See In-
duction, Magnetic, Lines of.)
Lines, Overhead — — A term applied
to telegraph, telephone and electric light or
power lines that run overhead, in contradis-
tinction to similar lines placed underground.
Lines, Vortex-Stream Lines ex-
tending in the direction in which the particles
of a fluid are moving.
A vortex stream is supposed to be composed of
a number of vortex-stream lines.
Linked Magnetic and Electric Chain.—
(See Chain, Linked Magnetic and Electric.)
Links, Fuse — — Strips or plates of
fusible metal in the form of links, employed
for safety fuses for incandescent or other
circuits.
Liquid, Bright Dipping — —A liquid
used in electro-plating for dipping articles
preparatory to electro-plating, so as to insure
a bright plating deposit on them when after-
wards subjected to the plating process.
A bright dipping liquid is prepared by the ad-
dition of I volume of common table salt to a
mixture of loo volumes each of sulphuric and
nitric acids. For small objects or articles of
copper, or other readily corroded metals, the
above solution is diluted by the addition of one-
eighth its volume of water.
Liquid, Electropoion A battery
liquid consisting of i pound of bichromate
of potash dissolved in 10 pounds of water, to
which 2± pounds of commercial sulphuric
acid has been gradually added.
This liquid is employed with the carbon-zinc
cell or the bichromate of potash cell.
Liquid, Exciting, of Voltaic Cell —
The electrolyte or liquid in a voltaic cell,
which acts on the positive plate.
Liquid Level Alarm. — (See Alarm, Water
or Liquid Level.)
Liquid Resistance Load. — (See Load
Liquid Resistance?)
Liquid, Stripping A liquid em-
ployed to remove a coating of one metal
from the surface of another, without affecting
the other metal.
The character of the stripping liquid used will
depend on the kind of metal to be removed, and
whether the stripping is to be accomplished by
solution effected by chemical action, or by electro-
lytic action.
Liquid, Specific Resistance of -
(See Resistance, Specific, of Liquid.)
Liquor, Spent — —Any liquor, such as
that in the acid or other baths used in electro-
plating, that has become weakened by use.
Listening Cam. — (See Cam, Listening?)
Load, Liquid Resistance — — An artk
ficial load for a dynamo-electric machine,
consisting of a mass of liquid interposed be-
tween electrodes.
A liquid is generally rendered better conduct-
ing by the addition of a small quantity of soluble
salt, such, for example, as sulphate of soda.
Local Action of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Action, Local, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
Local Action of Voltaic Cell.— (See Ac*
tion, Local, of Voltaic Cell.)
Local Battery.— (See Battery Local.)
Local Battery Circn't— (See Circuit
Local-Battery?)
Loc.]
323
[Loo.
Local Currents. — (See Currents, Local.)
Local Faradization. — (See Faradization,
Local)
Local Galvanization. — (See Galvaniza-
tion, Local.)
Localization of Faults.— (See Faults,
Localization of.)
Lock, Electric A lock that is au-
tomatically unlocked by the aid of electricity.
The electric lock is so arranged that the action
of a push button at a distance unlocks the door.
A speaking tube communicates with the house,
and the pressing of a push button on any floor of
the house unlocks the door. The mere shutting
of the door locks it.
A form of electric lock is shown in Fig. 347.
- 347- Electric Lock.
Locomotive, Electric -- A railway
engine whose motive power is electricity.
(See Railroads, Electric)
Locomotive Head Light, Electric --
(See Head Light, Locomotive)
Lodestone. — A name formerly applied to
an ore of iron (magnetic iron ore) , that natu-
rally possesses the power of attracting pieces
of iron to it.
Lodestone, or magnetic iron ore, must be re-
garded as a magnetizable substance that has be-
come permanently magnetic from its situation in
the earth's magnetic field. Such beds of ore
concentrate the lines of the earth's magnetic field
on chem, and thus become magnetic.
Lodge's Standard Voltaic Cell. —(See
Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Lodge's)
Log, Electric An electric device
for measuring the speed of a vessel.
A log, operated by the rotation of a wheel, is
caused to register the number of its rotations by a
step-by-step recording apparatus operated by
breaks in the circuit, made during the rotation
of the wheel, at any given number of turns, say
loo, or some other convenient multiple. Such a
log may be kept constantly in the water, and ob-
served when required, or it can be caused to
make a permanent record of its actual speed at
any time during the entire run.
Logarithm, — The exponent of the power
to which it is necessary to raise a fixed num-
ber, in order to produce a given number.
A table of logarithms enables the operations of
multiplication, division, the raising of powers,
and the extraction of roots, to be readily per-
formed by simple addition, subtraction, multi-
plication or division, respectively. When thor-
oughly understood, logarithms greatly reduce the
labor of mathematical calculations. For the man-
ner in which they are used, the student is referred
to any standard work on mathematics.
Logarithmic Curve. — (See Curve, Loga-
rithmic)
Long-Coil Magnet. — (See Magnet, Lcng-
Coil.)
Long-Core Electro-Magnet. — (See Mag-
net, Electro, Long-Core.)
Long-Shunt Compound- Wound Dynamo-
Electric Machine. — (See Machine, Dyna-
mo-Electric, Compound- Wound, L o ng-
Shunt.)
Longitude, Electric Determination of
The determination of the longitude of
a place, by differences in time between it and
a place on the prime meridian, as simultane-
ously determined telegraphically.
In determinations of this character allowance
must be made for the retarding effects of long
telegraphic lines, or cables.
Loom, Electric A device by means
of which Jacquard cards in the ordinary loo'
are replaced by a simple perforated metal
plate, the perforations in which correspond
to those in the Jacouard card.
Loo.]
[Lnx.
The necessary movements are effected by
means of electro-magnets.
Loop Break.— A device for introducing a
loop in a break made at any part of a circuit.
The rigidity of the line wire, between the points
of attachment of the loop introduced, is main-
tained by means of some inflexible non-conducting
material inserted in the break.
Loop Circuit— (See Circuit, Loop.}
Loop, Drip An inclined loop placed
where the outside conductors enter a build-
ing.
The inclination is upwards towards the point
of entrance to the building. This device of
a drip loop is adopted for the purpose of prevent-
ing the rain water from flowing along the inclined
wire into the building. This is effected by making
the wire incline from the building, thus throwing
the drainage from the building.
Loop, Electric A portion of a main
circuit consisting of a wire going out from
one side of a break in the main circuit and
returning to the other side of the break.
Loops are employed for the purpose of con-
necting a branch telegraph office with the main
line; for placing one or more electric arc lamps
on the main line circuit; for connecting a mes-
senger call or telephone circuit with a main line;
and for numerous similar purposes.
Loops of Force. — (See Force, Loops of.)
Loops of Mutual Induction. — (See Induc-
tion, Mutual, Loops of.)
Low-Resistance Magnet.— (See Magnet,
Low-Resistance.)
Low-Tension Electric Fuse. — (See Fuse,
Electric, Low- Tension.)
Loxodrograph. — An apparatus for electri-
cally recording on paper the actual course of
a ship by the combined action of magnetism
and photography.
Luces.— Plural of lux. (See Lux.)
Luminescence.— A limited power of emit-
ting light, possessed by certain bodies which
have previously acquired potential energy by
exposure to light or radiant energy.
The term luminescence was proposed by E.
Wiedemann to cover the case of the emission of
light under circumstances differing from the emis-
sion or radiation of light by incandescence. Lu-
minescence applies to the case of a radiation,
generally selective in character, that is apparently
due to effects allied to, or the same as, those of
fluorescence and phosphorescence. For example,
magnesium oxide or zinc oxide, when heated
above a certain critical temperature, radiates far
more light than equally hot carbon.
The spectrum of such luminescent light is espe-
cially rich in certain wave lengths. The ability
of the substance to continue to furnish this extra
light is, however, limited. After a comparatively
short time, the additional light, or selective radia-
tion, disappears. The luminescent light is appa-
rently due to molecular potential energy stored in
the substance during its exposure to light. Lumi-
nescence may be developed in bodies in the fol-
lowing manner, viz. :
(I.) By heat.
(2.) By chemical action.
(3.) By friction.
(4. ) By exposure to the sun, or by actual impact
of light waves.
(5.) By electricity. .
(6.) By vital forces, as in the fire fly, or the
glow worm.
Luminescence, Rejuvenation of
Reimparting by exposure to light, or any other
suitable means, the power of luminescence to
a substance after it has lost this power.
Luminous Absorption. — (See Absorption,
Luminous.)
Lunar Inequality of Earth's Magnetic
Variation or Inclination. —(See Inequality,
Lunar, of Earth's Magnetic Variation or
Inclination.)
Lunar Inequality of Earth's Magnetism.
— (See Inequality, Lunar, of Earth's Mag-
netism.)
Lux.— A name proposed by Preece for the
unit of intensity of illumination.
The illumination given by a standard
candle at the distance of 12.7 inches.
The illumination given by I carcel at the
distance of r metre.
The illumination given by a lamp of 10,000
candles at 105.8 feet. (See Illumination
Unit of.)
325
[Mac.
M. — A contraction sometimes used to ex-
press a gaseous pressure of the .oooooi 'of
an atmosphere.
I, coo, oc» M. equals 760 mm. of mercury or I
atmosphere of pressure.
A vessel containing air, which has been ex-
hausted to the .oooooi of its pressure at 760
mm., or one atmosphere, has a pressure or ten-
sion of I M.
This contraction is used by Crookes in his re-
searches on the properties of radiant matter. (See
Matter, Radiant, or Ultra Gaseous. )
yu. — A contraction used in mathematical
writings for magnetic permeability, or the
specific conductibility of any substance for
lines of magnetic force.
mm. — A contraction for millimetre. (See
Weights, French System of.}
M. P. H. — A contraction sometimes used in
railroad work to indicate miles per hour.
Machine, Armstrong's Hydro-Electric
A machine for the development of
electricity by the friction of a jet of steam
passing over a water surface.
Steam generated in a suitably insulated boiler,
Fig. 348. Armstrong's Hydro- Electric Machine.
Fig. 348, is allowed to escape through a tortuous
nozzle, from a series of apertures opposite a
pointed comb, attached to an insulated conductor.
The cooling of the steam during its passage
through a flat box, termed the cooling box, con-
nected with the nozzles, causes a partial condensa-
tion, so that the box always contains a small
quantity of water.
The friction of the drops of water against the
orifice, and, possibly, their friction against the
water surface itself, are the cause of the electricity
produced.
A conductor connected with the pointed comb
furnishes positive electricity. The boiler fur-
nishes negative electricity. The hydro-electric
machine is not a very economical source of elec-
tricity, and is 'only employed for experimental
purposes. 1 1 was discovered accidentally through
a shock given to an engineer, who placed his
hand in a jet of steam escaping from a leaking
boiler he was endeavoring to mend. The causes
were first studied by Sir Wm. Armstrong, who,
in 1840, devised the apparatus just described.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric — A
machine for the conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy, by means of
magneto-electric induction.
The term is also applied to a machine by
means of which electrical energy is converted
into mechanical energy by means of magneto-
electric induction. Machines of the latter class are
generally called motors, those of the former,
generators,
Prof. S. P. Thompson defines a dynamo-elt-c-
tric machine as follows, viz.: "A machine for
converting energy in the form of mechanical
power into energy in the form of electric currents,
or vice versa, by the operation of setting con-
ductors (usually in die form of coils of copper
wire) to rotate in a magnetic field, or by vary-
ing a magnetic field in the presence of conduc-
tors."
The term dynamo was first applied to such
machines, because in the form in which this
machine first appeared, viz.: the series- wound
machine, it was self-exciting, or required no ex-
citement other than what it received by the rota-
tion of its armature in the field of its magnets,
or, indeed, in the field of the earth. (See Machine,
Dynamo -Electric, Reaction Principle of. )
A dynamo -electric generator, or a dynamo-elec
Mac.] 326
*ric machine proper, consists of the following
parts, viz.:
(i.) The revolving portion, usually the arma-
ture, in which the electromotive force is developed,
which produces the current.
It must be borne in mind that it is not current,
but difference of electric potential ', or electromotive
forte, that is developed by any electric source
from which a current is obtained. For ease of
reference, however, we will speak of an electric
current as being generated by the armature, or by
the source. No ambiguity will be introduced if
the student bears the above in mind.
(2.) The field magnets, which produce the field
in which the armature revolves.
(3.) h2 pole pieces, or free terminals of the field
magnets.
(4.) The commutator, by which the currents de-
veloped in the armature are caused to flow in
one and the same direction. In alternating
machines, and in some continuous current dynamos
this part is called the collector, and does not rec-
tify the currents.
(5.) The collecting brushes, that rest on the
commutator cylinder and take off the current
generated in the armature.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Alternating-
Current A dynamo-electric machine
in which alternating currents are produced.
The field magnets may be either permanent
jnagnets or electro-magnets. When electro-mag -
aets are used, their coils may be separately ex-
cited by another machine whose current is con-
tinuous; or, they may be excited by the commuted
. irrent of a separate coil on the armature ; or, they
may be partly excited by commuted currents and
partly by commuted currents from a transformer,
placed in the main circuit of the dynamo.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Armatnre of
(See Armature, Dynamo- Electric
Machine)
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Bed-Piece of
The frame or base on which a dynamo
is supported.
The bed-piece is sometimes called the dynamo
frame or base.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Bi-Polar
— A dynamo-electric machine, the armature
of which rotates in a field formed by two
magnet poles, as distinguished from a ma-
[Mac.
chine the armature of which rotates in a field
formed by more than two magnet poles.
A dynamo-electric machine whos<. armature
rotates in the field formed by more than two
P9les is called a multi-polar machine. (See Ma-
chine, Dynamo-Electric, Multi-Polar;)
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Carcass of
-- A term sometimes used in place of
the field magnet frame of a dynamo-electric
machine. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Frame of)
The term, field magnet frame, would appear
to be the preferable term. The term, however,
is used in France, and is derived from the
French word for skeleton.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Closed-Coil
-- A dynamo-electric machine, the
armature coils of which are grouped in sec-
tions, communicating with successive bars of
a collector, so as to be connected continu-
ously together in a closed circuit.
The Gramme dynamo and most continuous-
current dynamos are closed-coil dynamos.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Closed-Coil
Disc -- A closed-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature core of which is disc-
shaped.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Closed-Coil
Drum -- A closed-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature core of which is
drum-shaped.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Closed-Coil
Ring -- A closed-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature core of which is ring-
shaped.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Collectors
-- (See Collectors of Dynamo-Electric
Machines) t
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound
Winding of -- (See Winding, Com-
pound, of Dynamo-Electric Machine)
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound-
Wound -- Machines whose field mag-
nets are excited by more than one circuit of
coils, or by more than a single electric
source.
The object of compound winding is to make
327
[Mac.
the dynamo self-regulating under changes in its
working load. A shunt-wound dynamo renders
both series and multiple circuits approximately
constant as regards their working. Multiple cir-
cuits, however, require great constancy of poten-
tial, and for this purpose the compounding of the
dynamos is necessary .
In the compound dynamo, the shunt coils are
superposed on the series coils, or are used in con-
nection with them. The shunt coils consist of a
much greater number of convolutions of fine wire
than the series coils, which are of coarse wire.
Separate excitation is sometimes compounded
either with series or with shunt field magnet
coils.
Compound dynamos are of two classes, viz. :
(r.) Those designed to produce a constant
potential, and
(2. ) Those designed to produce a constant cur-
rent
For Constant Potential :
In the long-shunt compound-wound dynamo,
the terminals of the shunt coil are connected with
the binding posts of the machine. As the cur-
rent leaves the armature it has two paths to take :
one, the thick series coils, to the external circuit,
and the other the finer and longer shunt coils.
The resistance of the shunt coils is greater than
that of the armature. Current variations in the
armature will, therefore, produce no appreciable
effect on the magnetizing power of the shunt,
which acts as a nearly uniform exciter of the field.
In a shunt-wound dynamo connected to a
multiple circuit, the introduction of an additional
number of receptive devices into the circuit re-
quires more current, and this would tend to cause
a slight drop in the potential. The object of the
series coils is to prevent this drop. The series
coils, therefore, act as compensators. If the
coils are too powerful the compensation will
have the effect of increasing the potential.
The combination of a series and separately ex-
cited machine is shown in Fig. 351. The field is
in series with the armature, but has also an ad-
ditional and separate excitation.
The combination of a series and shunt machine
insures the excitation of the field both by the
main and by the shunted current. Such a com-
bination is shown in Fig. 353.
For Constant Current :
The combination of shunt and separately ex.
cited machines is shown in Fig. 356. In this
machine the field is excited by means of a shunt
to the external circuit, and by a current produced
by a separate source.
The combination of a series and magneto ma-
chine is shown in Fig. 352. This, also, is
designed to give a constant current.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound-
Wound, Long-Shunt A compound-
wound dynamo-electric machine, in which
the shunt-field magnet coils form a shunt to
the binding posts of the machine.
In the short-shunt compound-wound dynamo-
electric machine, the ends of the shunt coil are
connected to the brushes of the machine.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound-
Wound, Short-Shunt A compound-
wound dynamo-electric machine in which the
shunt-field magnet coils form a shunt to the
armature only, as distinguished from the
armature and series coils combined.
In the short-shunt dynamo-electric machine,
the ends of the shunt coil are connected t > the
brushes of the machine, and not to the binding
posts of the machine, or to the external circuit, as
in the long-shunt machine.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Continuous-
Current A dynamo-electric machine,
the current of which is commuted so as to
flow in one and the same direction, as dis-
tinguished from an alternating dynamo.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Double-Mag-
net A term sometimes applied to a
dynamo-electric machine, the field magnets
of which have two consequent poles.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Economic
Co-efficient of A name formerly ap-
plied to the efficiency of a dynamo-electric
machine. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Efficiency of.)
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Efficiency
of The ratio between the electric
energy or the electrical horse-power produced
by a dynamo, and the mechanical energy or
horse-power expended in driving the dynamo.
The Efficiency may be the Commercial Effi-
ciency, which is the useful or available energy in
the external circuit divided by the total mechan-
ical energy ; or it may be the Electrical Efficiency- ,
which is the available electric energy divided by
the total electric energy.
Mac.]
328
[Mac.
The Efficiency of Conversion is the total elec-
trical energy developed, divided by the total
mechanical energy applied.
If M, equals the mechanical energy,
W, the useful or available electrical energy,
and
w, the electrical energy absorbed by the ma-
chine, and
m, the Stray Power, or the power lost in
friction, eddy currents, air friction, etc.
Then, since
M = W + w + m,
W
Commercial Efficiency . . = — —
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Open-Coil
A dynamo-electric machine, the
armature coils of which, though connected to
W
W
Electrical Efficiency
W -f w •
Efficiency of Conversion =W + W- W + w
M W+ w + m
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Flashing of
A name given to long flashing sparks
at the commutator, due to the short cir-
cuiting of the external circuit at the com-
mutator, by arcing over the successive com-
mutator insulating strips.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Frame of
The bed-piece that supports a dyna-
mo-electric machine.
The frame is sometimes called the dynamo bed-
piece.
The word frame is sometimes applied to the
field magnet cores and yokes.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Local Action
of (See Action, Local, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine^
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Mouse-Mill,
Sir Wm. Thomson's A dynamo-
electric machine designed by Sir Wm.
Thomson, named from the resemblance of
its armature to a mouse mill.
The armature conductor of this dynamo con-
sists of parallel bars of copper, arranged on a
hollow cylinder, like the bars on a mouse mill.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Mnltipolar
— A dynamo-electric machine, the
armature of which revolves in a field formed
by more than a single pair of poles.
This form is usually adopted for large machines
as being more economical.
Fig- 349 shows a multipolar dynamo with four
poles.
Fig. 349. Multipolar Dynamo with Four Poles.
the successive bars of the commutator, are not
connected continuously in a closed circuit.
The Brush and the Thomson-Houston arc dy-
namos are open-coil machines.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Open-Coil
Disc An open-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature of which is disc-
shaped.
Machine, Dynamo Electric, Open-Coil
Dram An open-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature core of which is drum-
shaped.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Open-Coil
Ring An open-coil dynamo-electric
machine, the armature core of which is ring-
shaped.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Output of
The electric power of the current gen-
erated by a dynamo-electric machine ex-
pressed in volt-amperes, watts or kilo-watts.
S. P. Thompson suggests that dynamo- electric
machines be rated as to their practical safe ca-
pacity in units of output of 1,000 watts, or one
kilo-watt. According to this, an 8-unit machine
might give, say, 100 ampdres at a difference of
potential of 80 volts, or 2,000 amperes at a differ-
ence of potential of 4 volts. Such a unit would be
far more expressive than the usual method ot rat-
ing a machine as having a capacity of such and
such a number of lights.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Reaction
Principle of The mutual interaction
Mac.J
329
[Mac.
between the current generated in the armature
coils of a dynamo-electric machine and the
field of the machine, each strengthening the
other until the full working current, which
the machine is capable of developing, is
produced, i
When the armature of a series or shunt dynamo
commences to rotate, the differences of potential
generated in its coils are very small, since the
field of the magnet is weak, being merely the
residual magnetism. The current so produced
in the armature, circulating through the field
magnet coils, increases the intensity of the mag-
netic field of the machine, and this, reacting on
the armature, results in a more powerful current
through it. This current again increases the
strength of the magnetic field of the machine,
which again reacts to increase the current
strength in the armature coils, and this continues
until the machine is producing its full output.
A dynamo-electric machine very rapidly
"builds «/," or reaches its maximum current
after starting. The reaction principle was dis-
covered by Soren Hjorth, of Copenhagen.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Reversibility
of The ability of a dynamo to act as
3*0. Separately Excited Dynamo
a motor when traversed by an electric cur-
rent. (See Motor, Electric.}
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Separate
Coil - — A dynamo-electric machine in
which the field magnets are excited by means
of coils on the armature, separate and dis-
tinct from those which furnish current to the
external circuit.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Separately
Excited A dynamo-electric machine
in which the field magnet coils have no con-
nection with the armature coils, but receive
their current from a separate machine or
source.
A separately excited dynamo-electric machine
is shown in Fig. 350.
Separate excitation for constant current ma-
chines has not come into any extended use in the
United States.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Series and
Magneto — A compound-wound dy-
namo-electric machine in which the arma-
ture circuit of a magneto-electric machine is
connected in series with the armature and
field magnet circuits of a series dynamo.
The circuit connections of a series and magneto
dynamo are shown in Fig. 351.
fig 35 r. Series and Magneto Dynamo.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Series and
Separately Excited - — A compound-
wound dynamo-electric machine in which
there are two separate circuits on the field
magnet cores, one of which is connected in
series with the field magnets and the exter-
nal circuit, and the other with some source
by which it is separately excited.
Mac.]
330
[Mac.
A series and separately excited compound-
wound dynamo-electric machine is shown in
Fig. 3S2.
Fig, 332. Series and Separately Excited Dynamo,
This machine is employed for maintaining a
constant potential at its terminals.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Series and
Shunt Wound — A compound-wound
Fig, 3 S3> Series and Shunt- Wound Dynamo.
dynamo-electric machine in which the field
magnets are wound with two separate coils,
one of which is in series with the armature
and the external circuit, and the other in
shunt with the armature.
This is usually called a compound- wound ma-
chine. (See Machine, Dynamo -Electric, Com-
pound- Wound.)
A compound-wound series and shunt dynamo-
electric machine is shown in Fig. 353. This ma-
chine is designed to maintain constant potential
at its terminals.
There are two varieties of series and shunt-
wound dynamos, viz. :
(I.) Long-shunt compound-wound dynamo.
(2.) Short-shunt compound-wound dynamo.
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound-
Wound, Long- Shunt, Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Compound-Wound, Short -Shunt.)
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Series- Wound
A dynamo-electric machine, in which
the field circuit and the external circuit are
D D D D
i &£• 35 *• Serie* Dynamo.
connected in series with the armature circuit,
so that the entire armature current must pass
through the field coils.
A series dynamo -electric machine is shown in
Fig. 354. Here the armature circuit, the field
circuit and the external circuit are all connected
in series.
Since in a series-wound dynamo the armature
coils, the field and the external series circuit are in
series, any increase in the resistance of the external
circuit will decrease the electromotive force from
the decrease in the magnetizing currents. A de-
crease in the resistance of the external circuit will,
in a like manner, increase the electromotive force
from the increase in the magnetizing current
Mac.]
331
[Mac.
The use of a regulator avoids these changes
the electromotive force.
355- Series Dynamo.
The dynamo shown in Fig. 355 is series con-
nected. The armature is ring shaped. The
armature core consists of a ring made of soft iron
wire. The field is bi-polar, and is obtained by
the use of four magnet coils and two consequent
poles.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Shunt and
Separately Excited A compound-
wound dynamo-electric machine, in which
Fig. Sft>. Shunt and Separately Excited Dynmmo.
the field is excited both by means of a
shunt to the armature circuit, and by a
current produced by a separate source.
A shunt and separately excited compound-
wound dynamo -electric machine is shown in Fig.
356. This machine maintains a constant current
in its circuit, notwithstanding changes in its ex-
ternal circuit.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Shunt- Wound
-A dynamo-electric machine in which
the field magnet coils are placed in a shunt
to the armature circuit, so that only a
portion of the current generated passes
through the field magnet coils, but all the
difference of potential of the armature acts
at the terminals of the field circuit.
A shunt dynamo-electric machine is shown in
Fig- 357-
D D D D
fig- S57' Shunt Dynamo,
In a shunt dynamo-electric machine, an in-
crease in the resistance of the external circuit in-
creases the electromotive force, and a decrease in
the resistance of the external circuit decreases the
electromotive force. This is just the reverse of
the series-wound dynamo.
In a shunt- wound dynamo a continuous balanc-
ing of the current occurs. The current dividing
at the brushes between the field and the external
circuit in the inverse proportion to the resistance
of these circuits, if the resistance of the external
circuit becomes greater, a proportionately greater
current passes through the field magnets, and so
causes the electromotive force to become greater.
If, on the contrary,the resistance of the external
circuit decreases, less current passes through the
field, and the electromotive force is proportion-
ately decreased.
Mae.]
[Mac.
In a shunt-wound dynamo the resistance of the
shunt should be at least four hundred times that
of the armature. It is sometimes as much as one
thousand times as great. — (Urqukart.)
To obtain complete regulation of the machine
some form of compounding is necessary. (See
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Compound- Wound. )
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Single Mag-
net A dynamo-electric machine, in
which the field magnet poles are obtained
by means of a single coil of insulated wire,
instead of by more than a single coil.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Sparking of
An irregular and injurious oper-
ation of a dynamo-electric machine, at-
tended with sparks at the collecting
brushes.
Sparking consists in the formation of small
arcs under the collecting brushes. One cause of
sparking is to be found in the brushes leaving
one commutator strip before making connection
with the next strip.
Sparking from this cause may be avoided by so
placing the brushes as to cause them to bridge
over the space between two consecutive bars,
thus permitting them to touch one bar before
leaving the other. Two brushes, electrically con-
nected, are sometimes employed for this purpose,
or the slots between contiguous bars are slightly
inclined to the axis of rotation.
Sparking causes a burning of the commutator
strips, and an irregular consumption of the
brushes, both of which produce further irregu.
larities by the wear of the brushes against the
commutator bars.
At the moment the brush touches two contigu-
ous commutator bars, it short circuits the coil
terminating at those bars. On the breaking of
this closed circuit, a spark appears under the
brushes. This spark is often considerable, since
from the comparatively small resistance of the
coil, it is apt, when short-circuited, to produce a
heavy current if not exactly at the neutral point.
Another cause of sparking is to be found in the
self-induction of the armature coils. The extra
current on breaking forms an injurious spark
under the brushes. This spark may be consid-
erable, since the current produced in the coil on
momentarily short circuiting it by the brushes
simultaneously touching the adjoining commu-
tator currents may be large.
Sparking occurs when the brushes are not set
close to the neutral line. Since the principal
cause for the change in the lead of the brushes is
the magnetizing effect of the armature coils, it is
preferable to make the number of windings of
these as few as possible, and to obtain the neces-
sary differences of potential by increasing the
speed of rotation and the strength of the mag-
netic field of the machine. Short armature coils
also lessen the sparking due to self-induction.
Sparking at the brushes is also caused by the
jumping of improperly supported or constructed
brushes.
When the brushes are not set close to the neu-
tral point, \wb% flashing sparks are apt to occur.
A lack of symmetry of winding of the arma-
ture coils will necessarily be attended bj injurious
flashing, from the impossibility of properly ad-
justing the brushes.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Synchroniz-
ing Adjusting the phases of two
alternating current dynamos so as to per-
mit their being coupled or joined in par-
allel.
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, to Short Cir-
cuit a To put a dynamo-electric ma-
chine on a circuit of comparatively small
electric resistance.
Machine, Dynamo- Electric, Unit of Out-
put of A unit for the electric power
furnished by the current of a dynamo-
electric machine.
A unit of output equal to 1,000 watts
or i kilowatt.
A machine furnishing a current of 100 amperes
at a difference of potential of 80 volts, would
have an output of 8,000 watts, and would,
therefore, be rated as an 8-unit machine.
Machine, Electric, Rubber of — -A
cushion of leather covered with an electric
amalgam, and employed to produce elec-
tricity by its friction against the plate or
cylinder of a frictional electric machine.
(See Machine, Frictional Electric. )
Machine, Electrostatic Induction of
A machine in which a small initial charge
produces a greatly increased charge by its
inductive action on a rapidly rotated disc
of glass or other dielectric.
An excellent type and example of such a ma-
chine is found in the Holtz machine, which con-
Mac.] 333
sists of the following parts, as shown in Fig. 358,
viz.;
(i.) A stationary glass plate A, fixed at its
edges to insulated supports-
(2.) A movable plate B, capable of rapid rota-
tation on a horizontal axis, by a driving pulley.
[Mac.
Fig. 358. Holtz Electric Machine.
(3.) Armatures of varnished paper f, f', placed
on opposite sides of the fixed plate at holes or
windows P, P', cut in the plate. The armatures
are placed on the side of the fixed plate away from
the moving plate, or on the back of the plate, so that
the plate, on its rotation, moves towards tongues of
paper attached to the middle of the armatitre.
(4.) Metal combsplaced in front of the movable
disc opposite the armatures, and connected with
the brass balls m, n, one of which is movable
towards and from the other by means of a suitably
supported insulating handle connected with it.
A small initial charge is given to one of the
armatures by holding a plate of electrified vul-
canite against it, and rotating the machine -while
the balls m, n, are in contact. As soon as the ma-
chine is charged the balls are gradually separated,
when a torrent of sparks will pass between them
so long as the plate is rotated.
W hen the balls are separated too far the sparks
cease to pass. The balls must then be again
brought into contact and gradually separated as
before.
The Holtz machine can be regarded as a re-
volving electrophorus provided with means for
constantly discharging and recharging the upper
metallic plate. (See Electrophorus.}
The action of the machine is well described by
S. P. Thompson in his "Elementary Lessons on
Electricity and Magnetism, " as follows:
"Suppose a small + charge to be imparted at
the outset to the right armature f ; this charge acts
inductively across the discs upon the metallic
comb, repels electricity through it, and leaves the
points negatively electrified. They discharge
negatively electrified air upon the front surface of
the movable disc ; the repelled charge passes
through the brass rods and balls, and is dis-
charged through the left comb upon the front side
of the movable disc. Here it acts inductively
upon the paper armature, causing that part of it
which is opposite itself to be negatively charged
and repelling a -f charge into its farthest part,
viz., into the tongue, which being bluntly pointed,
slowly discharges a -f charge upon the back of the
movable disc. If now the disc be turned round,
this -(- charge on the back comes over from the
left to the right side, in the direction indicated by
the arrow, and, when it gets opposite the comb,
increases the inductive effect of the already exist-
ing -f charge on the armature, and therefore
repels more electricity through the brass rods and
knob into the leit comb. Meantime the — charge,
which we saw had been induced in the left arma-
ture, has in turn acted on the left comb, causing
a -j- charge to be discharged by the points upon
the front of the disc ; and drawing electricity
through the brass rods and knobs, has made the
right comb still more highly — , increasing the
discharge of — ly electrified air upon the front
of the disc, neutralizing the-)- charge which is be-
ing conveyed over from the left. These actions re-
sult in causing the top half of the moving disc to
be — ly electrified. The charges on the front
serve, as they are carried round, to neutralize the
electricities let off by the points of the combs,
while the charges on the back, induced respect-
ively in the neighborhood of each of the arma-
tures, serve, when the rotation of the disc con-
veys them round, to increase the inductive influ-
ence of the charge on the other armature."
The student will be aided in following Prof.
Thompson's explanation by the diagrammatic
sketch, shown in Fig. 359. Here the rotating plate
is shown for convenience in the form of a cylinder.
The armatures are shown on the back of the plate
at f and f, opposite the brass collecting combs P'
and P, with their discharging rods and balls a, a.
The effect of the positive charge given to the
right hand armature f', directly through the
comb P', rods a, a, comb P, to left hand arma-
ture f, is readily seen. The rotation of the plate
being in the direction of the curved arrows the
charging of the front of the plate by convection
streams from the combs, and the back of the plate
Vac.]
334
[Mac.
from the points of the paper armatures, as well as
the character of the charge, will be understood.
There thus results, as is shown, a positive charge
on both the front and back of the upper half of
•fe.
•fe,
Fig, JSQ. Plait ofHoltz Machine.
the rotating plate, and a negative charge on both
sides of its lower half. A reversal of polarity of
the plate occurs at the line P a a P'. Sometimes
the reversal does not occur, and the machine either
loses its charge entirely, or in part. A conductor
S S, furnished with points, is sometimes provided
to lessen the chances of lack of reversal.
Machine, Faradic A machine for
producing faradic currents.
There are two varieties of faradic machines,
viz.: magneto-faradic apparatus and simple in.
duction apparatus.
Machine, Frictional Electric A
machine for the development of electricity
by friction.
A frictional electric machine consists of a plate
or cylinder of glass A, Fig. 360, capable of rota-
tion on a horizontal axis.
A rubber formed of a chamois skin, covered
with an amalgam of tin and mercury, is
placed at B. By the rotation of the plate the
Fig. 360. Frictional Electric Machine.
rubber becomes negatively and the glass posi-
tively excited. An insulated conductor D, called
the prime or positive conductor, provided with a
comb of points, becomes positively charged by in-
duction. The machine will develop electricity
best if a conductor attached to the rubber is con-
nected with the ground, as by a chain.
Machine t Holt* A particular form
of electrostatic induction machine. (See
Machine, Electrostatic Induction. )
Machine, Influence An electrical
machine depending for its action on
electrostatic induction.
The- Wimshurst and Holtz machines are influ-
ence machines. (See Machine, Electrostatic In-
duction. Machine, Wimshurst Electrical. Ma-
chine, Holts.}
Machine, Influence, Wimshurst's Alter-
nating An electrostatic induction
machine by means of which a series of
rapidly alternating charges are produced.
Although such a machine furnishes a torrent of
sparks between its terminals, yet it is unable to
furnish a permanent charge to a Leyden jar
or condenser, since its
oscillatory discharges,
continually undo at any
small interval of time
what was done at the
preceding interval, and
thus leave the jar un-
charged.
Machine, Magneto
Blasting —A
magneto-e 1 e c t r i c
machine employed
for generating the
j • i Fig 301- Magneto-Electric
current used m elec- * Mac\int,
trie blasting.
Machine, Magneto-Electric A ma-
chine in which there are no field magnet
coils, the magnetic field of the machine
being due to the action of permanent
steel magnets.
A dynamo in which currents are produced by
the motion of armature coils past permanent mag-
nets. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric. )
A magneto-electric machine is shown in Fig.
361.
Another form of magneto-electric machine is
shown in Fig. 362.
This latter form of machine is known as a hand
generator, in contradistinction to one driven by
power and called a power generator.
Mac.]
335
[Mac.
The field is obtained by means of a number of
separate permanent magnets so combined as to
Fig. 362. Magneto- Electric Machine.
act as a single magnet. The armature is rotated
by hand.
Machine, Mouse-Mill A form of
convection induction machine, invented
by Sir William Thomson to act as the re-
plenisher of his electrometer. (See Ma-
chine, Electrostatic Induction. )
Machine, Rheostatic A machine
devised by Plante in which continuous
static effects of considerable intensity are
obtained by charging a number of con-
densers in multiple-arc and discharging
them in series.
The condensers are charged by connecting
them with a number of secondary or storage bat-
teries.
Machine Telegraphy. — (See Telegraphy,
Machine. )
Machine, Toppler-Holtz A modified
form of Holtz machine in which the initial
charge of the armatures is obtained by the
friction of metallic brushes against the
armatures.
Machine, Wimshurst Electrical
A form of convection electric machine
invented by Wimshurst.
Like the Holtz machine, the Wimshurst ma-
chine is a convection induction machine. It is,
however, more efficient in action, and will prob-
ably soon supersede the former machine. The
Wimshurst machine consists of two shellac-var-
nished glass plates that are rapidly rotated in op-
posite directions. Thin metallic strips are placed
on the outside of each of the plates, in the radial
positions shown in Fig. 363. These strips act
both as inductors and carriers ; the carriers of
one plate acting as inductors to the other plate.
Two curved brass rods, terminating in fine wire
brushes that touch the plates, are placed as shown,
one at the front of the plate; and one at the back,
at right angles to each other. Pairs of conduct-
Fig. 363. The Wimshurst Electrical Machi.
ors, connected together, provided with collecting
points, are placed diametrically opposite each
other, as shown. Sliding conductors, terminated
with metallic balls, are provided for discharging
the conductors. Leyden jars, the inner coatings
of which are connected with two discharging
rods, and the outer coatings together, may be em-
ployed in this as in the Holtz machine.
The exact action of this machine is not thor-
oughly understood.
Machines, Dynamo-Electric, Varieties of
Dynamo-electric machines may be
divided into classes according to —
(I.) The manner in which the magnetism of
the field magnets is obtained.
(2.) The character of their armatures.
(3.) The nature of the current obtained,
whether continuous or alternating.
(4.) The form of their field magnets.
(5.) The nature of their magnetic fields.
(6.) The manner in which the current of the
field magnets, the armature and the external
circuits are connected.
Mack A term proposed by Mr.
Oliver Heaviside for a unit of self-induc-
tion.
The term Mack is derived from Maxwell. The
unit of self-induction has also been a secohm and
a quadrant.
Mad.]
336
[Mag.
The term Max would seem to be indicated.
In the United States the unit of selt -induction is
called a Henry, after Prof. Joseph Henry. (See
Henry, A.)
Made Circuit.— (See Circuit, Made.}
Magazine Fuse.— (See Fuse, Magazine. )
Magne-Crystallic Action.-(See Action,
Magne-Crystallic. )
Magnet.— A body possessing the power
of attracting the unlike pole of another
magnet or of repelling the like pole ; or
of attracting readily magnetizable bodies
like iron filings to either pole.
A body possessing a magnetic field.
(See Field, Magnetic.)
The lines of force are assumed in passing
through the magnetic field to come out at the north
pole of the magnet and to go in at the south pole.
All lines of force form closed magnetic circuits. If
a magnetizable body is brought into a magnetic
field, the lines of magnetic force are concentrated
on it and pass through it. The body therefore be-
comes magnetic. The intensity of the resulting
magnetism depends on the number of lines of
force that pass through the body, and the polar-
ity on the direction in which they pass through it.
A magnetized bar cannot be regarded as a
source of energy in itself. Energy must be ex-
pended to magnetize the iron, and must also be
expended to demagnetize it.
Magnet, Anomalous A magnet pos-
sessing more than two free poles.
There is no such thing as a unipolar magnet.
8
f'f- 3&4- Anomalous Magnet.
All magnets have two poles. Sometimes, how-
ever, several magnets are so grouped that there
appear to be more than two poles in the same
magnet.
D
It is clear, however, that the central pole is in
reality formed of two juxtaposed negative poles,
and that ABC actually consists of two magnets
with two poles to each.
The magnet A B C D Fig. 365, which in like
manner appears to possess four separate poles, in
reality is formed of three magnets with two poles
to each.
Since unlike magnetic poles neutralize each
other, it is clear that only similar poles can thus
be placed together in order to produce addition-
al magnet poles.
S
Fig. 363. Anomalous Magnet.
Thus, in Fig. 364, the magnet ABC appears
to possess three poles, two positive poles at A
and C, and a central negative pole at B.
Fig. 366. Anomalous Magnet.
The six-pointed star shown in Fig. 366, is an
anomalous magnet with apparently seven poles.
The formation of the central N-pole, as is evi-
dent from an inspection of the drawing, is due to
the six separate north poles, n, n, n, n, n, n, of
the six separate magnets Sn, Sn, etc. Such a
magnet would be formed by touching the star at
the point N, with the S-pole of a sufficiently
powerful magnet.
The extra poles are sometimes called con-
sequent poles. Their presence may be shown by
means of a compass needle", or by rolling the
magnet in iron filings, which collect on the poles.
Magnet, Artificial — -A magnet pro-
duced by induction from another magnet,
or from an electric current.
Any magnet not found in nature is called an
artificial magnet.
Magnet, Axial — —A name sometimes
given to a solenoid with an axial or
straight core.
Magnet, Bell-Shaped A modifica-
tion of a horseshoe magnet in which the
approached poles are semi-annular in
shape, and form a split tube.
Bell- shaped magnets are used in many galra-
Mag.]
nometers, because they can be readily dampened
by surrounding them by a mass of copper. The
needle in its motion produces currents that tend
to oppose, and, therefore, to stop its motion.
(See Laws, Lenz's.) •
Magnet, Club-Footed An electro-
magnet whose core is in the form of a
horse-shoe and is provided with a mag-
netizing coil on one pole only.
Magnet Coil.— (See Coil, Magnet.}
Magnet, Compensating — A magnet
placed over a magnetic needle, generally
over the magnetic needle of a galvanome-
ter, for the purpose of varying the direc-
tion and intensity of the magnetic force of
the earth on such needle. (See Galvanom-
eter, Reflecting.}
A magnet, called a compensating magnet, is
sometimes placed on a ship, near the compass
needle, for the purpose of neutralizing the local
variations produced on the compass needle by
the magnetism of the ship.
Magnet, Compound A number of
single magnetsplaced par.
allel and with their similar i
poles facing one another,
as shown in Fig. 367.
Compound magnets are
stronger in proportion to their
weight than single magnets.
Magnet, Compound
Horseshoe A horse-
shoe magnet composed
of several separate horse-
shoe magnets placed with S[
their similar poles to-
gether.
A compound horseshoe magnet is shown in
Fig. 368.
A horseshoe magnet possesses greater portative
power than a straight bar magnet of the same
weight. (See Power, Portative.)
(i.) Because its opposite poles are nearer to-
gether; and
(2.) Because the magnetic resistance of its
circuit is less, the lines of magnetic force closing
through the armature, and thus concentrating
the magnetic attraction on the armature.
Electro-magnets are generally made of the
horseshoe shape.
337 [Mag.
Magnet, Controlling — A name
sometimes applied to the controller in the
Thomson-Houston automatic system of
current regulation. (See Controller.)
Generally any mag.
net which controls
some particular ac-
tion.
Magnet, Cylindri-
cal— -—A magnet
in the shape of a
cylinder.
A helix or solenoid
through which a cur-
rent of electricity is
passing is, so far as ex-
ternal space is con-
cerned, the exact mag-
netic equivalent of a
cylindrical magnet.
Magnet, Damping
Any magnet
employed for the
, , , . Fig 368. Compound Horst-
pUrpOSC Of Checking shoe Magnet.
the velocity of motion of a moving body
or magnet.
Dampening magnets generally act by the resist-
ance which they offer to the passage of a
metallic disc, so moved as to cut the lines offeree
of their field.
Magnet, Electro A magnet pro-
duced by the passage of an electric current
through a coil of insulated wire surround-
ing a core of magnetizable material.
The magnetizing coil is called a helix or sole-
noid. (See Magnetism, Amptre's Theory of.)
Strictly speaking, the . term electro-magnet is
limited to the case of a magnet provided with a
soft iroh core, which enables it to rapidly acquire
its magnetism on the passage of the magnetizing
current, and as rapidly to lose its magnetism on
the cessation of such current.
An electric current passed around a bar ot
magnetizable material, in the manner and direc-
tion shown in Fig. 369, will produce the polarity
N and S, at its ends or extremities as marked.
The directions of the currents required to pro-
duce N and S, poles respectively are shown in
Fig. 370.
The cause of this difference of polarity will be
readily understood from a study of the direction
Mag.]
338
[Mag.
of lines of magnetic force in the field produced
by an electric current.
309. Polarity of Current.
The direction of this polarity may be predicted
by the following modification of a rule by Ampere:
Imagine yourself swimming in the wire in the
direction of the current ; if, then, your face is
Fig. 370. N»rtk and South Magnet Poles.
turned toward the bar that is being magnetized,
its North seeking pole will be on your left.
S S
- 37*' Deflection of
Magnetic Needle.
B
Fig. 373. Defection of
Magnetic Needle.
If, for example, the conductor A B, be traversed
by a current in the direction from B, to A, as
shown in Fig. 371, the north pole N, of the
needle N S, placed under the conductor, is de-
flected, as shown, to the left of the observer, who
is supposed to be swimming in the current, facing
the needle. It the current flow in the opposite
direction, as from A, to B, as shown in Fig. 372,
the N, pole of the needle is deflected as shown,
but still to the left of the observer supposed to be
swimming as before.
In any electric circuit, the lines, of magnetic
force, produced by the passage of the current, form
circles around the circuit in planes at right angles
to the direction of the current, as shown in Fig.
373. The direction of these lines of force is the
same as that of the hands of a watch, if the cur-
rent be supposed to flow away from the observer.
(See Field) Magnetic , of an Electric Current.1)
Fig- 373' Direction of Line* of Force.
Remembering now that the lines of force are
supposed to come out at the north pole of a magnet,
and to pass in at the south pole, it is evident that
if the current flows in the direction shown in Fig.
Fig. 374. Direction of Lines of Force.
374, the lines of force will come out at the north
pole and pass in at the south pole.
Since in a right-handed helix the wire passes
around the axis in the opposite direction to that
in which it passes in a left-handed helix, it is
evident that the helices shown in Fig. 375 at i,
and 2, will produce opposite polarities at the
points of entrance and exit by a current flowing
in the direction of the arrows.
If the current be sent through the right-handed
helix, shown at I, from b, to a, that is, from the
left to the right in the figure, a south pole will be
produced at b, and a north pole at a. If, how-
ever, it be sent from a, to b, the polarity will be
reversed.
If the current be sent through the left-handed
Mag.]
339
[Mag.
helix, shown at 2, from a, to b, that is, from the left
to the right in the figure, a north pole will be pro-
duced at a, and a south pole at b. If, however, it
be sent in the opposite direction, the polarity will
be reversed.
Therefore, in an electro-magnet, on the core
of which several layers or thicknesses of wire are
wound, in which the current flows through one
layer, in, say a direction from right to left, the cur-
rent must return through the next layer in the
opposite direction, or from left to right. The
polarities of the same extremities of the helices
are, however, the same in all cases, since the
layers are successively right and left handed
to the current. The winding shown at 3, pro-
duces consequent poles.
The following laws express the more important
principles concerning electro-magnets :
(i.) The magnetic intensity (strength) of an
electro-magnet is nearly proportional to the
strength of the magnetizing current, provided the
core is not saturated.
(2.) The magnetic strength is proportional to
the number of turns of wire in the magnetizing
coil ; that is, to the number of ampere turns. (See
Turns, Amp&re.')
(3.) The magnetic strength is independent of
the thickness or material of the conducting wires.
These laws may be embraced in the more gen-
eral statement that the strength of an electro-
Fig. 375- Right-Handed, Left- Handed and Anomalous
Helices,
magnet, the size of the magnet being the same,
is proportional to the number of its ampere turns.
(See Turns, Amptre.)
A short interval of time is required for a cur-
rent to thoroughly magnetize a powerful electro-
magnet.
A few moments are also required for a power-
ful magnet to thoroughly lose its magnetism. At
the same time electro-magnets are capable of
acquiring or losing their magnetism with very
great rapidity. It is, in fact, on this ability pos-
sessed to so remarkable a degree by soft iron, that
he value of an electro-magnet for many purposes
depends. (See Lag, Magnetic.)
A difference exists between the action of a mag-
netized disc and a hollow coil of wire through
which a current of electricity is passing. So
far as the space outside either is concerned, the
action is the same, but the coil is penetrable on
the inside and the disc is not, and for the inside of
the space, therefore, there is a difference in the ac-
tion.
Magnet, Electro, Bar An electro-
magnet, the core of which is in the form of
a straight bar or rod.
Magnet, Electro, Cylindrical An
electro-magnet, the core of which consists
of a hollow cylinder provided with a slot
extending parallel to its axis.
The gap in the cylinder suffices for the placing
of the magnetizing coils, and forms the poles.
This form of electro-magnet was devised by
Joule. Its construction will be understood from
an inspection of Fig. 376.
Fig. 376. Cylindrical Electro- Magntt.
Magnet, Electro, Horseshoe — An
electro-magnet, the core of which is in
the shape of a horseshoe or U.
Magnet, Electro, Hughes' An
electro-magnet in which a U-shaped per-
manent magnet is provided with pole
pieces of soft iron, on which only are
placed the magnetizing coils.
A quick acting electro-magnet, in
which the magnetizing coils are placed on
soft iron pole pieces that are connected
with and form the prolongations of the
poles of a permanent horseshoe magnet.
Hughes devised this form of electro-magnet in
order to obtain the best effects from currents of
but short duration.
He thus obtained a quick acting magnet, neces-
sary to insure the success of his system of printing
telegraph, where the magnetizing currents at
times have a duration of but the .20 of a second.
Mag.]
340
[Mag.
J77. Iron-Clad
'-Magnet.
Magnet, Electro, Joule's Cylindrical
An electro-magnet provided with
a hollow cylindrical core. (See Magnet,
Electro, Cylindrical. )
Magnet, Electro, Iron-Clad —An
electro-magnet whose magnetizing coil is
almost entirely surrounded by iron.
The effect of the iron casing is to greatly re-
duce the magnetic re-
sistance of the circuit.
A form of iron-clad elec-
tro-magnet is shown in
Fig. 377. Here one of
the poles is connected
with a casing of iron,
external to the coils, and
is thus brought nearer to
the other pole.
Magnet, Electro,
Long-Core — — An electro-magnet with
a long core of iron.
A long-core electro-magnet magnetizes and
demagnetizes much more slowly than a short-
core electro-magnet.
Magnet, Electro, Short-Core An
electro-magnet with a short core of iron.
A short-core electro-magnet possesses the
power of being magnetized and demagnetized
much more rapidly than a long-core magnet.
Magnet, Electro, Yoked Horseshoe
A horseshoe electro-magnet, in which the
two straight limbs are formed of two
straight rods or bars, yoked together at one
pair of ends by a yoke or bar of iron.
In some cases the magnetizing coils are placed
on each of the limbs. Sometimes, however, a
single coil is placed at the middle of the yoke
and the limbs are left bare.
Even with the closest possible fitting the re-
sistance of the magnetic circuit is much greater
in this form of electro-magnet, owing to the
smaller permeability of the air gap at the joints,
than it would be if the entire core were made of
a single piece of iron. A yoked electro- magnet
is, however, more convenient to make and use.
Magnet, Electro, Zigzag — -A multi-
polor electro-magnet, the magnetizing
coils of which are separately wound in
grooves cut in the face of straight or
curved bars.
3 7 8. Zigzag Electro-
Magnet.
A form of zigzag electro-magnet devised by
Joule is shown in Fig. 378. The spiral char-
acter of the winding
produces the alternate
North and South polari-
ties shown in the figure.
Magnet, Equator of
— A point ap-
proximately midway
between the poles ofa
straight bar magnet,
or nearly midway
from the poles of a horseshoe magnet if
measured along the bar from each pole.
This term was proposed by Dr. Gilbert. It is
now almost entirely displaced by the term neutral
point.
Magnet, High-Resistance — —A term
sometimes used in place of long-coil mag-
net whose coils have a high electric resist-
ance. (See Magnet, Long -Coil.}
The term long -coil magnet is, perhaps, the
preferable one, because the resistance of a coil,
per se, has nothing to do with its magnetizing
power, which is determined by its ampere turns.
(See Turns, Ampere. Magnet, Long-Coil.}
Magnet, Horseshoe magnetized
bar of steel or iron bent in the form ofa
horseshoe or letter U.
Magnet, Iron-Clad A magnet whose
magnetic resistance is lowered by a casing
of iron connected with the core and pro-
vided for the passage of the lines of mag-
netic force. (See Magnet, Tubular. )
Magnet, Jacketed A term some-
times applied to a form of iron-clad mag-
net. (See Magnet, Iron-Clad.}
Magnet, Keeper of A mass of soft
iron applied to the poles of a magnet
through which its lines of magnetic force
pass. (See Field, Magnetic.}
The keeper of a magnet differs from its arma-
ture in that the keeper while acting as such is
always kept on the poles to prevent loss of mag-
' netization, while the armature, besides acting as
a keeper, may be attracted towards, or, if an
electro, magnet, be repelled from the magnet
poles. While performing its functions the keeper
is always fixed, the armature generally, though
341
[Mag.
not always, is in motion. A keeper is, of course,
only used with permanent magnets.
Opinion is divided as to the efficacy of the
keeper in preventing loss of magnetization in
certain cases.
Magnet, Long Coil -An electro-
magnet whose magnetizing coil consists
of many turns of thin wire.
Magnet, Low-Resistance A term
sometimes used in place of short-coil
magnet. (See Magnet, Short-Coil)
This term, short-coil magnet, is the preferable
one.
Magnet, Marked Pole of A name
formerly applied to that pole of a magnet
which points approximately to the geo-
graphical north.
If the pole of the magnet that points to the
geographical north be in reality the north pole
of the magnet, then the earth's magnetic pole in
the Northern Hemisphere is of south magnetic
polarity. In the United States, and Europe
generally, this is regarded as the fact.
The French, however, formerly called the
pole ot the needle that points to the earth's geo-
graphical north, the south or austral pole. In
America and England it is called the north pole,
the marked pole, or the north-seeking pole, and
the Northern Hemisphere is assumed to possess
south magnetic polarity. (See Pole, Magnetic,
Austral. Pole, Magnetic, Boreal.)
Magnet, Moment of — —The effective
force of a magnetic couple as obtained by
multiplying one of the forces of the couple
by the perpendicular distance between
the directions of the forces.
The moment of a magnet is equal to the prod-
uct of the volume of the magnet and the in-
tensity or magnetization, or simply its magnetiza-
tion.
Magnet, Natural A name some-
times given to a lodestone. (See Lode-
stone. )
Magnet, Central Line of — —(See Line,
Neutral, of a Magnet.)
Magnet, Permanent A magnet of
hardened steel or other paramagnetic sub-
stance which retains its magnetism for a
long time after being magnetized.
A permanent magnet is distinguished, in this
respect, from a temporary magnet of soft iron,
which loses its magnetization very shortly alter
being taken from the magnetizing field.
Magnet, Portative Power of — —The
lifting power of a magnet.
The portative or lifting power of a magnet,
depends on the form of the magnet, as well as on
its strength. A horseshoe magnet, for example,
will lift a much greater weight than the same
magnet if in the form of a straight bar.
This is due not only to the mutual action of the
approached poles, but also to the decreased re-
sistance of the magnetic circuit, and to the greater
number of lines of magnetic force that pass
through the armature. The portative power is
proportional to the area of contact and the square
of the magnetic intensity, the formula being
P = A XB*
8 7T X 98l,
in which P, is the lifting power in grammes, AT
the area of contact in square centimetres, and B,
is the number of lines of force per square centi-
metre.
Magnet Operation (See Operation,
Magnet. )
Magnet, Receiving A name some-
times given to the relay of a telegraphic
system. (See Relay.)
In general, any magnet, used directly in
the receiving apparatus, at the receiving
end of a line connecting a system of elec-
tric communication between transmitting
and receiving instruments.
Magnet, Regulator A magnet, the
operation of which is to automatically
effect any desired regulation.
The magnet in the Thomson-Houston
system of automatic regulation, by means
of which the commutator collecting
brushes are automatically shifted to such
positions on the commutator as will main-
tain the current practically constant, de-
spite the changes in the resistance of the
circuit external to the machine. (See
Regulation, Automatic.)
Magnet, Relay — -An electro-magnet,
whose coils are connected to the main line
of a telegraphic circuit, and the movements
Mag.]
342
[Mag.
of whose armature is employed to bring a
local battery into action at the receiving
station, the current of which operates the
register or sounder.
Magnet, Short-Coil An electro-
magnet whose magnetizing coil consists
of a few turns of short, thick wire.
Magnet, Simple A simple mag-
netized bar.
The term simple magnet is used in contradis-
tinction to compound magnet. (See Magnet,
Compound.)
Magnet, Sluggish A magnet that
magnetizes or demagnetizes sluggishly.
An electro-magnet becomes sluggish when sur-
rounded by a sheathing of copper, on account of
the currents induced in the sheathing in a direc-
tion opposite to those passing through the mag-
netizing coil.
Magnet, Solenoidal A thin, uni-
formly magnetized straight bar of steel, of
such a length that its poles, situated at
extremities or ends of its longer axis, act
on external objects as if equal and oppo-
site quantities of magnetism were con-
centrated at such extremities.
It derives its name solenoidal from the simi-
larity between its action and that of a solenoid.
Unless very carefully magnetized, a magnet will
not act as a solenoid magnet. (See Magnet,
Electro. Magnetism, Solenoidal Distribution of.)
Magnet, Tabular A form of horse-
shoe magnet, in which one pole is brought
near the opposite pole by a hollow cylin-
der or tube of iron, which is placed in con-
tact with one of the magnetic poles, so as
to completely surround the other, except
in the plane of cross-section of that pole.
A form of iron-clad magnet. (See
Magnet, Iron- Clad.)
There is thus obtained a magnet, with two con-
centric poles, one solid and the other annular,
the portative power of which is much greater than
that of a horseshoe magnet of equal dimensions.
Magnet, Field, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine One of the electro-magnets
employed to produce the magnetic field
of a dynamo-electric machine.
The field magnets consist of a suitable frame .
or core, on which the field magnet coils are
wound.
The^/fc/rf magnet cores are made of thick and
solid iron, as soft as possible. They should con-
tain plenty of iron in order to avoid too ready
magnetic saturation.
All edges and corners are to be avoided, since
they tend to cause an irregular distribution of the
field.
The field magnets should in general have suffi-
cient magnetic strength to prevent the magnet-
izing effect of the armature from unduly influ-
encing the field, and thus, by causing too great a
lead, produce injurious sparking.
Magnetic or Magnetical.— Pertaining to
magnetism.
Magnetic Adherence.— (See Adherence,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Air Circuit.— (See Circuit, Air,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Air Gap— (See Gap, Air, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Attraction.— (See Attraction,
Magnetic, )
Magnetic Axis.— (See Axis, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Axis of a Straight Needle.—
(See Axis, Magnetic, of a Straight Needle.)
Magnetic Azimuth. -(See Azimuth, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Battery.— (See Battery, Mag-
netic.)
Magnetic Bridge,— (See Bridge, Mag-
netic.)
Magnetic Circuit.— (See Circuit, Mag-
netic.)
Magnetic Closed-Circuit.-(See Circuit,
Closed Magnetic. )
Magnetic Conductance.- (See Conduct-
ance, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Core, Closed (See Core,
Closed-Magnetic.
Magnetic Core, Open (See Core,
Open-Magnetic. )
Magnetic Couple.-(See Coupe, Mag-
netic.)
Mag.]
343
Magnetic Curves.— (See Curves, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Day of Disturbancc.-(See Day
of Disturbance, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Declination. — (See Declina-
tion.}
Magnetic Density.— (See Density, Mag-
Wtic. }
Magnetic Dip.— (See Dip, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Elements of a Place. — (See
Elements, Magnetic, of a Place. }
Magnetic Equalizer. — (See Equalizer,
Magnetic. }
Magnetic Explorer. —(See Explorer, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic, Ferro Magnetic after
the manner of iron or other paramagnetic
body. (See Paramagnetic.}
Magnetic Field.— (See Field, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Field, Reversing. (See
Field, Magnetic, Reversing.}
Magnetic Field, Shifting. (See
Field Magnetic, Shifting.}
Magnetic Figures.— See Figures, Mag-
netic. Field, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Filament. — (See Filament
Magnetic.}
Magnetic Flow.— (See Flow, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Flux.— (See Flux, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Force.— (See Force, Magnetic. }
Magnetic Inclination.— (See Inclination,
Magnetic. }
Magnetic Induction. — (See Induction,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Induction, Dynamic.
(See Induction, Magnetic, Dynamic.)
Magnetic Induction, Static. (See
Induction, Magnetic, Static}
Magnetic Inertia.— (See Inertia, Mag-
netic.}
Magnetic Intensity. — (See Intensity,
Magnetic. }
Magnetic Joint.— (See Joint, Magnetic.}
Magnetic Lag. — (See Lag, Magnetic}
Magnetic Latitude. — (See Latitude, Mag-
netic.}
Magnetic Leakage. — (See Leakage, Mag-
netic.}
Magnetic Lines of Force.— (See Force,
Magnetic, Lines of.}
Magnetic Mass. — (See Mass, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Memory.— (See Memory, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Meridian. — (See Meridian,
Magnetic.}
Magnetic Moment.— (See Moment, Mag-
netic.}
Magnetic Normal Day.— (See Day, Nor-
mal, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Observatory. — (See Observa-
tory, Magnetic.
Magnetic Output— (See Output, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Parallel.— (See Parallels, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Permeability. — (See Permea-
bility, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Permeance. — (See Permeance,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Permeation. — (See Permeation,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Poles.— (See Poles, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Poles, False, (See Pole,
Magnetic, False.)
Magnetic Proof Piece.— (See Piece, Mag-
netic Proof.)
Magnetic Proof Plane.— (See Plane,
Proof, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Reluctance.— (See Reluctance,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Repulsion. — (See Repulsion,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Resistance. —(See Resistance,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Retardation. — (See Retarda-
tion Magnetic.)
Mag.]
344
[Mag.
Magnetic Retentirity.-(See Retentwity,
Magnetic.}
Magnetic Saturation.— (See Saturation,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Screen or Shield.- (See Screen
or Shield, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Screening. — (See Screening,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic, Self Induction.— (See Induc-
tion, Self, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Shells.— (See Shells, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Shunt.— (See Shunt, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Sidero A term proposed
by S. P. Thompson to replace the term
ferro-magnetic. (See Magnetic, Ferro.)
Magnetic Solenoid. -(See Solenoid, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Sounds.— (See Sounds, Mag-
netic. )
Magnetic Spin.— (See Spin, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Storm.— (See Storm, Mag-
netic.)
Mignetic Strain. — (See Strain, Mag-
netic.)
Magnetic Stress.— (See Stress, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Susceptibility. -(See Suscepti-
bility, Magnetic. )
Magnetic Theodolite. — (See Theodolite,
Magnetic )
Magnetic Unit Pole.— (See Pole, Unit,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Units.— (See Units, Magnetic)
Magnetic- Vane Ammeter.— (See Ammeter,
Magnetic- Vane. )
Magnetic Vane Voltmeter. - (See Volt-
meter, Magnetic- Vane.)
Magnetic Variations. — (See Variations,
Magnetic. )
Magnetic Variation Transit. -(See Tran-
sit, Magnetic Variation.)
Magnetic Variometer.— (See Variometer,
Magnetic.)
Magnetic Viscosity.- (See Viscosity, Mag-
netic.)
Magnetic Whirl.— (See Whirls, Magnetic.)
Magnetic Whirl, Expanding —(See
Whirl, Magnetic, Expanding.)
Magnetics, Electro That branch of
electric science which treats of the rela-
tions that exist between electric circuits
and magnets.
Magnetism. — That branch of science '
which treats of the nature and properties
of magnets and the magnetic field. (See
Field, Magnetic.)
A property or condition of matter at-
tended by the existence of a magnetic
field.
Magnetism, Ampere's Theory of A
theory or hypothesis proposed by Ampere,
to account for the cause of magnetism, by
the presence of electric currents in the
ultimate particles of matter.
f • 37 Q* Unmagnetized
Bar (after Am fire}.
Fig. 380. Magnetized
Bar (after Amptre) .
This theory assumes :
(I.) That the ultimate particles of all magneti-
zable bodies have closed electric circuits in which
electric currents are continually flowing.
(2.) That in an unmagnetized body these cir -
cuits neutralize one another because they have
different directions.
(3.) That the act of magnetization consists •>
such a polarization of the particles as will cause
these currents to flow in one and the same direc-
tion, magnetic saturation being reached when all
the separate circuits are parallel to one another.
(4.) That coercive force is due to the resistance
these circuits offer to a change in the direction
of their planes.
Figs. 379 and 380 show the circular paths of
some of these circuits. Fig. 379 shows the as-
Mag.]
345
[Mag.
sumed condition of an unmagnetized bar. Fig.
380 the assumed condition of a magnetized
bar.
A careful inspection of the figures will show that
in a magnetized bar all the separate currents flow
in the same direction. All the circuits except
those on the extreme edge of the bar will, there-
fore, have the currents flowing in them in opposite
directions to that in their neighboring circuits,
and, therefore, will neutralize one another . There
will remain, Jurwever, a current in a circuit on the
outside of the bar, which must therefore be re-
garded as the magnetizing current.
Guided by these considerations, Ampere pro-
duced a coil of wire, called a solenoid, which is
the equivalent of the magnetizing circuit assumed
by his theory.
It therefore follows that an electric current sent
through a coil of insulated wire surrounding a
rod or bar of soft iron, or other readily magnet-
izable material, will make the same a magnet. A
magnet so produced is called an electro-magnet.
(See Magnet, Electro.}
The magnetizing coil is called a helix or sole-
noid. See Solenoid, Electro -Magnetic.")
The polarity of the magnef depends on the
direction of the current, or on the direction of
winding of the helix or solenoid. (See Solenoid,
Sinistrorsal. Solenoid, Dextrorsal.)
The improbability of an electric current con-
tinually flowing in a circuit without the expendi-
ture of energy, has led, perhaps, the majority of
scientific men to reject Ampere's theory of mag-
netism.
Lodge, however, does not agree with the ma-
jority of physicists in regarding a constant flow
of electricity through the molecules of magnetiza-
ble substances as an impossibility. On the sup-
position that the atoms or molecules possess
no resistance, the current would flow through
them lorever. He says: "To all intents and pur-
poses certainly atoms are infinitely elastic, and
why should they not also be infinitely conducting ?
Why should the dissipation of energy occur, in
respect to an electric current circulating wholly
inside an atom? There is no reason why it
should. "
Magnetism, Animal A term some-
times applied to hypnotism or artificial
somnambulism.
Magnetism, Earth's, Theories as to Cause
of The various theories or hypotheses
respecting the cause of the earth's magnet-
ism.
Any theory or hypothesis which shall satisfac-
torily explain the cause of the earth's magnetism
must account for the following phenomena, viz. ;
(l.) Variations in the intensity of the earth's
magnetic field.
(2.) Variations in the earth's magnetic inclina-
tion, declination and intensity.
The following hypotheses have been proposed:
1st. That the earth's magnetism is due to the
circulation round the earth of electric currents
produced by differences of temperature which the
earth's surface acquires from exposure to the sun
during its rotation.
As the earth rotates from west to east, the area
of greatest heat would move round the earth in
the opposite direction, or from east to west. If
now those differences of temperature could pro-
duce, in a manner not as yet explained, thermo-
electric currents circulating round the earth from
east to west, such currents would produce, in the
Northern Hemisphere of the earth, south mag-
netic polarity, and in the Southern Hemisphere
north magnetic polarity, which would account for
the magnetic polarity of the earth.
Differences in the intensity of the earth's mag-
netic field, and in the inclination and direction of
its lines ot magnetic force, would be explained,
according to this hypothesis, by the differences in
the amount of the solar radiation at different
times.
The objection to this theory is to be found in
the fact that by far the larger part of the earth's
surface at the Equator is composed of water, so
that the differences of potential at such parts,
produced by the differences of temperature, are
not readily set up in the earth's crust, if, indeed,
they are set up at all.
2d. That the earth's magnetism is due to in-
duction from an already magnetized sun. This
theory was brought forward by Secci and others.
It is not generally credited.
3d. A theory proposed by Biglow, which ac-
counts for the earth's magnetism by rotation in
the magnetic field of the sun's light and radia-
tion.
Biglow believes that the earth's magnetism is
due to its rotation in the magnetic field of the
sun's light. As the sun's light illumines one-half
of the earth's surface, the earth's rotation causing
different portions of the surface to pass through
Mag.]
346
[Mag.
this illumiru d area, produces, in Prof. Biglow's
opinion, th #e differences in the direction and in-
tensity of the magnetic lines of the' earth's field
that correspond to differences in the earth's mag-
netic intensity, declination and inclination.
It will be observed that in all these theories the
sun is the prime factor in the production ol the
earth's magnetism.
The evident connection between the earth's
magnetism and the solar radiation is established
from the well known connection between the so-
called magnetic storms and variations in the in-
tensity of the earth's magnetism.
Magnetic storms are always attended by out-
bursts of solar energy, known technically as
sun spots. A series of observations on the num-
bers and frequency of sun-spots, plotted in the
form of a curve, the ordinates of which represent
the times of occurrence of the spots and the
abscissas, the number of such spots, prove that
such curve agrees, in a remarkable manner, with
a similar curve representing the variations of the
earth's magnetic field.
An evident connection, too, exists between the
earth's magnetism and the prevalence of the
aurora borealis.
MairnetUin, Electro Magnetism
produced by means of electric currents.
The discovery by Oersted, in 1820, of the ac-
tion of an electric current on a magnetic needle,
was almost immediately followed by the simul-
taneous and independent discoveries by Arago
and Davy, of the method of magnetizing iron
by the passage of an electric current around it.
These observations were first reduced to a
theory by Ampere (See Magnetism, Ampere's
Theory of. Magnet ', Electro.)
Magnetism, Ewing's Theory of A
theory of magnetism proposed by Prof.
Ewing, based on the assumption of orig-
inally magnetized particles.
Ewing's theory of magnetism assumes that the
ultimate particles ot matter are naturally mag-
netic and possess polarity. In this respect Ewing's
theory agrees with the theories of Hughes and
Weber. Ewing does not believe, however, in the
necessity for the assumption of any arbitrary re-
straining or constraining force to the movements
of these ultimate magnetic particles other than
those due to their own mutual magnetic attractions
and repulsions. He assumes that in a magnet,
the centres about which the molecular magnets
rotate are maintained at constant distances from
one another, save only as they are affected by the
action of strain.
He has experimentally demonstrated the prin-
ciples of his theory by means of a model in which
a number of small magnetic needles are so sup-
ported as to be capable of free motion in a hori-
zontal plane, when under varying magnetic
forces.
According to Ewing, "magnetic hysteresis"
is not the result of any quasi frictional resistance
to molecular rotation, but arises from a molecule
moving from one position of stable equilibrium to
another position of stable equilibrium through a
position of unstable equilibrium. " This pro-
cess " says Ewing, "considered mechanically, is
not reversible. The forces are different for the
same displacement, going and coming, and there
is dissipation of energy. In the model, the energy
thus expended sets the little bars swinging, and
their swings take some time to subside. In the
actual solid, the energy which the molecular
magnet loses as it swings through unstable posi-
tions, generates eddy currents in surrounding
matter. Let the magnets of the model be
furnished with air vanes to damp their swings
and the correspondence is complete."
In Hughes' modification of Weber's theory of
magnetism, it was held, that when magnetized
iron was suddenly demagnetized by torsion or
flexure, it lost its magnetization because the mo-
lecular magnets came to rest in closed chains, which
produced no external effects. Experimentation
with Ewing's model of a magnet shows that when
the separate magnets after having been placed in
any particular grouping are permitted to come to
rest free from any external magnetic force, they do
not arrange themselves in closed chains, but in
general the tendency appears to be the formation
of lines consisting of two, three or more magnets,
each member of a line being strongly controlled
by its next member in that line, but influenced
by the neighbors which lie off the line on either
side.
The fact that a given force, suddenly applied,
produces more magnetic induction than when
gradually applied, and leaves less residual mag-
netism when suddenly than when gradually re-
moved, is presumably due to the inertia of the
molecules.
The influence of mechanical vibration in in-
creasing the magnetic susceptibility and decreas-
Mag.]
34?
[Mag;
ing the magnetic retentiveness, is ascribed by
Ewing to the fact that the vibrations cause
periodic variations in the distances between the
centres of rotation of the magnetic molecules;
thus making the molecular magnets respond more
readily to changes of magnetic force during the
time they are moving away from one another,
when their magnetic stability is less, but also in-
creasing the ease with which they respond to
changes of magnetic force, by causing them to
swing.
Ewing discusses the theoretical effects of tern-
perature on magnetism as follows, viz. : Suppose
a moderate magnetizing force to be applied so
that nothing like saturation is obtained, if now
the temperature be raised ; then
(i.) The magnetic permeability increases until
the temperature reaches a certain (high) critical
value.
(2.) At this temperature there is suddenly an
almost complete disappearance of magnetic
quality.
He explains these facts as follows, viz.: An
increase of temperature by increasing the distance
between the molecular centres causes a decrease
In their stability.
The loss of magnetic qualities, when a certain
temperature is reached, is, he believes, due to the
fact that at such temperatures the magnetic
molecules are set into actual rotation, when,
naturally, all traces of polarity would disappear.
Ewing's theory of magnetism also accounts to
a considerable extent for the effects of stress and
consequent elastic strain on the magnetic qualities
of iron, nickel and cobalt.
The following general summary of his theory
is taken mainly from Prof. Ewing's original
articles as published in the Journal of the Society
of Arts:
(i.) That in considering the magnetization of
iron and other magnetic metals to be caused by
the turning of permanent molecular magnets, we
may look simply to the magnetic forces which
the molecular magnets exert upon one another as
the cause of their directional stability. There is
no need to suppose the existence of any quasi-
elastic directing force, or any quasi-frictional re-
sistance to rotation.
(2. ) That the intermolecular magnetic forces are
sufficient to account for all the general character-
istics of the process of magnetization, including
the variations of susceptibility which occur as
the magnetizing force is increased.
12— Vol. 1
(3.) That the intermolecular magnetic forces
are equally competent to account for the known
facts of retentiveness and coercive force, and the
characteristics of cyclic magnetic processes.
(4. ) The magnetic hysteresis and the dissipation
of energy which hysteresis involves are due to
molecular instability, resulting from intermolec-
ular magnetic actions, and are not due to any-
thing in the nature of frictional resistance to the
rotation of the molecular magnets.
(5.) That this theory is wide enough to admit an
explanation of the differences in magnetic quality
which are shown by different substances, or by
the same substance in different states.
(6. ) That it accounts in a general way for the
known effects of vibration, of temperature, and
of stress, upon magnetic quality.
(7.) That, in particular, it accounts for the
known fact that there is hysteresis in the relation
of magnetism to stress.
(8.) That it further explains why there is in
magnetic metals hysteresis in physical quality
generally with respect to stress.
(9.) That, in consequence, any (not very small)
cycle of stress occurring in a magnetic metal in-
volves dissipation of energy.
It can be demonstrated by means of experi-
ments with a model constructed according to
Ewing's hypothesis, that this hypothesis comes
nearer than any which had been proposed before
in explaining the following effects:
(I.) The behavior of a piece of iron when
placed in a magnetic field whose strength is made
to pass through a cycle of changes.
(2.) That nearly all reversals of sign on the
change of the magnetizing force are accompanied
by small changes in the magnetization.
(3.) That a piece of iron submitted to vibra-
tions or mechanical shocks, is magnetized and
demagnetized more readily and with a smaller
hysteresial area than if it had remained undis-
turbed by vibrations.
(4.) The phenomenon of "time lag "in mag-
netization.
(5.) The phenomena of stress, both those which'
occur when a body has first been placed in a
magnetic field and the stress made to vary, and
those which occur when a body is first placed in
a constant stress and the magnetizing force is
made to vary.
(6.) The effects of heat on magnetization, both
as regards the effect of comparatively low heating
on increase of magnetic susceptibility, and the
Mag.]
348
[Mag.
effect of excessive heating to decrease the sus-
ceptibility.
The author is indebted for the above summary
of demonstrable facts to a paper recently read be-
fore the Electrical Section of the Franklin Insti-
tute, by Prof. Henry Crew.
Magnetism, Flux or Flow of — —The
quantity of magnetism, or the number of
lines of force which pass in any magnetic
circuit under a given magneto-motive force,
against a given magnetic reluctance.
Magnetism, Galvano A term some-
times used for electro-magnetism.
Electro-magnetism is by far the preferable
term, and is almost universally used in the United
States.
Magnetism, Horizontal Component of
Earth's (See Component, Horizontal,
of Earth's Magnetism^)
Magnetism, Hughes' Theory of A
theory propounded by Hughes to account for
the phenomena of magnetism apart from the
presence of electric currents.
Hughes' theory, or, more strictly speaking,
hypothesis of magnetism, though very similar to
that of Ampere, does not assume the improbable
condition of a constantly flowing electric current.
Hughes' hypothesis assumes:
(I.) That the molecules of matter, and, per-
haps, more probably, the atoms, possess naturally
opposite magnetic polarities, which are respect-
ively + and — , or N and S.
(2.) That these molecules, when arranged in
closed chains or circuits, are capable of neutral-
izing one another so far as external action is con-
cerned.
and that, therefore, the substance can possess no
magnetic properties so far as external action is
concerned.
i:
'n\
Fig, 381. Closed Molecular Chain.
Two such arrangements or groupings are
shown in Figs. 381 and 382. It will be observed
that the magnetic chain or circuit is complete,
Fig. 382. Closed Groupings.
(3. ) That the act of magnetization consists in
such a rotation of the molecules that a polariza-
tion of the substance is effected— that is, the
molecules are rotated on their axes so that one set
of poles tend to point in one direction and the
other set of poles in the opposite direction.
Partial magnetization consists in partial polari-
zation. Magnetic saturation is reached when the
polarization is complete. (See Saturation, Mag-
netic.)
Coercive force is the resistance the body offers
to the polarization or rotation of its molecules.
(See Force, Coercive.)
Hughes' hypothesis of magnetism would ap-
pear to be strengthened by the following facts:
(I.) A bar of steel or iron is sensibly elongated
on being magnetized. This would naturally re-
sult if the molecules be supposed to be longer in
one direction than in any other.
(2.) A tube, furnished at its ends with plates of
flat glass and filled with water containing finely
divided magnetic oxide of iron, is nearly opaque
to light when unmagnetized, but will permit some
light to pass through it when magnetized.
(3. ) A magnet, if cut at its neutral point, will
possess opposite polarities at the cut ends; and,
no matter to what extent this subdivision is car-
ried, the particles will still possess opposite polar-
ities.
These facts are, however, also explained by
Ampere's hypothesis of magnetism, with, how-
ever, the improbable assumption of a constantly
flowing current in each molecule.
The following experiment by Von Betz tends
somewhat to confirm Hughes' hypothesis:
He placed a powerful horseshoe magnet in a
solution of iron and deposited a bar or plate of
metallic iron between the poles by electrolysis.
Here the molecules, at the time of their deposi-
tion, were subjected to a polarizing force which
tended to place them all in the same direction,
and, as the solution from which they were ob-
tained permitted great freedom of motion, they
were all presumably deposited in lines parallel to
one another. When this bar of iron was subse
Mag.]
349
[Mag.
quently magnetized it was found to be much more
powerful in comparison to its size than any other
magnet.
Mr. Shelford Bidwell has shown that the act of
magnetization produces a shortening rather than
a lengthening of the magnetizable material.
When the magnetization is moderate there is a
true lengthening of the material, but when a
more powerful magnetizing force is exerted a
true contraction or shortening is observed.
Fig. 383. Bidwell Apparatus.
The Bidwell apparatus is shown in Fig. 383.
The bar of iron to be magnetized is shown at
R R. The magnetization is obtained by means of
the coil of wire C. The upper end of the bar
presses against the rod L, fulcrumed at F. The
other end of the bar bears against a pivoted
mirror M, from which a spot of light is reflected.
In the case of the magnetization of nickel, the
experiments of Bidwell showed the existence of
contraction for both weak and strong currents.
This contraction is much greater than in the case
of iron.
Magnetism, Lamellar Distribution of
— The distribution of magnetism in
magnetic shells.
A term sometimes applied to such a dis-
tribution of magnetism in a plate, that the
magnetized particles are arranged with their
greatest length in the direction of the thick-
ness of the plate, so that the poles are situ-
ated at the faces of the plate, and conse-
quently the extent of such polar surfaces is
great when compared with the thickness of
the plate.
The term lamellar distribution of magnetism is
used in contradistinction to solenoidal distribution.
(See Magnetism, Solenoidal Distribution of .)
A thin sheet or disc of magnetized material
whose opposed extended faces are of opposite
magnetic polarities, and the extent of whose sur-
face is very great as compared with its thickness,
is sometimes called a magnetic shell.
The field produced by a magnetic shell is ex-
actly similar to that produced by a closed voltaic
circuit, the edges of the space inclosed by which
correspond to the edges of the magnetic shell.
The magnetic intensity, or the number of lines
of force per unit area of cross-section, is equal
over all parts of the surface of a simple magnetic
shell.
A magnetic shell may be conceived as consist-
ing of a very great number of short, straight
magnetic needles, placed side by side, with their
north poles terminating at one of the faces of the
sheet and their south poles at the opposite face,
the breadth of the sheet being very great as com-
pared with its thickness. Such a distribution of
magnetism is known as a lamellar distribution.
Magnetism, Residual The magnet-
ism remaining in the core of an electro-mag-
net on the opening of the magnetizing cir-
cuit.
The small amount of magnetism retained
by soft iron when removed from any mag-
netizing field.
When hard iron or steel is removed from a mag-
netizing field it retains nearly all its magnetism.
Such magnetism is also, in reality, residual mag-
netism, but the term is generally limited to the
case of soft iron.
Magnetism, Solenoidal Distribution of
A term sometimes applied to such
a distribution of magnetism in a bar that
the magnetized particles are arranged with
their poles in the direction of the length of the
bar, the ends of which are of opposite mag-
netic polarities, and the extent of whose sur-
faces is small as compared with the length
of the bar.
The term solenoidal distribution is used in con-
tradistinction to lamellar distribution . (See Mag-
netism, Lamellar Distribution of. )
Magnetism, Strength of A term
sometimes used in the sense of intensity of
magnetization. (See Magnetization, Inten-
sity of.}
The term, strength of magnetism, is sometimes
used for flux or quantity of magnetism.
Intensity of magnetization, is the preferable
term.
Mag.]
350
[Mag.
Magnetism, Terrestrial A name
applied to the magnetism of the earth.
Terrestrial magnetism has been ascribed to a
variety of causes. (See Magnetism, Earth's,
Theories as to Cause of. )
Magnetism, Vertical Component of
Earth's (See Component, Vertical,
of Earth's Magnetism?)
Magnetite. — Magnetic oxide of iron, or
Fe3 O4f found in nature, as an ore or mineral.
Lode-stone consists of pieces of magnetized
magnetite.
Magnetizable. — Capable of being magnet-
ized after the manner of a paramagnetic sub-
stance like iron.
The most magnetizable metals are iron, nickel,
cobalt and manganese. (See Paramagnetism.)
Magnetization.— The act of calling out or
of endowing with magnetic properties.
Magnetizable substances are magnetized by
being placed in magnetic fields. (See Field, Mag-
netic. Magnetization, Methods of .)
The act of initial magnetization is not exactly
the same as the act of subsequent magnetization.
A piece of steel, which has once been magnet-
ized and subsequently demagnetized, is a thing en-
tirely distinct, as regards its magnetization, from
a piece of steel which has never before been mag-
netized, and such a piece can never be placed ex-
actly in the same position as regards a magnet-
izing force, unless it is actually melted and recast,
or, perhaps, maintained for a comparatively long
time at a white heat.
Magnetization, Anomalous The
magnetization obtained from an oscillatory
discharge, such as that of a Leyden jar.
In 1842, Henry described the real character of
anomalous magnetization, and showed that there
was nothing anomalous in such magnetization, but
rather in the fact that the magnetizing currents
possessed no simple direction. He remarks on
this subject as follows:
"This anomaly, which has remained so long
unexplained, and which, at first sight, appears at
variance with all our theoretical ideas of the con-
nection of electricity and magnetism, was, after
considerable study, satisfactorily referred to an
action ot the discharge of a Leyden jar which had
never before been recognized. The discharge,
whatever may be its nature, is not correctly rep-
resented (employing the simplicity of Franklin)
by the single transfer of an imponderable fluid
from one side of the jar to the other ; the phe-
nomena require us to admit the existence of a
principal discharge in one direction and then
several reflex actions backward and forward, each
more feeble than the preceding, until the equi-
librium is obtained. All the facts are shown to
be in accordance with the hypothesis, and a ready
explanation is afforded by it of a number of phe-
nomena which are to be found in the older works
on electricity, but whi:h have until this time re-
mained unexplained."
Magnetization by Touch. — The produc-
tion of magnetism in a magnetizable sub-
stance by touching it with a magnet.
There are three methods of magnetization by
touch, viz.:
(i.) Single touch.
(2.) Separate touch.
(3.) Double touch.
In single touch, the magnetization of a bar of
iron or other magnetizable material is effected by
the touch of a single magnet.
In Single Touch, the magnetizing magnet is
drawn over the bar to be magnetized from end to
end and returned through air, the stroke being
repeated a number of times. The end of the
bar the magnet leaves is magnetized oppositely
to the magnetizing pole.
By some writers the method of single touch is
described as that effected
by placing the magnet-
izing magnet N S (Fig.
384) on the middle of
the bar to be magnetized,
and drawing it to the
end and returning
through the air as be- |+N s— )
fore, and then reversing •*
the pole, placing it on F'£- 3^4- Magnetization
the middle of the bar by SinSl, Touch.
and drawing it towards the other end. The
Fig. j<?/. Magnetization by Separate Touch.
former would, however, appear to be the better
use of the term single touch.
In Separate Touch, two magnetizing bars are
placed with their opposite poles at the middle
Mag.]
351
of the bar to be magnetized and drawn away from
each other towards its ends, as shown in Fig.
385. This motion is repeated a number of times,
the poles being each time returned through the
air.
In the above, as in all cases of magnetization
by touch, better effects are produced, if the bar
Fig. 386. Magnetization by Double Touch.
to be magnetized is rested on the opposite poles
of another magnet, or, as shown in Fig. 386,
placed near them.
In Double Touch the two magnets are placed
with their opposite poles together on the middle
of the bar to be magnetized, as shown in Fig.
386. They are then moved to one end of the bar,
when, instead of removing them and passing them
back through the air to the other end, they are
moved over the surface of the bar to be magnet-
ized to the other end, and these to-and-fro mo-
tions are repeated a number of times. The mo-
tion is stopped at the middle of the bar, when the
magnetizing magnets are moving in the opposite
direction to that at which they began to move.
This insures an equal number of strokes to the
two halves of the bar. The method of double
touch produces stronger magnetization than
either of the other methods, but does not effect
such an even distribution of the magnetism, and
therefore is not applicable to the magnetization
of needles.
A variety of double touch is shown in Fig. 387,
where four bars, to be magnetized, are placed in
the form of a hollow rectangle, with only their
ends touching at their edges, the angular spaces
F'f- 387- Magnetization by Double Touch.
at the corners being filled with pieces of soft iron.
The horseshoe magnet N S, is then moved around
the circuit several times in the same direction.
This is believed to produce a more uniform mag-
netization than the ordinary method of double
touch.
Magnetization, Co-efficient of -- A
number representing the intensity of magnet-
ization produced in a magnetizable body,
divided by the magnetizing force H.
Calling k, the co-efficient of magnetization ; I,
the intensity of the resulting magnetization, and
H, the magnetizing force producing it, then
The co-efficient of magnetization is sometimes
called the magnetic susceptibility.
A paramagnetic body when placed in a mag-
netic field concentrates the lines of magnetic force
on it, or causes them to pass through it. The
intensity of the magnetization so produced de-
pends, therefore,
(I.) On the intensity of the magnetizing field.
(2.) On the ability of the metal to concentrate
the lines of force on it; that is, on the nature of
the metal, or on its magnetic permeability. (See
Permeability, Magnetic. Paramagnetism. Dia-
magnetism.)
The intensity of magnetization will, therefore,
be equal to the product of the co-efficient of mag-
netization and the intensity of the magnetizing
field. It will, also, of course, depend on the area
of cross-section of the magnetized body.
The co-efficient of magnetization of paramag-
netic bodies is said to be positive, and that of dia-
magnetic bodies to be negative, because paramag-
netic bodies concentrate the lines of magnetic
force on them, while diamagnetic bodies appear
to repel the lines of force. (See Paramagnetic.
Diamagnetic. )
Magnetization, Critical Current of —
• — The current at which any certain or definite
effect of magnetization is produced.
Magnetization, Intensity of -- A
quantity showing the intensity of the magnet-
ization produced in a substance.
A quantity showing the intensity with
which a magnetizable substance is mag-
netized.
The intensity of magnetization depends:
(I.) On the intensity of the magnetizing field.
(2.) On the magnetic permeability, or on the
conducting power of the substance for lines of
magnetic force.
Mag.]
352
[Mag.
The greater the strength of the magnetizing
field, and the greater the magnetic permeability,
the greater is the intensity of the magnetization
produced.
When, therefore, a magnetizable substance is
placed in a magnetizing field, the intensity of the
magnetization will depend on the magnetic sus-
ceptibility of the substance; that is, on the ratio of
the induced magnetization to the magnetizing force
producing it.
Soft iron has a high co-efficient of magnetization,
or its magnetic susceptibility is high. (See Sus-
ceptibility, Magnetic. Magnetization, Co-efficient
of.)
The intensity of magnetization through a sub-
stance is measured by dividing the magnetic
moment by the magnetic volume.
If a bar of soft iron is placed with its greatest
length extending in the direction of the lines of
force in a magnetic field, it will have induced in
it a certain intensity of magnetization which may
be expressed as follows:
m . 1
Intensity of Magnetization = yoiume = k H,
where m, equals the strength of the magnet ; 1, its
length ; k, the co-efficient of magnetization, and
H, the intensity of the magnetizing field. — (S. P.
Thompson.)
" The moment of a magnet, or of any element
of a magnet, may be considered numerically to be
made up of two factors, one, its volume, and the
other its intensity of magnetization, or simply
its magnetization, and hence, for a uniformly mag-
netized small linear needle, we may define the
intensity of its magnetization by saying that it has
magnetic moment of unit volume."— (Fleming.)
Magnetization, Maximum A term
sometimes used for magnetic saturation.
Urquhart states, as the result of numerous ex-
periments, that the number of lines of magnetic
force that usually pass through a bar of soft iron
I square centimetre in area of cross- section, when
magnetized to a maximum, is equal to 32,000.
Ewing gives the number in the particular case of
a very extraordinary magnetization as being equal
to 45>3S° Per square centimetre area of cross-
section.
Magnetization, Methods of Mag-
netization effected either by induction from
another magnet, or by means of induction by
an electric current.
The substance to be magnetized is brought into
a magnetic field, so that the lines of magnetic
force pass through it. All methods of magnet-
ization may be divided into methods of magnetiza-
tion by toitch. and magnetization by the electfic
current. (See Magnetization by Touch.)
Magnetization, Permanent, Intensity of
A term employed for the intensity of
a permanent magnetization produced in hard
steel, as distinguished from the magnetization
temporarily produced in soft iron. (See Mag-
netization, Intensity of.)
Magnetization, Temporary, Intensity of
The intensity of the magnetization
temporarily induced in a bar of soft iron, as
distinguished from permanent magnetization
induced in hard steel. (See Magnetization,
Intensity of.)
Magnetization, Time-Lag of A lag
which appears to exist between the time of
action of the magnetizing force and the ap-
pearance of the magnetism.
The time which must elapse in the case of
a given paramagnetic substance before a mag-
netizing force can produce magnetization.
In the opinion of some physicists there is no
such thing as a true magnetic time-lag, the ap-
parent time-lag being due entirely either to hys-
teresis or to eddy currents. According to them,
while the magnetizing force is increasing, it pro-
duces, in the iron, reversely-directed surface -
eddy-currents, which produce a reversed or
opposed magnetizing force in the more deeply
seated layers of the iron, the time-lag being due
to the interval which is required for these eddy
currents to die away and thus permit the mag-
netizing force to produce its full magnetization.
According to others, however, a true time-
lag does exist entirely apart from the existence of
surface-eddy-currents.
Magnetize. — To endow with magnetic
properties.
Magnetized. — Endowed or impressed with
magnetic properties.
Magnetizing. — Causing or producing mag-
netism.
Magneto-Blasting Machine.— (See Ma-
chine, Magneto-Blasting.)
Mag.]
353
[Mag.
Magneto-Electric Bell.— (See Bell, Mag-
neto-Electric?)
Magneto-Electric Brake. — (See Brake,
Magneto-Electric)
Magneto-Electric Call-Bell.— (See Call-
Bell. Magneto-Electric)
Magneto-Electric Faradic Apparatus.—
(See Apparatus, Faradtc, Magneto-Elec-
tric)
Magneto-Electric Induction.— (See In-
duction, Magneto- Electric.)
Magneto-Electric Machine.— (See Ma-
chine, Magneto-Electric)
Magneto-Electric Medical Apparatus.—
(See Apparatus, Magneto- Electric Medi-
cal)
Magneto-Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Magneto)
Magnetograph.— The permanent record
obtained from the action of a self-recording
magnetometer. (See Magnetometer, Self-
Recording)
Magnetometer.— An apparatus for the
measurement of magnetic force.
Fig 388. Magnetometer,
In some magnetometers the magnetic force is
measured by the torsion of a wire, as in the tor-
•ion balance. ($•&& Balance, Coulomb's Torsion)
The magnetometer shown in Fig. 388, consists
of a magnetized bar suspended by two wires pasfr-
i ng over a pulley, as shown. The magnet is held
by the frame S S, provided with a graduated scale
K. The mirror S, is supported by a vertical post
attached to the frame, and serves to reflect a scale
placed below a distant reading telescope. This
form of magnetometer, is called the bifilar mag-
netometer, and was the one used by Gauss in his
study of the earth's magnetism.
A variety of forms have been given to delicate
magnetometers. Some are self-recording. (See
Magnetometer, Self -Recording.)
Magnetometer, Differential A form
of magnetometer in which the principles of the
differential galvanometer, as applied to the
electric circuit, are applied to the magnetic
circuit.
The differential magnetometer of Eickemeyer is
shown in Figs. 389 and 390. Its principles of
operation will be understood from the following
considerations.
Referring to Fig. 389. Suppose Ft and F2 are
two electromotive forces connected in series, and
x and y, two resistances to be compared. Each of
the resistances x and y, is shunted respectively by
two conductors a and b, whose resistance we
wish to compare. Since the action of each of
them on the galvanometer G, is opposite, its nee-
dle remains at zero, when the current in a, is
equal to the current in b.
If, instead of electric circuit, we take the idea
of magnetic circuit or the number of lines of
magnetic force, and instead of potential difference,
fig- 38<) • Eickemeyer' s Differential Magnetometer.
magneto-motive force, and instead of electric re-
sistance, magnetic resistance, we have the princi-
ples on which the Eickemeyer differential magnet-
ometer is founded.
The magnetic circuit of the differential magnet-
ometer consists of two pieces of soft iron, shaped
Mag.J
354
as shown at Fj and F2, Fig. 390. A magnetic
coil C, surrounds the middle portion of each cir-
cuit as shown. The operation as described by
Mr. Chas. Steinmetz, from whom the above de-
scription is mainly taken, is as follows, viz. : "The
front part Sj of the left iron piece becomes south,
and the back part nx north polarity; the front
part of the right iron piece n2 becomes north, and
the back part south; and the lines of magnetic
force travel in the front from the right to the left,
from ns to Sj ; in the back the opposite way, from
the left to the right, or from nx to S;, either
through the air, or, when n2 and Sj, or nx and s2>
are connected by a piece of magnetizable metal,
through this and through the air.
In the middle of the coil C, stands a small soft
iron needle with an aluminum indicator, which
plays over a scale K, and is held in a vertical
position by the lines of magnetic force of the coil
C, itself, deflected to the left by the lines of mag-
netic force traversing the front part of the instru-
ment from na to s15 deflected to the right by the
lines traversing the back from nx to s2. This
needle shows by its zero position that the mag-
netic flow through the air in front from n3 to sx
has the same strength as the magnetic flow in the
back from n1 to sa through the air.
Now we put a piece of soft iron x on the front
of the instrument. A large number of lines go
through x, less through the air from na to sa ; but
all these lines go from n , to s2 through the air
at the back part of the magnetometer, the front
part and back part of the instrument being con-
nected in series in the magnetic circuit. There-
fore the needle is deflected to the right by the
magnetic flow in the back of the instrument.
Now, we put another piece of iron, y, on the
back part of the instrument, then equilibrium
would be restored as soon as the same number of
lines of magnetic force go through x, as through
y, because then also the same number of lines go
through air in the front as in the back. As will
be noted, the air here takes the place of the resist-
ances a and b, influencing the galvanometer
needle G, as in the diagram Fig. 389.
The operation of the instrument is exceedingly
simple and is as follows : Into the coil C, an elec-
tric current is sent which is measured by the am-
meter A, and regulated by the resistance-switch
R. Then the needle, which before had no fixed
position, points to zero.
Now, we lay the piece of iron, the magnetic
properties of which we want to determine, on the
back part of the instrument. The needle is de-
flected to the left. On the front of the instrument
we put Norway iron rods of known cross-section
and known conductivity, until equilibrium is
again restored. Then the iron in the front has
the same magnetic resistance as the iron in the
back, and the ratio of the cross-sections gives
directly the ratio of the conductivities ; so that
by a single reading the magnetic conductivity of
any piece of iron can be compared with that of
the Norway iron standard.
For absolute determinations, the iron is turned
off into pieces of exactly 4 square centimetres
cross-section and 20 centimetres in length, both
ends fitting into holes in large blocks of Norway
iron, which are laid against the pole pieces of the
magnetometer, so that the transient resistance
from pole face to iron is eliminated.
Fig. 3QO. Eickemeyer\i Differential Magnetometer,
Magnetometer, Self-Recording— —A
self-recording apparatus, by means of which
the daily and hourly variations of magnetic
needles in the earth's field, at any locality, are
continuously registered.
The self-recording magnetometer employed in
the observatory at Kew, consists essentially of
means of obtaining a photographic record of a
spot of light reflected from a mirror, attached to
the needle whose variations are to be recorded.
The photographic record is received on a strip of
sensitized paper, maintained in uniform and con-
tinuous motion by means of suitable clock-work.
The record so obtained is called a magneto-
graph.
Magneto-Motive Force. — (See Force,
Magneto-Motive.)
Mag.]
355
[Mak.
Magneto-Motive Force, Absolute Unit of
(See Force, Magneto-Motive, Abso-
lute Unit of.}
Magneto-Motive Force, Practical Unit of
(See Force, Magneto-Motive, Prac-
tical Unit of.)
Magneto-Optic Rotation.— (See Rotation,
Magneto-Optic?)
Magnetophone. — A species of magnetic
siren in which sounds are produced in an
electro-magnetic telephone by the periodic
currents produced in its coils by the rotation
of a perforated metallic disc in a magnetic
field.
As the speed of the disc increases, the pitch of
the note increases. The apparatus was invented
by Prof. Carhart, in 1883. A similar apparatus
is useful in studying the distribution of the mag-
netic field of a dynamo-electric machine. In this
case, a small, thin coil of insulated wire is held in
the different regions around the machine, while
the telephone is held to the ear of the observer.
Magnetic leakage, or useless dissipation of lines
of magnetic force outside the field proper of the
machine, is at once rendered manifest by the
musical note caused by variations in the intensity
of the field.
Since the intensity of the note heard will vary
according to the intensity of the field, and also
according to the position in which the coil is held,
such a coil becomes a magnetic explorer, and by
its use the distribution and varying intensity of an
irregular field can be ascertained. Its use is
especially advantageous in proportioning dynamo -
electric machines and electric motors. (See Ex-
plorer, Magnetic. )
Magneto-Receptive Device. — (See Device,
Magneto-Receptive?)
Magneto-Static Current Meter. — (See
Meter, Current, Magneto-Static?)
Magneto-Static Screening.— (See Screen-
ing, Magneto-Static?)
Magneto-Statics.— (See Statics, Magneto?)
Magneto-Therapy. — (See Therapy, Mag-
neto?)
Main Battery.— (See Battery, Main?)
Main-Battery Circuit — (See Circuit,
Main-Battery?)
Main, Electric The principal con-
ductor in any system of electric distribution.
Main Feeder.— (See Feeder, Standard or
Main?)
Main Fuse.— (See Fuse, Main?)
Main, House A term employed in
a system of multiple incandescent lamp dis-
tribution for the conductor connecting the
house service conductors with a centre of
distribution, or with a street main.
Main-Line Cut-Out — (See Cut-Out, Main-
Line?)
Main, Street In a system of incan-
descent lamp distribution the conductors ex-
tending in a system of networks through the
streets from junction box to junction box,
through which the current is distributed
from the feeder ends, through cut-outs, to
the district to be lighted, and from which
service wires are taken.
Main, Sub A name sometimes
given to the distributing conductor that is
connected directly to a main.
The branch nearest the main. (See
Branch?)
Main Wire.— (See Wire, Main?)
Mains of Electric Railroads.— The wires
or conductors used for carrying the current
from the feeders through the tap wires to the
trolley wires.
Make. — A completion of a circuit.
Make-ami- Break. — The periodic alternate
completion and opening of a circuit.
Make-and-Break, Automatic A
term sometimes employed for such a combi-
nation of contact points with the armature of
any electro-magnet, that the circuit is auto-
matically made and broken with great rapidity.
An automatic make-and-break is used in most
forms of electric alarms in connection with some
form of electric bell. (See Alarm, Electric.)
It is also used in the Ruhmkorff ind action cofl
in order to produce the variations in the primary
circuit. (See Coil, Induction?)
Make-Induced Current. — (See Current,
Make-Induced?\
Mat,]
356
[Mar.
Making the Primary.— (See Primary,
Making the.)
Mallet, Electro-Magnetic Dental
—(See Dental-Mallet, Electro-Magnetic.)
Mangin Projector. — (See Projector, Man-
gin^
Man-Hole, Compartment, of Conduit
— A man-hole provided with suitably sup-
ported shelves or compartments, guarded by
locked doors that protect different cable sec-
tions.
Man-Hole of Conduit. — An opening of
sufficient size to admit a man, communi-
cating from the surface of the roadbed with
an underground conduit.
Manipulator, Breguet's The send-
ing instrument employed by Breguet in his
system of step-by-step or dial telegraphy.
(See Telegraphy, Step-by-Step.)
Manometei. — An apparatus for measuring
the tension or pressure of gases.
Manometers are either mercurial or metallic.
Mercurial manometers are of two classes, viz.,
manometers with free air and manometers with
compressed air.
Manometers measure the pressure of gases
either in atmospheres, i. e., in multiples or deci-
mals of 15 pounds to the square inch, or in inches
of mercury.
Map or Chart, Inclination A chart
or map on which lines are drawn, showing
the lines of equal dip or inclination, or the
isoclinic lines.
An inclination chart is shown in Fig. 391.
It will be seen that the magnetic equator, or
line of no dip, does not correspond with the geo-
graphical equator, being generally north of the
equator in the Eastern Hemisphere, and south of
h in the Western. The figures attached to the
lines indicate the value of the angle of dip.
Map or Chart, Isodynamic — — A map
of the earth on a mercator's projection, on
which isodynamic lines are drawn.
An isodynamic chart is shown in Fig. 392. It
will be observed that the isodynamic lines do not
exactly coincide with the isoclinic lines, since the
line of least magnetic intensity does not correspond
with the line of the magnetic equator.
The point of least magnetic intensity is found at
about lat. 20 degrees S., and Ion. 35 degrees VV.
The point of greatest magnetic intensify is found
at about lat. 52 degrees N. and Ion. 92 degrees
W.
Another, though weaker point of magnetic in-
tensity, is found in Siberia. These are distin-
guished from the true magnetic poles by the term
Poles of Intensity.
The Poles of Verticity, as determined by the
dipping needle, and the Poles of Intensity, as de-
termined by the needle of oscillation, therefore do
not coincide in the Northern Hemisphere.
Map or Chart, Isogonal A term
sometimes used for an isogonic map or chart.
Map or Chart, Isogonic — —A chart
on which the isogonal lines are marked.
An isogonic map or chart is sometimes called
a declination map or chart.
In the declination or variation chart, shown in
Fig. 393, the region of western declination is in •
dicated by the shading. There is a remarkable
oval patch in the northeastern part of Asia, in
which the declination is west A similar oval of
decreased inclination is seen in the Southerm
Pacific.
The entire earth acts like a huge magnet with
south magnetic polarity in the Northern Hemi-
sphere.
It is not known whether the earth possesses
but a single pair of magnetic poles or more
than a single pair. The variations in the dec-
lination, and in the intensity of its magnetism,
due to the position of the sun, •ss well as the
marked magnetic disturbances that accompany
the occurrence of sun spots, would appear to con-
nect the earth's magnetism in some manner witk
the solar radiation. (See Magnetism, Earth's,
Theories as to Cause of.)
Marine Galvanometer. — (See Galvanom-
eter, Marine?)
Mariner's Compass. — (See Compass, Azi-
muth.)
Marked Pole of Magnet— (See Magnet,
Marked Pole of.)
Markers. — Colored flags, or signal lights,
generally green, displayed in systems of
block railway signaling at the ends of
trains, in order to avoid accidents from trains
breaking in two. (See Railroads, Block
System for.)
357
[Mar.
Mar.]
358
[Mar.
Har.]
359
[Mar.
g g
S S
Mas.]
360
[Mat.
Mass. — The quantity of matter contained
in a body.
Mass must be carefully distinguished from
weight. The weight of a given quantity of
matter depends on the attraction which the earth
possesses for it, and this, on the earth' s surface,
varies with the latitude, being greatest at the
poles and least at the equator. It also varies
with different elevations above the level of the sea.
The mass, however, is the same under all circum-
stances, whether for different latitudes or alti-
tudes, on the earth's surface.
Mass Attraction.— (See Attraction, Mass.)
Mass, Magnetic — —A quantity of mag-
netism which at unit distance produces an
action equal to unit force.
Mass, Unit of The quantity of mat-
ter which under certain conditions will balance
the weight of a standard gramme or pound.
The gramme is equal to the one-thousandth
part of a piece of platinum called the kilogramme,
deposited as a standard in the archives of the
French Government, and intended to be equal to
the mass of I cubic centimetre of water at the tem-
perature of its maximum density.
Massage. — A treatment for the purpose
of effecting changes in general nutrition or
.action of particular parts of the body, by
kneading, rubbing, friction, etc.
Massage, Electro The application
•of electricity to the body during its massage.
Connections are established between the patient
and a battery by connecting one electrode of a
source to the kneading instrument, and the other
electrode to the body of the patient.
Masses, Electric A mathematical
conception for such quantities of electricity
as at unit distance will produce an attrac-
tion or repulsion equal to unit force.
Electrical masses are assumed to be equal when
they produce on two identical bodies of sn»all
dimensions charges of the same electric force.
Master Clock.— (See Clock, Master.)
Materials, Insulating Non-con-
ducting substances which are placed around a
conductor, in order that it may either retain
an electric charge, or permit the passage of
an electric current through the conductor
without sensible leakage.
Various gases, liquids or solids may be em-
ployed as insulators. A very high vacuum affords
the best known insulation.
Matter. — Anything which occupies space in
three directions and prevents other matter from
simultaneously occupying the same space.
Matter is composed of atoms, which unite to
form molecules. (See Atom. Molecule. )
Matter, Elementary Matter which
cannot be decomposed into simpler matter.
Varieties of elementary matter are called
elements. (See Element. )
Matter, Kinetic Theory of— —A
theory which assumes that the molecules of
matter are in a constant state of motion or
vibration towards or from one another in
paths that lie within the spheres of their
mutual attractions or repulsions.
The molecules of gases have great freedom
of motion, and are so far removed from one
another as to be but little, if any, influenced by
their mutual attractions. They are therefore
assumed to move in straight lines with very great
velocity until they collide against one another, or
against the sides of the containing vessel, when
they are reflected and again move in straight lines
in a new path.
Matter, Radiant, or Ultra-Gascons —
• — A term proposed by Crookes for the
peculiar condition of the gaseous matter which
constitutes the residual atmospheres of high
vacua.
This is now generally recognized as a fourth
state of matter, these four states being:
(i.) Solid.
(2.) Liquid.
(3.) Gaseous.
(4. ) Ultra-gaseous or radiant.
The peculiar properties of radiant matter are
seen in the mechanical effects of the localized
pressures produced when such residual atmos-
pheres are locally heated or electrified.
In Creoles' radiometer, vanes of mica, silvered
on one face and covered with lampblack on the
opposite face, are supported on a vertical axis so
as to be capable of rotation and placed in a glass
vessel in which a high vacuum is maintained. On
Mat.]
361
[Mat.
exposing the instrument to the radiation from a
candle or gas flame, a rapid rotation takes place.
^See Radiometer, Crookes'.)
The explanation is as follows : The lampblack
covered surfaces absorb the radiant heat, and be-
coming heated, the molecules of gas in the residual
atmosphere are shot violently from them, and by
their reaction drive the vanes around in the
Opposite direction to that from which they are
thrown off. The molecules are also shot off from
the silvered surfaces, but, as these are cooler, the
effect is not as great as at the blackened surfaces.
In a gas, at ordinary pressure, the heated sur-
faces are also bombarded by other molecules of
the gas, but in high vacua the mean free path of
the molecules is so great that there is no interfer-
ence, a Crookes' layer existing between the vanes
and the walls of the glass vessel. (See Layer^
Crookes\}
When a Cr cokes' tube is furnished with suit-
able electrodes, and electric discharges are sent
through it between these electrodes, a stream of
molecules is thrown off in straight lines from the
stir face of the negative electrode.
Some of the effects of this molecular bombard-
ment are seen by the use of the apparatus shown
in Fig. 394. When the positive and negative
fig. 394. Effects of Molecular Bombardment.
terminals are arranged as shown, the paths of the
molecular streams are seen as luminous streams
whose directions are those shown in the figures.
The figure on the left shows the path taken in
a low -vacuum. Streams pass from the negative
electrode to each of the positive electrodes.
The figure on the right shows the discharge in
a high vacuum. Here the streams pass off at
right angles to the face of the negative electrode,
ana proceed therefrom in straight lines, inde-
pendently of the position of the positive electrode.
Since, therefore, the negative electrode at a, is in
the shape of a concave mirror, the luminous
particles converge to a focus near the centre of
the glass vessel, and then diverge to the opposite
wall.
Refractory substances placed at such a. focus of
molecular bombardment, as shown in Fig. 395, are
rendered incandescent.
In a similar manner, phosphorescent substances
exposed to such molecular streams emit a beauti-
Forces of Molecular. Bombardment.
ful phosphorescent light. (See Phosphorescence,
Electric.}
Matter, Thomson's Hypothesis of —
A hypothesis as to the structure of matter
suggested by Sir William Thomson, in order
to show how the extremely tenuous ether
might possess rigidity.
The fact that the ether, although a fluid sub-
stance, possesses the properties of a rigid solid,
has given no little trouble to physicists. Thomson
explains this rigidity of the ether as being due to
a rapid motion in its fluid particles.
A perfectly flexible rubber tube filled with
water or other fluid, possesses, when at rest, a
very great degree of flexibility. When in mo-
tion, however, the tube becomes more and more
rigid, as the flow increases in rapidity. Thorn-
Mat.]
362
son imagines the ether to be set in motion in
minute vortex rings, and shows that a readily
movable fluid body, like ether, once set in such
motion should possess the properties of a solid.
In a perfect fluid, such as ether, these vortex
rings once formed, would be practically imperish-
able or indestructible.
Thomson regards the atoms of matter as con-
sisting of such vortex rings. Vortex rings can be
formed in the air by cutting a circular aperture
in the end of a pasteboard box, and tapping
sharply against the end of the box. In order to
render the rings visible, the box may be previously
filled with smoke.
Vortex rings formed in smoky air differ from
vortex rings in the ether, in the fact that air is
not a perfect fluid, while ether is. Air vortex
rings increase in size and decrease in energy.
Vortex rings of the ether would not vary in size.
According to Thomson's vortex theory of
matter, the atoms of matter are the same as the
ether which surrounds them. They cannot be
produced in ether by any known way; therefore,
they cannot be manufactured, or, as it were,
created. Nor, on the other hand, can they be
destroyed ; in other words, they are indestruct-
ible. They are elastic, capable of definite vibra-
tions, possess all the properties of matter save, in
the opinion of some, the very important prop-
erty of gravitation. As Prof. Lodge points out,
the fact that this property is not present should
cause Sir William Thomson's theory of matter to
"be accepted with considerable hesitation.
Matthiessen's Metre-Gramme Standard.
—(See Metre-Gramme Standard, Matthies-
sen's.)
Matthiessen's Mile Standard.— (See Mile
Standard, Matthiessen's)
Matting, Invisible Electric Floor
— A matting or other floor covering, provided
with a series of electric contacts, which are
closed by the passage of a person walking
over them.
This matting is provided as an adjunct to a
system of burglar alarms. The electric bell or
annunciator, connected with the different con-
tacts, is disconnected during the day-time, or while
the rooms are occupied. (See Alarm, Burglar. )
Maximum Magnetization.— (See Mag-
ttetization, Maximum)
Mclntire's Parallel Sleeve Telegraphic
Joint— (See Joint, Telegraphic, Mclntires
Parallel Sleeve)
Measurements, Electric — Deter-
minations of the values of the electromotive
force, resistance, current, capacity, energy,
etc., in any electric circuit.
Electric measurements may be either qualitative
or quantitative.
In qualitative electric measurements the rela-
tive values only are obtained; in quantitative
measurements the actual values are obtained.
Mechanical Alarm, Electric — —(See
Alarm, Electro-Mechanical.}
Mechanical Electric Bell.— (See Btll,
Electro-Mechanical?)
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.— (See
Heat, Mechanical Equivalent of}
Mechanical Mine.— (See Mine, Mechani-
cal}
Mechanical Throwback Indicator. —
(See Indicator, Mechanical Throwback)
Medical Induction Coil.— (See Coil, In-
duction Medical)
Medical Magneto-Electric Apparatus. —
(See Apparatus, Magneto-Electric Medi-
cal)
Medium, Anisotropic A medium
in which equal stresses do not produce equal
strains when applied in different directions.
A medium, homogeneous in structure like
crystalline bodies, but possessing different
powers of specific inductive capacity in differ-
ent directions.
An eolotropic medium. (See Medium,
Eolotropic)
The latter term is used to distinguish it from
an isotropic medium. (See Medium, Isotropic)
Medium, Eolotropic A medium
in which equal stresses do not produce the
same strains when applied in different direc-
tions. (See Medium, Isotropic)
Medium, Electro-Magnetic Any
medium in which electro-magnetic phenom-
ena occur.
The medium through which electro-magnetic
waves are propagated is now universally re-
Med.]
363
[Met.
garded as the luminiferous or universal ether.
(See Electricity, Hertz's Theory of Electro-Mag-
netic Radiations or Waves.}
Medium, Isotropic A medium in
which equal stresses applied in any direction
produce equal strains.
A transparent medium which possesses the
same optical or electric properties in all di-
rections.
An optically homogeneous, transparent
medium.
Such media are called isotropic to distinguish
them from anisotropic or eolotropic, or those in
which equal stresses produce unequal strains in
different directions. .(See Medium, Anisotropic.
Medium, Eolotropic. )
Meg or Mega (as a prefix).— 1,000,000
times ; as, megohm, 1,000,000 ohms ; mega-
volt, i ,000,000 volts.
Megaloscope, Electric An appara-
tus for the medical exploration of the cavities
of the body.
The light necessary for exploration is obtained
from a small incandescent lamp placed at the
extremity of a tube, suitably shaped for introduc-
tion into the special organ for which it is devised.
The organ so illumined throws its light on a
prism, by means of which the light is caused to
pass through a series of lenses by which it is
viewed.
Megavolt. — 1,000,000 volts.
Megohm. — 1,000,000 ohms.
Meidinger Toltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Vol-
taic, Meidinger.}
Memory, Magnetic A term pro-
posed by J. A. Fleming for coercive force.
Soft iron has but a feeble memory of its past
magnetization.
Mercurial Connection. — (See Connection,
Mercurial?)
Mercurial Contact. — (See Connection,
Mercurial?)
Mercurial Temperature Alarm. — (See
Alarm, Mercurial Temperature)
Mercury Break. — (See Break, Mercury?)
Mercury Cup. — (See Cup, Mercury?)
Meridian, Astronomical A great
circle passing through any point in the
heavens, and the North and South poles of
the heavens.
The astronomical meridian corresponds to the
geographical meridian. The former is considered
as passing around the dome of the heavens; the
latter, around the surface of the earth. In order
to locate any point in the heavens, a great circle
of the heavens is caused to pass through that point
and through the astronomical North and South
poles.
Meridian, Geographical The geo-
graphical meridian of a place is a great circle
passing through that place and the North and
South geographical poles of the earth.
Meridian, Magnetic The magnetic
meridian of any place is the meridian which
passes through the poles of a magnetic needle
at that place when in a position of rest under
the free influence of the earth's magnetism.
The plane of the magnetic meridian at any place
is a vertical plane passing through the poles of a
magnetic needle in a position of rest under the
free influence of the earth's magnetism at that
place.
The magnetic meridian may be regarded as the
vertical plane in which a freely suspended mag-
netic needle comes to rest in the earth's magnetic
field.
Meridional. — Pertaining to the meridian.
Message Wire.— (See Wire, Message?)
Messenger Call. — (See Call, Messenger)
Metallic Arc.— (See Arc, Metallic?)
Metallic Circuit.— (See Circuit, Metal-
lic)
Metallic Coating.— (See Coating, Metal-
lic)
Metallic Conducting Joint.— (See Joint,
Metallic Conducting.}
Metallic Contact.— (See Contact, Metal-
lic.}
Metallic Electric Conduction. — (See
Conduction, Electric, Metallic?)
Metallization. — The rendering of a non-
conducting surface electrically conducting by
covering it with a metallic coating, so as to
Met.]
364
[Met.
enable it to readily receive a metallic coating
by electro-plating. (See Plating, Electro?)
Metallochromes. — A name sometimes
given to Nobili's rings. (See Rings, No-
bt'lz's.)
Metalloid. — A name formerly applied to a
non-metallic body, or to a body having only
some of the properties of a metal, as carbon,
boron, oxygen, etc.
The term is now but little used.
Metallurgy, Electro That branch
of applied science which relates to the elec-
trical reduction or treatment of metals.
Metallurgical processes effected by the
agency of electricity.
Electro-Metallurgy embraces :
(I.) The reduction of metals from their ores,
either directly during fusion by the heat of the
voltaic arc, or the heat of incandescence, or by
the electrolysis of solutions of their ores, or ores
in the fused state. (See Electrolysis. Furnace,
Electric.)
(2.) Electroplating.
(3.) Electrotyping.
The application of electricity to the reduction
of metals is carried on in the electric furnace for-
the reduction of the aluminium ores, for example.
Metals, Electric Deflagration of —
The volatilization of metals by electric in-
candescence.
Metals, Electric Refining of -
Purifying metals by means of electricity.
Different methods are employed for the electric
refining of metals. They are generally electro-
lytic in character.
Metals, Electrical Protection of —
The protection of a metal from corrosion by
placing it in connection with another metal,
which, when exposed to the corroding liquid,
vapor or gas, will form with the metal to be
protected the positive element of a voltaic
couple.
The negative element of a voltaic couple is
protected by the presence of the positive element,
which is alone corroded. This method has been
adopted with considerable success to electrically
protect metals from corrosion.
The following are examples of this protection :
(I.) Davy proposed to protect the copper
sheathing of ships from corrosion by attaching
pieces of zinc to the copper sheathing. This
succeeded too well, since the copper salts which
were formerly produced, and acted as a poison
to the marine plants and animals, being now
absent, permitted these organisms to thrive to
such an extent as to seriously foul the ship's
bottom.
(2.) A ring of zinc attached to a lightning rod,
near its points, has, it is claimed, the power of
protecting the points from corrosion.
(3.) Iron bars of railings, if sunk or embedded
in zinc, are preserved from corrosion near the
junction of the two metals, but if sunk in lead are
rapidly corroded, because iron is electro-positive
to lead, but electro-negative to zinc.
(4.) Tinned iron rapidly corrodes or rusts
when the iron is exposed to the atmosphere by a
scratch or abrasion, because the iron is electro-
positive to tin. Nickel-plated iron, for the same
reason, rusts rapidly on the exposure of an
abraded surface.
(5.) Zinced or galvanized iron, or iron covered
with a deposit of zinc, is protected from corro-
sion because the zinc, being positive to iron, can
alone be corroded, and the zinc is also protected
in part by the coating of insoluble oxide that is
formed.
Meteorites. — Aerolites. (See Aerolites.}
Meter, Ampere — (See Ampere-
Meter. Ammeter.)
Meter, Current A term now ap-
plied to an electric meter or galvanometer
which measures the current in amperes, as
distinguished from one which measures the
energy in watts.
This term is sometimes loosely applied to a
galvanometer.
The term galvanometer is preferable. (See
Galvanometer. )
Meter, Current, Magneto-Static — —A
current meter in which a small steel magnet,
or system of magnets, is suspended at the
centre of the uniform magnetic field produced
by the combined influence of two coils and
two systems of powerful permanent magnets.
Meter, Electric Any apparatus for
measuring commercially the quantity of elec-
tricity that passes in a given time through
any consumption circuit.
Met.J
365
[Met.
Electric meters are constructed in a great
variety of forms; they may, however, be ar-
ranged under the following heads :
(I. ) Electro-Magnetic Meters, or those in which
the current passing is measured by the electro-
magnetic effects it produces.
In such meters the entire current may pass
through the meter.
(2.) Electro-Chemical Meters, or those in which
the current passing is measured by the electroly-
tic decomposition it effects.
In these meters, a shunted portion only of the
current is usually passed through a solution of a
metallic salt, and the current strength calculated
from the amount of electrolytic decomposition
thus effected.
(3.) Electro- Thermal Meters, or those in which
the current passing is measured by a movement
effected by the increase in temperature of a resist-
ance through which the current is passed, or by
the amount of a liquid evaporated by the heat
generated by the current.
(4.) Electric- Time Meters, or those in which
no attempt is made to measure the current that
passes, but in which a record is kept of the num-
ber of hours that an electric lamp, motor or
other electro-receptive device is supplied with
current.
Edison's electric meter is of the second class.
It consists of two voltameters, or electrolytic cells,
containing zinc sulphate, in which two plates of
chemically pure zinc are dipped. The current
that passes is determined by the amount of the
variation in weight of the zinc plates. To deter-
mine this, the plates are weighed at stated in.
tervals : one plate every month, the other plate,
which is intended to act as a check on the first,
only once in three months. Some difficulty has
been experienced in the employment of meters of
this class, from the variations in the value of the
shunt resistance, due to variations in the condi-
tion and temperature of the electrolytic cell.
The use of a compensating resistance, however,
has, it is claimed, removed this objection. (See
Voltameter.)
Meter, Electric-Time — — An electric
meter in which the current passing is esti-
mated by recording the number of hours that
an electric lamp or other electro-receptive
device is supplied with a known current.
i (See Meter, Electric.}
Meter, Electro-Chemical An elec-
tric meter in which the current passing is
measured by the electrolytic decomposition it
effects. (See Meter, Electric^
Meter, Electro-Magnetic An elec-
tric meter in which the current passing is
measured by the electro-magnetic effects it
produces. (See Meter, Electric?)
Meter, Electro-Thermal An elec-
tric meter in which the current passing is
measured by means of the heat generated by
the passage of the current through a resist-
ance. (See Meter, Electric^
Meter, Energy A term sometimes
applied to a watt meter. (See Meter,
Watt.}
Meter, Milli-Ampe're An ampere
meter graduated to read milli-amperes.
Meter, Watt An instrument gener-
ally consisting of a galvanometer constructed
so as to measure directly the product of the
current, and the difference of potential.
Since the watt is equal to the product of the
Fig. 39 6. Watt Meter.
current by the electromotive force, if the current
and electromotive force are simultaneously meas-
ured, their product gives directly the watts.
The scale reading of a watt meter may be grad-
uated so as to give the watts directly.
A watt meter consists essentially of a thick wire
coil, placed in series in the circuit whose electric
power is to be measured, and a thin wire coil
Met.]
366
[Mic.
placed in a shunt around the circuit to be meas-
ured. These two coils, instead of acting on a
needle, act on each other, and the amount of this
deflection will, therefore, be proportional to the
watts present.
A form of watt meter is shown in Fig. 396.
Method, Deflection A method em-
ployed in electrical measurements, as distin-
guished from the zero method, in which a
deflection, produced on any instrument by a
given current, or by a given charge, is utilized
for determining the value of that current or
charge.
The conditions remaining the same, the same
Current or charge will produce the same deflection
at any time. Different deflections produced by
currents or charges, the values of which are un-
known, are determined by certain ratios existing
between the deflections and the currents or
charges. These ratios are determined experi-
mentally by the calibration of the instrument.
(See Calibrate.)
Deflection methods are opposed to zero or null
methods, in which latter a balance of opposite
electromotive forces, or a proportionally equal
fall of electric potential, is ascertained by the
failure of a delicately poised needle to be moved
by a current or a charge.
Method, Null or Zero Any method
employed in electrical measurements, in which
the values of the electromotive force in volts,
the resistance in ohms, or the current in am-
p&res, or other similar units, are determined
by balancing them against equal values of the
same units, and ascertaining such equality, not
by the deflections of the needle of a galvano-
meter, or of an electrometer, but by the ab-
sence of such deflections.
The advantage of zero methods is iound in the
fact that the galvanometer or electrometer may
then be made as sensitive as possible, which is not
otherwise the case, since great deflections are
generally to be avoided, especially in tangent
galvanometers. (See Galvanometer. Electrom-
eter.}
Method of Magnetization by Touch.—
(See Magnetization by Touch.)
Methven's Screen.— (See Screen, Meth-
•ven 's.)
Metre Bridge.— (See Bridge, Metre.)
Metre Candle.— (See Candle, Metre.}
Metre-Gramme Standard, Matthiessen's
A unit of resistance.
The resistance of a wire one metre in
length, and of such a diameter as would cause
the wire to weigh one gramme.
One metre-gramme of pure hard drawn cop per
has a resistance of .1469 B. A. units at zero de-
grees C. as determined by Matthiessen (Phil.
Mag., May, 1865).
Metre-Millimetre A resistance unit
of length of a wire or other conductor of the
length of one metre and of the area of cross-
section of one square millimetre.
According to the report of the Committee of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers of 1890,
on a Standard Wiring Table, a metre-millimetre
of pure soft copper wire has a resistance of .02057
B. A. units at zero degrees C. From the corre-
sponding term, milfoot, millimetre-metre would
appear to be the preferable term.
Metric Horse-Power. — (See Horse-Power,
Metric.)
Metric System of Weights and Meas-
ures.— (See Weights and Measures, Metric
System of.}
Mho. — A term proposed by Sir Wm.
Thomson for the practical unit of conductiv-
ity.
Such a unit of conductivity as is equal to
the reciprocal of I ohm.
The conducting power is equal to or the
R
reciprocal of the resistance.
The word mho, as is evident, is obtained by in-
verting the order of sequence of the letters in the
word ohm.
Mica. — A mineral substance employed as
an insulator.
Mica is a silicious mineral. It occurs of vary-
ing degrees of transparency, and splits or cleaves
readily into transparent laminae. It is a good
non-conductor, is fairly fire-proof, and is not
hydroscopic.
Mica is used extensively in insulating the me-
tallic segment of commutators of motors and
dynamo-electric machines and in various other
electric work.
Mic.]
36?
Mica, Moulded An insulating sub-
stance consisting of finely divided mica made
into a paste, with some fused insulating
substance, and moulded into any desired
shape.
Finely divided mica mixed with gum-shellac
rendered plastic by means of heat, forms a good
insulating substance.
Micro (as a prefix). — The one-millionth;
as, a microfarad, the millionth of a farad ; a
microvolt, the one-millionth of a volt.
Micro-Farad.— (See Farad, Micro)
Micro-Graphophone. — A modified form of
phonograph in which several independent
non-metallic diaphragms are used instead of
the single diaphragm of the phonograph. (See
Graphophone, Micro.)
Micrometer, Arc An apparatus for
the accurate measurement of the length of a
voltaic arc by means of a micrometer.
The distance between two carbon electrodes —
one movable and the other fixed — placed inside a
glass vessel, is accurately determined by means of
a micrometer placed on the movable electrode.
The operation is similar to that of the •vernier
•wire gauge.
Micrometer, Spark A term some-
times applied to Hertz's electric resonator.
(See Resonator, Electric?)
Micron. — A measure of length.
The one-millionth part of a metre.
The micron is equal to .00004 of an inch, very
nearly.
Microphone.— An apparatus invented by
Prof. Hughes for rendering faint or distant
sounds distinctly audible.
The microphone depends for its operation on
variations produced in the resistance of the circuit
of a battery, or other electric source, by means of
a loose contact. These variations in the resist-
ance are caused to produce corresponding move-
ments in the diaphragm of a receiving telephone.
The loose contact may take a variety of forms.
Originally it was made in the form shown in Fig.
397, in which a small piece of carbon E, pointed
at both ends, is inserted in holes near the ends of
cross-pieces of carbon B and C. The thin upright
board A, on which these are supported, acts as a
sounding board or diaphragm, and its movements
by sound waves are at once audible to a person
listening at the receiving telephone. The walk-
ing of a fly over the sounding board is heard as a
loud sound.
The forms of transmitting telephones invented
by Reis, Edison, Blake, Berliner and others, are
in reality varieties of microphones.
Fig- 397- Microphone.
Microphone Relay.— (See Relay, Micro-
phoned)
Micro-Seismograph. — (See Seismograph
Micro)
Microtasimeter. — An apparatus invented
by Edison to measure minute differences of
temperature, or of moisture, by the resulting
differences of pressure.
A change of temperature, or moisture, is caused
to produce variations in the resistance of a button
of compressed lampblack, placed in the circuit of
a delicate galvanometer. The apparatus, though
of surprising delicacy, is scarcely capable of prac-
tical application, from the fact that the resistance
of the carbon does not resume its normal value on
the removal of the pressure.
Micro-Volt— (See Volt, Micro.)
Mil.— A unit of length equal to the TTTOT of
an inch, or .001 inch, used in measuring the
diameter of wires.
Mil, Circular A unit of area em-
ployed in measuring the areas of cross-sec-
tions of wires, equal to .78540 square mil.
The area of a circle one mil in diameter.
Mil.]
368
[Min.
One circular mil equals .000000785 square inch.
The area of cross-section of a circular wire in
circular mils is equal to the square of its diameter
expressed in mils. (See Units ^ Circular.}
Mil-Foot. — A resistance unit of length of
one foot of wire or other conductor of one
mil diameter.
The resistance of a mil-foot of soft copper wire
or wire i foot long and .001 of an inch in diam-
eter is equal to 9.720 B. A. units at O degrees C.
Mil, Square A unit of area em-
ployed in measuring the areas of cross-sec-
tions of wires, equal to .000001 square inch.
One square mil equals 1.2732 circular mil.
Mile, Nautical - —A knot, or a dis-
tance of 6,087 feet, or very nearly 1.15 statute
miles.
The -gifloo of the earth's equatorial cir-
cumference, or the -gV of a degree of longi-
tude at the equator, or about 2,029 yards.
A nautical or geographical mile being the
syiinr of 24,899 miles, has a value somewhat
greater than that of the statute mile.
Mile Standard, Matthiessen's A
standard of resistance equal to the resistance
of one mile of pure copper wire iV inch in
diameter at 15.5 degrees C.
Matthiessen's mile standard has a resistance of
13.59 B. A. units at 15.5 degrees C.
Mile, Statute — — The ordinary unit of
distance on land, equal to 5,280 feet.
Milli (as a prefix). — The one-thousandth
part.
Milli- Ampere. — The thousandth of an am-
pere.
Milli-Calorie. — The smaller calorie. (See
Calorie, Small.)
Milli-Oerstedt— The one-thousandth of
an Oerstedt.
Mimosa Sensitive— A sensitive plant
whose leaves fold or shut up when touched.
The fibres of all the sensitive plants, such, for
example, as the above, the Venus' Fly-trap, etc.,
like all muscular fibre, and indeed all protoplasm,
suffer contraction when traversed by electric cur-
rents.
Mine, Electro-Contact A sub-
marine mine that is fired automatically on
the completion of the current of a battery
placed on the shore through the closing of
floating contact points by passing vessels.
(See Mine, Submarine!)
Mine Exploder, Electro-Magnetic
A form of electro-magnetic exploder. (See
Exploder, Electro-Magnetic.)
Mine, Mechanical A submarine
mine that is fired when struck by a passing
ship by the action of some contrivance con-
tained within the torpedo itself, and having
no connection whatever with the shore.
Mine, Observation A variety of
submarine mine that is fired when the
enemy's vessels are observed to be within the
destructive area of the mine. (See Mine,
Submarine.)
Various means are adopted for obtaining the
current required for firing such mines. A suffi-
ciently powerful battery is generally used. An
electro-magnetic mine exploder may, under cer-
tain circumstances, be employed. (See Mine
Exploder, Electro-Magnetic. )
Mine, Submarine A mass of gun-
cotton or other explosive contained in a
water-tight vessel and placed under water so
as to be exploded on the passage over it of
an enemy's vessel.
A submarine mine is a stationary torpedo ar-
ranged for the defense of a harbor. A harbor
is protected by a number of mines which are so
arranged as to be readily exploded by the passage
of an enemy's ship, but safely crossed by other
vessels.
Submarine mines consist essentially of gun-
cotton or other explosives contained in water-tight
vessels anchored in very carefully located posi-
tions, and connected with the shore by means of
cables.
An operating-room at the shore end of the
cable is furnished with batteries, measuring in-
struments, contact keys, etc., etc., by means of
which the mines can be exploded by the trans-
mission of an electric current through the cables;
or, the mines are furnished with automatic cir-
cuit closers in which two central points are closed
by the passage of the vessel. In ordinary times
this current is too weak to ignite the fuse, and
merely closes a relay in the operating-room,
which in turn directs a current through a bell or
indicator, but, of course, too weak to fire the fuse.
Hiii.]
[Mom.
In times of war, however, the relay sends a
current through the cable sufficiently strong to
heat a platinum indium fuse, ignite a fulminate of
mercury cap, and thus, by the detonation of the
primer of dry gun-cotton, explode the full charge
of damp gun-cotton in the torpedo or mine.
Mine, Subterranean -- A mass of
gun powder, gun-cotton or other explosive,
placed under ground in vessels suitable for
protection against moisture, and fitted with
electrically connected electric fuses, which are
either exploded automatically by the move-
ment of an enemy over them, or by an oper-
ator placed at a safe distance within an en-
trenchment.
— One ampere flow-
(See Hour, Ampere?)
A unit of electrical
Minute, Ampere
ing for one minute.
Minute, Watt
work.
The expenditure of an electrical power of
one watt for one minute.
The watt-minute is equal to 60 joules. This
unit of electrical work is seldom used.
Miophone. — An apparatus invented by
Boudet based on the use of the microphone,
and designed for the medical examination of
the muscles.
Mirror Galvanometer. — (See Galvanom-
eter, Mirror?)
Moist Electrode.— (See Electrode, Moist?)
Moisture, Eifect of, on Electrical Phe-
nomena - — The influence of moisture
on the surfaces of insulators in causing the
loss or dissipation of an electric charge.
This loss is more rapid with negatively charged
bodies than with those positively charged.
Molar Attraction. — (See Attraction,
Molar?)
Molecular. — Pertaining to the molecule.
(See Molecule?)
Molecular Attraction.— (See Attraction,
Molecular?)
Molecular Bombardment.— (See Bom-
bardment, Molecular?)
Molecular Chain.— (See Chain, Molecu-
lar?)
Molecular Currents.— (See Currents,
Molecular or Atomic?)
Molecular Currents, Induced (See
Currents, Induced Molecular or Atomic?)
Molecular Range. — (See Range, Molecu-
lar?)
Molecular Repulsion. — (See Repulsion
Molecular?)
Molecular Rigidity. — (See Rigidity,
Molecular?)
Molecular Theory of Muscle and Nerve
Currents.— (See Theory, Molecular, of Mus-
cle and Nerve Currents?)
Molecule. — A group of atoms whose
chemical bonds or affinities are mutually
satisfied.
The smallest quantity of a compound sub-
stance that can exist as such.
Water is a compound substance formed of two
atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of
oxygen. The molecule of water, therefore, or
the smallest quantity of water that can exist, must
contain two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The molecule of hydrogen consists of two atoms
of hydrogen. Since hydrogen is a monad, or an
element whose atomicity is one, it can combine
with one atom of hydrogen and form a molecule,
since then its bonds will be fully satisfied. (See
Atomicity.}
Molecule, Closed-Magnetic Circuit of
— (See Circuit, Closed-Magnetic, of
Molecule?)
Molecule, Gramme The weight of
any substance taken in grammes numerically
equal to the molecular weight.
Moment, Magnetic The sum of the
two forces of the directive couple multiplied
by half the perpendicular distance between the
directions of these forces ; or, in other words,
the moment of a magnet is equal to its length
multiplied by the intensity of the magnetism
of one of its poles. (See Couple, Magnetic?)
Moment of Couples. — (See Couple, Mo-
ment of?)
Momentary Current. — (See Current, Mo-
mentary?)
Momentum, Electro-Magnetic, of Sec-
ondary Circuit — A quantity equal to
Moii.]
370
[Mot.
the co-efficient of mutual induction, multi-
plied by the current strength in the primary,
when the primary current is fully established.
When the primary current is fully established,
the number of lines of force which pass through
the secondary circuit is equal to the co-efficient of
mutual induction, multiplied by the strength of
the primary current.
Monophotal Arc-Light Regulator.— (See
Regulator, Monophotal Arc-Light?)
Mordey Effect. — (See Effect, Mordey?)
Morse Alphabet.— (See Alphabet, Tele-
graphic: Morse's?)
Morse Inker.— (See Inker, Morse.)
Morse Recorder. — (See Recorder, Morse?)
Morse Register. — (See Register, Morse?)
Morse System of Telegraphy.— (See
Telegraphy, Morse System of.)
Morse's Telegraphic Alphabet.— (See Al-
phabet, Telegraphic : Morse's?)
Morse's Telegraphic Sounder.— (See
Sounder, Morse s Telegraphic?)
Motion, Energy of — — A term some-
times applied to actual or kinetic energy in
contradistinction to potential energy. (See
Energy, Actual?)
Motion, Simple-Harmonic Motion
which repeats itself at regular intervals, taking
place backwards or forwards, and which may
be studied by comparison with uniform mo-
tion round a circle of reference. — (Daniell?)
c
Fig. 398. Simple-Harmonic Motion.
Motion which is a simple periodic function
of the time.
Suppose a pendulum be set swinging in a cer-
tain path. If the path of such a pendulum, or,
as it is generally called, a conical pendulum, be
looked at from above or from below, it will appear
to be circular; if observed from one side it will
appear elliptical, and this elliptical path will ap-
pear longer and narrower as the eye of the ob-
server approaches the level of the plane in which
the bob moves, when the bob will appear to
travel backwards and forwards in a straight line.
The bob will appear to be moving faster, when it
is moving right across the field of view.
Let the circle Q C R (Fig. 398) be the path in
which the bob moves, and let Q A, A B, B C, C o,
etc., be equal distances in such path. Let the
lines A a, B b, C c, o O, etc., be drawn perpendicu-
lar to the line Q R. Then when looked at, with
the eye on the level of the plane in which the bob
travels, the line Q R, will be the path in which
the bob appears to move backwards and for-
wards, and the lines, Q a, a b, b c, c O, etc., will
represent the spaces apparently traversed in
equal intervals of time.
The circle Q o R, is called the circle of refer-
ence.
Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Amplitude of
The length of the swing from the
median position to its extreme position, in
either direction.
The line O Q, or O R, in the circle of reference
Q O R (Fig. 398).
Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Negative Di-
rection of — — The motion which a body,
with a simple-harmonic motion, has when it
appears to move from left to right.
Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Period of
— The interval of time which elapses between
two successive passages of a moving particle,
over the same point, in the same direction.
The period of simple-harmonic motion repre-
sents the time of one complete motion around a
circle called the circle of reference. (See Motion,
Simple -Harmonic. )
Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Phase of
— The position of a point executing a simple
harmonic motion, expressed in terms of the
interval of time which has elapsed since
such point last passed through the middle'
of its path in the positive direction. — (An-
thony &• Brackett?)
The exact position of a particle executing a
simple-harmonic motion for any instant of time
can be readily expressed in terms of the phase.
Mot.]
371
[Mot.
Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Positive
Direction of The motion which a
body moving in simple-harmonic motion has,
when it appears to move from right to left.
Motion, Simple-Periodic A term
sometimes employed in the sense of simple-
harmonic motion. (See Motion, Simple-
Harmonic,}
Motion, Simple-Sine —A term some-
times employed in the sense of simple-har-
monic motion. (See Motion, Simple-Har-
monic^)
Motograph, Electro An apparatus
invented by Edison whereby the friction of a
platinum point against a rotating cylinder of
moist chalk, is reduced by the passage of
an electric current.
This result is due to electrolytic action at the
points of contact, varying the friction.
The electro-motograph, though less certain in
its action than an electro-magnet, may replace it
in certain electric apparatus.
The detailed construction of the electro-moto-
graph will be understood from an inspection of
Fig- 399-
The lever A, pivoted with a universal joint at
C, has a metallic point at its free extremity F,
resting on a strip of moistened paper N, and held
against it with some pressure by the action of the
spring S. The paper N, rests on the metallic
drum G, over which it is moved on the rotation
of the drum by clockwork. A spring R, acts to
move the lever A, in a direction opposite to that
in which it tends to move by the rotation of the
drum G.
The main battery L, is connected at its negative
pole to the point F, and at its positive pole, through
the key K, to the metallic drum G. The local bat-
tery L B, is connected through the sounder X, to
the contacts D and X.
When the key K, is open, the friction of F, on
the paper N, is sufficient to move the lever A, to
the right so as to close the circuit of the local
battery, but when the key K, is depressed, the
current of L, passing through the paper, decom-
poses the chemicals with which it is moistened,
lessens the friction of the point F, and permits the
spring B, to draw the lever A, to the left, thus
opening the circuit of the local battery L B.
The movements of the key are therefore repro-
duced by the armature of the electro-magnet X.
An excellent loud speaking telephone has been
devised by Edison on the principle of the electro-
motograph.
Fig. 399. Electro-Motograph.
Motor, Compound- Wound An elec-
tric motor whose field magnets are excited by
a series and a shunt wire. (See Machine,
Dynamo-Electric, Compound- Wound.)
Motor, Differentially Wound - —A
compound-wound motor, in which the cur-
rent in the shunt coils opposes in its magnet-
izing effects the current in a series coil, so
that the efficient magnetizing effect produced
is the difference in the magnetizing effect of
the two coils.
Motor, Electric A device for trans-
forming electric power into mechanical
power.
All practical electric motors depend for their
operation on the tendency to motion in a mag-
netic field of a conductor carrying a current or
on magnetic attraction or repulsion. The entire
magnetism may be produced by the current, or
part may be obtained from permanent magnets,
and the rest from electro-magnets.
A dynamo-electric machine will act as a motor
if a current is sent through it. Such a motor is
sometimes called an electro-motor. The term
electric motor would, however, appear to be the
preferable one.
In all cases the rotation is in such a direction as
to induce in the armature an electromotive force
opposed to that of the driving current ; this is
therefore called the counter electromotive force.
A magneto-dynamo, or a dynamo the field of
which is obtained from permanent magnets, or a
separately excited dynamo, will operate as a
motor when a current is sent through its arma-
ture, and will turn it in the opposite direction to
that required to drive it in order to produce a
current in the same direction.
A series dynamo will operate as a motor when
Mot.]
372
[Mot.
a current is sent through it. If the current is
sent through it in the opposite direction to that
which it produces when in operation as a gener-
ator, the polarity of the field is reversed and the
dynamo will turn as a motor in the opposite direc-
tion to that required to produce the current. If
the current is reversed, the polarity of both the
field and the armature is again reversed, and the
dynamo still rotates as a motor in the opposite
direction to that in which it is rotated as a
generator.
A series dynamo, therefore, always rotates as a
motor in a direction opposite to that of its rotation
as a generator.
When, however, the polarity of the field only
is reversed by changing the connection between
the armature and the field, the rotation is in the
same direction.
A shunt dynamo operated as a motor will also
turn in but one direction, but this direction is the
same as that in which it turns when operating
as a generator; for if the direction of the current
in the armature is the same as in a generator,
that in the shunt is reversed.
A compound wound dynamo will move in a
direction opposite to that of its motion as a gene-
rator if the series part is more powerful than the
shunt, and in the same direction if the shunt part
is more powerful than the series. To use a com-
pound-wound dynamo as a differential motor the
connections need not be changed. For a cumu-
lative motor it is necessary to reverse the connec-
tions of the series coils.
Alternating-Current Dynamo. — The current
from an alternating-current dynamo, if sent
through another similar alternating-current dy-
namo running at the same speed, will drive it as a
motor. Such a machine possesses the disadvan-
tage of requiring to be maintained at a speed de-
pending on that of the driving dynamo, and also
that it requires to be brought to nearly this speed
before the driving current is supplied to it. As a
result of this last requirement, variations in the
load are apt to stop the motor. Considerable
improvements, however, are being introduced
into alternate -current motors, by which these
difficulties are almost entirely removed.
An alternating current sent through any self-
exciting dynamo-electric machine, such as a
shunt or series machine, will drive it continu-
ously as a motor. The sudden reversals in the
magnetization of its cores will, however, unless
Xhe cores are thoroughly laminated, set up power-
ful eddy currents that will injuriously heat the
machine, and there is also excessive sparking at
the brushes.
The reversibility of any dynamo -electric ma-
chine, or its ability to operate as a motor if sup-
plied with a current, leads to a fact of great
importance in the efficiency of electric motors,
viz. : that during rotation there is induced in the
armature during its passage through the field of
the machine, an electromotive force opposed co
that produced in the armature by the driving
current, or a counter electromotive force. (See
Resistance, Spurious. Force, Counter Electro-
motive.) This counter electromotive force acts
as a spurious resistance, and opposes the passage
of the driving current, so that, as the speed of the
electric motor increases, the strength of the driv-
ing current becomes less, until, when a certain
maximum speed is reached, very little current
passes. In actual practice, this maximum speed
is not attained, or is only momentarily attained,
and a small, nearly constant, current is expended
in overcoming friction at the bearings, air fric-
tion, etc.
When, however, the load is placed on the
motor, that is, when it is caused to do work, the
speed is reduced and the counter electromotive
force is decreased, thus permitting a greater cur-
rent to pass. The fact that the load thus auto-
matically regulates the current required to drive
the motor, renders electric motors very economi-
cal in operation.
The relations between the power required to
drive the generating dynamo, and that produced
by the electric motor, are such that the maximum
work per second is done by the motor when it
runs at such a rate that the counter electro-
motive force it produces is half that of the current
supplied to it. The maximum work or activity of
an electric motor is therefore done when its theo-
retical efficiency is only 50 per cent This,
however, must be carefully distinguished from
the maximum efficiency of an electric motor. A
maximum efficiency of 100 per cent, can be at-
tained theoretically ; and, in actual practice, con-
siderably over 90 per cent, is obtained. In such
cases, however, the motor is doing work at less
than its maximum power.
This is Jacobi's law of maximum effect, but
does not apply to actual motors on account of the
limitations of current carrying capacity. For
example, a motor of 9 horse power and 90 per
cent, efficiency loses I horse-power in heat within
Mot.]
373
[Mot
itself. Hence, if run according to Jacobi's law,
it would only produce the same amount, i. e., I
horse-power in useful work instead of 9. More
than this would overheat it.
An efficiency of 100 per cent, is reached when
the counter electromotive force of the motor is
equal to that of the source supplying the driving
current. Supposing now the driving machine to
be of the same type as the motor, and the two
machines are running at the same speed. If
now a load is put on the motor so as to reduce its
speed, and thus permit it to produce a counter
electromotive force of but 90 per cent., its
efficiency will be but 90 per cent. In such a
case, therefore, the efficiency is represented by
the relative speeds of the generator and the
motor.
Motor, Electric, Alternating-Current
An electric motor driven or operated
by means of alternating currents. (See
Motor, Electric?)
Dr. Louis Duncan divides alternating motors
into two classes, viz. :
(I.) Those in which there is but one trans-
formation in the machine, viz., that of the electric
energy of the armature current into the mechani-
cal energy of the armature's rotation.
(2.) Those in which there are two transforma-
tions, viz.:
(a.) The transformation of electrical energy
from the main current to electrical energy in the
armature current.
(b.) The transformation of the electric energy
of the armature current into mechanical energy.
Alternating motors of the first type are found
in the ordinary alternating -current dynamo re-
versed. Those of the second type in Tesla's or
Thomson's motors.
Motor, Electric, Direct-Current —
An electric motor driven or operated by
means of direct or continuous electric cur-
rents, as distinguished from a motor driven
or operated by alternating currents. (See
Motor, Electric}
Motor, Electric, High-Speed — —The
ordinary electric motor.
The term high-speed electric motor is used in
contradistinction to low-speed electric motor.
(See Motor, Electric, Low -Speed.}
Motor, Electric, Low-Speed A
slow-speed motor. (See Motor, Electric,
Slow-Speed^)
Motor, Electric, Overload of A
load greater than that which an electric motor
can carry while at its greatest efficiency of
operation, or a load which causes injurious
heating of a motor.
Motor, Electric, Reversing Oear of —
— Apparatus for so reversing the direction of
the current through an electric motor as to re-
verse the direction of its rotation. (See Rail-
road, Electric}
Motor, Electric, Slow-Speed — —An
electric motor so constructed as to run with
fair efficiency at slow speed.
The electric motor develops a counter electro-
motive fcwve when in motion, which, of course,
increases with the increase of motion. The elec-
tric motor has, as generally constructed, its great-
est efficiency at high speed. When used on street
railroads, the high speed requires to be decreased
by various forms of reduction gear. The loss of
power which all such gear involve, together with
the noise attending their use, render any decrease
in speed that can be obtained on the part of the
motor, without serious loss of efficiency, desir-
able.
Motor-Electromotive Force.— (See Force,
Motor Electromotive.}
Motor, Pyromagnetie A motor
driven by the attraction of magnet poles on
a movable core of iron or nickel unequally
heated.
The intensity of magnetization of iron decreases
with an increase of temperature, iron losing most
of its magnetization at a red heat. A disc of iron
placed between the poles of a magnet, so as to
be capable of rotation, will rotate, if heated at a
part nearer one pole than the other, since it be-
comes less powerfully magnetized at the heated
part.
In the form of pyromagnetic motor devised by
Edison, and shown in Fig. 400, in elevation, and
in Fig. 401, in vertical section, the disc of iron is
replaced by a series of small iron tubes, or di-
vided annular spaces, heated by the products of
combustion from a fire placed beneath them. In
order to render this heating local, a flat screen is
placed dissymmetrically across the top to prevent
Mot.]
374
[Mov.
the passage of air through the portion of the iron
tubes so screened. The air is supplied to the
furnace by passing down from above through the
Fig, 400. Pyromagnctic Motor.
tubes so screened. This is shown in the draw-
ings, the direction of the healing and the cooling
air currents being indicated by the arrows. The
Fig. 401. Pyromagnttic Motor.
supply of a?r from above thus insures the more
rapid cooling of the screened portion of the
tubes.
Motor, Rotating-Current An
electric motor designed for use with a rotat-
ing electric current.
Unlike alternating. current motors, rotary-cur-
rent motors will, like continuous-current motors,
readily start with a load. (See Current, Rotating. )
Motor, Series-Wound An electric
motor in which the field and armature are
connected in series with the external circuit as
in a series dynamo. (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Series- Wound?)
Motor, Shunt- Wound An electric
motor in which the field magnet coils are
placed in a shunt to the armature circuit.
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Shunt-
Wound)
Motor Standards. — (See Standards,
Motor)
Moulded Mica.— (See Mica, Moulded)
Moulding, Electric Wood — — Mould-
ing of dried, non-conducting wood, provided
with longitudinal grooves for the reception
and support of electric wires or conductors.
Wood mouldings are employed for the protec-
tion and concealment of electric conductors.
Moulding
Moulding)
Mouse-Mill
Mouse-Mill)
Mouse-Mill Machine. — (See Machine,
Mouse-Mill)
Mouth Pieces.— (See Pieces, Mouth)
Movable Secondary. — (See Secondary,
Movable)
Mover, Prime In a system of dis-
tribution of power the motor by which sec-
ondary motors or movers are driven.
In a steam plant, the steam engine is the prime
mover; the shafts or machines driven by tlu main
shaft are sometimes called the secondary m vers.
The main shaft is called the driving shaf. Its
motion is carried by means of be'ts to other
shafts, called driven shafts The pulleys on the
driving or driven shafts a>e called respectively
the driving and driven pulleys.
Movers, Secondary The shafts or
machines driven by the main shafts in order
to distinguish them from the steam engine or
other mover which drives it. (See Mover,
Prime.}
Wiring. — (See Wiring,
Dynamo. — (See Dynamo,
Mill.]
375
[Mul.
Multi-Cellular Electrostatic Yoltmeter.
— (See Voltmeter, Multi-Cellular Electro-
static^)
Multiphase Current.— (See Current, Mul-
tiphase^)
Multiphase Dynamo. — (See Dynamo,
Multiphase?)
Multiphase System.— (See System, Multi-
phased)
Multiple-Arc Circuit. — (See Circuit,
Multiple-Arc?)
Multiple-Arc-Connected Electro-Recep-
tive Devices. — (See Devices, Electro-Recep-
tive, Multiple- Arc-Connected?)
Multiple-Arc-Connected Sources.— (See
Sources, Multiple-A re- Connected?)
Multiple-Arc-Connected Translating De-
vices.— (See Devices, Translating, Mul-
tiple-Arc-Connected?)
Multiple-Brush Rocker. — (See Rocker,
Multiple-Brush?,
Multiple-Brush Yoke.— (See Yoke, Mul-
tiple-Pair Brush?)
Multiple Cable Core.— (See Cable, Mul-
tiple-Core?)
Multiple Circuit.— (See Circuit, Mul-
tiple?)
Multiple Conduit— (See Conduit, Mul-
tiple?,
Multiple-Connected Battery.— (See Bat-
tery, Multiple-Connected?)
Multiple-Connected Electro-Receptive
Devices.— (See Devices, Electro-Receptive,
Multiple- Connected?)
Multiple-Connected Electro-Receptive
Devices, Automatic Cut-Out for — — (See
Cut-Out, Automatic, for Multiple-Connected
Electro-Receptive Devices?)
Multiple-Connected Translating Devices.
— (See Devices, Translating, Multiple-Con-
nected?)
Multiple Connection. — (See Connection,
Multiple?)
Multiple Distribution of Electricity by
Constant Potential Circuits.— (See Elec-
tricity, Multiple Distribution of, by Constant
Potential Circuits?)
Multiple Electric-Gaslighting.— (See
Gaslighting, Multiple Electric?,
Multiple-Series.— A multiple connection
of series groups. (See Connection, Series
Multiple?)
Usage in regard to this terra is divided. By
some the term multiple-series is applied to a series
connection of parallel groups. This is done on
account of the order of the words, multiple-series
indicating, it is claimed, a series connection of
multiple groups.
Multiple-Series Circuit— (See Circuit,
Multiple- Series?)
Mtiltiple-Series-Connected Electro-Re-
ceptive Devices. — (See Devices, Electro-
Receptive, Multiple- Series- Connected?)
Multiple - Series Connected Sources. —
(See Sources, Multiple- Series-Connected?)
Multiple-Series-Connected Translati ng
Devices. — (See Devices, Translating, Mul-
tiple- Series- Connected?)
Multiple-Series Connection.— (See Con-
nection, Multiple- Series.}
Multiple-Switch Board. — (See Board,
Multiple-Switch?)
Multiple Transformer. — (See Trans-
former, Multiple?)
Multiple Transmission.— (See Trans-
mission, Multiple?)
Multiple Working of Dynamo-Electric
Machines. — (See Working, Multiple, of
Dynamo-Electric Machines?)
Multiplex Telegraphy. — (See Teleg-
raphy, Multiplex?,
Multiplicator. — A word sometimes used
for multiplier.
Multiplier, Galvanic — —A term for-
merly applied to a galvanometer. (See Gal-
vanometer?)
Multiplier, Schweigger's The
name first given to a coil consisting of a
Mul.]
376
[Nee.
number of turns of insulated wire, provided
for the purpose of increasing the strength of
the magnetic field produced by an electric
current, and consequently the amount of its
deflecting power on a magnetic needle.
Schweigger's multiplier was in fact an early
form of galvanometer. (See Galvanometer.')
Multiplying Power of Shunt. — (See
Shunt, Multiplying Power of.}
Multipolar Armature. — (See Armature,
Multipolar)
Multipolar Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Multipo-
lar)
Multipolar-Electric Bath.— (See Bath,
Multipolar Electric.}
Muscle Current. — (See Current, Muscle?)
Muscles, Electrical Excitation of
(See Excitation, Electro- Muscular)
Muscular, Electro Pertaining to
the influence of electricity on the muscles.
Muscular or Nerve Fibre, Excitability
of (See Excitability, Electric, of
Nerve or Muscular Fibre)
Muscular Pile, Matteucci's (See
Pile, Muscular, Matteucci's)
Musket, Electric A gun in which
the charge is ignited by a platinum wire ren-
dered incandescent by the action of a bat-
tery placed in the stock of the gun.
Mutual Inductance. — (See Inductance)
Mutual Induction. — (See Induction,
Mutual.}
Mutual Induction, Co-efficient of
— (See Induction, Mutual, Co-efficient of)
Myria (as a prefix). — A million times.
N
N. — A contraction employed in mathe-
matical writings for the whole number of
lines of magnetic force in any magnetic cir-
cuit.
N. — A contraction for North Pole.
This N, may be distinguished from the N, used
for expressing the whole number of lines of mag-
netic force, by making the former light and the
latter heavy.
N. H. P. — A contraction for Nominal
Horse-Power.
Nominal horse-power is a somewhat indefi-
nite term for a quantity dependent on the length
of stroke and the dimensions of the cylin-
der. This quantity is a dependent one, be-
cause it varies necessarily with the type of en-
gine.
Nascent State.— (See State, Nascent)
Natural Currents.— (See Currents, Nat-
ural)
Natural Law.— (See Law, Natural)
Natural Magnet— (See Magnet, Nat-
ural)
Natural Unit of Electricity.— (See Elec-
tricity, Natural Unit of)
Natural Unit of Quantity of Electricity,
— (See Electricity, Unit Quantity of, Natu-
ral)
Nautical Mile.— (See Mile, Nautical)
Needle Annunciator. — (See Annunciator,
Needle)
Needle, Astatic A compound mag-
netic needle of great sensibility, possessing
little or no directive power.
An astatic needle consisting of two separate
magnetic needles, rigidly connected together
and placed parallel and directly over each
other, with opposite poles opposed.
An astatic needle is shown in Fig. 402. The
two magnets N S, and S' N', are directly opposed
in their polarities, and are rigidly connected to-
gether by means of the axis a, a. So disposed,
the two magnets act as a very weak single needle
when placed in a magnetic field.
Were the two magnets N S, and S' N', of ex-
actly equal strength, with their poles placed in
exactly the same vertical plane, they would com-
pletely neutralize each other, and the needle
Nee.]
377
[Nee.
would have no directive tendency. Such a sys-
tem would form an Astatic Pair or Couple.
In practice it is impossible to do this, so that the
Fig. 402. Astat:c Needle.
needle has a directive tendency, which is often
east and west.
The cause of the east and west directive ten-
dency of an unequally bal-
anced astatic system will
be understood from an in-
spection of Fig. 403. Un-
less the two needles, N S,
and S' N', are exactly op- ;5
posed, they will form a fig- 403- Astatic Pair.
single short magnet, N N NN, S S S S, the poles
of which are on the sides of the needle. The
system pointing with its sides due north and
south will appear to have an east and west direc-
tion.
The principal use of the astatic needle is in the
astatic galvanometer, in which the needle is de-
flected by the passage of an electric current
through a conductor placed near the needle.
Therefore it is evident that one of the needles
must be outside and the other inside the coil. In
the most sensitive
form of galvanome-
ter there is also a
coil surrounding the
upper needle, the
two coils being op-
positely connected,
so that the deflection
on both needles is in
the same direction,
and the deflecting F'f- 404- Astatic System.
power is equal to the sum of the two coils, while
the directive power of the needles is the differ-
ence of their magnetic intensities.
In the astatic system, as shown in Fig. 404, the
current, which flows above one needle, flows be-
iow the other, and therefore deflects both needles
in the same direction, since their poles point in
opposite directions.
In some galvanometers a varying degree of
sensitiveness is obtained by means of a magnet,
called a compensating magnet, placed on an axis
above the magnetic needle. As the compensat-
ing magnet is moved towards or away from the
needle the effect of the earth's field is varied, and
with it the sensitiveness of the galvanometer.
Such a magnet may form with the needle an
astatic system. (See Magnet, Compensating.
Galvanometer, Astatic. Galvanometer, Mirror.
Multiplier, Schweigger'1 s~].
Needle Electrode.— (See Electrode, Nee-
dle^
Needle, Elongation of A phrase
sometimes used for the angular deflection of
a needle.
Needle, Magnetic A straight bar-
shaped needle of magnetized steel, poised
near or above its centre of gravity, and free
to move either in a horizontal plane only, or
in a vertical plane only, or in both.
A magnetic needle free to move in a vertical
plane only is called a dipping needle. A mag-
netic needle free to move in a horizontal plane
only, as shown in Fig. 405, is the form employed
Fig. 405. Magnetic Needle.
in the mariner's compass. This form of magnetic
needle is the one most commonly employed.
For use as a mariner's compass the needle is
supported on gimbals and placed in a box pro-
vided with a card on which are marked the
points of the compass. (See Compass, Azimuth.
Compass, Points of.)
Needle, Magnetic, Annual Variations of
Variations in the value of the mag-
Nee.J
378
[Nee.
netic declination that take piace at regular
periods of the year.
The annual variations of the magnetic field were
discovered by Cassini in 1786.
Needle, Magnetic, Daily Variation of
Variations in the value of the magnetic
declination that take place at different periods
of the day.
It was noticed, for example, in London that the
north pole of the magnetic needle begins to move
westward between 7 and 8 A. M. and continues
this movement until I P. M., when it begins to
move towards the east until near 10 p. M., when
it again begins its westward course.
Needle, Magnetic, Damped —A
magnetic needle so placed as to quickly come
to rest after it has been set in motion. (See
Damping?)
Magnetic damping is readily effected by caus-
ing the needle to move near a metallic plate. On
the motion of the needle the currents set up in the
plate by dynamo-electric induction tend, accord-
ing to Lenz's law, to oppose the motions pro-
ducing them. (See Induction, Electro-Dynamic.
Laws, Lenz^s.)
Needle, Magnetic, Declination of —
The angular deviation of the magnetic needle
from the true geographical north.
The variation of the magnetic needle.
The declination of the magnetic needle is either
E. orW. (See Declination, Angle of .)
Decliaation, or variation, is different at dif-
ferent parts of the earth's surface.
Lines connecting places which have the same
value and direction for the declination are called
isogonal lines. A chart on which the isogonal
lines are marked is called a variation chart.
The value of the declination varies at dif-
ferent times. These variations of the declination
are:
(i.) Secular, or those occurring during great
intervals of time. Thus, in London, in 1580 the
magnetic needle had a variation of about n
degrees east. This eastern declination decreased
in 1622 to 6 degrees E., and in 1680 the needle
pointed to the true north. In 1692 the declina-
tion was 6 degrees W.; in 1730, 13 degrees W.;
in 1765, 20 degrees W. ; and in 1818 the needle
reached its greatest western declination and is
now moving eastwards. The declination, how-
ever, is still west.
(2.) Annual, the needle varying slightly in its
declination during different seasons of the year.
(3.) Diurnal, the needle varying slightly in its
declination during different hours of the day.
(4.) Irregular, or those which occur during
the prevalence of a magnetic storm.
It has been discovered that the occurrence of a
magnetic storm is simultaneous with the occur-
rence of an unusual number of sun spots. (See
Spots, Sun.)
Needle, Magnetic, Deflection of —
The movement of a needle out of a position of
rest in the earth's magnetic field or in the
field of another magnet, by the action of an
electric current or another magnet.
The deflection of the needle is sometimes called
its elongation. This latter term is, however, but
little used, and is unnecessary.
Needle, Magnetic, Dipping A
magnetic needle suspended so as to be tree
to move in a vertical plane, employed to de-
termine the angle of dip or the magnetic in-
clination. (See Dtp, Magnetic. Inclination,
Magnetic. Inclinometer. Chart, Inclina-
tion.)
A dipping needle is shown in Fig. 406. The
Fig. 406. Dipping Needle.
angle B O C, which marks the deviation of the
needle from the horizontal position, is called the
angle ot dip.
Nee.]
379
[Neg.
Needle, Magnetic, Directive Tendency of
The tendency of a magnetic needle to
move so as to come to rest in the direction of
the lines of the earth's magnetic field.
The directive power of the magnetic needle is
due to the attraction of the earth's magnetic poles
for the poles of the needle, or to the action of the
earth's magnetic field. Since the force of the
earth's magnetism forms a couple, there is no
tendency for the needle to move bodily forward
towards either of the earth's poles. Its tendency
is merely to rotate until it comes to rest within
the lines of the earth's magnetic field, entering at
its south pole, passing through its mass and
coming out at its north pole.
Of course this would be true in the case of a
directing magnet only when it is at a great dis-
tance from the needle. Otherwise, there would
be motion towards the poles as well as rotation.
Needle, Magnetic, Inclination or Dip of
The deviation of a mechanically bal-
anced magnetic needle from a horizontal po-
sition.
The direction of a magnetic needle in all parts
of the earth, except at the magnetic equator,
differs from a level or horizontal position. One
of its ends inclines or dips towards the ground.
(See Dip, Magnetic. Needle, Magnetic ; Dipping.)
Needle, Magnetic, Orientation of
The coming to rest of a magnetic needle in
the earth's magnetic field.
Needle, Magnetic, Variation of
The angular deviation of a magnetic needle
from the true geographic north.
The declination of the magnetic needle.
(See Declination?)
Needle of Oscillation. — A small magnetic
needle employed for measuring the intensity
of a magnetic field by counting the number of
oscillations the needle makes in a given time,
when disturbed from its position of rest in
such field. (See Magnetization, Intensity of.
Lines, Isodynamic.)
This use of a magnetic needle in determining
the magnetic intensity of any place is analogous
to the use of the pendulum in determining the in-
tensity of gravity at any place.
Suppose, for example, that at a certain place the
needle made 245 oscillations in ten minutes, and
13— Vol. 1
that at another place it made 211 in the same
time. Then the relative intensities at these two
places would be as the square of these two num-
bers, or as I : 1.3482.
Needle, Telegraphic A needle em-
ployed in telegraphy to represent by its move-
ments to the left or right respectively the dots
and dashes of the Morse alphabet. (See
Telegraphy, Needle System of.)
Needle, Throw of A phrase some-
times used for the angular deflection of a
needle, particularly when the needle is swing-
ing.
The displacement of the magnetic needle is^
called the deflection, the elongation, or the throw.
The first will appear to be the preferable term
when the needle comes to rest in a displaced posi-
tion.
Negative Charge.— (See Charge, Nega-
tive.)
Negative Direction of Electrical Con-
vection of Heat. — (See Direction, Negative,,
of Electrical Convection of Heat?)
Negative Direction of Simple-Harmonic
Motion.— (See Motion, Simple-Harmonic,
Negative Direction of.)
Negative Electricity.— (See Electricityt
Negative.)
Negative Electrode.— (See Electrode*
Negative?)
Negative Element of a Voltaic Cell.—
(See Element, Negative, of a Voltaic Cell)
Negative Feeders. — (See Feeders, Nega-
tive?)
Negative Omnibus Bars.— (See Bars^
Negative Omnibus?)
Negative Phase of Electrotonus.— (See
Electrotonus, Negative Phase of.)
Negative PJate of Storage Battery.—
(See Plate, Negative, of Storage Cell?)
Neg-ative Plate of Voltaic Cell.— (See
Plate, Negative, of Voltaic Cell?)
Negative Pole.— (See Pole, Negative?)
Negative Potential.— (See Potential, Neg-
ative?)
Negative Side of Circuit— (See Circuit.
Negative Side of.)
Neg.]
380
[Nig.
Negative Wire.— (See Wire, Negative.}
Negatively. — In a negative manner.
Negatively Excited. — Charged with nega-
tive electricity. (See Electricity, Negative?)
Nerve or Muscular Fibre, Excitability
of — — (See Excitability, Electric, of
Nerve or Muscular Fibred)
Nerves, Action of Electricity on —
Stimulating and other actions produced in
nerves by the passage of electricity through
them, dependent on the direction and char-
acter of the current. (See Electrotonus.
Galvanization. Faradization. Galvano-
Faradization?)
Net, Faraday's An insulated net
of cotton gauze, or other similar material,
capable of being turned inside out without
being thereby discharged, employed for de-
monstrating that in a charged, insulated con-
ductor the entire charge is accumulated on
the outer surface of the conductor.
. Fig. 407. Faraday's Net.
Faraday's net, as shown in Fig. 407, consists
of a bag N, of cotton gauze, or mosquito netting,
supported on an insulating stand I. When tested
by a proof plane, no free electric charge is found
on the inside, though such a charge is readily
detected by the same means on. the outside. By
the aid of the silk strings S, S, the bag can be
turned inside out, when the charge will then all
be found on the then inside, or the now outside .
Faraday was in the habit of protecting his
delicate electroscopes against outside electrifica-
tion by covering them with gauze. To properly
act as an electric screen, the gauze should be con-
nected with the earth.
Faraday constructed a small insulated room,
twelve feet in height, breadth and depth, covered
on the inside with tin-foil, and, on charging this
room from the outside, he was unable to detect
the presence of any charge on the inside, even by
the aid of his most delicate instruments. This
room is often referred to as Faraday's Cube.
Nets, Torpedo — — Steel wire netting
suspended from or attached to a ship's side
for the purpose of ensuring protection against
moving torpedoes.
Network of Currents. — (See Currents,
Network of. Laws, Kirchhoff's?)
Neutral Armature. — (See Armature,
Neutral?)
Neutral Feeder. — The feeder that is
connected with the neutral or intermediate
terminal of the dynamos in a three-wire sys-
tem of distribution. (See Feeders?)
Neutral Line of Commutator Cylinder.
— (See Line, Neutral, of Commutator
Cylinder?)
Neutral - Omnibus Bars. — (See Bars,
Neutral-Omnibus.)
Neutral Point.— (See Point, Neutral.)
Neutral Points of a Dynamo-Electric
Machine.— (See Points, Neutral, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine?)
Neutral Points of Magnet.— (See Points,
Neutral, of Magnet?)
Neutral Points of Thermo-Electric Dia-
gram.— (See Points, Neutral, of Thermo-
Electric Diagram?)
Neutral-Relay Armature.— (See Arma-
ture, Neutral-Relay?)
Neutral Section of Magnet.— (See Sec-
tion, Neutral, of Magnet?)
Neutral Wire.— (See Wire, Neutral?)
Neutral Wire Ampere-Meter. — (See Am-
pere-Meter, Balance or Neutral Wire?)
New Ohm.— (See Ohm, New?)
Nickel Bath.- (See Bath, Nickel.)
Nickeling, Electro — —Electroplating
with nickel. (See Plating, Electro?)
Nickel-Plating.-(See Plating, Nickel?)
Night BelL-(See2te//,
Nod.]
381
[Nou
Nodal Point.— (See Point, Nodal)
Nodes, Electrical — — Points in an open
circuited conductor, through which electrical
oscillations are passing, which possess a con-
stant mean value of potential, while the poten-
tial at its ends alternates between two fixed
limits.
Points on a conductor where the strength
of the induced oscillatory current is equal to
zero.
The nodal points on a conductor through which
electrical oscillations are passing therefore cor-
respond closely to the nodes on a vibrating wire
or cord.
Dr. Hertz employed the following appara-
tus in order to show the position of two nodes
in a conductor: An induction coil, A, had its sec-
ondary terminals connected as shown in Fig. 408,
-©-
Fig. 408. Nodes in Condttctor.
to two metallic spheres, C and C ' . The spark mi-
crometer circuit, a c d b, was placed near it, as
shown, and the sparking distance of the secondary
circuit of the induction eoil adjusted, so that the
spark micrometer circuit was in unison with it.
When sparks were passed between the terminals
of the induction coil A, sparks passed between the
terminals I and 2, at M, under the influence of
resonant action.
If, now, a second micrometer circuit, e g h f,
exactly similar to a c d b, was added, as shown in
the figure, and the two joined near the terminals i
234, by conducting wires, as shown, the entire
system of the micrometer circuit formed a closed
metallic circuit, the fundamental vibration of
which would have two nodes, one at the middle
point of c d, and the other at g h. The inter-
nodes would be at the junctions I 3, and 2 4, and
under these circumstances a true resonant ac-
tion existed between the secondary circuit and the
micrometer circuit, as was shown by the fact that
any alteration in the circuit e g h f , whether by
increasing or decreasing its length, diminished
the sparking distance. Since the conductor con-
necting points 2, and 4, was in the position of
the node, where the strength of the excited oscil-
latory current was zero, its removal from between
these points should have no influence on the
intensity of the vibration. This was found on
trial to be the case. Electrical vibrations may
therefore be excited by electrical resonance in
conductors corresponding not only to the simple
fundamental note or vibration, but also to the
higher electrical overtones.
The apparatus shown in Fig. 409, from Tesla,
illustrates the phenomena of alternative path, as
well as electric nodes. The terminals of an in-
duction coil are connected, as shown, to a con-
denser and to a thick copper conductor. Though
the two incandescent lamps are placed as shown,
yet they are raised to luminosity by a species of
brush discharge that passes through them, al-
though they would be short circuited to any cur-
rent but an oscillatory discharge.
Fig. 409. Nodes in a Conductor.
Nodular Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical
(See Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical
Nodular.}
Noisy Arc.— (See Arc, Notsv^
Norn.]
382
[Num.
Nominal Candle-Power. — (See Power,
Candle, Nominal?)
Non-Automatic Variable Resistance.—
(See Resistance, Variable, Non-Automatic.}
Non-Conductors. — Substances that offer
so great resistance to the passage of an elec-
tric current through their mass as to practi-
cally exclude a discharge passing through
them.
Non conductors are called insulators, because
they electrically insulate substances placed on or
surrounded by them.
The terms non-conductors or insulators are
ordinarily used in a relative sense to mean bodies
which allow no practical or appreciable current
to pass through them, since there are no sub-
stances known, apart, perhaps, from the universal
ether, that absolutely prevent the flow of an elec-
tric current, the difference of potential of which
is sufficiently great
The entire absence of ordinary matter, as in the
case of a high vacuum, appears to render a high
vacuum very nearly, if not entirely, an absolute
insulator.
Non-Electrics.— A term formerly applied
to substances like metals or other conductors
which appeared not to become electiified by
friction.
The term non-electric, was used in contradis-
tinction to electrics, or substances readily elec-
trified by friction. The distinction no longer
holds, since non- electrics, ifinsulated, are readily
•electrified by friction.
Non-Homogeneous Current-Distribu-
tion.— (See Current, Non-Homogeneous,
Distribution of.)
Non-Illumined Electrode.— (See Elec-
trode, Non-Illumined)
Non-inductive Resistance.— (See Resist-
ance, Non-inductive.)
| Non-Oscillatory Discharge.— (See Dis-
charge, Non-Oscillatory.)
' Non-Polarized Armature.— (See Arma-
ture, Non-Polarized.)
Non-Polarizable Electrodes.— (See Elec-
trodes, Non-Polarizable)
Non-Wasting Electrode.- (See Elect; ->de,
Won- Wasting)
Normal Day, Magnetic -- (See Day,
Normal Magnetic)
Northern Light.— The Aurora Borealis.
'(See Aurora Borealis)
Notation, Algebraic -- A system of
arbitrary symbols employed in algebra.
The following brief description of the notation
employed in algebra is for the use of the non-
mathematical reader.
Quantities are represented in algebra by let.
ters, such as a, and b, x, and y, etc.
Addition is represented thus: a + b.
Subtraction is represented thus: a — b.
Multiplication is represented thus: a X b, or
simply by writing the letters next to each other ab.
Division is represented thus: a -=- b, or 3
An Exponent, or figure placed to the right of a
letter, above it as a8, indicates that the quantity
represented by a, is to be multiplied by itself three
times, as a X a X a, or a a a.
A Co-efficient, or figure placed to the left of a
quantity, indicates the number of times that quan-
tity is to be taken; thus, 3 a, indicates that a is to
be added three times, tnus: a -f a -|- a, or 3 X a.
A Radical Si%n or Root, thus \/a, or 8v/a>
indicates that the square root of the quantity at
is to be taken. In the same manner 3 v/li, indi-
cates that the cube root of a is to be taken.
These expressions are sometimes written a% or
Equality is indicated thus: a*^a XaXa, or
A negative exponent a~» indicates _i, or is the
a2
exponent of the reciprocal of the quantity indi-
cated.
Null or Zero Method.— (See Method,
Null or Zero)
Null Point.— (See Point, Null)
Number, Diacritical -- Such a num-
ber of ampere-turns at which a given core
would receive a magnetization equal to half
saturation.
Obs.J
[Ohm.
n. — A contraction for megohm. (See
Ohm, Meg)
(a. — A contraction for ohm. (See Ohm.}
Obscure Heat.— (See Heat, Obscure)
Observation Mine. — (See Mine, Observa-
tion?)
Observatory, Magnetic An obser-
vatory in which observations of the variations
in the direction and intensity of the earth's
magnetic field are made.
Magnetic observatories are generally furnished
with self-registering magnetic apparatus, such as
magnetographs, magnetometers, inclinometers.
(See Magnetometer. Magnetograph. Inclinome-
ter.)
Magnetic observatories are generally con-
structed entirely of non-magnetic materials; that
is, of such materials as are destitute of paramag-
netic properties.
Obtuse Angle.— (See Angle, Obtuse)
Occlusion of Gas.— (See Gas, Occlusion
of)
Odorscope. — An apparatus in which the
determination of an odor was attempted by
the measurement .of the effect the odorous
vapor, or effluvia, produced on a variable
contact resistance.
The microtasimeter was used in connection
with the odorscope. (See Diagometer, ftous-
seau's. Microtasimeter.')
Oerstedt, An A proposed term for
the unit of electric current, in place of an
ampere.
The term has not been adopted.
Ohm. — The unit of electric resistance.
Such a resistance as would limit the flow
of electricity under an electromotive force of
one volt to a current of one ampere, or to one
coulomb per second. (See Unit, B.A. Ohm,
Legal. Ohm, Standard)
A value equal to io9 absolute electro-mag-
netic units.
A value which is represented by a velocity
of io , or i, 000,000,000 centimetres per second.
It may be difficult at first to see how resistance
can be correctly represented by a velocity. The
following consideration may render this clear :
The formula for calculating the velocity Is
D
V = vp or the velocity equals the distance passed
through in unit time. Now, by examining the
formula for the value of the resistance, expressed
in terms of the electro-magnetic units (see
Units, Electro-Magnetic, Dimensions of), it may
be seen to be that resistance =
Electromotive force
Current.
But this value is of the nature of a velocity,
being equal to the length, divided by the time.
Resistance, therefore, has the dimensions of a
velocity. .
This is clearly expressed by Silvanus P. Thomp-
son in his "Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism," as follows, viz.: " Suppose we
have a circuit composed of two horizontal coils,
C S, and D T (Fig. 410), I centimetre apart,
joined at C D, and completed by means of a
sliding piece, A B. Let this variable circuit be
placed in a uniform magnetic field of unit inten-
sity, the lines of force being directed vertically
downwards through the circuit.
".If, now, the slider be moved along towards
S T, with a velocity of n, centimetres per second,
the number of additional lines of force embraced
by the circuit will increase at the rate of n, per
second ; or, in other words, there will be an in-
Fig. 410. Resistance as a I'clocily.
duced electromotive force impressed upon the cir-
cuit, which will cause a current to flow through
the slider from A to B. Let the rails have no
resistance, then the strength of the current will
depend on the resistance of A B. Now, let A B,
move at such a rate that the current shall be of
unit strength. If its resistance be one absolute
(electro-magnetic) unit, it need only move at the
rate of i centimetre per second. If its resistance
be greater, it must move with a proportionately
Ohm.]
384
[Ohi
greater velocity ; the velocity at which it must
move to keep up a current of unit strength being
numerically equal to its resistance. The resist-
ance known as " i ohm " is intended to be so9 ab-
solute electro -magnetic units, and, therefore, is
represented by a velocity of io9 centimetres, or
10,000,000 metres (/ earth-qitadrant) per
second."
Ohm, B. A. —A contraction for
.British Association ohm.
Ohin, Board of Trade A unit of re-
sistance as determined by a committee of the
English Board of Trade.
A committee consisting of Sir W. Thomson,
Lord Rayleigh, Dr. J. Hopkinson and other
authorities appointed by the Board of Trade
(England) has recently recommended that the
ohm be taken as the resistance of a column of
mercury 106.3 centimetres in length and one
square millimetre area of cross-section at o de-
grees C. and since this value agree's with the best
experimental results, it will probably be generally
and finally adopted.
Ohm, British Association The
British Association unit of resistance,
adopted prior to 1884.
The value of the unit of electric resistance, or
the ohm, was determined by a Committee of the
British Association as being equal to the resistance
at o degree C. of a column of mercury I square
millimetre in area of cross-section and 104.9
centimetres in length. This length was taken as
coming nearest the value of the true ohm de-
auced experimentally from certain theoretical
considerations. Subsequent re-determinations
showed the value so obtained to be erroneous.
The value of the ohm is now taken internation-
ally, as adopted by the International Electric
Congress in 1884, as the resistance of a column
of mercury 106 centimetres in length, and I
square millimetre in area of cross-section. This
last value is called the legal ohm, to distinguish it
from the B. A. ohm, which, as above stated, is
equal to a mercury column 104.9 centimetres in
length. Usage now sanctions the use of the
word ohm to mean the legal ohm.
This value of the legal ohm is provisional until
the exact length of the mercury column can be
inally determined. (See Ohm, Board of Trade. )
The following are the relative values of these
wuts, viz.:
i legal ohm = 1.0112 B. A. ohm.
" " = i. 0600 Siemens unit.
i B. A. ohm = .9889 legal ohm.
i " " = 1.0483 Siemens unit.
i Siemens unit = .9540 B. A. ohm.
" " = .9434 legal ohm.
Ohm, Legal The resistance of a
column of mercury i square millimetre in
area of cross-section, and 106 centimetres in
length, at the temperature of o degree C. or
32 degrees F. (See Unit,B. A.)
i ohm = 1.00112 B. A. units. This value of
the ohm was adopted by the International Elec-
tric Congress, in 1884, as a value that should be
accepted internationally as the true value of the
ohm. This value, however, was provisional, and
was never actually legalized. It will probably be
replaced by the new (106.3 cm.) ohm. (See
Ohm, Board of Trade.}
Ohm, Meg One million ohms.
Ohm, New A term sometimes used
for the Board of Trade ohm. (See Ohm,
Board of Trade?)
Ohm, Standard A length of wire
having a resistance of the value of the true
or legal ohm, employed in standardizing re-
sistance coils.
The standard ohm, as issued by the Electric
Standards Committee of England, has the form
Fig. 411. Standard Ohm.
shown in Fig. 411. The coil of wire is formed
of an alloy of platinum and silver, insulated by
silk covering and melted paraffine. Its ends are
soldered to thick copper rods r, r', for ready
connection with mercury cups. The coil is at
B. The space above it at A, is filled with parafnae,
except at the opening t, which is provided for
the insertion of a thermometer.
Ohm.]
385
[Ope.
Ohm, True An ohm having the
true theoretical value of the ohm. (See Ohm.*)
Ohmage.— The value of the resistance of
a circuit expressed in ohms.
Ohmic Resistance. — (See Resistance,
Ohmic or True)
Obmmeter. — A commercial galvanometer,
devised by Ayrton, for directly measuring by
the deflection of a magnetic needle, the re-
sistance of any part of a circuit through
which a strong current of electricity is
flowing.
Ayrton's ohmmeter is represented diagram-
matically in Fig. 412. Two coils C C, and c c,
Fig. 412. Ayrton's Ohmmeter.
consisting of a short thick wire, and a long thin
wire, respectively, are placed at right angles to
each other, and act on a soft iron needle situated
as shown. The short, thick wire coil C C, is con-
nected in series with the resistance O, to be
measured. The long, fine wire coil, of knmvn
high resistance, is placed as a shunt to the un-
known resistance.
Under these circumstances, it can be shown
that the action on the needle is that due to the ratio
of the difference of potential at the terminals of
the unknown resistance and the current strength
•p*
in the thick wire coil, or R = __, as may be
deduced from Ohm's law.
The coils are so proportioned that the current
when flowing through the short thick wire moves
the needle to the zero of the scale, while the long
thin wire produces a deflection directly propor-
tional to the resistance.
Ohm's Law.— (See Law of Ohm.)
Oil, Colza An oil obtained from the
seed of the Brassica oleracea, a species of
cabbage.
Colza oil is extensively used for purposes of il-
lumination and in the carcel standard lamp. (See
Lamp, Carcel.)
Oil Cup. — A cup containing oil for lubri
eating machinery.
Oil Insulator. — (See Insulator, Oil.)
Oil Transformer.— (See Transformer,
Oil.)
Oiler, Automatic An oil cup or res-
ervoir that automatically spreads oil over the
bearings of m. chinery in motion.
Okonite. — A variety of insulating material.
Omnibus Bars. — (See Bars, Omnibus.)
Omnibus Wires.— (See Wires, Omnibus.)
Opacity, Selective — — Opaque in a cer-
tain direction or directions only.
Certain substances are opaque to polarized light
in certain planes only. Thus, a plate of tourma-
line permits light polarized in a certain plane
freely to pass through it, but is entirely opaque
in a plane at right angles thereto.
S. P. Thompson and Lodge have shown that
such crystals of tourmaline possess curious prop-
erties in regard to the conduction of heat. While
warming, the crystal conducts heat better in a cer-
tain direction than in the opposite direction. While
cooling, exactly the opposite effects are observed.
In the same manner, while the crystal is rising in
temperature, there is an accumulation of positive
electricity at one end, and negative at the other.
While the crystal is cooling, the reverse is true.
Open-Box Condait.— (See Conduit, Open-
Sox.)
Open Circuit.— (See Circuit, Open.)
Open-Circuit Electric Oscillations.—
(See Oscillations, Open-Circuit, Electric)
Open-Circuit Induction.— (See Induction,
Open-Circuit)
Open-Circuit Oscillation, Period of —
— The time in which the oscillations set up in
a circuit by electrical resonance require to
make a complete one to-and-fro motion.
The period of an open-circuit electric oscillation
is determined by the product of the co-efficients
of self-induction of the conductor, and does not
depend on the composition of the terminals. It is
practically independent of their resistances.
Open-Circuit Single-Current Signaling.—
(See Signaling, Single-Current, Open-
Circuit)
Ope.]
386
[Ore.
Open-Circuit Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Open-Circuit}
Open-Circuit Voltmeter.— (See Volt-
meter, Open-Circuit.}
Open-Circuited. — Put on an open circuit.
Open-Circuited Conductor. — (See Con-
ductor, Open-Circuited}
Open-Circuited Thermostat. — (See Ther-
mostat, Open-Circuit}
Open-Coil Drum Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Open-Coil Drum}
Open-Coil Dynamo-Electric Machine. —
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Open-Coil}
Open-Coil Ring Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Open-Coil Ring}
Open-Iron-Circuit Transformer.— (See
Transformer, Open-Iron-Circuit}
Open-Iron Magnetic Circuit. — (See Cir-
cuit, Open-Iron Magnetic}
Open Magnetic Core.— (See Core, Open-
Magnetic}
Opening Shock.— (See Shock, Opening}
Operation, Magnet The use of a
magnet for the purpose of removing particles
of iron from the human eye.
Optical Strain.— (See Strain, Optical}
Optical Strain, Electro-Magnetic
(See Strain, Optical Electro-Magnetic}
Optical Strain, Electrostatic — — (See
Strain, Electrostatic, Optical}
Optics, Electro - —That branch of
electricity which treats of the general relations
that exist between light and electricity.
The phenomena of electro-optics may be ar-
ranged under the following heads, viz. :
(I.) Electrostatic stress, produced by an
electrostatic field causing an optical strain in a
transparent medium, whereby such medium
acquires the property of either rotating the plane
of polarization of a beam of plane polarized light,
or of doubly refracting light.
(2.) Electro magnetic stress produced by a
magnetic field causing an optical strain in a trans-
parent medium, whereby such medium acquires
the property of either rotating the plane of polar-
ization, or of doubly refracting light. (See Re-
fraction, Double, Electric.)
(3.) Changes in the electric resistance of bodies
caused by the action of light. (See Cell, Sele-
nium. )
(4.) The relation existing between the values of
the index of refraction of a transparent medium
and its specific inductive capacity. (See Refrac-
tion. Capacity, Specific Inductive}
This relation has been shown to be as follows :
The specific inductive capacity is approxi-
mately equal to the square of the index of re-
fraction.
(5.) The relation existing between the velocity
of light and the value of the ratio of electrostatic
and the electro-magnetic units, thus giving a
basis for an electro-magnetic theory of light.
(See Light, Maxwell's Electro-Magnetic Theory
of.)
Polarized light reflected from the surface of a
magnet, although it penetrates the substance to
but a trifling extent, yet has its plane of polariza-
tion distinctly rotated by the magnetic whirls in
the iron.
Oral or Speaking-Tube Annunciator.—
(See Annunciator, Oral or Speaking- Tube.)
Ordinate. — A distance taken on a per-
pendicular line called the axis of ordinates, in
contradistinction to the axis of abscissas.
(See Ordinates, Axis of}
Thus in Fig. 413, D i, is the ordinate of the
point D, in the curve O D R.
Ordinates, Axis of One of the axes
of co-ordinates used
for determining the
position of the points
in a curved line.
Thus in Fig. 413 the
line A B, is called the axis
of ordinates because it is
the line on which the or-
dinate 2 D, is measured. pig,4J3, Axisof0rdi-
Ores, Electric
Treatment of — — Processes for the ex-
traction of metals from their ores.
These processes are referable to three dis-
tinct classes, viz. :
Org.]
387
[Osm.
(i.) Those in which the reduction is effected by
means of heat of electric origin.
(2.) Those in which the reduction is effected by
the combined action of heat and electrolysis.
(3.) Those in which the reduction is effected by
means of electrolysis only.
Organ, Electric A wind organ, in
which the escape of air into the different
pipes is electrically controlled.
In an electric organ, the keys, instead of oper-
ating levers, as usual, to admit the passage of air
into the pipes, merely complete the circuit of a
battery through a series of controlling electro-mag-
nets. With such an arrangement, the keyboard
can be placed at any desired distance.
Electric organs have been constructed, in which
a chemical or mechanical record is made of the
notes struck by the performer, as well as the
musical value of such notes. By such a device
the musical creations of a composer are perma-
nently recorded in characters that are capable of
interpretation by a compositor skilled in musical
notation.
Orientation of Magnetic Needle.— (See
Needle, Magnetic, Orientation of.)
Origin, Point of — —The point where
the axes of co-ordinates start or originate.
(See Co-ordinates, Axes of.}
Orthogonal. — Rectangular, or right-an-
gled.
Oscillating Discharge.— (See Dis&harge,
Oscillating?)
Oscillating Needle.— (See Needle of 'Oscil-
lation^)
Oscillation, Centre of A point in
a body swinging like a pendulum, which is
neither accelerated nor retarded, during its
oscillations, by the portions of the pendulum
that are situated respectively above or below it.
If all the mass were concentrated at the centre
of oscillation the time of oscillation would be the
same.
The centre of oscillation is always below the
centre of gravity. The vertical distance between
the centre of oscillation and the point of support
of a pendulum, determines the virtual length of
the pendulum, and hence its number of vibra-
tions per second. (See Pendulum, Laws of. )
Oscillations, Electric The series
of partial, intermittent discharges of which
the apparent instantaneous discharge of a
Leyden jar through a small resistance actu-
ally consists.
These partial discharges produce a series of
electric oscillations of the current in the circuit of
the discharge, which consist of true to-and-fro
or backward -and-forward motions of the elec-
tricity. This phenomenon was discovered by
Joseph Henry.
Oscillations, Open-Circuit, Electric
— Electric oscillations produced in open cir-
cuits by the presence of electric pulses in
neighboring circuits.
Oscillatory Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Oscillatory?)
Oscillatory Electric Displacement.— (See
Displacement, Electric, Oscillatory?)
Oscillatory Electromotive Force. — An
electromotive force which is rapidly periodic.
Oscillatory Inductance. — (See Induc-
tance, Oscillatory, Electric?)
Oscillatory Induction. — (See Induction,
Oscillatory?)
Osmose. — The unequal mixing of liquids of
different densities through the pores of a
separating medium.
If a solution of sugar and water be placed in a
bladder, the neck of which is tied to a straight
glass tube, and the bladder is then immersed in a
vessel of pure water with the tube in a vertical
position, the two liquids will begin to mix, the
sugar and the water passing through the bladder
into the pure water, and the pure water passing
into the sugar and water in the bladder. This
latter current is the stronger of the two, as will be
shown by the water rising in the vertical glass
tube.
The stronger of the two currents, that is, the
one directed towards the higher level, or the one
which produces the higher level, is called the en-
dosmotic current, and the weaker current the
exosmotic current.
Osmose, Electric A difference of
liquid level between two liquids placed on
opposite sides of a diaphragm produced by
the passage of a strong electric current
Osm.J
through the liquids between two electrodes
placed therein.
The higher level is on the side towards -which the
current flows through the diaphragm, thus appa-
rently indicating an onward motion of the liquid
with the current, or, in other words, the liquid is
higher around the kathode than around the anode.
The difference of level is most marked when
poorly conducting liquids are employed.
As a converse of this, Quincke has shown that
electric currents are setup when a liquid is forced
by pressure through a porous diaphragm. The
term diaphragm currents has been proposed for
these currents. Their electromotive force depends
on the nature of the liquid, on the material of the
diaphragm, and on the pressure that forces the
liquid through the diaphragm. (See Phenomena,
Electro-Capillary. Currents, Diaphragm.}
Osmotic.— Of or pertaining to osmose.
(See Osmose?}
Osteotome, Electric A revolving
electrically propelled saw, employed in the
surgical cutting of bones.
An electric osteotome consists essentially of a
form of revolving engine known as a dental en-
gine, furnished with a circular saw, or other ro-
tary cutter, driven or propelled by electricity.
Outgoing Current— (See Current, Out-
going)
Outlet. — In a system of incandescent lamp
distribution the places in a building where
the fixtures or lamps are attached.
The outlets are left in a building by the wire-
man for the electric fixtureman to attach the de-
vice intended to be used on the circuits so pro-
vided.
Output, Magnetic The product of
the magnetic flux by the magneto-motive
force.
Output of Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Output of.)
Outrigger for Electric Lamp.— A device
for suspending an electric arc lamp so as to
cause it to stand out from the wall of a
building.
An outrigger and hood with lamp attached are
shown in Fig. 414.
[Ozo.
Outrigger Torpedo. — (See Torpedo, Out-
rigger.)
Over-Compounded.— The compounding of
a dynamo-electric machine so as to produce
Fig. 414. Outrigger and Hood.
an increase of voltage under increase of load.
Over-compounding is generally employed for
compensating for drop or loss of potential in the
line or conductor, and is adjusted to a definite
percentage of increase from light to full load in
accordance with the amount of drop, or loss, for
which such compensation was designed.
Overhead Lines. — (See Lines, Overhead.)
Overhead System, Continuous, of Motive
Power for Electric Railroads — — (See
Railroads, Electric, Continuous Overhead
System of Motive Power for)
Overload of Electric Motor.— (See Motor,
Electric, Overload oj r.)
Overtones.— Additional, faint tones, ac-
companying nearly every distinct musical
tone, by the presence of which the peculiarity
or quality of such tone is produced. (See
Sound, Characteristics of.)
Overtones, Electric Electric vibra-
tions produced in open-circuited conductors
by electric resonance, of higher rates than the
fundamental vibrations. ,
The existence of electrical overtones necessitates
the existence of electric nodes. (See Nodes, Elec-
trical. )
Overtype Dynamo.— (See Dynamo, Over-
type)
Ozite. — An insulating substance.
Ozokerite. — An insulating substance.
Uzo.J
389
[Par.
Ozone. — A peculiar modification of oxygen
which possesses more powerful oxidizing
properties than ordinary oxygen.
Ozone is now generally believed to be tri-
atomic oxygen, or oxygen in which the bonds are
closed, thus:
O-
The peculiar smell observed when a torrent of
electric sparks passes between the terminals of
a Holtz machine, or a Ruhmkorff coil, is caused
by the ozone thus formed.
In a similar manner ozone is formed in the at-
mosphere during the passage through the air of a
flash of lightning.
During the so-called electrolysis of water, a com-
pound formed by the union of two volumes of
hydrogen with one volume of oxygen, some of the
oxygen is given off in the form of ozone. Since
ozone has a somewhat smaller volume than that
of the oxygen forming it, the volume of the
oxygen liberated is somewhat less than half the
volume of the hydrogen.
There are a number of different forms of ap-
paratus designed for the production of ozone.
They consist essentially either of means for pass-
ing a torrent of electric sparks through air or for
producing a species of polarization in the air.
P. D. or p. d. — A contraction frequently em-
ployed for difference of potential. (See Poten-
tial, Difference of.}
Pacinotti Projections. — (See Projections,
Pacinotti.)
Pacinotti King.— (See Ring, Pacinotti^
Pair, Astatic A term sometimes
applied to an astatic couple. (See Couple,
Astatic?)
Palladium. — A metal of the platinum
group.
Metallic palladium has a tin-white color, and,
when polished, a high metallic lustre. It is
tenacious and ductile, and, like iron, can be
welded at a white heat. It is very refractory and
possesses in a marked degree the power of ab-
sorbing or occluding hydrogen and other gases.
It is not affected by oxygen at any temperature,
nor readily affected by ordinary corrosive agents.
Palladium Alloy.— (See Alloy, Pal-
ladium^)
Pane, Magic A condenser formed
of a sheet of glass covered on one side with
pieces of tin- foil with small spaces between
them pasted in some design on the glass.
On the discharge of a Leyden jar through these
metallic pieces, the design is seen as a series of
minute sparks, which bridge the spaces between
the adjacent pieces of foil.
Pantelegraphy. — A system for the tele-
graphic transmission of charts, diagrams,
sketches or written characters.
Pantelegraphy is more frequently called fac-
simile telegraphy. (See Telegraphy, Fac- Simile.)
Paper Carbons.— (See Carbons, Paper.)
Paper Cut-Out.— (See Cut-Out, Paper?)
Paper Perforator.— (See Perforator,
Paper.)
Paper Winder, Automatic — —A de-
vice, driven by clockwork, for automatically
delivering the paper fillet on which a tele-
graphic message is received.
Parabolic Reflector.— (See Reflector,
Parabolic.)
Parafflne. — A name given to various
solid hydrocarbons of the marsh gas series,
that are derived from coal oil or petroleum by
the action of nitric acid.
Paraffine possesses excellent powers of insula-
tion, and forms a good dielectric medium. Dried
wood, boiled in melted paraffine, forms a fair in-
sulating material.
Paraffine Wire.— (See Wire, Paraffine?)
Paraffining. — Covering or coating with
paraffine.
The paraffine is applied, while melted by heat,
either by means of a brush, or by dipping the
article in the fused mass.
Par.]
390
[Par.
Care must be taken in paraffining wooden or
other absorbent articles, to dry them before im-
mersing in the melted paraffine, since, if water be
present, steam is formed explosively, and the
melted paraffine scattered in all directions.
Paragreles. — Lightning rods, intended to
protect fields against the destructive action of
hail. (See Hail, Assumed Electrical Ori-
gin of.)
It was formerly believed that hail is caused by
electricity. It is now generally believed that the
electricity in hail storms is caused by the hail.
It will, therefore, readily be understood that para-
greles can afford no real protection.
Parallax. — The apparent angular displace-
ment of an object when seen from two dif-
ferent points of view.
In reading the exact division on a scale to which
a needle points, care must be taken to look di-
rectly down on the needle, and not sideways, so
as to avoid the error of displacement due to
parallax.
Parallel Circuit— (See Circuit, Parallel.)
Parallel Series.— (See Series, Parallel)
Parallelogram of Forces. — (See Forces,
Parallelogram of.)
Parallels, Magnetic Lines connect-
ing places on the earth's surface at right
angles to the isogonal lines, or lines of equal
declination or variation.
The magnetic parallels are at right angles to
the magnetic meridians. The magnetic parallels
lie in planes parallel to the magnetic equator.
(See Needle, Magnetic, Declination of. Meridian,
Magnetic. )
Paramagnetic.— Possessing properties or-
dinarily recognized as magnetic.
Possessing the power of concentrating the
lines of magnetic force.
Paramagnetic is a term employed in contra-
distinction to diamagnetic. (See Diamagnetic.)
A paramagnetic substance, cut in the form of a
bar whose length is much greater than its breadth
and thickness, will, when suspended in a magnetic
field in the manner shown in Fig. 415, take up a
position of rest with its greatest length in the direc-
tion of the lines of force, i. e., will point axially.
In other words, the lines of force will so pass
through the paramagnetic substance as to reduc?
the magnetic resistance of the circuit as much as
possible.
Paramagnetic substances, therefore, concen-
trate the lines of force on them. (See Resistance,
Magnetic.)
Diamagnetic substances, on the contrary, when
placed as shown in Fig. 415, assume a position of
rest with their least dimensions in the direction of
the lines of force, i. e.
they point equatorially.
This is the position in
which they are placed
by the lines of force, in
order to insure the least
magnetic resistance in
the circuit of these lines.
The magnetic resistance
of diamagnetic sub-
stances is great as com-
pared with that of par-
amagnetic substances.
The term f err o -mag-
netic has been proposed
for paramagnetic. If
another term be required, which is doubtful,
sidero -magnetic, proposed by S. P. Thompson,
would appear to be preferable. (See Magnetic,
Ferro. Magnetic, Sidero.')
Tyndall believes that the magnetic polarity
possessed by diamagnetic substances is the result
of a distinct polar force, different in its nature
from ordinary magnetism. His views, in this re-
spect, are not generally accepted. (See Polarity,
Diamagnetic. )
Paramagnetically. — In a paramagnetic
manner. (See Paramagnetism.)
Paramagnetism. — The magnetism of a
paramagnetic substance.
Parasitical Currents. — (See Currents,
Parasitical.)
Paratonnfire. — A French term for light-
ning rod, sometimes employed in English
technical works.
Lightning rod would appear to be the prefer-
able term.
Partial Contact— (See Contact, Partial)
Partial Disconnection.— (See Disconnec-
tion, Partial)
Par.]
391
[Fen.
Partial Earth.— (See Earth, Partial)
Partial Reaction of Degeneration. — (See
Degeneration, Partial Reaction of)
Passive State.— (See State, Passive)
Path, Alternative The path or
circuit taken by an impulsive discharge, in
preference to another path or circuit, open to
the discharge, although of enormously smaller
ohmic resistance.
The alternative path is the path taken by the
discharge produced by what was formerly called
lateral induction.
The explanation of the reason the discharge
takes the alternative path is that the counter- elec-
tromotive force of self-induction of the circuit,
produced by the impulsive discharge, is so great
as to make the path of the circuit itself, although
formed of conducting materials, practically non-
conducting.
If a Leyden jar is provided with discharge wires
or conductors, as shown is Fig. 416, a discharge
would pass across an air space in preference to
a metallic circuit, was greater for a thick copper
Fig. 416. Phenomena of Alternative Puth.
taking place at A, is accompanied simultaneously
by an even longer spark at B, between the ends
of two long open-circuit leads.
To explain in a general manner the phenomena
of the alternative path, we may say that the dis-
charge at A, gives rise to electric oscillations in the
leads connected with B, and that there are sent out
into the surrounding medium radiations of pre-
cisely the same nature as those which produce
light, only of a wave length so long as to be un-
able to produce on the eye the effects of light.
If the space between the balls at B, is too great
for the discharge to take place, the wires glow
and throw out minute sparks or brushes of light.
The action of the ordinary lightning arrester
depends on the principle of the alternative path.
The resistance of the metallic circuit, composed
of the line and the instruments, is so great in the
case of the impulsive discharge of a lightning
flash, that the discharge takes place between a
series of points connected with the line plate and
another series of points connected with the ground
plate. (See Arrester, Lightning. )
Dr. Lodge, who has studied the principle of
alternative path in the case of lightning rods,
finds that the distance at which the discharge
Fig. 417. Edison Electric Pen,
rod, 40 feet long, than for an iron rod of No. 27
B. W. G. of 33.03 ohmic resistance.
Patrol Alarm Box.
—(See Box, Patrol
Alarm)
Peltier Effect —
(See Effect, Peltier)
Pen Carriage.—
(See Carriage, Pen)
Pen, Electric -
— A device for mani-
fold copying, in which
a sheet of paper is
made into a stencil by
minute perforations
obtained by a needle
driven by a small
electric motor and the
stencil afterwards em-
ployed in connection
with an inked roller
for the production of
any required number
of copies.
Mechanical pens are
constructed on the same
principle, the perfora-
tions being obtained by
mecnamcal instead of
by electric power.
In the Edison electric
pen, Fig. 417, the
forations are made by an electric motor driven
by a voltaic battery. The manifold press with
its inked pad is shown to the left of.the figure.
Pendant Cord.— (See Cord, Pendant)
Pendant, Electric -- A hanging fix-
Electric Pendant.
Pen.]
392
[Per.
ture provided with a socket for the support of
an incandescent lamp.
A form of electric pendant is shown in Fig.
418.
Pendant, Flexible Electric Light —
— A pendant for an incandescent lamp formed
by the flexible conductors which support the
lamp.
The advantages procured by a flexible pendant
are evident in that both the length of the flexible
conductor from which the lamp is hanging and
position of the lamp can be changed considerably.
Pendnlnm Annunciator. — (See Annun-
ciator, Pendulum or Swinging?)
Pendulum, Electric A pendulum
so arranged that its to-and-fro mojtions send
electric impulses over a line, either by making
or breaking contacts.
An electrical tuning fork whose to-and-fro
movements are maintained by electric im-
pulses.
Electric pendulums are employed in systems
for the electrical distribution of time.
Sometimes instead of using true pendulums for
such purposes, coils, mounted on tuning forks, or
on the ends of flexible bars of steel, called reeds,
are used for the purpose of establishing cur-
rents, or modifying the currents that are already
passing in a circuit. The movement of a mag-
netic diaphragm, as in the case of a telephone
diaphragm, towards and from a coil of wire, is
.another illustration of an electric pendulum.
Electric tuning-fork pendulums are employed
in Delany's system of synchronous-multiplex teleg-
raphy, and in Gray's harmonic-multiple teleg-
raphy. (See Telegraphy, Synchronous-Multi-
plex, Delany"1* System. Telegraphy, Gray's Har-
monic. Multiple.)
Pendulum, Laws of - —The laws
which express the peculiarities of the motion
of a simple pendulum.
A simple penduhim is one in which the entire
•weight is considered as concentrated at a single
point, suspended at the end of a weightless, in-
flexible and inextensible line.
The following are the laws of the simple pen-
dulum :
(I.) Oscillations of small amplitude are approx-
imately isochronous; that is, are made in times
that are sensibly equal. (See Vibration or Wave,
Amplitude of . Isochronism.)
(2.) In pendulums of different lengths, the
duration of the oscillations is proportional to the
square root of the length of the pendulum.
(3.) In the same pendulum, the length being
preserved invariable, the duration of the oscilla-
tion is inversely proportional to the square root
of the intensity of gravity.
The intensity of gravity, at any latitude, may
be determined by the number of oscillations of a
pendulum of a given length. In the same man-
ner the intensity of a magnetic field, or the in-
tensity of magnetization of a magnet, may be de-
termined by the needle of oscillation, by observing
the number of oscillations a needle makes in a
given time when disturbed from its position of
rest. (See Needle of Oscillation.)
Since a simple physical pendulum is a physical
impossibility, the -virtual length of a pendulum,
that is, the vertical distance between its point of
support and the centre of oscillation, is taken as
the true length of the pendulum.
If the irregularly shaped body, shown in Fig.
419, whose centre of gravity is at G, is made to
swing like a pendulum, either on
S, or O, its oscillations will be
performed in equal times, and
the body will act as a simple
pendulum, whose virtual length
is S O.
If, while suspended at S, it be
struck at O, it will oscillate
around S, without producing Fig. 4It)_ Centre
any pressure on the supporting of Oscillation.
axis at S, on which it turns. If floating entirely
submerged in a liquid, a blow at O, would cause
it to move in a straight line in the direction of
the blow, without rotation.
The point O, is called the centre of percussion,
or the centre of oscillation. The centre of oscil-
lation is always below the centre of gravity.
Pentane Standard. — (See Standard, Pen-
tane?)
Percussion, Centre of That point in
a body suspended so as to move as a pendu-
lum at which a blow would produce rotation,
but no forward motion, or motion of transla-
tion.
Perforator, Paper — — An apparatus
employed in systems of automatic telegraphy
for punching in a fillet of paper the circular or
elongated spaces that produce the dots and
Per.]
393
[Per.
dashes of the Morse alphabet, when the fillet is
drawn between metal terminals that form the
electrodes of a battery. (See Telegraphy,
Automatic.)
Perforator, Pneumatic - —A paper
perforator operated by means of compressed
air. (See Perforator, Paper.)
Period of Open-Circuit Oscillation.— (See
Open-Circuit Oscillation, Period of)
Period of Simple-Harmonic Motion.—
(See Motion, Simple-Harmonic, Period of)
Period of Vibration.— (See Vibration,
Period of)
Period, Vibration — —The period of a
single or a whole vibration in a conductor, in
which an oscillatory vibration is being pro-
duced by electrical resonance when respond-
ing to its fundamental vibration.
Hertz gives the following value for the vibration
period: Calling T, the single or half vibration
period ; L, the co-efficient of self-induction in abso-
lute magnetic measure, and therefore expressed in
centimetres; C, the capacity of the terminals, in
electrostatic measure, and therefore also expressed
in centimetres; v, the velocity of light in centi-
metre-seconds, then, when the resistance of the con-
ductor is small, T = it ^L C.
v
Periodic and Alternate Discharge.— (See
Discharge, Periodic. Discharge, Alternat-
ing^
Periodic Current, Power of — —The
rate of transformation of the energy of a cir-
cuit traversed by a simple periodic current.
Fig. 420. Power of Periodic Current.— (Fleming.)
If the thin line in the curve, Fig. 420, repre-
sents the impressed electromotive force in an in-
ductive circuit, and the thick line the correspond-
ing current, then, at any instant, say at the point
M, the rate at which energy is being expended on
the circuit, is equal to the ordinate P M, multi-
plied by the ordinate Q M. The mean power is
the mean of all such products taken at points of
time very near together.
The power of a periodic current, or the work
expended per second on such a circuit, is equal
to half the product of the maximum values of the
current, at any instant, and the maximum value
of the impressed electromotive force, multiplied
by the cosine of the angle of lag.
Periodic Governor. — (See Governor,
Periodic)
Periodically Decreasing Discharge. —
(See Discharge, Periodically Decreasing)
Periodicity. — The rate of change hi the
alternations or pulsations of an electric cur-
rent.
Periodicity of Auroras and Magnetic
Storms. — (See Auroras and Magnetic
Storms, Periodicity of)
Permanency, Electric The prop-
erty possessed by most metallic substances,
while in the solid state, of retaining a constant
electric conducting power at the same tem-
perature.
The electric permanency of hard drawn wire is
small, since such wire becomes gradually an-
nealed, and thus changed in its electric resist-
ance.
Matthiessen showed that some specimens of
annealed German silver wire increased in their
conducting power at the rate of about .02 per
cent, yearly.
Permanent Intensity of Magnetization.
— (See Magnetization, Permanent, Intensity
of)
Permanent Magnet Voltmeter. — (See
Voltmeter, Permanent Magnet.)
Permanent State of Charge on Telegraph
Line. — (See State, Permanent, of Charge on
Telegraph Line)
Permeability Curre.— (See Curve, Per-
meability)
Permeability, Magnetic — — Conducti-
bility for lines of magnetic forces.
The ratio existing between the magnetiza-
tion produced, and the magnetizing force pro-
ducing such magnetization.
If n equals the permeability, B, the magnetiza-
Per.]
394
[Phe.
tion produced, or the intensity of magnetic induc-
tion, and H, the magnetizing force; then,
HI
The permeability of non-magnetic materials,
such as insulators, or non-magnetic metals, such as
copper, etc., is assumed to be practically equal to
that of air, or to unity.
The magnetic permeability decreases as the
magnetization increases. When a piece of iron
has been magnetized up to a certain intensity, its
permeability becomes less for any further magnet-
ization; or, the substance shows a tendency to
reach magnetic saturation. In good iron, this
limit is reached at about 125,000 lines of force to
the square inch of rea of cross section.
The magnetic permeability varies greatly, not
only with different specimens of iron, but also with
the previous history of the iron, as to whether or
jiot it has before been subjected to magnetization or
demagnetization, and also as to whether the value
of the permeability is taken while the magnetiza-
•tion is increasing or decreasing.
Permeameter. — An apparatus devised by
S. P. Thompson, for roughly measuring the
magnetic permeability.
Thompson's permeameter consists essentially of
a rectangular piece of soft iron, provided with a
elot, for the reception of the magnetizing coil. A
hole bored in one end of the block serves to receive
Ihe bar or rod of iron whose permeability is to be
determined. On the magnetization of the bar to
be tested, the square root of the force required to
jdetach the rod from the lower surface of the iron
block, is a measure of the permeation of the lines
of magnetic forces through its end faces.
Permeance, Magnetic Magnetic
permeability. (See Permeability, Magnetic?)
Permeating, as of Lines of Force.—
The passing of lines of force through a mag-
netic substance. (See Permeability, Mag-
jvertc.)
Permeation, Magnetic The pass-
»cc of lines of magnetic force through any
permeable substance.
Permissive Block System for Railroads.
— (See Railroads, Permissive Block System
.for.)
Pfliiger's Law. — (See Law, PJlugers?)
Phantom Wires.— (See Wires, Phantom^
Phase, Angle of Difference of, between
Alternating Currents of Same Period
The angle which measures the shift-
ing of phase of a simple periodic current with
respect to another due to lag or other cause.
Phase, Shifting of, of Alternating Cur-
rent • A change in phase of current
due to magnetic lag or other causes.
Phase of Tibration.— (See Vibration,
Phase of.)
Phelps' Stock Printer.— (See Printer,
Stock, Phelps'.)
Phenomena, Electro-Capillary —
Phenomena observed in capillary tubes at
the contact surfaces of two liquids.
Where acidulated water is in contact with
mercury, each liquid possesses a definite sur-
face tension, and each a definite shape of sur-
face. The two liquids, however, do not actually
touch, there being a small interval or space be-
tween them. This space acts as a minute accu-
mulator. But the liquid and water, being different
substances in contact, possess different potentials.
Any cause which alters the shape of these con-
tact surfaces, and consequently the extent of the
spaces between them, necessarily alters the capa-
city of the condenser, and consequently the dif-
ference of potential. Therefore the mere shaking
of the tube, or heating it, will produce electric
currents from the resulting differences of po-
tential. Conversely, an electric current sent
across the contact-surfaces will produce motion as
a result of a change in the value of the surface
tension. An electro-capillary telephone has been
constructed on the former principle, and an
electrometer on the latter. (See Electrometer,
Capillary.)
Phenomena, Porret An increase
in the diameter of a nerve fibre in the neigh-
borhood of the. positive pole when traversed
by a voltaic current.
When a voltaic current passes through fresh
living substance the contents of the muscular fibre
exhibit a streaming movement in the direction the
current is flowing, viz., from the positive to the
Phe.]
395
[Pho.
negative. This causes the fibre to swell up or
increase in diameter at the negative electrode.
Pherope. — A name sometimes applied to
a telephote. (See Telephote}
Phial, Leyden A name sometimes
applied to a Leyden jar. (See/ar, Leyden}
Philosopher's Egg.— (See Egg, Philoso-
phers)
Phonautograph.— An apparatus for the
automatic production of a visible tracing of
the vibrations produced by any sound.
Phonautographic apparatus consists essentially
of devices by which the sound waves are caused
to impart their to-and- fro movements to a dia-
phragm, at the centre of which a pencil or tracing
point is attached. The record is received on a
sheet of paper, or wax, or on a, smoked glass or
other suitable surface.
Leon Scott's Phonautograph, which is among
the forms best known, consists of a hollow coni . al
Fig. 421. Scott's Phonautograph.
vessel A, Fig. 421, with a diaphragm of parch-
ment stretched tightly like a drumhead over its
smaller aperture B. A tracing point attached to
the centre of the diaphragm, traces a sinuous
line on the surface of a soot-covered cylinder C,
that is uniformly rotated under the tracing point.
As the cylinder is advanced a short distance with
every rotation, a sinuous spiral line is traced on
the surface.
Phone. — A term frequently used for tele-
phone.
Phonic Wheel.— (See Wheel, Phonic.}
Phonogram.— A record produced by the
phonograph. (See Phonograph}
Phonograph.— An apparatus for the re-
production of articulate speech, or of sounds
of any character, at any indefinite time after
their occurrence, and for any number of times.
In Edison's phonograph the voice of the
speaker, received by an elastic diaphragm of thin
sheet iron or other similat material, is caused to
indent a sheet of tin-foil placed on the surface of
a cylinder C, Fig. 422, that is maintained at a
uniform rate of rotation by the crank at W. In
Fig. 422-
the form shown in Fig. 422, the motion is by hand.
In a later improved form the cylinder is driven by
means of an electric motor or by clockwork.
In order to reproduce the speech or other
sounds the phonogram record is placed on the
surface of a cylinder similar to that on which it
was received (or is kept on the same surface),
and the tracing point, placed at the beginning of
the record and being maintained against it by
gentle pressure, is caused, by the rotation of
cylinder, to follow the indentations of the phono-
gram record. As the point is thus moved up and
down the hills and hollows of the record surface,
Fig. 423. EdL
iproved Phonograph.
the diaphragm, to which it is attached, is given to-
and-fro motions that exactly correspond to the
to-and -fro motions it frad when impressed origin-
ally by the sounds it recorded on the phono-
gram record. A person listening at this dia-
Pho.]
[Pho.
phragm will therefore hear an exact reproduction
of the sounds originally uttered.
In this manner the voices of relatives, dis-
tinguished singers or statesmen can be preserved
for future generations.
In Edison's improved phonograph the record
surface consists of a cylinder of hardened wax. The
rotary motion of the cylinder is obtained by means
of an electric motor. Two diaphragms are used,
one for recording, and one for reproducing the
sound waves. As shown in Fig. 423, the record-
ing diaphragm is in position against the cylinder.
The recording diaphragm is made of malleable
glass. The reproducing diaphragm is formed of
bolting silk covered with a thin layer of shellac.
In the Graphophone of Bell and Tainter the
point attached to the diaphragm is caused to cut
Fif.424. Bell and Tainter 's Graphophone.
or engrave a cylinder of hardened wax. Two
separate diaphragms are employed, one for speak-
ing, and the other for hearing.
The recording surface is made of a mixture of
beeswax and paraffine. A uniformity of rotation of
the cylinder is obtained by means of a motor pro-
vided with a suitable governor. An ordinary con-
versation of some five minutes, it is claimed, can
be recorded on the surface of a cylinder 6 inches
long and I \ inch in diameter.
In the Gramophone of Berliner, a circular plate
of metal, covered with a film of finely divided oil
or grease, receives the record in a sinuous, spiral
line. This record is subsequently etched into tie
metal by any suitable means, or is photographic-
ally reproduced on another sheet of metal.
Glass covered with a deposit of soot is some-
times employed for the latter process. The ap-
paratus is shown in Fig. 425, as arranged for the
reproduction of speech.
In Mr. Berliner's apparatus, the record surface
is impressed by a point attached to the trans-
mitting diaphragm, in a direction parallel to tke
record surface, and not, as in the instrument of
Mr. Edison, in a direction at right angles to the
same. This method would appear to be the best
calculated for a more exact reproduction of ar-
ticulate speech, since it permits comparatively
loud speaking or singing, without interfering
Fig. 423. Berliner's Gramophone.
with the quality of the reproduced sounds. Since
the resistance to indentation, or vertical cutting,
increases more rapidly than the increase in the
amplitude of vibration of the cutting point, it
follows that the louder the sounds recorded by the
phonograph or graphophone, the less complete
would be the quality of the reproduced sounds,
or the less the probability of the peculiarities of
the speaker's voice being recognized. In order
to avoid this, the speaker in the phonograph and
the graphophone speaks in an ordinary conversa-
tional tone only. (See Vibration or Wave, Am-
plitude of )
For purposes of dictation, and, indeed, most
commercial purposes, this is rather an advantage
than otherwise.
Phonograph Record. — (See Record
Phonograph.)
Phonoplex. — Literally sound folds.
A system of telegraphy. (See Telegraphy,
Phonoplex.)
Pho.]
Phonoplex Telegraphy. — (See Telegra-
phy, Phonoplex^
Phonopore. — A modified form of har-
monic telegraph.
Fhonozenograph. — An instrument devised
by De Feltre to indicate the direction of a
distant sound.
A Deprez-D'Arsonval galvanometer, a Wheat-
stone's bridge, and a microphone of peculiar con-
struction, are placed in the circuit of a voltaic
battery and a receiving telephone. The observer
determines the direction of the distant sound by
means of the sounds heard under different condi-
tions in the telephone.
Phosphoresce. — To emit phosphorescent
light.
Phosphorescence. — The power of emitting
light, or becoming luminous by simple ex-
posure to light.
Bodies that possess the property of phosphor-
escence, when exposed to a bright light acquire
the power, when subsequently carried into the
dark, of continuing to emit light, for periods
varying from a few seconds to several hours.
The diamond, barium and calcium sulphides,
dry paper, silk, sugar, and compounds of ura-
nium, are examples of phosphorescent,substances.
The effects of phosphorescence appear to be
due, in some cases, to sympathetic vibrations set
up in the molecules of the phosphorescent body
by the exciting light (See Vibrations, Sympa-
thetic.}
In other cases, however, that are not exactly
understood, the wave length of the emitted light
is more rap LI than that of the exciting light.
The fire-fly, the glow-worm, and decaying
animal or vegetable matter, exhibit a species of
phosphorescence that appears to be due to the ac-
tual oxidation or gradual burning of a peculiar,
specific, chemical substance.
Phosphorescence may therefore be divided into
two classes, viz. :
(I.) Physical phosphorescence, or that produced
by the actual impact of light, and,
(2.) Chemical pJwsphorescence, or that caused
by actual chemical combination or combustion of
a specific substance. This is sometimes called
spontaneous phosphorescence.
Physical phosphorescence may be produced in
a variety of ways, viz.:
897
[Pho.
(I.) By an Elevation of Temperature:
A variety of fluorspar, called chlorophane,
shines with a beautiful greenish blue light when
heated to less than a red heat. Here the non-
luminous rays are apparently transformed into
luminous rays.
A phosphorescent substance like fluorspar
eventually loses its ability to phosphoresce. It
regains it, however, on exposure to the light, i. t.,
if such an exhausted body be exposed to sunlight it
again phosphoresces on exposure to non-luminous
heat. The light emitted, during phosphorescence
by heat, is, probably, wholly due to potential
energy acquired during exposure to the light.
(See Luminescence.) The phosphorescence by
heat exhibited by fluorspar is sometimes called
fluorescence. It is preferable, however, to call
the phenomena phosphorescence. (See Fluores-
fence.)
(2.) By Mechanical Effects:
The flashes of light emitted during the attri-
tion or friction of some bodies, when not traceable
directly to electricity, are, most probably, to be
ascribed to phosphorescence.
(3.) By Molecular Bombardment.
The molecular bombardment due to the mole-
cules of residual gas shot off from the negative
electrode of an exhausted receiver through which
an electric discharge is passing, produces many
brilliant effects of phosphorescence.
(4.) By Electricity.
An electric spark produces phosphorescence in
such substances as canary glass, solution of sul-
phate of quinine, etc., etc.
(5.) Exposure to Sunlight, or, in fact, to any
light.
The different rays of the sun are not equally
able to excite phosphorescence. As a rule the
violet or ultra violet rays excite the greatest phos-
phorescence. The light excited is often, though
not always, of a greater wave length than the
exciting light.
Phosphorescent paints for rendering the posi-
tion of a push button, electric call, match safe,
gas pendant or some other similar object visible
at night, consist essentially of sulphides of cal-
cium or barium, or of mixtures of the same.
Phosphorescence, Chemical A
variety of phosphorescence, in which the emit-
ted light is produced by the actual combustion
398
[Pho.
of a specific chemical substance by the oxygen
of the air.
Chemical phosphorescence is seen in the fire-
fly and the glow-worm. (See Phosphorescence.}
Phosphorescence, Electric Phos-
phorescence caused in a substance by the
passage of an electric discharge.
The phosphorescent material is placed in an
exhausted glass tube, as shown in Fig. 426, and
submitted to the action of a series of discharges,
as from a Ruhmkorff coil, or Holtz machine.
The violet-blue light of such discharge is very
efficient in producing phosphorescence. Phosphor-
escence is thus effected by subjecting the phos-
phorescent material to the molecular bombard-
ment which is produced by such discharges in a
high vacuum. (See Bombardment, Molecular.)
Fig. 426. Electric Phosphorescence.
Phosphorescence, Physical — — Phos-
phorescence produced in matter by the actual
impact of light waves resulting in a vibratory
motion of the molecules of sufficient rapidity
to cause them to emit light.
Physical phosphorescence is distinguished from
chemical phosphorescence in that in the former
the energy required to produce molecular vibra-
tions is imparted by the light to which the phos-
phorescent body is exposed, while in chemical
phosphorescence the energy producing the light
is derived from the chemical potential energy
of the specific substance burned. (See Phosphor-
escence. )
Phosphorescent — Possessing the proper-
ties or qualities of phosphorescence.
Phosphorescing. — Emitting phosphores-
cent light. (See Phosphorescence?)
Phosphorescope. — An apparatus for meas-
uring the phosphorescent power of any sub-
stance. (See Phosphorescence?)
Phosphorus. Electric Smelting of
— An electric process for the direct production
of phosphorus.
In the electric smelting of phosphorus, the
crude material, consisting of a mixture of bones or
animal phosphates and carbon, is fed into a space
between two electrodes connected to the poles of
a source of powerful alternating currents. The
apparatus is similar in general to the Cowles fur-
nace for the reduction of aluminium. The heat
produced by the alternating currents decomposes
the phosphates, and the volatilized phosphorus
is condensed in suitable chambers.
Photochronograph. — An electric instru-
ment for automatically recording the transit
of a star across the meridian.
In a small camera connected with the eye- piece
of the transit instrument is placed a sensitized
plate.
A sidereal clock has an electric attachment to
its pendulum, so made that a shutter alternately
exposes and conceals the photographic plate, and
thus permits the image of a star to be formed on
the plate at intervals during its passage across
the field of the telescope. An image of the spider
lines is afterwards fixed on the plate by the light
of a lamp, held for a few moments before the ob-
ject glass of a telescope. A shutter is provided,
by means of which this light is prevented from
falling on the trail of the star across the field of
the glass. In this manner the time of passage of
the star across the meridian is automatically re-
corded on the photographic plate.
The photochronograph is also adapted for
similarly automatically recording the transit or
passage of any heavenly body across any imagin-
ary line in the heavens.
Photo-Electric Cell.— (See Cell, Photo-
Electric?)
Phot o-Electricity. — ( See Electricity,
Photo:)
Photo-Electromotive Force. — (See Force,
Electromotive, Photo?)
Photometer. — An apparatus for measuring
the intensity of the light emitted by any
luminous source.
There are various methods for measuring the
intensity of a beam of light passing through any
given space, or emitted from any luminous
Pho.]
399
[Pho.
source; these methods are embraced in the use
of the following apparatus:
( I . ) Calorimetric Photometer, in which the light
to be measured is absorbed by the face of a
thermo-electric pile, and the electric current
thereby produced is carefully measured. Since
obscure radiation or heat will also thus produce
an electric current, it is necessary first to absorb
all the heat by passing the beam of light through
an alum cell.
(2.) Actinic, or Chemical Photometers, in which
the intensity of the light is estimated by a com-
parison of the depth of coloration produced on a
fillet of photographic paper under similar con-
ditions of exposure to a standard light, and the
light to be measured.
The combination of pure hydrogen and chlorine,
or the decomposition of pure mercurous chloride,
have been employed for the purpose of determin-
ing the intensities of two lights by measuring the
amount of chemical action effected.
(3.) Shadow Photometers, in which a shadow
produced by the light to be measured is compared
with a shadow produced by a standard candle.
(See Candle, Standard.}
Fig. 427. The Shadow Photometer.
Rumford's photometer, shown in Fig. 427, is
an example of this form of instrument. The
standard candle, shown at L, casts a shadow C",
of an opaque rod C, on the screen at B.
The Hght to be measured L', is moved away
from the screen until its shadow C', on the screen
at A, is judged by the eye to be of the same
depth. The distance between the screen and the
lights is then measured in straight lines. The
relative intensities of the two lights are then pro-
portional to the squares of their distances. If, for
example, the candle be at 10 inches from the
screen, and the lamp at 40 inches, then the
intensities are as io8 : 4O2 or as 100 : 1,600, or the
lamp is a 16 candle-power lamp.
This photometer is based on the fact that the
shadow of each source is illumined by the light
of the other source.
These results are more accurate if the two
shadows are adjoining or nearly adjoining.
(4.) Translucent-Disc Photometers.— -The light
to be measured and a standard candle are placed
on opposite sides of a sheet of paper the centre of
which contains a grease spot. The standard
candle is kept at a fixed distance from the paper
and both it and the paper are moved towards or
from the light to be measured until both sides of
the paper are adjudged to be equally illumined.
In Bunsen's photometer a vertical sheet of
paper with a grease spot at its centre, is exposed
to the illumination of a standard candle on one
side, and the light to be measured on the other.
The sheet of paper is placed inside a dark box
provided with two plane mirrors placed at such
an angle to the paper that an observer can readily
see both sides of the paper at the same time.
This box can be slid along a graduated, hori-
zontal scale towards, or from, the light to be
measured, and carries with it the standard candle
mounted on it at a constant distance of io inches.
If the box is too near the light to be measured,
the grease spot appears brighter on the side of the
sheet of paper nearest the candle. If too near
the candle, it appears brighter on the side of the
sheet of paper nearest the light to be measured.
The position in which the spot appears equally
bright on both sides, is the position in which both
sides of the paper are equally illumined, and the
relative intensities of the two lights are then
directly as the squares of their distances from the
sheet of paper.
Shadow, and translucent-disc photometers
being dependent on equal illumination, are re-
liable only when the color of the lights compared
is the same. For the determination of the photo-
metric intensity of very bright lights, the standard
candle is replaced by a carcel lamp, a standard
gas jet, or by the light emitted by a given mass
of platinum, heated to incandescence by a given
current of electricity. (See Lamp, Carcel. Gas-
Jet, Carcel Standard. Light, Platinum Stand-
ard.)
Preece's photometer belongs to the class of
translucent disc photometers. A tiny incandes-
cent lamp is placed in a box, the topof which has
a white paper screen on which is a grease spot.
The box is placed in the street where the intensity
of illumination is to be measured, and the inten-
Pho.J
400
[Pho.
sity of the light of the incandescent lamp is
varied until the grease spot disappears. The
current of electricity then passing through the
incandescent lamp acts as the measure of the
illumination.
In the case of the shadow photometer, or of
Bunsen's photometer, if the intensity of illumina-
tion is the same, the relative intensities of the two
lights may be determined as follows:
Calling I, and i, respectively the relative inten-
sities of the standard light, and the light to be
measured, and D, and d, their respective dis-
tances from the screen, then
I : i : : D» : d2, or I X d* = i X D2;
that is, i = I (^-) -
Or , the intensity of the light to be measured is
(— - \ times the intensity of the standard light.
If, for example, D and d, represent 10 and 100
inches, respectively, the intensity of i, is 100 times
the intensity I, the standard light.
(5.) Dispersion Photometers. -A class of pho-
tometers in which, in order to more readily com-
pare or measure a very bright or intense light,
like that of an arc lamp, the intensity of the light
is decreased by dispersion a readily measurable
amount.
Ayrton S* Perry's Dispersion Photometer. — A
photometer in which, in order to bring an in-
tensely bright light, like an electric arc light, to
Fig. 428. Ayrton &• Perry's Dispersion Photometer.
such an intensity as will permit it to be readily
compared with a standard candle, its intensity is
weakened by its passage through a diverging
(concave) lens.
Ayrton & Perry's dispersion photometer is
shown in two different positions, Figs. 428 and
429. The apparatus is supported on a trip >d
stand E, arranged so as to obtain exact leveling.
A plane mirror H, movable around a pin placed
directly under its centre, can be rotated and thus
reflect the light after its passage through the
diverging lens, while still maintaining its distance
from the electric light
The horizontal axis of this mirror is inclined
45 degrees to its reflecting surface in order to
avoid errors arising from varying absorption at
different angles of reflection.
The inclination of the beam to the horizontal
is indicated by means of an index attached to the
mirror and moving over the graduated circle G.
A black rod A, casts its shadow on a screen of
white blotting paper B. A standard candle,
placed in the holder D, casts its shadow alongside
the shadow cast by the electric light. The lens
is now displaced until the shadow of the electric
light is of the same intensity as that of the candle,
when viewed successively through sheets of red
and green glass.
A graduated scale serves to mark the distances
of the candle and the lens, respectively, from the
screen, from which data the intensity ot the
electric light may be calculated.
Fig. 429. Ayrton and Perry's Dispersion Photometer.
(6.) Selenium Photometers . — Instruments in
which the relative intensities of two lights are de-
termined by the variations produced in a selenium
resistance.
In Siemens' Selenium photometer a selenium
cell is employed in connection with an electric
circuit for determining the intensity of light.
The tube A B, Fig. 430, is furnished at A, with
a diaphragm, and at B, with a selenium plate,
connected by wires G G, with the circuit of a
battery and a galvanometer.
A graduated scale L M, bears the standard
candle N. The tube A B, is capable of rotation
on the vertical axis F. A reflecting mirror gal-
vanometer is used in connection with the selenium
photometer. The light to be measured is placed
Pho.]
401
[Pho.
at right angles to the scale L M, and the tube A
B, directed towards it, and the galvanometer de-
flection compared with the deflection obtained
when turned towards the standard candle.
(7.) Gas-Jet Photometers, — Instruments in
which the candle-power of a gas-jet is determined
by measuring the height at which the jet burns
when under unit conditions of volume and press-
«re of gas consumed.
Fig. 4.30. Siemens' Selenium Photometer.
In determining the candle-power of an intense
light like the electric arc light, a large gaslight
is used instead of a standard candle, and the
photometric power of this gaslight is carefully
determined by comparison witha gas-jet photom-
eter. (See Jet, Gas, Carcel Standard.}
Photometer, Actinic A photom-
eter in which the intensity of any light is meas-
ured by the amount of chemical decomposi-
tion it effects. (See Photometer)
In some actinic photometers the intensity of the
light to be measured is determined by the com-
parison of the depth of coloration of a sensi-
tized film under similar conditions of exposure
to a standard light and the light to be measured.
Photometer, Calorimetric A pho-
tometer in which the light to be measured is
absorbed by the face of a thermo-electric pile,
and the intensity of the light estimated from
the strength of the electric current thereby
produced.
In order to avoid the error arising from the
current produced from the absorption of the ob-
scure radiation from the light, all the heat is first
absorbed by passing the light through an alum
cell. (See Photometer.')
Photometer, Chemical A photom-
eter in which the intensity of the light to be
measured is determined from the amount of
chemical action effected in a given time.
Photometer, Dispersion A photom-
eter in which the light to be measured is de-
creased in intensity a known amount so as to
more readily permit it to be compared with a
standard light of much smaller intensity.
(See Photometer)
Photometer, Electric An electrical
instrument for measuring the intensity of
illumination.
A form of electric photometer invented by C.
R. Richards depends for its indications on the
variations that occur in the resistance of a wire on
change of temperature. An irom wire, whose
change of temperature is utilized for measuring
the intensity of any light to whose radiations it is
opposed, is covered by a deposit of lampblack.
On exposure to the light whose intensity is to
be measured, the light is absorbed by the lamp-
black and an increase in temperature occurs.
In order to get rid of the heat rays that are
associated with the light rays, the rays before
falling on the soot-covered wire are caused to pass
through a solution of alum ; the intensity of the
light is then calculated by reference to the change
in the resistance of the soot-covered wire, which
is made one of the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.
Photometer, Gas-Jet — A photom-
eter in which the candle-power of a gas jet is
estimated from a measurement of the height
at which the jet burns under unit conditions
of volume and pressure. (See Photometer)
Photometer, Jet An apparatus for
determining the candle power of a luminous
source by means of the height of a jet of the
gas, whose candle-power is being determined,
when burning under constant conditions as
to pressure, etc. (See Jet, Gas, Carcel
Standard.)
Photometer, Selenium — A photom-
eter in which the intensity of a light is esti-
mated by the comparison of the changes in
the resistance of a selenium resistance suc-
cessively exposed under similar conditions to
this light and to a standard light. (See
Photometer)
Photometer, Shadow A photom-
eter in which the intensity of the light to be
JPho.]
402
[Pho.
measured is estimated by a comparison of
the distances at which it and a standard light
produce a shadow of the same intensity.
(See Photometer^)
Photometer, Translucent Disc A
photometer in which the light to be measured
is placed on one side of a partly translucent
and partly opaque disc, and a standard can-
dle is placed on the opposite side, and the in-
tensity of the light estimated by the distances
of the light from the disc when an equal illu-
mination of all parts of the disc is obtained.
(See Photometer)
When the illumination of the opposite sides of
such a disc is "equal, the relative positions of the
transparent and opaque portions of the disc are
indistinguishable.
Photometer, Varley's • — A form of
photometer in which the intensity of the light
to be measured is determined from the rel-
ative openings of two concentric circular
diaphragms placed in two rotating discs, and
through which the standard light and the
light to be measured respectively pass.
The general arrangement of Varley's photo-
meter is shown in Fig. 431. The concentric cir-
ring is fully open, the ether is completely closed-,
or, if one ring, say the outer, is opened 160 de-
grees, the inner is opened 20 degrees. The
quantity of light then which passes through the
outer ring from the light to be measured is eight
times that passed through the inner ring. The
circle is divided into 2,000 parts, instead of into
360 degrees, and, by means of a vernier, these
parts are further divided into 10 parts, permitting
a reading of the 20,000 divisions.
Two collimeters placed in front of the disc,
project a disc with a black centre, and a luminous
spot respectively. The discs are regulated until
the light projected on the screen produces a uni-
form disc. This is readily ascertained, since if
one or the other predominate, a disc with gray
spot, or a gray marginal ring with a bright spot,
will appear.
The general appearance of the circular dia-
phragm, corresponding to different relative posi-
tions of the two discs, is shown in Fig. 432.
43 1. Parley's Photometer.
cular apertures extend circumferentially 180 de-
grees, and are reversed so that when one half
Fig. 4.32. Circular Diaphragm of Varley's Photometer.
Photometric.— Of or pertaining to the
photometer. (See Photometer^
Photometrically. — In a photometric man-
ner.
Photophone. — An instrument invented by
Bell for the telephonic transmission of artic-
ulate speech along a ray of light instead of
along a conducting wire.
A beam of light, reflected from a diaphragm
against which the speaker's voice is directed, is
caused to fall on a selenium resistance inserted in
the circuit of a voltaic battery, and a telephone.
The changes thus effected in the resistance of the
circuit by the varying amounts of light reflected on
the selenium resistance from the diaphragm, while
moving to-and-fro under the influence of the speak-
er's voice, produce in the receiving telephone a
series of to-and fro movements similar to those im-
pressed on the transmitting diaphragm. One lis-
tening at the telephone can hear whatever has been
spoken in the neighborhood of the transmitting
diaphragm. Telephonic communication can,
therefore, by such means be carried on aiong »
Pho.]
403
[Pie.
ray or beam of light, theoretically through any
distance. (See Resistance, Selenium.)
A block of vulcanite or of certain other sub-
stances may be used as the receiver, since it has
been discovered that a rapid succession of flashes
of light produces an audible sound in small masses
of these substances.
The term sonorescence has been proposed for
the property possessed by such substances of
emitting sounds when subjected to such inter-
mittent flashes of light. (See Sonorescence.)
Photophore, Trouye's — An appa-
ratus in which the light of a small incandescent
electric lamp is employed for purposes of
medical exploration.
A small incandescent lamp is placed in a tube
containing a concave mirror and a converging
lens.
Photo-Telegraphy. — The electric produc-
tion of pictures, writing, charts or diagrams
at a distance.
Photo-Telegraphy is sometimes called telepho-
tography ; it is a species of fac-simile telegraphy.
(See Telegraphy, Fac- Simile. Telephotography.)
Photo- Voltaic Effect.— (See Effect, Photo-
Voltaic^
Physical Change.— (See Change, Phy-
sical.)
Physical Phosphorescence. — (See Phos-
phorescence, Physical.)
Physiological. — Pertaining to physiology.
Physiological Rheoscope. — (See Rheo-
scope. Physiological,}
Physiologically. — In a physiological man-
ner.
Physiology, Electro The study of
electric phenomena of living animals and
plants.
Living animals and plants present electric
phenomena, due to the electricity naturally pro-
duced by them. It is the province of electro-
physiology to ascertain the causes and effects of
these phenomena.
Piano, Electric A piano in which
the strings are struck by hammers actuated
by means of electro-magnets, instead of by
the usual mechanical action of levers.
An electric piano-action is mainly useful in per-
mitting the instrument to be played at any dis-
tance from the key-board, it is also of value
from the ease it affords in recording the pieces
played.
It fails, however, to properly preserve the vari-
ous modulations of force so requisite for brilliant
instrumentation.
Pickle. — An acid solution in which me-
tallic objects are dipped before being gal-
vanized, or electroplated, in order to
thoroughly cleanse their surfaces.
The pickle used for the preparation of iron for
galvanization is a weak solution of sulphuric acid
in water. Various acids, or acid liquids, are em-
ployed for insuring the thorough cleansing of
metallic surfaces so necessary in order to ensure
an even, uniform, adherent coating of metal by
the process ot electroplating. (See Plating,
Electro.)
Piece, Magnetic Proof A para.
magnetic rod, ellipsoid or sphere employed
for ascertaining the distribution of magnetism
over a magnet by the force required to de-
tach the same. (See Paramagnetic^)
Prof. S. P. Thompson points out the fact
that the presence of the proof-piece so alters the
distribution of magnetism on the magnet to be
measured as to render this method unreliable.
He also shows that the force required for detach-
ment depends on the magnetic permeability of
the proof-piece, as well as on its shape and its
position in the magnetic circuit
Pieces, Month Openings into air
chambers, generally circular in shape, placed
over the diaphragms of telephones, phono-
graphs, gramophones or graphophones to
permit the ready application of the mouth in
speaking, so as to set the diaphragm into
vibration.
The mouth -piece may be also utilized by the
ear of an observer listening so as to be affected
by its vibrations.
Pieces, Pole, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine Masses of iron connected with
the poles of the field magnet frames of
dynamo-electric machines, and shaped to
conform to the outline or contour of the
armature.
PH.]
404
LPil.
The pole pieces are made in a variety of forms,
but in all cases are so shaped as to conform to the
outline of the space in which the armature rotates.
The pole pieces are brought as near as possible
to the armature, so, as to increase the intensity of
the magnetic induction. The intervening air
space should be as thin as possible, but of as large
an area as convenient.
The opposite pole pieces should not have their
extensions brought too near together, as this will
permit of serious loss through magnetic leakage.
The distance between them should be as many
times the depth of the armature windings as
possible. (See Leakage, Magnetic. )
Rounded edges are preferable to sharp edges
for the same reason.
Pile, Dry A voltaic pile or battery
consisting of numerous cells, the voltaic
couple in each of which consists of sheets of
paper covered with zinc-foil on one side and
black oxide of manganese on the other.
Various modifications of the above form have
been made.
The term dry-pile is a misnomer, since all such
piles contain substances moistened by liquid
electrolytes.
Pile, Muscular, Matteueci's — — A vol-
taic battery or pile, the elements of which are
formed of longitudinal and transverse sections
of muscle alternately connected.
Matteucci's experiments appear to show that
the lower the animal is in the scale of creation,
the stronger is the current produced, and the
longer its duration. Du Bois-Reymond has
shown that the muscular current is not due to
contact, but to the differences of electric poten-
tial naturally possessed by the muscles them-
selves.
The nerves also possess the power of producing
differences of electromotive force, and hence cur-
rents. (See Electrotonus. )
Pile, Thermo, Differential — —A ther-
mopile in which the two opposite faces are
exposed to the action of two nearly equal
sources of heat in order to determine accu-
rately the differences in the thermal intensities
of such sources of heat.
Pile, Thermo-Electric — — A number
of separate thermo-electric couples, united in
series, so as to form a single thermo-electric
source. (See Couple, Thermo-Electric?)
A thermo-electric pile is sometimes called a
thermo-electric battery.
Fig. 433 shows Nobili's thermopile, in whick
a number of bismuth-
antimony thermo-elec-
tric couples connected
in a continuous se-
ries, as shown partly
in Fig. 434, are insu-
lated from one another,
except at their junc-
tions, and packed in a
metallic box, supported
as shown in Fig. 433.
The free terminals of Fig. 433. fher mo- Electric
the series are con- Pile-
nected to binding posts. Differences of tem-
perature between the two faces of the pile, where
the junctions are exposed, result in a difference
of potential equal to the sum of the differences of
potential of all the thermo-electric couples.
A careful inspec-
tion will show that
the junctions are
formed successively
at opposite faces of
the pile, so that if
the junctions be
numbered succes-
sively, the even junc-
tions will come at
one face, and the
Fig- 434- Series-Connected
Thermo-Electric Couples.
odd junctions at the other. This is necessary
in order to permit all the thermo-electric couples
to add their differences of potential ; for, if, as
in Fig. 435, a thermo-electric chain be formed,
Fig- 435- Thermo-Electric Circuit.
no currents will result from equally heating any
two consecutive junctions J, J, of the metals A
and B, since the electromotive forces so produced
oppose each other.
Thermopiles have been constructed by
Clamond, of couples of iron and an alloy of zinc
and antimony, of sufficient power to produce a
voltaic arc whose illuminating power equaled 40
PH.]
405
[Pla.
carcel burners. Many practical difficulties exist
which will have to be surmounted, however, before
such piles can be employed as commercial electric
sources.
Pile, Yoltaic A battery consisting
of a number of voltaic couples connected so
as to form a single electric source.
A form similar to Volta's original pile, consist-
ing of alternate discs of copper and zinc, separated
from each other by discs of wet cloth, and piled
•n one another, so as to form a number of separate
voltaic couples connected in series, is shown in
Fig. 436. The thick plates marked Zn, are of
zinc ; the copper plates, marked Cu, are much
Fig. 436. Voltaic Pile.
thinner. The discs of moistened cloth are shown
at d d. One end of such a pile would then be
terminated by a plate of copper, and the other
by a plate of zinc. The copper end forms the
positive electrode, and the zinc end the negative
electrode. (See Cell, Voltaic.}
Pilot Lamp.— (See Lamp, Pilot.)
Pilot Transformer. — (See Transformer,
Pilot.)
Pilot Wires.— (See Wires, Pilot.)
Pin, Insulator A bolt by means
of which an insulator is attached to the tele-
graphic support or arm.
The insulator pins or bolts are generally fixed to
the insulator by means of
screw threads turned on
their ends. They are then,
cemented to the insulators by
any suitable moisture-proof
cement.
The pin and insulator con-
nected to one another by
means of a screw thread are
shown in Fig. 437.
Pin, Switch - —A
metallic pin or plug pro-
vided for insertion in a
telegraphic switch board.
A form of switch pin is
shown in Fig. 438. The
metallic end is conical in
form, and is provided with
two longitudinal slots at Fig. 437. Insulator
right angles to each other in Pi*.
order to insure a light spring connection with
the metallic contact plate in which the pin is in-
serted.
Pith. — A light, cellular material, forming the
central portions of most exogenous plants.
An excellent pith, suitable for
electrical purposes, is furnished by
the dried interior of the elder- berry
stick.
Pith Ball.— (See Balls, Pith.)
Pith - Ball Electroscope. —
(See Electroscope, Pith-Ball)
Pivot Suspension.— (See Sus-
pension, Pivot)
Plain-Pendant Argand Elec-
tric Burner. — (See Burner,
Plain-Pendant Electric)
Plain-Pendant Electric Burner. — (See
Burner, Plain-Pendant Electric)
Plane Angle.— (See Angle, Plane)
Plane, Proof A small insulated
conductor employed to take test charges from
the surfaces of insulated, charged conductors.
Pla.]
406
[Pla.
The proof-plane is used in connection with
some form of electrometer. (See Balance, Cou-
lomb''s Torsion.)
Plane, Proof, Magnetic A small
coil of wire placed in the circuit of a delicate
galvanometer, and used for the purpose of
exploring a magnetic field.
When the coil is suddenly inverted in a mag-
netic field, if a long-coil galvanometer provided
with a heavy needle is used, the number of lines
of force which pass through the area of cross-sec-
tion of the coil will be proportional to the sine of
half the angle of the first swing of the needle.
Plant.— A word sometimes used for in-
stallation, or for the apparatus required to
carry on any manufacturing operation.
An electric plant includes the steam engines
or other prime motors, the generating dynamo or
dvnamos, the lamps and other electro-receptive
devices, and the circuits connected therewith.
Plant Electricity. — (See Electricity,
Plant. Plants, Electricity of.)
Plants, Electricity of— —Electricity
produced naturally by plants during their vig-
orous growth.
DuBois-Reymond and others have shown that
plants while in a vigorous vital state are active
sources of electricity.
If one of the terminals of a galvanometer be
inserted into a fruit near its stem, and the other
terminal into the opposite part of the fruit, the
galvanometer at once shows the presence of an
electric current.
Buff has shown that the roots and interior por-
tions of plants are always negatively charged,
while the flowers, fruits and green twigs are posi-
tively charged.
Plant tissue or fibre, like the muscular fibre of
animals, exhibits in many cases a true contraction
on the passage through it of an electric current.
This is seen in the Mimosa sensitiva, or Sensitive
Fern, in the Venus' Fly-Trap, and in several other
species of plants.
Pouillet concludes from numerous observations
that the free positive electricity of the atmosphere
is partly due to the vapors disengaged by grow-
ing plants.
The peculiar geographical distribution of thun-
der storms, however, does not favor this assump-
tion. (See Storm, Thunder, Geographical Dis-
tribution of.)
Plastics, Galvano A term some-
times employed for electrotyping, that is
where the deposits are sufficiently thick to
permit of ready separation from the object
which forms the mould.
Literally, the cold moulding or shaping of
metals by electrotyping. (See Plating, Elec-
tro. Metallurgy, Electro})
The word galvano-plastics is sometimes used
as synonymous with electrotyping, electro-plat-
ing, or electro-metallurgy generally.
Plastics, Hydro The art of elec-
trically shaping or depositing metals in the
wet by electrotyping. (See Plastics, Gal-
vano.)
Plate, Arrester, of Lightning Protector
That plate of a lightning protector
which is directly connected with the circuit
to be protected, as distinguished from the plate
that is connected with the ground. (See
Arrester, Lightning?)
Plate Condenser.— (See Condenser, Plate.)
Plat-, Ground, of Lightning Arrester —
— That plate of a comb lightning arrester
which is connected to the earth or ground.
(See Arrester, Lightning, Comb.)
Plate, Negative, of Storage Cell —
That plate of a storage cell which, by the
action of the charging current, is converted
into or partly covered with a coating of spongy
lead.
That plate of a storage battery which is
connected with the negative terminal of the
charging source, and which is therefore the
negative pole of the battery on discharging.
The usage is the reverse of that in the case of
the primary battery.
Plate, Negative, of Yoltaic Cell
The electro-negative element of a voltaic
couple. (See Couple, Voltaic.)
That element of a voltaic couple which is
negative in the electrolyte of the cell. (See
Electrolyte.)
The negative plate of a voltaic cell is the plate
not acted on by the electrolyte. In a zinc carbon
Pla.]
407
[Pla.
couple in dilute sulphuric acid, the carbon plate
is the negative plate. (See Cell, Voltaic.)
The negative plate is to be carefully distin-
guished from the Negative pole, which is the ter-
minal connected to the positive plate. The
terminal connected to the negative plate is the
positive pole. (See Cell, Voltaic.)
Plate, Positive, of Storage Battery
— That plate of a storage battery which is
converted into, or covered by, a layer of lead
peroxide, by the action of the charging current.
That plate of a storage battery which is
connected with the positive terminal of the
charging source and which is, therefore, the
positive pole of the battery on discharging.
It will be noticed that the usage in this respect
is the reverse of that in the case of primary bat-
teries, in which the positive plate is positive in
the liquid only; the end which projects from the
liquid, or the terminal connected with it being
negative.
In storage batteries, the positive plate is con-
nected with the positive pole. (See Battery,
Storage. Cell, Voltaic.)
Plate, Positive, of Toltaic Cell —
The electro-positive element of a voltaic
couple. (See Couple, Voltaic)
That element of a voltaic couple which is
positive in the electrolyte of the cell. (See
Electrolysis?)
The positive plate of a voltaic cell is the plate
out from which the current flows through the
electrolyte.
The zinc plate of a zinc-carbon couple is the
positive plate. (See Cell, Voltaic. )
The current leaves the cell, however, to flow or
pass through the external circuit at the wire or
terminal connected with the negative plate. (See
Cell, Voltaic.}
Plate, Primary, of Condenser
That plate of a condensing transformer in
which the inducing charge is placed in order
to induce a charge of different potential in the
secondary plate.
Plate, Secondary, of Condenser —
That plate of a condensing transformer in
which the induced charge is produced by the
induction of a charge on the primary plate.
Plate, Zinc, of Yoltaic Cell. Amalgama-
tion of Covering the surface of the
zinc plate of a voltaic cell with a thin layer of
amalgam in order to avoid local action. (See
Action, Local, of Voltaic Cell. Zinc, Amal-
gamation of.)
Plates, Arrester A term sometimes
applied to the two plates of an ordinary comb
lightning arrester. (See Arrester, Lightning,
Comb.)
The plate that is connected to the line to be
protected, is more correctly called the arrester
plate, and that connected to the ground the ground
plate.
Plates of Secondary or Storage Cell,
Forming of — — Obtaining a thick coating
of lead peroxide on the lead plates of a storage
battery, by repeatedly sending the charging
current through the cell alternately in opposite
directions.
The effect of sending a current between two
lead plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, is to
coat one of the plates with lead peroxide. On the
sending of the current in the opposite direction,
the other plate is coated with lead peroxide. If
now the current is sent in the opposite direction,
more peroxide is deposited on one of the plates,
and the peroxide at the other plate is converted
into spongy lead.
At the end of charging, the battery will form
an independent source of current. (See Cell,
Storage.)
Platform, Pole A platform, capable
of supporting several men, placed on a termi-
nal pole provided with a cable box, for the
purpose of affording a ready means of inspect-
ing and arranging the conductors in the box.
Plating Balance.— (SeeBalance, Plating.}
Plating Bath, Electro — — (See Bath,
Electro-Plating)
Plating, Copper — Electro-plating
with copper. (See Plating, Electro. Bath,
Copper)
Plating, Electro The process of
covering any electrically conducting surface
with a metal by the aid of the electric
current.
By the aid of electro-plating, the baser metals
are covered w.th silver, gold or platinum, or with
any other metal, such as nickel or copper.
Pla.]
408
[Pla.
The process of electro-plating is carried on as
follows:
The object to be plated is connected with the
negative terminal of a battery and placed in a so-
lution of the metal with which it is to be plated,
opposite a plate of that metal connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. If, for example,
the object is to be plated with copper, it is pi iced
in a solution of copper sulphate or blue vitriol,
opposite a plate of copper. By this arrangement
the object to be plated forms the kathode of the
plating bath, and the plate of copper forms the
anode.
On the passage of the current the copper sul-
phate (Cu SO4) is decomposed, metallic copper
being deposited in an adherent layer on the arti-
cles attached to the kathode, and the acid radical
(SO4) appearing at the anode, where it combines
with one of the atoms of the copper plate. Since
for every molecule of copper sulphate decomposed
in the electrolyte, a new molecule of copper sulphate
is thus formed, by the gradual solution of the copper
anode, the strength of the solution in the bath is
maintained as long as any of the copper plate re-
mains at the anode, and the ordinary activity of
the cell is not otherwise interfered with.
When any other metals, such as gold, silver or
nickel, for example, are to be deposited, suitable
solutions of their salts are placed in the bath, and
plates of the same metal hung at the anode.
The character and coherence of the metallic
coatings thus obtained depend on the nature and
strength of the plating bath, and on the density
of the current employed. The size and position
of the anode, as compared with the size and posi-
tion of the objects to be plated, must therefore be
carefully attended to, as well as the strength of
F'g- 439' Electro-Plating
the metallic solution and the current strength
passing. (See Current Density.)
Fig. 439, shows a bath arranged for silver-
plating.
The anode consists of a plate of silver. The
spoons, forks, etc., to be plated are immersed in
a suitable silver solution and connected with tke
kathode.
The electro-plating process when employed for
the production of electrotype plates is called
electrotyping. Here the object is to obtain a re-
production in metal of any particular form, such
as of type or of some natural object. It was
called by Jacobi the galvanoplastic process. The
term electrotyping is, however, more generally
adopted. (See Electrotyping, or the Electrotype
Process.}
Plating, Gold — —Electro-plating- with
gold. (See Plating, Electro. Bath, Gold.}
Plating, Nickel Electro - plating-
with nickel. (See Plating, Electro. BathT
Nickel}
Plating, Sectional Plating an article
with a greater thickness of metal at certain
points than at the rest of the surface.
Sectional plating is employed for such objects
as spoons, etc., which are, by this method, given
a greater thickness of deposit at the under portions
of the bowl and handle, where the spoon usually
rests, and is, therefore, exposed to the greatest
wear.
Sectional plating is effected by means of sec-
tional plating frames. (See Plating, Electro .
Frames, Sectional Plating. )
Plating, Silver . — —Electro-plating:
with silver. (See Plating, Electro. Bath,
Silver)
Platinoid.— An alloy consisting of German
silver containing i or 2 per cent, of metaJKc
tungsten.
Platinoid is suitable for use in resistance coils on
account of the comparatively small influence pro-
duced on its electric resistance by changes of
temperature.
Its resistance is 60 per cent, higher than that
of German silver.
Platinum. — A refractory and not readily
oxidizable metal, of a tin-white color.
The co-efficient of expansion of platinum by
heat is very nearly that of ordinary glass. Pla-
tinum is, therefore, generally employed for the
leading-in conductors of an incandescent lamp.
These conductors are fused into the glass of the
lamp chamber. On the heating of the wires by
Pla.]
409
[Pla.
the current, the glass expands equally with the
wires, and the vacuum in the lamp chamber is
not, therefore, injured.
Platinum Alloy.— (See Alloy, Platinum-
Silver^
Platinum Black. — Finely divided platinum
that possesses, in a marked degree, the power
of absorbing or occluding gases.
Platinum black is obtained by the action of
potassium hydrate on platinum chloride. Unlike
metallic platinum it is of a black color.
Platinum Fuse.— (See Fuse, Platinum^
Platinum-Silver Alloy.— (See Alloy, Plat-
inum-Silver?)
Platinum Standard Light.- (See Light,
Platinum Standard?)
Platymeter. — An instrument invented by
Sir William Thomson for comparing the
capacities of two condensers.
Plow. — The sliding contacts connected to
the motor of an electric street car, and placed
within the slotted underground conduit, and
provided for the purpose of taking off the
current from the electric mains placed therein,
as thevcontacts are pushed forward over them
by the motion of the car.
Similar contacts, placed in the rear of the motor
car and drawn after the train, form what is techni-
cally known as the sled, or when rolling on over-
head wires as trolleys. (See Railroad, Electric.)
Plow, Electric A plow driven by
an electric motor placed either on a wagon to
which the plow is attached, or by a stationary
electro-motor, by the aid of cords or other
flexible belts.
One of the first practical applications of the elec-
tric transmission of energy was for the operation
of a plow, dnven electrically, by an electric current
generated at some distance, and transmitted to
the electric motor by suitable conductors.
Plucker Tube.— (See Tube, Plucker.)
Plug. — A piece of metal in the shape of a
plug, provided for making or breaking a cir-
cuit by placing in, or removing from, a con-
ical opening formed in the ends of two
closely approached pieces of metal which are
connected with the circuits to be made or
broken.
As the plug is inserted in the opening it bridges
over the opening and thus closes the circuit con-
nected with the separate pieces of metals. Oa
removing the plug the circuit is opened or broken.
Plug. — In telegraphy, an inexpert operator.
Plug, Double A plug so constructed
that when inserted in a spring-jack it makes
two connections, one at its point and one at
its shank. (See Spring-Jack.)
Plug, Fusible A term sometimes
applied to a safety fuse. (See Plug, Safety?)
Ping, Infinity — A plug hole in a box
of resistance coils, in which the two pieces of
brass it connects are not connected by any
resistance coil, and which, therefore, leaves,
when withdrawn, an open circuit of an in-
finite resistance.
Plug, Safety A wire, bar, plate or
strip of readily fusible metal, capable of con-
ducting, without fusing, the current ordinarily
employed on the circuit, but which fuses, and
thus breaks the circuit, on the passage of an
abnormal current. (See Fuse, Safety?)
A safety plug is only used on circuits in which
the electro-receptive devices are connected with
the leads in multiple. In this case the fusing of
the safety plug, and the consequent opening of the
circuit with which it is connected, does not affect
the rest of the circuit. On series-connected circuits
a different form of safety device is used. (See
Cut -Out, Automatic, for Series -Connected Elec-
tro-Receptive Devices. )
Plug, Short-Circuiting A plug by
means of which one part of a circuit is cut
out by being short-circuited.
Plug Switch.— (See Switch, Plug)
Plug, Wall A plug provided for
the insertion of a lamp or other electro-re-
ceptive device in a wall socket, and thus con-
necting it with a lead.
Plugging.— Completing a circuit by means
of plugs.
Pings, Grid Plugs of active ma-
terial that fill the spaces or apertures in the
lead grid or plate of a storage battery.
Plu.]
410
[Poi.
The active material forming the plugs is placed
in the spaces in the grid while in the plastic con-
dition. On the subsequent hardening of this ma-
terial, these grid plugs cannot readily fall out,
since the spaces are so shaped that their interior
portions are 01 greater diameter than at the sur-
face of the plates.
Plumbago. — An allotropic modification of
carbon.
Plumbago, the material commonly known as
black lead, is the same as graphite. Powdered
plumbago is employed in electrotyping processes
for rendering non-conducting surfaces electrically
conducting. For this purpose powdered plum-
bago is dusted on the surfaces, which thus acquire
the power of receiving a metallic lustre by fric-
tion. Stove polishes are formed of mixtures of
plumbago and other cheap materials. (See
Graphite.)
Strictly speaking, the term graphite is properly
applied to such varieties of plumbago as are suit-
able for direct use for writing purposes, as in lead
pencils.
Plumbago, Coppered Powdered
plumbago coated with copper, for use in the
metallization of objects to be electro-plated.
(See Metallization)
Plumbago, Gilt Powdered plum-
bago whose conducting power for electricity
has been increased by coating it with metallic
gold.
Gilt plumbago is used for rendering non-con-
ducting surfaces electrically conducting and thus
preparing them for electro-plating.
To prepare gilt plumbago, dissolve in i oo parts
of sulphuric ether I part of chloride of gold, mix
in this 60 parts of powdered plumbago, and ex-
pose to air and light until all ether has volatilized.
Then dry in an oven.
Plumbago, Silvered — Powdered
plumbago coated with metallic silver for use
in the metallization of objects to be electro-
plated.
Plunge Battery.— (See Battery, Plunge)
Pneumatic Perforator. — (See Perforator,
Pneumatic?) B
Pneumatic Signals, Electro— —(See
Signals, Electro-Pneumatic^)
Pockets, Armature — — Spaces pro-
vided in an armature for the reception of the
armature coils. (See Coils, Armature, of
Dynamo-Electric Machine)
Poggendorff's Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Poggendorff's.}
Point, Carbon A term formerly
applied to the carbon electrodes used in the
production of the voltaic arc.
Point, Indifferent A point in the
intra-polar regions of a nerve where the ane-
lectrotonic and kathelectrotonic regions meet,
and where the excitability is therefore un-
changed.
This is sometimes called the neutral point.
Point of Lightning Rod. — (See Rod,
Lightning, Points on.}
Point of Origin.— (See Origin, Point of.)
Point, Neutral — In electro-thera-
peutics, a term sometimes used instead of in-
different point. (See Point, Indifferent)
Point, Nodal The null point in a
circuit traversed by electric oscillations. (See
Point, Null.)
Point, Null Such a point on a
micrometer circuit, that when joined
nected with the second-
ary circuit of an in-
duction coil, the sparks
in the micrometer cir-
cuit are either very
greatly decreased or
are entirely absent.
The null point on the
micrometer circuit is situ-
ated symmetrically with
respect to the micrometer
knobs.
If the induction coil A,
Fig. 440, has its second-
ary circuit connected as o
shown with the microm- Fig. 440. Xull Point.
eter circuit at the point e, situated at the centre
of the micrometer circuit, the point will be a null
point, and the effects of sparks at the micrometer
knobs, at M, will be greatly decreased. Under
the conditions shown in the figure, the electrical
oscillations in the micrometer circuit must be re-
garded as in the condition of stationary waves or
vibrations. It would seem, therefore, that defi-
nite waves or vibrations are set up in the microm-
PoL]
411
[Pol.
eter circuit, in the same way as are the vibra-
tions produced in an elastic bar set in vibration
by a violin bow, or by a blow from a hammer.
Points, Consequent The points or
places in an anomalous magnet where the
consequent poles are situated. (See Magnet,
Anomalous. Pole, Anomalous?)
Points, Corresponding — Points
where the lines of electrostatic force sur-
rounding an insulated charged conductor
enter the surfaces of neighboring conductors.
Points on the surface of a body placed in
an electrostatic field where the lines of elec-
trostatic force enter its surface, and thus pro-
duce a charge equal and opposite to that
of the surface of the body at the points from
which they came.
Corresponding points receive, in accordance
with the laws of electrostatic induction, charges
equal and opposite to those of the surfaces from
which the lines of electrostatic force originate.
Points, Electric Action of The
effect of points placed on an insulated,
charged conductor, in slowly discharging the
conductor by electric convection. (See Con-
vection, Electric?)
The cause of this action of points is to be at-
tributed to the increased density of a charge on
the surface of a conductor at the points and the
consequent production of convection streams of
air, which thus gradually carry off the charge.
(See Charge, Distribution of.)
Points, Iso-Electric A term some-
times used in electro-therapeutics for points
of equal potential.
Points, Neutral, of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chino Two points of greatest differ-
ence of potential, situated on the commutator
cylinder, at the opposite ends of a diameter
thereof, at which the collecting brushes must
rest in order to carry off the current quietly.
These are called the neutral points because the
coils that are short-circuited by the brushes Jie in
the magnetically neutral points of the armature.
(See Line, Neutral, of Commutator Cylinder.)
Points, Neutral, of Magnet — —Points
approximately midway between the poles of
14— Vol. 1
a magnet. (See Line, Neutral, of a Magnet.
Magnet, Equator of.)
Points, Neutral, of Thermo-Electric Dia-
gram The points on a thermo-electric
diagram where the lines representing the
thermo-electric powers of any two metals
cross one another.
A mean temperature for any two metals in
a thermo-electric series, at which, if their two
junctions are slightly over and slightly under
the mean temperature (the one as much
above as the other is below), no effective
electromotive force is developed. (See Dia-
gram, Thermo-Electric. Couple, Thermo-
Electric^
Points or Rhumbs of Compass.— (See
Compass, Points of.)
Polar Region.— (See Region, Polar.)
Polar Tips.— (See Tips, Polar)
Polarity, Diainagnetic A polar-
ity the reverse of ordinary magnetic polarity,
the existence of which was assumed by Fara-
day to explain the phenomena of diamag-
netism. (See Diamagnetism.)
Faraday assumed that diamagnetic substances,
when brought into a magnetic field, acquired
north magnetism in those parts that were nearest
the north pole, instead of south magnetism, as
with ordinary magnetic substances. The north
pole thus obtained would, he thought, explain
the apparent repulsion of a slender rod of any di -
amagnetic material delicately suspended in a
strong magnetic field, and cause it to point equa-
torially, or with the lines of force passing through
its least dimensions. This supposition was subse-
quently abandoned by Faraday. It has recently
been revived by Tyndall. (Soe Diamagnetism.)
The action of a diamagnetic body, when placed
in a magnetic field, is now generally ascribed to
the fact that the atmosphere, by which such body
is surrounded, is more powerfully paramagnetic
than the diamagnetic substance. The diamag-
netic substance conies to rest in an equatorial posi
tion, because in that position there is the greatest
length of air in the path of the magnetic lines,
which has a smaller magnetic resistance than the
diamagnetic substance.
Polarity, Magnetic The polarity
acquired by a magnetizable substance when
brought into a magnetic field.
Pol.]
412
[Pol.
The direction of magnetic polarity, acquired by
a substance when brought into a magnetic field,
depends on the direction in which the lines of
magnetic force pass through it. Where these
lines enter the substance a south pole is pro-
duced, and where they pass out, a north pole is
produced. The axis of magnetization lies in the
direction of the lines of force as they pass
through the body, and the intensity of magnetiza-
tion depends on the number of these lines of
force which pass through the body.
The cause of magnetic polarity is not definitely
known. Hughes' hypothesis attributes it to a
property inherent in all matter. Ampere at-
tributes it to closed electric circuits in the ultimate
particles. Whatever its cause, it is invariably
manifested by a magnetic field, the lines of force of
which are assumed to have the direction already
mentioned. (See Magnetism, Hughes'1 Theory
of. Magnetism, Ampere's Theory of. Magnet-
ism, Living's Theory of.}
Polarization, Galvanic — —A term
sometimes applied to the polarization of a
voltaic cell. (See Cell, Voltaic, Polariza-
tion of.)
Polarization, Internal, of Moist Bodies
A polarization exhibited by such
moist bodies as the nerves, muscular fibres,
the juicy parts of vegetables and animals, or
in general by all bodies possessing a firm struc-
ture filled with a liquid, on the passage
through them of a strong electric current.
Polarization, Magnetic Rotary —
The rotation of the plane of polarization of a
beam of plane-polarized light consequent on
its passage through a plate of glass subjected
to the stress of a magnetic field. (See Rota-
tion, Magneto-Optic?)
Polarization of Dielectric.— (See Dielec-
tric, Polarization of.)
Polarization of Electrolyte.— (See Elec-
trolyte, Polarization of.)
Polarization of Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Polarization of.)
Polarized Armature. — (See Armature,
Polarized)
Polarized Relay.— (See Relay, Polarized?)
Polarizing Current — (See Current ,
Polarization?)
Polarizing Electro-Therapeutic Current.
—(See Current, Electro-Therapeutic Polar-
izing)
Pole, Analogous That pole of a
pyro-electric substance, like tourmaline, which
acquires a positive electrification while the
temperature of the crystal is rising. (See
Electricity, Pyro.)
Pole, Anomalous A name some-
times given to those parts or poles in an
anomalous magnet which consist of two simi-
lar free poles placed together. (See Magnet,
Anomalous)
Pole, Antilogous — —That pole of a
pyro-electric substance, like tourmaline, which
acquires a negative electrification when the
temperature of the crystal is rising, and a
positive electrification when it is falling. (See
Electricity, Pyro)
Pole, Armature — — (See Armature,
Pole)
Pole Changer. — A switch or key for chang-
ing or reversing the direction of current pro-
duced by any electric source, such as a bat-
tery
The commutator of a Ruhmkorff coil is a sim-
ple form of pole changer. It is, however, usu-
ally called a commutator. (See Coil, Induction. )
Pole-Changing and Interrupting Elec-
trode Handle.— (See Electrode-Handle,
Pole-Changing and Interrupting)
Pole-Changing Switch.— (See Switch,
Pole- Changing)
Pole Climbers.— (See Climbers, Pole)
Pole, Consequent — — A magnet pole
formed by two free north or two free south
poles placed together. (See Magnet, Anom-
alous)
Pole, Magnetic, Austral — —A name
formerly employed in France for the north-
seeking pole of a magnet.
That pole of a magnet which points to the
earth's geographical north.
It will be observed that the French regarded the
magnetism of the earth's Northern Hemisphere
Pol.]
413
[Pol.
as north, and so named the north-seeking pole of
the needle the austral or south pole.
The north-seeking pole of the magnet is some-
times called the boreal or north pole. (See Pole,
Magnetic, Boreal.}
Pole, Magnetic, Boreal — A name
formerly employed in France for the south-
seeking pole of a magnet, as distinguished
from the austral or north-seeking pole.
That pole 6f a magnet which points to-
ward the geographical south.
If the earth's magnetic pole in the Northern
Hemisphere be of north magnetism, then the pole
of a needle that points to it must be of the oppo-
site polarity, or of south magnetism. In this
country we call the end which points to the north,
the north-seeking pole or marked pole. In
France the end which points to the north was
formerly called the austral pole. Austral means
south pole. (See Pole, Magnetic, Austral.}
Pole, Magnetic, False A term pro-
posed by Mascart and Joubert to designate
the place or places on the earth which appar-
ently act as magnetic poles, in addition to
the two true magnetic poles, near the earth's
geographical poles.
According to these authorities, the earth pos-
sesses two magnetic poles only, viz., a negative
polte in the Northern Hemisphere and a positive
pole in the Southern Hemisphere. The addi-
tional poles are called by them the false magnetic
poles.
Pole, Magnetic, Free A pole in a
piece of iron, or other paramagnetic sub-
stance, which acts as if it existed as one mag-
netic pole only.
A free magnetic pole has in reality no physical
existence. The conception, however, is of use in
describing certain magnetic phenomena. If the
bar of iron be so long as to practically place one
pole beyond the sensible action of the other, either
pole may be regarded as a free pole.
Pole, Magnetic, Marked — — That pole
of a magnetic needle which points approxi-
mately to the earth's geographical north.
(Obsolete.)
The north-seeking pole of a magnetic needle.
Pole, Magnetic, North - —That pole
of a magnetic needle which points approxi-
mately to the earth's geographical north.
The north-seeking pole of a magnetic
needle.
Pole, Magnetic, North-Seeking
That pole of a magnetic needle which points
approximately towards the earth's geographi-
cal north.
Pole, Magnetic, Salient A term
sometimes applied to the single poles at the ex-
tremities of an anomalous magnet, in order to
distinguish them from the double or consequent
pole formed by the juxtaposition of two simi-
lar magnetic poles. (See Magnet, Anoma-
lous^)
Pole, Magnetic, South — — That pole
of a magnetic needle which points approxi-
mately towards the earth's geographical south.
The south-seeking pole of a magnetic
needle.
Pole, Magnetic, South-Seeking -
That pole of a magnetic needle which points
approximately toward the geographical south.
Pole, Negative - —That pole of an
electric source through which the current is
assumed to enter or flow back into the source
after having passed through the circuit ex-
ternal to the source.
Pole-Pieces of Dynamo-Electric Machine.
— (See Pieces, Pole, of Dynamo-Electric
Machine?)
Pole Platform.— (See Platform, Pole}
Pole, Positive— —That pole of an
electric source out of which the electric cur-
rent is assumed to flow.
Pole Steps. — Short rods or bars shaped so
as to be readily inserted in holes near the
base of telegraph or electric light poles, so as
to serve as steps to enable a lineman to reach
the permanently placed steps.
Permanent steps are placed only at some dis-
tance from the ground, in order to prevent the
ready climbing of the poles by unauthorized
persons.
Pole, Telegraphic A wooden or iron
upright on which telegraphic or other wires
are hung.
Wooden poles are generally round.
Pol.]
414
[Pol.
The terminal pole, or the last pole at each end
of the line, or where the wires bend at an angle
of nearly 90 degrees, is made larger than usual
and is often cut square.
The holes for the poles must be dug in the true
line of the wires, and not at an angle to such line.
As little ground should be disturbed in the dig-
ging as possible. Earth borers, or modifications
of the ordinary ship auger, are generally em-
ployed for this purpose. When the pole is placed
in position the ground should be rammed or
punned around the pole.
In setting the pole, it is generally buried at least
5 feet in the ground. In England the poles are
planted to a depth of about one-fifth of their
length. In embankments and loose ground, they
are planted deeper than in more solid earth. On
curves, the poles should be inclined a little so as
to lean back against the lateral strain of the wire,
since by the time the ground has completely set,
the strain of the wire will have pulled them into
an erect position.
Care must be taken to so plant the poles on
that side of a road or railway that the prevailing
winds will blow them off the roadbed, should it
overturn them. As to location, the top of steep
cuttings is preferable to the slope. In all exposed
positions, it is preferable to strengthen the poles
by stays attached to both sides.
Where the number of wires is unusually large,
heavy timber, or in case of its absence, double
Fig.44'- Telegraphic
Brackets.
Fig. 442. Telegraphic
Arms*
poles suitably braced together, must be employed.
In long lines the poles should all be numbered in
order to afford ease of reference in case of repair.
When, even with the best punning, and other
precautions, the pole is judged to be unable to
resist the strain on it, stays and struts are em-
ployed. A stay is used when it is desired to re-
move the pull or tension from the pole ; a strut,
when it is desired to remove the thrust or pressure.
The arms or brackets, or the cross-pieces that
support the insulators, should all be placed on
the same side of the poles. Some common forms
of brackets are shown in Fig. 441, and of tele-
graphic arms in Fig. 442.
Saddle brackets should be placed on alternate
sides of the poles. When the strain on an insula-
tor is too great, on account of the wire going off
at a sharp angle, a shackle is used. This is a
special form of insulator which confines the strain
to one spot.
- 443- Double Shackles.
A form of double shackle is shown in Fig.
443. The wire passes around the recess at B,
between the two insulators.
On curves, or in any situation where there is a
probability, in case of the breaking of an insula-
"6
Fig. 444. Hook Guard.
tor, of a wire getting into a dangerous position,
guards should be employed.
Guards are of two kinds, viz.: hoop guards
and hook guards. A form of hook guard is
shown in Fig. 444.
When wooden poles are employed various pre-
servative methods are adopted to protect the
wood from decay, which is very apt to occur,
especially where the pole enters the ground.
Some of these forms are as follows, viz. :
( I . ) Charring and tarring the butt end of the
pole where it enters the ground, so as to expel
the sap and destroy injurious plant or animal
germs.
Pol.]
415
[For.
The charred end is then cleansed and dipped
in a mixture of tar and slaked lime.
(2.) Burnetizing, or the introduction of
chloride of zinc into the pores of the wood, by
placing the poles in an open tank filled with a
solution of this salt.
(3.) Kyanizing, or the similar introduction of
corrosive sublimate, or mercuric chloride.
(4.) Boucher izing, or the injection of a solution
of copper sulphate into the pores of the wood.
(S-) Creosoting, or the application of creosote
to well seasoned poles.
Pole, Telegraphic, Punning of —
Ramming or packing the earth around the
base of a telegraph pole for the purpose of
more securely fixing it in the ground.
Pole, Telegraphic, Terminal The
pole at either end of a telegraphic line.
As the first or last pole in a telegraphic line is
not supported on opposite sides by the line wires,
it is generally made stouter than the intermediate
poles, and greater care is taken to fix it securely
in the ground.
Pole, Testing A term sometimes
employed in electro-therapeutics for the in-
different pole or electrode. (See Electrode,
Indifferent)
Pole, Trolley The pole which sup-
ports the trolley bearing and rests on the
socket in the trolley base frame in an over-
head wire electric railway system.
Pole, Unit, Magnetic A magnetic
pole of such a strength that it would act with
a unit or dyne of force on another unit pole at
a distance of one centimetre.
Poles, Consequent The name given
10 single magnetic poles formed by two free
N. poles or two free S. poles placed together.
(See Magnet, Anomalous)
Poles, Idle Poles or electrodes in
Crookes' tubes, between which discharges are
not taking place.
The idle poles have no connection with the in-
duction coils or other sources from which the elec-
tric discharges are obtained. These poles are pro-
vided for attaching galvanometer wires, etc., in the
study of the Edison effect, or for the study of the
electrical condition of the dark space and other
regions of the atmosphere of the tube.
Poles, Magnetic The two points
where the lines of magnetic force pass from
the iron into the air, and from the air into
the iron.
The two points in a magnet where the
magnetic force appears to be concentrated.
In reality the magnetic force is most concen-
trated at the neutral points of a m agnet, through
which all the lines of force pass.
All magnets possess at least two poles, one
positive or north, and the other negative or south.
The lines of magnetic force are assumed to
come out of a magnet at its north pole, and to
enter it at its south pole.
Poles, Magnetic, of Verticity — —(See
Verticity, Poles of, Magnetic)
Poles of Condenser. — The terminals of a
condenser. (See Condenser)
Poles of Magnetic Intensity.— (See In-
tensity, Magnetic, Pole of)
Polyphase Current.— (See Current,
Multi-Phase)
Polyphotal Arc Light Regulators.— (See
Regulator, Polyphotal Arc-Light)
Popgun, Electro-Magnetic A mag-
netizing coil, provided with a tubular space
for the insertion of a core, much shorter than
the length of the coil, which, when the ener-
gizing current is passed through the coil,
is thrown violently out from the coil.
The movement and consequent expulsion of the
core is due to the action of the lines of magnetic
force which complete their circuit through the
core.
Porcelain. — A variety of insulating ma-
terial.
A translucent variety of earthenware.
Porous Cell.— (See Cell, Porous)
Porous Cup.— (See Cup, Porous)
Porous Insulation. — (See Insulation,
Porous)
Porous Jar. — (See far, Porous.)
Porret's Phenomena. — (See Phenomena,
Porret)
For.]
416
FPos.
Portatiye Power.— (See Power, Porta-
tive^
Portelectric. — An electric carrier.
A system of electric transportation by
means of the successive attractions of a num-
ber of hollow helices of insulated wire on a
hollow solenoidal iron car.
The solenoidal car forms the movable core of the
helical coils. As it moves through these coils it
automatically closes the circuit of an electric cur-
rent through the coils in advance of it and opens
the circuit of the coils in its rear. In this way the
solenoidal car advances in a line coincident with
the axis of the helical coils, being virtually sucked
through them by their magnetic attractions. This
system of electric propulsion is unique in systems
of electric traction. The motor becomes a mere
mass of iron or other paramagnetic material.
The system is suitable for the carriage of mail or
other comparatively light articles at a high speed.
In an experimental plant at Dorchester, Mass.,
a track of 2,784 feet in length was laid in the ap-
proximate form of an oval. The track was
formed by an upper and lower rail of steel, suit-
ably supported by stringers.
The car, which forms the movable core of the
solenoidal coils, was of wrought iron, and was
cylindrical in shape, with conical ends. It was
placed on the top of the carrier and connected the
several helices successively with the electric
Fig. 4*5. Portelectric Track.
12 feet in length and 10 inches in diameter, and
weighed about 500 pounds. It would carry about
10,000 letters. It had two flanged wheels above
and two below.
The solenoidal coils, by the attractive power of
which the core was moved, embraced the track
and the movable core or carrier. They were
fixed along the track at intervals of 6 feet from
centre to centre. Each coil was formed of 630
turns of No. 14 copper wire. The upper track
rail is divided into sections which form conductors
for the driving current. A central wheel was
Fig. 446. Portelectric Cay.
source as the carrier was drawn forward. A
speed of about 34 miles an hour was reached.
A section of the track is shown in Fig. 445, and
the shape and general structure of the carrier in
Fig. 446.
Portrait, Electric — —A portrait
formed on paper by the electric volatilization
of gold or other metal.
An electric portrait is obtained by cutting on
a thin card a portrait in the form of a stencil. A
sheet of gold leaf is then placed on one side of the
Fig. 447. Electric Portrait.
paper stencil, and a sheet of paper on the othet
side ; sheets of tin -foil are then placed on the out,
side, as shown in Fig. 447, and the whole firmly
pressed together. If, now, a disruptive discharge
is passed through from one sheet of tin-foil to the
other, the gold leaf is volatilized, and a purplish
stain is left on the paper of the outlines of the
stenciled card, thus forming an electric portrait.
Position, Energy of A term used
for stored energy, or potential energy. (See
Energy, Potential?)
Positive Direction of a Simple-Harmonic
Motion. — (See Motion, Simple-Harmonic,
Positive Direction o^
Fos.]
417
[Pot.
Positive Direction of Lines of Magnetic
Force. — (See Force, Magnetic, Lines of,
Positive Direction of.)
Positive Direction of the Electrical Con-
vection of Heat. — (See Direction, Positive,
»f Electrical Convection of Heat?)
Positive Direction Round a Circnit.
—(See Direction, Positive, Round a Cir-
cuit)
Positive Direction Through a Circnit
— (See Direction, Positive, Through a Cir-
cuit)
Positive Electricity. — (See Electricity,
Positive)
Positive Electrode. — (See Electrode,
Positive)
Positive Feeders.— (See Feeders, Posi-
tive)
Positive-Omnibus Bars.— (See Bars, Posi-
tive Omnibus)
Positive Phase of Electrotonns.— (See
Electrotonus, Positive Phase of)
Positive Plate of Storage Battery.— (See
Plate, Positive, of Storage Battery)
Positive Plate of Voltaic Cell.— (See
Plate, Positive, of Voltaic Cell)
Positive Pole.— (See Pole, Positive)
Positive Potential.— (See Potential, Posi-
tive)
Positive Side of Circuit— (See Circuit,
Positive Side of)
Positively.— In a positive manner.
Positively Excited. — Excited or charged
with positive electricity. (See Electricity,
Positive)
Post, Binding — A device for con-
necting the terminal of an electric source
with the terminal of an electro-receptive de-
vice, or for connecting different parts of an
electric apparatus with one another.
The conducting or circuit wire is either intro-
duced in the opening a, or c', Fig. 448, and
clamped by the screw b, or b', or is placed in
the space d, d, and kept in place by means of a
thumbscrew. Sometimes two openings are
provided at c, and c', for the purpose of connect-
ing two wires together.
A device for coupling or connecting the ends
of two wires to each other. It is then called a
coupler. (See Couple, Voltaic)
Fig. 448. Binding Posts.
Pot, Porous — —The porous jar or cell
of a voltaic cell. (See Cell, Porous)
Potential, Alternating— —A poten-
tial, the sign or direction of which is alter-
nately changing from positive to negative.
An alternating potential may be obtained either
in the case of an electrostatic field, or in that
of a magnetic field.
Potential, Alternating Electrostatic
— The potential of a charge that is under-
going rapid alternations.
Potential, Alternating, Magnetic
The difference of magnetic potential pro-
duced by alternating electric currents.
Potential, Constant — —A potential
which remains constant under all conditions.
A machine or other electric source is said to
have a constant potential when it is capable,
while in operation, of maintaining a constant
difference of electric pressure between its two
terminals on changes of load. (See Circuit,
Constant-Potential. )
Potential, Difference of A term
employed to denote that portion of the
electromotive force which exists between
any two points in a circuit.
The difference of potential at the poles of any
electric source, such as a battery or dynamo, is
that portion of the total electromotive force
which is available, and is equal to the total
electromotive force, less what is lost in the
source.
Some difference of opinion exists as to the exact
meaning that is attached to the phrase difference
of potential.
A positively electrified body is said to have a
higher electric potential than the earth, whose
potential is taken as zero.
Pot]
418
[Pot
Potential, Difference of, Methods of
Measuring Methods employed for de-
termining differences of potential.
These methods are as follows:
(I.) By the Method of Weighing, that is, by
obtaining the weight required to overcome the
attraction between two oppositely charged plates,
or oppositely energized coils; or by measuring
the repulsion between similarly charged surfaces,
or similarly energized coils.
(2.) By the Use of Electrometers, or apparatus
designed for measuring differences of potential.
(See Electrometers. )
(3.) By the Use of Galvanometers.
Differences of potential, in the case of currents,
may be determined from the quantity of electri-
city which flows per second through a given
circuit, that is, by the number of amperes, just
as the pressure of water at any point in the side
of a containing vessel can be determined by the
quantity of water that flows per second. Differ-
ence of potential in the case of currents, there-
fore, may be measured by any galvanometer
which measures the current directly in amperes,
provided the resistance of the circuit is known.
Potential, Drop of A term some-
times used instead of fall of potential. (See
Potential, Fall of.)
Potential, Electric The power of
doing electric work.
Electric level.
Electric potential can be best understood by
comparison with the case of a liquid such as
water.
The ability of a water supply or source to do
work depends:
(l.) On the quantity of water.
(2. ) On the level of the water, as compared with
some other level ; or, in other words, on the dif.
ference between the two levels,
In z like manner the ability of electricity to do
work depends:
(i.) On the quantity of electricity.
(2.) On the electric potential at the place where
the electricity is produced, as compared with that
at some other place; or, in other words, on the
difference of potential.
In the case of water flowing through a pipe,
when its flow has been fully established, the quan-
tity which passes in a given time is the same at
any cross-section of the pipe.
In the case of electricity, the quantity of elec-
tricity flowing through any conductor, or part of
a circuit, is the same at any cross-section. A gal-
vanometer introduced into a break in any part of
the conductor would show the same strength of
current.
But, though the quantity of water which passes
is the same at any cross-section of a pipe, the
pressure per square inch is not the same, even in
the case of a horizontal pipe of the same diameter
throughout, but becomes less, or suffers a loss of
head, or difference of pressure, at any two points
along the pipe. This difference of pressure causes
the flow of water between these two points against
the resistance of the pipe.
So, too, in the case of a conductor carrying aa
electric current, when the full current strengtk
has been established, the quantity of electricity
that passes is the same at all cross-sections.
Fig. 449- Hydraulic Gradient.
The electric pressure or potential, however,
is by no means the same at all points in the
conductor, but suffers a loss of electric head or
level, in the direction in which the electricity is
flowing. It is this electric head or level, or dif-
ference of electric potential, that causes the elec-
tricity to flow against the resistance of the con
ductor.
These analogies can be best shown by the fol-
lowing illustration:
In Fig. 449, a reservoir, or source of water, at
C, communicates with the horizontal pipe A B,
furnished with open vertical tubes at a, b, c, d, e,
f, g, and B. If the outlet at B, is closed, the level
of the water in the communicating vessels is the
same as at the source; but if the liquid escape
freely from B, the level of the water in the branch
pipes will be found on the inclined dotted line, or
at a', b', c', d', e', f, g', which may be called
the hydraulic gradient.
The pressure per square inch, at any cross sec
tion of the horizontal pipe, which is measured by
the height of the liquid in the vertical pipe at that
point, decreases in the direction in which the liquid
is flowing. The force that urges the liquid
Pot]
419
I Pot.
through the pipe between any two points, may
be called the liquid-motive force (Fleming) and is
measured by the difference of pressure between
these points.
In Fig. 450, the dynamo-electric machine at D,
has its negative pole grounded, and its positive
pole connected to a long lead, A B, the positive
pole of which is also grounded. A fall of poten-
tial^ represented by the inclined dotted line,
occurs between A and B, in the direction in which
the electricity is flowing.
Fig-. 4 jo. Fall of Electric Potential.
The dynamo-electric machine may be regarded
as a pump that is raising the electricity from a
lower to a higher level, and passing it through
the lead A B. The electric pressure or potential
producing the flow is greatest near the dynamo and
least at the further end, the differences at the
points a, b, c, d, e, f, and g, being represented by
the vertical lines a a', bb', c c', d d', ee', f f, and
gg'-
The electricity flows between any two points as
a and b, in the conductor A B, in virtue of the
difference of electric pressure or potential be-
tween these two parts, or the difference between
a a' and b b'.
Differences of potential must be distinguished
from differences in electric charge, or electrostatic
density. If two conductors at different potentials
are connected by a conductor, a current will flow
through this conductor. When their potential is
the same, no current flows. The density of a
charge is the quantity of electricity per unit of
area.
The electric potential is the same at all points
of an insulated charged conductor; the density is
different at different points, except in the case of
a sphere. The potential, however, is the same,
since no current flows, or the charge does not re-
distribute itself. The density on an insulated,
isolated sphere, is uniform over all parts of the
surface, and its potential is the same at all points.
If now the sphere be approached to another body,
its density will vary at different parts of its sur-
face, and while the charge ic redistributing itself
so as to produce these differences in density the
potential will vary. As soon, however, as this
redistribution is effected and no further current
exists, the potential is the same over all points,
though the density differs at different points.
An electric source not only produces but also
maintains a difference of potential. In the case
of the flow of liquid in a pipe, if a continuous
current of the liquid be maintained from the
higher level in the reservoir to a lower level, as,
for example, by means of a pump, it must flow
through the pump to the reservoir, from the lower
level towards the higher level. In case of an
electric source, since the thing called electricity
flows through a closed circuit, if its direction of
flow in that part of the circuit external to the
source — *. e. , in the external or useful current —
be from a higher to a lower level, then its flow
through the remainder of the circuit — i. e.,
through the source — must be from the lower to the
higher level. Since, however, the electrical po-
tential of a body represents the work the elec-
tricity is capable of doing, the work done by the
electricity may be regarded as being that done
when it passes from the higher to the lower level.
Potential, Electrostatic —The
power of doing work possessed by a unit
quantity of positive electricity charged or re-
siding on an insulated body.
Potential, Electrostatic, Difference of
Difference of potential of an electric
charge. (See Potential, Difference of.
Electrostatics)
Potential Energy.— (See Energy, Poten-
tial)
Potential, Fall of A decrease of
potential in the direction in which an elec-
tric current is flowing, proportional to the re-
sistance when the current is constant. (See
Potential, Electric?)
Potential Galvanometer. — (See Galva-
nometer, Potential)
Potential Indicator.— (See Indicator,
Potential)
Potential, Magnetic The amount
of work required to bring up a unit north-
seeking magnetic pole from an infinite dis-
tance to a given point in a magnetic field.
Pot.]
420
[Pow.
Potential of Conductor, Methods of
Varying (See Conductor, Potential
of, Methods of Varying?)
Potential of Conductors. — (See Conduc-
tor, Potential of.)
Potential, Negative That potential
in the circuit external to the source towards
which the electric current flows.
Generally the lower potential, or lower
level.
Potential, Positive — —That potential
in the circuit external to the source, from
which the electric current flows.
The higher potential or higher level.
Potential, Uniform - —A potential
that does not vary.
A constant potential. (See Potential, Con-
stant.)
An electric source is said to generate a uniform
potential when it maintains a constant difference
of potential at its terminals.
Potential, Unit Difference of -
Such a difference of potential between two
points that requires the expenditure of one
erg of work to bring a unit of positive elec-
tricity from one of these points to the other,
against the electric force. (See Erg?)
The practical unit of difference of potential is
the volt. (See Volt.)
Potential, Zero An arbitrary level
from which electric potentials are measured.
As we measure the heights of mountains from
the arbitrary mean level of the sea, so we measure
electric levels from the arbitrary level of the po-
tential of the earth.
Potentiometer. — An apparatus for the
galvanometric measurement of electromotive
forces, or differences of potential, by a zero
method. (See Method, Null or Zero.)
In the potentiometer the difference of potential
to be measured is balanced or opposed by a
known difference of potential, and the equality
of the balance is determined by the failure of one
or more galvanometers, placed in shunt circuits,
to show any movement of their needles.
The principle of operation of the potentiometer
will be understood from an inspection of Fig. 45 1 .
A secondary battery S, has its terminals con-
nected to the ends of a uniform wire A B, of high
resistance called the potentiometer wire. There
will, therefore, occur a regular drop or fall of po-
tential along this wire, which, since the wire is
uniform, will be equal per unit of length. This
drop of potential can be shown by connecting the
terminals of a delicate galvanometer, generally of
high resistance, to different parts of the wire,
when the deflection of the needle will be propor-
S
Fig. {jr. Potentiometer.
tional to the drop of potential between the tw»
points of the wire touched. If, now, the terminals
of a standard cell be inserted in the circuit of
the galvanometer, so as to oppose the current
taken from the potentiometer wire, and the con-
tacts of the potentiometer wire be slid along the
wire until no deflection of the galvanometer needle
is produced, the drop of potential between these
two points on the wire will be equal to the differ-
ence of potential of the standard cell. (See Cell,
Voltaic, Standard.)
Suppose, now, it be desired to measure the dif-
ference of potential between two points a and b,
on the wire C, through which a current is flow-
ing. Connect the points b and d, and a and c,'
as shown, with the delicate high resistance gal-
vanometer G, in either of them. Now slide c,
towards d, until the needle of G, shows no deflec-
tion. The potential between a and b, is then
equal to that between c and d.
Potentiometer Wire.— (See Wire, Po-
tentiometer?)
Power. — Rate of doing work.
Mechanical power is generally measured in
horse power, which is equal to work done at the
rate of 550 foot-pounds per second. •
The C. G. S. unit of power is one erg per
second.
The practical unit of power is the watt, or
10,000,000 ergs per second. The kilowatt is
even more frequently used as the unit of power
than the watt. (See Power, Unit of.)
Power, Absorptive The property
Pow.]
421
[Pow.
possessed by many solid bodies of taking in
and condensing gases within their pores.
Carbon possesses marked absorptive powers.
The absorption of gases in this manner by solid
bodies is known technically as the occlusion of
gases. (See Gas, Occlusion of.)
One volume of charcoal, at ordinary tempera-
tures and pressures, absorbs of
Ammonia 90 volumes
Hydrochloric acid 85 "
Sulphur dioxide 65 "
Hydrogen sulphide 55 "
Nitrogen monoxide 40 "
Carbonic acid gas 35 "
Ethylene 35
Carbon monoxide 9-42 "
Oxygen 9.25 "
Nitrogen 6.50 "
Hydrogen 1.25 "
— (Satissure.)
Power, Candle An intensity of
light emitted from a luminous body equal to
the light produced by a standard candle.
(See Candle, Standard.)
The light-giving power of one standard
candle.
Power, Candle, Nominal A term
sometimes applied to the candle-power taken
in a certain favorable direction.
This term is generally used in arc lighting.
In the ordinary arc lamp the greatest amount of
light is emitted at a particular point, viz., from
the crater in the upper or positive carbon. (See
Arc, Voltaic.)
Power, Candle, Rated A term
sometimes used for nominal candle-power.
Power, Candle, Spherical - —The
average or mean value of candle power
taken at a number of points around the source
of light.
Power, Conducting — —The ability of
a given length and area of cross-section of a
substance for conducting light, heat, elec-
tricity or magnetism, as compared with an
equal length and area of cross-section of
some other substance taken as a standard.
Power, Conducting, for Electricity —
—The ability of a given length and area of
cross-section of a substance to conduct elec-
tricity, as compared with an equal length and
area of cross-section of some other substance,
such as pure silver or copper.
No substance is known that does not offer some
resistance to the passage of an electric current.
The following table is taken from Sylvanus P.
Thompson's « « Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism":
GOOD CONDUCTORS.
Silver,
Copper,
Other metals,
Charcoal.
PARTIAL CONDUCTORS.
Water,
The human body,
Cotton,
Wood,
Marble,
Paper.
NON-CONDUCTORS.
Oils,
Porcelain,
Dry wood,
Silk,
Resins,
Gutta-percha,
Shellac,
Ebonite,
Paraffme,
Glass,
Dry air.
Heat decreases the conducting power of ele-
mentary substances. This decrease in the con-
ducting power is approximately proportional to
the increase of temperature. Carbon is an ex-
ception to the law, being a better conductor at a
red or white heat than when cold.
The resistance of some alloys, such as German
silver and platinoid, is but little affected by mod-
erate changes of temperature. These alloys are,
therefore, employed in the construction of resist-
ance coils.
At a red heat insulators become fairly good
conductors of electricity.
At very low temperatures the conducting
powers of the metals increase.
Wroblewski has shown that at extremely low
temperatures copper increases in its conducting
power for electricity. He cooled copper to — 200
degrees C., the temperature of the solidification
of nitrogen, and found that at this temperature
its conducting power increased to about nine times
its conducting power at O degrees C.
It may be remarked here that at exceedingly
low temperatures a metal would take in or absorb
heat from the surrounding medium with very
great rapidity. In this sense it might be said that
Pow.]
423
[Pow.
its conducting power for heat was greatly in-
creased.
Kohlrausch estimates the conducting power of
distilled water at .000000000025, that of mer-
cury being taken as unity.
The best conductors of electricity are the best
conductors of heat.
This fact is well illustrated by the following
table from Ayrton :
RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITIES PER CUBIC UNIT.
Name of Metal. Electricity. Heat.
Silver, annealed 100 100
Copper, «« 94.1 74-8
Gold, •« 73 54.8
Platinum 16.6 94
Iron 15.5 10.1
Tin 11.4 15.4
Lead 7.6 7.9
Bismuth i.i 1.8
The electric conductivity of porous conductors
decreases much more rapidly than the heat con-
ductivity.
Practically perfect insulators for electricity can
be obtained, but are unknown for heat.
Edlund believes the universal ether to be al-
most a perfect conductor. He bases this belief
on the phenomena of sun spots, the occurrence of
which is almost immediately followed by the
occurrence of magnetic disturbances on the
earth.
Lodge regards the luminiferous ether as being
almost a perfect non-conductor, because he thinks
that conductors must be opaque. It may be sug-
gested in this connection that Edlund's hypothesis
as to the conductibility of magnetic effects through
the ether is also capable of an explanation by the
effects of magnetic induction.
The conducting power for alternating currents
is not the same as for steady currents. When
the alternations become very high, the difference
between these conducting powers of the metals
becomes almost inappreciable.
Iron is an enormously worse conductor of
electricity than copper for rapidly alternating
currents, at least when the alternations are not
too great. When, however, the alternations are
extremely high, such as those which are produced
by the discharge of a Leyden jar or lightning
flash, the iron is as good a conductor as the cop-
per. The reason for this is evident. The dis-
charge in such cases keeps to the extreme outer
layer of the conductor, so that the composition of
the substance is practically of no effect.
Hughes has shown that the resistance of an iron
telephone line of the usual diameter, to periodic
currents of about 100 per second, is somewhat
more than three times its resistance for steady
currents.
There is no such thing as conduction of elec-
tricity in gases. Electricity makes its way through
a gas by a sudden piercing of the dielectric, or, in
other words, by a disruptive discharge. (See
Discharge, Disruptive.} In such a disruptive
discharge it may be assumed that the gas be-
comes a conductor of electricity while the dis-
charge is passing. It would then partake of the
nature of an electrolytic conductor, since the dis-
charge takes place by means of a true locomotion
of atoms. (See Conduction, Electrolytic.)
Power, Conducting, for Heat The
ability of a substance to transmit heat through
its mass.
The metals are good conductors of heat They
are also good conductors of electricity. The
conducting powers for heat and electricity are
nearly identical. As the temperature of a body
increases, its conducting power for heat is de-
creased. Carbon forms an exception to this
statement.
The flow of heat across a wall formed of a
homogeneous material, the exposed faces of which
are of equal extent and are maintained at a con-
stant difference of temperature, takes place in
accordance with the following laws :
(i.) The rate of flow across all perpendicular
sections is the same.
(2.) A uniform drop of temperature occurs
from one side of the wall to the other in the direc-
tion in which the flow is taking place.
(3.) The rate of flow is proportional to the dif-
ference in temperature.
The similarity between the laws of the flow of
heat under the circumstances just named and the
flow of electricity through a conductor is evident ;
the electrical current being the same in all parts
of the circuit, a drop of potential occurring in
the direction in which the current is moving,
and the flow being proportional to the difference
of potential.
Power, Conducting, Tables of
Tables in which the relative conducting
Pow.]
423
[Pow,
powers of different substances are given. (See
Resistance, Tables of.)
Power, Electric Power developed
by means of electricity.
Power, Electric, Distribution of
The distribution of electric power by means
of any suitable system of generators, connect-
ing circuits and electric motors.
Power, Electric Transmission of
The transmission of mechanical energy by
converting it into electric energy at one point
or end of a line, and reconverting it into
mechanical energy at some other point on the
line. (See Energy, Electric, Transmission
of)
Power, Horse A rate of doing work
equal to 550 foot-pounds per second, or 33,-
ooo foot-pounds per minute.
I horse-power=745.94 X io7 ergs per second.
(See Erg.)
«« =745.941 watts. (See Watt.)
" -=42.746 lb. Fahr. heat units
per min. (See Units,
Heat.)
" =23.748 lb. Cent, heat units per
min. (See Units, Heat.)
Power, Horse, Electric Such a
rate of doing electric work as is equal to
746 watts or 746 volt-coulombs per second.
This rate is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds
per minute, or 550 foot-pounds per second.
Just as I pound of water raised through the
vertical distance of I foot requires the expendi-
ture of a foot-pound of energy, so I coulomb of
electricity acting through the difference of poten-
tial of I volt requires a certain amount of work
to be done on it. (See Coulomb. Volt. Po-
tential, Electric.}
This amount is called a volt-coulomb or joule,
and measured in foot-pounds is equal to .737324
foot-pounds. The volt-coulomb, or joule, isthere-
fore the unit of electric work, just as the foot-
pound is the unit of mechanical work.
The electric work of any circuit in joules is
equal to the product of the volts by the coulombs.
If we determine the rate per second at which
the coulombs pass, and multiply this product by
the volts, we have a quantity which represents the
electrical power, or rate of doing electrical work.
But i ampere is equal to I coulomb per second;
therefore, if we multiply the current in am-
peres by the difference of potential in volts, the
product is equal to the electrical power or rate of
doing electrical work.
The product of an ampere by a volt is called
a volt-ampere, or a watt.
One watt = .0013406 horse-power, or
One horse-power = 745.941 watts.
C* F*
Therefore the electrical horse-power = — •?'
where C = the current in amperes and E = the
difference of potential in volts.
Power, Multiplying, of Shunt
(See Shunt, Multiplying Power of .)
Power of Periodic Current— (See Cur-
rent, Periodic, Power of.)
Power, Portative The carrying
power of a magnet. (See Magnet, Porta-
tive Power of.)
Power, Projecting, of Magnet The
power a magnet possesses of throwing or pro-
jecting its lines of magnetic force across an
intervening air space or gap.
The greater the air space the greater the mag-
netic reluctance, and consequently the greater the
magnetizing force required to overcome it. Mag-
nets of great projecting power are generally of
great length, to accommodate the long coils of
wire required.
Power, Resuscitating, of Secondary Bat-
tery Cell The power possessed by an
apparently completely discharged secondary
or storage cell of furnishing additional current
after a protracted rest.
This resuscitating power is probably due to
depolarization. It is therefore present in primary
as well as in secondary batteries.
Power, Stray That part of the
power employed in driving a dynamo, which
is lost through friction, air churning or air
currents, eddy currents, hysteresis, etc.
Power, Thermo-Electric A num-
ber which, when multiplied by the difference
of temperature of a thermo-electric couple,
will give the difference of potential thereby
generated in micro-volts. (See Diagram.
Thermo-Electric.)
Pow.]
424
[Pri.
Power, Units of Various units em-
ployed in the measurement of power.
The following table of units of power is taken
from Heringls work on dynamo-electric machines.
Unit of Power.
I erg per second. . = .000000 1 watt.
I watt, or I volt-
ampere, or I
joule per second,
or I volt-coulomb
per second = icoooooo ergs per second.
= 44.2394 foot-pounds per
min.
" =6.11622 kilogram - metres
per min.
« = .0573048 Ib.-Fah. , heat unit
per min.
" = .318360 Ib.-Cent., heat unit
per min.
" = .0144402 klgr.-Cent. heat
unit per min.
" = .0013592 metric horse-
power.
" = .0013406 horse-power.
I foot-pound per
min = 226043 erSs Per second.
" = .0226043 watt.
" = .13825 kilogram-metre per
min.
" = .00003072 metric horse-
power.
" = .000030303 horse-power.
I kilogram- metre
per min = 1635000 ergs per second.
" = .163500 watt.
= 7.23314 foot-pounds per
min.
•« =.0002222 metric horse-
power.
= .0002 192 horse-power.
I metric horse-
power, or I
French horse-
power, or I che-
Tal-vapeur, or I
force de cheval,
or i Pferdekraft. = 735 75 x io» ergs per
second.
= 735-750 watts.
= 32549.0 foot-pounds per
min.
" = 4500 kilogram-metres per
I metric h.-p., etc. =42.162 Ib.-Fah., heat units
per min.
" = 23.423 Ib. -Cent., heat units
per min.
" = 10.625 klg.-Cent., heat
units per min.
= .98634 horse-power heat
units per min.
I horse-power =745.94 x io7 ergs per
second.
" =745.941 watts.
= 33000 foot pounds per min.
" = 4562.33 kilogram - metres
per min.
" = 42.746 Ib.-Fah., heat units
per min.
" = 23.748 Ib.-Cent, heat units
per min.
" = 10.772 klg. - Cent., heat
units per min.
" = 1.01385 metric horse-
power.
I lb.-Fih., heat
unit per min = 17.45 X io7 ergs per sec.
" = 17.4505 watts.
= .23718 metric horse-power.
" = .023394 horse-power.
I Ib. Cent., heat
unit per min = 31.41 x io7 ergs per sec.
" =31.4109 watts.
= .04269 metric horse power.
" = .042109 horse-power.
I klgr.-Cent., heat
unit per min = 69.25 x io7 ergs per sec.
" = 69.249 watts.
= .094 1 2 metric horse-power.
" = .092835 horse-power.
Poynting's Law.— (See Law, Poynting's.)
Practical Unit of Inductance, or Self-
induction.— (See Inductance, or Self -Induc-
tion, Practical Un it of.)
Practical Unit of Magneto-Motive Force.
— (See Force, Magneto-Motive, Practical
Unit of.)
Practical Units.— (See Units, Practical)
Pressel. — A press switch or push connected
to the end of a flexible, pendant conductor.
Pressure Wires. — (See Wires, Pressure.)
Primary Battery. — (See Battery, Prim-
ary.)
Pri.]
425
[Pro.
Primary, Breaking the Breaking
or opening the circuit of the primary of an
induction coil. (See Primary, The.)
Primary Coil.— (See Cot'l, Primary.)
Primary, Making the Closing or
completing the circuit of the primary of an
induction coil. (See Primary, The.)
Primary Plate Condenser.— (See Plate,
Primary, of Condenser?)
Primary Spiral.— (See Spiral, Primary)
Primary, The That conductor in
an induction coil, or transformer, which re-
ceives the impressed electromotive force, or
which carries the inducing current.
On changes in the current intensity in the
primary, currents are induced in the secondary.
(See Induction, Electro-Dynamic. Coil, Induc-
tion. Transformer. )
Prime Conductor. — (See Conductor,
Prime)
Prime Motor.— (See Mover, Prime)
Prime Mover.— (See Mover, Prime)
Printer, Stock, Callahan's A form
of printing telegraph used in sending stock
quotations telegraphically. (See Telegraphy,
Printing. Ticker, Stock)
Printer, Stock, Phelps' A form of
printing telegraph used in sending stock quo-
tations telegraphically. (See Ticker, Stock.
Telegraphy, Printing)
Probe, Electric A metallic con-
ductor inserted in the body of a patient in
order to ascertain the exact position of a
bullet, or other foreign metallic substance.
Two conductors are placed parallel to each
other, and are separated at the extremity of the
probe by any suitable insulating material. On
contact with the metallic substance, an electric
bell is rung by the closing of the circuit, or the
same thing is more readily detected by the de-
flection of the needle of a galvanometer, or by a
telephone placed in the circuit.
Process, Electrotyping (See Elec-
trotyping, or the Electrotype Process)
Processes of Carbonization.— (See Car-
bonization, Processes of)
Production of Electricity by Light.-.
(See Electricity, Production of, by Light)
. Prognosis, Electric In electro-
therapeutics, a prognosis, or prediction of the
fatal or non-fatal termination of a disease,
from an electro-diagnosis based on the exag-
gerated or diminished reactions of the excit-
able tissues of the body when subjected to
the varying influences of electric currents.
(See Diagnosis, Electro)
Projections, Pacinotti —Radial
projections or teeth in an armature core ex-
tending from the central shaft, so as to form
slots, pockets, or armature chambers, for the
reception of the armature coils.
The term Pacinotti projections was given to
these teeth because they were first introduced by
Pacinotti in his dynamo-electric machine.
Projector, Mangin A special form
of search light.
The Mangin reflector consists of a concavo-
convex mirror, the convex surface of which is
silvered and acts as a reflector. The radii ot
curvature of the two surfaces are such that the
light undergoes the two refractions, i . e., on en-
tering and on passing out of the mirror, in such a
manner as to pass out of the mirror in absolute
parallelism, and thus destroy all aberration.
Fig. 452. Mangin Projector.
The Mangin projector is shown in longitudinal
and in cross-section in Fig. 452, and the projector
> B, is placed in one end of the cylinder A, furnished
with the openings for the ventilation of the cham-
ber.
The cylinder is supported on trunnions, and by
means of screws can be given any desired inclina-
tion, in a manner which will be readily under-
stood from an inspection of the drawing.
The source of light is an arc lamp of the focus-
ing type. A small disc is placed in front of the
Pro.]
[Pui.
arc in order to stop the direct light from the arc
which would have divergent rays. The door C,
is formed of a number of cylindrical lenses, placed
parallel to one another, which cause the rays to
diverge horizontally, when so desired.
Prony Brake.— (See Brake, Prony.}
Proportional Coils.— (See Coils, Propor-
tional.}
Proportionate Arms.— (See Arms, Pro-
portionate.}
Proportionate Arms of Electric Bridge.
— (See Arms, Proportionated)
Prostration, Electric Physiological
exhaustion or prostration, resembling that
produced by sunstroke, resulting from pro-
longed exposure to the radiation of an unusu-
ally large voltaic arc. (See Sunstroke,
Electric.}
Protection, Electric, of Houses, Ships
and Buildings Generally Means for
protection against the destructive effects of a
lightning discharge, consisting essentially in
the use of lightning rods. (See Rod, Light-
ning)
Protection, Electric, of Metals
(See Metals, Electrical Protection of.}
Protective Sheath.— (See Sheath, Pro-
tective?)
Protector, Cable A device for the
safe discharge of the static charge produced
on the metallic sheathing of a cable, or on
conductors surrounding or adjacent to the
cable, consequent on changes in the electro-
motive force applied to the conducting core of
such cable.
The cable protector is provided for the purpose
of preventing the discharge of the charge from
piercing and thus injuring the insulation of the
cable itself.
Protector, Comb A term some-
times applied to a lightning protector or ar-
rester, in which both the line and ground
plates are furnished with a series of teeth,
like those on a comb. (See Arrester, Light-
Protector, Voltaic Battery A de-
vice for automatically disconnecting a voltaic
battery, whenever the circuit in which it is
placed becomes grounded.
The battery protector is used in systems of elec-
tric gaslighting, where, unless great care is exer-
cised in insulating the circuits, considerable annoy-
ance is often experienced from the readiness with
which grounds are established. This arises from
the high electromotive force of the spark ob-
tained from the spark coil, piercing the insula-
tion and establishing a ground through the gas
pipes.
Protoplasm, Effects of Electric Currents
on Contractions observed in all pro-
toplasm on the passage of an electric current
through it.
Protoplasm, the basis of plant and animal life,
or the jelly-like matter that fills all organic cells,
whatever may be the origin of such cells, suffers
contraction when traversed by an electric cur-
rent.
An increased activity in the movements of a
form of microscopic life called the amoeba is occa-
sioned by slight shocks from an induction coil ;
stronger discharges produce tetanic contractions,
with, in some cases, expulsion of food or even of
the nucleus. A uniform strength of current pro-
duces contraction and imperfect tetanus.
Pull. — A contact maker, similar in general
construction to a push button, but operated
by means of a pulling rather than a pushing
force.
The pull is preferable to the push in exposed
positions, such as outer doors, where moisture is
apt to injure pushes.
Pull, Chain A chain pendant at-
tached to a pendant burner for the move-
ment of the wipe-spark spring and the
ratchet in an electrically lighted gas burner.
Pull, Door Bell, Electric A cir-
cuit-closing device attached to a bell pull and
operated by the ordinary motion of the pull
Pull, Electric Bell A circuit-clos-
ing device operated by a pull.
Fig. 453 shows a form of electric bell pull. On
pulling the bell handle, contact springs, that
rest on a ring of insulating material when the
PuL]
427
[Pum,
pull is in its normal position, are brought into con-
tact with a metal ring, thus completing the cir-
- 453 • Electric Bell Pull.
«uit. The bell pull is often used to replace the
ordinary push button.
Pulley, Driven -- A pulley attached
to the driven shaft. (See Mover, Prime?)
Pulley, Driving -- A pulley attached
to the driving shaft. (See Mover, Prime?}
Pulsating Current.— (See Current, Pul-
Pulsation. — A quantity of the nature of
an angular velocity, equal to 2 it multiplied
by the frequency of the oscillation, or, equal
to z Tt divided by the duration of a single
period.
Pulsatory Current.— (See Current, Pul-
satory?)
Pulsatory Magnetic Field.— (See Field,
Magnetic, Pulsatory?)
Pulse, Electrical -- An electric oscil-
lation.
A momentary flow of electricity from a
conductor, which gradually varies from the
zero value to the maximum, and then to the
zero value again, like a pulse or vibration in
an elastic medium.
Electric pulses are set up in conductors con-
nected with the coatings of a Leyden jar, on the
discharge of the same. Such pulses produce a
series of electrical oscillations, which move alter-
nately backwards and forwards, until the dis-
charge is gradually dissipated. (See Oscillations ,
Electric.)
The circumstances influencing the rate of
propagation of an electric pulse through different
parts of a closed circuit, according to Lodge, are—
(I.) The extra inertia, or the so-called magnetic
susceptibility in the conducting substance, es-
pecially at its outer parts.
(2. ) An undue constriction or throttling of the
medium through which the disturbance is pass-
ing.
(3.) The nature of the insulating medium.
Pump, Air, Geissler Mercurial
A mercurial air pump, in which the vacuum
is attained by the aid of a Torricellian vacuum.
In the Geissler Mercury Pump, Fig. 454, a
vacuum is obtained by means of the Torricellian
vacuum produced in
a large glass bulb that
forms the upper ex-
tremity of a barome-
tric column. The
lower end of this tube
or column is' con-
nected with a reser-
voir of mercury by
means of a flexible
rubber tube. To fill
the bulb with mer-
cury the reservoir is
raised above its level,
*. e., above thirty
inches, the air it con-
tains being allowed to
escape through an
opening governed by
a stopcock. The ves-
sel to be exhausted is
connected with the
bulb, and by means
of a two-way exhaus-
tion cock, communi- Fig. 434. Getssler1 's Mer-
cation can be made curial Air Pump.
with the bulb, when it contains a Torricellian
vacuum, and shut off from it while its air is being
expelled.
In actual practice the mercury is mechanically
pumped into the barometric column, and the
valves are opened either by hand, or automati-
cally by electrical means.
Pump, Air, Mechanical A mechan-
ical device for exhausting or removing the air
from any vessel.
An excellent form of air pump is shown in Fig.
455, which is a drawing of Bianchi's pump.
Three valves, all opening upwards, are placed
Pum.]
428
Barrel of
Bianchi's Air Pump.
at the top and bottom of the cylinder, and in the
piston, respectively. These valves are mechan-
ically opened and closed at the proper moment
by the movements of the piston, i. e., their action
is automatic. This enables a much higher vacuum
to be obtained than when the valves open and
close by the tension of the air.
Mechanical pumps are unable to readily pro-
duce the high vacua employed in most electric
lamps. Mercury pumps
are employed for this
purpose. (See Pump,
Air, Mercurial.)
Pump, Air, Mer-
curial A de-
vice for obtaining a
high vacuum by the
use of mercury.
Mercury pumps are
in general of two types
of construction, viz. :
(i.) The Geissler
pump.
(2.) The Sprengel pump. (See Pump, Air,
Geissler Mercurial. Pump, Air, SprengePs
Mercurial.}
I' 11 m p, Air, Sprengel's Mercurial
A mercurial air pump in which the vacuum
is obtained by
means of the fall
of a stream of mer-
cury.
In the Sprengel
mercury pump, Fig.
456, the fall of a mer-
cury stream causes
the exhaustion of a
reservoir connected
with the vertical
tube, by the mechan-
ical action of the
mercury in entang-
ling bubbles of air.
These bubbles are
largest at the begin-
ning of the exhaus-
tion, but become
smaller and smaller Fig. 456. SfrengeCt Mer-
near the end, until, curial Air Pump.
at last, the characteristic metallic click of mer-
cury or other liquid falling in a good vacuum
is heard. The exhaustion may be considered as
completed when the bubbles entirely disappear
from the column.
The Sprengel pump produces a better vacuum
than the Geissler pump, but is slower in its
action.
In actual practice, the mercury that has fallen
through the tube is again raised to the reservoir
connected to the drop tube by the action of a
mechanical pump.
Pumping of Electric Lights.— A term
sometimes applied to a pulsating or period-
ical increase and decrease in the brilliancy of
the light.
This action is generally due to the periodic slip-
ping of the belt or other driving mechanism. In
the case of arc lamps it may also be caused by the
improper action of the feeding device of the
lamp.
Puncture, Electro The application
of electrolysis to the treatment of aneurisms
or diseased growths.
The blood is decomposed by the introduction
of a fine platinum needle connected with the
anode of a battery, and insulated, except near its
point, by a covering of vulcanite.
The kathode is a sponge-covered metallic plate.
Puncture, Galvano A term some-
times applied to electro-puncture. (See
Puncture, Electro.)
Punning of Telegraph Pole.— (See Pole,
Telegraphic, Punning of)
Push. — A name sometimes applied to a
push button, or to a floor push. (See Push,
Floor. Button, Push.)
Push Button.— (See Button, Push.)
Push-Button Kattler, — (See Rattler,
Push-Button)
Push, Floor A push button placed
on the floor of a room so as to be readily
operated by means of the foot. (See But-
ton, Push)
Pyknometer. — A term sometimes used
for the specific gravity bottle employed in
determining the specific gravity of a liquid.
Pyrheliometer. — An apparatus for mea-
suring the energy of the solar radiation.
429
[Qua.
The pyrheliometer consists essentially of a
short cylinder, the area of whose base is accu-
rately determined. The cylinder being filled with
a known weight of water, the water surface is ex-
posed for a definite time to the sun's radiation,
and the increase in temperature carefully deter-
mined. The product of the weight of the water
thus heated by the increase in degrees, gives
the number of heat units, from which the total
energy absorbed is readily calculable. In order
to avoid loss by reflection or diffusion from the
water surface, it is covered by a layer of lamp-
black. (See Units, Heat. Calorimeter.)
Pyro - Electricity. — (See Electricity,
Pyro.)
Pyro-Magnetic Generator or Dynamo.—
(See Generator, Pyro-Magnetic!)
Pyro-Magnetic Motor. — (See Motor, Pyro-
Magnetzc.)
Pyrometer. — An instrument for deter-
mining temperatures higher than those that
can be readily measured by thermometers.
Pyrometers are operated in a variety of ways.
A common method is by the expansion of a metal
rod.
Pyrometer, Siemens' Electric An
apparatus for the determination of tempera-
ture by the measurement of the electric resist-
ance of a platinum wire exposed to the heat
whose temperature is to be measured.
The platinum wire is coiled on a cylinder of
fire-clay, so that its separate convolutions do not
touch one another. It is protected by a platinum
shield, and is exposed to the temperature to be
measured while inside a platinum tube.
The resistance of the platinum coil at O degree
C. having been accurately ascertained, the temper-
ature to which it has been exposed can be calcu-
lated from the change in its resistance when ex-
posed to the unknown temperature.
Pyrometer, Siemens' Water— —A
pyrometer employed for determining the tem-
perature of a furnace, or other intense source
of heat, by calorimetric methods, t. e., by the
increase in the temperature of a known
weight of water, into which a metal cylinder
of a given weight has been put, after being
exposed for a given time to the source of
heat to be measured.
When copper cylinders are employed, the in-
strument possesses a range of temperature of
1, 800 degrees F. ; when a platinum cylinder is
used, it has a range of 2,700 degrees F.
Q. — A contraction for electric quantity.
Quad. — A contraction sometimes em-
ployed in place of quadruplex telegraphy.
(See Telegraphy, Quadruplex!)
Quadrant. — A term proposed for the unit
of self-induction.
An earth quadrant is equal to io9 centi-
metres.
In the United States the word henry is used
for the unit of self-induction. (See Henry, A.)
Quadrant Electrometer.— (See Electro-
meter, Quadrant!)
Quadrant Electroscope, Henley's.— (See
Electroscope, Quadrant, Henley's!)
Quadrant, Legal A length equal to
9,978 kilometres, instead of the assumed
10,000 kilometres.
Quadrant, Standard A length equal
to 10,000 kilometres.
Quadrature, In A term employed
to express the fact that one simple periodic
quantity lags 90 degrees behind another.
The electromotive force of s-elf-induction is said
to be in quadrature with the effective electro-
motive force or current.
Quadruple v Telegraphy, Bridge Method
of (See Telegraphy, Quadruplex,
Bridge Method of.)
Qualitative Analysis. — (See Analysis,
Qualitative.)
Quality or Timbre of Sound.— (See Sound,
Quality or Timbre of.)
Quantitative Analysis.— (See Analysis,
Quantitative.)
[Bad.
Quantity Armature. — (See Armature,
Quantity.)
Quantity, Connection of Battery for
(See Battery, Connection, of, for
Quantity)
Quantity Efficiency of Storage Battery.
—(See Efficiency, Quantity, of Storage Bat-
tery.)
Quantity, Unit of Electric A
definite amount or quantity of electricity
called the coulomb. (See Coulomb.)
Although the exact nature of electricity is un-
known, yet, like a fluid (a liquid or gas), electricity
can be accurately measured as to quantity.
A current of I ampere, for example, is a
current in which one coulomb of electricity passes
in every second.
A condenser of the capacity of i farad, is
large enough to hold I coulomb of electricity
if forced into the condenser under an electro-
motive force of I volt. (See Capacity, Electro-
static. Farad. Volt. Amptre.)
Quiet Arc.— (See Arc, Quiet)
Quiet Discharge. — (See Discharge, Si-
lent)
Qnicking Solution. — (See Solution,
Quicking)
R. — A contraction used for ohmic resist-
ance. '
p. — A contraction used for specific resist-
ance.
Radial Armature.— (See Armature,
Radial.)
Radially Laminated Armature Core.—
(See Core, Armature, Radially-Laminated.)
Radiant Energy.— (See Energy, Radiant.)
Radiant Matter.— (See Matter, Radiant,
or Ultra-Gaseous)
Radiate. — To transfer energy by means of
waves.
Radiating.— Transferring energy by means
of waves.
Radiation. — Transference of energy by
means of waves.
When an elastic body is set into vibration,
whether it be the vibrations that produce light,
heat or electricity, energy is charged on the
body, and the body will then continue to vibrate
until it imparts to some medium surrounding it
an amount of energy exactly equal to that orig-
inally imparted to itself.
In the case of a sonorous body the energy is
transferred from the vibrating body to the air
around it. For example, in the case of an elastic
metallic wire set into vibration, the wire will con-
tinue to vibrate until it does as much work on
the surrounding air as was originally done on it,
in order to set it into vibration.
In the case of a heated body the energy is
transferred from the body to the luminiferous
ether around it. For example, in the case of the
same wire heated above the temperature of the
air, the energy imparted to the molecules of the
metal by the source of heat causes them to
move towards and from one another. These
to-and-fro motions of the molecules cause the
surrounding ether to be set into waves, and as
much energy is imparted to the ether, as was
originally imparted to the 'vire in order to heat it.
In the case of a luminous body the energy is
transferred from the body to the luminiferous
ether. For example, if the wire is heated to
luminosity by a certain amount of energy im-
parted to it, the surrounding ether is now set
into waves of both light and heat, which differ
from one another only in their wave length, and
the luminous body will continue to radiate light
and heat until it imparts to the surrounding
ether an amount of energy exactly equal to that
originally imparted to it
So, too, in the case of a Ixxly charged with
electricity. If disruptively discharged, the im-
pulsive rush of electricity, so produced, causes the
energy charged on it to be radiated as electro-
magnetic waves into the surrounding ether. The
discharging body is, to all intents and purposes, in
the same condition as the vibrating elastic wire,
and dissipates or radiates its energy in much the
same manner.
Radiation, Electro-Magnetic
The sending out in all directions from a con-
Bad.]
431
[Had.
ductor, through which an oscillating discharge
is passing, of electro-magnetic waves in all
respects similar to those of light except that
they are of much greater length. (See Elec-
tricity, Hertz's Theory of Electro-Magnetic
Radiations or Waves.)
Radiation of Electricity.— (See Electri-
city, Radiation of)
Radiation of Lines of Force.— (See Force,
Lines of, Radiation of.)
Radical, Compound A group of
unsaturated atoms.
A group of elementary atoms, some of the
bonds of which are open, or not connected
or joined with the bonds of other atoms.
(See Atomicity?)
For example, hydroxyl, HO, is a compound
radical, with one of the two bonds of the diad
oxygen atom, open or unsaturated.
Radical, Simple An unsaturated
atom with its bond or bonds free.
A single unsaturated atom as distinguished
from an unsaturated group of atoms.
Radicals. — Unsaturated atoms or groups of
atoms, in which one or more of the bonds are
left open or free.
Radicals are either Simple or Compound.
The radical may be regarded as the basis to
which other elements may be added, or as the
nucleus around which they may be grouped.
Thus H8O, forms a complete chemical molecule,
because the bonds of all its constituent atoms are
saturated, thus H — O — H. But H — O — , or
hydroxyl, is a radical, because its oxygen atom
possesses one unsaturated or free bond. By
combining with the radical (NOS), it forms nitric
acid, thus H — O — (NO8) or H NO,.
During electrolysis, the molecules of the elec-
trolyte are decomposed into two groups of simple
or compound radicals, called ions. These ions are
respectively electro-positive and electro-negative,
and are called kathions and onions. (See Ions.
Electrolysis.}
Radiometer, Crookes' An appara-
tus for showing the action of radiant matter
in producing motion from the effects of the
reaction of a stream of molecules escaping
from a number of easily moved heated sur-
faces. (See Matter, Radiant, or Ultra-
Gaseous)
Radiometer, Electric, Crookes
A radiometer in which the repulsion of the-
molecules of the residual atmosphere takes,
place from electrified instead of from heated!
surfaces. (See Radiometer, Cxookes'.)
Radio-Micrometer, Boys' An elec-
trical apparatus for measuring the intensity
of radiant heat.
The action of the radio-micrometer depends oni
the deflection, by a magnetic field, of a suspended
thermo-electric circuit composed of three metals,
viz. : two bars of antimony and bismuth, or of
their alloys, which are soldered side by side to-
the end of a minute disc or strip of copper foil, as-
shown in Fig. 457. This disc or foil of copper is,
F*g- 457- Boyf Radio-Micrometer.
provided for the purpose of receiving the radia-
tion that is to be measured. The upper ends ot
the thermo-couple are soldered to the ends of a
long, narrow, inverted U-shaped piece of copper
wire, which completes the thermo-electric circuit.
The absorption of radiant energy by the cop-
per disc connected to the thermo-electric couple
produces an electric current, and the circuit,
being suspended in a magnetic field, is at once
deflected to a degree dependent on the intensity
of the radiation, or of the current generated at
the thermo-electric junction.
The means adopted for the suspension of the
system are shown in Figs. 457 and 458. A
small piece of straight wire is soldered to the up- -
Rad.]
432
[Rai.
QUARTZ
IBRE
771
GLASS
TUBE
per end of the copper stirrup, which completes
the tbenno-electric circuit. This wire is cemented
to the lower end of a glass tube, the upper end
of which is provided with a mirror, and the whole
suspended, as shown, by a
quartz fibre in the field of a
powerful magnet.
In a radio- micrometer made
by Prof. Boys, the minuteness of
the suspended circuit may be
judged from the following ac-
tual dimensions, viz. : Thermo-
electric bars, £ x -fa x 5^ff inch ;
copper circuit of number 36
copper wire, i inch long and
about ^j inch wide ; copper
heat-receiving surface, black-
ened on the face exposed to the
radiation, -fa inch in diameter,
or i x <V inch; receiver, ^ inch
square, ffa inch thick ; quartz
fibre 4 inches long, ^Jtns inch in
diameter.
This instrument, when pro-
perly adjusted for extreme sen-
sitiveness, should give clear in-
dications when the blackened
surface is warmed but the Fig. "45 8. Boys'
ttVTtTfvv degree Centigrade. It Radio-Micrometer.
will respond to the heat radiated on the surface
of a half penny from a candle flame at a dis-
tance of 1,530 feet.
In order to avoid the disturbance due to the
magnetic qualities of the antimony and bismuth
bars, the central portions of the metallic block,
inside which the system is suspended, is made
of iron, as shown by the heavier shading in
Fig. 457-
This mass of iron serves as a magnetic screen
to the thermo-electric bars, but permits the action
of the field on the circuit.
Radiophone. — A name sometimes given to
the photophone. (See Photophone^
Radiophony.— The production of sound by
a body capable of absorbing radiant energy
when an intermittent beam of light or heat
falls on it.
The action of radiant energy, when absorbed
by matter, is to cause its expansion by the conse-
quent increase of temperature. This occurs even
when the body is but momentarily exposed to a
COPPER
WIRE
Bi.
Cu.
flash of light, but the instantaneous expansion
thus produced immediately dies away, and by
itself is indistinguishable. If, however, a suffi-
ciently rapid succession of such flashes fall on the
body, the instantaneous expansions and contrac-
tions produce an appreciable musical note.
The sounds so produced have been utilized by
Bell and Tainter in the construction of the Phtto-
phone. (See Photophone.}
Railroad, Electric A railroad, or
railway, the cars on which are driven or pro-
pelled by means of electric motors connected
with the cars.
The electric current that drives the motor is
derived either from storage batteries placed on
the cars, or from a dynamo-electric machine, or
battery of dynamo-electric machines, conveniently
situated at some point on the road. The current
from the dynamo is led along the line by suitable
electric conductors and is passed into the electric
motor as the car runs along the tracks in various
ways, viz. :
Systems for the electric propulsion of cars may,
therefore, be divided into the dependent system, in
which the driving current is obtained from conduc-
tors placed somewhere outside the cars, and the
independent system, where the current is derived
from primary or secondary batteries placed on
the cars. (See Railroads, Electric, Dependent
System of Motive Power for. Railroads, Electric,
Independent System of Motive Power for.)
In the dependent system, the conductors which
supply the car with current are placed either
overhead, on the surface of the road-bed or un-
derground. Thus arise three divisions of the
dependent system:
(I.) The Surface System.
(2.) The Underground System.
(3.) The Overhead System.
(I.) The Surface System..— By placing one or
both rails in the circuit of the dynamo and taking
the current from the tracks by means of sliding
or rolling contacts connected with the motor.
(2.) The Underground System. — By placing the
conducting wires parallel to each other in a longi-
tudinally slotted underground conduit in the road-
bed, and provided with two central plates, insu-
lated from one another and connected respectively
to the motor terminals, and taking the current
by means ot a traveling brush or roller, called a
plow, sled or shoe. On the movement ot the car
over the track, these traveling contacts touch the
Rai.]
433
[1UI.
two parallel line conductors in the conduit and
fake the electric current therefrom. (See Plow.
Sled.}
(3.) The Overhead System.— Ky placing the
(ine conductors on poles along the road, and
taking the current therefrom by means of suitable
traveling contacts called trolleys, or by sliders.
Where a single conductor is employed, the re-
turn conductor generally consists of the track
itself, or of the track and ground. (See Trolley.)
The first method, viz., that of using the tracks
alone as conductors, is not much employed.
The use of the track and ground as a return for
the current is now very generally employed.
In some systems the track is divided into sec-
tions which are successively brought into connec-
tion with the main conductors by contacts effected
by the attraction between magnets carried on the
car and contact pieces of magnetic material placed
below the surface. The rail section thus tempo-
rarily energized is placed in connection with the
motor.
In order to regulate the speed, various devices
are employed to vary the current strength in the
motor circuit. These devices consist essentially
of rheostats or resistances introduced into, or re-
moved from, the motor circuit on the movement
by hand of a lever that forms part of the circuit,
over contact plates connected to the resistance
coils.
In order to change the direction of the car, the
direction of rotation of the electric motor is
changed. This is effected by some form of re-
versing gear or mechanism that changes the di-
rection of rotation of the motor, either by shifting
the brushes, by changing the field, or by any
other means. (See Telpherage. Motor, Elec.
trie. Rheostat.}
Railroads, Absolute Block System for
— A block system in which one train
only is permitted to occupy a given block at
any time. (See Railroads, Block System J "or .)
Railroads, Automatic Electric Safety Sys-
tem for A system for automatically
preventing the approach of two trains at any
speed beyond a predetermined distance of
each other.
The system consists essentially in the automatic
closing of the circuit of an electric motor placed
on the locomotive between the steam dome and
the sand box. This motor is in circuit with a
local battery placed on the cow-catcher, and in-
troduced in the circuit of the motor by a magnet
placed on the cow-catcher, as shown in Fig. 459,
- 459- Locomotive with Safety System.
which represents a locomotive provided with this
system.
The magnet is on open circuit with generators
placed on the rear car of a second train, or with
generators at a bridge or crossing.
By means of double sectional-conductors placed
along the track, the generators are automatically
closed through the magnet, one conductor being
in permanent connection with the magnet, while
the other is connected to the generator in the rear
car of a second train, at a switch or crossing. The
other terminals of the magnet and generators are in
permanent electricial connection with the rails,
which are employed as return ground conductors.
Fig. 460 shows the application of the safety
electric system to a bridge.
Fig. 460. Safety System for Bridge.
Fig. 461 shows the application of the safety
system at grade crossing.
Fig, 4.61. Safety System for Grade Cresting :
The author is indebted to Mr. E. P. Thompson
for cuts and general description.
Railroads, Block System for A sys-
tem for securing safety from collisions of mov-
ing railroad trains by dividing the road into a
number of blocks or sections of a given
length, and so maintaining telegraphic com-
munication between towers located at the
ends of each of such blocks as to prevent,
Rai.]
[Rai.
by the display of suitable signals, more than
one train or engine from being on the same
block at the same time.
There are two kinds of railway block systems
in common use, viz.:
(I.) The Absolute Block System.
(2.) The Permissive Block System.
In the absolute system, which is the safer, one
train only is permitted on any particular block at
a given time.
In the permissive block system more than one
train is permitted, under certain circumstances
and conditions, to occupy the same block simul-
taneously, each train then being notified of the
fact that it is not alone on the block.
The absolute block system, though expensive
to construct and maintain, is the only one that
should be permitted by law to exist on roads whose
traffic exceeds a certain amount.
An absolute block system is employed on the
London Underground Railroad, and on the Penn-
sylvania Railroad Systems.
The system in use on the New York Division
of the Pennsylvania Railroad is as follows :
The road between Philadelphia and Jersey City
is divided into some seventy sections, the length
of each section being dependent on the amount of
Fig. 462. Block Tower.
daily traffic , thus, between Jersey City and New-
ark, where the traffic is great, there are some
fifteen sections, although the distance is only 7.9
miles.
In each block-tower there are connections with
three separate and distinct telegraph lines or cir-
cuits, viz. :
(i.) A line or wire called the train wire, con-
necting the block-tower with the General Dis-
patcher's office at Jersey City. This line is used
for sending train orders only.
(2.) A line or wire called the block wire, con-
necting each block- tower with the next tower on
each side of it.
(3.) A line or wire called the message wire, and
used for local traffic or business.
The general arrangement of the block -tower is
shown in Fig. 462.
Each of the block-towers is sufficiently elevated
above the road-bed to afford the operator an un-
obstructed view of the tracks.
The operator, having ascertained the actual
condition of the track, either by observation or by
telegraphic communication with the stations on
either side of him, gives notice of this condition to
all trains passing his station by the display of
certain semaphore signals.
The semaphore signals as used on the Penn-
sylvania Railroad are shown in Figs. 463 and 464.
The form shown in Fig. 463 is used in the abso-
Fig. 4(13. Semaphore Signal— Absolute System.
lute system, and that shown in Fig. 464 in the per-
missive system. These signals consist essentially
of an upright support provided with a movable
arm A B, called the semaphore arm, capable of
being set in any of two or three positions. The
semaphore signal is placed outside the signal
tower, often several hundred feet away, but is
readily set from the tower in any of the desired
positions by the operator, by the movement of
rods connected with levers.
In the permissive system, the semaphore arm
can be set in three positions, viz. :
(I.) In a horizontal position, or where the
semaphore arm makes an angle of 90 degrees with
the upright.
(2.) Or it may be dropped down from the
horizontal position through an angle of 75
degrees, as shown in Fig. 463.
(3.) Or it may occupy a position exactly inter-
Rai.]
435
[Rai.
mediate between the first and second, or 37° 30'
below the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 464.
Position No. i is the danger signal, and when
it is displayed the train may not enter the block
it governs.
Position No. 2 shows that "the track is clear,
and that the train may safely enter the block it
governs.
Position No. 3, which is used in the permissive
block system, only signifies caution, and permits
the train to cautiously enter the block and look
out for further signals.
The semaphore arm consists of a light wooden
arm, II inches wide by 5^ feet in length, painted
red or other suitable color that can be easily dis-
tinguished by daylight.
By night the positions of the semaphore arm
are indicated by colored lights. These lights are
|
! LEY
Fig. 464. Semaphore Signal — Per missive System.
operated as follows, viz. : in the absolute system,
the semaphore arm A B, pivoted at A, bears at
its shorter end a disc or lens of red glass R, and,
in the permissive system, below this another disc
or lens of green glass G. An oil lantern, pro-
vided with an uncolored glass lens, is so sup-
ported on a bracket fastened to the upright that
when the semaphore arm points to danger the
red glass is immediately in front of the lantern ;
when it points to caution, the green glass is in
front of the lantern; but when it points to safety,
the lantern is left uncovered save by its uncolored
glass.
At night, therefore, when the semaphore arm
is set to danger, a red light is displayed; when it
points to caution, a green light is displayed; and
when it points to safety, a white light is displayed.
In some systems the position of the semaphore
arm is shown at night by means of light reflected
from a parabolic mirror, at the focus of which the
signal lantern is placed. This method possesses
the advantage over other systems'of rendering it
very improbable that the engineer would mistake
an ordinary light for a signal light.
The green light is only used in the permissive
block system. In the absolute block system, the
semaphore arm has two positions only ; viz., dan-
ger, or horizontal, and safety, or 75 degrees below
the horizontal.
A single arm is used when it is intended to
govern a single track only. Where the condition
of a number of tracks is to be indicated, several
arms are employed, one above the other.
When semap r.ore signals are placed on each side
of a double-track road, the semaphore arm point-
ing to the right of the vertical support governs
the line running to the right.
When the semaphore signals are placed at
junctions or switch-crossings, the operator in the
signal-tower opens or closes the switches from
the tower by the movements of levers that set the
switches, and then displays the proper semaphore
signal for that crossing or route ; red, or danger,
if the route is blocked, and white, or safety, if it
is clear. Here the interlocking apparatus is em-
ployed, which consists in devices by means of
which, when a route has once been set up and a
signal given for that route, the switches and sig-
nals are so interlocked that no signal can pos-
sibly be given for a conflicting route.
The signals or switches are operated by means-
of iron rods passing over rollers or pulleys.
These rods are attached by suitable connections
to the switch or semaphore signals, and are
operated by means of levers from the signal-
tower. Switches can be operated as far as 1,000
feet from the tower; signals, as far as 2,500 feet.
Colored switch-signals are placed opposite the
end of the switches to indicate the positions of
the switch. These signals consist of red and
white discs for day, and a lantern provided with
red and white glasses for night. When the
switch on any line is open, the switch-signal shows
red; when shut, it shows white. These switch-
signals are only used in the yards.
No passenger train is permitted on a block,
after another train has passed the signal station,
until a dispatch has been received from the
station ahead that the train has passed and the
block is thus cleared.
As an additional precaution against rear col-
RaL]
436
[Rai.
lisions, tail-lights are displayed at the ends of the
trains. These consist of lanterns placed on each
side of the rear end of the last car. These
lanterns are furnished with three glass slides.
The side of the lantern towards the rear of the
car shows a red light; that to the front and side
of the car shows a green light. The engineer,
looking out of the cab, can thus see a green light,
which serves as a "marker" and indicates to
him that his train is intact By day a green flag,
placed in the same position as the lantern, serves
the same purpose as a marker. An observer on
the track, or in the tower, sees the red lights on
the rear of the train when it has passed.
Freight trains are now run on separate tracks,
except in places where the extra tracks are not
yet completed. Here they do not run on schedule
time, but are permitted to follow one another at
intervals that depend on the condition of the
tracks as shown by the signals displayed.
Railroads, Electric, Continuous Over-
head System of Motive Power for
A variety of the dependent system of motive
power for electric railroads in which a con-
tinuous bare conductor is connected with the
terminals of a generating dynamo, and sup-
ported overhead by suitable means, and a
traveling wheel or trolley is moved over the
same by the motion of the car, in order to
carry off the current from the line to the car
motor. (See Railroads, Electric, Depend-
ent System of Motive Power for.)
Railroads, Electric, Continuous Surface
System of Motive Power for — - A
variety of the dependent system of motive
power for electric railroads, in which the ter-
minals of the generating dynamo are con-
nected to the continuous bare metallic con-
ductor that extends along the entire track on
the surface of the roadway or street, and from
which the current is taken off by means of a
traveling conductor connected with the mov-
ing car. (See Railroads, Electric, Continu-
ous Underground System of Motive Power
for.)
Railroads, Electric, Continuous Under-
ground System of Motive Power for —
A variety of the dependent system of motive
power for electric railways, in which a con-
tinuous bare conductor is placed under-
ground in an open slotted conduit, and the
current taken off from the same by means of
sliding or rolling contacts carried on the mov-
ing car. (See Railroads, Electric, Depend-
ent System of Motive Power for)
Railroads, Electric, Dependent System
of Motive Power for — —A term now
generally used for a system of motive power
for the propulsion of electric railway cars, in
which the electric current is taken from wires
or conductors connected with electric sources
external to the cars.
A dependent system of motive power for elec-
tric railways includes three distinct varieties,
namely :
(i.) The Underground System.
(2.) The Surface System.
(3.) The Overhead System.
In all of these systems the bare conductor con-
nected with the terminals of a generating dynamo
may form either one continuous wire or it can
be divided into separate portions or sections.
The underground system embraces two distinct
varieties :
ist. A continuous bare conductor placed in an
open slotted conduit.
2d. A sectional bare conductor placed in an
open slotted conduit.
In the first variety of the underground system,
bare conductors are placed in an open slotted
conduit, and connected with the terminals of a
dynamo-electric machine which generates the
current that is to be employed for the propulsion
of the cars. Traveling contacts placed on the
car and connected with an electric motor, carry
off the current from the bare conductor by rolling
or sliding over it.
In the second variety of the underground sys-
tem, a section of a bare conductor, or bare metal-
lic points that, on the passage of the car over
them are automatically connected with the gen-
erating dynamo, replace the continuous metallic
conductors of the first system.
In the surface system, the wires or conductors
that are connected with the generating dynamo,
instead of being placed in the underground open
slotted conduit, are placed directly on the surface
of the street or roadbed and the current carried
off from the same by suitable contacts placed on
the car.
In most cases, however, in which the surface
system is adopted, the conductors that are con-
Rai.]
437
[Rai.
nected with the generating dynamo do not ex-
tend throughout the entire length of the track,
but are limited to sections of the track that are
suitably connected with the generating dynamo.
In some of these systems arrangements are
devised, by which the car, as it passes over the
track, automatically connects these sections with
the generating dynamo while passing over the
same, and disconnects them after such sections
have been passed.
The overhead system embraces two varieties:
(i.) A continuous trolley wire.
(2.) A divided or sectional trolley wire.
In the continuous trolley wire system, the cur-
rent is taken off from the continuous wire by
means of a trolley wheel that moves over the
trolley wire.
Such a system is especially suitable for suburban
districts or small towns. In such a system the
trolley wire is connected with a number of feeder
wires that either extend from the generating sta-
tion the entire length of the line, and are con-
nected with such line at suitable points; or, sepa-
rate feeders extend from the station to points on
the line where they are tapped into the trolley
wire.
In the divided or sectional trolley wire system
the wire is divided into suitable sections, and
feeders extend the entire length of the line and
are connected to the central points of each section;
or, the feeders extend the entire length of the
line and tap into both ends of the section.
The author is indebted to G. W. Mansfield for
the principal facts contained in the above descrip-
tive matter.
Eailroads, Electric, Divided Overhead
System of Motive Power for A sec-
tional overhead system of motive power for
electric railroads. (See Railroads, Electric,
Sectional Overhead System of Motive Power
for,}
Railroads, Electric, Divided Surface
System of Motive Power for A sec-
tional system of motive power for electric
railroads. (See Railroads, Electric, Sec-
tional Surface System of Motive Power
for.}
Railroads, Electric, Divided Under-
ground System of Motive Power for
— A sectional system of motive power for
electric railroads. (See Railroads, Electric,
Sectional Underground System of Motive
Power for.}
Railroads, Electric, Double-Trolley Sys-
tem for A system of electric railroad
propulsion, in which a double trolley is em-
ployed to take the driving current from two
overhead trolley wires.
The double-trolley system differs from the
single-trolley system in that it employs no earth
return. The parallel wires also avoid the effects
of injurious induction in neighboring telegraph
or telephone wires. (See Railroads, Electric,
Dependent System of Motive Power for.)
Railroads, Electric, Independent System
of Motive Power for A term for the
electric propulsion of railway cars by means
of primary or storage batteries placed on the
car and directly connected with the motor.
This is called the independent system, because,
unlike the dependent system, the energy required
for the propulsion of the car is obtained directly
from the energy of the electric source placed on
the car, instead of, as in the dependent system,
outside of the car.
Railroads, Electric, Sectional Overhead
System of Motive Power for A variety
of the dependent system of motive power for
electric railroads, in which sections of bare
conductors are supported overhead on poles
placed along the railroad track, and the cur-
rent taken off from the same by means of
traveling conductors such as the trolley
wheel, which is moved over the trolley wire
by the motion of the car.
Various systems are employed for connecting
the different sections of the trolley wire by means
of feeder wires with the generating dynamo.
(See Railroads, Electric, Dependent System of
Motive Power for.)
Railroads, Electric, Sectional Surface
System of Motive Power for — — A
variety of the dependent system of motive
power for electric railroads in which conduc-
tors are placed on the roadbed or along the
track, and the current taken off from the same
by means of contacts connected with the mov-
ing car, and so arranged as to automatically
switch in such bare sections on the passage
Kai.]
438
[Ray.
of the car over them, and to switch them out
as the car leaves them. (See Railroads,
Electric, Dependent System of Motive Power
Jor!)
Railroads, Electric, Sectional Under-
ground System of Motive Power for
— A variety of the dependent system of
motive power for electric railroads in which a
sectional conductor is placed underground in
a slotted conduit, and the current taken from
the same by means of sliding or rolling con-
tacts connected with the moving car. (See
Railroads, Electric, Dependent System of
Motive Power for!)
Railroads, Electric, Section Line of
— Any part of the overhead electric conduc-
tors insulated from other parts so as to permit
its supply of electric power to be separately
.controlled.
Railroads, Electric, Signal Service Sys-
tem for The system of electric signals
used on railways for ascertaining the condition
•of the roads, sending instructions to engineers,
and conveying intelligence generally from
stations along the road to the running trains.
Railroads, Electric, Single-Trolley Sys-
tem A system of electric railroad
propulsion in which a single trolley is em-
ployed to take the driving current from a
single overhead trolley wire.
The earth, or a conductor placed along the
.track on the roadbed, acts as the return. (See
Railroads, Electric, Dependent System of Mo-
live Power far.)
Railroads, Permissive Block System for
A block system in which more than
-one train is permitted under given conditions
to occupy the same block simultaneously.
(See Railroads, Block System for!)
Railway, Electric An electric rail-
road. (See Railroad, Electric!)
Range, Molecular The distance at
which the molecules of matter exert a sensi-
ble attraction for one another.
This distance has been estimated in the case of
zinc and oxygen as equal to about the ten-mil-
lionth of a millimetre.
Ratchet-Pendant Argand-Electric Burner.
— (See Burner, Argand-Electric, Ratchet-
Pendant^
Ratchet-Pendant Electric Burner.— (See
Burner, Ratchet- Pendant, Electric!)
Ratchet-Pendant Electric Candle Burner.
—(See Burner, Ratchet-Pendant Candle
Electric!)
Ratio, Telocity • —A ratio, in the
nature of a velocity, that exists between the
dimensions of the electrostatic and the elec-
tro-magnetic units.
This ratio will be understood from the com-
parison of the following units. In each case the
numerator gives the dimensions in the electro-
static and the denominator the dimensions in the
electro-magnetic system :
Quantity,
Here the value of the ratio, viz., the length
divided by the time, is clearly in the nature of a
velocity, for V = — .
Potential.
Capacity,
Resistance,
-i T
= V« .
T»
A remarkable similarity exists between the
value of the -velocity expressed in C. G. S. units,
and the velocity of light, which is of great signifi-
cance in the electro-magnetic theory of light. (See
Light, MaxwelPs Electro-Magnetic Theory of.)
The velocity of light is 2.9992 X io10 cen
timetres per second.
The velocity ratio, v, is 2.9800 X io10 centi-
metres per second.
Rattler, Push-Button -- A device
connected with a push button to show that
the bell connected at a distant point, in the
circuit of a push button, rings when the button
is pressed.
Ray, Actinic -- A ray of light or other
form of radiant energy that possesses the
Kay.]
439
[Rec.
power of effecting chemical action. (See
Decomposition?)
All rays of light, and even some of those in-
visible to the human eye, are actinic to some
particular chemical substance or another.
Whether the ether waves produce the effects of
heat, of light or of chemical decomposition de-
pends on the nature of the material on -which
they fall, as well as on the character of the waves
themselves.
Ray, Electric (Raia torpedo) A
species of fish named the ray, which, like the
electric eel, pos-
sesses the power
of producing elec-
tricity.
The electric or-
gan is situated at
the back of the
head, and consists
of hundreds of poly-
gonal, cellular
laminae, supplied
with numerous
nerve fibres, as
shown in Fig. 465.
(See Fishes. Elec-
tric.)
Rayleigh's
Form of Clark's
Standard Voltaic
Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Stand-
ard, Rayleigh's
Form of Clark's) &g- 4<>5- The *«'<* Torpedo.
Reaction. — In electro-therapeutics mus-
cular contractions following the closing or
opening of an electric circuit.
Reaction Coil.— (See Coil, Reaction.)
Reaction of Degeneration. — (See Degen-
eration, Reaction of)
Reaction of Exhaustion.— (See Exhaus-
tion, Reaction of.)
Reaction Principle of Dynamo-Electric
Machines. — (See Machine, Dynamo-Elec-
tric, Reaction Principle of)
Reaction Telephone. —(See Telephone,
Reaction?)
Reaction Time. — (See Time, Reaction) •
Reaction Wheel, Electric (See
Wheel, Reaction, Electric.)
Reactions, Kathodic and Anodic Electro-
Diagnostic The reactions which oc-
cur at the kathode or anode of an electric
source placed on or over any part of a living
body.
Fig. 466. Kathodic and Anodic Reactions.
Fig. 466, from De Watteville's " Medical Elec-
tricity" represents what he assumes takes place at
the points of entrance and exit of the current in a
nerve submitted to the action of the anode of an
electric source. Two zones are formed, an anodic
and a kathodic zone; the virtual anode is formed
by the portion of the skin nearer the nerve, and
the virtual kathode by the adjoining muscies.
There are thus formed two zones of influence —
one immediately around the anode, called the
polar or anodic electrotonic zone, and one sur-
rounding this and including the virtual kathode,
and called the peripolar, or kathelectrotonic zone.
Reading Telescope. — (See Telescope,
Reading)
Real Efficiency of Storage Battery.—
(See Efficiency, Real, of Storage Battery.)
Real Hall Effect.— (See Effect, Hall,
Real)
Recalescence. — The property, possessed
by incandescent steel when cooling, of
again becoming incandescent after a certain
degree of cooling has been reached.
The property of recalescence was first pointed
out by Barrett.
A steel wire heated at the middle or near one
end to a bright red, and allowed to cool in
a dim light, will cool until a low red heat is
reached, when it will be observed to reheat at
some point in the originally heated portion. This
reheating is manifested by a brighter red spot
Rec.]
440
[Rec.
which moves along the portion originally heated.
This reheating is called recalescence, and is due
to latent heat (potential energy), which, disap-
pearing when the bar was heated, again becomes
sensible (kinetic energy) on cooling.
The temperature at which recalescence takes
place is sensibly the temperature at which heated
steel regains its magnetizability.
Received Current. — (See Current, Re-
ceived^
Receiver, Gramophone -- The re-
ceiver employed in the gramophone. (See
Gramophone?)
Receiver, Graphophone -- The re-
ceiver employed in the graphophone. (See
Phonograph?)
Receiver, Harmonic -- A receiver,
employed in systems of harmonic telegraphy,
consisting of an electro-magnetic reed, tuned
to vibrate to one note or rate only. (See Te-
legraphy, Gray's Harmonic Multiple.)
Receiver Magnet. — (See Magnet, Receiv-
ing)
Receiver, Phonographic — —The ap-
paratus employed in a telephone, phono-
graph, graphophone or gramophone for the
reproduction of articulate speech. (See
Phonograph.)
Receiver, Telephonic -- The receiver
employed in the telephone. (See Tele-
phone)
Receptive Device, Electro — —(See
Device, Electro-Receptive?)
Receptive Device, Magneto — —(See
Device, Magneto-Receptive^)
Reciprocal --- The reciprocal of any
number is the quotient arising from dividing
unity by that number.
Thus, for example, the reciprocal of 4, is \ or
.250.
The conducting power of any circuit is equal
to the reciprocal of its resistance ; or, in other
words, the conducting power is inversely propor-
tional to the resistance.
The following table contains the reciprocals
of the numerals up to 100 :
TABLE OF RECIPROCALS.
Re-
Re-
Re-
Re-
Re-
cipro-
No.
cipro-
No.
cipro-
No.
cipro-
No.
cipro-
cal.
cal.
cal.
cal.
cal.
0.5000
n
0.0455
42
0.0338
02
0161
82
0 22
0-3333
23
0.0435
43
0.0233
f>3
0159
•3
O 2O
0.2500
M
.0417
4
.0227
<>4
56
«4
o 19
0.2000
25
.0400
\
.0222
6S
54
B5
o 18
o. 667
20
.0385
6
.0217
00
52
86
o 6
o. 429
27
.0370
7
.O2I3
"7
49
«7
o 5
o. 250
28
•0357
8
.0208
oS
47
Bfl
O 4
O. Ill
20
•°345
9
.O2O4
69
45
By
OJ 2
0. OOO
30
•0333
5°
.0200
70
43
90
0 I
0.0909
3'
.0323
3*
.OI96
71 o. 41
9*
O O
0.0833
32
•0313
52
.0192
72
39
9-
0 oq
0.0769
S3
•0-303
53
.0,89
73
37
M
0 c8
o 06
0.0667
35
.0286
55
.0182
75
33
9S
0.0625
P
.0278
5''
• 0179
7«
32
0<>
0104
0.0588
37
.0270
57
•0175
77
3°
97.
0103
0.0556
38
.0263
P
.0172
7»
9K
0102
0.0526
39
.0256
59
.0169
79
27
)9
oior
0.0500
40
.0250
do
.0167
So
25
0100
0.0476
4>
.0244
<ii
.0164
9t
23
—(Clark & Sabine. )
Recoil Circuit— (See Circuit, Recoil.)
Record, Chronograph A record
made by means of a chronograph for the pur-
pose of measuring and recording small inter-
vals of time. (See Chronograph^ Electric)
Record, Gramophone — — The irregular
indentations, cuttings or tracings made by a
point attached to the diaphragm spoken
against, and employed in connection with the
receiving diaphragm for the reproduction of
articulate speech.
Record, Graphophone — —The record
made by the movement of the diaphragm of
the graphophone. (See Phonograph)
Record, Phonographic — — The record
produced in a phonograph, for the subse-
quent reproduction of audible articulate
speech.
Record, Telephonic - —The record
produced by the diaphragm of a receiving
telephone.
Various methods have been proposed for ob-
taining telephonic records, but none of them
have yet been introduced into actual commercial
use.
Recorder, Chemical, Bain's — — An ap-
paratus for recording the dots and dashes of
Ree,]
441
[Eec.
a Morse telegraphic dispatch, on a sheet of
chemically prepared paper.
A fillet of paper soaked in some chemical sub-
stance, such as ferro-cyanide of potassium, is
moved at a uniform rate between the two ter-
minals of the line, one of which is iron tipped, so
that on the passage of the current, a blue dot, or a
dash, will be made on the paper according to the
length of time the current is passing.
In order to insure a moist condition of the paper
fillet, some deliquescent salt, like ammonium
nitrate, is generally mixed with the ferro-cyanide
of potassium.
Fig. 467. B,
A Bain recorder is shown in Fig. 467. A, is
a drum of brass, tinned on the outside. The
paper fillet is drawn from the roll and kept
pressed against the cylinder A, by a s'mall wooden
roller B. The needle, which is a metallic point,
is placed in connection with one end of the line
wire, and the brass drum is connected with the
other end through the earth. Care must be ob-
served to connect the needle point with the posi-
tive electrode, as otherwise the paper will not be
marked. (See Electrolysis.)
The Bain recorder is now almost entirely re-
placed by the Morse sounder. (See Sounder,
Morse Telegraphic.)
Recorder, Morse An apparatus for
automatically recording the dots and dashes
of a Morse telegraphic dispatch, on a fillet of
paper drawn under an indenting or marking
point on a striking lever, connected with the
armature of an electro-magnet.
This apparatus is sometimes called a Morse
register.
The Morse recording or registering apparatus
is shown in Fig. 468.
The paper fillet passes between a pair of rollers
r, driven by the clockwork W. The upper roller
is provided with a groove, so that the movement
of the stylus at the bent end of the lever L, by the
electro-magnet M, moving its armature attached
to the lever L, may indent or emboss the paper
fillet. When no current is passing, the armature
of the magnet and the lever L, are drawn back by
the action of an adjustable spring at n.
Fig. 468. Morse Recorder.
In the drawing, the ordinary Morse sounder is
shown on the right. The sounder has almost
entirely replaced the recording apparatus.
Recorder, Siphon An apparatus
for recording in ink on a sheet of paper, by
means of a fine glass siphon supported on a
fine wire, the message received over a cable.
One end of the siphon dips in a vessel of ink.
The record is received on a fillet of paper moved
mechanically under the siphon. The ink is dis-
charged from the siphon by electric charges im-
parted to the ink by a static electric machine.
Fig. 469. The Siphon Recorder.
In the annexed sketch of the siphon recorder,
Fig. 469, a light rectangular coil b b, of very fine
wire, is suspended by a thin wire f f , between the
poles N, S, of a powerful compound permanent
magnet, and moving on the vertical axis of the
supporting wire f f, and adjustable as to tension,
at h. A stationary soft iron core a, is magnetized
SI PHON RECORDER
Fig. 470. Record of Siphon Recorder.
by induction and strengthens the magnetic field
of N, S. The cable current is received by the
Rec.]
[Ref.
coil b b, through the suspending wire f f , and is
moved by it to the right or the left, according to
its direction, to an extent that depends on the
current strength.
The fine glass siphon n, which dips into a
reservoir of ink at m, is capable of movement on
a vertical axis 1, and is moved backwards or for-
wards, in one direction by a thread k, attached
S E T T L ED'
Fig. 47 1. Record of Siphon Recorder.
to b, and in the opposite direction by a retractile
spring attached to an arm of the axis 1.
As the paper is moved under the point of the
siphon, an irregular curved line is marked thereon.
Two records as actually received by a siphon
recorder are shown in the Figs. 470 and 471.
Movements upwards correspond to the dots, and
downwards to dashes.
Rectification of Alcohol, Electric —
—(See Alcohol, Electric Rectification of.)
Rectified. — Turned in one and the same
direction.
The alternate currents in a dynamo-electric
machine are rectified or caused to flow in one and
the same direction by means of a commutator.
The word commuted, generally used in this
connection, would appear to be preferable to the
word rectified. (See Commutator.)
Rectilinear Co-ordinates, Abscissa of
— (See Abscissa of Rectilinear Co-ordinates?)
Rectilinear Current — (See Current, Rec-
tilinear?)
Red Heat— (See Heat, Red.)
Red Hot— (See Hot, Red.)
Redncteur or Resistance for Voltmeter.
— A coil of known resistance as compared
with the resistance of the coils of a voltmeter,
and connected with them in series for the
purpose of increasing the range of the instru-
ment. (See Voltmeter.)
Rednctenr or Shunt for Ammeter.— A
shunt coil connected in multiple with the coils
of an ammeter for the purpose of changing
the value of the readings.
The ratio of the resistance of the reducteur and
the ammeter coils is known. A reducteur in-
creases the range of current measured by the am-
Refiuiug of Metals, Electric The
refining of metals by the application of elec-
trolysis.
When certain precautions are taken, metals
thrown down from their solutions, are obtained in
a chemically pure condition. This fact is utilized
in the electrical refining of metals. If, for exam-
ple, a plate of impure copper is to be refined
electrolytically, it is used as the anode of a copper
bath, and placed opposite a thin plate of pure cop-
per forming the kathode. The passage of the
current gradually dissolves the copper from the
plate at the anode, and deposits it in a chemically
pure condition on the plate at the kathode.
Somewhat similar principles are employed for
electrically refining other metals.
Reflect. — To throw off from a surface, ac-
cording to the laws of reflection, as of waves
in an elastic medium. (See Reflection, Laws
of)
Reflecting. — Throwing off from a surface,
according to the laws of reflection. (See
Reflection, Laws of.)
Reflecting Galvanometer. — (See Gal-
vanometer, Reflecting.)
Reflection.— The throwing back of a body
or wave from a surface at an angle equal to
that at which it strikes such surface. (See
Reflection, Laws of.)
Reflection, Laws of The laws gov-
erning the reflection of light
(I.) The angle of reflection, or the angle in-
cluded between the reflected ray and the perpen-
dicular to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence, is equal to the angle of incidence, or
the angle included between the striking ray and
the perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence.
(2.) The plane of the angle of incidence co-
incides with the plane of the angle of reflection.
Reflection of Electro-Magnetic Wares.
— (See Waves, Electro-Magnetic, Reflection
of)
Reflection of Induction. — (See Induc-
tion, Reflection of)
Reflector. — A plane or curved surface,
capable of regularly reflecting light.
Reflector, Parabolic A reflector,
Ref.j
443
[Reg.
or mirror, the reflecting surface of which is
a paraboloid, or such a surface as would be
obtained by the revolution of a parabola
about its axis.
A parabolic curve, which may be regarded as
a section of a parabola, is shown in Fig. 472.
A parabola has the following properties: If lines
F P, F P, etc., be drawn from the point F,
called the focus, to any point, P, P, etc., in the
curve, and the lines Pp, Pp, Pp, etc., be then
drawn severally parallel to the axis, V M, then
all such angles, F P p, F P p, will be bisected by
verticals to tangents at the point P, P, and P.
Therefore, if a light be placed at the focus of a
parabolic reflector, all the light reflected from the
surface of the parabola will pass off sensibly par-
allel to the axis V M.
In Locomotive Head lights, a
lamp is placed at the focus of
a parabolic reflector, and the
parallel beam so obtained is
utilized for the illumination of
the track. In a search light an v 1
electric arc lamp is placed at
the focus of a parabolic reflec-
tor, or at the focus of a lens.
A parabolic reflector is
used for search lights, some- Fig. 472. Parabolic
times in connection with an Reflector.
arc lamp. A focusing arc lamp must be used for
this purpose, so as to maintain the voltaic arc at
the focus of the parabolic reflector, notwithstand-
ing the unequal consumption of the positive and
negative carbons. (See Arc, Voltaic.)
Refract. — To change the direction of waves
in any elastic medium in accordance with
the laws of refraction. (See Refraction.)
Refracting. — Changing the direction of
waves in an elastic medium in accordance
with the laws of refraction.
Refraction. — The bending of a ray of
sound, light, heat, or electro-magnetism at
the surface of any medium whose density
differs from that through which such ray
was previously passing.
Rays of sound, light, heat or electro-mag-
netism are transmitted or propagated in straight
lines as long as the density of the homogeneous
medium through which they are passing under-
goes no change. That is, as long as the medium
is homogeneous or isotropic. (See Medium, Iso-
tropic.) As the rays enter the surface of a
medium which differs in density from that through
which they have been passing, they are bent or
refracted at the surface of such a medium.
This bending takes place towards a perpen-
dicular to the refracting surface at the point of in-
cidence, when the medium into which the rays are
entering is of greater density than that they are
leaving, and from the perpendicular when the
medium they are entering is of less density than
that they are leaving.
• The refraction or bending of the ray is caused
by the difference in the velocity with which the
waves are propagated through the two media.
There is no refraction or deviation when the
two rays enter the new medium at right angles
to its surface, or when there is no angle of inci-
dence.
Refraction, Double — The property
possessed by certain substances of splitting
up a ray of light passed through them into
two separate rays, and thus doubly refracting
the ray.
Certain specimens of calc spar possess the prop-
erty of double refraction. Each of the two rays
into which the original ray is separated is polar-
ized. Such calc spar is called doubly refracting
calc spar.
Refraction, Double, Electric The
property of doubly refracting light acquired
by some transparent substances while in an
electrostatic or electro-magnetic field.
Transient or momentary powers of double
refraction, acquired by a transparent sub-
stance while placed in an electric field.
The intensity of double refraction is propor-
tioned to the square of the electric force.
The action of an electric field in endowing a
substance with the power of double refraction
while kept in such field, is due to the strain pro-
duced by the electrostatic stress of the field.
A similar transient power of double refraction
is acquired by many bodies when subjected to
the strain produced by a simple mechanical
stress.
Refreshing Action of Current.— (See Ac-
tion, Refreshing, of Current?)
Region, Extra-Polar A term ap-
plied in electro-therapeutics to the region
Beg.]
444
[Beg.
which lies outside or beyond the therapeutic
electrode.
The term extra-polar region is used in contra-
distinction to polar region. (See Region, Polar.)
Region, Polar A term applied in
electro-therapeutics to that region or part of
the body which lies directly below the thera-
peutic electrode.
Register, Double-Fen Telegraphic
— A telegraphic register provided with two
separate styluses or pens for recording the
telegraphic message on a fillet of paper. (See
Register, Telegraphic)
Register, Morse A name sometimes
given to a Morse recorder. (See Recorder,
Morse.)
Register, Telegraphic An appa-
ratus employed at the receiving end of a tele-
graphic line for the purpose of obtaining a
permanent record of the telegraphic dispatch.
The telegraphic register consists essentially of
means whereby a fillet or tape of paper is drawn
mechanically under a pen or stylus attached to
the armature of an electro-magnet and moving
therewith.
The pen or stylus presses against the paper
whenever the armature is attracted to the elec«
tro-magnet, and is held there while the cur-
Fig- 473 f**~ Writing Register.
rent is passing through the coils of the electro-
magnet. By these means the dots and dashes of
the telegraphic alphabet are recorded on the
paper fillet as embossed or printed dots and
dashes. The Morse register is an apparatus of
this description. (See Recorder, Morse.)
A form of ink-writing telegraphic register is
«howninFig. 473. It is self-starting.
Register, Time, for Railroads A
telegraphic recording apparatus or register
designed to record all telegraphic messages
transmitted over a line.
The record is received on an endless band or
fillet of paper. It is useful in case of disputes as
to the time certain messages were sent over the
line.
Register, Watchman's Electric
A device for permanently recording the time
of a watchman's visit to each of the dif-
ferent localities he is required to visit at stated
intervals.
These registers are of a variety of forms. They
consist, however, in general, of a drum or disc of
paper driven by clockwork, on which a mark is
made by a stylus or pencil, operated on the clos-
ing of a circuit by the pressing of a push button
or the pressing of a key by the watchman at each
station.
Registering Apparatus, Electric
(See Apparatus, Registering, Electric?)
Registering Electrometer.— (See Elec-
trometer, Registering?)
Regulable, Automatically Capa-
ble of being automatically regulated. (See
Regulation, Automatic?)
Regulate, Automatically To regu-
late in an automatic manner. (See Regula-
tion, Automatic)
Regulation, Automatic Regulation
automatically effected.
Regulation, Automatic, of Dynamo-Elec-
tric Machine Such a regulation of a
dynamo-electric machine as will automati-
cally preserve constant either the current or
the potential difference.
The automatic regulation of dynamo-electric
machines may be accomplished in the following
ways, viz.:
(I.) By a Compound Winding of the Machine.
This method is particularly applicable to con-
stant-potential machines. By this winding, the
magnetizing effect of the shunt coils is maintained
approximately constant, while that of the series
coils varies proportionally to the load on the ma-
chine.
The series coils are sometimes wound close to
Reg.]
445
[Beg.
the poles of the machine, and the shunt coils
nearer the yoke of the magnets. Custom, how-
ever, varies in this respect, and very generally
the shunt coils are placed nearer the poles than
the series coils. (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Compound- Wound?)
(2.) By Shifting the Position of the Collecting
Brushes.
In the Thomson-Houston system of current
regulation, the current is kept practically con-
stant by the following devices: The collecting
brushes are fixed to levers moved by the regula-
tor magnet R, as shown in Fig. 474, the arma-
ture of which is provided with an opening for the
entrance of the paraboloidal pole piece A. A
dash-pot is provided to prevent too sudden move-
ment.
When the current is normal, the coil of the
regulator magnet is short-circuited by contact
points at S T, which act as a shunt of very low re-
sistance. These contact points are operated by
the solenoid coils of the controller, traversed by
the main current. The cores of this solenoid are
suspended by a spring. When the current be-
comes too strong, the contact point is opened,
and the current, traversing the coil of the regu-
lar magnet A, attracts its armature, which shifts
the collecting brushes into a position in which a
smaller current is taken off.
A carbon shunt, r, of high resistance, is pro.
vided to lessen the spark at the contact points S
T, which occurs on opening the circuit.
Fig. 474. Thomson-Houston Regulator.
In operation the contact points are continually
opening and closing, thus maintaining a practi-
cally constant current in the external circuit.
(3.) By the Automatic Variation of a Resist-
ance shunting the field magnets of the machine,
as in the Brush system.
In Fig. 475 the variable resistance C, forms a
part of the shunt circuit around the field mag-
nets F M. This resistance is formed of a pile of
carbon plates. On an increase of the current,
such, for example, as would result from turning
out some of the lamps, the electro-magnet B,
placed in the main circuit, attracts its armature
A, and, compressing the pile of carbon plates C,
lowers their resistance, thus diverting a propor-
tionally larger portion of the current from the
field magnet coils F M, and maintaining the cur-
rent practically constant.
In some machines the same thing is done by
hand, but this is objectionable, since it requires
the presence of an attendant.
(4.) By the Introduction of a Variable Resist-
ance into the shunt circuit of the machine, as ia
the Edison and other systems.
Fig- 47 S- The Brush Regulator.
This resistance may be adjusted either auto-
matically by an electro-magnet whose coils are
in an independent shunt across the mains, or may
be operated by hand.
In Fig. 476, the variable resistance is shown
at R, the lever switch being in this case operated
by hand whenever the potential rises or falls be-
low the proper value.
Fig. 476. The Edison Regulator.
The machine shown is thus enabled to main-
tain a constant potential an. the leads to which the
lamps L, L, L, etc., are connected in multiple arc.
(5.) Dynamometric Governing, ID which a
series dynamo is made to yield a constant cur-
rent by governing the steam engine that drives
it, by means of a dynamometric governor. This
governor operates by maintaining a constant
torque or turning moment, instead of by means of
Beg.]
446
[Bel.
the usual centrifugal governor which maintains a
constant speed.
(6.) Electric Governing of the Drivi ng Engine,
in which the governor is regulated by the cur-
rent itself instead of by the speed of rotation, as
usual.
Regulation, Hand Such a regula-
tion of a dynamo-electric machine as will pre-
serve constant, either the current or the
potential, said regulation being effected by
hand as distinguished from automatic regu-
lation.
Regulator, Automatic — A device
for securing automatic regulation as dis-
tinguished from hand regulation. (See
Regulation, Hand. Regulation, Automatic.)
Regulator, Hand — A resistance
box, the separate coils or resistances of which
can be readily placed in or removed from a
circuit by means of a hand-moved switch.
The term hand regulator is used as distin-
guished from automatic regulator. (See Regu-
lator, Automatic. Regulation, Automatic.)
Regulator Magnet.— (See Magnet, Regu-
lator)
Regulator, Monophotal Arc-Light
— A term sometimes employed for an electric
arc lamp in which the whole current passes
through the arc-regulating mechanism, and
which is usually operated singly in circuit
with a dynamo.
Regulator, Polyphotal Arc-Lamp
A regulator for an arc lamp suitable for
maintaining a number of lamps in series cir-
cuit with the dynamo.
Polyphotal regulators differ from monophotal
regulators in that their regulating electro -mag-
nets are energized by a shunt circuit around the
electrodes of the lamp, while in monophotal regu-
lators such electro-magnets are placed in the di-
rect circuit The terms monophotal and poly-
photal are not generally used in America.
Regnline Electro-Metallurgical Deposit.
—(See Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical, Reg-
uline)
RejnTenation of Luminescence. — (See
Luminescence, Rejuvenation of)
Relative Calibration.— (See Calibration,
Relative)
Relay. — An electro-magnet, employed in
systems of telegraphy, provided with contact
points placed on a delicately supported arma-
ture, the movements of which throw a battery,
called the local battery, into or out of the
circuit of the receiving apparatus.
A relay is sometimes called a receiving magnet.
Fig. 477 • Telegraphic Relay.
The use of a relay permits much smaller cur-
rents to be used than could otherwise be done,
since the electric impulses, on reaching a distant
station, are required to do no other work than
attracting a delicately poised movable contact,
and thus, by throwing a local battery into the
circuit of the receiving apparatus, to cause such
local battery to perform the work of register-
ing. Its use is especially required in the Morse
system of telegraphy in order to cause the sounder
to be distinctly heard.
A form of relay that is much used is shown in
Fig- 477-
The electro-magnet M, is wound with many
turns of very fine wire. In the form used by the
Western Union Telegraph Company, there are
about 8, 500 turns, having resistance of 150 ohms.
A screw m, is provided for moving the electro-
magnet M, a slight distance in or out, for the pur-
poses of adjustment A semi-cylindrical arma-
ture A, of soft iron, is attached to the insulated
armature lever a, the lower end of which is sup-
ported by a steel arbor, which is pivoted between
two set screws.
A retractile spring S', regulable at S, is pro,
vided for moving the armature away from the
electro-magnet. There are four binding posts,
two of which are placed in the circuit of the
electro-magnet, and two hi that of the local bat-
tery. The ends of the line wire are connected
with the former, and the receiving instrument
placed in the circuit of the latter. A platinum
Rel.]
447
[Rel.
contact is placed on the end of a screw supported
at F, opposite a similar contact, near the end a,
of the armature lever. The contact is regulable
by means of a screw c.
On the energizing of the electro-magnet, the
attraction of its armature closes the platinum
contact, and, by thus completing the circuit of the
local battery, causes an attraction of the armature
of the receiving apparatus. On the cessation of
the current in the main line, the spring S', pulls
the armature away from the magnet, breaks the
circuit of the local battery, and thus permits a
similar spring on the receiving instrument to pull
its armature away. Thus all the movements of
the armature of the relay are reproduced with in-
creased intensity by the armature of the receiving
instrument.
The connections of the relay to the local bat-
tery and the registering apparatus, will be better
understood from an inspection of Fig. 478, which
represents a form of relay much used in Germany.
Relay, Differential A telegraphic
Fig. 47 S. Telegraphic Relay, German Pattern.
The retractile spring f, is regulated by the up-
and-down movements of its lower support, which
slides in the vertical pillar S. The line wire is
shown at m m, connected at one end to earth by
a ground wire.
The registering apparatus R, is connected in
the circuit of the local battery L, as shown.
The contacts are made by the end B, of the lever
B B', attached to the armature A, of the electro-
magnet M M.
Relay Bell.— (See Bell, Relay, Electric)
Relay, Box-Sounding Telegraphic
— A relay the magnet of which is surrounded
by a resonant case of wood for the purpose
of increasing the intensity of the sound made
by the armature of the magnet.
A form of box-sounding relay is shown in Fig.
479-
Fig. 479. Box-Sounding Relay
relay containing two differentially wound coils
of wire on its magnet cores.
When the currents which pass through these
two coils are of the same strength, there is no
movement of the armature, since the fields of the
two coils neutralize each other.
The differential relay is used in the differential
method of duplex and quadruplex telegraphy.
(See Telegraphy, Duplex Differential Method of.
Telegraphy, Quadruplex Differential Method of .)
Relay Magnet. — A name sometimes given
to a relay. (See Relay,)
Relay, Microphone A device for
automatically repeating a telephonic message
over another wire.
Ftg . 480. Microphone Relay.
A form of microphone relay is shown in Figs.
480 and 481.
Several minute microphones mounted on the
Fig. 481. Microphone Relay.
diaphragm of the telephone whose message is to
be repeated, so vary the resistance of a local bat-
tery included in their circuit as to automatically
repeat the articulate speech received.
The microphones may be connected either in
Rel.]
448
[Rel.
multiple arc or in series, as shown respectively to
the left and right in Fig. 480.
Relay, Pocket Telegraphic A form
of telegraphic relay of such small dimensions
as to permit it to be readily carried in the
pocket.
Relay, Polarized A telegraphic re-
lay provided with a permanently magnetized
armature in place of the soft iron armature of
the ordinary instrument.
In the form of polarized relay shown in Fig.
482, N S, is a steel magnet, whose magnetism is
consequently permanent, with its north and south
poles at N, and S, respectively. The cores of
the electro-magnet m, m', are of soft iron, and,
since they rest on the north pole of the permanent
steel magnet, the poles, brought very near to-
gether by the armatures at n, n', will be of the
same polarity as N, when no current is passing
through the coils m, m' ; but when such current
does pass, one of these poles becomes of stronger
north polarity, while the other changes its polar-
ity to south.
By these means to-and fro movements of the
armature lever, with its contact point, are effected
without the use of a retractile spring ; movement
in one direction occurring on the closing of the
circuit due to the electro-magnetism developed
Fig. 482. Polarized Relay.
by the coils m, m', and movement in the opposite
direction, on the losing of this magnetism on
breaking the circuit, by the permanent magnet-
ism of the steel magnet N S.
These movements are imparted to the soft iron
lever c, c', pivoted at B, and passing between the
closely approached soft iron poles at n, n'. This
lever rests at the end c', against a contact point
when moved in one direction, and against an in-
sulated point when moved in the opposite direc-
tion. It rests against the insulated point when
no current is passing through the coils m, m'.
If the armature lever were placed in a position
exactly midway between the poles n, and n', it
would not move at all, being equally attracted by
each; but if moved a little nearer one pole than
the other, it would be attracted to, and rest
against, the nearer pole.
When alternating currents are employed on
the line, the lever c, c', must be adjusted as nearly
as possible in the middle of the space between n
and n', in which case it will remain on the side to
which it was last attracted, until a current in the
opposite direction moves it to the other side.
Fig- 483. A Detail of the Polarized Relay.
The space between the magnet poles n, n',
and the contacts of the armature lever at D, and
D', are shown in detail in Fig. 483, which is a
plan of Fig. 482. The binding posts for the line
battery are shown at L B, i, and 2, and those
for the local battery at A and B. The dotted
lines show the connections.
Since the polarized relay dispenses with the re-
tractile spring, it is far more sensitive than the
ordinary instrument. Once adjusted, no further
regulation is required, in which respect it differs
very decidedly from non. polarized relays.
There are other forms of polarized relays, but
the above will suffice to illustrate the general
principle of their operation.
Relay Shunt, Steam's (See Shunt,
Relay, Steam's?)
Reluctance, Magnetic A term re-
cently proposed in place of magnetic resist-
ance to express the resistance offered by a
Rel.]
449
[Rep.
medium to the passage through its mass of
lines of magnetic force.
The term reluctance, in the sense of resistance
to passage of lines of magnetic force, has been
proposed in place of resistance, for the purpose
of carrying out the conception of regarding the
flow of lines of force in a magnetic circuit as
being due to a magneto-motive force, and being
opposed by a reluctance of the substances form-
ing such circuit to the passage of such lines.
According to this conception,
The magnetic flux =
The magneto-motive force
The reluctance.
Reluctance, Magnetic, Unit of
Such a magnetic reluctance in a closed cir-
cuit that permits unit magnetic flux to
traverse it under the action of unit magneto-
motive force.
In present practical work reluctances vary
from 100,000 to 100,000,000 of the practical
units.
Reluctivity. — A term proposed for mag-
netic reluctance. (See Reluctance, Mag-
netic^)
This term is not generally adopted.
Removable Key Switch.— (See Switch,
Removable Key.)
Renovation of Secondary Cell.— (See
Cell, Secondary or Storage, Renovation of.)
Renovation of Secondary or Storage
Cell.— (See Cell, Secondary or Storage,
Renovation of) ••
Reofore.— A rheophore. (See Rheophore)
Repeaters, Telegraphic Tele-
graphic devices, whereby the relay, sounder
or registering apparatus, on the opening and
closing of another circuit, with which it is
suitably connected, is caused to repeat the
signals received.
Repeaters are employed to establish direct
communication between very distant stations, or
to connect branch lines to the main line.
Fig. 484, shows Wood's Button Repeater. This
repeater consists simply of a three-point switch
L, capable of being placed on the points I, 2 and
3 ; and a ground switch at 4. The circuits are
arranged between the sounders S, S', relays
M, M', main batteries B, B', and the two main
lines E, and W, in the manner shown.
Fig. 484. WootFs Button Repeater.
If the lever L, is in the position shown in the
drawing, the lines E and W, form independent
circuits.
If the ground switch 4 is closed, and the lever
L, is placed on 2, 2, the eastern line repeats into
the western. If the lever L, is placed on the
plates 3, 3, the western line repeats into the
eastern.
This repeater is non- automatic and can be
worked in but one direction at a time ; moreover,
it requires the services of an attendant.
The automatic repeater can be operated in both
directions, and dispenses with the constant ser-
vices of an attendant at the repeating station.
In sending a dispatch through a repeater, the
dots and dashes are prolonged so as to give the
lever of the repeating instrument time in which
to move backwards and forwards.
Fig. 485. Hick's Automatic Button Repeater.
In Hick's Automatic Repeater, shown in Fig.
485, the switch or circuit- changer is automatic in
its action.
The relay magnets are shown at M, M', the
sounders at R and R' ; f, f , are platinum con-
tacts operated by levers 1 and 1', and L and L',
are extra local magnets, that act on armatures
Rep.]
450
[Rep.
placed directly opposite the armatures of the relay
magnets.
The extra local magnet L, is cut out of the
circuit of B', the extra local battery, when the
main circuit is broken, and the armature is in
contact with c. As soon as this happens, how-
ever, the spring s, drawing away the armature,
and thus opening the short-circuit of no resist-
ance between c and a, establishes a circuit
through L. On a, coming in contact with c, the
circuit is again broken.
The tension of the spring s, is so regulated that
a very rapid vibration of a, is maintained so con-
stantly, that it is impossible to close the main cir-
cuit when L, is not cut out. The armature a,
will therefore respond to very weak impulses of
the relay magnet
On breaking the western main circuit N, the
lever a, vibrates very rapidly. The lever 1, of the
sounder R, first breaks the circuit of L, and after-
wards that of the eastern main circuit E, which
passes through M. Both L' and M', being
broken, a slight tension of s', will hold a, in
place, thus avoiding the breaking of the western
main circuit through the closing of the local cir-
cuit through R. On the closing of the western
circuit, the reverse of these operations occurs.
The author has taken the above explanation
mainly from Pope's work on "Modern Practice
of the Electric Telegraph."
Repeating Sounder. — (See Sounder, Re-
peating^)
Replenisher.— A static influence machine
devised by Sir William
Thomson for charging
the quadrants of his
quadrant electrometer.
Two brass carriers C
and D, shown in Fig. 486,
are electrically fixed to the
end of the vulcanite rod
E, which is capable of ro-
tation by the thumb screw
at M, in the direction
shown by the arrow. Hol-
low metal half-cylinders, p.
A and B, act as inductors,
a strip of brass fixed around Fig.48(>. The Rephn-
the edges of a piece of vul-
canite P, connecting the metallic springs S, and
S', as shown.
The action of the replenisher is readily under-
stood from the following considerations, as sug-
gested by Ayrton in his "Practical Electricity " :
A and B, Fig. 487, are two insulated hollow
metallic vessels having a small difference of po-
tential between them, A, being the higher. C,
and D, are two small uncharged conductors held
by insulating strings. If C and D, be held near
A and B, as shown, the potential of C, will, by
induction, be raised somewhat above that of D,
so that when connected by a conductor, such as
the metallic wire W, a small quantity of positive
electricity will flow from C, to D, thus leaving D,
positively, and C, negatively charged.
If, now, C and D, are removed from W, and
placed in the bottom of B and A, as shown in
Fig. 488, the difference of potential between A,
and B, will be thereby increased, and if they are
then withdrawn, and totally discharged, and
Fig. 487. Action of Replenisher.
again placed in the first position shown, an ad-
ditional charge can be given to A and B, and this
can be repeated as often as desired.
In the replenisher, A and B, correspond to the
vessels A and B ; the brass carriers C and D,
to the balls C and D, and the spring S S, and M,
Fig. 488. Action of Replenisher.
to the wire W. No initial charge need be given
to A and B, since they are invariably found to
Rep.]
451
[Res.
be at a sufficient difference of potential to build
up the charge.
Replenisher, Carriers of The
moving conductors of a replenisher which
carry the charges and thus permit of an ac-
cumulation of such charges. (See Re-
plenisher?)
Repulsion, Electric The mutual
driving apart or tendency to mutually drive
apart existing between two similarly charged
bodies, or the mutual driving apart of similar
electric charges.
Repulsion, Electro-Dynamic The
mutual repulsion between two electric circuits
whose currents are flowing in opposite direc-
tions.
Parallel currents flowing in opposite directions
repel one another, because their lines of magnetic
force have the same direction in adjoining parts of
the circuit. (See Dynamics, Electro.)
Repulsion, Electro-Magnetic —The
mutual repulsion produced by two similar
electro-magnetic poles.
Repulsion, Electrostatic —The
mutual repulsion produced by two similar
electric charges.
Repulsion, Magnetic The mutual
repulsion exerted between two similar mag-
netic poles.
Repulsion, Molecular The mutual
repulsion existing between molecules arising
from their kinetic energy. (See Matter, Ki-
netic Theory of.)
Residual Atmosphere — (See Atmosphere,
Residual.)
Residual Charge.— (See Charge, Resid-
ual.)
Residual Magnetism.— (See Magnetism,
Residual.)
Resin. — A general term applied to a variety
of dried juices of vegetable origin.
Resins are, in general, transparent, inflamma-
ble solids, soluble in alcohol, and, in general,
excellent non-conductors of electricity. Rosin is
one of the varieties of resin.
Resinous Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Resinous.)
Resistance. — Something placed in a circuit
for the purpose of opposing the passage or
flow of the current in the circuit or branches
of the circuit in which it is placed.
The electrical resistance of a conductor is
that quality of the conductor in virtue of
which there is a fixed numerical ratio be-
tween the potential difference of the two
opposing faces of a cubic unit of such con-
ductor, and the quantity of electricity which
traverses either face per second, assuming a
steady flow to take place normal to these
faces, and to be uniformly distributed over
them, such flow taking place solely by an elec-
tromotive force outside the volume considered.
The term is used in the first definition in the
concrete sense of something intended for or used
as a resistance. For the physical definitions and
facts see Resistance, Electric.
Gases offer very high resistance to the flow of
an electric current. Their non-conducting power
causes the increase of resistance which attends
the polarization of a voltaic cell. (See Cell,
Voltaic, Polarization of.)
Resistances consist of coils, strips, bars or
spirals of metal, or plates of carbon, or metallic
powders, powdered or granulated carbon, or
liquids.
Resistance, Absolute Unit of The
one thousand millionth of an ohm. (See
Ohm. Units, Practical.)
Resistance, Assymmetrical Con-
ductors or parts of conductors, which offer a
greater resistance to the flow of an electric
current in one direction than in another.
Assymmetrical conductors are unknown, so far
as structural peculiarities are concerned, but can
be obtained by the use of counter electromotive
forces, acting as resistance. This term was pro-
posed by Wilke in discussing the obtaining of
continuous currents by commutatorless dynamo-
electric machines.
The resistance of the human body is possibly an
assymmetrical resistance.
An evident application of an assymmetrical re-
sistance is to direct alternating currents so as to
cause the current that passes to flow in and to the
same direction.
Resistance, Balanced A resistance
so placed in a circuit as to be balanced or
made equal to another resistance connecter]
therewith.
Res.]
453
[Res,
Resistance, Balanced, for Dynamos
— A resistance that possesses a range suf-
ficient tq balance one dynamo against another
with which it is desired to run in parallel.
— ( Urquhart)
Resistance Box.— (See Box, Resistance)
Resistance Bridge.— (See Bridge, Resist-
ance?)
Resistance Coil.— (See Coil. Resistance)
Resistance Coil, Standard (See
Coil, Resistance, Standard)
Resistance, Conductivity The re-
sistance offered by a substance to electric
conduction, or to the passage of electricity
through its mass.
Resistance, Dielectric A term
sometimes employed for the resistance of a
dielectric to mechanical strains produced by
electrification.
The dielectric resistance of the glass, or other
dielectric of a Leyden jar or condenser, is fre-
quently overcome by the passage of the charges
on the conducting surfaces, and the glass is thus
pierced.
The term dielectric resistance would appear
to be badly chosen; for, like all substances, dielec-
trics possess a true ohmic resistance, which in-
creases with the increase of length, and decreases
with the increase of area of cross-section.
The resistance of the dielectric, however, differs
from the ordinary ohmic resistance of conductors,
in that the resistance of the dielectric is suddenly
overcome, and the discharge passes disruptively
as a spark.
Resistance, Effect of Heat on Electric
Nearly all metallic conductors have
their electric resistance increased by an in-
crease of temperature.
The carbon conductor of an incandescent elec-
tric lamp, on the contrary, has its resistance
decreased when raised to electric incandescence.
The decrease amounts to about three-eighths of its
resistance when cold.
The effects of heat on electric resistance may be
summarized as follows:
(i.) The electric resistance of metallic conduc-
tors increases as the temperature rises. In some
alloys this increase is small.
(2.) The electric resistance of electrolytes de-
creases as the temperature rises.
(3.) The electric resistance of dielectrics and
non-conductors decreases as the temperature rises.
RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY OF PURE
COPPER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.
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—(Latimer Clark.}
Resistance, Electric — — —The ratio be-
tween the electromotive force of a circuit
and the current that passes therein.
The reciprocal of electrical conductivity.
Resistance can be defined as the reciprocal of
electrical conductivity, because even the best
electrical conductors possess appreciable resist-
ance.
Ordinarily the resistance of a circuit may be
conveniently regarded as that which opposes or
resists the passage of the current. Strictly speak-
ing, however, this is not true, since from Ohm's
law (See Law of Ohm, or Law of Current
Strength)
E
C = — , from which we obtain
R
E
R = — , which shows that resistance is a
C
ratio between the electromotive force that causes
the current and the current so produced.
Resistance may be expressed as a velocity.
The dimensions of resistance in terms of the
electro-magnetic units are
L
(See Units, Electro- Magnetic.) But these are the
dimensions of a velocity, which is the ratio of the
distance passed over in unit time. Resistance may
therefore be expressed as a velocity.
Res.]
453
"The resistance known as 'one ohm* is in-
tended to be io» absolute electro-magnetic units,
and, therefore, is represented by a velocity of lo9
centimetres or 10,000,000 metres (one earth quad-
rant) per second." — (Sylvanus Thompson.)
Resistance may be represented by a velocity,
one ohm being the resistance of a wire, which,
if moved through a unit field of force at the rate
of 1,000,000,000 (lo9) centimetres per second will
have a current of one ampere generated in it.
(See Resistance, Ohmic. Resistance, Spurious.)
The true value of the ohm is exactly lo9 centi-
metres. The material standards employed, *. e.,
the B. A. and "legal " ohms, are not absolutely
of this value.
One mil-foot of soft copper at 10.22 degrees C.
or 50.4 degrees F. has the standard resistance of
exactly 10 legal ohms; at 15.56 or 59.9 degrees
F., it has a resistance of 10.20 legal ohms, and
at 23.9 degrees C. or 75 degrees F., 10.53 legal
ohms.
RESISTANCE.
Resistance of Wires of Pure Annealed Copper at o" C.
(Density = 8.9.)
II
I
&
175
,35-28
t.l5
62.93
40.23
33.82
27-95
22.7
17.89
15-75
g:L
10. 06
8.47
5:8
2.13
2.52
i-74
':8
.7181
.4026
.2797
.179
.1007
.0699
.0447
.0252
Resistance of Wire of Pure An-
nealed Copper at O degree C.
5-7
7-4
9-5
12.5
16
,9.8
25
too
119
144
I73
•H
294
&
90..
•S*
5590
Ohms
3.6
4.2
9.1
25
32
42
II
122.4
177-9
228.5
357
1428
2056
3213
Metres
dhm.
944.38
563.92
439-07
Ii' S
36.08
24-9
09-75
95-651
82.4
70.247
59.024
48.782
39-515
31.225
%
•Kg
5-622
4-377
3.801
1.945
1.245
.'486
.311
.^l
Ohms
Kilogramme.
.00456
.00784
.0128
.0222
•0365
•574
.763
1.03
1.42
"•95
4.19
7.21
12.3
22.78
46.8!
110.41
222.55
367-2
895.36
1,857.6
4,489
29^549
78,943
227,515
142,405
The following table, based on Matthiessen's
measurements, gives the relative resistances of
equal lengths and cross-sections of a number of
different substances used in electricity as com-
pared with silver.
LEGAL MICROHMS.
Resistance i
n Microhms
at o dc
greeC.
W "vr
Relative
OF> -METAL.
Resistance.
Cubic
Centimetre.
Cubic Inch.
Silver, annealed...
T.CO4
O.592X
i
Copper, annealed.
1.598
O.6292
i!o63
Silver, hard drawn
Copper, h'rd dr*wn
Jl34
0.6433
0.6433
,.086
i. 086
Gold, annealed....
Gold, hard drawn.
Aluminium, ann'ld
2.094
2.912
0.8102
0.8247
1.147
1.369
J-393
'•935
Zinc, pressed
Platinum, annealed
5.626
9.057
2.215
3-565
3-741
6.022
Iron, annealed
Nickel, annealed. .
9.716
12.47
3.825
4.907
6.460
8.285
Tin, pressed
13.21
8.784
Lead, pressed
German silver
19.63
20.93
1:5
I3-05
Antimony, pressed
35-50
13.98
62 71
Bismuth, pressed. .
94.32
131.2
s^s5
02.73
87.23
—(Hosfitalier.)
—(Ayrton.)
The above resistances are for chemically pure
substances only. Slight impurities produce a very
considerable increase in the resistance.
Resistance, Electric, of Liquids --
The resistance offered by a liquid mass to
the passage of an elec-
tric current
As a rule the electric re-
sistances of liquids, with
the single exception of mer-
cury, are enormously high-
er than those of metallic
bodies.
To roughly determine
the resistance of a liquid,
a section is taken between
two parallel metallic plates
A and B, Fig. 489, placed
as shown in the figure, and
an electric current is pass-
ed between them.
In order to accurately
vary the size of the plates
immersed in the liquid, and
hence the area of cross-section of the liquid con-
ductor, as well as the distance between the plates,
the apparatus shown in Fig. 490 may be used, in
489- RetistanceoJ
Liquid.
Res.] 454 [Res.
TABLE OF CONDUCTING POWERS AND RESISTANCES IN OHMS— B. A. UNITS.
NAMES OF METALS.
Conducting
power at o de-
gree C.
Resistance of a
wire one foot
long weighing
one grain.
Resistance of a
wire one metre
ong weighing
one gramme.
Resistance of a
wire one foot
long nfou >nch
in diameter.
Resistance of a
wir one metre
on one milli-
me e in diam-
eter.
Approximate
percentage of
variation in re-
sistance for t de-
gree of tempera-
ture at 20 deg.
0.2214
0.2421
o. 1544
0.1689
9.936
9.151
9.718
9.940
12.52
12.74
17.72
32.22
55-09
59-40
75-78
80.36
119.39
216.0
798-0
600.0
143-35
127.32
66.10
.01937
.02057
.02104
.02650
.02697
0-377
Silver, hard drawn
100. CO
Copper, hard drawn
99-55
0.2106
0.5849
0.5950
0.06822
0.5710
3.536
1.2425
1.0785
l:%
3.324
5-°54
18.740
0.1469
0.4080
0.4150
0.05759
0.3983
2.464
0.7522
0.8666
0.9.84
2.257
2.3295
3-525
13.071
8.959
1.850
1.668
0-355
77.96
29.02
•°l&
:'Ji
.2527
•457'
1.689
1.270
0.3140
0.2695
0.1399
0.365
16.81
13 ii
12 36
832
462
I 24
Nickel, annealed
Tin, pressed
0.365
0.387
0.389
0-354
0.072
0.065.
Antimony, pressed
Platinum - silver, alloy,
German silver, hard or
Gold, silver, alloy, hard
2.391
which these distances are readily adjustable, as
shown.
Resistance, Equivalent A single
resistance which may replace a number of
separate resistances in a circuit without alter-
ing the value of the current traversing it.
Resistance, Essential —A term
sometimes used instead of internal resist-
ance.
Kg. 490.
Apparatus for Measuring Resistance of
Liquid.
Resistance, External Secondary A
term proposed by Du Bois Reymond for the
change in the resistance of a circuit external to
the electric source when cataphoric action
takes place. (See Action, Cataphoric^)
" If the copper electrodes of a constant battery
be placed in a vessel filled with a solution of
cupric sulphate and from each electrode there
projects a cushion saturated with this fluid, then,
on placing a piece of muscle, cartilage, vegetable
tissue, or even a prismatic strip of coagulated
albumen across these cushions, we observe, that
very soon after the circuit is closed, there is a
considerable variation of the current. * * *
This phenomenon is called ' external secondary
resistance.' " — (Landois and Sterling.)
Resistance, Extraordinary A term
sometimes employed instead of external re-
sistance. (See Resistance, External Secon-
dary.)
Resistance, False A resistance aris-
ing from a counter electromotive force and
not directly from the dimensions of the circuit,
or from its specific resistance.
The false resistance of any circuit is sometimes
called its spurious resistance. (See Force, Electro-
motive, Counter. Resistance, Spurious.)
Resistance, Inductionless A term
sometimes used instead of non-inductive re-
sistance. (See Resistance, Non-inductive.)
Resistance, Inductive A resistance
which possesses self-induction.
Resistance, Insulation The re-
sistance of a line or conductor existing be-
tween the line or conductor and the earth
through the insulators, or between the two
Res.]
455
[Bes.
wires of a cable through the insulating
material separating them.
The insulation resistance of a telegraph line is
the resistance that exists between the line and the
earth, through its insulators. The insulation re-
sistance will decrease as the length of line in-
creases, since for any increase in the number of
poles and insulators there is a proportional in-
crease in the area of cross-section of the insula-
ting supports.
If the insulation resistance is 1 ,000,000 ohms
per mile, in a line 200 miles in length, the insula-
tion resistance is only 5,000 ohms, that is,
1,000,000
•I- — : - = 5,000 ohms.
200
Resistance, Joint, of Parallel Circuits
-- The joint resistance of two parallel
circuits is determined by means of the follow-
ing formula :
Where R = the joint resistance of any two cir-
cuits whose separate resistances are respectively
r and r'.
When there are three resistances r, r' and r*,
in parallel, the joint resistance,
R= r r' r<
r r' -j- r r" -j- r' r" "
(See Circuits, Varieties of. )
Resistance, Magnetic -- The recipro-
cal of magnetic permeability or conduct!-
bility for lines of magnetic force.
Resistance offered by a medium to the
passage of the lines of magnetic force through
it.
The magnetic resistance of the circuit of the
lines of force is reduced by forming the circuit of
a medium having a high magnetic permeability,
such as soft iron. This is accomplished by the
armature or keeper of a magnet, or by the iron in
an iron-clad magnet. (See Magnet, Iron-Clad.}
Resistance, Measurement of --
Methods employed for determining the re-
sistance of any circuit or part of a circuit.
Numerous methods are employed for this pur-
pose. Among these are :
(I.) The use of 'a resistance box -with a Wheat.
stone bridge, by opposing or balancing the un-
known resistance against a known resistance.
(See Balance, Wheatstone'1 s Electric.)
(2.) The differential galvanometer. (See Gal-
vanometer, Differential^
(3.) The method of substitution.
(4.) Comparison of the deflections of a gal~
vanometer.
Method of Substitution. — A resistance-box R,
Fig. 491, galvanometer G, and the resistance x,
that is to be measured, are placed in the direct
circuit of the battery B, by means of conductors
of such thick wire that their resistance can be
neglected.
The deflection of the galvanometer is first
measured with x, in circuit, and no resistance in
the box R. The resistance x, is then cut out of
the circuit by placing a thick copper wire across
the terminals of the mercury cups at mm', and
resistances unplugged in R, until the same deflec-
tion is obtained. Then, if the electromotive force
of the battery has remained constant, the resist-
ances unplugged equal the unknown resistance.
For full description of the various methods of
determining resistance the reader is referred to
•l Ayr ton's Practical Electricity,'* "Kempe's
Handbook of Testing" or other standard books
on electrical measurements.
Fig. 49 z. Substitution Method.
When several resistances are placed in series in
any circuit, by measuring the difference of poten-
tial at their terminals, their values can be deter-
mined by simple calculation, being directly pro-
portional to these differences of potential.
This method is especially applicable to the
measurement of such low resistances as the arma-
tures of dynamo-electric machines.
Resistance, Non-inductive A re-
sistance in which self-induction is practically
absent.
An incandescent lamp filament is practically a
non-inductive resistance when compared with a
coil on the helix of an electro-magnet.
Resistance of Human Body.— (See Body,
Human, Resistance of.)
Res.]
456
[Res.
Resistance of Toltalc Arc.— (See Arc,
Voltaic, Resistance of.)
Resistance, Ohmic The true resist-
ance of a conductor due to its dimensions
and specific conducting power, as distin-
guished from the spurious resistance produced
by a counter electromotive force. (See Force,
Electromotive, Counter. Resistance, Spuri-
ous.)
The term ohmic resistance must be regarded as
a pleonasm. Its use can only be permitted in
contradistinction to counter electromotive force
resistance. True and spurious resistance would
seem preferable.
Resistance or Cell, Selenium A
mass of crystalline selenium, the resistance of
which is reduced by placing it in the form of
narrow strips between the edges of broad
conducting plates of brass.
The selenium employed for this purpose is the
vitreous variety which has been fused and main*
tained for several hours at about 220 degrees C.,
by means of which its resistance is reduced.
By exposure to sunlight, the resistance of a
selenium cell is decreased fully one-half its re-
sistance in the dark. The selenium cell is used
in the photophone. (See Photophone.)
Resistance or Reducteur for Voltmeter.
— (See Reducteur or Resistance for Volt-
meter!)
Resistance, Secondary A term
sometimes used in place of external secon-
dary resistance. (See Resistance, External
Secondary?)
Resistance Slide.— (See Slide, Resist-
ance^
Resistance, Specific The particular
resistance which a substance offers to the
passage of electricity through it.
In absolute measure, the resistance in ab-
solute units between the opposite faces of a
centimetre cube of the given substance.
In the practical system the resistance given
in ohms.
Resistance, Specific Conduction
A term sometimes used instead of specific
resistance. (See Resistance, Specific)
Resistance, Specific, of Liquids
The resistance of a given length (one centi-
metre) and area of cross-section (one square
centimetre) of any liquid as compared with
the resistance of an equal length and cross-
section of pure silver.
The resistance of a few common liquids and so-
lutions is here given from Lupton:
Water, pure, at 75 degrees C..I.I88 X IO» ohms,
*'. e., 118,800,000.
Water at 4 degrees C 9.100 X K>« ••
Water at II degrees C 3.400X10* ••
Dilute hydrogen sulphate (sul-
phuric acid) at 18 degrees
C., 5 per cent, acid 4.88
Dilute hydrogen sulphate at
1 8 degrees C., 3 per cent,
acid i .38 ohms.
Nitric acid at 18 degrees C.,
density 1.32 l.6l ««
Saturated solution of copper
sulphate (blue vitriol) at 10
degrees C 29.30 ««
Saturated solution of zinc sul-
phate at 14 degrees C 21.50 ««
Hydrochloric acid, 20 per cent,
acid, at 18 degrees C 1.34 "
Sal ammoniac, 25 percent, salt 2.53 ««
Common salt, saturated, at 13
degreesC ...5.30 "
It will be observed that the resistance varies
considerably with differences of temperature.
Resistance, Spurious A false re-
sistance arising from the development of a
counter electromotive force. (See Resist-
ance, False. Force, Electromotive, Coun-
ter)
The spurious resistance is also called the false
resistance, in order to distinguish it from the true
or ohmic resistance. (See Resist ance* Electric.)
Resistance, Standard A resistance
used for comparison with or the determina-
tion of unknown resistances.
A committee appointed by the American Insti.
tute of Electrical Engineers in 1890 reported the
following values for the standard resistance of
copper wire; at O degree C. in B. A. U. and legal
ohms, viz.:
Res.]
457
[Res.
STANDARD RESISTANCE AT o* C.
B. A. U. Legal Ohms.
' Meter-mfllimetre, "
" soft copper "... .02057 .02034
Cubic centimetre... .000001616 .000001598
"Mil-foot" 9.720 9.612
Resistance, Tables of Tables in
which the resistance of equal lengths and
•:ross-sections of different substances is
given in ohms, or other units of resistance.
Resistance Thermometer. — (See Ther-
mometer, Electric Resistance!)
Resistance, Transition — A term
sometimes used in electre-therapeutics for a
change in the value of the resistance caused
by polarization.
Whenever an electric current passes through
a fluid substance and decomposes the fluid, the
decomposition products collect on the electrodes
and produce an increase in the resistance of the
circuit.
Resistance, True The resistance
which a conductor offers to the passage of a
current by reason of its dimensions and spe-
cific conducting power, as distinguished from
a spurious resistance produced by a counter
electromotive force.
The true resistance is sometimes called the
ohmic resistance. — (See Resistance^ Spurious.
Resistance, Ohmic.)
Resistance, Unit of Such a resist-
ance that unit difference of potential is re-
quired to cause a current of unit strength
to pass. (See Ohm. Potential, Electric.
Potential, Difference of.)
Resistance, Unit of, Absolute The
one thousand millionth of an ohm. (See
Ohm. Units, Practical.)
Resistance, Unit of, Jacobi's The
electric resistance of 25 feet of a certain
copper wire weighing 345 grains.
Another unit of electric resistance proposed
by Jacobi was the resistance of a copper wire
one metre in length and one millimetre in diame-
ter.
Resistance, Unit of, Matthiessen's
—The resistance of one statute mile of pure
annealed copper wire iV inch in diameter at
15.5 degrees C, and determined by him to be
13.59 B. A. ohms.
Resistance, Unit of, Varley's The
resistance of one statute mile of a special
copper wire ^ inch in diameter.
Varley's unit was afterwards adjusted by him
to equal 25 Siemens Mercury Units.
Resistance, Variable A resistance
the value of which can be readily varied.
Variable resistances are either :
(I.) Automatically variable resistances; or
(2.) Non-automatically variable resistances.
Resistance, Variable, Automatic
A resistance the value of which can be auto*
matically varied.
A pile of carbon plates resting on one another,
in loose contact, offers a high resistance, but when
compressed as by an electro-magnet their resist-
ance is lowered. Brush employs such an auto-
matic resistance in the regulation of his dynamo-
electric machine. (See Regulation, Automatic.)
Resistance, Variable Non-Automatic
— A resistance the value of which is regulated
by hand. (See Rheostat.)
Resistance, Virtual A term some-
times employed instead of impedance. (See
Impedance.)
Resonance, Electric The setting
up of electric pulses in open-circuited con-
ductors, by the action of pulses in neighboring
conductors.
Electric resonance, like acoustic resonance,
takes place when a correspondence exists between
the time-rate of vibration of the body producing
the resonance, and the body in which the reso-
nance is produced. In other words, when the
wave lengths are the same in the two bodies, or
when the wave length in one is equal to a half
wave length, or some definite multiple of a half
wave length of the other.
Partial resonance may occur, when there is a
small difference between the wave lengths of the
two bodies. Beyond certain limits, however, this
is so small as to be practically absent.
When an electrical pulse is started in a con.
ductor by the discharge of a Leyden jar, a side flash
spark is obtained in the alternative path, between
the discharge points. The length of this spark has
its greatest value, when the time required for the
Res.]
458
pulse to travel backwards and forwards along the
conducting wires, is exactly equal to the time of
a complete oscillation in the circuit, or when the
length of the open-circuit wires is equal to half a
wave length, or some multiple of half a wave
length.
The fact that the length of the spark is greatest
when certain relations exist between the dimen-
sions of the two circuits, shews that the time-rate
of an electrical pulse in any circuit depends on
the dimensions of that circuit.
In the case of acoustic resonance, in order that
one tuning fork may be able to excite vibrations in
another, the fork producing or exciting the vibra-
tion must be strictly in unison with the fork in
which the vibrations are excited, and any varia-
tions produced in the rate of vibration of the
sounding fork, by overloading it, or, in other
words, by altering its dimensions, checks the
effects of its resonance.
In a similar manner, any alterations in the di.
mansions of the circuit, checks or diminishes the
effects of electric reson-
ance in a neighboring cir-
cuit, which was previously
in unison with it. This
has been experimentally
shown by Hertz as fol-
lows:
An induction coil A,
Fig. 492, has the terminals
of its secondary connected
to an open rectangular cir-
cuit provided with spark-
ing terminals, I, and 2,
called a spark micrometer.
Under certain conditions,
when the discharge oc-
curs at the terminals B,
of the ordinary discharger, sparks are produced
by electric resonance in the electric resonator
formed by the spark micrometer at M.
Supposing, now, that a certain character of sparV
is obtained at the terminals B, that is, a cei_
tain velocity of electrical pulsations is obtained
which depends on the nature of the spark ; sup-
pose, moreover, that the dimensions of the spark
micrometer or electric resonator are such that the
greatest length of spark is obtained. Then, any
alteration in the character of these sparks, be-
tween the terminals at B, varies the intensity of
She sparks in the spark micrometer.
X& for example, the apparatus be arranged
Fig. 493. Electrical
Resotiaitct.
as shown in Fig. 493, in which one of the sec-
ondary terminals of the induction coil has con-
nected with it a copper wire i g h. The sparks at
M, decrease considerably. When, however, the
conductor C, is connected with the free end H,
of this additional conductor, then this effect is
not observed, as is shown by the fact that when
the conductor C, is attached at the point G, it
produces no effect on it.
Fig. 493. Electric Resonanct.
In another experiment with the same apparatus,
matters may be arranged that the sparks in the
micrometer circuit pass singly. When, now, an-
other conductor C', is attached to K, a stream of
sparks immediately passes.
It would appear, therefore, from the above ex-
periments, that when two circuits are taken,
having as nearly as possible the same vibration
periods, any alteration in the dimensions of either
will prevent one from producing electrical reso-
nance in the other.
In the above experiments Hertz demonstrated
the following facts, viz.,
(I.) The sparks in the micrometer circuit are
smaller when the discharges take place between
points, or a point and a plate, instead of between
knobs.
(2.) The micrometer sparks are feebler in rare-
fied gas than in air at ordinary pressures.
(3.) Extremely slight differences in the nature
of secondary sparks produce considerable differ-
ence in the length of the micrometer sparks.
Hertz found the above results were obtained
when the secondary sparks were of a brilliant
color, and were attended by a sharp crack.
(4.) The length of the spark in the micrometei
Res.]
459
circuit varies with the length of the micrometer
circuit.
This, of course, follows from the fact that any
alteration of the length in the micrometer circuit,
produces, by electrical retardation, a correspond-
ing alteration in the time of the electrical pulses.
(5.) No effect is produced in the length of the
micrometer spark by variations in the material,
the resistance, or the diameter of the wire forming
the micrometer circuit.
This is probably because the rate of propaga-
tion of electrical pulses along a conductor, de-
pends mainly on the capacity of the conductor,
and on its co-efficient of self-induction, and only
to a slight extent on its resistance.
(6.) The length of wire connecting the microm-
eter circuit with the secondary circuit has but
little effect, provided such length does not exceed
a few metres.
Local disturbances, therefore, must traverse
conductors without undergoing any appreciable
change.
(7. ) The position of the point on the micrometer
circuit connected with the secondary circuit, is of
the greatest importance.
When the point on the micrometer circuit is
situated symmetrically with respect to the two mi-
crometer knobs, variations of potential will reach
the terminals in the same phase, and there will be
but little effect, as seen by the sparks between the
micrometer knobs. Such a point on the microm j
eter knobs is called the null point, or it is called as
in a corresponding case in acoustics, a nodal point.
(See Point, Null. Point ', Nodal.}
(8.) When the conductors are of sufficient
length, their approach produces disturbances in
a previously adjusted and quiet spark microm-
eter, just as the approach of a conductor would.
Probably one of the most curious effects con-
nected with the phenomena of electrical resonance
is that pointed out by Lodge, viz. : that when the
spark from a secondary circuit is so placed that
the light is visible from a micrometer circuit, the
effects of the discharge are greatly increased.
Lodge also found that the light from burning
magnesium wire, or, in general, light rich in the
ultra-violet rays, produces the same effect.
Resonator, Electric An apparatus
employed by Hertz in his investigations on
electric resonance. (See Resonance,* Elec-
tric)
An «l«ctric resonator consists essentially of an
[Ret.
open-tircuited conductor, or circuit of such dimen-
sions that electro-magnetic waves or pulses are
propagated through it at the same rate as those
which are occurring in a neighboring circuit
from which electro-magnetic radiation is tak-
ing place. Under these circumstances electro-
magnetic pulses are set up sympathetically by
resonance in the open circuit of the resonator, like
the sympathetic vibrations in a tuning fork, when
placed near another vibrating tuning fork, which
is giving off sound waves of exactly the same
period of vibration as its own.
Resonator, Electro-Magnetic A
term applied to the Hertz spark micrometer,
in which electro-magnetic waves are produced
by electric resonance. (See Resonance, Elec-
tric?)
Resultant. — In mechanics, a single force
that represents in direction and intensity the
effects of two or more separate forces.
The separate forces are called the components.
(See Components.}
Retardation.— A decrease in the speed of
telegraphic signaling caused either by the
induction of the line conductor on itself, or
by mutual induction between it and neighbor-
ing conductors, or by condenser action, or by
all.
The line must receive a certain charge before
a current sent into it at one end can produce a
signal at the other end. This charge will de-
pend on the length and surface of the wire, on the
neighborhood of the wire to the earth or other
wires, and on the nature of the insulating mate-
rial between the wire and neighboring conductors.
This results in a charge given to the wire which
is lost as a current for signaling. The greater the
electrostatic capacity of the line wire, the greater
will be the retardation in signaling. (See Capa*
city, Specific Inductive. Dielectric. Capacity.,
Electrostatic. Induction, Electro-Dynamic.}
Retardation in signaling is produced by the
following causes :
(I.) Self-induction which produces extra cur-
rents. (See Induction, Self. Currents, Extra.}
The extra current on making, retards the be-
ginning of the signal ; the extra current on break-
ing, retards its stopping.
(2.) Mutual Induction between the line con-
ductor and neighboring conductors.
Itet]
460
[Rhe.
(3.) The Magnetic Inertia or Lag, or the time
required to magnetize or demagnetize the core of
the electro-magnetic receptive devices used on
the line.
(4. ) By Condenser Action, the cable acting as a
condenser.
Retardation, Electric A retarda-
tion in the starting or stopping of an electric
current, arising from self-induction. (See In-
duction, Self. Retardation?)
Retardation, Inductive A retarda-
tion in the appearance of a signal at the dis-
tant end of a cable, produced by the action of
induction. (See Retardation?)
Retardation, Magnetic — A retarda-
tion in the magnetization or demagnetization
of a substance due to magnetic lag. (See
Retardation. Lag, Magnetic?)
Retarding, Electrically Decreas-
ing the speed of telegraphic signaling, by
means of induction. (See Retardation?)
Retentivity, Magnetic A term pro-
posed by Lamont in place of coercive force,
or the power possessed by a magnetizable
substance of resisting magnetization or de-
magnetization. (See Force, Coercive?)
Return Circuit— (See Circuit, Return?)
Return, Earth (See Earth Re-
turn?)
Return Ground.— (See Ground-Return?)
Return Wire or Conductor.— (See Wire,
Return?)
Returns. — In a system of distribution, those
conductors through which the current flows
back from the electro-receptive devices to
the source. (See Leads?)
The word returns is sometimes used in a sys-
tem of distribution by parallel circuits, to distin
guish between the conductor by which the cur-
rent goes back or returns from the receptive de-
vices to the dynamo, and the conductor that leads
it to the receptive devices. The term leads is,
however, often applied to both conductors.
Reverse-Induced Current. — (See Current,
Reverse-Induced?)
Reversed Currents.— (See Currents, Re-
versed?)
Reverser, Current A switch, or
other apparatus, designed to reverse the di-
rection of a current.
Reversible Bridge.— (See Bridge, Rever-
sible?)
Reversible Heat— (See Heat, Reversible?)
Reversibility of Dynamo.— The ability
of a dynamo to operate as a motor when tra-
versed by an electric current. (See Motor,
Electric?)
Reversing Gear of Electric Motor. — (See
Motor, Electric, Reversing Gear of.)
Reversing Key.— (See Key, Reversing.)
Reversing Key of Quadruple* Tele-
graphic System.— (See Key, Reversing, of
Quadruplex Telegraphic System?)
Reversing Magnetic Field.— (See Field,
Magnetic, Reversing?)
Rheochord. — A word formerly employed
instead of rheostat. (See Rheostat?)
Rheometer.— A word formerly employed
for any device for measuring the strength of
a current
This word is now obsolete and is replaced by
the word galvanometer. (See Galvanometer.)
Rheomotor. — A word formerly employed
to designate any electric source.
This word is now obsolete, and replaced by
the various names of the different electric sources.
(See Source, Electric.)
Rheophore. — A word formerly employed to
indicate a portion of a circuit conveying a cur-
rent and capable of deflecting a magnetic
needle placed near it. (Obsolete.)
Rheoscope. — A word formerly employed in
place of the present word galvanoscope, for
an instrument intended to show the presence
of a current, or its direction, but not to
measure its strength. (Obsolete.)
Rheoscope, Physiological — — A sensi-
tive nerve-muscle preparation employed to
determine the presence of an electric current.
(See Frog, Galvanoscope?)
Rhe.]
461
[Kin.
A term sometimes applied m electro-thera-
peutics to the frog's legs preparation adapted
to show the presence of any electric current.
The physiological rheoscope is adapted to
show the presence of an electric current without
the use of a galvanometer. On the passage of
the electric current the frog's legs twitch con-
vulsively.
Rheostat. — An adjustable resistance.
A rheostat enables the current to be brought
to a standard, i. e., to a fixed value, by adjusting
the resistance; hence the name.
The term rheostat is applied generally to a
readily variable resistance, the varying values of
which are known.
Rheostat, Dynamo-Balancing An
adjustable resistance whose range is sufficient
to balance the current of one dynamo against
another with which it is required to run in
parallel.
Rheostat, Water A rheostat the
resistance of which is obtained by means of a
mass of water of fixed dimensions. (See
Rheostat^
Rheostat, Wheatstone's A form of
apparatus sometimes employed for an adjust-
able resistance.
This apparatus is very seldom employed in
accurate work.
The parallel cylinders A and B, Fig. 494, are
formed respectively of conducting and non-con-
ducting materials, the bare wire on which can be
wound from either
cylinder to the other.
When introduced into
a circuit, only the re-
sistance of that part
of the wire that is on
B, is introduced into
the circuit, since the
bare wire on A, is
short-circuited by the
metallic cylinder.
This rheostat is not
very suitable for accurate measurements, owing
to the difficulty of invariably obtaining reliable
contacts.
Rheostatic Machine.— (See Machine,
Rheostatic)
Fig. 494. Wheatstoiu? s
Rheostat.
Rheotome. — A word formerly employed
for any device by means of which a circuit
could be periodically interrupted.
This word is now obsolete, and is replaced by
interrupter. (See Interrupter.)
Rheotrope. — A word formerly employed
for any device by which the current could
be reversed.
This word is now obsolete and replaced by
commutator or current reverser. (See Reverser,
Current.)
Rhigolene. — A highly volatile hydro-car-
bon obtained during the distillation of coal
oil, and employed in the flashing treatment of
carbons for incandescent lamps. (See Car-
bons, Flashing Process for.)
Rhumbs of Compass. — (See Compass,
Rhumbs of.*)
Ribbed Armature Core.— (See Core,
Armature, Ribbed')
Ribbon Copper.— (See Copper, Ribbon)
Right-Handed Solenoid.— (See Solenoid,
Right-Handed.)
Right-Hand Trolley Frog.— (See Frog,
Trolley, Right-Hand.}
Rigidity, Molecular — Resistance
offered by the molecules of a substance to
rotation or displacement.
The molecular rigidity of a magnetizable sub-
stance was until recently considered to be the
cause of the differences of coercive force or mag-
netic retentivity possessed by different substances.
The general acceptance of Ewing's theory of
magnetism has, of course, caused the above view
to be considerably modified. (See Magnetism,
Swing's Theory of. Force, Coercive. Retentiv-
ity, Magnetic.)
Ring, Ampere The turn or turns
of wire used in electric balances for the meas-
urement of electric current.
Ring Armature. — (See Armature, Ring.)
Ring Armature Core.- (See Core, Arma-
ture, of Dynamo-Electric Machine?)
Rings, Electric A term sometimes
used instead of Nobili's rings. (See Metal-
lockromes.)
Kin.]
462
[Rod.
Rings, Electro-Chromic -- A term
sometimes applied to metallochromes. (See
Metallochromes?)
Rings, Nobili's -- A term sometimes
used for metallochromes. (See Metallo-
chromes?)
Roaring of Arc. — (See Arc, Roaring of.)
Rocker Arm.— (See Arm, Rocker^
Rocker, Brnsh -- In a dynamo-elec-
tric machine or electric motor, any device for
shifting the position of the brushes on the
cummutator cylinder.
Rocker, Multiple-Pair Brush— —A
term sometimes used for multiple-pair brush
yoke. (See Yoke, Multiple-Pair Brush.)
Rocker, Single-Brush -- A device
by means of which a single pair of brushes
are so supported on a dynamo-electric ma-
chine or electric motor, as to be capable
of being readily shifted into the desired
position on the commutator cylinder.
Rocker, Single-Pair Brush -- -A
term sometimes used for single-pair brush
yoke. (See Yoke, Single-Pair Brush.)
Rod Clamp.— (See Clamp, Rod^
Rod, Clutch -- A clutch or clamp pro-
vided in an arc lamp to seize the lamp rod and
thus arrest its fall, during feeding, beyond a
certain predetermined point.
The clutch or clamp is caused to release or hold
the lamp rod by the action of an electro-magnet
placed in a shunt circuit around the electrodes.
(See Lamp, Arc, Electric.')
Rod, Discharging -- A jointed rod
provided at both ends
with balls and con-
nected at the middle by
a swinging joint which
permits the balls to
move towards or from
one another, employed
for the disruptive dis-
charge of Leyden bat-
teries or condensers.
,~ T-* . 7 r^-
(See Discharge, Dts-
ruptive. Jar, Leyden?)
The insulated handles H, H, Fig. 495, permit
495- Discharging
yj Rodi
the balls at M, M, to be readily applied to the
opposite coatings of the jar or condenser.
The name discharging tongs is sometimes ap-
plied to this apparatus.
Rod, Lamp A metallic rod pro-
vided in electric arc lamps for holding the
carbon electrodes.
When the upper carbon only is fed, as is the
case in most arc lamps, there is usually but one
lamp rod provided. The clutch or clamp of the
feeding device acts against this rod, which must
of necessity be at least as long as the upper carbon.
(See Lamp, Arc, Electric.)
Rod, Lightning — A rod, or wire
cable of good conducting material, placed on
the outside of a house or other structure, in
order to protect it from the effects of a light-
ning discharge.
Lightning rods were invented by Franklin.
The results of a very extended inquiry on the
subject, leave no room for doubt that a lightning
rod, properly placed and constructed, affords an
efficient protection to the buildings on which
it is placed.
To insure this protection, however, the fol-
lowing conditions were, until very recently, gen-
erally insisted on in order to permit the rod to
properly act, viz. :
(I.) The rod, generally of iron or copper,
should have such an area of cross- section as to
enable it to carry without fusion the heaviest bolt
it is liable to receive in the latitude in which it is
located.
When of iron, the area of cross-section should
be about seven times greater than when of
copper.
(2.) The rod should be continuous throughout,
all joints being carefully avoided.
When joints are used, they should be made of as
low resistance as possible, and should be pro-
tected against corrosion.
(3.) The upper extremity of the rod should
terminate in one or more points formed of some
metal that is not readily corroded, such as pla-
tinum or nickel.
(4.) The lower end of the rod should be car-
ried down into the earth until it meets perma-
nently damp or moist ground, where it should
be attached to a fairly extended metallic surface
buried in the ground.
Metallic plates will answer for grounding the
Rod.]
463
[Rod.
rod, but, if gas or water pipes are available, the
rod should be placed in good electrical connec-
tion therewith, by wrapping it around and
soldering it to such pipes.
This fourth requirement is of great importance
to the proper action of a lightning rod, and un-
less thoroughly fulfilled, may render the rod
worthless, no matter how carefully the other re-
quirements are attended to. When a bolt strikes
a lightning rod which is not properly grounded,
the discharge is almost certain to destroy the
building to which the rod is connected.
(5.) The rod should not be insulated from the
building, unless to prevent stains from the oxi-
dation of the metal. On the contrary, the rod
should be directly connected with all masses of
metal in its path, such as tin roofs, gutter spouts,
metallic cornices, etc. In this way only can dan-
gerous disruptive lateral discharges from the rod
to such masses of metal be avoided.
(6.) The rod should project above the roof or
highest part of the building, or, in other words,
the height of the rod should bear a certain pro-
portion to the size of the building to be pro-
tected.
A rod will protect a conical space around it,
the radius of whose base is equal to the vertical
height of the rod above the ground, but whose
sides are curved inwards instead of being straight.
Where the building is very high, a number of
separate rods all connected to one another should
be employed.
A lightning rod sometimes fails to protect a
house or barn, from the fact that a heated, ascend-
ing current of air from a fire in the house, or
from the gradual heating of green hay or grain in
the barn, acting as a conductor, increases the vir-
tual height of the house beyond the ability of its
rods to protect it.
(7.) A stranded conductor is much better than
an equal cross-section of a solid rod of the same
metal.
A copper tape is better than a copper rod for
lightning rods, because a rapidly periodic current,
whose periodicity is sufficiently great, passes
practically over the surface of the conductor only.
Considering an electric current as taking its
energy from the surrounding dielectric, a tape is
better, because the surface which absorbs the
energy is greater in the case of a tape than of a
solid rod. (See Law, Pointing's.)
A lightning rod more frequently acts to quietly
discharge an impending cloud by connective dis-
charge than by an actual disruptive discharge of
the same. (See Discharge, Convective. Dis-
charge, Disruptive.')
Lightning rods should be frequently tested to
see that no breaks or oxidation of their joints-
have occurred.
Professor Lodge takes exception to some of the
heretofore generally received notions concerning
the action of lightning rods. He distinguishes
between two distinct kinds of discharge that may
occur between a charged cloud and the earth,
viz.:
(l.) A steady strain or current.
(2.) An impulsive rush or oscillatory discharge,
A discharge by a steady strain or current oc-
curs when the cloud gradually approaches a point
on the earth ; or, in the case of the cloud being
stationary, when it receives its charge gradually
by the approach of another cloud.
In steady discharge, the lightning rod, with its
pointed end, either quietly discharges the cloud
by a convective discharge, or by a harmless con-
ductive discharge through the rod, after a spark
has passed disruptively between the cloud and
the rod. (See Discharge, Convective. Dis-
charge, Conductive. Discharge, Disruptive. ,)
The impulsive discharge or rush occurs when-
ever the cloud that discharges to the earth re-
ceives its charge suddenly, as by the discharge
into it of a neighboring cloud, or when a bound
charge, produced by the presence of a neighbor-
ing charged cloud, is suddenly liberated by dis-
harge, and, thus becoming free, impulsively dis-
charges to the earth.
In all cases of an impulsive discharge or rush, a
counter electromotive force is set up in the rod,
which resists the discharge through the rod and
causes the electricity to rush back and spit off in
lateral discharges. In this case the conducting
power of the rod has no effect in facilitating the
discharge. Indeed, the smaller its resistance, and
the longer the oscillations last, the greater the
danger from lateral discharges. (See Discharge,
Lateral. Path, Alternative.)
The following principles advanced by Lodge
differ from the views heretofore generally re-
ceived, viz.:
(i.) Iron is a better substance for a lightning
rod than copper, because it is equally as good a
conductor as copper for very rapidly alternating
currents, and is more difficult to fuse.
(2.) All neighboring metallic conductors should
be connected to earth. These connections should
Rod.]
464
[Rot.
preferably be by separate conductors rather than
by the rod itself.
(3.) The lightning conductors should have a
good separate earth, but should be connected to
water pipes, gas pipes, etc., if near them, by an
underground connection.
(4.) The lightning conductor should be de-
tached from the building and not close against it.
(5.) The rod should be of flat section, or a
stranded conductor.
Bod, Lightning, for Ships A
system of rods designed to afford electric
protection for vessels at sea.
Since the lightning discharge takes place be-
tween the points of greatest difference of poten-
tial, and these points are generally the cloud
and the nearest point of the earth, tall objects are
especially liable to be struck.
Ships at sea should, therefore, be thoroughly
protected from lightning.
In Harris' system of lightning protection for
ships, the rods are connected with a series of
copper plates and rods so placed on the masts as
to readily yield to strains. These plates or rods
are electrically connected with the copper sheath-
ing of the vessel and with all large masses of
metal in the vessel. This latter precaution is
especially necessary in the case of men-of-war,
in order to protect the powder magazine.
Harris' method for the lightning protection of
ships was adopted only after very considerable
opposition. It proved, however, so efficacious in
practice that serious effects of lightning on vessels
so protected are now almost unknown. In 1845,
Harris received the honor of knighthood from
the English Government for his services in this
respect
Rod, Lightning, Points on Points
of inoxidizable material, placed on lightning
rods, to effect the quiet discharge of a cloud by
convection streams. (See Rod, Lightning.
Convection, Electric?)
Bod, Thunder A term formerly
used for lightning rod. (See Rod, Light-
ning)
Bods, Bus Heavy copper rods em-
ployed in a central or distributing station, to
which all the terminals of the generating dy-
namos are connected, and from which the cur-
rent passes to the different points of the dis-
tribution system over the feeders.
Bus rods are often called bus bars or bus wires.
(See Wires, Bus.)
Bodding a Conduit— (See Conduit, Rod-
ding- a.}
Boiling Contact— (See Contact, Rolling.}
Rose, Ceiling An ornamental ceil-
ing plate through which an electric conductor
passes.
Bosette. — An ornamental plate provided
with contacts connected to the terminals of
the service wires, and placed in a wall for the
ready attachment of the incandescent lamp.
A word sometimes used in place of rose.
Bosette Cut-Out— (See Cut-Out, Rosette)
Botary Magnetic Polarization.— (See
Polarization, Magnetic Rotary.)
Botary-Phase Current — (See Current,
Rotating.)
Botary-Phase Dynamo. — (See Dynamo,
Rotary-Phase)
Botary-Phase Motor.— (See Motor, Ro-
tating Current.)
Botary-Phase Transformer.— (See Trans-
former, Rotary-Phase.)
Botating Brushes of Dynamo-Electric
Machine.— (See Brushes, Rotating, of
Dynamo-Electric Machines.)
Botating Current— (See Current, Rota-
ting)
Botating Current Field.— (See Field,
Rotating Current)
Botating Current Motor.— (See Motor,
Rotating Current)
Botating Current Transformer.— (See
Transformer, Rotatory Current)
Botation, Electro-Magnetic —A
rotation obtained by electro-magnetic attrac-
tions and repulsions. (See Disc, Arago's.
Disc, Faraday's. Motor, Electric.)
Botation, Magneto-Optic — —A rota-
tion of the plane of polarization of a beam
of polarized light on its passage through a
transparent medium when placed in a strong
magnetic field.
The medium only possesses such properties
while in the field.
Rub.]
465
[Sai.
In a ray of ordinary light the vibrations of the
ether particles are at right angles to the direction
of the ray, or to the direction in which the light
is moving. But the vibrations occur indiscrimi-
nately in all planes passing through the line of
direction. Under certain circumstances, all the
ether particles may be caused to move in planes
that are parallel to one another. Such a beam of
light is called a plane polarized beam,
A plane polarized beam of light, when passed
through many transparent substances, will have
its ether particles vibrating in the same plane
when it emerges from the medium, as it had before
it entered. Some transparent substances, how-
ever, possess the property of rotating or turning
the plane of polarization of the light to the right
M N
Fig. 496. Magneto- Optic Rotation.
or to the left. This property is called respec-
tively right-handed rotary polarization, and left-
handed rotary polarization.
Many substances that ordinarily possess no
power of rotary polarization acquire this power
when placed in a magnetic field. This property
of a magnetic field was discovered by Faraday.
The effect is to be ascribed to the strain produced
in the transparent medium by the stress of the
magnetic field. It may be caused in solid bodies
by mechanical force.
The apparatus for demonstrating the rotation
of the plane of polarization by a magnetic field is
shown in Fig. 496.
A powerful electro-magnet, M, M, is provided
with a hollow core. The substance c, is placed
in the field produced by the approached poles,
and its action on the light of a lamp, placed at
the end 1, is observed by suitable apparatus at a.
'Rubber of Electrical Machine.— A
cushion of leather, covered with an electric
amalgam, and employed to produce electricity
by its friction against the plate or cylinder of
a frictional electric machine. (See Machine,
Fractional Electric.)
Rubbing Contact— (See Contact, Rub-
bing.)
Ruhnikorff Coil.— (See Coil, Ruhmkorff)
RuhmkorflTs Commutator.— (See Com-
mutator, Ruhmkorjf ~'s)
Rule, Ampere's, for Effect of Current on
Needle A magnetic needle, when
placed near a conductor through which a
current is flowing, has its north pole deflected
to the left of the observer, who is supposed
to be swimming with the current and facing
the needle.
s
S.— A contraction employed for second.
S. H. M. — A contraction employed for
simple harmonic motion.
S. N. Code. — A contraction for single needle
code.
S. W. G.— A contraction for Standard Wire
Gauge.
Saddles, Telegraphic B rackets
placed on the top of telegraphic poles for
the support of the insulators.
Saddle brackets are usually employed for the
wire attached to the top of a telegraph pole. (See
Pole, Telegraphic.)
Safe Carrying Capacity of a Conductor.
- (See Capacity, Safe Carrying^ of a Con-
ductor?)
Safety Catch.— (See Catch, Safety)
Safety Device for Multiple Circuits.— (See
Device, Safety, for Multiple Circuits)
Safety Fuse.— (See Fuse, Safety.)
Safety Lamp, Electric — —(See Lamp,
Electric Safety)
Safety Plug.— (See Plug, Safety.)
Safety Strip.— (See Strip, Safety.)
Saint Elmo's Fire.— (See Fire, St. El-
mo's)
Sal.]
466
[Sch.
Salient Magnetic Pole.— (See Pole, Mag-
netic, Salient?)
Saline Creeping.— (See Creeping, Saline.}
Salts, Electrolysis of The decom-
position of a salt into its electro-positive and
negative radicals or ions. (See Electrolysis.}
Sandy Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical
(See Deposit, Electro-Metallurgical,
Sandy.}
Saturated Solution.— (See Solution, Sat-
urated.}
Saturation, Magnetic The max-
imum magnetization which can be imparted
to a magnetic substance.
The condition of iron, or other paramag-
netic substance, when its intensity of mag-
netization is so great that it fails to be further
sensibly magnetized by any magnetic force,
however great.
When the core of an electro-magnet is saturated
by the passage of an electric current, the only
further increase of its magnetization that is possi-
ble, is that due to the magnetic field of the in-
creased current which may be sent through its
coils. This is comparatively insignificant.
A permanent magnet is sometimes said to be
super-saturated, that is, to have received more
magnetism than it can retain for any considerable
time after its magnetization.
In the saturated field magnets of a dynamo-elec-
tric machine the magnetic density is seldom taken
at a larger value than 16,000 lines per square cen-
timetre of area of cross-section. But this is only
practical saturation, since Ewing has forced
45,300 lines per square centimetre by using an
enormously high magnetizing force (H = 24,500).
Saturation, Magnetic, Diacritical Point
of A term proposed by S. P. Thomp-
son for such a value of the co-efficient of
magnetic saturation, that the core is mag-
netized to exactly one-half its possible max-
imum 'of magnetization.
Saw, Electric A platinized steel
wire, employed while incandescent for cut-
ting hard substance.
Scale, Tangent A scale designed
for use with a galvanometer, on which the
values of the tangents are marked, instead of
equal degrees as ordinarily, thus avoiding the
necessity of finding from tables the tangents
corresponding to the degrees.
Such a scale may be constructed as follows:
Draw the tangent B T, to the circle, Fig. 497,
and lay off on it any number of equal divisions
or parts, as, for example, the thirty shown in the
annexed figure. Connect these parts with the
centre C, of the circle. The arc of the circle will
Fig- 497- Tangent Scale.
thus be divided into parts proportional to the
value of the tangents of the angles.
These parts are more nearly equal the nearer
they are to B, and grow smaller and smaller the
further they are from B. In tangent galva-
nometers it is therefore very difficult to accurately
determine the current strength when the deflec-
tions of the needle are very large.
Scale, Thermometer, Centigrade A
thermometer scale, in which the length of the
thermometric tube between the melting point
of ice and the boiling point of water is divided
into one hundred equal parts or degrees.
Centigrade degrees are indicated by a C., thus
O degree C, or 100 degrees C., to distinguish them
from Fahrenheit degrees that are marked F.
In the Fahrenheit scale the freezing point of
water is taken at 32 degrees, and the boiling point
at 2 12 degrees.
Scale, Thermometer, Fahrenheit's
— A thermometer scale in which the length
of the thermometer tube between the melting
point of ice and the boiling point of water is
divided into 180 equal parts called degrees.
Fahrenheit degrees are indicated by an F.,
thus, 32 degrees F.
The freezing point of water in Fahrenheit's
scale is marked 32 degrees F., and the boiling
point of water is marked 212 degrees F.
Schiseophone.— An electro-mechanical ap-
pliance for detecting flaws and internal de-
fects in rails or other metallic masses.
The schiseophone consists essentially in the
combination of a microphone and telephone with
a mechanical hammer and induction balance.
Sch.]
467
[Scr.
Schweigger's Multiplier.— (See Multi-
plier, Schweigger's^)
Scintillating Jar.— (See Jar, Scintillat-
ing^
Scratch Brush.— (See Brush, Scratch^
Scratch Brush, Circular (See
Brush, Scratch, Circular?)
Scratch Brush, Hand (See Brush,
Scratch, Hand.)
Scratch Brushing. — (See Brushing,
Scratch.)
Screen, Electric A closed conduc-
tor placed over a body to screen or protect it
from the effects of external electrostatic fields.
An electric screen is sometimes called an elec-
tric shield.
The ability of a closed, hollow conductor to act
as a screen, arises from the fact that all points on
its inner surface are at the same potential, and
therefore are not affected by an increase or de-
crease in the potential of the outside of the con-
ductor as compared with that of the earth. (See
Net, Faraday's.}
No considerable thickness is required for the
efficient operation of an electric screen.
Screen, Magnetic A hollow box
whose sides are made of thick iron, placed
around a magnet or other body so as to cut
it off or screen it from any magnetic field ex-
ternal to the box.
Magnetic screens are placed around delicate
galvanometers to avoid any variations in their
field due to extraneous masses of iron or neigh-
boring magnets. They are also sometimes placed
around watches to shield or screen the works
from the effects of magnetism.
To act effectively, when the external fields are
at all powerful, magnetic screens must be made
of thick iron. They differ in this respect from
electrostatic shields, which will afford protection
against electrostatic charges although they may
be but mere films.
Screen, Methven's A vertical rec-
tangular metallic screen used in connection
with a standard argand burner, for furnish-
ing a standard amount of light for photo-
metric purposes.
In a rectangular screen a small vertical slot is
made of such dimensions as to permit an amount
of light to pass just equal to two standard candles.
The proper burning of the argand lamp is de-
termined by supplying sufficient gas to produce
a flame exactly 3 inches high. The glass
chimney used in the burner is 6 inches high,
and is provided with two horizontal wires placed
on each side of the burner at the required height.
Methven's screen possesses the advantage of
being easily used and of furnishing a reliable
standard of light. Extended experiments made
with it appear to show that the amount of light
produced depends rather on the height of the
gas flame than on the quality of the gas itself.
In using Methven's screen care should be taken
(i.) To see that the gas flame is of exactly the
required height.
(2.) That the chimney on the lamp is quite
clean.
(3.) That the top of the flame is as regular as
possible.
As this last point is almost impossible to obtain in
actual practice, the flame is
adjusted so that the highest
point extends about one-
eighth of an inch above the
height of the horizontal
wires.
(4.) That the lamp and
apparatus be permitted to
acquire its normal temper-
ature before the readings
are taken.
Fig. 498 shows the con-
struction of the ordinary
Methven standard screen.
The vertical slot in the
screen is placed as shown
before the standard argand Fis- 4<)8-
burner. Horizontal wires
for the adjustment of the height of the flame are
placed one on each side of the gas chimney.
Screening, Electrostatic Screening
or shielding from the inductive effects of a
charge.
A continuous metallic surface surrounding an
air space to be shielded, completely protects any
body placed within such air space from electro-
static influence. (See Cube, Faraday's.)
Screening, Magnetic — Preventing
magnetic induction from taking place by in-
terposing a metallic plate, or a closed circuit
of insulated wire, between the body producing
Methven's
Standard Scran.
Scr.]
468
[Scr.
the magnetic field and the body to be mag-
netically screened.
A magnetic needle is screened from the action
of the earth's field by placing it inside a hollow
iron box, which prevents the lines of force of the
earth's field from passing through it by concen-
trating them on itself. This action is dependent
on the fact that iron is paramagnetic and there-
fore offers the lines of force less resistance
through its mass than elsewhere. A plate of
copper would not effect any such magnetic
shielding or screening.
In any magnetic field, however, in which the
strength of the field is undergoing rapid, periodic
variations, a plate of copper or other electric
conductor may act as a screen to protect neigh-
boring conductors from the effects of magnetic
induction, and its ability to thoroughly effect
such a screening will depend directly on its
conducting power.
If, for example, the copper plate c (Fig. 499),
be interposed between a coil of copper ribbon a,
and the fine wire coil b, it will greatly reduce the
intensity of the induced currents, produced when
rapidly alternating currents are sent through a.
If, however, the copper plate be slit, as shown to
the right at a, the screening effect is lost, but is
regained if the slit be connected by a conductor.
Similarly a flat coil of insulated wire effects no
screening action when open, but when closed acts
as the uncut copper plate.
Here the screening action is due to thp fact
that the energy of the field is spent in producing
eddy currents in the interposed metal screen or
coils. If the metal screen is discontinuous in the
direction in which the eddy currents tend to flow,
the inability of the screen to absorb the energy as
eddy currents prevents its action as a screen.
induction from occurring in a neighboring con-
ductor, by interposing some conducting substance
in which eddy currents can be freely established.
As to the efficiency of the screening action, if the
makes-and-breaks do not follow one another very
rapidly, the following principles can be proved :
(I.) If the screening material have absolutely
no electrical resistance it will effect a perfect mag-
netic screening when placed between the primary
and secondary, no matter what its thickness
may be.
(2.) If the screen have a finite conductivity,
the screening will be imperfect, unless the thick-
ness of the material employed is considerable.
If, however, the makes-and-breaks follow one
another very rapidly, then
The screening effect of even imperfect conduc-
tors will become manifest with comparatively
thin screens of metal.
As to magnetic screening, therefore, it follows
that the less the conductivity, the greater must
be the speed of reversal, in order that the screen-
ing action may be effective.
Where a screen of iron is employed, an ad-
ditional effect is produced by the fact that the
small magnetic resistance of the metal, or its con-
ductivity for lines of magnetic force, causes the
lines of induction to pass through its mass, and
thus effect a screening action for the space on the
other side. This action is, by some, called mag-
netic screening.
In the case of iron screens, considerable thick-
ness is required in the metal plate, in order to
obtain efficient screening action of this latter
character. On account of this action of iron, in
conducting away lines of force, a much smaller
speed of reversal is required, in order to obtain
effective screening action, where plates of iron
are used, than in the case of plates of other
metal.
The apparatus shown in Fig. 500 was employed
Fig> 499-
The word magnetic screening is generally em-
ployed in the latter sense of preventing magnetic
Fig. 500. Willoitghby Smith's Apparatus.
by Mr. Willoughby Smith, in studying the effects
of magnetic screening.
The flat coils A, and B, were employed for the
primary and secondary coils respectively, and
were connected to the battery C, and the galva-
Sep.]
469
[Sec.
nometer F, as shown. Current reversers, D and
E, were so arranged as to reverse galvanometer
and battery alternately, and so cause the oppo-
site induced currents to affect the galvanometer in
the same direction. If the commutators were
caused to reverse the current slowly, a plate of
copper interposed between A and B, produced
but little effect on the galvanometer, but if the re-
versers were driven at a very rapid rate, a marked
decrease of deflection occurred.
The screening action of the metals, or their
ability to diminish the galvanometer deflection,
is in the order of their electrical conductivity, ex-
cept in the case of iron, which, as we have seen
already, has an additional screening power, due
to its conducting away the lines of magnetic force.
It follows from the preceding principles that
the use of lead covered cables, for the conveyance
of periodic currents, of the frequency of, say, sixty
to one hundred alternations per second, is of but
little or no advantage for protecting neighboring
telephones from inductive action, because
(i.) Lead is a poor conductor.
(2.) The rapidity of alternation is too slow.
J. J. Thomson made some experiments with
electrical oscillations produced by resonance, of
about ios in frequency. He obtained this fre-
quency of oscillation from oscillations set up in
the primary of an induction coil, in a secondary
circuit of suitable dimensions. The presence of
these secondary vibrations or waves was shown
by means of the sparks seen at the terminals of a
spark-micrometer circuit. Under these circum-
stances he found that the interposition of a thin
sheet of tin foil or gold leaf at once completely
stopped the secondary sparks by the shielding
action it exerted.
Screening, Magnetostatic Screen-
ing from the inductive effect of a stationary
magnetic field.
Magnetostatic screening differs from electrostatic
screening in that the plate of iron or other para-
magnetic material surrounding the space to be
screened must have a fairly considerable thick-
ness. This arises from the fact that the magnetic
susceptibility of the substance is not infinitely
great.
Screw, Binding A name some-
times applied to a binding post. (See Post,
Binding.}
Seal, Hermetical Such a sealing of
a vessel, designed to hold a vacuum, or gas-
eous atmosphere under pressures greater or
less than that of the atmosphere, as will pre-
vent either the entrance of the external at-
mosphere into the vessel, or the escape of the
contained gas into the atmosphere.
Hermetical sealing may be accomplished either
by the use of suitable cements, or by the direct
fusion of the walls of the containing vessel. The
latter method is generally employed.
Search Light, Automatic (See
Light, Search, Automatic)
Search Light, Electric (See Light,
Search, Electric)
Secohm. — The practical unit of self-induc-
tion, or the practical unit of inductance,
The secohm is equivalent to a length equal to
that of an earth quadrant, or lo1 centimetres.
The word secohm is a contraction for second,
ohm, and implies the fact that the product of the
ohm and the second are taken.
The word henry is now generally used in the
United States for secohm. (See Henry.)
Secohmmeter. — An apparatus for measur-
ing the co-efficient of self-induction, mutual
induction and capacity of conductors. (See
Secohm, Induction, Mutual. Induction,
Self.)
The principle of the secohmmeter depends
upon successively performing the cycle of magnetic
operations, by making and breaking the circuit
of a galvanometer by means of a commutator
capable of working at a definite speed.
Second, Ampdre One ampere flow-
ing for one second. (See Hour, Ampere.)
Second, Watt A unit of electrical
work.
A watt -second equals the work due to the ex-
penditu re of an electrical power of one watt for
one second. It is the same as a volt-coulomb.
The watt-second and the H. P. hour, etc.,
Work^
Time
therefore, power X time = work.
Secondary Battery.— (See Battery, Sec-
ondary.)
Secondary Battery, Cell of —(See
Cell, Secondary.}
are units of work, since Power
Sec.]
470
[Sec.
Secondary Cell.— (See Cell, Secondary)
Secondary Cell, Jar of (See Jar of
Secondary Cell.)
Secondary Clock.— (See Clock. Second-
ary.)
Secondary Coil.— (See Coil, Secondary)
Secondary Currents. — (See Currents,
Secondary)
Secondary, Fixed The secondary
of an induction coil, that, as is common in
such coils, is fixed, as contradistinguished
from a movable secondary. (See Secondary,
Movable)
Secondary Generator.— (See Generator,
Secondary)
Secondary Impressed Electromotive
Force. — (See Force, Electromotive, Second-
ary Impressed)
Secondary, Movable The second-
ary conductor of an induction coil, which, in-
stead of being fixed as in most coils, is mova-
ble.
The peculiar movements observed in the
secondary of an induction coil when the second-
ary is free to move, have been carefully studied
by Prof. Elihu Thomson. The secondaries
employed for this purpose are in the shape of
rings, discs, spheres, wedges, bars, wheels, etc.,
etc.
The primary is in the form of a straight cylin-
drical coil surrounding a straight core. The coils
are traversed by rapidly alternating currents and
possess considerable impedance.
Among the many phenomena concerning the
behavior of movable secondaries in such a rapidly
alternating field are the following, viz. :
(i.) A metallic ring, resting on lugs attached
to the coils of the primary, is thrown violently off
the magnet on the passage of alternating currents
through the primary.
(2.) Two metallic rings of the same diameter
brought into the field are mutually attracted to
each other, with sufficient force to sustain the
weight of one of the rings when the other ring is
held in the field.
(3.) Metallic spheres are set into rotation when
so held near the primary pole as to be shielded
from the action of part of the rapidly alternating
field. When held on one side of the pole, this
rotation occurs in the opposite direction to that
when held on the opposite side.
(4.) Metallic discs similarly placed are simi-
larly set into rotation.
(5.) The speed of rotation of spheres or discs
varies in different positions.
(6.) Spheres or discs of diamagnetic substances
attain their maximum rotation when held in posi-
tion at right angles to those of paramagnetic sub-
stances.
(7.) Bars of steel or substances possessing high
coercive power, placed dissymmetrically on the
primary as regards their centres of gravity, ex-
hibit the phenomena of a shifting magnetic field.
(See Field, Magnetic, Shifting)
(8.) A wedge-shaped piece of steel placed with
a flat face on the primary, exhibits a shifting
magnetic field, and acts on movable metallic
masses near it, just as though a fluid substance
was escaping with great velocity from its edges.
Secondary Movers.— (See Movers, Second-
ary.)
Secondary Plate of Condenser.— (See
Plate, Secondary, of Condenser)
Secondary Spiral.— (See Spiral, Second-
ary)
Secretion Current. — (See Current, Secre-
tion)
Section Line of Electric Railway.— (See
Railroads, Electric, Section Line of)
Section, Neutral, of Magnet A
section passing through the neutral line or
equator of a magnet. (See Line, Neutral,
of a Magnet. Magnet, Equator of)
Section, Trolley A single contin-
uous length of trolley wire, with or without
its branches.
Sectional or Divided Overhead System
of Motive Power for Electric Railroads. —
(See Railroads, Electric, Sectional Over-
head System of Motive Power for) .
Sectional or Divided Snrface System of
Motive Power for Electric Railroads. —
(See Railroads, Electric, Sectional Surf ace
System of Motive Power for)
Sec.]
471
[Sep.
Sectional or Divided Underground
System of Motive Power for Electric Rail-
roads.— (See Railroads, Electric, Sectional
Underground System of Motive Power for,}
Sectional Plating.— (See Plating, Sec-
tional.}
Sectional Plating Frame.— (See Frames,
Sectional Plating?)
Seebeck Effect.— (See Effect, Seebeck)
Seismograph, Electric An appa-
ratus for electrically recording the direction
and intensity of earthquake shocks.
Seismograph, Micro An electric
apparatus for photographically registering
the vibrations of the earth produced by earth-
quakes or other causes.
The micro-seismograph consists essentially of a
microphone placed on the ground and connected
with a telephone. A small concave mirror mova-
ble about a horizontal axis is supported on a
plate of aluminium supported on a platinum wire
connected with the diaphragm of the telephone.
The movements of the diaphragm of the telephone
are permanently recorded on a strip of sensitized
paper that is moved before the mirror.
Selective Absorption.— (See Absorption,
Selective}
Selenium. — A comparatively rare element
generally found associated with sulphur.
Selenium Battery.— (See Battery, Selen-
ium^)
Selenium Cell.— (See Cell, Selenium}
Selenium Eye. — (See Eye, Selenium}
Selenium Photometer.— (See Photometer,
Selenium}
Self-Induced Current.— (See Currents,
Self-Induced)
Self-Induction.— (See Induction, Self}
Self-Induction, Co-efficient of (See
Induction, Self Co-efficient ef.}
Self-Recording Magnetometer. — (S e e
Magnetometer, Self-Recording)
Self-Registering Wire Gauge. — (See
Gauge, Wire, Self -Registering)
Self-Winding Clock.— (See Clock, Self-
Winding)
Semaphore. — A variety of signal apparatus
employed in railroad block systems.
The semaphore used on the Pennsylvania Rail-
road consists of a wooden post, in the neighbor-
hood of twenty feet in height, on which a wooden
arm or blade, six feet in length and a foot in
width, is displayed.
When the block is clear, during the day the
arm is placed pointing downwards at an angle of
75 degrees with the horizontal ; during night
semaphore displays a white light. When the
block is not clear, the arm or blade is placed in a
horizontal position by day, or displays a red light
at night. (See Railroads, Block System for.}
Semaphore Arm.— (See Arm, Semaphore)
Semaphore Indicator.— (See Indicator,
Semaphore)
Sender, Zinc A device employed
in telegraphic circuits, by means of which, in
order to counteract the retardation produced
by the charge given to the line, a momen-
tary reverse current is sent into the line after
each signal.
A zinc sender generally consists of a low resist-
ance Siemens relay introduced between the line
and the front contact of the signaling key.
Sensibility, Electro An effect pro-
duced on a sensory nerve by its electrization.
Sensibility of Galvanometer. — (See Gal-
vanometer, Sensibility of)
Sensitive Thread Discharge.— (See Dis-
charge, Sensitive Thread)
Separate Coil Dynamo-Electro Machine.
— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Separate
Coil)
Separate Touch, Magnetization by
—(See Touch, Separate)
Separately Excited Dynamo.— (See Dy-
namo, Separately Excited)
Separately Excited Dynamo-Electric
Machine. — (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Separately Excited)
Separator. — An insulating sheet of ebonite,
or other similar substance, corrugated and
perforated so as to conform to the outline of
the plates of a storage battery, and placed
between them at suitable intervals, in such a
Sep.]
472
[Ser.
manner as to avoid short-circuiting, without
impeding the free circulation of the liquid.
Series and Magneto Dynamo-Electric
Machine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Series and Magneto!)
Series and Separately Excited Dynamo-
Electric Machine. — (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Series and Separately Excited?)
Series and Shunt-Wound Dynamo-Elec-
tric Machine. — (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Series and Shunt- Wound)
Series Circuit— (See Circuit, Series)
Series-Connected Battery.— (See Battery,
Series-Connected.)
Series-Connected Electro-Receptive De-
vices.—(See Devices, Electro-Receptive, Se-
ries-Connected. )
Series-Connected Electro-Receptive De-
vices, Automatic Cut-out for — (See
Cut-out, Automatic, for Series-Connected
Electro-Receptive Devices)
Series-Connected Sources. — (See Sources,
Series-Connected)
Series-Connected Translating Devices.
— (See Devices, Translating, Series-Con-
nected.)
Series-Connected Voltaic Cells.— (See
Cells, Voltaic, Series-Connected)
Series Connection.— (See Connection,
Series)
Series, Contact A series of metals
arranged in such an order that each becomes
positively electrified by contact with the one
that follows it.
The contact values of some metals, according
to Ayrton and Perry, are as follows:
CONTACT SERIES.
Difference of Potential in Volts.
Zinc )
Lead.
Lead
Tin
Tin
Iron
Iron
Copper
Copper
Platinum
Platinum
Carbon . . .
.210
.069
•3»3
.146
.238
•"3
The difference in potential between zinc and
carbon is equal to 1.089, and is obtained by add-
ing the successive differences of potential between
the intermediate couples, thus:
.210+. 069+.3I3 + . 14 6+ .238-1-113=1.089.
This fact is known technically as Volt a' s Law,
which may be formulated as follows:
The difference of potential, produced by the con-
tact of any two metals, is equal to the sum of the
differences of potentials between the intervening
metals in the contact series.
Series Distribution of Electricity by
Constant Currents. — (See Electricity, Se-
ries Distribution of, by Constant Current
Circuit)
Series-Multiple. — A series of multiple
connections. (See Circuit, Series-Multiple)
Series-Multiple Circuit— (See Circuit,
Series-Multiple)
Series - Multiple-Connected Electro-Re-
ceptive Devices. — (See Devices, Electro-Re-
ceptive, Series-Multiple- Connected)
Series-Multiple-Connected Sources. —
(See Sources, Series-Multiple-Connected)
Series-Multiple-Connected Translating
Devices. — (See Devices, Translating, Series-
Multiple-Connected)
Series-Multiple Connection.— (See Con-
nection, Series-Multiple)
Series, Parallel — — A term some-
times applied to a multiple-series connection.
(See Connection, Multiple-Series)
Series, Thermo-Electric — —A list of
metals so arranged according to their ther-
mo-electric powers, that each metal in the
series is electro-positive to any metal lower in
the list.
Series-Transformer. — (See Transformer,
Series)
Series Turns of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Turns, Series, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine)
Series Winding.— (See Winding, Series)
Series-Wound Dynamo.— (See Dynamo,
Series)
Series-Wound Dynamo-Electric Machine.
— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Series-
Wound)
Sen]
473
Series-Wound Motor.— (See Motor, Se-
ries- Wound.)
Service Conductors. — (See Conductors,
Service.)
Service, Street In a system of in-
candescent lamp distribution that portion of
the circuit which is included between the
main and the service cut-out.
Serving, Cable The covering of
hemp or jute spun around the insulated core
of a cable to act as a protection against the
pressure of the iron wire which forms the
armor of the cable.
Shackling a Wire. — Inserting an insula-
tion between the two ends of a cut wire.
Shaded or Screened. — Cut off or screened
from the effects of an electrostatic or mag-
netic field. (See Screening, Magnetic. Screen,
Magnetic. Screen, Electric.)
Shadow, Electric — — A term some-
times used for molecular shadow. (See
Shadow, Molecular.)
Shadow, Molecular The compara-
tively dark space on those parts of the walls
of Crookes' tubes, which have been protected
from molecular bombardment by suitably
placed screens.
[She.
(See Phos-
Fig. 501. Molecular Shadow.
If a, in the Crookes tube, shown in Fig. 501,
be connected with the negative pole of an elec-
tric source, and the cross-shaped mass of alu-
minium at b, be connected with the positive elec-
trode, on the passage of a series of rapid
discharges, phosphorescence is produced by the
molecular bombardment from a, in all parts of
the vessel opposite a, except those lying in the
projection of its geometrical shadow.
phorescence, Electric.}
Shadow Photometer.— (See Photometer,
Shadow?)
Shaft, Driven A shaft which re-
ceives its power from the driving shaft. (See
Mover, Prime.)
Shaft, Driving The main line of
shafting which takes its power directly from
the prime mover.
Shallow-Water Submarine Cable.— (See
Cable, Submarine, Shallow- Water.)
Sheath, Protective A device at-
tached to a transformer or converter, to pre-
vent any connection from taking place between
the high-potential primary circuit and the
low-potential secondary circuit.
The protective sheath devised by Prof. Elihu
Thomson consists essentially in an earth -con-
nected copper strip or divided plate interposed
between the windings for the secondary and pri-
mary circuit. Should the primary circuit lose its
high insulation it becomes grounded.
Sheet, Current — The sheet into
which a current spreads when the wires of
any source are connected at any two points
near the middle of a very large and thin con-
ductor.
A continuous electric current does not flow
through the entire mass of a conductor in any
single line of direction. If the terminals of any
source are connected to neighboring parts of a
greatly extended thin conductor, the current
spreads out in a thin sheet known as a cur-
rent sheet, and instead of flowing in a straight
line between the points, spreads over the plate
in curved lines of flow, which, so far as shape is
concerned, are not unlike the lines of magnetic
force.
Sheet Lightning. — (See Lightning,
Sheet)
Shellac. — A resinous substance possessing
valuable insulating properties, which is ex-
uded from the roots and branches of certain
tropical plants.
The specific inductive capacity of shellac as
compared with air is 2.74.
She.]
474
[Shu.
Shell, Magnetic A sheet or layer
consisting of magnetic particles, all of whose
north poles are situated in one of the flat
surfaces of the layer, and the south poles in
the opposite surface. (See Magnetism, La-
mellar Distribution of.)
Shell Transformer.— (See Transformer,
Shell.)
Shield, Magnetic, for Watches A
hollow case of iron, in which a watch is per-
manently kept, in order to shield it from the
influence of external magnetic fields. (See
Screen, Magnetic.)
Shifting Magnetic Field.— (See Field,
Magnetic, Shifting.)
Shifting Zero.— (See Zero, Shifting.)
Ships, lightning Rods for (See
Rod, Lightning, for Ships.)
Ship's Sheathing, Electric Protection of
Attaching pieces of zinc to the copper
sheathing of a ship for the purpose of prevent-
ing the corrosion of the copper by the water.
(See Metals, Electrical Protection of.)
Shock, Break A term sometimes
employed in electro-therapeutics for the
physiological shock produced on the opening
or breaking of an electric circuit.
Shock, Electric — —The physiological
shock produced in an animal by an electric
discharge.
Shock, Opening The physiological
shock produced on the opening or breaking
of an electric circuit.
Shock, Static A term employed in
electro-therapeutics for a mode of applying
Franklinic currents or discharges, by placing
the patient on an insulating stool and apply-
ing one pole of a static machine provided
with small condensers or Leyden jars, to an
insulated platform on which the patient is
placed, while the other pole is applied to the
body of the patient by the operator.
The electrode applied to the body of the pa-
tient is provided with a ball electrode. Shocks
are given to the patient on the approach of
this electrode by the discharge of the Leyden
jars.
Short-Arc System of Electric Lighting.
—(See Lighting, Electric, Short-Arc Sys-
tem.)
Short-Circuit.— To establish a short cir-
cuit. (See Circuit, Short.)
Short-Circuit Key.— (See Key, Short-
Circuit)
Short-Circuiting — Establishing a short
circuit. (See Circuit, Short.)
Short-Circuiting Plug.— (See Plug,
Short-Circuiting.)
Short-Coil Magnet— (See Magnet, Short-
Coil.)
Short-Core Electro-Magnet. — (See Mag-
net, Electro, Short-Core.)
Short-Shunt Compound-Wound Dyna-
mo-Electric Machine.— (See Machine, Dy-
namo-Electric, Compound- Wound, Short-
Shunt^
Shunt— An additional path established
for the passage of an electric current or dis-
charge.
Shunt — To establish an additional path
for the passage of an electric current or dis-
charge.
Shunt and Separately Excited Dynamo-
Electric Machine. — (See Machine, Dynamo-
Electric, Shunt and Separately Excited?)
Shunt Circuit— (See Circuit, Shunt.)
Shunt Dynamo-Electric Machine.— (See
Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Shunt- Wound.)
Shunt Electric Bell (See Bell,
Shunt, Electric)
Shunt, Electro-Magnetic In a sys-
tem of telegraphic communication an electro-
magnet whose coils are placed in a shunt
circuit around the terminals of the receiving
relay.
The electro-magnetic shunt operates by its
self-induction. Its poles are permanently closed
by a soft iron armature so as to reduce the resist-
ance of the magnetic circuit (See Induction,
Self.)
Shu.]
475
[Shu,
On making the circuit in the coils of a receiv-
ing relay, a current is produced in the coils of the
electro magnetic shunt hi the opposite direction
to the relay current; and, on breaking the circuit
in the relay, a current is produced in the coils of
the electro-magnetic shunt hi the same direction
as the current in the relay.
The connection of the coils of the electro-mag-
netic shunt with those of the receiving relay, how-
ever, is such that on making the circuit in the
relay the current in the shunt coils flows through
the relay in the same direction, and on breaking
the circuit it flows in the opposite direction.
Therefore this shunt produces the following effects :
(i.) At the commencement of each signal in
the receiving relay, it produces an induced cur-
rent in the same direction which strengthens the
current in the relay.
(2.) At the ending of each signal in the receiv-
ing relay, it produces a current in the opposite
direction, which hastens the motion of the tongue
of the polarized relay. (See Relay, Polarized. )
Shunt, Galvanometer A shunt
placed around a sensitive galvanometer for
the purpose of protecting it from the effects
of a strong current, or for altering its sensi-
bility. (See 3hunt)
The current which will flow through the shunt
wire depends on the relative resistance of the gal-
vanometer and of the shunt. In order that only
total curtent shall pass
through the galvanome-
ter, it is necessary that
the resistances of the
shunt shall be the ^ -fo,
or ^-g , of the galvanom-
eter resistance.
Fig. 502 shows a
shunt, in which the re-
sistances, as compared
with that of the galva-
nometer, are those above
referred to. The galva-
nometer terminals are Fig. 302. Galvanometer
connected at N,N. Plug Shunt.
keys are used to connect one or another of the
shunts with the circuit. (See Shunt, Multiplying
Power of.)
Shunt, Magnetic — —An additional
path of magnetic material provided in a mag-
16— Vol. 1
netic circuit for the passage of the lines of
force.
Shnnt, Multiplying Power of __A
quantity, by which the current flowing through
a galvanometer provided with a shunt, must
be multiplied, in order to give the total cur-
rent.
The multiplying power of a shunt may be de-
termined from the following formula, viz. :
A= (j^-) X C, in which ^li = the mul-
tiplying power of a shunt whose resistance is s;
g, is the galvanometer resistance; C, the current
through the galvanometer, and A, the total cur-
rent passing; s and g, are taken in ohms, and C
and A, in ampSres.
Suppose, for example, that but ^ the entire
current is to flow through the galvanometer; then
the resistance of the shunt must evidently be \ g,
for,
s I _ r
s-f-g ~~ i~+9 ~~ io'
or, io s = s -f g. 10 s — s = g .•. 9 s=g; or,
s=(i)g-
Shunt or Rednctenr for Ammeter. — (See
Reducteur or Shunt for Ammeter?)
Shunt. Ratio.— The ratio existing between
the shunt and the circuit which it shunts
(See Shunt, Multiplying Power of.)
Shunt, Relay, Stearns' A shunt
employed in the differential method of duplex
telegraphy to short-circuit the relay and then
permit the line current to be cut off directly
after it has completed its work in closing the
local circuit.
The use of the relay shunt permits the slacken.-
ing of the armature spring of the relay, because
the decreased duration of the line current does
not produce so strong a magnetization of the
iron.
Shunt-Turns of Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.—(See Turns, Shunt, of Dynamo-
Electric Machine.)
Shunt-Wound Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Shunt- Wound.)
Shunt-Wound Motor. — (See Motor,
Shunt- Wound)
Shn.]
476
[Sig.
Shunting.— Establishing a shunt circuit.
Shuttle Armature.— (See Armature,
Shuttle)
Side A, of Quadruples Table.— (See Table.
Quadruplex, A, Side of.)
Side B, of Quadruplex Table.— (See Table.
Quadruplex, B, Side of)
Side Flash.— (See Flash, Side)
Sidero-Magnetic.— (See Magnetic, Side-
ro)
Siemens' - Armature Electro-Magnetic
Bell. — (See Bell,Electro-Magnetic, Siemens'
Armature Form)
Siemens' Differential Voltameter.— (See
Voltameter Siemens' Differential)
Siemens' Electric Pyrometer.— (See Py-
rometer, Siemens' Electric)
Siemens-Halske Voltaic CeU.— (See Cell.
Voltaic, Siemens-Halske)
Siemens1 Water Pyrometer.— (See Py-
rometer, Siemens' Water)
Signal Arm.— (See Arm, Signal)
Signal, Electric Tell-Tale An
electrically operated signal, generally silent,
whereby the appearance of a white or colored
disc, on a black or otherwise uniformly
colored surface, indicates the occurrence of
a certain predetermined event.
Signal Service for Electric Railways.—
(See Railroads, Electric, Signal Service
System for)
Signals, Electro-Pneumatic — —Sig-
nals operated by the movements of dia-
phragms or pistons moved by compressed
air, the escape of which is controlled electri-
cally.
Signaling, Balloon, for Military Pur-
poses Transmitting intelligence of the
movements of an enemy's army obtained from
observations made in balloons by means of tel-
ephone circuits connected with the balloon.
Signaling, Curb —In cable teleg-
raphy a system for avoiding the effects of
retardation by rapidly discharging the cable
before another electric impulse is sent into
it, by reversing the battery, before connecting
it to earth, and then connecting to earth be-
fore beginning the next signal.
Signaling, Double-Curb In curb
signaling, a method by which the cable, after
being connected with the battery for sending
a signal, is subjected to a reverse battery, but
instead of being put to earth after this con-
nection, as in single-curb signaling, the bat-
tery is again reversed and connected to earth.
The time during which the cable is connected
to the reversed battery before being put to earth,
that is, the time during which it receives the
positive and negative currents, may be made of
any suitable duration.
Signaling, Double-Current — —Signal-
ing by means of currents that alternately
change their direction.
Double-current signaling was devised by Var-
ley in order to avoid the effects of the induction
of underground conductors on Morse tele-
graphic apparatus. The idea of reversing the
direction of the current was to hasten the dis-
charge of the wire, which was prolonged by in-
duction. Double- current working, however,
possesses other advantages, and is used in duplex
and quadruples transmission.
Signaling, Single-Curb —In curb
signaling, a method by which the cable, after
connection with the battery for sending a
signal, is subjected to a reverse battery cur-
rent, and then put to earth before again being
connected to the battery for sending the next
signal.
Signaling, Single-Current — —Signal-
ing by making or breaking the circuit of a
single current.
Single-current signaling is of two kinds, viz.:
(I.) Open-Circuit Signaling, in which the bat-
teries are fixed at each station, and are in circuit
only when signaling.
(2.) Closed-Circuit Signaling, where the bat-
teries are divided, one half generally being at each
end of the line, and so connected that both sets
flow in the same direction.
Signaling, Single-Current, Closed-Circuit
A system of single-circuit signaling in
which the sending batteries are placed at
each end of the line and are so connected as
477
[Sin.
to remain always in circuit. (See Signaling,
Single-Current)
Signaling, Single-Current, Open-Circuit
A system of single-current signaling
in which the sending batteries, fixed at each
station, are in circuit during signaling only.
(See Signaling, Single-Current)
Signaling, Velocity of Transmission of
The speed or rate at which successive
signals can be sent on any line without the
retardation producing serious interference.
(See Retardation)
Silent Discharge.— (See Discharge, Si-
lent)
Silver Bath.— (See Bath, Silver)
Silver Chloride Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Silver Chloride)
Silver Plating.— (See Plating, Silver)
Silver Voltameter.— (See Voltameter,
Silver)
Silvered Plumbago.— (See Plumbago, Sil-
vered)
Silvering, Electro Covering a sur-
face with a coating of silver by electro-plat-
ing. (See Plating, Electro)
Electro-plating with silver.
Silnrns Electricus.— The electric eel.
(See Eel, Electric)
Simple Arc. — (See Arc, Simple)
Simple Circuit— (See Circuit, Simple)
Simple Electric Candle-Burner.— (See
Burner, Simple Candle Electric)
Simple-Harmonic Current— (See Cur-
rent, Simple-Harmonic)
Simple-Harmonic Curve. — (See Curve,
Simple-Harmonic)
Simple-Harmonic Motion.— (See Motion,
Simple-Harmonic)
Simple Magnet— (See Magnet, Simple)
Simple-Periodic Current. — (See Cur-
rents, Simple-Periodic)
Simple-Periodic Electromotive Force.
— (See Force, Electromotive, Simple-
Periodic)
Simple-Periodic Motion.— (See Motion,
Simple-Periodic)
Simple Radical.— (See Radical, Simple)
Simple-Sine Motion.— (See Motion,
Simple-Sine)
Simple Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Simple)
Simplex Telegraphy. — (See Telegraphy,
Simplex)
Sims-Edison Torpedo.— (See Torpedo,
Sims-Edison)
Sine Galvanometer. — (See Galvanometer,
Sine)
Single-Brush Rocker.— (See Rocker,
Single-Brush)
Single-Cup Insulator. — (See Insulator,
Single-Shed)
Single Curb.— (See Curb, Single)
Single-Current Signaling.— (See Signal-
ing, Single-Current)
Single-Curve Trolley Hanger. — (See
Hanger, Single-Curve Trolley)
Single-Fluid Hypothesis of Electricity.
—(See Electricity, Single-Fluid Hypothesis
of)
Single-Fluid Voltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Single-Fluid)
Single-Loop Armature. — (See Armature,
Single-Loop.)
Single-Magnet Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Single- Magnet)
Single-Pair Yoke.— (See Yoke, Single-
Pair)
Single-Shackle Insulator.— (See Insula-
tor, Single-Shackle)
Single-Shed Insulator.— (See Insulator,
Single-Shed)
Single-Stroke Electric Bell.— (See Bell,
Single-Stroke Electric)
Single Touch.— (See Touch, Single)
Single-Wire Cable.— (See Cable, Single-
Wire)
Sin.]
478
[Sme.
Single-Wire Circuit.— (See Circuit,
Single- Wire.*)
Sinistrorsal Solenoid or Helix.— (See So-
lenoid, Sinistrorsal)
Sinuous Currents. — (See Current, Sinu-
ous')
Siphon, Electric — A siphon in
which the stoppage of flow, due to the
.gradual accumulation of air, is prevented by
electrical means.
In the electric siphon, an opening is provided
at the highest part of the bend of the siphon tube,
and a chamber is attached thereto, provided with
a float. Contact points are so connected with the
float that when it falls, contact is made, and when
it rises, contact is broken.
The closing of the circuit, on the fall of the
float, operates an electric motor which drives an
air pump which exhausts the air from the siphon.
Or the float being raised in the siphon, the con-
tact is broken and the operation of the pump is
stopped.
Siphon Recorder.— (See Recorder, Si-
phon)
Sir William Thomson's Standard Cell.—
(See Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Sir William
Thomson's?)
Skin Effect.— (See Effect, Skin.)
Skin, Faradization of —The thera-
peutic treatment of the skin by a faradic cur-
rent.
For efficient faradization the skin should be
thoroughly dried and a metallic brush or elec-
trode employed. For very sensitive parts, as,
for example, the face, the hand of the operator,
first thoroughly dried, is to be preferred as an
electrode.
Skin, Human, Electric Resistance of
— The electric resistance offered by the
skin of the human body.
The electric resistance of the skin is subject to
marked differences in different parts of the body,
where its thickness or continuity varies. It
varies still more with variations in its condition of
moisture. Even in the same individual the re-
sistance varies materially under apparently
.similar conditions.
•Sleeve, Insulating A tube of treated
paper or other insulating material, provided
for covering a splice in an insulated con-
ductor.
Sleeve Joint— (See Joint, Sleeve.)
Sleeve, Lead A lead tube provided
for making a joint in a lead-covered cable.
Sled. — The sliding contacts drawn after a
moving electric railway car through the slotted
underground conduit containing the wires or
conductors from which the driving current is
taken.
Slide Bridge.— (See Bridge, Electric,
Slide Form of)
Slide, Resistance A rheostat, in
which the separate resistances or coils are
placed in or removed from a circuit by means
of a sliding contact or key.
Apparatus employed in telegraphy for
charging a conductor to a given fraction of
the maximum potential of the battery so as
to adjust its charge in order to balance the
varying charge of a cable.
The resistance slide consists essentially of a set
of resistance coils of high insulation and of equal
resistance. Suppose, for example, ten such equal
coils to be connected in series, then if connected
to the charging battery the potential will vary by
one-tenth at the junction between each pair. A
condenser, therefore, will be charged to any
number of tenths of the potential of the charging
battery by connecting it at suitable points.
A second set of coils of equal resistance is ar.
ranged so as to subdivide any of the lower coils,
thus permitting an adjustment to within a hun-
dredth of the potential of the battery.
Slide Wire.— (See Wire, Slide)
Sliding Contact— (See Contact, Sliding)
Slow-Speed Electric Motor. — (See Motor,
Electric, Slow-Speed)
Sluggish Magnet— (See Magnet, Slug-
gish)
Small Calorie.— (See Calorie, Small)
Smee Yoltaic Cell.— (See Cell, Voltaic,
Smee)
Smelting, Electro The separation
or reduction of metallic substances from their
ores by means of electric currents.
Sna.
479
[Sol.
Snap Switch.— (See Switch, Snap.}
Soaki iiir-I n. — A term sometimes employed
by telegraphers to represent the gradual
penetration of an electric charge by a neigh-
boring dielectric.
An electric displacement occurs in the neigh-
boring dielectric, and produces thereby what is
generally called the residual charge.
Soaking-Out.— A term sometimes em-
ployed by telegraphers to represent a gradual
discharge which occurs in the case of a
charged conductor in a neighboring dielec-
tric.
When a condenser, or other similar conductor,
is discharged, the discharge is not instantaneous.
The charge which soaked in, gradually recovers,
or soaks- out.
Socket, Electric Lamp A support
Fig. 303. Lamp Socket.
for the reception of an incandescent electric
lamp.
Incandescent lamp sockets are generally made
so that the mere insertion of the base of the lamp
Fig. 304. Lamp Socket.
in the socket completes the connection of the lamp
terminals with the terminals of the socket. The
socket terminals are connected with the leads that
supply current to the lamp ; the removal of the
lamp from the socket automatically breaks its cir-
cuit. The socket is generally provided with a key
for turning the lamp on or off without removing
it from the socket.
Figs. 503 and 504 show forms of lamp sockets
for incandescent lamps and the details of the key
for connecting or disconnecting the lamp with the
leads.
Socket, Wall — —A socket placed in a
wall and provided with openings for the inser-
tion of a wall plug with which the ends of a
flexible twin-lead are connected.
A wall -socket permits the temporary connec-
tion of a portable electric lamp,' a push button or
other device with the conductor or lead.
. Soft-Drawn Copper Wire.— (See Wire,
Copper, Soft-Drawn?)
Soldering, Electric A process for
obtaining metallic joints, in which heat gen-
erated by the electric current is used to melt
the solder in the place of ordinary heat.
Solenoid. — A cylindrical coil of wire the
convolutions of which are circular.
An electro-magnetic helix. (See Solenoid,
Electro-Magnetic, or Electro-Magnetic
Helix.)
A solenoid is termed dextrorsal or sinistrorsal
according to the direction in which its wire is
wound. (See Solenoid, Dextrorsal. Solenoid,
Sinistrorsal.)
Solenoid Core. — The core, usually of soft
iron, placed within a solenoid and magnetized
by the magnetic field of the current passing
through the solenoid.
The soft iron core of a solenoid differs from
that of an electro-magnet in the fact that the core
of the solenoid is movable, while that of the elec-
tro-magnet is fixed. (See Magnet, Electro.)
In order to obtain a nearly uniform pull in its
various positions in the solenoid, the soft iron cores
are made of a shape which insures a greater mass
of metal towards the middle of the core. (See
Bars, KriziVs.)
Solenoid, Dextrorsal — — A solenoid
in which the winding is right-handed. (See
Solenoid, Practical!)
Solenoid, Electro-Magnetic, or Electro-
Maguetic Helix The name given to
Sol.]
480
[8W.
a cylindrical coil of wire, each of the convo-
lutions of which is circular.
A circuit bent in the form of a helix, supported
at its two extremities, as shown in Fig. 505, and
traversed by an electric current, will move into
the magnetic meridian of the place, and, if free to
move in a vertical plane, will come to rest in the
line of the magnetic inclination or dip of the place.
A solenoid traversed by an electric current ac-
quires thereby all the properties of a magnet, and
is attracted and repelled by other magnets. Its
poles are situated at the ends of the cylinder on
which the solenoid may be supposed to be wound.
Solenoid, Ideal A solenoid con-
sisting of a cylinder built up of a number of
true circular currents, with all faces of like
polarity turned in the same direction and
entirely independent of one another.
The practical solenoid differs from the ideal
solenoid in that the successive circular circuits or
currents are all connected with one another in
series.
The polarity of a solenoid depends on the direc-
tion of the current as regards the direction in
which the solenoid is wound.
This solenoid is sometimes called an electro-
•utgnetic solenoid or helix, in order to distinguish
Fig. sos- Practical Solenoid.
it from a solenoidal magnet. (See Magnet, Sole-
move, will come to rest in the plane of the mag-
netic meridian when traversed by an electric
current.
It will also be attracted or repelled by the ap.
proach of a dissimilar or similar magnet pole
respectively, as shown in Fig. 505.
Solenoid, Left-Handed — — A sinistror-
sal solenoid or one in which the winding is
left-handed. (See Solenoid, Practical.}
Solenoid, Magnetic A spiral coil
of wire which acts like a magnet when an
electric current passes through it.
The magnetic solenoid must be distinguished
from a solenoidal magnet. (See Magnet, Sole-
noidal. Solenoid, Electro-Magnetic, or Electro-
Magnetic Helix.}
Solenoid, Practical The name ap-
plied to the ordinary solenoid in order to dis-
tinguish it from the ideal solenoid. (See
Solenoid, Ideal.}
A Practical Solenoid consists, as shown in Figs.
Fig. so 6. Practical Solenoid.
505 and 506, of a spiral coil of wire in which the
successive circular circuits are connected to oae
another in series.
A solenoid, if suspended so as to be free to
. Right-Handed HeKx. Fig. 308. Left-Handed
Helix. Fig. 309. Helix, with Consequent Polet.
The polarity of the solenoid depends on tke
direction of the current, and therefore on the
direction of winding. In any solenoid, however,
the polarity may be reversed by reversing tke
direction of the current (See Magnet, Electr*.)
A Right- Handed, or Dextrorsal Solenoid, iso«e
wound in the direction shown in Fig. 507 at i.
Sol.]
481
[Sou.
A Left -Handed, or Sinistror sal Solenoid, is one
wowid in the direction shown in Fig. 508 at 2.
The solenoid shown in Fig. 509 at 3, is wound
so as to produce consequent poles. (See Poles,
Consequent.)
Solenoid, Right-rfanded A dex-
trorsal solenoid, the winding in which is right-
banded. (See Solenoid, Practical.)
Solenoid, Sinistrorsal — —A solenoid
in which the winding is left-handed. (See
Solenoid, Practical.)
Solenoidal. — Pertaining to a solenoid.
Solid Angle.— (See Angle, Solid.)
Solid Line.— (See Line, Solid.)
Solution. — A liquid in which another sub-
stance, generally a solid, is dissolved.
The liquid may contain either a solid, another
liquid, or a gas.
Solution, Bain's Printing The
solution used in Bain's chemical telegraph.
Bain's solution is made by mixing together one
part of a saturated solution of potassium ferro-
cyanide, with two parts of water.
Solution, Battery The exciting
liquid for voltaic cells. (See Cell, Voltaic.)
Solution, Chemical, Bain's— — A solu-
tion employed in connection with Bain's re-
cording telegraph. (See Recorder, Chemical,
JBain's)
Solution, Qnicking A solution of
a salt of mercury, in which objects to be elec-
tro-plated are dipped after cleansing, just
before being placed in the plating bath.
If the articles have been properly cleansed, im-
mersion in the quicking solution will cover them
with a uniform, silver-like coating, which will in-
sure an adherent, uniform coating in the plating
bath.
Solution, Saturated A solution in
which as much of the solid or other substance
has been dissolved in the liquid as it will take
at a given temperature.
Solution, Super-Saturation of
The condition assumed by a warmed satu-
rated solution of a salt, when placed in a
closed vessel out of contact with the air, and
allowed to cool without being shaken.
Un^er the above circumstances the solution
may be cooled without depositing any crystals.
Such a solution is said to be super-saturated. It
will immediately deposit crystals if a crystal of the
salt dissolved or a crystal of an. isomorphous salt
be dropped in the solution, or often if merely
shaken.
It is important in standard voltaic cells in
which zinc sulphate is used, that the solution be
saturated but not super-saturated.
Sonometer, Hughes' An apparatus
for determining the amount of inductive dis-
turbance in an induction balance, by compar-
ing the sounds heard in a telephone, as
a result of such induction, with the sounds
heard in the same telephone under circum-
stances in which the amount of disturbance
is directly measurable.
An apparatus devised by Professor Hughes to
be used in connection with the induction balance,
in order to measure the amount of disturbance of
balance produced therein in any particular case.
Sonorescence. — A term proposed for the
sounds produced when a piece of vulcanite or
any other solid substance is exposed to a
rapid succession of flashes of light. (See
Photophone)
Sound. — The sensation produced on the
brain, through the ear, by the vibrations of a
sonorous body.
The sound waves that are capable of pro-
ducing the sensation of sound on the brain
through the ear.
The word sound is therefore used in science in
two distinct senses, viz. :
(i.) Subjectively, as the sensation produced by
the vibrations of a sonorous body.
(2.) Objectively, as the waves or vibrations that
are capable of producing the sensation of sound.
Sound is transmitted from the vibrating body
to the ear of the hearer by means of alternate to-
and-fro motions in the air, occurring in every
direction around the vibrating body and forming
spherical waves called waves of condensation and
rarefaction. Unlike light and heat, these waves
require a tangible medium such as air to trans-
mit them.
Sound, therefore, is not propagated in a.
vacuum. The vibrations of sound are longi-
tudinal, that is, the to-and-fro motions occur in
the same direction as that in which the sound is
traveling. The vibrations of light are transverse,
Sou.]
482
[Son.
that is, the to-and-fro motions are at right angles
to the direction in which the light is traveling.
Sound. — (Objectively.) The waves in the
air or other medium which produce the sen-
sation of sound.
Sound.— (Subjectively.) The effect pro-
duced on the ear by a vibrating body.
Sound, Absorption of Acoustic ab-
sorption. (See Absorption, Acoustic?)
Sound, Characteristics of The
peculiarities that enable different musical
sounds to be distinguished from one another.
The characteristics of musical sounds are:
(l.) The Tone or Pitch, according to which a
sound is either grave or shrill.
(2.) The Intensity or Loudness, according to
which a sound is either loud or feeble.
(3.) The Quality or Timbre, the peculiarity
which enables us to distinguish between two
sounds of the same pitch and intensity, but
sounded on different instruments, as for example,
on a flute and on a piano.
Sound, Quality or Timbre of That
peculiarity of a musical note which enables
us to distinguish it from another musical note
of the same tone or pitch, and of the same
intensity or loudness, but sounded on another
instrument.
The middle C, for example, of a pianoforte, is
readily distinguishable from the same note on a
flute, or on a violin ; that is to say, its quality is
different. The differences in the quality of musi-
cal sounds are caused by the admixture of addi-
tional sounds called overtones which are always
associated with any musical sound.
Briefly, nearly all so-called simple musical
sounds are in reality chords or assemblages of a
number of different musical sounds.
In the case of the many different notes that are
present in an apparently simple note or tone, one
of the notes is far louder than all the others and is
called the fundamental tone or note, and is what
is recognized by the ear as the note proper. The
others are called the overtones. The overtones
are too feeble to be heard very distinctly, but
their presence gives to the fundamental note its
own peculiar quality. In the case of a note
sounded on the flute, these overtones are dif-
ferent either in number or in their relative intensi-
ties from the same note sounded on another instru-
ment Their fundamental tones, however, are
the same.
The peculiarities which enable us to distinguish
the voice of one speaker or singer from another
are due to the presence of these overtones. The
overtones must be correctly reproduced by the
diaphragm of the telephone, or phonograph,
graphophone, or gramophone, if the articulate
speech is to be correctly reproduced wit'n all its
characteristic peculiarities.
Sounder, Morse Telegraphic An
electro-magnet which produces audible
sounds by the movements of a lever attached
to the armature of the magnet.
The Morse sounder has new almost entirely
supplanted the paper recorder or register. On
short lines it is placed directly in the telegraphic
circuit. On long lines it is operated by a local
battery, thrown into or out of the action by the
relay. (See Relay.}
Pig. fro. Morse Sounder.
The Morse sounder, shown in Kg. 510, con-
sists of an upright electro-magnet M, whose soft
iron armature A, is rigidly attached to the striking
lever B, working in adjustable screw pivots as
shown. The free end of the lever is limited in its
strokes by two set screws N, N. The lower of
these screws is set so as to limit the approach of
the armature A, to the poles of the electro-magnet;
the upper screw is set so as to give the end B,
sufficient play to produce a loud sound. A re-
tractile spring, attached to the striking lever near
its pivoted end, and provided with regulating
screw S S, pulls the lever back when the current
ceases to flow through M.
The dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet are
reproduced by the sounder, as audible signals,
that are distinguished by the operator by means
of the different sounds produced by the up and
down stroke of the lever as well as by the differ
Sou.]
483
[Sou.
ence in the intervals of time between the succes-
sive signals.
Another form of telegraphic sounder, similar
in its general construction to that already de-
scribed, is shown in Fig. 511.
Fig. 311. Telegraphic Soun
Sounder, Repeating- A telegraphic
sounder which repeats the telegraphic dis-
patch into another circuit.
Sounds, Magnetic Faint clicks
heard on the magnetization of a readily mag-
netizable substance.
One of the earlier forms of Reis' telephone,
operated by means of a rapid succession of these
faint magnetic sounds.
Source, Electric Any arrangement
capable of maintaining a difference of poten-
tial or an electromotive force.
The following are the more important electric
sources, arranged according to the character of
the energy which is converted into electric
energy.
ELECTRIC SOURCES.
1. Voltaic Cell or Primary
Battery.
2. Charged Storage Cell or
Secondary Battery.
3. Thermo Cell or Thermo
Battery.
4. Selenium Cell or Sele-
nium Battery.
5. Magneto - Electric Ma-
chine.
6. Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.
7. Frictional Electric Ma-
chine.
8. Electrostatic Induction
Machine.
9. Magneto -Electric Tele-
phone Transmitter.
Chemical Poten-
tial Energy.
Radiant Energy.
Mechanical
Energy.
10. Pyromagnetic Generator.
11. Animal or Plant Vital Energy.
Heat and Mechan-
ical Energy.
Sources, Multiple-Arc-Connected
A term sometimes applied to sources connect-
ed in multiple. (See Sources, Multiple-Con-
nected)
Sources, Multiple-Connected The
connection of a number of separate sources
so as to form a single source by joining the
positive poles of all the separate sources to a
single positive lead or conductor, and all the
negative poles to a single negative lead or
conductor.
The multiple connection of sources results in
each of the sources discharging its current into
the main conductor in a direction parallel to
that of the other sources.
The electromotive force in the same is that of
any single source, but the resistance of the com-
bined source decreases with each source added.
Supposing the resistance of each source be the
same, then if ten such sources are connected in
multiple-arc, the resistance of the combined source
is but one-tenth the resistance of a single source.
(See Circuit, Multiple.)
Sources are combined in multiple-arc whenever
the current furnished by the separate sources is
insufficient to properly operate the electro-recep-
tive or translating device with which it is con-
nected.
Sources, Multiple-Series-Connected
— The conection of a number of separate
sources so as to form a single source by con-
necting a number of the sources in groups
in series, and joining these groups together
in multiple-arc.
The battery of sources obtained by connecting
a number of separate sources in multiple-series
will have an electromotive force equal to the
sum of the separate electromotive forces of the
sources connected in any of the separate series-
connected groups.
The current produced will be greater in propor-
tion to the number of separate groups in parallel.
The internal resistance will be increased in pro-
portion to the number of coils in series, and de-
creased in proportion to the number of groups in
multiple-arc or parallel.
Sources are connected in multiple-series when
both the electromotive force and the current of
any single source are insufficient to operate the
electro-receptive or translating device. (See
Circuit, Multiple- Series.)
Sou.]
484
[Spa.
Sources, Parallel • Connected A
term sometimes applied to multiple-connected
sources. (See Sources, Multiple-Connected?)
Sources, Series-Connected The
connection of a number of separate electric
sources so as to form a single source, in
which the separate sources are placed in a
single line or circuit by so connecting their op-
posite poles that the current produced in each
passes successively through each of the
sources.
The series-connection of sources results in an
electromotive force equal to the sum of the sepa-
rate electromotive forces produced by each
source— that is, a rise of potential occurs with each
source added. This connection increases the re-
sistance of the circuit by the amount of the resist-
ance of each source introduced into the circuit.
The value of the resulting current depends on the
total electromotive force and resistance of the
series-connected sources.
Sources are connected in series when the
electromotive force furnished by a single source
is insufficient for the character of work required
to be done. (See Circuit ', Series.)
Sources, Series-Mnltiple-Connected
— The connection of a number of separate
electric sources, so as to form a single source,
in which the separate sources are connected
in a number of separate multiple groups or
circuits, and these groups or circuits separ-
ately connected together in series. (See Cir-
cuit, Series-Multiple?}
Southern Light. — A name sometimes given
to the Aurora Australis. (See Aurora Aus-
iralis.)
Space, Clearance The space be-
tween the revolving armature of a dynamo-
electric machine, or electric motor, and the
polar faces of the pole pieces.
Space, Dark, Crookes' - —A dark
space surrounding the negative electrode in a
rarefied space through which electric dis-
charges are passing.
Crookes' dark space .lies immediately between
the negative electrode and its glow or luminous
discharge. It differs, therefore, from Faraday's
dark space, which lies between the luminous dis-
charges of the negative and positive electrodes.
The radius of Crookes' dark space increases
with the degree of exhaustion. It varies also
with the character of the residual gas, with the
temperature of the negative electrode, and some-
what with the intensity of the spark. When the
vacuum becomes sufficiently high, the dark space
fills the entire tube through which the discharges
are passing.
Crookes has found that in the case of substances
that become phosphorescent under the electric
discharge, phosphorescence best takes place whem
the body is placed on the boundary of the dark
space.
Space, Dark, Faraday's The gap
in the continuity of the luminous discharges
that occurs between the glow of the positive
and negative electrodes.
Faraday's dark space is seen in a partially ex-
hausted tube through which the discharges of
an induction coil are passing. It occurs in as
low a vacuum as 6 millimetres of mercury.
As the vacuum becomes higher, the length of tke
dark space increases.
Space, Inter-Air A term some-
times employed for the air space between the
outer surface of the revolving armature of a
dynamo-electric machine and the adjacent
faces of the pole pieces. (See Space, Clear-
ance?)
Space, Interferric A term some-
times used for air gap. (See Gap, Air.)
Span Wire.— (See Wire Span.)
Spark Coil.— (See Coil. Spark)
Spark Gap.— (See Gap, Spark)
Spark. Length of The length of
spark that passes between two charged con-
ductors depends :
(I.) On the difference of potential between
them.
(2.) On the character of the gaseous medium
that separates the two conductors.
(3.) On the density or pressure of the gaseous
medium between the conductors.
Up to a certain pressure, a decrease in the
density causes an increase in the length of the
distance the spark will pass. When this limit is
reached, a further decrease of density decreases
the length of spark. A high vacuum prevents
the passage of a spark even under great differ-
ence* of potential.
Spa.]
485
[Spa.
(4.) On the kind of material that forms the
electrodes between which the charges pass.
(5.) On the shape of the charged conductor.
(6. ) On the direction of the current.
Sparks from the prime conductor are denser
and more powerful than those from the negative
conductor.
It will be observed that the length of the spark
practically depends mainly on two circumstances,
Tiz., on the differences of potential of the oppo-
site charges, and the conducting power of the
medium that separates the two bodies.
Spark, T-Shaped A variety of
three-branched spark obtained by the dis-
charge of a Leyden jar through a peculiar
form of induction coil. (See Spark, Three-
Branched^
Spark, Three-Branched A pecu-
liar form of branched spark obtained by the
discharge of a Leyden jar through a peculiar
form of induction coil.
The three- branched spark was obtained by
Elihu Thomson by the use of the following appa-
ratus: The discharges of a Leyden jar, charged by
a Topler-Holtz machine, were sent through an in-
duction coil, the primary and secondary of which
fig. J 1 2. Apparatus for Three-Branched Sparks.
•were of few turns. The circuit connections were
as shown in Figs. 512 and 513, and the apparatus
is described by Thomson as follows:
"A double coil was made, Fig. 512, in which
the inner turns were about twelve and the outer
turns twenty. These were kept separate from each
other and a branch wire taken from the line and
slid from point to point on the outer wire enabled
the effective length 'of the same to be adjusted.
The inner coil was connected through a small
spark gap, as at A, to the outer coating of a Ley-
den jar, while the wire L, was brought near the
pote of the jar, which was continually being
charged from a TOpler-Holtz machine. The
discharge, in passing from the knob of the jar to
the wire L, representing the line, passed by the
OiO
Fig- 3 z 3. Apparatus f or T and Y Shaped Stark*.
inner coil. When a certain length of the outer
coil was employed, only a very short, almost im-
perceptible spark was obtainable at a. If the
balance of the turns were disturbed by including
more or less than the proper number of the outer
turns, not only did a vigorous spark occur, but
the gap at a, could be quite considerably extended,
in accordance with the amount of departure taken
from the proper number of turns required to pro-
duce the balance. This ex-
periment indicates that it is
possible to make a selective
path for the Leyden jar dis-
charge, and to have a struc-
ture so proportioned that
the discharges reaching line
will pass to earth without FiS- Si4. Thrt*-
tending to go through the cir- Branched Sparks
cuit of the dynamo. 1'he action is apparently
due to a balance of electromotive forces such
that the discharge which tends to pass from the
line in going to earth induces in the coil con-
nected to the dynamo a counter electromotive
force which nearly wipes out the potential of the
discharge before it reaches the dynamo. This
balance of inductive effects is certainly very strik-
ing, and once obtained, it is disturbed, as, in the
experiments, by changing the relative lengths o|
the coils in inductive relation through so small
an amount as an inch or two.
" It may be mentioned here that some curious
Spa.]
486
[Spe.
effects of spark were obtained in these experi-
ments. When a disturbance of the balance ex-
ists and a spark is obtained at a, the character of
the spark is different from that of the Leyden jar
discharge. It appears to be less luminous, the
noise less sharp, and its color would indicate a
greater power of volatilizing metal and perhaps a
greater duration. It is in part, no doubt, due to
a current local to the coils in series with one an-
other.
' : Another curious effect was the production of
T-shaped and Y"snaPe(i sparks, or three-
branched sparks (such as are shown in Figs. 513
and 514.)"
" These were obtained by separating the elec-
trodes at A, an inch and a half or thereabouts,
and bringing the third electrode from the outer
coil to the position shown in Fig. 513. The dis-
charges were now obtained as before from the
charged jar. In this case the discharge appears
to split and unite in air, producing the curious
shaped sparks shown. It would seem that to ob-
tain these effects — particularly the sparks which
were three- branched from a common point in the
centre between the discharge electrodes— the
dielectric air must break down simultaneously be-
tween the three electrodes. It would easily ex-
plain the "["-shapes to assume the straight part
above to form first, and the cross or transverse
spark to strike from the side of this spark to the
third electrode."
Spark Tube.— (See Tube, Spark.}
Spark, Wipe In an electric gas-
lighting pendant burner, a spark obtained
from a spark coil by the wiping contact of a
spring, moved by the pulling of the pendant.
(See Burner, Ratchet-Pendant, Electric?)
Spark, Y-Shaped A variety of three-
branched spark obtained by the discharge of
a Leyden jar through a peculiar form of induc-
tion coil. (See Spark, Three-Branched)
Sparking Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Disruptive?)
Sparking Distance.— (See Distance,
Sparking?)
Sparking, Line of Least The line
on a commutator cylinder of a dynamo con-
necting the points of contact of the collecting
brushes where the sparking is a minimum.
In some forms of dynamos the line of least
sparking lies parallel to the lines of magnetic
force of the field.
In most forms, however, it is at right angles to
such lines. The exact position of all these lines
is changed by the angular lead of the brushes.
(See Lead, Angle of.)
Sparking of Dynamo-Electric Machine.—
(See Machine, Dynamo-Electric, Sparking
of.)
Spar Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Spar.)
Spasmodic Governor. — (See Governor,
Spasmodic.)
Speaking-Tube Annunciator.— (See An-
nunciator, Oral or Speaking- Tube?)
Speaking-Tube Mouth Piece, Electric
Alarm A mouth piece for a speaking
tube, so arranged, that the movement of a
pivoted plate covering the mouth piece au-
tomatically rings a bell at the other end of
the tube.
Specific Conduction Resistance.— (See
Resistance, Specific Conduction?)
Specific Conductivity. (See Conduc-
tivity, Specific?)
Specific Heat— (See Heat, Specific?)
Specific Heat of Electricity.— (See Elec-
tricity, Specific Heat of.)
Specific Hysteresial Dissipation.— (See
Dissipation, Specific Hysteresial.)
Specific Inductive Capacity.— (See Ca-
pacity, Specific Inductive.)
Specific Magnetic Capacity.— (See Ca-
pacity, Specific Magnetic.)
Specific Magnetic Conductivity.— (See
Conductivity, Specific Magnetic.)
Specific Magnetic Inductivity.— (See In-
ductivity, Specific Magnetic?)
Specific Resistance.— (See Resistance,
Specific?)
Specific Resistance of Liquids.— (See
Resistance, Specific, of Liquids?)
Speech, Articulate The successive
tones of the human voice that are necessary
to produce intelligible words.
The phrase articulate speech refers to the join-
ing or articulation of the successive sounds in-
volved in speech. The receiving diaphragm of a
Spe.]
telephone is caused to reproduce the articulate
speech uttered near the transmitting diaphragm.
Speed, Critical, of Compound-Wound
Dynamo — —The speed at which both the
series and shunt coils of the machine give the
same difference of potential when the full load
is on the machine, as the shunt coil would if
used alone on open-circuit.
Speed Indicator.— (See Indicator, Speed?)
Speeding.— Varying the number of revolu-
tions per minute.
The speeding of a dynamo is for the purpose
of obtaining the current requisite to properly
operate the electro -receptive device placed in its
circuit.
Spent Acid.— (See Acid, Spent?}
Spent Liquor. — (See Liquor, Spent.)
Spherical Armature. — (See Armature,
Spherical.)
Sphygmogram. — A record made by a
sphygmograph. (See Sphygmograph?)
Sphygmograph. — An instrument for re-
cording the peculiarities of the normal or
abnormal pulse.
Sphygmograph, Electrical An in-
strument for electrically recording the peculi-
arities of the pulse.
Sphygmophone.— An apparatus in which
a microphone is employed for the medical
examination of the pulse. (See Microphone?)
Spider, Armature A light frame-
work or skeleton consisting of a central sleeve
or hub keyed to the armature shaft, and pro-
vided with a number of radial spokes or arms
for fixing or holding the armature • core to
the dynamo-electric machine.
Spider, Driving Radial arms or
spokes connected to the armature of a dynamo-
electric machine and keyed to the shaft so as
to act as a driving wheel for the armature.
Spin, Magnetic A term sometimes
employed instead of magnetic field.
The term magnetic spin is sometimes used in-
stead of magnetic field because the magnetism is
now generally believed to be due to the effects of
a rotary motion or spin in the surrounding uni-
versal ether.
487
[Spo.
Spiral, Primary The primary of an
induction coil or transformer. (See Trans-
former. Coil, Induction?)
Spiral, Roget's — —A suspended wire
spiral conveying a strong electric current and
devised to show the attractions produced by
parallel currents flowing in the same direc-
tion.
The lower end of the wire spiral dips into a
mercury cup. On the passage of the current, the
attraction of the neighboring turns of the spiral
for each other shortens the length of the spiral
sufficiently to draw it out of the mercury and thus
break the circuit. When this occurs the weight
of the spiral causes it to fall and again re-estab-
lish the circuit. A rapid automatic-make-and-
break is thus established, accompanied by a brill-
iant spark at the mercury surface due to the ex.
tra spark on breaking.
Spiral, Secondary The secondary
coil of an induction coil or transformer. (See
Transformer. Coil, Induction?)
Splice Box.— (See Box, Splice?]
Split Battery.— (See Battery, Split.)
Split Lead Tee.— (See Tee, Split Lead.)
Spluttering of Arc.— (See Arc, Splutter-
ing of.)
Spots, Sun Dark spots, varying in
number and position, which appear on the
face of the sun and are believed by some to be
caused by huge vortex motions in the masses
of glowing gas that surround the sun's body.
Sun spots occur in greater number at intervals
of about every eleven years.
Their occurrence is generally attended with
unusual terrestrial magnetic variations. (See
Storm, Magnetic.)
In the opinion of most astronomers the sun
spots mark depressions in the atmosphere of the
sun. Their exact causes are unknown, though
they appear to be dependent on a local cooling
or condensation of the sun's atmosphere.
When observed through a telescope the sun
spot appears as a dark region surrounded by a
less dark region. Though darker by contrast
with tht rest of the sun's face, yet such spots are
in reality much brighter than the most brilliant
arc light. The outline of the sun spot is quite
irregular.
Spr.]
Spreading-Ont Magnetic Field.— (See
Field, Magnetic, Spreading-Out)
Sprengel Mercury Pump.— (See Pump,
Air, SprengeFs Mercurial?)
Spring Ammeter. — (See Ammeter,
Spring)
Spring Contact.— (See Contact, Spring)
Spring, Hold-Off A spring which
acts to keep one thing away from another in
opposition to some force tending to keep it in
• contact with such a thing.
Spring, Hold-On A spring which
acts to keep one thing against another in op-
position to some force tending to pull it
away.
A hold-on spring is sometimes employed in a
dynamo-electric machine for the purpose of keep-
ing the collecting brushes in proper pressure
against the segments of the commutator.
Spring-Jack. — A device for readily insert-
ing a loop in a main electric circuit. The
spring-jack is generally used in connection
with a multiple switch board. (See Board,
Multiple Switch)
Spring-Jack Cut-Out— (See Cut-Out,
Spring-Jack)
Spnrious Hall Effect— (See Effect, Hall,
Spurious)
Spurious Resistance.— (See Resistance,
Spurious)
Stabile Galvanization.— (See Galvaniza-
tion, Stabile)
Staggering. — A term sometimes applied to
the position of the brushes on a commutator
cylinder, in which one brush is placed slightly
in advance of the other brush so as to bridge
over a break.
When a break occurs in the circuit ot the arma-
ture wires, the device of staggering the brushes is
adopted for temporarily bridging over the break.
When a break occurs, the rewinding of the arma-
ture is the only radical cure.
Standard Candle.— (See Candle, Stand-
ard)
488
[Sta.
Standard Carcel Gas Jet.— (See Jet, Gas,
Carcel Standard)
Standard, Dynamo The supports
for the bearings of a dynamo-electric ma-
chine.
Standard Earth Quadrant.— (See Quad-
rant, Standard)
Standard of Self-induction, Ayrton &
Perry's (See Induction, Self, Ayrton
6- Perry's Standard of)
Standard Ohm.— (See Ohm, Standard)
Standard, Pentane A standard
source of light used in photometric measure-
ments, in place of a Methven screen.
The pentane standard is constructed in general
in the same manner as the Methven standard.
In place, however, of ordinary coal gas, a mixture
of pentane and air is used. Pentane is a variety
of coal oil left after several distillations of ordinary
crude oil. It distills at a temperature not greater
than 50 degrees centigrade.
The mixture for burning consists of about
twenty volumes of air to seven volumes of pen-
tane. A burner of the pentane standard is some-
what similar to the Methven standard, but differs
in a number of minor details.
Standard Resistance CoiL— (See Coil,
Resistance, Standard)
Standard Size of Electrodes, Erb's
—(See Electrodes, Erb's Standard Size of)
Standard Voltaic CelL— (See Cell. Voltaic,
Standard)
Standard Voltaic Cell, Clark's
(See Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Clark's)
Standard Voltaic Cell, Clark's, Rayleigh's
Form of (See Cell, Voltaic, Stand-
ard, Rayleigh's Form of Clark's)
Standard Voltaic Cell, Fleming's
(See Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Fleming's)
Standard Voltaic Cell, Lodge's
(See Cell, Voltaic, Standard, Lodge's)
Standard Voltaic Cell, Sir William
Thomson's (See Cell, Voltaic, Stand-
ard, Sir William Thomson's)
Standard Wire Gauge.— (See Gauge,
Wire, Standard)
Sta.]
489
[Sta.
Standardizing a Toltaic Cell.— (See Cell,
Voltaic, Standardizing a.)
Standards, Motor — —A name applied
to the supports for the bearings of an electric
motor.
State, Allotropic A modification
of a substance, in which, without changing
its chemical composition, it assumes a condi-
tion in which many of its physical and chem-
ical properties are different from those it or-
dinarily possesses.
Thus the element carbon occurs in three widely
different allotropic states, viz.:
(I.) As charcoal, or ordinary carbon;
(2.) As graphite, or plumbago; and
(3.) As the diamond.
State, Anelectrotonic The condi-
tion of decreased functional activity which
occurs in a nerve in the neighborhood of the
anode or positive terminal of a source to
whose influence it is subjected. (See Anelec-
trotonus^)
State, Electrotonic A peculiar
state supposed by Faraday to exist in a wire or
other conductor, whereby differences of po-
tential are produced by means of its move-
ment through a magnetic field.
In his early researches Faraday regarded this
State as a necessary condition in which a wire or
conductor must exist, prior to its movement
through a magnetic field, in orde to have a dif-
ference of potential produced ; but at a later day
he abandoned this idea, and explained the true
causes of electrodynamic induction. (See In-
duct ion, Electro- Dynamic.)
The term electrotonic state is to be carefully dis-
tinguished from electrotonus, or the change pro-
duced in the functional activity of a nerve by an
electric current. (See Electrotonus.)
State, Kathelectrotonic The con-
dition of increased functional activity of a
Herve in the neighborhood of the kathode or
negative terminal of a source to whose in-
fluence it is subjected. (See Kathelectro-
tonus.}
The kathelectrotonic state is one of the states
or conditions of electrotonus or altered functional
activity produced in a nerve by an electric cur-
rent. (See Electrotonus.)
State, Nascent A term used in
chemistry to express the s'tate or condition of
an elementary atom or radical just liberated
from chemical combination, when it possesses
chemical affinities or attractions more ener-
getic than afterwards.
According to Grothiiss' hypothesis, during the
decomposition of a chain of polarized molecules,
such for example as in the case of hydrogen sul-
phate, Hs SO4, in a zinc-copper voltaic cell, the
two atoms of hydrogen H8, liberated by the com-
bination of the SO4, with an atom of zinc, Zn, pos-
sess a stronger affinity for the SO4 of the molecule
next to it, than does its own H8, and thus liber-
ates its two atoms of hydrogen, which in turn
unite with the SO4, of the next molecule in the
polarized chain, and this continues until the two
atoms of hydrogen liberated from the last mole-
cule in the chain are given off at the copper plate.
(See Hypothesis, Grothuss\)
The peculiar properties characteristic of the
nascent state of elements is doubtless due to
the fact that the elements are then in a. free
state, with their bonds open or unsatisfied, and
therefore possess greater affinities than when they
are united in molecules. Thus H — , H — , or
atomic hydrogen, should possess different affinities
than H— H, or molecular hydrogen.
State, Passive The condition of a
metallic substance in which it may be placed
in liquids that would ordinarily chemically
combine with it, without being attacked or
corroded.
It is very doubtful whether metallic bodies can
be properly regarded as possessing an actual
passive state. Iron, for example, which is one of
the metals that is said to be capable of assuming
this so-called passive state, can be placed in this
condition by immersing it for a few moments in
concentrated nitric acid, and subsequently wash-
ing it It will then, unlike ordinary iron, neither
be attacked by concentrated nitric acid, nor will
it precipitate copper from its solutions. This
condition is now generally believed to be due to
the formation of a thin coating of magnetic oxide
on its surface.
Many of the instances of the so-called passive
state are simply cases of the well known electrical
preservation of metals that form the negative
element of a voltaic combination, under which
circumstances the positive element only of the
Sta.J
490
ISte
voltaic couple is chemically attacked by the elec-
trolyte. (See Cell, Voltaic. Metals, Electrical
Protection of. )
State, Permanent, of Charge on Tele-
graph Line The condition of the
charge on a telegraph wire when the current
reaching the distant end has the same
strength as at the sending end.
State, Tariable, of Charge of Telegraph
Line The condition of the charge on
a telegraph wire while the strength of the
current is increasing up to the full strength
in all parts.
The duration of the variable state is directly as
the length of the line, the electrostatic capacity
and the total resistance. It is increased by leak-
age, by static capacity and by the effects of the
extra current. (See Currents, Extra.)
Static Breeze.— (See Breeze, Static.)
Static Electricity. — (See Electricity,
.Static)
Static Energy.— (See Energy, Static)
Static Hysteresis. — (See Hysteresis,
Static)
Static Insulation. — (See Insulation,
.Static)
Static Magnetic Induction.- (See Induc-
tion, Magnetic, Static)
Static Shock.— (See Shock, Static)
Statics. — The science which treats of the
relations that must exist between the points
of application of forces and their direction
and intensity, in order that equilibrium may
result.
Statics, Electro— —That branch of
electric science which treats of the phenome-
na and measurement of electric charges.
Some of the more important principles of elec-
trostatics are embraced in the following laws:
(I.) Charges of like name, i. f., either positive
•r negative, repel each other. Charges ot unlike
name attract each other.
(2.) The forces of attraction or repulsion be
tween two charged bodies are directly proper
tional to the product of the quantities of electricity
possessed by the bodies and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
These laws can be demonstrated by the use of
Coulomb's torsion balance. (See Balance, Cou-
lomb'1 s Torsion.")
Statics, Magneto That branch of
magnetism which treats of magnetic attrac-
tions and repulsions, the distribution of lines
of magnetic force and other facts regarding
fixed magnets.
Station, Central A station, cen-
trally located, from which electricity for light
or power is distributed by a series of con-
ductors radiating therefrom.
Station, Distant A term applied by
an operator to the distant end of the line in
order to distinguish it from his own end.
Station, Distributing - —A station
from which electricity is distributed.
A central station.
Station, Home A term applied by
an operator to his end of the line, in order to
distinguish it from the other or distant sta-
tion.
Station, Transforming -In a system
of distribution by transformers or converters
a station where a number of transformers are
placed, in order to supply a group of houses
in the neighborhood. (See Transformer.
Electricity, Distribution of, by Alternating
Currents)
Stationary Floor Key.— (See Key, Sta-
tionary Floor)
Stationary Torpedo.— (See Torpedo, Sta-
tionary)
Stay Rods, Telegraphic Metal rods
attached to a telegraph pole, and securely
fastened in the ground in order to counteract
the effects of a pull or tension on the poles.
(See Pole, Telegraphic)
Stay rods should be used in all exposed situa
tions, or where the poles are exposed to severe
strains.
Steady Current— (See Current, Steady.}
Stearns' Relay Shunt.— (See Shunt. Re-
lay, Stearns .)
Steel, Qualities of. Requisite for Mag-
netization — — Qualities which must be
Ste.]
491
[Sto.
possessed by steel in order to permit it to per-
manently retain a considerable magnetization.
For the purposes of permanent magnetization
steel should possess the following qualities:
It should be hard and fine grained. Hard cast
steel answers the purpose very well. Scoresby
showed that an intimate relation exists between
the quality of the iron from which the steel is
made, and the ability of the steel to take and re-
tain considerable magnetism.
The steel should be hardened as high as possi-
ble and the temper afterwards drawn by heat to
a violet-straw color. Practice is not uniform in
this respect, the exact color varying with the
quality of the steel.
An admixture with the steel of about -^ of one
per cent of tungsten is said to increase its mag-
netic powers.
Cast steel is not generally employed for mag-
nets, wrought steel being generally preferred.
Step-by-Step, or Dial Telegraphy.— (See
Telegraphy, Step-by-Step)
Step-Down Transformer. — (See Trans-
former, Step-Down?)
Step-Up Transformer. — (See Transform-
er, Step-Up)
Sterilization, Electric— —Sterilizing
a solution by depriving it of whatever germs
it may contain by means of electrical cur-
rents.
The following experiments were recently made
on sterilization by means of electric currents:
The fluid, with the culture, was placed in a glass
test tube, wound about with a wire coil connected
either with a dynamo or accumulator or other
electric source. Some increase in temperature
was made, but never over 98° Fahr.. When a
Wrrent 1.25 volts, 2.5 amperes passed, a com-
plete sterilization of Micrococus Prodigiosus oc-
curred at the end of twenty -four hours.
Blood and water containing pathogenic germs
was sterilized in five to thirty minutes. The
above described effects would appear to be mag-
netic rather than electric.
Sticking. — A word applied by telegraphers
to the failure of the positive pole relay arma-
ture to leave the magnet pole on the cessation
of the current.
In telegraphy, when from any cause a circuit
is imperfectly broken by an operator's key, or at
the points of contact of a relay or other instru-
ment, such failure is called sticking. When an arc
is formed at the points of a relay where the local
circuit is made and broken, the relay "sticks."
The arc is caused by burning of the platinum
points. Sticking may be a result of a too weak
retractile spring.
Stone, Hercules A name given by
the ancients to the lodestone. (See Lode-
stoned)
Stool, Insulating A stool provided
with insulating supports of vulcanite or other
insulator, employed to afford a ready insulat-
ing stand or support.
Stop, Limiting A stop set so as to
limit the motion of an electrically vibrating or
oscillating bar to any predetermined extent.
Such limiting stops are common on telegraphic
and various other electrical apparatus.
Stopping-Off. — A process employed in
electro-plating, in which a metallic article, al-
ready electro-plated over its entire surface, is
electro-plated with another metal over certain
parts only.
The process of stopping-off consists of covering
the parts which are to receive the metallic coat-
ing, with various stopping-off" varnishes. By this
means articles can be electro-plated on parts of
their surfaces with gold and on the remainder
with silver. The whole surface is first silvered
and the portions intended to be afterwards gilded
are then stopped- off and the object placed in the
gilding bath.
Stopping-Off Tarnish.— (See Varnish,
Stopping-Off.}
Storage Battery.— (See Battery, Storage)
Storage Capacity of Secondary Cell.—
(See Cell, Secondary or Storage, Capacity
of)
Storage Cell.— (See Cell, Storage)
Storage of Electricity.— (See Electricity,
Storage of)
Storm, Auroral A term sometimes
employed to express an unusual prevalence
of auroras.
Storm, Electric An unusual con-
dition of the atmosphere as regards the quan-
tity of its free electricity.
Sto.J
492
Dttr.
A thunder storm is a variety of electric storm.
(See.Stor»*, Thunder.)
Storm, Magnetic Irregularities oc-
curring in the distribution of the earth's
magnetism, affecting the magnetic declina-
tion, dip, and intensity.
Magnetic storms have been observed to accom-
pany auroral displays, and to be coincident with
the occurrence of sun spots^ or unusual outbursts
of solar activity.
The coincidence of magnetic storms and out-
bursts of solar activity is unquestioned. Wolf,
of Zurich, has shown by a comparison of nu-
merous observations of sun spots, the unques-
tioned correspondence, in the times of their
greatest activity, which occur every n.i years,
with the time of occurrence of an unusual number
of sun spots. He has placed these results in the
form of curves. Those shown in Fig. 515 are
taken from observations at Paris and Prague.
The full lines represent the periods of sun spots.
The dotted lines the periods of magnetic storms.
Fig' SIS- Wolfs Sun Spot Numbers.
Storm, Thunder A storm during
which electrical discharges accompanied by
thunder take place between two clouds or be-
tween a cloud and the earth. (See Elec-
tricity. Atmospheric. Storms, Thunder,
Geographical Distribution of.)
Storms, Thunder, Geographical Dis-
tribution of The following general
facts as to the geographical distribution of
thunder storms, show the intimate relation
between the frequency of thunder storms and
the tune and place of the condensation of
vapor.
(I.) Thunder storms seldom, if ever, occur in
the polar regions.
This is probably because the rainfall in the
polar regions results from the condensation of tka
vapor that was formed in the equatorial or tem-
perate regions, so that a considerable time
elapses between the evaporation and condensa-
tion.
(2.) Thunder storms seldom, if ever, occur in
rainless districts, owing probably to the absence
of the condensation of vapor.
(3.) Thunder storms are most frequent and
violent in the equatorial regions, where the rain-
fall results from the condensation of the vapor by
the action of ascending currents, conveying the
vapor almost immediately after its formation into
the upper and colder regions of the atmosphere.
(4.) Thunder storms occur in regions beyond
the tropics, at those seasons of the year when the
rainfall results from the condensation of the vapor
shortly after the time of its formation, viz., in the
temperate zones in the hotter parts of the year.
Straight-Line Trolley Hanger.— (See
Hanger, Straight-Line Trolley!)
Straightaway Bunched Cable.— (See
Cable, Bunched, Straightaway^)
Strain, Dielectric The strained
condition hi which the glass, or other dielec-
tric of a condenser, is placed by the charging
of the condenser.
The deformation of a body under the in-
fluence of a stress. (See Stress.)
The stress in this case, *. *•., the force produc-
ing the deformation or strain, is the attraction, of
the opposite charges. This stress, in the case of
a Leyden jar, is often sufficiently great to cause
a rupture of the glass.
Strain, Electro-Magnetic The de-
formation produced by an electro-magnetic
stress. (See Stress, Electro-Magnetic^
Strain, Electrostatic, Optical— —A
strain or deformation produced in a plate of
glass, or other transparent solid, by subject-
ing it to the stress of an electrostatic field.
(See Stress, Electrostatic^
To obtain the electrostatic stress, holes are
drilled in the plate of glass, and wires from a
Holtz machine or induction coil placed therein,
the wires being separated by a thin layer of glass.
The glass, on being traversed by a beam of
plane polarized light, rotates the plane of polar-
ization of the light in the same direction as the
glass would if subjected to a strain in the direc-
Str.]
[StP.
rttH of the lines of electric force. (See Rotation,
Magneto-Optic.')
Strain, Magnetic -- The deformation
produced in the air-gap between two dissimi-
lar magnetic poles, or in any substance placed
therein, by the stress of the lines of magnetic
force bridging such gap.
Strain, Optical -- A deformation or
akeration of volume produced in a plate of
glass, or other transparent medium, by the
action of any stress. (See Strain, Electro-
Magnetic. Strain, Electrostatic, Optical!)
Strain, Optical Electro-Magnetic —
A strain produced in a plate of glass or other
transparent medium by placing it in a mag-
netic field. (See Stress, Electro-Magnetic.
Rotation, Magneto-Optic!)
Optical strain, whether electrostatic or mag-
netic, or even mechanical, often causes a medium
to acquire the power of double refraction or ro~
tary polarization. (See Refraction, Double,
Electric. Rotation, Magneto-Optic.)
Stranded Core of Cable.— (See Core,
Stranded, of Cable!)
Stranded Line.— (See Line, Stranded!)
Strap Copper.— (See Copper, Strap.)
Straps and Climbers. — Devices employed
by linemen for climbing wooden telegraph
poles.
Stratham's Electric Fuse.— (See Fuse,
Electric, Stratham's!)
Stratification Tube.— (See Tube, Stratifi-
Stratified Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Stratified.)
Stray Field.— (See Field, Magnetic,
Stray.)
Stray Power. — (See Power, Stray!)
Stream-Lines of an Escaping Fluid.—
Lines which show the actual path of the
particles of an escaping fluid.
When the escape has reached a steady condi-
tion, the stream-lines correspond to the flow lines.
Streamers.— Pillars or parallel flashing
columns of light frequently seen during the
prevalence of an aurora. (See Aurora Bo-
realis^
Streamers, Auroral A term some-
times applied to the flashing columns or pillars
of light that are thrown out in the shape of
streams, from portions of the sky during the
prevalence of an aurora. (See Aurora Bo-
realis.)
Streaming Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Streaming.)
Streamlets, Current A theoretical
conception of a series of parallel current
streams or current filaments, flowing through
a solid conductor.
In the case of uniform distribution of an elec-
tric current where the current density is the same
for all areas of cross- section, these current stream-
lets are all of the same strength.
In the case of rapidly alternating currents,
however, the current streamlets are of greater
strength near the surface. When the rate of al-
ternation is sufficiently great, they are almost
entirely absent at the central parts.
The conception of current streamlets is made
in order to account for the increase in the resist-
ance of a solid conductor through which rapidly
alternating currents of electricity are passing.
(See Currents, Simple-Periodic.)
Streams, Convection Streams of
electrified air or other gaseous or vaporous
particles given off from the pointed ends of
charged, insulated conductors. (See Con-
vection, Electric!)
Street Mains.— (See Main, Street.)
Street Service.— (See Service, Street)
Strength, Field The intensity or
total flux of magnetism of a dynamo.
This term is also sometimes roughly used for
the current strength in the field magnet circuit of
a dynamo-electric machine.
Strength of Current— (See Current
Strength!)
Strength of Magnetic Field.— (See Field,
Magnetic, Strength of!)
Strength of Magnetism.— (See Magnetism,
Strength of!)
Stress.— The pressure, pull, or other force
producing a deformation or strain.
Str.
494
[Sub.
Stress, Dielectric The force pro-
ducing the deformation or strain in a dielec-
tric.
A dielectric strain, in the case of a Leyden jar
or condenser, is sometimes sufficiently great to
pierce the dielectric.
Stress, Electro-Magnetic The force
or pressure in a magnetic field, which produces
a strain or deformation in a piece of glass or
other similar substance placed therein. (See
Strain, Optical Electro-Magnetic)
Stress, Electrostatic The force or
pressure in an electrostatic field, which pro-
duces strain or deformation in a piece of glass
or other substance placed therein. (See
Strain, Electrostatic, Optical?)
Stress, Energy of A term some-
times used in place of potential energy. (See
Energy, Potential)
Stress, Magnetic The force acting
to produce a strain in the air-gap between
two dissimilar magnet poles by the action of
the lines of magnetic force, bridging such air
gap-
Striae, Electric Parallel streaked
bands, consisting of alternate light and dark
spaces, produced in tubes containing low
vacua, by the passage of rapidly alternating
currents through them. (See Tube, Strati-
fication)
Strip, Safety A strip or bar used as
a safety fuse. (See Fuse, Safety)
Stripping.— Dissolving the metal coating
from a silver-plated or other metal-plated ar-
ticle.
The object of the "stripping " process is tore-
cover silver from imperfectly plated ware, or
from old ware which is to be replated.
Stripping of silver is accomplished either in the
cold or by aid of heat, by the use of the following
solutions, viz.:
Concentrated sulphuric acid,
(Baume', 66 degrees) ico parts.
Concentrated nitric acid,
(Baume, 40 degrees) 10 "
The objects are suspended in this liquid, which,
provided it be not diluted with water, possesses
the property of dissolving the silver without
touching the metal underneath.
Stripping Baths. — (See Bath, Strip-
ping)
Stripping Liquid. — (See Liquid, Strip-
ping)
Stroke, Lightning A disruptive
discharge between two oppositely charged
clouds, or between a cloud and the earth.
(See Discharge, Disruptive)
Stroke, Lightning, Back or Return —
— An electric shock, caused by an induced
charge, produced by the discharge of a light-
ning flash.
The shock is not caused by the lightning flash
itself, but by a charge which is induced in neigh-
boring conductors by the discharge. These in-
duced effects are, in fact, effects of electro-dy-
namic induction. (See Induction, Electro-Dy-
namic) A similar effect may be noticed by
standing near the conductor of a powerful electric
machine, when shocks are felt at every discharge.
The effects of the return shock are sometimes
quite severe. These effects are often experienced
by sensitive people on the occurrence of a light-
ning discharge at a considerable distance.
In some instances the return stroke has been
sufficiently intense to cause death. In general,
however, the effects are much less severe than
those of the direct lightning discharge.
Struts for Telegraphic Poles.— Inclined
wooden or iron poles, applied to telegraph
poles in order to support the thrust or press-
ure acting on them. (See Pole, Tele-
graphic)
Sturgeon's or Barlow's Wheel.— A wheel
capable of rotation on a horizontal axis, which,
when placed between the poles of a magnet,
rotates when a current is passed through it
between the axis and the circumference.
Sub-Aqueous Cable.— (See Cable, Sub-
Aqueous)
Sub-Branch.— (See Branch, Sub)
Sub-Main.— (See Main, Sub)
Submarine Boat.— (See Boat, Sub-
marine, Electric)
Submarine Cable.— (See Cable, Sub-
marine)
Submarine Mine.— (See Mine, Sub-
marine)
Sub.]
495
[Sur.
Submarine Telegraphy. — (See Teleg-
raphy, Submarine?)
Substance, Ferro-Magnetic —A
term proposed in place of paramagnetic, for
substances that are magnetic after the man-
ner of iron. (See Paramagnetic^
Subterranean Mine. (See Mine, Sub-
terranean^)
Subway, Electric An accessible
underground way or passage provided for the
reception of electric wires or cables.
Underground electric conductors, like all elec-
tric conductors, are liable to faults, crosses, etc.
Unless they are readily accessible, very serious
loss and damage may occur before the fault is
located and corrected.
Sulphating. — A name applied to one of the
sources of loss in the operation of a storage
battery, by means of the formation of a coating
of inert sulphate of lead on the battery plates.
The addition of a solution of sulphate of soda
to the sulphuric acid liquid is claimed to have the
effect of decreasing the extent of the sulphating.
Summer Lightning. — (See Lightning,
Summer?)
Sun Spots.— (See Spots, Sun.)
Sunstroke, Electric, or Electric Prostra-
tion or Insolation Physiological
effects, similar to those produced by exposure
to the sun, experienced by those exposed for
a long while to the intense light and heat of
the voltaic arc.
Electric sunstroke is sometimes called electric
insolation, or electric prostration.
The effects of electric sunstroke were first
noticed by Desprez in his classic experiments on
the fusion or volatilization of carbon.
On undue exposure to an intense electric light
the eyes are irritated and the skin burned as
by the sun. In some cases it is claimed that the
effects of sunstroke, or excessive production of
heat, as in true insolation, are produced. In the
applications of electricity to electric furnaces,
these same effects have been noticed in an inten-
sified degree.
From some recent investigations it would ap-
pear that these effects are to be ascribed to the
light rather than to the heat
The symptoms are as follows: Pain in the
throat, face and temples, followed by a coppery
red color of the skin, irritation and watering of
the eyes, when the symptoms disappear. The
skin peels off in about five days.
Superficial Eddy Currents.— (See Cur-
rents, Eddy, Superficial.)
Super-Saturation of Solution.— (See
Solution, Super-Saturation of.)
Supplement of Angle. — (See Angle, Sup-
plement of.)
Supply, Unit of, Electrical A unit,
provisionally adopted in England by the
Board of Trade, equal to 1,000 amperes flow-
ing for one hour under an electromotive force
of one volt.
This would, of course, equal 1,000 watt-hours,
and would be the same as ico amperes flowing
for ten hours under one volt.
One unit of electrical supply is equal to 1.34
actual horse-power expended for one hour, and
will feed 13.4 Swan lamps of 21 candle-power for
one hour. It is equal in illuminating power in
Swan lamps to the light produced by ico cubic
feet of gas consumed in twenty 14-candle burners
in one hour.
The unit of electrical supply is called a "Board
of Trade unit," a B. O. T. unit, or simply a bot.
It is equal to one kilo-watt hour.
Support, Tripod Eoof — — A support
for a housetop telegraphic line.
The tripod roof support, as its name indicates,
consists of a three-legged support for any suitable
insulator.
A common form is shown in Fig. 516.
Support, Underground Cable A
support provided for holding a cable where
it passes around the side of a man-hole, un-
derground conduit, or other similar location.
Surface, Demarcation The surface
at which a demarcation current is generated.
The surface which marks the point of in-
jury in a muscle or nerve.
Demarcation currents in electro-therapeutics,
are currents produced in injured nerves or
muscles. They are probably due to the chemical
changes that take place between the injured and
the uninjured tissues. The demarcation surface is
Sun]
496
[Sur.
the surface separating parts in a normal condi-
tion from those in an abnormal condition.
An injury to a muscle or nerve causes or pro-
duces at such surface a dying substance which is
Kg. Si 6. Tripod Roof Support.
negative to the uninjured, normal or positive sub-
stance. Such a surface results in a demarcation
current.
Surface Density.— (See Density, Surface)
Surface, Equipotential, of a Conductor
Through Which a Current is Flowing
— A surface described within the mass of a
conductor, conveying an electric current, at
points perpendicular to the direction of the
flow, all possessing the same potential.
Surface, Eqnipotential, or Level Surface
of Escaping Fluid— —A surface de-
scribed within the mass of a fluid in motion
at all places perpendicular to the stream lines
passing such surface.
Surface Integral of Magnetic Induction.
— (See Induction, Magnetic, Surf ace-Inte-
gral of)
Surfaces, Eqnipotential, Electrostatic
Surfaces, all the points of which are
at the same electric potential. (See Poten-
tial, Electric)
Electric surfaces perpendicular to the lines
of electric force over which a quantity of
electricity, considered as being concentrated
at a point, may be moved without doing
work. (See Field, Electrostatic.)
Equipotential surfaces correspond with a water
level, over which a body may be moved horizon-
tally without doing any work against the force of
gravity.
In the case of the charged insulated sphere,
shown in Fig. 517, the equipotential surfaces,
represented by the circles, are concentric,
Hi,
Fig. Jf?. Equipotential Surfaces.
Surfaces, Eqnipotential, Magnetic
— Surfaces surrounding the poles of a mag-
net, or system of magnets, where the mag-
netic potential is the same. (See Potential,
Magnetic)
Magnetic equipotential surfaces extend in a
direction perpendicular to the lines of magnetic
force. (See field, Magnetic.)
No work is required in order to move a unit
pole over equipotential magnetic surfaces, be-
cause in so doing it cuts no lines of magnetic
force. Work, however, is done when the motion
is from one equal potential surface to another.
Equipotential surfaces, whether electric or mag-
netic, cannot intersect one another, since their
potential is the same at all points.
Surfaces, Isothermal Surfaces con-
necting points in a body which have the same
temperature.
Surging Discharge.— (See Discharge,
Surging)
Surgings, Electric Electric oscilla-
tions set up in a charged conductor that is
undergoing rapid discharge.
These surgings produce waves in the surround-
ing ether that travel outwards with the velocity of
8ns.]
497
[8ns.
light. (See Electricity, Hertz's Theory of Elec-
tro-Magnetic Radiations or Waves. )
Susceptibility, Magnetic -- The ratio
existing between the induced magnetization
and the magnetic force producing such mag-
netism, or the intensity of magnetism divided
by the magnetic force.
Susceptibility relates to the poles produced in a
body by a magnetizing force, whereas permea-
bility refers its power to conduct lines of force.
When the inducing field has unit strength of
magnetization, the magnetic susceptibility will
measure directly the strength of the magnetiza-
tion.
When a bar of iron is placed in a magnetic
field, it is threaded by the lines of magnetic force,
and thus becomes magnetized by induction. This
induction will necessarily depend both on the
number of lines of force in the magnetizing field
and on the magnetic permeability of the magnet-
ized body; or, in other words, the induction is
equal to the product of the intensity of the mag-
netizing field and the magnetic permeability of
the body in which the induction occurs.
The magnetic susceptibility is sometimes called
the Co- efficient of Magnetization; calling K, the
•usceptibility, H, the magnetizing force, and I, the
intensity of the resulting magnetization; then
The magnetic permeability is sometimes called
the Co-efficient of Magnetic Induction, calling fj.,
the permeability, B, the magnetic induction and
H, the magnetic force producing the induction ;
then
Suspending Wire of Aerial Cable.— (See
Wire, Suspending, of Aerial Cable.)
Suspension, Bifilar -- The suspen-
sion of a needle by two
parallel wires or fibres, '
as distinguished from
a suspension by a sin-
gle wire or fibre.
M &
<
I
L
b' N,
shown in Fig. 5 1 8. The
two threads, a b and a'
b', are connected to the Fig-Si*- Bifilar Svsfie*.
needle MN, so as to per-
mit it to hang in a true horizontal position. Any
twisting, around the imaginary axis c c', causes
the lines of suspension, ab and a b', to tend to
cross one another and so shorten the axis c c'.
Harris, -who was the first to employ the bifilar
suspension, showed that the reactive force im-
parted to the suspension threads by turning the
needle, was:
(i.) Directly proportional to the distance be-
tween the threads.
(2.) Inversely as their lengths.
(3.) Directly proportional to the weight of the
suspended body.
(4.) Proportional to the angle of twist or torsion
of the threads on each other.
Any deflection of the needle shortens the verti-
cal distance between the points of support and
the needle, and so tends to lift the needle. The
motions are therefore balanced against the force
of gravity instead of against the torsion of the
fibre.
Suspension, Combined Fibre and Spring
— The suspension of a needle by the
combined use of a spiral spring and a single
fibre.
In this form of suspension the spring is intro-
duced between the fibre and the needle. It is
valuable for marine galvanometers and other ap-
paratus exposed to tilting or rolling motions, be-
cause it permits the instrument to be tilted
through several degrees without causing any con-
siderable variation in the deflections produced by
the current or the charge.
Suspension, Fibre Suspension of a
needle by means of a fibre of unspun silk or
other material.
A fibre suspension generally means a single
fibre or thread. It may, however, be applied to
a bifilar suspension. (See Suspension, Bifilar.)
A fibre suspension is to be preferred to a pivot
suspension, since it eliminates all friction . It has,
however, the disadvantage of necessitating level-
ing screws.
Suspension, Knife-Edge — —The sus-
pension of a needle on knife edges that are
supported on steel or agate planes.
A suspension of this kind is used in the dip-
ping needle, since it permits of freedom of mo-
tion in a single vertical plane only.
Suspension, Pivot Suspension of a
needle by means of a jeweled cup and a me-
tallic pivot.
Swa.]
498
[Swi.
The jeweled cup is placed above the centre of
gravity of the needle, and is supported on a steel
point. As a rule, compass needles have this
variety of support.
Swage. — A particular form of anvil on
which highly heated metallic plates are shaped
by hammering them into forms the same as
that of the anvil on which they are placed.
Swage. — To fashion heated metallic plates
by hammering them into the form of an anvil
on which they are supported.
Swaging. — Fashioning highly heated me-
tallic plates into any desired form by ham-
mering while on suitable dies.
Swaging, Electric The forming or
shaping of metallic plates by hammering
them against suitable anvils or dies while
softened by electrical heating.
The electro-swaging apparatus consists of a
welding transformer provided with a movable
clamp. The pressure required for the swaging
is attained by the use of steam admitted into a
cylinder by a lever which operates a four-way
valve.
The rod, bar, or plate of metal to be shaped or
swaged, is first heated by the passage of a pow-
erful heating current, obtained preferably from a
welding transformer, one of the clamps of which
is movable. When the metal is suitably softened
by the passage of the current, it is then subjected
to swaging.
Swelling Current.— (See Currents, Swell-
ing-.)
Swelling Faradic Current.— (See Cur-
rents, Swelling Faradic?)
Swinging Annunciator. — (See Annuncia-
tor, Pendulum or Swinging?)
Swinging Cross. — (See Cross, Swinging
or Intermittent^)
Switch, Automatic, for Incandescent
Electric Lamps A device by which
incandescent electric lamps can be lighted or
extinguished at a distance by means of push
buttons.
The automatic switch for incandescent lamps
corresponds in electric lighting to the automatic
gaslighting device in systems of electric gaslight-
ing. It consists essentially of two electro-
magnets, one for turning the switch which lights
the lamp by cutting them into the circuit of the
lighting mains or conductors, and the other for
extinguishing them, by cutting them out. These
electro-magnets are operated by two push buttons,
a black one to extinguish the lamp and a white
button to light it.
The details of the automatic switch are shown in
Fig. 520. ThemainsM1 andM2, areconnected to
one set of contacts, and the branches containing
Fig- 5IQ- Automatic Switch.
the lamps to be lighted, to the contacts between
them. The push buttons, P1andP2, are con-
nected by their wires to the main M1 and the
branch B1.
These buttons are made respectively positive
and negative, and are marked + and — . The
third wire of the push button is connected as
shown to the lamp L, and the switch magnet,
SM.
When the contact is closed atP1, the arma-
ture of S M, closes the contact through C.
When the button is released, connection is estab-
Fig. J20. Automatic Switch,
lished between the magnet and the lamp L, in
series. This is for the purpose of cutting down
the circuit to the -^ of an ampere, and thus per-
mitting a thin wire to serve between the button
and the switch magnet.
When the button, Pf, is closed the lamps are
turned out.
Switch Board.— (See Board, Switch^
Switch Board, Multiple -(See
Board, Multiple Switch^
Swi.]
499
[Swi.
Switch Board, Telegraphic —(See
Board, Switch, Telegraphic)
Switch Board, Trunking —(See
Board, Switch, Trunking)
Switch, Break-Down A special
switch, employed in small three-wire systems,
for connecting the positive and negative bus-
wires in such a manner as to practically
convert it into a two-wire system and permit
the system to be supplied with current from
a single dynamo. (See Wires, Bus)
Switch, Changing A switch de-
signed to throw a circuit from one electric
source to another.
A changing switch, for example, is of use in
disconnecting a circuit from one dynamo and
connecting it to another; or, in other words, to
suddenly transfer the load from one dynamo to
another.
Switch, Changing-Orer A term
sometimes applied to a changing switch.
(See Switch, Changing!)
Switch, Distributing A multiple
switch board. (See Board, Multiple Switch!]
Switch, Distributing, for Electric
Lights A switch employed in a
system of arc lighting by series-distribu-
tion, by means of which any particular
dynamo-electric machine or a number of
FSf. 321. Dmtble-Break Knife Switch.
separate dynamo-electric machines can
be connected with the same circuit without
interfering with the lights. (See Board, Mul-
tiple Switch)
Switch, Donble-Break A term
sometimes used for double-pole switch. (See
Switch, Double-Pole.)
Switch, Double-Break Knife A
knife switch provided with double-break con-
tacts.
A double-break knife switch is shown in Fig.
521.
Switch, Double-Pole A switch
that makes or breaks contact with both poles
of the circuit in which it is placed.
A switch consisting of a combination of
two separate switches, one connected to the
positive lead and the other to the negative
lead.
Double-pole switches are used in most systems
of incandescent lighting in order to insure the
thorough separation of the circuit from the main
conductor or leads when cut out and to diminish
the spark.
Switch, Feeder The switch em-
ployed for connecting or disconnecting each
conductor of a feeder from the bus-bars in a
central station.
Switch, Four-Point A switch by
which a circuit can be completed through
four central points.
Switch, Knife A switch which is
opened or closed by the motion of a knife
Pig. 522. Lamp-Socket Switch.
contact which moves between parallel contact
plates.
A knife-edge switch. (See Switch, Knife-
Edge)
Switch, Knife-Break A knife
switch. (See Switch, Knife)
Switch, Knife-Edge A term some-
times used in place of knife switch. (See
Switch, Knife)
Swi.]
500
[Swi
Switch, Lamp-Socket A switch
placed in the socket of an incandescent lamp
and provided for throwing the lamp in and
out of the circuit.
A form of lamp socket switch is shown in Fig.
522. Its operation will be understood from an
inspection of the drawing.
Switch Pin.— (See Pin, Switch^
Switch, Plug1 A switch in which a
metal plug is withdrawn to throw into a cir-
cuit a coil or other device, the ends of which
are connected to metallic blocks that are suf-
ficiently near together to be joined and short-
circuited by the insertion of the plug.
Switch, Pole-Changing A switch
employed for changing the direction of the
current in any circuit.
A form of pole-changing switch is shown in Fig.
523.
Fig. J2J. Pole-Changing Switch.
If the two outer contacts are connected to the
same pole as the source, as, for example, the
positive, and the two intermediate contacts are
connected to the other pole, or to the negative,
then in the position shown in the cut, the current
will flow through any receptive device connected
with the switch, in one direction, but if the
switch is moved to the left, it will flow in the op-
posite direction.
Switch, Removable Key A plug
switch. (See Switch, Plug.)
Switch, Reversing A switch for
reversing the direction of the battery current
through a galvanometer.
A simple reversing switch consists of four in-
sulated brass segments mounted on a plate of
ebonite and furnished with openings between
them for plug connections.
The battery terminals are connected to two di-
agonally opposite segments, as B, and D, Fig.
524, and the leading wires of the galvanometer,
01- other instrument, to the other segments, as C
and A. If, now, the plugs are placed between B
and C, and A and D, the battery current flows
in one direction. If, however, the plugs arft
Fig- 524. Reversing Switch.
placed between A and B, and C and D, the bat-
tery current will flow in the opposite direction.
The battery current is cut off if one plug is re-
moved. In practice, however, it is preferable t»
remove both plugs, so as to avoid any current
from want of sufficient insulation.
Switch, Snap A switch in whick
the transfer of the contact points from one
position to another is accomplished by means
of a quick motion obtained by the operation
of a spring.
The object of the snap switch is to prevent the
switch resting in any half way position, and thus
preventing the establishing of an arc.
Switch, Telephone, Automatic —A
device for automatically transferring the con-
nection of the main line from the call bell t«
the telephone circuit.
In most telephone circuits, as now arranged,
the automatic switch, besides transferring the main
line from the call bell to the telephone circuit,
Fig- 5 25- Automatic Telephone Switch.
closes the local battery circuit of the transmitter
on the removal of the telephone from its support-
ing hook.
Swi.]
501
[Synu
The means whereby this is accomplished are
shown in Fig. 525. On the removal of the tele-
phone from the hook L, the lever is pulled up-
wards by the spring Z, thus closing the contacts I,
2 and 3, by which the local battery S, is closed
through the circuit of the transmitter, the tele-
phone disconnected from the circuit of the call bell
M, B, and connected with the circuit of the trans-
mitter. On replacing the telephone on the hook
L, its weight depresses the lever, breaking con-
nection with I, 2 and 3, and establishing connec-
tion with the call circuit.
Switch, Three-Point A switch by
means of which a circuit can be completed
through three different contact points.
Switch, Time An automatic switch
in which a predetermined time is required
either to insert a resistance in or remove it
from a circuit.
Switch, Two-Point A switch by
means of which a circuit can be completed
through two different contact points.
Switch, Two- Way A switch pro-
vided with two contacts connected with two
separate and distinct circuits.
Switch, Yale-Lock, for Burglar Alarm
(See Alarm, Yale-Lock Switch
Burglar?)
Switched-In. — Placed in a circuit by means
of a switch. (See Closed-Circuited)
Switched-Out— Cut out of a circuit by
means of a switch. (See Open-Circuited,)
Symbols and Diagrams, Standard Elec-
tric Standard symbols and diagrams
used in electro-technics.
The standard electric diagrams and symbols
shown on pages 501, and 502, were arranged by
Prof. F. B. Crocker, and are reproduced from
the Electrical Engineer.
SYMBOLS COMMONLY
MECHANICAL.
USED IN ELECTRICAL WORK.
ELECTRICAL.
MAGNETIC.
or I. Length D. Diameter
orm. Mass r. Radius
ort. Time H.P. Horse povie.
Velocity I.H.P. Indicated "
frt Force B.II.P. Brake "
Acceleration r.p.m. Revolutions
due to gravity. per min.
or-n. Work. C.G.S. Centimetre
Power.
CUlb. Footpound.
E.07-E.M.F. Electromotive T. Volt
force
P.D. Potential different
C. Current
B. Resistance
p. Specific resistance
Q. Quantity
K. Electrostatic capacity.
gramme second L> inductance (Coeffic. of)
(System) i<^j.^.m.f^
A.W.G. Amer
Wire Gauge
A.M. Amperemeter.
T.M. Voltmeter
F.M. Field Magnet
+ Positive pole or termin
— Negative " "
amp. Ampere
w. Ohm
0. Megohm.
B.A.U. Brit. As
mfd. Microfarad
b.orhj. Henry
z. Electrochemical
equivalent
J. Joule
E.W. Kilowatt
N. North pole
S. South pole
m. Strength of pole
H. Magnetizinsforce
Unit (C.G.S.)
B. Magnetic induction
(C.G.S. lines)
\. Intensity of mag-
netization
* MaSmea^y'
K. Magnetic sus-
ceptibility
H. Horizontal
intensity of Earth' t
magnetism
Sym.J
502
tSym.
Mont Telfffraph System
Crocker's Ckart o/ Standard Electric Symbols and Diagrams.
Sym.]
503
[Sys.
Symmetrical Induction of Armature. —
(See Induction, Symmetrical, of Armature.")
Symmetrical Magnetic Field.— (See
Field, Magnetic, Symmetrical.)
Sympathetic Electrical Vibrations.—
(See Vibrations, Sympathetic Electrical.)
Sympathetic Vibrations. -(See Vibra-
tions, Sympathetic.)
Synchronism. — The simultaneous occur-
rence of any two events.
A rotating cylinder, or the movement of an
index or trailing arm, is brought into synchronism
with another rotating cylinder or another index
or trailing arm, not only when the two are mov-
ing with exactly the same speed, but when in ad-
dition they are simultaneously moving over simi-
lar portions of their respective paths.
In the Breguet Step-by-Step or Dial Telegraph
(See Telegraphy, Step -by -Step), the movements of
the needle on the indicator are synchronized with
the movements of the needle on the manipulator.
In systems of Fac- Simile Telegraphy the move-
ments of the transmitting apparatus are syn-
chronized with those of the receiving apparatus.
In Delany's Synchronous Multiplex Telegraph
System, the trailing arm that moves over a cir-
cular table of contacts at the transmitting end,
is accurately synchronized with a similar trailing
arm moving over a similar table at the receiving
end.
Delany, who was the first to obtain rigorous
synchronism at the two ends of a telegraphic
line hundreds of miles in length, accomplishes
this by the use of La Cour's phonic wheel,
through the agency of correcting electric im-
pulses, automatically sent in either direction over
the main line, when one trailing arm gets a short
distance in advance or back of the other.
With alternating current dynamos, where one
dynamo is feeding incandescent lamps connected
to the leads in multiple, and it is desired to
couple another alternating current dynamo in
parallel with the first, it is necessary to obtain a
complete synchronism of the two dynamos before
coupling them, since otherwise the lamps will
show variations in their light, and the machine
may suffer.
Sjnchronizable. — Capable of being syn-
chronized. (See Synchronism?)
Synchronize. — To cause to occur or act
simultaneously. (See Synchronism?)
Synchronized. — Caused to occur or act
simultaneously. (See Synchronism!)
Synchronizing Dynamo-Electric Ma-
chine.— (See Machine, Dynamo-Electric,
Synchronizing?)
Synchronous Multiplex Telegraphy.—
(See Telegraphy, Synchronous Multiplex,
Delany's System.)
System, Astatic An astatic com-
bination of magnets.
An astatic needle consists of an astatic system
of two magnetic needles. The needles are
rigidly fixed together with their opposite poles
facing each other. The two needles form an as-
tatic pair or couple. (See Needle, Astatic.)
System, Block, for Railways — —(See
Railroads, Block System for?)
System, Centimetre - Gramme - Second
(See Units, Centimetre - Gramme -
Second?)
System, Continuous Underground, of
Motive Power for Electric Railroads
— (See Railroads, Electric, Continuous Un-
derground System of Motive Power for?)
System, Dependent, of Motive Power for
Electric Railroads (See Railroads,
Electric, Dependent System of Motive
Power for?)
System, Independent, of Motive Power
for Railroads (See Railroads, Elec-
tric, Independent System of Motive Power
for)
System, Multiphase A term fre-
quently applied to a system of rotating elec-
tric currents. (See Current, Rotating.)
System of Distribution of Electricity by
Commntating Transformers. — (See Elec-
tricity, Distribution of, by Commutating
Transformers?)
System of Distribution of Electricity by
Condensers. — (See Electricity, Distribution
of, by Alternating Currents by Means of
Condensers. Electricity, Distribution of, by
Continuous Current by Means of Condens-
ers?)
System of Distribution of Electricity bf
Means of Alternating Currents.— (See Elee-
504
[fai.
tricity, Distribution of, by Alternating Cur-
rents,")
System of Distribution of Electricity by
Motor Generators.— (See Electricity, Dis-
tribution of, by Motor Generators.)
System, Three-Wire A system of
electric distribution for lamps or other trans-
lating devices connected in multiple, in which
three wires are used instead of the two usually
employed.
In the three-wire system two dynamos are gen-
erally employed, which are connected with one
another in series.
The three conductors are connected as shown
in Fig. 527, the central conductor to the junction
of the two dynamos and the two others to their
free terminals, and the difference of potential be-
tween the central and the two outer conductors
is maintained the same. The lamps, or other
electro-receptive devices, are placed in multiple-
arc between either branch, and so distributed
that the current in each branch is the same.
When such balance is established no current
flows through the central or neutral conductor.
But when that balance is disturbed, the surplus
current in one branch is taken up by the central
conductor.
The three-wire system effects considerable
economy in the weight of wire required. Since in
the multiple-series-connection of electro-receptive
devices whatever difference of potential is im-
pressed on the mains is fed to each device, no
higher difference of potential can be employed on
the mains than that which the devices are capa-
ble of taking. In the case of an incandescent
lamp, if such difference be exceeded, too strong
a current is passed through the lamps wiik a
consequent decrease in their life.
In the three-wire system of distribution a higfcer
difference of potential can be maintained on fke
mains than is required for any lamp placed in
<a
li
> S>7' Three- Wi>
0"
System.
connection therewith, and in this manner a c*»-
siderable saving is effected in the cot of the leads.
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
This book is DUE on the last date stamped "below
UfOXHU
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