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EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. 


— 


THE 
EDINBURGH NEW 
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, 


EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE 


PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS 


enn, 


IN THE A =) 
SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. =. 


x rt ae er 


CONDUCTED BY - a 


ROBERT JAMESON, 


REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF 
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 5 


Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the 
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of 
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; Fellow of 
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and 
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal 
Physieal, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of 
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth ; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin 
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So- 
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of 
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So- 
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural 
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences 
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of 
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of 
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts ; of the Geological 
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African 
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France ; Member of the 
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &e. &e. 


OCTOBER 1844 .... APRIL 1845. 


VOL. XXXVIII. 
TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY. 


EDINBURGH : 


ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH: 
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, LONDON. 


1845. 


PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Arr, I. On the Original Population of America, and the 
modes of access from the Old to the New Con- 
tinent, with Preliminary Observations on the 
recently published Travels in North America, 
of Prince Maximilian of Wied. By Lieut.- 
Colonel Cuartes Hamitton Smiru. Commu- 
nicated by the Author, : . 1 
IL. On the Biluchi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the 
Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. By 
Captain T. Postans. Communicated by the 
Ethnological Society. Concluded from Vol. 
xxxvii. p. 402, : 20 
III. On the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Ree 
especially as regards exposure to Rain. Ry 
Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. 
Communicated by the Author, . d 38 
IV. On the Occurrence of Mannite in the Laminaria 
saccharina and other Sea-weeds ; also in Mush- 
rooms, : 41 
V. On the Mammalia of the bse of pa pevaden. 
Banff, and Kincardine. By Witi1am Mac- 
Gitirvray, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Natural 
History in Marischal College and University, 
Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author. 
Concluded from Vol. xxxvii., p. 392, : 43 
VI. On the Phenomena of Evaporation, the Forma- 
tion, and Suspension of Clouds, &. By G. A. 
Rowe.i, Esq. of Oxford. Communicated by 
the Author, . . : : 50 


ii 


CONTENTS. 


Art. VII. On the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. By 


Captain VeETCH, feel ae i With a 
Plate, 


VIII. Remarks on the eeere and reer of the 


IX. 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XV. 


Moveable-Derrick Crane, improved and intro- 
duced into general use by WiLL1AM WIGHTMAN, 
Contractor, in the year 1837; but more parti- 
cularly as applicable in the Construction of 
Bridges, Piers, Breakwaters, and Naval Archi- 
tecture. Communicated to Ed. New Phil. Jour- 
nal by the Royal Scottish a of Arts. With 
a Plate, 


Abstract of a Paper relative to Soring of Water. 
By Rozert Were Fox, 


. Account of a Cheap and Portable Self Registering 


Tide-Gauge, invented by Joun Woop, Esq. of 
Port-Glasgow, and which has been two years in 
use. With examples of the work done by it. By 
Joun Scott Russet, Esq., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.S.A. 
Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society 
of Arts. With a Plate, : 

Researches on the Situation of Zones without 
Rain, and of Deserts. By M. J. Fourner, Pro- 
fessor in the Faculty of Sciences of Lyons. Con- 
cluded from Vol. xxxvii., p. 375, 

An Account of Electrical Experiments. By Mr 
R. Avis, Liverpool. Communicated by the 
Author, F . : 

On Fireproof Warehouses. By Witiiam Farr- 
BAIRN, Esq., Civil-Engineer, 


On Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones, and the 
sources from whence it is derived. By J. Mip- 
DLETON, Esq., 

Contributions towards Establishing the General 
Character of the Fossil Plants of the genus Si- 
gillaria. By Wiii1am Kine, Esq., Curator of 
the Museum of the Natural History Society of 
Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. With Two Plates. Communicated by 


PAGE 


57 


62 


66 


fa 


76 


97 


101 


116 


al a, 


CONTENTS. ili 


PAGE 
the Author. Concluded from page 75, Vol. 
XXXVil., : 119 


ArtT.XVI. Report of a Remarkable ead of the 
Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. By the 
Rev. James Farquuarson, LL.D., F.R.S., Mi- 
nister of the Parish of Alford, ; 3 135 


XVII. On a Species of Teredo found in Cork-floats, on 
the Coast of Aberdeenshire. By Wittiam 
MacGituivray, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Na- 
tural History in Marischal College and Univer- 

sity. Communicated by the Author, , 138 
XVIII. An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of 
the Aboriginal Race of America. By Samvuet 
GeorcE Morton, M.D., Author of Crania Ame- 


ricana, Crania Hgyptiaca, &c., : 141 
1. Physical Characteristics, } 5 : 142 
2. Moral Traits, : ; : : 146 
3. Intellectual Faculties, ; F : 149 
4. Maritime Enterprise, : : : 155 
5. Manner of Interment, : 160 


XIX. Observations on the Comet in the Whale, made at 
the Observatory of Hamburg. By M. Rumxer. 
Communicated by Sir T. Makdougall Brisbane, 
Bart., President of the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh, ‘ : : : ‘ 174 
‘XX. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE :— 


GEOLOGY. 


1. Remarks on Fossil Birds. By Mr Paul Gervaes. 
2. On Gigantic extinct Mammalia in Australia. 
By Prof. Owen. 3. On the influence of Fucoidal 
Plants upon the formations of the Earth; on Me- 
tamorphism in general, and particularly the Me- 
tamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By 
Prof. G. Forchhammer. 4. On the Fossil Fishes 
of the London Clay. By M. Agassiz. 5. On the 
Toadstone or Amygdaloid of Derbyshire. By J. 
Alsop. 6, Our supposed inexhaustible Stores of 
Coal. 7. Eruption of Boiling Water from the ex- 
tinct volcano of Solfatara. 8. Temperature of the 
Mediterranean. 9. On Polarization of Light in 
reference to the Light of the Sun, . : 175 


iv CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
MINERALOGY. 
10. Discovery of Niobium, a new Metal. 11. Dau- 
brée on the Occurrence of Axinite in a fossiliferous 
Rock in the Vosges, 4 5 5 181 
CHEMISTRY. 
12. Experiments of Brown and Knox. 13. On the 
Occurrence of Xanthic Oxidein Guano. 14. Heat 
from Solid Carbonic Acid, : : 182 
ZOOLOGY. 
15. Professor E. Forbes’s Bathymetrical Researches. 
16. Guyon on the Cagots of the Pyrenees. 17. 
Coral Fishery. 18. Goadby’s Method of Prepar- 
ing Animal Substances, i : ; 184 
XXI. New Publications, F : , 186 


XXII. List of Patents for Inventions granted for Scot- 
land from 24th September to 20th December 
1844, inclusive, : : : : 188 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Art. I. On the Life and Writings of Commandant 
Emile Le Puillon de Boblaye. By M. Rozer, 193 


II. Comparative Remarks on the Recent and Fossil 
Mollusca of the South of Italy, and more par- 


3 ticularly of Sicily. By Dr ‘A. Purziprt, 202 
I. Comparative number of the Mollusca of the pre- 
sent epoch, and of the Tertiary Period, ; 203 
II. Relative numbers of the Extinct and ots 
Species, : s 5 204 
III. Physiognomy of the Mollusca of the Tertiary 
Period and of the present day, 3 210 


IV. What is the proportion of the Living and Ex- 
tinct Species at the individual localities? Have 
all the latter a like age? Can subdivisions be 
established in the Tertiary formation of South- 
ern Italy; and if so, what are they? . Ae PAY 


III. On admitting the Back-Light, in Portable Dio- 
ramas, upon different parts of a Picture at 
different times; on using Light from Oil, 

&c. By Georce Tait, Esq., F.R.S.S.A. 
Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society 
of Arts, ; : : : - 214 


IV. Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox, 
Glasgow, and of the Climbing- Machine used 
in examining and repairing a Rent in that 
Chimney at the height of 280 feet. By Lewis 
D. B. Gorpon, Esq., Professor of Civil-En- 
gineering in the University of Glasgow, and 


Art. VY. 


Wi. 


War, 


VILE 


IX. 


XI. 


XII. 


CONTENTS. 


Laurence Hitt Junior, Esq., F.R.S.S.A., 
Civil-Engineer. With a Plate. Communi- 
cated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 


On a Method of rendering Baily’s Compensa- 
tion Pendulum insensible to Hygrometric 
Influence. By Mr Rosert Bryson, F.R.S.E., 
Watchmaker, Edinburgh. Communicated by 
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 


An Account of some Experiments tending to 
illustrate the Formation of Guano. By Joun 
Davy, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. & Ed., Inspec- 
tor-General of Army Hospitals, L.R. Com- 
municated by the Author, 


On the Heights of Mountains, &c., in Norway, 
I. Heights in the different Amts, 
II. Height of the Snow-Line, 
III. Limit of the Birch Tree, 
IV. Limit of the Scotch Fir, 
V. Limit of the Spruce Fir, : ° 

On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible 
compared with the Discoveries of the Modern 
Sciences. By Marven DE SERRES, 

On Earthquakes and Extraordinary Movements 
of the Sea; and on remarkable Lunar Perio- 
dicities in Earthquakes, Oscillations of the 
Sea, and Great Atmospherical Changes. ss) 
Ricuarp Epmonps Jun., Esq., 


. On the Constitution of the Ichthyolites of 


Stromness. By Anprew Fremine, A.M., 
M.D. Communicated by the Author, 

On the Determination of Heights by the Boil- 
ing Point of Water. By James D. Foxrszs, 
Esq., F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Ed., Corresponding 
Member of the Institute of France, and Pro- 
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh. With Two Plates, 


Remarks on the Cirripedia, with Descriptions 


of several Species found adhering to Vessels 
from Ichaboe, on the West Coast of Southern 


PAGE 


216 


220 


226 


232 
234 
238 
238 
238 
239 


239 


271 


280 


286 


Arr. XIII. 


XIV. 


b.A' 


XVI. 


VIE: 


XVIII. 


XIX. 


XX. 


XXI. 


XXII. 


CONTENTS. 


Africa. By Wint1am MacGiriivray, A.M., 
LL.D., Professor of Natural History in 
Marischal College and University, Aberdeen. 
Communicated by the Author, 
On the Intellectual Character of the ind: 
maux. By Ricuarp Kine, M.D. Commu- 
nicated by the Ethnological Society. 

Ninth Letter on Glaciers; addressed to Profes- 
sor Jameson. Remarks on the Recent Ob- 
servations made on the Glacier of the Aar 
(in 1844), by direction of M. Agassiz. By 
Professor Forses, F.R.S., Corresponding 
Member of the Institute of France. Com- 
municated by the Author, 3 

Note on the Crystallization of recon ae of 
Lime. By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond. 
and Edin. Communicated by the wade: 


On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous 
Veins. By Professor Gustav Biscuor, of 
Bonn, 

Proceedings of the reat Society of Edin- 
burgh. (Continued from Vol. XXXVI., p. 
198.) : 


Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History 
Society, é : ‘ 
Abstract of Meteorological Observations for 
1844, made at Applegarth Manse, Dumfries- 
shire. By the Rev. Wm. Dunzar, D.D. (Con- 
tinued from Vol. XXXVI., p. 380), 


Mean State of the Barometer and Thermometer - 


at Canaan Cottage, near Edinburgh. By A. 
Anviz, Esq. 1844, , : - 
The Meteorology of Whitehaven. Remarks on 

the Weather, &c., of 1844, 


ScrentiFic INTELLIGENCE :— 
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 
1. Geognostical Structure of Magerée. 2. Geog- 
nosy of Nordkyn in Finmark. 3. Supposed 
Organic Remains of Kaafjord in Norway. 4. 


lil 


PAGE 


294 


306 


332 


342 


344 


354 


374 


375 


377 


377 


iv CONTENTS. 


New Proof of the Cantal being a crater of Sou- 
levement. 5. On the Cause of the Colours in 
Precious Opal. By Sir David Brewster. 6. On 
Crystals in the cavities of Topaz, which are 
dissolved by heat, and re-crystallize on cooling. 
By Sir David Brewster, 


BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 
7. Distribution of Plants on Mount Canigou, Hast- 


ern Pyrenees. 8. On solid Vegetable Oils. 
9. On the Ibis, : h : : 


Art. XXIII. New Publications, 


XXIV. List of Patents for LiivelhiiMe granted for 
Scotland from 24th January to 20th 
March 1845, inclusive, : E 


INDEX, 


Errata in Mr King’s paper on the Genus Sigillaria, in the last Number. 


Page 131, line 6 from the top, for Endogens read Cryptogams. 
» » line 12 from the top, dele of this class. 
ss 182, line 5 from the top, for Monocotyledons vead plants. 


» 134, line 2 from the bottom, for Kenilworth read Killingworth. 


PAGE 


383 


386 
389 


392 
397 


—_—- 


Ts 
‘ 
@ 


THE 


EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. 


On the Original Population of America, and the modes of access 
from the Old to the New Continent, with Preliminary Ob- 
servations on the recently published Travels in North America, 
of Prince Maximilian of Wied.* By Lieut.-Colonel CHARLES 
Haron Surra. Communicated by the Author. 


Books of travels in North America, the Atlantic States, 
the interior, the Canadas, and Texas, have been of late so 
superabundant in our language, that to offer some remarks 
on one that does not appear to have been reviewed, although 
it was published some months ago, might be taken for an 
absolute work of supererogation. In the original, it is true, 
the language is German ; but both French and English ver- 
sions were brought out, we believe, at the same time, with the 
approbation of the author, Prince Maximilian of Wied, who 
formerly gave the scientific public an interesting account of 
his travels in Brazil, and is so well known for careful and 
extensive researches in natural history. The work before us 
(we refer chiefly to the German edition, the most complete of 
the three) differs somewhat from the English version, by 
having all the philological researches, and the zoological 


* Reise in das innere Nord America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834, von 
Mawimilian Prinz eu Wied. 2 vols. imp. 4to, with Atlas of Plates. Co- 
blenz. Travels in the interior of North America, by Maximilian Prince 
of Wied. London: Ackermann, 1843. 

VOL. XXXVIIL NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1645. A 


2 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


descriptions without restriction or omission; the more im- 
portant to science, because none other will be published by 
the author in a separate form ; since the greater part of his 
valuable collections have unfortunately perished by fire, in 
their passage by steam down the rivers of the United States, 
and, consequently, could not again be referred to. 

We do not know how far, in the translations, the notion of 
adapting a foreign work, to what is called the national taste, 
has been extended, but in a general point of view, a scien- 
tific publication, necessarily intended for the learned and stu- 
dious, should be, we think, translated with great caution, 
even though it hath appeared in the form of a journal. In 
England and America, the native writers of travels have 
often indulged, each adverting to the land of his own birth, 
in national self-complacencies and national reflections, but 
little creditable to their tastes, and calculated to increase 
more than abate the evils they profess to denounce. The 
work before us contains no evidence of a similar tendency, 
and in this sense may want the salt of malevolence: it is of 
quite a different mould, though the illustrious traveller, fa- 
miliar with the courts of sovereigns, and well acquainted 
with the habits of many nations, might easily have indulged 
in that kind of remark which recommends itself so strongly 
to the curiosity of common readers ; but he never descends 
into comment on the habits of private life, or domestic fa- 
milies ; never holds up with triumphant complacency his own 
nationality, but, solelyand enthusiastically bent on the pursuit 
of Natural History, self is not made prominent in any form. 
There are no smart repartees, no claims to the character of 
being a first-rate shot, no unheard-of hardships endured, 
although, for several months, his whole party were obliged 
to live entirely in the Indian fashion; and there is scarce 
mention of any danger having been incurred. Seeking new 
facts in the wildernesses of the far west, as he had previously 
done in the tropical regions of Brazil, not so much with that 
thrist for notoriety, which besets so many public men, that 
his name might be celebrated in the halls of science, as to 
follow the impulses of a nature which continues to draw him 
mightily to the abstractions of research, as they formerly 


on the Original Population of America. 3 


did at Paris, during the period when the allied armies were 
all in a tumult of politics, ceremonies, and parades, and he ap- 
peared daily in his Prussian Hussar uniform, with note-book 
in hand, at the lectures of Cuvier, the only military student, 
although at that time he had already accomplished his visit 
to South America, and was advantageously known for his 
scientific addenda to the zoology of that region. The thirst 
for extending his knowledge in natural history is still so 
ardent. that we believe, if the Prince were not withheld by a 
somewhat advanced life, he would, even now, quit his peace- 
ful study to undertake a scientific tour in Australia, reap a 
new harvest of facts and objects to deposit in his valuable 
zoological museum, or share them, with his usual liberality, 
with other collections of a similar nature, both public and 
private. 

The contents of the museum at Neuwied are always acces- 
sible to the scientific, and even to the merely curious travel- 
ler ; and the liberality which is ever ready to communicate 
information on the natural sciences, is only equalled by the 
unostentatious urbanity of the giver, and the interest he 
takes in the pursuits of his fellow-labourers in the same re- 
searches. But the quality of a book, it may be said, should 
not be estimated by the private worth of the author; and 
being destitute of the marvellous, or the piquancy of social 
comparisons, can excite but small interest with the generality 
of readers; and it may be asked, what is its prominent cha- 
racter ? To this this we may reply, in a single word, namely, 
truth! NVeracity unembellished by more colouring than what 
is necessary for the acquisition of a clear perception of the 
matter, is the pervading aim of every sentence. It is the 
spell that binds the author’s observations on the general 
character of the social condition of man in the United States : 
he sees dispassionately from an elevated point of view, mark- 
ing “ the great result of unchecked industry, and a vigorous 
system of commerce, as the causes of that giant progress 
everywhere observable ; exciting the astonishment of a tra- 
veller from Europe, when he meets at every step new 
and extensive cities, with numerous public buildings, and 
great institutions of all kinds. They rise up so rapidly, that 


4 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


maps, comparatively of recent publication, become almost 
useless, by reason of the new names of places and towns 
which have sprung up into reality within a few years ; while 
the influx of colonists penetrates more and more into the in- 
terior, and is not likely to be checked but by the sterility of 
the higher plateaux of the north-western prairies.” This 
piercing glance into coming events, though so recently writ- 
ten, dates, nevertheless, before the new direction which the 
expansion of settlements has taken, and is now rapidly tak- 
ing, into Texas, a state torn from its Spanish allegiance, 
which popular or party clamour appears anxious to incorpo- 
rate with the other provinces of the Federal Union, not with- 
out an ulterior view to Mexico. Indeed, to the initiated, the 
scheme had its commencement so far back as 1816. It is 
again illustrated by the still more recent Oregon question, 
urged on with an intemperance of zeal that would be amus- 
ing, if it were not for the reflection, that, among public men, 
external injustice and violence is only offensive when com- 
mitted by a stranger or an enemy, and that the principle of 
national honesty is disregarded even more in republics than 
in monarchies ; because there is no responsibility for conse- 
quences in the former, though there may be some in the 
latter. 

Thus the grasping selfishness of civilized nations disposes 
of the earth’s surface according to the dictates of ambition, 
without the least regard to the claims and rights of the mdi- 
genous tribes to whom they send traders to demoralize them ; 
then come missionaries, as if it were to prepare them for re- 
moval ; for, notwithstanding their high calling, they cannot 
arrest the fatal results of gunpowder, ardent spirits, and new 
diseases spread among them : nay, it would appear that some 
undetected law in nature blights the vitality of the children 
of the wilderness ; since every care cannot prevent the gra- 
dual extinction of the natives from the moment civilized man 
becomes a permanent dweller among them. The humane 
and the pious cannot but reflect earnestly upon these too 
common results of their most benevolent exertions : and we 
mention these reflections not without despondency ; for in 
more than one region have we been eye-witnesses to their 


on the Original Population of America. 5 


operation. Meanwhile, in America, that portion of the ab- 
original race which still exists undevoured by the mild pro- 
cesses of the civilized encroacher, and which, as it will not 
bow to servitude, must submit to extermination, is fast be- 
coming (that is, in the exact proportion of its decrease) the 
theme of romantic story ; and when the last tribe shall have 
been effaced, the stoical virtues of the red warrior shall ob- 
tain full credit with the “ pale faces” of the Caucasian stock, 
and rise into more deserved, because more real, grandeur 
than the Titans, the Pelasgi, or the Scythians of the poetical 
Kast. 

As it was not to describe the Anglo-Americans that the 
Prince undertook his voyage, but to become acquainted, by 
personal research, with the natural productions of North Ame- 
rica, its mineral and vegetable riches, its zoology, and, above 
all, its fast vanishing indigenous nations, it is in relation to 
these aboriginal tribes that the work before us is particularly 
valuable, being written from notes dating, in point of time, two 
or three years before the travels of the benevolent Catlin, 
whose narrative, when speaking of those nations which were 
observed by the Prince, notices the same chiefs and braves ; 
and they mutually illustrate each other. Where the more 
extensive and varied intercourse of the American author 
among the whole range of Red tribes occasionally rectifies a 
slight mistake, the German diary, particularly where the re- 
marks bear upon the natural history, origin, and languages, of 
this race, develops a more profound knowledge of the zoolo- 
gical condition of the questions at issue, a greater and more 
varied historical research, and the power of comparing the 
different dialects, extinct and spoken, of that part of the 
Western Continent. A previous personal study of the native 
clans of Brazil afforded another signal advantage for compa- 
rison ; and the facility which the Prince possessed of com- 
municating with such authorities as Humboldt, Blumenbach, 
and many other celebrated investigators of Germany, both in 
the physiology and linguistics of America, give the more 
weight to his opinions, and make them all the more accepta- 
ble, because they are not offered in the form of peremptory 
conclusions. 


6 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


It is, indeed, evident in the context of the expressed infer- 
ences, that identity with the Malay race, or an exclusive 
Mongolic extraction, is far from bemg a fact admissible 
without very considerable qualification: but there is a ten- 
dency in philosophical researches, as well as in fashion, to fol- 
low in the wake of certain favoured opinions, where given 
reasonings are for a time admitted to be conclusive, and re- 
ceive all the support of dogmatic authority, until they are 
undermined by time, or suddenly overthrown by the disclosure 
of some new undeniable fact. The original population of 
the Western Continent, perhaps above all other speculative 
crotchets, has been, and occasionally continues to be, a theme 
of this kind, particularly among that class of day-dreamers 
who neither understand physiology, nor think it important to 
investigate and compare the languages of those regions. 
Among the more ancient writers, several did not scruple to 
make and overcome all sorts of difficulties ; they embarked 
in the strangest fancies, and, even in more recent times, there 
have been authors who were able to dwell with satisfaction on 
the discovery of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, or the Welsh 
followers of Madoc, who, according to their fancies, were the 
progenitors of the whole or of a part of the present indige- 
nous race. But though, perhaps, neither of the above asser- 
tions is entirely erroneous, there is evidence in every direc- 
tion of the probability that men of different stocks had reached 
the Western World at very different times and from different 
quarters. We think His Highness might have gone further 
in his admissions, and at once have allowed the considerable 


admixture of a Caucasian element in the races of America, 


whether the progenitors of that stock reached their destina- 
tion by a western course from Europe, from some submerged 
Atlantis, or whether a Guanche tribe went by successive 
stages from Africa, and within the certain course westward 
of the trade-winds and currents, or a people proceeded by an 
eastern route from the South Sea Islands, the Aleuthian 
chain, or from the mouth of the river Amur, whither a Cau- 
casian tribe appears to have lost its way among the chains 
of the Kuan-Lun and Thien-chan mountains at a most remote 
period of human existence. 


—_— 


on the Original Population of America. 7 


We know so little of the primeval world; of the first dis- 
tribution of man ; of the question whether all historical record 


“of the west be not exclusively applicable to the Caucasic or 


bearded stock ; and of a diluvian destruction, which, if it be 
admitted to have affected the whole earth, would still not 
substantiate that it was total, by submerging every moun- 
tain-ridge, and include the absolute destruction of the whole 
human race, with the sole exception of the Arkite family. 
We know nothing of the original conditions of existence of 
the Mongolic and Ethiopian stocks, nor when nor how they 
acquired their distinctive characters; excepting that when 
the first mentioned can be traced in history it is already as 
strongly marked as at present, and still more the second, 
which is found pictured on the oldest monuments of Egypt, 
dating, according to the best authorities, nearly as far back 
as the age of Abraham, that is, according to the common 
chronology, to within the fourth century after the Deluge ; 
we see that it is delineated in features, hair, and colour, with 
all the attributes of the present negroes. We can scarcely 
deny that at that time India and China, probably also Bac- 
tria, were also densely peopled and already ruled by consi- 
derable monarchies, though the civilizations of Etruria, of 
Asia Minor, Syria, and Greece, were, for ages after, still 
small independent communities, rising out of the patriarchal 
form, and not yet united into nations by conquest,—always a 
result of time. Still less is known of those ages where, by 
our present discoveries, we find that there was in some un- 
known region an advanced civilization, since it left evidence 
of a progressive science which was again followed by ages of 
darkness, to revive and perish again or reappear in other 
quarters, till the contemplation would appear like the phan- 
toms of a dream, if evidence far stronger than historical as- 
sertions were not found in ruins of man’s handiwork in parts 
of the world of all others the most unlooked-for. Such, for 
example, is the ruined city or cities—for more than one 
is reported to exist in the same vicinity—built of huge 
squared blocks of stone, and in surface extending to dimen- 
sions that must have required a vast population, though 
they be now sunk below the level of the sea, and are situ- 


8 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


ated on small islands of the volcanic range in the Chinese 
seas, known by the name of the Carolines. This range 
is still subject to the action of all the phenomena attend- 
dant upon subterranean fire, and the parts above water, in 
many places, seem to indicate that a great surface of the 
earth has sunk into the sea, leaving only summits above 
water, or that these summits, with the ruins upon them, are 
gradually returning to the surface; but that once a more 
numerous people existed here than could find subsistence on 
the present surfaces, and was in possession of certain arts 
of civilized life, is beyond dispute. Here, then, we have the 
counterpart of our western Atlantis, and perhaps the founda- 
tion of that Zepangri which Marco Polo had heard of in the 
East. In Japan, according to Dr Syburg, wrought jewellery 
has been found under conditions which must refer it to a 
people and age totally unknown; and in the Chinese seas, 
near the Island Formosa, a peculiar green porcelain, that 
cannot now be manufactured, is fished up, unless the trade 
is an imposture, which may ever be suspected where that 
crafty people is concerned. 

Again, there are the Parallellitha of Tinian, the rock idols 
of Christmas Island and of Pitcairn’s, where no human foot 
was supposed to have trodden till the mutineers of the 
Bounty landed, and found, in these sculptured remains, un- 
equivocal proof that a people had anteriorly lived upon that 
rock, and had perished or had departed. On the west coast 
of America, no structures of the class usually denominated 
cromlechs have yet been noticed; but they exist on the 
north-eastern side of that continent, in Newfoundland, and 
in several places of the United States, to a distance in the 
interior, precluding all probability that at any time they 
were set up by the Scandinavian adventurers who visited 
Greenland, and, it would seem, from later information, ex- 
plored the coast southward as far as Brazil, where, it is’ 
asserted, a Runic inscription has been discovered ; or there 
was a far greater number of tempest-driven adventurers 
from the west of Europe than Scandinavian Sagas knew of, 
not lost at sea, but cast upon the east coast of the new 
world, and absorbed in its population. There exist beyond 


on the Original Population of America. 9 


the Alleghanies well-defined traces of ancient fortified cities 
or camps; great sepulchral tumuli, the work of unknown 
nations; for nearly all traditionary knowledge among the 
different tribes now existing in these localities accounts for 
their arrival from the north-west or the north, at periods 
apparently not exceeding seven or eight centuries’ distance 
from the present time, excepting with a few, who have puerile 
legends, ascribing their descent from beavers, elks, rabbits, 
trout, and even from a species of moth and snail. That 
these are not more aboriginal than the rest, is proved by the 
languages they speak being mere dialects of those who 
acknowledge an immigration, and by the general physical 
similarity of their persons. 

From California to Chili there are, however, far more 
numerous remains of departed nations, not wholly admissible 
as the work of Toltecs, of Astecs, Anahyuacans, or of Peru- 
vians. From the shores of the Pacific eastward, a system 
of civilization had waxed and waned more than once, not 
entirely self-created, and in some places not without western 
elements, but, in the main, worked out into a homogeneous 
character ,exclusively its own. The pyramids of Cholula, 
near Mexico.—which bear more affinity to the Morais of the 
Friendly and Society Islands than any other work of the 
kind—might, indeed, be the consequences of human reason 
under similar circumstances adopting similar ideas, if they 
did not also stand as landmarks of a marine route, since we 
find them connected with Indo-China, by similar works in 
Java, &c. But ina later class of buildings, temples, palaces, 
and the ruins of great cities in Yucatan, &c., there are bas- 
relief figures of gods, heroes, attendants, and captives, remark- 
able for their lengthened proportions, aquiline noses, and flat- 
tened occiputs, of which we find living types only among the 
lofty tribes of northern Indians, although in the antique bury- 
ing-places of Peru there are numerous instances of skulls 
similarly flattened at the back, but with totally distinct cranial 
characters. The aquiline-faced race was, therefore, at some 
anterior period, possessed of civilization and power in tropi- 
cal America, sufficient not only to leave its physical charac- 
teristics impressed on ideal personages, but even to serve as 


10 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


types for the fashions of remote and distinct nations. Why 
should these not be the tall Allegwi tribes, anciently driven 
southward by the Lene Lenapes, who, many ages ago, came, 
according to their own traditions, from the west, far beyond 
the Missisippi, and made themselves masters of the country ? 
Nevertheless, even these appear to be copies, as will be 
pointed out in the sequel. 

Reverting to the oscillations of social life and emigration, 
it may next be remarked, that all the South Sea Islands, 
when first discovered, were found to be in possession of 
domestic poultry, indigenous only in Asia and Australasia. 
It is said that the same species was discovered by the first 
Spaniards, among the Aurocanos of the coast of Chili; and 
Cortez, in his letters, addressed to the Emperor Charles V., 
casually observes, when first he visited the markets of 
Mexico, that poultry and onions were abundantly sold in 
them. Had he referred to turkeys, grouse, or other galli- 
nacea of America, he would most likely have been somewhat 
more explicit, because they would have afforded the interest 
of novelty, which the first-named birds soon after excited in 
Spain. He mentions, in another place, fields of Indian corn 
(Zea Mais), by the name of mayz, making it, therefore, dis- 
tinct from the Tritica of the Old World. The objection that 
might be raised, that if poultry had really been introduced 
before the time of Columbus, the species would have been 
found wild in all the congenial latitudes, may be answered 
with the fact, that, although three centuries have elapsed 
since the arrival of the Spaniards, none are yet found wild 
in any part of the country, while the Guinea and pea-fowls 
brought so late as the seventeenth century, are abundant in 
the woods of the Great West India Islands, and in parts of 
South America. 

In the works of art at Palenque, representations have been 
found, bearing strong analogy to the scriptural records in 
Genesis ; and even the cross is sculptured between two high- 
nosed heroes. Again there are rocks carved with diagrams 
of similar design near Boston (at Dighton, on the banks of 
the Taunton), in many places of Guiana, and near Ekaterin- 
enburg in Siberia. We find the ears perforated, and the 


on the Original Population of America. AL 


septum nasi bored through, to bear a rod of bone (by sailors 
termed a spritsail yard), both in the South Sea Islands and 
on the east coast of Asia; from Nootka Sound in America to 
beyond the equator. Several weapons of the Malays are of 
a similar fashion to those of South America. Peter Martyr, 
who wrote his decades from papers of the first discoverers, 
and during their lives, relates that Oaseo Nunez found a 
colony of negroes at Quaraqua in the Gulf of Darien. There 
are others of Papua appearance on the west side in Cali- 
fornia. About Nootka, a white coloured skin would efface 
the radical distinction of the Red Men; and the Caribs of the 
West Indies, from our personal knowledge, are, if any re- 
main, ochry, like Arookas, and not nearly so red as Spanish 
and French seamen exposed to the sun. 

Finally, there exist in both Americas linguistic formule, 
which Balbi refers to a Semitic and even Hebrew affinity, 
and many words in the Carib tongue, particularly among 
the trading, vagrant, and fighting, Accawas, have a striking 
resemblance to the languages of ancient Syria and Carthage. 
Of the diversity of origin existing among the so-called abo- 
riginal inhabitants, there are the Arookas or Arowaks, in 
the south, whom we have ourselves heard the Caribs declare 
to be a distinct race from every other in northern South 
America, and to have come up from the south, possibly an 
ancient offset of the heroic Araukanos, apparently themselves 
belonging to the Oceanian stock of New Zealand, mixed 
Semitic Malays, from time immemorial the seamen of the 
South. The Wapisians of Guiana may be a stray sept of 
the destroyed high-nosed tribes of ancient Mexico, and, in 
that case, remotely allied to the Cherokees, who are affirmed 
to be of the same Allegwi stock; and, in North America, we 
see no reason why a people of Celtic origin should not have 
reached the western continent, since their monuments can 
be traced upon it, and we find a well-marked chain of these 
same structures on the old continent, from the river Indus 
eastward through southern India to Macao in China, and the 
island of Loochoo; and from the same river westward 
through Persia, Armenia, Asia Minor, Epirus, and the Tyrol 
on the north, and along the coast of Africa, on the south side 


12 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


the Mediterranean, then following the west coasts of Spain 
~ and France to Great Britain, and through western Germany 
into Norway, where the Scandinavians appear to have con- 
tinued to raise similar monuments after the Cymbers of the 
north had been expelled. 

It is not necessary to adduce the numerous instances of 
Oceanian natives being scattered by the monsoons to im- 
mense distances from their homes, with and without women. 
The fact is sufficiently proved, since constant voyages of our 
commercial and military navies traverse the Pacific, and 
often meet with examples of the kind. The truth is esta- 
blished still more positively by the similarity of aspect, 
languages, and manners, of the greater part of the islanders 
over the whole surface of Polynesia; and the practicability 
of frequent escape from destruction, is indicated by means 
of the numerous coral islands where the wanderers find 
temporary shelter. A strong instance of another kind is 
recorded in the case of a Japanese junk, which, having been 
blown out of its course, was allowed to float at random for 
eight months, until an English brig, seeing its wreck-like 
aspeet, sent a boat on board, within forty-eight hours’ sail 
of the coast of California, and took seven persons out of her, 
being all that survived of forty, who composed the original 
company. They were brought safe to the Sandwich Islands, 
in order to be restored to their native country by the first 
vessel that might sail for the Chinese seas. 

On the Atlantic, the Norwegian discoveries have already 
been mentioned. Columbus, in his second voyage, found 
the sternpost of a vessel on shore at Guadaloupe. In- 
stances have occurred, likewise, of vessels parting their 
anchors at Teneriffe (one in 1731), being driven with a part 
of the crews on board, to Trinidad in tropical America, 
Another was taken in possession by the people of a British 
ship, not far from Caraccas, and carried into La Guira. 
The Black Caribs of St Vincents were a race of Negroes 
found on that island; but their early history, so far as it 
relates the circumstance that they are descended from re- 
volted Africans on board a slave-ship, which was stranded 
near the island, is by no means a fact so well authenti- 


on the Original Population of America. 13 


cated, as it is inferred from general reasoning. Both the 
facility of reaching tropical America from the Atlantic, and 
the general credulity or ignorance on the subject, was, we 
remember, well illustrated by a fact which occurred about 
the year 1798. An American merchant, with a black boy, 
arrived in a ship’s gig, provided with water and food, and 
containing some valuable merchandize, at Paramaribo, in 
the colony of Surinam. The account he gave of himself 
was, that he came a passenger from the East Indies in a 
British ship ; and having purchased the boat in the proper 
latitude for reaching the West Indies, had embarked with 
his servant, and run before the trade-wind, intending to 
make Barbadoes ; but indifferent steering in a small boat— 
unsteadiness for taking observations—sleep, and probably 
eurrents—had, it appeared, carried him so far south as to 
make the mainland of South America. He was disbelieved, 
and detained until the truth of his narrative was fully esta- 
blished. Thus, within the trade-winds, an open boat may 
run with safety, and within a determinable time, from 
Africa to America. Indeed, it was an open boat which 
brought the first intelligence of De Gama’s safe arrival in 
India—having gone the whole distance across the Indian 
Ocean—round the Cape of Good Hope to Lisbon. Of the 
vessels of Columbus which he used to discover America, only 
one was completely decked. 

What the trade-winds effect constantly on the Atlantic, 
the monsoons produce alternately on the Pacifie,—the effect 
of which we have already mentioned; but as a further 
proof in what manner European vessels may have formerly 
wandered, and the crews, been saved in unknown lands, may 
be mentioned a Venetian ship, about the last quarter of the 
fifteenth century, bound to Bordeaux, losing its rudder after 
passing Gibraltar, and beating about during the whole 
winter, till it was wrecked on the coast of Norway, where 
the crew was ultimately saved and sent to Copenhagen. 
Had this vessel’s head been cast to the south instead of to 
the north, after she had lost her rudder, it is evident that 
her drift way would have led to the trade-winds, and thence 
the currents affecting her course, and a permanent favour- 


14 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


able wind must infallibly have driven her to some shore in 
the West Indies or tropical America. There existed, be- 
sides, already in that age, a vague notion of land to the 
westward. <A chart existed in the library of St Mark at 
Venice, representing the west coast of Europe and Africa 
with islands scattered on the Atlantic Ocean, terminating 
in the west with one of great extent, denominated Antilia, 
and another, only partially introduced, bearing west from 
Cape Finisterra, and not so eastward as Antilia, with the 
name of Isola de Laman Fatanaxio. The chart is ascribed 
to the Venetian hydrographer, Andrea Bianco, and dated 
1436. Now, although this document might be a forgery of 
the Venetian government; to colour some claim to a share 
in one or other of the Indies, after they were both dis- 
covered ; still we have the certainty, that, already in 1493, 
the Spaniards applied the name Antilia to Hispaniola and 
Cuba, as recorded by Peter Martyr; and if the name be 
what Hofmann asserts, derived from Ante insula, it would 
prove that there was an opinion extant of a continent be- 
yond it; which, moreover, is vaguely asserted to have been 
known to Biscayan fishing ships and whalers, driven far to 
the west from their then usual stations on the coast of Ire- 
land. With us the wonder that such a fact should have 
been so long left disputable would be the greater, if it were 
not known to what extent the industrial sciences were con- 
demned by the scholastic learned, until the news arrived 
from both the Indies that gold was abundant beyond sea, and 
the subsequent interest of Spain to cast discredit on all prior 
knowledge of a western world. 

Dicuil, the Irish monk, who wrote in the time of Charle- 
magne, might be mentioned here, as an instance of geo- 
graphical information existing in his time, which was after- 
wards overlooked or denied; for he incidentally notices 
Iceland, then already inhabited by British families, though 
the discovery is accorded, at a later period, to a Northman 
navigator. See his work, De Mensura Orbis. 

But for want of space many facts and arguments to illus- 
trate the questions under consideration might be added. 
What has been said appears sufficient to establish the con- 


on the Original Population of America. 15 


clusion, that, although no ships which had actually visited 
the natives of America (always excepting the Scandinavians) 
were known to have returned, still, among many that 
perished, some must have reached the New World at dif- 
ferent periods, and from different directions, sufficient to 
account for all the phenomena of languages, traditions, arts, 
and physical characteristics, found therein ; but not, there- 
fore, bearing proofs that any credible records existed of a 
former intercourse, or that either Jews or Welshmen, or 
rather Phoenicians and Celts, were sufficiently numerous to 
be nationally distinguishable at subsequent periods. Al- 
though there was a received tradition among the Mexican 
and several other nations, of a people superior to themselves 
dwelling beyond sea, which, they believed, was destined to 
visit the West at some future period, this legend, or popu- 
lar rumour, cannot have been else than an obscure record 
of a remote event, anciently brought by a Carthaginian, 
Celtic, Greek, or Roman ship, or by more than one of them, 
but certainly from Europe, or at least from nations belonging 
to the European system of civilization. 

On the west side of America, the evidence appears in fa- 
vour of a more frequent and varied intercourse. Towards 
the southern coast, and in the interior, Malay characteristics 
are obvious, and in the north whole tribes must have passed, 
using their seal-skin coracles, or crossing on the winter ice 
from the more desolate east of Asia, at Behring’s Straits, 
scarce forty miles asunder, and beset with islands, to a com- 
paratively fertile and wooded region, such as the north-west 
coast of America offers. The form of the native boats is 
nearly alike round the whole arctic circle; and in the na- 
tional habits of Laplanders, Karakasses, Tongusians, Tschut- 
ski, Samoyeds, and Ostiaks, there are traits which seem to 
have had permanent influence even far in the south of Ame- 
rica, as if a very early stem of population had proceeded 
southward along the west coast, and a second at a later pe- 
riod had been encountered and partially checked by races of 
different origin and irreconcileable temperaments, perhaps 
the nigh-nosed heroic people already noticed. Several tribes, 
and among others the Toltecs, asserted that they came in a 


16 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


boat to Colhuacan. As a proof that the skin coracles will 
convey human beings through the most turbulent seas, men- 
tion may be made of one stranded on the west of Holland in 
the sixteenth century, with its tenant still securely girt with- 
in the seal-skin opening, but dead, probably from privation ; 
and that the Greenlanders were considered as belonging to 
the same arctic stock by the first Northmen who visited their 
country, is indicated by the common name of Skrelings (that 
is Eskimaux) which they gave to both. More to the south, 
at the bay of St Francisco, the Californian tribes are almost 
black, as if they were descended from a mixed race of Mon- 
golic Papuas, akin to the Formosans and other black Poly- 
nesians. 

All the nations of the west coast had anciently a solar 
worship, in common with the Asiatic Karakasses and other 
Siberian tribes ; they had also a mythical record of the De- 
luge, some with, and others without, fears for the safety of 
the moon when assailed by the celestial dragon, which is 
common to Negroes, Malays, Chinese, and many South Sea 
Islanders, who make noises and draw their knives during the 
moments of an eclipse. It is only another version of the 
Ark endangered by the overwhelming waters, transferred to 
the heavenly bodies. In Mexican idols and pictures, and in 
bas-reliefs of Yucatan and Peru, the same event is repre- 
sented in the form of a woman being swallowed by the great 
serpent ; a counterpart of ancient pagan Mythi of Western 
Asia and Europe, and occurring also in an ivory carving 
executed in Ceylon. But what unites the American arkite 
legends from north to south, is a bas-relief upon a box of 
Peruvian workmanship, dating before the middle of the six- 
teenth century, and representing the hero of the Deluge, who 
in the north is denominated « Young Chippewa:” with his 
bow in hand he is seen riding the ark, or the aboriginal elk— 
parent of human nature,—and the sun shining over its palm- 
ated head. The elk is winged, and, though four-footed, the 
body terminates in a fish’s tail with a serpent standing upon 
the back, and the turtle dove or the raven (for they are often 
confounded in pagan mythologies), flies out before the rider, 
while diluvian sea-monsters, Boa or Python serpents, and 


2 
2 


on the Original Population of America. 17 


Howler monkeys, Pumas, Alligators, and the Electrical Eel, 
the principal zoological objects of America, are distinctly 
traced around. On other faces of the box are a Gothic pa- 
lace, probably the first Spanish edifice raised at Cusco, also 
a circus, and a European hog; but the two end compart- 
ments represent a solar worship with the planetary system, 
and the dragon within the rays of the sun in the centre, and 
the other a lunar mythus, with the goddess of nature in the 
form of woman within the moon’s horns, both having Peruvian 
Yneas or high priests on each side, and shewing that the na- 
tional worship was not yet forsaken by the artist who made 
it.* The light thus thrown upon a Peruvian mythological 
representation, by means of a North American legend, is one 
of many proofs of the nomadic character of the ancient popu- 
lation, and that they have had their periods of swarming as 
well as the ancient nations of Asia. The time of duration 
when these great movements in the human families took 
place in both countries, synchronise sufficiently to warrant a 
conclusion of their cause being the same. It may be sur- 
mised that they were the effect of some law in nature, which 
on some occasions affects man, as others in many known in- 
stances influence the brute creation; but concerning which 
we, as yet, know nothing more than that the successful pas- 
sions of warriors and conquerors are not sufficient to pro- 
duce similar continuous results. They may be the sign, but 
cannot be the cause. 

To our general conclusion, that the population of America 
consists in a partial mixture of human beings from different 
stocks and quarters, the objection that all the tribes have 
more or less characteristics which connect them with the 
Mongolic, is of little weight, when we consider that by far 
the greater proportion of the existing races are known to 
have proceeded from the north-west angle of North America, 
and are, therefore, in all likelihood, of the beardless or Mon- 
golic variety, and, as all the nations of the American conti- 
nent have practised the admission of grown men in their 


* This box is now, we believe, in the British Museum. 
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. B 


18 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith 


families, the adoption of male children and the abduction of 
females, that their blood is mixed in all, and necessarily the 
most predominant in the whole population. There exist, 
nevertheless, from the Arctic circle to Terra del Fuego, 
practices having no counterpart that we know of in any 
other region of the world, and affording proofs of antiquity 
as remote as the oldest works of art, and the most ancient 
skeletons of man in those regions, can suggest. From 
them it might be inferred, that once the vast territory of the 
Western World had been in possession of a variety of man 
distinct from the three great stocks of the Old Continent, 
unless we can understand it to be of that swarthy unde- 
fined race of Asiatic antiquity, the Flatheads, Kakasiah, 
Nimrecs, and Dombuks of Persia, primeval enemies of the 
Iranian race, vanquished by the Huscheng and Tahmuras ; 
and the same as the Preeadamites of La Peyrere, whose 
treatise, derived from oriental sources, caused so much com- 
motion and so many victorious refutations in the seventeenth 
century. The skulls of these antique Americans present pe- 
culiarities not quite satisfactorily explained by physiologists, 
being extremely elongated, and the facial angle depressed, 
leaving scarcely any forehead. Now, although this mon- 
strosity may be produced in a great measure by artificial 
means, the heads of infants, considered to belong to the same 
race, so young as to have still all the sutures open, have the 
forehead depressed, the temples enlarged, but no evident 
sign of similar pressure at the back, where the occipital bone 
is distinctly separated into an upper and a lower portion, 
each of greater size than the single bone of Caucasians of 
the same age, and the facial bones are already exceedingly 
solid, with an elevated ridge round each of the orbits. Whe- 
ther these are precisely the same as the Aturian crania of 
Blumenbach, we shall not decide, but remark only upon the 
controversial statements we have seen on the subject, that 
the diversity of opinion, in a great measure, arose from the 
inspection of another set of Peruvian, and even Titicaca 
skulls, whereof the forehead is but little depressed, but the 
occiput is vertical, and obliquely contracted, from evident 
early contact with a hard substance behind. We have seen 


on the Original Population of America. 19 


and made drawings of several of both these forms of head, 
and the second mentioned appear to be incomplete attempts 
to rival the first by artificial means. Now, this occurs like- 
wise in the aquiline-featured bas-reliefs of Yucatan, and 
among some tribes of the north, tending to an unlikely con- 
jecture that men of a higher order of conformation should 
have endeavoured to distort themselves to the imitation of a 
more brutal race, and made that the type of its divinities and 
heroes. 

We stop here without adverting to the relative cubical 
capacity of the skulls, and have indulged so far in this some- 
what unphilosophical field of observations, only because they 
may perhaps tend to enlarge the inquiries of those who shall 
again embark in the same research, by pointing out objects 
and arguments which, albeit well known, we have never seen 
brought together in juxtaposition. They will be found to 
have reference to many points of the observations which 
the travels before us contain, relating to the native tribes of 
the Missouri and other parts of the United States; and al- 
though, among the alleged facts here produced, some may 
possibly be denied, or rest upon insufficient authority for im- 
plicit credence, there still remains such a mass of evidence 
to support our general inference, that we contend plural 
sources of the aboriginal population to be undeniable ; and, 
had it been possible to advert, in a notice like the present, to 
the innumerable coincidences of opinions and traditions be- 
tween the native tribes and those of very distinct and re- 
motely separated races in other parts of the world, the ulti- 
mate conclusion would have been greatly corroborated. 

We do not regret to have left ourselves so little space for 
reverting to the travels of the Prince, because the scientific 
questions they were chiefly intended to clear up do not well 
admit of extracts, and the occasional opinions on species an- 
nounced in the work, which may differ from those of British 
travellers in more northern regions, deserve that sober con- 
sideration and confidence which the well-known skill and im- 
partial temper of the illustrious German deserve ; particu- 
larly as on many points he could consult our old and valued 
friends, Say, Le Sueur, and Maclure, who were then resi- 


20 Captain Postans on the Bitichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


dents at New Harmony, and have left names which will ever 
be respected by all students in the natural sciences. -Speak- 
ing of these gentlemen, who, we believe, to be now all num- 
bered with the dead, another name of one departed, whose 
talents were of service to the Prince, should not be passed 
unnoticed by us, who long reckoned him among our most in- 
timate friends, as a steady, enlightened, and public-spirited 
man,—we mean, Colonel William Thorn, K. H., one who dis- 
tinguished himself in the wars of India under Lord Lake, 
shared in the daring enterprises of Major-General Sir Robert 
Gillespie, to whom he was Brigade-Major, and ultimately be- 
came Lieutenant-Colonel of the 23d Light Dragoons. He 
was author of Campaigns in India and in Java, and of a Life 
of General Gillespie. To the scientific ability of this officer 
is due the beautiful map, marking the Prince’s travels up 
the Missouri to the rocky mountains, and his various excur- 
sions in the United States. Finally, of the plates composing 
the magnificient atlas, and the smaller illustrations in the 
two volumes, amounting in all to forty-eight, besides vig- 
nettes, we have only to say, that they are by the hand of 
Karl Bodmer, an artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian, 
and whose talents are at once attested by the portraits of 
natives and the landscape scenery, which we believe to be 
unrivalled in any book of travels yet published. 


On the Bilucht Tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the Lower Valley of 
the Indus and Cutchi. By Captain T. PostTans. 


(Concluded from Vol. xxxvii. p. 402.) 


The style of living, as seen among the Sindhian Biltchis, 
is totally devoid of the little comfort even adopted by the in- 
habitants of India. Each district wherein they are located, 
possesses a small capital or head-quarters of the chief, which 
is only distinguished by the presence of a small mud fortifica- 
tion, from the usual reed and mud-built hovels comprising the 
Bilachi villages all over the country, which have an appear- 
ance of dirt and discomfort, unlike anything to be seen in the 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 21 


least important even of our Indian districts. Their fields, in 
many parts of Sindh and Cutchi, have a small mud tower in 
their centre, whence the possessor with his retainers guards 
his produce from the predatory attacks of his neighbours ; and 
a striking proof is thus afforded of a rude and unsettled state 
of society. In their houses (if they can be so termed) and 
persons, the Bilichis are filthy in the extreme, and appear to 
be totally regardless of all beyond the mere every-day wants 
of an animal existence. It is no uncommon thing to see whole 
families sharing the shed, or, as it is called, Marri, which, 
composed simply of the reeds growing on the banks of the 
river, or the dried stalks of the Juwari, gives an inadequate 
shelter from the intolerably scorching sun of Sindh to them- 
selves, their cattle, and horses, a charpdi, or rude cot made of 
the Minj grass of the country, being the only furniture. Yet 
there is no cause for this apparent misery, since many of them 
inhabited a fertile country, and possessed some of its richest 
portions, but the lazy and indolent habits with which they 
were embued, forbode their turning any attention to the im- 
provement of their condition. Their food is principally com- 
posed of Juwari flour cakes, curds, and sour milk (the country 
being particularly rich in kine), and animal food, when they 
ean obtain it. They prefer goats flesh to mutton for its 
strong flavour, and use spiritous liquors when attainable. 
The costume of the Bilichis in Sindh had undergone consider- 
able alterations during the last dynasty, and differed greatly 
from that still adopted by the mountaineers and wild tribes 
of the desert. The turban gave way to a curiously-shaped 
cap, which appears to have been a bad imitation of a Persian 
head-dress, which looked much like an inverted hat, offering 
no protection whatever to the face, though the crown extended 
somewhat beyond the summit. This is composed of the most 
gaudily-coloured cotton stuffs (or silks with the chiefs), and 
looked upon as an indispensable ornament. They affect ex- 
eeedingly wide Turkish drawers, which are closely buttoned 
at, and fall over the ancle. The surcoat is of white thin cot- 
ton, or mixed woollen and cotton in winter, and the waist is 
ornamented with an enormous roll of silk or cotton cloth of 
bright colours, the chiefs adopting the langhi, a beautiful de- 


22 Captain Postans on the Bilicht Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


scription of half silk and cotton manufacture, for which Tattah 
was once so famous, and which was coveted at the most bril- 
liant courts of India. Over this is buckled a strap of broad 
deer-skin leather, with numerous appendages of all the pouches 
and paraphernalia required for the matchlock, highly orna- 
mented with metal studs (gold and silver with the chiefs), and 
bright embroidery. The sword is an indispensable article of 
costume, and never abandoned. ‘These people are passion- 
ately fond of arms, and are lavish in their expenditure to 
procure them. The Amirs sent emissaries, even as far as 
Constantinople, to obtain sword blades and matchlock barrels, 
though very beautiful ones were manufactured in the country. 
The shield, composed generally of rhinoceros horn, is large 
and flat, and usually suspended between the shoulders. The 
people dye their garments generally with indigo, and thus are 
enabled to wear them until they literally drop off, though the 
Cutchi tribes do not even take this precaution, and wear their 
flowing robes until they become literally black with grease 
and dirt. In person the Bildchis may be considered as a fine 
race of men, and are decidedly handsome. ‘Those living in 
the hotter climate of the plains have somewhat deteriorated 
from the unusually large size and muscular strength for 
Asiatics peculiar to the mountaineers, but they are still a 
portly people. Amongst all classes corpulence is considered a 
great mark of beauty, and is encouraged to a ridiculous ex- 
tent. Nasir Khan, the late head of the Hyderabad family, 
though only in the very prime of life, and a strikingly hand- 
some fair complexioned man, was so unwieldy with obesity, 
that it was with difficulty he could walk across his hall of 
audience, and on rising, or attempting to rise, from his seat, 
was obliged to be assisted by his courtiers. The author has 
observed some extraordinary and frequent instances of longe- 
vity amongst the Biltchis located in Upper Sindh and Cutchi, 
far beyond what is usually seen in India, which with the large 
size and stature of this people united, warrant the conclusion, 
that the dry soils and climate, notwithstanding a degree of 
heat which is at times unequalled, is rather congenial than 
otherwise to the human constitution, certainly more so than 
the swampy banks of the river ; yet the deadly simams of the 


ee es ee 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cuichi. 23 


Upper Sindh and Cutchi countries are certain death to all but 
a Bilich, who, without any hesitation, exposes himself fear- 
lessly to them, at a period when he tells you the very crows 
even are obliged to leave the country. For eight months in 
the year Cutchi is, however, a fine climate, and for five as 
cold as the most fastidious need require. The author, speak- 
ing from experience, would prefer Shikarpore, with a good 
protection from the sun, to any climate in Sindh, though the 
range of the thermometer there is 115° to 120° in the shade 
from May to August. The Sindhian Bilachis are of very dark 
complexion, with fine oval contours of countenance, aquiline 
nose, and large expressive eyes. Unlike Mahomedans gene- 
rally, they cultivate the growth of the hair on the head as 
well as the beard. In Sindh, the former is confined under 
the cap by a knot and comb, being thrown back from the fore- 
head ; but in Cutchi and the mountains, it is allowed to fall 
in wild luxuriance over the shoulders, and is often twisted in 
with the folds of the turban, imparting a peculiarly wild and 
savage appearance. A slight sketch of one or two of these 
figures would tend better to elucidate their appearance than 
an inadequate description. The hair is dyed black when it 
becomes grey, and holy characters use the henna plant to in- 
duce a red tinge to the beard and hair. The costume of the 
women is simply a pair of full drawers, confined by a string 
at the waist, and a loose shirt over them, reaching to the 
knees, and open at the bosom. Over the head is thrown a 
loose cloth. Their condition is that of perfect slavery, doing 
the whole of the hard work and drudgery for their lazy lords, 
who, occupied in the unceasing amusement of smoking or talk- 
ing in groups, pass their time away. The Biluchi women are 
hard featured and plain, bearing in their manner and coun- 
tenances strong proofs of the degradation to which they are 
exposed. 

The Jutts do all the laborious work of the cultivation ; for 
though the Bilachis possessed the land, they considered them- 
selves, like the military class in India, above such menial oc- 
cupations. ‘This people profess the Mahomedan religion, and 
are, for the most part, of the Suni faith, though the chiefs 
were of the Sheah persuasion ; totally ignorant, however, of 


24 Captain Postans on the Piliichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


any beyond the mere outward forms of their profession, they 
leave the whole to Scynds, Pirs, and other holy men, who 
are well paid, and encouraged to settle amongst them ; so 
great is their reverence for these sacred characters, that 
they find a safe conduct at all times for themselves, and 
those whom they choose to protect, even through the most 
murderous clans, and in localities where no other stranger 
dare venture to trust himself; and are always employed as 
mediators to settle quarrels. If a Biltch have the promise 
of a Scynd, he considers himself safe; but he knows full 
well the little value of that of his deadly enemy. Of course, 
under such circumstances, many claim the prophetic descent, 
who are little entitled to it; and, indeed, most of these men 
in Sindh and Bilichistan are as ignorant as all around them, 
though, such is their enthusiasm, that many learn the sacred 
volume by rote, without being able to translate a single 
word, and thus acquire the title so much coveted of 
“ Hafiz,” or remembrancer. For the Koran they hold a su- 
perstitious reverence, commensurate with their ignorance of 
its contents; and a Bildchi falls on his knees when the sacred 
volume is produced: he would not dare even to touch it ; but 
when he takes an oath, the book is put upon his head by the 
priest or scynd. Each tribe has its spiritual pastor, and a 
great portion of Sindhian cultivated territory was held in 
enam or gift by these men. A great authority, on Sindhian 
matters, has said (Mr Crow), “ that the Sindhian has no li- 
berality but in feeding lazy Scynds—no zeal but in propa- 
gating the faith—no spirit but in celebrating the edes or 
festivals,—and no taste but in ornamenting old tombs :”’ this 
is certainly true of the Bilachis. Reputed holy and rapacious 
mendicants flourish amongst them whilst living, and their 
tombs become places of pilgrimage after death. In their 
fanatical zeal, they carry proselytism to the extent of often 
forcibly circumcising Hindiés; and those of the latter, who 
held the principal offices as revenue collectors under the late 
Bilachi government, were invariably obliged to adopt the 
beard and full costume of the Mahomedan. The exactions 
of holy mendicants in Sindh are a real source of evil to the 
country ; and so great are their numbers, and so distinct is 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 25 


their classification, that they would provide materials for a 
chapter by themselves ;—some even carry their effrontery so 
far as to travel mounted and fully armed. Such a vagrant 
character is not likely to go away empty-handed ! 

The arms of the Bilichis are the matchlock, sword, and 
shield, in the use of which they are very expert, though they 
pride themselves particularly, and trust implicitly, to the 
sword. Their country is considered famous for its breed of 
horses; and though these are large and powerful animals, 
their paces, of a fast walk and shuffling amble, are intolerable 
to a European; they themselves, however, invariably use 
mules, or a small description of pony, called in the country 
a jaba, very useful, and wonderfully enduring animals. The 
marauding clans ride only mares, to prevent the noise which 
horses make when together. The distances these little in- 
significant-looking animals will carry a heavy armed man, 
are incredible ; and some of their chapaos or forays prove in- 
contestably that no breed of horse, except, perhaps, the 
Turkoman, could beat them at this kind of work; yet are 
they kept half-starved, and, to all appearance, quite unfit for 
exertion. The author recollects, on one occasion, having to 
ride a distance of forty miles express, and had, therefore, a 
relay of three horses to do the distance: he was accompanied 
by a Bilachi guide, mounted as described, who laughed 
heartily at the quantity of horses required to do what he per- 
formed with one sorry looking brute, riding in advance the 
whole way, his steed shewing no symptoms of distress at the 
journey’s end. On another occasion, a party of Hindostan 
horsemen, in pursuit of a predatory band, disabled twenty- 
eight horses, and left three dead on the field, in vainly at- 
tempting to catch these Biltchis. As the Bilich, in his 
boasted character of soldier and robber, is so intimately con- 
nected with his steed, this digression may be excused. The 
chiefs ride well-trained camels of the Mekran and Malwah 
breeds, but principally the former, which are much prized. 
One of the great propensities of the Sindhian Bilichis, is 
their immoderate love of field sports. The chiefs, it is true, 
set the example, by making them the all-absorbing occupa- 
_ tions of their lives, appropriating extensive and valuable por- 


26 Captain Postans on the Bilicht Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


tions of territory to preserves; but throughout the whole of 
Sindh, the poorest Biltch, if he can muster a pair of hawks, 
or a dog or two to assist him in his chace, will be seen pur- 
suing it. This is not so much the case beyond the river, 
where it is not easy to find game. Sindh swarms with every 
description, and hence, probably, the inducement. ‘They 
have no idea of firing at winged game, but knock it down 
with blunted arrows; and this they will do with great pre- 
cision, 

The courts of the Sindh Amirs, at Hyderabad and Khy- 
aptr, furnished striking characteristics of Bilichi manners, 
and were certainly peculiar. At the former resided the heads 
of the family, who, as is well known, divided the sovereignty 
of the lower Indus between them, and ruled conjointly under 
a singular participation of power. The leading features of a 
rude and semibarbarous state of society, were here exempli- 
fied ; the public durbars, or councils of the state, were attend- 
ed by a heterogeneous mob of Biltchis, (chiefs and wild re- 
tainers,) Persians, Affghans, Seikhs, Rajpits, and adventurers 
from every part of the East; and although the greatest 
respect, even to devotion, was intended by the biltchis to 
their lords, yet their manner of shewing it was little in ac- 
cordance with our notions of etiquette or propriety,—they 
spoke in the loudest tone, and by their uncouth manners and 
gestures, would appear to a stranger to be anything but obe- 
dient followers. Knowing no respect of persons outwardly, 
the lowest Bilach would unhesitatingly beard even the Amirs 
themselves in open durbar ; and as a brother, and by caste an 
equal, he could not be denied any vivd voce representations 
which he might have to make. In a corner of the same hall 
of audience, where the most important affairs were probably 
discussed, a group of nautch women would add to the din and 
noise by their inharmonious yelling; and, taken altogether, 
it was quite impossible to find anything in the East—where 
generally a ruler or chief is surrounded by so much studied 
etiquette—half so barbarous as a Sindh durbar. That of 
Khyrptl, in Upper Sindh, was much more primitive, and 
therefore barbarous, than the Hyderabad court. Yet the ef- 
fect of such a combination of savage and armed groups was 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 27 


highly picturesque, and decidedly interesting. Strikingly 
contrasted with the rude and totally unpolished manners of 
their retainers, were the conduct and bearing of the Amirs 
themselves ; for they were decidedly as courteous, and indeed 
gentlemanlike in this respect, as all around them was to the 
contrary. How they obtained this distinction, it is difficult 
to understand ; for they are scarcely a whit more enlightened 
than any other of their Bilachi brethren,—having adopted a 
system of living excluded from the world and countries about 
them, which kept them centuries behind even the scanty 
civilization of their neighbours. Yet certain it is, and all who 
have had the opportunities of seeing much of them will cor- 
roborate it, that the Amirs, particularly of Lower Sindh, were 
individually and collectively, gentlemanly and polished men 
in their intercourse and familiar style. Nasir Khan, the late 
head, was particularly so, and could, indeed, render himself 
quite fascinating by his very agreeable deportment. The 
same may be said of his late elder brother and his nephews, 
the sons of Hair Mahmud. A Biltchi welcome to court, has 
been described by the author in his work on Sindh, (see page 
200 to 205,) and it was illustrative of the rude virtue of hos- 
pitality which this people certainly possess. The Bilichi 
forces, when assembled, were principally remunerated by 
supplies of food, and a very small proportion of pay. A cer- 
tain number of these rude troops were always on duty at the 
capital; for so distrustful and jealous were the Amirs of each 
other, that they took especial care to be well attended. The 
wild uncouth figures encountered in the bazar, and even the 
royal residence of Hyderabad, were composed of these guards. 
A Bilich army, when assembled, was not easily dispersed ; 
and the chief’s authority became subservient to the general 
feeling, and they were borne along by it. Some striking in- 
stances of the absence of any control over their savage troops 
by the Amirs, have been repeatedly given of late years, 

The wild and marauding tribes of Bilachis who inha- 
bit the desert tracts and rocky hills of Cutchi, are not to be 
confounded with their brethren who dwell in Sindh ;—little 
claim as the latter have to any but a barbarous title, they are 

yet far advanced when compared to the former; and, more- 


28 Captain Postans on the Bilichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


over, do not so completely merit the titles of murderers and 
robbers, which have not undeservedly been applied to hordes, 
who lived by plunder and relentless cruelty—at deadly feud 
with each, and the scourge of the cultivated and peopled 
country in their vicinity. Some of these tribes are again dis- 
tinct in this particular from those in the neighbourhood of 
Kelat, or the mountaineers. Two or three of the former, of 
whom the author had personal experience whilst in Sindh, 
deserve particular notice, as they afford examples of a reck- 
less bloodthirsty propensity, and irreclaimable love of a law- 
less life, which none of the other tribes so markedly possess. 
A strong proof of this was afforded in the deadly animosity 
they shewed to a clan claiming holy extraction, and therefore 
highly esteemed ; the Kyhiris, who styled themselves Sheikhs, 
but who were driven from their possessions, and treated with 
every imaginable cruelty by the tribes now to be mentioned, 
though with all others their sacred stock procured for them 
the highest respect, and they lived amongst them peaceably 
and were protected. These are the Diimkis, Jekranis, and 
Birdis ;—though thus mentioned together, it must not be 
concluded that they were partners in their vocation; on the 
contrary, the Bdrdis owned no connection with the other 
two, who offered almost a single instance of any two Bilachi 
tribes combining continually for a definite object, and that 
was plunder, effected often by the most violent and cruel 
means. The Diimkis and Jekranis inhabit the western bor- 
ders of Cutchi, at the foot of the hills, (commonly known as 
the Muru hills, from the tribe inhabiting them,) and sepa- 
rated from Sindh by a broad belt of complete desert. Cutchi, 
or as it is better known by its title of Cutch Gunderva, is 
that portion of territory extending from the desert to the 
point north and west of Shilialpi, where the inundations of 
the rivers cease to influence cultivation. to the mountains 
which separate the valley of the Indus from the higher coun- 
try of Bilachistan and Affghanistan. The partial fertility 
afforded by mountain streams on the western side of Cutchi, 
and the effects of rain in fair seasons, causes it to be held as 
the granary of the Brahie and higher Bilich country; but it 
is in various parts inhabited by the wildest of the Bilachi 


tn the Lower Valiey of the Indus and Cutchi. 29 


tribes, particularly in its eastern confines, where a dry climate 
and scanty supply of water from wells, hardly furnish the 
means of raising forage for cattle; and where (but for 
the fact of Sindh possessing interminable extents of uncul- 
tivated land capable of any amount of fertility), the Bila- 
chis might plead necessity for the lawless life they lead. 
Under a redoubtable leader, it was found on our first entry 
into Sindh, and during the march of our armies, that 
these clans, though comparatively few in number, were 
powerful in a wild and desert country, which was habitable 
solely by themselves, scarcely affording more than forage for 
their horses, to do immense mischief. They had from time 
immemorial laid the Sindhian frontier completely at their dis- 
posal, and held the high road to Sandahar through the Bolan, 
quite at their mercy ; the traders purchased safety for their 
Kuffllars at exorbitant exactions, and in short, completely 
unmolested, these robbers ruled supreme; they were all horse- 
men, and had for chiefs and leaders well approved and long- 
tried warriors. In campaigning against these hordes, and 
reducing them to obedience, much was seen of them, and they 
presented the appearance of wildness and ferocity to a degree 
unequalled in our Eastern experience. The inhabitants of 
Sindh, when the leaders were captured and brought in, would 
scarcely believe it possible, with all our power, that we could 
reduce such (to them) impracticable enemies. In person, these 
tribes differed much from those seen in Sindh, being larger in 
bulk and stature, and much more ferocious in aspect. Their 
costume was composed of the coarsest materials, large and 
flowing ; the turban a piece of loose dirty cloth twisted round 
the head, and interwoven with the long shaggy hair which 
hung in masses over the neck and shoulders. At all times 
fully armed and accoutred, and mounted on his'singular-looking 
jaba, the Dimki, or Jekrani warrior, or rather robber, formed 
a fitting subject for a study. The chapaos or forays of these 
tribes are services of danger, and made, as they often are, to 
an extreme distance from their own line of country. If, 
through fatigue or other accident, any individuals should fall, 
they deservedly receive little mercy at the hands of the inha- 
- bitants. Each Bilachi carries a supply of grain and water 


30 Captain Postans on the Biliichi tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


with him, the latter by means of a small skin slung under his 
horse’s belly. Hardy, and innured to a trying climate, horses 
and men will undergo an almost incredible degree of fatigue 
and exertion in these raids, of which they are passionately fond. 
Neither age nor sex are spared to accomplish their pillaging 
purposes, and on these occasions they often kidnap children, 
who they bring up as slaves. When itis known that achapao 
of Bilachis is out, or has been seen in the desert, the whole 
cultivated country is in a state of alarm, for, like a flight of 
locusts, it is impossible to say where the descent may occur. 
It was found totally impossible to impress these people with 
any sense of their being culpable in the lawless life they led ; 
they owned without the slightest hesitation, and rather, in- 
deed, with a sense of merit, that they were born and nurtured 
in robbery and murder, and considered them lawful and honor- 
able vocations. One miscreant, who, for his awful catalogue 
of crimes, was particularly denounced, and considered fully 
deserving of extreme punishment, exultingly shewed his sword, 
a murderous weapon, and declared that he counted one hun- 
dred lives to the blade. At a distance of thirty leagues from 
the Damki and Jekrani haunts, the poor inhabitants trembled 
for their safety, for no police existed to protect them. Strange 
to say, the leader of these very men was an old chief, far above 
his countrymen in sagacity and experience, with a great degree 
of dignity in his manner; and Bigar Khan, for so he was called, 
was a far superior man to any real Biltichi whom the author 
has met with. Though living in this uncontrolled way, these 
tribes nominally owned the authority of the Khan of Kelat, 
though of course they paid no tribute beyond military service 
when required. The Amirs of Sindh were so afraid of them, 
that they gave them good lands within their own territories. 
The Birdis, an exceedingly troublesome and restless tribe, 
inhabitated a tract of rich country to the north and east of 
Shikanpur, and, before our arrival in Sindh, were almost 
as annoying as the two clans before mentioned; but being 
at deadly feud with all about them, they were more confined 
in their operations. The author recollects a striking instance 
of the exiraordinary state of society amongst these people, 
which may be quoted. On one occasion, having to transact 


<a > 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 31 


business with a party of Bardis, some twenty of the tribe were 
seated around him, and it was suggested by a spectator that 
not a single individual of the party would be found with a 
whole skin, or without wounds over some part of his body. 
The examination was made, turbans were removed, and chests 
and arms bared; the result was, that every man was more or 
less desperately seamed with sword cuts; skulls indented, and 
awful scars. the results of fearful wounds, more or less disfigured 
each individual. As the party was accidentally assembled, they 
offered a pretty fair specimen of the peaceadle habits of Bilt- 
chis. The Sindhian authorities, whenever they had the good 
luck to catch a notorious delinquent, (which was seldom.) 
mutilated him or them by cutting off the left hand; for the 
Bilichi men never deprived a Bilichi of life ; and many does 
the author know so situated, yet still managing, with his Khu- 
assan mare, and right hand at liberty, to be capable of setting 
a whole district in a state of perfect misery and commotion! 
The experiment was tried by the British authorities, of re- 
claiming these tribes by holding out inducements to peaceable 
occupations, but in vain; for as the Asiatics happily express 
it, the “ass on which the prophet* rode was still an ass”—the 
robber was a robber to the last. The Bilichis, as wellas the 
Mekrains, are found in India, serving in the capacity of mer- 
cenaries; and the author heard of a colony of them settled in 
the neighbourhood of Aurungabad, in the centre of the Deckan, 
where they had originally emigrated in the above capacity. 
They do not, however, hold so high a title as the Arabs as 
military hirelings—the latter being some of the most deter- 
mined enemies we have had to encounter. 

It would be uninteresting to describe in detail all of the 
tribes ; but we may mention the really powerful clan of Murris, 
who inhabit the rocky defiles and valleys of the Murri hills. This 
division holds a very high reputation for bravery and indepen- 
dence, and it was proved by us that they fully merited it; for 
on its being considered necessary to occupy their country, we 
were brought into hostility with them, and they behaved with 
true gallantry, and shewed a high-minded and generous sense 


* Our Saviour. 


32 Captain Postans on the Bilichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


of honour and good faith, which was little to be expected from 
what we had seen of their neighbours. The occupation of this 
stronghold, its gallant and almost unparalleled defence by a 
mere handful of our men, the fierce battle of Nuftisk, which 
cost us an awful sacrifice of valuable lives, were the prelude to 
scenes, wherein the most extraordinary and striking proofs 
were given by the Murri Biltchis, of their being a high- 
minded set of men; actuated by principles which all must 
honour, even in more civilized communities, and lastly beget- 
ting, from deadly hostility, that mutual confidence, and indeed 
admiration, which springs from just appreciation of good quali- 
ties. (Interesting details of these may be seen in the United 
Service Gazette for March, and subsequently.) Inhabiting 
the same range of hills are the Bigtis. Neither these nor the 
Murris were actively predatory, though they allowed the 
Damkis and Jekranis the shelter afforded by the strong hilly 
country they inhabited. The Murris commanded the lower 
portion of the Bolan pass, disputing the domain over this ter- 
rific defile with the Kakurs and Khusacks ; and beyond these 
again, westward, the Muzaris and Kulpurs. These two latter 
were troublesome subjects of the Punjaub government, and 
as restless and predatory as all about them; but they were 
kept in admirable order by the governor of Multan, who occa- 
sionally dispatched large forces against them. The Muzaris 
are at deadly feud with the Burdis, alternate devastating forays 
being made by both. 

The Biltchis, particularly the wild tribes of Cutchi, enter- 
tain Bards, or as the Rajputs call the same class of people, 
Bhats ; in Sindh the Livis are a kind of gipsy vagabond tribe, 
who make this their vocation. The songs are often composed 
on the warlike deeds or records of forays, or chapaos; the 
music, if so it can be called, is rude in the extreme; the 
opening of each stanza being given by a loud cry, as of a per- 
son in intense pain, or under great grief, and the voice is 
gradually lowered until the conclusion of the stanza; it is 
accompanied by a rude guitar. Thus amused, a group of these 
wild men will sit for a whole night smoking and dozing, 
their greatest idea of happiness being the “ dolce far niente” 
of the Italian, or the Kheif of the Turk. With the Cutchi 


7 


tn the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cuichi. 33 


tribes, the women appear to hold a higher rank than in 
Sindh ;—here they are said to be admitted to council, and in 
warfare share the dangers with their husbands or relatives. 
On several occasions, these heroines presented their own bo- 
dies as shields to protect individuals from the fire of our 
troops. 

As the Mahomedan laws with regard to marriage, plurality 
of wives, &c., are generally adhered to by these tribes, it may 
be unnecessary to revert to them. 

The Brahias, who form the large body of the mountaineers 
and pastoral people in and around Kelat, are a distinct race 
from the Bilachis, and have been so accurately and minutely 
described by Sir W. Pottinger and Mr Masson, that these 
authors must be consulted for all information on this people, 
who preserve implicitly a primitive, simple, and patriarchal 
style of living, and whose character as inoffensive and in- 
dustrious, is far superior to that of their neighbours the 
Bilichis. 

In speaking of the character of the Bilaichis, our remarks 
should be tempered with due consideration for the circum- 
stances which have conduced to form it; living in a state of 
semibarbarism, and separated from all civilizing and amelior- 
ating influences by their somewhat isolated position, they have 
retained only some of the ruder virtues, and have ingrafted, 
on these, many propensities which may be denounced as 
vices. But first, of their better qualities, we may allude to 
their hospitality, good temper, sociability, good faith when 
pledged, courage, and patience of endurance. Hospitality is 
peculiar, I believe, to nomade people, and it is a prominent 
feature amongst the Bilichis. The kind welcome given to 
the wayfarer or stranger, is very marked and pleasing. In 
all, the true patriarchal mode is adopted, as seen with the 
Arabs to the present day, of giving the stranger the tenderest 
of the flock, and the best the hut or tent affords. Amongst 
the chiefs and rulers, it was carried to a great excess; and on 
any arrival of a man of rank at their courts or strongholds, 
he was not only entertained himself, but all his retainers 
- were feasted to their hearts’ content, and all their wants pro- 
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. c 


34 Captain Postans on the Bilticht Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


vided for, for any length of time he or they chose to sojourn 
asaguest. The first study of a Biltch, from the highest to 
the lowest, was this display of kindly feeling. On arrival, 
tired or wayworn at a Biltchi village, the author has often 
thrown himself in a cot, and, to his surprise, has suddenly 
found himself surrounded by a party of these wild men, who 
began to chafe and knead his limbs, and continued to do so 
for hours, to dispel lassitude and fatigue; vying with each 
other, at the same time, in supplying his wants, or appeasing 
hunger or thirst with the best of their simple food or bever- 
age. Not to receive such civilities is the height of rudeness, 
and, on the other hand, to eat of his salt and dip your hand 
into his dish, is the signal for claiming him as a brother ;—in 
short, all who have travelled through their countries have 
been forcibly impressed with this very pleasing trait of Bilt- 
chi character. 

These people have an amazing stock of good temper mixed 
with their ignorance, almost amounting to stupidity. A Bi- 
lach can readily understand and enter into a joke, and, like 
the Arab of Egypt, it is the best means of effecting a purpose 
with him. He may be thus brought to meet your views 
when other plans would probably fail; when excited, how- 
ever, he is fierce and savage enough for any deed of blood or 
violence. The Bilfichis are sociable even to an extent un- 
known amongst Asiatics generally, as evinced in their ordi- 
nary salutations, and the great delight they take in forming 
parties for the sole purpose of smoking, talking, singing, or 
drinking together. They accost each other with a curious 
string of inquiries, not only after the health of the individual 
addressed, but those of his family, and the welfare of his house 
generally; the Salaam uleikim, is only a prelude to the usual 
chunqgo, hullah? kliiar? sullah?* &c., which, when con- 
cluded by one party, must be taken up by the other. In a 
large assembly, as for instance a burbar, these inquiries and 
rejoinders occupied a considerable space of time, and even 
after these, if, during the interview, the stranger’s eye caught 
that of an acquaintance, he would join his hand, and demand 


* Are you well, happy, comfortable? 


* 


if ‘ome. 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 35 


inquiringly and earnestly, “ Koosh 2?” Are you well, or happy ? 
The Bilichis embrace a friend by laying the head alternately 
on each shoulder; and being, as before deseribed, a portly 
race, the ceremony was trying in so sultry a climate, for each 
individual of a party exacted this ceremony. In all this, how- 
ever, there was, beyond the mere ceremonies which in the 
East are a regular portion of education, and as indispensable 
as any other occupation of life, a great deal of sociable and 
kindly feeling, and, from the most polished to the rudest of 
the race, formed a marked feature of character. The author 
could quote some personal anecdotes of this, but they are 
perhaps unnecessary. When a Biltich has plighted his 
faith to the performance of any particular act, as of safe- 
conduct or protection (except in cases where a strong enemy. 
may come within his power), he is generally to be relied upon, 
at least as far as his influence may extend. The traders found 
this in traversing their country; for though they paid a cer- 
tain amount for the service performed, yet completely at the 
mercy of their escort with highly valuable consignments, they 
could only look for safety to this principle ; and, indeed, acting 
upon it, the commerce of those countries was carried on to a 
certain extent flourishingly, whilst we ourselves, in attempt- 
ing to alter it, and protect the merchant, were the most for- 
midable enemies to the latter, and almost ruined his voca- 
tion. } 

The Bilachi is brave when occasion calls for the display of 
bravery, as late and many previous events have testified ; and 
when, with his rude arms and total ignorance of any other 
principle, than that the best swordsman and strongest man is 
the best soldier, he meets a disciplined force and falls at the 
muzzles of our guns or points of our bayonets, we must, in jus- 
tice to himas well as his gallant opposers, pronounce him a war- 
rior worthy of our steel. Reverting here to some of his bad 
points, we may attach his courage with cruelty ; and certainly 
amongst some of the wilder tribes, this accusation may fairly 
be supported, though it is doubtful if it will stand against the 
whole body. The late Amirs were particularly distinguished 
for a total absence of this vice, and, though their power was 


_ absolute, they seldom or never punished with death any of their 


36 Captain Postans on the Bihichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, 


subjects, and it may be doubted if, except amongst the deter- 
minedly lawless tribes, the Bilichis generally are obnoxious to 
this accusation. With hordes who exist by plunder, the 
result must be sanguinary and ferocious habits, but though 
the whole of the Bilichi tribes have been pronounced, and 
are more or less knavish and prone to thieving, there are 
only a few who follow robbery as a regular profession ; and 
these have acquired for the mass, at least those who have 
suffered more or less from their violence, a really worse char- 
acter, in this respect, than they deserve. A high authority 
(Captain M‘Murdo) has said, that this thieving propensity is 
so inherent in the Bilachis, that in Sindh, chiefs and men, 
otherwise in no way impelled to do so, will, for the mere love 
of the thing, take the road and turn highwaymen. Pride 
commensurate with a state of barbarous ignorance, is a lead- 
ing feature in the Biltchis, and they are mean and avaricious. 
Bigoted in proportion to their want of knowledge of all be- 
yond the mere forms of their religion, they treat with studied 
intolerance all Kafirs or unbelievers; and the miserable Hindt, 
who to suit his own purposes of traffic and gain, has located 
himself amongst them, is at all times prepared for violence 
prompted by fanaticism and degradation, the result of his 
creed; but this, and more, he is contented to bear to effect 
his object (not only with Bilichis, but even Turkomans), and, 
curiously enough, one vice counteracting another, in many 
parts of Sindh the Hindtis have become not only wealthy, but 
so influential, as to be able at times to resist oppression by a 
sort of tacit opposition, which is very effective. Thus,.in any 
extraordinary act of oppression, threatened or committed on 
any of their body individually, the Hindas of Shillinpur would 
shut up their shops and abandon the city. All trade was 
thus at a complete stand-still, and the revenue ceased alto- 
gether; they thus soon obtained their own terms with their 
avaricious rulers. The state of the Hindis in these countries, 
however, is by no means so bad as that of the Copts in Egypt, 
or the Jews occupying nearly the same relative position in 
Mahomedan countries generally. Captain M‘Murdo’s sum- 
mary of Sindhian character may be applied, to a certain ex- 
tent, to the Bilichis situated between Mickran and Hindus- 


in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 37 


tan; they seem to have acquired the vices both of the barba- 
rity on the one side, and the civilization on the other, without 
the virtues of either. 

The Biltichis are addicted to the use of spiritous liquors, 
and the intoxicating seed of the hemp plant, or Bang. They 
do not, however, carry these to the effect of downright ine- 
briety, but induce a certain degree of stupidity, which may 
be analogous to that so much coveted by the opium eater. 
The pipe, with both sexes, is scarcely ever from the mouth. 
They are, as may be supposed, indolent and lazy, leaving la- 
bour of every kind to the Jutts, and other working classes. 

The language of the Bilachis is different from that of 
their neighbours, whether Sindhs, Brahiis, or Affghans ; and, 
in sound, assimilates to bad Persian; so that, as observed by 
Sir H. Pottinger, it is possible to catch the meaning occa- 
sionally by a knowledge of the latter tongue. It is not writ- 
ten, however, and is considered altogether so barbarous even 
in these barbarous countries, that the Bilfichi is said to have 
learnt it of his goats when he was a shepherd in the moun- 
tains. A vocabulary and grammar was formed by Lieut. Leed, 
a highly intelligent officer, which exists in the records of the 
Company. 

Having thus concluded the few observations which he has 
to offer on the Bilachis, as seen by him in the course of a 
residence of 3} years, divided between Upper Sindh and in 
the Cutchi districts,—he only trusts they may be found of 
some trifling interest, though he does not presume for a mo- 
ment to place his rough notes in conjunction with the records 
of those higher authorities whom he has quoted, and who 
should be consulted by all anxious to obtain a more intimate 
acquaintance with a people, over a great number of whom we 
now wield a direct sway, and whose interests may therefore 
be said to be in our keeping. Though the Biltchi has been 
considered an implacable enemy, the author would remark, 
as the result of his experience, that if the interests of these 
people were duly cared for, and sufficient inducements, with a 
conciliatory manner adopted, there is no reason, he thinks, to 
doubt, but they would duly appreciate a change which might 
thus be effected in their condition. But this is a subject 


38 Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure. 


scarcely admitting of inquiry here; and it only remains to 
observe, that with all their faults, he looks back with many 
pleasing recollections to opportunities he enjoyed in Sindh, 
for seeing much of a wild but interesting people. 


On the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure, especially as 
regards Exposure to Rain. By Joun Davy, M.D., F-.RS. 
Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author. 


Whilst, at a vast expense, the farmer is importing bones 
from the shores of the Black Sea, nitrate of soda from South 
America, guano from the coast of Peru and from the African 
coast, he is, in too many instances, negligent of the manure 
that his stable and stalls supply. 

This negligence has been pointed out, and emphatically 
dwelt on, by every recent writer of authority on agriculture. 
As regards exposure to rain, and the injurious effects of it 
on the kind of manure just alluded to, examples of it, in this 
part of England (Westmoreland), where an unusual quantity 
of rain falls, are of every-day occurrence, and almost every- 
where to be met with: the instances of neglect constitute 
the rule; of care and attention, the rare exception to the 
rule. The farm-steadings here are commonly on declivities ; 
the dung-heap is usually placed on a declivity, often by the 
side of a road, and, in consequence, after every shower of 
rain, the water that runs off, percolating through the ma- 
nure, robs it of some of its most valuable ingredients, espe- 
cially its soluble salts, and soluble animal and vegetable 
matter, tending to starve the fields and pollute the roads. I 
have had the curiosity to collect portions of such drainage, 
and subject them to examination ; and I now propose to give 
the results, as they shew, in a very marked manner, the in- 
jurious effect, and how great is the loss to the farmer in con- 
sequence. 

The first portion collected was from a heap of stable-dung, 
fresh from the stable just before a heavy fall of rain, the ac- 
companiment of a thunder-storm, nearly an inch falling in 
three hours. The water which ran from the dung-heap was 


Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure. 39 


of the colour of a weak infusion of coffee, of sp. gr. 1002, to 
pure water as 1000. With the peculiar smell of stable-dung, 
it had a just perceptible smell of ammonia, which was ren- 
dered more distinct by the addition of lime. Under the mi- 
croscope, it was found to contain, besides a fine granular 
matter, and many minute vegetable fibres and scales, par- 
ticles resembling grains of pollen, and two or three different 
kinds of animalcules. Evaporated to dryness, it yielded 2.6 
per 1000 of brown matter, which partially deliquesced on 
exposure to a moist atmosphere ; emitted a very faint smell 
of ammonia when mixed with lime, indicating that, in the 
process of evaporation, most of the ammoniacal salt had been 
expelled, and was therefore carbonate of ammonia; and when 
incinerated afforded as much as 51.6 per cent. of grey ash— 
48.4 per cent. of the extract having been destroyed by the 
fire, which may be considered as animal and vegetable mat- 
ter. The ash was found to contain the sulphuric, phosphoric, 
and carbonic acids, and chlorine, with potash, soda, lime, and 
magnesia, chiefly in the form, it may be inferred, of carbo- 
nate of potash, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, sulphate 
of magnesia, and common salt. The proportional quantity 
of the sulphate of lime was large, as was also that of the 
fixed alkaline salts, whilst that of the phosphate of lime and 
the magnesian salt was small. 

The next specimen examined was from a much larger and 
older dung-heap, after a fall of 1.12 inch of rain in about 
twelve hours. The fluid was of a darker brown than the 
preceding, very similar in its appearance under the micro- 
scope, of higher sp. gr., viz., 1008, and yet less rich in am- 
moniacal salts, for when mixed with lime, it gave only a 
very faint smell of ammonia; and its extract obtained by 
evaporation, when mixed with lime, had no smell of the vo- 
latile alkali. It yielded, on evaporation, 10.4 per 1000 solid 
matter, similar generally to that obtained from the first por- 
tion in its qualities, abounding, in like manner, in salts, and 
those of the same description. 

The third specimen collected for examination was from the 
same dung-heap, after a fall of 2.79 inches of rain in twenty- 
four hours. It differed so little from the preceding, that it 


40 Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure. 


is not necessary to describe it particularly. As might have 
been expected, it was more dilute, its sp. gr. being 1004. 
The last specimen I shall notice was one procured from the 
same dung-heap, after four days of dry weather following 
the heavy rain last mentioned. It was oozing out slowly in 
small quantity ; was of a dark-brown hue, nearly transpa- 
rent, and almost destitute of smell. Under the micro- 
scope, it exhibited a few particles and fibres, a very few mi- 
nute crystals, without any animalcules. I had expected to 
have found it a concentrated infusion of the dung-heap, and, 
as such, of high specific gravity; but it was otherwise: its 
specific gravity exceeded very little that of the preceding, 
and was less than that of the second portion, being only 
1005, leading to the conclusion that the manure was nearly 
exhausted of its soluble matter. The weather during the 
four days without rain, was comparatively cold for the sea- 
son (it was in September), with a northerly wind—the ther- 
mometer, even by day, below 58°, and at night once or twice 
approaching the freezing point. This low temperature must 
have checked or put a stop to fermentation, which, in its 
turn, might have prevented the further formation of soluble 
matter. The infusion mixed with lime indicated the presence 
of ammoniacal salts ; it emitted a pretty strong smell of am- 
monia ; and, judging from the effects of other re-agents, its 
composition was very similar to that of the preceding por- 
tions ; it probably contained a larger proportion of vegetable 
matter, humus and humic acid, than the earlier drainings ; 
it gave a very copious precipitate with the acetate of lead. 
The bearing and application of these results hardly re- 
quire to be pointed out. As the drainage of the dung-heap 
exposed to rain contains some of the best—the chief ingre- 
dients of active manure (excepting always the insoluble phos- 
phates), it follows, that the more the dung is exposed—the 
more it is subjected to the washing and percolation of rain- 
water—the greater must be its loss, the poorer and more ex- 
hausted it must become ; and that shelter from rain is essen- 
tial as a prevention; such a shelter as can only be well se- 
cured by a shed, under which the manure, if too dry, may be 
watered with the liquid that may have run from it, received 


On the occurrence of Mannite in Laminaria Saccharina. 41 


inte a tank; and be subjected to such treatment, from ad- 
mixture or otherwise, as has been found by experience likely 
to render it more efficient. These results, moreover, I need 
hardly remark, are perfectly in accordance with the expe- 
rience of intelligent farmers, in many instances on record, of 
the extraordinary fertilizing effects of irrigation with waters 
—the washings and drainage of the farm-yard and dung-heap. 


THE Oaks, AMBLESIDE, 
Oct. 12. 1844. 


On the Occurrence of Mannite in the Laminaria saccharina 
and other Sea-weeds ; also in Mushrooms. 


It appears, from the experiments of Dr John Stenhouse, as con- 
tained in the Philosophical Magazine for October 1844, that the 
Laminaria saccharina contains 12.15 per cent. of Mannite. 

Mannite may be easily distinguished from cane-sugar by the fol- 
lowing test :—If a little strong sulphuric acid is poured upon the 
mannite, and a gentle heat is applied, the mannite dissolves without 
being in the least discoloured, and gives a transparent solution. If 
the heat is much increased the liquid becomes of a deep-brown colour, 
but does not lose its transparency. When cane-sugar, on the con- 
trary, is gently heated with sulphuric acid, it is, as is well known, 
immediately charred with evolution of sulphurous acid gas. From 
grape-sugar mannite may be likewise easily distinguished. If man- 
nite is boiled with a strong solution of potash or soda, it dissolves 
without any change of colour; while grape-sugar, when similarly 
treated, acquires a deep-brown colour, When heated with a solu- 
tion of potash and some sulphate of copper, mannite completely pre- 
vents the precipitation of the oxide of copper; while grape-sugar 
causes the immediate precipitation of the red oxide of copper. 

Besides mannite, the Laminaria saccharina, in common with most 
of the other sea-weed, contains a great deal of peculiar mucilage, 
which, when dried, has a deep-reddish colour. It differs, however, 
from ordinary gum ; for, when digested with nitric acid, it yields 
oxalic, but neither mucic nor saccharic acids. I intend subjecting this 
substance to more minute examination. 

Laminaria digitata. —Besides the L. saccharina, I have also exa- 
mined some of the other sea-weeds for mannite, and among others the 
L. digitata or common tangle. The aqueous solution of this sea- 
weed is also reddish-brown, and when evaporated, it yields a similar 
mucilage with the L. saccharina, but in much smaller quantity. 
The L. digitata also contains a considerable quantity of mannite, 


42 On the occurrence of Mannite in Laminaria Saccharina. 


though I should think scarcely half as much as what exists in the 
L. saccharina. 

Halydris siliquosa.—The next sea-weed examined was the Haly- 
dris siliquosa. With hot water it forms a very dark-coloured solu- 
tion, of a bitter and slightly astringent taste. The quantity of man- 
nite contained in it is very great, amounting, I should think, to be- 
tween 5 and 6 per cent. As already mentioned, mannite forms a 
great part of the white incrustations which appear on the surface of 
this sea-weed when dried. 

Alaria esculenta.—This beautiful sea-weed, which is by no means 
uncommon on the coasts of Scotland, where, as its name imports, it 
often serves as an article of food, also contains mannite in consider- 
able abundance. 

Rhodomenia palmata.—Rhodomenia palmata, or common dulse, 
contains a good deal of a sweet-tasted greenish-coloured mucilage. 
It also yields a considerable quantity of mannite, amounting pro- 
bably to 2 or 3 per cent. 

Fucus vesiculosus.—The Fucus vesiculosus, the most common, 
perhaps, of British algae, contains, I should think, from 1 to 2 per 
cent. of mannite; and the Fucus nodosus, also a very common sea- 
weed, likewise yields a small but very appreciable quantity of the 
same principle, 

Fucus serratus.—T his sea-weed also contains a considerable quan- 
tity of mannite, less, perhaps, than the L. digitata, but more than 
the Rhodomenia palmata. The mannite which the Fucus serratus 
yields is much freer from colouring matter than that from any of 
the other algae, being nearly colourless from the first. 

I could not detect any mannite in the Ulva latissima or Laver. 
The experiment was made on a very small scale, and will be repeated 
on the first opportunity. The Laver contains a good deal of a sweet- 
tasted green-coloured mucilage, similar to that of the Rhodomenia 
palmata. 

As mannite has occurred in eight out of nine of the sea-weeds 
which I have happened to examine, it probably exists in larger or 
smaller quantity in most sea-weeds, in which it appears to replace 
the cane and grape sugar, so abundant in many of our land plants. 
It is evident, also, that mannite occurs much more plentifully in 
nature than has been hitherto imagined. The following is a list of 
the algae just described, arranged in order according to the quantity 
of mannite which they severally contain :— 


1. Laminaria saccharina. 5. Alaria esculenta. 

2. Halydris siliquosa. 6. Rhodomenia palmata. 
3. Laminaria digitata. 7. Fucus vesiculosus. 

4, Fucus serratus. 8. Fucus nodosus. 


The quantity of mannite in the L, saccharina is such that I think 


On the Mammalia of Aberdeenshire. 43 


mannite might be more economically procured from this sea-weed 
than from the usual source—manna.* 


On the Mammalia of the Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kin- 
cardine. By WiLLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., LL.D., Pro- 
fessor of Natural History in Marischal College and Uni- 
versity, Aberdeen. (Communicated by the Author.) 


(Continued from vol. xxxvii., p. 392.) 


2. Sorex rusticus. Sorex tetragonurus has the head broader and more 
convex, and the muzzle proportionally narrower; the feet rather more 
slender ; and the tail proportionally shorter, and more slender. In both, 
the tail is unequally four-sided, the lower side being broader than the 
rest; but in Sorex rusticus I have never seen the hairs so worn as they 
often are in the other. 

The following are the measurements of three individuals :— 


MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE, 

In. 1: In. 1. fn, TC 
Entire length, . 4 5 4 6 4 3 
Length of head, Ay +O i tO 
Length of tail, “ads sate it Sng | sid Lap 
Length of forefoot, . . . 0 3} 0 4: 0 4 
Length of hind foot, . 0 52 0 64 On'7 
Skull in length, 0 9 
Skull in breadth, 0 44 


The habits of this species or variety are, in all respects, so far 
as can be known, the same as those of the other. It is more com- 
mon in fields and by fences than Sorex tetragonurus, which is the 
kind usually found with us in wilder and more bushy places, as well 
as in woods. Our Highland fox, compared with that of the Low- 
lands, presents exactly similar differences. It is not distinguished 
by our rustics from the other, both being Thraw Mice. 

Sorex araneus, Flem. Brit. Anim., 5. 

Sorex araneus, Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 17. 

Sorex rusticus, Jen. Ann. Nat. Hist., i. 423. 


8. Sorex ciliatus. Grey-breasted Water Shrew. 


Black above, blackish-grey beneath, throat reddish-brown ; a tuft of 
white hairs on the inner lobe of the ears ; feet ciliated; tail as long as 
the body, not including the head, square, compressed toward the end, 
ciliated beneath, with a ridge of stiffish hairs, which gradually elongate, 
and form a pointed tip ; upper canine tooth elongated, decurved in the 
fourth of a circle, obtuse, with a prominent basal lobe; lower canine 
tooth direct, depressed, slightly ascending at the end, with a faint sub- 
basal lobe ; teeth tipped with brownish-red. 


* MM. Knop and Schnederman have detected mannite in the mush- 
- room named Agaricus piperatus ; other chemists have found the mannite 
in Cantharellus esculentus and Clavellaria coralloides,—EDI1'. 


44 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the 


This species, which is considerably larger than Sorex fodiens, from 
which it differs also in colour, may yet be described in almost the same 
terms. The body is subcylindrical, rather full; the head oblong-coni- 
cal, one-third of the length, excluding the tail, which is of the same 
length as the body, excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, de- 
pressed, projecting far beyond the jaws, emarginate at the tip, grooved 
beneath ; the ears short, rounded, with an internal upper rounded lobe, 
and another at the lower part ; the eyes very small; the feet short, ra- 
ther strong; the anterior, with the first toe a little shorter than the 
fifth, the rest nearly equal, but the third longest ; the sole bare, with six 
tubercles; the claws slender, compressed, slightly arched, acute; the 
hind feet longer, with the first toe much shorter than the fifth, the rest 
much longer, the second shorter than the third and fourth, which are 
about equal; the sole bare, with six tubercles, the claws stouter than 
those of the fore feet; the tarsi and toes are all ciliated with stiffish 
hairs ; the tail is square at the base, gradually compressed at the end, 
scaly, and covered with short, adpressed hairs, ciliated beneath with a 
ridge of stiffish oblique hairs, gradually becoming longer, and forming a 
point, the organ suggesting the idea of an oar. 

The snout is black above, dusky flesh-coloured beneath; the eyes 
black ; the fur, which is soft, close, and velvety, like that of a mole, is, 
on the upper parts, black, with the hairs bluish at the base ; on the lower 
parts black, mixed with grey, and tinged with brown; the throat and 
lower lip reddish-brown ; the long spreading bristles on the snout are 
black ; a tuft of whitish hairs from the upper anterior lobe of the ear; 
the feet dusky, the marginal hairs tinged with brown, as are those of 
the tail. 

Canine teeth }, anterior molar 4, molar 4 = $ = 80. 

In the upper jaw, the canine tooth bilobate, with the basal lobe com- 
pressed, obtuse, the terminal lobe much elongated, obliquely compres- 
sed, decurved in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, but thin-edged at the 
end, curved inward, the two almost meeting near the tip. First small 
molar tooth anteriorly conical, obtuse, larger than the basal lobe of the 
canine, and projecting beyond its level; the second similar, but consi- 
derably less, and retiring ; the third still smaller, and more retiring, but 
similar; the fourth, minute. The first grinder large, with two anterior 
external conical, rather acute, prominences ; the second larger, and a 
thin-edged ridge behind, terminating in a slight prominence in contact 
with the next tooth; a little behind the anterior lobe, internally, is a 
small lobe, and, nearly in a line with these two, an internal less-elevated 
lobe, running out behind. The second grinder with three external lobes, 
two internal terminating the transverse grooves between the outer lobes, 
and two inner lobes or oblique protuberances within. The third grinder 
with three external, nearly equal, lobes, two internal lobes terminating 
the grooves, and two obtuse protuberances within. The fourth grinder 
very small, transverse, with the crown irregularly concave, and two 
small prominences, the one anterior and external, the other posterior 
and thin. 

In the lower jaw, the canine tooth nearly horizontal, slender, ob- 
liquely compressed, thin-edged, with a slight lobe or festoon near the 
base, the tip a little ascending, obtuse, but thin-edged. First small 
molar tooth compressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated, obtuse, 
thin lobe; second compressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated, 
obtuse, thin lobe. First grinder largest, with an anterior, two external, 
and two internal points; the first external point largest, the second 
similar. The second and third are much smaller, but similar. 

The teeth are white, but with the tips brownish-red ; the outermost 


Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 45 


processes of the first two grinders not tipped with that colour, nor any 
of those of the last, the red being chiefly confined to the inner processes 
in the upper grinders, and to the outer in the lower. 


FEMALE. 
Lee Ae 
Entire length, . 6 2 
Length of head, 5 al 
Wremagnot ete s se Sie hs fae toy a 
Length of fore foot,. . . .. O 5% 
Length ofhind foot, ... . 010 
Skull in length, St ids Spee ETE 
Skull in breadth, . 0 53 


It does not appear that much difference exists between Sorex ciliatus 
and Sorex fodiens, the teeth being the same in number, as well as in 
form, with some slight differences only in the proportional size of their 
lobes. The present species, however, is somewhat larger, and differ- 
ently coloured. 


The individual described above, a female, had ten teats. It was 
found dead in a wood near the Old Bridge of Don, on the 30th of 
May 1841, by Mr John MacGillivray. 

It inhabits woods and thickets with long herbage, banks, meadows, 
and the sides of rills, ditches, and pools. It swims and dives with 
ease, runs with considerable speed, burrows in moss and earth, and 
forms runs or galleries among the herbage. Opportunities of ob- 
serving its habits have not, however, occurred to me in this dis- 
trict. 

Sorex ciliatus, Sowerby, Brit. Miscell., pl. 49. 

Sorex remifer. Yarrell, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., v. 598. 

Sorex remifer. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 18. 

Oared shrew. Sorex remifer. Bell, Brit. Quadr., 119. 


3. Sorex fodiens. White-breasted Water Shrew. 

Black above, silvery-white beneath, the colours abruptly defined on 
the sides ; a large triangular patch of black between the thighs and tail ; 
a tuft of white hairs on the inner lobe of the ears (often also a white 
spot behind each eye); tail about as long as the body, square at the 
base, compressed toward the end, ciliated beneath with a ridge of stiffish 
hairs, which form a pointed tip; upper canine tooth elongated, decurved 
in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, with a prominent basal lobe; lower 
canine tooth direct, depressed, slightly ascending at the end, with a 


long, slightly-elevated festoon in-its basal half; teeth tipped with brown- 


ish-red ; young black above, greyish-white beneath ; tail rather longer 
than the body. 

This species varies so much in size and colour, as to render it expe- 
dient to describe it in its different stages. 

The body is subeylindrical, full; the head oblongo-conical, one-third 
of the length, excluding the tail, which is a little shorter than the body, 
excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, depressed, projecting far 
beyond the jaws, distinctly emarginate at the tip, grooved beneath; the 
ears are very short, rounded, with an internal upper thin, rounded lobe, 
capable of closing it like a valve, and a very small lobe at the base ante- 
riorly ; the eyes very small; the limbs very short, rather strong; the 
feet rather broad, but the toes slender; the anterior foot, with the first 


46 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the 


toe, shorter than the fifth, the second much longer, but shorter than the 
third, which scarcely exceeds the fourth; the sole bare, rugose, with 
six tubercles ; the claws slightly arched, compressed, acute; the hind feet 
longer, with the first toe much shorter than the fifth, the rest much 
longer, the second shorter than the third and fourth, which are equal ; 
the sole bare, with six dusky tubercles; the claws rather more slender 
than those of the fore feet ; the tarsi and toes are beautifully fringed with 
long, close, stiffish, decurved hairs; the tail is square at the base, gra- 
dually compressed beyond the first third of its length, higher in that 
space than in the basal region, and of nearly uniform breadth, tapering 
only when viewed from above or beneath, scaly, and covered with ad- 
pressed hairs, gradually decurved on the sides, and beneath ciliated with 
a ridge of stiffish oblique hairs, gradually becoming longer, and forming 
a point at the tip. 

The bare tip of the snout black, dusky beneath ; but the lips flesh- 
coloured ; the eyes black. The fur, which is close, soft, and velvety, like 
that of a mole, with extremely slender sparse hairs projecting beyond 
the general level, is, on all the upper parts, black, with the hairs bluish 
at the base ; immediately above, and a little behind each eye, is a small 
oblong white spot; and on the upper lobe of the ear is a tuft of white 
hairs. The lower parts are silvery-white, the two colours distinctly de- 
fined along the sides; but between the tail and the interfemoral space 
is a triangular patch of black, partly, however, intermixed with white 
hairs. The legs dusky externally ; the feet pale-grey above, becoming 
white on the toes; their bare parts beneath dusky flesh-colour, with the 
tubercles dusky; the ciliary hairs white, but on the outer side in part 
dusky ; the tail black, the hairs of the median ridge silvery-white. 

Canine teeth +, anterior molar 4, molar 4 = 3 = 80. 

In the upper jaw, the canine tooth bilobate, with the basal lobe small 
and compressed, the terminal lobe much elongated, obliquely compres- 
sed, decurved in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, but thin-edged at the end, 
curved inward, the two almost meeting near the tip. First small molar 
tooth anteriorly conical, obtuse, but thin, and curved inward ; second 
and third, similar, gradually smaller; fourth, minute, but similar. First 
grinder large, with two anterior external conical, obtuse, prominences ; 
the second larger, and a thin-edged ridge behind, terminating in a slight 
prominence, a little behind the anterior lobe internally is a small lobe, 
and nearly in a line with these two, an internal less elevated lobe, run- 
ning out behind. The second grinder with three external lobes, two 
internal, terminating the transverse grooves between the outer lobes, 
and two inner lobes or oblique protuberances within. The third grinder 
with three external nearly equal lobes, two internal lobes terminating 
the grooves, and two obtuse protuberances within. Fourth grinder very. 
small, transverse, with the crown irregularly concave, and two small 
prominences, the one anterior and external, the other posterior and thin. 

In the lower jaw, the canine tooth nearly horizontal, slender, obliquely 
compressed, thin-edged, with an elongated slightly elevated festoon, the 
tip a little ascending, obtuse, but thin-edged. The first false molar com- 
pressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated, obtuse, thin lobe; the 
second a little larger, similar, but with a second small lobe. The first 
grinder largest, with an anterior, two external, and twointernal points, 
the first external point largest; the second grinder similar; the third 
much smaller, but similar. 

The teeth are white, but with the tips brownish-red, that colour being 
chiefly confined to the inner processes in the upper grinders, and to the 
outer in the lower. 

The individual from which the above description is taken is an adult 
male, in perfect pile. It was caught at Knockleith, in Auchterless, and 


ee 


Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 47 


brought to me by my pupil Mr Charles Barclay, on the 7th November 
1843. 

Another adult individual, a female, sent from near Turriff, by my 
pupil Miss Murray, in October of the same year, may now be described, 
as shewing the difference produced by abrasion of the pile, which was 
much worn, with the ciliz of the feet and tail quite short and stiff. In 
the teeth and general characters it exactly resembled the above. The 
long hairs projecting from the pile nearly all worn off. The fur on all 
the upper parts black, with the hairs bluish at the base, on the lower 
parts greyish-white, with a faint tinge of brown on the abdomen; all the 
hairs above and below greyish-blue at the base. On the throat, at the 
distance of an inch from the tip of the snout, is a round greyish-blue 
spot, seeming black by contrast, a quarter of an inch in diameter ; at the 
coming off of the fore-legs, two similar small spots; and a triangular 
patch of the same between the tail and the interfemoral space; the tail 
brownish-black, a little paler beneath. These differences appear to de- 
pend upon abrasion or decay of the fur. There is a tuft of white on 
each ear, but no white near the eyes. The number of teats is ten. 

The dimensions of the two individuals are here given, tegether with 
those of another female and a young male. 


MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE. YOUNG MALE. 


In. 1. In. 1. In. 1. In. 1. 
Entire length, 5 4 5 6 5 8 5 0 
Length of head, bul kod 1 2 1 0 
Length of tail, . 2 2 2:0 m3 2 2 
Length of fore-foot, 0 5 0 52 O Sf 0 4} 
Length of hind-foot, . 0 8h 0 84 0 8& 0 73 
Skull in length, 0113 =r 0 114 0 10 
Skull in breadth, OS “ 0 5} 0 43 


A young male, in perfect pile, caught near Collieston, in September 
1845, differs in its proportions. In the old male the body is longer than 
in the young; and in the old female the body is proportionally longer, 
and the tail relatively and positively shorter; whereas in the young the 
tail is longer than in either, in proportion to the size of the body. These 
circumstances are observed in other Shrews, as well as in Mice. 

The body subcylindrical, rather full; the head oblong, conical, one- 
third of the length, excluding the tail, which is a little longer than the 
body, excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, considerably de- 
pressed, emarginate at the tip, grooved beneath. The ears are very 
short, rounded, internally lobed. The eyes, limbs, and tail, as in the 
adult. The fur is close, soft, and rather velvety but not so dense or fine 
as in the adult. On the upper parts it is brownish-black, on the lower 
greyish-white, the two colours blended on the sides. The long spreading 
bristles on the snout are black. A tuft of white hairs from the upper ante- 
rior lobe of the ear. The feet dusky, the marginal hairs grey; the hairs 
of the tail brownish-black, those forming the ridge beneath whitish ; the 
claws greyish-white. The teeth, as already described, white, with the 
tips brownish-red, except the basal lobe of the upper canine tooth. 


This beautiful and lively little creature resides in the neighbour- 
hood of brooks and ditches, where it burrows in the ground, and fre- 
quently betakes itself to the water, where it swims and dives with 
great expertness. It is also met with in fields, often at a great dis- 
tance from water. Its food consists of insects and worms; and it 
appears to be very voracious, like the mole, which it resembles in 
its restless and irritable temperament. The young individual de- 


48 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the 


scribed above, was caught alive by me near a brook on the coast of 
Slains, On being set free in the manse, it shewed great activity, 
screamed when annoyed, attempted to bite the finger, and tore vo- 
raciously at a piece of flesh put into the glass with it; but not hav- 
ing been comfortably lodged at night, died next day. Although the 
species is not uncommon with us, its habits render it difficult to be 
watched, or even found. 

Adults exhibit great differences in size, and even in colour; the 
latter circumstance, however, depending greatly upon the age of the 
fur. When recent, it is deep black, minutely intermixed with a 
little grey, or even sometimes here and there whitish hairs; on the 
lower parts white, which, viewed from before, is glossy and almost 
pure, but, seen otherwise, is dull, and tinged with grey. When the 
fur is old and worn, it is more tinged with bluish-grey both above 
and beneath. ‘The bluish spot on the throat is perhaps the result of 
abrasion, and on cutting the tips of the hairs on any of the lower 
parts, the same appearance is produced. Sometimes there is a longi- 
tudinal band of dark-grey or blackish, along the middle of the belly, 
as in an individual found by Dr Irvine, in September 1844. 

The adults, then, immediately after moulting, are deep brownish- 
black above, white beneath, with a tinge of grey, the bases of the 
hairs being bluish-grey’; the two colours abruptly defined on the sides; 
the ears with white tufts, and in some individuals a small white tuft 
over each eye. 

When the fur is old, worn, and weathered, it has changed to 
brown, the white is more grey, and sometimes tinged with brown or 
red, from the soil, 

The young are at first dull brownish-black above, dull-grey be- 
neath. Toward the end of autumn, when the pile has been renewed, 
they are very dark brownish-black above, pale-grey or greyish-white, 
with a tinge of yellowish-brown, beneath, the two colours not de- 
cidedly defined on the sides, and no white tufts on the ears. 

Sorex fodiens, Gmel. Syst. Nat., i. 118. 

Sorex fodiens, Flem. Brit. Anim., 8. 

Sorex fodiens, Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 18; Ann. Nat. Hist., i. 

425. 
Sorex fodiens, Bell, Brit. Quad., 115. 


Fam. TALPINA. Six incisors above, eight below, closely set; upper 
canine teeth large, compressed, pointed: molar teeth seven above, all 
pointed, the posterior three broad, with several points, six below, simi- 
larly pointed. Anterior limbs very short, robust, with the foot very 
broad, the claws large, depressed; posterior limbs short, moderately 
strong, with compressed, curved, acute claws. Body cylindrical, with 
fine velvety pile; tail very short. 

Gen, TALPA. Head depressed, elongated, pointed, snout mobile ; 
eyes minute ; no external ears; teeth forty-four. 

1. Talpa europea. Common Mole. 

Middle upper incisors a third longer than the lateral, and nearly twice 


se a 


Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 49 


as broad ; eyelids open ; fur greyish black, somewhat tinged with brown 
beneath. 

The mole of Aberdeenshire is the same as that of the south of Scot- 
land, as well as of England. In all the prepared skulls and recent spe- 
cimens of British moles that I have examined, the incisor teeth of the 
upper jaw are unequal in size, the outermost tooth on each side being a 
third shorter than the innermost or central, and not generally much more 
than half its breadth. Now, the characters of “upper incisors nearly 
equal,” has been assumed as the peculiar distinction between Talpa cu- 
ropea and Talpa ceca, which latter has been characterized as having the 
middle incisors larger than the outer. But Talpa ceca is said to have 
the eyes covered by the skin, which is not the case with ours. Were 
the descriptions of authors correct, our mole would be different from 
either ; but, as it is, I have reason to think, after an extended compari- 
son, that our Scottish and English mole is nothing else than Talpa euro- 
pzea, or, at least, what has been described as such by all British writers. 

Although I have prepared a very minute description of the animal, as 
it occurs with us, I therefore do not think it necessary, on the present 
occasion, to enter into details respecting the teeth, which are, 

Incisors 3, canine teeth 3, anterior molars 4, molars 3=3}4=22—44. 

The fur, or pile, is uniform, very fine, soft, without long hairs, unless 
on the tail, and a few short and very delicate bristles on the snout. The 
general colour is blackish-grey, viewed against the pile bluish-grey and 
glossy, the lower parts paler, the lower jaw reddish-brown, the fore- 
neck and fore part of the thorax, and sometimes the shoulders, slightly 
tinged with the same colour; the hairs of the tail black. The snout 
flesh-coloured, inclining to pink; the bare parts of the feet pale flesh- 
coloured, as are the claws. Eyes blackish-grey. 

In a male and a female, the cesophagus in length 23, 24 inches; the 
stomach yery large, with very thin parietes, and internally villous, of 
an oblong form, much curved, in its greatest diameter 22, 23, in breadth 
13, 1}, its outer curve 54, 5; the esophagus enters about the middle, 
and the pyloric end gradually tapers into the intestine, which measures 
in length 71, 61, and varies from three-twelfths to one-twelfth in diame- 
ter; the colon not enlarged, nor is there any ccecum. 

The young are from three to five. In an individual killed on the 31st 
of May, I found three fetuses, about half size. It appears that several 
broods are reared in the season, for young ones have been found in 
autumn. 

The mole changes its fur in May and June. The new pile is at first 
remarkably glossy, and on the thorax more tinged with brown than 
afterwards. One obtained on the 30th May 1843, had completed its 
moult; another procured alive on the 3d of June, had only begun to 
shed its pile. With us there is little variation in the tints of the fur ; 
although shades of black or grey may be met with, and a white or 
eream-coloured individual is sometimes seen, 


MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE. 

In, im, I, in; J. 
Entire length, .-. . . . 7 6 6 10 6 5 
Length of head, cee Bali 1 8 1 8 
Length of tail, . aaa eect: (() 011 iil 
Length of forefoot, . . . 0 9 0 104 0 9 
Length of hind foot, . 0 9 Q 9% 0 82 


It is generally distributed with us, being, as usual, most abundant 
VOL. XXXVII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. D 


50 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 


in the more fertile lands, but also occurring in barren pastures, and 
even in the more elevated valleys, although few are met with beyond 
the limits of cultivation. The mole frequently bears the name of 
moddiwarp or moddiwort. 

The Carnivora come next; but as among them there are species 
which require a rather lengthened description, it seems expedient to 
reserve them and the Rodentia, among which is a new species, for 
another occasion. 


On the Phenomena of Evaporation, the Formation, and Sus- 
pension of Clouds, §c. By G. A. ROWELL, Esq. of Oxford. 
Communicated by the Author. 


THE phenomena of evaporation, the formation and sus- 
pension of clouds, &c., are so varied, that it is generally 
allowed that no theory hitherto proposed will explain the 
subject satisfactorily, and it is difficult to find authors agree- 
ing to the same explanation. The theory adopted by the 
writer on this subject in the Encyclopedia Britannica (that 
water is taken up in solution in the air), is generally given 
up ; for although it explains evaporation in air very well, it 
does not explain the cause of evaporation in vacuo, or ac- 
count for the formation and suspension of clouds, or how 
clouds obtain their electricity. 

The theory proposed by the late eminent philosopher, Dr 
Dalton, that evaporation is caused by the absorption of caloric 
by water, is adopted by Mr Howard and other leading meteor- 
ologists, but this theory also fails in a similar way; one ob-_ 
jection is, that ice and snow will evaporate when surrounded 
by air below the freezing temperature ; now, as ice is water 
deprived of its 140 degrees of heat of fluidity, from what 
source can it derive its caloric to convert it into vapour, 
when surrounded by a freezing atmosphere ? 

Again, the great heights at which clouds are sometimes 
seen, tell against the theory, as the following will shew the 
enormous expansion of vapour necessary to render it buoyant, 
and, at the same time, the great reduction of temperature at 
such heights. 


Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 51 


. Temperature . -, | Expansion of Water 
Heights. arAGe Density of Air. to Float. 


Level of the sea,..... + 60° i 860 
0°7943 1083 
0°6309 1363 
0:5011 1716 
0:3981 2160 
0:3163 2719 


Expansion of steam at 212° is 1800 times. 


Five miles is far above the usual height of clouds, but we 
have undoubted authority that clouds are sometimes seen at 
that height. But even at three miles high, the expansion 
of vapour to float must be 1716 times (very near the expan- 
sion of steam from boiling water), and the temperature re- 
duced to 23° below the freezing point. This, I believe, will 
be sufficient proof that the ascent and suspension of vapour, 
at such heights, must be caused by some agent, which is un- 
influenced by heat or cold. 

The hypothesis I offer on the subject is, that when ex- 
panded by heat, the increase of the surface of particles of 
water giving them a greater capacity for electricity, they 
are buoyed up into the air by their coating of electricity ; 
that if condensed near the earth’s surface, the extra-quan- 
tity of electricity is withdrawn, and the vapour falls as dew, 
&e. ; but if it rises out of the electrical attraction of the earth, 
and is then condensed, the electricity being insulated, forms 
an atmosphere around each particle of vapour, which sur- 
charge of electricity not only suspends the vapour by its 
lightness, but also repels the neighbouring particles of va- 
pour, and prevents the formation of rain; and on the re- 
moval (by any cause) of the electricity inclosing the vapour- 
ous particles, the repulsion* is removed, and the particles 
attract each other, and form rain. 


* In using the term repulsion, IJ mean that the particles repel each 
other to the extent of their electrical coating, and no farther : that bodies 


52 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 


Before I endeavour to explain the various phenomena in 
question, by this hypothesis, I would direct attention to some 
of the acknowledged properties of electricity, namely: it 
has no weight, occupies space, and is dependent on the surface 
rather than the bulk of bodies ; and also to the rapid increase 
of the surface of bodies, in proportion to their bulk, as their 
bulk diminishes ; thus, adopting the ;,15> part of an inch as 
the diameter of a particle of vapour, and the 3}; part of an 
inch as the diameter of a drop of rain, it would take 8,000,000 
particles of vapour to form one drop of rain ; but the surface 
of the rain drop would only equal that of 40,000 particles of 
vapour, therefore, the surface and consequent capacity of 
each particle of the vapour for electricity, is 200 times greater 
than that of the rain-drop, bulk for bulk; and as we have no 
means of judging what is the real diameter of a particle of 
water, it is probable that it is much smaller than the diame- 
ter I have adopted, and, therefore, has a much greater capa- 
city for electricity, proportionate to its bulk. 

Thus it will be seen, that if electricity coats the surface of 
bodies, there must be some point at which the surface of a 
body would be so great in proportion to its bulk, that this 
coating of imponderable matter would render it buoyant. 

I will now endeavour, as briefly as possible, to explain the 
phenomena by this hypothesis. 

As heat expands the particles of water, it increases their 
capacity for electricity; therefore, all other circumstances 
being alike, the greater the heat the greater the evaporation. 

Evaporation must depend on the surface exposed, and not 


similarly electrified (either positively or negatively) recede from each 
other to considerable distances, I believe, may be attributed to the in- 
fluence of surrounding objects; thus, if a globe be charged, it will at- 
tract, and be attracted, in all directions ; now, if the globe be so fragile, 
as that this attraction is sufficient to separate it into minute fragments, 
these having no attraction for each other, would be attracted apart by 
surrounding objects, and not dispersed through any repulsion amongst 
themselves. My views may be wrong, but I cannot otherwise account 
for the collection of particles of vapour into clouds, especially when 
highly charged, as in thunder-storms. 


Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 53 


on the volume of water, as only the particles on the surface 
of the water can obtain their coating of electricity. 

Wind increases evaporation by assisting the particles of 
vapour to separate from the body of water, thus enabling the 
particles to obtain their full coating of electricity, which they 
cannot have while resting on the surface of the water. 

Evaporation from ice is owing to the coldness and dryness 
of the air separating the minute particles at the surface, 
when obtaining their coating of electricity, they are rendered 
sufficiently buoyant to be carried off by a brisk wind. 

Evaporation from ice, snow, or even water, at very low 
temperatures, is trifling except during windy weather. 

Evaporation in vacuo (¢. e. under an exhausted receiver) 
is from the weight of the atmosphere being taken off, when 
the particles ef water are buoyed up one upon another by 
their electrical coatings.* 


* The following extracts from the Philosophical Magazine, January 
1842, will shew the agency of electricity in evaporation :— 

*« The following experiment was made to prove that evaporation 
would not go on so freely from an insulated vessel as from an uninsu~ 
lated one :— 

“In a warm room, over an oyen in daily use, I suspended, by silk 
threads, two shallow vessels, eight inches and a half in diameter, con- 
taining eight ounces of water each ; a small copper wire was hung from 
one vessel to the earth to take off the insulation, both vessels being simi- 
larly suspended in every other respect. After being suspended 26 hours, 
the insulated vessel had lost 2 oz. 11 dwts. and 15 grains ; and the other 
vessel, 3 oz. 6 dwts.; shewing an excess of evaporation from the non-in- 
sulated one of 14 dwts. 9 grains. 

“ J have tried similar experiments with water placed in the rays of the 
sun, and, on all occasions, the evaporation has been greatest from non- 
insulated vessels. There is a difficulty in obtaining correct calculations 
from the above experiments, as it is scarcely possible to keep up com- 
plete insulation from electricity ; and the vessel of water must have its 
proportion of electricity when placed in an insulating situation, which 
will assist the evaporation for some time ; but I believe, if complete in- 
sulation could be obtained, and a vessel left without any electricity, 
that no evaporation would go on at moderate temperatures.” 

It has long been well known that evaporation is increased by water 
being charged with electricity: this increase was attributed to the par- 
ticles of water being repelled from the surface, as any light substance is 


54 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 


Vapour, when raised, if condensed near the earth, is then 
surcharged by the contraction of its surface, and, being at- 
tracted to the condensing substance, forms dew; or, if the 
surcharge escapes to the earth, the vapour is rendered scarcely 
buoyant, and causes fogs, &c. 

When vapour rises to a distance from the earth, and is 
then condensed, the surcharge of electricity still buoys it up, 
and, forming an electrical atmosphere round each particle, 
prevents the formation of clouds or rain until this surcharge 
escapes ; and the more the vapour is expanded on its first 
rising, the greater will be its charge of electricity, and it 
will rise to a corresponding height. 

The vapour in the region of the clouds is generally, or at 
all times, condensed, but invisible, from its being so dif- 
fused: the breath of animals is condensed and visible, in 
cold weather, close to the mouth, but invisible at a short 
distance off, where it is more condensed, but more diffused ; 
and the deep blue of the sky at great elevations, as described 
by Saussure, Humboldt, and others, makes it probable that 
the light colour of the sky at lower latitudes is owing to the 
condensed vapour floating in the air. 

The formation of clouds is, in general, not owing to the 
sudden condensation of the vapour, but from the escape of 
its electricity, thus allowing the particles to be brought 
nearer by the attraction of aggregation ; and a still further 
escape of the electricity enables such attraction to overcome 
the electrical repulsion of the particles, and form rain. 

Mountains and high hills cause rain, by conducting the 
electricity from the clouds and vapour, and not as condensers 
of vapour. 

Rain is also caused by the air between the earth and 
clouds becoming charged with vapour, and thus conducting 
the electricity from the vapour above. 


from a charged conductor ; but the fact that insulation retards evapora- 
tion, shews that electricity is a necessary agent. 

The electricity of steam also supports this theory. See Article on the 
subject in last vol., p. 347. 


ei ie a ee 


Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 55 


Extensive fires, voleanoes, &c., cause rain from the smoke 
and vapour bringing the air into a conducting state. 

Pressure is another cause of rain; thus, if a cloud be 
forming, the accumulation of vapour is from every side, but 
chiefly above, and clouds are, at times, of great depth ; now, 
every particle of vapour, on joining the cloud, would have its 
extra-charge of electricity over the particles of the cloud 
instantly dispersed through the whole mass, and would take 
its level in the atmosphere according to its density ; now, as 
all the particles in the cloud are of the same density, those 
particles of vapour which are above the mean line of density 
would press downwards, and those below that line would re- 
act on those above ; and although the electrical repulsion of 
the particles be sufficient to prevent rain at the edges and 
thinnest part of the cloud,the pressure at the greatest depths 
of the cloud may be sufficient to overcome the repulsion, and 
form rain. 

The concussion caused by a flash of lightning from such a 
cloud (that is, with its particles pressed nearly into contact) 
will easily explain the cause of the heavy dash of rain which 
follows the flash of lightning. 

Rain caused by pressure will often take place at much 
greater elevations than that caused simply by the gradual 
escape of the electricity of the vapour, which will account for 
the formation of hail: thus, a cloud is wafted from a warm 
to a colder region, and although the cold may be sufficient 
to freeze all the particles of vapour at the exterior of the 
cloud, the radiation of heat would be prevented from the cen- 
tral part, where the vapour would remain unfrozen. Rain, 
formed in the middle of such a mass of vapour, would increase 
in size in falling through the lower part of the cloud; it 
would be instantly frozen on leaving the cloud, and the drop, 
formed under such circumstances, being large, would not 
only remain frozen in falling through the warmer strata of 
air to the earth, but would also increase in size by attracting 
to itself other vapour ; but the rain or snow falling from the 
thinner parts of the cloud being in smaller drops, if frozen 
in the higher regions, would be melted in falling through the 


56 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. - 


warmer air; thus, as is often the case, there is heavy hail 
and rain falling at the same time from the same cloud. 
The successive flashes of lightning from the same cloud 
may be caused by the electricity being pressed out of the 
cloud when the electric fluid accumulated on the surface 
would strike off either to the earth or neighbouring clouds: 
or it may be caused by the formation of rain ; thus, it takes 
8,000,000 particles of vapour to form one drop of rain, but 
the capacity for electricity of the rain-drop is only equal 
to that of 40,000 particles of vapour; therefore, on the for- 
mation of every drop of rain, the electricity of 7,960,000 par- 
ticles of vapour must be dispersed through the remaining 
vapour, and thus increase the electrical charge of the cloud. 
The same reasoning will account for the dispersion of 
clouds after rain; for if the electricity does not, by some 
means, escape from the cloud in so great a proportion as the 
accumulation goes on through the formation of rain, the 
electricity must increase so as to stop the formation of rain ; 
and may disperse the cloud altogether, through the in- 
creased repulsion of the particles of vapour. 
The sinking in the barometer previous to and during rain, 
I ascribe to the rapid escape of electricity from the invisible 
vapour or clouds, thus causing a partial vacuum in the re- 
gions of the clouds, and the air, from its elasticity, rising to 
fill the vacuum, decreases the pressure on the mercury. 
Storms, in most cases, I believe, are from similar causes : 
the enormous and rapid escape of electricity from clouds 
during heavy rains, causes a rarefaction of the air in the 
clouds ; the air between the clouds and the earth rushes up- 
wards to fill the rarefied space, and the air at the earth’s 
surface rushes in from all points to gain its equilibrium ; and 
when the excessive rains, which take place at times in tro- 
pical climates, are borne in mind, I think the causes explained 
will be sufficient to account for the most terrific storm. 


ues > he 


PARE, ©. 


Lidin! NewLhil. Jour Vol. 38, p.57. 


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On the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. By Captain 
VetTcu, Royal Engineers.* With a plate. 


The Commissioners are desirous of being informed by 
you what scale and description of survey you consider, from 
practical experience, to be the most eligible for house and 
street drainage, and sewerage, and for the regulation of new 
buildings, or for other public purposes to which a compre- 
hensive survey would be applicable ?—The best and most 
appropriate scale for the several purposes required, I con- 
sider to be 88 feet to one inch, or one mile to 60 inches. This 
will be adequate to shew the position of the sewers, water- 
pipes, and gas-pipes, and would serve the purposes of valu- 
ation, and of setting out improvements. The valuation map 
of Leeds was constructed upon a scale of 198 feet to an inch, 
but it proved too small for several purposes, and was after- 
wards, at some expense, enlarged to a scale of 99 feet to an 
inch, or double the original size ; but the effect of plotting to 
a smaller scale, and enlarging afterwards, has the effect of 
magnifying any inaccuracies ; whereas if the plan be plotted 
in the first instance toa large scale, and afterwards reduced, 
any little inaccuracy will be diminished, or disappear. The 
Ordnance plans of Dublin and Windsor are on a scale of 88 
feet to one inch, and the advantages of that scale for LARGE 
TOWNS, have become very apparent to me. ‘To the plan of 
the site of the town, I would propose to add the cropping out 
lines of the different strata, as it appears to me important 
to mark the soils which are retentive or absorbent, as clay 
and gravel. I would propose on the plan to trace the water- 
shed lines, and also the contour lines, or lines of equal alti- 
tudes, say at every three or four feet of elevation. 

Will you describe more particularly, for the information of 
non-professional men, the uses of contour lines on surveys ? 
—The ground plan of a town shews the exact dimensions 
and relative distances of spaces, but it gives no knowledge 


_ * Extracted from Captain Vetch’s Evidence, taken before the Parlia- 
mentary Commissioners of Inquiry into the state of Large Towns and 
Populous Districts. 


58 Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. 


of their absolute heights above a fixed common point or 
datum, or the relative height between any two sites, on the 
plan; but when the horizontal plan exhibits these contour 
lines, drawn, say at every four feet, and marked 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 
feet, &c. (Plate I.), we see at one glance all the places situated 
at these respective elevations above datum, and know their 
relative heights to each other, and with a little practice, the 
eye will be able to intercalate (within one foot or less) the in- 
termediate heights between the contour lines; and to facilitate 
this operation, vertical distances of four feet between the 
contour lines will prove most advantageous, as most readily 
admitting of subdividing. The contour lines on the Ordnance 
plan of Windsor are drawn at every four feet of altitude, and 
on the low flat ground subject to inundation at every two feet. 

The engineer or other person who therefore consults such 
a map for practical purposes, obtains a correct notion of the 
height of every part, on the plan, and the declivities or 
slopes ; and for engineering purposes a knowledge of the 
heights is equally necessary with a knowledge of the dis- 
tances ; and if the plans do nct afford him that information, 
he must commence a number of levellings, to shew what is 
practicable, and what is not. These levellings occupy much 
time, expense, and delay in making, and at last only give 
the engineer the means of judging between the two or three 
or more lines which he has levelled, while the contour lines 
enable him to judge of every possible line he may wish to 
examine or compare. 

By means of contour lines, in any street, or lane, or build- 
ing site, the direction of the fall of the ground is known at 
sight ; and the amount of that fall, in proportion to the dis- 
tance, may be ascertained between any two points situated 
on the contour lines. Thus the fall from a to 4 on the diagram 
is known, by the contour lines, to be eight feet ; and the dis- 
tance measured on the plan being 400 feet, the slope would 
be one foot in 50. An engineer can, therefore, see, without 
any trial levels, the undulations and descent of each street 
from one contour line to another, and he knows the amount 
of cutting or filling, to reduce the street to a level or a re- 
gular incline. He knows also what descent the kennels and 


ee 


Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. 59 


sewers may have, and how they must join each other, with- 
out wasting time and money on a number of trial levels. If 
the town is situated on the banks of a river, and if the floods 
of the river rise, say four feet above datum, he will perceive 
at once the extent of such floods, as shewn by the tinted 
ground on the diagram, enclosed within the contour lines 
marked with the number (4) or 4 feet ; and the engineer then 
knows over what extent to provide for such floods, in laying 
out roads, streets, or drains, &c. 

If new streets are to be laid out, the engineer will per- 
ceive at once, from such a plan, the declivity and aspect of 
the building ground, and the best line of drainage adapted 
for them. 

The contour lines being drawn on the map, and identified 
by corresponding marks on the buildings, serve as a record 
and reference for all past and future purposes. It is true 
that if no contour plan exists, the engineer may get what 
he wants by having recourse to extensive levellings for each 
particular object; but this expense is generally lost for any 
future object, or for any other occasion, and thus the same 
trouble and expense may have to be incurred frequently for 
levelling the same piece of ground; but having the whole 
extent of the town and district before him on a contour plan, 
the engineer can study his subject to better advantage, and 
observe how improvements can be best and most economi- 
cally effected. In waiting for trials of level, time is lost, 
and the Engineer is always loth to employ more time and 
money on these than can be helped, and he concludes with- 
out having the case sufficiently before him. 

When levels are executed piece-meal, and at various times, 
each engineer selects his own datum, and confusion and 
mistakes are thence likely to occur; so that no cautious en- 
gineer would trust to any previous work, but would level up 
to some fixed point, however distant ; but even if otherwise, 
he might not choose to risk his reputation on the previous 
levellings of others, of whose qualification he could not judge. 
But if the levels or contours were executed by the Ordnance 
Survey, his confidence would be complete. 

If contour plans and marks were made under the authority 


60 Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. 


of Government, the facilities and economy afforded by such 
a previous work would be manifest, and cannot be too highly 
appreciated, both for the saving of time and money, and for 
insuring accurate judgment and execution in the works of 
improvement; and I have no doubt that were such going 
forward to any extent, the expense of the Ordnance levels 
and contours would be saved in three years, in the mere em- 
ployment of surveyors, independent of the errors and ex- 
penses that might be entailed by less general and accurate 
views of the field to be operated on; but, having served for 
any particular purpose and occasion, the Ordnance contours 
and levels would be ready for use again and again, and one 
datum would be established, to which all altitudes would be 
referred. For the purpose of applying the liquid manure to 
irrigation, the contour lines would be essential; and at Leeds 
they would prove particularly serviceable for that purpose, 
and also for the extension of the buildings, and for the 
drainage on the low flat part of the town south of the river. 

By referring to the diagram plan already noticed, the ad- 
vantages of contour lines will be more readily perceived. 
The contour lines are there drawn at every four feet of alti- 
tude, above a fixed datum, and have a slight shade on their 
under side, the more readily to point out the direction of the 
fall of the ground; and this in some cases is essential, as 
otherwise it would be difficult to distinguish at sight between 
an isolated hill and isolated hollow. 

From such a contour plan a section may be procured in 
any direction in a few minutes. Suppose a section is required 
of the ground between the points A and B, we have merely 
to draw the line A B on the plan, and a corresponding line 
A’ B’ on section, and under the last to draw a number of 
parallel lines at equidistances of four feet, to whatever ver- 
tical scale we think most appropriate. On the diagram plan 
the scale is 400 feet to an inch, and the horizontal scale on 
the section is the same, but the vertical scale, to render the 
subject more distinct, is 40 feet to one inch.* The next opera- 


* The original diagram has been reduced, which accounts for an ap- 
parent discrepancy in the plate.—EDI?. 


Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines cn Plans. 61 


tion is to apply the straight edge of a slip of paper on the 
line A B (on the plan) and to mark off on the first all the in- 
tersections of contour and other lines; this done, the slip of 
paper is next applied to the section lines A’ B’, to which the 
marks of intersection are transferred ; and from these marks 
so transferred, perpendicular lines are drawn to the line 
A'B, and the intersection of these last with the parallel 
lines of the section already drawn, as mentioned above, give 
the various heights on the section, and nothing further is re- 
quired than to join these points with lines, to give the out- 
line or profile of the ground, and all this may be done a 
hundred miles from the spot; but if no such contour map 
existed, the engineer would have to send a surveyor with 
instruments to level over the ground, and considerable delay 
and expense must be incurred. 

Again, suppose that it is wanted to lay down a new line 
of road from C to D, without recourse to a section, the con- 
tour lines would shew that the dotted line CD would be 
very direct, and would give the most gentle ascents and 
descents, and if it be required to know the amount of these, 
and the quantity of cutting and filling to reduce the line of 
a regular surface, and above the influence of floods, we have 
only to repeat, in regard to a section on the line C D, what 
has been said in respect to that on the line A B, from which 
will be shewn the cuttings and embankments necessary for 
our purpose ; the space between the dotted line, and the line 
of surface indicating the extent of each. 

If the contour lines on a plan give such facilities for lay- 
ing out common roads, these advantages will be still greater, 
in respect to laying out railways, canals, embankments, and 
water-conduits. 

What do you consider would be the expense of laying 
down these contour lines !—In conjunction (or rather prior 
in order) to the contouring, levellings will have to be made 
to determine with great accuracy the positive heights of a 
number of points within the town, as has been done by the 
Ordnance Survey in several towns, and while that process 


is going on, the contour lines can be added at little addi- 


tional expense. Thus at Leeds, over a space ‘containing 


62 Mr Wightman on the Advantages of the 


about 120,000 inhabitants, it was estimated that 80 miles of 
levellings would be required to establish a sufficient number 
of permanent bench marks in the town, and it was further 
estimated that these 80 miles of levelling would cost L.200, 
and the addition of the contour lines L.50; and, reckoning 
the number of houses at 26,666, the expense would be 2}. 
per house. 


Remarks on the Advantages and Economy of the Moveable- 
Derrick Crane, improved and introduced into general use by 
WILLIAM WIGHTMAN, Contractor, in the year 1837; but 
more particularly as applicable in the Construction of Bridges, 
Piers, Breakwaters, and Naval Architecture. Communi- 
cated to Ed. New Phil. Journal by the Royal Scottish 
Society of Arts.* With a Plate. 


It is well known, that, previous to the year 1837, no other 
crane was generally known or used in the construction of 
public works, but the common, or, what might be appropri- 
ately called, the gibbet-crane. . These differed sometimes a 
little in form and arrangement of their machinery, but never 
so much as to alter their principle. 

The small figure at A, fig. 3, Plate IT., will give a good idea of 
their general structure, and that which was most in use. They 
were, however, even in their most approved form, always un- 
wieldy, top-heavy, and difficult and dangerous in fixing up or 
taking down; so much so, that more accidents occurred from 
these frequent operations, than from performing their proper 
work. It will also be easily observed, that their capabilities 
for lifting or depositing stone, or other material, in the con- 
struction of works, soon become exhausted, from the point of 
suspension being immoveable to or from the fulcrum, and 
performing only one circle of a radius equal to the length of 
the cross-beam. 

This great defect could, in some measure, be remedied a 


* Read before the Society on 12th April 1844. 


—- Ae) 4 


Edin! New Fh Jeuviod 


Vol XXXVI P62 
MM” Wightman y 
ff mproved Movable Derrick Crane 


Fig! . & of an inch to theFoot 
Fig’2. 2 of an cho theFool 


e 


yy 4 oop 


Aa a da gaPhs i | 
Seale of Feel 


SLeiths Lithog” Edin’ 


Moveable-Derrick Crane. 63 


little, by applying a tackle-fall to the material in suspension, 
and dragging it by main force from the perpendicular to the 
place required, or as near to it as could possibly be effected. 

From this and the other defects, it will be admitted, that 
the gibbet-crane was a very imperfect machine for lifting 
and conveying heavy masses of building, or other material, 
to or from their ever-varying positions ; and required to be 
taken down and removed, in most cases, every other day,— 
thereby incurring great expense and loss of time. 

By a reference to the small figure of the improved move- 
able-derrick crane, fig. 3, B (C D being a cross section of a 
part of Granton Pier), the inefficiency of the common or gib- 
bet crane for executing such work. profitably, compared with 
the moveable-derrick crane, will be quite obvious; and 
shews that some other machine was desirable, possessing 
greater economy and despatch for depositing the blocks of 
stone over the whole range of these immense slopes. 

On entering with my partners into the contract with His 
Grace the Duke of Buccleuch for the erection of Granton 
Pier, the deficiency of the common crane called my attention 
to various schemes for a remedy, which at last resulted in 
the construction of the improved moveable-derrick crane, a 
working model of which is now before you. (Plate IL, figs. 1 
and 2.) 

It may be proper, however, here to state, that, although I 
never had then either seen or heard of anything of the kind, a 
crane having a moveable-jib, but with very different and more 
complicated machinery than mine, was used by Mr Steven- 
son at the Bell-Rock Lighthouse, upwards of thirty years 
since: the defects of which, as well as the improvements ef- 
fected by me, were very clearly pointed out in a paper read 
before the Society some time since, by Mr James Slight, 
F.R.S.S.A., engineer, Edinburgh, containing an exposition of 
the strains to which cranes of various forms are subject ;— 
for which the honorary medal was awarded to him. 

I am sorry to occupy the time of the Society with a mere 
_ detail of circumstances ; but I wish to state, as a proof of the 
extent of existing prejudices against the introduction of 
many useful improvements, that, after I had, at a great ex- 


64 Mr Wightman on the Advantages of the 


pense, got my first crane built, I consulted with a gentleman 
of considerable mechanical knowledge and experience as an 
engineer, who, after examining it, strongly advised me to 
break it up, without even a trial; and, from my confidence 
in his opinion, it was put aside a whole month, before I ven- 
tured to put it up for trial. 

Its decided superiority, easy management, and its capacity 
for forming an almost infinite variety of concentric circles 
(so much required in extensive building operations), were, in 
a short time, so manifest, that I had applications from seve- 
ral most respectable builders, to be allowed the use of the 
patterns for sets of castings. From this period my improved 
crane began gradually to come into general use; and I may 
be permitted to state, that the most of the bridges and via- 
ducts on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway were built by 
its means. I have seen it most successfully applied to ship- 
building, the derrick being no less than 70 feet in length, 
and capable of placing a heavy timber plank on any part of 
a large ship, besides commanding an extensive range of the 
yard for picking up timber. 

Fig. 1. is intended to represent the improved moveable- 
derrick crane, in its full proportions, as generally used; but 
as the mast and derrick may be increased or diminished to 
suit circumstances, there can be no fixed rule for the length 
of either. I have never used any mast less than 25 feet, or 
any derrick more than 55 feet; and where they are used for 
any purposes which require them to be frequently removed, I 
would recommend that the length of the derrick should not 
exceed 40 feet (unless the nature of the work require it), and 
that the derrick should never be lowered to a greater angle 
from the mast than 65 degrees, as the strain upon the der- 
rick-chain and stays of the mast, even at that angle, becomes 
very great. 

The size of the chain for raising or lowering the derrick 
is usually of the best cable iron, three quarters and one six- 
teenth of an inch diameter ; and the purchase or lifting chain 
of the same iron, but eleven sixteenths of an inch in diameter. 
With these, if judiciously stayed, the crane will lift or depo- 
sit, anywhere within its range, a weight of 4 tons. One thing’ 


eee 


Moveable- Derrick Crane. 65 


ought to be particularly attended to,—never to allow any 
workman to guide or shift the machinery without having been 
trained a little to its management ; as the most trifling error, 
such as neglecting to let down the click of the ratchet-wheel, 
when throwing out of gearing the handles, after lowering the 
derrick, might be productive of serious consequences ; while, 
on the other hand, with a little experience and attention, no- 
thing can be more safe. 

Fig. 2. exhibits the reverse side of the crane from Fig. 1, 
but on a little larger scale. 

I will not trespass farther on the Society’s time than merely 
to solicit your attention to another useful mode of its appli- 
cation, whereby the contractors for Burntisland Low-Water 
Pier have been enabled to construct, and carry out seawards, 
the whole of the timber stageing for working their diving- 
bell. 

The saving in time and expense from this method has been 
great. The small model is intended to represent one 40 feet 
length of stageing with the crane in advance, ready for plac- 
ing another 40 feet length out seawards. 

I respectfully beg to state, that I believe no printed de- 
scription of the improved moveable-derrick crane has ever 
yet been given to the public ; and that it is now, with a few 
exceptions, unknown in England. 

TRINITY CRESCENT, 3d April 1844, 


Report by the Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on 
Mr Wightman’s Improved Moveable-Derrick Crane. 


June 6. 1844.—The Committee have carefully examined the model, 
drawings, and description of this crane, submitted to them by the Society; 
and having compared it with other machines of a similar description pre- 
viously in use, are satisfied that Mr Wightman has introduced very de- 
cided improvements in this highly useful engine. 

The use of the moveable-jib, or derrick, is not new ; but it has now, by 
these improvements, been reduced to so great a degree of simplicity, as 
leaves little farther to be done or wished for, to render its operation 
complete ; and by this invention, and particularly by its introduction 
in the operations of Granton Pier, from whence its use has been ex- 

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. Ki 


66 Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 


tended to other works of a similar kind, and to bridge-building, and must, 
undoubtedly, become yet more generally extended to these and other 
engineering works, we think Mr Wightman has rendered an important 
service to the useful arts, and deserving, thereby, the particular consi- 
* deration of the Society. The model is a very neat and complete appa- 
ratus ; and we would recommend the drawings and description to be 
printed, to which Mr Wightman will probably add a more detailed 
drawing of the machinery. 
(Signed) Gro. BucHANAN, Convener. 
JAMES SLIGHT. 
Wm. GLOVER. 


Abstract of a Paper relative to Springs of Water. By 
RoBERT WERE FoOx.* 


Mr Fox began by referring to an interesting lecture recently read 
before the Royal Polytechnic Society, in the course of which it was 
suggested that springs of water, especially such as are sometimes 
found on the highest ground of any locality, might be caused by the 
pressure of vapour, generated by the heat existing at great depths 
in the earth. 

If it be assumed, he said, that the subterranean temperature in- 
creases at the rate of 1° Fahrenheit for every 48 feet of depth, 
which he considers to be too high a calculation, and taking the mean 
of this climate at 50° ; this rate will give: 160° at 1 mile deep, 270° at 
2 miles, 380° at 3 miles, 490° at 4 miles, 930° at 8 miles, and 
1370° at 12 miles. 

The heat of boiling water occurring at about 13 mile deep; that 
producing an expansive force of 2.9 atmospheres at 2 miles; of 50 
atmospheres at rather more than 4 miles deep; and Le Roche cal- 
culates that the pressure of vapour in contact with water, would ex- . 
ceed 4000 atmospheres at the temperature of 1386° Fahrenheit, and 
then be nearly equal to the density of water. 

The pressure of a column of water at 60° would, at the rate of 
34 feet to an atmosphere, equal 


155.34 atmospheres at 1 mile deep, 


310.68 tes at 2 miles deep. 

466.00 wee at3 we 

621.36 oa ath ane 
1242.72 ss BEB cn ane 
1864.00 - ab 12 


* Read before the Royal Polytechnic Society of Cornwall, on the 7th No- 
vember 1843. 


Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 67 


Since the water would be at the temperature of the earth at the 
respective depths, and would expand in an increasing ratio as the 
temperature increased, it is manifest that considerable deductions 
should be made from these pressures, but to what extent cannot be 
stated. ‘The forces of water pressure and steam would, on these 
data, probably equal each other at rather more than 9 miles deep, 
and the density of the steam be about four times that of water. It 
is not to be supposed that water can exist, as such, below the zone 
at which it would become converted into steam, if it reach it at all; 
although it is possible that the steam may go much deeper; but as 
its elastic force cannot materially exceed that of the uppermost steam, 
it must be continually lessening in density as it descends into more 
heated parts of the earth. 

Mr Fox referred to the results of observations in mines, which he 
had published from time to time, and which, on being tabulated,* 
seemed to indicate that the heat does not augment in regular progres- 
sion in descending into the earth, but that it increases in a less ratio 
than this. Thus, starting from 50°, the mean of this climate, the 
temperature was : 60° at the mean depth of 59 fathoms, being an in- 
crease of 1° in 35.4 feet; 70° at a further depth of 73 fathoms, 
being an increase of 1° in 43.8 feet; 80° at a still further depth of 
107 fathoms, being an increase of 1° in 60.4 feet.—Temperature 
80° at the depth of 239 fathoms. 

The temperature at given depths has been found to differ much 
in different localities: a fact not to be wondered at, when we take 
into account the greater or less facilities afforded by the cracks in 
the rocks for the circulation of water from greater depths, as well as 
lesser ones. 

If the increase of subterranean heat should continue to be in a 
diminishing ratio much farther down than has yet been penetrated, 
it would seem useless to conjecture at what depth the water and steam 
pressures might balance each other, as that of the former, if present, 
would be always increasing with the depth; and then the question 
remains as to the source from which it can be derived to supply any 
considerable proportion of the existing springs. Mr Fox considers 
that the sea-water can have no tendency, from pressure only, to flow 
into the earth, except at its deepest parts, and these are generally 
very far from land; and that a continued evaporation from it would 
tend to accumulate salt in the deep fissures, so as to interrupt the 
process. However this may be, there is good reason to believe that 
some thermal springs, especially those near voleanoes, may be ejected 
by vapour. He thinks it possible that some of these outbursts of water 
may be caused by the pressure of the ocean, which, from its greater 


* See Mr Fox’s Report on some observations on subterranean temperature— 
Report of the British Association for 1840, p. 309. 


68 Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 


specific gravity, must always tend to raise any spring-water with 
which it may be connected, to a higher level than itself. He caleu- 
lates that sea-water 4 miles deep, of the mean temperature of 60° 
for the whole depth, and specific gravity 1.027, would balance a co- 
lumn of spring-water at 200° of temperature, of more than 4 miles 
and 1200 feet deep; and 1200 feet of spring-water are equivalent 
in weight to-450 feet of granite. 

In this calculation he has made a large allowance for impurities in 
solution in the spring-water, tothe extent of one-third of the propor- 
tion of salt in sea-water, which is at least five times as much as the 
average state of water taken from the lowest parts of many of our 
deepest mines would require; and he has assumed the column, de- 
scending 4 miles deep in the earth, to have a mean temperature 
of only 200° ; whereas, according to the first table, the temperature 
stands at 490° at that depth, which would give a much higher mean, 
and more than he is prepared to admit, for the reasons already given. 
There may be a large proportion of sea-water at great depths in the 
earth; but a column of this 4 miles deep would be expanded to about 
850 fect more, if its temperature were raised from 60° to 200°. 

It is not to be supposed, he adds, that such great effects will any 
where be seen, because of the vents which the heated water would 
find. at lower levels; even at the bottom of the shallow seas these 
vents may be sufficient, in most instances, to take off any pressure 
tending to raise the fresh-water ashore. It will be readily granted 
that salt water may ooze through the deepest beds of the sea, or, in 
some parts of these, flow into the earth in greater or less quantities, 
according to the greater or less resistance it meets with at its en- 
trance, or in its subterranean course. The numerous veins of clay 
which intersect the crust of the earth, must present formidable ob- 
stacles to its rapid progress ; and it cannot advance under ordinary 
circumstances without displacing other water, which can only be 
done in proportion as the latter finds means of escape. It is evident 
that at the bottom of seas of inferior depth, the balance must be in 
favour of the upward pressure, for even if the water be as salt as 
that of the ocean, at considerable depths below its bed, its specific 
gravity will be diminished by the expansive influence of the subter- 
ranean heat, so that it will yield to the superior pressure of the 
colder sea, and escape wherever it may find the resistance the least ; 
this may, in some instances, be through fissures communicating with 
the shore, or under nearly horizontal beds of clay through which it 
cannot find an upward vent till it reaches land, and there, under 
such circumstances, it might produce springs more or less elevated 
above the surface of the sea. The force with which the water in 
Artesian wells sometimes gushes up from great depths, shews us 
how tenaciously the fluid must be confined down by the superin- 
cumbent strata; and the bed of the ocean is also commonly sup- 
posed to be for the most part very impermeable to water. Mr Fox 


ee 


Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 69 


conceives it, however, to be highly probable that the greater part of 
the compressed water under the bed of the sea, may find different 
vents through it, and that there may be salt water jets at the 
bottom of the less deep portions of the sea, as well as jets of fresh 
water which have been discovered in some parts of it. 

The water has been found fresh, or only slightly saline, in parts 
of many mines worked far under the sea; and, on the other hand, 
Mr Fox has detected common salt in the water of some of our 
deeper mines situated many miles from the sea; in some water 
taken from the bottom of Poldice copper mine, he found 24 grains 
of salt in a pint ; also a considerable proportion in water from the 
United Mines, and some of the water in both these mines is at 98° 
and 100°, a temperature probably not equalled in any other mine 
in Cornwall; both circumstances seem to indicate that it ascended 
from a considerable depth. Many mineral springs also contain 
much common salt. 

Thus it appears that if fresh water in some places penetrates 
under the bed of the sea, salt water finds its way in others under 
the land; so that there is every reason to believe that they meet 
at different depths in the earth, acting and reacting on each other 
with more or less effect, according to circumstances. And if 
the obstructions be in some places so great as to limit the percolation 
even to drops, still there must be a constant tendency to balance the 
pressures; and the water will escape, if it should find vents in the 
bed of the ocean, where there is a diminished pressure,—it may be 
of miles, or only a few fathoms of salt-water. However small the 
depth of the latter, it will produce a reaction on the water in the 
earth, which may extend to springs ashore, and raise such of them 
more or less above the level of the sea as do not find an easier outlet. 
Thus sea-water, of between 6 and 7 fathoms deep, might raise fresh- 
water 1 foot above its surface, and so in proportion as the depth is 
greater; and it may be more than this, if the temperature of the 
fresh water should much exceed that of the salt. 

But the facilities which the bed of the sea, and very low lands 
may, in some parts, afford for the escape of the compressed water, 
seem, in Mr Fox’s opinion, to be arguments which are more or less 
unfavourable to the adoption of either the sea-water or vapour hy- 
pothesis, to explain the cause of springs on high ground. Nor can 
such springs as have nearly the same temperature as the climate, be 
supposed to depend on any deeply-seated force for the supply of an 
essential proportion of the water that flows from them, because they 
would then have some of the earth’s heat imparted to them ; al- 
though it is not improbable, that such a force may help to sustain 
some of them at certain levels. 

However this may be, Mr Fox considers that the endosmose pro- 
cess which accompanies voltaic action, has its influence on the height 
and purity of springs, since it readily causes water to pass through 


70 Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 


the densest clay, against the force of mechanical pressure; and he 
has succeeded in shewing, that subterranean currents of electricity 
are capable of producing this effect. The veins of clay in the earth 
may, therefore, act an important part in filtering the water chemi- 
cally, as well as mechanically, as they undoubtedly do, in supporting 
springs at different levels, and in greatly limiting the influx of water 
into the mines, which, without them, could not be worked much 
under the surface; so that, although they lie hid in the earth, and 
comparatively little known, they may be numbered among the adap- 
tations designed to meet the wants of man, by an all-wise and bene- 
ficent Creator. 


Since Mr Fox’s paper was read, he has partly filled one branch 
of a U-shaped glass tube with sea-water, and the other branch with 
spring-water, the two fluids meeting at the bent part of the tube. 
Under these circumstances, they exhibited no tendency to become 
mixed ; for, after many days, the original difference in the heights of 
the two columns had not perceptibly altered. The case was the same 
when water and strong brine were balanced, in like manner, against 
each other, although the apparatus was heated as much as 200° for 
some time. Neither did a mixture readily take place between fresh- 
water and sea-water, in an upr ight glass vessel. In this instance, the 
fresh-water was slightly coloured, and carefully poured on the sea- 
water, when the line of division appeared to be well defined, and be- 
came still more so after the vessel, with its contents, had afoul some 
time in water, at rather above 200° Fahr. The heat produced in each 
fluid upward and downward currents, which were quite independent of 
those in the other, so that their surfaces of contact were undisturbed.* 

Hence it appears, that the freshness of springs, at the surface of 
the earth, affords no evidence of the non-existence of salt water 
under them, at considerable depths: while the presence of common 
salt in some springs, the greater specific gravity of sea-water, and 
the unbalanced pressure in the deepest parts of the ocean, rather 
favour such an assumption. 

Mr Fox suggests, that the surfaces of deep rivers will, from the 
inferior specific gravity of their waters, have a tendency to be at a 
higher level than the sea at their conjunction ; and that, as the fresh- 
water flows down to equalize their levels, the sea-water will have a 
disposition to pass under the former, to equalize their pressures. 


* Tt was found, after two days, that the upper part of the sea-water 
had become a little coloured, indicating some tendency, small as it was, 
in the fluids to combine, owing, doubtless, te an endosmose action ; for 
when heated, ‘wo lines of division appeared, at equal distances from 
where the first line was,—above and below it,—and the included fluid 
was less highly coloured than the water, the sea-water remaining with- 
out colour. 


eS Fall a ~ aR ETS an 


“Plate JI 
KH Woods Tia 


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Vol . XXX Vil P. ij 
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Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 71 


This operation seems to be reversed in the case of the Mediterranean 
sea, if, indeed, the inward current at the Straits of Gibraltar has any 
relation to the superior saltness of that sea. An under-current mov- 
ing outward, would, in that case, be the natural result. 

Tf an inland sea should undergo a change in its specific gravity, 
owing to alterations of temperature, or in the proportion of its 
saline contents, its level would also be changed ; and, therefore, 
these considerations should not be overlooked in investigations of the 
comparative heights of sea and land, at different periods. 

It is, perhaps, worth inquiring, how far the low level of the Cas- 
pian Sea may be due to the high specific gravity of its water, which 
is said to be very saline, and very deep, and its mean temperature 
is probably low. —The Eleventh Annual Report of the Royal Poly- 
technic Society. 


Mie us) Se eee 


Account of a Cheap and Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge, 
invented by JouN Woob, Esq. of Port-Glasgow, and which 
has been two years in use. With examples of the work 
done by it. By Joun ScoTr Rossbuu, Esq., F.R.S.E., 
F.R.S.8.4. Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society 
of Arts.* With a Plate. 


In the course of the tide researches in which I have for some 
time been engaged, I have continually felt the want of a 
simple, cheap, and portable machine for registering tidal 
phenomena; such a one as might be erected and applied, 
either temporarily or permanently, without requiring much or 
close attention in its use, or nice adjustment for its operation. 
If this were attained, I have felt confident that few harbours 
of importance would be without a tide-gauge. This is of the 
greater importance, owing to the present position and aspect 
of our knowledge of the phenomena of the tides ; observations, 
continuous, simultaneous, and of considerable period, being 
all that is necessary to afford us the means of placing this 
complicated subject in a highly respectable position among 
the accurate sciences. 


Ups oh es Ae Se 


* Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Feb. 12. 1844, and 
the Silver Medal, value Seven Sovereigns, awarded to Mr Woop, 11th 
November 1844. 


72 Wood's Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 


In practical engineering, the improvement of rivers and 
harbours, and, in marine surveying, the possession of such 
an instrument is of no less value than in abstract science. 

I have satisfied myself that the machine invented by Mr 
Wood possesses, or is capable of achieving, all that is desired 
on this head. I therefore think it my duty, through this So- 
ciety, to make known the merits and construction of a useful 
machine, which has its origin in the pure love of scientific 
truth which animates the mind of its accomplished inventor. 

Mr Wood’s Self-Registering Tide-Gauge has been at work 
in Port-Glasgow for about two years. It has no clock-work, 
nor the barrel D. It registers the height of high and low 
water for four months without requiring any attention what- 
ever. At the end of that time, a new sheet of paper should 
be supplied to the machine, the old one removed, and the 
pencils repaired. Airey’s HH, or H HH, will last this 
period in good order. 

On removing the paper, the observer finds a diagram of 
the tides, on which are simply, and at once, presented the 
curves of geometrical inequality and the diurnal inequality, 
&e. 

A specimen of the work of the machine is sent herewith. 
It contains about three months’ observations. 

The whole machine is portable and light, and may easily be 
transported. A box less than 18 inches square in the bottom, 
and about 12 inches deep, contains it. 

A (Plate III.) is the wooden float, about 2 lb. weight, sus- 
pended on one side of the wheel WW; and on the other 
side is the counterpoise weight B, of 1 lb., givmg a moving 
power of 1 lb. each way. 

TT is a horizontal travelling bar, carrying the register 
pencils H and O. This bar is made to traverse with the rise 
and fall of the float, by means of two chains C CC, one end 
of these chains being attached to the travelling bar, and the 
other end coiled round the axis X of the wheel W W, round 
which each chain has one turn and a half when the register 
pencil is in its mean position. These chains should have a 
small degree of slackness, to be afterwards allowed for on 
reckoning the ranges. 


Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 1c 


X the axis of the wheel W W is to be proportioned so that 
its diameter shall be smaller than the diameter of the wheel, 
in the same ratio in which it is desired that the scale of the 
register shall be smaller than the rise and fall of the tide. 

RR and,s ¢ are tworollers; the under one 7 7 is furnished 
with the paper rolled round it. A stripe from the side of a 
sheet of drawing paper, 40 inches long and 93 inches broad, 
is sufficient for this purpose. The upper roller R R has one 
end of the paper fixed on it, so as, by revolving, to roll the 
paper gradually on itself, the roller 7 x being steadied by the 
presence of a small spring. 

SS is a large copper ratchet wheel, detained by the copper 
pall p p, the under surface of which is serrated in a similar 
way to the wheel with numerous small teeth, and is pressed 
to the wheel by a small spring; thus the roller R R is de- 
tained in any position to which it has been moved. 

Motion is given to the roller once in each tide about half 
ebb. This is effected in the following manner :—One tooth 
of the ratchet wheel is moved each tide by the ratchet ¢ ¢ at- 
tached to a vertical bar moving up and down on two guide 
pins. This bar is loaded to drop with its own weight, and a 
loaded lever L L raises it once each tide. 

The lever L L receives motion from the axle of W W once 
in each tide, as follows :—The chain C C winds upon the axle 
X as the tide rises, and is of such a length as to be quite 
slack at low water,and to become tight at half tide: the lever 
is then raised, and the ratchet bar falls about one tooth and 
a-half, so as to be quite free of the wheel. The lever con- 
tinues to rise till high water, and in falling, at about half ebb, 
once more raises the ratchet bar, and by it turns the roller 
RR through one tooth, a stop preventing any further motion. 
As the tide ebbs further, the lever chain becomes slack, and 
does not again come into operation until the middle of the 
following tide. 

Behind the travelling bar T T, which carries the Register 
pencil, is a fixed bar F F, carrying another pencil G, adjust- 
able in position so as to describe, when once adjusted, a datum 
line on the paper, to represent any fixed height that may 
be referred to as a standard for the height of the tides, and 


a 


74 Wood's Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 


from which the true height of the tides may be measured on 
the paper. 

The scale of the register is given on the stand. But it will 
be prudent in all cases to determine the scale by experiment 
on the machine when it has actually been adjusted for use. 
This will be done by moving the float up and down through a 
given height, and measuring the line described by the register 
pencil. 

To prevent the machine from suffering injury, there is a 
stop apparatus attached, of the following kind. A pall is fixed 
on the stand of the machine, and attached to a chain, which 
is wound round the axle X; this chain is of such a length 
as to allow the wheel to travel to its greatest range, either 
way, without interruption ; but should any cause tend to carry 
the wheel farther, the chain draws up the pall to act on a 
stop V, on the edge of the wheel; and so farther motion in 
that direction is prevented. 

The machine here described was made at Port-Glasgow, 
under the superintendence of Mr Wood; and I believe the 
cost of such a machine, with all its appendages, enclosed in a 
suitable box, does pot exceed forty or fifty shillings sterling. 

There are ropes round the large wheel W W in the model ; 
but a simple brass chain might be substituted with advantage, 
to avoid the expansion of the rope, on that side of the wheel 
where the float is attached. 

A plummet is hung at one end of the stand, and a screw at 
each corner serves for setting the machine level; the ropes 
getting deranged when this is not attended to. 


‘Mr Wood also further proposes, in those eases where it 


might not be inconvenient, to connect the machine with a 


clock, having a cylinder DD, shewn in the plate, attached to 
the register already described, so as to give a ¢éme-register 
as well as a height-register. 

For this purpose the travelling-bar T T merely carries an 
additional pencil O called the Time-pencil, which will traverse 
horizontally as the tide rises and falls. The axis of cylin- 
der DD is placed below the time-pencil, and parallel to the 
trayelling-bar. The cylinder revolves once in twenty-four 


title ea, ial 


Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 75 


hours, and is marked by divisions to astronomical time, and 
revolves so that the point of the pencil is always at true time 
on the eylinder, while its transverse motion indicates the 
height of the tide at the corresponding time, and thus de- 
scribes on the cylinder the form of the tide-wave at that 
place. The morning tides will thus cover one-half of the 
cylinder in a fortnight, and the evening tides will cover the 


other half. 


By a simple contrivance, it is proposed to move this cylin- 
der at the end of each fortnight along its axis, so as to serve 
as long as may be required, without changing the paper. 

Motion is given to the cylinder by connecting it with the 
wheels of the clock. 


January 22. 1844. 


Report by a Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on a 
Self-Registering Tide-Gauge, by John Wood, Esq., of Port 
Glasgow. 


The Committee having carefully examined this gauge, are of opinion 
that it is a simple and very ingenious invention, and well deserving of 
the favourable attention of the Society. It exhibits distinctly the rise 
and fall of the tides every day, by means of a pencil traversing back- 
wards and forwards on a sheet of paper, and tracing out a straight line 
corresponding in length to the height of the tide ; and the paper being 
wrapped round a cylinder, which advances a step forward in rotation 
each tide, a series of tides are thus represented by parallel lines, in a 
manner so as to shew very strikingly, and by regular curves, the differ- 
ent variations of the tide from day to day, and from month to month ; 
and all these curious results are obtained by the single motion of a wheel 
and axle, with chains or cords, which communicate the motion in a sim- 
ple manner, from the axle of the wheel to the traversing pencil contin- 
uously, and to the cylinder containing the paper at the interval of each 
tide. From the testimony of Mr Scott Russell, by whom the descrip- 
tion of the gauge has been drawn up, it appears that the machine is 
capable of thus registering the height of high and low water for four 
months together, without requiring any attention whatever; and at the 
end of that time it is only necessary to supply a new sheet of paper, and 
repair the pencils, to enable it to go on for four months longer. We 
have no doubt, from the specimen of work accompanying the gauge, that 
this machine is capable of acting with great regularity and precision ; 
and though not perhaps adapted to the minuter accuracy required by 


76 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


many local investigations in navigable rivers, yet from its portability and 
economy, and facility of erection in different places, we are satisfied it 
is calculated, with little expense or attention, on the part of the observ- 
ers, to lead to results of the most valuable description, in elucidating the 
theory and phenomena of the tides. 
Gro. BUCHANAN, Convener. 
ALEXANDER BRYSON. 
WILLIAM GALBRAITH. 
EDINBURGH, 1Oth June 1844. 


Researches on the Situation of Zones without Rain, and of 
Deserts. By M. J. Fournet, Professor in the Faculty of 
Sciences of Lyons. 


(Concluded from vol. xxxvii., p. 375.) 


From the straits of Magellan to the isthmus of Panama, 
the oceanic coast runs very nearly from south to north, and 
forms a low plain, which, in general, presents slightly arti- 
culated mountainous undulations only at the approach of the 
chain of the Andes. It is especially between Arequipa and 
Truxillo that this plain is narrowest, and hence results, pro- 
bably, the great humidity observable around Lima, compared 
with the country situated a little to the north or to the south 
of that place, a humidity whose characters we shall after- 
wards explain. At present let us see in what manner the 
principal facts exhibited by this region are connected. 

-Valparaiso (lat, 33° 7’ south) is situated in the sub-tropical 
zone of winter rains of the southern hemisphere (May to 
‘September). These rains become more and more rare to- 
-wards Cobija, in the tropic of Capricorn, where they begin to 
‘be entirely awanting; a state of matters which continues, 
more or less, as far as Guayaquil, in 2° of south lat.: there 
they are abundant during the months of winter, and cease 
in the middle of May; so that that place is situated in the 
zone of inter-tropical rains of the southern hemisphere ; but, 
leaving the Gulf of Guayaquil, in the forests of Choco and 
Esmeraldas, the arrangement rapidly changes, so that to the 
droughts of Tumbez and of Payta succeed a constant humi- 
dity and daily rains. 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 77 


Lastly, from 5° north to California, rains and fine weather, 
the seasons of suns and of clouds, again succeed each other 
very regularly, but in a manner the reverse of Guayaquil ; 
so that the zone of hemi-annual rains so violently stifled 
in the southern hemisphere, between those of droughts 
and of perpetual rains, again acquires all its preponder- 
ance. 

The distribution of the vegetation is, moreover, in perfect 
harmony with this succession of zones. Thus, around Con- 
ception, there are great forests ; to this vigorous vegetation, 
succeeds, near Valparaiso, gloomy brushwood and spare pas- 
ture, excepting on the flanks of the mountains towards San- 
tiago, which are, from time to time, carpeted with verdure ; 
every thing indicates a languishing soil, owing to the want of 
humidity. At Coquimbo the evil increases ; the brushwood 
disappears, and only a few herbs are visible. From this 
point as far as Guayaquil, over more than an extent of 1600 
miles, several vast solitudes are met with without verdure, 
whose moving sands, scarcely covering the subjacent rock, 
present a frightful aridity. Thus, from Coquimbo to Copiapo, 
over a space of a hundred leagues, there are neither towns 
nor villages, and only a few farm houses. We then come to 
the desiertos of Atacama, where the mules frequently perish 
from want of grass and of water; thence, beyond Lima, and 
to the north of Truxillo, occur the destertos of Picera and of 
Sechura. These plains, however, are here and there inter- 
sected by rivers coming from the Cordilleras ; some of them 
are only intermitting, whether from morning to evening, or 
from one season to another: they fertilize their valleys, and, 
in some measure, produce oases, among the number of which 
are those of Arica, of Coquimbo, of Quillota, famous for the 
quantity of corn they yearly produce ; and, lastly, that of 
Lambaryeque, where there are extensive forests. In the 
neighbouring districts, where the water cannot be conve- 
niently conducted for the irrigation of the soil, as, for ex- 
ample, around Pisco, the vine is cultivated by planting the 
stocks in holes, having a depth of four or five feet, because 
there is there sufficient humidity for their growth. But these 
facts, derived from remote causes, do not, in any degree, in- 


78 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


validate the generality of the distribution of deserts on the 
Peruvian coasts ; these only cease with a return of the rains 
towards the impassable forests of Choco, to which succeeds 
the inter-tropical richness of the isthmus of Panama, and of 
the coast of Mexico, succeeded, in its turn, by beautiful 
cacti, and other fine plants of the rocks of California; after 
which, near the mouth of the Rio-Colorado, there occurs a 
European flora, developed under the influence of a tempera- 
ture comparable to that of Valencia and of Italy. 

The sub-tropical rainless zone presents, on the Peruvian 
coast, an immense development in length, as it comprehends 
about 20° of latitude—an anomaly which, according to 
Dampier, also extends into the sea for a distance of two or 
three hundred leagues. This exceptional phenomenon seems 
to depend on various causes. In the frst place, this coast 
is subjected to the almost permanent influence of the south- 
west and south (Peruvian mistral) winds, which being essen- 
tially cold, because they come from the South Pole, are not 
capable of carrying with them a large proportion of watery 
vapour from the sea which they traverse ; and, moreover, they 
pass from an icy temperature into warmer and warmer zones, 
so that they cannot precipitate their humidity. 

In the second place, this coast is washed by a marine cur- 
rent, which, proceeding from the South Pole towards the 
equator, brings with it a large quantity of cold water, and is, 
consequently, incapable of producing an abundant evapora- 
tion. This fact is likewise demonstrated by the observations 
of M. Duperrey, who found that at the port of Lima the tem- 
peratures of the sea are lower than those of the land, con- 
trary to what takes place in 12° of south latitude, where 
there is generally little difference between them. 

The immediate neighbourhood of the Andes must also pro- 
duce during the day ascending breezes, whose action corres- 
ponding to that of the ordinary south-west winds, rapidly 
collects vapours from their summits, thus producing the 
variable climates of Cusco, of Puno, and of La Paz. 

Lastly, The clouds driven to the opposite side by the south- 
east trade-wind, or by the north-east wind which most fre- 
quently prevails there, discharge themselves on the Cordil- 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 79 


leras, so that they can no longer cause rain to descend on 
the plains of Peru, whereas the heights are exposed almost 
every day to alternations of serene and cloudy weather, and 
to frequent storms. 

These causes will doubtless appear sufficient to explain 
the extension of absolute droughts; but it presents in the 
details a peculiarity worthy of attention. Although it may be 
said in a general manner that it never rains at Lima, or at 
least that there are never rains of large drops, we must, never- 
theless, remark, that, during a great portion of the year, the 
serene atmosphere loses its transparency, becomes troubled, 
and is covered by a singular vapour, known to the inhabi- 
tants under the name of garrua, garroua, or garruva, denomi- 
nations which are also applicable to mild rains of short dura- 
tion, as well as to the very small rains which occur in 33° N., 
between California and the Galapagos Islands. Whatever 
may be the different acceptations of this term, the vapours 
of the garrua of Limaare so thick, that the sun seen through 
them with the naked eye assumes the appearance of the 
moon’s disc. They commence in the morning, and extend 
over the plains in the form of refreshing fogs, which disap- 
pear soon after mid-day, and are followed by heavy dews 
which are precipitated during the night. At other times, 
and especially during the winter season, they rise like clouds 
to the height of the mountains of the coast, which they 
moisten sufficiently to allow of vegetation in places not much 
exposed to the heat of the sun; lastly, they become con- 
verted into more or less violent rains on the flanks of the 
Cordilleras, at a distance of fifteen or twenty leagues inland, 
where it becomes possible to obtain harvests. These rains 
prevail there from December till May, that is to say, during 
the epoch of the sun’s passing the zenith of that hemisphere, 
so that they coincide with those which present themselves 
generally between the tropic of Capricorn and the equator, 
and the phenomena have their normal arrangement, which 
is the reverse of the seasons of Valparaiso and of Cobija. 

This local effect of the garrua of Lima may be explained, 
as we have already stated, by the greater proximity of the 
Cordilleras, which there produce a remarkable freshness, 


80 Professor Fournet’s [esearches on the 


especially when compared to the intense heat felt in the bay 
of All Saints, situated nearly in the same latitude, but at a 
distance from the high mountains of the Atlantic coasts of 
Brazil. This freshness, considered in a more general man- 
ner, seems, moreover, to be one of the causes of the removal 
of the zone of droughts towards the equator, so that it ac- 
quires an essentially inter-tropical development, contrary to 
what takes place in Africa and in Old California. By gene- 
ralizing still farther this indication, we may even say, that 
in all this aqueous hemisphere, which is colder than the 
other, the whole of the trade-winds, of the isothermal lines, 
and of the pluvial zones, tend to approach the North Pole, in 
such a manner, that the axis of the nearly perpetual rains is 
not exactly at the equator, but encroaches slightly to the 
north. 

If we penetrate from the coast into the interior of the con- 
tinent, we cannot expect to find deserts on a surface so greatly 
varied, nor on the flank of the Andes ; but it may neverthe- 
less be of some interest to investigate the distribution of 
rains over a portion of that region; and in doing this, we 
shall take advantage of the results obtained by Bouguer and 
Sobreviala, combined with those for which we have to thank 
the kindness of MM. D’Orbigny and Auguste de Saint Hi- 
laire. 

The clouds collected together by the north-east winds re- 
main, so to speak, stationary on a portion of the eastern 
flanks of the Andes, at an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet, 
where they cireumscribe the zone of ligneous vegetation ; 
but during the heaviest rains of the rainy season, they be- 
come more elevated, and attain a height of 13,000 feet, and 
give rise to rains, which are distributed in the following 
manner :— 

From Quito (lat. 0° 25’ S.) to Huanuco and Xeuxa (lat. 10’ 
to 12’ §.), the rains which, towards the equator, are pro- 
longed more or less during five or six months, from Novem- 
ber to May, become gradually rarer, so that, at the latter 
points, the air is dry during the months of December, January, 
and February; the climate likewise becomes agreeable, but 
it is accompanied by a want of pastures in the mountains. 


4 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 81 


To this region rapidly succeed the great elevations and the 
variable climate of Cusco and of Arequipa (lat. 13° to 16° S.), 
where rains and storms are of daily occurrence. Towards 
Chuquisaca and Cochabamba (about latitude 19°), at a height 
of nearly 10,000 feet, Mr Pentland was exposed to constant 
rains during his excursions, from the month of January to 
the 1st of April. Lastly, in the central portion of Chili 
(lat. 33° S.), the air again becomes very dry, and the sky is 
constantly free from clouds during our winter ; that region, 
like Valparaiso and Sant-Yago, being situated in the zone of 
summer rains from May to September, a period of the year 
which in that hemisphere corresponds to winter. 

Descending from these great heights to the lower regions 
of the eastern base of the Andes, we find (between lat. 0° and 
13° S.) rains which last during the whole year, so that this 
band ought to be regarded as forming a lateral appendage to 
the perpetual rains of the virgin forests of Rio Negro and of 
the Amazon; hence it results, that from one side to the 
other, and between the tropic and the equator, we have, ac- 
cording to the parallels and the heights, stations at which it 
never rains (environs of Lima); others where the rains con- 
tinue about three months; and, lastly, where they are of 
daily occurrence. 

In this central portion of the continent, the vast regions of 
La Plata, Buenos Ayres, of Uruguay, and of Paraguay, are 
eyerywhere subject to falls of water, which are variable in 
their duration, in the epoch of their occurrence, and in their 
abundance. Thus, commencing from Patagonia, and on the 
Pampas (lat. 35° S.), they take place regularly, but are not 
abundant, and they only occur during the months of June, 
July, and August, which there constitute the winter. In 
Corrientes, and especially at Assumption, in Paraguay (lat. 
30° to 25° S.), they are more or less abundant at all seasons. 
Lastly, in the warm region, commencing from 20° S. as far as 
the line of Moxos and Chiquitos (Brazil), it rains during the 
six months comprised between October and March. This 
regularity subsists on the plateau of Brazil, in the districts 
of St Paul, of Minas Geraes, and of Goyaz, where the rains 

VOL, XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. F 


82 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


commence between the middle of September and the middle 
of October, and last five months. At Vallarica they are very 
heavy in January and February, and they vary according to 
the height ; on the banks of the San Francisco they cease in 
January. The vegetation follows the progress of these udo- 
metric and thermometric variations. The soil of Patagonia 
is extremely arid, and is covered with /andes analogous to 
those of Gascony ; towards the north, in the Pampas, there 
are meadows; still further to the north there are thick forests ; 
and, lastly, the rich intertropical vegetation is met with. Ac- 
cording to M. d’Orbigny, a portion of these results is to be 
attributed to the preponderance of the winds, which on that 
side of the Andes have a north and north-east direction, the 
reverse of their direction on the oceanic coast. We have still 
to examine the cause of this opposite parallelism of the at- 
mospheric currents of the two slopes of the Andes. 

On the Atlantic coast the distribution of rains is still more 
anomalous, as may be seen by the following details, derived 
from the observations of Dampier, Frezier, Piron, Vignal, 
Martius, Jacquemont, Saint Hilaire, and D’Orbigny. 

At Buenos Ayres and Montevideo (lat. 33° S.), the atmo- 
spherical variations are considerable ; the same is the case 
at Rio Janeiro (lat 23° S.), where there are no fixed epochs 
for the rains, although the most violent fall from October to 
March, whereas they are inconsiderable in June, July, and 
August. It results from this statement that the latter place 
may be included in the intertropical climate of the southern 
hemisphere ; regarding it, however, as complicated by an ac- . 
cidental circumstance which occurs as far as Olinda (lat. 8° 
S.). At Bahia (All Saints, lat. 18° S.) the rains fall from 
March or April to September, becoming torrential in the 
middle of summer, contrary to what should take place in the 
intertropical region of that hemisphere. Itis to be remarked, 
moreover, that the ordinary south-east winds only prevail on 
the east coasts during the rainy seasons, between March and 
September, after which they are replaced during the droughts 
by north-east winds, thus giving rise to a sort of monsoon. 
There is nothing less constant than the periodical return of 
the land and sea breezes; the sea breezes often prevail at 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 83 


Rio Janeiro for several days in succession, and are followed 
by perfect calms; the land breezes only blow in steady, fine 
weather, and the smallest atmospheric disturbances are suffi- 
cient to put an end to them; lastly, a vast number of local 
winds occur during the day, often in very violent gusts, at the 
mouth of all the creeks, and near all the projecting capes of 
the bay. Now, it is to be observed, that the sierra of Espin- 
haco commands all that part of the coast; its vicinity, there- 
fore, individualises in some measure its meteorology, and it 
is thus that this local exception, by which the first navigators 
were so much struck, is explained, if not altogether removed. 
But between Cape Blanco and Cape de Norte, at the extre- 
mity of the Cordillera of the Guyanas, is situated the open- 
ing of the basin of the Amazon, opposite to which the general 
laws follow their course ; that is to say, the rains prevail in 
winter from October till April, conformably to what takes 
place in the whole of the intertropical region of the southern 
hemisphere, and these are followed by the equatorial rains of 
Guyana, at seasons more distinctly marked than they are at 
Choco and on the banks of the Rio Negro ; four annual epochs 
being distinguished, two of droughts, and two of rains. 

The numerous details into which we have entered, indicat- 
ing for this eastern portion of the South American continent 
encroachments analogous to those which have been pointed 
out in the North American continent, render the existence 
of deserts, properly so called, altogether impossible. If de- 
serts were formed according to the same laws which regulate 
those of Africa, or of the western coasts of the New World, 
we ought to find traces of them in the latitudes of Paraguay ; 
but rains are abundant there. It is necessary to ascend the 
ridge of the Andes between 15° and 5° S. lat., in the parallels 
of Pisco and of Payta, to find the less considerable rains of 
Huanuco, and of Xeuxa; then we have, at the line of sepa- 
ration of the waters of the Amazon and of the Paraguay, the 
famous Campos Pariecys, a vast sandy plateau, almost devoid 
of vegetation, and which may be compared to the Chamo or 
Gobi of Mongolia ; lastly, still further to the east, the basins 
of San Francisco, the provinces of Goyaz, of Pernambuco, 
and of Bahiaqui, exhibit here and there in their Sertwos, hills 


84 Professor Fournet’s Researches ov the 


of moving sand mixed with cultivation, and this whole series 
indicates not a state of absolute aridity, but simply the facility 
with which the savannahs may assume the physiognomy of 
deserts. 

To recapitulate ; the New World may be regarded as divided 
by the Andes into two systems, characterised by their con- 
figuration, as well as by their meteorology. The western 
portion is very narrow, but of a simple structure; whereas 
the other is broad, deeply articulated, and irregularly ele- 
vated ; the first presents all the great phenomena which may 
be considered as the immediate results of the solar influence 
on the second: they tend to become effaced in the series of 
partial causes, and especially in the effects of the superposi- 
tion of periodical rains. The most important consequence 
of this irregularity is the annihilation of absolute deserts, 
and it is thus that an extreme uniformity of surface, which, 
at the first glance, would seem to be an element of prosperity, 
from the facility it affords for communication, becomes, on 
the contrary, one of the most formidable obstacles which na- 
ture interposes to civilization. 

By shewing that an absolute want of rain is necessary to 
constitute the absolute aridity of a desert,—that the latter is 
nothing else but the reflection of a dry atmosphere,—we have 
only answered one part of the question. We see, indeed, 
that the cause of which we are in search is essentially to be 
sought for in the atmosphere ; but we have not explained 
why it does not rain between the two intertropical and sub- 


tropical zones ; we must, therefore, enter into some details - 


on this subject. 

The intertropical rains commence at each place at the time 
the sun reaches its greatest altitude, because then, under the 
influence of ascending columns of air, the breezes of the 
trade-winds become uncertain; and for them there are sub- 
stituted calms interrupted by the winds which blow from the 
heteronymous pole. There is thus produced, at that time, 
an unequal distribution of heat, the result of which is the 
condensation of the aqueous vapour dissolved in the air. 

The hiemal rains take place, on the other hand, in the 
corresponding zone whenever, in consequence of the increased 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 85 


distance of the sun, the atmospheric refrigeration arrives at 
a certain point. 

This being the case, we can easily understand that be- 
tween these two inverse regions, and at places to which the 
sun approaches most nearly, that is to say, towards the tro- 
pic, there may be a persistence of heat sufficient to maintain 
in solution the vapours transported by the influence of the 
trade-winds, so that there will be an absence of rains, 
and a simultaneous production of deserts, at least, if orogra- 
phical causes do not produce local coolings, or if special 
winds, by their alternate play, do not give rise to disturb- 
ances in the normal arrangement. Examples in support of 
this are sufficiently numerous ; and if we endeavour to ap- 
ply to Asia data resulting from the phenomena of Africa and 
America, we shall immediately find that that continent can- 
not contain deserts, properly so called, or, at all events, ab- 
solute deserts, such as the Sahara. 

A meridian passing along the eastern coast of Africa, in 
some measure divides the globe into two hemispheres: the 
one, the western, in which the trade-winds prevail, and the 
other, the eastern or Asiatic, forming the domain of the mon- 
soons; but these latter, from what has been said of the coast 
of Brazil, do not appear to be capable of producing perma- 
nent droughts, for such can only be the result of the uni- 
formity of the trade-winds. 

As, however, a series of deserts is generally indicated in 
that part of the world, it is of consequence to define them 
properly, in order that they may be reduced to their just 
value. 

The distribution of these deserts may be considered in two 
points of view. According to the one, they would commence 
opposite the Sahara, and would be prolonged in a straight 
line towards the east, following the tropic of Cancer, over a 
part of Arabia, of Syria, of Persia, and of India, where they 
would be interrupted by the edges of the plateau of the Dec- 
can. Over this extent of country, in which they are almost 
contiguous to one another, they would only be interrupted for 
a short space by the Red Sea, by the Persian Gulf, or by the 
mountains of Kurdistan and of Persian India, and their total 


86 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


length, from the Atlantic to India, would be about 2100 
leagues; that is to say, about a fourth of the terrestrial cir- 
cumference under the tropic. 

According to the other method of viewing the facts, their 
axis from Arabia, as far as Chinese Mongolia, where there 
is the Schamoon-Gobi, would be parallel to the coast of the 
Indo-Chinese seas, and would run from north-west to south- 
east, like the axis of the great soulevement of Central Asia. 
In this case, we must add to the length already given, the 
five hundred leagues attributed to the Gobi; lat. 47° N. 
would be reached, and the deserts would penetrate consider- 
ably into the temperate zone, which, in that part of Asia, is 
subject to much more violent climates than Europe,—a cir- 
cumstance essential to be remarked in the discussion of the 
facts presented to us by these different places. 

In the whole of Syria and Arabia, the deserts comprised 
between Aleppo, Bassora, Rostak, Mecca, and Damascus, ap- 
pear, at the first glance, to expand from the heights of Ye- 
men, of Hadramaout, and of Mahra, or from the 16th to the 
36th degree N., and the dryness of that surface is well 
known; but we can divide it into two portions, the one 
northern and the other southern, separated by the Nedsjed, 
a varied oasis covered with pastures, watered by springs, and 
inhabited by numerous ‘tribes, to which succeed, on the one 
hand, the country of Bahrein, rich in dates and wine, and on 
the other, the district of Lahsa (/’ Aisa), watered by a river 
which falls into the Persian Gulf, and which is only a tor- 
rent liable to be dried up during the summer. 

The northern portion, known under the name of Barria, or 
of Bar-Abad, and which may be designated by the collective 
name of the Syro-Arabian desert, receives, especially towards 
the northern limit, more or less abundant rains in winter, 
during the months of December and January. These rains 
cause the existence of a particular Flora, and various tribes oc- 
cupy the savannahs, which are surrounded by naked and arid 
tracts. It would be incorrect, therefore, to consider this as 
a desert, or mer-sans-eau, properly so called, although it 
sometimes happens that an entire year passes without rain, 
even in the Nedsjed, where famines are thus produced. It 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 87 


results from this, that absolute dryness is hardly to be found, 
except towards the southern extremity of the Arabian penin- 
sula, comprised between the 14th and 23d degrees N. 

The latter is commanded, towards the coast of the Gulf of 
Aden and the Sea of Oman, by the mountains of Hadramaout, 
whose heights do not exceed from 5000 to 5700 feet, and 
from which are derived, on the one hand, the branch of Ye- 
men, running along the Red Sea, and on the other, the branch 
which, starting from Mahra, turns abruptly towards the en- 
trance of the Persian Gulf, and follows, on the coast of Bat- 
na, a south-east and north-west direction, between Ras-al- 
Had and Ras-Muskadom (lat. 22° 23’ to 26° 25’ N.). This 
chain has still, according to the measurements of Lieutenant 
Wellsted, a height of 3000 or 3500 feet, and all these eleva- 
tions are such as must necessarily give rise to the formation 
of rains. The mountains of Hadramaout are also well wa- 
tered ; and between the latter and those of Yemen, the plains 
of Beled-el-Djol, which are sometimes fertile and sometimes 
arid, present streams which preserve their water during the 
whole year, in consequence of the rains of the neighbouring 
mountains. The Nedsjeran receives heavy rains, which fall 
without interruption during the months of December, Ja- 
nuary, and February, while the heights of Yemen, some of 
whose summits receive snow every year, are, on the con- 
trary, fertilized by regular rains corresponding to the summer 
monsoon, and which commence about the middle of June and 
end in September; this season is called Mattar-el-Kharif. 
There is also another, which continues from the month of 
February till April, and which receives the name of Mattar- 
el-Seif ; the more distinctly it is characterised, the more abun- 
dant is the harvest. These rains do not, however, present 
that continuity which exists between the tropics, for the sky 
is rarely clouded during twenty-four hours in succession, and 
the remainder of the year passes without the smallest cloud 
being visible for months together. 

At the foot of these rainy heights, there is met with, on 
the narrow band of coast of the Red Sea, the sandy Tehama, 
which contains so little fertile soil; and where the rains are 
so little abundant, that the inhabitants, with the exception 


88 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


of those who devote themselves to commerce, are all poor; 
and this region extends over the south-western portion of the 
peninsula, as far as the dry, treeless, stony plains of the 
environs of Aden. It must not, however, be concluded that 
there is an absolute absence of rain, for the two seasons of 
Kharif and Seif are distinctly marked at Hez; we know, 
moreover, that at Mocha the south-west winds, which pre- 
vail from April to August, bring with them some rains dur- 
ing the squalls and gusts. Their rarity in this region seems 
to be caused by the attraction of the clouds to the neigh- 
bouring mountains ; for on the Tehama there are whole days 
during which the sky is constantly serene, while it is raining 
without intermission on the heights. 

The phenomena in question are reproduced, but in an in- 
verse order, on the eastern coast of Arabia, where rains pre- 
vail on the fertile mountains of Oman during the winter mon- 
soon. As in the Nedsjeran, and, probably, as in the whole 
interior of the peninsula, this season, which lasts from the 
commencement of November to the middle of February, has 
received the name of Schitt, and the rains are then suffi- 
ciently abundant to produce impetuous torrents; while, at 
the foot of the mountains, at Mascat as in the Tehama, there 
are hardly seven or eight falls of rain in the course of the 
year. 

It must be evident, therefore, that true deserts are to be 
sought for neither on the eastern nor the western side of 
Arabia; and the same may be said of the southern coast, 
where rains fall in the months of February, March, and 
April, during one of the derangements caused by the mon- 
soons, periods which are always critical, owing to the tem- 
pests to which they give rise. Where, then, shall we seek 
for the deserts? On the vast coast plateau of Mahra? but 
nomadic tribes traverse it in all directions ; steppes are, 
therefore, distinctly characterized: there thus only remains 
for us the central portion of southern Arabia, forming 
what is termed the Great Desert of Ahkof, and comprised 
between Nedsjed, Yemen, and Oman; but this is a ferra 
incognita, in regard to which we possess no other informa- 
tion but the emphatic recitals of the Arabs, to whom the 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 89 


words plains and deserts are nearly synonymous, and ac- 
cording to whom, this plateau was formerly a terrestrial pa- 
radise, inhabited by impious giants named Aadites, who were 
exterminated by a deluge of sand ; but this mythological tra- 
dition, or a similar one, is to be met with in all the sandy 
portions of Asia, where, nevertheless, there are characteris- 
tic rains ; so that it is of no value in the question. 

Before quitting this region, it is proper to observe, that 
the inverse pluvial arrangement of the two coasts of Arabia 
exists also in India, round the chain of the Ghauts. There 
we find alternately the coast of Malabar, like the western 
coast of the Yemen, watered, during the prevalence of the 
south-west and south-east winds ; while the coast of Coro- 
mandel, like that of Oman, is subject to the rains of the 
north-east winds of winter; and if we wish to generalize 
still further, we find on the western coast of the Red Sea 
the island of Dahalac, and the chain of the Mokattam, inun- 
dated by the winter rains, although the monsoons there de- 
viate slightly from north-west to south-east, in consequence 
of the position of that basin. 

Persia, which is essentially continental, presents to us a 
structure and a geographical position, quite different from 
those of the Arabian peninsula; its south-eastern portion, 
which alone we have to consider, touches to the south the 
Indian Sea, while to the west, the Persian Gulf slightly en- 
croaches on it. It constitutes a plateau, having a height of 2200 
feet towards its centre, around Yezde and the lake of Zareh; 
but commanded, at its circumference, to the north by the 
prolongation of the Elbrouz and of the Paropamisus, whose 
known altitudes are at least 2600 feet ; to the west, by the 
region of Teheran, of Ispahan, and of Schiraz, rising to a 
height of from 3800 to 4400 feet ; to the south, by the litto- 
ral and imposing terrace of Beloochistan ; and, lastly, to the 
east, by the considerable heights of Affghanistan, which, 
near Candahar, Kwettah, and Khelat, attain successively the 
heights of 3400, 5500, and 5700 feet. Lastly, we must notice 
its being placed entirely to the north of the tropic, which, of 
itself, would be sufficient to make us presume with certainty 
that deserts without water must be excluded from it. 


90 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


Nevertheless, five principal deserts have been enumerated 
by authors, of which the one separating Khorassan from the 
Irac-Adjemi, termed the Great Salt Desert, or Kuwir, is, of 
itself, said to be upwards of 300 miles in length, and 170 
miles in breadth; their whole amount, forming ;3; of the su- 
perficies of the country, is comprised between 25° and 36° 
N., from Beloochistan as far as the chain of Elbrouz; the 
latter, which separates the plateau of Iran from the vast hol- 
low of Touran, does not constitute an absolute limit towards 
the north, for moving sands displace rivers between the 
Caspian Sea and the Lake of Aral. But, without occupy- 
ing ourselves with this sort of appendage of the steppes of 
Kirghise or of Ischim, let us confine our investigations to the 
southern portion of the region. 

On the plateau of Iran, there are, first of all, the deserts 
of Khorassan and of Naubendam, above which, it may be said, 
that during the summer no cloud is to be seen; the dews 
are so slight, that paper is not moistened during the night, 
and polished iron is not at all rusted. Vast plains, in the 
midst of which is included the oasis of Yezd (é. e. light), the 
last refuge of the worshippers of fire, present only a dry sur- 
face, covered with a crust of salt, which cracks under the 
feet, and nourishes saline plants. But whatever may be the 
dryness of that region, there is no absence of rain ; for at 
Ispahan (lat. 32° 40’ N.), where the winter commences in No- 
vember and continues until March, there are falls of rain so 
abundant, that the earth is penetrated by it to a depth of 
more than a yard; and there are, moreover, four or five 
pretty considerable falls of snow. The most violent rains 
occur in March and April; they are accompanied by hail ; 
and, at that epoch, strong winds announce the return of the 
droughts. 

In the same latitude, the mountains of Khorassan are 
covered with a thick coating of snow during the winter, while 
rain inundates the subjacent plains ; so that the whole of this 
zone presents the same conditions as the Syro-Arabian desert, 
of which it forms the prolongation towards the east ; but it, 
at the same time, exhibits a greater intensity of cold. 

We have next the desert of Kerman, situated to the SE. of 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 91 


Yezd, and likewise covered with salt and sand, in the centre 
of which is placed the oasis of Khubis, a real garden of fruit 
trees; besides, the whole of Kerman is rich in all sorts of 
vegetable productions, which flourish wherever irrigations can 
be established. 

In Farsistan, which is in the immediate neighbourhood of 
the Persian Gulf, the herbage is renewed between January 
and May, after the rains, and the agreeable and fertile plain 
of Schiraz (Lat. 29° 52’), is subjected to the same conditions. 
The mountains which surround it are also frequently enveloped 
in clouds ; and the melting of the snow, which takes place in 
spring, gives rise occasionally to disastrous floods. 

Further to the south, between 26° and 27° N., in Laristan, 
on the shores of the Persian Gulf, the heats become greater ; 
and it is there that the maritime strip of land is met with, 
whose high temperature has caused it to receive the name of 
Kermasir. Bender-Abassi and the island of Ormus are 
both notorious for their intolerable climate, their malaria, 
their saline soil, and the deficiency of trees and plants; but 
it is there that the town of Laar is placed, in a plain sur- 
rounded by a belt of hills ; and whose soil, although sandy, 
is covered with palms and orange trees. It is provided with 
cisterns and reservoirs, in which a drinkable water is col- 
lected, after the winter rains have sufficiently removed the 
salt from the soil. It is there also, between Schiraz and 
Laar, that the plain of Dadiran is situated, which, traversed 
by a river abounding in fish, and possessing a more moderate 
temperature, serves as a refuge for Europeans, exhausted by 
the local heats of Ormus. There is thus, in the whole of this 
region, rather an excess of heat than an absolute want of 
rain; although it sometimes happens that there is no rain at 
certain points during two or three consecutive years, a circum- 
stance which takes place more especially in Bender-Abassi. 

Positive data regarding the rainy reason are awanting as 
to a portion of Kohistan, and of the varied interior of Beloo- 
chistan ; nevertheless, if, on the one hand, we know that 
Pottinger, during a journey of five days, between Sarawan 
and Kullugan, did not find anything else but hills and downs 
of moving sand, destitute of vegetation, it must, on the other 


92 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


hand, be added, that Toun, one of the towns of that region, 
is situated in a district rich in corn; and that, in the parts 
of Beloochistan where water is not awanting, the soil pro- 
duces fine forests, various grains, dates, almonds, sugar, 
cotton, and indigo, a variety of cultivation which necessarily 
infers falls of rain. We know, moreover, that rivers of the 
second order are lost in the sands, or are dried up during the 
summer, of which the heats are excessive at certain points ; 
so that we must necessarily admit the existence of hiemal 
rains. Regarding the north and the east of Beloochistan, 
more precise data establish the fact, that the seasons are 
regulated nearly as in Europe, with the exception of the 
summers being warmer and the winters less rigorous; al- 
though it must be remarked, that snow falls at Khelat, near 
Sarassan. The territory of Candahar is the most fertile 
possible. Lastly, on the maritime shore, the monsoons give 
rise to a rainy season, whose result is the termination of the 
heats which commence in March and last till October. There 
is, therefore, no surface of any extent in the whole region, 
which can be compared to the African Sahara. 

The chains of Salomon and of Brahu (Brahnick) separate 
Beloochistan and Affghanistan from the low country of the 
Indus, which flanks their eastern side. There Scinde is 
situated, the resemblance of which to Egypt has struck 
more than one traveller. Its*level plain, watered by a fine 
river which fertilizes its banks, is bounded to the right 
by a mass of steril mountains, which are rendered inhos- 
pitable by their soil and their climate; to the left, an im- 
mense desert of upwards of 600 miles in length, extends from 
Attock to the district of Cutch, situated on the gulf of the 
same name, and it sends off branches to the western regions. 
It is thus, that the opening which separates the mountains 
of Salomon and Brahu, Candahar and Scinde, is occupied by 
a naked plain, whose sterility is sufficiently indicated by its 
name of Detschi-bi-doulet or desert of poverty, plateau with- 
out prosperity. But although these countries are covered 
with hills of sand, although they recall all the horrors of the 
Arabian deserts, and although they even checked the auda- 
city of Alexander, it does not follow that they are absolutely 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 93 


devoid of rain and all vegetation. Thus, the savannahs are 
pretty numerous in the northern districts, and marshes and 
jungles fringe the banks of the river. On the road from 
Ruderpour to Almorah, prickly reeds and resinous trees are 
met with; in Scinde there are springs and melons: the inhabi- 
tants of Beykanir, to the south of Djeypour, have every- 
where cisterns to supply the deficiency occasioned bythe aridity 
of their soil ; lastly, to the east, Delhi, Agra, and the mountain- 
ous country of Khotak, are distinguished in a more positive 
manner by their periodical rains, commencing with storms 
at the end of May, especially abundant in July and August, 
and then becoming less abundant in September ; and it is to 
be remarked, that these regions, situated in the same lati- 
tudes, are moreover extratropical, extending from 23° to 
34° N., being in this respect similar to Affghanistan, Beloo- 
chistan, and Persia. As to the remainder of intertropical 
India, interposed as it is between seas and alpine mountains, 
it cannot, of course, present any thing else but a climate 
composed of alternations of droughts and violent rains ; thus 
fogs, heavy falls of rain, and violent showers of large hail- 
stones are more dreadful in that country than anywhere 
else. 

There now remains no other great desert in Asia but the 
Sehama, which, situated between 30° and 47° N., does not 
necessarily come under our consideration. However, as it is 
generally included along with the tracts already mentioned, 
we think it right to enter into some details on the subject. 

Its height in the eastern portion, between Zakil-Dak and 
Olon Bainchen, hardly exceeds 3650 feet, according to the 
measurement of Bunge, and its mean altitude is not more than 
2500 feet ; while to the west of the lake of Lob, its height is 
scarcely 1200 feet. But this plain is traversed from east to 
west by the two great systems of mountains of Kouenloun 
and Thian-Chan, which tend to modify its temperature ; it is 
divided, moreover, into two halves, an eastern and a west- 
ern, bya less barren narrow tract of country, The following 
- is the manner in which the climates, the soils, and the vegeta- 
tions vary, from east to west, over a great portion of this enor- 


94 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the 


mous surface :—The kingdom of Kachgar, on the eastern side 
of the chain of Bolor, contains much sand, and but little land 
suitable for cultivation ; but the latter produces hemp, grapes, 
corn, and rice. The climate is temperate, and winds and 
rains occur regularly, although the latter are so little abun- 
dant as to be sometimes entirely awanting, and it becomes ne- 
cessary to have recourse to irrigations for agricultural pur- 
poses. The same is the case between Yar-Kand, Khotan, 
and the lake of Lob, nearly in the same latitude as Lisbon: 
snow is rare, and the sandy portions only present here and 
there a herbaceous vegetation, in the midst of which are to 
be seen some stunted thickets, some wild apricot trees, and 
false acacias. Lastly, towards the eastern extremity, near 
Erghi, the plain is covered with reeds and plants identical 
with those growing on the shores of the Caspian sea. It 
must be added, that, in the centre of the Gobi, a series of 
lakes is met with, in which rivers of considerable size lose 
themselves ; and that the sands which occur in this tract of 
country are considered by the Mongols as the remains of an 
inland sea, although its importance must not be exaggerated, 
inasmuch as a portion of the surface is rocky. Among the 
lakes alluded to, the most important are: to the north, those 
of Baba-Kul, Bastu-Noor, Barkul, and Turgut ; to the west, 
those of Lop-Noor, Gash-Noor, and Chas-So ; and to the east, 
those of Tabsun-Noor, Siao-Serteng, and Kharra: still fur- 
ther to the east the country becomes essentially sandy, con- 
tains no river, and approaches the Sahara in character. On the 
northern side of the chain of Thian-Chan, between Ourocontsi 
and Illi, there are rains, and near Ouromtsi, the snow which 
falls during the winter covers the surface to a depth of ten 
feet, and is of course still more abundant in the chain itself. 

A Chinese work, obtained by Humboldt, states, that 
around Tourfan (lat. 43° 30’, the same as that of Montpellier 
and Narbonne), “the heat is excessive in summer. A para- 
sol of fire covers the vault of heaven, and burning winds tra- 
verse the circumference of the country. On the sandy moun- 
tain, which extends to the south-east like a girdle, neither 
plants nor trees are to be seen; in winter, there are neither 


Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 95 


extreme colds nor great falls of snow: the fertile and well 
watered soil produces wheat, lint, sweet melons, water me- 
lons, and grapes ; but to the south, nothing is to be seen but 
gobi, or plains of sand, on which asses and wild horses are 
found in herds of tens and hundreds.” 

This great concavity, however, may in fact be compared 
less to an absolute desert than to a steppe, differing, in re- 
spect of its southern position, from the Russian and Siberian 
steppes : storms occur on its borders in June and July, and 
snow falls in winter ; sometimes even the vegetation of the 
middle sandy portion, after being destroyed by the prolonged 
suspension of rains, is developed with vigour when they again 
abound ; so that in all this we can only see the tendency 
which the savannahs of all parts of the world have to pass 
into the state of deserts. 

Opposite Asia we find only one great island, New Holland, 
placed in the same parallels as Arabia and Hindostan ; but 
its interior being as yet unknown, the absence of rivers, and 
the dryness of the winds over the whole extent of its coasts, 
are the only probabilities which can be offered in support of 
the absence of great masses of water in the central portions. 
For the rest, the climate is variable. 

The following are the chief results which may be deduced 
from the consideration of this subject, viz. :— 

1st, That we must distinguish, in reference to tropical 
rains, two great atmospheric divisions ; the one subjected to 
the trade-winds, and the other to the monsoons. 

2d, That the latter does not admit of absolute deserts, be- 
cause the alternate play of the monsoons always gives rise 
to rains. 

3d, That, nevertheless, the effects of tropical heat, favoured 
by some accessory causes, such as certain breezes, a naturally 
poor soil, and the absence of springs and of rivers, may there 
produce small local deserts, or at least a great general aridity 
(Tehama, Ormus, Beloochistan, Scinde, and Gobi). 

4th, That in the division subject to the trade-winds, the 
low lands of uniform structure, and situated between the 
zones of the intertropical rains and of the subtropical rains, 
do not receive any rain, and are, consequently, characterized 


96 Researches on the Situation of Zones without Rain, &e. 


by an absolute dryness (Sahara, Agoa, Lower California, 
and the Peruvian coast). 

5th, That a great elevation of the surface, in the form of a 
plateau, may produce the approximation of the two regions of 
estival and hiemal rains in such a manner that they mani- 
fest themselves consecutively in one and the same country 
(the northern portion of the Mexican plateau). 

6th, Lastly, that a great irregularity of the surface may 
completely disturb the normal arrangement, by causing rains 
out of the usual season, even between the tropics (the coast 
of Brazil, New Orleans, &c., &c.). 

Before concluding this memoir, it may be useful to explain 
more particularly the meaning of some expressions we have 
employed, or that are made use of by the inhabitants of coun- 
tries more or less resembling deserts. 

The words savannahs and pampas are employed, the one in 
the south of South America, the other in the south of North 
America, to designate slightly undulating and for the most 
part grassy plains. They are great prairies ; but the pampas 
correspond more exactly to dry savannahs, and for wet sa- 
vannahs there is an equivalent term, viz., Canadas. The 
steppes of the Russians, the yai/a of the Persians, in a like 
manner, designate flat plains which are dry and at the same 
time grassy ; and the Wanos of the north of South America, 
as well as the karroo of southern Africa, only differ from 
them by being liable to become more completely arid in the 
seasons of the droughts. 

The gobi or cobi of the Mongols are sandy deserts ; but 
the term is applied generally, in northern Asia, to all steppes 
devoid of water, while the name of Khangai is given to the 
portions which are watered, and are covered with vegetation. 
The cha-mo of the Chinese is, properly speaking, the sea of 
sand, a true lande; but this expression is not applied to the 
portion beyond Hami, so that the preceding distinctions are 
sufficient to shew that the words cobi and cha-mo, taken in 
a collective sense by geographers, ought not to be applied to 
all the space ordinarily designated in this manner, because 
its different portions have received different names, accord- 
ing to their characters. 

6 


a 


Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 97 


In northern Africa, the terms Sade/ and Sahara are also ap- 
plied to great flat spaces, whose distinction depends on their 
constituent elements, which are sandy and moving in the for- 
mer, and pebbly or stony (as in the plain of the Crau in the 
south of France), in the latter. Nevertheless, the meaning of 
these expressions varies: thus the sahel is also a district swept 
by the wind, or the shore of the sea; and the sahara, a place 
exposed to the sun: lastly, the sahara is used to designate a 
desert where nothing grows, or, on the contrary, a desert 
with pastures. Some epithets are likewise employed to ex- 
press local peculiarities ; thus sahara-bila-ma, and sahara-ul- 
aski, mean the desert without water, and the complete desert. 
As to more circumscribed spaces, if their nakedness is com- 
plete, they receive the name of ozacad ; if they present some 
dry herbs, they are termed azgar ; and, lastly, if a moderate 
temperature prevails, they are designated by the name of 
hair. 

A plateau is expressed among the Persians by the name 
of pesichi-refi, and among the Arabians by that of dacca; 
lastly, in northern Africa, mountainous and rugged regions, 
entirely bare, or with valleys covered by vegetation, receive 
the name of harusch ; the garrigues of Languedoc sometimes 
convey an idea of their nature.* 


An Account of Electrical Experiments. By Mr R. ADIn, 
Liverpool. (Communicated by the Author.) 


In the following experiments my object is, through them, to give 
evidence to shew, that the arrangement commonly called the water 
battery, depends for its action on the formation of a metallic oxide ; 
that this oxide is formed from the oxygen of our atmosphere, and 
not from decomposed water; that the action of the battery ceases 
when the atmosphere is shut off from it; and that the electro- 
motive force of the currents derived from the water battery, and 
from the ordinary acid battery, are nearly the same, although in 


* From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique for May and June 1844. 
VOL. XXXVIIL NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. G 


98 Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 


the latter, water is abundantly decomposed, to supply oxygen for 
the composition of a metallic oxide. 

Pure water free from air, or air perfectly dry, are well known not 
to act on the oxidizable metals zine and iron at ordinary tempera- 
tures. It is also well known that water, as soon as it absorbs a 
small quantity of air, immediately begins to oxidize them. In order 
to ascertain if this was the case when these metals were combined 
with platina, silver, and copper, after the usual manner of galvanic 
pairs, I prepared various couple’ and placed them in glass tubes, 
filled with recently boiled pure water, and hermetically sealed. These 
remained for weeks without shewing any oxidation. One tube con- 
tained 6 zinc and copper couples, and there was no trace of action. 
A tube was next filled with recently boiled salt and water, and a 
silver and iron couple; still no change: yet a similar couple placed 
in distilled water within an hour from the time of its distillation, 
but which had not been boiled previous to filling like the other tubes, 
for the first six hours gave distinct evidence of the composition of an 
oxide. A silver and iron couple was then placed in a tube filled 
half with water, half with air; for the first week there was an abun- 
dant deposit of the hydrated peroxide of iron, then the dusky green 
protoxide began to form. After three weeks the tube was opened 
under water, when there appeared to be about one-sixth of the air 
absorbed. Had any water been decomposed by this couple, the evolved 
hydrogen would have produced a pressure in the sealed tube. A 
copper and iron couple was placed in a well-stoppered phial, and 
the fitness of the phial for the experiment tested, by filling it with 
pure boiled water to see that there was no action; it was then open- 
ed under recently boiled water, and half filled with pure nitrogen ; 
this shewed no change. A similar experiment was performed with 
oxygen, which immediately commenced the rapid formation of the 
hydrated peroxide of iron. In all these experiments the oxidation 
was strictly limited by the supply of oxygen in the tubes, and when 
great care was taken to exclude it there was no action, not even 
when the tubes were exposed for several days to a bright sun. 

The development of an electrical current, when measured by the 
deposit from the oxidizable metal, was in the above experiments 
entirely dependent on the presence of the oxygen of the atmosphere, 
but I felt desirous of proving this by the measurement of the elec- 
trical current itself. A small zinc and platina couple was connected 
with the galvanometer, and two phials prepared, one containing re- 
cently collected rain-water, the other, the same water well boiled, 
and the air excluded while cooling. On dipping the couple into the 
unboiled rain-water, the galvanometer indicated three and a half 
degrees ; then performing the same experiment with the boiled water 
the deflection was only from half a degree to a degree. 

The next experiment was to prepare a battery which could be 


Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 99 


hermetically sealed and opened to the air at pleasure. The annexed 
figure represents a cell constructed with this view : 


A piece of ordinary glass test tube. 

A long capillary point. 

A piece of pure silver wire bent in two or three folds before 
insertion, to give surface, then fused air-tight into the end 
of the glass tube. 

D. A similar piece of iron wire. 


amb 


When the tube AA is filled with pure water, and sealed at B, 
there is a slight oxidation shewn through the first twelve hours, 
caused by the air absorbed in filling; for this form requires two or 
three heatings before it is filled. A voltameter with sheathed cop- 
per poles* and filled with acidulated water, shewed this action when 
connected with the wires C and D; the bells of hydrogen were seen 
slowly to rise one by one: after twelve hours no gas could be seen, 
it continued perfectly inactive for some time. ‘The orifice B was 
opened, and within twelve hours there was a steady current decom- 
posing water. As I considered this as the test experiment, I wished 
to have the electrical force in excess, for which a four-cell battery 
was constructed, each cell exactly like the one above; these were 
connected as a four pair series, and a small sheathed glass platina 
pole voltameter attached. When first made I could, with a magni- 
fier, detect the slow formation of beads of gas which rose at inter- 
vals of several minutes each, In twelve hours this action disappear- 
ed, and the battery remained perfectly inactive for some time; the 
atmosphere was admitted by the capillary points, and in six hours 
the voltameter shewed the passage of a current. The effect increased 
for nearly two days, when there was, considering the size of the 
plates, a rapid decomposition in the voltameter ; the orifices were 
now closed. By this time the water in the cells had absorbed a quan- 
tity of air, which kept the battery in action for six days after the 
supply from the atmosphere was shut off; but when its oxygen was 
exhausted the current disappeared, and the battery was again inac- 
tive. While experimenting with these cells I constantly experienced 


* See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol, xxxv. p. 902, 


100 Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 


a feeling of surprise from the close resemblance their action bore 
to the respiration of the lower classes of animals. In this arrange- 
ment of inorganic matter an electrical current is as much dependent 
on a supply of air for its maintenance, as the lives of plants or ani- 
mals are. Still, it should be borne in mind that, beyond the simple 
fact noticed, there is no further evidence of parallelism. 

Three pairs of the water battery are sufficient to decompose aci- 
dulated water with platina poles, and one pair serves to do so with 
copper poles. The battery excited by diluted sulphuric acid also 
requires three pairs to decompose water. Professor Grove has 
shewn that twenty-six pairs of his composition of water battery are 
necessary to perform the same decomposition, while three pairs 
acting only by their oxidation of zinc, are equally effective. Tak- 
ing these things into consideration, it appears to me, that for the 
great source of the galvanic current we must look to the composition 
of a metallic oxide, for which the presence of water is essential, 
although it is not always decomposed. 

On turning over in my mind the action of water on a galvanic 
couple, and comparing it with the gas battery, I was led to expect 
that if the most oxidizable metal of the former arrangement be 
removed, and its place supplied with one of the hydrogen tubes of 
Professor Grove’s battery, that the principle of the action would be 
unchanged. In lieu of the composition of the oxide of zinc, on the 
zine plate, there should be the formation of water on the platina 
plate ; the hydrogen being drawn from that contained in the tube, 
and the oxygen from the supply absorbed by the water from the 
atmosphere. A trial proved this view to be correct; the slip of 
platina in the hydrogen gas was the generating metal to a plate of 
either copper, silver, or platina, immersed in water holding oxygen 
in solution. I found the size of the conducting plate to possess 
much influence over the action; a large plate of silverfoil gave 
more electricity than a slip of platina corresponding in size to the 
generating plate. Pieces of copper of large dimensions are too apt 
to give opposite currents. 

When the above experiment shewed that the oxygen tube of the 
gas battery could be dispensed with, I wished to try its value as a 
sustaining arrangement. For this purpose it is necessary to cement 
inside the hydrogen tube a piece of zinc, unconnected with the pla- 
tina; then as the gas is consumed the acidulated water rises till it 
comes in contact with the zinc, when a fresh supply of hydrogen is 
obtained. A tube so prepared placed over a shallow vessel con- 
taining a piece of silverfoil for a conducting plate, gave an endur- 
ing action; and the electrical current derived from this single pair 
of composition of water plates, freely decomposed the argent cyanide 
of potassium. To avoid the sulphate of zinc being dissolved in the 
fluid in the battery cell, I have used an inverted U tube where the 
hydrogen is generated in a separate vessel; but the first method 


a 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 101 


answers sufficiently for an experiment. The water can be easily 
changed without stopping the action, and it is simpler in its parts. 

Through Mr Crosse’s experiments the sustaining power of the 
water battery is well known. Those in the present communication 
shew the necessity of supplying this battery with water containing 
as much dissolved oxygen as possible. There are many situations 
in the vicinity of surface streams, or of mill-dams, where the requi- 
site water is at command; and it is only there that the value of the 
water battery, for telegraphic or metallurgic purposes, can be fairly 
ascertained. 

I have stated above that strong brine did not at all act on iron 
when the atmosphere was thoroughly excluded. This fact may by 
many be thought sufficient to prove that the salt and water battery 
does not differ from the pure water battery in the principle of its 
action. But as I wished to take as little as possible on trust, I 
repeated all the chief experiments given, substituting sea water, or 
brine, in the place of fresh water. It is unnecessary to go into these 
repetitions, as they all confirm the first results detailed above: and 
the proof has since been rendered still more satisfactory, by placing 
a small zinc and silver couple under the receiver of an air-pump, 
with wires passing through a shell-lac top to connect to the galvan- 
ometer. Such a battery, whether excited by distilled water or by 
sea water, soon loses its action when the air has been well exhaust- 
ed by the air-pump: to do so requires 36 hours. As soon as the 
air is readmitted, a slight deflection of the galvanometer is imme- 
diately observed, but the rise in action is very slow, so long as the 
receiver is kept over the vessel holding the water. When the water 
battery is first subjected to a diminution of pressure, the air rises 
rapidly through the water, which keeps the latter in a state of con- 
tinual motion. This, like shaking by mechanical means, very often 
produces an increase in the action, which, however, is only of a 
temporary nature; for as the water loses its air, the deflection of the 
needles of the galvanometer sinks rapidly. 

The carbonic acid dissolved in water exposed to the atmosphere, 
can have little, or perhaps no effect in these experiments; for when 
water, sparkling with the rapid escape of this gas, is used to excite 
a zinc and silver couple, the action is not quite equal to the result 
produced by rain or sea water. 


On Fireproof Warehouses. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., 
Civil-Engineer. 


The serious nature of the late fires at Liverpool, Man- 
chester, and other large towns, has induced an inquiry into 
the causes of these disasters, with a view to avert their pro- 


102 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


gress, and to adopt measures for the better security of pro- 
perty, and the prevention of a calamity so injurious to the 
public as well as individual interests. In no other descrip- 
tion of building have the effects of fire been so severely felt, 
nor have the provisions necessary for its suppression been 
so disregarded, as in warehouses used for the stowage of 
commercial produce in maritime towns. 

In the manufacturing districts the same apathy has not 
prevailed ; for, in most places, fireproof buildings have been 
introduced, and, notwithstanding their complete success, it 
is surprising that the same system has not been adopted in 
the construction of warehouses and other buildings appro- 
priated to the reception of merchandise. When we consider 
the extent and immense value of property contained in these 
edifices, it can scarcely be conceived that such a state of 
things should exist ; and, more particularly, amongst a body 
of men the most active and intelligent in Europe. Such, 
however, is the case ; and we have only to enumerate a few 
examples to shew, that a disregard of consequences, or a 
culpable ignorance of existing improvements, has pervaded 
the mercantile community for a number of years. This 
should not be, as the buildings in which the manufactures of 
cotton, flax, silk, and wool, are carried on, are, with few ex- 
ceptions, almost entirely fireproof; and upwards of thirty 
years have elapsed since iron beams, iron columns, and 
brick arches, were first introduced in the construction of 
factories, as a security against fire. These facts ought not 
to have escaped the observation of the British merchant; 
and yet, in the face of so many examples, with one single 
exception,* it is only within the last few months that a non- 
combustible material has been used in the construction of 
the immense magazines of Liverpool. In other parts of the 
empire the same laxity of application exists, but the effort 
so happily made at the port of Liverpool, will, it is hoped, 
extend itself to the metropolis and every sea-port in the 
kingdom. For these objects, and for the guidance of those 


* Messrs Jevons constructed a fireproof warehouse on the New Quay 
ten years ago. 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 103 


who may feel disposed to adopt measures for saving a large 
rate of insurance, and for the further protection of their pro- 
perty, I would respectfully submit the following observations 
for consideration :— 

On the subject of fireproof structures we have few ex- 
amples in the ages of antiquity ; and provided we except the 
monuments of the early Egyptians, and some of the public 
edifices of the Greeks and Romans, there are but few in- 
stances of buildings so erected as to afford any security 
against the ravages of fire. During the middle ages, some 
of the Gothic churches and cathedrals were constructed 
almost entirely of stone ;* and, with these exceptions, there 
appears no evidence of an existing knowledge as to the be- 
nefits arising from the use of an entirely fireproof structure. 
Probably a want of cast-iron, and the consequent ignorance 
of its use, was an insurmountable barrier to the develop- 
ment of the fireproof system ; but, in the present age, these 
difficulties do not exist, and to neglect the means thus so 
liberally supplied for the protection of life and property, 
would augur a want of discernment incompatible with the 
spirit and enterprise of the age. Latterly, the extension of 
commerce, and the great value of property which is daily 
consigned to the keeping of individuals and companies, have 
produced a different feeling ; and, viewing the present en- 
gagements of merchants, with the amount of transfer from 
one hand to another, it is no longer matter of surprise that 
measures, calculated for the better security of property, 
should be imperatively called for, and that in every instance 
where it is exposed to risk. 

The general character of warehouses has, for ages, been 
the same; the roofs and floors invariably being constructed 
of timber, with strong girders and wooden props ; and these 
have, in most cases, been so injudiciously placed as to cause 
considerable injury to the structure on every occasion when 
great weights have to be supported. On referring to the 
greater number of these erections, it will be found that the 


Wt) 2 ee ee rr 


* The cathedral of Milan is constructed entirely of marble and glass. 


104 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


props which support the floors have their ends placed im- 
mediately under the main beam ; and these being successively 
supported upon each other, with the main beam intervening, 
the result is, that the fibres of the girders are thus com- 
pletely crushed, particularly in the lower floors, by the su- 
perincumbent weight, and, in many cases, the beams are 
almost squeezed in two from the immense pressure to which 
they are subjected. Even in this imperfect construction, the 
necessary precaution of wooden caps has not, in all cases, 
been adopted ; and until the introduction of iron columns, 
with heads and bases covering a large surface of the beam, 
the timbers were, in many instances, seriously injured. 

The use of iron columns, although an improvement upon 
the old system of building, is, nevertheless, no security 
against fire, and it is obvious that no guarantee can be given 
so long as the structure is chiefly composed of timber, and 
the openings imperfectly closed by wooden doors and shut- 
ters. From this it is evident that, in order to give perfect 
security, warehouses must be constructed upon different 
principles, which may be enumerated as follows, viz. :— 

1. The whole of the building to be composed of non-com- 
bustible materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks. 

2. In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident 
or spontaneous combustion, every opening or crevice com- 
municating with the external atmosphere to be closed. 

3. An isolated stone or iron staircase (well protected on 
every side by brick or stone walls) to be attached to every 
story, and the staircase to be furnished with a line of water 
pipes communicating with the mains in the street, and as- 
cending to the top of the building. 

4. In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be 
divided by strong partition walls, in no case less than 18 
inches thick, and no more openings to be made than are ab- 
solutely necessary for the admission of goods and light. 

5. That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches, be of 
strength sufficient not only to support a continuous dead 
pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they are 
subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors. 

Lastly, That in order to prevent accident from intense 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 105 


heat melting the columns, in the event of fire, in any of the 
rooms, a current of cold air be introduced into the hollow of 
the columns from an arched tunnel under the floors. 

Adopting the foregoing divisions of the subject, it will be 
requisite to consider them separately. 

First, The whole of the building to be composed of non- 
combustible material, such as iron, stone, or brick. 

In the choice of material, much will depend upon locality, 
and the cheapness at which it can be obtained. In this 
country the best fireproof buildings are generally composed 
of brick or stone, with iron beams and columns properly 
framed and held together by rods built into the walls, and 
brick arches for the floors: these arches are supported by 
and spring from the lower flanges of each beam, and are 
thus extended in succession on each floor from one end of 
the building to the other. These arches may be formed 
either in a longitudinal direction in the line of the building, 
or transversely, as circumstances may admit. The floors 
are generally laid with stone flags or tiles upon the arches, 
after they are properly levelled and filled up at the haunches 
with a concrete of lime, sand, and ashes. The flags or tiles, 
being well and solidly bedded in mortar, form a durable and 
excellent floor. In buildings for particular objects, it is some- 
times necessary to have wooden floors, and, where found 
necessary, the boards are generally nailed in the usual way 
to sleepers embedded in the lime-concrete as before de- 
scribed, or, what is probably better, with a pavement of wooden 
blocks. 

This description of building, when properly constructed 
and surmounted by an iron roof, is perfectly impervious to 
the action of fire; and provided due regard be paid to the 
selection of a careful superintendent, both owners and occu- 
pants may rest satisfied as to the safety of the property. 

Secondly, In order to prevent fire, whether arising from 
accident or spontaneous combustion, every opening or cre- 
vice communicating with the external atmosphere to be 
closed. 

These are points which should never be neglected in fire- 
proof buildings. In warehouses, in particular, it is of vital 


106 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


importance ; because in rooms or floors where combustible 
material is stored, nothing tends so much to the security of 
the building and its contents as a power to shut out and 
prevent the admission of air. For this purpose an iron or 
stone staircase, surrounded by brick or stone walls, and 
communicating with the different floors by iron doors, should 
always be attached. This staircase should be easy of ap- 
proach from without, with a covered opening at the top, and 
windows at each landing, in order to effect free ventilation, 
and a ready communication with every part of the building. 
Warehouses constructed upon this principle will effect almost 
perfect security, and, in the event of fire, will enable persons 
not only to approach the locality, but, in case of the casual 
admission of atmospheric air, the room might be shut up and 
the flames smothered till an effectual remedy was at hand. 
For these objects I would strongly recommend the iron 
doors, frames, and shutters, as constructed and used by 
Messrs Samuel and James Holme, of Liverpool, to be fixed 
in every room. These doors are made of double sheet-iron 
plates, rivetted to a skeleton frame, with a stratum of air 
between, which, acting as a non-conductor, is admirably 
adapted to the purpose for which they are intended. 

Thirdly, An isolated stone or iron staircase, well protected 
on every side by brick or stone walls, to be attached to every 
story, and the staircase to be furnished with a line of water 
pipes communicating with the main in the street, and ascen- 
ding to the top of the building. 

Under the second division we have already treated of the 
staircase, and the necessity which exists for having it per- 
fectly distinct from other parts of the building: exclusive of 
this separation, it will be found still more secure by having 
a copious supply of water always at command. That supply 
should not only exist in the street mains, but should commu- 
nicate with every landing by a brass cock and hose, till it 
terminates in a cistern with a valve on the top of the roof. 
This cistern should be of such capacity as would insure a suf- 
ficient supply of water in case of accident to the pipes in the 
street. The pipes, leather hose, and the requisite discharge 
of cocks, screw-keys, &c., should be kept in good repair, and 


— 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 107 


the hose and screw-keys hung up at every landing ready for 
use. These precautions will give additional security to par- 
ties bonding goods, as also to the owner of the property in 
which they are deposited. In addition to the above, it will 
be advisable that all the cocks, hose, and serew-keys be made 
of one size, and the same as those used by the Fire Brigade 
of the town. Before closing this part of the subject, I would 
observe, that an exceedingly simple and ingenious apparatus 
for extinguishing fire has been adopted by Joseph Jones, Esq., 
of Wallshaw, near Oldham. It consists of a thin copper 
globe, of nine inches diameter, perforated full of small holes, 
and suspended from the ceiling of the different rooms, either 
in a mill or a warehouse. Each rose is (in case of need) sup- 
plied with water by lines of pipes communicating with the 
mains in the street. In this form Mr Jones is not only in a 
position to discharge a food of water into each separate room, 
but from the peculiar shape of the rose, he is enabled (with 
a pressure of 200 feet acting upon the apertures) to disperse 
+t to a distance of upwards of 40 feet in very direction. This 
ig a certain and effectual method for extinguishing fire, and 
‘might easily be adopted in almost any important structure in 
large towns, where a supply of water and the necessary pres- 
sure can be obtained. Another important feature of this ap- 
plication is the facility and rapidity with which fires can be 
extinguished. The cocks are all on the outside of the build- 
ing, and being carefully locked up and marked with numbers 
corresponding with the different rooms, there is less risk of 
delay and confusion when an accident occurs. 

Fourthly, In a range of stores, the different warehouses 
to be divided by strong partition walls, and no more openings 
to be made than are absolutely necessary for the admission 
of goods and light. 

These precautions become more apparent in every case 
where large piles of buildings are erected contiguous to each 
other, and where risk from fire is incurred in the communi- 
cation of one part of the building with another. The Metro- 
politan Building Act has provided against accidents of this 
kind, by the insertion of a clause wherein these precautions 
are insisted upon, and by the introduction of partition walls, 


108 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


which divide the houses, the utmost security is afforded to 
that description of property. In contiguous buildings, these 
partitions have their full value; and it not unfrequently oc- 
curs that the property on each side has been saved from con- 
flagration when a centre building has been completely de- 
stroyed : hence the necessity of complete separation in every 
case where the buildings are contiguous. In the construc- 
tion of warehouses these precautions are the more important, 
from the increased value of the property therein deposited, 
and the greater risk to which, in some particular cases, they 
are subject. All warehouses should, therefore, be carefully 
separated from each other ; and in forming the partition walls, 
it might be a great improvement to have an open space of 
two inches up the middle, with proper binders, for the pur- 
pose of ventilation—as air, being a non-conductor, would, in 
case of fire, prevent the walls from being overheated, and af- 
ford a free communication with the atmosphere by the 
ascending current of air. They should also be built to some 
height above the roof, in order to prevent the possibility of 
communication with the adjoining stories, and to effect a 
complete separation of the different compartments into which 
they are divided.* 

To render the different flats or rooms of warehouses se- 
cure, it is a desideratum to have as few openings in them as 
possible. The plan adopted in those of Mr Brancker’s, in 
Dublin-street, Liverpool, appears to be not only well calcu- 
lated for the admission and transmission of goods on each 
side, but having no more windows than are absolutely neces- 
sary for the admission of sufficient light to effect the deposi- 
tion and removal of merchandise, they are exceedingly well 
adapted for the double purpose of convenience and security. 
In every situation, the iron doors and iron window shutters 
already described should be used. 

It will be observed, that the security afforded by the iron 
doors and shutters will be of no use, unless they be closed 
and fastened every night before the warehouse is shut up. 


* The Liverpool Building Act has now rendered it compulsory that 
parapet walls shall be built up 5 feet above the gutters. 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Varehouses. 109 


Fifthly, That the iron coloumns, beams and brick arches, 
be of strength sufficient not only to support a continuous dead 
pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they may 
be subject, by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors. 

This is one of the most important considerations connected 
with the security and construction of warehouses ; and in or- 
der to remove every doubt as to the stability of such a struc- 
ture, I must refer to my highly-talented and respected friend, 
Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq., F.R.S., one of the first authorities 
in this or any other country on the strength of materials. 
To that gentleman the public are indebted for a series of 
theoretical and practical experiments on the strength of 
beams and pillars, of the utmost value to architects, builders, 
and engineers. Any person choosing to make himself ac- 
quainted with the principles of Mr Hodgkinson’s experi- 
ments, and the results deduced therefrom, will find no diffi- 
culty in constructing beams and columns of the strongest 
form, and at the same time insuring the proportional and re- 
quisite strength, accompanied with a great saving in mate- 
rial in all parts of the structure. On this part of the subject 
it will be necessary to observe, first, on the structure of 
beams, that until the publication of Mr Hodgkinson’s expe- 
riments, practical men were almost entirely without rule, or 
any satisfactory theory on which to found their calculations 
on the form and distribution of the material. Now the sub- 
ject is well understood, not only as regards the strength 
which is wanted, but also the best and strongest form for re- 
sisting the different strains to which they are subjected. In 
warehouses containing goods, these strains are more varied 
than in factories. In the former, the floors are often loaded 
to a great extent with solid dense material ; at other times 
with light bales ; and the lower floors are frequently piled 
with casks containing mineral substances, which produce not 
only a great amount of dead pressure upon the beams, but 
incur the risk of some of the heavier weights falling from 
some height upon the floor, and thus endangering the secu- 
rity of the structure by the fracture of the beam. These ac- 
cidents are probably not frequent, but they should be guarded 
against ; and the beams, arches, and columns should not only 


110 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


be calculated to resist the greatest load when operated upon 
by a dead weight, but the effects of impact produced by a 
body falling through a given space upon the floor. These 
calculations should apply to the two first floors of every 
warehouse, as the heavier description of goods are almost in- 
variably deposited in the lower stories. 

Mr Hodgkinson, in searching experimentally for the strong- 
est section, found that the old practice of making beams with 
equal ribs—such as recommended by former writers—ex- 
ceedingly defective ; he proved a proportional between the 
top and bottom flanges, and the strain being less towards 
the ends of the flanges, it was reduced to the parabolic form, 
in order to give equal strengths throughout the whole length 
of the beams. This was an important discovery, and as 
warehouse and factory beams are intended to be equally 
strong in every part, and to sustain the load uniformly dis- 
tributed, it is necessary to adopt the parabola in the form of 
the ribs, and to mark their relative properties with the body 
of the beam, and with each other. In discussing these pro- 
portions, Mr Hodgkinson demonstrates the curvature of the 
ribs as follows :— 

«« Suppose the bottom ribs to be formed of two equal pa- 
rabolas, the vertex of one of them, A C B, being at C; 


i Noss eee, 06 ign Nob bere 
. ae 


ad Cc 


when by the nature of the curve, any ordinate dc is as 
Ac x Be; the strength of the bottom rib, therefore, and 
consequently that of the beam at that place, will be as this 
rectangle. It is shewn, too, by writers on the strength of 
materials, that the rectangle A ¢ x Bc is the proportion of 
strength which a beam ought to have to bear equally the 
same weight every where, or a weight laid uniformly over 
i: 

From this it would appear that the forms laid down by 
Mr Hodgkinson were rightly devised, and a great saving, 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. i 


not less than 3-10ths, effected in the quantity of material 
used. 

Having pointed out the strongest form of beams as applied 
to fireproof buildings, it will be necessary in this place to 
refer to their strength, and to inquire into the nature of the 
strains to which they are subject. It has already been 
stated, that iron beams in warehouses have two distinct 
forces to contend against, that of direct pressure and the 
force of impact; with the former there is no difficulty, but 
the latter involves a proposition on which mathematicians 
are not agreed. For practical purposes we may, however, 
suppose a case, such as a large cask of molasses, or box of 
heavy mineral substance, equal to one ton = 2240 lbs,, fall- 
ing from a height of six feet upon the floor. Now, according 
to the laws of gravity, a body falling from a state of rest 
acquires an increase of velocity, in a second of time, equal 
to 32 feet, and during that period falls through a space of 
16 feet: this accelerated velocity is as the square roots of 
the distances, and a falling body having acquired a velocity 
of 8 feet in the first foot of its descent, and 6 feet being the 
height from which a weight of one ton is supposed to fall, 

We have J 6 = 2.449 x 8 = 19.592 for the velocity in a 
descent of 6 feet. 

Then, 19.592 x 2240 = 43,886 lbs., or nearly 20 tons, as 
the momentum with which the body impinges on the floor. 
In the present state of our knowledge, this momentum can- 
not probably be taken as the measure of the force of impact, 
but we may fairly estimate the latter as exceeding that of 
momentum ; and having these forces to resist, it will be ne- 
cessary to guard against them, and to make the beams, 
columns, and arches in the lower floors, of such strength as 
will resist the blow, and neutralize its effect upon the floor. 

Although the iron beams and arches of a fireproof floor 
may be sufficiently elastic to resist an impinging force, such 
as above described, it is still advisable to adopt other pre- 
cautions, such as the bedding of timber along the top of the 
 arches,* or to form the two lower floors entirely of wooden 


* Since the above was written, I have been informed that the Act of 


112 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


boards (three-inch plank), securely nailed to sleepers em- 
bedded in concrete: this plan would give additional security, 
by the transmission of the impinging force over a larger 
surface; and, under these circumstances, the concussion 
would be made, in the first instance, on a soft elastic sub- 
stance, before it could act upon the more rigid materials of 
iron beams and brick arches. 

In order, however, to remove all doubts as to security, it 
will be advisable to have stronger iron beams and columns 
in the two lower floors; and having computed these strengths, 
they will probably be found nearly correct in the ratio of 12 
to9. If, on this data, we take the breaking weight of a beam, 
as suitable to the upper stories of a warehouse, at 22 tons, 
those of the lower stories would require to be 29.32, or near- 
ly 30 tons; and the columns, although less liable to fracture, 
will, nevertheless, be greatly improved by the introduction 
of a proportionate thickness of metal. 

Having, to the best of our ability, established the fact of 
perfect security in the use of iron beams and arches, the 
next point of inquiry will be as to the strength and propor- 
tion of the columns ; but before treating of this part of the 
subject, it may be proper to advert to the tie-rods, which are 
built into the walls and arches, and should unite the walls 
and girders as a species of net work. These tie-rods are of 
great value, as they resist the strain of the arches, which, 
acting through their line of tension, not only secure the walls 


from being thrust out, but also retain the beams in the posi- 


tion best adapted to sustain the load. The usual practice in 
these districts is to leave five lines of $-square rods in a 
width of 30 feet ; two lines are imbedded in the wall, and the 
remaining three built into the arches. This is considered a 
perfectly secure building ; but it must be borne in mind that 
cotton mills are not subjected to heavy loads, and instead of 
five tie-rods of -inch square, a warehouse should have seven 
lines of rods, each 14-inch square. This will give a sectional 


Parliament for the regulation of fireproof buildings does not admit of any 
timber whatever. In such case, I would advise the beams so to be made 


one-half stronger. 


o 


a 


2 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 118 


area of about 11 inches in 30 feet, which, taken at 25 tons to 
the square inch, will give a resisting tensile force of 275 
tons. In factories, the resisting powers of the tie-rods sel- 
dom exceed 100 to 110 tons, which is under 4 tons to the 
foot, whereas the resisting forces in warehouses should not 
be le*s than from 9 to 10 tons to the square foot. 

In the construction of fireproof buildings, it is not only 
necessary to secure the ends of the beams by extension rods 
embedded in the walls, but the arch-plates, or ‘‘ Skewbacks,” 
at each end should also be built into the wall; and this 
plate, as well as the ends of the beams, slightly raised above 
the level of the column, in order to allow for the settling of 
the walls, which invariably takes place as the weight in- 
creases in their ascent. 

For the strongest form and best position of columns sup- 
porting heavy weights, we must again refer to Mr Hodgkin- 
son as the very first authority. In his valuable treatise on 
the strength of pillars of cast-iron and other materials, pub- 
lished in the Philosophical Transactions, Part I1., for 1840, 
and for which he received the gold medal of the Royal 
Society, will be found some of the most interesting and most 
useful experiments yet given to the publie. 

From these researches it will be necessary to make some 
extracts, in order to ascertain the laws connecting the 
strength of cast-iron pillars with their dimensions, and to 
determine the best and strongest form adapted to the sup- 
port of heavy weights. The first experiments were made 
upon solid uniform pillars, mostly cylindrical, with their 
ends rounded, in order that the force might pass through 
the axis; the next were of the same dimensions, with flat 
ends at right angles ; and others again with one end rounded, 
and the other flat to the axis. They were broken at various 
lengths, from five feet to one inch (some with dises turned 
flat), and form a series of most interesting results. The 
pillars with discs gave a small increase of strength above 
those with flat ends, but the approach to equality between 
the strength of pillars with discs, and those of the same 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. H 


114 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 


diameter, and half the length, with ends rounded, was nearly 
alike. 

The conclusion, as Mr Hodgkinson observes, is, therefore, 
“ that a long uniform cast-iron pillar, with its ends firmly 
fixed (whether by means of discs or otherwise), has the same 
power to resist breaking as a pillar of the same diameter and 
half the length, with the ends rounded, or turned, so that the 
force would pass through the axis.” 

Mr Hodgkinson, in the first experiments, gave the strength 
of cast-iron pillars, with both their ends rounded, and both 
flat ; subsequently he experimented upon those with one end 
rounded and the other flat, and in some cases with dises, 
and their results being placed between those from the pillars, 
with round and flat ends, gave the strength in a constant 
ratio, as under :-— 


Pillars. Breaking Weight in Ibs, 


Both ends rounded, . . | 143 | 3017 7009 7009 | 16493 


Oneend roundedandoneflat,, 256 | 6278 | 13499 | 13565 | 13557 
Both ends flat,. . . . 487 | 9007 | 20310 | 22475 | —— 


« The pillars in each vertical column in this abstract are 
of the same length and diameter ; the strengths, therefore, 
in three different cases, reading downwards, are as 1, 2, 3 
nearly, the middle being in arithmetical mean between the 
other two.” 

Mr Hodgkinson, therefore, found, by other experiments 
upon timber, wrought iron, steel, &c., that those, as well as 
every other sort and description of material, followed (as re- 
gards their strengths) the same laws, and that the strength 
of a pillar with one end round and the other flat is always 
an arithmetical mean between the strength of pillars of the 
same dimensions with both ends rounded and both flat. 

These are facts which should on no account be mistaken 
in the construction of fireproof buildings ; and it will be well 


Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 115 


to impress them forcibly upon the public mind, that the prin- 
ciple is the same, however much they may vary in their ratio 
of strength. 

In treating of the strength of columns, I have endeavoured 
to establish principles which are not generally known, but 
which are proved to be fixed and determined laws affecting 
the increase or diminution of strength according as the ends 
are made round or flat. 

In order, therefore, to avoid error in the construction of 
buildings adapted for the support of heavy weights, it will be 
of some value to know, that the strength of pillars can be in- 
creased according as their ends are shaped, in the numerical 
ratio of 1, 2, 3. 

Having investigated the subject at some length, it may be 
necessary, before closing the report, to advert to a circum- 
stance which appears to excite alarm, and increase the fears 
of individuals, respecting the safety of iron beams and brick 
arches as a perfectly fireproof structure. It has been alleged, 
that in case of fire in any of the lower rooms in a warehouse, 
that the intense heat generated by rapid combustion might 
melt the iron columns, and bring the whole edifice to the 
ground.* This is a possible, but a very improbable case, as 
an event of this kind could never happen provided the pre- 
cautions enforced and inculcated in this inquiry be duly and 
properly observed. It is true that negligence of construction 
on one hand, and want of care in the management on the 
other, might entail risk and loss to an enormous extent ; but 


* There is only one instance which has come to my knowledge of a 
fireproof building being injured by the melting of the columns, and that 
was at the works of Messrs Sharp, Roberts, and Co., in Manchester, 
where the pillars were fixed between the boilers of the steam-engine, 
and having a large quantity of wood piled round them on the top of the 
boiler, for the purpose of drying, the heat became so intense as to cause 
them to bend, and ultimately break. In this case, the front of the 
boiler-house was open, with a thorough draft direct across the building, 
which generated a most intense heat, and caused the whole room to act 
as a reverberating furnace. Viewing the subject in this light, it cannot 
be considered analogous to a warehouse efficiently secured against the 
admission of atmospheric air, 


116 Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones. 


it is no argument to say, that a warehouse built like a funnel, 
and provided with all the elements of conflagration, is attend- 
ed with risk, when it is well known that a perfectly secure 
and perfectly sound fireproof building can be erected free 
from all the perils above enumerated. 

In my own mind, there is not the shadow of a doubt as to 
the security of such a structure; and I do not hesitate to 
assert, that a well-built and properly arranged fireproof 
warehouse can not only be constructed, but may be made to 
entail upon the commercial and manufacturing communities 
of this country an important and lasting benefit. 


Wma. FAIRBAIRN.* 
MANCHESTER, June 3. I844. 


On Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones, and the sources from 
whence it is derived. By J. MIDDLETON, Esq.t 


Having been for some time past engaged in investigations, 
not yet matured, on the absolute and relative quantities of 
fluorine in fossil bones, I was readily led to inquire into its 
presence, or otherwise, in recent bones. The high authority 
of Berzelius had indeed satisfied me on this subject; and I 
might not have felt a motive to examination for myself, had 
I not lately heard the fact doubted and disputed before the 
Chemical Society, and elsewhere, with an earnestness which 
could only proceed from conviction. The readiness with which 
the authorities of the University College acceded to my re- 
quest for materials, as well for this as for my more labo- 
rious investigations, left me no difficulty, and deserves my 
best acknowledgments. 

I easily obtained conclusive evidence of the presence of 
fluorine in the following portions of the human skeleton, the 


* From a printed Report “ On the Construction of Fireproof Build- 
ings ;’’ communicated to us by the Author. 

t Communicated to the Philosophical Magazine by the Chemical So- 
ciety, having been read May 6, 1844. On the subject of this paper, see 
the author’s previous one, p. 285, and also Dr Daubeny’s, p. 288, of pre- 
ceding volume of this Journal. 


— 


Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones. 117 


bones operated upon being from the dissecting room :—the 
occiput, the vertebree, the humerus, the femur, the teeth, the 
femur of a foetus of 63 months. 

I examined also the arm, including the scapula, of a foetus 
of 33 months, but could obtain no evidence of the presence of 
fluorine in it; a result which, considering the small quantity 
of osseous matter involved, was perhaps to have been looked 
for. 

I determined also the presence of fluorine in the entoster- 
nal bones of the sternum of a recent tortoise. 

Any one who may continue to entertain doubt on this sub- 
ject, and whose object is the recognition and discovery of truth, 
may readily convince himself by using the means employed by 
me. I broke a portion of the bones to be examined into small 
fragments, and subjected them to the action of concentrated 
sulphuric acid, in a platinum crucible, covered, as is usual in 
such operations, by a plate of glass, endued with an etched 
coating of wax. I applied the flame of a spirit lamp from 
time to time, so moderating the heat as to sustain action of 
the acid upon the materials without projection upward of the 
substances against the glass. I prevent the melting of the 
wax by keeping a muslin rag, moist with alcohol, upon its 
upper surface. The time occupied by each experiment was 
between five and ten minutes. 

Through these and other investigations above alluded to, 
I have ascertained the presence of fluorine in the organic re- 
mains of Carnivora, Herbivora, Reptilia, Pisces, as also in 
the recent bones of Men and Reptiles. The increase of fluo- 
rine in fossil bones is apparently greater in proportion to the 
remoteness of the period at which they lived, where the cha- 
racter of entombment is similar. These facts, taken con- 
jointly, seemed to me to need, for their explanation, a more 
general source of fluorine than has been heretofore, I believe, 
supposed. It occurred to me, that ordinary water might be 
the vehicle ; and if so, the presence of fluorine in recent bones 
would not only be accounted for, but also its accumulation 
in fossil bones, being filtered from the moisture circulating in 
the earth’s crust. In order to ascertain whether facts would 
be found to sustain this view, I examined the following sub- 


118 Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones. 


stances :—First, A deposit, chiefly of sulphate of lime, from 
as it appeared, a chloride of calcium vat, and found it to con- 
tain fluorine, though in small quantity. As it was suggested 
to me, however, that glass retorts, used for the distillation 
of hydrochloric acid has been known to be thereby corroded, 
I did not attach much weight to the result, although I drew 
encouragement from it. 

Second, A deposit, formed in a wooden conduit pipe in a 
coal mine, procured for me by my friend Dr Falconer, and 
found it to contain a still greater proportion of fluorine than 
the former. : 

Third, A stalactitie deposit, said to have been formed in 
an aqueduct in France. It was of a pure white colour, and 
made up of very thin and scaly concentric layers, being at 
the same time very incompact ; it contained no fluorine. 

Fourth, A stalactitic deposit from a cave in old red sand- 
stone, furnished to me by Mr Arnott, to whom, for this and 
for other assistance in my investigations, I am much indebted. 
This I found to contain fluoride of calcium to the extent of 
about 9 per cent. The stalactite consisted chiefly of car- 
bonate of lime. 

Fifth, The crust formed on the inside of a. kettle used for 
the boiling of water. This I found to afford faint but distinct 
proof of the presence of fluorine. 

Lastly, A fragment of a vein of sulphate of barytes, found 
in the sandstone above mentioned. This also contained fluo- 
rine, though in much less proportion than the stalactite of the 
fourth experiment. 

The above are the only substances, sufficiently diverse in 
their origin, which I have had an opportunity of examining ; 
and the facts I have elicited from them seem to confirm the 
justness of my theory of the prime sources of fluorine in 
bones. It follows, as a necessary corollary, that it exists in 
most, if not all vegetables, though perhaps in minuteness of 
quantity, that may enable it often to elude detection —( Philo- 
sophical Magazine. Third Series, Vol. xxy., No. 166, p. 260.) 


( 119 ) 


Contributions towards Establishing the General Character of 
the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. By WILLIAM 
Kine, Esq., Curator of the Museum of the Natural His- 
tory Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne. With Two Plates. (Communicated by the 
Author.) 


(Concluded from page 75, vol. xxxvii.) 


The most weighty objections that may be urged against Stgmaria 
being the root of Sigillaria, have been advanced by Brongniart; they 
consist of the presence of a pith in the former, and of the spiral arrange- 
ment of its fibrils. But the last character, it would appear, is often seen 
in aquatic plants; and as regards the first it has been observed in the 
roots of several Zamias.* Coming from so distinguished a botanist, the 
correctness of these statements cannot, for a moment, be doubted; per- 
haps, however, it is but anticipating the like expression of others, if I 
signify my regret at Bronguiart not having named the plants which are 
furnished with spirally arranged fibrils.t 
. But, admitting that no existing plant possesses fibrils which are dis- 
posed in a spiral manner, it surely cannot be supposed, that any one 
acquainted with the anomalies of organization which paleontology is 
continually revealing, cam look upon the fact involved in this admission 
as in the least invalidating the conclusion at which we have arrived. 

Having brought our description of the external characters of Stigmaria 
to a close, our next object will be, to give an account of its internal 
structure; but as the histology of one or two plants of the carbonifer- 
ous epoch is calculated to clear up some dubious points in this struc- 
ture, it is, perhaps, the best plan to take them first into consideration. 
The plants here alluded to, are Lepidodendron and Anabathra pulcher- 
rima, 

The details which Witham, Lindley, Hutton, and Brongniart, have 
severally published, in elucidation of the anatomy of Lepidodendron, ren- 
der a lengthy description of this character unnecessary. 

Proceeding from the periphery to the centre, the stem of Lepidoden- 
dron may, in brief terms, be stated to consist of, first, a thin cuticle; 


* Vide Brongniart’s Observations on the Internal Structure of Sigillaria elegans. 

+ Some arguments were inserted here in my MS., to shew, that in Stigmaria 
there are combined the form of a true radix, and the spiral arrangement of the 
Jibrils of a rhizome: this notion is now abandoned. It was also my intention 
to have entered somewhat into detail respecting the superficial characters of this 
‘fossil; but this has been deferred for the present. 


120 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


second, a double parenchymous zone; third, a hollow vascular cylinder ; 
and fourth, a pith. It has been customary to consider the axis or pith 
as eccentrically situated, but from certain reasons which have been 
given in a former part of these contributions, 1 am disposed to think 
that this was not a character of the plant when living : the central situa- 
tion of the pith will therefore be assumed in the following description. 

The cuticle, according to some sections, orignally published by Wi- 
tham, Lindley, and Hutton, is thin, and consists of a form of prosenchy- 
mous tissue, being elongated longitudinally, and arranged in a radial man- 
ner transversely. 

In a section of Lepidodendron, an inch and three-eighths in diameter, 
the outer part of the double parenchymous zone is a quarter of an inch 
in thickness: it is composed of a tissue which bears a close resemblance 
to the parenchyma of the petiole of the Spread-Eagle Fern, (Pteris agui- 
lina.) The cells are large, so much so, as to be observed by a common 
magnifier: on the transverse section they are either round or polygonal, 
in the last form; the sides of the figure are in general equal. On the lon- 
gitudinal section the cells are somewhat elongated: they in general taper 
off rather suddenly at both ends, so as to terminate in an obtuse cone, 
and they display a tendency to arrange themselves in linear series. The 
inner part of the zone is about half as broad again as the outer one; judg- 
ing from some which are here and there displayed, its constituent cells 
appear to be much smaller and more delicate than the last: they are 
somewhat of the same form on the transverse section ; but on the longi- 
tudinal one they are quadrangular, and they run decidedly in linear 
series. The tissue of this part is very rarely preserved; its character 
has therefore not been made out so satisfactorily as could be desired. 
Brongniart, in his restoration of the double zone, represents its cells of 
the same form longitudinally as they are transversely, which certainly is 
not the case in any of my sections. 

The hollow vascular cylinder, which is a little less than an eighth of an 
inch in thickness, is composed of polygonal tubes, having no order in 
their arrangement, except that which pertains to difference in diameter. 
These tubes have the whole of their walls transversely marked with fine 
lines or bars, similar to thosewhich characterise the vessels of the medul- 
lary sheath of Sigillaria elegans: those which are situated on the inner 
part of the cylinder are as large again in diameter as the cells composing 
the outer part of the double zone; but they become gradually smaller 
in the outward direction, until within a short distance of the outer side 
of the cylinder, and there they become, all on a sudden, considerably 
reduced. Inno part does the vascular cylinder exhibit the least appear- 
ance of lateral openings. 

From the outside of the vascular cylinder, and at certain points, arise 
a number of cords which pass into the leaves: they are made up of the 
smallest sized vessels. The outer part of the double zone is furnished 
with a number of openings, which serve as passages for these leaf cords; 


——— 


a a Se 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 121 


they have an oval form, are an eighth of an inch in length, in the longi- 
tudinal direction of the stem, and are disposed in a spiral order ; they 
are now vacant, but there is little doubt of their having been originally 
filled with prolongations of the delicate cellular tissue which formed the 
inner part of the zone. The leaf cords occupy the inferior part of the 
vascular passages. 

The pith, according to Brongniart, is composed of largish fusiform cells. 

It is unnecessary to discuss in this paper the situation which Lepido- 
dendron holds in the vegetable kingdom: all that is required for our 
present purpose is, to bear in mind the very singular characters of its 
medullary sheath or vascular cylinder, which is rather large, and with- 
out any openings by which the tissue of the pith could communicate 
with that of the double zone. It must also be attended to, that this plant 
possesses no ligneous tissue, arranged in a radial manner, as we have 
seen in Sigillaria elegans. 

Let us, in the next place, consider that remarkable fossil which Mr 
Witham was the first to make known, under the name of Anabathra 
pulcherrima, 

At the time when Anabathra was described, few botanists had attended 
to the minute differences in vegetable tissue, which form so conspicuous 
a feature in the phytological works of the present day: hence a few 
errors have been committed in drawing up the description which has 
been published of this fossil. Some of these errors have been rectified 
by M. Brongniart in his ‘‘ Observations on the Internal Structure of 
Sigillaria elegans ;” but as there are others which this gentleman had not 
the means of correcting, I have been induced to enter into the following 
description more minutely than would have been otherwise necessary. 
It requires also to be stated, that, with the view of enabling me to become 
acquainted with the internal structure of fossil plants in general, Mr 
Witham has, in the most handsome manner, placed in my hands the 
whole of his invaluable collection of sections, among which there is an 
instructive suite of Anabathras. To this gentleman, for so marked an 
act of kindness, there is certainly due from me an expression of very 
deep obligation. 

Before commencing to describe the tissues of Anabathra, it is neces- 
sary to make a slight reference to the state in which Mr Witham’s 
specimen existed, when first discovered. It was invested with an ir- 
regular coat of mineral matter, in which were observed numerous small 
portions of vegetable tissue, intermixed with what appear to be twigs. 
Mr Witham has represented this coat, charged with its vegetable frag- 
ments, in Plate VIII., figure 7, of his ‘‘ Internal Structure of Fossil 
Plants.” The matrix, as it ought rather to be called, was in immediate 
contact with the tissue of what, we shall presently see, is the ligneous 
zone of the fossil, a circumstance which prevents us coming to any con- 
clusion as to the thickness of its bark; for instance, whether it was 


122 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


thin, like that of most of the Conifers, or thick, as is the case with the 
Sigillarias, the Cycases, and the Cactuses. Mr Witham, in his descrip- 
tion, says, that the specimen when complete, was a tapering body, several 
inches in length, rounded at the extremity, and resembling the termin- 
ation of a stem or branch. In another part itis stated that the specimen, 
divested of its envelope, was compressed, so as to have one diameter 
about a half greater than the other. ‘‘ At the lower part the large dia- 
meter was upwards of two inches; and at the extremity one diameter 
is about half an inch, the other nearly a fourth.”’* I may observe, that 
the sections at present before me answer to these and the intermediate 
sizes. If we were certain that Anabathra possessed a thick bark, there is 
something in the description just quoted which would induce one to sup- 
pose that this fossil was a short fleshy plant, resembling some of the 
Cactuses. Let it be understood, however, that I am far from thinking 
that this was the case. Mr Witham states, that the specimen presented 
the appearance of natural joints, at the distance of about two inches, 
and that its surface was slightly striated in the longitudinal direction. 
I mention these circumstances merely to give it as my opinion, that the 
striated appearance was caused by the very elongated tubes of the lig- 
neous zone, and that the joints were simply transverse cracks. 

A very singular result has been brought about by mineralization, in 
Mr Witham’s specimen. A large portion of the radiated tissue has 
been destroyed: what remains is contained in a narrow marginal strip, 
and in numerous isolated pea-shaped bodies imbedded in a crystalline 
matrix, and situated inwardly to the latter. The reader is therefore 
requested to fill up in imagination all the vacant spaces which are repre- 
sented in figs. 2 and 3, of Plate IV., with the same kind of tissue as that 
which forms the marginal strip and the isolated bodies. To aid this, a 
transverse restoration of the vascular and the ligneous system is given in 
figure 1, which is a little above the natural size. 

Anabathra pulcherrima is undoubtedly a Dicotyledonous plant. It 
possesses a broad ligneous zone (a, fig. 1. Plate IV.),—a large medullary 
sheath in the shape of a hollow cylinder (+),—and, apparently a large 
pith (c). 

The ligneous tissue consists of very elongated tubes, which are oc- 
easionally quadrilateral, but generally hexagonal: they are arranged in 
radiating series, and are remarkably regular in diameter, throughout the 
thickness of the zone, till within the precincts of the vascular cylinder, 
where they become considerably reduced. The apertures caused by 
sectionising these tubes, are distinctly seen with a common magnifier. 
Their length appears to be considerable, since a longitudinal section near- 
ly half an inch long shews none of the tubes with both terminations (vide 
figs. 3 and 4.) The whole of their walls are marked with fine transverse 


* Witham on the “ Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables,” pp- 39 and 40, 


» 45> ie he 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 123 


lines or bars, which, in general, are parallel to each other, but occasion- 
ally they divide, as is represented in fig. 5. All the tubes have their walls 
of a uniform thickness, so that Anabathra displays no appearance of the 
concentric rings which are found in the wood of ordinary exogenous 
trees. The ligneous zone appears to have been intersected by numer- 
ous narrow medullary rays, judging from the interspaces which are mark- 
ed d in figures 2 and 4. 

The vascular cylinder is composed of elongated tubes, which, on the 
transverse section, are irregularly angular, and somewhat variable in 
their proportion. Those of the greatest diameter are a little larger 
than the tubes composing the marginal strip of the ligneous zone, 
and they constitute the inner four-fifths of the cylinder; while the 
smallest, into which the others gradually pass, occupy the remaining 
or outer portion. At the margin of the cylinder, the vessels have be- 
come so diminished in size, as to resemble the small ligneous tubes 
which immediately circumscribe them ; occasionally a small vessel is 
to be seen among the larger ones. With the exception of their being 
placed somewhat according to size, as just stated, the tubes of the me- 
dullary sheath possess no order in their arrangement. The tissue of this 
part appears to be shorter than that of the ligneous zone, as there are 
several terminations displayed on a longitudinal section (vide , fig. 3) ; 
but I am strongly inclined to believe that the shortness is more apparent 
than real: it ought rather to be said, that the tubes, in their longitudinal 
direction, are very flexuous, and twisted around each other. This cireum- 
stance, by causing a longitudinal section to display certain of the tubes 
obliquely cut, and others deviating from each side of the plane of the 
section, it is conceived, would produce the appearance as if these cuts 
and deviations were so many terminations.* The walls of the tubes are 
marked with transverse lines or bars, which differ somewhat from those 
on the ligneous tissue, inasmuch as they are closer to each other, and 
they are often seen coming in contact, which gives them an anastomosed 
appearance (vide fig. 6, Plate IV.). In none of the large vascular tubes 
are the lines so disposed as to form a spiral, either broken or continu- 
ous: probably this is the case in the smallest but the section, is not suf- 
ficiently thin to allow of its being seen. The vascular cylinder is in close 
contact with the ligneous zone; and in no part does it display the least 
appearance of openings or medullary rays. 

The pith appears to have been composed of fusiform cells, analogous 
to those which Brongniart describes as belonging to the corresponding 
part of Lepidodendron. It may be doubted, however, that what I have 
considered as forming a portion of the pith of Anabathra, did, in reality, 


* May not the shortness of the vessels composing the medullary sheath and the 
leaf cords of Sigillaria elegans, be more apparent than real, and the appearance be 
produced as suggested in the text ? 


124 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


belong to this part, since it is simply a portion of fusiform tissue crossing 
the centre of one of the transverse sections. 

Reverting to the ligneous tissue, and adverting to the longitudinal sec- 
tion represented in figure 4, plate IV., which is at right angles to the me- 
dullary rays, and through the marginal strip, our attention must now be 
directed to those large openings (e) which form so prominent a feature. 
There are only two represented, owing to a greater number requiring 
more space than could be allowed for the figure: it consequently re- 
quires to be stated that they are arranged in a spiral manner. Mr 
Witham described these openings as containing the medullary rays, 
which is not the case, because what has been probably taken for cellu- 
lar tissue, is, in reality, a bundle of small vessels (/), similar to those 
which occupy the outer part of the medullary sheath. Although the 
longitudinal sections do not exhibit any of these bundles springing from 
the vascular cylinder, their proximity to this part, in some transverse 
sections (see fig. 2), together with the fact just stated, leave no room to 
doubt as to their having constituted the leaf cords of the plant. Ac- 
cording to Mr Morris, it would appear that Dr Brown had ascertained 
this point some time since.* Owing to one of the openings or vascular 
passages having been intersected in a portion of its course through the 
ligneous zone, as shewn in the longitudinal section parallel to the me- 
dullary rays, which is represented in figure 3, Plate IV., we have dis- 
played in a very instructive manner, a leaf cord or vascular bundle (/) 
traversing at right angles the ligneous tissue: a similar bundle is ex- 
hibited in the transverse section, fig. 2. These two sections prove that 
the leaf cords curve but very slightly in their passage through the lig- 
neous zone, as they proceed horizontally for a considerable distance. 
From the passages being in part vacant (vide fig. 4), it may reasonably 
be supposed that the cords were accompanied in their course with a por- 
tion of cellular tissue. 

We may now be permitted to say a few words on the comparative 
anatomy of Anabathra. No one can escape being struck with the simi- 
larity which this plant possesses in some points of its structure to Sigil- 
daria and Lepidodendron. The width of the ligneous zone is certainly 
greater in Anabathra than in Sigillaria, but there scarcely appears to 
be a shade of difference in the character of its constituent tissue in 
either plant; while between Lepidodendron and Anabathra there is in 
their vascular cylinder the closest resemblance. It is, therefore, clear 
that these three plants are nearly related to each other. 

The resemblance between Anabathra and Lepidodendron in their vas- 
cular cylinder, has induced Brongniart to hazard a question to the effect 
~—May the latter not be the young branch, and the former the stem, of 


* Transactions of the Geological Society, 2d series, vol. v., description of 
Plate XXXVIUII. 


ee es 


el ees 


~~, ‘a> 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 125 


one and the same plant? ‘‘ The hypothesis involved in this question,” 
says its author, ‘‘ appears, however, to have little probability in its favour, 
in consequence of there being none of the prolongations on the outer 
part of the vascular cylinder of Anabathra which are visible on the cor- 
responding part of Lepidodendron.” The prolongations here alluded to, 
are those portions of the leaf cords which are on the point of curving off 
from the cylinder, to the margin of which they give a sinuous appear- 
ance. Mr Witham’s transverse sections of Anabathra certainly do not 
shew any sinuosities. Brongniart’s objection is, therefore, so far a valid 
one ; but it seems to me that, before Lepidodendron can be considered as 
the branch of Anabathra, there is required to be known an example of 
a Dicotyledonous tree having young branches without any radially ar- 
ranged ligneous tissue. 

Sigillaria elegans possesses in its anatomy a peculiarity of considerable 
interest, in a physiological point of view: it is furnished with a medul- 
lary sheath, which, there is strong reason to believe, existed, to a certain 
degree, independently of the ligneous zone. But whatever doubt might 
stand in the way of such a peculiarity possessing itself of our entire con- 
yiction, so far as Sigiliaria is concerned, it is clearly demonstrated by 
what is observable in Lepidodendron and Anabathra, inasmuch as, in the 
former, the vascular cylinder has performed its function without the pre- 
sence of the ligneous zone of the latter: add to this, that, in Anabathra, 
although these two parts are in immediate contact with each other, the 
differences which have been pointed out in their respective tissues, further 
prove that they represent independent systems. It will now be seen on 
what grounds the distinction has been made in this paper between the 
vascular and the ligneous part of the fossils which have been mentioned. 

With the materials which we now possess connected with the internal 
structure of co-existing forms, it will readily be admitted, that we are 
better prepared to commence our proposed examination of the histology 
of Stigmaria. 

Lindley and Hutton were the first to make us acquainted with the 
anatomy of this fossil, and, subsequently, Brongniart and Morris have 
each contributed towards elucidating it. 

A transverse section of a Stigmaria having its tissue preserved, usually 
exhibits the appearances shewn in figure 1, Plate V. The letter d refers 
to a broad zone filled with mineral matter which has replaced the original 
(cellular) tissue of the plant: the wedge-shaped bundles marked a 8, are 
composed of very elongated hexagonal or quadrilateral tubes, whose walls 
are marked with transverse lines or bars, in general parallel to each other, 
but occasionally approximating at certain points, so as to produce a re- 
ticulated appearance (Brongniart): these tubes are arranged in lines 
radiating from the centre of the fossil : ¢ refers to spaces which separate 
the bundles from each other ; they are now filled with the same mineral 
substance as that of the outer zone, but there is no doubt of their having 
been originally occupied with cellular tissue: the part marked ¢ is also 


126 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


filled with mineral matter. Such is a brief outline of the internal struc- 
ture of Stigmaria. Ona general comparison with some recent plants, 
especially the Cactuses, this fossil does not offer much disparity. In 
these we have a similar broad zone (the bark), a similar hollow cylinder 
of wedge-shaped bundles (the wood), and a similar central part (the 
pith) ; but these are all the points of agreement, as the ligneous system 
of the Cactuses does not consist of a uniform tissue, nor are the walls of 
this tissue marked with lines, as in Stigmaria (Brongniart). Sigillaria 
elegans, too, somewhat resembles this plant in the general aspect ofa trans- 
verse section. The characters of the tissues in both, it will be seen, are in 
agreement, but Stigmaria is entirely divested of the circle of apparently 
isolated bundles which lies within the ligneous eylinder of Sigillaria, 

Fragments of Stigmaria are often found having the same outline as 
that of the specimen which has been figured: like this, they have their 
pith, bark, and radiating interspaces, occupied with mineral matter ; but 
instead of there being any remains of tissue in the wedge-shaped bundles 
of the cylinder, there are nothing but vacant spaces. The difference 
between these two kinds of specimens has evidently been caused in the 
following manner: in the kind first described, the soft cellular tissue 
composing the pith, the bark, and the radiating interspaces or plates, as 
they may be more conveniently termed, rotted out, simultaneously with 
its being replaced by mechanically induced mineral matter in the shape 
of mud, which hardened soon after its deposition ; on the contrary, the 
tissue of the cylinder, owing to its firmer texture, resisted decomposition : 
it remained fixed in its original place by means of the outer zone, the cen- 
tral part, and the radiating plates, and, through some cause or other, the 
whole of the tubes and their delicate markings became mineralised, or 
electrotyped as it were; and thus we have preserved one of the most in- 
teresting objects of microscopic investigation. The other specimens were 
subject to the same changes up to a certain point—to the consolidation of 
the mechanical deposit ; but after this had taken place, instead of the 
tubes becoming electrotyped, they rotted out like the cellular tissue ; nor 
was their place afterwards filled up with any mineral matter, either 
chemical or mechanical: hence the vacant spaces which now remain. 

It is fortunate that we have the remains of Stigmaria in the state last 
described, since they enable us to investigate a doubtful point in the 
internal structure of this fossil. 

Brongniart, in his explanation of the sections illustrative of Stigmaria, 
which are added to his “Observations on the Internal Structure of 
Sigillaria elegans,” speaks of the radiating plates or “spaces,” as ‘ cor- 
responding to the great medullary rays.” Lindley and Hutton, in the 
« Fossil Flora,” (Vol. iii. p. 48), write to the same effect. Let us for 
a moment stop to inquire into the nature of medullary rays. According 
to Professor Lindley, ‘‘ they are composed of muriform cellular tissue, 
often not consisting of more than a single layer of cellules ; but sometimes, 
as in Aristolochias, the number of layers is very considerable.” ‘‘ No vas- 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 127 


cular tissue is ever found in the medullary rays, unless those curious 
plates described by Griffith in the wood of Phytocrene gigantea, in which 
vessels exist, should prove to belong to the medullary system.”* Should 
botanists agree to restrict the term medullary ray to those vertical plates 
of cellular tissue which intersect the ligneous cylinder, and which are 
unaccompanied with vascular tissue, the radiating plates of Stigmaria 
cannot be so termed, as they inclose the vascular cords which pass into 
the external appendages. 

By making longitudinal divisions through the cylinder of those speci- 
mens of Stigmaria which do not possess 
any tissue, we discover that the radiating Fig. 1. 
plates are about half an inch in length in A 
_ the longitudinal direction of the fossil ; ) 
that they are placed rather obliquely, and V 
disposed in a nearly spiral manner ; and 
that they thin off at one end to a fine 
edge, while the opposite one is divided, or 
rather grooved, along its entire horizontal 
extent. Ihave endeavoured to represent the form of a plate, and a 
groove in the annexed figures :—t 

Referring to Brongniart’s section of Stigmaria, we learn that the cylinder 
is intersected by a number of oval-shaped spaces, each of which in- 
closes the vascular bundle or cord belonging to one of the external ap- 
pendages or fibrils.t| Mr Morris’ figure, representing an oblique section 
of the same part at right angles to the radiating plates, shews similar 
oval-shaped spaces inclosing a cord.§ Now, if in imagination we de- 
stroy the whole of the tissue, and fill up the oval-shaped spaces of these 
figures with mineral matter, we produce a number of radiating plates, 
with a groove precisely like those which have been figured. This brief 
notice is perhaps sufficient to shew that the radiating plates were origi- 


* Introduction to Botany. 3d edit. p. 92. 

t Fig. 2 represents a side view of a plate having one of the divisions removed, 
to shew that the groove deepens as we pass from 
the inner (a), to the outer side (6). Figure 1 re- 
presents a longitudinal section of another plate cor- 
responding to the dotted line in figure 2. 


} “ Observations,” &c., Plate V., figs. 2, 6, and 7. 
In the annexed figure, which is a reduced copy of fi- 
gure 6, one of the spaces (a) surrounded with tu- 
bular tissue, (4) is represented as well as the bundle 
(c.) 

§ Geological Transactions, 2d series, vol. 5, Plate 
XXXVIII. fig. 3, a. 


128 Contributions towards Esiablishing the General Character 


nally spaces, which, in addition to a large portion of cellular tissue, con- 
tained the vessels that passed into the external appendages; the term 
medullary ray is, therefore, inapplicable to them, and asa substitute that 
of vascular passage is proposed.* 

In none of the longitudinal sections which have been published of 
Stigmaria are the fibril cords represented passing through the entire 
thickness of the cylinder, as the groove of the radiating plates indicates. 
I was in hopes of procuring some sections exhibiting this character, but I 
have not yet succeeded : nevertheless, a compressed specimen in my col- 
lection, containing an impression of the cylinder, is of considerable value 
in the absence of such sections: the tissue has disappeared, but the 
impression remains, which is so complete that the arrangement of the 
tubes is clearly exhibited. Most of the tubes run perpendicularly up the 
cylinder, as represented by a, bin fig. 2, Plate V., but occasionally they 
are seen curving away from the place originally occupied by the pith c, 
in the manner shewnat f. There can be no doubt that the curving tubes 
constitute the fibril cords of this specimen. 

In connection with these cords two or three questions arise, which re- 
quire a little of our attention. What do they originate from ? Do they 
strike off from the tissue of which the principal part of the eylinder is 
composed ? or do they belong to an independent system, as is the case 
with their analogues in Anabathra? From his description of the figures 
which represent the internal structure of Stigmaria, it may be supposed 
that Brongniart adopts the view involved in our second question ; for, in 
speaking of the fibril or vascular cords, it is stated that they separate 
themselves from the tissue of the cylinder. Notwithstanding the weight 
of this opinion, coming, as it does, from so eminent an authority, I may 
be pardoned hazarding one that is totally different, to the effect, that the 
-cords belong to a system distinct from the tissue which forms the prin- 
cipal part of the cylinder. There can be no great objection, it is pre- 
sumed, to take as granted that Stigmaria is the root of Sigillaria. Now 
the sections which have been published of the last plant clearly shew that 
its circle of apparently isolated bundles is distinct from the enclosing 
cylinder ; and it is equally obvious that the former constitutes the me- 
dullary sheath, and the latter the ligneous system. If a distinction of 
this kind exists in the stem, why, it may be asked, ought not the 
same distinction to prevail in the root? Again, the leaf cords of 
Sigillaria, as admitted by Brongniart, evidently spring from the medul- 
lary sheath, and not from the radiated cylinder,—why then may not 
the fibril cords of Stigmaria be independent of the radiated cylinder 
which they traverse? But it may be urged that this fossil does not shew 


* The short tabular description given by Brongniart of the anatomy of Sem- 
pervivum, (“ Observations,” p. 438), induces me to think that the name here used 
will not be objected to ; since it is stated that the plant is “ without medullary 
rays, but offers some spaces for the passage of the vascular bundles of the leaves.” 


2 


a), ee a 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigilaria. 129 


any distinct medullary sheath as in Sigillaria. This is granted, but there 
seems to be no difficulty in the way of the vessels of such a sheath 
being so mixed with the tissue of the ligneous cylinder, that is, on its 
inner side, and consequently falling into the radial arrangement of the 
latter, as to loose all appearance of individuality, or, in other words, be 
prevented shewing themselves under a distinctive form. This I strongly 
suspect is the case with the vessels of the vascular system of Stigmaria : 
the fact of the fibril cords having originated on the inner side of the 
cylinder, as shewn by the groove of the radiating plates, forms, in my 
opinion, a strong argument in fayour of this supposition.* And it seems 
to be further supported by three transverse sections of this fossil at pre- 
sent before me, in each of which the vessels are somewhat irregularly 
arranged on the inner side of the wedge-shaped bundles: in fact, there 
is displayed the same want of regularity in the radial arrangement as 
characterises the tissues situated on the inner side of the ligneous zone of 
some Conifers, that is, where the spiral vessels are mixed with the disci- 
gerous tubes. t 

From what has now been stated, the following general character of 
the histology of Stigmaria is proposed ; and, with the view of aiding our 
description, an enlarged restoration of the’cylinder,'exhibiting its consti- 
tuent parts, is given in fig. 3, Plate V. 

The tissues of Stigmaria are of three kinds,—vascular, ligneous, and 
parenchymous, 

The vascular tissue enters into the composition of the inner part (7) 
of the cylinder ;{ the ligneous composes the remaining portion, b; and 
the parenchymous forms those parts of the fossil which have been pre- 
viously named the “ broad zone” and the “ centre” (c and d, fig. 1, Plate 
Y.): the two former parts represent the medullary sheath and the wood 
—the vascular and the ligneous system ;. while the two latter represent 
the pith and the bark—the parenchymous system. The tissue of the 
ligneous system consists of very enlongated tubes, which, on the trans- 
verse section, are arranged in lines radiating from the pith, while in the 
longitudinal sense, they follow an oblique undulating course: their walls 


* The width of the cords in fig. 2, Plate V., appears to militate against their 
having originated on the inner side of the cylinder; but it may be observed, 
that the cords were probably made up, as is usually the case in other plants, of 
a mixture of vascular and woody tissue. In this case, the vascular tissue may 
have occupied but a small portion of the inner side of a cord. 

t Perhaps the longitudinal section of Stigmaria represented in the “ Fossil 
Flora,” (Vol. iii., Plate 166, fig. 2), will throw some light on this point. It is 
much to be desired that a more detailed account of this section were published, 

} The line on the inner side of the cylinder in the restoration is merely given 
to indicate the situation of the vascular tissue. 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXV.—JAN. 1845. I 


130 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


are marked with transverse bars or lines which frequently run parallel 
to each other, but occasionally they anastomose so as to form reticu- 
lations. The tissue of the vascular system, on a general view, resembles 
the ligneous—consisting of transversely-barred elongated tubes. The vas- 
cular and the ligneous tissue are intermixed, which causes the former to 
follow to a certain extent the radial arrangement of the latter. The ligneo- 
vascular cylinder, as it may appropriately be termed, is furnished with a 
number of oblique spirally arranged oval-shaped spaces (¢), which com- 
municate with the pith on the one hand, and with the bark on the other, 
and which are principally occupied with cellular tissue.* From the yas- 
cular portion of the cylinder, numerous bundles (/) strike off, and pass 
through the cylinder, by means of the spaces, into the external appen- 
dages. Besides the vascular passages, as the oval-shaped spaces may be 
termed, the ligneo-vascular cylinder is intersected by a small number of 
thin cellular plates, which are clearly medullary rays (Brongniart). 

If the general character just given should ultimately prove to be cor- 
rect, it will follow that the principal difference between Sigillaria and 
Stigmaria is, not in the absence of the medullary sheath in the latter, as 
Brongniart supposes, but simply in the vessels of this sheath being inter- 
mixed with those which compose the ligneous system. 

The remaining portion of these contributions will be devoted to a 
consideration of the place which Sigillaria occupies in the vegetable 
kingdom. 

Previously to his discovery of its internal structure, Brongniart main- 
tained that Sigil/aria proximated to the tree ferns: this view, it is well 
known, was founded on external characters. The discovery alluded to, 
however, brought about a complete change in his opinion, so that he is 
now in favour of Sigillaria being allied to the Cycadeous Gymnosperms. 
The resemblance between the markings on its ligneous tissue and those 
which characterise certain of the vessels of Zamia integrifolia, and the si- 
milarity existing between the cylinder, as regards relativeness of size to 
other parts, of both plants, are considered as strongly in favour of the 
last opinion, From the strong presumptive evidences which have al- 
ready been adduced, in support of certain forms of Newropteris haying 
constituted the foliage of Sigillaria, it would appear, however, that the 
earlier view of Brongniart ought not to be so hastily rejected. Most of 
the arguments which have been advanced in the ‘‘ Végétaux Fossiles” in 
support of the view that Sigillaria is allied to the tree-ferns, are, in my 
opinion, as effective as ever, notwithstanding the cycadeous affinities 
of its internal structure, and the counter arguments which have been 
advanced by the authors of the ‘‘ Fossil Flora.” We will now pause 


* Owing to these openings or spaces, it is easy to conceive, that, if the vascu- 
lar tissue were separated from the ligneous, the medullary sheath would be in 
the form of a netted cylinder. 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 131 


for a while to consider a point in the anatomy of this genus. It possesses 
a medullary sheath, in the shape of a circle of apparently isolated bundles, 
situated inwardly, but in proximity to the ligneous zone: the bundles 
are composed of elongated tubes, which, in their markings, are interme- 
diate to the true spiral vessels of Exogens, and the scalariform tissue of 
certain Endogens, such as Ferns. A medullary sheath of this kind ap- 
pears to be unknown amongst either recent or fossil plants, not even 
excepting the Zamias, to which Sigillaria possesses some affinity. 

The Monocotyledons, such as Palms, possess a number of apparently 
isolated bundles, which are generally very numerous, and disposed 
without much order throughout the diameter of the stem. The only 
plants of this class in which the bundles are less numerous, and more 
regularly distributed, are Ferns. These may be deferred for the present, 
as they will have to be referred to in another place. 

None of the longitudinal sections which Brongniart has given of 
Sigillaria elegans afford us an insight as to the longitudinal arrangement of 
the bundles of the medullary sheath. Now, in order to obtain this, we 
are compelled to examine the corresponding part of some allied plants : 
for example, the Coniferous Gymnosperms, and the Vascular Crypto- 
 gams.* 

By dividing in the longitudinal sense a young shoot of any ordinary 
Conifer, and extracting the pith, the woody cylinder is made to exhibit 
its inner side, which, by using a common magnifier, will be seen to be 
furnished with a number of very elongated oval-shaped openings, which 
are caused by the fibres being separated into bundles, alternately dis- 
uniting and approximating ; in fact, the inside of the cylinder has the 
appearance of net-work with very elongated meshes: and if the tissue 
of the entire cylinder be submitted to the microscope, it will be seen 
that there are two kinds, namely, spiral vessels and discigerous tubes, 
and that the latter form the whole of the cylinder, with the exception of 
its inner side, which principally consists of the former: it will also be 
seen that the openings or meshes are filled with parenchyma, and that 
they afford a passage for the bundles of fibrous tissue, which pass into 
the leaves. From these facts we have ascertained what is well known in 
the anatomy ofa Conifer, that the few inwardly situated spiral vessels con- 
stitute the medullary sheath, while the more numerous discigerous tubes 
form the ligneous system ; but we have also learnt that the meshes are 
the same as the vascular passages of Stigmaria and Anabathra, and that 
the medullary sheath is in the form of a netted cylinder. As regards 
the meshes, they need only be alluded to, because of their shewing that 
what has hitherto been considered a singular character in the first of 


ne ict 8 
* My inability to procure any portion of an American Zamia must be ace 


cepted as the reason why the Coniferous section of the Gymnosperms has only 
been examined. 


132 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character 


these fossils, is common to a large division of the vegetable kingdom ; 
and as respects the netted form of the vascular cylinder, it will presently 
be seen that we have become possessed of a means that will aid us in 
our present investigations. 

Let us now examine those Monocotyledons in which the bundles are 
less numerous than usual, and more regularly arranged than ordinary. 
A transverse section of the axis of a Fern, whether creeping or arbor- 
escent, exposes a number of apparently isolated bundles arranged in a 
circle, and imbedded in a mass of cellular tissue, (vide fig. 4, a, Plate V.) 
These bundles are composed of what are generally termed scalariform 
vessels, and of a fibrous form of parenchyma which envelops the 
former in the manner of a slieath. As these bundles are in connexion 
with the leaves, and are evidently analogous in function to those which 
form the medullary sheath of exogenous plants, they may be safely con- 
sidered as constituting the vascular system. : 

For a considerable time I was at a loss to know the exact longitudinal 
arrangement of the vascular bundles in the stem of a tree-fern. After 
many attempts to procure a specimen sufficiently long for the purpose, 
and after consulting a number of botanical works, I was on the point of 
relinquishing the inquiry, possessed of no other information than that in- 
cidently given by Brongniart, to-wit, that ‘‘the bundles anastomose at cer- 
tain distances,” (‘‘ Observations”) when it occurred to me that Aspidium 
Filix Mas might afford all the information that was desired. This led me 
ta dissect the rhizome of the fern just named. By this means, I ascertained 
that although the bundles appear to be isolated on the transverse section, 
as represented in fig. 4, Plate V., they are in reality all connected with 
each other at regular distances in the longitudinal sense, so as to form 
a netted cylinder, remarkably regular in its meshes. Fig. 5, Plate V., 
represents a portion of this cylinder rather enlarged, which I succeeded 
in clearing of its matrix of cellular tissue, after exhausting somewhat 
more than an ordinary degree of patience. As previously stated, I have 
not been able to study the longitudinal arrangement of the bundles of 
the trunk of a tree-fern; but I have little or no doubt that it is the 
same as in Aspidium Filix Mas. Probably in some arborescent forms of 
rapid growth, the meshes are narrower, more irregular, and very much 
elongated, which will cause the vascular cylinder to have very little of 
a latticed appearance. ! 

Reflecting on the fact of which we have just come in possession, that 
the bundles of the vascular system of Ferns and Conifers are connected 
with each other at certain points, so as to form a netted cylinder, more 
or less decided, it seems but fair to infer, that the apparently isolated 
bundles composing the medullary sheath of Sigil/aria elegans are simi- 
larly connected; and, owing to their regularity on the transverse sec- 
tion, it may also be inferred, that they form a similarly constructed 
cylinder. It is diffieult to conceive any objection to snch a conclusion. 


"7 


OO 


<_<... 


of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 153 


The researches of Brongniart shew, that of all existing plants the Ferns 
approach the nearest to Sigil/aria, as regards the markings on the walls 
of the tubular tissue. Our own researches as to the foliage of this fossil, it 
will be remembered, carried us close up to the same plants. Associating 
these results with the conclusion we arrived at in the last paragraph, it 
seems to be a legitimate inference—allowing for certain modifications 
consequent on the union, that we have in this fossil the vascular system of a 
Fern, united to the radially arranged ligneous zone of certain Cycases. 
The gemus Sigillaria may, therefore, be concluded to be intermediate to 
the highest vascular Cryptogams, and the Cycadeous Gymnosperms. 

It is very much to be regretted, that, as yet, we possess No positive 
evidence regarding the fructification of Sigillaria: it is only required to 
have some knowledge on this point to enable us to decide whether this 
fossil proximated more to the Ferns than to the Zamias. 

With reference to the habit of Sigil/aria, various considerations war- 
rant the belief that it was essentially aquatic. The loose spongy na- 
ture of the soil in which this plant grew is clearly shewn by its mas- 
sive root-branches extending to such enormous distances, and its in- 
numerable fibrils spreading out in so regular a manner. Its possessing 
organs so characterised, and its growing in such a soil, clearly com- 
bine to prove that Sigil/aria not only lived in situations extremely lia- 
ble to inundations, but that it had powerful floods or freshets to con- 
tend against. 


If, in imagination, the reader will delineate a channelled stem of any 
height between twelve and a hundred feet,*—crowned with a pendant 
fern-like foliage,—furnished with wide-spreading thickly fibrilled roots, 
—and growing in some densely wooded swamp or “‘ bottom” of an an- 
cient Mississippi, I am strongly persuaded that he will have formed a to- 
lerably close restoration of a Sigillaria vegetating in its true habitat. 
* * * * * T trust that at some future period it will be in my power 
either to modify this restoration, or render it more complete.t 


* Since the first part of these “ Contributions” was published, I have learned 
that Mr Richard C. Taylor, formerly of this country, has discovered some stems 
of Sigillaria in the Schuylkill coal-field, which cannot have been less than a 
hundred feet in height. Vide “Celebration of the Hundredth Anniversary” 
of the American Philosophical Society, p. 149-150. 

+ Mr Binney, who, it will be remembered, announced, at the Cork Meeting of 
the British Association, his discovery of a specimen of Sigillaria with roots 
which agree with Stigmaria, has subsequently published an interesting account 
on the same subject in the London Philosophical Magazine, (March 1844). It 
is singular,—and perhaps some will even lay hold of the circumstance, as being 
rather against the view which Mr Binney and myself advocate,—that in those 
specimens which exhibit a stem attached toa well developed root, although there 
can be no doubt as to the latter being Stigmaria, yet it is not so clear that the 


134 Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
PLATE I., VOL. 36, p. 21. 


Fig. 1. Diagram representing a transverse section of Sigillaria elegans, copied 
from Brongniart; a, a, a, the bark ; b, the ligneous cylinder; ¢c, the medullary 
sheath ; c, bundles of tissue supposed to pass from the medullary sheath into the 
leaves ; d, the pith. 

Fig. 2. Outline of the surface of a portion of the stem of one of the North 
Biddick Sigillarias, preserved in the Newcastle Museum; a, the ribs; 6, the 
furrows. 

Figs. 3, 4, and 5, represent the mode in which five different appearances may 
be produced by one specimen of Siyiilaria. 

Fig. 6. Portion of a rib of Sigillwria, shewing the leaf scar a, the vascular 
sears 6, and the remains of the axillary bud c. 


PLATE IV., VOL. 36, p. 290. 


Fig. 1. Cuticle of the larch, representing the ribbed appearance produced by 
the elongation and the arrangement of the leaf bases a. 

Figs. 2, 3, (PLATE Y,). and 4, exhibit the direction of the spiral in different 
specimens of Lepidodendron. 

Fig. 2 a. Lozenge of Lepidodendron, shewing the axillary bud a. 

Fig. 5. Portion of the cuticle of Abies Webbiana, which shews the way in 
which the ribs of Sigillaria have been produced. J am indebted to Mr Thorn- 
hill, the Librarian of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle, for 
the beautifully correct drawings from which this and the adjoining figure were 
copied, besides several suggestions in Botany, which have been of considerable 
advantage to me in drawing up these “ Contributions.” 


Pate V, VOL. 36, p. 290. 


Fig. 6. Portion of a Sigillaria shewing the direction of the spiral, and the 
way in which the ribs have been produced. 

Fig. 7. Veining of the leaflets of Otopteris pectiniformis. 

Fig. 8. Veining of the leaflets of Palwozamia pecten. 

Fig. 9. Veining of the leaflets of Pecopteris nervosa ? 


Puate IV., Vou. 38. 


Fig. 1. Transverse section of the vascular cylinder and the ligneous zone of 
Anabathra pulcherrima, divested of the bark, as seen by a low magnifier ; a, lig- 
neous zone; b, vascular cylinder; ¢, part occupied by the pith ; 7, leaf cords. 

Fig. 2. Transverse «ection of the same parts very much magnified ; a, tissue of 
the ligneous zone ; , tissue of the vascular cylinder ; ¢, space occupied by the 
pith; d, medullary rays; /, leaf cords. 


former is Sigillaria : the No. 3 specimen is evidently in this predicament ; it is 
the case with the one found in Kenilworth pit, and it appears to be the same with 
one of the Dixonfold fossils. 


PLATE IV. Edin” New Pal. Jour: Vol. 38, pp LF4- 


AC. Mitchell, So 


7 New Phil. Jour: Fol. 3S, pLF4. 


Edin 


PAAR OVs 


Fig 


-” 


ra 


On the Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. 135 


Fig. 3. The same parts on the longitudinal section parallel to the medullary 
rays. The letters have the same reference as in the last figure. In consequence 
of there not being sufficient room in the plate, the median part of the two last 
sections is not represented ; its tissue is in pea-shaped bundles. 

Fig. 4. Tubes of the ligneous zone, on the longitudinal section, parallel to the 
bark; d, sections of medullary rays ; e, vascular passages ; f, leaf cords. 

Fig. 5. Portion ofa ligneous tube, exposing the lines or bars with which its 
walls are furnished, still more magnified. 

Fig. 6 exhibits the form and arrangement of the bars which characterise the 
walls of the vascular tubes. 


PLATE V., VOL. 38. 


Fig. 1. Transverse section of Stigmaria; a b, the ligneo-vascular axis ; c, the 
pith; d, the bark ; ¢, the vascular passages. 

Fig. 2. Impression of the tissues composing the ligneo-vascular axis of Stig- 
maria; f, fibril cords intersecting the axis a 6; c, the pith. 

Fig. 3. Restoration of the ligneo-vascular axis of Stigmaria enlarged; a re- 
presents the position of the vascular part relatively to the ligneous portion 6; 
¢, the pith; e, the vascular passages; /, the fibril cords. 

Fig. 4. Transverse section of the rhizome of ‘Aspidium Filix Mas, shewing the 
circular arrangement of the bundles of-the vascular system. 

Fig. 5. Enlarged longitudinal view of a portion of the netted cylinder or 
vascular system of Aspidium Filia Mas. ' 


Report of a Remarkable Appearance of the Aurora Borealis 
below the Clouds. By the Rev. JAMES FARQUHARSON, 
LL.D., F.R.S., Minister of the Parish of Alford. 


Alford, February 24.1842.—Saw, at 11 P.M., a remarkable 
aurora borealis between the observer and lofty stratus clouds. 
The density of the clouds, the great brilliancy of the meteor, 
its considerable continuance, its renewed display, and the 
extent of space it occupied, left no doubt of the reality of the 
phenomenon. 

After a day, during which the whole heavens had been 
mostly shrouded by a uniform cloud, with a gentle wind at 
NW., the sky, after sunset, became partially clear, and the 
thermometer descended to 34°, with calm; barometer 28-89 
_inches. At 11 P.M. a very brilliant display of pencils of 
aurora (streamers) was seen at W. by S., in a limited space 
about 10° broad, and 15° or 20° high, a little above the visi- 
ble horizon; and a separated display of the same, much 


136 Dr Farquharson on the Appearance of the 


wider, and of nearly the same height, but not quite so bril- 
liant, in another limited space, at NW. It was instantly 
seen that, in both spaces, the bright meteor was between the 
eye and lofty stratus clouds. These clouds extended in long 
parallel belts, some of them 10° or 15° broad, some broader, 
with narrow intervals of clear sky between them, in a 
direction from NW. to SE. This arrangement was clearly 
seen in all the western part of the sky, although there exist- 
ed under these clouds thinner fleecy irregular ones, which 
here and there obscured it for short distances. These lower 
irregular clouds prevailed more in the eastern part of the sky ; 
but there, also, the arrangement of the belts of stratus was 
recognised through their intervals. One of the irregular 
thin clouds lay over the moon, then nearly south, and nearly 
at full; and its consistency was such as to obscure the dark 
spaces on her disc, although not its circular outline. The 
lofty stratus clouds were, in some parts at least, of much 
denser consistency, as was proved by their totally obscuring 
some very brilliant falling stars, which passed behind them, 
as will be afterwards described. 

The exhibition of pencils of aurora at the W. by S. space 
was of unusual brilliancy, and the corruscations incessant, as 
they brightened up, and faded, and suddenly disappeared, 
and were renewed, successively. The colour at the lower 
extremity was a lively minium red, but only for a short way 
up; the upper part being of the common greenish-yellow. 
They crossed, angularly, the lofty cloud nearest to the 
western horizon, which was narrow, and were clearly seen 
upon its face, and stretching their extremities into the clear 
sky on each side of it. Even the feeblest of them maintain- 
ed its continuity, and its peculiar tinge of colour, over both 
the thinner edges and denser middle part of the stratus. 
About five minutes after it was first seen, this aurora became 
extinct; but in the course of three or four minutes was sud- 
denly renewed, with a slight shift to the southward, in as 
great or even greater brilliancy. In the mean time, the 
aurora at the NW. space exhibited like appearances and 
colours ; red at the lower extremities of the brilliant pencils, 
and greenish-yellow upwards. The space here occupied by 


Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. LSé 


the pencils or streamers was much broader, and the lights 
less condensed into one place, disappearing in some com- 
partments, and extending to others alternately. They play- 
ed over several belts of the stratus clouds, and intervening 
clear spaces of sky; and were seen, without diminution of 
lustre or change of tinge, on the face of the former. <At 
poth sides of this space, there were some of the thin irregu- 
lar lower clouds, behind which some of the pencils passed 
sometimes at one or other of their extremities, sometimes at 
their middle part. In such cases, their continuity instantly 
disappeared ; for although the light of the more brilliant ones 
shone through these clouds, it was only in a white nebulous 
form, without any parallelism of rays, as seen in the pencils 
when not so obscure. 

About twenty minutes after the aurora was first seen, 
dense clouds with curled edges were rather thickly formed 
over both the spaces occupied by it, of larger extent than 
they were; and although the observations were continued 
till half-past 12 o’clock, the meteor was not again seen in 
the same spaces; but about a quarter to 12 o’clock, a com- 
paratively small space of bright nebulous aurora, without de- 
fined pencils, was seen very near the horizon, at WNW. 
That too disappeared ; and in the mean time, the clouds in 
all parts of the sky, by degrees, dissolved ; the lofty stratus 
ones more slowly than the others. At half-past 12 o’clock 
only a few remained at the SE., when the observations were 
discontinued. 

During the continuance of the aurora, two bright shooting 
stars descended above the space at NW., in paths parallel to 
the streamers ; that is, to the dipping needle. They were of 
slow motion, and became invisible when passing over the 
belts of stratus clouds, but emerged again after passing 
them. Ata quarter to 12 o’clock, a shooting star as large 
as Venus, at her greatest elongation, shot from near the 
zenith, a little to the eastward of the magnetic meridian, and 
descended in a path parallel to that circle, disappearing 
while passing behind some stratus clouds, but not quite, 
while doing so, behind some low irregular ones that lay in 
its course. Its motion was slow, and fitfully interrupted. 


138 Professor MacGillivray on a Species of Teredo 


February 25.—Clear sky in the morning. Unusually 
abundant spicule of hoar-frost over all the ground, and 
whitening the hills to their summits, like a shower of snow. 
Register thermometer through the night at 29°.—(Philosophi- 
cal Transactions of the Royat Society, London, for the year 
1842, part i. p. 87.) 


On a Species of Teredo found in Cork-floats, on the Coast of 
Aberdeenshire. By WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., LL.D., 
Professor of Natural History in Marischal College and 
University. (Communicated by the Author.) 


On the eastern coasts of the middle division of Scotland, 
timber perforated by Teredines is so very seldom met with, 
that, after a diligent search continued for many months, I 
had almost despaired of obtaining any species of these very 
interesting animals, when, in September 1844, having had 
the pleasure of making acquaintance with Lieutenant 
Paterson, of the Coast Guard, at Slains, I was informed 
by him, in answer to my inquiries, that he had found a 
spar on the rocks there which was full of them in the 
living state, and which he had used to repair a fence near 
his house. The species which had perforated this piece of 
wood, of large size, the holes being sufficient to admit 
Helix hortensis, I find to be different from Teredo navalis, 


as described by Deshayes and others; but not having been ~ 


able to detect its palmules, I refrain at present from saying 
anything further respecting it. Previous to this time, how- 
ever, in March 1843, after a storm, having found on the 
sands near Don mouth, a piece of a cork net-float. having a 
small specimen of Lepas sulcata upon it, I was agreeably 
surprised, several months after, when a little boy, who had 
been looking at it, shewed mea small white tube, which I 
found to be that of a Teredo. On cutting up the cork I met 
with several others, in some of which the shell was found 
entire. Unfortunately, however, the palmules, of the im- 
portance of which I was not then aware, were not. detected, 
so that an imperfect description only could have been given. 
In November 1844, I renewed the search, and after a strong 


found on the Coast of Aberdeenshire. 139 


gale of easterly wind, continued for several days, found, on 
the beach near Aberdeen, several pieces of cork, on examin- 
ing which I detected a great number of small live Teredines. 
The animals being minute, it was difficult at first to observe 
all their parts, but by cutting up the cork, this was at length 
in some measure accomplished. 

The largest perforations are an inch and a quarter in 
length, scarcely a twelfth of an inch in diameter at the inner 
or larger end, slowly narrowing toward the other or outer 
end, which communicates with the exterior by a circular 
aperture resembling the puncture of a small insect pin. The 
holes are tortuous, as usual, and appear to have been formed 
by circular movements, as their surface presents alternate 
Shallow grooves and slight ridges, not spiral, but annular. 
The calcareous lining of the cavity thus formed is a scarcely 
perceptible film, transparent, hyaline white, very minutely 
uneven, or bullato-rugose, on the inner surface, evanescent 
at the larger end, but generally of considerable thickness, 
and white at the outer. Sometimes, however, it is distinct, 
and white, although very thin. 

The animal fills the tube entirely, presenting the appear- 
ance of a subcylindrical, bluish-white, semi-transparent 
worm. At the anterior extremity, which is abrupt, are seen 
the circular convex extremity of the foot, and above it 
the transverse aperture of the mouth, furnished with slen- 
der, adherent labial palpi. The bivalve shell, situated 
there, forms a circular hoop, as usual. At the posterior ex- 
tremity of the mantle or envelope, are two lateral palmules, 
placed at the commencement of the two separated, unequal, 
retractile siphons, and, by meeting, capable of closing the 
cavity, when the siphons are drawnin. The viscera, par- 
tially visible through the mantle, occupy more than a third 
of the whole length; and beyond them are continued the 
narrow, elongated, coherent branchiz. 

The shell, of two very thin, diaphanous, white valves, forms 
a kind of ring, broad on one side, on the back of the animal, 
abruptly narrowed at the middle, and tapering to the other 
side, where they meet by a rounded point. They are in con- 
tact above, or on the back, at the hinge, which resembles that 


140 Ona Species of Teredo found in Aberdeenshire. 


of a pholas, but without accessory piece. Each valve is semi- 
circularly curved, and, as in the other species, may be de- 
scribed by comparing it to a valve of Pholas crispata, ex- 
tremely shortened in its antero-posterior direction, and 
lengthened from the umbo to the ventral portion, which runs 
out into a narrow process. Although very minute, its mark- 
ings are very distinct, and extremely beautiful. From a 
rounded glossy supra-umbonal prominence, having an ante- 
rior faint plait, the frontal margin, directed forwards and 
laterally, is a little concave, and divergent ; the anterior out- 
line forms an acute angle with it, proceeding directly back- 
wards, and is then directed downwards at aright angle. The 
dorsal margin, at first concave, rises into a prominence, and 
then forms a very thin-edged rounded, reflexed lobe, beyond 
which the outline is directed downwards and forwards to the 
anterior point of union of the valves. Viewed from before, 
the ring thus formed is sub-rhomboidal, with a sinus above, 
formed by the separation of the frontal margins, and oc- 
cupied by a strong transverse muscle. Seen from behind, 
it is roundish-ovate, narrowed above. On each valve ex- 
ternally, from behind the umbo to the ventral margin, is a 
distinct convex ridge, accompanied by a’shallow groove ; ante- 
rior to which, on the angular upper and anterior part, are 
about twenty-five strize or lamellz, parallel to the lower mar- 
gin of this part, and continued behind into much finer lines, 
occupying the very narrow space between the ridge and the 
anterior margin. Behind the ridge, the valves are faintly 
striated parallel to the margin. In fact, in this, as in all the 
other species known to me, all the striz are so arranged, as 
they are also in the Pholades. The interior is glossy, and 
presents under each umbo a very long, arcuate, linear pro- 
cess, considerably flattened, resembling a fine bristle, and ex- 
tending nearly to half the diameter of the ring. The palmules 
are large, very broadly pyriform, subobcordate, very thin, 
concave, tapering rapidly into a styliform pedicle, and having 
on their inner face a longitudinal ridge, not medial, continu- 
ous with the pedicle. 

The species of Teredo are very inadequately described by 


On the Aboriginal Race of America. 141 


most authors; and it is probable that several species are 
confounded under one name. It is unnecessary to compare 
this species with any of those hitherto described, as none of 
them appear to approximate closely to it; nor, if they did, 
would it be practicable to compare them intelligibly without 
describing them anew. I have to add, that in one specimen 
I found a spicular dissepiment at the small end of the tube 
between the siphons. The minute species now brought into 
notice may be characterized thus : 


Teredo subericola. Cork-boring Teredo. 


Minute, about an inch and a quarter in length, scarcely a 
twelfth of an inch in diameter ; with the valves hyaline-white, 
thin, very fragile, anteriorly rectangularly sinuate, posteriorly 
with a rounded reflexed lobe, inferiorly tapering into a very 
narrow, linear-oblong, obtuse process ; the infra-umbonal 
tooth filiform, arcuate ; the palmules broadly obcordato-pyri- 
form, concave, with a submedial ridge, and tapering into a 
styliform pedicle. 


An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aborigi- 
nal Race of America. By SAMUEL GEORGE Morton, M.D., 
Author of Crania Americana, Crania Aigyptiaca, &e. 


Ethnography,—the analysis and classification of the races 
of men,*—is essentially a modern science. At atime when 
Nature in her other departments, had been investigated with 
equal zeal and success, this alone remained comparatively 
neglected ; and of the various authors who have attempted 
its exposition during the past and present centuries, too 
many have been content with closet theories, in which facts 
are perverted to sustain some baseless conjecture. Hence, 
it has been aptly remarked, that Asia is the country of fables, 
Africa of monsters, and America of systems, to those who 
_ prefer hypothesis to truth. 


* Ethnography may be divided into three branches—1. Physical or 
Organic Ethnography ; 2. Philological Ethnography; and, 3. Historical 
Ethnography. 


142 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


The intellectual genius of antiquity justly excites our ad- 
miration and homage ; but in vain we search its records for 
the physical traits of some of the most celebrated nations of 
past time. It is even yet gravely disputed whether the an- 
cient Egyptians belonged to the Caucasian race or to the Ne- 
gro; and was it not for the light which now dawns upon us 
from their monuments and their tombs, this question might 
remain for ever undecided. The present age, however, is 
marked by a noble zeal for these inquiries, which are daily 
making man more conversant with the organic structure, the 
mental character, and the national affinities, of the various 
and widely scattered tribes of the human family. 

Among these, the aboriginal inhabitants of America claim 
our especial attention. This vast theatre has been thronged, 
from immemorial time, by numberless tribes which lived only 
to destroy, and be in turn destroyed, without leaving a trace 
of their sojourn on the face of the earth. Contrasted with 
these were a few civilized communities, whose monuments 
awaken our surprise without unfolding their history; and he 
who would unravel their mysteries may be compared, in the 
language of the poets, to a man standing by the stream of 
time, and striving to rescue from its waters the wrecked and 
shattered fragments which float onward to oblivion. 

It is not my present intention even to enumerate the many 
theories which have been advanced in reference to the origin 
of the American nations; although I may, in the sequel, in- 
quire whether their genealogy can be traced to the Polyne- 
sians or Mongolians, Hindoos, Jews, or Egyptians. Nor shall 
I attempt to analyse the views of certain philosophers who 
imagine that they have found not only a variety of races, but 
several species of men, among the aborigines of this continent. 
It is chiefly my intention to produce a few of the more strik- 
ingly characteristic traits of these people, to sustain the posi- 
tion that all the American nations, excepting the Esquimaux, 
are of one race, and that this race is peculiar, and distinct 
from all others. 


1. Physical Characteristics. It is an adage among travel- 
lers that he who has seen one tribe of Indians, has seen all, 


Aboriginal Race of America. 145 


so much do the individuals of this race resemble each other, 
notwithstanding their immense geographical distribution, and 
those differences of climate which embrace the extremes of 
heat and cold. The half-clad Fuegian, shrinking from his 
dreary winter, has the same characteristic lineaments, though 
in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical 
plains ; and these again resemble the tribes which inhabit 
the region west of the Rocky Mountains, those of the great 
valley of the Mississippi, and those again which skirt the 
Esquimaux on the north. All possess alike the long, lank, 
black hair, the brown or cinnamon-coloured skin, the heavy 
brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips, 
and the salient but dilated nose. These traits, moreover, are 
equally common to the savage and civilized nations ; whether 
they inhabit the margins of rivers and feed on fish, or rove 
the forest and subsist on the spoils of the chase. 

It cannot be questioned that physical diversities do occur, 
equally singular and inexplicable, as seen in different shades 
of colour, varying from a fair tint to a complexion almost 
black ; and this, too, under circumstances in which climate can 
have little or no influence. So, also, in reference to stature, 
the differences are remarkable in entire tribes which, more- 
over, are geographically proximate to each other. These 
facts, however, are mere exceptions to a general rule, and do 
not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is as 
undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro; for whe- 
ther we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, 
in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian 
still, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race. 

The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in 
the osteological structure of these people, as seen in the 
squared or rounded head, the flattened or vertical occiput, the 
high cheek-bones, the ponderous maxille, the large quadran- 
gular orbits, and the low receding forehead. I have had op- 
portunity to compare nearly four hundred crania, derived 
- from tribes inhabiting almost every region of both Americas, 
and have been astonished to find how the preceding charac- 
ters, in greater or less degree, pervade them all. 

This remark is equally applicable to the ancient and mo- 


144 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


dern nations of our continent ; for the oldest skulls from the 
Peruvian cemeteries, the tombs of Mexico and the mounds of 
our own country, are of the same type as the heads of the 
most savage existing tribes. Their physical organization 
proves the origin of one to have been equally the origin of 
all. The various civilized nations are to this day represented 
by their lineal descendants who inhabit their ancestral seats, 
and differ in no exterior respect from the wild and unculti- 
vated Indians ; at the same time, in evidence of their lineage, 
Clavigero, and other historians inform us, that the Mexicans 
and Peruvians yet possess a latent mental superiority which 
has not been subdued by three centuries of despotism. And 
again, with respect to the royal personages and other privi- 
leged classes, there is indubitable evidence that they were of 
the same native stock, and presented no distinctive attributes 
excepting those of a social or political character. 

The observations of Molina and Humboldt are sometimes 
quoted in disproof of this pervading uniformity of physical 
characters. Molina says that the difference between an in- 
habitant of Chili and a Peruvian is not less than between an 
Italian and a German; to which Humboldt adds, that the 
American race contains nations whose features differ as essen- 
tially from one another as those of the Circassians, Moors, and 
Persians. But all these people are of one and the same race, 
and readily recognised as such, notwithstanding their differ- 
ences of feature and complexion ;* and the American nations 
present a precisely parallel case. 

I was at one time inclined to the opinion that the ancient 
Peruvians, who inhabited the islands and confines of the 
Lake Titicaca, presented a congenital form of the head en- 
tirely different from that which characterizes the great Ame- 
rican race ; nor could I at first bring myself to believe that 
their wonderfully narrow and elongated crania, resulted solely 
from artificial compression applied to the rounded head of the 
Indian. That such, however, is the fact has been indisputa- 
bly proved by the recent investigations of M. D’Orbigny. 


* A portion of the Moorish population of Africa is a very mixed race 
of Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, &c. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 145 


This distinguished naturalist passed many months on the 
table-land of the Andes which embraces the region of these 
extraordinary people, and examined the desiccated remains 
of hundreds of individuals in the tombs where they have lain 
for centuries. M. D’Orbigny remarked, that while many of 
the heads were deformed in the manner to which we have 
adverted, others differed in nothing from the usual conforma- 
tion. It was also observed that the flattened skulls were uni- 
formly those of men, while those of the women remained 
unaltered ; and, again, that the most elongated heads were 
preserved in the largest and finest tombs, shewing that this 
cranial deformity was a mark of distinction. But to do away 
with any remaining doubt on this subject, M. D’Orbigny as- 
certained that the descendants of these ancient Peruvians yet 
inhabit the land of their ancestors, and bear the name of 
AYMARAS, which may have been their primitive designation ; 
and lastly, the modern Aymaras resemble the common Qui- 
chua or Peruvian Indians in every thing that relates to physi- 
cal conformation, not even excepting the head, which, how- 
ever, they have ceased to mould artificially. 

Submitted to the same anatomical test, the reputed giant 
and dwarf races of America prove to be the mere inventions 
of ignorance or imposition. A careful inspection of the re- 
mains of both, has fully satisfied me that the asserted gigan- 
tic form of some nations has been a hasty inference on the 
part of unpractised observers; while the so-called pygmies 
of the valley of the Mississippi were mere children, who, for 
reasons not wholly understood, were buried apart from the 
adult people of their tribe. . 

Thus it is that the American Indian, from the southern 
extremity of the continent to the northern limit of his range, 
is the same exterior man. With somewhat variable stature 
and complexion, his distinctive features, though variously mo- 
dified, are never effaced; and he stands isolated from the 
rest of mankind, identified at a glance in every locality, and 
under every variety of cireumstance ; and even his desiccated 
remains which have withstood the destroying hand of time, 
preserve the primeval type of his race, excepting only when 
art has interposed to pervert it. 

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845, K 


146 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


2. Moral Traits. These are, perhaps, as strongly marked 
as the physical characteristics of which we have just spoken ; 
but they have been so often the subject of analysis as to 
claim only a passing notice on the present occasion. Among 
the most prominent of this series of mental operations is a 
sleepless caution, an untiring vigilance, which presides over 
every action and masks every motive. The Indian says 
nothing and does nothing without its influence: it enables 
him to deceive others without being himself suspected ; it 
causes that proverbial taciturnity among strangers which 
changes to garrulity among the people of his own tribe; and 
it is the basis of that invincible firmness which teaches him 
to contend unrepiningly with every adverse circumstance, 
and even with death in its most hideous forms. 

The love of war is so general, so characteristic, that it 
scarcely calls for a comment or an illustration. One nation 
is in almost perpetual hostility with another, tribe against 
tribe, man against man; and with this ruling passion are 
linked a merciless revenge, and an unsparing destructiveness. 
The Chickasaws have been known to make a stealthy march 
of six hundred miles from their own hunting grounds, for the 
sole purpose of destroying an encampment of their enemies. 
The small island of Nantucket, which contains but a few 
square miles of barren sand, was inhabited at the advent of 
the European colonies by two Indian tribes, who sometimes 
engaged in hot and deadly feud with each other. But what 
is yet more remarkable, the miserable natives of Terra de} 
Fuego, whose common privations have linked them for a time 
in peace and fellowship, become suddenly excited by the 
same inherent ferocity, and exerted their puny efforts for 
mutual destruction. Of the destructive propensity of the 
Indian, which has long become a proverb, it is almost un- 
necessary to speak ; but we may advert to a forcible example 
from the narrative of the traveller Hearne, who accompanied 
a trading party of northern Indians on a long journey ; dur- 
ing which he declares that they killed every living creature 
that came within their reach; nor could they even pass a 
bird’s nest without slaying the young or destroying the eggs. 

That philosophic traveller, Dr Von Martius, gives a 


Aboriginal Race of America. 147 


graphic view of the present state of natural and civil rights 
among the American aborigines. Their sub-division, he 
remarks, into an almost countless multitude of greater and 
smaller groups, and their entire exclusion and excommuni- 
cation with regard to each other, strike the eye of the ob- 
server like the fragments of a vast ruin, to which the his- 
tory of the other nations of the earth furnishes no analogy. 
“This disruption of all the bands by which society was 
anciently held together, accompanied by a Babylonish con- 
fusion of tongues, the rude right of force, the never ending 
tacit warfare of all against all, springing from that very 
disrupture,—appear to me the most essential, and, as far as 
history is concerned, the most significant points in the civil 
condition of the aboriginal population of America.” 

It may be said that these features of the Indian character 
are common to all mankind in the savage state. This is gene- 
rally true ; but in the American race they exist in a degree 
which will fairly challenge a comparison with similar traits 
in any existing people; and if we consider also their habitual 
indolence and improvidence, their indifference to private pro- 
perty, and the vague simplicity of their religious observances, 
—which, for the most part, are devoid of the specicus aid of 
idolatry,—we must admit them to possess a peculiar and ec- 
centric moral constitution. 

If we turn now to the demi-civilized nations, we find the 
dawn of refinement coupled with those barbarous usages 
which characterize the Indian in his savage state. We see 
the Mexicans, like the later Romans, encouraging the most 
bloody and cruel rites, and these, too, in the name of religion, 
in order to inculcate hatred of their enemies, familiarity with 
danger, and contempt of death; and the moral effect of this 
system is manifest in their valorous, though unsuccessful, 
resistance to their Spanish conquerors. 

Among the Peruvians, however, the case was different. 
The inhabitants had been subjugated to the Incas by a com- 
‘bined moral and physical influence. The Inca family were 
looked upon as beings of divine origin. They assumed to be 
the messengers of heaven, bearing rewards for the good, and 
punishment for the disobedient, conjoined with the arts of 


148 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


peace and various social institutions. History bears ample 
testimony that these specious pretences were employed first 
to captivate the fancy and then to enslave the man. The 
familiar adage that “ knowledge is power,” was as well un- 
derstood by them as by us; learning was artfully restricted 
toa privileged class ; and the genius of the few soon controlled 
the energies of the many. Thus the policy of the Incas in- 
culeated in their subjects an abject obedience which knew no 
limit. They endeavoured to eradicate the feeling of indivi- 
duality ; or, in other words, to unite the minds of the plebeian 
multitude in a common will, which was that of their master. 
Thus when Pizarro made his first attack on the defenceless 
Peruvians in the presence of their Inca, the latter was borne 
in a throne on the shoulders of four men; and we are told by 
Herrera that while the Spaniards spared the sovereign, they 
aimed their deadly blows at his bearers, who, however, 
never shrunk from their sacred trust; for when one of their 
number fell, another immediately took his place; and the 
historian declares that if the whole day had been spent in 
killing them, others would still have come forward to the 
passive support of their master. In fact, what has been 
called the paternal government of the Incas was strictly 
such ; for their subjects were children, who neither thought 
nor acted except at the dictation of another. Thus it was 
that a people whose moral impulses are known to have dif- 
fered in little or nothing from those of the barbarous tribes, 
were reduced, partly by persuasion, partly by force, to a 
state of effeminate vassalage not unlike that of the modern 
Hindoos. Like the latter, too, they made good soldiers in 
their native wars, not from any principle of valour, but from 
the sentiment of passive obedience to their superiors; and 
hence, when they saw their monarch bound and imprisoned 
by the Spaniards, their conventional courage at once forsook 
them ; and we behold the singular spectacle of an entire 
nation prostrated at a blow, like a strong man whose energies 
yield to a seemingly trivial but rankling wound. 

After the Inca power was destroyed, however, the dormant 
spirit of the people was again aroused in all the moral yehe- 
mence of their race, and the gentle and unoffending Peruvian 


Aboriginal Race of America. 149 


became transformed into the wily and merciless savage. 
Every one is familiar with the sequel. Resistance was too 
late to be availing, and the fetters to which they had con- 
fidingly submitted were soon rivetted for ever. 

As we have already observed, the Incas depressed the 
moral energies of their subjects in order to secure their own 
power. This they effected by inculcating the arts of peace, 
prohibiting human sacrifices, and in a great measure avoiding 
capital punishments ; and blood was seldom spilt excepting 
on the subjugation of warlike and refractory tribes. In these 
instances, however, the native ferocity of their race broke 
forth even in the bosom of the Incas; for we are told by 
Garcilaso, the descendant and apologist of the Peruvian kings, 
that some of their wars were absolutely exterminating; and 
among other examples he mentions that of the Inca Yupanqui 
against the province of Collao, in which whole districts were 
so completely depopulated, that they had subsequently to 
be colonized from other parts of the empire: and in another 
instance the same unsparing despot destroyed twenty thou- 
sand Caranques, whose bodies he ordered to be thrown into an 
adjacent lake, which yet bears the name of the Sea of Blood. 
In like manner, when Atahualpa contested the dominion with 
Guascar, he caused the latter, together with thirty of his 
brothers, to be put to death in cold blood, that nothing might 
impede his progress to the throne. 

We have thus endeavoured to shew, that the same moral 
traits characterize all the aboriginal nations of this continent, 
from the humanized Peruvian to the rudest savage of the 
Brazilian forest. 


_ 8. Intellectual Faculties.—lt has often been remarked, that 
the intellectual faculties are distributed with surprising equa- 
lity among individuals of the same race who have been simi- 
larly educated, and subjected to the same moral and other in- 
fluences: yet even among these, as in the physical man, we 
_ see the strong and the weak, with numberless intermediate 
gradations. ‘This equality is infinitely more obvious in sa- 
vage than in civilized communities, simply, because in the 
former the condition of life is more equal; whence it hap- 


150 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


pens that in contrast to a single master mind, the plebeiaw 
multitude are content to live and die in their primitive igno- 
rance and inferiority. 

This truth is obvious at every step of the present investi- 
gation ; for of the numberless hordes which have inhabited 
the American continent, a fractional portion only has left any 
trace of refinement. I venture here to repeat my matured 
conviction, that, as a race, they are decidedly inferior to the 
Mongolian stock. They are not only averse to the restraints 
of education, but seem for the most part incapable of a con- 
tinued process of reasoning on abstract subjects. Their minds 
Seize with avidity on simple truths, while they reject what- 
ever requires investigation or analysis. Their proximity for 
more than two centuries to European communities, has 
searcely effected an appreciable change in their manner of 
life; and as to their social condition, they are probably in 
most respects the same as at the primitive epoch of their 
existence. They have made no improvement in the construc- 
tion of their dwellings, except when directed by Europeans 
who have become domiciliated among them ; for the Indian 
cabin or the Indian tent, from Terra del Fuego to the river 
St Lawrence, is, perhaps, the humblest contrivance ever de- 
vised by man to screen himself from the elements. Nor is 
their mechanical ingenuity more conspicuous in the construc- 
tion of their boats ; for these, as we shall endeavour to shew 
in the sequel, have rarely been improved beyond the first 
rude conception. Their imitative faculty is of a very humble 
grade, nor have they any predilection for the arts or sciences. 
The long annals of missionary labour and private benefac- 
tion, present few exceptions to this cheerless picture, which 
is sustained by the testimony of nearly all practical observers. 
Even in those instances in which the Indians have received 
the benefits of education, and remained for years in civilized 
society, they lose little or none of the innate love of their na- 
tional usages, which they almost invariably resume when left 
to choose for themselves. 

Such is the intellectual poverty of the barbarous tribes ; 
but contrasted with these, like an oasis in the desert, are the 
demi-civilized nations of the new world; a people whose at- 


Aboriginal Race of America. 151 


tainments in the arts and sciences are a riddle in the history 
of the human mind. The Peruvians in the south, the Mexi- 
cans in the north, and the Muyscas of Bogota between the 
two, formed these contemporary centres of civilization, each 
independent of the other, and each equally skirted by wild 
and savage hordes. The mind dwells with surprise and ad- 
miration on their Cyclopean structures, which often rival those 
of Egypt in magnitude ;—on their temples, which embrace 
almost every principle in architecture, except the arch alone ; 
and on their statues and bas-reliefs, which, notwithstanding 
some conventional imperfections, are far above the rudimen- 
tary state of the arts. 

I have elsewhere ventured to designate these demi-civilized 
nations by the collective name of the TOLTECAN FAMILy ; for 
although the Mexican annals date their civilization from a 
period long antecedent to the appearance of the Toltecas, yet 
the latter seem to have cultivated the arts and sciences to a 
degree unknown to their predecessors. Besides, the various 
nations which at different times invaded and possessed them- 
selves of Mexico, were characterized by the same fundamen- 
tal language and the same physical traits, together with a 
strong analogy in their social institutions ; and as the appear- 
ance of the Incas in Peru was nearly simultaneous with the 
dispersion of the Toltecas, in the year 1050 of our era, there 
is reasonable ground for the conjecture that the Mexicans 
and Peruvians were branches of the same Toltecan stock. 
We have alluded to a civilization antecedent to the appear- 
ance of the Incas, and which had already passed away when 
they assumed the government of the country. There are tra- 
ditional and monumental evidences of this fact, which can 
leave no doubt on the mind, although of its date we can form 
no just conception. It may have even preceded the Christian 
era, nor do we know of any positive reasons to the contrary. 
Chronology may be called the crutch of history ; but with all 
its imperfections it would be invaluable here, where no clue 
remains to unravel those mysterious records which excite our 

research, but constantly elude our scrutiny. We may be per- 
mitted, however, to repeat what is all-important to the pre- 


152 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


sent inquiry, that these ancient Peruvians were the progeni- 
tors of the existing Aymara tribes of Peru, while these last 
are identified in every particular with the people of the great 
Inca race. All the monuments which these various nations 
have left behind them, over a space of three thousand miles, 
go also to prove a common origin, because, notwithstanding 
some minor differences, certain leading features pervade and 
characterize them all. 

Whether the hive of the civilized nations was, as some sup- 
pose, in the fabled region of Aztlan in the north, or whether, 
as the learned Cabrera has endeavoured to shew, their native 
seats were in Chiapas and Guatimala, we may not stop to 
inquire ; but to them, and to them alone, we trace the mono- 
lithic gateways of Peru, the sculptures of Bogota, the ruined 
temples and pyramids of Mexico, and the mounds and forti- 
fications of the valley of the Mississippi. 

Such was the Toltecan Family; and it will now be in- 
quired how it happens that so great a disparity should have 
existed in the intellectual character of the American nations, 
if they are all derived from a common stock, or, in other 
words, belong to the same race! How are we to reconcile 
the civilization of the one with the barbarism of the other? 
It is this question which has so much puzzled the philosophers 
of the past three centuries, and led them, in the face of facts, 
to insist on a plurality of races. We grant the seeming 
anomaly ; but however much it is opposed to general rule, it 
is not without ample analogies among the people of the old 
world. No stronger example need be adduced than that 
which presents itself in the great Arabian family ; for the 
Saracens who established their kingdom in Spain, whose his- 
tory is replete with romance and refinement, whose colleges 
were the centres of genius and learning for several centuries, 
and whose arts and sciences have been blended with those of 
every subsequent age ;—these very Saracens belong not only 
to the same race, but to the same family with the Bedouins 
of the desert ; those intractable barbarians who scorn all re- 
straints which are not imposed by their own chief, and whose 
immemorial laws forbid them to sow corn, to plant fruit-trees, 


eo, Tt tS. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 153 


or to build houses, in order that nothing may conflict with 
those roving and predatory habits which have continued un- 
altered through a period of three thousand years. 

Other examples perhaps not less forcible, might be adduced 
in the families of the Mongolian race ; but without extending 
the comparison, or attempting to investigate this singular in- 
tellectual disparity, we shall, for the present at least, con- 
tent ourselves with the facts as we find them. It is import- 
ant, however, to remark, that these civilized states do not 
stand isolated from their barbarous neighbours ; on the con- 
trary, they merge gradually into each other, so that some 
nations are with difficulty classed with either division, and 
rather form an intermediate link between the two. Such are 
the Araucanians, whose language and customs, and even 
whose arts, prove their direct affiliation with the Peruvians, 
although they far surpass the latter in sagacity and courage, 
at the same time that their social institutions present many 
features of intractable barbarism. So also the Aztec rulers 
of Mexico at the period of the Spanish invasion, exhibit, with 
their bloody sacrifices and multiform idolatry, a strong con- 
trast to the gentler spirit of the Toltecas who preceded them, 
and whose arts and ingenuity they had usurped. Still later 
in this intermediate series were the Natchez tribes of the 
Mississippi, who retained some traces of the refinement of 
their Mexican progenitors, mingled with many of the rudest 
traits of savage life. It is thus that we can yet trace all the 
gradations, link by link, which connect these extremes to- 
gether ; shewing that although the civilization of these nations 
is fast becoming obsolete, although their arts and sciences 
have passed away with a former generation, still the people 
remain in all other respects unchanged, although a variety of 
causes has long been urging them onward to deep degrada- 
tion and rapid extinction. Strange as these intellectual re- 
volutions may seem, we venture to assert, that, all circum- 
stances considered, they are not greater than those which 
have taken place between the ancient and modern Greeks. 
If we had not incontestible evidence to prove the fact, who 
would believe that the ancestors of the Greeks of the present 
day were the very people who gave glory to the age of Pericles! 


154 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


It may still be insisted that the religion and the arts of 
the American nations point to Asia and Egypt; but it is ob- 
vious, as Humboldt and others have remarked, that these re- 
semblances may have arisen from similar wants and impulses, 
acting on nations in many respects similarly circumstanced. 
* Tt would indeed be not only singular but wonderful and un- 
accountable,” observes Dr Caldwell, “if tribes and nations 
of men, possessed of similar attributes of mind and body, re- 
siding in similar climates and situations, influenced by simi- 
lar states of society, and obliged to support themselves by 
similar means, in similar pursuits,—it would form a problem 
altogether inexplicable, if nations thus situated did not con- 
tract habits and usages, and, instinctively, modes of life and 
action, possessing towards each other many striking resem- 
blances.” Here, also, we may draw an illustration from the 
old world ; for, notwithstanding the comparative proximity 
of the Hindoos and Egyptians, and the evident analogies in 
their architecture, mythology, and social institutions, there is 
now no reason to believe them cognate nations ; and the re- 
semblances to which we have adverted have probably arisen 
from mutual intercourse, independent of lineal affiliation, 
And so with the nations of America. The casual appearance 
of ship-wrecked strangers would satisfactorily explain any 
sameness in the arts and usages of the one and the other, as 
well as those words which are often quoted in evidence of a 
common origin of language, but which are so few in number 
as to be readily accounted for on the foregoing principle. 

The entire number of common words is said to be one 
hundred and four between the American languages and those 
of Asia and Australia ; forty-three with those of Europe ; and 
forty with those of Africa, making a total of one hundred and 
eighty-seven words. But taking into account the mere coin- 
cidence by which some of these analogies may be reasonably 
explained, I would inquire, in the language of an ingenious 
author, whether these facts are sufficient to prove a connexion 
between four hundred dialects of America and the various 
languages of the old world ? 

Even so late as the year 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked 
on the north-west coast of America, and several of the crew 


iets 


Aboriginal Race of America. 155 


escaped unhurt to the shore; and I have myself seen some 
porcelain vessels which were saved on that occasion. Such 
casualties may have occurred in the early periods of American 
history ; and it requires no effort of the imagination to con- 
ceive the influence these persons might have exerted, in va- 
rious respects, had they been introduced to the ancient courts 
of Peru and Mexico. They might have contributed some- 
thing to extend, or at least to modify, the arts and sciences 
of the people among whom they were thrown, and have 
added a few words to the national language. 

I am informed by my friend Mr Townsend, who passed 
several months among the tribes of the Columbia river, that 
the Indians there have already adopted from the Canadian 
traders several French words, which they use with as much 
freedom as if they belonged to their own vocabulary. 

It follows, of course, from the preceding remarks, that we 
consider the American race to present the two extremes of 
intellectual character ; the one capable of a certain degree of 
civilization and refinement, independent of extraneous aids ; 
the other exhibiting an abasement which puts all mental cul- 
ture at defiance. The one composed, as it were, of a hand- 
ful of people, whose superiority and consequent acquisitions 
have made them the prey of covetous destroyers; the other 
a vast multitude of savage tribes, whose very barbarism is 
working their destruction from within and without. The 
links that connect them partake of the fate of the extremes 
themselves ; and extinction appears to be the unhappy, but 
fast approaching, doom of them all. 


4. Maritime Enterprise.—One of the most characteristic 
traits of all civilized and many barbarous communities, is the 
progress of maritime adventure. The Caucasian nations of 
every age present a striking illustration of this fact: their 
sails are spread on every ocean, and the fabled voyage of the 
Argonauts is but a type of their achievements from remote 
_ antiquity to the present time. Hence their undisputed do- 
minion of the sea, and their successful colonization of every 
quarter of the globe. The Mongolians and Malays, though 
active and predatory, and proverbially aquati¢ in their habits, 


156 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


are deficient in that mechanical invention which depends on 
a knowledge of mathematical principles ; while they seem 
also incapable of those mental combinations which are re- 
quisite to a perfect acquaintance with naval tactics. The 
Negro, whose observant and imitative powers enable him to 
acquire with ease the details of seamanship, readily becomes 
a mariner, but rarely a commander; and history is silent on 
the nautical prowess of his race. Far behind all these is the 
man of America. Savage or civilized, the sea for him has 
had few charms, and his navigation has been almost exclu- 
sively restricted to lakes and rivers. A canoe excavated from 
a single log, was the principal vessel in use in the new world 
at the period of its discovery. Even the predatory Charibs, 
who were originally derived from the forests of Guayana, 
possessed no other boat than this simple contrivance, in which 
they seldom ventured out of sight of land; and never ex- 
cepting in the tranquil periods of the tropical seas, when they 
sailed from shore to shore, the terror of the feebler natives of 
the surrounding islands. The canoes of the Arouaes of Cuba 
were not more ingeniously contrived than those of the ruder 
Charibs ; which is the more surprising, since their island was 
the centre of a great archipelago, and their local position, 
therefore, in all respects calculated to develope any latent 
nautical propensities. "When Cortez approached, in his ships, 
the Mexican harbour of Tobasco, he was astonished to find, 
even there, the sea-port, as it were, of a mighty empire, the 
same primitive model in the many vessels that skimmed the 
sea before him. Let us follow this conqueror to the imperial 
city itself, surrounded by lakes, and possessed of warlike de- 
fences superior to those of any other American people. The 
Spanish commander, foreseeing that to possess the lake would 
be to hold the keys of the city, had fifteen brigantines built 
at Tlascala; and these being subsequently taken to pieces, 
were borne on men’s shoulders to the lake of Mexico, and 
there re-constructed and launched. The war thus commenced 
as a naval contest; and the Spanish historians, while they 
eulogize the valour of the Mexicans, are constrained to admit 
the utter futility of their aquatic defences: for although the 
subjects of Montezuma, knowing and anticipating the nature 


ee ee ee a 


Aboriginal Race of America. 157 


of the attack, came forth from the city in several thousand 
boats, these were so feebly constructed, and managed with 
so little dexterity, that in a few hours they were all destroyed, 
dispersed, or taken by the enemy. 

Turning from the Mexicans, we naturally look to the Pe- 
ruvians for some further advances in nautical skill; but al- 
though their country was comparatively a narrow strip of 
land, with an extended frontier on the ocean, we find even 
here the same primitive vessels and the same timid naviga- 
tors. Itis indeed questionable whether they ever designedly 
lost sight of land; nor does it appear that they made the sea 
subservient to their conquests. These were uniformly prose- 
cuted by land, excepting perhaps those of the Incas, in their 
efforts to subdue the fierce islanders of Titicaca; but even 
the partial pen of Garcilaso limits all these inventions to log 
canoes and rafts of reeds; nor does it appear that the inge- 
nuity of these people, so abundantly displayed on many other 
occasions, had ever added an improvement to the primeval 
germ of navigation. 

Nor are those tribes which depend almost wholly on fish 
for their daily subsistence, much better provided than the 
others. The Chenouks and other nations on the western 
coast of America, have boats hewn with comparative inge- 
nuity from a single plank, and compared to a butcher’s tray ; 
but in these frail vessels they keep cautiously within sight of 
land, and never venture on the water unless the weather is 
favourable to their enterprize. It is to be observed, however, 
that when the Indians are compelled to carry their boats 
across portages from river to river, they construct them of 
birch bark, and with a degree of ingenuity and adaptation 
much above their usual resources. Thus, boats that would 
carry nine men do not weigh over sixty pounds, and are there- 
fore conveyed with ease to considerable distances. This is 
almost the only deviation from the log canoe, and is equally 
characteristic; for it is common among the interior Indians 
_ of both North and South America, and was noticed by De 
Solis in the Mexican provinces. 

Inferior in these respects to the other tribes are the Fue- 
gians; a people whom perpetual exposure and privation, and 


158 Dr Morton on the Distinetive Characteristics of the 


the influence of an inhospitable climate, have reduced to a 
feeble intelligence,—the moral childhood of their race. Not 
even the stimulus of necessity has been able to excite that 
ingenuity which would so amply provide for all their wants ; 
and they starve amid the abundant stores of the ocean, because 
they possess no adequate means for obtaining them. The 
Falkland and Malouine islands, in but fifty degrees of South 
latitude, South Georgia, New South Shetland, and some 
smaller islands in nearly the same parallel, were, at their dis- 
covery, entirely uninhabited; nor is there any evidence of 
their ever having been visited by any American tribe. Yet 
they possess seals and other marine animals in vast numbers, 
and in these and all other respects appear to be not less pro- 
ductive than the region inhabited by the Esquimaux. 

It is generally supposed that nautical enterprize results from 
the necessity of the case, in nations proximate to or sur- 
rounded by the sea. We have seen, however, that the natives 
of the islands of the Gulf of Mexico were exceptions to the 
rule; and we find another not less remarkable in the archi- 
pelago of Chiloe, on the coast of Chili. These islands are 
seen from the shore, and have a large Indian population, 
which depends for subsistence on fish taken from the sur- 
rounding ocean; yet even so late as the close of the past 
century, after more than two hundred years of communica- 
tion with the Spaniards, their boats appear not to have been 
the least improved from their original model. The padre 
Gonzalez de Agueros, who resided many years among these 
islanders, describes their canoes as composed of five or six 
boards, narrowed at the ends, and lashed tegether with cords, 
the seams being filled with moss. They have sails, but neither 
keel nor deck; and in these frail and primitive vessels the 
inhabitants commit themselves to a tempestuous sea in search 
of their daily food. The same miserable vessels are found in 
exclusive use in the yet more southern archipelago of Guai- 
tecas, in which a sparse population is distributed over eight 
hundred islands, and depends solely on the sea for subsistence. 
The mechanical ingenuity of these people, therefore, is not 
greater than that of the, other Indians; but, from constant 
practice with their wretched bos, they have acquired a dex- 


Aboriginal Race of America. 159 


terity in the use of them unknown to any other tribe, and in 
some instances, under the direction of the Spaniards, have 
become comparatively good mariners. 

De Azara mentions a curious fact in illustration of the pre- 
sent inquiry. He declares that when his countrymen disco- 
vered the Rio de la Plata, they found its shores inhabited by 
two distinct Indian nations, the Charruas on the north, and 
the Patagonians on the south ; yet, strange to say, these rest- 
less people had never communicated with each other for war 
or for peace, for good or for evil, because they had neither 
boats nor canoes in which to cross the river. 

The Indian is not defective in courage, even on the water ; 
but he lacks invention to construct better vessels, and tact to 
manage them. When he has been compelled to defend him- 
self in his frail canoe, he has done so with the indomitable 
spirit of his race; yet, with all his love of war and strata- 
gem, I cannot find any account of a naval combat in which 
Europeans have borne no part. 

The Payaguas Indians at one period took revenge on the 
Spaniards by infesting the rivers of Paraguay, in canoes 
which they managed with much adroitness ; and, darting from 
their lurking places, they intercepted the trading vessels 
going to and from Buenos Ayres, robbing them of their goods, 
and destroying their crews without mercy. Such was their 
Success in these river piracies, that it required years of war 
and stratagem on the part of the Spaniards to subdue them. 

The only example of a naval contest that I have met with, 
is described by Dobrizhoffer to have taken place between the 
so-called Mamalukes of St Paulo, in Brazil, and their ene- 
mies, the Guaranies. The former were a banditti derived 
from the intermarriage of the dregs of Europeans of all 
nations with the surrounding Indians ; and, assisted by two 
thousand of their native allies, they came forth to battle in 
three hundred boats. The Guaranies, on the other hand, had 
five ships armed with cannon. But it is obvious, from this 
_ Statement, that European vessels and European tactics gave 
the battle all its importance. It took place on the river 
Mborore, in Paraguay ; but, after all, both parties finding 
themselves out of their element on the water, at length aban-- 


160 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


doned their vessels by mutual agreement, aud fought to des- 
peration on shore. 

It is said of the inhabitants of New Holland, that their only 
substitute for a boat is a short and solid log, on which they 
place themselves astride, and thus venture upon the water. 
Even this, the humblest of all human contrivances, was in 


use among the Indians of the Bay of Honduras, who had . 


learned to balance themselves so dexterously standing upon 
a log, as to be able in this position to pursue their customary 
occupation of fishing in the adjacent sea. 

In fine, his long contact with European arts, has furnished 
the Indians with no additional means of contending with the 
watery element; and his log canoe and boat of birch-bark, 
are precisely the same as at the landing of Columbus. 


5. Manner of Interment—Veneration for the dead is a 
sentiment natural to man, whether civilized or savage: but 
the manner of expressing it, and of performing the rites of 
sepulture, differ widely in different nations. No offence ex- 
cites greater exasperation in the breast of the Indian than 
the violation of the graves of his people; and he has even 
been known to disinter the bones of his ancestors, and bear 
them with him to a great distance, when circumstancees have 
compelled him to make a permanent change of residence. 

But the manner of inhumation is so different from,that 
practised by the rest of mankind, and at the same time so 
prevalent among the American nations, as to constitute 
another means of identifying them as parts of a single and 
peculiar race. This practice consists in burying the dead 
in the sétting posture ; the legs being flexed against the ab- 
domen, the arms also bent, and the chin supported on the 
palms of the hand. The natives of Patagonia, Brazil, and 
Guayana—the insular and other Charibs—the Florida 
tribes—the great chain of Lenapé nations—the inhabitants 
of both sides of the Rocky Mountains—and those also of 
Canada and the vast Northwestern region,—all conform, 
with occasional exceptions, to this conventional rite. So 
also with the demi-civilized communities from the most dis- 
tant epochs; for the ancient Peruvians, to whom we have 


= to 250,1._ rr, & poet 


Aboriginal Race of America. 161 


already so frequently referred, possessed this singular 
usage, as is verified by their numberless remains in the se- 
pulchres of Titicaca. They did not, however, bury their 
dead, but placed them on the floors of their tombs, seated, 
and sewed up in sacks. The later Peruvians of the Inca 
race followed the same custom, sometimes inhuming the 
body, at others placing it in a tower above ground. Gar- 
cilaso de la Vega informs us, that, in the year 1560, he saw 
five embalmed bodies of the royal family, all of whom were 
seated in the Indian manner, with their hands crossed upon 
the breast, and their heads bent forward. So also the 
Mexicans from the most ancient time had adopted the same 
usage, which was equally the privilege of the king and his 
people. The most remarkable exception to the practice in 
question, is that in which the body is dissected before inter- 
ment—the bones alone being deposited in the earth. This 
extraordinary rite has prevailed among various tribes from 
the southern to the northern extremity of their range, in 
Patagonia, Brazil, Florida, and Missouri, and indeed in 
many intervening localities; but even in these instances, 
the bones are often retained in their relative position by 
preserving the ligaments, and then interred in the attitude 
of a person seated. An example, among very many others, 
is recorded by the Baron Humboldt, in his visit to a 
cavern-cemetery of the Atures Indians, at the sources of 
the Orinoco; wherein he found hundreds of skeletons pre- 
served each in a separate basket, the bones being held 
together by their natural connections, and the whole disposed 
in the conventional posture of which we are speaking. 

Iam well aware that this practice has been noticed by 
some navigators among the Polynesian Islands; the in- 
stances, however, appear so few as rather to form excep- 
tions to the rule, like those of the Nassamones of northern 
Africa: but I have sought for it in vain among the conti- 
nental Asiatics, who, if they ever possessed it, would have 
yet preserved it among some at least of their numberless 
tribes. 

After this rapid view of the principal leading character- 

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. L 


162 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


istics of the American race, let us now briefly inquire 
whether they denote an exotie origin; or whether there is 
not internal evidence that this race is as strictly aboriginal 
to America as the Mongolian is to Asia, or the Negro to 
Africa. 

And, first, we turn to the Mongolian race, which, by a 
somewhat general consent, is admitted to include the Polar 
nations, and among them the Esquimaux of our continent. it 
is a very prevalent opinion that the latter people, who obvi- 
ously belong to the Polar family of Asia, pass insensibly into 
the American race, and thus form the connecting link be- 
tween the two. But without repeating what has already been 
said in reference to the Indian, we may briefly advert, for 
the purpose of comparison, to the widely different character- 
istics of the Esquimaux. These people are remarkable for a 
large and rather elongated head, which is low in front and 
projecting behind ; the great width and flatness of the face 
is noted by all travellers ; their eyes are small and black, 
the mouth small and round, and the nose is so diminutive 
and depressed, that, on looking at a skull in profile, the nasal 
bones are hardly visible. Their complexion, moreover, is 
comparatively fair, and there is a tendency throughout life 
to fulness and obesity. The traveller Hearne, while in com- 
pany with a ‘tribe of northern Indians, mentions a circum- 
stance which is at least curious, because it shews the light in 
which the Esquimaux are regarded by their proximate neigh- 
bours on the south. He was the unwilling witness of a pre- 
meditated and unprovoked massacre of an entire encampment 
of Esquimaux, men, women, and children ; and i+ is curious to 
remark that the aggressors apologised for their cruelty not 
only on the plea of an ancient feud, but by asserting that their 
unoffending victims were a people of different nature and 
origin from themselves, even in respect to sexual conforma- 
tion. 

The moral character of the Esquimaux differs from that of 
the Indian chiefly in the absence of the courage, cunning, 
cruelty, and improvidence so habitual in the Red man, who, 
in-turn, is inferior in mechanical ingenuity, and, above all, 


—- 


Aboriginal Race of America. 163 


in aquatic exercises. The Esquimaux, notwithstanding the 
intense cold of his climate, has been called an amphibious 
animal, so readily and equally does he adapt himself to the 
land or water. His boat is an evidence of mechanical skill; 
and the adroit manner in which he manages it is a pro- 
verb among mariners. The women are not less expert and 
enterprising than the men: each possesses a boat of pecu- 
liar and distinctive construction; and Crantz informs us, 
that children of the tender age of seven or eight years com- 
mence the unassisted management of their own little 
vessels. 

How strongly do these and other traits which might be 
enumerated, contrast with those of the Indian, and enforce 
an ethnographic dissimilarity which is confirmed at every step 
of the investigation ! 

Some writers, however, think they detect in the Fuegian 
a being whose similar physical condition has produced in 
him all the characteristics of the Esquimaux ; but we confi- 
dently assert that the latter is vastly superior both in his 
exterior organization and mental aptitude. In truth the 
two may be readily contrasted but not easily compared. 
The Fuegian bears a coarse but striking resemblance to the 
race to which he belongs, and every feature of his character 
assists in fixing his identity. The extremes of cold, with 
their many attending privations, by brutifying the features 
and distorting the expression of the face, reduce man to a 
mere caricature, a repulsive perversion of his original type. 
Compare the Mongols of Central Asia and China with the 
Polar nations of Siberia. Compare also the Hottentot with 
the contiguous black tribes on the north—the Tasmanian 
negro with the proper New Hollander,—and lastly, the 
wretched Fuegian with the Indian beyond the Magellanic 
strait; and we find in every instance how much more the 
man of a cold and inhospitable clime is degraded, physically 
and intellectually, than his more fortunate but affiliated 
- neighbour. The operation of these perverting causes through 
successive ages of time, has obscured but not obliterated those 
lineaments which, however modified, point to an aboriginal . 
stock. 


164 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


Without attempting to enter the fathomless depths of 
philology, I am bound to advert to the opinion of Mr Gal- 
latin, that all the nations from Cape Horn to the Arctic 
Ocean, have languages which possess “a distinct character 
common to all, and apparently differing from those of the 
other continent with which we are acquainted ;” an analogy, 
moreover, which is not of an indefinite kind, but consists, 
for the most part, in peculiar conjugational modes of modi- 
fying the verbs by the insertion of syllables. It has been 
insisted by some writers that this analogy proves the cog- 
nate relation of the Esquimaux and Indians. This, however, 
is a mere postulate ; for, from the evidence already adduced 
in respect to the ethnographic difference between these 
people, we have a right to infer that the resemblance in 
their respective languages has not been derived by the 
greater from the lesser source,—not by the Americans 
from the Esquimaux, but the reverse: for the Asiatics hay- 
ing arrived at various and distant periods, and in small par- 
ties, would naturally, if not unavoidably, adopt more or 
less of the language of the people among whom they set- 
tled, until their own dialects finally merged in those of the 
Chepewyan and other Indians who bound them on the 
south. 

The Esquimaux, it may be remarked, at the present time 
extend much further south, and are much more numerous on 
the western than on the eastern coast of America, being 
found as low down as Mount St Elias ; south of which, con- 
trary to what is observed on the opposite side of the conti- 
nent, they become more or less blended with the Indian tribes, 
and have imparted to the latter some portion of their me- 
chanical ingenuity. This difference in the extent and in- 
fluence of the western and eastern Esquimaux, is explained by 
the proximity of the former to Asia; and a redundant popu- 
lation has even forced some of them back to the parent hive, 
whither they have carried a dialect derived from the cog- 
nate tribes of America. Such are the Tsutchchi, who thus 
form a link between the Polar nations of the two conti- 
nents. 

It is a common opinion, also, that America has been peopled 


f 


Aboriginal Race of America. 165 


by the proper Mongols of Central and Eastern Asia; and 
volumes have been written on supposed affinities, physical, 
moral, and intellectual, to sustain this hypothesis. We have 
already glanced at the Mongolian features, as seen, though 
rudely and extravagantly developed, in the Polar nations ; but 
there are some characters so prevalent as to pervade all the 
ramifications of the great Mongolian stock, from the repul- 
sive Calmuck to the polished and more delicately featured 
Chinese. These are the small, depressed, and seemingly 
broken nose ; the oblique position of the eye, which is drawn 
up at the external angle; the great width between the cheek 
bones, which are not only high, but expanded laterally ; the 
arched and linear eyebrow; and, lastly, the complexion, 
which is invariably some shade of yellow or olive, and almost 
equally distant from the fair tint of the European and the 
red hue of the Indian. Without attempting a detailed com- 
parison, we may briefly observe that the Mongolian, in his 
various localities, is distinguished for his imitative powers 
and mechanical ingenuity, and for a certain degree of nauti- 
eal skill, in which, as we have suggested, he holds a place 
next to the nations of the Caucasian race. In fine, we are 
constrained to believe that there is no more resemblance be- 
tween the Indian and Mongol, in respect to arts, architecture, 
mental features and social usages, than exists between any 
other two distinct races of mankind. Mr Ranking has writ- 
ten an elaborate treatise to prove that the Mongols, led by 
a descendant of Genghis Khan, conquered Peru and Mexico 
in the thirteenth century ; but in the whole range of English 
literature there cannot be found a work more replete with 
distorted facts and illogical reasoning. The author begins 
by the singular assertion that ‘‘ when Cuzco was founded by 
Manco Capac, none of the civilization introduced by the 
Peruvians and Mexicans was in existence ;” thus overlook- 
ing the cultivated tribes who preceded the Inca family, and 
disregarding also the various demi-civilized nations which 
_ successively followed each other in Mexico, before that coun- 
try fell under the rule of the Aztecs.* Mr Ranking intro- 


* Crania Americana, p. 96. 


165 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


duces the Mongols in large ships, with all the appliances of 
war, not even excepting ejyephants ; and in order that the 
Tartar general may correspond to Manco Capac, he is made 
to enter Peru by the Lake Titicaca, upwards of an hundred 
miles from the sea. Such statements may seem too absurd 
for sober discussion ; but they are not more so than various 
other subterfuges which have been resorted to in explana- 
tion of the precise manner in which the New World has 
been peopled from the Old. 

But there is not a shadow of evidence that the Mongols 
ever reached America in ships excepting by mere accident ; 
and, therefore, their number must have always been too 
small, and too badly provided, to have dreamt of conquest 
in a country which has had a population of millions from im- 
memorial time. 

There is a third view of this question which remains to be 
noticed ; for, allowing that the Esquimaux and the cognate 
Polar nations are not the progenitors of the American race ; 
and admitting also that the Mongols of Central Asia could 
never have arrived in any requisite number by a direct 
voyage from one continent to the other, yet it is supposed 
by many learned men that these Mongols could have reached 
America by slow journeys from their own distant country, 
and that their hieroglyphic charts delineate many of the in- 
cidents of this protracted migration ; but there is no positive 
evidence in regard to direction and localities, although these, 
by a very general consent, are placed in the north and north- 
west. Cabrera, on the contrary, after the most patient re- 
search, aided by unusual facilities for investigation, traces 
the primal seat of the civilized nations of America to South- 
ern Mexico, where the ruined cities of Copan, Uxmal, and 
Palenque, point to an epoch seemingly much more remote 
than any antiquities contained in or near the present metro- 
polis of that country. 

If we conventionally adopt the more prevalent opinion, and 
trace the Aztecs back to California or the Strait, we have, 
after all, but a vague tradition of a handful of persons who, 
for all we know to the contrary, may have been as indigenous 


ee ee ey ee eee 


= + St aoe 


Aboriginal Race of America. 167 


to America as any people in it. The aborigines of this con- 
tinent have always been of nomadic and migratory habits ; a 
fact which is amply illustrated in the traditional history of 
Mexico itself. So also with the barbarous tribes; for the 
Lenapé, the Florida Indians, the Iroquois, the insular Cha- 
ribs, and many others, were intruding nations, who, driven 
by want, or impelled by an innate and restless activity, had 
deserted their own possessions to seize upon others which 
did not belong to them. These nations, like their more 
polished neighbours, were in the constant practice of record- 
ing the events of their battles and hunting excursions by 
hieroglyphic symbols, made, according to circumstances, on 
trees, skins, or rocks; and this rude but expressive language 
of signs has been justly regarded as the origin of the picture 
writing of the Mexicans. “ The difference between them,” 
observes Dr Coates, “ does not appear greater than must 
necessarily exist between ignorant warriors and hunters in 
a simple form of society, and those of the members of a com- 
plicated state possessed of property, and even, as described 
by Clavigero, of a species of science and literature.”’ 

This gradation of the ruder into the more perfect art of 
hieroglyphic writing, not only affords an additional argument 
for the unity of origin of the American nations, but also con- 
stitutes another proof of the distinctness of their race; for 
this picture-writing, even in its most elaborate forms, bears 
no other than the most general resemblance to any exotic 
hieroglyphics, nor, indeed, has areal equivalent been detected 
between them. We may, therefore, be permitted to repeat 
our conviction that the annals of the Mexicans bear no in- 
disputable evidence of immigration from Asia; but, on the 
other hand, that they are susceptible of as many different 
interpretations as there are theories to be supported. 

It is remarked by Dr Coates, that the Mongolian theory, 
which we are now considering, is dbjectionable on account 
of its vastness. “ To derive the population of the whole of 
_ the American continent from the north-western angle, re- 
quires the supposition of a continued chain of colonies during 
a long succession of ages, acquiring and using an immense 


168 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


diversity of languages, and pursuing each other along the 
huge ridge of the great American Andes, from Prince Wil- 
liam’s Sound in the far north, to the extremity of Terra del 
Fuego, a distance of one hundred and fifteen degrees of lati- 
tude, or of eight thousand miles. This long succession of 
occurrences is absolutely necessary to the theory, which is 
thus liable to the difficulty of requiring two extensive hypo- 
theses at once. Several hundred colonies must be imagined 
to have issued from the same point all completely isolated, 
as their languages abundantly shew, unconnected by peace- 
ful intercourse, but urging each other, by war and the de- 
struction of the game, throughout a third part of the cireum- 
ference of the globe. 

“The traces of such a series of human waves would be 
naturally looked for in a tendency to advance population in 
the north, from which they emanated, and where the pres- 
sure must have been greatest, and the colonization of longest 
duration. Nothing like this is observed: the population of 
South America, and of Darien, Guatimala, and Mexico, being 
much greater in proportion than that of any country farther 
north. The marks of civilization, too—one of the most im- 
portant proofs of long residence in a fixed: spot—are all, as 
in the older world, in favour of the tropical climates.” * 

We may further inquire, how it happens that during the 
lapse of more than three hundred years since the discovery 
of America, there has not been an authenticated immigra- 
tion from Asia? The long and desolating wars which have 
driven whole nations from the central to the northern parts 
of that continent, have not supplied a single colony to the 
New World. Nay, if such colonization had occurred within 
a thousand or two thousand years, would we not now possess 
more indubitable evidences of it in language, customs, and 
the arts ? 

We propose, in the next place, to make a very few observa- 
tions in reference to the idea that America has been peopled 


* On the Origin of the Indian Population of America. By B. H. 
Coates, M.D. 1834. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 169 


by the Mauay race, which, in the ordinary classification, in- 
cludes the Malays proper of the Indian Archipelago, and the 
Polynesians in all their numberless localities. These people, 
however, have so much of the Mongolian character, that 
nearly the same objections arise to both. The head of the 
Malay proper is more like that of the Indian, because it not 
unfrequently presents something of the vertical form of the 
occiput ; and the transverse diameter, as measured between 
the parietal bones, is also remarkably large. But excepting 
in these respects, the osteological development concides with 
that of the Mongolian; while the category of objections 
which we have just urged against the latter people is equally 
valid in respect to the whole Malay race. For, independently 
of differences of organization, how great is the disparity in 
their arts and social institutions! So great indeed, that, to 
account for it, Dr Lang, one of the most ingenious supporters 
of the theory, insists on an intellectual degeneracy consequent 
to change of climate and circumstances. “ It is an easy and 
natural process,” says he, “for man to degenerate in the 
scale of civilization, as the Asiatics have evidently done in 
travelling to the northward and eastward. He has only to 
move forward a few hundred miles into the wilderness, and 
settle himself at a distance from all civilized men, and the 
process will advance with almost incredible celerity. For 
whether he comes in contact with savages or not, in the dark 
recesses of the forest his offspring will speedily arrive at a 
state of complete barbarism.” 

We confess our difficulty in imagining how the Polynesians, 
themselves a barbarous people, though possessing some of the 
attributes of civilized life, should become savages in the tro- 
pical regions of America, wherein the climate must be as 
congenial to their constitutions as their own, and the various 
other external circumstances are calculated to foster rather 
than to depress the energies of a naturally active and intel- 
ligent people. But the general prevalence of easterly winds 
is adverse to the colonization of America from the islands of 
the Pacific ; for the nearest of these islands is one thousand 
eight hundred miles from the American coast ; and when we 


170 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the 


reflect on the many difficulties which the mere distance 
opposes to navigation in small vessels, and the absolute ne- 
cessity for food and water for a long period of time, we feel 
compelled to believe that America has received very feeble 
accessions to its population from the Polynesian islands. 
Such voyages, if admitted, could only have been accidental ; 
for it is not to be supposed that these islanders would have 
attempted remote discoveries on the vast Pacific ocean in the 
very face of the trade winds ; and a successful issue is among 
the least probable of human events. 

Even admitting that the Polynesians have accomplished all 
that the theory requires, how does it happen that, on reach- 
ing the continent of America, they should all at once have 
relinquished their intuitive fondness for the water, forgotten 
the construction of their boats, and become the most timid 
and helpless navigators in the world ? 

A comparison of languages, moreover, gives no support to 
the Polynesian hypothesis; for all the zeal and ingenuity 
which have been devoted to this inquiry, have tended only 
to disclose a complete philological disparity. 

The theories to which we have thus briefly adverted, would 
each derive the whole American population from a single 
source; but various others have been hazarded of a much 
more complex nature, by which the Indian nations are referred 
toa plurality of races, not even excepting the Caucasian. For 
example, the Peruvians, Muyscas, and Mexicans, are, by some 
advocates of this system, supposed to be Malays or Poly- 
nesians, while all the savage tribes are referred to the Mon- 
golians ; whence the civilization of the one and the barbarism 
of the other. But we insist that the origin of these great 
divisions must have been the same, because all their ethno- 
graphic characters, not excepting the construction of their 
numberless languages, go to enforce an identity of race. 

Another doctrine which has had many disciples (among 
whom was the late Lord Kingsborough, author of Mexican 
Antiquities), teaches that the whole American population is 
descended from the Jews, through the Ten lost Tribes which 
were carried away by Salmanazer, King of Assyria. Here 


Aboriginal Race of America. 171 


again the differences of physical organization should set this 
question at rest for ever ; but independently of these, can we 
suppose that a people so tenacious as the Jews of their litera- 
ture, language, and religion, would not have preserved a soli- 
tary, unequivocal memorial of either among the multitudinous 
tribes of this continent, if any direct affiliation had ever ex- 
isted between them? In short, we coincide in opinion with 
a facetious author, who sums up all the evidence of the case 
with the conclusion, that “the Jewish theory cannot be true, 
for the simple reason that it is impossible.”’ 

We feel assured that the same objection bears not less 
strongly on every other hypothesis which deduces any por- 
tion of the American nations from a Caucasian source. In 
order to solve the problem of the origin of the monuments of 
America, independently of any agency of the aboriginal race, 
an opinion has been advanced that they are the work of a 
branch of the great Cyclopean family of the old world, known 
by the various designations of the Shepherd Kings of Egypt, 
the Anakim of Syria, the Oscans of Etruria, and the Pelas- 
gians of Greece. These wandering masons, as they are also 
called, are supposed to have passed from Asia into America at 
a very early epoch of history, and to have built those more 
ancient monuments which are attributed to the Toltecan 
nation. This view, supported as it is by some striking re- 


- semblances, and especially in architectural decoration, leaves 


various important difficulties entirely unexplained ; it neces- 
sarily pre-supposes a great influx of foreigners to account for 
such numerous and gigantic remains of human ingenuity and 
effort, at the same time that no trace of this exotic family 
can be detected in the existing Indian population. They 
and their arts are equally eradicated ; and we can, at most, 
only conceive of the presence of these migratory strangers in 
small and isolated groups, which might have modified the 
arts of an antecedent civilization, while they themselves were 
too few in number to transmit their lineaments to any abori- 
ginal community. 

Closely allied to this theory, is that of our ingenious country- 
man, Mr Delafield, who derives the demi-civilized nations 


172 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characters of the 


of America from ‘“ the Cuthites who built the monuments of 
Egypt and Indostan.” He supposes them to have traversed 
all Asia to reach Behring’s strait, and thus to have entered 
America at its northwest angle, whence they made their way, 
by slow journeys, to the central regions of the continent. Our 
objections to this theory will be found in what has been 
already stated ; and we may merely add, that the route by 
which the author conducts his pilgrim adventurers appears 
to constitute the least plausible portion of his theory. Mr 
Delafield supposes the barbarous tribes to be of a different 
stock, and refers them to the Mongolians of Asia; thus 
adopting the idea of a plurality of races. 

We shall lastly notice an imaginative classification which 
separates the aborigines of America into four species of men, 
exclusive of the Esquimaux. This curious but unphilosophi- 
cal hypothesis has been advanced by M. Bory de St Vincent, 
a French naturalist of distinction, who considers the civilized 
nations to be cognate with the Malays, and designates them 
by the collective name of the Neptunian species ; while to 
his three remaining species,—the Columbian, the American, 
and the Patagonian, he assigns certain vague geographical 
limits, without establishing any distinctive characteristics of 
the people themselves. The system is so devoid of founda- 
tion in nature, so fanciful in all its details, as hardly to merit 
a serious analysis ; and we have introduced it on the present 
oceasion to illustrate the extravagance and the poverty of 
some of the hypotheses which have been resorted to in ex- 
planation of the problem before us. 

Once for all I repeat my conviction, that the study of phy- 
sical conformation alone excludes every branch of the Cau- 
casian race from any obvious participation in the peopling of 
this continent. If the Egyptians, Hindoos, Pheenicians, or 
Gauls, have ever, by accident or design, planted colonies in 
America, these must have been, sooner or later, dispersed and 
lost in the waves of a vast indigenous population. Such we 
know to have been the fact with the Northmen, whose re- 
peated, though very partial, settlements in the present New 
England States, from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries, 


Aboriginal Race of America. 173 


are now matter of history; yet, in the country itself they 
have not left a single indisputable trace of their sojourn. 


In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a pa- 
tient examination of the facts thus briefly and inadequately 
stated, is, that the American race is essentially separate and 
peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, its moral, or its 
intellectual relations. To us there are no direct or obvious 
links between the people of the old world and the new; for 
even admitting the seeming analogies to which we have al- 
luded, these are so few in number, and evidently so casual, as 
not to invalidate the main position; and even should it be 
hereafter shewn, that the arts, sciences, and religion of Ame- 
rica can be traced to an exotic source, I maintain that the 
organic characters of the people themselves, through all their 
endless ramifications of tribes and nations, prove them to 
belong to one and the same race, and that this race is dis- 
tinct from all others. 

This idea may, at first view, seem incompatible with the 
history of man, as recorded in the Sacred Writings. Such, 
however, is not the fact. Where others can see nothing but 
chance, we can perceive a wise and obvious design, displayed 
in the original adaptation of the several races of men to those 
varied circumstances of climate and locality which, while 
congenial to the one, are destructive to the other. The evi- 
dences of history and the Egyptian monuments go to prove 
that these races were as distinctly stamped three thousand 
five hundred years ago as they are now; and, in fact, that 
they are coeval with the primitive dispersion of our species.* 


[We regret that want of space prevented us inserting in 
this Number the Appendix to Dr Morton’s truly excellent 
Memoir.—EDITor. | 


* I cannot omit the present oceasion to express my admiration of the 
recent discoveries of Mr Stephens among the ruined cities of Central 
America and Yucatan. The spirit, ability, and success, which charac- 
_ terize these investigations, are an honour to that gentleman and to his 
country ; and they will, probably, tend more than the labours of any 
other person to unravel the mysteries of American Archeology. Similar 
in design to these are the researches of my distinguished friend the Che- 
valier Friedrichthal, the result of whose labours, though not yet given 
to the world, are replete with facts of the utmost importance to the pre- 
sent inquiry. 


as Wi aah 


Observations on the Comet in the Whale, made at the Observa- 
tory of Hamburg. By M. RuMKER. Communicated by 


Sir T. Makdougall Brisbane, Bart., President of the Royal 


Society of Edinburgh. 


Mean Time at |Apparent Aphelion| Apparent Declina- 
1844. Hamburg. of the Comet, | tion of the Comet. 
h. m. Ss. ° m? “ ° ‘ a“ 
Sept. 12.}13 8 49.3 | 9 18 23.5 |14 23 46.9 
138 13 38.9 | 9 18 31.1 |}14 23 26.0 | Merid. 
LOP NO! saat! OM oly S000 13 sos, O0LG 
9 49 56.3 |13 386 46.4 |10 32 58.0 
10 23 47.9114 4 363/10 3 34.4 
12° 52.37.02 | 14. 16. 564. Merid. 
10 44 42.0 /14 31 0.1 9 34 54.0 
12 50 25.7 |14 33 7.3] 9 382 22.2 | Merid. 
11 44. 0.8 |15 20 39:4) 8 38 10:0 
12 45 47.9") 05 21 35.5, \\.8 (36.37.97 | Mierds 
12 35 38.1 |16 45 6 48 46.4 | Merid. 
93 s6e7 |e 19 6 20.6 
1 38) 480717 54 5 4.2 
12 24 32.3 |17 55 5 47.6 | Merid. 
8.110 35 245 118 9 18.8] 4 9.3 
4 LOOMS? Soh lS trzen 28cm ie: 44.3 
b mOewoee 7Su LL Siistiu2oe9 seo 
TONS: 130 2d | Nowoo ole 
3 32 52.4 | Merid. 
9 45 19.1119 2 42.8) 3 12 34.0 
2) PaO Saline: oy LOOM 
9 50: 12379 226s Son |e aoe dg, 
9 58 11:9|19> 36° 58:9 | 2° 76 29%6 
8.54 521 119" 567591 1 25 24.9 
it 50 "5.8 ;208 7° 34.1)" 1."'2 “40/571 Wome 
8 42 45.7 |20 15 53.7) 0 45 18.0 
11 46 47.6 QO 42 22.6 | Merid. 
8 47 45.9 |20 24 49.0 | 0 25 29.2 
11 48 26.2 |20 25 40.38} O 23 10.5 | Merid. 


SPAR IND Kc ewe 


(IB) ate 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


GEOLOGY. a 


1. Remarks on Fossil Birds. By Mr Paul Gervaes.—Ornitholites, or 
the fossil indications of the ancient existence of birds, are of four prin- 
cipal kinds: bones, eggs, feathers, and impressions left by the feet 
when walking over deposits still soft. 

The only known impressions have been remarked in the new red sand- 
stone of Connecticut, by Mr Hitchcock, who has given them the name of 
Ornithichnites ; but the signification of these impressions has not yet 
been pointed out in a sufficiently scientific manner, 

The feathers and eggs of birds have been hitherto met with only in 
the tertiary formations of Europe, and in small numbers; the former in 
France and Italy, the latter in Auvergne, 

The fossil bones of birds cannot lead us, in every case, to the precise 
determination of the species to which they belong. Pretty often we can 
only ascertain the Linnzan genus from them ; in other cases, they indi- 
cate only the family, order, or even the class merely. A very small 
number only can be determined specifically ; and these species are the 
only ones which ought to be named according to the principles of the 
Linnean nomenclature. 

The fossil bones of birds, the species of which cannot with certainty 
be recognised, may take the collective name of Osteornis, and a qualify- 
ing term added to the latter will indicate, by approximation, the nature 
of the birds which these remains lead us to conjecture; but without 
which, geologists ought nevertheless to introduce them as so many esta- 
blished species into their systematic catalogues. M. Adolphe Brongniart 
has, for a long time, advantageously followed a similar mode of nomen- 
clature in his skilful researches relating to fossil vegetables. 

It is at present impossible to indicate with precision at what period 
the class of birds began to exist on the terrestrial globe, the ornitholite 
formations having, as yet, been very imperfectly examined, compared 
with those of the other vertebrate animals. 

The present state of the science, however, shews that reptiles are not, 
as is still often asserted, the most highly organized vertebrates which 
existed in the secondary period, since birds were their contemporaries 
during that epoch. 

Without taking into account the ornithichnites of the new red sand- 
stones, we possess well established ornitholites of the secondary forma- 
tions. ‘They have been found in Tilgate Forest, in the neocomian for- 
mations of Glaris, and near Maidstone. We owe the determination of 
them to Messrs Mantell, Meyer, and Owen. According to the prin- 
ciples of nomenclature proposed above, by taking into account the affi- 
nities which have been asigned to them, we may name these, Osteornis 
ardeaceus, scolopacinus and diomideus. 

The ornitholites of the tertiary formations are more numerous, and 
principally belong to fresh-water deposits. France possesses two very 
rich deposits of them in the gypsum of Paris, and in the marls and lime- 
stones of Auvergne. 


176 Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 


Those of the gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris have been princi- 
pally studied by G. Cuvier. They consist of :— 

Three birds of prey belonging to the genera Halicvtus, Buteo, and 
Stria. 

A gallinaceous bird of the subgenus Coturnix, 

Three long-legged birds of the genera Ibis, Scolopaw and Pelidna. 

Likewise two palmipedes of the genus Pelicanus, 

Judging from the figures Cuvier gives of them, others are certainly 
passerine birds ; and his wading-bird allied to the Ibis, is an extinct spe- 
cies of Curlew, which may be named Numenius gypsorum. 

M. Duyal has found in the diluvium of the environs of Paris, near the 
barrier of Italy, a cubitus which I consider as belonging to a gallina- 
ceous bird of the genus Phasianus. It is from the same place where 
bones of the badger, elephant, hippopotamus, and marmot, &c. are ob- 
tained. 

MM. Constant Prevost, and Desnoyers, have procured in a deposit 
observed by them at Montmorency, and which has afforded them re- 
mains of Spermophilus, Cricetus, and Lagomys, some bones of birds 
which they regard as approaching to those of the common water-rail, 

In Auvergne, the most curious ornitholites hitherto discovered are those 
of a wader of the genus Phonicopterus, which it has been hitherto impos- 
sible to distinguish from the Flamingo still living in the south of Europe, 
and which ornithologists name P. ruber. And yet these bones are mingled 
with those of the rhinoceros, hyenodon, and other extinct species of the 
mammifera, 

M. Jourdan, professor in the faculty of Lyons, has collected, among 
other ornitholites of Auvergne communicated to me, a portion of a pel- 
vis, also from the tertiary formations, and which indicates a bird very 
nearly connected with Mergus, if it does not really belong to that genus. 
The fragment of a tarsus, from the collection of M. Bravard, comes from 
Arde, likewise in Auvergne ; it belongs to a spurred gallinaceous bird, 
highly develeped, is pretty likethat of the domestic cock, but appearing to 
come from a different species. An entire tarsus from the same collection 
has been found at Coude; it appears to me to belong to a kind of per- 
dix or a small tetrao. As with the first mentioned tarsus, it belongs to 
a less ancient period than the Flamingo. In the work I am about to 
publish, I point out many other ornitholites of Auvergne, and in like 
manner, indicate those which have been collected in various other parts 
of France. Some of these are diluvial, and others the species of which 
can be determined as having their living representatives in the existing 
Fauna; such are Corrus pica, Perdix cinerea, Perdix coturnix, Anas 
olor, Anas anser. A portion of my work is devoted to the tertiary or 
diluvian ornitholites found in other countries of Europe ; they are prin- 
cipally from England, Belgium, Germany, and Sardinia. 

The remains of fossil birds which have been collected in countries 
foreign to Europe, are still more curious, and I may mention the princi- 
pal facts in their history. 

The Gryphus antiquitatis, Schubert, is from Behring Straits, It 
belongs to the family of vultures, 

It is likewise to the vultures, and the gallino-gralli of the genus 
Kamichi, that we must refer the Dodo (Didus ineptus), the race of which 
has been destroyed in the Isle of France for about two centuries, and 


Scientific Intelligence—G eology. 177 


some bones of which, incrusted with stalactites, have been discovered in 
the island of Rodriguez, and described by G. Cuvier and M. de Blainville. 

The megatherian deposits of South America, have furnished M. Lund 
with thirty-three species of birds, some still belonging to that part of 
the world, others extinct, but all pertaining to American genera. The 
new collections made by M. Claussen, enable us to add to the list given 
by M. Lund, a Cathartes larger than the existing species, a Strix, a Ca- 
primulgus, a genus allied to Dicholophus, and a Psittacus. 

A concluding paragraph of this work is devoted to the species of 
Cursores allied to the Cassowaries, which M, Owen has made known to 
the public under the name of Dinornis, the bones of which, described 
with so much care by this naturalist, have been found in New Zealand.* 

2. On Gigantic extinct Mammalia in Australia; By Prof. Owen.— 
The author observes that the first information respecting the extinct 
Fauna of Australia, was derived from Major Mitchell’s researches in the. 
ossiferous caves of Wellington Valley. All the remains there discovered, 
with one exception, indicated the existence of only marsupial animals, of 
extinct species, differing chiefly in being larger than any now living. 
The specimen, which thus differed from the rest, was the fragment of a 
lower jaw, with molar teeth, and the socket of a siugle incisor ; it most 
nearly resembled the wombat, and had been named Diprotodon by Mr 
Owen. Since that period (1835), Sir Thomas Mitchell, Count Strelitzky, 
and other gentlemen, have obtained colleetions of bones from caves on 
the Darling Downs, west of Morton Bay, and other localities at a dis- 
tance from Wellington Valley. From an examination of these, Mr 
Owen has determined the former existence in Australia of a mastodon, 
nearly allied to the M. angustidens, remains of which are so abundant 
in Europe, and also allied to the M. Andium of North and South 
America; and he observes that the fact of the wide distribution of re- 
mains of the mastodon in Europe, Asia, and America, prepared him to 
receive, with less surprise, the unequivocal evidence of its existence in 
Australia also. Mr Owen then proceeded to the consideration of the 
fossil remains of the marsupialia, a class of animals to which, with the 
exception of small rodentia, such as rats and mice, all the indigenous 
quadrupeds of Australia belonged. With regard to the Diprotodon before 
mentioned, much additional evidence had been required to establish the 
marsupial character of a quadruped as large as a rhinoceros ; and amongst 
the remains lately obtained in the bed of the Condamine river, at Mor- 
ton Bay, was a specimen consisting of the anterior part of the lower jaw, 
with the base of a tusk, and a portion of the molar teeth, the tusk being 
identical with one from Wellington Valley. This specimen shews that 
the animal possessed large incisive tusks, combined with molar teeth, 
like those of the kangaroo, characterized by two transverse ridges; the 
marsupial character of these remains was also indicated by the bend- 
ing in of the angle of the jaw. Mr Owen referred to a second gigantic 
type of extinct marsupials ; but observed that further evidence relative 
to the marsupial character of these great quadrupeds was most desirable, 


From examination, he concluded that the great extinct herbivorous 


| AHERN OPE Srarce Mee ALO per RE RRP OR 
* From l'Institut. No. 557, p. 293. 
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXV.—JAN. 1845. M 


178 Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 


marsupials did not exhibit the peculiar disproportion of the extremities 
characteristic of the kangaroos, but were possessed of legs of nearly equal 
length like the wombat. The species of marsupial quadrupeds already 
known to inhabit Australia, form, as Cuvier observed, a small chain 
of animals, representing the quadrupeds of America and Europe, which 
was now rendered more complete by the discovery of extinet genera re- 
presenting the pachydermata, and equal to the medium bulk those ani- 
mals now attain.— Association Report in Atheneum, No. 886, p. 956. 

3. On the influence of Fucotdal Plants upon the formations of the 
Earth ; on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamor- 
phosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By Prof. G. Forchhammer. 
—lIt was remarked by the Professor, at a meeting of the British Associa- 
tion, that geologists had occupied themselves by extensive observations on 
the beds of sand and clay which have been carried into the ocean, but few 
have paid any attention to the soluble salts which are removed from the 
dry lands by the action of rain. Thus large quantities of potash and 
lime are constantly being carried into the ocean. The conditions of 
marine vegetation were next examined, and the analysis given of a great 
many fucoidal plants, all of which contained an exceedingly large amount 
of potash, often as much as five, and in some cases eight, per cent. Sea- 
water is found to contain but little of this alkali; it must, therefore, be 
concluded that the plants of the ocean have the power of separating the 
potash readily. Of magnesia, about one per cent. of the weight of the 
dried plant was generally found in the ashes. This chemical constitu- 
tion of the ashes of the fucus tribe, explains several great phenomena in 
the general nature of life; and it was suggested that, by returning the 
sea-weed to the land, in the state of manure, we should be restoring to 
it the potash of which it had been deprived. The memoir then entered 
extensively into the question of metamorphism, and gave an examination 
of the clay of the Scandinavian district. It was then shewn that the 
formation of beds, where fucoidal plants have grown, had a considerable 
influence on their structure and composition, as they would derive many 
of their constituents from them. It was conjectured that the conditions 
of the alum slate of Scandinavia were thus modified, As this paper will 
be printed entire in the Reports of the Association, we give but a short 
abstract. 

Prof. Liebig made some remarks on the necessity of alkaline bases 
for plants, and on the remarkable facts brought forward by Prof. Forch- 
hammer, that whilst sea-water contained, in 1000 grains, only 1 grain 
of potash, so large a portion should be found in the fucoidal plants. Mr 
Lyell observed, that the attention of chemists being turned to these great 
geological questions, he anticipated important results to science. He 
had visited the district, and confirmed the statement given.— Atheneum, 
No. 886, p. 955. 

4. On the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay. By M. Agassiz,—The 
group of fish peculiar to the London clay, whose remains are particu- 
larly abundant in the Isle of Sheppy, do not exhibit those strange forms 
which distinguish most of the fish of the more ancient formations ; but 
every thing reminds us of the fish living in the present seas. The ex- 
amination of these remains is attended, however, with difficulty, on 
account of the state in which the specimens are found, imbedded in hard 


Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 179 


clay, which has replaced the soft parts of the fish, and as they belong 
chiefly to the cyecloid and ctenoid orders, with soft scales, which are 
generally of small size, and easily detached and broken, the erania are 
the only portions usually preserved entire. In the classes of reptiles or 
mammalia, the peculiarities presented by the cranium point out, with 
certainty, the relations of the animal to which it belonged; but nothing 
is so variable as the shape of the bones which make up the skeleton of 
a fish’s head, and the multitude of processes and depressions serving 
for the attachment of muscles, gives to this part such a diversity, that the 
ichthyologist must often despair of being able to refer these fossil crania 
to their proper types; especially as they are often incomplete, wanting 
the jaws, the bones of the face, and the opereular and branchial apparatus, 
leaving only the bony inclosure of the brain. The author gives a de- 
tailed anatomical description of the various families. He then insti- 
tutes a comparison between the species found at Sheppy, and those 
now existing on the English coast, and concludes, that although 
their general character is somewhat different, yet their distribution has 
taken place according to the same laws. The forty-four species of fish, 
whose osseous remains are found at Sheppy, are referred to thirty-seven 
genera, nearly all of them unknown in the present seas ; and, excepting the 
gadoids, or cod tribe, their recent representatives are mostly confined to 
southern seas. The important evidence to be derived from a compari- 
son of the scales of these species with those of existing list:, remains to 
be obtained, and is attended with difficulty, as it requires the aid of the 
microscope.—Athenwum, No. 886, p. 956. 

5. On the Toadstone or Amygdaloid of Derbyshire. By J. Alsop.— 
Mr Alsop, at the York meeting of the British Association, observed, that 
many mining operations had been recently made in Derbyshire, with the 
view of finding a continuation of the veins beneath the beds of toad- 
stone,—experiments which are yery difficult, owing to the thickness of 
the toadstone, and uncertain in their results, on account of the varying 
character and productiveness of the strata and veins. In the section of: 
Crich Cliff, a bed of clay, about a foot thick, becomes, within a short dis- 
tance, fourteen fathoms thick, and contains large and hard nodules of 


'toadstone ; and the thick bed of toadstone sunk through at one shaft, 


diminishes to a foot or two in thickness at the other. In the Worksworth 
district, the “ Great clay,” containing blocks of toadstone, is clearly prov- 
ed to be the same as that at Crich, by the three beds of clay below each ; 
of these, the first, or “twenty fathom” clay, is unproductive; the second, 
or “ bearing clay,” is seventeen fathoms lower ; and the third clay, which 
is five fathoms lower still, is remarkably undulating. These “ three 
clays” are also recognisable at the Snitterton mines ; but here, what was 
a thin bed of clay at Crich and Worksworth, becomes a bed of toadstone 
about twelve fathoms thick, The second toadstone at Snitterton is simi- 
lar to the one at Crich and the great clay at Worksworth, and the lime- 
stone resting upon it is similar in its character; there is also, appa- 
rently, another toadstone bearing the same relation to the second as the 
twenty fathom clay at the other places; it is seen at the section of Bon- 
sall, where the three clays, and two beds of toadstone beneath them, are 
well known.—Athenwum, No. 887, p. 976. 

6. Our supposed inexhaustible Stores of Coal.—The opinion, that 
our stores of coal are all but inexhaustible, rests wholly on assumed data, 


180 Scientific Intelligence—G eology. 


and not upon any accurate and detailed statistical accounts, such as alone 
could warrant a confident opinion. This question will, ere long, become 
a subject of serious concern, unless some measures are taken to found 
our calculations on a solid basis. It is an easy matter to assume that a 
considerable thickness of available coal extends over hundreds of square 
miles ; but the different opinions formed by men of the highest respecta- 
bility and talent, strongly prove how meagre and unsatisfactory are the 
only data on which their estimates are founded. It is not, however, the 
mere quantity of coal that is to be considered; especial regard must be 
had to its quality, depth, thickness, extent, and position, Many of the 
inferior seams can only be worked in conjunction with those which, by 
their superior quality, repay the expense of workingt hem at depths vary- 
ing from 300 to 600 yards; and it may readily be conceived that infe- 
rior coal only could not be profitably raised from pits equal in depth to three 
or four times the height of St Paul’s cathedral, unless the price of such 
inferior coal was raised to more than the present price of the best coal, 
It is the additional expense, and consequent additional difficulty, of com- 
peting with other countries, that is the vital question to be considered, It 
is not the exhaustion of mines, but the period at which they can be pro- 
fitably worked, that merits earnest and immediate attention; and it is 
with especial reference to this that the value and increasing necessity for 
mining plans is so strongly apparent. If these inferior seams are not 
worked now, in conjunction with the better seams, they will, in all pro- 
bability, be wholly lost; and, to a certainty, they must be so, if no per- 
manent registration is adopted to show what were the former circum- 
stances of each mine.—7', Sopwith, on the National Importance of pre- 
serving Mining Records. 

7. Eruption of Boiling- Water from the extinct Volcano of Solfatara. 
—From Naples, we lcarn, that the famous extinct voleano of Solfatara, 
near Puzzuoli, the last eruption of which took place in 1198, and which, 
in 1507, according to the writers of the time, threw up immense quanti- 
ties of boilins water, has, for a few days preceding the date of the com- 
munication, repeated that phenomena, the same having been preceded by 
an emission of hot sulphureous vapour. The thermal water ejected is 
thrown from the eastern portion of the crater at intervals, and in the 
form of jets, from 15 to 20 feet in height.— Atheneum, No. 892, p. 1100. 

8. Temperature of the Mediterranean.—M. Aimé has addressed to the 
Academy of Sciences of Paris some observations on the temperature of 
the Mediterranean Sea, of which the following, according to him, are the 
results :— 

1. Near the shores of the Mediterranean, the temperature at the sur- 
face of the sea is notably higher than at a distance from land during the 
day, and sometimes lower during the night. Near the shores of the 
ocean, the temperature at the surface of the sea is lower than at a dis- 
tance from land, 

2: The mean temperature of the year at the surface is nearly the same 
as that of the air. 

3. The diurnal variation of the temperature ceases to be sensible at 
16 or 18 yards, and the annual variation at 300 or 400 yards. 

4. In the morning, after a clear and calm night, the temperaturaof 
the surface is colder than that of the layers situated some yards below it. 


Scientific Intelligence— Mineralogy. 181 


5. The minimum temperature of the deep waters of the Mediterranean 
is equal to the mean of the winter temperatures at the surface. This low 
temperature of the bottom is not, therefore, induced by the entrance of 
the waters of the ocean, but rather by the precipitation of the upper 
strata during the winter.* 

9. On Polarization of Light in reference to the Light of the Sun. Paris 
Academy of Sciences, Oct. 14. M. Arago made some remarks on the 
polarization of light, in reference to whether the light, produced by a 
solid incandescent body, proceeds from the surface or the interior. The 
state of polarization presented by the light, says M. Arago, proves that 
it proceeds from the interior of a solid body; an inflamed gas, on the 
contrary, gives no kind of refraction. Hence, it may be assumed, that the 
luminous portion of the sun isa gas. The light given out by a solid 
body comes partly from its interior, and is not the same which illumi- 
nates it. 


MINERALOGY. 


10. Discovery of Niobium, a New Metal.—In a valuable paper on 
the composition of Tantalite, just published in Poggendorff’s Annals, 
Professor Henry Rose of Berlin announces his discovery of a new metal, 
which he terms Niobium, from Niobe the daughter of Tantalus,—a 
name given to indicate its resemblance to Tantalum. He detected its 
oxide, which he designates Niobic acid, and which differs in many re- 
spects from Tantalic acid, in the Tantalite of Bodenmais in Bavaria. 
Assuming a similar atomic composition for Tantalic acid and Niobic 
acid, the atomic weight of Niobium is greater than that of Tantalum. 
The Niobic acid does not exist in the Tantalite of Finland. 

11. Da:brée on the Occurrence of Asinite in w fossiliferous Rock iv 
the Vosges.—Hitherto axinite does not appear to have been observed in 
any fossiliferous rock; and it may therefore not be uninteresting to 
mention, in some detail, the mode of oceurrence of this substance, as 
lately observed by me at Rothau, in the Vosges ; and I am the more in- 
duced to do this, because we have here a new example of the manner in 
which igneous rocks can alter stratified formations ; not only by their 
heat, but also by the introduction of new elements. Near the village of 
Rothau, in the valley of the Bruche, the transition formation is tra- 
versed by a blackish, very fine grained rock, in which hornblende is dis- 
seminated in small crystals. This rock, for which we may provisionally 
retain the name of trap, forms a hill, termed the le petit Donon de Ro- 
thaw. The transition formation of the locality consists principally of a 
very hard petrosiliceous rock, and, at a little distance from the trap, it 
contains numerous organic remains, and more particularly the Calomo- 
pore spongites of Goldfuss, and Flustra. Nodules of lamellar limestone 
are met with, where these remains of madrepores are accumulated, and 
it is precisely at the same points that epidote, hornblende, and quartz in 
a crystalline state, make their appearance. This association may lead us 
_ to believe, that the carbonate of lime of this rock is of madreporie ori- 
gin, and further, that the epidete and hornblende were formed at the 


* I'rom l'Institut, No, 658, p. 298. 


182 Scientific Intelligence—Chemistry. 


expense of this limestone, and only where it existed. It is remarkable 
that the siliceous rock contains various organie forms, which are per- 
fectly preserved; thus there are impressions of Calomopora spongites, 
which are remarkably distinct, and which are surrounded by a mixture 
of epidote, hornblende, quartz, and lamellar limestone; it thus appears 
that the crystallization of the quartz, of these silicates, and of the lime- 
stone, was effected without there being fusion in the mass. Besides 
these animal remains, there are other cavities of indistinet form, which 
are lined with brilliant erystals of acicular hornblende, of epidote, and 
of quartz, and which, from the similarity of their size to the first, may 
be supposed to be also madreporie impressions, but to have had their 
outlines altered more or less by erystallization. It was in one of these 
cavities that I found small crystals of axinite, presenting the planes de- 
nominated 7 and s by Hatiy. The characteristic reactions of this sub- 
stance leave no doubt as to its nature. Before the blowpipe, it swells 
and melts into a blackish enamel, and, with a mixture of fluor-spar and 
bisulphate of potass, it communicates an intense green colour to the 
flame. The same mineral is also found in erystalline masses, and mixed 
with the four other substances indicated above. If tourmaline was not 
very rare in the neighbouring granitic mountain group of the Champ 
. dw Feu, it would be possible that the debris of that mineral had been 
mechanically disseminated in the slates at the time of their deposition, 
and that, by the infiuence of heat, the axinite was produced from ele- 
ments pre-existing in the rock, as frequently takes place with respect to 
epidote, hornblende, or garnet. This, however, is not the case here; 
and it is much more probable that the boracie acid was conveyed into 
the transition beds, in consequence of the eruption of the trap-rock. The 
metalliferous masses of the S.E. of Norway, situated at the very contact 
of the transition formation with hornblendice rock, or with granite, also 
sometimes contain axinite, which was there formed at the same time as 
the metalliferous combinations, probably by a process analogous to that 
to which the axinite of Rothau owes its origin. The same may probably 
also be true regarding the stanniferous slate of Botallack in Cornwall, 
which contains, besides the oxide of tin, shorl, axinite, garnet, and horn- 
plende. The introduction of boracic acid, whichcontributed tothe formation 
of the axinite at Rothau, and in the metalliferous repositories of the en- 
virons in Christiania, has doubtless some analogy with the emanations of 
boracie acid, which, in Tuscany, abound in the vicinity of serpentine, or 
with the boracic acid evolved from the erater of Vulcano in the Lipari 
islands.* 


CHEMISTRY. 


12. Experiments of Brown and Know.—In_ reference to the experi- 
ments of Brown as to the conversion of paracyanogen into silicon, which 
have been refuted on all sides, Knox has performed experiments on the 
simple nature of nitrogen. For this purpose. he employed ammonia- 


* Communicated to the Academy of Sciences, by Mons. A. Daubree ; Comptes 
Rendus, tom. xvili., p. 870, 


"1 


Scientific Intelligence—Chemistry. 183 


nitruret of potassium, heated with iron filings, in an iron crucible. From 
twenty grains of ammonia-nitruret of potassium, and the same quantity 
of iron, he states, that he obtained silicon, which, when fused with car- 
bonate of potash, afforded 1.55 grains of silica. According to this ex- 
periment, therefore, nitrogen consists of silicon and hydrogen, or of these 
substances combined with oxygen. Statements of this description cannot 
be read without astonishment; but all surprise vanishes when we direct 
our attention to the continuation of the investigation. The experimenter 
prepared siliciuret of potassium by heating silica with potassium ; he 
then passed a current of dry muriatic acid gas over it, and obtained a 
mixture of one volume of nitrogen and four volumes of hydrogen. Who- 
ever prepares siliciuret of potassium in this manner, can also produce any 
gas he pleases.— Berzelius’ Jahres-Bericht, 1844. 

13. On the occurrence of Xanthic Oxide in Gwano.—Magnus has 
announced that Unger has discovered in his laboratory, in guano, the 
substance which Marcet has named Xanthic Oxide. This body, so in- 
teresting to physiologists and chemists, has been hitherto met with only 
twice in pathological secretions of the kidneys. The most extensive 
researches regarding it we owe to Liebig and Wohler, occasioned by 
their labours on the nature of uric acid. They have given it the name 
of xanthine; but these chemists possessed only a very minute quantity 
of it, obtained from a stone which previously served, in part, for the 
investigation of Stromeyer. 

Xanthie oxide is obtained from guano, by dissolving the latter in muri- 
atic acid, and precipitating the solution by an alkali. Caustic potass elimi- 
nates, from the precipitate, a small quantity of it, which is not always the 
same in amount. By the aid of a stream of carbonic acid gas, or by 
the addition of sal-ammoniac, we extract the xanthic oxide from its so- 
lution in potass, from which it separates in proportion as the ammonia 
disengages. The pulverulent and yellowish substance obtained, possesses 
all the properties which Liebig and Wohler have attributed to xanthic 
oxide, and differs from it only in being soluble in muriatic acid, as is 
apparent from its mode of preparation. But Unger has found that 
xanthic oxide forms not only with muriatic acid, but also with various 
other acids, crystallized compounds, which are soluble in water, and 
which he will afterwards fully describe. 

It thus appears that guano, a substance in itself already so remarkable, 
and which promises the same happy results for the agriculture of Europe, 
as it seems to have yielded in very ancient times for that of South Ame- 
rica, promises likewise a rich harvest of interesting facts to science. 

The small proportion in which the xanthic oxide is found in guano, 
does not allow us to suppose that this substance is produced by slow 
decomposition. The inequality with which this body is found diffused 
among the guano, renders it very probable that it is a pathological product 
which was voided along with the excrements of birds, unless we consent 
to admit that it is there as the normal ejectment of certain birds. At all 
events, it would be of the greatest interest to become acquainted with these 
species of birds, which probably are still living.* 


* From Poggendorff’s Annalen., 1844, No. 5, p. 158. 


184 Scientific Intelligence—Zoology. 


14. Heat from Solid Carbonic Acid.—There is a remarkable reaction 
between solid carbonic acid and the caustic alkalies. If a small piece of 
solid carbonic acid be wrapped in cotton, with a little pulverized caustic 
potash, and the whole be pressed between the fingers, so much heat is 
evolved as to make it uncomfortable to hold. This is the most remark- 
able illustration of heat from chemical union. One of the agents em- 
ployed is the coldest substance in nature with whieh we are acquainted, 
that which we select to shew the effects of extreme refrigeration. The 
other is at the natural temperature. Both, moreover, are in the dry or 
solid state. Yet their union or simple contact produces heat sufficient, 
at least, to inflame phosphorus. This reaction is noticed, as it suggests 
some striking experiments. It has very possibly been observed by others, 
though it is not referred to in various works on the subject Ww. F. 
Cuannine, Boston, May 2, 1843, American Journal of Science and Arts, 
Vol. xlvi. No. 1. p. 215. 


ZOOLOGY. 


15. Professor E. Forbes's Bathymetrical Rese rches.—The secretary 
then read part of a letter from Professor Loven of Stockholm on the 
subject of Professor E. Forbes’s bathymetrieal researches. After re- 
marking on the close correspondence between his own researches and 
those of Professor Forbes, he says—‘‘ As to the regions, the Littoral 
and Laminarian are very well defined every where, and their charac- 
teristic species do not spread very far out of them. The same is the 
ease with the region of Florideous Algw, which is most developed 
nearer to the open sea. But it is not so with the regions from 15 to 
100 fathoms. Here is, at the same time, the greatest number of 
species, and the greatest variety of their local assemblages; and it ap- 
pears to me that their distribution is regulated, not only by depths, 
currents, &e., but by the nature of the bottom itself, the mixture of 
clay, mud, pebbles, &c. Thus, for instance, the same species of Am- 
phidesma, Nucula, Natica, Eulima, Dentalium, &c., which are cha- 
racteristic of a certain muddy ground of 15 to 20 fathoms, are found 
together at 80 to 100 fathoms. Hence it appears, that the species in 
this region have generally a wider \ertical range than the Littoral, 
Laminarian, and, perhaps, as great as the Deep Sea coral. The last 
named region is with us characterised in the south by Oculina ramea 
and Terebratula, and in the north by Astrophyton, Cidaris, Spatangus 
purpureus of an immense size,—all living between Gorgonie and the 
gigantic Alcyoniwm arborewm, which continues as far down as any 
fisherman’s line can be sunk. As to the point where animal life 
ceases, it must be somewhere; but with us it is unknown. As vege- 
tution ceases at a line far above the deepest regions of animal life, of 
course the zoophagous mollusca are altogether predominant in those 
parts, while the phytophagous are more peculiar to the upper regions. 
The observation of Professor Forbes, that British species are found in 
the Mediterranean, but only at greater depths, corresponds exactly with 
what has occurred to me. In Bohnslau (between Gottenburg and 
Norway), we find at 80 fathoms, species which, in Finmark, may be 
readily collected at 20; and. on the last-named coast, some species even 


Scientific Intelligence—Zoology. 185 


ascend into the littoral region, which, with us here in the south, keep 
within 10 to 11 fathoms.—Brit. Assoc. Report ; Atheneum, No. 886, 
po ooy. 


16. Guyon on the Cagots of the Pyrenees.—M. Guyon has sent to the 
Academy of Sciences six new drawings of heads of the cagots of the Py- 
renees, in order to justify the opinion he formerly expressed, that an 
anatomical character of the cagots appears to consist in the form of the 
ear, which is rounded, and without alobe. He again called attention to 
another opinion expressed by him, that the cagots belong to a race of 
lofty stature, and perfectly similar in form; and that the goitre and cre- 
tinism, with which many of the cagots are affected, are entirely owing to 
the nature of the localities they inhabit. Accordingly, of the six subjects 
whose ears were represented by him, two were affected with goitre, and 
one with cretinism.* 

17. Coral Fishery.—The Moniteur Algerien gives the following ac- 
count of the coral fishery at La Calle, from the 1st of April to the 30th 
September 1844. The total number of boats employed was 170, of which 
only one was French. The others were—124 Neapolitan, 40 Tuscan, 
4 Sardinian, and 1 Tunisian. The crew of the whole amounted to 1700 
men. The total value of the coral taken is estimated at 1,355,750 frs. ; 
the duties on which, from all the boats employed, except the French, 
which paid no duty, were 179,073 frs. The average gross earnings of 
the boats employed in the fishery amounted to 7975 frs.; but deducting 
the duty, and the expenses of the fishery for wages, wear and tear, &c., 
the average nett profit for each is estimated at 1367 frs. 60 cents. 
The nett profits of the French boats, no duty having been paid, are 
given at 2535 frs.— Atheneum, No. 892, p. 1100. 

18. Goadby’s Method of Preparing Animal Substances.—Mr Goadby 
exhibited before the British Association a series of preparations of animal 
bodies, preserved in glass cases, according to a method of his own sug- 
gestion. Many gentlemen having complained that they had not suc- 
ceeded in preparing animal substances in the way which he recommended, 
he was desirous of stating fully the plans which he pursued. The follow- 
ing were the formule for all the solutions he used :— 


Ai is 
Bay-salt, . ; - - c 4 : : 4 oz. 
Alum, . : E é : - Z 2 oz. 
Corrosive sublimate, : . - : > 2 grains. 
Water, . - ° : : , - : 1 quart. 
A 2. 
Bay-salt, . r ; ’ - é 3 : 4 oz. 
Alum, ; A . A “ i ; F 2 oz. 
Corrosive sublimate, P E F : ‘ 4 grains. 
Water, . 4 : ; 4 : ; - 2 quarts. 


* From l'Institut, No. 559, py: 307. 


186 New Publications. 


B. 
Bay-salt, . : : : ’ ; 2 i $b. 
Corrosive sublimate, F i 3 f 5 2 grains. 
Water, . : ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘ 1 quart. 
BB. 
Bay-salt, . : : : 5 : ‘ ; $ Ib. 
Arsenious acid (or white oxide of arsenic), 2 20 grains. 
Boiling water, ; : : : ‘ ‘ 1 quart. 
Cc 
Bay-salt, . é 4 A : ; ‘ Z 4 Ib. 
Arsenious acid, : x . P 5 ‘ 20 grains. 
Corrosive sublimate, : ‘ : ’ : 2 grains. 
Boiling Water, ’ . : : : : 1 quart. 


The first, A 1, was the ordinary solution he used. A 2, where there 
was a tendency to mouldiness, and the animal texture was tender, as, 
although salt preserved animal matters, it sometimes destroyed the tissue. 
B was used in cases where animals contained carbonate of lime, as, in 
these cases, alum produced decomposition. For old preparations, arsenic 
was substituted for corrosive sublimate, as in BB, but where there was a 
tendency to too much softening, the corrosive sublimate should be added 
as in C. 

Prof. Owen stated that these solutions were better than alcohol for the 
preservation of nervous matter. In the course of his remarks he called 
attention to the dissections of the invertebrate amimals, made by Mr 
Goadby, many of which are at present in the Museum of the College of 
Surgeons. 


NEW PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


1. Review of a System of Mineralogy by James D. Dana. These 
pages contains a full, and, on the whole, a judicious critique of the au- 
thor’s valuable System of Mineralogy, a work noticed in a former num- 
ber of this Journal. 

2. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. 1 vol., pp. 390. 
John Churchill, London. Although we do not agree with the ingenious 
author of this interesting volume in several of his speculations, yet we 
can safely recommend it to the attention of our readers, who will per- 
ccive, from the subjoined table of Contents, that the subjects discussed are 
of an attractivz nature. 

Contents.—The Bodies of Space—Their arrangement and formation 
—Constituent materials of the Earth, and of the other Bodies of Space 
—The Earth formed—Era of the Primary Rocks—Commencement of 
Organic Life—Sea Plants, Corals, &c.—Era of the old Red Sandstone 
—Fishes abundant—Secondary Rocks—Era of the Carboniferous For- 
mation—Land formed—Commencement of Land Plants—Era of the 


New Publications. 187 


new Red Sandstone—Terrestrial Zoology commences with Reptiles— 
First traces of Birds—Era of the Oolite—Commencement of Mammalia 
—Era of the Cretaceous Formation—Era of the Tertiary Formation— 
Mammalia abundant—Era of the Superficial formations—Commence- 
ment of present species—General considerations respecting the origin of 
the Animated Tribes—Particular considerations respecting the origin of 
the Animated Tribes—Hypothesis of the Development of the Vegetable 
and Animal Kingdoms—Macleay’s system of Animated Nature—This 
system considered in connection with the Progress of Organic Creation, 
and as indicating the natural states of Man—Karly history of Mankind 
—WMental Constitution of Animals.—Purpose, and general condition_of, 
the Animated Creation—Note conclusory. 

3. On Landed Property, and the Economy of Estates ; comprehend- 
ing the relation of Landlord and Tenant, and the principles and forms of 
Leases; Farm-Buildings, Enclosures, Drains, Embankments, Roads, 
and other rural works; Minerais and Woods. By David Low, Esq., 
F.R.S.E., &e. 1 vol., pp. 680. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 
London, 1844. We consider this as an invaluable work for landowners, 
tenants, and all who are ntrusted with the management of estates ; and 
we feel satisfied that it will add not a little to the high reputation of tts 
author, Besides the portions of the treatise devoted more immediately 
to Rural Economy, there is a lucid and important section on Mineral 
Property, and more especially on the working of metals, coal, limestone, 
building-stones, dc. There is also an interesting and comprehensive 
chapter on woods, including both the culture of forest-trees, and the ge- 
neral management of wood-land. 

4, Reports on the First, Second, and Third Meetings of the Associa- 
tion of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Philadelphia, in 1840 
and 1841, and at Boston in 1842 ; embracing its Proceedings and Trans- 
actions. Gould, Kendal, and Lincoln. Boston, 1843. 

5. Sandhurst College Text-Books,—Astronomy and Geodesy. By 
Professor Narrien, F.R.S., &c. 1 vol., pp. 427. Longman, Brown, 
Green, and Longmans, Paternoster Row, London. 1845. 

6. A History of Crustacea. By Thomas Bell, F.R.S., &c. Part I. 
John Van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row, London. 1844. 

7. The Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical; pre- 
senting a Complete and Extended View of the Present State of Chemical 
Science. By James C. Booth, Mem. of the Am. Phil Soc., &c.; and 
Martin H. Boye, Mem. of the Am. Phil. Soc. Carey and Hart, Phila- 
delphia. Sia numbers of this work have reached us. Judging from the 
industry, research, and accuracy of the authors, we anticipate, that, 
when finished, it will contribute to the advancement of chemical science, 
and find a place in every chemical laboratory and library. The style, 
too, in which it is got up is very creditable to the American publishers. 


188 List of Patents. 


8. Tableau Général des Poissons Fossiles rangés par Terrains. Par 
Louis Agassiz. Neuchatel, 1844. 

9. Notice sur la Succession des Poissons Fossiles, dans la Série des 
Formations Geologiques. Par Louis Agassiz. Neuchatel, 1843. 

10. Essai sur la Classification des Poissons. Par Louis Agassiz. 
Neuchatel, 1844. 

11. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, up to No. 10 of 
the year 1844. 

12. Comptes Rendus, up to No. 26 (24 Juin 1844) of the Premier 
Semestre, of the year 1844. 

13. Silliman’s American Journal of Science and the Arts, up to No. 2 
of vol. xlvii. for July, August, and September, 1844. 

14. Bibliothéque Universelle de Genéve, up to October 1844; but 
September not received. 

15. Guide to the Geology of Scotland. By Mr James Nicol. Oliver 
and Boyd. Edinburgh, 1844. Pp. 272,12mo. With map and nume- 
rous coloured sections. This cheap and generally accurate compilation 
will be useful to the travelling geologist in his progress through Scotland. 

16. Geology, Introductory, Descriptive, and Practical. By Professor 
Ansted of King’s College, London. 2 vols. 8vo. John Van Voorst. 
London, 1844. Professor Ansted’s beautifully <llustrated and interest- 
ing work affords the best view of English Geology hitherto produced. On 
this ground we recommend it to the particular a tention of Geologists. 

17. Studien des Gottingischen Vereins Bergminnischer Freunde. 
Von Joh. Friedr. Ludw. Hausmann. Fiinften Bandes Zweites Heft. 
8vo, 1844. 

18. Ueber eine Lageranliche Basaltische Ausfiillung am Ochsenberge 
unweit Dransfeldt. Von J. Fr. L. Hausmann. 

19. On some Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium and Giraffe from the 
Sewalik Hills in North India. By H. Faleoner, M.D., F.G.S., and 
Captain P. T. Cautley of the Bengal Artillery, F.G.S. 

20. On the Glacier Question.— Quelques Remarques sur les Discussions 
qu’ont Suscitées les Rescherches de cette Année (1841); and Bulletin 
de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel. 

21. Sur la Dispersion du Terrain Erratique entre le Jura et les Alps, 
dans la Suisse Occidentale et en Savoie. Par Arnold Guyot, Docteur 
et Professeur. 


List of Patents granted for Scotland from 24th September to 
20th December 1844. 


_ 1. To Perer Roruwett Jackson, of Strawberry Hill, near Manches- 
ter, in the county of Lancaster, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in the 


ee 


List of Patents. 189 


construction and manufacture of wheels, cylinders, hoops, and rollers, 
and in the machinery or apparatus connected therewith, and also im- 
provements in steam-valves.’”’—24th September 1844, 


2. To Witton George Turner, of Gateshead, in the county of Durham, 
doctor in philosophy, “‘ an improved mode of directing the passage of, 
and otherwise dealing with, the noxious vapours and other matters aris- 
ing from chemical works in certain cases.’’"—25th September 1844. 


3. To Tuomas Foxter, of the firm of William Collier and Co., of Man- 
chester, in the county of Lancaster, engineer, “ certain improvements in 
machinery, tools or apparatus for turning, boring, and cutting metals and 
other substances.””—30th September 1844. 


4. To Henry Oriver Rosinson, of No. 12, Old Jewry, in the city of 
London, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in steam machinery and ap- 
paratus for the manufacture and refining of sugar.”—-Ist October 1844. 


5, To Pryce Bucntey Wittrames, of Llegodig, in the county of Mont- 
gomery, North Wales, “ certain improvements in the manufacture of ar- 
tificial stone.”’—9th October 1844. 


6, To Jean Bapriste Paut Cuappe, of Manchester, in the county of 
Lancaster, spinner and doubler, “‘ certain improvements in machinery or 
apparatus for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances,” 
—%th October 1844, 


7. To Jacoz Samupa, of the Southwark Iron Works, engineer, and 
Josrru D’Acuitar Samupa, of the same place, engineer, “ certain im- 
provements in the manufacture and arrangement of parts and apparatus 
for the construction and working of atmospheric railways.”—10th Octo- 
ber 1844. 


8. To Wittiam Crarke, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, “‘ improve- 
ments in machinery for manufacturing ornamented bobbin net or twist 
lace.’’—15th October. 1844. 


9. To Witt1am Cormack, of York Street, Commercial Road, in the 
county of Middlesex, manufacturing chemist, “ a new or improved method 
or plan for purifying coal-gas,””—15th October 1844. 


10. To Vice-Admiral Sir Granam Even Hamonp, Baronet, K.C.B., of 
Norton Lodge, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, being a communication from 
his son Commander Anprew Snare Hamonp, R.N., now commanding 
Her Majesty’s steam sloop of war Salamander, stationed in the Pacific, 


improvements in the mode of fastening on and reefing paddle-wheel 
float-boards, or paddles.”—15th October 1844. 


11. To Grorce Avaustus Koiimann, of the German Chapel, St James’s 
Palace, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements in 
railways and locomotive and other carriages.’”—16th October 1844. 


190 List of Patents. 


12. To Wiii1am Henry Rircutie, of Lincoln’s Inn, in the county of 
Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, ‘ improve- 
ments in obtaining copper from ores.’’—17th October 1844. 


13. To Ricuarp Roserrs, of the Globe Works, Manchester, in the 
county of Lancaster, engineer, ‘‘ certain improvements in machinery or 
apparatus for the preparation of cotton wool and flax, and also for 
spinning and doubling cotton, silk, wool and other fibrous substances.” 
—19th October 1844. 

14. To Joun Grieve, of Portobello, in the county of Edinburgh, Scot- 
land, engineer, ‘‘ certain improvements in the production and use of 
steam, applicable to steam-engines.’’—21st October 1844. 


15. To Rosert Hazarp, of Clifton, near the city of Bristol, confec- 
tioner, ‘‘ improvements in baths.” — 21st October 1844. 


16. To Pierre ArManp LE ComTe pre Fonrarnemoreatu, of the English 
and Foreign Patent Office, 1 Skinner’s Place, Sise Lane, in the city of 
London, being a communication from abroad, “ for a new mode of con- 
structing barometers and other pneumatic instruments.’””—22d October 
1844, 

17. To Joun Henry Rent, of Moscow Road, in the county of Middle- 


sex, surgeon, ‘“‘ improvements in the manufacture of starch and farinaceous 
food.’’—22d October 1844. 


18: To Isatan Davies, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, en- 
gineer, ‘“‘ certain improvements in steam-engines, part of which improve- 
ments are applicable to impelling wheel-carriages.’””—26th October 1844. 

19. To Freperickx Steiner, of Hyndburn Cottage, near Accrington, in 
the county of Lancaster, turkey-red dyer, ‘‘ a new colouring matter to be 
used in dyeing certain colours on cotton, woollen, silk, and linen fabrics.” 
—30th October 1844. 

20. To Moses Poots, of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, being a 
communication from abroad, ‘‘ improvements in machinery for emptying 
privies and cess-pools.’’— 30th October 1844. 

21. To Tuomas Brown Jorpan, of Cottage Road, Pimlico, in the county 
of Middlesex, mathematical divider, “ improvements in the manufacture 
of blocks, or surfaces for surface printing, embossing, and moulding.” — 
11th November 1844. 

22. 'To Grorce Frrcusson Witson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, in the county 
of Surry, gentleman ; Grorce Gwynne, of Princes Street, Cavendish 
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman; and James Pixzans 
Wixtson, of Belmont aforesaid, gentleman, ‘‘ improvements in treating 
fatty and oily matters, and in the manufacture of candles and night 
lights.”,—11th November 1844. 


23. To James Pitsrow of Tottenham, in the county of Middlesex, civil 


J oe ia ome. Oty >. « 


h 
‘ 


List of Patents. 191 


engineer, ‘ certain improvements in propelling carriages on railways 
and common roads, and vessels on rivers and canals.’’—13th November 
1844. 

24. To Sir Grorce Stevart Mackenzre of Coul, in the county of Ross, 
Baronet, ‘‘an improvement or improvements in the manufacture of 
paper, more particularly for the purposes of writing and copying writings, 
and machinery for effecting the same; also the manufacture of a fluid 
or fluids, to be used with the improved paper in the manner of ink.’’— 
15th November 1844. 


25. To Witt1am Bepineton Junior, of Birmingham, in the county of 
Warwick, manufacturer, ‘‘ improvements in the construction of furnaces.”’ 
—18th November 1844, 

26. To Joun Dearman Duyniciirr, of the town and county of the town 
of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, Witt1am Crorts, of New Lenton, in 
the county of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, and Joun Woopuouse Bac- 
LEY, of New Radford, in the county of Nottingham, mechanic, ‘‘ certain 
improvements in the manufacture of lace and other weavings.”—18th 
November 1844. 

27. To Fretix Moreau, of Ghent, in the kingdom of Belgium, engineer, 
** improvements in the manufacture of corks, and other similar articles 
made of cork-wood or other materials, and the application of certain of 
the refuse matters to various useful purposes for which they have never 
heretofore been employed.—19th November 1844. 


28. To Joun Groom, of Oldham, in the county of Lancaster, mechanic, 
“certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing, slub- 
bing and roving, cotton, wool-and other fibrous materials.’-—22d Novem- 
ber 1844. 

29. To Jostas CuristorHer Gampie, of St Helens, in the county of 
Lancaster, manufacturing chemist, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of 
sulphuric acid.” —25th November 1844. 


30. To Witt14M Jounson, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, agent, 
“improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing cotton, wool, 
flax, and other fibrous substances.’”’—25th November 1844. 

31. To Esenezer May Dorr, of Ludgate Hill, in the city of London, 
gentleman, being a communication from abroad, and partly his own in- 
yention, ‘‘improvements in the manufacture of horse-shoe nails,” —25th 
November 1844. 

32. To Roserr Wittiam Srevier, of Henrietta Street, Cavendish 
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements 
in looms for weaving, and in the mode or method of producing plain or 
figured goods or fabrics.”’—26th November 1844. 


33. To James Nasmyru, of Patricroft, in the county of Lancaster, 


192 List of Patents. 


civil-engineer, “ certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for 
hewing, dressing, splitting, breaking, stamping, crushing, and pressing 
stone or other materials.”—27th November 1844. 


34. To Davin Avcp, engineer, of Dalmarnock Road, and AnpREw 
Autp, engineer, of No. 78 West Street, Tradestown, both in Glasgow, 
in the county of Lanark. “‘ an improved method or methods of regulating 
the pressure and generation of steam in steam-boilers and generators.’”’— 
29th November 1844. 

35. To Cuartes Watterson, of the firm of MacGuire, Watterson, 
and Co., of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, soap manufacturers, 
“certain improvements in the manufacture of soap.”—9th December 
1844. 

36. To Louis JosepH Watieranp, of Basing Lane, in the city of 
London, merchant, being a communication from abroad, ‘‘ improvements 
in dyeing or staining various kinds of fabrics.” 16th December 1844. 

37. To AtexanpEeR Turngutt, of No, 48 Russell Square, in the 
county of Middlesex, doctor of medicine, ‘‘ a new mode or method of 
more expeditious y and effectually tanning hides and skins, and of ex- 
tracting and separating the catechnic acid from the tannin acid, in the 
catechu or terra japonica used in tanning.’”’—18th December 1844. 

38. To Henry Cartwrieut, of the Dean, near Broseley, in the 
county of Salop, farmer, “‘ certain improvements in the construction of 
paddle-wheels.”—20th December 1844, 


THE 


EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. 


On the Life and Writings of Commandant Emile Le Puillon 
de Boblaye. By M. Rozxnt.* 


Those who become devoted to the study of the sciences, 
soon cease to think of themselves, under the influence of that 
strong attraction which this pursuit presents to the mind. 
Filled with the desire of advancing farther than their prede- 
cessors, they steadily follow the road on which they have en- 
tered, without being deterred by its length or the difficulties 
they encounter at every step: in their eyes, the removal of 
one obstacle is only an additional motive for attempting to 
overcome another even more formidable. Thus advancing 
from one degree of success to another, the man devoted to 
science seldom looks to what he has done, but rather to what 
yet remains for him to do, in order to accomplish the object 
which his genius has assigned to him. But at last bis strength 
gives way, disease assails his person, and he expires in the 
midst of his vast undertakings, when he imagined that he had 
still a long time to live, and when many years were still ne- 
cessary to complete what his comprehensive mind had con- 
ceived. Such has been the fate of all men of superior mind 
whom nature has placed on this earth in order to enlighten 
others ; such has been that of the colleague whose prema- 
ture loss we now deplore. 


* Read to the Geological Society of France, at its meeting on Ist 
April 1844. 
VOL. XXXVUI. NO. LXXVI.— APRIL 1845 N 


194 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of 


EMILE LE PUILLON DE BoBLAYE, Chef d’escadron au corps 
royal d’etat-major, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and 
of the Greek order of the Saviour, Member of the Geolo- 
gical Society of France, and of many other learned Societies, 
was born at Pontivy, in the department of Morbihan, on the 
16th November 1792. His father, member of the Chambre des 
Comptes of Brittany, died in 1838, being president of the Civil 
Tribunal of Pontivy. His mother, a highly educated woman 
and of great merit, having undertaken the early education of 
her six children, did not fail to inspire them with that filial 
and fraternal affection which has its source in the heart of 
mothers, and to excite in them a strong taste for study. On 
leaving his mother, Emile de Boblaye entered the College of 
Pontivy, where his brilliant success soon shewed the strength 
and superiority of his intellect, both to his teachers and fel- 
low-pupils. From the College of Pontivy he went to that of 
Rouen, where he completed the studies required for the Po- 
lytechnie School, into which he was admitted in the month of 
November 1811, his name being the ninth on the list of 
merit. 

On the 25th September 1813, he left this celebrated school, 
with the brevet of sub-lieutenant in the Imperial corps of 
military geographical engineers. He had been six months 
in the école d’application of this corps, when severity of cli- 
mate, joined to the defection of our allies, after having opened 
the gates of France to united Europe, brought under the walls 
of Paris the remains of those innumerable legions, before 
which our valiant soldiery had shed almost the last drop of 
their blood. At this period of mournful recollection, the de- 
fence of the Barrizre du. Tréne was entrusted to the batta- 
lion of the Polytechnic School, in which there happened to 
be one of Boblaye’s brothers. Influenced by his patriotism 
as well as by his attachment to this brother, he ran and 
placed himself by his side, and shared, by his spirited con- 
duct, in the glory which the Polytechnic School acquired in 
that memorable defence. 

When peace was re-established among the nations of Ku- 
rope, and the mutilated remains of our valiant army were 
permitted to sheath their swords, the government conceived 


Commandant #. le Puillon de Boblaye. 195 


the happy idea of employing the geographical engineers in 
constructing a great topographical map of France; a map 
which might supersede that of Cassini, which was concluded 
in the midst of civil discord, and the accuracy of which the 
lapse of time and the progress of the sciences had alike tend- 
ed to impair. Boblaye was connected with the geodetical 
department of this great work; and, along with Colonel 
Bonne, he took part in measuring the perpendicular from 
Brest to Strasburg, on which both geodetical and astrono- 
mical observations were at the same time made, with a view 
to determine the general form of our planet. 

While engaged in this occupation, which lasted for several 
years, our colleague had to spend a long time among the 
ancient formations of Brittany, the geognostical relations of 
which were, as yet, very imperfectly known. Geographical 
engineers are often obliged to remain many successive days 
at a signal-post, on the top of a mountain, till the bad wea- 
ther cease, or a cloud, which covers another signal, be dis- 
persed. In such circumstances Boblaye did not remain in- 
active ; his scrutinizing glance, embracing all around him, 
when prevented examining the heavens, was busily employed 
upon the earth. It is to these circumstances that we are in- 
debted, in part, for the numerous geological observations 
with which he has enriched science, and which, on his return 
to the capital, he communicated to Cuvier, Cordier, Brong- 
niart, &c. It was while exploring Brittany that our inti- 
macy commenced, and I have often had the advantage of be- 
coming acquainted with his beautiful discoveries before those 
under whose direction we both studied. Our colleague was 
long in coming to a determination to publish his work on this 
curious portion of France, although he had amassed a great 
quantity of materials. Influenced by his filial love, as well 
as by his taste for geology, he often returned to this province ; 
and he had examined it in every direction. The first result 
of his researches was the discovery of a new ore of iron, the 
mining of which soon became a new source of riches for the 
country. It was not till the year 1827, that his Lssay on the 
Configuration and Geological Constitution of Brittany,* made 


* Annales du Museum, t. xv. 


196 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of 


its appearance ; a work full of new facts, described with that 
clearness, and classified with that judgment, for which our 
colleague was distinguished. Geologists were then enabled 
to understand the relations which exist between the different 
stratified formations of Brittany and the large quantity of 
plutonic rocks which have traversed and modified them at 
so many points. 

Being connected with the topographical operations in the 
north of France in the year 1827, Boblaye engaged with great 
ardour in the study of the jurassic formation of that coun- 
try, when he was seized with brain fever, which brought him 
nearly to the grave. Happily, however, the strength of his 
constitution enabled him to overcome this attack, and as soon 
as he was able to walk, he resumed his favourite studies. 
His Memoir on the jurassic formation of the north of France,* 
appeared in 1829. He points out, in this treatise, the rela- 
tions of the different members of the series with those of 
England, to which the attention of all the Continental geolo- 
gists was then directed. 

In the course of this same year, he was subjected to a 
severe affliction. He received an order to set out for Greece, 
where a French army had just put a final stop to Ottoman en- 
croachments, at a moment when the hopeless condition of 
his younger brother, the individual who shared in his attach- 
ment to geology, required him not to leave his bedside. He 
complied with the order as soon as another Boblaye arrived 
to take his place beside the dying youth; and scarcely had 
he set foot in the vessel which was to convey him to Greece, 
when his brother’s death took place. 

The campaign in the Peloponnesus, to a mind so intelli- 
gent and active as that of our fellow member, was the occa- 
sion of a multitude of researches and important discoveries. 
No intellect could remain inactive in such a country ; Ais em- 
braced every thing, geodesy, topography, geology, archzolo- 
gy, &. &e. Conjointly with his companion Pétier, he began 
to make a great trigonometrical survey, in order to lay the 
foundations of a general map of the country. While so do- 
ing, he soon exposed himself to the influences which produce 


* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Mai 1829. 


Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 197 


that cruel disease which eventually deprived us of him alto- 
gether. From a desire of seeing as much of the country as 
possible, he would not submit to follow the convoy which 
transported the instruments and baggage. Hastening for- 
wards, he arrived alone, very much heated, on the moun- 
tains, and immediately began to examine the country with his 
telescope. Soon the cold seized him; and this imprudent 
act, very often repeated, at last brought upon him a severe 
fever. Numerous successive attacks of this kind often ob- 
liged him to interrupt his labours. At last the disease made 
such progress, that, in the month of August 1830, Boblaye 
was compelled to leave the Morea and return to France. It 
was now upwards of sixteen years that an individual so dis- 
tinguished had been connected with scientific works of high 
importance, during which enlightened views and remarkable 
memoirs had va indicated his genius, and yet this indi- 
vidual had only attained the rank of Captain, so peculiar was 
the organization of the body of geographical engineers. 
Although he did not remain above sixteen months in 
Greece, our colleague brought back with him an enormous 
mass of materials. He assisted in the great work published 
under the direction of Colonel Bory de Saint Vincent, and 
drew up, in connection with M. Virlet, the geological and 
mineralogical portion.* M. Boué has said :+—** Our fellow 
members, MM. Boblaye and Virlet, cannot be sufficiently re- 
warded for the valuable present they have made to science 
at the expense of their own health. M. Boblaye introduces 
the geological description of Greece by a survey of the re- 
cent progress and present state of geology. In this sketch, 
we perceive the touch of a skilful geographer and geologist, 
who searches for truth above every thing else with the cool- 
ness of a mathematician.” We have learned, from the publica- 
tion of our colleagues, that Olympus and Pindus are composed 
of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate, of tale-slate and granular 
limestone ; that Attica, Mount Athos, the Chalcidie Cherso- 
nesus, the mountains of Macedonia, and the isle of Thaso with 


* Description of Greece, &c. 
+ Resumé of the progress of Geology for 1833, p. 346, and following. 


198 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of 


its marbles, present also the same rocks ; that a long band of 
the jurassic and chalk formations extends along Carniola and 
Albania as far as the Gulf of Lepanto ; that the tertiary for- 
mation is developed in the Thracian Chersonesus, as also in 
the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace, and Tenedos: fi- 
nally, that numerous traces of recent eruptions are to be seen 
in the islands of the gulf of Athens, nearly all of which are 
voleanic. 

For his geological description, Boblaye drew up a map on 
a scale of ss5ie50, reduced from the great map of the Mo- 
rea, in six sheets, published by the War Department. This 
map, coloured geologically, in concert with M. Virlet, is en- 
titled, ‘‘ Map of the Morea and the Cyclades, representing 
the principal facts of ancient geography, and also of natural 
geography.” It is accompanied by a learned memoir, en- 
titled “‘ Geographical researches on the ruins of the Morea.” 
This memoir comprehends all the information that resulted 
from the labours of the members of the scientific expedition 
and the officers employed in constructing the map, respect- 
ing the topography of the ruins of the ancient Peloponnesus. 
This remarkable work, which would have opened the doors of 
the Academy of Inscriptions to our colleague, if he had lived 
longer, cost him three years’ researches in the works of anti- 
quity and those of the middle ages, and in the writings of 
modern travellers. It makes us acquainted with the boun- 
daries of every state, and of every province; and furnishes curi- 
ous details respecting the towns, and all the ruins which time 
and the hands of barbarians have not entirely swept away. 

On his return from Greece, Boblaye read to the Society a 
memoir entitled, “ Notice respecting the alterations produced 
on the calcareous rocks along the shores of Greece by the 
action of the sea.’* The new and original observations em- 
bodied in this essay, tend to fix the principles by which we 
may recognise the traces of ancient sea-beaches in the inte- 
rior of countries. 

Having been elected secretary to the Geological Society in 
1834, he made a very remarkable report on the works of the 


* Bulletin of the Geological Society of France, t. i., p. 150; and 
Jameson’s Journal. 


Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 199 


members during the year 1832 and1833. Atthe extraordinary 
meeting at Alencon, in 1837, he presented a geological map 


he had marked the heights at which the various formations 
come in contact. The map was accompanied by a sheet of 
sections, indicating the relative position of these forma- 
tions, and the configuration of the surface : it is to be regret- 
ted that this work was never published. It was at the close 
of the meeting at Alengon, that the celebrated Buckland, 
while returning thanks to the officers of the Society, ex- 
pressed the esteem which he and his fellow-countrymen en- 
tertained for the geological works of Boblaye. 

Our fellow-member was employed in arranging the nu- 
merous observations which he had made in the department 
of Orne, when he received orders to repair to Africa, in order 
to triangulate the newly-acquired conquests in the province of 
Constantine. There, as in Greece, he engaged with ardour 
in the study of natural history, geography, and archeology. 
On his return to France, in the beginning of 1839, he an- 
nounced to the Society, at its first sitting in February, that a 
great portion of the province consisted of the chalk formation, 
containing Cadilli and Inocerami, of the same species as those 
of the chalk of Valogne ; and that this formation is covered by 
a thick deposit of calcareous marl, rich in fossils, which must 
belong to the lower portion of the tertiary formation. From 
this important fact, he concludes that the tertiary formations 
must s’echelonner, with relation to the basin of the Mediter- 
ranean, in the same manner in the south as in the north. 
A short time after this interesting communication, having 
returned to Pontivy, he presented to the Society numerous 
specimens of mAcliferous slates, from the Salles of Rohan, 
containing, at the same time, mdcles (chiastolites) of consi- 
derable size, spirifers, and trilobites, evident proofs of the 
metamorphism of these rocks. 

Having been appointed member of the Scientific Com- 
mission of Algeria, he again went to Africa in August 1839. 
In the month of November, in the same year, he accompanied 
the Duke of Orleans in the famous expedition of the Portes- 
de-Fer. This young prince, whose loss France still deplores, 


200 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of 


required to see our colleague only for a short time, in order 
to appreciate his high talent, his courage, and the noble 
frankness of which he gave him many proofs during this 
campaign. Captain Boblaye had reported at head-quarters 
that the corps d’armée was keenly engaged with the Ka- 
byles, when the Duke of Orleans, who heard the firing, asked 
of those around him, ‘‘ What has taken place with the ad- 
vanced guard ?”—* Nothing of importance,” his attendants 
replied, as they wished to prevent him exposing himself; 
“‘ Nothing of importance!” replied Boblaye, “ the enemy is 
in force, and there is hot work, your Highness!” The 
Duke started instantly at the gallop, and fought like the rest. 
Our colleague was appreciated by this prince, not only as a 
soldier, but still more as a savant. He often spoke to him 
of geology and archeology. The beautiful escarpments of the 
Atlas mountains, the masses of marine shells accumulated 
at a great many different places, the remains of Roman roads, 
the ruins of cities, the forts and triumphal arches erected by 
the ancient masters of Africa, elevated his youthful and bril- 
liant imagination. He often asked Boblaye for information, 
and requested him to give his opinion respecting so many 
wonders ; and the profound knowledge which our fellow-mem- 
ber evinced in his replies, obtained for him the esteem and 
friendship of his Highness, who, on his return from this 
glorious campaign, presented him with a snuff-box orna- 
mented with his cipher. On the 28th February 1840, he was 
appointed chef d’escadron d’etat-major, after being twenty- 
four years in the rank of officer. 

Commandant Boblaye returned to France at the close of 
1839, and, fatigued with the wandering life he had hitherto 
led, thought of enjoying repose. He married on the 10th 
February 1840, but was soon obliged to tear himself from 
his new affections, as the topographical section of the African 
army had need of a skilful and courageous chief. On the 
6th March he again left Paris, and recrossed the Mediter- 
ranean. 

In the two preceding campaigns, the health of the command- 
ant, already impaired by the fevers of Greece, had suffered se- 
yere shocks. The fatigues of that upon which he now entered 


Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 201 


soon developed in him a scorbutic complaint, which obliged 
him to return to Europe for proper treatment. Believing 
himself cured, he resumed his labours on the map of France, 
at which he continued, as head of the Topographical Section, 
till 1842. At this period, the veneration which his fellow- 
countrymen entertained for his family, the esteem which his 
extensive knowledge had procured for him, and the confi- 
dence which his frank and loyal character had inspired, 
caused him to be elected, by a large majority, deputy for the 
arrondissement of Pontivy, his native town. 

From that moment a new series of ideas took possession 
of his mind, and he abandoned geology. Having accepted 
a political trust, he thought that all his time was due to 
his country : what time was left from examining projected 
laws, the labours of the committees appointed by the Cham- 
ber, and attending to the necessities and wants of his con- 
stituents, he devoted to the study of the national finances. 
In 1843, he published a curious and important synoptical 
table of the revenues, expenses, debt, and public credit in 
France. This table was to be followed by others, all the 
materials for which were already collected. 

But the terrible attacks his health had sustained since 
1827, had produced a great change on his vigorous constitu- 
tion. The activity of his mind, and his love for study, pre- 
vented him from perceiving the progress of his disease and 
yielding to the advice of his friends, who recommended rest. 
Last year, wishing to finish a great geological map of Brit- 
tany, long since commenced, he set out for that province, 
and took part in the military evolutions of the camp of Plé- 
lan, near Rennes. He there fatigued himself too much, and 
returned to Paris extremely unwell. The germs of the dis- 
ease he had contracted in the Ardennes, in Greece, and in 
Africa, soon developed themselves with such virulence, that 
it was impossible for his physicians to arrest its progress. 

Boblaye bore the pain of this dreadful disease with a for- 
titude which never for a moment gaye way. He saw the 
approach of death with tranquillity and resignation, and 
breathed his last on the 4th December 1843, solely occupied 
with those he left behind him, his wife and young child. On 


202 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 


the 6th, his brother, chef d’escadron d’artillerie, who was pre- 
sent at the time of his death, his numerous friends, his col- 
leagues of the Chamber of Deputies, of the Geological So- 
ciety, of the Philomathie Society, and his brother officers, 
assembled to convey his mortal remains to their final resting 
place, which was by the side of his younger brother, who died 
in 1829. 
Sit illis terra levis ! 

Twice had our fellow-member enjoyed the honour of being 
on the list of candidates for admission into the Geological 
Section of the Academy of Sciences, and he had the prospect 
of being elected at the next vacancy. 

There were found in his portfolio many unpublished notes 
on his travels in Greece, Africa, and the interior of France, 
on the public finances, and, finally, the first part of a great 
work on the Roman roads in Gaul. Death overtook him in 
the midst of his labours, at a period when, as with so many 
other men of genius, knowing that there remained for him 
much to do, he believed that he had still a long time to live. 


Comparative Remarks on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 
South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. By Dr A. 
PHILIPPI. 


In comparing the Molluscous Fauna of the Sicilian Seas* 
with the Mollusca which, during the tertiary period, were 
contained in the seas out of which a large portion of Sicily 
and Calabria was elevated, the following are the principal 
questions that present themselves :—Ils¢, Were the seas at 
the time of the tertiary period generally richer or poorer in 
mollusea than they are at present? 2d, How many of the 
species living at the present day existed at that time, and 
survived the catastrophes which separate the tertiary period 


* As connected with this subject we would refer our readers to an in- 
teresting Memoir by Dr Philippi, on the Molluscous Animals of South 
Italy, compared with those of other regions ; translated in the first num- 
ber of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society—a periodical to 
which we wish all success.—ED. 


South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 208 


from our own epoch ? and how many species were destroyed by 
these catastrophes ? 3d, Do the species which are common to 
both periods present differences with reference to their relative 
abundance, or to their size and other characters, which, al- 
though in themselves considerable, are still not of sufficient 
importance to justify a specific separation ? 4th, What are 
the relations of the individual localities which afford fossils ? 
Are they all of the same age ? and can subdivisions be esta- 
plished in the tertiary formation of Southern Italy! dé, 
What are the relations of the tertiary formation of Southern 
Italy to other tertiary formations ? 

I am not in possession of sufficient data to answer the last 
question satisfactorily, but my investigations have led me to 
the following results respecting the four preceding queries. 


I. Comparative number of the Mollusca of the present epoch, 
and of the Tertiary Period. 


In the tertiary beds of Southern Italy, it is almost exclu- 
sively marine shells which are met with, and, of course, no 
remains of naked mollusca are found. If we subtract the lat- 
ter as well as the land and fresh water mollusca from the 
total number of living mollusca which have been observed, 
there remain— 

188 Marine Bivalves, 

10 Brachiopoda, 

11 Pteropoda, 
313 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, 
15 Cirrhipeda, 


In all 537 Mollusca which could occur in a fossil state. 
The number of fossil mollusca hitherto found amounts to— 


231 Marine Bivalves, 
13 Brachiopoda, 
5 Pteropoda, 
322 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, 
5 Cirrhipeda. 


576 


It thus appears that, at the time of the Tertiary period, the 
sea was but a little richer in mollusca than it is at present. 


204 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusea of the 


It must be granted that future investigations will probably 
add a larger number to the list of fossils than to that of liv- 
ing species ; but, on the other hand, it is to be remembered 
that the tertiary period lasted a much longer time, and that, 
during its continuance, species became extinct and new ones 
were added. It is therefore extremely probable that, dur- 
ing the tertiary period, the sea was neither poorer nor richer 
in mollusca than it is at present.* 

The relative numbers belonging to the principal orders 
were somewhat different from what they are at present ; thus 


we have— 
During the ter- At the pre- 
tiary period. sent epoch. 


Marine Bivalves, . ; 3 z ; 0.40 0.35 
Brachiopoda, z Z ; : : 0.024 0.02 
Pteropoda, . : : : 0.01 0.02 
Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, ; 0.56 0.58 
Cirrhipeda, . d : : é F 0.01 0.03 


The Bivalves and Brachiopoda, therefore, predominated 
more at a former period than they do at present, and the 
Gasteropoda and Cirrhipeda are now more numerous than 
they were formerly. Hence, I think, we may conclude that, 
at the time of the Tertiary period, there were fewer coasts in 
existence, and that the submarine land, which is now con- 
verted into dry land, then consisted chiefly of shallows. 


II. Relative numbers of the extinct and living species. 


Of the 537 marine mollusca which could occur in the fossil 
state, I have not met with the following 169 (not quite a 
third part) among the Tertiary petrifactions of Southern 
Italy :— 


BIVALVES. 
Clavagella balanorum, Scac. Teredo Bruguieri, D. Ch. 
angulata, Ph, palmulata, D. Ch. 
Teredo navalis, Z. Pholas candida, LZ. 


* If we were to adopt this principle as the basis of our calculations, 
and to divide the whole geological series only into the tertiary, chalk, 
Jura, old secondary, and transition formations, the number of fossil spe- 
cies would amount to at least five times as many as that of the living ; 
and if, on a moderate calculation, we were to reckon the latter at 8000, 
the former would amount to about 40,000 species ! 


South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 205 


Solen legumen, LZ. 
Panopzea Aldroyandi, Men. 
Scrobicularia piperata, Gm. 
Cottardi, Pay. 
Erycina ovata, Pi. 
Bornia seminulum, Ph. 
Solenomya mediterranea, Lam. 
Corbula revoluta, Broc. 
Pandora flexuosa, Sow. 
Thracia ovalis, Ph. 
fabula, Ph. 
Galeomma Turtoni, Sow. 
Venerupis decussata, Ph. 
Tellina fabula, Gm. 
Coste, Ph. 
baltica, L. 
Lucina? bipartita, Ph. 
Scacchia elliptica, Scac. 
ovata, Ph. 
Venus geographica, G. 
leeta, Poli. 
aurea, Mat, 
Beudanti, Pay. 
nitens, Ph. and Se. 


Cardium seabrum, Ph. 

paryum, Ph, 

Area seabra, Poli. 

imbricata, Poli. 

Pectunculus lineatus, Ph. 

Modiola costulata, Fiss. 

Pinna truncata, Ph. 

rudis, L. 
pectinata, L. 
muricata, Pol, 
marginata, Lam. 
vitrea, Gm. 

Lima inflata, Lam. 

Pecten sulcatus, Lam. 
Teste, Bivon. 
gibbus, Lai. 

Spondylus aculeatus, Ohemn. 

Anomia aspera, Ph. 

scabrella, Ph, 
pectiniformis, Pol. 
elegans, Ph, 
margaritacea, Ph. 
aculeata, Mont. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Orthis lunifera, PA. 
neapolitana, Se. 


Orthis anomioides, Ph. and Se, 
Thecidea mediterranea, Riss. 


PTEROPODA. 


Hyalea gibbosa, Rang. 
vaginella, Cantr. 
Cleodora cuspidata, Q. and G. 


Cleodora striata, Rang. 
acicula, Rang. 
zonata, D. Ch. 


GASTEROPODA. 


Chiton pulchellus, Ph. 
Polii, Ph. 
Rissoi, Pay. 
levis, Penn. 
variegatus, Ph. 
cajetanus, Poli. 

Patella Rouxii, Pay. 
cerulea, L. 
fragilis, Ph. 

Emarginula Huzardi, Pay. 

Fissurella rosea, Lam. 

Pileopsis militaris, Put. 

Thyreus paradoxus, Ph. 

Crepidula gibbosa, Dfr. 

Bulleea planciana, P/. 

Bulla vestita, Ph. 

ovulata, Broc. 


Bulla Ampulla, Z. 
diaphana, Ar, and Mag, 

Rissoa, elata, Ph. 
violacea, Desm. 
similis, Scae. 
Auriscalpium, L. 
clathrata, Ph, 
coronata, Se. 
radiata, Ph. 
rudis, Ph. 
gracilis, Ph, 
cingulata, Ph. 
tenera. Ph, 
subsuleata, Rh. 
fulva, Mich. 
labiata, Miihi/, 
soluta, Ph, 


206 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 


Truncatella littorina Desh. 
? fusca, Ph, 
atomus, Ph. 
Chemnitzia scalaris, Ph. 
obliquata, Ph. 
+ Nerita versicolor, Lam. 
Natica marochiensis, Lam. 
helicina, Broc.? 
Ianthina bicolor, Mke. 
nitens, Wke. 
patula, Ph. 
Sigaretus haliotideus, L. 
Vermetus semisurrectus, Biv. 
Sealaria pulchella, Bw. 
crenata, L. 
Delphinula exilissima, Ph. 
Solarium discus, Ph. 
Trochus granulatus, Born. 


Cerithium levigatum, Ph. 
Pleurotoma purpureum, Mont. 
costulatum, Riss. 


multilineolatum, Desh. 


pusillum, Seac. 
plicatum, Lam. 
teniatum, Desh. 
Rertrandi, Pay. 
levigatum, Ph. 
secalinum, Ph. 
Lavie, Ph. 
Pyrula squamulata, Ph. 

+ Santangeli, Mar. 
Murex tetrapterus, Bronn. 
Tritonium variegatum, Lam. 

serobiculator, L. 
cutaceum, L. 
Chenopus sirresianus, Mich. 


dubius, Ph. 
pumilio, Ph. 
unidentatus, Ph. 
villicus, Ph. 
leucopheeus, Ph. 
Racketti, Pay. 
pygmeeus, Ph. 
+ carneolus, Lam. 
Turbo neritoides, L. 
littoreus, L. 
obtusatus, L. 
muricatus, L. 
Scissurella plicata, Ph. 
striatula, Ph, 


Cassidaria depressa, Ph. 
Dolium galea, L. 
Buccinum Scacchianum, Ph. 
candidissimum, Ph. 
Tirei, Vas. 
Lefebvrii, Mas. 
Terebra aciculata, Lam. 
Ovula carnea, L. 
+ Cyprea annulus, L. 
+ moneta, Z. 
erosa, DL. 
helvola, Z. 
Dentalium rubescens, Desh. 


CIRRHIPEDA. 


Coronula bissexlobata, Blain. 
Anatifa levis, Brg. 

striata, Brg. 
Pollicipes Scalpellum, L. 


Palanus intermedius, Ph. 
hemispheericus, Brg. 
galeatus, L. 

Acasta Spongites, Poli. 

Chthamalus glaber, Polt. 


Thus, the following mollusca made their appearance in 
the sea subsequently to the Tertiary period :— 


Of the 188 Marine Bivalves, . é «” 53* or 019 
10 Brachiopoda, : : F 4... 0.40 

11 Pteropoda, 7 : 3 6... 0.58 

313 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, 97 ... 0.31 

15 Cirrhipeda, . ; : : 9 ... 0.60 


On the other hand, of 576 fossil species of marine shells, 
the following 193, or almost exactly 3, no longer occur in 
the sea at the present day. 


* In the original 35, evidently a typographical error.—ED. 


South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 


BIVALVES. 


Aspergillum, maniculatum, Ph. 
Clavagella bacillaris, Desh. 
Clavagella sp. 
Pholas vibonensis, Ph. 
Solen tenuis, P/. 
Solecurtus multistriatus, Scac. 
Panopea Faujasii, Men, 
Bivone, Ph. 
Anatina oblonga, Ph. 
pusilla, Ph. 
Scrobicularia tenuis, PA. 
Erycina pusilla, Ph. 
angulosa, Bronn. 
longicallis, Seac. 
similis, Ph. 
Corbula crispata, Scac. 
costellata, Desh. 
Thracia ventricosa, Ph. 
elongata, Ph. 
Tellina pusilla, Ph. 
pleurosticta, Ph. 
ovata, Sow. 
elliptica, Broc. 
strigilata, Ph. 
Diplodonta Lupinus, Broc. 
Lucina transversa, Bronn. 
albella, Lam. 
Scacchia inversa, Ph. 
Astarte levigata, Miinst. 
Cytherea fragilis, Ph. 
Venus senilis, Broc. 

vetula, Bast. 

? miliaris, Ph. 
Cardium multicostatum, Broc. 
Hippagus acutecostatus, Ph. 
Arca mytiloides, Broc. 

Breislaki, Bast. 
aspera, Ph. 
obliqua, Ph. 


Arca pectunculoides, Scac. 
Pectunculus variabilis, Sow. 
auritus, Broc. 
minutus, Ph. 
pygmeeus, Ph, 
Nucula placentina, Lam. 
excisa, Ph. 
striata, Lam. 
pusio, Ph. 
glabra, Ph. 
cuspidata, Ph. 
dilatata. Ph. 
pellucida, Ph. 
decipiens, Ph. 
Chama dissimilis, Broun. 
Modiola grandis, Ph. 
phaseolina, Ph, 
sericea, Bronn. 
Mytilus antiquorum, Sow. (?) 
Arcinella levis, Ph. 
Perna Soldanii, Desh. 
Pecten cristatus, Bronn. 
Alessii, Ph. 
latissimus, Broc. 
palmatus, Zam. 
scabrellus, Zam. 
rimulosus, Ph. 
antiquatus, Ph, 
fimbriatus, Ph. 
pygmeeus, Miinst. 
semicostatus, Miinst. 
Hinnites leeviusculus, Ph. 
Plicatula mytilina, Ph. 
Ostrea bellovacina, Lam. 
pregrandis, Ph. 
longirostris, Zam. 
foliosa, Broc. 
Anomia striata, Broc. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Terebratula grandis, Blum. 
bipartita, Broc. 
biplicata, Sow. 
sphenoidea, Ph. 


Terebratula septata, Ph. 
euthyra, Ph. 
Orthis eusticta, Ph, 


GASTEROPODA. 


Emarginula decussata, Ph. 
Brocchia sinuosa, Broc, 
Bulla convoluta, Broc. 
levis, Ar. et Mag. 
Aplysia? deperdita, Ph. 
? grandis, 
Melania ? soluta, Ph. 


Valvata ? striata, Ph. 

Rissoa sculpta, Ph. 
reticulata, Ph. 
textilis, Ph. 
areolata, Ph. 
substriata, Ph. 
canaliculata, Ph. 


207 


208 Dr A. Philippi ox the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 


Eulima Scillz, Scac. 
affinis, Ph. 
Bulimus, Scac. 

Chemnitzia pusilla, Ph. 

Terebellum, Ph. 

Natica undata, Ph. 

tigrina, D/r. 

Scalaria trinacria, PA. 
plicosa, Ph. 
crispa, Lam. 

Delphinula nitens, PA. 

elegantula, Ph. 

Bifrontia ? zancleea, Ph. 

Solarium reticulatum, Ph. 


pseudoperspectivum, Broc. 


Trochus crispus, Kén. 
millegranus, Ph. 
parvulus, Ph. 
bullatus, Ph. 
patulus, Broce, 
gemmulatus, Ph. 
filosus, Ph. 
glabratus, Ph. 
crispulus, Ph. 
evomphalus, Ph. 
strigosus, Gi. 
suturalis, Ph. 
marginulatus, PA. 
Ottoi, Ph. 
cinctus, Ph. 

Scissurella aspera, Ph. 

Turritella tornata, Broc. 

vermicularis, Broc. 
subangulata, Broc. 

Cerithium calabrum, Ph. 

tricinctum, Broc. 

Sceea stenogyra, Ph. 


Pleurotoma cataphractum, Broc. 


torquatum, Ph, 


dimidiatum, Broce. 


galeritum, Ph. 
pygmeum, Ph. 
noduliferum, Ph. 


sigmoideum, Bronn. 


harpula, Broc. 
columne, Scac. 
comma, Sow. 


Chthamalus gigas. 


CIRRHIPEDA. 


Pleurotoma imperati, Scac. 


decussatum, Ph. 
semiplicatum, Bronn, 
Tarentini, Ph. 
Payraudeaui, Desh, 
Maggiori, Ph. 
Turricula, Broc. 
Renieri, Scac. 
carinatum, Biv, ji. 


Cancellaria hirta, Broc. 


coronata, Scac. 


Fusus longiroster, Broc. 


clavatus, Broce. 
scalaris, Broc. 
rudis, Ph. 
politus, Ren. 


Murex vaginatus, De Cr. et J. 


multilamellosus, Ph. 


Chenopus pes graculi, Bronn. 


desciscens, Ph. 


Strombus coronatus, Dr. 
Cassidaria striata, Sow. 
Purpura cyclopum, Ph, 
Buccinum serratum, Broce. 


musivum, Broce. 
granulatum, Ph. 
spinulosum, Ph. 
acutecostatum, Ph. 
pusillum, Pd. 
exile, Ph. 


Columbella Greci, Ph. 

Mitra cupressina, Broc, i 
Voluta rarispina, Lam. 

Ancillaria obsoleta, Broc. 

Conus Brocchii, Bronn. 


demissus, Ph, 


Dentalium sexangulum, Gm. 


multistriatum, Desh. 
sulcatum, Lam. 
substriatum, Desh. 
tetragonum, Broc. 
incertum, Desh. 
coarctatum, Lam. 
striatum, Lam. 
triquetrum, Broc, 
ovulum, Ph. 


Pollicipes carinatus. 


The following, therefore, are the relative numbers of species 
of the Tertiary period which are now extinct :— 


South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 209 


Of the 231 Bivalves, ; P 77 
13 Brachiopoda, : P : 7 5, 0.54 
5 Pteropoda, 0 


322 Conchiferous Gasteropoda, 108 i 0.31 
5 Cirrhipeda, : : 2 ,, 0.00 
576 194 or 0.33 


Among the fossil species there are some which do not now 
live in the Mediterranean of Southern Italy, but are known 
to exist in other seas, viz. :— 


Mya truncata, £. Greenland; in the whole Northern Atlantic 
Ocean ; and, according to Brocchi, in Tuscany. 
Lutraria solenoides, Lam. On the coasts of France, &c. 
Tellina crassa, ZL. In the North Sea. 
Lucina columbella, Lam. Senegal. 
pennsylvanica, Z. On the coasts of America. 
Cyprina islandica, ZL. North Sea; Iceland; Canada. 
Cardium hians, Broc. In warm seas; near Algiers. 
Lima bullata, Turton. North Sea. 
Pecten medius, Lam.? Red Sea. 
Ostrea edulis, Z. North Sea. 
Patella vulgata, Z. North Sea. 
Niso Terebellum, Chemn. Nicobar Islands. 
Vermetus intortus, Zam. Antilles. 
Trochus strigosus, Gm. On the Coast of Morocco. 
Fusus contrarius, Z. North Atlantic Ocean. 
Buecinum undatum, L. Do. do. 
Terebra fuscata, Broc. Senegal. 
Dentalium elephantinum, Z. Indian Sea. 
multistriatum, Desh. Indian Sea? 
coarctatum, Lam, English Channel. 


Thus, of 382 species which are common to the Tertiary 
formation and the present period, there are only 20 species 
which do not belong to that portion of the Mediterranean 
Sea which washes Southern Italy! Hence it may be con- 
eluded with great certainty, that at the time of the Ter- 
tiary period, the climate could not have been very differ- 
ent from what it is at present. But perhaps it may be said 
that this conclusion is overturned by the 194 extinct species ; 
and that these species belonged either to the newly-discovered 


ice-period, or toa warm climate? A hasty glance at the list 


already given, is sufficient to shew that neither of these sup- 
positions is correct. It is no doubt true that the occurrence 


VOL, XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. (a) 


210 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 


of Aspergillum maniculatum, Perna Soldanii, Plicatula my- 
tilina, Strombus coronatus, Terebra fusca and duplicata, Vo- 
luta rarispina, and Ancillaria obsoleta, is at first sight in 
favour of a warmer climate, because these genera do not 
occur in the seas of the northern temperate zone ; and it 
cannot be denied that the species most closely allied to Cytherea 
multilamellosa is Cytherea cygnus, which now lives near Can- 
ton (not in the Mediterranean, as conjectured by Deshayes). 
The number, however, of living and extinct species which 
favour the idea of a warmer climate, is extremely inconsider- 
able, in comparison to the number of the remaining species ; 
and we have, on the other hand, species which are now con- 
fined to colder seas, such as Mya truncata, Cyprina islandica, 
and Fusus contrarius ; so that we are entitled to regard it 
as an incontrovertible fact, that, in Southern Italy, at the time 
of the Tertiary period, the climate was neither much warmer 
nor much colder, than it is at present. It can hardly be urged 
as a valid argument against this view, that simultaneously, 
vr at a later period (we shall afterwards see that the palzeon- 
tological phenomena admit of no separation of the Tertiary 
period, from the Diluvial period, and from the Alluvial period). 
Elephants, Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotami, also lived in 
Sicily, because these animals, belonging to different species 
from those which now live in hot climates, could exist per- 
fectly well in the present climate of Sicily. 


III. Physiognomy of the Mollusca of the Tertiary Period and 
of the present day. 

If we consider the relative abundance of the species from 
which results what may be termed the Physiognomy of the 
molluscous fauna, we find not a few species equally common 
at the present day and in the Tertiary period ; but also that 
a number of species formerly very abundant, have become 
rare or even extinct, and vice versa, a number of species are 
now very abundant which were formerly rare or altogether 
awanting.* Itmay be remarked, that the very species which 


* We regret that want of space prevents us from giving Dr Philippi’s 
lists illustrative of this part of the subject, and that the same reason 
will oblige us to omit the detailed lists under Sect. IV. of the present 
memoir.—EDI1rT. 


South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily, 211 


are most abundant at the present day, such as, Venus geo- 
graphica, Venus laeta, Poli, Turbo neritoides, L., did not 
exist during the Tertiary period. 

It may be asserted, generally, that the differences observed 
between living and fossil specimens of the same species, are 
not greater than those which occur between individuals of 
the same species ; nay, it is not at all a rare occurrence, to 
find difficulty in determining whether a specimen be fossil or 
not. This is the case, for instance, with the specimens oc- 
curring in the clay of Abbate, near Palermo, which are washed 
out by the sea, and are very often inhabited by hermit-crabs. 
These species are frequently in an astonishing state of preser- 
vation ; and hence there is a sufficient apology for their being 
regarded as recent shells. This seems to have taken place 
with those conchologists, who, like Linnzeus, assigned Sicily 
asa locality to Dentaliwm elephantinum ; and also with Kiener, 
when he included Murex vaginatus among the living species ; 
but, in the latter instance, the author is very much to be 


blamed for altering the names. 


It is, however, remarkable that certain species seem to have 
been very much larger in former times than they are at present, 
We have striking examples of this fact in Lucina radula, 
Lucina fragilis, Cytherea rudis, Poli, Venus radiata, Car- 
dium Deshayesii, Cardium papillosum, Mytilus edulis, Pileop- 
sis wngarica, Turritella communis, and Turritella triplicata. 
I could enlarge this list considerably; but still the ma- 
jority of the species agree completely in size; and, what 
is very singular, certain species were constantly much smaller 
during the Tertiary period than they are at present ; the num- 
ber of the latter, however, is comparatively small. As ex- 
amples of this circumstance, I would particularly instance 
Bulla lignaria, and Terebratula vitrea, which formerly scarcely 
attained half the size they now present; and, next to them, 
I would mention Corbula nucleus.* 

From these facts nothing further can be deduced than that 


* In my Enumeratio molluscorum NSiciliw, I have invariably given the 
relative sizes of the fossil and living shells, when they differed from each 
other. 


212 Dr A. Philippi om the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the 


formerly the various circumstances, the localities, the nature 
of the sub-marine land, &e., were more favourable for the 
development and growth of certain species, but were also less 
favourable for the development of a very few species; and 
that, speaking generally, these various circumstances were at 
that time similar to those of the present day. 


IV. What is the proportion of the living and extinct species 
at the individual localities 2? Have all the latter a like age? 
Can subdivisions be established in the Tertiary formation of 
Southern Italy ; and if so, what are they ? 

In general, the fossils are chiefly abundant in clay, in marl, 
and in shell sand; but it is of no importance for the object of 
the present memoir, to describe petrographically the individual 
localities, more especially as the same petrifactions occur in 
the clay and in the shell sand, and even in the compact lime- 
stone, as can be well seen near Palermo. Ina similar man- 
ner, it may be remarked, the same recent species occur, at 
the present day, on sandy shores, as well as on muddy coasts, 
&e. The geognostical phenomena, so far as Sicily is con- 
cerned, have been most fully described by my late friend 
Frederick Hoffmann, in his “ Geognostische Beobachtungen, 
gesammelt auf einer Reise durch Italien und Sicilien.” 

I propose soon to give a detailed description of the tertiary 
formation of Calabria ; the distribution of that formation is 
very distinctly delineated in the map which Von Tschikalschoff 
has copied with perfect exactness from original materials 
furnished by me. I would refer my readers to that gentle- 
man’s ‘ Coup d’oeil sur la constitution geologique des provinces 
meridionales du royaume de Naples.” 

If we place together all the individual localities of Sicily, 
&e., and arrange them according to the proportion which 
the extinct species bear to the living, beginning with the lo- 
calities which present the largest number of extinct species, 
and ending with those which afford the smallest, we shall 
evidently exhibit them in the order of their relative ages ; 
for the first must, of course, be regarded as the oldest, and 
the last as the newest. 


‘South of Italy, and more particularly of Italy. 213 


Not found in the 


Mediterranean. Extinet. 
Monasterace, . 2 : 0.77 0.77 
Sortino, . ; 4 : 0.53 0.53 
Cotrone, Cutre, &c., 4 ‘ 0.46 0.43 
Naseti, - F ; : 0.50 0.40 
Valley of Lamato, E : 0.37 035 
Caltagirone, : : : 0.38 0.30 
Interior of Sicily, : . 0.34 0.30 
Buccheri, . : : : 0.34 0.30 
Caltanissetta, : 3 : 0.34 0.29 
Syracuse, : s : 0.25 0.25 
Palermo, Z : ;. 0.25 0.23 
Gravina, . > : : 0.25 0.22 
Pezzo, : : : ; 0.18 0,18 
Messina, . j A : 0.17 0.17 
Girgenti, . : : : 0.20 0.15 
Militello, . ‘ ‘ , 0.15 0.14 
Carrubbare, near Reggio, : 0.11 0.11 
Monteleone, f 4 : 0.10 0.08 
Cefali, near Catania, A : 0.09 0.08 
Sciacca, . : : ‘ 0.11 0.06 
Tarento, . : : : 0.054 0.054 
Nizzeti, near Catania, ' ; 0.06 0.05 
Melazzo_ . 3 F ‘ 0.04 0.03 
Island of Ischia, . : 3 0.014 0.014 
The coast near Monte Nuovo, . 0.01 0.00 
Pozzuoli, . : ; 0.00 0.00 


We thus see plainly, that the transition from the Tertiary 
period to the present time has taken place quite gradually ; 
and that no great revolutions have given rise to lines of de- 
marcation ; but that, on the contrary, individual species have 
gradually become extinct, and others have been added, until 
the present fauna has been formed. 

We can establish no subdivisions in the Tertiary deposits 
of Southern Italy ; for we cannot even fix a limit between the 
Tertiary period and the Diluvial period, or the period of the 
present day. The division of the Tertiary series into Eocene, 
Pliocene, and Miocene, is not applicable to the formations of 
Southern Italy, in so far as it is founded on the relative pro- 
portions of extinct and living species ; and, as regards other 
localities, it may also turn out to be uncertain and arbi- 
trary. 

Lastly, we may conclude with great certainty, that the Ter- 
tiary formations of Southern Italy did not rise from the bot- 
tom of the sea at one and the same time, but that they are 


214 Mr Tait on the Back-Light in Portable Dioramas. 


the result of numerous and repeated elevations which have 
even continued to the historical period.* 


On admitting the Back-Light, in Portable Dioramas, upon 
different parts of a Picture at different times ; on using Light 
from Oil, §c. By GeorGE Tart, Esq., F.R.S.S.A. Com- 
municated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.t 


In portable dioramas, which I described in former com- 
munications to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,{ the back- 
light was admitted behind the whole of a picture at once. I 
have now fitted up some pictures, so as to admit the back- 
light upon different parts at different times ; an arrangement 
which obviously increases materially the variety of effects 
which may be introduced into a picture, when the subject 
makes that desirable. It is done simply by means of shut- 
ters, behind different parts of the picture, attached to the 
stretching-frame, which are moved by wires or cords affixed 
to them, passing outwards through the opening by which the 
picture is inserted, and adjusted so as to be moved without 
noise. That opening may be either at the top or at the side 
of the box, as may be preferred. Tissue-paper is used along 
with the shutters, when it is necessary, in such a manner as 
to produce the effect intended. 

In dioramas constructed for internal light (as described in 
my last two communications), particularly when shutters are 
used as before suggested, it is convenient to have two counter- 
poises, just sufficient to prevent the springs from closing the 
gas stop-cocks ; which counterpoises can be attached, when 
necessary, to the cords for opening the stop-cocks, and by 
means of which the flames can be retained, during pleasure, 


* From Erichson's Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte: Zehnter Jahrgang, 
viertes Heft, p. 348. 1844. 

+ Read, and diorama exhibited, before the Royal Scottish Society of 
Arts, on 13th January 1845. 

t See vol. xxxii., p. 142; vol. xxxiii.. p. 64; vol. xxxiv., p. 275; 
vol. xxxv., p. 53; and Transactions of the Society, vol. ii., pp. 127, 162, 
215, and 230, ; 


Mr Tait on the Back-Light in Portable Dioramas. 215 


at any height desired; and the hands may thus be left at 
liberty to move any other part of the apparatus. 

I may take this opportunity of mentioning, that, instead 
of using the front slider of tissue-paper, immediately behind 
the pictures, formerly suggested (at N O of the diagram”*), it 
is more simple and convenient to attach tissue-paper to the 
back of the stretching-frame of any picture for which that is 
necessary, in order to produce uniformity of effect by the 
back-light, on account of any object, for example the moon, 
being made to transmit the light without diffusing it. It 
seems better not to use tissue-paper behind a picture, unless 
it be necessary, as it intercepts more than a third part of the 
light. 

If oil, instead of gas, be used for lighting a diorama inter- 
nally, there are practical objections, unnecessary to be here 
detailed, to lighting the pictures by the direct rays from the 
flames. But they may be lighted by means of any substance 
which transmits light abundantly, and diffuses it sufficiently 
(for example, one or two plies of glass, coarsely ground on 
both sides), applied to an opening in a screen in front of 
each of the flames, in a line between the flame and the pic- 
tures, placed very near the flame, and having the light con- 
centrated upon it by a reflector behind, in a continuation of 
the same line. The quantity of light admitted upon* that 
substance is modified to any extent by a slider or sliders, 
properly formed and adjusted, on the side of the opening 
next to the flame. Those two surfaces, thus enlightened and 
thus darkened, are the sources of the front and the back 
light to the pictures, and occupy the places of the gas flames. 
But gas is, in all respects, so very much preferable to oil for 
lighting a diorama internally, and is now in so general use, 
that it seems unnecessary to enter more into detail with 
regard to the application of oil to that purpose. 

EDINBURGH, December 26, 1844. 


* See vol, xxxiv., p. 276. 


( 216 ) 


Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox, Glasgow, and 
of the Climbing- Machine used in examining and repairing a 
Rent in that Chimney at the height of 280 feet. By Lrwis 
D. B. Gorpon, Esq., Professor of Civil-Engineering in the 
University of Glasgow, and LAURENCE Hi. Junior, Esq., 
F.R.S.S.A., Civil-Engineer. With a Plate. Communi- 
cated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.* 


The great chimney at St Rollox, Glasgow, was erected in 
order to carry off the muriatic acid, and other gases, escap- 
ing in the works, at such a height that, before the gases 
could fall, they should be so diluted as to be innocuous. 
The peculiar construction of the chimney, viz., a double 
cone, was adopted, in order to maintain the heat of the gases 
as long as possible; and at the same time the internal form 
of the chimney and its dimensions are such, that there should 
be a maximum discharge for the same temperature of the 
ascending column. The chimney perfectly accomplished this 
end; but soon after its erection, the process in which the 
muriatic acid is disengaged, was so conducted, that the whole 
gas is now collected, condensed, and applied to useful pur- 
poses, or run off; and thus the great function of the chim- 
ney’s enormous height is no longer brought into use. 

It may be mentioned, that 120 tons of coals are consumed 
per day in St Rollox works, the whole product of the com- 
bustion of which goes up the great chimney, drawn, in some 
cases, from a distance through flues 400 yards long. The 
chimney was designed with a curved batter, the curve being 
the logarithmic curve; but it was not so built, from some 
error in setting out the work at its commencement, Mr Gor- 
don being at the time absent. 

The following are its exact dimensions :— 


* Read before the Society, and drawings and model exhibited, by 
David Stevenson, Esq., F.R.S.E., V.P.,R.S.S.A., civil-engineer, 9th De- 
cember 1844. 


Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox. 217 


Total height from foundations, : 447 feet 6 in. 
Depth of foundations, 2 : : Gi cote teas 
Total height above the surface, 432 feet 6 in. 
Diameter at base, . 45 feet. 
surface, 40 ... 
top, . 18 feet 6 in. 


There are used in its construction 1,250,000 bricks of 
first quality, weighing 121 lb. per cubic foot, resisting 63 
tons’ pressure per superficial foot before cracking, and re- 
quiring 110 tons to crush them. The brick-work is 34 bricks 
at bottom, and1}attop. The internal flue is 260 feet high, 
and is perfectly vertical. 

It took six months, in two different seasons, autumn 1841, 
and spring 1842, to build it, which was accomplished without 
the slightest accident. It was finished in June 1842. 

In May 1844, a rent was discovered in one side, about 
36 feet long, extending, from a point about 100 feet from the 
top, downwards. This rent was affirmed by some to have 
been caused by lightning. The rent gradually increased 
during June and July, and then a similar rent was discovered 
on the opposite side, beginning somewhat lower down than 
that first observed, but extending only 45 feet. This created 
some apprehension; and, in August, it was determined to 
examine the chimney where the rents appeared, and, accord- 
ing to the result of this examination, to proceed to measures 
of security or of protection. Scaffolding appeared at first 
the only means of effecting the desired examination, without 
stopping the works. Balloons were afterwards proposed, 
but were considered not so likely a means of accomplishing 
the end in view, although the celebrated Mr Green, on being 
applied to, offered the use of a balloon, and his own personal 
superintendence of the ascent. During the erection of the 
chimney, in 1841,—while Mr Colthurst, civil-engineer, was 
superintending the laying of the foundations, and erection of 
the first 80 feet of the great chimney,—an accident occurred 
to a chimney of a cotton-factory in the neighbourhood of St 
- Rollox, which rendered it highly desirable that some one 
should go to the top of the chimney. Scaffolding would have 
cost L.20. Mr Colthurst suggested that, by driving staples 
into the joints of the brick-work, a man might be able to 


218 Description of the Great Chimney at St Rolloz. 


climb to the top safely and very cheaply. A man was got 
who undertook to carry out the suggestion, and actually 
went up the outside of a chimney 112 feet high, threw down 
a loose coping-stone from the top, and descended; the 
whole job occupying two days. Working upon this sugges- 
tion of Mr Colthurst, we contrived the Climbing-Machine, for 
examining the rent in the great chimney, at a height of 280 
feet from the ground. The drawings are a correct represen- 
tation, and shew the details of the machine, in which two 
men worked themselves up 280 feet on the chimney in the 
course of nine days, including the time occupied in filling up 
the rent. 


Instead of the AA staples on which the climber set his 
foot, and held on by means of a band with a hook to it, 
which, passing round his waist, or rather under his arms, 
supported him while driving in a new staple at the level of 
his head, or nearly so ;—instead of this, in the original, the 
new machine is so arranged, that two men working in it, 
bore or ‘‘ jump” two holes in the brick-work, to receive two 
lewises. The ropes being hooked on to the lewis on each 
side, the machine is moved up by means of the ratchets and 
pall worked by the men. A movement of about 5 feet is thus 
made. The safety-chains are then put on to the pins, or 
lewises, besides the hooks of the ropes. The men, thus se- 
cure, go to the top stage of the machine, and, working"there, 
drive each a new hole to receive a new pair of lewises ; 
which being well fixed, the ropes are taken off the first 
lewises, and put on to the new pair. While the machine és 
in motion, the men were at first dependent on the ropes alone, 
but by attaching the vertical racks, which constantly press 
outwards against the pins, it was very improbable, or scarcely 
possible, that, even should the ropes break, the machine 
could fall more than 2 inches before being brought up by the 
ratchets catching on the pins. 

On gaining the position of the rent, a strong pulley was 
fixed in the chimney, through which a rope was passed, ex- 
tending to the ground; and to this point an ascent can 
very easily be made at any future time. The persons em- 
ployed were s/aters by trade, an old and a young man. It was 


Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox. 219 


made a principle not to bribe any one to undertake the job. 
The men worked at wages of 5s. per day, or little more than 
their ordinary wages. They were steady, sober, active men ; 
and credit is due to them for the excellent manner in which 
they did the work. Mr Gordon or Mr Hill went up with the 
machine each day; and, after careful examination and deli- 
beration, concluded that the rent is an effect of expansion 
from heat. Though the fissure was found in one place to 
be 2 inches wide, and its average width to be nearly 1 inch, 
yet the nature of it was such, that a rod could not be put 
through the fissure to the inside of the chimney. It would 
have been very desirable to have got a thermometer into the 
interior ; but not having succeeded in getting it through the 
fissure, the expedient of driving a hole for the purpose was 
not adopted at the time, from its being inconvenient; and 
so the opportunity was lost. It may be mentioned, however, 
that red-hot matter has been more than once observed pro- 
jected in a column from the top of this 432 feet high chim- 
ney. The temperature in the chimney, near the top, is pro- 
-bably seldom under 600° F. 


Description of Climbing Machine. (Plate V1). 
‘Fig. 1. is a side view. 
... 2. is a back view. 
... 3. a plan across the windlass. 

The frame, which was as light as possible, consistent with proper 
strength, was about 10 feet high, 3 feet deep, and 4 feet wide; the 
beams next the stalk projected about 15 inches further at each end. 
W is the windlass, worked by the ratchet-handles HH. PP, two pul- 
‘lies fixed to windlass, round which the ropes were wound when the 
machine was ascending. L L, the lewises, securely fixed into the chim- 
ney, and to which the ropes were hooked. The heads of these lewises 
were bent at a right angle, so as to overlap the long plates II, by which 
means the machine was held close to the chimney. F FF F, four fric- 
tion-rollers, to prevent the machine from rubbing against the stalk. SS, 
two short chains, which were used for holding up the machine while the 
ropes RR were being shifted to a new set of lewises, for another lift. 
K K, two long racks, which were hung on pins at O0O.—They worked 
into, or against, the two under lewises, and were used in order to pre- 
vent the machine from falling, in case any accident should happen to 

_the ropes. 
By working the handles backwards and forwards, the machine. was 
sent up a lift of 5 feet in a few minutes. Two catches (not shewn in 
the drawing) worked into the teeth of the windlass wheels, and pre- 


220 Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 


vented their recoil. When the men were boring the holes for the 
lewises in the stalk, they stood on the upper floor or board U; and the 
jumpers used to bore the holes were worked through guides fixed to the 
frame of the machine. At the end of a day’s work, the lewises were 
taken out and used over again in the next day’s ascent. The ascent of 
280 feet occupied nearly nine days, including the time spent in repairing 
the rent. The men were hoisted to the cage by a windlass on the ground, 
the rope from which worked over a large pulley within the machine. 


Report of the Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, on 
the Climbing-Machine, used at St Rollox by Professor Gordon 
and Mr Hill. 


The Committee having examined the apparatus employed by Professor 
Gordon and Mr Hill for ascending the chimney of St Rollox, and the 
accompanying description of it, beg leave to report as follows :— 

First, The application of machinery to the ascent of high elevations, 
under similar circumstances, so far as the reporters know, is new. 

Second, The mechanical arrangements for raising the cradle, and also 
for preventing its fall, are simple and well devised. 

Third, Its use at St Rollox is the best proof that the reporters can 
adduce of the success of its practical application. They have, therefore, 
to recommend it to the favourable notice of the Society, and to suggest 
that it be printed in the Transactions, 

(Signed) DAVID STEVENSON, Convener. 
Gro. BucHANAN. 


Gro. GLOVER. 
EDINBURGH, 21st January 1845. 


On a Method of rendering Baily’s Compensation Pendulum in- 
sensible to Hygrometric Influence. By Mr ROBERT BRYSON, 
F.R.S.E., Watchmaker, Edinburgh. Communicated by 
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.* 


The well-known law by which all bodies expand by the in- 
erement of heat, and contract by its decrement, is every day 
brought under the notice of the watchmaker. To-day the 
temperature is high, all his time-keepers are slow ; to-mor- 
row it may be frost, and they inevitably gain upon their rate ; 
to obviate these inconveniences, many contrivances have been 
resorted to under the name of compensation balances and 
pendulums. 


* Read before the Society, 13th January 1845. 


~~ 4 TA v <7 
Sitar New Fil. Jour PLATE VI 


Professor Gordon & M Hill's 
CLIMBING MACHINE 


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Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 221. 


George Graham, the inventor of the clock escapement 
which bears his name, was the first who succeeded in com- 
pensating a pendulum for thermal changes. In December 
1721, he attached to a clock a compound pendulum composed 
of a single steel-rod, fixed to a stirrup or frame, carrying a 
glass jar filled with mercury. The effect from expansion of 
the rod downwards was thus counteracted by the increased 
length of the column of mercury raising the centre of oscilla- 
tion ; thus maintaining the equality of rate in all tempera- 
tures. 

This elegant invention was no less remarkable in its sim- 
plicity than in the fact, that not the slightest improvement 
has as yet been made on this, the first, regulator of Graham. 

The expense of this most accurate pendulum is, however, 
considerable, and many attempts have been made to obtain 
a cheaper substitute ; this desideratum has been ably sup- 
plied by the late lamented Francis Baily, Secretary of the 
Astronomical Society of London. 

This pendulum consists of a leaden cylinder attached to arod 
of the common pine (Pinus strobus), and is thus described by 
the inventor :—“ Take a cylindrical deal-rod of a convenient 
size, but not less than 46 inches in length, about 3 of an inch 
diameter ; procure a leaden cylinder, with a hole through the 
centre which will freely admit the end of the rod, and of such 
a length, that when put in the lathe it may be reduced to 
the required standard of 14.3 inches, and to the required 
weight. It will be more convenient to have this cylinder too 
long rather than too short, since we may readily diminish its 
length, if, on trial, it should be found to over-compensate the 
pendulum.’’* 

The following are the respective weights, as given by 
Baily, of a leaden cylinder 14.3 inches long, and having a 
hole through the centre equal to 3 of an inch diameter. 

Diameter of Cylinder. Weight of Cylinder. 


1} inches. 6.56 lbs. 
1 ee 9.73 ... 
ee 47: 
Zi ieee 17.80)... 
i alae’ 22.70 ... 


* These dimensions are on the assumption, that deal expands 
1000022685 of its bulk for 1° Fahrenheit, and lead .0000159200. 


222 = Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 


This eminent astronomer has not taken into account any 
influence on his pendulum-rod by hygrometric change, an 
effect much more appreciable in a deal-rod pendulum, and, 
therefore, detrimental to its usefulness, than the mere ther- 
mal effect. The method adopted for the purpose of rendering 
the rod insensible to a humid atmosphere, is first to deprive it 
of its natural and acquired moisture by baking ; and, secondly, 
to prevent its absorption either of air or moisture, by long 
immersion in copal varnish. This covering is found to pre- 
serve more effectually the wood from such influences than any 
hitherto tried. The apparatus employed is very simple and 
convenient, as it can perform the operation of baking in less 
than an hour. It consists of a piece of clock-work A, giving a 
rotatory motion, by means of a spring, to the hollow cylin- 
drical tube B, supported by two friction-wheels, on which it 
revolves, as seen at the left side of the figure. Cis a flexible 
pipe supplying gas to a tube below, marked D D; this tube 
is pierced by ten or twelve small apertures, from which the 
gas burns and heats the upper tube B, containing the pendu- 
lum-rod. This upper tube is also pierced with a series of holes 


CNT 


LO 


for the purpose of permitting the escape of the moisture of 
the rod, these apertures being placed between the jets of 
gas so as to prevent the heat acting on the contained wood. 
Wire-gauze was tried above the gas-tube D D with good effect, 
as it caused the complete combustion of the gas, and there 
was, consequently, no deposition of carbon on the revolving 
tube, which, when deposited to any great extent, robbed it of 
much heat. The pendulum-rod, before baking, is to be finish- 
ed in all its parts, with screw below and suspending-tube 
above. This is a necessary precaution, as if baked before 
mounting, moisture would be absorbed at the ends, thus ren- 
dering the instrument less perfect. When the rod is finished, 
it is to be placed in the revolving tube B, and exposed to 
the flame until no moisture can be perceived issuing from the. 


Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 223 


apertures ; by moving the rod backwards and forwards in 
the tube at intervals of a few minutes, it will be regularly 
heated throughout its whole length. While hot, it is then 
plunged into a tube filled with copal varnish and allowed to 
remain during twenty-four hours. When removed, the var- 
nish must be slowly evaporated in a warm situation, and, 
when dry, is ready for use. 

For the purpose of ascertaining how far the process was 
successful in rendering the rod insensible to humidity, an un- 
baked and unvarnished pendulum was tried, the rod was 3 of 
an inch diameter, and had a leaden cylinder 14.3 inches long. 
The clock, to which it was attached, was set a-going early 
in April 1842, and on the 9th its rate was observed gaining 
9 seconds per day. It was placed in the front of the shop in 
Princes Street, where it was exposed to a dry atmosphere 
during ten days; the mean indication of the hygrometer 
(Leslie’s) being 29.3 degrees, the mean daily rate of the clock 
being 9”.5 gaining. The pendulum being fixed, the clock was 
removed, on the 19th, to a cellar 10 feet below its former 
situation, when its rate was observed, in a few days, to have 
changed to 6".5 gaining per day, the hygrometer shewing 8 
degrees only of dryness ; in this situation it remained during 
ten days, its error always observed, as in the first experiment, 
at noon. The mean result of these ten days exhibited a gain- 
ing rate of 6".1 per day, while the mean indication of the 
hygrometer was 9.9 degrees of dryness. Tliese observations 
will be more clearly understood by reference to the annexed 
tables, which contain the details of the experiments. In the 
experiment now under consideration, the pendulum was sup- 
posed to be nearly compensated ; no correction is, therefore, 
required for the thermal differences shewn in the tables. 
The mean range of the barometer, during the period of the 
two first experiments, was 0.256 inches, giving a correction, 
for difference of density, = — 0’.076 to be applied to the 
clock’s rate in the cellar, we have then the rate = 6”.024. 
_ This rate will be still further reduced if we correct it for the 
difference of height, which, being 10 feet, gives a correction 
= — 0’.055 for diminution of gravity, making the corrected 
rate of the clock in moist atmosphere = 5’.969 gaining per 
day, 

It is, therefore, evident that a dry well-seasoned rod un- 


224 Mr Bryson on Baily'’s Compensation Pendulum. 


baked and unvarnished, will lose on its rate per day 3’.53 
by a change in the humidity of the atmosphere, equivalent 
to 19°.4 of Leslie’s hygrometer. 

The third experiment possesses little interest further than | 
verifying the first, and shewing the tendency of the wood to 
regain its former condition, when the humid was exchanged 
for a drier atmosphere. 

We may now contrast with the above the effect produced 
by baking and varnishing. 

Accordingly, the fourth and fifth experiments exhibit the 
rate and the conditions under which it was obtained, after the 
rod had been baked, varnished, and properly dried as de- 
scribed. In these two experiments we have a mean differ- 
ence of 19.6 degrees of the hygrometer, while the barometer 
exhibits a mean difference of (328 inches, giving a correc- 
tion = + 0”.098 to be applied to the clock’s rate in the cellar, 
which makes it = 2’.758, this quantity being corrected, as 
before, for diminution of gravity, makes the corrected rate 
in.the cellar = 2’.703. 

From these observations the change of rate pnciieni by 
hygrometric influence, is reduced by this method of treating 
the pendulum rod from a variation of 3’.53 to 0’.37 of a second 
per day; a quantity which in most time-keepers would be 
entirely disregarded. We have, therefore, a pendulum nearly 
perfect at a cost very little exceeding those attached to ordi- 
nary clocks, and fitted for most general purposes to which 
astronomical regulators are usually applied.* 

The quantity of moisture thrown out by the baking process 
is very considerable, a rod weighing, before heating, 900 
grains, lost 130 grains, a second 152 grains, a third 107 
grains of moisture. These rods were cut from the library 
shelves of the Karl of Stair, fitted up in his house in the 
High Street. They must have been in that situation for nearly 
two centuries, and would certainly be called well-seasoned ; 
yet we see in the great amount thrown out, an affinity for 
moisture Doseensed by WBey few solid substances. 


* Among many Finis to beitlonien eminent in science, we may 
state six were observed by Sir Thomas Brisbane and the late lamented 
Professor Henderson, who have both, from an experience of two years, 
spoken highly of the performance of this pendulum. 


Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 225 


lst Experiment. Pendulum-rod unbaked (clock in dry atmosphere). 


| ] 

Fast. Rate. Hygrom, Ther. | Barom, 

1842. oT dh ‘ “ | ° a | In. 
April 9. Noon. |0 9.0 | 0 9.0 27.0 54.5 | 30.249 
SEL. ae 0185 |0 95 23.0 53.5 30.220 
Ei: 0 28.0 |0 95 | 40.0 56.5 | 30.252 
£2. 037.5 |0 95 | 31.5 54.0 | 30.200 
13. 0 47.0 |0 95 | 33.5 | 55.0. | 30.140 
14. 0 57.0 | 0 10.0 25.0 | 53.0: | 30.148 
15, 1 7.0 | 0 10:0 26.0 54.0. | 30.231 
16. EG) | Ouse 35.0 54.0 | 30.241 
ie 1 26.0 |0 9.5-| 27.0 55.0 | 30.198 
ES. oases 1 35.5 |0 9.5 | 25.0 53.0 -| 80.118 
0 9.5 | 293 | 542 | 30.199 

2Qd Experiment. Pendulum-rod unbaked (clock in moist atmosphere). 


|, 


1842. 
April 26. Noon. 
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1842. 
May 6. Noon. 


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VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXVI.—APRIL 1845. P 


226 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate 


4th Experiment. Pendulum-rod baked aud varnished (clock in 
dry atmosphere). 


Fast. Rate. Hygrom. Ther. Barom 

1842. : Ve 3 y e In, 
May 27. Noon. 2.0 |0 2.0 20.0 57.5 29.682 
Steet jee 4:0) 108920 20.0 58.5 29.718 
29 6.0 | 0 2.0 17.0 60.0 29.772 
0 |0 2.0 30.0 59.0 29.626 
0 3.0 31.0 61.0 29.622 
0 3.0 | 33.0 58.5 29.944 

0 2.3 25.1 


5th Experiment. Pendulum-rod baked and varnished (clock in 
moist atmosphere). 


Hygrom., 


1842. 
June 3. Noon. 


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An Account of some Experiments tending to illustrate the 
Formation of Guano. By Joun Davy, M.D.,F.R.SS. Lond. 
& Ed., Inspector-General of Army Hospitals, L.R. Com- 
municated by the Author. 


From the analysis of guano, both of the South American 
and African kind, it appears that this excellent manure con- 
sists mainly of insoluble phosphates, and of nitrogenous 
compounds,—the one, it may be inferred, derived from the 
feces, the other from the urine, of sea-fowl; with this marked 
difference, however, in regard to the latter, that the oxalate 
of ammonia is more abundant in them than the lithate, of 
which, as it is well known, the solid urine of birds is chiefly 
composed. 


os, 


the Formation of Guano. 227 


As we know that the sun’s rays have, in many instances, 
a remarkable effect as a chemical agent, it occurred to me as 
probable, that the oxalic acid found in guano might be pro- 
duced from the lithic acid of the urine of birds, in conse- 
quence of the agency of the light of the sun, aided by an 
accompanying high temperature, such as must prevail in a 
tropical climate. 

To submit this conjecture to the test of experiment, a por- 
tion of the solid urine of the white-headed sea-eagle, slightly 
moistened with water, was put into a glass tube, with a cork, 
having a small notch in it to allow of the entrance of air,— 
and suspended against a southern wall, where it was exposed 
to sunshine or strong light the greater part of the day. The 
experiment was commenced on the 20th of last March, and 
continued till the 3lst of May. During this period of 70 days, 
the weather, a great part of the time, was unusually fine 
and dry; only 5 inches of rain fell from the 20th of March 
to the 30th of April, and only .13 of an inch from the 1st to 
the 31st of May; and more than half the time, viz., about 
47 days, there was bright sunshine. The range of tempera- 
ture at the same time was great, even in the shade, extend- 
ing from below the freezing point, which it often was during 
the clear nights, to 60° and 65° by day. 

The urine of the sea-eagle, the subject of the experiment, 
previously examined, was found to consist chiefly of lithate 
of ammonia, with a little animal matter, and to be entirely 
destitute of oxalic acid. After exposure, it was found, on 
examination, to contain a small proportion only of lithic acid, 
and a large proportion of oxalic acid in combination with 
ammonia. Its resemblance now to guano was remarkable. 
It had a strong ammoniacal odour, mixed with the peculiar 
odour of guano. Under the microscope, it was found to 
abound in prismatic crystals, such as occur in guano, and 
which, as they were soluble in water, and yielded, with mu- 
riate of lime, a copious precipitate of oxalate of lime, were 
evidently crystals of oxalate of ammonia; and, in accordance 
with this composition, a portion of them put by have remained 
unaltered in their form, after exposure to the air now more 
than six months. With the odour of the guano, the lower 


228 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate 


portion of the mass had acquired a brown colour, not unlike 
that of guano, and, like its colouring matter, soluble in 
water; whilst its upper surface was almost colourless, being 
formed chiefly of oxalate of ammonia, nearly pure, in needle 
crystals, visible to the naked eye, collected in little stella- 
form groups, presenting, even in this circumstance, another 
resemblance to guano, in which often light-coloured masses 
are met with, composed principally of the same salt. 

The next experiments made were of a comparative kind, 
with a view to endeavour to determine whether the action 
of light is really essential to the conversion; whether the 
presence of atmospheric air is essential ; and whether lithic 
acid, uncombined with ammonia in its pure state, is capable, 
under the influence of light, of being changed into the oxalate 
of ammonia. 

Accordingly, a portion of the same urine of the sea-eagle, 
moistened, was exposed to light as before; another portion 
was put by in a dark place; a third was confined over mer- 
cury in a glass tube, in which was a measured quantity of 
atmospheric air, and so placed as to be well exposed to light 
and sunshine ; and, lastly, a portion of lithic acid, moistened, 
was similarly exposed, but not confined over mercury. 

These experiments were begun on the 7th of last June, 
and they were continued until the 15th of October. During 
this time, comprising 100 days, there was a much larger 
proportion of gloomy weather than during the period of the 
first experiment ;—this is pretty correctly indicated by the 
number of days in which rain fell, viz. 80, and the total 
quantity of rain, viz. 26.05 inches, as measured by the rain- 
gauge; and at the same time the atmospheric temperature 
was more uniform, with few exceptions, cool by day, and not 
cold at night. 

The result of the experiment No. 1, namely, that in which 
the moistened urine of the sea-eagle was exposed to light, 
atmospheric air not being excluded, was similar to that of 
the preceding, but less strongly marked. 

The result of the 2d experiment, namely, of that in which 
the urine, moistened, had been kept excluded from light, was, 
too, generally similar: the urine was found to have an am- 


the Formation of Guano. 229 


moniacal odour, mixed with one slightly putrid, and to con- 
tain some oxalate of ammonia, as was shewn both by the 
microscope and by chemical examination, but in proportion- 
ally less quantity than in that under the influence of light. 

In the 3d experiment, that in which the urine was confined 
over mercury, in a limited portion of atmospheric air ($ cubic 
inch), the volume of the air was little changed, but its com- 
position greatly. At the commencement of the experiment, 
it consisted, as atmospheric air, of 21 oxygen and 79 azote ; 
at the termination, it was found composed of 64 carbonic 
acid (so much was absorbed by lime-water), and of 36 azote. 
The solid urine had no sensible smell of ammonia; it afforded, 
however, indications of the presence of oxalate of ammonia, 
but in a very minute quantity, merely a trace, and without 
any smell, at least that I could perceive, of the volatile 
alkali. 

The result of the last experiment, namely, that in which 
pure lithic acid in its granular state was exposed to light, 
atmospheric air not being excluded, was altogether negative: 
its colour was not altered, nor its granular form; it had 
acquired no smell of ammonia; and, carefully tested for oxa- 
late of ammonia, not a vestige of this salt could be detected. 
It may be mentioned, that it was obtained by precipitation 
by dilute muriatic acid from a solution of lithate of ammonia 
in water. 

From the results of these experiments, and considering the 
composition of the lithic and oxalic acids, the former con- 
taining the elements of the latter, and of ammonia, but with 
excess of carbon, may it not be inferred, that though the 
light of the sun is not essential to the conversion of the 
lithate of ammonia into the oxalate, it promotes and accele- 
rates the change; and, further, that the presence of atmo- 
spheric air is required for the change, the excess of carbon 
uniting with the oxygen, and separating in the form of car- 
bonic acid gas? And, in confirmation of this, it may be 
mentioned, that though the urine of the sea-eagle alone, 
moistened with water, subjected many hours to the tempe- 
rature of 212°, yielded no oxalate of ammonia, it afforded a 


230 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate 


notable portion of this salt, when exposed to the same tempe- 
rature, mixed with some black oxide of manganese; and, it 
may be worthy of remark, that, in this instance too, a brown 
soluble matter appeared to be developed. 

From the negative results of the experiments in which 
lithic acid, moistened, was exposed to light, may it not be 
inferred that the presence of some foreign matter, acting as 
a leaven, is necessary to excite, and, with oxygen, to effect, 
the conversion of the lithate of ammonia into the oxalate ? 
In corroboration, I may remark, that on the addition of am- 
monia to the lithic acid, converting it into lithate of ammo- 
nia, the same negative results were obtained, after exposure 
to light, not excluding the access of atmospheric air during 
a period of 74 days, namely, from the 15th of October to the 
29th of December. 

To return to guano.—Comparing the Peruvian with the 
African, I have always found, in accordance witb the preced- 
ing remark relative to the influence of the sun’s rays, a 
larger proportion of lithate of ammonia in the former than 
in the latter :—in the latter, indeed, I have never found more 
than a trace of this substance, and in many specimens I have 
not been able to detect even a trace of it; instead, there has 
been a large proportion of the oxalate. May not this be 
owing to the different states of atmosphere on the two coasts ; 
the one always shrouded by clouds intercepting the direct 
rays of the sun, and enfeebling their action; the other com- 
monly clear, permitting the sun’s rays to act with full 
effect? And may not the short time in which the conversion 
of the lithate of ammonia into the oxalate takes place, as 
shewn in the first experiment detailed, help to explain the 
absence of the lithate even in specimens of guano taken from 
the surface, and of recent production? Such a specimen I 
lately received, brought from the island of Ichaboe, off the 
African coast, described ‘‘ as having been scraped off a rock, 
where it was in a thin layer, much exposed to the sun,” in 
which I could not detect the smallest quantity of lithate of 
ammonia, but abundance of oxalate. The effect of the sun’s 
rays in accelerating the conversion of the lithate into the 


PS Py 


the Formation of Guano. 231 


oxalate of ammonia in guano, or in the urine of the sea-eagle, 
seems to be like that which it exercises on lithic acid, mois- 
tened with nitric acid, in converting it into the purple com- 
pound—the test of lithic acid. The change, as is well known, 
does not take place at common temperatures—a pretty high 
temperature is required to effect it; but I find that, when 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, it is rapidly effected, 
and that even when the temperature is kept low, by having 
had the platina capsule in which the mixture was made, in 
contact with water. 

In the experiments in which the urine of the sea-eagle was 
exposed to light, moistened, in a limited portion of atmo- 
spheric air, I have stated that the volume of azote remaining 
at its termination, was 36 only, instead of 79, the proportion 
in which it existed at the commencement,—seeming, conse- 
quently, to indicate clearly an absorption of azote. 

Should such an absorption of azote be proved, by farther 
inquiry, to accompany the conversion of the lithate into the 
oxalate of ammonia, in the instance of the formation of 
guano from the excrements of birds, it will be an interesting 
fact in the economy of nature, and may help, with the gene- 
ration of nitre, to account for there being no change, as far 
as has hitherto been determined by experiments, in the com- 
position of the atmosphere ;—the great principles of equili- 
brium being, on the part of vegetables, the separation of 
carbon, and the evolution of oxygen from carbonic acid gas, 
the product of combustion and respiration ;—on the part of 
disintegrating rocks, such as contain alkali and lime, and of 
the excrements of birds, and probably of animals generally, 
undergoing decomposition, the absorption of azote—its sepa- 
ration from the atmosphere, to form either nitre or ammonia ; 
designed, in their turn, to fertilize the soil, and promote 
vegetation. 


Tue OAKS, AMBLESIDE, 
December 30. 1844. 


( 232 ) 


On the Heights of Mountains, &c., in Norway. 


Our geographical works and books of travels are, for the 
most part, singularly vague and inaccurate on the subject of 
the heights of mountains, mountain-passes, &e., in Norway, 
and very incorrect as to the orthography of the names. We 
are therefore glad that the means of remedying these de- 
fects, so far as the present state of knowledge admits of, are 
amply supplied in the Second Part of Keilhau’s Gaea Nor- 
vegica, which we have just received. A long chapter of that 
important work is devoted to elaborate tables of heights, which 
have been carefully prepared from the very best published 
and manuscript sources of information,* by Captain A. Vibe, 


* As many of the published works and memoirs which have afforded 
materials for Captain Vibe’s Tables are entirely unknown in this country, 
we subjoin a list of the principal authorities quoted by him :— 

Professor B. M. Keilhaw :—Nogle Efterretninger om et hidtil ubekjendt Stykke 
af det sondenfjeldske Norge, in Budstikken for 1820, p. 385. 

—____—__—_ Reise i Oest og Vest-Finmarken; Christiania, 1831. 
Reise i Nordre-Trondhjems-Amt, in Magazin for 
Naturvidenskaberne, 2d series, vol. i. 

Geognostiske Bem. over Oesterdalen, in Nyt. Maga~ 
zin f, Naturv., vol. ii., p. 1. 
Reise i Lister-og Mandals-Amt i 1839, J. ¢., p. 


333, 


Reise til den éstlige Deel af Christiansands-Stift 
i 1840, in Nyt. Mag. f. Naturv., vol. iii. 


communicated to Captain Vibe. 

Th. Broch, Captain of the Engineers :—lagttagelser til Hoidebestemmelser, &c., 
in Magazin for Naturv., 2d series, vol. ii., und in Nyt. Mag. f. Naturv., 
vol. i. 

Professor C. Smith :—lagttagelser paa en Fjeldreise, 1812, in Top. Stat. Saml., 
part 2, vol. ii. 

Lieutenant N. S. Wergeland :—Hoidemaalinger i Aarene, 1841, 2 og 3. MS. 

R. Sukrland :—Maalinger paa Reiser til Trondhjem og Nordland i 1841 og 
1843, MS, 

Leopold Von Buch :—Reise fra Christiania til Bergen, in Top. Stat. Samlin- 
ger, vol. i., p. 141. 

Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland, Berlin, 1810. 
(The heights given by Von Buch seem to be calculated according to Trem- 
bley’s formula.) 


Measurements made in the years 1841—2-3, and 


On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 233 


of the Norwegian Engineers. Numerous determinations of 
heights have been made in Norway during the last thirty or 
forty years; but still, in a country abounding as it does in 
extensive and very inaccessible mountainous districts, much 
yet remains to be done in this department ; and thus we find 
from Captain Vibe’s Tables, that the precise heights of the 
highest summits of Norway, and, therefore, of Scandinavia, 
have not been determined with certainty: this, however, 
ought not to surprise us, when we remember how recently 
Ben-na-muic-dui was ascertained to be the highest point in 
Great Britain. 

In Captain Vibe’s tables, the heights, which amount to 
about 1200 in number, are given in round numbers in Rhenish 
feet ; and where two or more good authorities have furnished 


Professor C. F. Naumann :—Beitrage zur Kenntniss Norwegens, Leipzig, 
1824. 

Joh. Aschehoug, clergyman :—Reise til Fredrikshald, 1816. MS. 

Everest’s Journey through Norway, &c., 1820, 

Professor C. Boeck. og Prof. Keilhau :—Reise i Smaalehnene, 1834. MS. 

G. Bohr :—Om lisbrxerne i Justedalen, in the periodical called ‘‘ Blandinger,” 
vol. ii. 

Lieut.-Ool. W. M. Carpelan :—Et Beség i Fjeldstuen 1823, in Mag. for Na- 
turv., Jahrg. 2, vol. i. 


—__—__—__—_——— Om en nermere Vei mellem Bergen og Chris- 

tiania, in “ Budstikken”’ for 1824, p. 24. 

Professor Esmark :—Reise til Trondhjem ; Christiania, 1829 (contains many 
errors of the press, &c.). 

—_—_——— Bemerkninger paa en Reise til Gousta-Fjeld, in Top. 


Stat. Samlinger, 1st series, vol. ii. 

C. Fearnley :—Indberetning om en Geognostisk Reise i Guldbrandsdalen, 
1841. MS. 

Professor C. Hansteen :—Geographiske Bestemmelser af nogle Punkter i Chris- 
tianias Omegn, in Magazin for Naturv., 1824, H. iii. 


Bemerkninger paa en Reise til Bergen i 1821, in 
Budstikken, Jahrg. iii., p. 393. 

W. Hisinger :—Anteckningar i Physik och Geognosie, &c., Upsala, 1819. 

Tabeller ofver Hojdmatningar i Swerige och Norrige, Stock- 

holm, 1829. 

OC. H. Langberg, Director of the Mint :—Reise i Bergens Stift, 1834. MS. 

P. I. Maschmann :—Hoidemaalinger med Barometer, foretagne i Tellemar- 
ken, 1832. MS. 

P. A. Schult, Director of Mines :—Nogle maalte Fjeldhdider i det Norden- 
fjeldske, in Magaz. f. Naturv., vol. viii., p. 272. 

Capt. Vibe’s own Measurements in 1842, 


234 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 


measurements, the mean numbers have been taken. Most 
of the measurements were made with the barometer, but some 
of the heights were determined geometrically. 

The following selection contains the greatest elevations 
above the level of the sea in the different mts or districts ; 
and also the heights above the level of the sea of some of the 
mountain-passes and other interesting localities, as well as of 
the snow-line and of the limits of various forest trees. The 
Rhenish feet have been converted into English feet, the 
Rhenish foot being reckoned = 1.0297 English. 


AGERSHUUsS-AMT. 


Egeberg, near Christiania, . , ‘ 400 
To-Aasen, Nzesodden, near Sey ‘ : 690 
Skrebjergene, in Feiringen, ; 2430 


Highest part of the road between Wateiaon aod Maridalen, 1310 
Mjésen, the largest lake in Norway :— 
a. When the water is low, at the end of December, 410 
b. When the water is at its mean height, May and June, 430 


SMAALEHNENES- AMT. 
Linnekleppen, hill between Rakkestad and Oedemark, the 


highest point in Smaalehnene, 1050 
HEDEMARKENS-AMT. 

Sodlen (Stor-Sdlen) in Lille-Elvedalen, Oesterdalen, . 6180 
Solen (Solentind) in Reendalen, Oesterdalen, towards the 

Femund Lake (conjectural), —. ‘ ' 6180 
Tronfjeld in Ténsaet, Oesterdalen, . 5630 
Pass between Kakhelledalen and Enunden ‘(chain ef the 

Dovre), ' 3700 
Plateau of Divine mean height on he same pass, 3600 
Lake of Femund, Oesterdalen, ; 2250 


Lake of Stub or Shae: on the boundary eee Tonset and 
Quikne, and at the water-shed between Agershuus and 
Trondhjems-Stift, ; ; 4 2260 


CurisTIANS-AMrT. 

Nautgardstinden between Sjodalen and Veodalen in the 
mountainous district to the south of the Ota-Vand, 
Guldbrandsdalen, : 7620 

The highest mountain summits of Scandinavia belong +0 the 
group of the Jotunfjelde, and, according to Broch, lie 
to the south-west of Nautgardstinden, between the Gjen- 
din Lake and the valley which bounds Mugnafjeld (Kal- 
vaahigda) on the north. Broch estimates their height 


On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 


at upwards of 8200 feet above the level of the sea, and 
mentions the following names: Steinflybraepiggen, Glit- 
tertinden, Svartdalspiggene, and Storhde. In 1841 
and 1842 Wergeland determined the height of Glitter- 
tinden, in Lom, Guldbrandsdalen, to be about 

And with the assistance of a theodolite he estimated approxi- 
mately the following heights :— 

a. Ymesfjeld (Store-Galdhdpiggen), between the 
Leera-Elv and the Visa-Elv, probably the high- 
est mountain of the Jétun group, and the highest 
summit in Scandinavia, nearly 500 feet ae 
than Glittertinden, sagt 

b. Highest Skagstolstind from 100 to 200 ee. lower 
than Ymesfjeld, that is to say, . 

ec. Tykningssuen and Heilstuguhée, 150 feet higher 
than Nautgardstinden, therefore 

d. Leerhée and Beshoe, the same height as Naut- 
gardstinden, therefore : 

e. Kjernhultinden, 200 feet aaa thin the last, 
therefore 

Kalvaahégda or Mumiafad in Valder , 
Snechetten (Dovre chain), 
According to Naumann, Skreahig i is not neh igen: 
Pass over the Filefjeld, 
Summits of the Dovre Chain :— 

a. Blaahat, 

b. Liltverotind, ; 

c, Fogstuhée (Graahée), between Serkind ad Fog- 

stuen, 

d. Storekuven, on me one side of the valley of 

Dovre, ‘ : : 
Jerkind, on the Dovre chain, 
Highest point of the road between ae kind and Kengiool 
(Dovre), : 
Ronden, between Etnedalen and Seal, Galdhenmdedilen2— 

a. Western Cone, 

b. Northern Cone, termed Fee. 

(Three peaks to the 8. are about 300 feet higher. ) 
Gjendin Lake, in Vaage, Guldbrandsdalen, 


Buskerups- Amr. 
Skogshorn in Hallingdal, 
Krogkleven in Hole, Ringeri ise 
Town of Kongsberg, 


JARLSBERGS AND LAURVIGS-AMT. 
Vettakollen in Laurdal, the last mountain of any consider- 


235 


8100 


8550 
8400 
7770 
7620 
7820 
7180 
7600 
4060 


5350 
5350 


5690 


4890 
3140 


4110 


6400 
6930 


3250 
5660 


1230 
500 


236 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 


able height met with in eee from Kongsberg to 
Laurvig, ; : : 


BRATSBERG-AMT. 
Gousta-Fijeld in Tellemarken, 
Highest point of the road between the Tind Lake and Skjerve 
dalen, ; 
Rukanfossen, warertell® in Pellamarken - — 
a. Highest point of the fall, 
b. Perpendicular descent of water, . 


NEDEN#S AND RAaBYGDELAGETS-AMT. 
Urddalsknuden, highest point of the Ruen mountains in 
Hyllestad, 3 

Mountain to the east of Varuolon: in Baile 


LisTER AND Manpats-AmrT, 
Grubbaafjeld in Lister, 
Sméilebakken in Gustad: 
Figgelandsheien, on the Orte- Vand, 


STAVANGER-AMT. 
Findalsrinden, NW. from Siredals-Vand, . 
Highest point of the road between Vattendal and Suledole 
Vand, : : ‘ 


SonprE-BEercGenuuus-AmtT. 
Folgefonden :— 

Aga-Nuten, . 

Melderskin above Rosendal, 

Hundsoira, 

Regnenuten, . 

Highest spot above J nian at he upper part ae the 
Odde-Fjord, : 

Sawaklep, one of the highest points to the aprile of 
Folgefonden, 


Solen-Nuten, portion of Folgefonden opposite Ullerisvang, 


Highest point of the road between Reiseter and Jonda- 
len (near Saxaklep), 
Hallingjokelen, highest mountain in Har danger 
Hartoug (Haarteigen, Hartangen) on Hardangerfjeld : — 
Base, or Plateau of Hardangerfjeld : 
Summit, . 
Selheefonden, E, or SE. fae Safjorden i in Hardanger, 
Voringsfoss, waterfall in Hardanger :— 
HOl, farm-house, near upper part of the fall, 


1540 


6180 
3610 


2260 
890 


4640 
3760 


3600 
2840 
2840 


2340 


4190 


4660 
4690 
5380 
5370 


5460 


4630 
4630 


4520 
5720 


4860 
5560 
4730 


2190 


—— 


— 


On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 


Height of the fall, 
Height of the spot whence a view is obtained, ‘above 
the commencement of the fall, 
The Jettegryderne or Riesentipfe (Giants’ cauldrons) ¢ on the 
mountains above Ousedalen, P ; 


Norpre-BerGeNnHuvs-Amr. 
Justedals-Breen, glaciers in Indre-Sogn :— 
Bersetbreen, lowest limit, 
Bjornestegbren, lowest Tien (descending, according to 
Naumann, to the bottom of the as ane 
Nigaardsbreen, lowest limit, 
Glaciers of Lodal and Trangedal, 
Skagstélstinderne in Indre-Sogn :— 
Middle summit, 
Eastern summit (Hur ee), 
Glacier of Skagstélsbre in Indre-Sogn, 
Suletind, Filefjeld, 
Mi peaiue, post-station on ‘Be Filefjeld, 


Romspats- Amr. 


Romsdalshorn, 
Tis- Vand, lake Gon which the Rep- -Ely atés its rise, 


SonpRE-TRONDHJEMS- AMT. 
Dovre chain :— 
a. Kolla, seven English miles, NW. from Jerkind, 
b. Nunsfjeld, 
c. Rottesdhoe, seven English miles NE. fain Jer- 
kind, 
d. Pass between Lesss and Ficpaalor. : 
Sylfjeld, on the Swedish frontier, between Szelbo and Jemt- 
land, highest summit (Syltoppen), , 
Kongsvold, post-station on the Dovre, ‘ 
Réraas, mining town, ; 
Lake of Oeresund, or Aursund, above Bitte 


Norpre- TroNDHJEMS- AMT. 
Jevsi-Fjeldene in Inderdens-F ogderie, 


Norpianps-Amt, 
Sulitelma, in the Fogderie of Salten, on the Swedish frontier 
(determined by Wahlenberg), 
Boundary between Norway and Sweden, mean height be- 
: tween boundary stones No. 207 and No. 208, 
Vessen, in the Fogderie of Helgeland, 


237 
480 
180 


2630 


1480 


1460 
1090 
1770 


7650 
8090 
4540 
5800 
2600 


4120 
5020 


5550 
6800 


5410 
5770 


5870 
2990 
2160 
2320 


4320 


6180 


3280 


238 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 


FINMARKENS-AMT. 

Bensjortinden in the Fogderie of Senjen and Tromso, 
North Cape, island of Mageroe, 
Highest point in the island of Tromsé, 
Tyvefjeld, near Hammerfest, 
Pass from the valley of Malanger through the ravine of Audje- 

Vaggie to the Torne bone j 5 
Noonskar-fjeld, near Talvig, 


HEIGHT OF THE Snow-LINE, 

On the high mountain range to the south of the Ota- Vand, 
in Guldbrandsdalen, 2 : : 

On the Dovre chain, 

Lodalskaabe, in Nordre Bergenhuus-Amt, i 

Storhougen, between Lyster and Justedal, in Notre Ber- 
genhuus-Amt, 

Between Jélster and Indviggord't in Nordfjord, 

Island of Seiland, north side, Finmarken, 


Liuit oF THE Brrew TREE. 
Near Héigien, a mountain in Quikne, Oesterdalen, 
On the Dovre chain, 
On the Filefjeld, 
Gousta-Fjeld in Tellemarken, 
Hardanger- Ejeld, 
Near Réraas, in the neighbourhood of the Langen Lake; 
Near the Stwe-See, Sindre-T rondhjems-Amt, 
On the north side of Gusli Fjeld in Inderdens Pogderie, 
Nordre Trondhjems-Amt, : 
Between Jeusden and Inderdal, N. Trondh. = 
Between Karasjok and Altenfjord in Finmarken, 
Near Lédingen in Salten, Nordlands-Amt, 


Limit or THE ScotcH Fir. 
Near Finnebustilen, above Grungedal, Tellemarken, 
In Brekkedalen, Lom, Guldbrandsdalen 
On the Dovre chain (Von Buch, i. p. 202), 

(Von Buch speaks of lakes from which the Foldals- Elv 
takes its rise as the limit of the Scotch Fir; and if 
the Vola Lake be meant, then the height is only 
2990 feet). 


On the south side of Faxefjeld, Swedish frontier, Oester- 


dalen, 

Near Oie-Vand in Lister; 

In Romsdalen, : 

On the Pass of Inderdal, in Taidedoens Fogderie, Nordre: 

Trondhjems-Amt, 

Near Lippa-jervi, Finmarken, on the frontier of Torneaa 
Lapmark, ; 

Near Lédingen, Nordlands- eat, 


4000 
1000 

420 
1250 


1390 
3550 


4740 
5350 
5460 


5350 
4120 
2970 


3970 
3470 
3400 
3390 
3410 
3500 
2880 


2200 
1840 
1600 
1560 


3120 
2720 
3680 


2350 
2060 
2830 


1790 


1330 
690 


On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible. 239 


Limit OF THE SPRUCE FIR. 


In Stavedalen, Sdndre-Ourdal, Valders, : ; 8140 
Strandseterkampen in Ringeboe, Guldbrandsdalen, . 2530 
Near Foérres-Vand in Tellemarken, 2 j 2450 
Gousta Fyjeld, Tellemarken, 3030 
On the north side of the mountains hehrcan Geuriditen and 
Holden Lake, Inderoens Fogderie, ‘ ; 2000 
South side of the same mountains, A 1590 
Between Limingen Lake and Joma-Fjeld in n' Nummedals: 
Fogderie, Nordre- -Trondhjems-Amt, : t 1770 


On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible compared with 
the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. By MARCEL DE 
SERRES. 


The greater part of those who have meditated on the Sacred 
Writings, have turned their attention rather to the religious 
ideas contained in them, than to the accuracy and importance 
of the physical facts exhibited in their pages. Finding in 
these books, superior to all others that have been written, 
truths essential to the destiny and vocation of man, they did 
not think that they ought to seek in them light or informa- 
tion respecting the material world, which has been given to 
us as a subject for our researches and investigations. They 
have thought the less of this, because in the eyes of some of 
them such a consideration appeared alike futile and super- 
fluous. 

To make amends for this oversight, we shall concentrate 
our examination on the physical facts contained in the Bible, 
and which the sciences have made known to us only a short 
time antecedent to the present. This we are the more called 
upon to do, because we have here studied the Sacred Writings 
only in one point of view, namely, with regard to the positive 
notions they give us respecting the whole of creation. We 
cannot too often repeat, that, in the examination on which we 
are about to enter, we have looked upon Scripture with the — 
eye of a natural philosopher, not of a theologian ; the ma- 
terial world has alone attracted our regard. 

The most important point, relative to the creation, and of 
which we have still no knowledge but from the Bible, is the 


240 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


distinction which it establishes between the creation of the 
universe and its co-ordination. Thus, in the beginning (im 
principio), all the matter which compose the earth and 
heavens was created ; afterwards, this matter was appro- 
priated and formed the stellar and planetary bodies of the 
solar system, as well as those of other systems. 

We have already shewn elsewhere on what grounds this 
interpretation rests; it appears particularly obvious when 
we direct our attention not only to the first verse of Genesis, 
but to those that follow, particularly the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 
10th verses of the first chapter. It is useless, therefore, to 
insist longer on this point. We shall merely observe, that 
physical facts demonstrate the accuracy of this interpretation. 
Undoubtedly the whole of matter had been created at the be- 
ginning of things, and probably no new matter is formed. 
But it was not co-ordinated nor organised at the origin of 
time in its universality ; for every day celestial bodies are 
produced, under our own eyes, which are the result of the 
condensation of this same matter. It will continue unceas- 
ingly to become condensed, and will form stars more or less 
complete, as long as any of it remains capable of assuming 
new forms and new dispositions. 

If such concretions are still preparing and organising 
celestial bodies, it is evident such formations indicate to us 
that if matter proceeded from nothing at the first, it was not 
appropriated till a long while after its creation. This process 
is constantly carried on in the ordinary course of things ; far 
from being completed, many ages will elapse before it has 
reached its limit. It is with reason, therefore, that the 
Sacred Writings have distinguished the creation of matter 
from its posterior arrangement. 

The chaos in which Genesis represents all matter to have 
been at the birth of the world (and particularly that which 
afterwards formed the earth), is a proof that Scripture rightly 
distinguishes creation and co-ordination. This matter, at 
first without form and void, from which the globe we inhabit 
arose, would appear to have been analogous to those nebulo- 
sities, the condensation of which produces, under our own eyes, 
new celestial bodies. At every period nature has thence de- 


- 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 241 


rived the elements with which she has formed the celestial 
bodies composing the wonderful assemblage of the universe. 
It is likewise from the bosom of these masses of nebulosities, 
so abundantly diffused through space, that she draws the 
stellar and planetary bodies. 

It is a remarkable fact, that the cosmogony given in Ge- 
nesis, is the only one that has established this distinction be- 
tween the primitive creation of all matter and its co-ordina- 
tion. Not long since, our knowledge was not sufficiently ad- 
vanced to enable us to appreciate these great differences in 
time and in things. Not less than seven thousand years were 
necessary to enable us to comprehend the reality of such a 
distinction, and to shew that it was founded on the nature of 
things. We can now follow step by step these transforma- 
tions of nebulous matter, and see it pass through different 
states before producing stellar and planetary bodies analogous 
to those of the solar system. 

This distinction,* established by Scripture, is founded on 
two orders of facts entirely independent of each other, and 
which, owing to that circumstance, have their weight and 
authority increased. The first refers to the transformations 
which take place, in space, between nebulosities and the 
new stars produced by their condensation. The second has 
reference to the space of time necessary for the light of the 
most distant nebulosities to reach us. This space is so con- 
siderable, that, according to the observation of facts, we must 
refer the first emission of this light to about a hundred thou- 
sand years before the appearance of man. 


* Not only does Genesis distinguish the creation of matter from its 
co-ordination, but the same thing is observable in all the other books of 
Scripture. Thus we find in Psalm xxxiii., verses 6th, 7th, and 9th, that 
« By the word of the Lord were the heavens made ; and all the host of 
them by the breath of His mouth. He gathereth the waters of the sea 
together as an heap; he layeth up the deep in store-houses. He spake 
and it was done; He commanded and it stood fast.” So much for the 
spontaneity of creation. With regard to the posterior co-ordination of 
the objects created at the beginning of time, we read in Psalm viii., 
verse 3d., ‘‘ When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the 
moon and the stars which thou hast ordained.” 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. Q 


242 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


If, then, the luminous rays emitted by nebulosities require 
so long an interval in order to become visible, the stars which 
transmit them to us must have been created before the last 
arrangements were made on the surface of our planet. Now, 
as these rays require about a hundred thousand years to reach 
us, and as the final dispositions made on the earth do not go 
back further than seven thousand or seven thousand five 
hundred years from the present epoch, the stars to which we 
owe this blessing must have been created at the commence- 
ment of things, or, to use the expression in Genesis, at the 
beginning—in principio. An immense interval must therefore 
have intervened between the creation of the celestial bodies 
and their co-ordination. This interval is still greater when 
we turn our attention, not to the stars of the solar system, 
but to those which form no part of it. In fact, the former are 
completely terminated ; but it is not so with the others. This 
work has, however, commenced at an era separated from ours 
by immense periods, and the succession of ages has not suf- 
ficed to complete it. 

This co-ordination of a matter pre-existing since the origin 
of things, cannot be considered as a true creation. The latter 
could not take place unless the materials of which the celes- 
tial bodies are composed had been derived from nothing by 
the power and volition of the Creator. No doubt the conden- 
sation of the nebulous matter causes that matter to assume 
new forms ; but while acquiring these its nature is not 
changed ; it only passes through different states. This ap- 
propriation, and these different dispositions, assumed by a 
substance already formed, cannot be likened to a real creation. 

In this case there is, indeed, a change in the state and form 
of the original materials, but there is no new production. 
This production, however, would be necessary, in order that 
these changes and modifications could properly be regarded 
as acts emanating immediately from the creative power. 

Matter being once created, secondary causes, under the 
direction of Divine Wisdom, would tend to make it assume 
determinate forms, and proceed in a regular course. Accord- 
ingly, the forces which Nature holds in some degree in re- 
serve, in order that they may be brought into action when 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 243 


any disturbing cause threatens to interrupt the order and 
harmony of created things, she also destines for acts still 
more important. Their power, essentially conservative, 
brings the newly produced celestial bodies into a firm and 
stable condition—a character distinctive of stars arrived at 
their perfection. 

If the proofs of so many facts, the first knowledge of which 
we owe to Moses, are written in indelible characters on the 
strata which form the crust of the globe, those of the truth 
of the first verse of Genesis are traced in characters of fire 
on the celestial vault. It is there that we discover the con- 
firmation of it, and perceive its perfect accuracy. 

When we turn our attention to the immense assemblage of 
nebulosities and stars sparkling in the firmament, the laws 
of which the sacred writer has so distinctly perceived, we are 
less surprised that he has discerned with the same sagacity 
those which regulate and determine their movements. Moses 
gives us to understand that the stability of the course of the 
celestial bodies depends on their mutual gravitation, and 
the extent of the distance which separates them. 

It is true that he has not developed the system of attraction 
in all its extent; but he has fixed its principles, without 
expressing it in a scientific language which could not have 
been understood. He leads us at all times to understand 
that the law of gravitation regulates the phenomena of the 
universe, that it is sufficient for all, and maintains in it both 
order and variety. Emanating from Supreme Wisdom, this 
law has presided, since the origin of time, over the harmony 
of created things, and renders all disorder among them 
impossible. 

The discovery which enabled Newton to demonstrate that 
bodies attract each other in the direct ratio of their mass, 
and in the inverse ratio of the square of distance, is the noblest 
triumph of the human mind. At the same time this law is 
only the reduction of the celestial movements to a mechanical 
law, the cause of which remains unknown. Newton did not 


_ regard it otherwise, since he has employed the word only 


conditionally, as presenting a sensible image of the phenomena 
observed, quasi esset attractio. 


244 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


If we represent this universal force as depending on some 
more general mechanical conception, for example, the exis- 
tence of an elastic ether diffused throughout the whole uni- 
verse, there would still remain the why of this existence ; the 
second why would immediately lead us to another still more 
remote ; and the last of all must remain for ever inaccessible, 
not only to the efforts of our thoughts, but even of our 
imagination. 

When Scripture speaks of the earth, it teaches us that 
God has laid the foundations of it, and that it shall never be 
shaken ; for he has fixed it upon its poles.* It then repre- 
sents to usthe terrestrial globe as having passed, in its earliest 
ages, through the state of a kind of vapour more subtile than 
the most attenuated and finest dust. If it speaks of its form, 
it represents its true spheroidal figure, and compares it to an 
immense globe or vast sphere.t When it speaks of its 
position in space, it represents it as suspended on nothing, or 
on a bottomless space. It also correctly describes its di- 
mensions and size. { 

If it directs our attention to the heavens, it designates them 
by their extent, rakiah. Notwithstanding the accuracy of 
this interpretation, which represents the immensity of the 
celestial spaces, the Greeks. in the Septuagint version, as well 
as the Latins, in the Vulgate, have presumed to correct it, 


* See Psalm civ., verses 5-9, ‘‘ God laid the foundations of the earth 
that it should not be removed for ever. The deep covered it as a gar- 
ment ; the waters stood upon the mountains. At His rebuke they fled ; 
at the voice of His thunder they hasted away. They went up by the 
mountains ; they went down by the valleys unto the place he had founded 
for them. He has set a bound that they may not pass over; that they 
turn not again to cover the earth.” 


i + See Job chapter xxvi., verse 10; Proverbs viii., verse 27 ; Isaiah xl., 
verse 22. [Some of M. Marcel de Serres’s views regarding certain 
passages of the Bible, are more fully borne out by Martin Luther’s Ger- 
man version than by our English translation.—ED. } 


t+ The Hebrew text bears that ‘‘ God has stretched over the void the 


vault of heaven, (le septentrion), and suspended the earth on nothing, 
(al belimah).” ‘The Greek reads “ KetwaZov yavixi? dive (Job xxvi. 7). 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 245 


because they did not perceive the extent of its import, or 
because they could not understand it. 

The heavens, in the Bible, are the immense, infinite space, 
through which the nebulous matter, the universal source of 
all the celestial bodies, is diffused. They constitute the 
expansum or immensity, and not the frmamentumof St Jerome, 
nor the oregéwua of the Alexandrine interpreters, nor, finally, 
the eighth heaven of Aristotle and all the ancients, which 
they represent as firm, solid, crystalline, and incorruptible. 

Moses alone has distinguished the primitive light from 
that whose benefits we derive from the sun. He has repre- 
sented it. to us as an element independent of this luminary, 
and as anterior by three epochs to that when it received its 
brilliant atmospheres. This particular in the account of 
the creation, was long considered as irreconcilable with phy- 
sical facts. The distinction has brought many reproaches 
on the author of Genesis: those who uttered them, struck 
with the splendour of the great luminary which presides over 
the day, could not conceive that other sources of light existed 
both for the earth and for the rest of the universe. But the 
difficulties which have been felt, as to the accuracy of the 
Mosaic narration, have not kept their ground before the dis- 
coveries of science. In fact, an immense quantity of light is 
produced here below, and developed in an infinite variety of 
circumstances, altogether foreign from that we derive from 
the sun. Of this nature is the light emitted by volcanic fires ; 
also that accumulated on the surface of clouds, which is not 
an intermittent, but continuous light. This light, produced 
by their phosphorescence, was sufficiently bright, aided espe- 
cially by temperature, humidity, and electricity, all of which 
were more considerable in the first ages, to make vegetables 
grow, before the solar rays had caused their powerful in- 
fluence to be felt. 

Neither does Moses represent the light as created, as 
Biblical commentators have unreasonably supposed ; but he 
represents it as bursting forth at the voice of God. The 
author of Genesis, therefore, is rather in harmony with the 
theory of vibrations or undulations, generally adopted, than 


246 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


with the theory of emission, which cannot explain the whole 
of the known facts. 

In this point of view, the Hebrew lawgiver would have 
appeared superior to Newton, if that great genius had not 
himself been favourable to the hypothesis of vibrations, 
although, for his explanations and calculations, he adopted 
the theory of emission. It is in the letter written by him to 
Boyle that he has endeavoured to demonstrate that the 
vibrations of the ether, determining the phenomena of light, 
may furnish an explanation founded on those of weight or 
attraction. 

The letter in which this great and beautiful conception 
appears, has been published by M. Frederick Maurice, in the 
Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve. This savant there shews 
how simple it is, and conformable to the laws of nature, to 
derive the principal and most important phenomena of the 
physical world, from the pre-existence of a single fluid emi- 
nently elastic and subtile. He shews us how, by means of this 
mystical tie, Newton designed to co-ordinate all the move- 
ments of the great bodies of the universe, and bring together 
the whole physical facts to that first unity which renders 
their co-ordination so admirable and wonderful.* 

This same natural philosopher leads us to remark, that, in 
this reference made by Moses to light, as existing and shining 
with all its splendour, before there were any luminous bodies 
destined to shed it in a constant manner on the earth, it is 
difficult not to perceive a striking proof of the inspiration of 
the Book which announces such a fact. 

While admitting a light independent of the great lumi- 
naries placed by the hand of God in the midst of the celestial 
spaces, Scripture does not fail to direct our attention to the 
magnificence and splendour of the solar rays. We are in- 
formed that man cannot endure their brightness, when the 
winds have cleared the sky, and when the north wind causes 
the golden sun to shine. 


* Newton’s letter to the Royal Society of London, written in 1675, 
has been inserted in the History of that Society, published in 1756, by 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 247 


When Moses turns his attention to the numerous stars 
which impart to night its magnificence and beauty, his 
knowledge appears superior to that of the ancient astrono- 
mers, who, in their imperfect observations, have classified 
only about a thousand.* He, on the contrary, multiplies 
them to infinitude, and regards them as innumerable. Thus, 
in a single word, he represents to us the immense quantity 
of stars which compose the milky way, or which are dissemi- 
nated through the celestial spaces. Continuing the examina- 
tion, he compares them, as Herschel might have done, to 
the grains of sand on the sea-shore. We might not, perhaps, 
have seen any thing else in these expressions but a simple 
figure, had not Scripture added, “ God has scattered them 
with his hand in space like dust,’ and however great their 
numbers, “‘ He names them all by their names.’”” When not 
speaking of their numbers, but of the order and regularity of 
their movements, Scripture compares them to an army advan- 
cing to battle. It represents this celestial army as incomparable 
for the multitude of its soldiers, and the perfection of its 
evolutions. Filled with wonder at the magnificence of the 
heavens, the Sacred writer exclaims, in rapture, “ They de- 
clare the glory of the Almighty ; and, although without words 
and voice, they do not the less proclaim his power and glory.” 

However brilliant the stars disseminated through the im- 
mensity of space, Scripture never supposes them to be ani- 
mated, as the ancients imagined. Neither does it assign to 
them any influence over human affairs. It regards them as 
bodies called forth out of nothing by the voice of God, as inert 
pieces of matter, regulated and submissive, proceeding with 
the order, regularity, and unity, of an army advancing to 
battle, and executing the decrees of his Supreme Wisdom. 


Birch. With regard to that of Newton to Boyle, it has been translated 
by Pictet, and may be found in the Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve for 
1822. In this letter Newton admits the propagation of light by means 
of the vibrations of an ether pre-existing and everywhere diffused.—See 
the 21st verse of the xxxvii. chapter of the Book of Job. 

* According to Hipparchus, there are not more than 1022 stars in the 
heavens ; although the number was a little increased by Ptolemy, they 
did not amount, in the eyes of the latter astronomer, to more than 1026. 


> 


248 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


It is thus that the Bible represents to us Him whose ma- 
jesty is above the heavens, and who humbles himself even 
when he looks upon the celestial vault. Between the ani- 
mated representations which it gives us of this Infinite Being, 
whom the universe cannot contain, and those which have 
been handed down to us by the greatest geniuses of antiquity, 
the distance is so great that no comparison can be instituted. 
It is the same with the notions Scripture gives us and what 
the ancient theogonies have transmitted respecting God, as 
with what regards the material world and its formation. 

Scripture is not less exact when it describes the different 
constellations. It represents the Pleiades as owing their 
lustre to a great number of stars placed close together. It 
speaks, on the contrary, of the stars of Orion as remote from 
each other, and in some measure, as it were, dispersed through 
the celestial vault. In alluding to the brilliant constellation 
of the Great Bear, it represents it as composed of an infinite 
number of resplendent stars. 

It is not only when considered in relation to these great 
views, that Scripture appears in harmony with the discoveries 
of science ; the fact is even more conspicuous when we regard 
the phenomena of the material world in detail. Thus, when 
it speaks of the air, it represents it as possessing a certain 
weight, and surrounding the earth in moveable layers. In 
fact in that admirable song of Solomon’s, where he describes. 
the eternity of the Infinite Wisdom, does he not tell us that 
it existed when God established the air above the earth, when 
he assigned their equilibrium to the waters of the fountains, 
and laid the foundations of the earth ¢* 

In like manner, Scripture first informed us, ‘ That God 
gave to the air its weight (mischkal), and to the waters their 
just measure.’ Yet this property of the aériform fluid which 
surrounds the earth remained unknown till the time of 
Galileo and Torricelli. Atthe most, Aristotle had but a faint 
idea of it, just as, at a later period, Seneca had some notion 
of its resilience and elasticity. 

This weight attributed to the air, has appeared so extra- 


——_—__ 


* Proverbs, viii. 28, 29. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 249 


ordinary to all the interpreters of the Book of Job, where it 
is literally stated, that, from not being able to comprehend 
it, they have altogether misinterpreted it. All of them have 
translated the expression rowach, which properly signifies the 
air or the aériform layer which environs the globe, by the 
term wind, although they have preserved its true sense to the 
word mischkal, that is to say, heaviness or weight. 

They have been led to do this, because they were unable 
to conceive that the air could be heavy ; and, knowing from 
experience that we encounter a certain resistance when moy- 
ing against its beds or layers in motion, they have ascribed 
weight to it on account of its strength and power. Instead 
of following Scripture, and assigning to the air itself a cer- 
tain weight, they have referred it to the agitation and im- 
petuosity of its moveable strata. 

The above interpretation once admitted, all commentators 
who have followed the first translators have adopted the same 
version, without attempting to ascertain whether it was con- 
formable to the true sense of the Hebrew text. 

If the old interpreters had understood the true sense of 
the 7th verse of the 135th Psalm, they would have found in 
it an additional proof of Scripture attributing weight to the 
air. The Psalmist there praises God, ‘‘ Because he maketh 
lightnings for the rain, and because he causeth the vapours 
to ascend from the ends of the earth, and bringeth the winds 
out of his treasuries.” The ascent of the aqueous vapours 
in the midst of the air, is the consequence of their lightness 
being greater than that of the atmospheric strata through 
which they pass. Both the one and the other of them are, 
therefore, heavy, and the excess of weight is here in favour of 
that which, at the first glance, would appear destitute of it. 

As they are regarded by Scripture, the aqueous vapours 
are the source of clouds, whence the waters descend which 
fertilise the fields, or lay them waste when they are too 
abundant. They are, therefore, the cause of impetuous rains 
and storms, when they afford a free passage to the light- 
nings of thunder. Scripture thus recognises their density, 
and that of the aériform stratum which affords them access 
to the middle of its interstices. 


250 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


The Bible thus represents to us the aqueous vapours as 
constantly suspended in the air, and nature, by an admirable 
system of circulation, as employing these vapours in the pro- 
duction of clouds. the source of the rains which fecundate the 
earth.* Scripture assigns to the atmosphere and to the upper 
waters, that is to say, to the aqueous vapours suspended in 
its bosom, an importance which modern science alone has 
been able to establish. At least, according to the calculation 
of the greatest natural philosophers, the force annually em- 
ployed by nature in the formation of clouds, is equal to an 
exertion which the whole human species could not accomplish 
in less than 200,000 years.t 

This ‘‘ separation of the upper waters from the lower 
waters,” has taken place by means of the atmosphere, and 
not by a solid sphere, as the greater number of the interpre- 
ters of Genesis have erroneously supposed. In fact, the 
Hebrew word rakiah, which we have rendered by interval or 
firmament, is far from having the least relation to anything 
firm or indurated. It rather designates a vapoury space, 
that is to say, an aériform layer, but by no means a heaven 
of metal, as Don Calmet has unreasonably imagined. 

The Bible here indicates to us the importance of water in 
the formation of the earth. It further informs us that, be- 
sides the water diffused through the atmosphere, or which 
covers the greater part of the surface of the globe,{ there 
exist quantities, not less considerable, in the interior of the 
globe. Its solid crust, it is stated, covers a great abyss : from 


* See Job, chap. xxvi. 8; xxxvi. 27; xxxvii. 1] and 12; xxxviii. 
25 and 27; Ps. Ixxvii. 17 ; Proverbs, viii. 28. 

+ The reader may consult on this subject the calculations of Leslie 
and Arago. The latter admits that about 800,000,000 of men form 
the half of the population of the globe. In the calculation, the result 
of which is given above, there would only be the half of that number en- 
gaged in the work destined for the formation of clouds (Annuaire du 
Bureau des Longitudes, 1835, p. 196). 

{ Psalm civ. 25, makes us acquainted with the grandeur of the ocean 
in these terms: This great and spacious sea. Zechariah describes its extent 
by saying, the Messiah shall reign “ from sea to sea;” that is to say, 
throughout the whole earth, Zechariah, ix. 10. See Amos, viii. 12; 
Micah, vii. 12: Ps. Ixxii. 8. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 251 


this abyss the waters made a violent eruption at the period 
of the Deluge, as at the time of chaos, and the innumerable 
ages which had preceded it.* 

Thus the Sacred Scriptures, antecedently to modern dis- 
coveries, shew us the exterior crust of the earth issuing 
from the bosom of the waters, and this same crust enclosing 
in its interior an immense quantity of water in a liquid state.t+ 
These facts have been confirmed by observation and science. 
Is it not consistent with common experience, that subter- 
ranean waters are almost as abundant as those which flow 
on the surface of the earth? The globe would appear to 
contain in its interior, rivers, torrents, lakes, and perhaps 
even seas. When the Bible speaks of the Deluge, it repre- 
sents it as produced by impetuous and violent rains, the 
flood-gates of heaven being opened. On the other hand, it 
describes the waters enclosed in the bowels of the earth, as 
having gushed up to the surface in torrents. They swelled, 
at the same time, the exterior waters, which accumulated 
and overflowed on every side, according to the energetic ex- 
pression of Job. All these causes united produced this ter- 
rible catastrophe, which brought destruction on the human 
race, and which was followed by their renovation.{ Such 
facts are still the cause, not indeed of deluges analogous to 
that the violence of which the Bible describes, but of inun- 
dations which afflict and desolate the earth at distant and 


* See Genesis, vii. 11; Ps. Ixxvii.; civ. 

+ According to Ps. cxxxvi. 6, the earth is founded and stretched out 
above the waters: Quis firmavit terram super aquas?—“ The Lord has 
founded the earth upon the seas, and established it upon the floods,” 
Ps. xxiv. 2; “ Les géants gémissent sous les eaua,” Job xxvi. 5. [The 
French and German versions of this passage differ from the English 
translation—Ep.]| Moses wishes for Joseph, “ the blessings of the 
deep that coucheth beneath,” that is to say, abundance of spring water, 
Deut. xxxiii. 13.—[Several references are here made by the author to 
passages of Scripture, which he regards as corroborating his statements. 
These references, probably from typographical errors, are, in many 
cases, obviously incorrect, and are therefore omitted.—ED. | 

t See Job xxxviii. 8; Genesis vii. 11 (rupti sunt fontes abyssi et cataractes 
coeli aperiuntur). 


252 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, - 


rare intervals. The waters of the heavens are incapable of 
producing them, as they were incapable of causing a cata- 
clysm, such as that which occasioned the destruction of man. 
In fact, the quantity of aqueous vapour diffused through the 
atmosphere is too inconsiderable to produce deluges resem- 
bling that of Noah, the extent of which physical facts suffi- 
ciently attest. 

Scripture does not confine itself to these particulars, in 
order to enable us to understand that, besides the great 
masses of water spread over the surface of the globe, there 
exist others not less considerable in the interior. The earth 
is founded and stretched out, it informs us, on the subter- 
ranean waters: they are there assembled, as in a mass, in 
the most secret places of its depth, whence they at times 
escape to impart fertility to the most barren soils.* 

Thus, when it describes the riches of the country of 
Canaan, to which a wonderful exuberance of vegetation is 
promised for the latter times, it represents it not only as 
abounding in springs and fountains, but particularly in sub- 
terranean waters. It seems thereby to anticipate the pro- 
cess of perforation, by means of which the moderns have 
succeeded in fertilising the most barren fields and the most 
steril countries. 

We find, moreover, in the Scriptures, proofs of the extent 
of the seas in the early ages; they even contain some suc- 
cinct details respecting the animals which inhabited them, 
the greater part of which have preceded the species of the 
dry and uncovered land. Such facts have required long 
spaces of time for their operation. In truth, the numerous 
generations buried in the old strata of the globe, and to 
which the present existing races have succeeded, must have 
lived during periods of greater or less duration, in order to 
fulfil the end of their creation. This circumstance of itself 
proves that the word tom used in Genesis, and which is 
translated day, means rather indeterminate epochs, the dura- 
tion of which it is impossible for us to fix. 

While enabling us to understand the extent of the seas, 


= 


* See Ps. xxiv. 2; xxxiii, 7. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 253 


Scripture does not fail to declare to us that God has marked 
out their limits, and has fixed their boundaries and barriers, 
which they cannot pass over. In its poetical style it ex- 
claims, “ Sea, hitherto shalt thou come, and no further ; and 
here shall thy proud waves be staid.”’ 

In other places it points out the depth of the sea, and re- 
fers to the greatness of its abysses, maintained by the waters 
which issue from the bosom of the clouds. The rains also 
quench the parched lands, and cause the grass of the mea- 
dow to spring. With regard to the waters, they are some- 
times converted into ice, and become hard as a stone: their 
solidity thus accidentally gives solidity tothe surface of thesea. 

It represents the frost as spread over the earth like salt, 

and making the plants rough like the leaves of thistles. 
When the cold north wind blows, the water becomes as 
crystal. The frost rests on the whole mass of waters, and 
renders them like an impenetrable breastplate. 
_. When the snow falls on the earth, it extends itself over 
it like a multitude of birds of passage lighting upon it in 
flocks ; it spreads itself like hosts of locusts descending from 
the clouds. The eye admires the brilliancy of its whiteness ; 
but the mind is alarmed at the inundations it threatens. 
Finally, when the bad weather ceases, the warm and moist 
winds become felt, and with them the snow and frost disap- 
pear. Thus, throughout, and at every step, Scripture indi- 
cates to us the influence of the waters diffused through space, 
and their effects on the earth. 

The Bible, in order to give us an idea of the influence of 
the central heat, does not confine itself to speaking to us of 
that which it exercised on the waters of the Deluge ; it gives 
us further information, when referring to the interior con- 
dition of our planet. In fact, according to it, if the surface 
of the earth furnishes to man the elements of his nourish- 
ment, beneath the solid crust, “‘ The earth is,’’ nevertheless, 
“on fire, and as it were turned up.”* The greater part of 


* The Hebrew word thakhethejah, used by Job, chap. xxviii. 5, means 
beneath *t. The text runs “ Itis from the earth that bread comes; and 
beneath it, it is turned up, and as on fire.” 


254 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


its crust, thus inflamed in the interior, is covered with water 
on the surface. Above this liquid mass, continents and 
mountains, which are its most elevated points, have risen up 
to afford an asylum to man, as well as to terrestrial animals 
and vegetables. 

Who, then, has informed Job that the interior of the 
earth was filled with such a burning heat ? Who has taught 
him the existence of the central fire, the possibility of which 
Buffon had conceived before the hypothesis had become a 
demonstrated fact 2? We do not reply to this question, on ac- 
count of the point of view under which we have considered 
the Sacred Books. 

We have reason to be surprised at thus finding in the 
Bible physical truths so long misunderstood, or so long un- 
known ; namely, the weight of the air and the central fire. 
Notwithstanding the existence of this interior heat, the 
effects of which it appreciates, Scripture does not fail to ad- 
mit the extent and thickness of the solid crust of the globe, 
which encloses immense quantities of water concealed in its 
depths. 

The Sacred Books, it is true, in giving us an idea of these 
great facts, has not taught us them in the language of natu- 
ral philosophers. Their language is never that of Copernicus, 
Newton, Kepler, or Laplace. The reason which has pre- 
vented the authors of these admirable books from doing this, 
is one of the strongest that can be conceived. If they had 
expressed themselves respecting the scenes of nature, not 
as these present themselves to our eyes, but according to 
the notions which philosophers of a future age might form 
of them, they would certainly not have been understood, 
even by the most enlightened minds. 

Besides, the most advanced language of science is almost 
in every instance only the language of appearances. The 
visible and material world is, to a greater extent than is 
supposed, a scene of illusions and errors. What we call 
reality is often a mere figure, having a relation to a more 
hidden reality, or to an analysis carried a further length. 
Such an expression, in our mouths, has nothing absolute in 
it; it is a relative term, which we employ in proportion as 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 255 


we believe that we have ascended a new step in the profound 
seale of our ignorance. 

Above all, it was necessary that Scripture should be intel- 
ligible to the most vulgar individuals, as well as to the most 
learned. Let us not, therefore be surprised that it expresses 
itself according to the habitual and familiar language of 
science, and that, with it, it speaks of the stars rising, the 
equinoxes retiring, the planets advancing and doubling their 
speed, standing still, and moving backwards. We need no 
longer be surprised that it speaks of the rising and the set- 
ting of the sun, since these modes of expression are sanc- 
tioned and adopted by the Annuaire of the bureau of longi- 
tudes. 

One circumstance may well surprise us, and that is, to find 
in the Bible mountains distinguished into two classes, very 
nearly in the same manner as they are distinguished by 
science into primitive and secondary. Thus, in the 104th 
Psalm, a composition of incomparable poetical beauty, the 
prophet gives us an idea of the formation of the earth; he 
represents it to us as still covered with the waters of the 
deep as with a garment. The waters stood above all the 
mountains, but many of these eminences became elevated, 
and rose above their level; the waters then retired and 
fled. New mountains then appeared, and valleys and plains, 
the lowest parts of the globe, were formed at their feet. 
Two principal epochs, then, must have been in the mind of 
the prophet, from the time of the rising up of the heights 
which appear on all parts of the globe; these two epochs 
correspond to the formation of primitive and secondary 
mountains. 

Thus the prophet (Proverbs viii. 25) in speaking of the 
elevation of mountains and hills, says that these events, 
which have singularly modified the relief of the globe, had 
their separate eras. Further, in the 97th Psalm, Scripture 
represents the mountains to be melting like wax, nearly as 
those might have done who had seen the rocks of Auvergne 


_ or Cantal in a fluid state, or the basalt of the Giant’s Cause- 


way melted like water. 
The Bible then represents to us the mass of mountains 


256 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


issuing from the bosom of the earth at the voice of God, 
and rising above the plains and valleys. It gives us an ac- 
count of the process of their elevation, in terms which might 
have been used by a poetical geologist. ‘“ The mountains,”’ 
is the enthusiastic language employed, “ the mountains rise 
above the deep, and the valleys sink to the place which thou 
hast chosen for them.” 

Reference is even made to the force by which they have 
been elevated ; it is represented as proportionate to the ele- 
vation to which these eminences have been raised, being most 
powerful when employed in elevating the mountains properly 
so called, and weaker when its efforts were limited to the 
raising of the hills above the valleys. In its figurative style, 
it compares the elevation of the former to the skipping of 
rams, and that of the second to the leaping of lambs.* 

The earth is thus represented as being soft as clay, at the 
time of these great events. It is then described as having 
assumed a new face, and having adorned itself with a new 
garment,t a sort of allusion to the sedimentary deposits 
with which the superficial crust became covered. 

When Scripture speaks of the electric fluid, it represents 
it to us as resounding throughout the whole space of the 
heavens, and causing its lightnings to shine even to the 
remotest parts of the earth. After their light the thunder 
roars, and its rolling sound is heard. The noise of the thun- 
der, it says, announces that the wrath of God is about to 
fall on all that aspires to elevate itself. Scarcely has the 
sound been heard, when the bolt has already struck. Thus 
God breaks forth in the voice of his thunder; he who works 
such great and mighty wonders, traces his path in the thun- 
der, and regulates the course of the tempests. 

Such is the idea which it gives us of this phenomenon, the 
rapidity of which is even greater than that of light. In fact, 
according to Mr Becquerel’s experiments on the rapidity of 


* See Job. xxviii, 4; Psalm xc. 2; xevii.5; civ. 6, 8,9; exliv. 5 
Proverbs viii. 25 ; Ezekiel xlvii.; Zechariah xiv. 4, 8. 
+t See Job xxxviii. 14. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 257 


electricity, this fluid traversed ninety thousand leagues in a 
~ second. Its velocity is therefore greater than that of light, 
which is only at the rate of eighty thousand leagues in the 
same space of time. 

The electric fluid not only exhibits the greatest velocity, 
but it enters in considerable quantity into the composition 
of the molecules of bodies. This quantity is indeed so im- 
mense, that the imagination is startled at it. The elements 
of a simple molecule of water appear to contain eight hun- 
dred thousand charges of an electric battery of eight jars 
two decimeters (about 8 inches) in height and six (about 2 
feet) in circumference, obtained by thirty revolutions of a 
powerful electrical machine. If the quantity of electricity 
accumulated in the elements of a gramme (about 15} grains) 
of water, happened to be suddenly set free in the middle of 
any building, the building would instantly be blown in pieces. 

This power, compared with which steam is as nothing, 
whether we consider it as an extremely subtile matter, or 
rather as the result of a vibratory movement impressed on 
the ether, is only employed by nature in maintaining the 
combinations and molecular constitution of bodies. We 
ought not, therefore, to be surprised at the importance which 
Scripture assigns to thunder and lightning, which is one of 
the not least curious of its effects. There are few natural 
phenomena in which electricity does not act a part, and which 
are not more or less dependent upon it. How can it be 
otherwise, since each material molecule appears to be en- 
dowed not only with a certain quantity of heat and light, but 
also with electricity ? 

Genesis is not less exact when it calls our attention to 
the living beings which, by turns, have animated and em- 
bellished the surface of the earth. It delineates their suc- 
cession, it teaches us that they have appeared in distinct 
generations, and in direct relation to the complexity of 
their organization. We are surprised to find such a law 
written in the Bible, a law equally to be traced in indelible 
_ characters in the bowels of the globe. This fact, clearly 
expressed in a Book which has existed from so old a date, 

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. R 


258 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


has, notwithstanding, been known to us only for half a cen- 
tury. To the general idea thus connected by Moses with 
the appearance of living beings, this great legislator adds 
details, the accuracy of which is not less evident in our opi- 
nion, although assertions to the contrary have been made by 
many illustrious naturalists. According to him, terrestrial 
vegetables preceded the animals which inhabit the dry and 
uncovered land. In this particular, chemistry confirms the 
assertion of the sacred writer ; but geological observations 
seem to be opposed to it. Accordingly, certain modern na- 
tural philosophers, far from admitting it as real and satis- 
factory, have regarded it as a manifest error. The question 
is to determine whether these observations are as conclusive 
as they are supposed to be, and if, according to the nature of 
things, vegetables must not have appeared before animals. 

The researches by means of which it has been supposed 
possible to prove that vegetables have not preceded beings 
endowed with motion, are far from authorising the inference 
wished to be deduced from them. In fact, while terrestrial 
vegetables appear in great numbers in the transition forma- 
tions, this is far from being the case with animals. Only a 
few individuals of the lower classes of the animal kingdom 
have been discovered in them; up to the present time the 
number does not exceed six species at most. And yet the 
most active researches have been made in all parts of the 
world to discover a greater number. But even although 
these beings had been observed in the same terrestrial strata, 
this would not have been a proof that they lived simulta- 
neously. We are unacquainted with the time which may 
have been necessary for the precipitation of these ancient 
strata, as well as for their consolidation. Hence plants, al- 
though anterior to such or such species of animal, may have 
been embedded along with it in the same order of deposit, 
the latter having required more or less considerable intervals 
of time for its formation. 

There is, therefore, more or less uncertainty with regard 
to the simultaneity of the period of the appearance of vege- 
tables and animals, if we suppose that both were interred 
in formations of the same age. It is far from being demon- 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 259 


strated that terrestrial plants are not found in strata more 
ancient than those in which we discover animal species. 
Geological facts do not, therefore, contradict the progression 
indicated by the author of Genesis, in regard to the appear- 
ance of different living beings. - This assertion of Moses is a 
geological consequence of high importance, confirmed by the 
observation of facts, as has been remarked by one of the 
greatest natural philosophers of our day.* 

This consequence is, moreover, a rigorous, because it was 
a necessary one. ‘Terrestrial animals derive their food from 
vegetables, even such of them as subsist on living prey. By 
devouring herbivorous species, they, in fact, support them- 
selves by means of the herbaceous matter which these latter 
had assimilated and converted into their own substance. If, 
then, the herbivorous must have existed before the carni- 
vorous races, to which they were to serve as food, both the 
one and the other must have been preceded by the plants 
which were to afford them the means of growth and develop- 
ment. By a consequence of the same kind, we may admit 
that omnivorous animals must have appeared last among liv- 
ing beings. 

This conclusion, at which we arrive by a process of simple 
reasoning, is confirmed by observing the strata of the globe. 
It is remarkable to find this fact recorded in Genesis, written 
at least 3500 years ago. This book admits, in like manner, 
the gradual appearance of vegetables. It makes them com- 
mence with the least complicated species, to which succeed 
herbs, then shrubs, and finally trees. Posterior to all ani- 
mals the sacred writer places the arrival of man, who crowns 
and terminates the great work of Creation. 

Naturalists who have occupied themselves with this ques- 
tion, have not examined it with the view of justifying the 
author of Genesis; and this very consideration gives their 
opinion greater weight, for it has been forced on their minds 
by positive experience. 

It is to this part of the subject that Herschel’s beautiful 
thought is more particularly applicable. Struck with the 


* M, Dumas. 


260 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


relations which the sciences are every day contracting with 
revelation, he says; “that all human discoveries seem to 
be made only for the purpose of confirming more strongly 
the truths come from on high, and contained in,the Sacred 
Writings.” This illustrious astronomer has seen in this agree- 
ment the most valuable triumph and most noble conquest of 
intelligence. 

This scientific fact may be regarded even in a still more im- 
portant light. It indicates that the author of Genesis has had 
just reason to look upon man as the last that appeared of living 
beings, and to regard him as the limit and completion of the 
creation. If plants have preceded herbivorous animals, be- 
cause the latter must derive from these all that serves them 
for nourishment, herbivorous animals must, in like manner, 
have appeared before the carnivorous species. In truth, 
without the herbivorous races, the carnivora must have died 
of hunger. For similar reasons the omnivorous, or such races 
as live both on vegetables and animals, must have made their 
appearance at a later period. Accordingly man, who is om- 
nivorous par eacellence, must have appeared last among living 
beings, since he requires the presence of all kinds of nourish- 
ment. 

On the other hand, when Scripture speaks of the creation 
of plants, it makes them vegetate and develop themselves 
before the appearance of the sun, and under conditions of 
light, heat, and humidity, different from those under which 
vegetables now flourish. It has thus disclosed to us, thou- 
sands of years ago, an order of things which the fossil bo- 
tanist has found to exist with great exactness, and which 
he has endeavoured to explain by causes different from 
those whose action is now felt.* Scripture, therefore. has 
admitted, with reason, that the germination of vegetables 
commenced before the sun had received the power of shed- 
ding his light on the earth ; it is thus by motives not less 
legitimate, and not less real, that it makes plants appear 


* See Genesis i. 11 and 12; and our memoir on the Fossil Plants of 
the Coal Formation of the Polar regions, Bibl. Univ., July 1834. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 261 


before animals, which they were destined to supply with 
nourishment. But let us consider whether Scripture has had 
equal reason for proclaiming the recent appearance of the 
human species as compared with other living species. 

What we have already observed, is in some measure a proof 
that the arrival of man on the earth must have been posterior 
to that of the greater part of animals, whether vertebrate 
or invertebrate. Not many serious difficulties can be formed 
on this point. The examination of fossiliferous strata proves 
that the remains of our species do not begin to shew them- 
selves till we come amongst diluvial deposits, which are the 
most recent of those belonging to geological eras. Man has, 
therefore, formed part of the new generations which have 
appeared on the surface of the earth; also the greater part 
of those with which he has been cotemporary have still 
their representatives among the living races. 

But man may be recent, even the newest of beings, and 
yet the date of his appearance may go so far back as the 
7500 years which Scripture assigns to him. Is it necessary 
to suppose with Scripture, that the last arrangement on the 
surface of the globe is more recent than the last and terrible 
catastrophe which laid it waste, a catastrophe followed by 
the renewal of the human race? Would it be reasonable 
for all ages, all people, and, in particular, our modern schools, 
to set themselves in opposition to a date which assigns so 
youthful an age to our haughty race? Assuredly not; geo- 
logical investigations, the researches of history, and the study 
of monuments, all concur in demonstrating not only the re- 
cent date of man’s appearance, but particularly that of his 
renovation. 

Here, therefore, Scripture is exact and within the limits 
of truth. The term it assigns to the cradle of humanity, al- 
though not very remote from that in which civilization has 
arrived at a degree of remarkable splendour, is still sufficient 
to explain and comprehend the various phases of it. We 
may include in these 7500 years all that authentic historical 
- traditions have told us respecting the progress of man in the 
path of civilization. 

The Bible has, in like manner, acknowledged the unity of 


262 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


the human species. This truth, for a long time disputed, 
has been regarded in our own times both by the most illus- 
trious physiologists aud most able anatomists as fully esta- 
blished. The intimate acquaintance of both these classes of 
observers with the proofs which demonstrate it, give the 
greatest authority to their opinion. 

At some future period, not very remote, this question 
will probably cease to be open to any dispute. In fact, the 
black men who, by losing ground and going backwards in 
the path of civilization, have lost, in a great measure, the 
beauty of their primitive type, are now returning to the 
blessings of intelligence, and have established themselves 
as nations. They shew a tendency to remount to the point 
from which they receded : as the consequence of their pro- 
gress in knowledge, and the improvement of their mental 
faculties, they will soon recover the type which they had 
lost. The development of their brain, the necessary conse- 
quence of the exercise of their minds, will make them acquire 
new forms; and soon they will cease to be distinguishable from 
the white race from which they sprung. With the advance 
of their intelligence, their language will become purer ; their 
manners will undergo a corresponding improvement; and 
these men, not long since so debased, both in moral and phy- 
sical qualities, will become the most manifest proof of the 
unity of the human species, as proclaimed by the first and 
most ancient historian. 

This primitive unity must necessarily imply a uniformity 
in the language of mankind, or in the manner of making 
themselves understood, and communicating their thoughts to 
each other. The Bible intimates this; and we can go back 
with it to the precise period when the confusion of languages 
took place among the nations. A superficial study of the 
idioms of the primeval races has appeared, at first view, not 
very favourable to the idea of their having a common origin ; 
but a more profound examination has shewn in what manner 
all the languages spoken came gradually to differ from each 
other. (See note at the end of this article.) 

It is not less deserving of attention that the Bible is the 
first book in which we find notions of classification, analo- 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 263 


gous to those which naturalists employ in the study of the 
different natural bodies. In the 11th chapter of Leviticus, in 
particular, we find a sketch of a method of distinguishing 
pure animals from impure, the latter of which the Hebrews 
were forbidden to eat. God allowed the children of Israel 
to eat animals which ruminated and had the feet cloven ; but 
they were interdicted from using others. Swine, and even 
camels, were included in the interdict; the former because 
they did not ruminate, the latter because they had not their 
feet divided like oxen and sheep. 

Birds of prey were also, according to Scripture, impure 
animals, which the Hebrews were not permitted to use 
for food. They were allowed to make use only of long 
legged species (Gralle, Linn.), and those whose feet were 
adapted for swimming. They might employ for food all the 
marine and fresh-water fishes provided with scales and fins ; 
but they were not to eat such as were destitute of these ap- 
pendages. In this ordination there can be no doubt that a 
great degree of wisdom is shewn; for the animals we now 
use for food belong to pure species ; while, with the excep- 
tion of the hog, those which Moses regards as impure are, in 
general, ill-fitted for human consumption. But what is most 
important to be remarked is, that in this arrangement there 
can be traced the basis of a natural classification, which is 
still adopted in the most common systems. 

Scripture is not less precise when it turns its attention to 
the objects of detail relating to living beings. It is, in par- 
ticular, in delineating the manners of animals, that these 
writings exhibit an accuracy and conciseness which the 
greatest naturalists have not surpassed. Its descriptions are — 
so faithful and so precise, that they cannot be mistaken. 
Thus it represents to us the lioness couched in her cave, 
watching with a restless eye the prey about to pass, and 
waiting with the utmost anxiety on her young whelps. When 
she perceives the prey, we are told how she darts forth with 
the rapidity of the eagle, carrying her victim in her mouth to 
appease the hunger of her young ones. Very different from 
the young lions, the young ravens wander about from one 
place to another, oppressed by hunger; they call with loud 


264 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


noise on their mother, who finds her greatest delight in sup- 
plying them with food. 

It indicates to us, in like manner, the time of gestation 
and delivery of the hinds and wild goats. These animals are 
represented as bowing themselves when they bring forth, 
and uttering sorrowful cries. The wild ass is spoken of as 
being singularly fierce, incapable of being subdued, and 
answering not to the voice of him who calls himself its mas- 
ter; free, and ranging the mountains as his pasture ; his 
abode is in solitude, and his retreat the desert. 

Man, it tells us, cannot subdue the oryx ; he cannot force 
it to remain even for a single night in a stable ; still less can 
he make it submit to the yoke, to open the furrows and har- 
row the fertile valleys. Notwithstanding his power, the 
strength of man is incapable of making this untameable ani- 
mal assist him in his labours. He cannot make use of it to 
carry his harvests, or to gather them into his barns.* 

The delineations of the manners of these animals are ex- 
tremely true, and are expressed with remarkable conciseness. 
Such is the case with those the Bible gives us respecting the 
habits of the ostrich, a bird which it represents as void of 
affection for its young, which are in its eyes as if they 
were not its own. Forgetting her offspring, the ostrich 


* See Job xxxix. 1 to 11. We shall make only a single observation 
on these verses: it relates to the animal which the Hebrews called Reem, 
perhaps the oryx of the Greeks, spoken of by Martial and Oppian. This 
species appears to be the same as the Oryx antilope of naturalists ; it is 
about the size of a stag, and its horns are slender, from two to three feet 
long. This antelope, or oryx of Elian, lives in large herds in the interior 
of Africa, and throughout the whole of Arabia. 

M. Rosenmuller, as well as Bochart, has translated the Hebrew term 
Reem by oryx, with so much the more reason, because the notion of the 
unicorn has been formed from some individuals which had lost one of 
their horns. This circumstance is the more probable, since the oryx 
presents this peculiarity, as well as the algazel and leucoryx antelopes : 
all of these animals frequently become unicorn. 

However this may be, the details which Scripture gives us respect- 
ing the animal which it calls Reem, agree perfectly with the Oryx anti- 
lope. See our Observations on the Unicorn of the ancients (Mem. de la 
Soctété Linn, de Bordeaux, ) 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 265 


leaves her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust. 
A foolish and thoughtless mother, she cares not what may 
become of them ; forgetting that the foot may crush them, or 
that they may be destroyed by the cruel jaws of the tigers 
of the desert. But when it is the proper time, she raises her 
wings into the air ; trusting to the strength of her legs, she 
scorneth the horse and his rider.* 

The description of the horse is not less faithful: the Bible 
represents it to us as full of strength and vigour, and bound- 
ing like a grasshopper. His neck is adorned with a flowing 
mane, and he paweth the earth with his foot. He leaps for- 
ward with pride, and goeth forth to meet the armed men. 
His breathing scatters terror; he mocketh at fear, neither 
turneth he back from the sword. When the quiver rattleth 
against him, the glittering spear and the shield, he swallow- 
eth the ground with fierceness and rage. If he hears the 
sound of the trumpet, he exclaims, Let us advance ; he smell- 
eth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the 
shouting.} 

At the command of the Eternal, Scripture states, the 
hawk darts into the air, and extends her wings towards the 
south. At His voice, the eagle rises to the clouds, and places 
her nest on the top of the mountains. This bird inhabits the 
hollows of the rock, and dwells in the most inaccessible cliffs 
of the crag. From these elevated heights the eagle watches 
her prey ; her piercing eyes discover it afar off. When she 
has seized it, she carries it to her young, who drink its blood. 
Under the guidance of their mother, the young eaglets soon 
descend to the places where the carcass lies. Images of 
death, these birds bear, in some degree, its livery on their 
plumage. 


* See Job xxxix.13 to18. The description of the ostrich in the Book 
of Job is remarkable for its extreme truthfulness, as may be seen by per- 
using the passage referred to. It is singular to see in so ancient a book 
this habit of ostriches noticed, of raising their wings into the air when 
they wish to run before the wind. They know, by instinct, that their 

_wings, under such circumstances, will act as sails or oars, 

t See Job xxxix. 19 to 25. This description of the horse is superior 
to all others that have since been written. 

t See Job xxxix. 26 to 30. The Hebrew word nescher (eagle) is de- 


266 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


Scripture often makes mention of the migrations under- 
taken by so many animals, particularly birds and fishes. It 
often compares the rapidity of birds of passage, as they cross 
the seas, to the speed of vessels using their large sails as if 
they were huge wings. It shews to us the extensive jour- 
neys performed by these light inhabitants of the air, their 
immense numbers, their fatigues, the consequence of their 
lengthened flight, and the promptitude with which they alight 
when they reach the end of their journey. Everything, in 
the delineation of the manners of these birds of passage, is 
rapid and animated as the movements themselves of the be- 
ings which people the aérial ocean.* 

We have enumerated some of the principal physical facts 
contained in the Bible; we have endeavoured to shew the 
relations they bear to those with which science has re- 
cently made us acquainted It seems that nothing now re- 
mains for us to ascertain. There is, however, one essen- 
tial point of which we have omitted to speak, and with this 
we shall terminate our researches. The Book of Wisdom, 
after having said that the almighty hand of God made 
the world out of nothing, adds, that he disposed all things 
by number, weight, and measure. By this we are led to un- 
derstand, that we ought to consider natural bodies under 
three aspects ; that is to say, under that of their extent, their 


rived from the verb schour, which properly signifies to contemplate. The 
authors of the Bible were not ignorant that the eagle could fix its eyes 
on the sun. The prophets had also correctly observed that when the 
eagle moults he loses almost all his feathers (Micah i. 16). Scripture is 
not less correct, when it speaks of the manners of animals. See, for 
example, Proverbs xxx. 25 to 28; Isaiah xxxiv. 14 and 15. The Pro- 
verbs contain details not less curious on inanimate bodies. Ezekiel (iii. 
9, and x. 1) had remarked, that the diamond was the hardest of stones, 
as the sapphire was one of the most brilliant. Zechariah, likewise, 
when wishing to describe the impenitence of the Hebrews, says that they 
have hardened their heart like the diamond (vii. 12). This prophet was 
also acquainted with the mode of trying gold and purifying silver (xiii. 
9). The 28th chapter of Job contains interesting details on the metals 
and precious stones. 

* See Isaiah xlvi. 11; lx. 8; Hosea xi. 11; Joel ii. 25; also the 
Psalms. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 267 


weight, and the number of atoms or molecules which com- 
pose them. Perhaps it was thus meant to specify the prin- 
cipal modes of regarding bodies, or the principal branches of 
natural science. Physics would, in this way, be represented 
by measure, the mathematical sciences by number, and che- 
mistry by weight. 

Scripture describes, in a few words, the principal proper- 
ties of bodies, and how we may sum up their different appear- 
ances and different characters. Thus God asks Job where 
he was when He laid the foundations of the earth, and when 
He established the measures thereof? where he was when He 
enclosed the sea with barriers, when it broke forth as a child 
which comes from the womb of its mother? or when, enve- 
loping the clouds as with a garment, He surrounded it with 
darkness like the swaddling-bands of infancy? Has man 
ever known the paths of light, or the place of darkness 2 

The details into which we have entered seem to prove, with 
some degree of evidence, that the physical truths most essen- 
tial to the knowledge of the material world, are almost all 
indicated in the first books of the Bible. They are never, in- 
deed, fully developed, because Moses and his successors were 
not called upon to write scientific treatises. While speaking 
of God, and the works which proclaim his power, they have, 
as if in spite of themselves, allowed some gleams of their 
superior knowledge to break through. Their object, and 
almost their sole object, has been to point out their duties to 
the people they were called upon to direct, and, particularly, 
to fill their minds with the fear of the Lord. It was sufficient 
to unveil to them the principal facts of this visible world, to 
convince them of the wisdom of the Most High. so clearly 
imprinted on the works he has produced. Explaining them, 
accordingly, with an admirable conciseness, the greater part 
of these facts have escaped the notice of the first interpreters 
of Scripture, who, from inability to comprehend them, have 
not given to the Sacred Books all the importance they now 
possess in our eyes. Their errors, altogether involuntary, 
~ are so much the less to be wondered at, since the Bible con- 
tains particulars for which we cannot yet assign a reason in 
the present state of our knowledge. The constant progress 


268 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, 


of human science will soon render them intelligible. This is 
not the least of the advantages of the sciences, nor the least 
valuable inheritance we can leave to our descendants. They 
will not forget, more than we, that Scripture is a treasure 
open to all; and that it is the only book from which those 
that borrow run no risk of being accused of plagiarism. The 
ideas which they may draw from it have already belonged to 
millions of intelligences ; but if they extend them, if they 
understand them better than their predecessors, they will 
so much the more belong to them, since they shall have 
been the first to perceive them. 


Note-—We read, in Genesis, xi. 1. Erat autem terra labii unius 
et sermonum eorumdem, which may be translated thus :—‘* There was 
then upon the earth only one language and one speech.”” The unity of 
the primeval language is perhaps more difficult to establish than that of 
the human species. In fact, we are without the most essential data for 
solving the question. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a few 
observations. 

Tf all the varieties or different races of men are derived from one stock, 
it follows, almost as a necessary consequence, that this must also have 
been the case with their language, however diversified it may be. Now, 
it is almost demonstrated that the White race is the most ancient. We 
ought, therefore, to find among the idioms used by this race this pre- 
eminently primitive language—the mother of all the rest. 

The proof of the primitive unity of language is to be found, not only 
in the unity of the human species, but also in the confusion of languages 
which took place at the building of the tower of Babel. If confusion 
took place then, it could not have existed before. 

The history of the human race informs us, that at its origin there was 
only one speech (wnus sermo.) But it is difficult for us now to go back 
to that primitive stock, from which have sprung the various idioms which 
the different nations of the earth employ to express their ideas. All 
that is proved by the study of their characters, structure, and construc- 
tion, is, that the most diverse among them have a family air and resem- 
blance, which reveals a common crigin.* 

If we assert the contrary, we shall be forced to establish as many 
human races as there are idioms without analogy or mutual connection ; 
that is it say, we should have to establish hundreds. This consequence 
would not be very philosophical ; it would oblige us, at least, to multiply 
the races almost in the inverse ratio of the number of individuals who 
formed part of them. In fact, the smallest tribes, and the most subdi- 
vided of savage nations, often present the most notable and strongly 


* The knowledge of this primitive language is of no consequence to Scripture ; 
it only interests philosophers. The Bible, accordingly, contains no details in 
regard to it. 


compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 269 


marked differences in their languages. As the consequence of this state 
of things, the interior of Africa, or the unexplored regions of Australia, 
would contain a greater number of races than the whole of Europe or 
Asia. The same thing would hold true of America, where, however, it 
appears to be demonstrated, that the numerous languages of the natives 
are derived from a common stock, these having been subjected to the laws 
of other families of spoken languages. 

The most recent researches on the construction of different idioms, 
seem to have rendered it probable, that, after the violent separation of 
the human species, they formed themselves into groups, or, if the term be 
preferred, into families. These groups daily tend to approach each other, 
and thus more and more indicate their paternity and mutual affinities, 
They thus present the best proof of their first and single point of de- 
parture ; they divide the human species into certain great characteristic 
families, the subsequent divisions of which come within the domain of 
history. These analogies and relations will become more and more ap- 
parent, in proportion as the philosophical study of nations, and the know- 
ledge of their diverse idioms, acquire greater certainty and fuller develop- 
ment. 

The languages which form the Semitic branch, in which may be in- 
cluded Hebrew, Chaldee, Phenician, Syriac, Abyssinian, and Arabian, 
have been long recognised as haying a common origin, and composing a 
great family. 

The same thing may be said of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese lan- 
guages, which compose a single group, in which all the monosyllabic lan- 
guages of the east may be included, 

With regard to the idioms known under the name of Indo-European, 
they compose a great family, including the Sanscrit or ancient and 
sacred language of India; the ancient and modern Persian, which was 
at first considered to be a Tartar dialect ; the Teutonic, with its diverse 
dialects, such as the Slavonic, Greek, and Latin, with its numerous deriva- 
tives. The Celtic dialects, which, according to Prichard, have the closest 
relation to the Indo-European languages, must be arranged in this group. 

Although the Sanscrit may appear, at first sight, to be a mother lan- 
guage, and to have only remote analogies with those which are some- 
what modern, we arrive at another conclusion when we compare, with 
some attention, the Sanscrit and the Greek, for example. This examination 
is found to prove that numerous relations exist between these two idioms, 
which would at first appear to have nothing in common. Some curious 
details on this point will be found in a notice placed at the head of Bur- 
nouf’s Greek Grammar.* Similar analogies are observable between the 
Sanscrit, the Persian, and all the old and new dialects of the north; as is 
also found to be the case between the first of these languages and the 
Hebrew. We shall find the proof of this assertion in the excellent 
German work published by Bopp. ‘This skilful philologist has there 
compared all these languages with the Sanscrit. Now, as the Greek also 
appears to be derived frou it, judging from the great number of words 
common to the two idioms, it will follow, that all are derived from one 
and the same language, 


* See page 10 of the 37th Edition. Paris, 1842. 


270 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible. 


The same thing would appear to be the case with the most ancient lan- 
guages, such as the Hebrew, the Chaldee, the Phenician, the Syriac, the 
Abyssinian, and the Arabic; among which may be included the Egyptian, 
the affinity of which to the Hebrew is not less manifest. The analogies 
of all these idioms are so numerous, that, according to M. Cellérier, a 
great number of modes of speech and foreign terms of expression, prin- 
cipally Arabian, are to be found in the Book of Job. He assures us that 
he has counted eighty-five words in that book which are not to be met 
with in any other of the Old Testament books. He has also noticed in 
it twelve Syriac expressions, eighteen Chaldean, and fifty-three Arabian. 
This observation, however, applies only to the poetical part; the pro- 
logue and epilogue are written in Mosaic Hebrew, and in the ordinary 
narrative style. (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 494.) 

The Latin, which, like the Greek, has a close relationship to the San- 
scrit, is evidently a derivative and secondary idiom. The greater part 
of those of Europe, such as the Italian, Spanish, English, and French, 
are derived from it. At least, they exhibit such striking resemblances 
and such numerous agreements, that it is easy to recognise in them the 
traces of the language from which they have been derived. 

It is difficult, therefore, in the actual state of things, to go back to 
the primitive stock from which all spoken languages have sprung. All 
that can be done, is to recognise affinities, more or less strongly marked 
between them, and to detect, as it were, distinct groups or families. Not- 
withstanding the great differences observable between certain idioms, we 
conclude, after an attentive examination, by discovering in them certain 
characters which reveal a common origin, and a primary and single 
stock. 

The exertions of the most illustrious philologists of our times, have 
been directed to this important point in the history of language. Their 
researches on the signs, the structure, and construction of the numerous 
idioms which mankind have employed to communicate their thoughts, 
have proved, beyond a doubt, that these constitute distinct groups and 
many great families. Yet, they have found in them, considered collec- 
tively, too close analogies, and too obvious affinities, to admit of regard- 
ing them otherwise than as all derived from a single and primitive stock, 
or a mother language. 

This appears so much the more probable, when we consider that we 
often discover stronger resemblances between the idioms spoken by nations 
situate at great distances from each other, than between those used by 
neighbouring tribes. This occurs at times, even between nations who 
have no historical connection, and who, accordingly, can afford us no 
reason for affinities existing between their respective languages. Kla- 
proth, in his Asiatic Memoirs,* has mentioned numerous examples of these 
singular resemblances, 

If, as the most eminent scientific individuals have supposed, the origin 
of language depends on the faculty given to man to express his thoughts 
by means of words and particular characters, this faculty must be inde- 
finite. It would, in fact, appear to be so. This circumstance may per- 
mit us to conceive the numerous alterations and modifications which lan- 
guage has undergone ; modifications of such a nature that often the words 


* Paris 1824, tome i. p. 214. 


Ee 


On Earthquakes and Movements of the Sea. 271 


of one idiom belong to one class, and its grammar to another. Even a 
new language sometimes results from this, differing from that whence it 
is derived, and further distinguished from it by the adoption of new 
grammatical forms altogether peculiar to itself.* 


On Earthquakes and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea ; 
and on remarkable Lunar Periodicities in Earthquakes, 
Oscillations of the Sea, and Great Atmospherical Changes. 
By RicHArD EpMmonps, Jun., Esq.t+ 


Mr Edmonds, in the former paper, after having noticed 
the earthquakes and extraordinary agitations of the sea 
which had previously occurred in Cornwall, described the 
oscillation of the 5th of July 1843, which he witnessed in 
Mount’s-bay :-— 

“ Tarrivedat Portleven, onthe north-eastern part of the bay, 
an hour after its commencement, and found the inhabitants, 
in a state of excitement, observing the sea, which, in the infe- 
rior of the harbour, was moving up and down in a most un- 
accountable manner, whilst at the mouth it was as smooth 
as usual. The énner basin of the harbour is about 150 yards 
long, lying N. and S.; the ouw/er part is double that length, 
and lies W.S.W., opening like the mouth of a bell. The 
agitation extended about 300 yards from the northern shore 
of the harbour, but not the least disturbance could be seen 
in the outer part for a hundred yards within the pier-head. 
The sea rushed inwards from the middle of the outer har- 
bour along the western arm, rising about four feet, and re- 
tired by the eastern arm, occupying between ten and fifteen 
minutes in the circuit. After a pause of eight or ten min- 
utes, it rushed in and out again in the same manner, and so 


* From the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, No. 106, 1844, pp. 321- 
356. 

+ The two papers included in the above title, and from which we 
have extracted the more interesting portions, were read before the 
Royal Geographical Society of Cornwall, on the 13th October 1843, 
and 20th September 1844, and are printed in the Society’s Transac- 
tions.—Kp, 


272 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes. 


continued, but with gradually decreasing violence, until low- 
water. A fisherman came in to the harbour in his boat an hour 
after the commencement of the agitation ; and, from the calm- 
ness of the sea at the pier head, had no suspicion that there 
was any run within the pier, until some persons on shore 
called to him that it was dangerous to land ; and presently, 
as he entered the inner basin, one of the influxes carried his 
boat along with great impetuosity for a hundred yards to- 
wards the northern shore, and, retiring, left it dry on the 
beach.” 

The phenomenon is likewise described as it occurred in 
other parts of the bay, after which the writer observes :— 

«Tt is remarkable that, in the recent disturbance in this 
bay, the agitation of the sea was apparently confined to a 
short distance from the shore, and at Portleven did not ex- 
tend even to the pier-head. With a view to account for this, 
let us suppose that an upward shock takes place at the bot- 
tom of the sea, a few leagues from our coast, and that a 
shoal with one of its sides perpendicular to our shore is 
thereby made to vibrate. The shock thus communicated to 
the water will be transmitted with a velocity much greater 
than that with which sound travels through air, and may 
cause the water along the shore to rush up the beach in the 
same manner as a smart blow at one end of a line of marbles 
causes the marble at the opposite end to fly off, whilst all 
the others remain stationary. When this body of water 
falls back to the stationary or less disturbed part of the sea, 
it will, by the reaction, be driven a second time up the beach ; 
and thus the fluxes and refluxes, like the motion of a pendu- 
lum, may continue for a long time, although originated by a 
single shock. 

Agitations beginning with an influx may be thus accounted 
for ; but they generally commence with an efflux, which may be 
produced by the inclined plane descending from the coast be- 
ing made to vibrate by a shock upwards: the effect of 
which would be to drive a considerable body of water sea- 
ward. 

The irregularity which often attends these oscillations 
may arise from a subsequent shock interfering with the 


oO 


ee Re eee eee ee ee es 


Nee al 


and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 273 


effects of a preceding one, or from the inequalities of the 
submarine ground, or from the influence of strong tides. 

Another of these extraordinary movements was observed 
at Penzance on the evening of the 30th of October (1843), 
the tide being nearly two hours flood, the sea smooth, and 
the wind blowing strong from the north-east, with rain. 
Three persons, who had watched the movement from the 
pier-head for three-quarters of an hour, informed me, that 
about five o’clock the sea suddenly rushed into the harbour, 
coming round the pier-head from the south-west, and causing 
a rise in the water of about five feet; it then rushed back 
in the same line. This occurred three times successively 
in about forty minutes. A small vessel which lay aground 
in the pier was suddenly floated and carried out several 
yards, directly against the wind, and immediately borne in 
again by the succeeding influx ; after which, having been 
secured by a hawser, she was left aground on her side, and 
then again floated, twice within half-an-hour. 

On the same evening a similar flux and reflux occurred 
at Plymouth, the velocity of which was estimated by the 
master of a vessel then lying there, at eight knots an hour.” 

Mr Edmonds, in his latter paper, states, “that the oscilla- 
tion on the 5th of July 1843, which was observed at Penzance 
pier about half an hour before noon, was not confined to 
Mount’s-bay, but occurred also at Scilly,* Falmouth, Ply- 
mouth, Bristol, along the eastern coast of Scotland, and at 
the Orkneys. 

In Falmouth, as Mr Hunt informed me, it was observed 
between one and two P.M., along the shore between Falmouth 
quay and Penryn. At Plymouth it was noticed about eleven 
A.M.; at Bristol about two P.M.; at Dunbar a little after six 
p.M.; at North Berwick between one and two P.M., and twice 
afterwards on the same day; at Arbroath at five P.M.; at 


* A gentleman of St Mary’s, Scilly, informs me that the sea there was 
‘at ‘‘an unusual height,” and “ at a short distance from the most southern 
_ part of the island, was much agitated, as if some violent force from be- 
neath were lifting the body of water above, while the surrounding water 
was perfectly calm and smooth.” 

VOL. XXXVI. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845, 8 


274 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes 


the Orkneys on the following day at three A.M.; and at the 
Shetland Isles at ten A.M. 

It was observed again, on the 6th and 7th, at Arbroath 
and other places on the east coast of Scotland, and at the 
Shetland Isles. On the 8th, at ten A.M., it occurred near 
Tynemouth, on the coast of Northumberland. 

The storm which passed over Britain on the 5th of July 
1843, was one “ which for severity and extent has been rarely 
equalled.”* In Mount’s-bay it commenced with a sudden 
gale from the south, between two and three P.M., at which 
time the oscillation of the sea had not subsided. A violent 
thunder storm was experienced in Gloucester at three P.M. ; 
at Sheffield and Liverpool between five and six P.M.; at York, 
Dumfries, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Arbroath, at seven P.M., 
during the oscillation at the last of these places; at Aber- 
deen at eight P.M.; at Kinnaird’s Head at nine P.M.; and in 
the same night at the Orkneys, where the agitation of the 
sea was observed at three o’clock the following morning. 

The agitations of the sea on the 5th of July 1843, were 
very similar to those on the day of the great earthquake of 
1755. On each occasion the atmosphere was in a most re- 
markable condition,—manifested in 1843 by the depressed 
state of the barometer and violent thunder storms ; and in 
1755 by the extraordinary height} of the barometer and the 
unusually calm and fine weather. And as the agitations ge- 
nerally of 1755 and 18438 arrived at different places at times 
corresponding in some degree to their respective distances 
from a supposed point,t they might all have resulted from 
local submarine shocks occurring progressively as the highly 
electrified state of the earth or air spread itself from some 
centre. That certain sea-ports were passed over without 


* Mr Milne, Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, vol. xv. p. 622. 
From this paper I have derived most of the preceding particulars re- 
lative to the phenomena of the 5th of July. 

+ Higher than for three years before in Cornwall.—Borlase’s Nat. 
Hist. of Cornwall, p. 53. 

{ Mr Milne, Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, October 
1841, pp. 263-269. 


and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 275 


experiencing any agitations,*—that others experienced them 
at periods widely differing from the general rate of progress, 
—some having taken place in 1755 even half an hour before 
the great earthquake,—are circumstances, mutatis mutandis, 
common also in thunder storms. Shocks of earthquakes, 
when they occur in non-voleanic districts, have been consi- 
dered by many as the effects of electrical discharges from 
the atmosphere into the earth,t or from the earth into the at- 
mosphere.t But whether, during earthquakes, the electricity 
usually passes from the air into the earth, or from the earth 
into the air,—or whether it may not sometimes pass between 
two differently electrified portions of the earth, as lightning 
often does between two differently electrified portions of the 
atmosphere, are points which I believe have not yet been as- 
certained by observation. 

On a former occasion§ I explained how an oscillation of 
the sea might be produced by a simple submarine shock or 
vibration, without any explosion, or the displacement of any 
portion of the bed of the sea. These submarine shocks must 
doubtless often happen without any indication of their occur- 
rence, except the subsequent agitations of the sea. And 
shocks are often felt at low levels without being per- 
ceived at higher elevations, as was the case with the 
shock on 30th December 1832, which does not appear to 
have been felt anywhere in Cornwall except Hayle, on a 
spot only a few feet above the sea. Humboldt,|| too, states 
that in Chili, Peru, and Terra Firma, the shocks follow the 
line of the shore, which is the lowest part of the land, and 
extend but little inwards; he also says that “ sometimes in 
the same rock the superior strata form invincible obstacles 
to the propagation of the motion,—thus in the mines of 
Saxony we have seen workmen hasten up affrightened by 
oscillations which where not felt at the surface.” 

But in 1755, on the day of the great earthquake, shocks 


* Mr Milne, Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, vol. xv. p. 615. 
+t Rees’ Cyclopsedia.—Earthquake. 

t Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, October 1841, p. 309. 
§ Cornwall Geol. Trans., 1843, p. 117. 

|| Personal Narrative, vol. ii. pp. 222, 224, 


276 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes 


were actually felt in this island, and the waters of our ponds 
agitated, at the very time when some of the oscillations of the 
sea were taking place ; which seems almost to establish the 
fact, that such oscillations are produced by local submarine 
shocks. I may also mention that in 1788, the sea at Dunbar 
suddenly receded a foot and a half on the day that a shock 
was experienced in the Isle of Man.* So also a shock was 
felt in Perthshire on the 10th of March 1842, and on the fol- 
lowing day a disturbance of the sea (the effect, probably, of 
another shock) took place in the western isles of Scotland : 
and it has been observed in Perthshire that “ shocks seldom 
oceur single,”—but “come very frequently in groups.’’} 

Mr Milne, however, thinks that the oscillations of 1843 
may have been produced “ partly by the mechanical pressure 
of the wind in the storm,—blowing first in one direction, and 
thereafter in an opposite direction,—and partly by the sud- 
den diminution of atmospheric pressure accompanying its 
progress,” t without the intervention of submarine shocks : 
and he brings forward numerous examples to shew that such 
agitations are usually preceded or attended by violent storms 
or other proofs of great atmospheric disturbance: but these 
examples are quite as favourable to my hypothesis as to his 
own ; for they are equally applicable to earthquakes which 
have often occurred during storms and hurricanes.§ The 
first earthquake which Humboldt felt at Cumana was 
during a severe thunder storm. “At the moment of the 
strongest electric explosion there were two considerable 
shocks of an earthquake.”|| And the excessive minima of 
the barometer which have been observed during oscillations 
of the sea have been also observed at the times of earth- 
quakes :—thus Humboldt, on a certain occasion, observed 


* Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophcal Journal, July 1841, p. 108. 

t Ibid., October 1841, p. 286. 

t In Cornwall and Devon the fall of one inchin the barometer corre- 
sponds with the rise of sixteen inches in the level of the sea, and vice 
versa.—Hdin. R.S. Trans., vol. xv. pp. 635-637. 

§ Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1841, pp. 294-297. 

|| Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 316. 


a ae 


<9 *s 


and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 277 


that “‘ the mereury was precisely at its minimum height at the 
moment of the third and last shock.”’* On the 10th of No- 
vember 1782, when Loch Rannoch was violently agitated, the 
barometer in Scotland sunk to within one-tenth of the bottom 
of the scale (probably 27.1 inches.) During the extraordi- 
nary depression of the barometer throughout Europe on the 
25th of December 1821, a slight shock of an earthquake was 
felt at Mayence.t 

Mr Milne has collected eighteen instances during the 
last hundred years, to prove the connection between great 
disturbances of the atmosphere and extraordinary oscillations 
of the sea. I have endeavoured to prove that the interme- 
diate links of this connection are submarine shocks. I now 
proceed to shew that such disturbances in the air, earth, and 
sea, are probably often occasioned by the action of the moon. 

I cannot better introduce the subject than by the following 
passage from Humboldt. “On the 5th November 1799, 
exactly at the same hour as the preceding day (when the 
earthquake already noticed took place during a severe thun- 
der-storm) there was (on the 4th) a violent gust of wind at- 
tended by thunder and a few drops of rain. No shock was 
felt. The wind and storm returned for five or six days, at 
the same hour, almost at the same minute. The inhabitants 
of Cumana, and of many other places between the tropics, 
have long ago made the observation, that those atmospheri- 
eal changes which appear the most accidental, follow, for 
whole weeks, a certain type with astonishing regularity. The 
same phenomenon exists in summer under the temperate 
zone ; nor has it escaped the sagacity of astronomers, who often 
see clouds form in a serene sky, during three or four days 
together, at the same part of the firmament, take the same 
direction, and dissolve at the same height,—sometimes be- 
fore, sometimes after, the passage of a star over the meri- 
dian ; consequently within a few minutes of the same point 
of apparent time. M. Arago and I paid great attention to 


* Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 319. 
+ Jameson’s Edinburgh Phil. Journal, Oct. 1841, pp. 295, 296. 


278 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes 


this phenomenon m the years 1809 and 1810, at the observa- 
tory of Paris.” 

Here is an example of so/ar periodicity in the recurrence 
of storms and great atmospherical changes, coincident with 
which, on one occasion, was an earthquake. The following 
are examples of /unar periodicities in the recurrence of storms 
and great atmospherical changes, coincident with which, on 
many occasions, were earthquakes, or extraordinary oscilla- 
tions of the sea. 

The first series of lunar periodicity begins with the 23d 
of October 1841, and consists of seven remarkable days, con- 
nected with one another by periods of four lunations each. 
The 1st, 2d, 5th, and 6th, of these days were remarkable 
for earthquakes in Scotland, Cornwall, and Guadaloupe ; the 
3d, for being the hottest day of the hottest June since 1826 ; 
the 4th, for the extraordinary maximum of the barometer ; 
and the 7th, for an eruption of Vesuvius. 

The next series of periods, of four lunations each, begins 
with the 11th of November 1842, and consists of six days ; 
on the Ist of which was an unusual depression of the baro- 
meter; on the 2d, an earthquake at Manchester; on the 3d 
and 4th, oscillations of the sea ; on the 5th and 6th, most un- 
usual disturbances of the atmosphere.* 


* Two other such remarkable days (says Mr Edmonds, ina manuscript 
note) are to be added to this series. The four lunations immediately 
succeeding the great thunder-storm of 23d June 1844, terminated on the 
18th of October, when the town of Buffalo on Lake Erie was almost de- 
stroyed by a hurricane. The maximum of the thermometer on that day 
at Chiswick was only 56°, less by 3° than it had been for several months 
before ; and the barometer there on the 16th, was at a minimum of 28.940, 
lower than it had been since the 26th of February in that year. 

The next period of four lunations expired on the 14th of February in 
the present year, when the state of the atmosphere was almost precisely 
the same at Penzance as on the 26th day of February 1844, three times 
four lunations previously. On each occasion, the weather was very 
squally with heavy showers of rain or hail, and the barometer for a day 
or two before remarkably ranging. On the 12th of February this year, 
the barometer at Penzance had risen rapidly to a maximum of 30.44, 
higher, I believe, than it had been for several months before ; and the 
thermometer at Blackheath on the same day was 33° below the freezing 


and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 279 


Each of the above thirteen days was either that of the 
moon's first quarter, or the day before or after it, except the 
9th of October 1842, which was the second day before it.” 

Heve follow four tables of lunar periodicities, and also 
an account of some earthquakes in Cornwall. The paper 
concludes with the following paragraph :—‘ It has been seen 
that earthquakes, oscillations of the sea, great atmospheri- 
cal changes, and electrical phenomena, are closely connected 
with each ot) er: and I have endeavoured to shew that they 
may all result principally from the action of the moon. In 
support of this hypothesis, I have noticed two oscillations 
of the sea at and after the great earthquake of 1755, and two 
others at and after the great earthquake of 1761, the inter- 
val in each case being four lunations. I have also, in Table 
I., noticed eleven other such intervals,—six following each 
other in one series. and five in another. Each of the thirteen 
days forming these two series was remarkable for an earth- 
quake, oscillation of the sea, or some very unusual state of 
the atmosphere, except on one occasion, when, however, an 
eruption of Vesuvius took place. In the same Table are 
many other similarly remarkable days, forming series of 
periods of single lunations, or of half or quarter lunations. 
All the remarkable days in Tables I. and IV., as well as those 
in the last two pages, connected with the earthquakes in Corn- 
wall, occurred at or near the moon’s quarters, and generally at 
or near her first quarters. But the remarkable days in Tables 
Il. and III. did not happen near any of the four quarters, yet 
are, nevertheless, connected with each other by single luna- 
tions ; so that the phenomena which occurred on these days 
were apparently as much influenced by the action of the moon 
as those which happened at or near her quarters.” 


point, and when placed on snow 44° below that point. This great maxi- 
mum of the barometer, and this most extraordinary minimum of the 
thermometer, occurred on the morning of the 12th, which is almost ex- 
actly four lunations after the great minimum of the barometer at Chis- 
wick, on the 16th of October last.—PmNnzANCE, March 1. 1845. 


(230.0 


On the Constitution of the Ichthyohtes of Stromness. Bs 
ANDREW FLEMING, A.M., M.D. Communicated by the 
Author. 


In the month of August 1840, I enjoyed an opportunity, 
through the kindness of Robert Stevenson, Esq., Civil-En- 
gineer, of visiting Stromness, in Orkney, and the quarries 
which have been opened in the Bituminous Schists of its 
neighbourhood. These schists have acquired considerable 
notoriety from the abundance of organic remains, chiefly be- 
longing to the class of fishes, distributed throughout their 
beds. 

The first attempt to determine the specific differences of 
these organisms was made by Messrs Sedgwick and Mur-- 
chison, in their important paper, ‘“‘ On the Structure and Re- 
lations of the Deposits contained between the Primary Rocks, 
and the Oolitic Series in the North of Scotland,” inserted in 
the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, second 
series, vol. iii, Part I, p. 125. Subsequently, and aided 
by the industry of several collectors, M. Agassiz has been 
able, satisfactorily, to determine the characters of a consi- 
derable number of species, several of which he has figured 
in his invaluable work on Fossil Fishes. My attention hav- 
ing been chiefly directed to the mineral state of the organisms, 
I shall confine the following remarks to this bearing of the 
subject. 

The schists themselves, which include these organic re- 
mains, may be considered as thin slaty sandstones, in which 
the strata vary from a thickness less than a line to upwards 
of a foot. Even in the thickest strata, the facility of split- 
ting into subordinate slabs, indicates the predominance of the 
slaty structure. In the portions where the strata are thickest, 
the rock is coarser, or more arenaceous, than in the thinner 
slaty strata, where the constituent sand is finer, and the clay 
more abundant. ‘The structural character of the whole for- 
mation gives unequivocal indications of its deposition hav- 
ing taken place in comparatively still water, the coarser and 
finer varieties marking the limits of the disturbing causes. 


mates 


see 


amas C28 


“= 


PD eae 


—— 


— 
“ie 


Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 281 


The organic remains chiefly occupy the upper surfaces of 
the different layers. This circumstance would seem to indi- 
cate that the cause of the death of the fish which furnished 
these organisms, coexisted with, or may have depended upon, 
the cause of the succession of the deposits ; yet these changes 
or alternations must have occurred through a very long pe- 
riod, and exercised their influence over an extended district. 

These Ichthyolites when observed scattered over the surface 
of a stratum, exhibit the appearance of detached portions of 
coal. In many cases no trace of the fins can be perceived, 
even the individuality of their scales and bones has disap- 
peared, and an imperfect outline is all that can lead the mind 
to refer the patches in question to an organic origin. At- 
tracted by this singular feature of these remains, so imper- 
fectly preserved as to form and structure, I was induced to 
examine more narrowly their actual state, for the purpose of 
ascertaining if any peculiarity in their composition or charac- 
ter could furnish any illustration. In making the attempt, 
however, considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining 
portions of these altered organisms, sufficiently detached 
from the surrounding matrix. In the greater number of 
specimens, there is little difficulty in perceiving the existence 
of the matter of the surrounding stratum, more or less in- 
corporated with the organisms, a circumstance which must 
influence, to some extent, the analytical results. 

In the paper by Messrs Sedgwick and Murchison, the 
authors state, page 141,—‘* By chemical analysis, which 
was kindly undertaken by Mr Herschel, it appears, as might 
be expected, that the ichthyolites differ from each other 
considerably in composition. One of them gave the follow- 
ing result :— 


“ Silex, , é d . 68.1 
Alumine, E : < - iD 
Protoxide of Iron, P 3 p 10.5 
Carbonate of Lime and Magnesia, , 14.2 

100.0 


“ The proportion of magnesia is very small. The blue 
matter of the fish is phosphate of iron, and the whole stone 


» 


282 Dr Andrew Fleming on the 


contains phosphoric acid, in the proportion of } per cent., 
and a little carbonaceous and bituminous matter. The iron 
being a protoxide, the fresh fracture is black ; but, by ab- 
sorbing oxygen, it becomes yellow, and the phosphate passes 
into a perphosphate, becoming blue. Thus the fish are 
visibly marked with blue streaks on a yellow ground.” 

The small quantity of ‘“ carbonaceous and bituminous 
matter” referred to in the preceding analysis, seemed to in- 
dicate that the organism, though probably of the same 
species (for those which I principally examined, likewise 
appeared referrible to Dipéterus, although the Cocosteus was 
also among the number of the most completely mineralized 
remains), had been subjected to peculiar influences. I 
could not, indeed, avoid suspecting that, even in the most 
thoroughly altered organisms of Stromness, the original 
animal matter had not been removed to so great an extent. 
Under this impression, the most completely mineralized 
portions were selected as the subjects of experiment, and 
they exhibited the following external characters :— 

Colour, jet black, with a shining resinous lustre ; in some 
cases inclining to vitreous; fracture more or less con- 
choidal ; hardness = 3 of Mohs’s scale, sp. gr. = 1.517; 
the powder is of a brownish-black tint. 

The general appearance of the mass bears a closer resem- 
blance to cherry-coal than to any of the other varieties of 
that important mineral, and may, with some degree of pro- 
priety, be denominated animal cherrycoal, in contradistinc- 
tion to that which occurs in beds in the coal formation, and 
appears to be of vegetable origin. 

When a small piece of the coal was heated in the open 
air, on platinum foil, it took fire, and burnt with a white 
flame, leaving a considerable residue of a light-grey ash. 
The coal in powder, when heated in a glass tube over a 
spirit-lamp, evolved copious white fumes ; and a yellow oil of 
a strongly bituminous odour was sublimed, which concreted 
on cooling. Litmus paper, moistened, and held in the tube, 
indicated an acid reaction. Being desirous to ascertain if 
any nitrogenized matter was contained in the coal, another 
portion of the powder was heated with a strong solution of 


Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 283 


potash, but no ammonia could, by the ordinary means, be de- 
tected. 

Having thus ascertained the presence of a large quantity 
of bituminous matter in the coal, a portion of the surround- 
ing rock was subjected to similar treatment, and, with like 
results, the bituminous matter, in the specimens examined, 
amounting to 18 per cent. 

After ignition, the remaining ash dissolved with effer- 
vescence in diluted hydrochloric acid, with the exception 
of a portion of siliceous matter. Ammonia added to the 
acid solution, caused a copious gelatinous precipitate, pre- 
senting all the characters of phosphate of lime. Oxide of 
iron was present in minute quantity, probably in combina- 
tion with sulphur, as traces of sulphuric acid were detected, 
when the ash was boiled with nitromuriatic acid. Chlorine 
could not be found. Carbonate of lime occurred in consider- 
able quantity, and magnesia was also detected. Soda and 
potash were sought for, but without success. 

A careful examination was instituted, in order, if possible, 
to detect the presence of fluorine, which is so constantly met 
with in fossil organic remains. Indeed, until of late, the 
researches of Rees, Girardin, and Pressier of Rouen, and 
others, seemed to indicate that the occurrence of fluorine 
was characteristic of fossils, and that it was not to be found 
at all as a normal ingredient of recent bones, as stated by 
Berzelius. More recently, however, the results of the ana- 
lysis of that celebrated Swedish chemist have been verified 
by the investigations of Dr Daubeny and Mr Middleton. 

On submitting a portion of the powdered coal to the action 
of a gentle heat, along with sulphuric acid, in a platinum 
crucible, covered with a plate of glass, coated on its lower 
surface with a thin layer of wax, in which lines were drawn 
with a pointed piece of wood, and kept cool by damp cloths, 
no traces of fluorine could be detected, the glass being left 
quite uncorroded. Having failed in this way, the powder 
was then ignited, as recommended by Dr Daubeny, in his 
- most valuable paper in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxv. 
No. 164; the ash dissolved in muriatic acid, the phosphates, 
(along with the fluates, if any were present), thrown down by 


284 Dr Andrew Fleming on the 


ammonia, and the precipitate, after being thoroughly washed 
and dried, submitted as before to the action of sulphuric acid, 
in a platinum crucible, covered with a plate of glass prepared 
in the manner above described. No heat was applied, the 
temperature being raised sufficiently high by the chemical ac- 
tion, and the glass plate was left on the crucible for six hours. 
On removing it, at the end of that period, distinct marks 
of the corrosion of the glass were observed, leaving no doubts 
as to the presence of fluorine in the substance under exami- 
nation. I may here state, that, in this way, I have detected 
fluorine, with the greatest facility, in fossil bones from the 
rock of Gibraltar, in sharks’ teeth from the London clay, and 
in a portion of a fossil bone from Tilgate forest. In two 
specimens of recent human bones, the one a femur, and the 
other an os ilium, fluorine was detected in the phosphates 
obtained in the way before mentioned. 

The chief constituents, therefore, of these crusts of coaly 
matter are, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and bitu- 
minous matter. 

A qualitative analysis having thus been executed, it was 
thought desirable that the proportion of the different con- 
stituents should be ascertained ; and for this purpose a care- 
fully selected specimen was pounded, which, after drying 
over a water bath, weighed 9.2 grs. This was ignited for 
some time in a platinum crucible, and was found to have lost 
4.32 grs. of bituminous matter. The ash was then treated 
with weak muriatic acid, which dissolved all, except a por- 
tion of silica (sand), which, when separated by filtration, 
washed and ignited, weighed 1.206. The phosphate of lime, 
precipitated by ammonia from the acid solution, weighed 
1.998 grs. The lime was thrown down as oxalate, and, 
after careful ignition in the usual way, amounted to 1.208 
gers. of carbonate of lime. To the remaining liquid, when 
reduced by concentration to a small bulk, phosphate of am- 
monia was added, and the precipitated magnesia, after igni- 
tion, weighed .594 grs. as phosphate, which corresponds to 
450 grs. of carbonate of magnesia. 

We have thus in a hundred parts :— 


Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 285 


Bituminous matter, : 46.956 
Siliceous matter (sand), nae a ee ae sul | 


13.108 
phuret of iron, 
Phosphate of denies with tines ‘of duste of er oe 21.717 
Carbonate of lime, i } : 3 F 13.130 
Carbonate of magnesia, : : J ; 4.891 
Loss, : é . ; ; : é .198 
100. 


It is obvious, from the above analysis, that the greater 
portion of the original constituents of the organism had re- 
mained in connection with it; while it is equally evident that 
numerous transpositions have subsequently taken place among 
the ingredients of the mass, by which the limits of the sepa- 
rate parts have been obliterated. The same forces, however, 
which have annihilated all distinction between the surfaces of 
the scales, the viscera, and the bones, and even modified their 
constitutent parts, do not appear to have exerted any in- 
fluence on the surrounding matrix ; for the line of demarca- 
tion between the surface of the organism and the rock, is 
usually well marked in the cross fracture, although the 
adhesion is generally strong. There is, no doubt, a consi- 
derable amount of bituminous matter, forming an obvious 
ingredient in these schists; yet it would be rash to infer 
that it derived its origin directly either from the maceration 
of the ichthyolites, or their vaporized contents. The state of 
the beds at the period of their formation, and, perhaps, for 
a long time afterwards, appears to have been favourable for 
the mutual action of the different parts of the organism 
disposed for change, but not, by any means, for the abstrac- 
tion or dispersion of the greater part of the more changeable 
ingredients. Instead, therefore, of the resultant consisting 
entirely of the earthy ingredients of the organism, as pro- 
bably would have been the case had maceration prevailed to 
any great extent, or of these conjoined with the carbon, if 
igneous influence had been exerted, we have presented in the 
mass, not merely the original earthy salts, but the animal 
matter in a bituminous form, and the whole constituting a 


- singularly homogeneous coal. But the subject is too obscure 


to warrant farther speculation. 
ABERDEEN, March 3. 1845. 


( 286 ) 


On the Determination of Heights by the Boiling Point of 
Water. By James D. Forsus, Esq., F.R.S., Sec. 
R.S. Ed., Corresponding Member of the Institute of 
France, and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. With Two Plates.* 


It was observed by Fahrenheit, that the boiling point of 
water depends on the height of the barometer, the pressure 
of the air hindering the conversion of water into steam by a 
resistance which must be overcome by an increase of heat. 
Deluct and De Saussuref contrived apparatuses for making 
the observation in the open air, and at great heights, and 
appear to have contemplated the substitution of the ther- 
mometer for the barometer upon occasion. They, as well as 
Dr Horsley,§ Sir George Schuckburgh,|| and Mr Cavendish,¥ 
seem to have regarded the question as one which concerned 
the fixity of the point used in graduating thermometers, and 
its requisite corrections, rather than as applicable to baro- 
metric purposes generally. Several of them have given em- 
pirical tables for correcting the boiling point within the 
limits of the usual barometric variations, but one only, M. 
Deluc, has given a formula for connecting the indications of 
the barometer with the boiling point of water throughout 
the range which the barometer has been observed to vary 
on the earth’s surface. This is the on/y formula immediately 
deduced from direct observations of the boiling point; and 
having been verified by De Saussure at a height greater than 
the limits for which it was constructed, and having else- 
where been declared by him to be so accurate as to super- 
sede farther experiment on the subject, it might have been 
expected to be generally adopted, or at least known. We 
find, however, that though it has been occasionally copied 
into the formal articles of Encyclopedias, as a correction in 


* From Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv., 


part iii. 
+ Modificationsde l’ Atmosphere, tome ii. + Voyages, secs. 1275, 2011. 
§ Phil. Trans. vol. Ixiv. || Ibid., vol. Ixix. 


q Ibid., vol. Ixvii. p. 816. 


On the Determination of Heights, Sc. 287 


graduating thermometers, observers who have used the boil- 
ing point for the determination of heights, have always pre- 
ferred the ordinary tables which give the elasticity of steam 
in terms of its temperature, determined from experiments 
of quite a different kind from the boiling of water. 

Dr Dalton, indeed, has given a table from observation 
under the air-pump of the boiling point ;* and that table 
shews a manifest deviation from the elasticities and tempe- 
ratures of vapour determined by himself, and now generally 
accepted as the most accurate below 212°. In boiling, the 
temperature requires to be higher, under a given pressure, 
than the temperature of steam which has the same tension. 
Thus, comparing Dalton’s two tables— 


z ibe Tension of é 
Temperature, ae eri Vapour. Difference. 
212 30°0 30°0 
200 22°38 23°64 
190 18°6 19°00 
15:2 


it is exactly at the part of the scale where the difference is 
most practically important that it is most conspicuous, 
namely, between 190° and 212°. The method of observa- 
tion used by Dr Dalton, does not admit of any great accu- 
racy in observing the boiling points, and the numbers he 
has given are evidently only approximate. Still, from ob- 
servations made under naturally low pressures (the only ones 
worthy of much confidence in this case), I have found the 
same nonconformity of the theoretical tension of steam and 
the atmospheric pressure. 

In 1817, Archdeacon Wollaston described a thermometer 
destined particularly for the purpose of determining heights. t 


* Meteorological Essays, 2d edit. p. 127. 
+ Phil. Trans, vol, cxx. p. 183, 


288 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights 


But he seems not to have been aware of the progress which 
the subject had already made in the hands of Deluc and De 
Saussure. The latter used a thermometer indicating 7>5> 
of a degree of Reaumur. Wollaston’s instrument, though a 
neat laboratory one, has almost every fault which a travel- 
ling instrument can have, excepting only its small dimen- 
sions, to which everything is sacrificed. It is apt to break, 
and still more apt to be deranged, the contrivance for ex- 
tending the scale being excessively incommodious ; finally, 
it is impossible to use it in windy weather, and its indica- 
tions are in an arbitrary scale. Nor was the method of cal- 
culating the heights more happy. At first he contented 
himself with assuming the progression of height to be pro- 
portional to the fall of the boiling point, near 212°;* but 
he afterwardst extended his calculation from Dr Ure’s table 
of tensions of vapour, expressly stating, that he had used 
the proportionality of 1° of Fahrenheit to 0-589 inches of the 
barometer, or 530 feet, merely as an approximation for small 
heights. ash 8 

A reference in. Boué’s’ Guide du Geologue Voyageur, di- 
rected me to a paper by Mr Prinsep, in the Journal of the 
Asiatic Society of Bengal for April 1833. I hoped there to 
have found a table of boiling temperatures observed at great 
heights in India. But it only contains a modification of 
Tredgold’s Formula of the Elasticities of Steam adapted to 
the measurement of heights by the thermometer, and no ori- 
ginal observations. 

During a late journey in Switzerland (in 1842), I made 
several observations on the boiling point of water at great 
heights. Having long since abandoned Wollaston’s ther- 
mometrical barometer, as practically useless, I was led to 
resume the method, in consequence of a very ingenious and 
compact apparatus for chemical or culinary purposes having 
been shewn to me the preceding winter, by Mr Stevenson, 
instrument maker, under the name of a Russian furnace, and 
which was, I believe, introduced into the country from Russia 
by Dr Samuel Brown. It consists of a very thin cylindrical 


a ee ee a 


* Phil., Trans. p. 192. + Ibid., vol. ex. p. 295. 


Vol AXXVIILp.289. 


PLATE VII. 


Edin’ NewPhil. Jour. 


by the Boiling Point of Water. 289 


copper-pan for holding water, Fig. 1, plate VII., with three 
moveable wite-legs. The bottom is flat, so that the flame 
of a spirit-lamp plays fully upon it. This lamp or furnace 
consists of two parts, a flat dish or saucer, Fig. 3, containing 
a little alcohol, which is set on fire, and then covered by the 
double dome-shaped vessel, Fig. 4, also of thin copper, with 
an air-tight plug a, by which a certain quantity of spirit of 
wine is introduced, and the lower part communicating with 
a bent tube or nozzle 6, by which alcohol in ebullition is 
violently projected by the pressure of its own vapour, when 
heated by the flame in the saucer. The jet of burning spirit 
thus thrown up like a volcanic explosion through the aperture 
of the dome, has such force as to resist the blast of a hurri- 
cane, and plays right upon the bottom of the cylindric boiler 

‘or pan. Two fluid ounces of spirit of wine will thus boil 
above a pint of water in still air in four minutes; and I have 
frequently first melted snow, and then brought it to boil to 
the amount of a pint, with little more alcohol, but, of course, 
in a longer time. 

The furnace and boiling apparatus, together with a reser- 
voir of alcohol, packs into the copper-pan, and that into a 
cylindrical leather case 4 inches high, and 6 in diameter. 
The thermometer, Fig. 2, is carried separately. It is 15 
inches long and the degrees measure ;3, inch, which is quite 
sufficient in practice. Parallax is avoided, by having the 
scale repeated on each side of the tube on two pieces of copper 
not in the same plane. 

Fig. 5 represents the spirit measure, Fig. 6 a reservoir for 
spirits, Fig. 7 a water measure or cup, Fig. 8 a handle which 
opens all the plugs, and serves also for lifting the lamp and 
pan when heated. 

I immediately saw the value of the apparatus for deter- 
mining the boiling point, and directed Mr Adie to adapt a 
thermometer to it, graduated from 185° to 214° of Fahrenheit’s 
scale, divided to 10ths of a degree, the divisions admitting 
an estimation to 100ths. I am well assured, however, that 
in no circumstances, even the most favourable, is the observa- 
tion true to less than ,\; of a degree. But this quantity 
corresponds to only 25 feet of elevation. and is therefore, 

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 3 


290 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights 


accurate enough for most purposes. The minute subdivisions 
of Deluc’s, De Saussure’s, and Wollaston’s instruments, are 
quite unavailing, as I have found by using the instrument of 
the latter with every precaution. 

My barometer having been broken in the course of my 
journeys, I was glad to have recourse to the boiling point as 
a means of estimating (only roughly as I expected) some 
remarkable elevations not before measured. In several cases 
I had the advantage of comparing my thermometric boiling 
point with a barometer, and lately I resolved to discuss these 
observations empirically, without reference to any theory or 
tables, or previous observations. 

I first projected the barometric pressures in terms of the 
corresponding thermometric observations. These were the 
following :— 

Barometer re- 
duced toEnglish 


inches, and to 
32° 


BorLine Point. 


August Tacul 200°-10 23'154 


Tacul 200°°6 23°358 
St Bernard 199°:08 22674 
Prarayon 201°°58 23°893 
M. | Col Collon 195°-15 20°77 

<u 29,11 A.M. | Gressony 204-20 25148 
September 5, mM. |, Martigny 210°-12 28°489 


I obtained a curve, which resembled a flattish logarithmic, 
the barometric numbers appearing to be in geometrical pro- 
gression, whilst the temperatures varied uniformly. This 
recalled to me an idea which I had entertained some years 
ago, that the boiling point would be found to vary simply 
with the height, to which I was led from knowing Deluc’s 
formula; but the idea had since escaped me, or been post- 
poned to other occupations. Now, however, I projected the 
simple elevations of the points of observation (derived from 
the barometric pressures from the common tables for com- 
puting heights uncorrected for the temperature), in terms 
of the boiling points, as in Plate VIII, and I was gratified 
to find, that a straight line passed almost quite through the 
whole of them, shewing that the temperature of the boiling 


es MIP L 


mie) 


L : 3 al a = ? a i se io ae ee =i ; if _ 
ae MYPT of L2f\ 222) 9 ORG ; . | 
ata 


Se ee ee ee ee Se ae coarse 


¥ 
Xi Va 
aa? 
Dad 
' 


by the Boiling Point of Water. 291 


point varies in a simple arithmetical proportion with the height, 
namely, 549°5 feet for every degree of Fahrenheit; so that 
the calculation of height becomes one of simple arithmetic, 
without the use of logarithms, or of any table whatsoever. 

When [ had ascertained this fact, I looked back to Deluc’s 
formula, and found my conjecture entirely confirmed. Its 
form is 

alogp+C=h, 

h being the ‘height of a thermometer plunged in boiling 
water under a pressure p; a and C constants. But the first 
side of this equation is the very form which gives elevations 
in terms of the barometric pressure. Hence the boiling 
temperature varies as the height. In other words, the 
pressure varies in a geometrical ratio, when the temperature 
of boiling water varies uniformly ; but the pressure varies 
geometrically when the heights above the sea vary uniformly ; 
hence the heights vary uniformly with the boiling tempera- 
tures. Sable 

It is very singular that: so elegant and simple a result 
should have escaped every writer on the subject (so far as 
I know) ; even Deluc himself, who proposed the logarithmic 
law, and Wollaston, who unawares adopted the true law as 
a first approximation, and then took a wrong one.* 

It is not to be supposed that the coincidence appears 
close, because the observations are not accurate enough to 
test it. Of seven observations between 195° and 210°, no 
one differs 80 feet of elevation from the mean line,—a 


* He says,—‘‘ Having occasion last summer of visiting Caernarvon, 
which would afford an opportunity of trying the instrument on the 
known height of Snowdon, and being aware that in 3550 feet the varia- 
tions of the boiling temperature were not to be considered uniform, as they 
might in small elevations, on which alone I had before tried the experi- 
ment, I wished to provide myself previously with a table for making the 
necessary correction, and from Dr Ure’s paper was supplied with data 
for calculation.”—Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 295. The table given from Ure’s 
law of tensions gives a gradually increasing number of feet, correspond- 
ing to every degree that the thermometer falls. 

Since this paper was first printed, I find that Sir John Leslie has re- 
marked the Arithmetical Law in his article, ‘‘ Barometrical Measure- 
ments,” in the Encyclopedia Britannica. 


292 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights 


quantity corresponding to ,°, of a degree, an amount which 
cannot be considered as being beyond the possible errors of 
observations; and the small errors - are well distributed 
throughout. On the contrary, when the tensions of vapour, 
from Dalton’s Table, are projected beside them, as in the 
dotted curve of the figure, not only do they lie wholly above 
the line, but these tensions cannot be represented (when 
treated as representing barometric heights) as a straight 
line at all. They have a manifest curvature convex up- 
wards. In short, as is well known, the tensions of steam 
cannot be represented by a geometrical progression in terms 
of the temperature; but when water boils in the free air, 
the pressures are then exactly in geometrical progression. 

I never saw any ground for believing that the two laws 
must be the same. Our theory of vapours is not sufficiently 
perfect to admit of our drawing any such conclusion. In- 
deed I cannot help thinking that the influence of the pres- 
sure of the air upon the elasticity of nascent steam, is a fact 
not easily reconciled with Dalton’s theory of the pressure 
of elastic fluids. It is one thing to ascertain the elasticity 
of steam of maximum density, which water of a given tem- 
perature can yield, and it is another to ascertain under what 
pressure of air water wil] yield steam of a given tempera- 
ture. In practice I have observed the temperature of the 
boiling water, and not of the steam. The construction of 
the apparatus required this. But by moving the furnace to 
a side, so as to prevent the flame from disengaging the steam 
immediately under the thermometer, I have found the indica- 
tions as steady as I believe can be got in any other way. The 
mass of the water and also of the thermometer favours this. 

But I had a farther test of the exactness of the arithme- 
tical progression above established, and that as severe as 
could be proposed. It was to compare De Saussure’s obser- 
vations on Mont Blane, and the pressure there observed, with 
the result of my formula. But first, it was necessary to 
correct the zero point of his instrument, and to render it 
comparable to mine. De Saussure’s boiling point, 80° of 
Reaumur, or 212° of Fahrenheit, was adjusted at 27 French 
inches, or 28.777 English. 


a 


lay: 


by the Boiling Point of Water. 293 


At that pressure my thermometer (Adie) shews 210.58 F. 
De Saussure’s stood, therefore, 1°.42 F. higher than mine. 
Now, on the top of Mont Blanc, the barometer stood at 
17.133 English inches. 

The boiling temperature by De Saussure 
was, é ; ; F : 187°.234 Fahr. 
Reduced to Adie, . ! 185°.814 — 
But the boiling point of Adie’s tibiae! 
meter, with the barometer at 30 inches, is 212°.62 


Subtract, ; , : 185°.81 
At Mont Blane, below boiling point at 
30 inches, . : 26°.4 1 
By Galbraith’s Tables, . 30. 000 jens = 29228 feet 
17.1388 — = 14593 


Height uncorrected for temperature, 14635 
Now, by the proportion found empirically above, 

Height uncorrected for temperature = 26.71 x 549.5 = 
14677 feet,—a coincidence really surprising. 

I have already stated, that De Saussure found Deluc’s 
formula to conform accurately to his observation on Mont 
Blane. It may therefore be concluded, that Deluc’s formula 
and mine agree closely. In fact, if we take its conversion 
into English measures, as given by Dr Horsley,* 

ausGu00 log z — 92.804, 
which gives the boiling point, in degrees of Fahrenheit, 
reckoned from 32°, z being the height of the barometer in 
tenths of an English inch, we find that this gives 
544.7 English feet of ascent for 1° Fahr. 

Practically, I consider it sufficient to find the difference of 
height, in feet, between two stations, to multiply the differ- 
ence of the boiling points by 550, and then correct as in 
barometric observations for the temperature of the air. 

If the barometer at one station is to be compared with the 
boiling point at another, the simplest way is to find what 


elevation the barometer expresses, compared to an imaginary 


* Phil. Trans., vol. Ixiv., p. 226. 


294 Professor MacGillivray om the Cirripedia. 


station, where the barometer stands at 30 inches, the boiling 
point at 212°. Then the height of the station, where the 
thermometer has been observed, above the imaginary station, 
is found by the preceding rule. 

For example : The corrected boiling point on the Cold’ Erin 
between Evolena and Zermatt, in the Vallais, on the 19th 
August 1842, was 191°.93, the external thermometer 34°., 
the barometer (English) at Geneva was 28.73, and the tem- 
perature 72, required the height. 


Then, by Galbraith’s table, for 30 inches, . 29228 feet 
28,73 — : 28098 
Difference, ; ; ; 1130 


Consequently, supposing the atmospheric temperature 32’, 
the barometer stood at 30 inches, at a level 1130 feet below 
Geneva. The boiling point at the upper station was 20°.07 
below 212°. The Col d’Erin was, therefore, 20.07 x 549.5 
= 11028 feet above that imaginary station, or 9898 feet 
above Geneva. Corrected for temperature, this gives 10377 ; 
and Geneva being 1343 feet above the sea, the height of the 
Col d’Erin is 11720 feet. 

This is purposely given as a complex case ; but let us sup- 
pose that the boiling point, at the level of the sea, is assumed 
to be 212°, then the approximate height of the Col d’Erin is 
549.5 x 20°.07 = 11028 feet ; and supposing the mean tem- 
perature of the column 54°, the height will be 11586 feet 
above the sea. 


Remarks on the Cirripedia, with Descriptions of several Species 
found adhering to Vessels from Ichaboe, on the West Coast 
of Southern Africa. By WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., 
LL.D., Professor of Natural History in Marischal College 
and University, Aberdeen. (Communicated by the Author.) 


A considerable degree of interest has always been attached to the 
Cirripedal animals, not only on account of the widely extended, 
though preposterous belief of their being the eggs of geese, but also 
because of their peculiar structure and habits, the rapidity with 
which they grow, and especially the metamorphoses which they have 


oe 


Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 295 


been found, first by Mr Thompson, and subsequently by Burmeister, 
Wagner, and Audouin, to undergo in their earlier stages. In the 
part of Scotland in which I am at present located, the pedunculate 
species, of which only one, Scalpellum vulgare, appears to be truly 
indigenous, are of so rare occurrence, that the recent arrival of the 
multitudes which crowded the uncoppered submersed portions of the 
hulls of some vessels with guano from Ichaboe, could not fail to 
afford great pleasure. These animals, now clearly shewn to belong 
to the great type of the Entomozoa, and to approximate to certain 
Crustacea, have not, I think, been well described by any of the ex- 
cellent naturalists who have written upon them in our country; and 
therefore I have thought, that a full description of those so fortu- 
nately brought under notice may be not without use, if not to the 
present race of compilers, at least to their successors, and to those 
younger zoologists who may not have equal opportunities of observ- 
ing them. 

The six vessels on which the cirripedia to be described were 
found, had been absent from seven to nine months ; in which time 
they had traversed the Atlantic Ocvan, by the Azores and Brazil, 
to near the Cape of Good Hope ; and, after remaining several weeks 
at Ichaboe, a small islet, not far from Cabo Negro, on the west coast 
of Southern Africa, and in lat. 15° 26’ S., had returned by St Helena 
and the Cape Verd Islands. None of the species are peculiar to 
Ichaboe, where, on the contrary, they seemed less healthy than they 
had previously been. They began to be observable at about the end 
of the first fortnight of the voyage out, and became sickly on the 
homeward route, to the north of the Azores. When the vessels 
arrived at Aberdeen, they were all dead, although on two they were 
perfectly fresh and plump. It is probable, however, that in summer 
they would have been alive; and that their death was caused by the 
severe frost which then prevailed, as they were mostly liable to occa- 
sional emersion. 

It may be unnecessary to remind the expert zoologist, but it is pro- 
per to intimate to those readers who have not made this class of ani- 
mals a special study, that the cirripedia, all of which that I have 
examined, agree with each other more closely in their structure than 
the members of any other class of the great type to which they be- 
long, are distinguished by the following characters. 

Their body is soft, enveloped in a membranaceous integument, 
incurved, and placed with the back beneath, and the hind part above. 
It is enclosed in a thin mantle, and a membranous or coriaceous teg- 
men, in which are formed several calcareous plates, varying in the 
different genera, and wanting only in one; subovate at its lower or 
anterior part; very convex on the back; attenuated and subarticu- 


- lated at the upper or posterior end. It has attached to it, on either 


side, six limbs, cach terminated by two long, slender, horny, many- 
jointed cirri. The first pair of these limbs, placed not far from the 


296 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia 


mouth, represent the thoracic feet of the crustacea ; the rest may be 
considered as analogous to their abdominal false feet. The intestinal 
canal has two apertures; the oral with a prominent arched lip, a 
pair of palpi, and three pairs of maxillary appendages, expanded 
and ciliate at the end; the anal subterminal and dorsal; the ceso- 
phagus is short; the stomach large, with bursiform appendages ; 
the intestine wide. They have a complete double circulation, with 
white blood, and respire by branchiz, varying in form, but usually 
placed at the base of the lower cirri. Their nervous system is com- 
posed of a double series of ganglia, as in the crustacea. They have 
no distinct head, eyes, or tentacula. The individuals are bisexual ; 
the ova are fecundated in their passage, and escape by a long, very 
slender, contractile tube, placed at the extremity of the body, be- 
tween the last two pairs of cirri. 

In some, the envelope or tegmen is composed of several calcareous 
pieces, disposed in two lateral plates, with a medial or dorsal piece, 
or of a membranous or coriaceous epidermic covering, in which are 
developed small or rudimentary calcareous pieces, together with a 
flexible, and somewhat contractile peduncle. In others it is mem- 
branous, with four or two lateral pieces at the top, and inclosed ina 
calcareous conical tube, composed of six or fewer contiguous or united 
pieces, open above, and closed below by a membranous lamina or a 
calcareous plate. The mantle in all is open above, in the form of a 
slit, by which the cirri may be protruded. 

These cirri are constantly in rapid motion, and are the means of 
impelling the water into the cavity between the body and the man- 
tle, both for respiration, and as containing the animal matters on 
which they feed. The body is affixed to the tegmen or shell by a 
transverse muscle, placed at its lower part, and by muscular fasci- 
culi, which spread over the mass of the viscera. 

The young, at first free, locomotive, and resembling the larve of 
certain crustacea, undergo various changes, both before and after they 
become fixed. But, as in these notes, I intend to confine myself 
exclusively to what I have personally examined, I ain unable at pre- 
sent to say anything on this subject. 

These animals, all of which inhabit the sea, are naturally ar- 
ranged into two orders, Pedunculata and Sessilia, each of which 
contains a single family, 


The Crrrirep1a Pepuncunata, commonly named Barnacles, have 
the body supported by a tubular, fleshy, somewhat contractile and 
extensile peduncle, of which the base is attached to some firm sub- 
stance. To this series belong the genera Lepas, Cineras and Otion, 
which; with others, form the family of the Lepadina. 

In it the animal is oval or oblong, generally compressed, very con- 
vex on the back, narrowed behind, suspended in a testaceous or 
membranous envelope, to which it adheres by a transverse muscle, 


= 


Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 297 


situated near the lower edge of the aperture; the mantle open at 
the upper part only, and with the cuticle prolonged at the other end 
to form a fleshy peduncle; the branchie simple, tapering, at the 
base of the lower cirri. 


Lepas. BARNACLE. 


Animal subovate, compressed, gibboso-convex on the back, incurvate, 
with the mouth very prominent, and furnished with a pair of external, 
partially adnate palpi, and three pairs of incurvate, compressed, maxil- 
lary appendages, of which the thin terminal lamina is ciliated with spines 
or bristles ; the body narrowed behind, with twelve pairs of pedicellate, 
long, slender, incurvate, multiarticulate, lobulate, bifariously ciliate 
cirri; two unequal, slender, tapering branchial filaments on each side ; 
one from the base of the pedicle of the first pair of cirri, the other from 
the side of the body near it; the ovarian tube tapering, annulated, longer 
than the last cirri. 

Tegmen compressed, subovate, with two large calcareous plates on 
each side, and a single, elongated, curved dorsal piece; the aperture in 
the form of a slit, occupying the upper half of the ventral border; pe- 
duncle cylindrical, contractile, fleshy: its epidermic coat continuous 
with the tegmen ; its inner dermic tube continuous with the mantle or 
dermal lining of the tegmen, on the inner surface of which is a delicate 
layer of pigment. 

This genus being generally considered the typical group of the Barna- 
cles, or Pedunculated Cirripedia, it ought to give its name to the family. 
Linnzus’s genus Lepas is equivalent to almost the entire class, he having, 
in his Systema Naturee, only one other genus, containing a single species, 
and now generally named Alepas, but to which the priority-of-nomen- 
celature naturalists must restore its proper name Triton, which has been 
given to a genus of Batrachian reptiles, and also to a genus of Gastero- 
podous mollusca. The sessile species were first separated under the 

eneric name of Balanus, but now form a family, Balanina, of which 

alanus restricted is typical. To be consistent, the pedunculated spe- 
cies ought to have retained the name Lepas, agreeably to the practice of 
Montagu and others; and as they now form a family, it ought to be 
named Lepadina, of which Lepas restricted is typical. Bruguiere and 
Lamarck, however, call Lepas Anatifa, a specific Linnean name al- 
tered and mutilated. Dr Leach calls it Pentelasmis, and Blainville Pen- 
talepas ; in which cases, the family name should be Anatifina, or Penta- 
lasmina, or Pentalepina. As naturalists are not yet agreed as to nomen- 
elature, and the general meeting proposed some years ago, for the pur- 
pose of settling such important matters, has not yet taken place, isolated 
persons like myself must employ some such names as are intelligible. 

The Lepades, Anatifse, Pentelasmides, or Pentalepades, then, live 
affixed to wood, cork, bark, fuci, crustacea, fishes, and other bodies, as 
well as to each other, and to various pedunculate and sessile cirripedia. 
Their fleshy peduncle varies in length and colour, even in the same spe- 
cies. The tegmen also presents considerable differences as to the form, 
thickness, and markings of its pieces. They are more abundant in warm 
than in temperate climates, and rare in the colder regions, into which, 
however, they are often carried, by the currents and winds, along with 
the bodies to which they adhere. 

Of this genus three species have occurred: two of them long known, 
but very imperfectly described ; the other not hitherto observed, or at 
least distinguished, in our seas. 


298 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 


1. Lepas anatifera. Common Barnacle. 

Tegmen ovate, much compressed, obliquely truncate ; the lateral 
plates very thin, fragile, bluish-white, faintly iridescent, obsoletely 
rugoso-striate, with minute radiating striule ; the lower plate subovato- 
tetragonal, with the basal margin oblique and nearly straight, the poste- 
rior shorter and convex, the sutural straight or slightly concave, the apex 
rather obtuse; the upper plate oblong, obtuse at both ends, with the 
supra-umbonal side shorter than the anterior; the dorsal piece linear- 
oblong, obtusely carinate, sulcate, or striate ; the peduncle rugose, pale, 
the epidermic portion of the tegmen scarlet, orange, or yellow ; the cirri 
pale yellowish-grey. : 

The body of the animal is ovate, compressed, incurvate, very convex 
on the back, narrow behind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integu- 
ment, which becomes horny on the hind part, where it is marked be- 
neath with faint transverse depressions. The mouth prominent, with an 
induplicate or somewhat semilunar, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick, 
pointed palpi, which are adnate until toward the end, directed forwards 
or downwards, with the tip free and ciliate, and three pairs of incurvate, 
compressed maxillar appendages, lamelliform at the end. The first or 
outer pair, with the terminal lamina oblong, acute, with six external, 
marginal, long, acuminate teeth or serratures, of which the posterior are 
longest; the second with the lamina broad, with five short, broad teeth 
or lobes, and several bristles; the third, inner or medial, narrower, and 
ciliate. 

The first pair of feet, in‘the form of oblong, compressed bodies, are 
placed immediately above or behind the mouth, and bear each a pair of 
unequal, tapering, compressed, horny, articulated, incurvate cirri. The 
second pair are at some distance from the first, and the rest close toge- 
ther, subcylindrical, compressed, biarticulate ; their cirri longer. All 
the cirri are lobed and ciliate on the anterior or lower border, convex 
on the dorsal side, with a few very small bristles at each joint. The 
first pair of cirri with eighteen joints, the last with thirty-five joints and 
lobes, on each of which are generally about sixteen unequal ciliary bris- 
tles, in two divergent series. 

On each side, on a prominence at the base of the first foot, externally, 
is a long, subulate, soft, and flexible filament; and at some distance 
from it, on the side of the body, towards the back, is another, about half 
its length. 

The narrowed part of the body to which the five pairs of abdominal 
feet are laterally attached, is marked beneath with faint, irregular, 
transverse depressions between the feet, and thus perhaps subarticu- 
lated. It ends in a very long, slender, tapering flesh-coloured tube, 
usually curved inwards, but, when extended, exceeding the last cirri in 
length. At the base of this tube, on the dorsal aspect, is the anus, over 
which are two oblong, mobile, horny plates. 

The general colour of the body is pale purplish yellow, partly flesh- 
colour; the cirri yellowish-grey, or light horn-colour. 

A large round muscle, attached to the anterior part of the body, 
under the mouth, extends from one of the large calcareous plates of the 
tegmen to the other, like one of the adductor muscles of a bivalve shell. 
The body is also attached to the tegmen by muscular fasciculi, which 
expand beneath its integument over the viscera. 

The subsidiary dermal envelope or mantle is very thin, whitish, mar- 
gined at the aperture with an elastic scarlet or orange-coloured filament. 
Between it and the epidermic envelope or shell is a very delicate film of 
pale purplish-brown pigment, appearing like a film of China ink or neu- 
tral tint, divided into minute polygonal or circular fragments. 


Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 299 


The tegmen testaceous, much compressed, ovate, with the base some- 
what oblique and straight, the ventral margin convex, sinuate toward 
the end; the dorsal margin uniformly curved in about the fifth of a 
circle ; the apex obliquely truncate. 

The lower lateral plate little convex, subovato-tetragonal, very thin, 
fragile, white, faintly iridescent, glossy, concentrically rugoso-striate, 
divergently-minutely striulate; the basal margin straight, or slightly- 
concave or convex, the umbonal or basi-ventral angle projecting a little; 
the ventral margin conyex, the dorsal convex scarcely half the length 
of the basal; the sutural margin straight ; the apex rather acute. 

The upper lateral plate oblongo-triangular, flat, somewhat concave, 
very thin, fragile, white, faintly iridescent, concentrically striate, diver- 
gently minutely striulate ; the ventral margin slightly concave ; the su- 
tural margin straight; the dorsal slightly convex, but with the umbonal 
point sensibly projecting, and about half the length of the ventral margin 
from the upper angle, which is rounded; the lower angle narrow, but 
rather obtuse. 

The dorsal plate curved, linear-oblong, convex, with a slight medial 
groove, or obtusely carinate, striate, narrower and incurvate below, with 
a transverse arcuate or semilunar base; the apex obtuse, extending to 
the middle of the lateral plate. 

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates is bright scar- 
let ; between the plates, and at the base of the tegmen, scarlet or orange, 
often inclining to yellowish-grey. 

The peduncle short, about the length of the tegmen, sometimes shorter, 
sometimes half as long again, rugoso-granulate, light greyish-yellow or 
flesh coloured, orange or scarlet, becoming bright scarlet at the upper 
part ; its internal or dermal tube pale greyish. 

Very young individuals, two-twelfths of an inch in length, and others 
up to half an inch or more, haye the peduncle and membranes yellowish- 
white ; the tegmen and its plates of the same form as in the adult, but 
the plates extremely thin, almost membranous at the margins. 

Considerable variations occur in the outline of the tegmen ; in the form 
of the plates, and especially of the upper as well as the dorsal; in the 
thickness of the plates, and the convexity of the lower; and in distinct- 
ness of the striz. 

Generally ovate, the tegmen has its basal line straight, or somewhat 
convex, rarely a little concave ; the ventral line convex for half its length, 
then sinuate or slightly concave; the dorsal line more or less convex ; 
the apex generally obliquely truncate, or obtuse, or even acute. The 
lower plate sometimes has the ridge from the umbo to the point very 
prominent, but generally inconspicuous, its sutural margin generally a 
little concave, sometimes straight. In the upper plate, the umbonal 
angle is sometimes distinct or even prominent, sometimes inapparent, 
whence the apex may be obliquely truncate, or the dorsal line may run 
in a uniform curve to the end, or the tip may even beacute. The dorsal 
piece may be broader or narrower, more or less convex, sometimes nearly 
flat, but generally with an obtuse keel, sometimes having a medial groove; 
One or more series of depressed dots sometimes extend from the umbo 
to the suture-margin of the lower plate, as has been noticed by Chemnitz 
and Philippi. The strie are sometimes very distinct, although fine, 
sometimes faint or somewhat obsolete. 

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the pigment and 
ig for when they are removed the colour is pure white, or reddish- 
white. 

The application of the term levis, smooth, as specific, by Lamarck 
and others, is improper, inasmuch as the valves are always striate. 


300 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 


Of the descriptions of Anatifa levis or Lepas anatifera given by authors, 
those which agree best with our specimens are by Philippi and Dr Gould. 
Cuvier’s figure differs a little, and his specimens must have been much 
older. His figures of the structure are very rude, and those of the cirri 
in particular very incorrect. 

The following references are all which I can apply to this species, as 
it presents itself on the Ichaboe vessels :— 

Lepas anatifera. Linn. Syst. Nat. 1109. Very probably. 

Lepas anatifera. Chemn. Conch. viii. 340, plate 100, fig. 853-4-5. 

Lepas anatifera. Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 74, plate 38. fig. 9. 

Lepas anatifera. Turt. Conch. Dict. 71. Excluding his varieties, 
which yet belong to the same species. 

Anatifa levis. Lamk. Anim. sans Vert. v. 404. 

Anatifa levis. Gould, Invert. Massach, 19, woodcut p. 11. 

Anatifa levis. Philippi, Moll. Sicil. 252. 

Anatifa levis. Brown, Illustr. plate 4, fig. 3, 4. 

Lepas anatifera. Donov. Brit. Sh. plate 7. 

Lepas anatifera. Mont. Test. Brit. 15. 

Pentalepas levis. Blainv. Malac. plate 84, fig. 3. 


The following are the dimensions of several individuals :— 


Length, . : 1 4 L°'6 a eee} a ig 0 6 
Depth, . : 0 10 S Epa 0) 0 94 0 8 0 3} 
Breadth, . : 0 33 0 32 0 3 0. 2 ate 
Peduncele, ienG PIN) ie?) 0 6 0 4 


2. Lepas Nauta. Sailor Barnacle. 


Tegmen ovate, compressed, obliquely truncate; the lateral plates rather 
thick, bluish-white, glossy, obsoletely rugose, with distinct radiating 
striule ; the lower plate subtriangular, with the basal margin very 
oblique, straight, the posterior half its length and convex, the sutural 
straight, the apex rather acute; the upper plate oblong, subrectangular 
at the tip, narrow, and rather acute at the lower end, the supraumbonal 
side of about the same length as the anterior ; the dorsal piece linear- 
lanceolate, carinate, deeply sulcate, extending to more than half the 
length of the upper lateral piece, abruptly inflexed at the base; the pe- 
duncle rugose, dusky-brown, the epidermic portion of the tegmen scar- 
let or orange ; the cirri greyish-brown. 


The body of the animal is ovate, compressed, incurvate, very convex 
on the back, narrow behind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integu- 
ment which becomes horny on the hind part. The mouth prominent, 
with an induplicate or vaulted, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick ad- 
nate palpi, free at the end, where they are conico-compressed, and end 
in a long incurvate, acute prickle, and three pairs of incurvate, com- 
pressed, maxillar appendages. The first or outer pair with the terminal 
lamina oblong, acute, with six external marginal, acuminate teeth or 
serratures, of which the posterior is much larger, the rest gradually de- 
creasing. The second with the lamina broad, with five short, broad 
teeth, and ciliate. The third or inner narrower, pointed, and ciliate. 

The first pair of feet close to the mouth, with the cirri unequal, of 
about 15 joints ; the rest crowded, the last with 45 joints; all ciliate, 
with long unequal bristles in two series, generally from 12 to 16 on each 
lobe. 

Two branchial tapering filaments on each side, the longer attached to 


Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 301 


the prominence at the base of the first foot, and shorter than its cirri, 
the other smaller, on the side of the body. 

The ovarian tube very slender, longer than the last cirri. 

The colour of the body light brown, dotted with darker ; that of the 
cirri greyish-brown ; the pigment dusky brown. In other respects, the 
structure is the same as in Lepas anatifera. 

The tegmen testaceous, compressed, ovate, with the base very oblique, 
straight or slightly concave, the ventral margin convex, slightly sinuate 
toward the end, the dorsal margin curved in the fifth of a circle to the 
angle of the upper plate, then abrupt. 

The lower lateral plate subtriangular, rather convex, rather thick, 
bluish-white, faintly iridescent, highly glossed, concentrically obsoletely 
rugose, with distinct small diverging strie ; the basal margin straight or 
slightly concave, with a small reflexed rim, the umbonal angle not pro- 
jecting, the ventral margin gently convex, the dorsal convex, about half 
the length of the basal, the sutural margin straight ; the apex truncate 
or rectangular. 

The upper lateral plate oblongo-tetragonal, nearly flat, or slightly 
convex, bluish-white, concentrically obsoletely rugose, divergently dis- 
tinctly striulate, the ventral margin straight, the dorsal distinctly angu- 
late, the umbonal point being prominent, the space between it and the 
point straight or concave, and about equal in length to the ventral margin, 
the lower angle very narrow and acute. 

The dorsal plate gently curved, linear-oblong, rising into a prominent 
keel, its sides concave or sloping, deeply grooved, the grooves often 
forming slight denticulations on the keel, the apex very narrow, extend- 
ing nearly to the umbonal angle of the upper plates, its base narrowed, 
abruptly incurved at the end, expanded and emarginate. 

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates very narrow, 
bright scarlet, at the base of the lower plates often forming a regular 
series of angular shreds; between the plates, where it is very narrow, 
and at the base of the tegmen dusky. 

The peduncle shorter than the tegmen, dusky or blackish-brown, ru- 
gose, minutely granulate, its internal tube dark grey or brownish. 

It varies considerably ; but in every form or age is easily distinguish- 
able from Lepas anatifera, into which it does not graduate. Generally 
broadly ovate, the tegmen has its basal line oblique in various degrees, 
sometimes straight, often more or less concave, never convex ; the ven- 
tral line convex to the end of the large plate, then straight or convex ; 
the dorsal line gently convex; the apex sometimes obtuse, generally 
rectangular, sometimes extended, acute or obtuse. The lower plate has 
always a prominent ridge from the umbo to the apex, and is more or 
less convex below. In the upper plate the umbonal angle may be 
more or less prominent, and the margin beyond is straight, concave, or 
rarely convex. The dorsal plate, always sulcate and carinate, may have 
the keel continuous, but generally undulate or denticulate. One or 
more series of depressed dots sometimes extend from the umbo to the 
suture-margin of the lower plate. The stris are sometimes strongly 
marked, generally moderate, sometimes faintly, always more distinctly 
than in Lepas anatifera. 

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the pigment and 
mantle, for when they are removed the colour is pure white, with a slight 
tinge of lilac-purple. 

‘his species differs from Lepas anatifera in having the tegmen smaller, 
more convex, more oblique at the base, and more distinctly striated. 
The plates are thicker, the lower more convex, with a much more pro- 
minent angular ridge ; the upper more pointed at its lower end, the 


302 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 


posterior more prominent, more deeply sulcate, and quite differently 
curved at the base, it being there suddenly inflexed. Lepas anatifera 
has a wide membranous space between the dorsal plate and the dorsal 
margin of the lower plate ; Lepas incurvata has also a wide space there ; 
but in Lepas striata there is scarcely any, the margins of all the plates 
being almost in contact. The dorsal plate in Lepas incurvata extends 
one-third up the upper plate, in L. anatifera half-way, in L. striata two- 
thirds. 

The species here described is the same as one which I have frequently 
met with on planks, logs, and tangles, in the Outer Hebrides. It does 
not, however, grow on the tangles in their natural state, it being only 
when they have been floating in the sea, after having been dried on the 
sands, that they form upon them. The same species I havealso found on 
corks on the east coast of Scotland. Itis that described as Lepas striata 
in the Mollusca of Aberdeenshire. 

It is not easy to find references for this species. Although referred 
by many to Lepas anserifera of Linneeus, it certainly is not that species ; 
nor is it Anatifa striata of Bruguiere, Lamarck, or Philippi, which they 
refer to Lepas anserifera, and has the valves “ argute striate.” It is 
very certainly Anatifa striata of Dr Gould, his descriptions agreeing in 
every particular and circumstance. I find no other specific name for it 
than Anserifera and Striata, to neither of which can it lay claim, and there- 
fore am obliged to get it a new name, until some priority person find an 
old one for it. 

It occurred in small numbers, along with Lepas anatifera and L. in- 
curvata, in the midst of a dense mass of Otion and Cineras, on the bows 
and sides of a Fraserburgh brig, which came to Aberdeen in the begin- 
ning of January 1845. 

Lepas anserifera. Mont. Test. Brit. 16. 

Lepas anserifera. Turt. Conch. Dict. 72. 

Lepas striata. MacG. Mollusca of Aberdeenshire, 357. 

Anatifa striata. Gould, Invert. Massach. 20. 


The dimensions of several individuals are :— 


= 


Length, Bere 1 th Q 0 10 0 9 
Depth, . Pee VD a 0 8 QO 54 AS 
Breadth, a "Oe 0 3 0 4 0 2% 0 24 
Peduncle, 0 10 0 4 0 5 0 4 0 5 


3. Lepas incurvata. Incurvate Barnacle. 
Anatifa elongata. Quoy et Gaimard. 


Tegmen semicordate or ovato-oblong, with the anterior margin straight 
or recurvate, compressed, tumid below, obtuse; the lateral plates very 
thin, fragile, bluish-white, slightly glossed or dull, obsoletely rugose, 
with very minute radiating striule ; the lower plate subovato-tetrago- 
nal, with the basal margin convex, the posterior rounded and equal, the 
sutural convex, the apex acute ; the upper plate oblongo-tetragonal, ob- 
tuse at both ends, with the supraumbonal side as long as the anterior ; 
the dorsal piece narrow-oblong, convex, sulcate or striate ; the pedun- 
cle rugose, minutely granulate, brownish-black, the epidermic portion 
of the tegmen partly dull scarlet or dingy orange ; the cirri dusky. 


The body of the animal is ovate, very convex on the back, narrow be- 
hind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integument, which becomes 
horny on the hind part, where it is marked beneath with faint transverse 


Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 303 


depressions. The mouth very prominent, with an induplicate or some- 
what semilunar, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick, pointed palpi, 
which are adnate, until toward the end, directed forwards and inwards, 
with the tip free, and terminating in a recurved spine, and three pairs of 
incuryate compressed maxillar appendages, lamelliform at the end. 
The first or outer pair, with the terminal lamina oblong, acute, with six 
external, marginal, acuminate, teeth or serratures, of which the poste- 
rior is much larger. The second, with the lamina broad, with four cili- 
ated lobes. The third or inner, less compressed, ciliato-dentate. 

The first pair of feet, oblong, compressed, placed immediately behind 
the mouth, and bearing each a pair of unequal, tapering, compressed, 
horny, articulated, incurvate cirri. The second pair at some distance, 
and the rest close together, subcylindrical, compressed, biarticulate, 
their cirri longer. All the cirri are lobed and ciliate on the anterior bor- 
der, convex on the dorsal side, with a few very small bristles at each 
joint. The first pair with seventeen joints, of which the last five are 
very slender, the last with forty-five joints and lobes, on each of which 
are generally five, or from four to six ciliz on each side, arranged in 
two divergent series. 

On each side, on a prominence at the base of the first foot externally, 
is a long, subulate branchial filament; and at some distance from it, on 
the side of the body, is another about half its length. 

The narrowed part of the body to which the five pairs of abdominal 
feet are attached is marked beneath, and on the sides, with faint trans- 
verse depressions between the feet. It ends in a very long, slender, 
tapering, dusky tube, of about the length of the last cirri. At the base 
of this tube, on the dorsal aspect, is the anus, over which are two ob- 
long, mobile, horny plates. 

The general colour of the body is light brown, or dark yellowish-grey, 
often dotted with dusky; paler on the sides; the cirri dusky brown, 
pale along the back, and with the ciliary bristles brownish-grey. 

The transverse muscle, and subcutaneous muscular layer, as in the 
last species. 

The subsidiary dermal envelope or mantle very thin, dusky-brown, 
margined at the aperture with a yellowish filament. Between it and the 
testaceous tegmen is a film of dark-brown pigment disposed in irregu- 
lar roundish or polygonal fragments. 

The tegmen compressed, tumid below, semicordate, somewhat in- 
curved, with the basal margin convex, the ventral direct, gently sinuate, 
at the end somewhat recurvate, the dorsal uniformly curved in the fifth 
of a circle, the apex obtuse. 

The lower lateral plate considerably convex, subovato-tetragonal, 
very thin, fragile, bluish-white, or greyish-blue, concentrically rugose, 
and faintly striulate, divergently obsoletely striulate ; the basal margin 
convex, the umbonal angle considerably prominent, the ventral margin 
sinuate, the dorsal convex, as long as the basal or longer, the sutural 
margin very slightly convex, the apex acute. 

The upper lateral plate oblongo-tetragonal, flat, somewhat concave, 
very thin, fragile, white, concentrically rugose and striulate, divergently 
obsoletely striulate, the ventral margin straight, or a little concave, less 
than half the length of the sutural, which is slightly concave, the dorsal 
margin convex, with the umbonal point scarcely prominent, its distance 
from the tip less than the length of the ventral margin, the upper angle 
rounded, the lower obtuse. 

The dorsal plate curved, narrow-oblong, convex, with a slight rounded 
carina, striate, narrowed and incurvate toward the base, which is ex- 


304 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 


panded and emarginate, the apex obtuse, extending only to a third of 
the length of the upper lateral plate. 

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates is generally 
bright scarlet, between the plates dusky, sometimes pale, rarely scarlet. 

The peduncle short, about the length of the tegmen, rugoso-granulate, 
with very small, unequal, roundish, flattened tubercles, greyish or 
brownish-black, at the base often pale grey, at the top reddish; its in- 
ternal or dermal tube greyish-brown. 

Very young individuals, two-twelfths of an inch in length, and others 
up to half an inch, have the peduncle and membranes generally dusky, 
being only of a lighter tint than in the adult. 

Very considerable variations occur in the outline of the tegmen; in 
the form of the plates, and especially of the upper, as well as the dorsal ; 
in the convexity of the lower, and the prominence of its umbonal angle; 
and in the lustre and distinctness of the striz; but, in all the varieties, 
there is no possibility of mistaking the species, or of not seeing that 
it is very distinct from any other. 

Generally semicordate, the teginen never varies in the convexity of its 
basal line; but the ventral line may be quite straight, generally sinuate, 
more or less recurved at the end, sometimes remarkably so, the apex 
generally obtuse, sometimes obliquely truncate, rarely narrowly and 
directly truncate. The lower plate has the ridge from the umbo to the 
point obsolete, slight, scarcely ever very prominent, always very close 
to the margin, and nearly parallel to it; its sutural margin almost 
always convex, rarely straight. In the upper plate, the umbonal angle 
is sometimes obsolete, sometimes distinct. The dorsal piece may be 
broader or narrower, always convex, and sulcate, generally with a keel 
more prominent toward the base. ‘The strive sometimes pretty distinct, 
the lustre glossy, seldom iridescent, often dull. 

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the dark pigment and 
mantle ; for when they are removed the colour is pure white, with a faint 
tinge of reddish-purple. 

It is needless to compare this species with Lepas anatifera, or any 
other known to me, as it is readily distinguishable. Its semicordate, 
subrecurvate form, the greater convexity of its basal plates, the greater 
breadth and less elongation of its dorsal piece, and other characters, 
might be noticed. The cirri are much longer, and have more joints; and 
their colour, as well as that of the body, is much darker. 

Lepas tegmine ovato-oblongo, subincurvato, basi convexo, rotundato, 
apice obtuso, cirrisultimis articulis 45 nigrescentibus, &c. 

Lepas tegmine ovato, basi compresso, subrecto, apice oblique truncato, 
cirris articulis 35, flavicantibus, &c. 


The following are the dimensions of several individuals :— 


Length, 1 4 ES dees ie ey PeAg 1 4 
Depth, siameanie OG 0 8 0 9 O 8 0 7 0 93- 
Waidth,. ..°. 0 4 0 4 0 44 #O 4 0 3 O 4% 
Peduncle, 0 10 0 10 0 8 0 6 OS 0 9 


This species was more abundant than the others, and its peculiar form 
struck me the moment I saw it, as being very different from that of any 
other species known to me. As to its specific rank there can be no 
doubt; and if it has already been described, no harm can ensue from 
my having given so long an account of it. The naming of a new species 


Professor Macgillivray on the Cirripedia. 305 


is not a matter for which I would make a great scramble; for it is dis- 
gusting, as well as ludicrous, to see with what eagerness some people 
tear the small shreds of knowledge out of each others mouths. 

It is not very improbable that it may be Anatifa elongata of Quoy and 
Gaimard, which is said to inhabit the coasts of New Zealand, and of 
which the specific character given in the second edition of Lamarck is: 
A. testa compressa, elongato-ovali, postice subtruncata, cinereo-cceru- 
lescente, margine lutea; pedunculo mediocri, tuberculato. 

The cirri of all the Cirripedia known to me, namely about twenty 
species of the genera Lepas, Pollicipes, Otion, Cineras, Balanus, and 
Coronula, have a tube filled with fluid along the back, distinct from the 
more compressed, anterior, concave, ciliated, part. They are extended 
partially or entirely by the propulsion of this fluid. On removing the 
pressure they resume their curvature. It seems probable, that the muscles 
in the pedicle or foot propel the fluid, and perhaps there may be filaments 
for curving the cirri. At all events, the mechanism is most simple and 
efficient. 

Another fact is, that the application of heat and light changes the dark 
cclour of the epidermis, whether of the stem or pedunele, to scarlet. 
Ifthe mantle and dermal tube of the peduncle be removed from the 
darkest Barnacle, the epidermis will almost always become red in dry- 
ing. So that for all the importance which Dr Gould attributes to the 
- colour of the stem, as a distinctive character, it is really not much 
worth. 

A third and more important fact is, that on the epidermis of many 
specimens of Lepas incurvata and L. Nauta, I find a kind of small cal- 
careous spicula, which at first sight one might take to be a species of 
Pedicellaria. These objects, generally considered as organic portions 
of the sea-urchins and star-fishes, on which they are found in vast 
numbers, would therefore have to be also viewed as organic appendicules 
of Barnacles, or else distinct beings, parasitic on the Cirripedia, as well 
as the Echinodermata. It is on the membrane between the calcareous 
plates, and on the peduncle, that they occur. They do not, however, 
resemble the Pedicellariz which are seen on our Echinodermata, but 
present the appearance of single or aggregated spicula, often divergent 
or radiate, and mostly covered by a pellicle of the epidermis. Whether 
erystallizations or aggregations of calcareous particles, or organic beings, 
these objects require a more minute examination than I am able to be- 
stow upon them at present. 

Some species of the genera Cineras and Otion come next in order. 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXVI.—APRIL 1845. U 


( 306 ) 


On the Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. By RICHARD 
Kine, M.D.* (Communicated by the Ethnological So- 
ciety.) 

Vitruvius states, that “the northern nations, from cold 
and moisture, have large bodies, a white skin, red hair, grey 
eyes, and much blood, and, breathing a thick and cold air, 
are dull and slow of understanding.”+ “ The frigidity of the 
North Americans,” writes Lord Kames, ‘‘ men and women, 
differing in that particular from all other savages, is to me 
evidence of a separate race.” t 

According to Herder, “‘ The blood of man, near the pole, 
circulates but slowly, the heart beats but languidly; con- 
sequently, the unmarried live chastely, the women almost 
require compulsion to take upon them the troubles of a 
married life ; and the mother suckles her infant a long time, 
with all the profound tenacious affection of animal mater- 
nity. So hard is their fate, that, in winter, they are often 
obliged to support themselves in their caves by sucking their 
own blood.” M. Lesson says of the habits of the lyperborean 
people, ‘‘ The rigour of the climate has obliged them to dig 
for themselves subterraneous abodes. They sew with nerves 
their winter garments, made of the skins of seals, and make 
their summer dresses of the intestine of the largest whales. 
The Esquimaux is skilful in the chace of foxes and sables, 
whose skin serves him for clothing and for barter. Their 
loose morality renders the men addicted to polygamy, and 
indifferent to the virtue of their wives and daughters.Ӥ The 
French historian, Charlevoix, asserts that the Esquimaux 
“ are the only savages known who eat raw flesh; that they 
wear their hair in great disorder ; that their beard is so thick 
that it is difficult to discover the features ; that there is some- 
thing terrifying in their face, and that their whole exterior 
shews the animal, or is very brutish ; that of all people in 
America, there is none who correspond more with our EKuro- 
pean idea of a savage, for they are ferocious, wild, defying, 


* Read before the Ethnological Society, June 19. 1844. 
t Quoted by Lord Kames, pages 51 and 52. + Kames, p. 52. 
§ Quoted by Prichard, p. 502. 


On the Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 307 


restless, and always inclined to do mischief to the stranger ; 
and that they have little intercourse and commerce with 
their nearest neighbours.”* 

Such are the authorities upheld by Dr Prichard in the 
present day, and such are the materials used by Dr Beke 
for establishing this hypothesis: “That the origin of the 
numerous and widely differing races of man is to be re- 
ferred to a single parent stock, possessed of a high de- 
gree of cultivation, the following principle presents itself. 
That the culture, or the degradation of an aboriginal race, 
will be in proportion to the geographical distance of its re- 
sidence from the common centre of dispersion. For in- 
stance, if we take the primitive residence of the post-di- 
luvian race to have been in the north-west portion of Meso- 
potamia, it will be seen that the countries more immediately 
surrounding that central point, viz., Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt, 
Pheenicia, and Asia Minor, are those whose inhabitants were, 
in the earliest ages, possessed of the highest degree of cul- 
ture; whilst, on the other hand, at the points most distant 
from the same centre, the Papuans, the Hottentots, the Es- 
quimaux, and other savage races, have degenerated almost 
to the lowest state compatible with the retention of rational 
endowments.’’t 

In order to test the correctness of the data, as far as the 
Esquimaux are concerned, upon which Dr Beke has estab- 
lished his hypothesis ; and upon which Kames, Herder, and 
Prichard, have wasted considerable learning and ingenious 
reasoning, I refer to the papers laid before the Society on 
the physical character, and arts and manufactures of the 
Esquimaux. It will be found that I have added six inches 
to the stature assigned to them by the authors mentioned ; 
that I have proved they did not, could not, dig subterraneous 
abodes; and that from the same cause they were obliged, 
although not the only known savages who eat raw flesh, 
sometimes to eat their provision raw ; and I adduced the evi- 
dence of Cook, Kotzebue, Parry, Franklin, Lyon, Ross, and 


* Quoted by Prichard, p. 502. 
t Chas."F. Beke, in an article in the Edinburgh New Philosophical 
Journal. 


308 Dr King on the 


others, that they preferred it cooked, when blessed with the 
means; that the wearing the hair in great disorder was 
almost a solitary exception, and not a general rule; that in 
contradiction to the terrifying face and animal and brutish 
exterior, I have quoted Cook, Parry, Franklin, Lyon, and 
Richardson; that if anything remarkable was observable 
in the beard, it was in deficiency, and not in excess ; that their 
winter garments were not made of seals’ skins, nor their 
summer dresses of the intestines of whales; that they were 
not skilful in the chace of sables, and did not either use its 
skin for clothes or for barter; for the very evident reason 
that no such animal is found in their country. 

And I now proceed to adduce additional facts, arranged 
under the head of intellectual character. It will thus be 
seen which of the philosophers are correct, whether Lord 
Kames, who states “‘ the women require compulsion to take 
upon them the troubles of a married life ;” I had almost 
forgotten Lord Byron who says in allusion to frigidity, “happy 
the nations of the moral north ;’,—or M. Lesson, who asserts 
that “their loose morality renders them addicted to polygamy, 
and indifferent to the virtue of their wives and daughters ;” 
whether they are “dull or stupid,’ as Vitruvius will have 
it; or “ degenerated almost to the lowest state compatible 
with the retention of rational endowments,”’ for which Dr 
Beke contends. The sucking of their own blood, and the 
suckling of their infants, with all the profound tenacious 
affection of animal maternity, scarcely demands attention, 
notwithstanding it appears in Dr Prichard’s work; but it 
may be necessary to state that the cause which Vitruvius 
assigns for their dulness and stupidity, “that of breathing 
a thick air,’ does not exist. The arctic atmosphere is as 
thin and as elastic as that of any part of the globe, and the 
sky is Italian. So free of moisture is the atmosphere during 
the winter that a few hours’ exposure of linen, wet from the 
wash-tub, renders it so dry as not to require airing prior 
to being worn. 

That the natives of Labrador were, to a certain extent, at 
the time Charlevoix wrote, the ferocious people he has de- 
scribed, I am not prepared to deny ; but I will neither admit 
that such is their general disposition, nor that the whole 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 309 


race are to be accountable for so small a portion of the 
Esquimaux family. When they were visited by the Nor- 
wegians, and the early travellers, in search of a north-west 
passage, they were a peaceable and hospitable people ; and 
in return for a good disposition and friendly conduct to 
their discoverers and subsequent visitors, Thorsin, the Ice- 
lander, and Sir Martin Frobisher, our own countryman, as 
well as others, committed upon them the most gross acts of 
cruelty. The natives of Greenland were subject to the same 
inhuman treatment at the hands of both the Danes and the 
English ; and had that good man Hans Egede been a Charle- 
voix, these inoffensive people would, from their spirited re- 
taliation upon their enemies, have been branded with the 
same infamy that the French historian and Dr Prichard 
have endeavoured to fix upon the poor inhabitants of Labra- 
dor. But we can spare them the dreadful ordeal of public 
censure, for they also had an Egede in the person of Captain 
Cartwright,* who passed many years among them, yet Dr 
Prichard makes no allusion to that traveller. The Esqui- 
maux of Labrador, says Captain Cartwright, are “the best 
tempered people I ever met with, and most docile—a nation 
with whom I would sooner trust my person and property than 
that of any other.” 

Sir Edward Parry found the natives of Melville Peninsula 
entitled tothe same encomium. It is true that Hans Egede, 
of the natives of Greenland, and Sir Edward Parry and 
Captain Lyon, of those of Melville Peninsula, have borne 
testimony to the carelessness with which the aged and des- 
titute are treated ; but these people, we know, form exceptions 
to the nation at large, and their more erratic mode of life, 
compared with that of the rest of the race, is no doubt the 
cause of this; a kind of life which necessarily consigns the 
sick and infirm of all uncivilized races to desertion, and con- 
sequent starvation. Self preservation is inherent in man, 
civilized or uncivilized ; and I have no hesitation in saying, 
that it is self preservation which obliges the Esquimaux of 
Melville Peninsula to act as they do. 


* Cartwright’s Journal of his Residence on the Coast of Labrador. 


310 Dr King on the 


Of their general disposition regarding their social relations 
among themselves, all who have visited them speak in the 
most favourable terms. They are uniformly described as 
most scrupulously honest, careful of the aged, affectionate to 
their children, devotedly attached to each other, and fond of 
their domestic animals. So little are they inclined to quarrel, 
that, after two years’ acquaintance with the natives of Mel- 
ville Peninsula, Sir Edward Parry has only related one case 
where it extended to blows; and Captain Lyon remarks, in 
his private journal, in speaking of the same community, that 
their evenness of temper is not surpassed, if equalled, by any 
other nation. In pain, cold, starvation, disappointment, or 
under rough treatment, their good humour is rarely ruffled. 
Few have ever shewn symptoms of sulkiness, and-even these 
for a short time only. Those who have, for an instant, felt 
anger at neglect, or at being punished for some offence, are 
in a few moments as lively and as well disposed to the per- 
sons who offended them as if nothing had occurred; conse- 
quently that detestable passion revenge, so common to un- 
civilized man in general, is not known to them. Captain 
Lyon could learn of no instance of any one man having killed 
another, or of a son imbibing from his father any dislike 
towards particular persons ; and Sir John Ross informs us 
that, among the natives of Regent's Inlet, there is but a soli- 
tary case on record of a murder having been committed, and 
that occurred in hot blood. 

With respect to their disposition in relation to strangers, 
hospitality is their leading virtue, and petty thieving their 
greatest vice. The narratives of all the travellers who have 
visited the Esquimaux teem with accounts of the hospitality 
they have received from them. When a stranger approaches 
their dwellings, it is the custom for one of the party to attach 
himself to the visitor, to carry his baggage, to point out the 
best road, to help him over the streams of water or fissures in 
the ice, and to attend him wherever he goes during his stay. 
On his arrival at the dwelling, he is supplied by the women 
with dry boots, and, if necessary, skin dresses, and then handed 
to the place of honour, a deer-skin seat. If reparation is 
wanted in the pulled-off clothes, they are immediately attended 


re oe 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 311 


to, and if the host is short of bedding, he or she, as the case 
may be, is contented to sit up while the guest sleeps. A poor 
old woman having received Sir Edward Parry as her guest, 
gave up her bed, as well as a large deer-skin blanket which she 
rolled up for his pillow, and felt contented in dozing away the 
night in a sitting posture before her lamp.* That they are 
not always so polite, though equally hospitable, we are obliged 
to confess, from a circumstance which happened to Captain 
Lyon. On one occasion he “ was awakened from his slumbers 
by a feeling of great warmth, and to his surprise found lying 
beside him, under the same blanket, his Esquimaux host and 
his two wives, with their favourite puppy, all fast asleep and 
stark nuked. Supposing this was all according to rule, Cap- 
tain Lyon left them to repose in peace, and again resigned 
himself to rest.’’t 

Although among themselves, and, in the first instance, with 
foreigners, they are scrupulously honest, after a short acquaint- 
ance with the latter, the reverse is often found to be the case. 
Does it not, then, become a matter of question, whether, after 
all, the strangers are not the most in fault? For instance, the 
disposition for thieving is found to be very great among the na- 
tives of Hudson’s Strait and of Prince William’s Sound, whilst 
along the coast of North America the propensity decreases 
from west to east ; and at its most eastern discovered limit that 
vice isnot known. Here, it is evident, that even with foreigners 
it is not natural to them to be dishonest ; for where they are 
most exposed to European trade, as at Hudson’s Strait and 
the north-west corner of America, the vice is notoriously com- 
mon, while at Regent’s Inlet it is altogether unknown. Be- 
tween Regent’s Inlet and Hudson’s Strait there is an inter- 
mediate state of things, if the trifling cases of theft related by 
Sir Edward Parry and Captain Lyon are to be taken into ac- 
count. Out of two hundred of the natives of Melville Peninsula, 
the amount of those officers’ acquaintance in that locality, only 
three of their number were considered as determined thieves, 
and they are said to haye performed their work so clumsily as 


* Parry’s Second Expedition, p. 205. 
+ Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 246. 


312 Dr King on the 


a_ 


to have been instantly detected. One was a woman who en- 
deavoured to secrete a nine-inch block in her boot, and the 
second was a man who was detected making off with the last 
piece of corned beef belonging to the midshipmen. Upon be- 
ing chased, he practised a feint by dropping a piece of fat and 
kicking snow over it, as if the whole was buried.* The third 
was Ooming, the wife of the latter, who, by being all attention, 
succeeded in picking an officer’s pocket of his handkerchief. 
To weigh with these, both Sir Edward Parry and Captain 
Lyont have mentioned numerous instances of extreme honesty ; 
“ which,” adds Sir Edward Parry, ‘‘ when we consider the 
amazing temptations constantly thrown in their way, in the 
shape of wood and iron, substances esteemed by them as high- 
ly as we do gold or jewels, we know how to appreciate their 
honesty.” 

Before leaving this part of my subject I wish to correct 
some travellers in their assertion, that there is no such thing as 
gratitude amongst this people. It is evident they have been 
led into error, from taking too cursory a view of their peculiar 
customs. It is because they do not apply that virtue in the 
same way we do, that it has been thought to be wanting. 
For instance, it is their custom to express themselves grate- 
ful, only when their tendered favours are accepted. But, in ur- 
gent cases, it is evident they possess the feeling of gratitude 
after our own fashion. A party of Mountain Indians, jealous 
of Sir John Franklin, in consequence of his having traded with 
the Esquimaux, determined to attack him at a particular spot. 
This became known to an old Esquimaux, to whom had been 
given a knife, and some other trifling articles, on the preced- 
ing day; upon which he called aside two young men of his 
tribe, and said to them, “‘ These people have been kind to us, 
and they are few in number ; why should we suffer them to be 
killed? You are active young men, run and tell them to de- 
part instantly.” The young men suggested that the White 
men had guns, and could defend themselves. ‘‘ True,” said 
the old Esquimaux, “ against a small force, but not against so 
large a body of Indians as are now assembled, who are like- 


* Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 174. 
+ Parry’s Second Expedition, p. 163; Lyon’s Private Journal p. 347. 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 313 


wise armed with guns, and who will crawl under cover of the 
drift timber, so as to surround them before they are aware; 
run, therefore, and tell them not to lose a moment in making 
their escape.” Notwithstanding this, and much more which 
I could bring forward if necessary, Dr Prichard can reconcile 
unto himself his quotation from Charlevoix,—* That, of all 
people in America, there is none who correspond more with 
our European idea of a savage; for they are ferocious, wild, 
defying, and restless, and always inclined to do mischief to the 
stranger.” 

Additionally, let us review the information which the various 
travellers who have visited this interesting people have laid 
before us. Tooloak, a youth, and two pleasing little girls, of 
nine and eleven years of age, natives of Melville Peninsula, are 
said to have possessed a capacity equal to any thing they chose 
to take an interest in learning. “ Indeed, it required,” says 
Sir Edward Parry, “ no long acquaintance to convince us, that 
art and education might easily have made them equal or supe- 
rior to ourselves.’”’ Sauer* has mentioned a native woman of 
Prince William’s Sound, who learned to speak Russian fluently 
in rather less than twelve months. In allusion to the natives 
of Labrador, Sir Martin Frobisher found them “ in nature 
very subtle and sharp-witted, ready to conceive our meaning 
by signs, and to make answer well to be understood again; 
and if they have not seen the thing whereof you ask them, 
then they will wink, or cover their eyes with their hands, as 
who would say, it hath been hid from their sight. If they 
understand you not whereof you ask them, they will stop their 
ears.”+ The natives of Melville Peninsula make use of winks 
and nods in conversing; the former conveying a negative 
meaning, and the latter, as with us, an affirmative. The na- 
tives of Schismareff Inlet, when urged to an interview by Kot- 
zebue, hit their heads with both hands, and then fell down as 
if dead; as much as to say that their lives were not safe: 
and, in order to make him understand the time it would take 
him to reach a particular spot, one of the little community 


* Sauer’s Account of an Expedition into the North Parts of Russia. 
+ Richard Hakluyt’s Collection of Curious Voyages. 


314 Dr King on the 


performed the following pantomime. He seated himself on 
the ground, and made the motion of rowing, by the necessary 
movements of his arms; this business he interrupted nine 
times, closing his eyes as often, and resting his head on his 
hand. Thus Kotzebue learned that it would take him nine 
days to get to his destined haven. 

Captain Beechy obtained a knowledge of the coast he was 
surveying from a native of the same locality, after the follow- 
ing very ingenious and intelligible manner. The coast line 
was first marked out with a siick on the sand, and the dis- 
tances regulated by the day’s journey. The hills and ranges 
of mountains were next shewn by elevations of sand or stone, 
and the islands represented by heaps of pebbles, their propor- 
tions being duly attended to. Where the mountains and 
islands were erected, the villages and fishing-stations were 
marked by a number of sticks placed upright, in imitation of 
those which are put up on the coast wherever these people fix 
their abode. Thus, a complete topographical plan of the de- 
sired coast was, in the most intelligible manner, clearly laid 
down. The Esquimaux are, moreover, equally ready at com- 
prehending similar methods adopted by Europeans, as Sir 
John Ross proved, when, in order to fix with the natives of Re- 
gent’s Inlet the date of an appointment, he drew on the snow 
the form which the moon would then present. These people, 
we are further informed, at once adopted the use of the knife 
and fork, and all the paraphernalia of refined society connect- 
ed with the table.* A little boy at Melville Peninsula could 
imitate the cries of almost all the birds and animals he was 
acquainted with ; the young ducks answering the distant call 
of the mother, having all the effect of ventriloquism. Every 
sound from the angry growl of a bear to the sharp hum of a 
musquitoe, we are informed, he was able to express in a won- 
derful manner. 

This art is turned to account in the chase of the deer, by 
imitating the peculiar bellow of these animals from behind a 
large piece of rock or some other natural screen; and thus 


* Sir John Ross’s Expedition in the Victory. 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 315 


they are led by curiosity to within gun-shot.* Boys from 12 
to 16 years of age at once comprehend the mechanism of the 
gun, and will discharge it for the first time with perfect steadi- 
ness ; and the men, with very little practice, soon become supe- 
rior marksmen.t A case is recorded of a native of Labra- 
dor who killed an animal with the first shot he ever fired.{ 
The same individual, in company with two of his country- 
men, while on a visit to Lord George Sutton at Kelham in 
Nottingharashire, in 1772, was in at the death of a fox, which 
happened in an open field, with three couples and a-half of 
hounds out of twenty-five, a proof how hard they must have 
driven him, although neither of them had been on horseback 
more than three times before.§ 

A disposition for aping European gait and manners was ap- 
parent among the natives of Kotzebue’s Sound,| the River 
Clyde,§ Melville Peninsula,** and Regent’s Inlet.}+ A favour- 
ite mode of shewing this propensity was by aping the English 
custom of walking up and down the deck of a ship. A shrewd, 
observing, merry fellow of Iotzebue’s Sound, perceiving the 
officers of Captain Beechy’s ship thus employed, determined 
to turn them into ridicule, by seizing a young midshipman by 
the hand, and strutting with him up and down the deck in a 
most ludicrous manner, to the great diversion of all present ; 
and two native women of Melville Peninsula insisted upon 
walking arm-in-arm with Captain Lyon, in consequence of hay- 
ing been told that such was the practice of the Kabloona 
ladies, as they term our fair countrywomen. The father of a 
young female of Kotzebue’s Sound shewed this kind of talent 
in another way. Observing Captain Beechy sketching his 
daughter’s portrait, he seated himself down with a piece of 
flat board and plumbago, and very good humouredly com- 
menced a portrait of him, aping his manner, and tracing every 
feature with the most affected care, whimsically applying, at 


* Lyon’s Private Journal. + Parry’s Second Expedition. 
~ { Cartwright’s Journal, § Idem. || Beechy. 
{| Parry’s First Expedition. ** Lyon’s Private Journal. 


tt Ross’s Expedition in the Victory. 


Dr King on the 


the same time, his finger to the point of his pencil, instead of 
a penknife, to the great diversion of his wife and daughter. 
Captain Beechy has not informed us ofthe extent of his talent 
as a portrait-painter ; but it appears that he omitted the hat 
which Captain Beechy wore, and he was extremely puzzled to 
know how to place it upon the head he had drawn. 

A lively little boy of Melville Peninsula, of four years of age, 
performed an aping trick after nearly the same fashion. Havy- 
ing witnessed an officer noting down the names of persons and 
things in a memorandum-book, he took it up, with the pencil, 
and then walked to every person in the hut, and gravely asked 
him his name, affecting, at the same time, to write it down ;* 
and a very amusing application of the art was practised by a 
native of the River Clyde. Sir Edward Parry had placed him 
on a stool for the purpose of taking his portrait; and as he 
from time to time became weary, he was reminded to keep his 
position by Sir Edward Parry putting himself in the proper at- 
titude, and assuming a grave and demure look. These actions 
the native always imitated in such a manner as to create con- 
siderable diversion among all present, and then very quietly 
kept his seat.t The mimicry of the Esquimaux, however, is 
said to be complete when the women form themselves into 
groups in order to gossip and talk scandal; they then ape 
in perfection the manner of the persons of whom they speak, 
interlarding at the same time their stories with jokes at the 
expense of the absentees, though to their own infinite amuse- 
ment. { 

The natives of Kotzebue Sound are considered by Captain 
Beechy very superior to the South Sea Islanders in recognising 
plates of natural history, if they represent those creatures with 
which they are acquainted—a talent which Sir Edward Parry 
turned to good account at Melville Peninsula, by obtaining 
from a native woman named [ligluik, a knowledge of the ha- 
bitat of the Larus sabina, a species of gull which led to his 
adding that rara avis to his natural historical collection. The 
same intelligence was observed among others of the same 


* Lyon’s Private Journal. + Parry’s First Expedition. 
{ Parry’s Second Expedition. § Ibid. 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. 317 


community ; and one of them named Toolemak learned him- 
self to draw very fairly. So it was with Augustus, Sir John 
Franklin’s interpreter; and Sacheuse, who filled the same 
office in Sir John Ross’s expedition to Baffin’s Bay in 1818, 
became sufficiently master of the art as to make a drawing of 
the first interview of the exploring party with the Esquimaux 
of Regent's Bay, which, from its value, was engraved as an 
illustration to the narrative of that expedition. 

We have the strongest evidence that their geographical 
knowledge is as perfect as the most civilized being could pos- 
sibly attain, unassisted by nautical instruments. Iligluik, and 
a native man of the same tribe with herself, drew the coast- 
line from Winter Island to Igloolik, and pointed out the ex- 
istence of the Fury and Hecla Strait, “ with peculiar intelli- 
gence and extraordinary precision ;’’* and two natives of Re- 
gent’s Inlet, named Ikmallik and Tiagashu, were no less ac- 
curate in the delineation of that extraordinary neck of land, 
the Isthmus of Boothia.t+ 

The art of domesticating animals, and turning them to ac- 
count, is no mean proof of intellectual power; an art which 
we find in perfection amongst these people in regard to the 
dog, the only animal they can turn to account in the inhospi- 
table regions they inhabit. Further, if we agree with the 
eminent historian Robertson, that tact in commerce, and cor- 
rect ideas of property, are evidence of a considerable progress 
towards civilization, we must give the Esquimaux credit for 
great intelligence. More of this hereafter. Again, the neat 
mode of arranging their hair and dress, and the women being 
required to labour less than the men—the very reverse of that 
which is generally the case with uncivilized tribes—is further 
proof of intelligence. 

As a test of intellectual power, it is both interesting and 
important to study the first impressions of the uncivilized, 
relative to the arts of civilization. A favourable opportunity 
to watch this trait of character occurred in two men, with 


eachawife and child, natives of Labrador, brought to England 


* Parry’s Second Expedition. 
+ Ross’s Expedition in the Victory. 


318 Dr King on the 


by Captain Cartwright in 1772. The number of shipping 
they saw at London Bridge greatly astonished them, but the 
bridge itself, they passed through without taking the least 
notice of it. It was soon discovered they had taken it for 
a natural rock which extended across the river. They 
laughed at Captain Cartwright when he told them it was the 
work of man; nor could they be persuaded to the fact until 
they came to Blackfriars’ Bridge, which he caused them to 
examine with more attention ; shewing them the joints, and 
pointing out the marks of the chisels upon the stones. They 
no sooner, however, comprehended by what means such a 
structure could be raised, than they expressed their wonder 
with astonishing significancy of countenance. St Paul’s, also, 
they supposed to be a natural production; and they were 
quite lost in amazement when they were taken to the top, 
and convinced that it was a work of art. The people below 
they compared to mice, and insisted that it must be at least 
as high as Cape Charles, a mountain of considerable altitude. 
The exquisite nose of the hound, the sagacity and steadiness 
of the pointer, and the speed of the greyhound, were matters 
of great astonishment to them. But above all, they were 
most struck with the strength, beauty, and utility, of that 
noble animal the horse. At first the multiplicity and variety 
of objects confused them, and on one occasion, one of the 
men named Attiock, after a long walk, remained very pensive, 
and then turning up his head, and fixing his eyes upon the 
ceiling, he broke out into this soliloquy, “ Oh! I am tired. 
Here are too many houses; too much smoke; too many 
people; Labrador is very good; seals are plentiful there ; I 
wish I was back again.” The longer, however, they con- 
tinued in England the greater was their admiration in pro- 
portion, their ideas gradually expanding till at length they 
began more clearly to comprehend the use, beauty, and 
mechanism, of what they saw. 

They attracted great notice during their stay in this 
country. On witnessing a review by His Majesty they were 
so surrounded by the crowd as to incommode their view, 
which attracting the notice of the King, he gave orders for 
their admission into the reserved ground. Here his Majesty 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. 319 


rode slowly past them, and condescended to salute them by 
taking off his hat, accompanied with a gracious smile ; honours 
which they were highly pleased with, and often mentioned 
afterwards with great exultation. Provided with cloth 
dresses after their own fashion, instead of seal-skin, they were 
taken to Court by Royal command, where their behaviour 
and dress rendered them conspicuous objects. They were 
at the opera when their Majesties were there, and chancing 
to sit by Mr Coleman, the manager of Covent Garden Theatre, 
he invited them to a play. He fixed upon Cymbeline, and 


they were greatly delighted with the representation. But 


their pride was most highly gratified at being received with 
a most thundering applause, by the audience on entering the 
box. The men observed to their wives, that they were placed 
in the King’s box, and received in the same manner as their 
Majesties at the opera, which added considerably to their 
pleasure. They returned with Captain Cartwright to their 
country and friends to all appearance well; but in the en- 
suing Autumn they died of small-pox. 

Travellers who have visited the Esquimaux at their own 
homes, have also furnished us with some interesting facts re- 
garding their first impressions. Kotzebue informs us, that 
nothing attracted the attention of the St Lawrence Islanders 
so much as his telescope. The same admiration of that in- 
strument was observed of the Esquimaux of the Mackenzie. 
They called it eetee-yaw-gah (far eyes), the name that they 
give to the wooden shade which is used to protect their eyes 
from the glare of the snow, which, from the smallness of its 
aperture, enables them to see distant objects more clearly.* 
The report of a gun astonished them much, and an echo from 
some neighburing pieces of ice, made them think that the ball 
had struck the shore then upwards of a mile distant ;+ while 
the Esquimaux of the Coppermine River, when fired upon by 
Hearne’s party ran and picked up the musket-balls, supposing 
them to be thrown to them as presents.{ Perceiving fumes of 
tobacco issuing from the mouth of a person smoking, they 


* Franklin’s Second Journey. + Idem. 
} Hearne’s Journey to the Frozen Ocean. 


320 Dr King on the 


called out ookah, ookah (fire, fire), and demanded to be told 
what he was doing.* European clothing they conceived to be 
made out of the skins of animals ; and since they had none such 
in their country, they asked what sort of animals they were 
and where they were to be found.t| Not recognising them- 
selves in a looking-glass, the natives east of the Coppermine 
River, endeavoured to find the stranger by peeping round the 
corner of the glass.} At seeing Captain Ross and Lieutenant 
Parry drawn on sledges by their men, they laughed heartily ;§ 
a proof they had no knowledge of difference of rank. They 
doubtless took them for children of an older growth at play. 
Glass they took for ice,|| biscuit for the dried flesh of the musk- 
ox ;{ watches, and musical instruments, for living creatures ; a 
musical snuff-box being, in their opinion, the child of an hand- 
organ ;** a little terrier dog was looked upon with contempt by 
the natives of Regent's Bay, as being too small to draw a sledge; 
but had they known its intelligence, they would probably have 
been as desirous of obtaining it as the natives of Prince Williams 
Sound were a spaniel belonging to Captain Billings. That 
animal took a particular dislike to the natives, and being one 
day on shore tented with his master, he had an opportunity 
of displaying it. The cabin-boy had carelessly placed the tea- 
board, so that part of it with spoons, &c. were seen on the 
outside of the tent. One of the natives, perceiving this, ap- 
propriated the spoons to himself, which no one observed but the 
dog, who sprang up, leaped over those in the tent, seized the 
thief by the hand with the spoons in it, and held him fast 
till Captain Billings told him to let go; a circumstance which 
kept the whole community honest ever afterwards in the dog’s 
presence, jj} 

A little black cat, belonging to Captain Lyon, afforded the 
natives of Melville Peninsula an unceasing fund of amuse- 


* Dr Richardson’s narrative in Franklin’s Second Journey. 

+ Captain Ross’s First Expedition. 

t{ Kotzebue ; Franklin. § Ross’s first expedition. || Idem. 
@ Parry. ** Lyon’s Private Journal. 

++ Sauer’s Account of an Expedition into the North parts of Russia. 


Intellectual Character of the Esqumaux. 321 


ment ; and when the animal jumped over the arms folded for 
the purpose, their admiration was expressed by slowly 
and forcibly inhaling their breath and quickly nodding their 
head.* A sailor, walking upon his hands along the deck of 
Lieut. Chappel’s vessel, in Hudson’s Straits, threw them into 
a violent fit of jumping and shouting ;+ and a mixture of 
mirth and admiration was excited by the effects of a winch, 
at which one man easily mastered and drew towards him ten 
or twelve others who held by a rope, using all their strength, 
and grinning with exertion and determination till con- 
quered.f 

The natives of Regent’s Bay shrunk back, as if in terror, 
from a pig whose pricked ears and ferocious aspect presented 
a somewhat formidable appearance. The animal happening 
to grunt, one of them was so terrified that he became from 
that moment uneasy, and appeared impatient to get away, 
and all the rest took to their heels in alarm at witnessing 
the exhibition of some juggler’s tricks.§ When the women 
of Winter Island were informed that the Kabloona ladies 
were not tattooed, they were astonished at their being so 
devoid of taste; but when told that they never wore breeches, a 
general cry was raised “‘ how cold they must be.”|| Ona royal 
salute being fired, three or four héy-yai’s (our “ dear me’’), 
were the sum-total of their remarks; and before the salute 
was ended, the whole party of Esquimaux, who were assem- 
bled for the purpose, became tired of it, although none of 
them had ever heard a great gun or seen a flag. Captain Lyon 
led an old woman to the side of a 24-pounder carronade, and 
entered into conversation with her, when he observed that 
at the explosion she did not even wink her eyes, but very 
earnestly continued a long story about a pair of boots for 
which some of his people had not contented her. 

From an anecdote, related by Captain Beechy, of the 
een See WOAS Hiw ov aOR Bik” Cercle 


* Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 145. 

+ Narrative of a Voyage to Hudson’s Bay, p. 66. 

} Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 140. 

§ Ross’s First Expedition. 

| Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 251. I Idem, p. 402. 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. x 


322 Dr King on the 


natives of Kotzebue Sound, he has come to a different con- 
clusion regarding their nervous sensibility. He states, that 
the people of that vicinity were very inquisitive about his 
firearms, and to satisfy one of them, he made him fire off a 
musket that was loaded with ball, towards a large tree that 
was lying upon the beach. ‘The explosion, and the simple 
operation of touching the trigger,” he adds, ‘‘ so alarmed the 
native, that he turned pale, and put away the gun. As his 
fear subsided he laughed heartily, as did all his party, and 
went to examine the wood, which was found to be perforated 
by the ball, and afforded a fair specimen of the capability of 
our arms; but he could not be prevailed upon to repeat 
the operation.” 

Surely it is quite clear, upon Captain Beechy’s own shew- 
ing, that it was the recoil of the musket, and not the simple 
operation of touching the trigger, that alarmed the native, for 
he struck the object he aimed at. That the musket was 
either overloaded or a kicker is evident ; and I question if it 
would be deemed a simple operation to pull the trigger of a 
thoroughpaced kicker. That the perforation of the wood 
afforded the natives a fair specimen of the capabilities of 
Captain Beechy’s firearms, I am quite prepared to believe ; 
but the circumstance which forced itself upon my mind, on 
reading the anecdote, was, that the youth should have struck 
the object he aimed at with his first shot, which, it appears, 
made no impression upon Captain Beechy. 

In stating, that if, according to the historian, Robertson, 
tact in commerce is an evidence of a considerable progress to- 
ward civilization, we must give the Esquimaux credit for great 
intelligence, I had reference not only to their commercial 
transactions amongst themselves, but with the neighbouring- 
Red men and Europeans ; and my reasons for again alluding to 
the subject is to remove the impression, “that they have little 
intercourse and commerce with their nearest neighbours.” 
The fact is, that there are no people in either of the continents 
of America whose commercial system is so well organized as 
that of the Esquimaux. Sir John Franklin, and, more re- 
cently, Messrs Dease and Simpson have informed us that trade 
is carried on between the Esquimaux of the Mackenzie, and 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauzx. 323 


the Loucheux, and Hare Indians, and that along the whole 
line of coast from the Mackenzie River to the Russian settle- 
ments in North Western America, furs on the one side, and 
European manufactures on the other, are annually exchanged 
at regularly established fairs ; and thus pass from tribe to tribe, 
until, about the close of summer, they reach their respective 
limits. 

Of the Esquimaux of the west coast of Greenland, Crantz ob- 
serves, “that amongst themselves they hold a kind of fair. 
The Winter Festival of the Sun is frequented by persons who 
expose their wares to view, and make known what commodities 
they want in exchange. Any one disposed to purchase, brings 
the goods in request, and the bargain is complete. The prin- 
cipal trade is in vessels of Weichsteen, which is not to be met 
with in every place. And since the Southlanders have no whales, 
while the inhabitants of the north coast are in want of wood, 
numerous companies of Greenlanders make every summer a 
voyage of from five hundred to one thousand miles to the north, 
and even from the east coast to Disko, in new Caiaks, and 
Oomiaks, They barter their lading of wood for the horns 
of the narwhale, the teeth, bones, and sinews of the whale, 
which they, in part, sell again during their return homewards. 
To the factors, the Greenlanders carry fox and seal skins, but 
particularly blubber.”* 

Captain Graah, in describing the island of Attuk, remarks, 
that “an annual fair is held by the EKastlanders and West- 
landers of Fredericsthal, who go there in the summer for 
the purpose of catching seals of the Cristata species.t The 
articles of barter are bear, seal, and dog skins for articles of 
European manufacture, and especially for spear and arrow 
heads, knives, needles, handkerchiefs, and tobacco.”’{ I have 
also stated, that the Esquimaux of Churchill in Hudson’s Bay, 
and of the Great Fish River, meet annually near the head 
waters of the latter, for the purpose of trading among them- 
selves, and with the Chipewyans. 


* Crantz’s History of Greenland, pp. 160 and 161. 
+ Narrative of an expedition to the east coast of Greenland, by Captain 
W. A. Graah, p. 66. { Idem. p. 81. 


324. Dr King on the 


The estimation in which women are held among the 
Esquimaux is something greater than is usual in savage life,” 
if we except the natives of Greenland,t who are not only phy- 
sically, but mentally, inferior to the most of their brethren. 
It is a very general custom for parents to betroth their chil- 
dren in infancy ; and this compact being understood, the par- 
ties, whenever they are inclined and able to keep house, may 
begin living as man and wife, the husband being thenceforth 
bound to labour for their support ; and this is not unfrequently 
the case at thirteen or fourteen years.{ Where previous en- 
gagements are not made, the men select their wives amongst 
their relations or connections, paying but little regard to 
beauty of face or to person. Young men naturally prefer 
youthful females ; but the middle-aged will connect themselves 
with old widows, as being more skilled in household duties, 
and better able to take care of their mutual comforts. 

The marriage ceremony is very simple. The youth declares 
his passion to the parents and relatives on both sides; and, 
having obtained their consent, he immediately repairs to the 
habitation of the bride to take her away, if he considers him- 
self strong enough; but if not, he presses into the service two 
or more old women, whose duty it is to convey the bride ‘to 
her new home,—a work of no little difficulty ; for, though ever 
so anxious for the union, it is incumbent upon her to appear 
otherwise, and she must contend with the messengers with all 
her might, or she will lose caste for modesty. After due, 
though prudent, reluctance, she at last yields, and is conveyed 
to her husband’s home, where further ceremony must be gone 
through. For some time she keeps at a distance, sits retired 
in some corner upon the bench, with her hair dishevelled, and 
her face covered. In the mean while the bridegroom uses all 
the rhetoric of which he is master, and spares no pains to 
bring her to a compliance with his wishes. This is generally 
successful, and the wedding is concluded.§ 


* Parry, 526; Richardson; Curtis. + Crantz. 
¢ Lyon, 352; Parry, 378; Ross, 251. § Egede; Parry. 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 325 


It is not always mere dissimulation on the part of the 
bride ; for sometimes she faints, sometimes elopes among the 
mountains, and not unfrequently cuts off her hair,—an act of 
greater importance to an Hsquimaux woman than that of 
assuming the veil to an European, for she is then doomed to 
perpetual celibacy, whatever her after inclinations may be. If, 
however, she has not gone to the last extreme, the women go 
after her, and drag her by force to her suitor, who, in this 
case, uses to his utmost his persuasive powers, and when no 
kind and courteous behaviour will avail, compulsion is had 
recourse to. If she should then say, with Falstaff, “« Not by 
compulsion,” and she should not speedily get a husband, ne- 
glect is succeeded only by death from starvation.* 

A very amusing anecdote is related by Captain Cartwright, 
of a little love-making on his part. Eketcheak, a native of 
Labrador, married a second wife, a young girl about sixteen 
years of age. “I took,” says Captain Cartwright, “ a fancy 
to her, and desired that he would spare her for me, as I had 
no wife, and in great want of one. He replied, * You are 
welcome to her, but I am afraid she will not please you, as 
her temper is very bad, and she is so idle that she will do no 
work, nor can she use a needle; but my other wife is the best 
tempered creature in the world; an excellent sempstress, is 
industry itself, and above all, she has two children, all of 
whom are much at your service; or, if you please, you shall 
have both, and when I return next year, if you do not like 
either the one or the other, I will take them back again.’ I 
thanked him for his extreme politeness aud generosity, and 
told him that I could not think of depriving him of the good 
wife and two children, but would be contented with the bad 
one. ‘ You shall have her,’ said the native; ‘ but before we 
proceed any farther in this business, I wish you’would men- 
tion it to her relations, and obtain their consent.’ Her father 
being dead, I sent for her mother and two uncles, who readily 
gave their consent, and expressed great pleasure at the honour 
of the alliance. I then communicated my wishes to the young 
lady ; but she no sooner understood what they were, than she 


* Crantz ; Parry. 


326 Dr King on the 


began to knit her brows; and the instant I had concluded my 
speech, in which I expatiated on the pleasure, elegance, and 
affluence which she would experience as my wife, to what she 
enjoyed in her present state, she contemptuously replied, 
* You are an old fellow, and I will have nothing to say to 
you!’’’ Here ended the courtship. 

Egede informs us, that, in Greenland, if the father of the 
youth is rich enough he gives a matrimonial feast, and prizes, 
to be contended for by running matches, a feast which lasts 
for two days. 

The Esquimaux are polygamists, but they rarely have more 
than two wives, and only one if she have issue ; and the women 
have the same privilege as to the number of husbands.* Sir 
John Ross found two brothers at Regent’s Inlet, having one 
wife between them.+ 

With the exception of the Greenlanders the women are 
treated well; are rarely, if ever, beaten ; are never compelled 
to work, and are always allowed an equal authority in the 
household affairs with the men. Though a phlegmatic people, 
the Esquimaux may be said to treat them with fondness ; and 
young couples are frequently seen rubbing noses, their favourite 
mark of affection, with an air of tenderness.t Okotook and his 
wife Iligliuk were frequently observed taking each other by 
the hand from mutual affection ; a convineing proof, in Captain 
Lyon’s mind, not only that Iligliuk was treated with great ten- 
derness, but that she loved her husband.§ Inallusion to anillness 
which Okotook laboured under, Captain Parry remarks of Ili- 
gliuk, that nothing could exceed the attention which she paid to 
her husband; she kept her eyes almost constantly fixed uponhim, 
and seemed anxious to anticipate every want.|| It sometimes 
occurs, from inequality in a numerical point of view between 
the sexes, that a man journeys to a distant tribe in search of 
a wife. A native of Regent’s Inlet had a propensity this way 
onagrand scale. He had discovered a tribe to the westward, 
where the females were most numerous; and when a wife was 
wanted for some of his party he transferred to him his own 
wife and went for another to himself; a friendly service which, 


* Crantz ; Ross. + Ross, 356. { Lyon, 353. 
§ Lyon, 150. | Parry, 217. 


Intellectual Ciaracter of the Esquimaux. 327 


we are informed, he had perform.d no less than six times.* 
The advantage of this, as far as he was concerned, was obvious ; 
for in each of the six families he had a son or two, so that in 
his old age he might, according to custom, claim support from 
all or any of them, or from the most successful in hunting, as 
he was entitled to the share of a father. 

At Igloolik and Regent’s Inlet, cousins are allowed to marry,+ 
but a man will not wed two sisters 3 while at Greenland, mar- 
riage between cousins is rare, and there are instances of men 
having taken to wife two sisters at the same time, and even 
mother and daughter. Sir Edward Parry has related two in- 
stances which occurred at Igloolik of the father and son being 
married to sisters.§ A son or daughter in law does not con- 
sider father or mother in law in the light of relations. || If a 
boy and a girl, although in no way related, have been brought 
up in the same family, they are looked upon as brother and 
sister, and are not allowed to marry. 

The Esquimaux sometimes repudiate their wives, from real 
or supposed bad behaviour ;§ or, as is move generally the case, 
owing to their having no issue. The ceremony is very simple. 
The arctic lord bestows a cross look upon his lady, and then 
leaves his home. The lady at once understands him, packs up 
her traps, and domiciles herself with her former protectors. 

Instead, however, of repudiating their wives for want of 
issue, they more frequently adopt the children of others. 
This custom was found to be extensively practised at Melville 
Peninsula, and the advantage is obviously that of providing 
for a man’s own subsistence in advanced life ; and it is, conse- 
quently, confined almost exclusively to the adoption of boys, 
who can alone contribute materially to the support of the aged 
and infirm. Whea a man adopts the son of another as his 
own, he is said to “ tego,” or take him; and, at whatever age 
this is done (though it generally happens in infaney), the child 
then lives with his new protectors, calls them father and mo- 
ther, and is himself looked upon as the rising’ head of the 
household.** The agreement is almost always made between 
RUE ETE eee dv Ne OS Ll ee a 
* Ross. t Lyon; Ross. {¢ Lyon, p. 352. § Parry, 528. 
|| Lyon ; Ross. 41 Lyon. ** Lyon, 353; Parry, 532. 


328 Dr King on the 


the fathers. Toolemak, an angetkook, or priest, having lost 
all his own children, was found by Sir Edward Parry to have 
adopted some of the finest male children of the tribe. For the 
same reason, a widow with a family never pines for want of a 
husband. It is on record, that a happy widow with five children 
was received with open arms as the partner of another, almost 
immediately after the death of her husband.* If she has no 
family by this second husband, and she has no partiality for 
him, as soon as her sons are grown up, and become seal-catch- 
ers, she can desert her old benefactor; for by law she has ab- 
solute power over her sons’ labour. It is evident, therefore, 
in Esquimaux land, that the widows with families have it all 
their own way. 

And now let us consider the position of the childless widow, 
or, what is the same thing with the Esquimaux, the widow with 
infants of that tender age that they are not likely to be soon 
turned to account, as suppliers of provision. Poor creature! 
her fate is a hard one. While bewailing the loss of her hus- 
band to distraction, his effects are clandestinely purloined by 
her guests, who, at the same time, bear the compliments of 
condolence on their tongue. The bereaved widow has no re- 
source, but to endeavour to ingratiate herself with him who has 
been her greatest plunderer. He will keep her a while, and, 
when he is tired of her, she must try to insinuate herself into 
the favour of another. But at last she and her children are 
left to their hard fate. A little longer, perhaps, they protract 
life by eating shell fish, and sea-grass; but finally they die 
from starvation. In Captain Parry’s narrative of his second 
voyage, a very affecting case of this kind is recorded. 

Self-preservation has evidently given rise to this custom ; 
for the most able hunters at certain seasons have great dif- 
ficulty in providing for themselves; and since neglect must 
fall heavily upon some, it is natural to suppose that a man will 
first cling to his wife and children. But I have no excuse for 
the cruel system of robbery which custom entails upon the 
weak and the friendless. 


Sen a a a a eee 


* Ross, 515, 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 329 


When there are no children it is considered a reproach to 
both parties, but the poor woman generally gets the most 
blame, and is very ill treated, except she is a wise woman, and 
then she obtains a second husband and has another chance. 

Nothing can exceed the affection of the Esquimaux for 
their children; which is displayed, not in the mere passive in- 
dulgence and abstinence from corporal punishment, but bya 
thousand playful endearments, such as parents and nurses prac- 
tise in our own country. Nor, indeed, is severity necessary ; for 
the gentleness and docility of the children are such as to occa- 
sion their parents little trouble. Even from their earliest in- 
fancy the Esquimaux possess that quiet disposition, gentleness 
of demeanour, and uncommon evenness of temper, for which, 
in more mature age, they are for the most part distinguished. 
Disobedience is scarcely ever known; a word or even a look 
from a parent is enough ; frowardness and disposition to mis- 
chief, so common to our youth, form no part of their disposi- 
tion. They never cry for trifling accidents, and sometimes 
not even from very severe hurts, at which an English child 
would sob for an hour. It is, indeed, astonishing with what 
indifference even tender infants bear the numerous blows they 
accidentally receive while carried at their mothers’ backs.* 

It has been asserted by alate traveller, that the Esquimaux 
will barter their children for some trifling present ;+ but, be- 
lieve me, and I have been at some pains to determine that 
point, there is no ground for such an assertion. Sir Edward 
Parry was at first inclined to fall into this error, but upon a 
better acquaintance with the people, he discovered his mis- 
take ; and, let it be said to his praise, he has freely and pub- 
licly corrected himself.t 

Esquimaux youth are as fond of play as any other young 
people and of the same kind; only, that, while an English child 
draws a cart of wood, an Esquimaux of the same age has a 
sledge of whalebone ; and, for the superb baby-house of the for- 
mer, the latter builds a miniature hut of show, and begs a 
lighted wick of her mother’s lamp to illuminate the little dwell- 


Se ae aaa cer ee 
* Lyon. t Back. { Parry, p. 531. 


330 Dr King on the 


ing. Their parents make for them, as dolls, little figures of 
men and women habited in the true Esquimaux costume, as 
well as a variety of other toys; many of these having some 
reference to their future occupations in life, such as canoes, 
spears, and bows and arrows. They sometimes serrate the 
edges of two strips of whalebone, and whirl them round their 
heads, just as boys do in England, to make the same peculiar 
humming sound. They will dispose one piece of wood on an- 
other as an axis, in such a manner that the wind turns it 
round like the arms of a windmill; and so of many other toys 
of the same simple kind, These, and possibly the smaller pup- 
pies, are the distinct property of the children, who sometimes 
sell them, while their parents look on without interfering or 
expecting to be consulted. 

The education of children, according to Crantz, is thus con- 
ducted :—As soon as the boy can make use of his hands and 
feet, his father puts a little bow and arrow into his hand, 
that he may exercise himself by shooting at a target, and 
also instructs him in throwing stones at a mark. Towards 
his tenth year he provides him with a caiak, to practise row- 
ing, oversetting, and rising, fowling, and fishing, by himself, 
or in company with other boys. In his fifteenth or sixteenth 
year he must go out with his father to catch seals. The 
first seal he takes is consecrated to make a festivity for the 
family and neighbourhod. During the repast, the young 
champion must relate his noble achievement, and how he 
managed to catch the creature. The guests admire his dex- 
terity and prowess, pronounce the meat to be particularly 
good flavoured ; and from this day the females begin to think 
of finding him a bride. At the age of twenty years he must 
make his own caiak, implements, and weapons, and fully 
equip himself for his profession; and if he is successful, he 
marries. ‘T'o acquire perfection in the use of the caiak is no 
mean part of his education. Few become proficients ; many, 
in consequence, are the lives that are lost by drowning. 

The girls do nothing till they are fourteen years of age, 
but chatter, sing, and dance, with the exception of fetching 
water, and perhaps waiting ona child. But afterwards they 
must sew, cook, dress leather, and, when they advance fur- 


ee ea 


Pao 


Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 331 


ther in years and strength, help to row the woman’s boat, 
where these are in use; and, in Greenland, even build houses. 
From the twentieth year of a woman’s life to her death, her 
life is a continuation of fear, indigence, and lamentation. If 
her father dies, her supplies are cut off, and she must serve 
in other families. She is thus secured abundance of provi- 
sions, but she will want good clothing; and for want of this, 
especially if she be not handsome in person, or dexterous in 
her work, she must remain single. Should any one take her 
to wife, she fluctuates between hope and fear for the first 
year, lest from want of children she should be repudiated, 
and then her character is lost; she must return to servitude, 
and perhaps purchase the support of life at a scandalous 
rate. If her husband retains her, she must now and then 
take a blow in good part, must submit to the yoke of a 
mother-in-law, or must submit to his having another wife or 
two. If her husband dies, she has no other jointure but 
what she brought with her; and, for her children’s sake, 
must serve in another family more submissively than a 
single woman, who can go where she will. But if she has 
any grown up sons, she is then better off than any married 
woman, because she can regulate the domestic affairs as she 
pleases. If a woman advances to a great age, and has no 
family to keep up her respect, she must pass for a witch ; 
which, being attended with some profit, she by tio means dis- 
likes. 

Notwithstanding all the hard labour, fear, trouble, and 
vexation, the women commonly reach a greater age than the 
men, who are so worn out and enfeebled by passing most of 
their time at sea, in snow and rain, heat and cold, during the 
severest winters as well as summers; by strenuous labour ; and 
by alternate fastings and feastings, that they seldom attain the 
age of 50. Many also lose their lives in the water, so that 
there are everywhere fewer men than women. The women 
frequently live till they are 70, and even 80 and upwards. 

The Esquimaux believe in future rewards and punishments, 


-and, like most other uncivilized races, have traditions concern- 


ing the creation and the deluge. They have their priests, in 
whose sayings and doings they put implicit belief, and their 


332 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 


superstitions. As far as we know, no kind of religious wor- 
ship exists amongst them. 

The dead are dressed in their best clothes, and conveyed, 
not by the regular entry, but through the window.* The per- 
sons performing these duties, put on gloves, and stop their 
nostrils with skin or hair. Infants have their feet placed to- 
wards the rising sun, or east; half-grown children south-east ; 
men and women in their prime with their feet to the meridian 
sun; middle-aged persons to the south-west; and very old 
people the reverse of children, or west.t It is customary to 
place weapons at the grave of a man, and culinary utensils 
and sewing materials at the grave of a woman;{ and in 
Greenland, according to Egede, the head of a dog is placed 
near the graves of little children, as a guide to the land of 
souls. Dishevelled hair, and abstinence from the duties of the 
toilette, and from all gaiety, for a time, is adopted as a mourn- 
ing rite ; and the graves of the departed are frequently visited. 
At Melville Peninsula, it is usual to walk round the grave in 
the direction of the sun, and to chant forth inquiries as to the 
welfare of the departed soul,— Whether it has reached the 
land of spirits? If it has plenty of food?§ At the funeral of 
the inhabitants of Greenland, it is usual for a woman to bran- 
dish a lighted stick, at the same time calling out—Piklerruk- 
pok, “ Here is no more to be got.” || 


Ninth Letter on Glaciers; addressed to Professor Jameson. 
Remarks on the Recent Observations made on the Glacier of 
the Aar (in 1844) by direction of M. Agassiz. By Profes- 
sor FORBES, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the In- 
stitute of France. Communicated by the} Author. 


EDINBURGH, 7th March 1845. 
My D5AR Sir,—However satisfied one may be with the 
conclusiveness of their own experiments, it is always pleas- 
ing when they are confirmed by others even in their minuter 


* Lyon, 370; Egede, 153. + Lyon, 371. t Lyon, 371; Egede, 151. 
§ Lyon, 371. || Egede, 153. 


—_ 


Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 333 


particulars, especially if the observations have been made 
in circumstances at all different. In this respect, I find 
with pleasure, from a communication read at the Institute on 
the 9th December last, that M. Agassiz’s coadjutors on the 
glacier ofthe Aar, have obtained results so perfectly accord- 
ant with those which you have done me the favour of pub- 
lishing on former occasions, that they would have satis- 
factorily established, had earlier observations been awanting, 
the viscous theory of glacier motion with which alone they 
are reconcilable ; the single seeming antagonism to my own 
measurements being one which tells still more in favour of 
that view. . 

I propose to give a brief summary of these results, and to 
shew their correspondence with my own. This correspon- 
dence—amounting almost to coincidence—is, of course, éo 
me, a satisfactory guarantee for their accuracy, as far as 
they go. By others, the goodness of the instruments, and the 
expertness of the observers, must, in the mean time, be taken 
for granted. 

It is hardly necessary to premise that M. Agassiz and 
his friends now admit that all glaciers move fastest at the 
centre, and slowest at the sides. 

But a new fact still less reconcilable with the dilatation 
theory resulted from the first attempt to apply geometrical 
measurement to the motions of this glacier ; viz., 

I. The glacier of the Aar moves fastest in its middle 
region, and slower in its upper and lower regions (7. e. to- 
wards the origin and termination). The slowness in the 
upper region does not so plainly follow from the facts at pre- 
sent before us, but the retardation towards the termination of 
the glacier is undoubted. The following are the motions origi- 
nally ascertained, in $ of a year, or, more exactly, 289 days. 
We prefer retaining the original measures in Swiss feet ; the 
stations are in descending order, and a quarter of league 
(4000 feet) apart* (the second in order indicates the rock 
called Hotel des Neufchatelois.) 


* Bulletin de la Societé de Neufchatel, 8th Nov. 1843. 


334 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 


169.2 Swiss feet 
177.1 
141.3 
150.1 
133.1 
83.7 
58.3 

This result is very different numerically from that which 
I obtained on the Mer de Glace of Chamouni, but the differ- 
ence is of the kind which might have been expected from 
their great diversity of situation and circumstances. I never 
expected, or pretended to find in the Mer de Glace the same 
peculiarities of velocity as in other glaciers ; on the contrary, 
I endeavoured to shew* what were the local peculiarities as 
to slope, and breadth, which probably produced the law of 
variation of the motion which I observed, slowest in the 
middle, and quickest towards either end, precisely the reverse 
of that observed by M. Agassiz; but I neither depreciate the 
accuracy of his surveyor, nor contend that one cause of mo- 
tion sways the glacier of the Aar, and another that of the 
Montanvert. On the contrary, the difference appears to me 
entirely conformable to the viscous theory; and the glacier 
of the Aar, in this respect, a more instructive example than 
the Mer de Glace of Chamouni. 

I have shewn in one of the passages of my work just cited, 
that the velocities of the different portions of the glacier 
depend, among other things, on their inclination or slope ; 
and hence, I should have inferred, that in a glacier which 
did not slope faster and faster towards its lower end, till it 
becomes almost precipitous, there would be accumulating 
resistance due to the friction of the ice on the bed of a long, 
nearly uniform, gently sloping valley, such as that which 
contains the glacier of the lower Aar, which must magnify 
the tendency which the ice has to be squeezed forwards and 
upwards against the mass immediately in advance of it, 
which produces the frontal «ip of the ribboned structure or 


* Travels in the Alps, p. 145, 371. 


Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 335 


slaty cleavage of the ice, in the way that I have explained in 
my Seventh Letter. Inaglacier then, whose slope is nearly 
constant and small, I should expect a condensation of the ice 
longitudinally, and a swelling of the surface depending upon 
the motion of the plastic ice in the direction of least resist- 
ance. Now this is exactly what we have in the results 
of measurement. If the annexed figure represent the plan 


Lal/ aan LULU YU 


Uo an WA 


of the glacier, and the ice be divided into imaginary com- 
partments by vertical sections; since, whilst AB moves 
177 feet, CD moves but 141 feet, there is a condensation 
of the mass of ice ABCD, from back to front, of no less 
than 36 feet in that time, and so for the successive slices 
EF, &c. How, then, is this shrinking to be accounted 
for? Not by the mere internal melting, for that would pro- 
duce merely a lowering of the surface, and a subsidence of 
the level of the ice ; such as I have shewn* actually takes 
place in other glaciers whose sections move with increasing 
velocity on the whole. There is only a vis @ tergo which 
can approximate the sections together, and, as we read in 
the Comptes Rendus, squeeze the moraine longitudinally, giv- 
ing it a greater breadth,t and coudense the entire body of 
the ice so as to make it more compact in texture.t 

If we take a vertical section instead of a plan (see next 
page), the slice abcd must be condensed into the higher 
and shorter solid cdef, and so of the rest, and the surface 


— 


* Travels, p. 153. 
- t Les “ Moraines médianes s’élargissent dans la méme proportion que 
le mouvement se ralentit.” Comptes Rendus, 9th Dec. 1844, p- 1301. 

t Ib. p. 1306, line 29. 


336 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 


will be a swelling one, as acen, which might even rise to-- 


f 
MMMM OL 
wards valley, but generally need only be less sloped than the 
bed. The effect of superficial thaw, and internal subsidence, 
diminishes this again, and gives it the form of the dotted 
curve an’. 

In these diagrams the varying velocity in different parts 
of the transverse section is, for simplicity, kept out of view. 

A retardation of the foremost portion of a viscid stream, 
and consequent heaping of its surface, is exactly imitated in 
the models formed of plaster of Paris, which I have else- 
were described, and which, though of uniform fluidity from 
end to end, and therefore not subject to the objection arising 
from the cooling of lava, where a precisely similar fact is 
observed, reproduce faithfully the motions of the glacier of 
the Aar. 

The fact established on the glacier of the Aar satisfactorily 
refutes the notion that a predominant state of compression 
in a glacier is incompatible with the existence of transverse 
crevasses. 

Il. Continuity of motion. Until recently it was a question 
entirely unresolved, whether the glaciers move by insensible 
and nearly uniform degrees, or whether they start forward 
by short jerks, as might be expected if the movement in 
their irregular channels were effected by piecemeal fractures, 
local subsidences, and the justling of independent fragments. 
Accordingly when I determined, for the first time, in June 
1842, the absolute continuity of the motion down even to the 
interval of an hour,* it seemed impossible to reconcile this 


* See first Letter on Glaciers in this Journal, October 1842, p. 340. 


Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 337 


to the only modification of De Saussure’s theory applicable 
to the case, and the fact seemed to point, as a necessary 
consequence, to an insensible yielding of parts throughout 
the whole mass, which therefore moves as a whole, and not 
by jerks occasioned by strains upon a nearly rigid mass when 
they attain the limit consistent with the small play of flexi- 
bility of the particles, as some authors would have us be- 
lieve.* 

It is satisfactory to have an entire confirmation of these 
particulars, from the observations made on the glacier of the 
Aar in 1844. The observations were made “ to the accuracy 
of a millimetre on the movement of the glacier from hour to 
hour,’+ and “ at the lower extremity of the glacier, as in the 
upper part of its course, the glacier does not advance ab- 
ruptly, by jerks (saccades) as formerlyt supposed, but its 
march is gradual and continuous.” 

Il. The influence of warm and damp weather in accelerating 
the continuous march of the glacier, and of cold weather in 
checking it, I deduced in 1842 from a careful comparison of its 
motion for three months with the state of the thermometer, 
and exhibited the result in numbers and diagrams. Here, 
again, the observers on the Aar glacier have confirmed this 
fact, so important in a theoretical point of view. “The ad- 
vancement of the glacier,” they say, “ was far from uniform ; 
it varied considerably, according to the condition of the 
atmosphere.” During nine days of cold snowy weather in 
August 1844, the mean daily advance was 155 millimetres, 
but during the sixteen fine days which followed, it moved 
through 230 millimetres per day. 


* Mr Hopkins’s experiment of a box full of ice descending an even 
plane, does not apply to this case, because, though it moves as a whole, 
it does so without change of figure, and without the resistance arising 
from the irregularity of the channel ofa glacier; and hence the seeming 
analogy to a glacier entirely fails. 

t Comptes Rendus, p. 1302, line 12. 

{ Jadis. It is to be inferred that the writer meant previous to 
1842. 

§ Comptes Rendus, p. 1303, line 9. 

|| Travels in the Alps, p. 148. 

“1 Comptes Rendus, p. 1301, at the bottom. 

VOL. XXXVII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. Y 


338 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 


It is worthy of remark, that the entire annual motion of 
the part in question of the glacier of the Aar, was ascer- 
tained to be 60 metres, or 164 millimetres per day.* Now 
the mean motion during 35 days of August and September, 
was 203 millimetres, or but one-fourth above the annual 
mean (and during part of the time, we have seen, it fell to 
155 millimetres, or 6e/on the annual mean); proving suffici- 
ently that the annual motion is not entirely effected during 
the warm season, and that even in winter it must bear a 
very sensible proportion to its summer motion, as has been 
directly proved in the case of the Mer de Glace of Cha- 
mouni.t 

IV. The extreme inequality of motion of the central and 
lateral parts of glaciers is the best direct proof of the very 
considerable plasticity of their mass ; and in the paper before 
us this is shewn, in a still more striking manner, than in the 
experiments which I have published. A glacier, like the 
Mer de Glace of Chamouni, has sd considerable a velocity 
(on an average at least three times that of the glacier of the 
Aar), that the ice is impetuously borne along, and torn from 
the sides at the expense of innumerable lacerations and 
crevasses. So that in the whole extent of the middle and 
lower regions of that glacier, in no place do the ice and 
ground meet without the former being more or less fissured 
by rents. But the contrary is the case on the great glaciers 
which move on small slopes, and with smaller velocities ; 
and the discovery of this fact rewarded me for the labour of 
a short visit which I made the Great Aletsch glacier, in July 
1844, when I ascertained, not merely the small daily pro- 
gress of the mass of the glacier, but the astonishing retar- 
dation produced by the sides, whilst the surface remained 
compact and wholly undivided by longitudinal crevasses. 
In that case, I found that, “whilst the velocity of the iee at 
1300 feet, or about a quarter of a mile from the side, is 
14 inches in 24 hours, at 300 feet distant from the side it 


* Comptes Rendus, p. 1301, line 29. 
t Travels in the Alps, p. 151, 420; and Fifth Letter on Glaciers 
Edin. Phil. Journal, April 1844. 


Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 339) 


was but 3 inches in the same time ; and close to the side it 
had nearly, if not entirely, vanished.”* Now this observa- 
tion, a hasty one, and which, therefore, I am happy to have 
confirmed, is more than borne out by the observations on the 
glacier of the Aar, detailed in the Comptes Rendus, and which 
were made shortly after. The movement of the centre of 
the glacier is to that of a point 5 metres from the edge as 
FOURTEEN to ONE; such is the effect of plasticity! Thirteen- 
fourteenths of the motion of the glacier of the Aar, are due to 
the sliding of the ice over its own particles, and one-fourteenth 
only to its motion over the soil. 

V. Motion of Glaciers of the Second Order. It is a ques- 
tion of considerable interest to know how those small glaciers, 
called by De Saussure glaciers of the second order, advance: 
compared to the great ice masses which fill the bottoms of 
valleys. These little glaciers, on the contrary, are usually 
isolated, extending but a small way, occupying a nook or 
niche in a mountain side, and though persisting in their oc- 
cupancy, and shewing signs of motion and activity, like other 
glaciers, yet stretch forward but a small way, then cease 
abruptly, as if foiled in the struggle to join their icy con- 
tribution to the magnificent glacier which often fills the 
valley immediately below them.+ Their isolated position, their 
great absolute height, and their usually very steep declivity 
and small surface, give considerable interest to the determi- 
nation of their rate of motion, at least approximately. Ac- 
cordingly I seized the occasion of spending some days in 
July 1844, at the Hospice of the Simplon (already at a 
height of 6600 feet above the sea), to examine and measure 
the progress of the small glacier which hangs from the slope 
of the Schénhorn, immediately behind it, and 1400 feet 
higher. I intend to give elsewhere a minute account of this 
glacier, and my observations upon it; but in the mean time 
I may state that one of the marks observed, at a point 
having an inclination of 10°, moved at the rate of 1.4 inches 


* Eighth Letter on Glaciers, Edin. Phil. Journal, Oct. 1844. 
t See a Plate, giving a correct idea of a glacier of the second order, in 
my Travels, plate ix. 


340 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 


in 24 hours ; and another, at an inclination of 20°, moved 1.8 
inches in the same time. This small result is quite confor- 
mable with the dry and powdery condition of such elevated 
glaciers, yielding little water, and capable of exerting, on 
their under parts, a very trifling hydrostatic pressure.* 

Exactly analogous results were obtained by M. Agassiz’s 
coadjutors at a somewhat later period of the same year. 
The experiments are fully detailed in the Comptes Rendus ;+ 
and the conclusions which are deducible from them, are (1), 
that the daily motions of these small glaciers, which, rested 
on beds so highly inclined as from 15° up to 33°, are included 
between 20 and 72 millimetres (0.79 to 2.84 English inches) 
per diem. (2.) The observers think that their observations 
go to prove that when these glaciers are prolonged far enough 
to meet the main glacier below, and to unite their streams, 
then the lower part of the tributary glacier, or that nearest 
the point of union, moves SLOWER than the upper part, or that 
nearest the origin of the little glacier ; but, on the contrary, 
if the glacier be pendant on the slope, and the lower end 
decays away without joining the principal, then the inferior 
extremity moves FASTER than the origin. Now the cause of 
this variation in the two cases (should the fact really appear 
to be general, as is not unlikely, provided the lower station 
be always chosen low enough), seems to be, that the main 
glacier resists the interference of its tributary with its 
course, and consequently represses its stream, causing a 
heaping up in front, such as mere friction on a low incli- 
nation alone produces, and is thus in conformity with the 
viscous theory. In the other case, that of the free glacier 
of the second order, the difference of velocity at the upper 
and lower station (one-seventh part only) is not more than 
the difference of slope (15° and 25°) will readily explain. 

VI. Movements of Bas-Névés or Snow-beds. One observation 
remains which completes my analysis of the measures of 
M. Agassiz’s coadjutors. Itis one of considerable interest, and 
I believe isnew. It is the establishment of the fact that the 


* This experiment is briefly mentioned at the close of my Highth Letter 
on Glaciers. 


t p. 1303 and two following pages. 


it~ 


Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 341 


highly inclined beds of old snow, formed by avalanches, which 
lie unmelted in the ravines, without assuming any external 
trace of glacial structure, have a proper motion of their own. 
This, though to me not unexpected, is very interesting ; for 
the most attached advocate of either the dilatation or the 
sliding theory, will hardly maintain, on the one hand, that 
the congelation of soft snow could act here as a propelling 
force, or on the other, that the motion can take place with- 
out acceleration in the totality of a mass, inclined (in this 
case) at an angle even of 43°, over the bed on which it rests : 
especially since the actual movement under this enormous 
inclination was only 7 millimetres, or three-tenths of an inch, 
per day ;* or one-thirtieth of that of the great glacier under 
an inclination of but a few degrees. The velocity increased 
towards the lower extremity, as in the free glacier of the 
second order. On the Plastic theory, this evidently pre- 
sents the extreme case of a body, approaching in its nature 
to a soft heavy powder slightly moistened, which gives 
way by the yielding of its parts, and so far resembles a 
fluid (as a bank of earth, slightly glutinous, rather than sand 
doves) ; and the slowness of movement is in conformity with 
the imperfectness of the fluid pressure, and with the fact 
already stated (under Head III. above) that the velocity of 
any glacier is proportional to the completeness of its satura- 
tion with water at the time. The bas-névés, or old avalanches, 
furnish very little water at their lower extremities. 

I have now gone through these observations, made by per- 
sons, it may be assumed, not particularly desirous to find 
results confirming a theory which they have opposed, but 
which it may be hoped they will oppose no longer, when 
their own results speak in language so unequivocal. My 
analysis has been succinct, but complete and impartial. The 
facts are stated as given, without selection or suppression.— 
I am, dear Sir, yours sincerely, 

JAMES D. ForBEs. 


Professor Jameson. 


* Comptes Rendus, p. 1305, line 32; and p. 1396, 


Note on the Crystallization of Carbonate of Lime. By JOHN 
Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. Communicated by 
the Author. 


When the lime in lime-water is rapidly precipitated by 
passing into it carbonic acid gas, as by blowing on it with 
air from the lungs, the precipitate examined with the micro- 
scope, is found to consist of exceedingly minute particles, 
too minute, indeed, to allow of their form being distinguished, 
being about 55570 inch in diameter, either dispersed or col- 
lected in groups. 

When precipitated in part in this way, if the jar of lime- 
water be covered with a plate of glass, so as to admit the 
access of air slowly, the crust formed after two or three 
hours’ rest, similarly examined, will be found to consist 
of granular globules, or of little masses approaching the 
globular form, about ;,5>5 of an inch in diameter, in which 
the granules or minute particles exhibit an arrangement 
somewhat symmetrical. 

If the jar still containing lime in solution, be again covered 
with glass, and allowed to remain tranquil from twelve to 
twenty-four hours, the pellicle of carbonate of lime formed 
at the end of this time, will be found in some points to differ 
from the preceding ; the globules will be found mixed with dis- 
tinct cubical crystals, varying in size from about zs355 Of an 
inch to 7,55 and ;,4,; the intermediate size the most com- 
mon. The smallest, it may be remarked, require a nice ad- 
justment to be seen distinctly. 

Lastly, if the jar be covered with a plate of glass in the 
first instance, so as to permit very slowly the entrance of air, 
the pellicle of carbonate of lime formed, will consist entirely 
of crystals, and these chiefly cubical, connected together, and 
varying in size from about zo'55 to zo55 Of an inch in dia- 
meter. 

By adding to the lime-water different substances, the form 
of the carbonate of lime in the pellicle resulting from the ab- 
sorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, is found to be 
altered, and that variously. I may mention a few instances 


of the effect of substances added, which have no power of 


On the Crystallization of Carbonate of Lime. 343 


decomposing the lime-water,—or, if possessed of such power, 
added in so small a quantity as to leave lime.in excess, to 
yield a crust of carbonate of lime. 

1. Serum of sheep’s blood. Lime-water after admixture 
with a small quantity of this, put aside for a few hours, the 
jar covered with a glass plate, yielded, besides cubical cry- 
stals, some of a prismatic form and some pyramidal. In this 
instance and the following, the portion of pellicle examined 
was confined between two slips of glass, so as to prevent 
the formation of adventitious crystals by evaporation. 

2. Nitrate of barytes. Lime-water, to which a few drops 
of this salt in solution had been added, treated like the pre- 
ceding, yielded tabular crystals variously truncated, and 
some pyramidal. 

3. Muriate of lime. The crystals obtained in this instance, 
a few drops of the salt in solution having been mixed with 
the lime-water, were cubical and pyramidal,—with which 
granular globules were intermixed. 

4, Chlorate of potash. The crust formed on the lime-water, 
to which a very little of this salt had been added, consisted 
chiefly of little spindle-form masses, with plates of compa- 
ratively large size and great thinness, most of them imper- 
fectly formed, their outline being in part irregular. 

Do not these results admit of application? May they not 
serve to illustrate the extraordinary variety of form in which 
carbonate of lime, in its mineral state, is found in nature ? 

It occurred to me, as not improbable, that carbonate of 
lime, formed without previous solution of the lime, viz., from 
the combination of the lime of the hydrate with carbonic 
acid, might present itself in a crystalline form, the ten- 
dency to assume this form being so great. ButI have 
not, on trial, found it to be so. Recent carbonate of lime, 
obtained by exposing quenched lime to the atmosphere, has 
appeared, under the microscope, to be onlyminutely granular, 
as is the hydrate itself; and a mortar of nearly pure car- 
bonate of lime, attached to a stone, on which are hierogly- 
phies, from the walls of ancient Thebes, has exhibited the 
same minutely granular character. This fact, I may remark, 
is not in favour of the idea of homogeneous particles, ex- 
erting an attractive force on each other, independent of 


344 Professor Bischof on the Origin of 


solution, capable of originating motion, or change of posi- 
tion, such as is implied in the conversion of an amorphous 
into a crystalline mass. 


_ Tus Oaks, AMBLESIDE, 
March 11. 1845. 


On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. By 
Professor GUSTAV BiscHoFr, of Bonn.* 


It is not possible that the quartz veins, in the various 
stratified formations—as in greywacke, in clay-slate, in horn- 
blende-slate, &c.—could have been formed by the agency of 
a smelting heat. Even presuming that it is in the power of 
nature to fuse quartz, which, taken alone, is infusible in the 
heat of our most intense furnaces, a mass of such excessive 
heat as molten silica must have fused the adjacent rock to a 
greater or less distance, according to the width of the quartz 
vein. Silicates must have been formed, much more fusible 
than the substance of the quartz vein. These silicates (fel- 
spar, mica, &e.), the bases for which (alumina, potash, soda, 
oxide of iron, &c.) had been furnished by the adjacent rock, 
must, however, have been found not only between the vein 
stuff and the rock, and far into this latter, but also pene- 
trating into the quartzose vein stuff itself; for, the consti- 
tuents of the adjacent rock, fused by the molten silica, would 
have penetrated into the interior of the vein stuff, and have 
formed silicates. 

Suppose only, for example, that molten silver is poured 
into a leaden mould, of such thickness that only that portion 
of the mould in the vicinity of the silver poured in should 
melt, there would not be found, after the cooling of the 
molten metal, a single particle of pure silver, but only a 
mixture of silver and lead. But the difference, in fusibility, 
between silica and rocks such as clay-slate, is certainly still 
greater than that between silver and lead; and the affinity 
of silica to the bases in the rocks, or the propensity of the 
latter to form silicates with the former, is certainly not less 
than the affinity of silver for lead. 


* Translated by Lewis D. B. Gordon, Esq., Professor of Civil Engi- 
neering in the University of Glasgow. 


Per 


) pie 


ae 


Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 345 


it must, therefore, be considered as a necessary conse- 
quence, that if ever fused silica had been injected into a vein 
fissure in clay-slate, there would have been formed, after 
the gradual cooling and consolidation, not a vein of pure 
quartz, but a crystalline vein stuff, of the nature of granite, 
in as far as the adjacent rock could have furnished the ne- 
cessary bases for the production of granite. If, therefore, 
we could suppose that ever pure quartz in fusion rose up 
from beneath, we might also, on the other hand, conclude, 
that a granite vein, in a country of clay-slate, would be pro- 
duced ; but not that a quartz vein could have been formed 
in such a manner. 

To these difficulties of conceiving the rising of fused silica 
in a vein fissure, comes this again, that quartz veins fre- 
quently consist of very thin strings, of half an inch wide, or 
even less. Were it, then, still conceivable that molten 
quartz, of a foot or more in width, could rise in a fissure or 
rent, without solidifying in the course it must have travelled 
from unknown depths, yet it would be quite inconceivable 
that a mass, of scarcely half an inch in thickness, should 
flow through the cold rock without being immediately chilled. 
This were equally impossible as to attempt, by pouring 
melted iron into a channel some hundred feet long, and half 
an inch wide, to form an iron rail or plate. 

If we lay aside the notion of the production of quartz 
veins in stratified formations by the agency of a smelting 
heat, there remains no other assumption but that these veins 
have been formed by the agency of water. In fact, there is 
not one phenomenon presented by quartz veins that is incon- 
sistent with this assumption. On the contrary, every cir- 
cumstance may be explained, by its aid, in a simple and un- 
forced manner. 

There is scarcely any water, whether it’be spring or river 
water, which does not contain silica in solution, though fre- 
quently in very small quantities. Should such water pene- 
trate through the narrowest cleft, there is the possibility that 
more or less of the dissolved silica may be deposited in it. 
It is true, that such a deposition supposes that the water, 
either, being hot, cools during circulation in the cleft, or 
evaporates ; or that other substances maintaining the silica 


346 Professor Bischof on the Origin of 


in solution are precipitated ; but we must not overlook other 
circumstances from which this precipitation may arise. Very 
many phenomena shew that there exists a peculiar affinity 
between sélica and organic substances or organic remains. AS 
an example, I may mention that, in the wooden piles of Tra- 
jan’s Bridge, near Vienna, quartz coneretions—agates even 
of half an inch in thickness—have been found ;* and that, 
according to observations of Glocker, it is only on a lichen 
that Hyalite is formed on the Serpentine of the Zobtenberg.t 
If, now, in the above instances, the wood of the bridge pile 
has induced a precipitation of silica from an extremely dilute 
solution, such as the water of the Danube presents—if, in 
like manner, a lichen has occasioned such a precipitation, 
from, probably, equally dilute solutions, then it is easy to 
understand, that organic remains in a Neptunian rock, as in 
clay-slate, may likewise effect a precipitation of silica. 

It may be said, in opposition, that the supposed effect of 
organic remains must cease in the rock as soon as the thin- 
nest covering of precipitated silica has been formed ; but it 
is known, that, as soon as a deposition of a dissolved sub- 
stance has begun from whatever cause, it goes on, although 
this cause may no longer be in action. I am, however, far 
from alleging, that the presence of organic remains in geo- 
logical formations, has always induced the deposition of 
silica in quartz veins. If such were the case, this effect 
could only be considered as acting in quartz veins in Nep- 
tunian formations, and would have no application to such 
veins in the crystalline formations. 

It becomes, however, necessary to inquire into the causes 
by which deposits of silica from watery solutions may have 
been effected. Is it not sufficient to refer to the numberless 
quartzy formations which must unquestionably have had 
their origin in the wet way ? Can we, in the frequent silici- 
fication of organic substances—of wood in wood-opal, for 


* Breislak’s Geologie, Bd. ii., p. 492. 

+t Verhandlungen, der K. L. C. Akad. d. Naturforscher, Ba. Xiv, 
Abth. ii., p. 545. Compare also Von Buch on the Silicification of Organie 
Substances in the Abhandlungen, der K. Acad. d. W. zu. Berlin, 1828, 
p. 48, “ Where” says Von Buch, “ there is no organic substance, there 
is never silicification to be found.” 


— 


Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 347 


example—entertain, even remotely, the idea of formation by 
heat. Ehrenberg found, as he told me, a Vermetus, an inch 
long, in fire- opal. 

The deposit of silica in quartz veins can be conceived to 
have taken place by ¢wo modes. Hither springs rose up in the 
vein cleft, from which it was deposited, or water, containing 
silicie acid, penetrated from the adjacent rocks into the vein 
cleft. Both processes occur at the present day, although 
deposits of pure silica from springs are rarities. Examples, 
too, are not wanting of the locality of the discharge of the 
spring changing, or of the discharge completely ceasing. 
Both cases, doubtless, arise most frequently from the under- 
ground channels being stopped by deposits. 

I have myself observed the complete cessation of a mineral 
spring. About twelve years since, there flowed, close by the 
Laacher-See, near the old abbey, a pretty abundant spring, 
which, judging from its enclosure, was used in former times 
by the inhabitants of the abbey. I visited this spring several 
times, as it excited my curiosity, being the only one of all 
the numerous springs in the neighbourhood of the Laacher- 
See, which shewed not even a trace of iron. It was a pure 
seltzer, containing, principally. bicarbonate of lime and mag- 
nesia. On going to see this spring, some years later, I 
found it stopped. There are also, very frequently, to be 
found in this neighbourhood, even considerable beds of éron- 
ochre, which indubitably have been deposited from irony 
springs, although such no longer occur in these localities. 
Such beds are often met with at the higher levels; and, in 
the lower levels, springs containing iron, which still deposit 
iron-ochre. It is very probable, that changes in the locality 
of the discharge of the springs have resulted from the ob- 
struction of their channels. Yet not only such obstructions, 
but also considerable accumulations of iron-ochre, at the 
issue of the spring itself, have, here and there, induced the 
disappearance of the springs. Thus, in one place, where 
there was a three feet thick bed of ochre, I caused a sinking 
to be made, and discovered underneath a very abundant 
ferruginous spring. 

In this neighbourhood there are, here and there, appear- 
ances from which we may conclude that there has been a 


348 Professor Bischof on the Origin of 


change in the nature of the spring’s deposit. In the imme- 
diate vicinity of the iron springs, more or less considerable 
deposits of calcsinter present themselves, whilst the actual 
or present sediments consist of iron-ochre, with a slight ad- 
mixture of lime. It is very probable that these are the 
very springs which formerly deposited calesinter, and which, 
at the present day, deposit only iron-ochre. If such a change 
in the nature of the spring’s deposit be in harmony with the 
not unfrequent change in the constituents of the spring, we 
have in this an indication of the various deposits which occur 
in vein clefts—viz. in metalliferous veins. I believe, in fact, 
to have acquired conviction, and hope to shew proofs, that 
the most of the vein stuffs in metalliferous veins, if not all, 
have been introduced in the wet way. 

Evidence for the variety of deposits in metalliferous veins 
are presented, amongst others, by the veins of the Erzgebirge. 
Thus, v. Weissenbach found, in the silver veins of Brand, 
in the Freyberg district, the arrangement of the component 
parts of the vein from the older towards the younger mem- 
bers—that is, from the wall to the centre, to be always as 
follows :— 

1. Quartz predominating. 

2. Manganese-spar—Brown-spar. 

3. Sparry iron, fluorspar, barytes, equal with each other. 

4. Calespar. 

He never found the above-named sparry minerals in any 
other than this series, and it appears, as far as he had op- 
portunity of observing, to occur pretty much the same 
throughout the whole Saxon vein formation. It is import- 
ant in reference to this mode of formation of the vein mass 
in metalliferous veins, remarks v. Weissenbach, that, should 
the above observation obtain generally, it would result 
that not the ores, but much more the kinds of spar, would, 
to a certain degree, characterize the epochs of formation.* 


* Just as I was about to send off this paper, I have received, through 
the kindness of the Berghauptmann Freiesleben, his most recent inter- 
esting work, ‘‘ Die Sachsische Erzginge,”’ &c., &c. Freyberg, 1843. 

We there find under the title, “‘ Arrangement of the Vein stuffs,” 
the following: ‘It is peculiar to many formations, as has been long 


Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 349 


Just as in the deposits of those springs at the earth’s sur- 
face, to which we formerly alluded, an alternation appeared, 


known, that some of their veins display a regular ribbon-like structure, 
in as much as their minerals form parallel layers variously alternating with 
each other. (Zonen, Streifen, Bander oder Glieder.) However, according 
to my notions, there has been more regularity discovered in this, than 
is consistent with direct observation. There has also been fixed for 
many formations a distinct epochal series of their members. It has been 
assumed, for example, that quartz forms the outer member next the walls 
of the vein ; the spars, on the other hand, the inner or middle members . 
Even Werner’s theory of veins (amongst others § 31) contains very dis- 
tinct remarks on this. But more recently persons have gone further, 
and have raised up a theory of the development of veins upon it. It 
has been further assumed, that, as the depth increases, either the inner 
newer members disappeared, and the outer became more predominant, 
or, vice versa ; from which the enrichment and impoverishing of a vein 
according to the depth have been explained. This may be the case in 
certain veins ; but it does not appear to me to be founded on a per- 
vading or completely established law,” &c. 

“Even a regular memberment of the vein stuffs is not a predominat- 
ing circumstance. In many cases there exists no trace of it. Still sel- 
domer, however, is there a constant epochal series in the individual 
members. For one example, in which the one or the other may be 
proved, there are many others in which this is not the case ; where, rather, 
the different kinds of ore and matrices lie intermixed irregularly, as if 
poured together in one cast; or where the epochal series of the indivi- 
dual members does not remain the same. Isolated regularly membered 
veins have ever attracted more especial attention, because they are more 
interesting than others. Hence the great number of opposing appear- 
ances seem to have been less observed. I have therefore directed espe- 
cial attention to this point for some considerable time ; and when I have 
adduced more particularly the results of my observations for each parti- 
cular formation, in a future complete exposition of the foregoing sketch, 
it will be seen that the general legitimate deductions which can be made 
from these, are only few. There are only a few minerals which prove 
themselves to be the newest formations, alike in druses and as the in- 
nermost members of the vein—for example, native silver, sulphuret of 
silver, (silver glance,) ruby silver, calespar; others occur again and 
again alternately, next the walls and in the middle—for example, quartz, 
pyrites, brownspar, barytes,” &c. 

It is indeed difficult to decide between two men such as Freiesleben 
and vy. Weissenbach, both practised in observation, and both, by their 
long calling as practical miners, in a position to study the most various 
relations of veins. Although the latter is inclined to assume a determi- 

nate epochal series of the members of veins, he by no means ignores the 


350 Professor Bischof on the Origin of 


though only one, we find also in metalliferous veins a more 
frequently repeated alternation of vein stuffs. If these sur- 
face deposits shew, incontestibly, that the same spring may 
change the nature of its deposit in the course of time, we 
can, from this, conclude as to the possibility, at least, that also 
the alternating members of the vein, in metalliferous veins, 
may have had the same origin. 

If we recur to the question of how the silica in quartz 
veins may have been precipitated from watery solutions, 
we cannot consentaneously suppose that this deposit has 
been a consequence of a decrease of temperature of the dis- 
solving medium, or of its vaporization during the circulation 
of the water through the clefts ; and as the assumption that 
organic remains in the adjacent rock have played a part, is 
only admissible for quartz veins in Neptunian formations, 
there remain still certain difficulties to solve. These de- 
crease very much, however, if we take into consideration a 


fact that the regularity appears very frequently disturbed, and even 
adduces many examples of this. 

The question is, whether order is the rule and confusion the excep- 
tion, or whether the former is only fortuitous? As the formation of 
veins is a process occupying a great space of time, and as, after it had 
already begun, the fissures again widened out and the new fissure took, 
here parts of the adjacent rock, there parts of the vein stuff, according 
to the state of adhesion and cohesion between the rock and the vein 
stuff already formed, and of this latter with itself; it must have hap- 
pened that the more recent vein stuffs now gained the interior,—now 
were deposited on the walls and on the fragments torn from the adja- 
cent rock, To this has to be added, that there not unfrequently took 
place an exchange between the older and newer members of the vein, 
by, the; former being taken up by the solvent medium, and the latter 
being deposited and taking the place of the former. It might thus also 
so happen, that (if we suppose the introduction of the vein matrices in 
the: wet way,). the same fluid, containing several vein-stuffs in solution, 
according as in one part it came in contact with the adjacent rock, and 
in another with older members of the vein, deposited by exchange one 
substance here, another there, just.as.a fluid, would do if we added first 


one and then another re-agent. All these causes might) produce the 


most. various disturbances. in the formation. of the vein-stufls, so that 
regularity only appears in those instances in which these disturbing 
causes have not acted. I have enlarged upon these circumstances in 
the sequel. 


ni ORR 


Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 351 


circumstance which is perfectly grounded in the laws of che- 
mical affinity, and whose effect can be proved in the case of 
springs likewise. It is the mutual exchange, or the expul- 
sion of one substance dissolved in water by another, with 
which the water comes in contact. Just as, for example, the 
bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and oxide of 
Manganese, are precipitated by alkalies; so the same pre- 
cipitation would follow, if water containing these bicarbon- 
ates were to come in contact with minerals having alkalies 
as constituent parts; for, although the latter are combined 
with silica, still these silicates would be decomposed by the 
half-combined carbonic acid of the bicarbonate. I have 
observed such a mutual exchange in a very palpable manner. 
The mineral spring formerly mentioned as having flowed 
from under a bed of iron-ochre, had channelled a passage for 
itself in ¢rass, which was decomposed into a rich clay all 
around, and upon this channel there was an incrustation of 
carbonate of the protoxide of iron (spherosiderite). 

In this case, undoubtedly, the free and half-united carbonic 
acid of the mineral spring had extracted the alkalies from the 
silicates of the trass, whereby the bicarbonate of the prot- 
oxide of iron lost its dissolving medium, and deposited itself 
as carbonate of the protoxide of iron, as contact with the air 
was excluded. It is very probable that the carbonate of soda, 
which is so frequent a constituent of the mineral springs ris- 
ing in the crystalline formations, has this origin in many 
cases,—that, viz., water, loaded with bicarbonates of lime,, 
magnesia, protoxide of iron, and manganese, came in contact 
with formations containing silicates of soda. 

In this manner, we can easily perceive how manganese spar, 
brown or pearl spar, sparry iron, and cale-spar, which so 
frequently occur as the matrix, may have been precipitated 
from waters that contained these minerals as bicarbonates, 
so far as there were silicates of the alkalies present in the ad- 
jacent rock. This is, however, exactly the case in the me- 
talliferous veins running through the gneiss of the Erzge- 
birge, and in other crystalline formations. Such exchanges 
(Austauschungen) might be repeated more than once, if the 


352 Professor Bischof on the Origin of 


composition of the water circulating in the vein-cleft 
changed. 

Thus, Dr Speyer of Hanau, found, near Dietesheim, encasing 
pseudomorphous crystals of sparry iron, of the form of cale- 
spar.* They occurin the druses of Anamesite, in which, too, 
spherosiderite is not unfrequently met with. It is not to be 
doubted that waters, which at an earlier period had deposited 
cale-spar, as they changed their nature and became charged 
with acid carbonate of the protoxide of iron, have effected the 
exchange between cale-spar and sparry iron. . We do not re- 
quire to ask whether that portion of earbonic acid which changes 
the neutral carbonate into bicarbonate, has a greater affinity 
for carbonate of lime than for carbonate of the protoxide of iron, 
or inversely ; for there are many examples in chemistry of an 
inversion of affinities, under different circumstances, namely, 
when unequal masses operate. Water, charged with the bi- 
carbonate of the protoxide of iron, may, if it flows uninterrupt- 
edly over cale-spar, part with the half-combined carbonic acid 
to this latter, and so dissolve it and carry it off, and, on the 
other hand, deposit the carbonate of the protoxide of iron thus 
become insoluble. But just as well might the reverse case 
occur, and the half-combined carbonic acid in a water charged 
with acid carbonate of lime be given off to sparry iron, and 
so the former be deposited, and the latter dissolved. In the 
first case, the greater mass of the half-combined carbonic acid 
in the bicarbonate of iron is effective ; in the latter, on the 
other hand, that of the half-combined carbonic acid in the bi- 
carbonate of lime; for, in the one case, new portions of the 
iron compound, in the other new portions of the lime com- 
pound, are uninterruptedly brought to bear by the water in 
circulation. Besides, the poss¢bility of cale-spar occurring in 
the form of sparry iron cannot be doubted, although no such 
case is known. 

That these pseudomorphous crystals of sparry iron, in the 
form of cale-spar, are produced in the wet way, no one will 
doubt. The crystals of sparry iron are partly hollow in the 
interior, partly more or less filled with cale-spar; the inner 


* Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs, von Blum.—Stuttgart 
1843; S. 304. 


se 


RELI PAR ASO RIAN te 


ec < 


On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 353 


planes are uneven and somewhat granular. Where there is 
still cale-spar, plates of sparry iron may be seen between its 
foliated layers, by which regular cells are formed. These 
pseudomorphous crystals are partly upon calc-spar, partly 
united immediately with anamesite. 

These circumstances shew that the conversion or exchange 
goes on slowly ; so slow a process can only be conceived to 
operate in the wet way, and any idea of an effect by heat 
must be excluded. 

The encasing pseudomorphous forms of bitter-spar, which 
the sparry iron in the quartz veins in greywacke near Rhein- 
breitbach assumes, have certainly been produced in a similar 
manner. [If the fluids which had earlier deposited bitter-spar 
in these veins changed their nature—did they become irony 
—then the half-combined carbonic acid of the bicarbonate of 
iron took up the bitter-spar, and deposited in its place, as 
sparry iron, the salt of iron changed into neutral carbonate 
of the protoxide of iron. 

Little difficulty as there is in understanding the deposit of 
the frequently named carbonates in the veins, and the expul- 
sion of the one by the other ; it is, however, more difficult to 
explain the deposit of quartz by exchange. Quartz, it is true, 
presents itself in the forms of calce-spar, bitter-spar, sparry 
iron, carbonate of lead, gypsum, barytes, fluor-spar, and 
barytocalcite. It is therefore supposable, that if cale-spar, 
for example, were deposited from a solution at one period, 
and at a later period were brought into contact with a solu- 
tion of silicic acid, the former would be dissolved and the 
latter deposited. 

In this manner, however, the deposit of quartz in quartz- 
veins and in the metalliferous-veins of the Erzgebirge, could 
not well be explained, as this would assume that the one or 
the other of these minerals had existed in the veins before 
the deposit of the quartz. This would, however, contradict 
the epoch series of the vein matrices of metalliferous-veins 
of the Erzgebirge. It is, besides, scarcely to be imagined, 
that the predominating quartz, the oldest member of the ma- 
trices of these metalliferous veins, could have been deposited 
by such an exchange. 

(To be Concluded in next Number.) 
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 7 


( 354 ) 


Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
(Continued from Vol. XXXVL., p. 198.) 


Monday, 4th December 1843. 
Sir THOMAS BRISBANE, President, in the Chair. 


The following Communication was read :— 
On the Influence of various Circumstances in Vegetation 
upon the activity of Plants. Part Il. The Umbelli- 
ferous Narcotics. By Dr Christison. 


In the First Part of this inquiry, the author gave an account, in 
1840, of some observations made by him, as to the influence of 
season on the activity of the acrid plants of the natural family 
Ranunculacee, and of the narcotics belonging to the family Dru- 
pacee.* In the Second Part now laid before the Society, he pro- 
ceeded to relate a series of experiments instituted by him with the 
view of determining the influence of season on the activity of the 
poisonous narcotic plants of the family Umbellifere. 

The plants belonging to this family are for the most part aroma- 
tic and stimulant, and destitute of poisonous properties. In four 
species only have narcotic properties been unequivocally recognised, 
viz., Conium maculatum, Cinanthe crocata, Cicuta virosa, and 
Aithusa cynapium ; but these are universally held to be highly 
energetic. 

1. Conium maculatum, Common Hemlock.—No accurate infor- 
mation is yet possessed as to the influence of season on the activity 
of this species : for all investigations on the subject are vitiated by 
the uncertain strength of its preparations, and the ignorance which 
prevailed till very lately as to the conditions required for securing 
their uniformity. The author has found by experiment, as Profes- 
sor Geiger had already been led to conclude, that every part of the 
plant is poisonous, both the root, the leaves, and the fruit ; and that 
the root is least active, the leaves much more so, but the fruit the 
most active of all. The root is commonly held to be most active in 
midsummer, when the plant is in full vegetation and coming into 
flower ; but this belief is founded only on a single, and not alto- 
gether conclusive, experiment made by Professor Orjila. This 
author found this part of the plant to be so feeble at all times, that 
its respective energy at different seasons could not be satisfactorily 
settled. The expressed juice of twelve ounces of roots had no ap- 
preciable effect on a small dog in the end of October or towards the 


* See the Society’s Proceedings, 1840-41. 


ianccer 


A 


Dr Christison on the Umbelliferous Narcotics. 355 


close of June; but an alcoholic extract of six ounces in the begin- 
ning of May killed a rabbit in thirty-seven minutes, when intro- 
duced into the cellular tissue. The leaves are commonly thought 
to be most energetic when the plant is coming into flower in mid- 
summer, and to be very feeble while it is young. The author finds 
it to be probable, that the leaves are very active in midsummer ; 
but he has likewise observed, that they are eminently energetic in 
the young plant, both in the beginning of November, and in the 
month of March before vegetation starts on the approach of genial 
weather. Thirty-three grains of a carefully prepared alcoholic 
extract, representing one ounce and a, third of fresh leaves, killed a 
rabbit in nine minutes, when introduced into the cellular tissue. 
The fruit is most active when it is full grown, but still green and 
juicy. It then yields much more of the active principle conia than 
afterwards when it is ripe and dry. The author added, as a fact 
contrary to general belief, that he had found the ripe seeds of hem- 
lock, and an alcoholic extract of the leaves, to sustain no diminu- 
tion in energy by keeping, at all events for eight years. 

2. Cnanthe crocata, Dead-tongue.—This species is universally 
considered to be the most deadly of all the narcotic Umbellifere. 
Many instances of fatal poisoning with its roots have been published 
during the last two centuries, in the various periodicals of Europe. 
It has repeatedly proved fatal in two hours; and a portion no bigger 
than a walnut has been thought adequate to occasion death. Fatal 
accidents have occurred from it in England, France, Holland, Spain, 
and Corsica. The root would seem from these cases to be the most 
active part ; but few observations are on reecod as to the effects of 
the leaves, and none as to the fruit. The root appears from these 
cases to be very active in all seasons, at least in the beginning of 
January, the end of March, the middle of April, the middle of 
June, and the middle of August. 

The author proceeded to inquire carefully into the effects of season 
upon this species as it grows wild in the neighbourhood of Edin- 
burgh, but was surprised to find that every part of the plant in this 
locality is destitute of narcotic properties at all seasons. The juice 
of a whole pound of the tubers, the part which has proved so deadly 
elsewhere, had no effect when secured in the stomach of a small dog, 
either in the end of October when the tubers are plump and perfect, 
but the plant not above ground, or in the month of June when it 
was coming into flower ; and an alcoholic extract of the leaves, and 
that prepared from the ripe fruit, had no effect whatever when 
introduced into the cellular tissue of a rabbit, under the same con- 
ditions in which the Common Hemlock acts so energetically. By a 


_ comparative experiment he ascertained that tubers, collected near 


Liverpool, where one of the accidents alluded to above happened 
in 1782, act with considerable violence on the dog; and he briefly 
noticed some experiments, made at his request by Dr Pereira, 


356 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


with the GEnanthe of Woolwich, shewing that there also it is a 
powerful poison to the lower animals. Climate seemed to the 
author to furnish the only adequate explanation of these extraordi- 
nary differences ; yet the plant grows in all parts of Scotland with 
great luxuriance. 

3. Cicuta virosa, Water-hemlock.—This species has been also 
held to be a deadly poison ever since an express treatise on its effects 
was published by Wepfer in 1716; and repeated instances of its 
fatal action have been observed since, and some of these very re- 
cently, in Germany. The root is the only part which has given 
occasion to accidents ; it has proved fatal in two hours and a half. 
Nevertheless, this plant too seems innocuous in Scotland, or nearly 
so, although, like the last species, it grows with great luxuriance. 
The juice of a pound of the roots collected in the end of July, while 
the plant was in full flower, produced no narcotic symptoms ; and 
the only effects observed, namely, efforts to vomit, might have arisen 
from the operation which is necessary to secure the juice in the 
stomach. An alcoholic extract of the leaves collected at the same 
time, and a similar preparation made with two ounces of the full- 
grown seeds, while still green and juicy, had no effect whatever when 
introduced into the cellular tissue of a rabbit, except that inflamma- 
tion was excited where the extract was applied. 

4. The author has not yet had an opportunity of trying the effects 
of the fourth species, Athusa cynapium, or fool’s- parsley. 


Monday 18th December 1843. 
Dr ABERCROMBIBE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read : 

1. A description of Congenital Malformation of the Auricle 
and External Meatus of both sides in three persons, 
with Experiments on the state of Hearing in them, and 
Remarks on the mode of Hearing by Conduction through 
the hard parts of the Head in general. By Professor 
Allen Thomson. 

2. On the Luminousness of the Sea. By Dr Traill. 


Tuesday, 2d January 1844. 
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

}. On the Fossil Vegetables of the Sandstone of Ayrshire, 
illustrative of a series of them, as a Donation for the 
Society's Museum. By J. Shedden Patrick, F.R.S.E., 
F.R.S.S.A., &e- 


Dr Christison on CEnanthe Crocata. 357 


2. On anew Self-Registering Barometer. By Robert Bryson, 
F.R.S. 


Monday, 15th January 1844. 
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

1. On the Vibrations of an Interrupted Mediuni. By Pro- 
fessor Kelland. 

2. On certain Laws of the Resistance of Fluids. By John 
Scott Russell, Esq. 

3. Chemical Examination of the Tagua-Nut, or Vegetable 
Ivory. By Professor Connell. 


Monday, 5th February 1844. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair. 


The following Communications were read :— 

1. On the Tides of the Firth of Forth, and the East Coast of 
Scotland. By J. 8. Russell, Esq. 

2. Additional Observations as to the Poisonous Properties 
of Ginanthe crocata. By Dr Christison. 

In this paper the Author added a few supplementary observations 
to those made on the alleged poisonous properties of the @nanthe 
crocata, in his paper on the poisonous Umbellifere, read on the 4th 
December last. 

He stated that he had met with other cases of poisoning with this 
plant, recorded by Continental authors, shewing that death may take 
place in an hour,—that so small a quantity as a single tuber, no 
bigger than the finger, has proved fatal,—that the roots are poison- 
ous in some countries, from the beginning of January till the 
middle of October at all events, and probably throughout the whole 
year ; and that Spain may be added to the countries formerly men- 
tioned, where fatal effects have been produced by the plant. 

He next added, that he had recently tried on a dog the effects of 
the juice of a pound of tubers, collected by Dr Pereira on the 16th 
December from the locality of Woolwich; and that no effect, or an 
exceeding slight one only, was produced. 

It was farther observed, that, according to an analysis executed 
in 1830 by MM. Pihan-Duteilay and Cormerais, the activity of the 
roots in French plants depends upon a resin. On proceeding to try 
upon a rabbit the effects of the resin, obtained by their process from 
the Woolwich plants, the author found that, when the resin from 
eight ounces avoirdupois, amounting to 24 grains, was introduced in 
the state of emulsion into the cellular tissue, the animal died in 78 


358 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


minutes, after being affected with a remarkable combination of tetanic 
spasm and convulsions: but that no effect whatever was produced 


by the resinous extract from the same quantity of roots obtained 


about the same season of the year (midwinter) from the Dalmeny 
cenanthe, near Edinburgh. 

He concluded this notice with an account of some experiments on 
the chemical analysis of cenanthe, observing that he had failed to 
obtain any principle from the Dalmeny seeds or root, by a process 
analogous to that by which conia is obtained from hemlock; and 
that the alcoholic extract of the Woolwich plants, distilled with solu- 
tion of potash, yielded, like hemlock, a little oleaginous-like fluid, 
which was too minute in quantity for him to ascertain its properties 
accurately, but which, on the whole, seemed a volatile oil, and not 
an alkaloid. 


Monday, 19th February 1844. 
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

1. On the cellular Fibre and the Incrusting Matters of 
Plants. By Mr P. F. H. Fromberg. Communicated by 
Professor Johnston. 

2. On aremarkable Oscillation of the Sea observed at various 
places on the coasts of Great Britain, in the first week 
of July 1843. By David Milne, Esq. 


This phenomenon was observed on the 5th July and three follow- 
ing days. It did not occur on all parts of the coast of Great Bri- 
tain. In England, it was observed only on the south shores of 
Cornwall and Devonshire. In Scotland, it was observed on the 
east coast ; and there it was seen at a great many places, between 
Eyemouth in Berwickshire and the Shetland Islands. 

It was only on the 5th of July that the oscillation occurred on 
the Cornish and Devonshire coasts. It prevailed on the Scottish 
coast, however, from the 5th to the 7th July inclusive. 

The phenomenon consisted of a flux and reflux of the sea, beyond 
what could be accounted for by ordinary tides, or any wind prevail- 
ing at the time. The water suddenly rose up and sunk down from 


2 to 5 feet in perpendicular height, producing effects more or less ~ 


striking, according to the shelving character of the shore, 

In regard to the cause of the phenomenon, various had been the 
surmises ; though the general impression seemed to be, that it was 
produced by distant submarine earthquakes. 

The author stated that he could not acquiesce in this view, and 
gave his reasons for saying so. 


ee eee 


te 


Se ee el 


Mr Milne on Oceanic Oscillations. 359 


In order to obtain a wider field of induction, he referred to for- 
mer instances of oceanic oscillations, and shewed that they were 
almost always accompanied with considerable atmospheric disturb- 
ances, 

He then proceeded to give an account of a remarkable storm of 
wind accompanied by thunder, lightning, and hail, which had tra- 
versed the British Islands on the 5th of July, appearing first in the 
SW. of England, and passing through the midland counties, tra- 
verSing the south-east parts of Scotland, and going off about the 
Aberdeenshire coast. 

By the lightning and large hail-stones accompanying this storm, 
much damage to property, as well as loss of life, had occurred. 
At Sheffield, the barometer was, during the passage of the storm, 
observed to sink suddenly about an inch. 

The storm appeared to have rotated, and in the usual way,—Viz. 
in a direction contrary to that of the hands of a watch,—of which 
proofs were given. 

The author then suggested, that the oscillations in question were 
probably produced by this storm. The parts of the coast where they 
were observed, coincided with the direction in which the storm moved. 
The fact that the oscillations on the Cornish and Devonshire coasts 
commenced before the storm arrived there, so far from being hostile 
to, supported this-view ; for if waves were created by the storm, as 
it approached Great Britain, these waves would advance more rapidly 
than the storm, which appeared to move northwards at the rate of 
from 70 to 80 miles per hour,—whereas the similar waves produced 
by the two Lisbon earthquakes had moved forward at a rate of from 
120 to 130 miles per hour. 

As to the way in which waves could be produced on the surface 
of the ocean, sufficient to produce the fluxes and refluxes in ques- 
tion, it was observed— 

(1.) That the wind, by its mere mechanical pressure, was capable 
of heaping up, over a large expanse, a considerable body of water. 
By the force of the south or south-west blasts in the storm, the sea 
would be elevated, and waves would thereby be formed, which would 
move forward before the storm towards the south coast of England. 

(2.) That the level of the ocean rises in proportion to the fall of 
the barometer ; so that if, as there was every reason to suppose, this 
storm was accompanied in its track by a diminution of atmospheri- 
cal weight, waves almost commensurate in extent with the diameter 
of the storm would be formed. 

In either or in both of these ways, the sea may have been, and 
probably was, so affected on the Sth, 6th, and 7th July 18438, as to 
produce the ebbing and flowing which was observed on certain parts 
of the coasts of Great Britain. 


360 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


Monday; 4th March 1844. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, President, Bart., in the Chair: 


The following Communication was read :— 


On the Human Races in Britain, enumerated by Tacitus, 
By Dr Hibbert Ware. 


This memoir had. been undertaken as preliminary to an ethnolo- 
gical inquiry which the author had proposed to institute into the 
aborigines of the British Islands. It was premised, that in this en- 
deavour to seek for ancient races in those which were modern, great 
caution is required. 

It has been asked, if, at the present day, we can as readily dis- 
tinguish an Iberian type from one that is Gaulish or Caledonian, as 
was done more than seventeen hundred years ago in the time of 
Tacitus? It is answered, that, by a conservative principle in our 
nature, directed to the persistency of types, the influences of Time, 
Climate, and Civilization, are rendered of little avail. And, even in 
a mixture or crossing of races, there is an interposition of preserving 
laws made in favour of mutually approximating types, such as those 
of Europe. For instance, when two or more races are mingled to- 
gether in different proportions, it is expected that the type of the 
minority will eventually become merged in that of the majority. 
But whether, in accelerating or postponing such a result, it will be 
found that, among all animals, nature exercises a sort of discretion- 


ary power under three varied circumstances: 1st, When races. 


widely differ from each other ; 2d, When races are in a less degree 
remote; and, 3d, When races, like those of Britain, or Europe in 
general, approximate closely to each other. . These three circum- 
stances the author discussed in succession. 

1st, When races widely differ from each other, as in the crossing 
of the horse and the ass. In this case, nature has ever declared, 
that a debased or intermediate breed shall not be perpetuated. 

2d, When races are in a less degree remote. In this example 
nature acts with uniformity, as in the crossing of the spaniel with 
the greyhound, &c. ; and, among the human species, in the mixture 
of European and black races. In any one of these instances, there 
is no Incapacity in the progeny to perpetuate its breed; but it will 
be found that the principle directed to the persistence of races gra- 
dually restores, in the course of a few generations, the purity of any 
one of the types which may have been contaminated by mixture, 
while the other type, in the mean time, is doomed to extinction. 

3d, When races approximate closely to each other, as when 
spaniels (of which there are divers breeds) are crossed among 
themselves, and the same of white and grey mice, the result shews 
that, in the progeny, the types of a paternal or maternal stock are 


a ee ee he oe 


ee, = 


~~) = eee 


a, ay a ee Pe 


Dr H. Ware on Ancient British Races. 361 


less liable to occur in an intermediate, than in a perfectly dis- 
tinct form ; or, in other words, that there is a less tendency to a 
fusion than to a separation of types. For instance; in the Western 
Highlands of Scotland, which were peopled in succession by the 
dark-haired Gacl, and the flaxen-haired Scandinavian, there is, in 
the descendants, less a mixture than a separation of the types ; 
the progeny of many families of the peasantry illustrating the dis- 
tinctness with which Gaelic and Scandinavian characters are repro- 
duced in cases where the paternal and maternal types differ from 
each other. 

In bringing forward these illustrations, it was far from being 
argued that a progeny did not often exhibit an intermediate charac- 
ter, derived from the two races of a paternal and maternal stock ; it 
was simply urged that a separation of types is equally, if not more 
common; and that, when a sort of intermediate character is ac- 
tually derived from two European races, it is not necessarily per- 
petuated to a future progeny. On the contrary, a pure and distinct 
type, even though rendered, for a generation or two, intermediate 
and obscure, is often revived, with all its primitive decision of cha- 
racter. 

The author, lastly, availed himself of the occasion to state, that 
the laws which appertained to the characters of races, hold good also 
with individual distinctions ; and that nature seemed far more in- 
tent upon perpetuating through successive generations, what might 
be named the type of the individual or person, than upon produc- 
ing intermediate likenesses, referred (often fancifully) to two types, 
paternal and maternal. 

From all these observations, it was concluded, that, although in 
every society of mixed races the type of the minority had a ten- 
dency to become merged, or to disappear in that of the majority, 
yet that, by the interposition of relaxed laws, made in favour of 
the mixture of two or more approximating races, such a result 
(in the absence of exterminating wars, famine, or pestilence), may 
be postponed to an incalculable period of time; and, as an ulti- 
mate consequence, that the discovery of ancient European races 
in those which are modern, is a reasonable expectation not likely to 
be frustrated. 

After these observations, the author proceeded to the chief object 
of the Memoir, which was to explain, on ethnological principles, the 
ancient British races enumerated by Tacitus. These were, 1st, the 
Caledonians—* the red hair of those who inhabit Caledonia, and 
their large limbs, bespeak a German origin ;” 2d, the Gauls— 
“© those who are nearest to the Gauls are also similar to them ;” 
and, 3d, the Iberians, indicated by their swarthy features and their 
curled hair. 

The following exhibits a classification of the modern British races, 


362 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


with which the author compared those enumerated by Tacitus ; but 
the description of them does not admit of abridgment. 


(A.) RAcES REFERRIBLE TO THE LicHT-HAIRED GERMAN STOCK. 


Under the common title German, it was supposed that three races, 
and possibly a fourth, might be included. 

(a) The Teutonic race.—To this race the description given of 
the Germans by Tacitus was supposed to apply exclusively. This 
type the author stated to be found in Scotland and the north of 
England. 

(6) The Scandinavian race-—This type was described by the 
author as it occurs in Orkney and Shetland, in the North and West 
Highlands of Scotland, and in Ireland. 

(c) The Anglo-Frisian race-—The type prevails in the south 
and midland districts of England, but diminishes in the northern 
counties and in Scotland. 

(d) The Pictish race.—The author has not yet had leisure to 
verify his suspicion, that there exists, in certain Scottish districts, 
another German race, to which, possibly, the description given of the 
Picts by Adamnan and various early writers, may apply. 


(B.) Tue Darx-Hatrep Raczs or Europe. 


Between the light-haired and dark-haired races of Europe consti- 
tutional differences exist ; the former shewing the sanguine, and the 
latter the melancholic temperament. In the female constitution the 
diversity is still more apparent. Under the dark-haired races are 
included (a) the Cymric ; (b) the Gaulish ; (c) the Iberian. Tacitus 
merely distinguishes the two latter ; but, under the term Galli of the 
ancients, two distinct races are included; and when the Romans al- 
luded to the gigantic stature of the Gauls, the description could only 
apply to the Cymric race, variously named Cimmerii, Cimbri, and 
Ombri, who were contemporary with the Gauls. 

(a) The Cymric race.—This was the type of the ancient Britons 
in the time of Tacitus, as well as of the Belgz and Armorici in Gaul. 
It was also, that of the Fir-bolgs (Viri Bolgz) of Ireland. 

(b) The Gaulish or Gallic race ; also. named Celtic,—a name 
which M. Thierry has proved to be merely a local one applied to an 
armed confederation of Gauls. The type was that of a third part of 
Gaul; and, in the time of Tacitus, it distinguished the population of 
Ireland, part, of Wales, and perhaps a few. limited districts of Cale- 
donia. 

(c) The Iberian race.—This type is still to. be studied in the: 
ancient Silurian district of Tacitus, particularly in the counties. of: 
Monmouth and Brecon. Hitherto the characters of this: race have. 
not been defined ; which blank in ethnology it was one of the lead- 
ing objects of the present memoir to supply ;—while another, yet 


Dr H. Ware on the Aborigines of Britain. 363 


an ultimate one, was to shew, that the Iberian tribes are to be con- 
sidered as the aborigines of the British Islands, as well as of Spain, 
Treland, Gaul, and Italy. 


Monday, 18th March 1844. 
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

1. On the Existence of an Osseous Structure in the Verte- 
bral Column of Cartilaginous Fishes. By James Stark, 
M.D., F.R.S.E. 

2. Farther Observations on Glaciers, by Professor Forbes. 


Monday, 1st April 1844. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, President, Bart., in the Chair. 

The following communications were read :— 

1. On the Development, Structure, and Economy of the Ace- 
phalocysts of Authors ; with an Account of the Natural 
Analogies of the Entozoa in general. By Harry D. 8. 
Goodsir, Conservator of the Museum of the Royal Coll. 
Surg. Edin. Communicated by John Goodsir, Esq. 

2. Account of a Repetition of Dr Samuel Brown’s Processes 
for the Conversion of Carbon into Silicon. By George 
Wilson, M.D., Lecturer on Chemistry; and John Crombie 
Brown, Esq. Communicated by the Secretary. 


3. On Dr Mathew Stewart’s General Theorems. By T. S. 
Davies, Esq., F.R.S.E. 


Monday, 15th March 1844. 
Very Rey. Principal LEE, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 
1. Inquiry into the Aborigines of the British Islands. Part 2: 


On the claims of the Cymric and Gaelic races to be thus 
considered. By Dr S. Hibbert Ware. 


In the first part of the present memoir, it was shewn that Cesar 
divided Gaul into three parts, of which one was inhabited by the 
Belge, another by those who, in their own language, were called 
Celt, but who, by the Romans, were named Gauls, and a third by 
the Aquitani. These three nations, according to the Roman his- 
torian, differed from each other in language, customs, and laws; but 


364 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


it was remarked by the author, that they also differed from each 
other in physical characters,—the Belgz possessing what is named 
a Cymric type, the Gauls proper a Gaulish type, and the Aquitani 
an Iberian type. All these three races were to be distinguished 
from the zanthous, light-haired, Germanic tribes of the West of 
Europe, not only by the dark colour of the hair and eyes, but by 
other particulars, as the form of the head, &c. 

The present memoir was confined to (1st), the Cymric race, and 
(2dly), the Gaelic race. 

(1st), The Cymric race—The physiological distinction of Cymric 
and Gaelic races was first established by the late Dr W. F. Edwards, 
in his memoir ‘‘ Des Caractéres Physiologiques des Races d’Humain.” 
The Cymric head is long, and often failing in width. The forehead 
is large and high ; the nose curved, with the extremity depressed, 
and the nasal ailes raised or turned up; the chin strongly marked 
and prominent, and the stature tall. It was also explained by the 
author that these physical characters were associated with a distinct 
moral type. 

It was argued, in the present memoir, that the Cymri had no 
real pretensions whatever to consider themselves (as in the ancient 
British triads) a primitive race in Britain. In tracing their pro- 
gress from their oriental sojourning place to the remote west, they 
appear to have taken possession of no ground in any part of Europe 
which had not been preoccupied by other races. The author, in 
the course of arriving at this conclusion, gave the following historical 
account of the Cymri. 

Sogdiana and Bactriana appear to have been the cradle of this 
_ race. At the present day, the Cymric type may be identified 
among the wandering tribes of Beloochistan, of which the author 
had evidence in some very accurate drawings, executed for him by 
his late son, during the expedition of Lord Keane. 

The course of Cymric migration from east to west, was inferred 
by ihe occasional light which history affords of the physical cha- 
racters of this early race, aided also by philological tests. The 
Cymric type is to be detected among some of the tribes anciently 
dwelling between the Caspian and Euxine seas, and in certain 
Eygptian sculptures, as figured by Rosellini, of the Feccaro (named 
by Wilkinson, Tokkari) dwelling, in the time of Rameses the Third, 
not far from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Various 
kinds of evidence also demonstrate, that the Cymri are to be traced, 
during their westerly migration, in Persia, along the shores of. the 
Black Sea, in Greece, in Italy, and in the tracts watered by the 
Danube and the Rhine. They again appear as confederated 
tribes, known by the appellation of Boii, and Belge. Under the 
name of Fir-bolgs (Viri Bolgz), they peopled Ireland, and, in occupy- 
ing England and Scotland, they were lastly driven, by Saxon inroads, 
to the mountainous recesses of Wales. Various details of the greater 


Dr H. Ware on the Aborigines of Britain. 365 


or less prevalence of the Cymric type, as it is to be traced in these 
different countries, were supplied by the author. 

(Qdly), The Gaulish, or Gaelic races,—According to Dr Edwards, 
the head is round, so as to approach in a manner to a spherical 
form ; the forehead is moderate, a little swelled out, and retreating 
towards the temples; the eyes are large and open; the nose, in 
tracing it from the depression at its origin, is nearly straight, or 
without any marked curvature, and rounded at the extremity; the 
chin is also rounded. Lastly, the height is moderate; which, as 
Thierry, in his Histoire des Gaulois, first shewed, is an important 
historical distinction : for whenever the Romans spoke of the gigantic 
height of the Gauls, they meant their Cymric, and not their Gaelic 
foes. It was also explained that the moral type of the Gauls 
differed much from that of the Cymric race. 

In considering the claims of the Gaelic race to be ranked as 
aboriginal in Britain, the author entered upon two questions, (#) 
their original sojourning place, and (b) their course of migration. 

(a) The Asiatic cradle of the Gaelic race.—The author, after 
noticing the suspicion of Baron Larrey, that Arabia was to be thus 
considered, as well as the various opinions on this subject, advanced 
by Vallancey, Dr O’Conor, Sir William Betham, and others, was 
inclined to believe that the primitive Gauls were a polished and 
civilized people, originally dwelling on the eastern coast of the 
Mediterranean, who, as maritime adventurers, visited the west of 
Europe on objects of traffic, particularly for the sake of the precious 
metals. He did not consider it as necessary to this opinion, that 
they should be identified with the Phoenicians, or any other nation 
equally maritime ; but left this question to be determined by more 
satisfactory evidence than has hitherto been adduced, resulting from 
a comparison of physical characters. It was also observed, that the 
leading physical characters of the Gael, namely, the form of the 
head and features, appear in the figures of certain sculptured 
monuments of the very early period of Rameses the Third, which, 
from a discordancy in other respects, have greatly puzzled both 
Champollion, and Rosellini. These figures of a civilized people, 
richly attired, are referred to inhabitants of Canaan or its confines. 

(b) The course of Gaelic migration to the West—The author was 
disposed to consider, that evidence of the westerly course of Gaelic 
migration might probably be found in the commercial settlements 
which early maritime tribes may have formed on the Mediterranean 
coasts and islands. He, accordingly, adverted to the remark of 
Baron Larrey, relative to the identity of the western Arabs with 
Gaulish races,—to the assertion of Gesenius, that the Numidian 
language was a pure, or very nearly pure, Hebrew, such as was 
spoken by the ancient Canaanites or Phoenicians,—and to various 
Clyclopean structures in Malta, on the African coast, and elsewhere, 
similar to those which characterise the westerly countries of the 


366 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


Gael. But the author dwelt most upon the account of the Tur- 
ditani of Spain, as given by Pliny, to whom on early introduction of 
letters was ascribed, together with the use of valuable works of art 
wrought in the precious metals, resembling such as are constantly 
discovered in Ireland, which indicate the very early state of civil- 
ization in this country. The author then entered into a detailed 
description, from personal observation, of the greater or less fre- 
quency of the Gaelic type in France, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales ; 
and of the causes to which its disappearance in many extensive dis- 
tricts might have been attributable. 

After these explanations, the general question was considered,— 
What race ought to be regarded as aboriginal in the British islands ? 
Llwyd had long since shewn, from the language of topography, that 
the Gauls had preceded the Cymri in the occupation of Britain. But 
it was asked,—if there might not have been a still earlier race exist- 
ing in this country than the maritime and commercial Gauls ? 

To this question an answer was given in the affirmative. Taci- 
tus, in his enumeration of British races, has suggested, that an an- 
cient Iberian stock, remarkable for a swarthy complexion and curled 
hair, might have passed over and occupied the seat of the Silures (in 
South Wales) ;—a British tribe, with whom he was disposed to iden- 
tify this primitive race of Spain. 

It was then stated, that the author had collected abundant evi- 
dence which leads to the conclusion, that an Iberian, or Aquitanian 
race, was an older one in Britain than either of the two whose pre- 
tensions he had discussed ; but that it would be in vain to establish 
their aboriginal claims, unless the history of the Cymri and the 
Gael, in reference not only to their Asiatic sojourning place, but also 
to their westerly course of migration, was well understood. He, 
lastly, expressed his hope, that, if the aboriginal claim of the Ibe- 
rian race meet with confirmation, some light would be thrown upon 
the fossil bones of the human species which are found in caves, or 
buried deep in strata of peat, occasionally associated with the remains 
of animals now extinct, which have had an existence prior even to the 
records of history. 


2. On the Knowledge of Distance given by Binocular Visions. 
By Sir David Brewster, K.H. 


Monday, 6th May 1844. 
Dr ABERCROMBIE, V.P., in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 


1. On the Conversion of Relief by Inverted Vision. By Sir 
David Brewster, K.H. 
2. On the Geology of Cockburn-Law and its Neighbourhood. 


I i le ae eee 


Geology of Cockburn- Law. 367 


By William Stevenson, Dunse. Communicated by David 
Milne, Esq. 


The author, in the first part of his paper, described the nature of 
the formations, and in the last part offered his views in explanation 
of the appearances. 

In describing the formations, he enumerated, first, those of aqueous, 
and last those of igneous origin. 

I. The former consist of the greywacke, the old red sandstone, 
and the coal formation. 

(1.) The greywacke strata form the summit of Cockburn-Law, 
having a strike about NE. and SW. nearly vertical. There appears 
to be no decided evidence of any organic remains in these strata ;— 
there are curious markings which are most probably only concretion- 
ary. At Hoardwheel, situated to the eastward of Cockburn-Law, 
two varieties of copper ore are found in the greywacke, the green 
and the grey, the former of which is the most plentiful, and imparts 
a beautiful hue to some of the rocks. The oxide of manganese is also 
widely diffused. 

(2.) The old red sandstone strata lie over the vertical strata of 
the greywacke. At a distance from the hills they are generally ho- 
rizontal, or dip away at a gentle angle ;—but at the sides of the hills 
they are highly inclined. These old red sandstones are extensively 
developed in Preston Haugh. The lowest bed consists of both angu- 
lar and roundish greywacke and porphyritic portions. The colour of 
this formation is, especially towards its base, of a red colour. 

It is in this formation, that the bones, teeth, scales, and spines of 
the Holoptichius nobilissimus, a large ganoid fish, are found. These 
interesting relics are very abundant in the strata opposite to Cock- 
burn Mill, and also about half a mile below it, on the right bank of 
the Whitadder. 

(3.) The strata of the coal-formation lie above the old red sandstone 
rocks in a conformable position. They are to be seen in the Whit- 
adder, below Preston Bridge, and consist of the ordinary sandstones, 
shales, and strata of ironstone. The only fossils prevailing in them 
are those of terrestrial vegetables. 

II. The Igneous rocks were divided by the author into two classes 
—one of which he described as the Felspathic, the other as the 
Augitic. 

(1.) The Felspathic rocks comprehend all those igneous rocks 
associated with the greywacke strata, consisting of the granites, 
and syenites, and old porphyries of Cockburn-Law, the Staneshiel, 
the Knock Hill, Blackerstone Hill, &c. 

(2.) The Augitic trap-rocks exist almost entirely among the more 
recent aqueous rocks, viz., the old red sandstones and coal-measures. 
They are seldom or never seen within the range of the greywacke 
formation, at least in this neighbourhood. 


368. Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


These augitic traps exist both in the form of narrow dykes, and in 
that of great masses constituting hills. Of the former, the Cum- 
ledge trap-dyke is a good example. _ It is seen in the bed of Oxen- 
dean Burn at Cumledge House, and there forms an amygdaloidal 
greenstone, abounding in veins of zeolite, steatite, and other mine- 
rals. The width of the dyke at this place is about ten yards, The 
average direction of the dyke is NNW. and SSE. It has had the 
effect, as usual, of hardening the strata on each side of it. This dyke 
- has been traced by the author for a considerable distance, running 
through both the old red sandstone and coal formations. It ap- 
pears also to reach into the granite of the Staneshiel and Cockburn- 
Law, 

An amygdaloidal trap is to be seen on the left bank of the Whit- 
adder, below Cockburn Mill, forming a bed of about four feet thick, 
and lying above the old red sandstone strata. There are large ac- 
cumulations of greenstone at Borthwick and Castle Mains. Dunse- 
law is also composed of basalt. 

In the second part of his paper, the author shewed that the granite 
and other felspathic rocks were formed before the deposition of the 
old red sandstones, and the trap-rocks after the deposition of the 
coal-measures, 

Mr Stevenson’s paper was illustrated by a geognostical map, as 
well as by numerous sections. 


3. Notice regarding the Indian Grass Oil, or Oil of Andropo- 
gon Calamus-aromaticus. By Thomas G. Tilley, Phil. D, 
Communicated by Dr Christison. 


Monday, 2d December 1844. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

1. Account of the late Earthquake at Demerara. By W. H. 
Campbell, Esq. Communicated by M. Ponton, Esq. 

2. On the Existence of an Electrical Apparatus in the Flapper 
Skate and other Rays. By James Stark, M.D., Fellow 
of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. 

3. Observations on the Comet, visible now or lately in the 
Constellation of the Whale. By C. Rumker, Esq. Com- 
municated by Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart. 


Monday, 16th December 1844. 
Sir GEO. MACKENZIE, Bart., in the Chair, 


The following Communications were read :— 


ll iti i 


Doubly Refracting Structure of Topaz. 369 


1. On a Possible Explanation of the Adaptation of the Kye to 
Distinct Vision at Different Distances. By Profes- 
sor Forbes. 

2. Notice of an Ancient Beach near Stirling. By Charles 
Maclaren, Esq. 


Monday, 6th January 1845. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 
1. Farther Remarks on the Electrical Organs of the Rays. 
By Dr Stark. 
2. Observations on the same subject. By John Goodsir, Esq. 
3. On the Cause which has produced the Present Form 
and Condition of the Earth’s Surface. By Sir George 
Mackenzie, Bart. 


Monday, 20th January 1845. 
The Right Reverend Bishop TERROT, V. P., in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 

1, Some Account of the Magnetic Observatory at Makerstoun, 
and of the Observations made there. By J. A. Broun, 
Esq. Communicated by Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart. 

2. Description of a Sliding Scale for Facilitating the Use of 

the Moist-bulb Hygrometer. By James Dalmahoy, Esq. 

3. Account of Experiments to Measure the Direct Force of 
the Waves of the Atlantic and German Oceans. By 
Thomas Stevenson. Communicated by David Stevenson, 
Kisq. 

4. A Verbal Communication in regard to Chevalier’s Expe- 
riments on the Decomposition of certain Salts of Lead 
by Charcoal. By Dr Traill. 


Monday, 3d February 1845. 
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair. 
The following Communications were read :— 


1. On a Peculiar Modification of the Doubly Refracting 
Structure of Topaz. By Sir D. Brewster, K.H. 


While exaaiining, in polarised light, some of the crystals which 
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845, 2A 


370 Proceedings of the Royal Society. 


he had discovered in Topaz, the author observed certain optical phe- 
nomena, depending on a peculiarity of structure. This peculiarity is 
manifestedeither in the depolarisation of light, when it gives rise to four 
quadrants of light, separated by the radiiof ablack rectangular cross si- 
milar to the central portion, or the tints of the first order in the uni- 
axal system of polarised rings, or in the unequal refraction of com- 
mon light, which gives rise to the mirage of a luminous point, in the 
form of concentric circles surrounding the centre of force. In every 
case there was found a quadrangular cavity in the centre of the in- 
tersection of the cross, generally dark and opaque, but in one case 
having a luminous spot in the centre. These cavities are from the 
sooo to the 7,55 of an inch in diameter. 

These cavities are quite distinct from all those formerly described 
by the author ; and from the phenomena above described, he con- 
cludes that the contents of each cavity have exerted an elastic force 
on the surrounding mineral while in a plastic state. In some cases 
fissures are seen proceeding from the central cavities, but these are 
supposed to have been produced after the mineral had become indu- 
rated, and had already been subjected, in the plastic state, to the 
pressure or force above indicated. 

These cavities never accompany the cavities with two fluids, but 
occur in specimens containing numerous embedded erystals, differ- 
ing little from Topaz in refracting power. 

Since the mineral must have been plastic when it yielded to the 
pressure here noticed, it cannot have been formed by the aggrega~- 
tion of molecules having the primary form of the crystal. 

These considerations, along with others connected with the crys- 
tals, which oceur in the cavities of Topaz, have led the author to 
adopt the idea of a new and peculiar kind of crystallization, to which 
he will soon direct attention. 


2. Extracts from Letters to the General Secretary, on the 
Analogy of the Structure of some Voleanic Rocks with 
that of Glaciers. By C. Darwin, Esq., F.R.S. Specimens 
were exhibited. With Observations on the same sub- 
ject, made by Professor Forbes. 


“I take the liberty of addressing you, knowing how much you 
are interested on the subject of your discovery of the veined struc- 
ture of glacierice. I have a specimen (from Mr Stokes’s collection) 
of Mexican obsidian, which, judging from your description, must 
resemble, to a considerable degree, the zoned ice. It is zoned with 
quite straight parallel lines, like an agate; and these zones, as far 
as I can see under the microscope, appear entirely due to the greater 
or lesser number of excessively minute, flattened air cavities. I can- 
not avoid suspecting that in this case, and in many others, in which 


Structure of Volcanic Rocks and Glaciers. 371 


lava of the trachytic series (generally of very imperfect fluidity) are 
laminated, that the structure is due to the stretching of the mass or 
stream during its movement, as in the ice-streams of glaciers. * * 7 

“If the subject of the lamination of volcanic rocks should interest 
you, L would venture to ask you to refer to p. 65-72 of my small 
volume of ‘ Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands.’* I there 


* The laminated, volcanic rocks of Ascension, consist, as described 
by Mr Darwin, of excessively thin, quite parallel layers of minute crystals 
of quartz (determined by Professor Miller) and diopside ; of atoms of an 
oxide of iron, and of an amorphous, black augitic mineral ; and, lastly, 
of amore or less pure felspathic stone, with perfect crystals of felspar 
placed lengthways. The following is a portion of the passage referred to : 
—‘‘ Several causes appear capable of producing zones of different tension 
in masses semiliquified by heat. In afragment of devitrified glass I have 
observed layers of spherulites, which appeared, from the manner in 
which they were abruptly bent, to have been produced by the simple 
contraction of the mass in the vessel in which it cooled. In certain 
dykes on Mount Attna, described by M. Elie de Beaumont, as bordered 
by alternating bands of scoriaceous and compact rock, one is led to sup- 
pose that the stretching movement of the surrounding strata; which ori- 
ginally produced the fissures, continued, whilst the injected rock remained 

uid. Guided, however, by Professor Forbes’s clear description of the 
zoned structure of glacier ice, far the most probable explanation of the 
laminated structure of these felspathic rocks appears to be, that they 
haye been stretched, whilst slowly flowing onwards in a pasty condition, 
in precisely the same manner, as Professor Forbes believes, that the ice 
of moving glaciers is stretched and fissured. In both cases, the zones 
may be compared to those in the finest agates ; in both, they extend in 
the direction in which the mass has flowed, and those exposed on the 
surface are generally vertical. In the ice, the porous lamine are rendered 
distinct by the subsequent congelation of infiltrated water ; in the stony 
felspathic lavas by subsequent crystalline and concretionary action. 
The fragment of glassy obsidian in Mr Stokes’s collection, which is zoned 
with minute air-cells, must strikingly resemble, judging from Professor: 
Forbes’s description, a fragment of the zoned ice; and if the rates of 
cooling and the nature of the mass had been favourable to its erystalliza- 
tion, or to concretionary action, we should here have had the finest pa- 
rallel zones of different composition and texture. In glaciers, the lines of 
porous ice and of minute crevices seem to be due to an incipient stretch- 
ing, caused by the central parts of the frozen stream moving faster than 
the sides and bottom, which are retarded by friction. Hence, in glaciers 
of certain form, and towards the lower end of most glaciers, the zones 
become horizontal. May we venture to suppose that, in the felspathic 
lavas with horizontal laminee, we see an analogous case? All geologists 
who have examined trachytic regions have come to the conclusion, that 
the lavas of this series have possessed an exceedingly imperfect fluidity ; 
and as it is evident that only matter thus characterized would be subject 
to become fissured, and to be formed into zones of different tensions, 
in the manner here supposed, we probably see the reason why augitic 
lavas, which appear, generally, to have possessed a higher degree of 
fluidity, are not, like the felspathic lavas, divided into lamine of differ- 


_ ent composition and texture. Moreover, in the augitie series, there 


never appears to be any tendency to that kind of concretionary action, 
which, we have seen, plays an important part in the lamination of 
rocks of the trachytic series, or, at least, in rendering that structure ap- 
parent.” 


372 Proceedings of the Royat Society. 


throw out the idea, that the structure in question may perhaps be 
explained by your views on the zoned structure of glacier ice, the 
layers of less tension being, in the case of the Ascension obsidian 
rocks, rendered apparent, chiefly by the crystalline and concretionary 
action superinduced in them, instead of, as in zoned ice, by the con- 
gelation of water. “ = * 

‘«« How singular it at first appears, that your discoveries in the 
structure of glacier ice should explain the structure, as I fully believe 
they will, of many volcanic masses. I, for one, have for years been 
quite confounded whenever I thought of the lamination of rocks which 
have flowed in a liquified state. Will your views throw any light 
on the primary laminated rocks? The lamine certainly seem very 
generally parallel to the lines of disturbance and movement, Be- 
lieve me, &c. C. Darwin.” 


To Professor l'ORBES. 


Professor Forbes confirmed the previous remarks by others, made 
by himself on the specimens transmitted to him by Mr Darwin, and 
on specimens from Lipari and Iceland in the collection of the Royal 
Society, as well as by direct observations made by himself on the 
lava streams of AXtna. 


3. Professor Forbes then read the following Letter from 
Professor Gordon, of Glasgow, also on the subject of 
the Viscous Theory of Glaciers. 


GuLasGow, January 31. 1845, 


* * * When you requested me to give you a memorandum of 


what appeared to me to be the very glacier-like motion and appearance 
of Stockholm pitch flowing from a barrel, I considered my observation 
to have been too casual to be worth writing, and having foreseen that 
I could arrange an experiment at Gateshead in the beginning of the 
year, I delayed giving you the memorandum you wished. I had 
hoped to have been able to inspect and report on my experiment 
about this time ; but I cannot go to Gateshead for some time to come, 
nor have I had any report of the progress of my pitch glacier since 
the 6th January, when I was informed it had not moved since the 
day after I left it, on the 28th December. Your note of yesterday 
induces me to offer you the following still perfectly vivid impressions 
of the analogy between ice and Stockholm pitch. 

Allow me, in the first place, to mention that I read your travels in 
the Alps, in May last ; and that on the 24th of June I spent almost 
20 hours on the glaciers of the Grindelwald. I went up by the 
lower glacier, prepared with poles to prove the motion, and actually 
observed a progress of about 12 inches in the course of 13 hours, 
from 6 a.M. to 7 p.m. I traced the “dirt bands” on the surface. 


OSS S—“<—~;PSPhté‘(C;C;SCS 


On the Viscous Theory of Glaciers. 373 


I was let down into several crevasses, one of them to a depth of 30 
fect, and could trace the slaty st»uctwre of the ice, the alternate 
clear blue thin veins, and the transition to opaque grey or even 
white. I descended from the glacier with a much better appreciation 
of the theory of glaciers than I had had, and a strong conviction 
that the facts I had observed, could not be otherwise accounted for 
than by the mechanical theory you have given. In passing through 
Gateshead in August, a broken headed barrel of Stockholm pitch at 
the Wire Rope Factory, attracted my attention. Its general appear- 
ance is represented in Fig. 1.* 

A mass of Stockholm pitch broken from a barrel in August (at 
the time of the observations I am about to mention) presented a dark- 
brown colour, a glassy lustre, translucent edges. The substance is 
fragile, fracture conchoidal, and very uniform. A mass, Fig. 4., 
which was brought to me by the workman having charge of this 
department, and which he had broken from the end of such a 
stream as I have represented coming from the barrel, presented 
generally the same appearance as a mass broken from an entire 
barrel,j but had this remarkable peculiarity, that there were lines 
—structural lines, a a «a a—whose texture and colour were dif- 
ferent from the general colour of the mass recognisable on such 
points as b b b, between any two such structural lines. 

Fig 2. is an elevation of the stream of pitch, shewing pretty 
nearly the dimensions and outward appearance of the stream. The 
striated slaty structure appears here on the outside, as is more dis- 
tinctly (intended to be) shewn in Fig. 3, ‘There were certain well- 
defined lines, and on either side of these for some little distance, 
other small lines or cracks (but not open cracks or fissures), and then 
a space of smooth glassy-looking pitch. 

I am strongly impressed with the idea, that the structural lines 
are a result of the motion, and that they correspond with the veins 
of glaciers. The lines incline most when the surface is steepest, as 
at h, Fig. 3., and are very faint and nearly horizontal at 7, where 
the surface of the stream is nearly so too. I left Gateshead with- 
out having an opportunity of getting a sectional view of this stream. 
I can get no real Stockholm pitch in Glasgow, else I should have 
made the experiment you have incited me to attempt here. I am, &c. 

Lewis Gorpon. 

Yo Professor FORBES. 


* The numbers refer to drawings sent by Professor Gordon to Pro- 


fessor Forbes. 
+ The pitch is fragile at the same time that it fows.—L.G,. 


( 3874 ) 


Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society. 


On 23d Noy. 1844 this Society commenced its thirty- 
eighth session, and appointed office-bearers for 1845. Pro- 
fessor Jameson was re-elected president; Professor Traill, 
Dr Greville, and Dr Brunton, were elected vice-presidents ; 
Dr C. Anderson, W. Copland, Esq., Harry D. 8. Goodsir, 
Esq., and Dr Coldstream, were chosen of the Council; Dr 
Neill, and T. J. Torrie, Esq., joint-secretaries; and the 
other office-bearers, were re-elected. 


Jan. 25,—Professor Jameson, P., in the Chair. A communica- 
tion from Dr John Dayy on the Nature and Qualities of Guano 
was read; and also a paper by Mr Rhind on the Transport of 
Erratic Blocks. Numerous donations to the Society’s library were 
announced. 

Feb. 8.—Professor Jameson, P,, in the Chair. Dr Traill read 
the first part of a paper on the Characters and Classification of 
Serpents. At the same meeting Mr John Goodsir gave a particu- 
lar descriptive account of a minute entozoon infesting the spinal 
nerves of the Gadidz ; and which he exhibited in a recent specimen 
of haddock. As the cells of this parasite had long ago been 
figured by Dr Monro secundus, in his great work on the Nervous 
System, Mr Goodsir proposed to name the animal Neuronoia 
Monroii. 

Feb. 22.—Dr C. Anderson in the chair. Dr Traill communi- 
cated the second part of his paper on Serpents, illustrating the fa- 
milies, genera, and species, by an extensive series of well pre- 
served specimens. 

Mar. 15.—Dr W. Macdonald in the chair. Professor Jameson 
read a paper on the Supposed Stratification of Primitive Rocks and 
their alleged Mechanical Origin. Dr Neill, secretary, then read (1.) a 
communication from William Baker, Esq., endeavouring to establish 
the identity of the Salmon with the Common Trout; (2.) An account 
by M. Guerin of Geneva, of the Rock-nose of Whalers, being either 
a marked variety of the Balena mysticetus or a distinct species ; 
(8.) Notes made during a visit to Ichaboe, and the adjoining coast 
of Africa, in 1844, by Mr P. Gillespie, commander of the barque 
Drummore of Leith, with his meteorological journal ; (4.) Notice 
regarding a specimen of the Frog-shaped South American Lizard, 
called Phrynosoma cornuta, which had been kept alive for some 
months in a hothouse at Canonmills. 


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376 


The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 377 


Mean State of the Barometer and Thermometer at Canaan 
Cottage, near Edinburgh. By A. ADIB, Esq. 1844. 


Lat. 55° 57’. Height above the mean level of the Sea, 246 feet. 


| Thermo- Registering 


a meter ff Thermometer. Barometer. 
MonrTus. JODPREYEUr Rain. 

| 10 sot ant Means of 

Mean. Minimum. | Maximum.| Morning. | Evening. 
January .......3: 38.48 32.22 | 54.22 29.28 29.63 
February......... | 34.52 22.43 | 4651 29,25 29.26 
MVEA CH ere savecenr rs | 35.29 39.35 | 62:59 | 29:16 29.45 2.43 
Apr! Jerse d22 ne. | 51.17 48.33 | 58.50 29.76 29.73 0.40 
Ways 3. c0ccsssess <2 ie 5876 39°23 | 58.42 29.99 30.10 0.15 
DUNC 2-2 nc0sccaee 58.14 46.66 | 64.26 29.65 29.65 2.71 
EU 252-5 -2405--. 57.79 48.39 | 65.39 29.62 29.65 2.39 
August............ 56.09 46.93 | 64.68 29.19 29.54 2.11 
September......... 53.18 48.00 | 60.29 29.82 29.81 2.40 
October ........... 41.20 40.11 | 6583.23 29.60 29.69 0.82 
November ........ 44.15 38.40 | 48.03 29.52 29.45 3.92 
December ........ 36.63 28.90 , 36.42 29.84 29.88 0.37 
Annual Mean...| 47.12 39.32 | 55.77 29.55 29.65 | 20.65 

47.55 29.60 


The Meteorology of Whitehaven. Remarks on the Weather, &§c., 
of 1844. By J. F. Minumr, Esq. Communicated by the 
Author. 


It must have been obvious even to the most casual observer of atmo- 
spheric changes, that the past year has been marked by several periods 
of extreme drought. Indeed, except in 1842, there is no year which at 
all approaches it in dryness, since the Journal was commenced in 1832. 
The quantity of rain taken by the gauge in 1844 is 36.723 inches, being 
2.030 inches under the fall in 1842, and nearly 12 inches under the ave- 
rage. 

The wet days exceed those of 1842 by 5, but are 32 under the average 
number, which is 204. 

The principal periods of drought in 1844, are as follow :—From the 
23d of April to the 5th June, rain fallen .262, or about a quarter of an 
inch: 25th June to 10th July, none: 23d August to 5th September, 
none ; and there was but one wet day from the 17th of the same month 
till its close: from 19th November to 31st December (44 days), 0.405, 
or between a quarter and half an inch, The quantity of melted snow is 
above the average by 0.774, or more than three quarters of an inch, and 
the number of snowy days also exceed the average number by seven. 
The fall of rain at Cleator, four miles S. of Whitehaven, registered by 
T. Ainsworth, Esq., is 39.31 inches, and the wet days 152. 

Last year we gave the results of some experiments with two gauges 
(the one placed at 6 inches, and the other at 6 feet above the ground) 
which were apparently at variance with what has been considered by 
most Meteorologists a well-established fact, “that where a gauge is 
merely removed to a higher position in the atmosphere, independent of 


378 The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 


locality, less rain is deposited in the instrument in proportion to its dis- 
tance from the surface.” But, however this may be at small distances 
above the ground, it is certain that at considerable elevations much less 
rain is deposited than at the surface. Thus, one of the gauges with which 
the experiments above alluded to were conducted, on being removed to 
the steeple of St James’s Church (78 feet above the street*), received, 
in 1844, only 27.862 inches, about one-fourth less than the gauge at 6 
feet. The gauge on the steeple was examined weekly, and | generally 
found it to contain from one-third to one-fourth less than the standard 
instrument at 6 feet. The difference, however, varied from one-half to 
only one-tenth less; on five occasions I found the quantity only one- 
half, mostly when the fall was moderate and attended with violent gales. 
Thrice the receipts of the two gauges were equal, or nearly so, when 
the rain descended in yast torrents during a calm, or with no particular 
high wind; and, upon one solitary oceasion, the higher gauge exceeded 
the lower by nearly one-fourth, without any attendant circumstances 
apparently sufficient to account for the discrepancy. The rain fell 
chiefly on two nights, the upper current varying from two to three 
points west of the wind, which was strong at SW. and SSW. 

Although the receipt of rain is greatest at or near the surface of the 
ground, and the fall is found to diminish as the gauge is removed to a 
higher position in the atmosphere ; yet as we ascend into hilly and moun- 
tainous districts, the annual depth of rain rapidly increases. Thus the 
fall at Whitehaven during last year is only 36.723, whilst at Ennerdale 
Lake it amounts to 54.626, an excess of nearly one-half; and this is pro- 
bably below the average proportion, The fall at Keswick, in 1844, is 
40.629 ; at Ambleside, 58.828; at Grasmere, 65.632 ; and at Doncaster, 
in Yorkshire, only 18.18 inches. The writer has, for some time past, 
had a number of gauges dispersed through the Lake District of Cum- 
berland, the results of which he intends to publish in the course of the 
ensuing summer. It may be remarked, that Ennerdale is far from being 
the wettest portion of the Lake District. 

BARoMETER.—The mean of the barometer (29.743), so nearly corre- 
sponds with the average of preceding years, that the difference is un- 
worthy of notice. An examination of the table will confirm the remark 
made in last year’s report, relative to the atmospheric tide, or horary 
variation of the mercurial column. The mean at 9 A.M. is 29.743, at 2 
P.M. 29.740, and at 9 P.M. 29.749. The atmospheric pressure arrives at 
the maximum between 9 and 11 o’clock in the evening; at 3 P.M. it is 
at the minimum, and at 9 A.M. at the mean for the 24 hours. The annual 
high extreme of the barometer (30.30) oceurred with the wind at ENE., 
on the 2d of May, about a week after the commencement of the six 
weeks’ drought. The lowest point which it reached was 28.58, with 
the wind at SE., on the 25th of February, amidst a continuance of very 
changeable weather—frequent falls of snow, alternating with keen frost, 
and a bright unclouded sky. 

THERMOMETER,—The mean temperature of 1844 (48°.117), is about 1° 
under the average of this locality. The thermometer attained its maxi- 
mum with the wind at SSE., on the 23d July, when it rose suddenly 
from 66°, on the previous day, to 79°.5, an elevation of 13° in 24 hours, 
and of of 18°.5 in 48 hours. On the 24th and following day it reached 79° 
and 78°; and on the 26th it as suddenly fell again to 66°, the maximum 
of the 22d. The lowest point to which it descended was 22°.5, on the 


————— 


* St James’s Church is about 30 yards distant, in a direct line, from the 
standard gauge at 6 feet. 


The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 379 


13th and 22d of December, with the wind at ESE. At Carlisle, the 
minimum (9°) occurred on the night between the 5th and 6th of Feb- 
ruary, when the minimum at Whitehaven was 33°, a difference of tem- 
perature of 24° between two places, about 40 miles distant from each 
other. We have on former occasions alluded to the decided superiority 
which this town possesses over many others in the southern and south- 
eastern counties of England, in the greater warmth and less variable 
character of its climate, especially during the winter season. But it 
maintains this advantage over most, if not every other town in the same 
county, even those situated within a few miles of the sea. During the 
late frost, the thermometer at Wigton, 30 miles NE. of Whitehaven, 
was frequently 14°, 15°, and even 17° lower in the nights. 

Drw-Porn7, &c.—The mean complement of the dew point, or the 
difference between the temperature of the air and that of the vapour 
which it holds in mechanical combination (5°.66), indicates a drier state 
of the atmosphere than in the previous year; but 1842 stands higher 
than either in point of hygroscopic dryness. Now the fall of rain is ex- 
actly in accordance with the indications of the hygrometer: last year 
9.843 inches less rain fell than in 1843, and 1842 received 2.030 inches less 
than in 1844, and 11.513 inches less than in 1843. Andas the rate of the 
production of vapour proceeds, ceteris paribus, in the inverse ratio to the 
quantity of moisture already suspended in the atmosphere, we find ac- 
cordingly, that the mean evaporating force is, in 1842, 25,8 grains; in 
1844, 20.8 grains; and in 1848, 20.36 grains per hour. 

Evaporation GAucu.—It may appear somewhat anomalous, that 
whilst the quantity of water throwu off in the form of elastic vapour is 
31.719 inches, an increase of 5.262 inches on the previous year, the mean 
evaporating force continues nearly the same. This discrepancy between 
estimation and absolute measurement, is chiefly occasioned by the in- 
creased action of the sun’s rays in 1844 over 1843, which, it is obvious, 
cannot be taken in as an element in computing the evaporating force. 
Last year the fall of rain exceeds the evaporation only by five inches: 
in 1843, the excess of rain was nearly twenty inches. The greatest 
amount of evaporation occurs in May, and the least in December. It may 
be worthy of remark, that the evaporation in December 1844 (.800), 
with a mean temperature at the freezing point, is exactly the same as in 
the corresponding month of 1843, with a mean temperature 10° higher, 
but in conjunction with an excessively damp, foggy atmosphere. The 
evaporation exceeds the fall of rain in no less than four months of last 
year, viz., May, July, August, and December; and in three other 
months, viz., April, June, and Nuyember, the deposition and absorption 
are nearly equal. In this wet locality such a circumstance probably 
does not occur more than once in a quarter of a century. 

RaDIATION.—The amount or effect of terrestrial radiation is deter- 
mined by exposing a self-registering thermometer on the grass, under a 
clear or cloudless sky, and comparing its indications with those of a 
similar instrument, covered at the top, about four feet from the ground. 
The difference exhibits the depression of temperature produced in the 
superincumbent stratum of air, by the free radiation of heat from the 
earth’s surface, From a series of observations carried on almost every 
night when the weather permitted, we give below the maximum or 
greatest amount of radiation in each month, premising that in the first 
four months of the year, the thermometer was exposed on the soil, and 
during the other eight months on the grass :— 

Maximum of Terrestrial Radiation.— January 23d, 6°.5 ; Feb. 12th, 
7°; March 21st and 28th, 8°; April 7th and 12th, 8°.5 ; May 26th, 12°; 
June 4th, 9°; July 15th and 23d, 11°.5; August 27th, 11° ; September 
20th, 9°.5; October 28th, 11°; November 21st, 10°.5; December 3d, 11°. 


380 The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 


In 1€43 the greatest amount of radiation was 9° in the month of Feb- 
ruary. 

Winps.—Our rainy wind is the SW., and it is also the prevailing 
one. The last three years, however, have received much less than the 
average amount of rain ; and, accordingly, in distributing the winds over 
that period, we find a deficiency of the SW., and an unusual prevalence 
of easterly and north-westerly winds. In 1844, the north-westerly and 
south-easterly classes are nearly equal in number, as will appear from 
the following summary :— 


NE, E, 


373 | 47 
36% | 413 
40 31 


783 | 1132 | 1193 | 1523 | 1733 


Light Moderate Fresh Strong 
Calm. | Breeze. Breeze. Breeze, | Wind. | Gales. 


js): © haan 49 119 103 41 24 
ISB hata pee 117 54 43 37 
ey | | 7 149 | 58 a)" (Se 


It will be observed, we had in last year an unusual preponderance of 
calms and light winds, and fewer gales or high winds than usual. The 
latter chiefly occurred in March and October. 

WrATHER.—The following table exhibits a summary of the state of 
the weather during the last three years : 


Clear | Cloudy | Sun | Eel 

YEAR. through-| without} Rain, | shone | Snow. | Hail, Frost. Light- 
out. Rain. out. ning 

weesias 30 164 172 292 ihs) Ppa hon} 15 
1843...... 31 124 210 | 233 12 22 48 17 
1842...... 43 | 155 167 253 6 15 25 9 


The wet days are fewer by thirty-eight than in 1843 ; and we have 
had forty-one more days of sunshine, seven of snow, and five of frost. 


We shall now conclude our report with a short remark on the cha- 
racter of each month of the bygone year. 

January.—Fine and mild, with an unusual absence of frost, snow, or 
gales of wind. Large Lunar Halos on the 2d, 26th, and 28th. On the 
17th a thrush’s nest, containing two eggs, was found in this vicinity. 

February.—Very changeable weather ; frost and a clear sky alternating 
with rain, snow, and high winds. The snow, when melted, yielded 1.436 
inches of water. Lunar Halos on the Ist, 2d, and 3d. That of the 2d 
continued for more than five hours, and was followed by snow imme- 
diately on its disappearance. 


The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 381 


March—Heavy gales prevailed during the first half of the month, 
when the weather became fine and mild, and so continued, with occa- 
sional frost, till its close. On the 3d, primroses gathered; 31st, first 
butterfly seen (Vanessa urlica). 

April—Beautifully fine and mild throughout. No frost, snow, or 
hail. On the Ist, the tortoise-shell butterfly (Vanessa polychloros), and 
on the 16th the Io began to appear. On the 14th the cuckoo, and on the 
18th several swallows were observed in this vicinity. The cuckoo was 
not Acard till the 21st or 22d, a week after it was first seen. On the 
afternoon of the 28th a magnificent Solar halo was visible for three hours. 

May.—The weather throughout the whole of this month was of the 
most beautiful description. Slight showers fell on three days, but the 
whole barely exceeded a quarter of an inch. The atmosphere was in an 
exceedingly dry state, we may say almost destitute of moisture. The 
daily complement of the dew-point varied from 10° to 26°, and the mean 
of the dew-point for the month was 12°.06 under the temperature of the 
air. On some occasions the dew-point could not be obtained without 
the application of a freezing mixture to the instrument. This unusual 
capacity of the atmosphere for vapour, and the prevalence of strong 
easterly breezes, increased the daily amount of evaporation to an enor- 
mous extent, which, combined with the absence of two of the causes 
essential to the formation of dew, a calm and moist atmosphere, greatly 
augmented the severity of the drought. The evaporation exceeded the 
rain by more than six inches. The radiation of heat from the earth’s 
surface during the nights was immense, frequently amounting to 11° and 
even 12°. The mean of the radiation for twenty-four days is 7°.5. 22d, 
an aurora. 3lst, a total eclipse of the moon, seen under most fayvour- 
able circumstances. An account of this occultation appeared in the 
Whitehaven Herald of May 5th. 

June.—The fall of rain from the 23d of April to the 5th of June only 
measured .262, or about one-fourth of an inch. This is the longest pe- 
riod of drought I have recorded, except in 1856, when only two very 
slight showers (.083) fell, from the 27th of April till the 8th of June. 
Prior to the conclusion of the drought, the hay and grain crops had suf- 
fered severely. The springs and wells had ceased to yield their sup- 
plies ; and the lakes, streams, and rivers, were lower than they had ever 
been known since the memorable 1826. A gentleman who made accu- 
rate measurements of the depth of Buttermere Lake both in 1826 and 
on the 4th instant, states, however, that the lake was 54 inches lower 
in the former year. The atmospheric spring on the summit of Great 
Gavel mountain, said to contain water even in the most extreme droughts, 
was this month found empty. On the 14th we observed a patch of snow 
on the Scawfell Pikes, an evidence of the low temperature of these ele- 
vated regions. Severe as the drought was in the north, it was of much 
longer duration in other parts of the kingdom, and especially in the 
southern and eastern counties. At Edmonton, near London, the whole 
of the rain which fell from the 25th of March to the 24th of June, only 
amounted to 1.055 inches. At Doncaster. in Yorkshire, the drought was 
even more severe than in the vicinity of the metropolis, commencing the 
15th of March, and ending the latter part of June: indeed, very little 
rain fell till the 14th of July. From the 15th March till the 15th June, 
the fall scarcely exceeded half an inch. Grass was in many places not 
worth cutting; and, in some instances, for want of pasture, the farmers 
were obliged to turn their cattle into fields destined for hay. 

July.— There was no rain from the 25th of June till the 10th of July. 
The early part of the month was, consequently, highly favourable for 
securing the hay crops, which, in many instances were got under cover 
without a drop of rain. Seed grass proved a miserable crop, but ley and. 


382 The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 


meadow hay turned out tolerably well; at all events, so much better 
than was looked for, that sellers, who expected to have realized 1s. per 
stone for their hay, were afterwards fain to accept of one-third of the 
anticipated price. 

August.—Another remarkably dry and cold month, though it is usually 
the warmest and among the wettest of the twelve. The evaporation 
exceeded the rain (2 inches) by .521 ; yet the former is much less than 
usual, and nearly 2 inches under that of the preceding month. This 
deficiency was in part caused by the low mean temperature of the month, 
which is 2° under that of July, and 2°.5 and 5°.5 respectively, under the 
corresponding month in 1843 and 1842. On the 7th there occurred the 
most terrific gale of wind ever remembered at this season. In the Lake 
District it is described as a hurricane, and was attended by the most 
violent torrents of rain. At Gatesgarth there fell 5.15 inches, and at 
Buttermere 4.19 inches, in 48 hours. Our summer fruits, as gooseberries, 
pears, and apples, were this year produced in great abundance. After 
the violent storm above alluded to, which made sad havoc amongst the 
fruit trees, apples were selling in our market at 6d. per stone, the price 
of the better sort of potatoes. The grain harvest commenced in this 
neighbourhood about the 24th. Aurore on the Ist and 9th. 27th, a 
Lunar halo. 

September.—We had no rain from the 23d of August till the 5th of 
September, and there was only one wet day after the 17th of the month. 
Weather fine and mild, and, on the whole, dry; for although we had 
nearly six inches of rain, it all fell in eleven days. On the 13th and 14th, 
however, the rain descended in vast torrents, and in forty-eight hours I 
had measured 4.137 inches, the largest quantity which has fallen in any 
two consecutive days since I have kept a record. On the 13th and 14th, 
there fell at Gatesgarth 4.66 inches, and at Wastdale Head within a 
fraction of six inches; but even this large quantity is very much under 
the average proportion which exists between Whitehaven and some parts 
of the Lake District. It is rather remarkable, that on these two days, 
the fall at Grasmere did not reach three inches. We have again been 
blessed with a most abundant harvest, which has been secured in excel- 
lent condition. The wheat crop is pronounced better than it has been 
for the last twenty-five years; barley was full on the ground, and the 
yield is remarkably good ; but oats are deficient both in quantity and 
quality. Except in very backward districts, tle harvest was quite con- 
cluded in this part of the country by the 26th of the month. 

October was chiefly remarkable for its high temperature. Swallows 
were seen in the Lake District as late 2s the 15th; but none were ob- 
served in this neighbourhood after the 22d of September, the usual time 
of their disappearance. The weather was favourable for the out-door 
operations of the farmer, and for taking up the potato crops, which were, 
generally speaking, abundant, except on wet clayey lands. The turnip 
crops were excellent. On the 24th, at noon, and for nearly three hours 
after, there was a large Solar halo, 42° in diameter. On the evening of 
the following day, there was also a Lunar halo. 

November, we might observe, was unusually dry, if the same remark 
did not equally apply to almost every month of the past year. On the 
night of the 14th, there fell at Gatesgarth, in nine consecutive hours, more 
than three inches of rain, nearly twice the quantity deposited at White- 
haven during the whole of this month. We had no frost from the 21st 
of March till the night of the 22d of November ; and this was the only 
one in the month on which the thermometer reached the freezing-point. 
A thermometer on the grass, however, fell to 24°, and in the previous 
month it descended to 6° below the freezing-point. Several flocks of 
wild geese were seén passing over the town during this month. On the 


=< 


Scientific Intelligence—Geology and Mineralogy. 383 


24th, there occurred another total eclipse of the moon, seen to great ad- 
vantage. Rarely do two central eclipses take place in one year; and 
it is, perhaps, equally seldom that two consecutive occultations are seen 
under such favourable circumstances. 

December.—This is both the coldest and the driest December which 
has come within the period of my observation. The mean temperature 
is 10°.369 under the average, and 13°.895, and 14°.169 respectively, under 
the temperature of the same month in 1842 and 1843. The evaporation 
exceeds the fall of rain by more than three-fold. The whole quantity 
of rain which fell from the 17th of November till the close of the year— 
44 days, only amounted to .405, or between a quarter and half an inch. 
12th, Lunar halo. 

Although we would decidedly discountenance the predictions of the 
so-called weather prophets, who profess to foretell atmospheric changes 
with a mathematical certainty ; yet it seems obvious, from an examina- 
tion of well-authenticated records kept over a long series of years, that 
wet and dry periods do succeed each other with tolerable regularity. 
The last three years have certainly exceeded the average in point of 
climate: and the experience of some of our oldest meteorologists would 
lead us to conclude, that this fine and dry period is not yet ended. 


J. F. MIuueEr. 


WHITEHAVEN, January 20th, 1845. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 


1. Geognostical Structure of Magerde.—In the second part of Pro- 
fessor Keilhau’s Gaeca Norvegica there is a very interesting account of 
the geognosy of the island of Magerde in Finmark ; and we extract the 
following few facts, chiefly for the purpose of indicating the geognosti- 
cal constitution of the two most northern promontories in Europe. The 
largest portion of Magerde is composed of gneiss and mica-slate. The 
tract of gneiss lying farthest to the NW. of the island presents a rock 
which is petrographically identical with the oldest gneiss in Norway. 
The gneiss of Knivskjdl-Odden, the most northern promontory in 
Europe, is granitic, while the rock composing the tract of gneiss at the 
Kamoefjord, on the east side of the island, is partly the usual primitive 
gneiss, and partly a porphyritic gneiss, containing large crystals of fel- 
spar. The portion of gneiss occurring at Magerde Sound is of a less 
constant petrographical character ; and Von Buch says, that the cliffs in 
the Bay of Finyigen are so exceedingly black, that the observer has diffi- 
culty in persuading himself that they consist of gneiss. The rock at 
that locality is a small granular mixture of mica and a little quartz, the 
plates of mica being so small, that they can with difficulty be recognised. 
At another place in the same small tract of gneiss, the rock is more a 
granite than a gneiss or a mica-slate, and is a pretty coarse granular 
compound of greyish-yellow felspar and grey quartz, with so little mica 
that the slaty structure is by no means distinct. The central portion of 
Mageroe is composed of mica-slate, and contains two beds of white and 
grey granular limestone. This mica-slate district includes the North 


384 Scientific Intelliyence—Geology and Mineralogy. 


Cape, in which promontory the rock is fine-slaty, rich in quartz, and 
somewhat inclined to gneiss; some of the beds, as at Hornvigen, con- 
taining a little felspar. At the North Cape the dip is from 50° to 80° 
to the ESE. and SE. In the south and east of the island of Magerée, 
the mica-slate becomes gradually changed into clay-slate, so that the 
south-eastern coast of the island is almost to be regarded as a clay-slate 
tract. To the north and especially to the north-east of Kjelvig (in the 
south-eastern portion of Mageroe) there is a district chiefly composed of 
granite ; and to the west of Kjelvig, euphotide occurs in considerable 
quantity. The latter rock is met with on both sides of the Skibsfjord, 
and forms the principal mass of two small portions of country, of which 
the one is surrounded by the mica-slate of the island ; and the other by 
mica-slate, and towards Kjelvig by the rock resembling clay-slate and 
by granite. The euphotide frequently consists of a hard greenish or 
brownish-black serpentinie basis, with imbedded bronzite; but some- 
times consists of a greenstone mixed with smaragdite, which is fine 
granular, and exhibits traces of a slaty structure. The greenstone some- 
times contains no smaragdite, but presents hornblende, which is so de- 
veloped and arranged as to impart to the rock the slaty structure of 
hornblendic gneiss, and to admit of the direction and dip being deter- 
mined. ‘There are complete transitions of all the different varieties into 
one another ; and the euphotide formation passes imperceptibly into the 
bounding granite. The relations of the euphotide to the mica-slate, de- 
scribed by Professor Keilhau, are very curious, but for an account of them 
we must refer to the original work. 

2. Geognosy of Nordkyn in Finmark.—Professor Keilhau states that 
the Kollefjord and the Oxefjord penetrate an endless series of strata of 
mica-slate containing beds of quartz, and having a dip of from eighty 
to ninety degrees to the WNW. These strata and beds extend to 
Nordkyn, and there form the extreme northern point of the mainland 
of Europe. There the quartz predominates ; it is generally coarse and 
splintery ; and is sometimes mixed with mica, but at other times is 
pure. In part it assumes the appearance of sandstone ; for, translu- 
cent, milk-white, distinctly separated grains of quartz, which are some- 
times as large as peas, are more or less closely aggregated together 
in the coarse splintery mass. This is the first indication of a type which 
assumes a very great degree of importance in the series of rocks towards 
the east. The dip at Nordkyn is WNW., and is from seventy to eighty _ 
degrees. The violent surf renders it impossible to land at the extremity, 
which is separated by a fissure from Kinerodden, the high promontory 
of Nordkyn. 

3. Supposed Organic Remains of Kaafjord in Norway.—Some very 
curious round concretions have been found in the hard green slate of 
Kaafjord, and have been regarded as petrifactions; but from the speci- 
mens sent to me, they are evidently not at all of organic origin. They 
are composed of compact greenstone arranged in concentric layers, and 
remind those who have sufficiently studied the mutual transitions of the 
greenstone and the green slate, of the globular diorite of Corsica. A 
rock resembling the Corsican would have been produced at the Kaafjord, 
if the transmutation of the green slate had proceeded a little farther. It 
is, no doubt, the concretions mentioned above which Russegger has de- 


Scientific Intelligence—Geology and Mineralogy. 385 


scribed as remains of trilobites.—Keilhaw’s Gaea Norwegica; Part II. 

. 285. : 
rn 4. New Proof of the Cantal being a crater of Soulevement.—The 
Cantal is almost entirely composed of trachyte, and its general aspect 
presents a vast cone, having in its centre a gigantic hollow of about five 
English miles in diameter. Deep valleys diverge from this centre on 
all sides, like the spokes of a wheel, and impart to the whole mountain 
mass a peculiar character, which, combined with various other pheno- 
mena, has induced Messrs Elie de Beaumont and Dufrénoy to consider 
it as a crater of soulevement. The“trachyte of the Cantal generally 
occurs in the form of great nappes, which rise with a gentle slope in 
the direction of the central depression. Its ordinary appearance is that 
of a breccia, whose fragments and basis being of the same nature, can- 
not be distinguished from each other; but, notwithstanding this frag- 
mentary appearance, all its component parts are contemporaneous. The 
name of trachytic tufa has been given to it,—an expression which 
conveys the idea, that the matter issuing from the interior of the earth 
in a pasty state, has given rise, in the yoleanic opening itself, to frag- 
ments which were immediately united together by the flowing mass. 
The nature of the rock is displayed in all the escarpments; but it is 
exhibited with peculiar distinctness in the tunnel of nearly 4000 Eng- 
lish feet in length, which has been pierced between the valleys of 
Aurillac and Murat, on the road from Paris to Montpellier, for the pur- 
pose of rendering the journey less dangerous in winter. This gallery 
has also afforded the means of studying the numerous veins which tra- 
verse the mass of trachytic tufa. The uniformity of the rock through 
which the tunnel of Lioran has been carried, is one of the most interest- 
ing facts revealed by this great work of art. We thus learn that it is 
one and the same nappe of trachyte which is traversed throughout the 
whole length of the tunnel,—a circumstance opposed to the supposition 
adopted by some geologists, that the whole mass of the Cantal has been 
produced by the accumulation of successive eruptions ; for we have in 
this uniformity one of the most certain proofs of its formation by souleve- 
ment.* 

5. On the Cause of the Colours in Precious Opal. By Sir David 
Brewster.—This gem is intersected in all directions with colorific planes, 
exhibiting the most brilliant colours of all kinds. The cause of these 
colours has never, we believe, been carefully studied. Mineralogists, 
indeed, have said that they are the colours of thin plates of air occu- 
pying fissures or cracks in the stone; but this is a mere assumption, dis- 
proved by the fact, that no such fissures have ever been found during the 
processes of cutting out, grinding, and polishing, which the opal under- 
goes in the hand of the lapidary. In submitting to a powerful micro- 
scope specimens of precious opal, and comparing the phenomena with 
those of hydrophanous opal, Sir David Brewster found that the colorific 
planes or patches consist of minute pores or vacuities arranged in paral- 
lel lines, aud that various such planes are placed close to each other, so 
as to occupy a space with three dimensions. These pores sometimes 


* From M. Dufrénoy’s Report on a Memoir by M. Rozet on Auvergne.— 
Comptes Rendus de V Academie des Sciences, vol. xviii. p. 133. 


VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 2B 


386 Scientific Intelligence—Botany and Zoology. 


exhibit a crystalline arrangement, like the lines in sapphire, calcareous 
spar, and other bodies, and have doubtless been produced during the 
conversion of the quartz into opal by heat, under the peculiar circum- 
stances of its formation. In some specimens of common opal, the 
structure is such as would be produced by kneading crystalline quartz 
when in a state of paste. The different colours produced by those pores 
arise from their different magnitudes or thickness ; and the colours are 
generally arranged in parallel bands, and vary with the varying obli- 
quities at which they are seen— Athenwum, Report of Brit. Assoc. 

6. On Crystals in the cavities of Topaz, which are dissolved by 
heat, and re-crystallize on cooling. By Sir David Brewster.—Sir 
David gave a brief notice to the British Association of the discovery 
which he had made, about twenty years ago, of two new fluids in the 
crystallized cavities of topaz, and other minerals, One of these fluids 
is very volatile, and so expansible, that it expands twenty times as 
much as water with the same increase of temperature. When the va- 
cuities in the cavity which it occupies are large, it passes into vapour ; 
and in these different states he had succeeded in determining its re- 
fractive power, by measuring the angles at five feet. Total reflection 
takes place at the common surface of the fluid of the topaz. The other 
fluid is of a denser kind, and occupies the angles and narrow necks of 
cavities. The cavities, however, in which the soluble crystals are con- 
tained, are of a different kind. They (viz. the cavities) are im- 
perfectly crystallized, and thus they exist in specimens of topaz which 
contain the cavities with the two new fluids; they contain none of the 
volatile and expansible fluid, which is doubtless a condensed gas. The 
crystals which occupy them are flat and finely crystallized rhomboids, 
When heat is applied, they become rounded at their edges and angles ; 
and soon disappear. After the topaz has cooled, they again appear, 
at first like a speck, and then re-crystallize gradually, sometimes in 
their original place, but often in other parts of the cavity,—their place 
being determined by the mode in which the cooling is applied. 


BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


7. Distribution of Plants on Mount Canigou, Eastern Pyrenees.— 
In reporting to the Academy of Sciences on a table of the limits of cer- 
tain plants on the western slope of the Canigou, presented by M. Massot 
of Perpignan, M. Adolphe Brongniart made the following observations : 
—M. Massot’s table gives the height above the level of the sea, of the 
upper and lower limits of many of the species constituting the remark- 
able vegetation of the Canigou, which forms the eastern extremity of the 
chain of the Pyrenees. The table is so much the more interesting for 
botanical geography, from containing the limits of many plants which 
had not generally attracted attention in this point of view, and which, 
although less striking to the eye than forest trees or cultivated species 
covering large surfaces, nevertheless contribute, by their combination, 
to impart to each zone its own particular aspect of vegetation. After 
enumerating forty-two species, which he had observed on the summit of 
the mountain, at a height of 9137 English feet, the author indicates the 
lower limits of some of these species, and the upper limits of other plants 


Scientific Intelligence—Botany and Zoology. 


which do not reach that height. Other species, again, are confined be- 
tween lower and upper limits which are not far distant from each other ; 
and these neither grow towards the base of the mountain nor at the sum- 
mit. The table shews, in a striking manner, the unequal extent of the 
zones of the different species ; for some of them only grow under condi- 
tions differing very little from one another, while others are suited to very 
various climates—an observation which accords with what is remarked in 
regard to differences of latitude. Among the plants which grow on the 
summit of the mountain, M. Massot mentions two, the Potentilla nivalis, 
and the Sawifraga oppositifolia, which cease to grow at 443 feet below 
it (that is to say, at 8694 feet above the level of the sea), whereas the 
Gentiana verna, and the Luzula spicata, which also grow on the sum- 
mit, are met with on the slope of the mountain at much lower elevations ; 
the former at 4337 feet, and the latter at 3238 feet above the level of the 
sea; the one thus inhabiting a zone of about 4800 feet, and the other a zone 
of about 5900 feet, It would be interesting to be able to extend this com- 
parison to the greater part of the plants growing on this mountain, but in 
regard to many of them we are still in want of data for the purpose: thus, 
of forty-two species observed by M. Massot, on the summit of the Canigon, 
he only gives the lower limits of twelve. It is to be desired that the author 
should prepare as complete a catalogue as possible of the plants growing 
on the mountain, that he should determine the lower and upper limits of 
each of them, and that he should include in his researches the different 
slopes of the mountain, so as to ascertain the influence of the exposure 
on the limits of these different plants. The author ought also to be re- 
quested to extend his observations to the limit of the cultivation of the 
olive, and to add to his catalogue a list of the plants belonging to that 
region, in order that we may be able to ascertain what are the plants 
of the olive region which in that district penetrate into the region of vines, 
and what are the relations between the flora of that region of vines and 
the flora of the vine region of central and northern France. In M. 
Massot’s table the limit of the oaks is not given; and it is very pro- 
bable that, besides the evergreen oak and the cork tree, which must grow 
in the olive region, and whose upper limit it would be interesting to de- 
termine, oaks with deciduous leaves are to be met with higher up, re- 
garding which it would be important to determine the upper and lower 
limits, and also to ascertain distinctly the species. It would also be de- 
sirable to ascertain, with accuracy, the limit of all the trees on the dif- 
ferent slopes, and that those which generally grow in the Pyrenees, but 
which seem to be awanting on the Canigou, should be indicated in a 
special manner ; because the limits of trees, being those which are most 
easily recognised, are most available in comparisons with different 
countries. In pointing out the deficiencies in M. Massot’s investiga- 
tions, my chief object has been to shew how interesting it would be for 
botanical geography to possess a complete account of the distribution of 
plants on a mountain so favourably placed as the Canigou, and which, 
by its isolation, its various exposures, and its height, might become 
one of the most important elements in the general examination of the 
geographical distribution of plants in Europe. I shall only add, that, 
in order that an investigation of this description should possess all de- 
sirable certainty, it would be necessary that the author should collect, 


388 Scientific Intelligence— Botany and Zoology. 


and send to the Academy, specimens of all the species whose limits he 
may determine, and also specimens of all the species taken from the 
middle, and from the two limits of their region ; because, such specimens 
would be necessary for the proper determination of species, and of the 
differences which may be presented by them in the different situations 
where they grow. 

8. On solid Vegetable Oils. —Linnaan Society, June 18. The Bishop 
of Norwich in the ehair.—A paper was read by Mr E. Solly on the 
solid vegetable oils. These oils were characterised by possessing stearine, 
the solid principle of all oils, in such quantity as to render them solid at 
the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. They were of the con- 
sistence of animal fats, and in many instances were used as substitutes for 
butter, as articles of diet. There was some difficulty in distinguishing 
these oils from wax, but the latter was produced in much less quantities. 
The various plants yielding solid oils were pointed out, with the modes 
of obtaining the oils, and the uses to which they were subservient in the 
various parts of the world. Few or no British plants yield solid oils. 
The plants yielding butter, tallow, and solid oils, which were mentioned, 
are as follows :—Theobroma Cacao, chocolate-nut tree, yielding Cacao 
butter; Vateria Indica, producing a solid semicrystalline fat, used for 
various purposes in India, where the tree is called Tallow-tree ; Penta- 
desma butyracea, the Butter or Tallow Tree of Sierra Leone. Several 
species of plants belonging to the natural order Lauracex, as Lawrus No- 
bilis, Tetranthera sebifera or Litsea sebifera, Lawrus cinmamomum, &e., 
yield solid oils, in addition to their volatile fluid oils. The Myristica 
moschata, the common Nutmeg, with the M. sebifera, both yield a solid 
oil, sometimes called nutmeg butter; Bassia butyracea, the Mahva or 
Madhucea-tree, gives out a kind of butter whieh is used in India. The 
Butter-tree of Mungo Park, found in Africa, is the Bassia Parkii of some 
writers, though others have doubted if the Butter-tree of Park is a Bassia 
at all. The butter is also called Shoa butter, and specimens were exhi- 
bited, procured by Dr Stanger during the late Niger expedition. Several 
palms yield solid oils; the principal of these are the Cocos nucifera, 
cocoa-nut tree, and the Elis Guineensis ; the former yields the cocoa- 
nut oil and butter, the latter the palm oil of commerce. All the 
fruits, however, of Palmacez are capable of yielding more or less solid 
oil, and many other species than those named yield the palm oil of 
commerce. 

9. On the Ibis —According to Pliny, the Ibis freed Egypt from ser- 
pents. Herodotus had previously expressed the same opinion; but doubts 
have been raised in modern times as to these birds possessing the power 
of destroying serpents. These doubts were founded on the organisation 
of the beak, the length and delicacy of which appeared but little adapted 
to enable the birds to contend with animals possessed of a certain de- 
gree of strength, however small they may be supposed to be. 

The black Ibis, one of the two species the Egyptians possessed, is 
pretty widely spread in Southern Algeria, where the French troops have 
seen them flying in flocks like our crows. M. Guyon states, that having 
had occasion to examine an individual killed in the Ourancenis (a great 
mass of mountains in Algeria beyond Chelif), he found in its crop three 
kinds of insects quite entire, which formed three very distinct packets, 


New Publications. 389 


one of locusts, another of Scolopendre, the third of scorpions. He has 
been informed that other individuals of the Ibis, caught alive and do- 
mesticated by the officers, fed only on grasshoppers or locusts, which they 
chase, and which they will even take from the hand, if presented to them. 

M. Guyon asks whether these locusts, so common in Egypt, may not 
be the winged serpents of which Herodotus speaks, This appears to him 
the more probable, because Herodotus, who gives the nomenclature of 
all the animals of Egypt, from the elephant down to the fly, makes no 
mention of locusts, which have always been the scourge of that country. 
M. Guyon adds, however, that M. Lefevre informs him that he has seen 
an Ibis seize and swallow lizards, as well as pretty large pieces of an 
adder which he amused himself by throwing to it. This may be readily 
conceived when we think of the manner in which the animal proceeds to 
swallow its prey. Having seized it with the extremity of the beak, the 
bird, by a rapid movement, throws it into the air, and soon takes it into 
its throat. If it is a living body which it seizes, it is always the head 
which enters first into the beak. M. Guyon has likewise learned from 
other persons, that the Ibis is very fond of the barbel, a fish which 
is found abundantly in the rivers of Algeria ; that it swallows food cooked 
or raw, bread softened in water, boiled substances, &c. ; that it easily 
becomes familiar with man, in so much that at Orleansville one of these 
birds, which lived there at liberty for six months, came every day at 
meal time to the tent of a captain, to receive the food he was accustomed 
to give it.* 


NEW PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


1. Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrate Animals 
designed especially for the Use of Students. By Rudolph Wagner, 
M.D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology in the Uni- 
versity of Gottingen, &c. Edited from the German by Alfred Tulk, 
M.R.C.S., London. 8vo, pp. 264. Longmans and Co., 1845. This 
valuable work will form a good Manual for Students of Comparative Anatomy. 

2. Contributions towards a Fauna and Flora of the County of Cork. 
By J. D. Humphreys (the Zoology), and Dr Power (the Botany). 8vo, 
pp- 160. J. Van Voorst, London ; and George Purcell, Cork. 1845. 

3. Elements of Physics. By G. F. Peschel, Principal of the Military 
College at Dresden, &c. Translated from the German by E, West. II- 
lustrated with diagrams and woodcuts. Part 1, Ponderable Bodies. 
12mo, pp. 307. Longmans and Co., London, 1845, Not yet finished. 

4. A Discourse delivered upon the opening of the New Hall of the 
New York Lyceum of Natural History. By John W. Francis, M.D., 
8vo, pp. 93. New York. 

5. The Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology. By Dr G. 
J. Mulder, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Utrecht. Tyran- 


* L’Institut, No. 540, p. 152. 


390 New Publications. 


slated from the Dutch by Dr Fromberg, with Notes, &c., by Professor 
Johnston, Part 1. 8vo, pp.184. William Blackwood and Sons, Edin- 
burgh and London. Hitherto many valuable Dutch works on Science have 
remained concealed in the original language, and consequently unknown to the 
greater number of English readers, We rejoice, therefore, to find that the 
Messrs Blackwoods are about to supply this want. We think they have been 
particularly fortunate in their selection of the very valuable and interesting 
work of the celebrated Mulder, of which only the first part has been published. 
The remaining parts we hope will follow speedily. 

6. Philosophy of the Moving Powers of the Blood. By G. Calvert 
Holland, M.D., London, 8vo., pp. 308. John Churchill, London, 1844. 

7. On the Atmospheric Changes which produce Rain, Wind, Storms, 
and the Fluctuations of the Barometer. By Thomas Hopkins. 8vo, 
pp. 98. Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., London; and Sims and Denham, 
Manchester. 1844. 

8. Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve, up to No. 107. November 
1844. Published 15th January 1845. 

9. Calcutta Journal of Natural History, Nos. 13,14, 15, 16—Geology 
and Zoology. By John M‘Clelland, Bengal Medical Service. The 
Botany by W. Griffiths, F.L.S., Madras Medical Service. 

10. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos. 60 and 61. Also 
an extra Number, or Supplement to the Number for 1842. It is entirely 
occupied with a Geological and Mineralogical Survey of the Himmalaya Moun- 
tains, by the late Captain J. D, Herbert, The Author, and also the Editor 
of this Memoir, appear to have had a glimpse of the views of Professor 
Jameson on the want of Stratification in Primitive and Transition Rocks, 
and of their Crystalline and Morpholitic characters, as given in his carly writ- 
ings, and in his Lectures on Natural History. 

11. American Journal of Science and Arts, by Messrs Silliman, has 
reached, up to January Number for 1845. 

12. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society —No.I. We shall be 
happy to learn that this periodical obtains wide circulation. 

13. The Natural History of Animals; being the substance of Three 
Courses of Lectures delivered before the Royal Institution of Great 
Britain. By Thomas Rymer Jones, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Com- 
parative Anatomy in King’s College, London. Vol. I., 12mo, pp. 362. 
With 105 Illustrations. John Van Voorst, Paternoster Row, London. 
1845. We trust nothing will occur to prevent the specdy publication of the re- 
maining volumes of this interesting and promising work, 

14. A Thermometric Table of the Scales of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, 
and Reaumur, &c. By Alfred T. Taylor, Lecturer on Chemistry, 
Guy’s Hospital, London. Thomas and Richard Willads, Philosophical 
Instrument Makers, &c., Cheapside, London. 1845. This Table, with 
the more extended Tables of the late Dr Atkin, published by Messrs Black and 
Company, ought to go together, and be in the hands of scientific readers, 


New Publications. 391 


15. The Actual Process of Nutrition and Inflammation in the Living 
Structure, demonstrated by the Microscope. Part II. By William 
Addison, F.L.S.. &c. 8vo, pp. 114. With Plates. J. Churchill, Lon- 
don; and Deighton, Worcester. 1845. 

16. An Essay on Tropical Agriculture, with some remarks on certain 
Barbadian Soils, &c. By G. Lovell Phillips, M.D., Oxon., F.R.C.P.L. 
8vo, pp. 116. Hedderwick and Son, Glasgow. 1845. 

17. Geology as a Branch of Education. By Professor Ansted. J. Van 
Voorst, London. 1845. 

18. The Geologist’s Text-Book. By Professor Ansted. J. Van 
Voorst, London. 1845. Pp. 143.. 

19. Practical Geology and Ancient Architecture of Ireland. By 
George Wilkinson, Architect, Member of the Royal Irish Academy, 
&c. &c. Illustrated with seventeen plates, and seventy-two woodcuts. 
8vo, pp. 348. London, John Murray; William Curry jun. and Co., 
Dublin. 1845. 

20. Gaea Norwegica, Von Mehreren Verfassern, Herausgegeben 
Von B. Mathias Keilhau, Professor der Mineralogie, Geognosie, und 
Bergbaukunde, an der Universitit zu Christiania, Ritter des Kénigl. 
Nordstern ordens so wie, des Kénigl. Wasa-ordens. Ordentlichem 
Mitgl. der Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Drontheim, der 
Kénigl. Academie der Wissenschaften zu Stockholm, Ehrenmitgliede 
der Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Zweites 
Heft. Mit Zwei Tafeln. Folio. Christiania, Druck und Verlagvon 
Johann Dahl. 1844. The following are the contents of the present 
part of this important work :—IV. Determinations of the Heights of 
Mountains in Norway. By A. Vibe, Esq., Captain of Engineers. 
A considerable portion of this article is transferred to the pages of this 
Number.—V. On the Structure of the Rock Masses of Norway. By 
Professor Keilhau. The introductory portion of this able article, forwarded 
by the Professor to us, appeared in former Numbers of the Philosophical 
Journal-—VI. On the Norite, and of the Mineral Treasures of the 
Granite Veins that occur in that rock. By Dr and Lecturer Scheerer. 

21. Dent on the Azimuth and Steering Compass. Published by the 
Author. London. 1844, 8vo. 

22. On the Production of Soils and Manures by the Lower Orders of 
Plants. By R. D. Thomson, M.T., Lecturer on Practical Chemistry in 
the University of Glasgow. 8vo, 1845. 

23, Annual Report of that pleasant Meeting, the Berwickshire Natu- 
ralists’ Club. 8vo, 1844. 


( 392 ) 


List of Patents granted for Scotland, from 24th December 1844, 
to 22d March 1845. 


1. To Wrtttam Tuomas of Cheapside, in the city of London, mer- 
chant, being a communication from abroad, “‘ improvements in manu- 
facturing stays, bandages, and other similar articles.”—24th December 
1844. 

2. To Witi1am Hieuam of Notty Ash, near Liverpool, in the county 
of Lancaster, plumber, and Davip Brtxiuovuse, also of Liverpool afore- 
said, merchant, ‘‘ improved constructions of boilers, for evaporating saline 
and other solutions for the purposes of crystallization, and also for the 
evaporation of fluids generally.”—24th December 1844. 

3. To JosrpH Locxerr of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, 
engraver, ‘“‘ improvements in apparatus for preparing to be engraved or 
turned such copper or other metal cylinders or rollers as are to be used 
for printing, or embossing, or calendering calico or other fabrics.” —26th 
December 1844. 

4. To Roprrt Waker of Saint Helen’s, in the county of Lancaster, 
colliery agent and manager, ‘‘improvements in apparatus for riddling 
coals at collieries.” —26th December 1844. 

5. To Curisrorner Purrrs of River, near Dovor, in the county of 
Kent, paper-manufacturer, being partly a communication from abroad, 
and partly by his own invention, “an improvement or improvements in 
the manufacturing of paper, and in making writing and other papers, or 
in the machinery employed for those purposes.’”’—26th December 1844. 

6. To James Nrexp of Taunton, in the state of Massachusetts, in the 
United States of North America, machinist, ‘certain improvements in 
looms.” —27th December 1844. 

7. To Henry Cuartes Lacy of Kenyon House, near Manchester, in 
the county of Lancaster, Esquire, and Grorcr Watson Buck of Man- 
chester, in the said county, civil-engineer, ‘‘ a new manufacture for, and 
method of sustaining, the rails of railways.’ —28th December 1844. 

8. To Joun Swinpetts of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, 
manufacturing chemist, ‘‘ several improvements in the preparation of 
various substances for the purpose of dyeing and producing color ; also 
improvements in the application and use of several chemical compounds 
for the purpose of dyeing and producing color not hitherto made use of.” 
—30th December 1844. 

9. To Moss Pootz of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, being a 
communication from abroad, “improvements in preparing or treating 
hemp flax and other textile plants.”—30th December 1844. 

10. To Bensamin Batuuie of Henry Street, in the county of Middle- 


—_—- 


List of Patents. 3938 


sex, glazier and metal frame-maker, ‘‘ improvements in regulating the 
ventilation of buildings.” —31st December 1844. 

11. To Rosperr Grirritn of Smethwick, near Birmingham, in the 
county of Stafford, engineer, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of bolts, 
railway pins, spikes, and rivets.’ —31st December 1844. 

12. To Guy Carterton Corriy of Sandford, in the county of Wilts, 
Esquire, “certain improvements applicable to locomotive, marine, and 
stationary engines.’”-—2d January 1845. 

13. To Jonn Arnsuiz, farmer, Redheugh, near Dalkeith, North Bri- 
tain, ‘‘ a certain improvement, or certain improvements, in the apparatus 
and arrangements for the manufacture of tiles, and similar articles, from 
elay and other plastic matter.”—2d January 1845. 

14. To Gerorer Witt1am Lenox, and Joun Jones of Billeter 
Square, in the city of London, merchants, ‘‘ improvements in the manu- 
facture of sheaves and shells for blocks, and of bolts, rings, or washers, 
for the purposes of shipwrights and engineers.”—9th January 1845. 

15. To Cuartes Louis Marnurin Fovauer of Jermyn Street, Hay- 
market, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ improvements in the 
preparation of an artificial vegetable gum, to be used as a substitute for 
gum-senegal.”’—9th January 1845. 

16. To Josrrn Woops of Bucklersbury, in the city of London, civil- 
engineer, being a communication from abroad, “ improvements in pro- 
ducing and multiplying copies of designs and impressions of printed or 
written surfaces.”"—10th January 1845. 

17. To Anrcuipatp Trait of Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury 
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ an improvement in the 
manufacture of sails for ships and other vessels.’’—-13th January 1845. 

18. To Franx Frerper of Old Street, in the parish of Saint Luke, 
in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from 
abroad, “‘ certain improvements in wire-work for the manufacturing of 
paper and the application thereof to such purposes.—13th January 
1845. . 

19. To Tuomas Lever Rusuton of Bolton-le-Moors, in the county of 
Lancaster, iron manufacturer, “ certain improvements in the manufac- 
ture of iron.”—14th January 1845. ! 

20. To James Parmer Bupp of Ystalyford, iron-works, Swansea, 
merchant, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of iron.”’—17th January 
1845. 

21. To Ratrn Knowres Watter of Manchester, in the county of Lan- 
easter, candle-wick manufacturer, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of 
platted wicks, and in the manufacture of candles.”’—17th January 1845. 

22. To Srernen Hurcuison of the London Gas-Works, Vauxhall, in 
the county of Surrey, engineer, “ certain improvements in gas meters.”’ 
21st January 1845, 


394 List of Patents. 


23. To Arntnur Watt of Bisterne Place, Poplar, in the county of 
Middlesex, surgeon, ‘‘ certain improvements in the manufacture of steel, 
copper, and other metals.” —21st January 1845. 

24. To Wit114M Berts of Smithfield Bars, in the city of London, 
distiller, and ALexanpER Soutuwoop Stocker, of the same place, gentle- 
man, ‘‘ improvements in bottles, jars, pots, and other similar vessels, 
and in the mode of manufacturing, stoppering, and covering the same.” 
—22d January 1845. 

25. To Squire Dice of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, machine- 
maker, ‘“‘ certain improvements in looms for weaving.”—22d January 
1845. 

26. To Prerre Armano Le Comte pe Fontainemoreav, of No. 7 
Skinner Place, Size Lane, in the city of London, being a communica- 
tion from abroad, ‘‘ certain improvements in covering or coating metals 
and alloys of metals.” —24th January 1845. 

27. To ALexanvEr Bain of Charlotte Street West, in the county of 
Middlesex, engineer, “‘ improvements in apparatus for ascertaining and 
registering the progress and direction of ships and other vessels through 
water, and for ascertaining the temperature in the holds of ships and 
other vessels, for taking soundings at sea, and in apparatus used in 
lighthouses.” —27th January 1845. 

28. To Grorce Brown of Glasgow, in Scotland, merchant, being a 
communication from abroad, “‘ certain improvements in the manufacture 
of soda.”—27th January 1845. 

29. To Jonn Reepv Hux of No. 98 Chancery Lane, in the county of 
Middlesex, civil-engineer and patent agent, ‘‘ improvements in a press 
or presses, machine or machines, for letterpress printing.” —28th January 
1845. 

30. To Jonn Grorce Bopmer of Manchester, in the county of Lan- 
caster, engineer, ‘“ certain improvements in locomotive steam-engines 
and carriages to be used upon railways, in marine engines and vessels, 
and in apparatus for propelling the same, and also in stationary engines, 
and in apparatus to be connected therewith.”—29th January 1845. 

31. To Joun James Russert and Tuomas Henry Russewt, both of 
Wednesbury, in the county of Stafford, tube-manufacturers, “ improve- 
ments in the manufacture of welded iron tubes.”’-——30th January 1845. 

32. To Joun Ranp of Howland Street, Fitzroy Square, in the county 
of Middlesex, artist, being a communication from abroad, “ improve- 
ments in piano fortes.’’— 30th January 1845, 

33. To CurisrorHer Dunkin Hays of Bermondsey, in the county of 
Surrey, master mariner, “certain improvements in machinery or appara- 
tus for propelling vessels.” —31st January 1845. 

34. To Wixiiam Epwarp Newton of the office for patents, 66 Chan- 
cery Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil-engineer, being a communi- 


ae 


List of Patents. 395 


cation from abroad, ‘‘ certain improvements in apparatus for propelling 
vessels.” —4th February 1845. 

35. To Roserr Gorpon of Heaton Foundry, Stockport, mill-wright 
and engineer, ‘“‘ certain improvements in grinding wheat and other grain, 
and in dressing flour and meal, which improvements are also applicable 
to grinding cement and other substances.”—5th February 1845. 

36. To Grorce Brett of Pembroke Road, in the city of Dublin, “ im- 
provements in drying malt, grain, and seeds.”——5th February 1845. 

37. To Peter Borrre of Princes Square, St George’s in the East, 
in the county of Middlesex, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in steam- 
engines, boilers, and propelling machinery.”—13th February 1845. 

38. To Artuur Varnuam.of the Strand, in the county of Middlesex, 
stationer, ‘“‘ improvements in the manufacture of paper, in order to pre- 
vent fraud, which he intends to call ‘ safety and protective paper.’ ’— 
13th February 1845. 

39. To Francis Sranisias DE Sussex of Bethnal Green, in the county 
of Middlesex, chemist, and Atexanprr Arrotr of Gloucester Crescent, 
Regent’s Park, in the same county, chemist, ‘‘ improvements in the manu- 
facture of oxides of manganese.” —13th February 1845. 

40. To Frank Hits, “‘ certain improved means for producing or manu- 
facturing artificial coal or fuel, and other useful products connected there- 
with.”’—17th February 1845. 

41. To Josrrn Tuomas of No. 1 Finch Lane, Cornhill, in the city of 
London, publisher, being a communication from abroad, “a new and 
improved tube.”—17th February 1845. 

42. To Wittiam Epwarps Sraire of High Street, Mary-le-bone, in 
the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements in the pro- 
cesses and apparatus for preparing extracts and essences of vegetable and 
animal substances.” —19th February 1845. 

43. To James Power of Threadneedle Street, in the city of London, 
merchant, being a communication from abroad, ‘improvements in the 
manufacture of candles and soap, and in treating a certain vegetable 
matter for such manufacture, and for other uses.” —24th February 1845. 

44. To Roserr Oxtanp of Plymouth, in the county of Devon, chem- 
ist, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of chlorine.’-—24th February 
1845. 

45. To Jean Atsert Patmarrr of Brussels, in the kingdom of Bel- 
gium, colonel of staff, being a communication from abroad, “ improve- 
ments in the means of economizing and applying heat obtained from 
known processes.” —25th February 1845. 

46. To Ricnarp Haworrn of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, 
- engineer, “certain improvements in steam engines.”—26th February 
1845. 

47. To Wititam Hannis Tayxor of Piccadilly, in the county of 


896 List of Patents. 


Middlesex, gentleman, and Tuomas Bartiett Simpson of Great Russell 
Street, in the same county, gentleman, ‘certain improvements in pro- 
pelling.”—26th February 1845. 

48. To Witu1am Kenworruy of Blackburn, in the county of Lan- 
caster, manufacturer, ‘‘ certain improvements in looms for weaving.”— 
28th February 1845. 

49. To Avcustus Witi1am Gapespen of Woburn Square, in the 
county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of 
sugar.” —4th March 18435. 

50. To Joun Bryru and Atrrep Brytu of the parish of St Anne, 
in the county of Middlesex, engineers, and Grorcze ParkER Hussuck 
of Ponder’s End, in the said county of Middlesex, engineer, ‘‘ certain 
improvements in steam-engines, steam-boilers, and machinery for pro- 
pelling vessels, which improvements in steam-engines and steam-boilers 
are for the most part applicable to the purposes of steam navigation, but 
are also applicable to other purposes for which steam-engines or steam- 
boilers are or may be used.” —6th March 1845. 

51. To Roserr Frreusson, linen manufacturer in- Dundee, in the 
county of Forfar, Scotland, “improvements in the machinery and appa- 
ratus for the manufacture of cloth by hand, steam, or other power.”— 
13th March 1845. 

52. To Lovis Anrorne RitrErBanpt of Gerard Street, Soho, in the 
county of Middlesex, doctor of medicine,’ ‘‘ certain improvements in pre- 
yenting and removing incrustation in steam-boilers and steam-generators.”’ 
—18th March 1845. 

53. To Joun Fisner the younger, of Radford-Works, in the parish of 
Radford, in the county of Nottingham, gentleman, and James Gippons 
of New Radford, in the said parish of Radford, machinist, ‘‘ certain im_ 
provements in the manufacture of figured or ornamented lace or net and 
other fabrics.’”-—19th March 1845. 

54. To Auexanper M‘Doveatt of Daisy Bank, in the parish of 
Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, gentleman, ‘‘ certain improve- 
ments in the method of working atmospheric railways, which improve- 
ments are also applicable to canals and rivers.’’—19th March 1845. 

55. To Ocravius Henry Smirn of Wimbledon, in the county of 
Surrey, Esquire, “certain improvements in steam-engines, boilers, and 
condensers.”’—20 March 1845. 

56. To Witton Grorcr Turner of Gateshead, in the county of 
Durham, doctor in philosophy, “improvements in the manufacture of 
caustic alkalies, soda, and potash, and their carbonates, and also in the 
manufacture of the ferro-cyanates of soda or potash.” ——20th March 1845. 


( 397%) 


INDEX. 


Adie, Mr R., account of electrical experiments, 97. 

Adie, A. Esq., his table of mean state of the barometer and ther- 
mometer at Canaan Cottage, near Edinburgh, for 1844, 377. 

America, on the original population of, by Lieut.-Colonel Smith, 1. 

America, its aboriginal race described, by Dr 8S. G. Morton, M.D., 
141. 

American Encyclopzdia of Chemistry recommended, 187. 

Amygdaloid, or toadstone of Derbyshire, noticed by J. Alsop, 179, 

Ansted, Professor, his system of geology recommended, 188; Pro- 
fessor Ansted’s new works enumerated, 391. 

Aurora Borealis seen below the clouds, by the Rey. J. F arquhar- 
son, LL.D., minister of Alford, 135. 

Axinite, its occurrence in a fossiliferous rock in the Vosges, 181. 


Bathymetrical Researches, By Professor E, Forbes, and Professor 
Loven of Stockholm, 184. 

Bible, its physical facts compared with the discoveries of modern 
science, by Marcel de Serres, 239. 

Biluchi tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the lower valley of the Indus 
and Cutchi, by Captain T. Postans, 20. 

Birds, fossil, remarks on, by Mr Paul Gervaes, 175, 

Bischof, Professor, of Bonn, on the Origin of Quartz and Metalli- 
ferous Veins, 344, 

Boblaye, E, Le P., biography of, 193. 


Cagots of the Pyrenees, observations on, 185. 

Canigou, Eastern Pyrenees, distribution of plants on, 386. 

Cantal, new proof of its being a crater of soulevement, 385. 

Carbonic acid, solid, heat from, 184. 

Christison, Professor, on the umbelliferous narcotics, 354. 

—————— on nanthe crocata, 357. 

Cirripedia of the Isle of Ichaboe described by Professor Macgilli- 
vray, 294, 

Coal, on its supposed inexhaustible stores, by T. Sopwirth, Esq., 
179. 


Cockburn-Law, its geognosy, 366. 


Contour lines in plans, their utility explained, by Captain Vetch, 
Royal Engineers, 57. 


398 Index. 


Comet in the Whale, observations on, by M. Rumker, 174. 
Coral Fishery in the Mediterranean, observations on, 188. 


Darwin, C., Esq,, on volcanic rocks and glaciers, 370. 

Davy, Dr John, on the mismanagement of stable-dung manure, 

especially as regards exposure to rain, 38. 

on the crystallization of carbonate of lime, 342. 

on the formation of guano, 226. 

Diorama, portable, observations on, by G. S. Tait, Esq., 214. 

Dunbar, the Rev. William, D.D., his meteorological observations at 
Applegarth manse, 375. 


Earthquakes and extraordinary movements of the sea, on, by R. Ed- 
monds, Esq., 271. 
_Experiments by Brown and Knox, noticed by Berzelius, 182. 
Evaporation, the formation and suspension of clouds considered, 


by G. A. Rowell, Esq. of Oxford, 50. 


Fireproof warehouses described, by William Fairbairn, Esq., civil 
engineer, 101. 

Fluorine in recent and fossil bones, and the sources from whence it 
is derived, by J. Middleton, Esq., 116. 

Forbes, James, Professor, his Ninth Letter to Professor Jameson 
on glaciers, 332. 

on the determination of heights, 286. 

Fossil fishes in the London clay, noticed by Professor Agassiz, 
“76, 

Francis, J. W., M.D., Member of the Wernerian Natural History 
Society, &c. &c., his Discourse on Natural History enume- 
rated, 389. 

Fucoidal plants, their influence on the formation of the earth, by 
Professor Forchhammer, 178. 


Goadby on the method of preparing animal substances, 185. 

Guano, the formation of, illustrated by experiments, by John Davy, 
M.D., &c., 226. 

Gordon, L., Professor, on the viscous theory of glaciers, 372. 


Holland, G. Calvert, M.D., on the philosophy of the moving powers 
of the blood enumerated, 390. 

Hopkins, Thomas, Esq., on the atmospheric changes which produce 
rain, wind, and storms, and the fluctuations of the barometer, 
enumerated, 390. 


Index. 399 
Ibis, observations on, 388. 


Jones, Professor, his new work on the natural history of animals 
noticed, 390. 
Journal of the Geological Society of London recommended, 390. 


Kaafjord in Norway, its supposed fossil organic remains, 384. 
Keilhau, Professor, his Gaea Norwegica noticed, 391. 


Low, David, Esq., Professor of Agriculture in the University of 
Edinburgh, his work on Landed Property, &c., noticed, 187. 


MacGillivray on the Cirripedie, 294. 

Magerée, island of, its geognostical structure, 383. 

Mammalia of the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine, by 
Professor William MacGillivray, 43. 

» gigantic and extinct, found in Australia, described by 
Professor Owen, 177. 

Mannite, its occurrence in the Laminaria saccharina, and other sea- 
weeds ; also in mushrooms, 41. 

Mediterranean Sea, temperature of, 180. 

Meteorology of Whitehaven, by J. F. Miller, Esq., 377. 

Milne, David, Esq., on oceanic oscillations, 358. 

Mountains, heights of, in Norway, by Captain Vibe, 232. 

Moveable-Derrick Crane described by William Wightman, 62, 

Mulder, Professor, his work on the Chemistry of Animal and Vege- 
table Physiology, noticed, 389. 


Nicol’s Guide to the Geology of Scotland, recommended to travellers, 
188. 

Account of the newly discovered metal, Niobium, 181. 

Nordkyn, in Finmark, its geognosy, 384. 

Norwegian Mountains, their heights, as given by authors, 232. 


Oils, vegetable, solid, observations on, 388. 
Opal, precious, cause of the colours of, 385. 


Patents granted for Scotland from 24th September to 20th Decem- 
ber 1844,188,—also from 24th December 1844 to 22d March 
1846, 392. 


Pendulum, compensation, of Baily, observations on, by Mr R, Bry- 
son, 220. 


er 


= 


$ 
400 ed Index. 


Peschel’s Elements of Physics, enumerated, 389. 

Philippi, Dr A., on the recent and fossil mollusca of the south of 
Italy, and more particularly of Sicily, 202. 

Polarization of light, in reference to the light of the sun, 181. 

Publications, new, received, 186—noticed and enumerated, 389. 


Royal Society of Edinburgh, its proceedings, 354. 


St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, account of, by Professor L. Gordon, 
216. 

Sigillaria, observations on, by Mr King, concluded, 119. 

Serres, Marcel de, his observations on the physical facts contained 
in the Bible compared with the discoveries of the modern 
sciences, 239. 

Springs of water, observations on, by R. Were Fox, 66. 


Teredo, a new species described by Professor William MacGillivray, 
138. 

Tide-Gauge, a cheap and portable one, described by J. 8. Russell, 
F.B.S.E., &c., 71. 

Topaz, cavities in, containing particular crystals which are dissolved 
by heat, and re-crystallize on cooling, 386. 


Veins, quartzose and metalliferous, their origin, 344. 
Vestiges of the natural history of creation, its character, 186. 


Wagner’s comparative anatomy recommended, 389. 

Ware, Hibbert, Dr, on ancient human races in Britain, 360, 363. 

Water, boiling, eruption of, from the extinct crater of Solfatara, 
180. 

Wernerian Natural History Society, its proceedings, 374. 

Wilkinson, George, Member of the Royal Irish Academy, his work 
on the Practical Geology and Architecture of Ireland, enume- 
rated, 391. 


Xanthie oxide discovered in guano, 1838. 


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