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THE

EDINBURGH

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A VIEW OF

THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
CHEMISTRY, NATURAL HISTORY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GEOGRAPHY, NAVIGATION,
STATISTICS, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS,

OCTOBER 1. 1825 to APRIL 1. 1826.

CONDUCTED BY

ROBERT JAMESON,

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY ,ArEtrTURER oN MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ;

Fellow of the Royal, Antiquarian, and Wernerian Societies of Edinburgh; Honorary Member of the
Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Dublin Society ; Fellow of the Linnean and Geological
Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, and Cork Institutions ; of the Royal Society
of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Imperial Natural History Society of Moscow ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical
Society of Petersburgh ; the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society
of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ;
of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural History Society of Calvados ; of the Senken-
berg Society of Natural History ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
New York; of the New York Historical Society; of the American Antiquarian Society; of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York,
Sfc. Sfc.

TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY \ j CW- ? A/-'

VOL. XIV.

STX'

EDINBURGH :

PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. EDINBURGH |

AND HURST, ROBINS^ & CO. LONDON.

1826 \

/ . .]

I - . - i ■

P. Neill , Printer , Edinburgh.

CONTENTS

No. XXVII.

Pag©

Art. L On the Construction of Achromatic Object-Glasses.

By Peter Barlow, Esq. F. R.S. Professor in the
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, - 1

II. General Reflections on various important subjects in
Mineralogy. By Frederick Mohs, Esq. Knight of
the Order of Civil Merit, Professor of Mineralogy
at Freyberg, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, of the Wernerian Natural History Society,

&c. (Continued from Vol. XIII. p. 218.) - 18

III. A Description of an Improvement on Bramah’s Hy-

dro-mechanical Press, with its application to Oil
Mills. By John Tredgold, Esq. Civil Engineer,
and Honorary Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, London, - 29

IV. On the Geographical Distribution of Palms (Palmae).

By Prof. Schouw. (Continued from Vol. XII. p. 1 37-) 34

V. Observations on the Temperature of Man and other
Animals. By John Davy, M.D. F.R.S. (Con-
cluded from Vol. XIII. p. 311.)

III. On the Temperature of different kinds of Animals, 38

VI. Chart of the Island of Ascension, with Remarks on its
Geognosy. (Plate III.) By Captain Robert Camp-
bell, R.N. Communicated by the Author, - 47

VII. A Catalogue, in Right Ascension, of 46 principal Stars,
deduced from Observations made at the Observa-
tory of Trinity College, Dublin, in the years 1823
and 1824. By the Rev. Dr Brinkley, - 50

VIII. Account of a Bridge of Suspension made of Hide

Ropes, in Chili. By Captain Basil Hall, F.R.S. 52

IX. Observations for determining the Magnetic Variation,
made in the Neighbourhood of Spitzbergen, by Capt.

(then Lieut.) Franklin, assisted by Lieut. Beechy,

Mr Back, and Mr Fyffe, in His Majesty’s Ship Trent,
in the year 1818. Communicated by Capt. Franklin, 56

ii CONTENTS.

Art. X. 1. On the Unequal Distribution of Caloric in Voltaic
Action. 2. On the Temperature of the Skin of the
Dormouse. 3. On the Temperature of the Egg
of the Hen, in relation to its Physiology. By John
Murray, F.S.A. F.L.S. & M.W.S.

1. On the Unequal Distribution of Caloric in Y oltaic Action, 57

2. On the Temperature of the Skin of the Dormouse, 60

3. On the Temperature of the Egg of the Elen, in re-

lation to its Physiology, - 61

XI* Remarks on Mr Danielfs Hypothesis of the Radia-
tion of Heat in the Atmosphere. By Mr F oggo jun. 63
XII. Sketches of the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs
of Hearing and Vision. By Thomas Buchanan,

C. M. Author of the Illustrations of Acoustic Sur-
gery, &c. &c.

1. Ear of the Squalus, - - 71

XIII. On the Constancy of the Level of the Sea in general,

and of the Baltic Sea in particular, - 77

XIV. On certain circumstances connected with the Conden-
sation of Atmospheric Humidity on solid surfaces.

By Henry Home Blackadder, Esq. Surgeon, 81

XV. Account of a Case of Poisoning, caused by the
Honey of the Lecheguana Wasp. By M. Auguste
de St Hilaire, - - - - 91

XVI. Sketches of the extent of our information respect-
ing Rail-roads. By the Rev. James Adamson, 100

XVII. Table of Magnetic Variations, - - 111

XVIII. Observations and Experiments on the Structure and
Functions of the Sponge. By Robert Edmond
Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. (Con-
tinued from Vol. XIII. p. 34*6.) - - 113

XIX. On the Detection of Boracic Acid in Minerals by the

Blowpipe. By Edward Turner, M.D. F.R.S.E.
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians, Edinburgh, - 124

XX. On Euclase. By A. Levy, Esq. A. M. &c. - 129

XXI. On the modes of Notation of Weiss, Mohs, and Haiiy.

By A. Levy, Esq. A. M. - - 132

XXII. On the Preservation of Zoological Specimens from
the Depredations of Insects. By Thomas S- Traill,
M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. - - - 135

XXIII. Notice of Zircon found in the primitive Island of
Scalpay, on the East Coast of Harris. By William
Nicoll, Esq. Lecturer on Natural Philosophy, 138

CONTENTS.

Art. XXIV. On the Effects of Temperature on the Intensity
of Magnetic Forces ; and on the Diurnal Va«
nation of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity.

By S. H. Christie, Esq. M.A. of the Royal
Military Academy, - - - 1 40

XXV. List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the
last three months. Communicated by Pro-
fessor Graham, - - - 150

XXVI. Meteorological Observations made at Leith. By

Messrs Coldstream and Foggo, - 151

XXVII. Celestial Phenomena from January 1. to April 1.

1826, calculated for the Meridian of Edin-
burgh, Mean Time. By Mr George Innes, 156
$©lar Eclipse of November 29. 1826. (Plate VII.) 158
XXVIII. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 163
XXIX. Proceedings of the Wernerian Nat. Hist. Society, 164

XXX. Proceedings of the Northern Institution, 165

XXXI. Scientific Intelligence.

Astronomy. 1. Comets, - - - - 166

Acoustics. 2. A Table shewing the Results of Experiments
on the Velocity of Sound, as observed by different Phi-
losophers, - - - - - l67

Geography. 3. Expedition to Explore the Shores of the
Frozen Sea and the North-east Coast of Siberia. 4. Cap-
tain Parry’s last Voyage. 5. East Coast of West Green-
land formerly inhabited by Europeans. 6. Edinburgh
Geographical and Historical Atlas, - 168, 169

Chemistry. 7- Evolution of light during Crystallisation. 8.
Light emitted during the Friction of Crystals. 9- Ben-
zoic Acid in Grasses. 10. Formation of Metallic Cop-
per by Water and Fire. 11. Effect of Position on Crys-
tallisation. 12. Sulphur in Vegetables. IS. On sup-
posed Hydrates of Sulphur. 14. View of the Atomic
System, for the Use of Students, by E. Turner, M. D.

15. Lithia in Spring Water, - - 169-172

Meteorology. 16. Meteoric Stone. 17. Falling Stars, 173

Hydrography. 18. Remarkable Appearance in a Lake, ib.

Mineralogy. 19. Discovery of Iodine in combination with
Silver. 20. Platina found in Russia. 21. Graphite. 22.
Discovery of Two new Minerals. 23. Remarkable Crys-
tals of Pleonaste, - « 1 73-1 75

iv CONTENTS.

Geology. 24. Notice regarding a Phenomenon observed in
the Island of Meleda, in the province of Ragusa. 25.
Considerations on Volcanoes, by G. P. Scrope, Esq. 26 .
Comparative durability of Marble and Granite. 27.
Geognosy of Palestine, - - - 175-1 78

Botany. 28. Rhizomorphous plants in Mines. 29. Lumi-
nous appearance in Mines. 30. Rare Scottish plants.

31. Rare native plants found in Perthshire. 32. Ledum
palustre and Papaver nudicaule. 33. Chara aspera, 178-182:
Zoology. 34. Sphinx atropos. 35. An appearance seen on
the Surface of the living Corallina officinalis. 36. On
the Spicula of Spongia friabilis. 37* Sounds produced
under Water by the Tritonia arborescens. 38. Pecten
niveus, a new species. 39- Balls in the Stomach of Fishes.

40. East Indian Unicorn. 41. Cause of the Red Co-
lour of Lake Morat, - 182-190

Fossil Zoology. 42. Discovery of the Anaplotherium com-
mune in the Isle of Wight. 43. Petrified Fishes, 190,191
Anthropology. 44. On the Causes of Bronchocele, - 19!

Physiology. 45. Canals in the Filaments of the Nerves. 46.

On the Iron in the Cruor, or red part of the Blood, 194
Statistics. 47. Number of Students at the Prussian Univer-
sities, - - ib.

Arts. 48. Manufacture of Paper from Marine Plants. 49*
Spiritous Solution of Copal. 50. Very strong Leather
for Saddlery and other purposes. 51. Composition for
the Covering of Buildings, by M. Pew. 52. Mr Turr ell’s
method of rendering Gravers capable of Engraving Steel
Plates. 53. Excellent Building Stone near to Elgin.

54. Remarks on the Cultivation of the Silk-Worm, by
John Murray, F.L.S. &c. 55. Manufacture of a Paper

which has the property of removing Rust from articles
of Iron and Steel. 56. On the Chinese manner of form-
ing artificial Pearls, by E. Gray, Esq. 57- Diving Bell.

58. Platina Strings for Musical Instruments. 59- Imi-
tation of Mahogany. 60. Mode of securing Wooden
Buildings from the effects of Fire. 6l. Table shewing
the Quantity of Metallic Copper produced in Scotland,
England and Ireland, from 1818 to 1822, - 195-201

Art. XXXII. List of Patents sealed in England from Octo-
ber 6. to November 17* 1825, - 201

XXXI II. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 5th

September to 17th November 1825, - 203

CONTENTS

No. XXVIII.

Page

Art. I. The Geological Deluge, as interpreted by Baron Cu-
vier and Professor Buckland, inconsistent with the
testimony of Moses and the Phenomena of Nature.

By the Rev. John Fleming, D.D. F.R.S.E. (Com-
municated by the Author), - - 205

II. Notice of the Rocks composing the Mountains which
occur in the Desert between the Nile and the Red
Sea. With a Sketch, - - 239

III. On certain Circumstances connected with the Con-

densation of Atmospheric Humidity on solid sur-
faces. By Henry Home Blackadder, Esq. F.R.S.E.

&c. Surgeon. With a Plate. Communicated by the
Author. (Concluded from p. 91-) - - 240

IV. Account of the principal Coal Mines in France, and

the quantity of Coal which they yield, - 252

V. On the Modes of Notation of Weiss, Mohs, and Haiiy.

By M. Levy, M. A. &c. Communicated by the Au-
thor. (Continued from p. 135.) - - 258

VL Account of the Poison Plants of the Southern Parts

of Brazil. (Continued from p. 100.) - 264

VIII. On the Structure and Nature of the Spongilla friabi-
lis. By Robert E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S.
M.W.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 270

IX, General Reflections on various important subjects in
Mineralogy. By Frederick Mohs, Esq. Knight of
the Order of Civil Merit, Professor of Mineralogy
at Freyberg, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, of the Wernerian Society, &c. (Concluded
from p. 28.) - - - - 284

CONTENTS.

Art. X. Account of the Bones of various Animals discovered
at Breingues, in the Department du Lot. By. M.
Delpon, - - - 300

XI. Observations regarding the Position of the fossil Me-
galosaurus and Didelphis or Opossum at Stones-
field, - - 303

XII. Observations on the Comet of July 1825. By Pro-
fessor Gautier, - - 304

XIII. On the Practical Construction of Achromatic Object-
Glasses. By Peter Barlow, Esq. F.K.S. Profes-
sor in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Communicated by the Author. (Concluded from

p. 18.) - 311

XIV. Notices regarding the Vineyards of Egypt, - 322

XV. Account of a newly invented and rotatory Gas-

Burner. By Mr James Nimmo, Edinburgh, 325

XVI. Notice regarding the Phosphate of Lime of the Coal

Formation. By M. P. Berthier, - 326

XVII. Observations made for Determining the Progress of
the Horary Variations of the Barometer under the
Tropics, from the Level of the Sea to the Ridge of
the Cordillera of the Andes. By M. De Humboldt, 328
XVIII. Experiments on the Action of Water upon Glass,
with some Observations on its slow Decomposition.

By Mr T. Griffiths, Chemical Assistant in the
Royal Institution, - - - 331

XIX. Observations and Experiments on the Structure and

Functions of the Sponge. By Robert E. Grant,
M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. (Continued
from p. 124.) - - - 336

XX. A concise statement of the Magnetical and other Phi-

losophical Experiments and Observations made
during the recent Northern Expedition under Cap-
tains Parry and Hopner, 1824-5. By a Correspon-
dent, - - 341

XXI. Meteorological Observations made at Leith. By

Messrs Coldstream and Foggo, - 346

XXII. Celestial Phenomena from April 1. to July 1. 1826,
calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean
Time. By Mr George Innes, Aberdeen, 351

XXIII. List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the last
three months. Communicated by Prof, Graham, 351

CONTENTS.

iii

Art. XXIV. Proceedings of the Wernerian Society. Conti-
nued from p. 165. - - 354

XXV. Scientific Intelligence.

ASTRONOMY.

I. The Double Star 6l Cygni. 2. Opposite Effects of a
Change of Density of the Air, as affecting the going of
a Clock. 3. Local Attractions, - 355 , 356

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

4. Experiments on the Compression of Air and of Gases, 357

METEOROLOGY.

5. Magnetizing power of Light. 6. Daniel on the Barometer.

7. Meteorological Table, extracted from the Register
kept at Kinfauns Castle, North Britain. Lat. 56° 23' 30".
Above the Level of the Sea 3 40 feet. 8. Luminous Me-
teor, ----- 357-359

GEOGRAPHY.

9. Edinburgh Geographical and Historical Atlas. 10. Dis-
tribution of Land and Water. 11. Iceland, 359, 360

MINERALOGY.

12. Vesuvian of Egg near Christiansand. 13. New Analysis
of the Steinheilite or Dichroite of Orijarvi, by P. A. Bons-
dorff. 14. Phillip site. 15. Tabular Spar of Par gas. 16.
Notice regarding Steatite or Soapstone, and its principal
uses, - - 360-362

GEOLOGY.

17- Professor Buckland’s Notice of the Hyaenas’ Den near

Torquay, - 363

ZOOLOGY.

18. On the Serpents of Southern Africa. 19- Mode followed
by the Serpent-eater (Falco Serpentarius) for destroying
Serpents. 20. Remarks on some Marine Fishes, and on
their Geographical Distribution, - 365, 366

BOTANY.

21. Original Habitats of the Rose. 22. Number of Species of
the Genus Rosa. 23. Notice regarding the Boletus ig-
niarius. 24. Naturalization and cultivation of the Larger-
fruited Vaccinium, - - 368, 369

ARTS.

25. Steam Navigation. 26. Method of using pure Muriate
and ^Sulphate of Soda, in the Manufacture of Glass, by

IV CONTENTS.

M. Leguay. 27* On the advantages of improving the
qualities of Cutting Instruments, by Burnishing, and
thereby condensing their edges, by Thomas Gill, Esq.

28. On the French mode of Treating Scythes, by
hammering them cold. 29* On improving Bricklayers’
Trowels, by hammer-hardening them, by Mr Walby.

SO. On improving Drills by hammer-hardening them
cold. 31. On the improvement of Square Broaches or
Boring-bits. 32. Blue and Green Colours derived from
Althaea rosea* 33. Melaina. 34. New method of pre-
paring Quills. 35. Panto- chronometer, - 370-377

COMMERCE.

36. Number of Vessels arrived at Alexandria in the years 1822,

1823 and 1824, - 377

STATISTICS.

37. Population, - 378

Art. XXVI. List of Patents sealed in England from 17th

November 1825 to 23d January 1826, 378

XXVII. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 17th

November 1825 to l6th February 1826, 381

List of Plates, - - 382

Index, - 383

PublisTied l?yA.Co7ista2)les& C* EdutT 2826 .

JVttLix.ar's sc*.

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THE

EDINBURGH

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Art. I. — On the Practical Construction of Achromatic Object-
Glasses. By Peter Barlow, Esq. E. R. S. Professor in
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Communicated
' by the Author.

i. A variety of methods have been proposed by mathemati-
cians for determining the refractive and dispersive power of
glass, and different principles have been given for computing
the radii of curvature of the lenses composing the object-glass
of our achromatic telescopes. The subject, indeed, is perhaps as
well understood by theoretical opticians as can be desired ; but
this is far from being the case with many who are practically
engaged in the construction of telescopes, and for their conve-
nience only the present article has been written. It professes to
throw no new light upon this highly interesting subject, but
merely to bring under one head, and to reduce to the most
simple form, all that is actually required by the practical opti-
cian, viz.

1. To determine, in the most accurate manner, the refractive
index of his two glasses :

0. To determine their relative dispersive power:

3. To determine the radii of curvature of the different sur-
faces, so as to produce the achromatic property with the least
spherical aberration.

With a view to the former of these, the instrument recom-
mended and described by M. Biot, in his Traite de Physique ,
VOL. XIV. NO. 07. JANUARY 1806. A

2 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

has been adopted, as well as the principle of calculation givers
by the same author; but this latter has been reduced to lan-
guage more intelligible to general readers.

For the determination of the dispersive power, the instrument
invented by Dr Brewster, and described by him in his tc Treatise
on New Philosophical Instruments,” has been selected as the
most simple, and as possessing every requisite precision for any
practical application; and for the principles of computation,
in this case, the formulae, as given by Boscovich, and copied in
the work last quoted, are those which, after some comparison,
have been preferred.

Lastly, For computing the curvatures, we have taken, as
decidedly superior to any other, the principles so ably illustrated
by Mr Herschel in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821,
and have extended his tables, in order to reduce the labour of
computation to the least possible quantity.

In every case, also, actual observations and calculations are
stated in sufficient detail, to render the whole intelligible to every
one who has any knowledge of the first principles of mathema-
tics, and who is supposed to be required to construct an object-
glass of any given focus, from specimens of flint and plate or
crown glass, with whose properties, in the first instance, he is
wholly unacquainted.

2. Instrument for measuring the Angies of the Prisms , and
for determining the Refractive Indices.

The first thing requisite is, for the artist to form for himself
two small prisms of the flint and crown glass he proposes work-
ing together, reducing them to an angle of about 80° each ; but
the exact measure of which must be afterwards determined by
the instrument described below.

This is shewn in two elevations, Plate I. Figs. 1. and 2. Here
sss are three screws, which answer as feet to the instrument, and
which at the same time serve for adjusting it to verticality.
AB is a tube firmly attached to the centre of the three branches
forming its base ; T is an interior tube sliding into the former,
and by means of which the instrument may be turned in any
position at pleasure. C is a sort of branch fixed to the interior
tube, to which, again, is screwed the principal circle, graduated

PLATE I.

JSctzTi? jPTuZ-cJbzcr. VolMtfc.Z

Fi9. ,5.

of Achromatic Object-Glasses. 3

as shewn in the figure : m m are two arms turning on one com-
mon centre, coinciding with that of the circle, each being fur-
nished at its extremity with a disc, having an adjustable sight
pierced with a fine hole: ef is a brass plate adjustable by the
tangent-screw, seen in Fig. 2., and which plate carries at the
upper part a square frame fixed at right angles to it. This
square frame is counter-sunk on the inside, so as to receive a
parallel plate of glass, on which the prism is placed, for observa-
tion, as seen in both figures.

The nature of this frame will be better understood by the
perspective view of it, shewn in Fig. 3. Fig. 4. is a brass-plate
ground parallel, and made to slide accurately over the frame, in
such a way as to bring the straight chamferred edge a h exactly
opposite to the centre of the graduated circle, — and the prism,
when placed on the glass-plate, is brought exactly in contact
with this line or edge. The tangent-screw mentioned above,
serves to adjust the frame upwards or downwards, till the edge
a b of the plate is opposite the centre, as above stated.

3. To measure the Angle of the Prism .

For this, it is best to use the parallel glass, blackened at the
back, or to keep one glass for this purpose: lay this in the
frame, and, by means of a short spirit-level laid upon it, adjust
the instrument by the screws in the stand, till it is perfectly ho-
rizontal; then slip on the brass-plate, which ought also to be
blackened, to prevent any confusion of reflected light. Now,
bring both arms of the instrument above the horizontal line or
zero, and set them both by means of the verniers to the same
angle ; as, for example, 40° or 50°, &c. Then looking through
one of the small holes in the sights, the reflection of the other
ought to be seen bisected by the edge of the brass-plate, which
will shew the instrument to be correct ; and if this should not
happen, it must be brought to do so by adjusting the sights ac-
cordingly. This being done, lay on the prism, placing its sharp
edge gently against the edge of the plate above mentioned, and
then, while one of the sights remain fixed, move about the other,
till the reflection of the small hole in the former is seen bisected
by the straight edge as before, and then half the difference in
the two readings will be the angle sought. This operation, which

4 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

is very simple, may be repeated at several angles, and the mean
result taken for the angle of the prism.

4. The following examples will sufficiently illustrate this ope-
ration.

Flint Prism , No. 1.

Fixed sight.

Moveable

sight.

Difference.

^ Difference
or Angle.

40° O'

89° 38'

49° 38'

24° 49'

30 0

79 36

49 36

24 48

35 0

84 40

49 40

24 50

36 0

85 38

49 38

24 49

25 0

74 38

49 38

24 49

Mean angle,

24 49

Plate Prism , No. 1.

Fixed sight.

Moveable

sight.

Difference.

^ Difference
or Angle.

40° O'

89° 42'

49° 42'

24° 51'

35 0

84 40

49 40

24 50

30 0

79 44

49 44

24 52

25 0

74 44

49 44

24 52

20 0

69 40

49 40

24 50

Mean angle,

24 51

The principle of this deduction is too obvious to call for any
farther remark, than merely to state, that it is founded on the
known law, that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

5. Observations for determining the Index of Refraction.

It is a known principle in optics, that, in the passage of light
out of one medium into another, as, for example, from glass into
air, the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction are to each
other in a constant ratio ; and this ratio is what is called the in-
dex of refraction.

In order to determine the data requisite for ascertaining this
index, we must proceed as below.

Having adjusted the instrument as before, place in the frame
the clear parallel plate of glass, instead of the blackened one used
in the last case, and apply the blackened brass plate as before ;
bring also the edge of the prism in contact with the edge of the
plate, as described in the last observations.

of Achromatic Object- Glasses .

The sights must now be placed as shewn in Plate I. Fig. 1. viz.
the one towards the edge of the prism, above the zero or horizon-
tal line, and the one towards the base below the same, and the
lower the better, setting it to some certain reading, as, for ex-
ample, 60° or 55°, &c.

Place on the table, under the lower sight, a piece of clean
white paper, and reflect upon it (if necessary) a strong light ;
bright sunshine is to be preferred. Then move about the upper
sight till the eye perceives the refracted image of the lower sight
bisected by the straight edge, and note its reading. These are all
the data requisite for commencing the calculation ; but, for the
sake of greater security, it will be best to repeat the observation
under three or four different incident angles.

The image seen in this experiment will be coloured and elon-
gated, but there will still, with a little practice, be no difficulty
in bisecting it.

Note . — In order to prevent any confusion in the computation
arising out of the signs of the cosines above and below 90°,
it will be best to register the supplements of the actual read-
ings, or what they want of 180°, instead of the readings
themselves.

6. The following are a set <f Observations on the above prisms*

Flint Prism , No. 1.

Supplement to

Half the

Angle of

No.

reading of

AJL till lllV^ ,

differen ce.

Prism as

Lower Index.

Upper Index.

above found.

(Q.)

(P-)

\a')

(a.)

120° O'

104° 10'

7° 55'- )

125 0

108 45

8 7 (

130 0

113 0

8 30 (

24 49'

135 0

117 10

8 55 J

Plate Prism

, No. 1.

Supplement to

TTolf ffrp

Angle of

No.

reading of

reading of .

•Ex diJL lUc

diffprpnpp

Prism as

Lower Index.

Upper Index.

UllivJlvUCv*

above found.

120° O'

106° 0'

7° 0'

125 0

110 38

7 11 (

130 0

115 0

7 30 r

24° 51'

135 0

119 40

7 40 )

6 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

Let the angle in the first of the columns be denoted by

in the second by

in the third, or the half difference, by

And that in the fourth, or angle of prism, by

Then the rule for computing the index may be stated in
words at length as follow :

7. Rule for computing the Index of R fraction.

1. To the angle P add the angle d, and subtract 4 a from the
sum, and call the remainder = A.

% Add l a and d together, and call the sum t= B.

S. Add together cotangent \ «*, tan A and tan B ; subtract SO
from the sum, and find the angle of which the remainder
is the tangent, and call it — D.

4. From D subtract \ a , and call the remainder = E *f*.

5. From cos Q subtract cos E, and find the natural number an-

swering to the remainder as a logarithm, and it will be
the index sought J.

* In all these cases the log tan, &c. is to be understood.

•f If? in any instance, the angle A should be less than 90°, then, instead of the
angle D, as found above, we must take its supplement, or what it wants of 180p,
in order to find E.

t The algebraical expression for this rule, which will be more intelligible than
the above to those acquainted with analytical subjects, may be expressed as below.,

Operation. Flint Prism. First Observation.

To P = 104° 10' To | a = 12° 24'J

Add d = 7 55 Add d = 7 55

From sum = 112 5 Sum B = 20 19

Subtract | a = 12 24|

A= 99 41

Cot | a - 12° 24' - 10-6578454

Tan B =20 19 - 9-5684856

Tan 84° 13' = D

10-9942660

tan D = cot \ a tan (P + d — . | a) tan (d -f k a)

See Biot, Traite de Physique .

of A chromatic Object- Glasses .

From D = 84° 13'

Take \ a =. 12 24

E = 71 49

9*6989700

From cos Q = 120°, or i

60 J 9'(

Take cos E = 71 49' - 9*4942861

Nat N° ~ 1.6019 = Index 0*2046389

8. Operation. Flint Prism .

To P = 108° 45'

Add d - 8 7

Second Observation.

To J a = 12° 24'
Add d = 8 7

From sum 116 52

Sum B = 20 31

Subtract | a

12 24J

A = 104 27

Cot § a = 12° 24'
Tan A = 104 27 or

75 31

Tan B = 20 31

10*6578454

j- 10-5889079
9-5731227

30-8198760
Subtract 20-0000000

Tan 81° 23' = D - -
From D = 81° 23'
Take § a = 12 24

10-8198760

E = 68 59

From cos Q = 125° O' or t

55 0 1 9-7585913

Take cos E = 68 59

9*5546581

Nat. N° = 1-5993 Index . 0-2039332

8 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

This differs from the former index by 0026, and is given as
an instance of extreme aberration ; no greater difference than
this can be allowed ; should it ever exceed this quantity, the ob-
servation should be repeated. In a great number of such ex-
periments I have generally found a complete agreement in the
first three places of decimals :

The third line of observations gives Index = 1*6013
The fourth 1*5994

The first ----- — 1*6019

The second ------ 1*5993

4) 6-4019
Mean Index, 1 *6005

Similar operations for the plate prism give for a mean in-
dex r — 1.5279.

9. Instrument for measuring the Dispersion , and for determi-
ning the Dispersive Ratio.

It is a well known optical fact, that light, in passing from one
medium to another, is not only refracted, but is decomposed in-
to different coloured rays, thereby forming a spectrum, and that
the extreme red ray is the least refracted, and the extreme
violet the most. The indices of refraction for these two ex-
tremes are therefore different, and the difference between these
indices divided by the mean index minus 1, is called the Dis-
persive Ratio ; and the ratio between the dispersive ratio for
two different species of glass, is called the Ratio of the Disper-
sive powers, or Ratio of Dispersion . This, also, is sometimes
called the dispersive ratio of two glasses.

The instrument for determining this ratio may be described
as below :

AB, Fig. 5. is a brass pillar, on the top of which fits the
cap C, surmounted with a joint K ; to the upper part of which
is fixed a short tube Imno , open on the side a 5, having a set
screw s. Within this short tube is inserted another tube of
about double the length, and which, when brought into any re-
quired position, may be fixed there by the set screw s shutting

of Ach romatic Object- Glasses.

the exterior tube close upon it. This tube projects to the line
c d , which shews its termination, efh i is another tube which
slips over c d, and carries at its end fi the circular plate gh^
graduated on its outer edge from zero both ways to 180° ; v is
a vernier attached to the first outward tube Im n o. The dia-
meter of these tubes may be about 2J inches. The end of the
tube efli i has an end or base at e h , in which is a circular hole
about 1 J inch in diameter, and against this there is a means of
fixing a prism, as shewn in the figure. The tube cd is also ter-
minated at c d with a similar end for the same purpose, but is
made to slip out and in like a common diaphram, for the conve-
nience of fixing the prism on the inside, in order that the in-
terior faces of the two prisms may be parallel.

The construction of this instrument will be better understood
by referring to Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, where Fig. 6. is the case-tube
fixed to the stand, with its vernier and set-screw ; Fig. 7. is the
next tube inserted into this ; Fig. 8. is its diaphram for carry-
ing the prism inserted into Fig. 7. ; and Fig. 9., is a short tube
with a graduated circle, which fits over Fig. 7., and which also
carries a prism, as seen in Fig. 5., where the several tubes are
all in their places.

This instrument being thus provided, we must next get a
piece of smooth board, about 2 feet square, well blackened with
lamp-black, across which is to be stretched a parallel strip of very
white clean card-paper. This is to be hung up, with the card-
paper horizontally, in a good light, with a plumb-line passing
across it as in Fig. 10. Then set up the dispersive instrument
in front of it, at the distance of about 6 or 8 feet, and every
thing will be ready for observation.

10. Method of Observing.

1. Remove the tube and graduated circle Fig. 9., with its
prism, which is always to be that possessing the greater disper-
sion of the two, and turn the tube Fig. 7. about in Fig. 6. till
the edge of the prism fixed to its end is upwards and perfectly
horizontal, which will be known by the eye perceiving the plumb-
line directly above the edge of the prism, and the refracted
image of the same in the prism in one vertical line. For which

10 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

purpose a space is left open above the prism in the face of the
diaphram. This being done, make it fast in this position by
the set-screw. Remove the plumb-line, and looking at the
card-paper strip, its upper edge will be seen strongly tinged with
violet and blue, and the lower edge with red and yellow. Now,
put on the tube and prism, Fig. 9., placing the base of this
prism upwards and horizontal, and then, on examining the strip
of card-paper again (the latter prism being the stronger of the
two in producing dispersion), the upper edge will be found
tinged with red and yellow, and the lower with the violet. If
now, Fig. 9. be gradually turned round either to the right
or left, while the eye is still regarding the card-paper strip,
the colours on both edges of the paper will diminish, and, at
length, in a certain position, will wholly disappear. This being
well and carefully observed, register the reading shown by the
vernier on the graduated circle above mentioned. Then turn
the circle back in the other direction till the colours again dis-
appear, and again register the reading shewn by the vernier :
call half the intercepted arc between the two readings M. (This
will be the difference of the readings, if both are on the same
side of zero, but the sum if on different sides).

Let this observation, which is very simple, be repeated several
times, and the mean of all the results taken for the value of M.

11. Computation for the Ratio of Dispersion.

1. Let the prism fixed in Fig. 8. or the fixed prism, and which
we here suppose to be the plate glass, be called A, and let
this letter also denote its angle; and let the flint prism in
Fig. 9. be called B, which may also denote its angle.
Then,

To the log sine of angle A, add the log of its index of re-
fraction ; and from the sum substract the log of the in-
dex of the refraction of B, and find the angle, of which
the remainder is the log sine, and call it angle a.

3. To the log tangent of angle B, add the log cosine of angle

M, and find the angle of which the sum is the log tan-
gent, and call it angle b.

4. From a subtract b, and call the remainder = c.

of Achromatic Object-Glasses.

5. From the log tangent of c subtract the log tangent of a ; con-

sidering the remainder as a logarithm, find its natural
number, and subtract that natural number from unity.

6. Now, multiply this remainder by the index of refraction of

prism A, and by the index minus 1 (or the decimal part of
the index) of prism B. Multiply also the index of the re-
fraction of B by the decimal part of the index of A ; lastly,
divide the former product by the latter, and the quotient
will be the ratio of dispersion between the two glasses.

Or, Add the logs of the three former numbers together, and
the logs of the two latter, and the difference found by
subtracting the latter from the former will be the log of
the ratio sought * *.

Note.— It is assumed in the preceding rule, that the prism
B owes its higher dispersion to its greater dispersive
power, the angles being nearly equal ; but with a less
dispersive power (by having a greater angle), its disper-
sion may still be greater than prism A. In this case,
the same rule will also obtain ; only in the part number-
ed (5) in the above rule, we must add the natural num-
ber to unity instead of subtracting it ; the reason of
which will be seen in the algebraical formula.

IS. Example .

Shewing the results of observation and calculation on the two
prisms Plate No. 1. and Flint No. 1., of which we have already
determined the angles and indices, viz.

Angle of Plate prism A = 24° 51' index = 1.528 *f*

Do. Flint B 24 49 index = 1.601

* The analytical expression for this rule is,

Sin a — r- tan b cos M tan B =. tan b

Dispersive ratio — {tan (b — a) cot a -{- 1}

r being the index of refraction of A, and R that of R.

*j- Three places of decimals are quite sufficient, and we have taken these to the
nearest figure ; both a little in excess.

Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

Readings with the
index turned to
the right, when
the colour dis-
appeared.

Observation for finding angle M.
5° 10'

5 16
5 30
5 SO
5 16

Readings with
index turned
to the left.

117° 44'
117 54
117 30
117 44
117 40

5)25 92

Mean 5 18

5)588 32

Mean 117 42
5 18

2)112 24

Angle M = 56 12

Then, by the rule,

Sin A = sin 24° 5T = 9-6235016 to tan B = 24° 49' = 9-6650346
Add log 1.528 = 0.1841234 add cos M = 56° 12' = 9-7453056

Sub. log 1*601

9-8076250 tan 14° 25'
0.2043913

9-4103402

Sin 23° 39' = a 9-6032337

From angle a — 23° 39'
Take angle b — 14 25

angle c = 9 14

From tan c = 9° 14' = 9-2110184
Take tan a = 23 39 = 9-6414036

Nat. n°

From

Take

.37121

1.00000

.37121

1.5696148

Remainder, .62879

Log of remainder

.62879 = 1.7985056
1.528 = 0.1841234

Log of decimal of index B .601 = 1 .7788745

Log; of index A

First sum,

1.7615035

of Achromatic Object-Glasses.

Log of index B =1.601 = 0.2043913

Log of decimal of index A = .528 = 1.7226339

Second sum, 1.9270252
From 1.7615035

Take 1.9270252

Nat. n° .68309 = 1.8344783

Whence the ratio of the dispersive powers of the two glasses is
1 : .68309 ; or .68309, according to the common mode of expres-
sion.

We have thus obtained the requisite data for determining the
radii of curvature to be given to our plate and flint lenses, in or-
der to produce an achromatic object-glass.

13. Computation Tables , Sfc.for finding the Radii of Curvature;
the refractive index of each glass , and their dispersive ra-
tio, being given.

If we were now merely required to correct the object-glass
for colour or dispersion, all that would be necessary, would be
to make the focal lengths of our two lenses in the direct ratio of
their dispersive powers ; and, therefore, with three of the sur-
faces formed at pleasure (at least within certain limits), the
fourth might still be so determined as to produce a correction
of colour; and this is probably still practised by some opticians :
but the correction of colour is by no means all that is to be con-
sidered in working an object-glass for a good telescope ; for if,
also, we have not regard to the spherical aberration, the image,
although free from colour, will be seen in a cloudy or smoky
field of vision, which will render it very imperfect and indis-
tinct.

With a view to this latter correction Mr Herschel has given
a very elaborate and valuable paper in the Philosophical Tran-
sactions of the Royal Society, Part ii. for 1821, with Tables,
&c., so as to reduce very considerably the labours of computa-
tion ; and, by extending these tables to a greater length, it is
presumed that we have added our mite towards the simplifying
this important but otherwise laborious and intricate calculation.
However, before entering upon an explanation of this process,

14 Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

it is proposed to give, in words at length, some preliminary rules
for determining the foci of simple lenses, when the refractive
power and radii of curvature are given, or the converse : for,
notwithstanding these rules may be familiar, in some form or
other, to practical opticians, yet, as we should wish this paper
to contain every rule requisite in the construction of an object-
glass, we shall, it is hoped, be excused for introducing them in
a concise form in this place.

14. Rules for determining the Focal Length of lenses of given
curvature *.

1 . To find the focal length of a double convex lens for 'parallel
rays, the radii of curvature and the index of refraction being
given.

Rule. — Multiply the two radii together : then add the two
radii together, and multiply their sum by the decimal part of
the index of refraction. And the former product, divided by
the latter, will be the focal length. '

Example. — The radii of curvature of a flint lens being 4 in-
ches and 10 inches, and its refractive index 1.601, required the
focal length.

Here 4^ <

r 4

10 i and .

) 10
> _

40 ' *

" 14

.601

8.414)40.000(4.75 inches focal length.

2. When the two radii are equal, the rule becomes more simple, as
follows .

Divide the radius of curvature by double the decimal part of
the index for the focal length.

* The algebraical formulae embracing all these rules may be stated as follows :

viz.

r R

For parallel rays, / =

See Encyclopaedia Metropolitana , — Optics.
Where /is the focal length, a the decimal part of the index of refraction, and r
and R the radii, which are to be both positive when both surfaces are convex, and
negative when concave.

of Achromatic Object-Glasses. 15

Example. — The radius of the two equal surfaces of a flint lens
(whose index is 1.600) being 10 inches; required its focal
length.

Here .600

1.200)10.000(8.33 focal length.

The same two rules hold good when both surfaces are con-
cave, only then the result must be considered as negative.

3. To determine the same for parallel rays in a plano-convex

lens ; the radius of the convex side and the index being
given.

Rule. — Divide the radius of curvature by the decimal part
of the index of refraction, and the quotient will be the focal
length.

Example.—- Required the focal length of a plano-convex
crown lens ; the radius of curvature 121 inches, and the index
of refraction 1 .520.

124 = 12.5

.52)12.50(24.04 inches focus.

4. To determine the focal length of a lens having one concave and

one convex side, the radii and index of refraction being gi-
ven, and the rays parallel.

Rule. — Multiply the two radii together; multiply also their
difference by the decimal part of the ' refraction : then the for-
mer product, divided by the latter, will be the focal length ;
which will be positive when the concave radius is the greater of
the two, but negative when it is the lesser.

Example. — Find the focal length of a flint lens, the radius of
the convex side being 10 inches, and of the concave 16 inches,
the index 1.600.

1st product 160

Difference 6

.600

2d product 3.6)160(44.44 focal length

Mr Barlow On the Practical Construction

The result here is positive ; but had the convex side been 16
and the concave 10, the focal length would have been the same,
but the rays would have diverged, or the result would have
been negative.

5. Having the focal length of a double convex or plano-convex
lens given , as also the negative focal length of a double con-
cave lens, or of a concavo-convex lens, to fnd the focal
length of the combined object-glass.

Rule. — Multiply the two focal lengths together ; divide the
product by their difference, and the quotient will be the focal
length of the compound object-glass.

Note. — If the negative focal length be the lesser, the result-
ing focus will still be negative, but if greater, it will be
positive, and the rays will converge.

Example. — The focal length of a double convex lens is 6
inches, and of a concavo-convex lens 9 inches, negative. Requir-
ed the focal length of the compound object-glass, formed by
combining the two.

From negative focus =9 9

Subtract positive focus =6 6

3)54

18 focal length required.

From these rules are drawn several others which may be of fre-
quent use ; for example,

6. The index of refraction and one of the radii of a double con-
vex lens being given, to fnd the other radius, so as to produce
a given focal length.

Rule. — Multiply the proposed focal length, the decimal part
of the index (a), and the given radius together, for a dividend ;
and subtract the former part of this product from the given ra-
dius, for a divisor. Then divide the dividend by the divisor,
and the quotient will be the other radius.

Example. — The index of a piece of flint-glass is 1600, and
one of its curvatures is to a radius of 10 inches. What must
the other be, to give a focus of 12 inches ?

of Achromatic Object-Glasses,
a, =■ .600

Focal length, = 12

7« The index of a piece of glass being given, to fnd what the equal

convex surfaces must be to produce a given focal length.

Rule. — Multiply the focal length by double the decimal part

surface.

Example. With a similar piece of flint to the above, What

of 6 inches ?

Here twice a — 1.2
Focus — 6

7*2 inches radius.

For a plano-convex lens we must multiply the decimal part of
the index by the focal length for the radius.

8. The index of r fraction and the convex surface of a concavo-con-
vex lens being given, to fnd the radius f the concave surface, so
that the lens may have a given negative focal length.

Rule. — Find the dividend exactly as in Rule 6. Then add
the first product to the given radius for a divisor. Divide the
dividend by the divisor for the radius sought.

Example. The radius of the convex surface of a concave
convex lens is 12 inches ; the index of refraction 1.600 ; and the
negative focal length is to be 5 inches. Required the radius of
the concave surface.

of the index, and the product will be the radius of the equal

must be the equal radii of its two surfaces to give a focal length

Focal length — 5

Decimal part (a) — *6

First product = 8*0

Given radius — 12

— = 2A = radius sought.

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

Mr Barlow On Achromatic Object Glasses .

9 . The index of refraction and radius of concave surface being given ?
to find the radius of the convex surface , so that the lens may have
a given negative focal length.

Rule. — Find the dividend exactly as in Rule 6. Then sub-
tract the given radius from the first product for a divisor. Di-
vide the dividend by the divisor, and it will give the radius re-
quired.

Example. — Let the numbers stand as in the last example,
except that the given concave radius is 2*4 inches, and let the
other radius be computed.

First product — 3*0

Given radius, — 2-4

3*0 — 2-4 - 6) 72

Radius sought, = 12 inches.

Remark. In a similar manner, the radii of curvature of a
lens being given, and its focal length found by experiment, its
index may be computed with great accuracy. On this subject
some observations will be found in the concluding part of this
paper.

( To he continued.)

Art. II. — General Reflections on various important subjects in
Mineralogy. By Frederick Mohs, Esq., Knight of the
Order of Civil Merit, Professor of Mineralogy at Freyberg,
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the Wer-
nerian Natural History Society, he. Continued from VoL
XIII. p. 218.

We shall not in this place inquire what kind of information,
relative to the products of the mineral kingdom, should be ex-
cluded from Mineralogy ; but it is necessary for us to examine
whether, by proceeding solely upon the observation and compa-
rison of the natural-historical properties of simple minerals,
we may arrive at something which, besides containing informa-
tion of one and the same kind throughout, also possesses the

Professor Moll's General Reflections on Mineralogy . 19

other properties of a science. And here, although the words
6 natural history ,’ and 4 natural-historical properties,' have been
frequently made use of, and will be used hereafter, it might still
remain a problem to be solved, whether or not this science be
Natural History.

In reference to this matter, the first object with which we have
to occupy ourselves, is to examine these properties by themselves ,
and not in conjunction, as several of them occur in minerals.
This will enable us to obtain a correct idea of them, to judge of
their merits, and to apply them usefully ; and for this purpose
they must be disposed in a certain order, and designated by ap-
propriate expressions. They are here explained as natural-
historical, and not as physical, properties ; that is to say, they are
exhibited only in so far as they are applicable to Natural History,
their explanation as physical properties forming part of Natural
Philosophy, This explanation, as being a general preparation
to the farther development of the science, is also necessary in
Zoology and Botany ; and it is called the Terminology , because
it contains, besides the general investigation of those properties,
also the explanation of the expressions, which are henceforth,
for the sake of precision and perspicuity, to be used in a deter-
minate and peculiar sense. A department of Geometry, analo-
gous to terminology in Natural History, is that devoted to
definitions; and here there are none of those difficulties with
which we have to struggle in Natural History, because empirical
ideas are totally excluded. Hence it is a particularly favourable
circumstance in miner alogical terminology, that geometrical de-
terminations may be received in it, the influence of which even
extends beyond the limits of terminology, and confers so high a
degree of evidence upon the idea of the species, one of the most
important general ideas of the science, that in this particular it
has evidently obtained a great advantage over Botany and Zoo-
logy. It is a property of every simple mineral to assume a re-
gular form, that of crystals , whenever it becomes solid, and no
external impediments have existed during the progress of its
formation. Crystallography , therefore, is that part of termino-
logy, in which it is possible to introduce mathematical considera-
tions in the investigation of the natural-historical properties of

b 2

SO Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

minerals. This is the most important part of terminology ; nay?
we may safely maintain, that, without this property , minera-
logy itself could not exist as a science, — that is to say, it could
not form part of Natural History. Crystallography has been
considered by naturalists from so many different points of view,
that it is perhaps worth while to examine what it should be, as a
part of mineralogical terminology. Every one who has for any
time been occupied with the examination of minerals, must have,
no doubt, observed, that certain minerals possess certain crystal-
line forms, while others are excluded from them. If we distin-
guish between simple and compound forms, we discover that the
varieties of one and the same species assume various, sometimes
a great many, simple forms ; and that the compound forms in
which they likewise occur, contain either these simple forms
themselves, or such as are in a certain connexion with them,
dependent not only upon the kind, but also upon the relative
dimensions of the forms. Crystallography is not intended to in-
vestigate the reason why the property of assuming certain forms
is innate in certain species, or why these forms are united with
several other properties, if we consider the productions of nature
merely as the bearers of these properties ; because nothing can
be inferred with regard to these inquiries from the mere obser-
vation of natural-historical properties. The only object of crys-
tallography is, to examine the circumstances and relations under
which several of these forms may appear in connection with each
other, in one and the same individual, or at least in varieties of
the same species. It is this consideration which renders crystal-
lography of so much importance to Natural History, and contains
the reasons why it should be treated more at large in the termi-
nology of that science. It may be effected by purely geometri-
cal processes, by which we obtain a certain connection among
some of the forms (of which, however, it is only necessary to con-
sider the simple ones), while between others no such connexion
is manifested; — a circumstance that enables us to establish ge-
neral ideas of them, so highly useful and applicable in Natural
History, that, notwithstanding the introduction of mathematical
considerations, it would remain doubtful whether it might be
possible without them to arrive at any thing deserving the name

various important subjects in Mineralogy.

of the Natural History of the mineral kingdom. These ideas are
now so generally known, that we may dispense with treating
them more at large in this place. We shall only observe, that
they depend upon the equality of the relation between forms of
the same kind, which produce series, and therefore upon these
series themselves ; and that it is possible to recognise and to de-
monstrate the internal connection between these forms, only upon
the supposition of the existence of such series. It is impossible
to do without these series in any system of crystallography, cal-
culated to supply the wants of Natural History ; and this in par-
ticular becomes evident, from the circumstance, that even the
idea of the natural-historical species depends entirely upon the
existence of these series.

The simple forms, capable of appearing in the individuals of
one and the same species, or which may produce combinations
with one another, are found by a particular process, called De-
rivation. This derivation, however, does not yield a number
of forms undetermined in regard to the relative dimensions, one
form being given ; but by means of it we obtain such as are
perfectly determined in respect to these relations. From one
rhombohedron there will not result every other form of the same
kind, but only those which are capable from their dimensions to
form combinations, — or, which is the same thing, to appear in
the individuals of one and the same natural-historical species.
Crystallography, therefore, is not merely to be understood as the
science that ascertains the relative position of the planes which
form the limits of crystals ; it must also be calculated to bring
into connection the regular forms of minerals, together with their
other natural-historical properties ; and this is effected by means
of the series arising from derivation, and the idea of the spe-
cies dependent upon their existence. Their derivation at least
should be the foundation of the method of providing each of
the simple forms obtained with crystallographic signs, — a matter
of great advantage in Natural History, for avoiding the long and
tedious descriptions of minerals, which do not elucidate the sub-
ject, nor prepare us for applying calculations. The crystallo-
graphic designation should, on that account, not only denote the
kind and relations of the simple forms, but also their origin, in
representing the series of forms capable of combining with each

$8t Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

other; and we should avoid such signs as, though shorter in
themselves, and of equal distinctness in regard to the mathema-
tical department, do not convey this idea of series. The theory
of forms, founded upon the series, is confirmed in a remarkable
manner by the physical quality of the faces which limit the
forms, and of the cleavage-planes corresponding to them, and
which is expressed in the former by the intensity and kind of
lustre, the smoothness or roughness, the existence of striae in
certain determinate directions, — and in the latter, by their higher
or lower degree of perfection, and the different facility with
which they may be obtained. Although the phaenomena of
crystallisation are not alone sufficient to form the sole foundation
of the Natural History of the mineral kingdom, as we have al-
ready observed, they yet form one of the most important de-
partments of the properties of minerals, since, even in respect to
cleavage, they are so very closely allied to the other physical
qualities of natural bodies.

This connection is apparently contradicted by certain obser-
vations, which, however, will, in reality, be found rather to
countenance it when viewed in a proper light. Several sub-
stances have been found frequently to assume the same form,
while one and the same substance often appears under forms of
two different classes not compatible with each other. The in-
ferences generally drawn from this circumstance, were they well
grounded, would indeed serve to depreciate the value of crystal-
lography as a means of distinguishing mineral species, accord-
ing to the principles of Natural History. The first of these ob-
servations, which was confined by Hauy to the forms of the tes-
sular system, we may admit as taking place to its greatest ex-
tent : it is indifferent, whether, in this respect, we mean by
substance the composition of the mineral, or the natural-his~
torical species * As to the latter, the determination of the spe-
cies does not solely depend upon the forms and other relations
connected with it, for different species may assume one and the
same form , although it has not yet been sufficiently demon-
strated that this takes place in nature in any other species than
such as possess forms belonging to the tessular system. But
that one and the same substance may assume two different in-
compatible forms, is true only if we consider the chemical com-

various important subjects in Mineralogy. $$

position of a mineral as its substance, in so far at least as our
present information goes in chemistry, of which, in fact, it can-
not be said, that, at some future period, something may not be
discovered to explain or modify the results. The carbonate of
lime appears in forms belonging to the rhombohedral and pris-
matic systems ; the sulphuret of iron in forms of the prismatic
and tessular systems ; nay, a simple substance, sulphur , has
been discovered in the forms of the prismatic and hemi-prisma-
tic systems. But if, by the word substance , we mean the natu-
ral-historical species, then this is no longer true. The rhombo-
hedral lime-haloide (calcspar) never appears in prismatic forms,
nor the prismatic lime-haloide (arragonite) in rhombohedral ones;
hexahedral iron-pyrites never affects prismatic forms, nor prisma-
tic iron-pyrites such as belong to the tessular system. Nor can the
incompatible forms of the varieties of sulphur be considered as
occurring in the varieties of one and the same natural-historical
species, even although they should exactly agree in their remain-
ing properties (which, however, is not at present known to be the
case), for the very reason that their forms are incompatible.

It may be asked, however, Whether the circumstance of the
forms being incompatible is a sure criterion of the difference of
two Species ? The demonstration of propositions like this, in
every science that is altogether dependent upon experience, must
necessarily go along with experience. The laws of combination
require that every simple form belonging to one and the same
species, not excepting the fundamental form, should be capable
of appearing in every individual of the species, whatever kind
and number of forms it may already possess, or that at least it
be possible to conceive this to be the case, according to certain
geometrical constructions. If, therefore, two incompatible forms
were to belong to one and the same species, they should appear
at the same time in the same individual, which, therefore, must
then be capable of containing even two different fundamental
forms at once ; a mode of demonstration which may be compared
to the reductio ad absurdum in geometry. On the contrary, it
is a matter demonstrated by general experience, that, in every
well determined species, the simple forms belonging to its series
of crystallization, appear together in the most diversified combi-
nations in one and the same individual, but that in forming

24 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

these combinations, every form is excluded which does not be-
long to the series. We are then entitled to ask why, among the
numberless combinations in which the individuals of rhombohe-
dral lime-haloide (calcareous spar) appear, there never occurs a
form belonging to the prismatic system, nay, not even a rhom-
bohedral form that could not be derived, according to the well-
known geometrical processes, from the same fundamental form ?
Why, inversely, there never appear combined with the rest of
the forms of the prismatic lime haloide (arragonite), any rhom-
bohedrons, or isosceles and scalene six-sided pyramids, regular
six-sided prisms ? &c. The answer to this question is, Because
the rhombohedral and the prismatic lime-haloide are two different
species, and because nature combines the various simple forms
only within the limits of one and the same species, to the entire
exclusion of all the rest. So long, therefore, as there is no ex-
ception to this rule, which is established upon experience, and
which can be contradicted by experience alone, we possess in the
fact of their being incompatible, an incontrovertible criterion
of the differences between natural-historical species. Hence
the inferences to which allusion has been made above, appear
groundless.

The object of terminology having been thus determined, we
have now to develope those general ideas and representations,
which in particular might be called natural-historical ones, and
of which those that regard the species are the most important.
They are produced by considering the natural-historical pro-
perties, not by themselves, as in terminology, but in connection
with each other, and by considering the natural productions
themselves which possess them. Though these ideas have been
already developed, and are generally known, (circumstances which
render it sufficient to give a brief account of them in this place),
yet it will be useful not to pass them over in silence, but to ex-
hibit them in their connections, since there are some among
them which apply not only to the species, but also to the genus,
the order, &c.

The first is the idea of Species , which indicates that the spe-
cies is the assemblage of homogeneous individuals, that is to
say, those whose natural-historical properties which may be ob-
served while the mineral continues to exist, are either absolutely

various important subjects in Mineralogy .

the same, or present gradations which form continuous series.
The process of joining the series of characters together, is not
only the general form of obtaining the development of this
idea, but is also applicable to every particular case. The second
is the representation of the species as a whole , which might,
with great propriety, be called its original representation. The
third is the characters of the species, by which the individuals
contained in it may be distinguished from the individuals of
other species. The fourth is the general description of the spe-
cies, the object of which is to produce a distinct image of it,
though we do not immediately inspect any of the varieties of
the species.

That department of Natural History which embraces all these
subjects, and may be more particularly said to be the philoso-
phical part of the science, is called the Theory of the System ,
because it is the system which not only contains all those ideas
and representations, but whose usefulness also can only be judged
of from the quality of those ideas.

We must observe here, in the first place, that all these ideas
and observations in general, refer exclusively to the natural-his-
torical properties, because the science of mineralogy itself does not
take notice of any other properties ; secondly, That there is no
production of nature which, as an individual body, corresponds
to those ideas, the only idea which has an object corresponding
to it being that of an individual. Hence in nature we find only
individuals, either simple, or compound, or mixed, but we do
not find species, or genera, or orders ; and we must produce
these ideas ourselves, in order to be able to develope Natural
History as a science. In so far, a system sprung from these
ideas might be called an artificial system, in opposition to a
natural one. This, however, would then require to have all its
general ideas represented by natural bodies , which does not take
place. Individuals belonging to one species, or to one genus,
&c., that is to say, which may be collected within that species,
genus, &c., are the only things with which we meet in nature,
and not those unities themselves. The latter would indeed be
as little subject to differences of opinion or to dispute as the in-
dividual itself, if they were to be found in nature, or existed as
natural productions. Hence there is no such thing as a System

26 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

of Nature, or a Natural System, in the above acceptation of the
phrase, because nature produces only bodies, and not ideas ; and
if we yet intend to make application of the expression in ques-
tion, it must be in another signification, to be explained after-
wards.

From the preceding considerations, it appears, that the idea
of the species also, as well as every thing that refers to this idea,
must be founded exclusively on the natural-historical properties,
and must not contain any characteristic marks that are not natu-
ral-historical properties. We may suppose for the present, that
these properties have been demonstrated to be sufficiently appli-
cable and secure for the purpose. Whenever we introduce a
chemical property, or in general any which is not a natural-his-
torical one, we cease to be consistent, because we transgress the
limits of Natural History itself. In fact, it is only pureness of
principle in producing the natural-history species, that can ren-
der this species the foundation of all other sciences which treat
of mineral productions, and it ceases to be useful for this pur-
pose whenever we permit the results of these sciences to enter
into the determination of the species. If, in Chemistry, we wish
to refer the results of analysis to the mineral kingdom, we must
compare them with the natural- historical species, without regard
to any other properties, and for this end we must employ a suffi-
cient number of correctly determined varieties, which, in parti-
cular, should be simple, and not intermixed with foreign sub-
stances. The results obtained by this kind of comparison with
the natural-historical species, will afford the idea of a chemical
species. It is sufficiently demonstrated by experience, that the
different varieties of one and the same species often do not ex-
actly agree in their mixture ; and this remarkable phenomenon
has given rise to many ingenious hypotheses, of which the idea
of isomorphous bodies is the most interesting. It is important
to observe, in respect to this subject, that these substances may
be exchanged for one another in the mixture of a certain spe-
cies, without having any influence on the natural-history spe-
cies ; their difference does not produce the slightest alteration
in the forms, or in the other natural-historical properties, par-
ticularly in hardness and specific gravity. If this be the
case, then also, in a chemical sense, individuals differing on-

! various important subjects in Mineralogy . 27

ly in their isomorphous constituents, must necessarily be con-
sidered as belonging to one and the same species, because these
isomorphous substances are often but partially exchanged, and
not in their whole quantity, so that a composition of both in va-
rious proportions, often takes the place of the one or the other.
There is thus produced a kind of chemical transition, which ren-
ders it necessary to collect all those varieties within one and
the same species, if we wish to avoid what would result from
assuming too many of them, the entire destruction of the idea
of the chemical species.

The species is the lowest among the systematic ideas in Natu-
ral History : For, if we proceed from the identical individuals,
and unite them with whatever may be done so according to the
series of characters, among which those of the regular forms are
the most important, because they impart security to the em-
ployment of the rest of the series ; then we immediately arrive
at the idea of the assemblage of those homogeneous individuals
which produce the species of Natural History. A farther distri-
bution of the varieties into subspecies or hinds is reprehensible,
because it is without the slightest advantage in a scientific point
of view ; impedes the easy survey of the species ; and renders
the nomenclature difficult or inconsistent. The species in Natu-
ral History, although the lowest, is therefore the foundation of'
all the higher ideas , in the same way as it is the formation of
all those sciences different from Mineralogy, which refer to the
productions of the mineral kingdom.

After the idea of the species, that of the Genus comes next to
be considered. If, in Natural History, we have in view to pro-
ceed with consistency, the determination of this idea must be
entirely dependent upon natural-historical principles. This being
the case, it is evident what opinion we ought to form of such sys-
tems as have their species determined according to principles of
Natural History, and their genus according to those of Chemistry.
It would even seem that this want of consistency has been long ago
understood, but that the difficulties attending its removal have
appeared too formidable to be overcome. Yet this want of con-
sistency is the greatest evil in every science. If it were impos-
sible to find a principle, according to which the determination of

S8 Professor Mohs's General Reflections on Mineralogy.

the genus might be conducted, we should have no genera in the
mineral kingdom ; that is to say, the idea of the natural-histori-
cal genus would not be applicable to this kingdom.

The erroneous ideas that have prevailed in regard to the di-
vision of genus in Mineralogy, and partly also in Zoology and
Botany, have been the cause that this was considered to be the
case with regard to the first of these sciences, from reasons simi-
lar to those which rendered the existence of the species, and even
of the individual, a matter of dispute. The genus of Natural
History is nothing more nor less than the similarity of several
species , which is much greater among some of them than among
others. Vegetable and animal species, which resemble each other
to such an extent, are accounted as species belonging to the same
genus, and the determination of the genus does not depend upon
any other consideration. Upon the same foundation, also, must
it be grounded in the mineral kingdom, because Mineralogy, in-
asmuch as it is a part of Natural History equally with Zoology
and Botany, must proceed upon the same principles with them.

So many species have already been discovered in the mineral
kingdom, that their existence, or the applicability of the idea of
genus in Mineralogy, can no longer be disputed. They are not,
perhaps, all determined with perfect exactness ; for this depends
upon experience, which can at no time be said to be entirely ex-
hausted ; nor can this subject be more particularly considered
in the present place, as we are here exclusively confined to the
general development of the principles of Natural History, and
their application to nature. But it is necessary to advert to an-
other point of view from which the determination of the genus
may be considered, because, if the objections dependent upon it
were founded, this determination would, in fact, be annihilated.
The idea of that kind of resemblance which may be called the
natural-historical one, is said to be vague and undetermined ;
so that we cannot indicate upon what it depends. It is subject
to a latitude of intensity, and is therefore expressed in different
degrees ; and, what is worst of all, it does not yield a constant
rule, according to which some one or other individual might, in
every case, be referred to a certain genus, or excluded from it.
These objections we now proceed to remove.

( To be continued.)

( 29 )

Art. III. — A description of an Improvement in Bramah's Hy-
dro-mechanical Press , with its application to Oil Mills. By
John Tredgold, Esq., Civil Engineer, and Honoray Mem-
ber of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London. Com-
municated by the Author.

The powerful instrument called Bramah's Press is so well
known, that we need not enter into a particular description of
its construction. Next to the steam-engine, it has proved the
most generally useful mechanical invention of modern times. It
is applied, and is applicable, in all cases where intense pressure
or great power is required. In our manufactories it is used for
discharging colours, for pressing paper, gunpowder, &c. for
packing cotton and other light goods, for expressing oils ; and,
in bleaching, for expressing water instead of wringing. The
press is also used for drawing up piles, for rooting up trees, and
for cranes for loading and unloading goods.

But, valuable as this instrument is, it has an imperfection
when applied in the ordinary manner to certain purposes, such,
for example, as packing cotton, discharging dyes, and expres-
sing oils. The imperfection consists in the great variation in
the power necessary to work the press at different periods of the
operation, in consequence of the variable resistance of the mate-
rials under pressure at the different states of compression ; which
not only causes loss of time, but also, when the pumps are worked
by an invariable power (as they must be when driven by inanimate
power) it renders the stress on the first mover irregular.

Several methods had been tried to remedy this inconvenience,
but none of them succeeded in doing more than diminishing the
variations in a small degree; but the invention we are [now
about to describe effects the purpose, and by a contrivance so
simple, ingenious, and beautiful, that we are assured our me-
chanical readers will be interested by its description.

The effect in Bramah’s press is produced by pumping a cer-
tain quantity of water into the press cylinder at each stroke of
the pump ; and if, with an invariable power, only one pump be
employed, the quantity injected at one stroke must not be
greater than can be forced in when the press is exerting its

SO Mr TredgolcTs Description of an Improvement

greatest pressure. Hence, in such a case as expressing oil from
seeds, where the resistance in the first part of the operation is
small, and increases till the compression is considered to be suf-
ficient, the machinery must be adapted for working the pumps
when at the maximum pressure, and, consequently, there must
be a great excess of power in every other part of the operation.

In any hydro-mechanical press the power is proportional to
the quantity of water injected, at a stroke of the pump, mul-
tiplied into the resistance; therefore, when the resistance is small,
the quantity of water injected at a stroke should be increased,
in order that the power necessary to work the press may be as
uniform as possible, and this is the object of the patent we are
about to describe *.

The machinery is applied to an oil-press (See Plate II. fig. 1.),
of which M is the press-cylinder, and NN' the bags containing
the seeds ; one part of the drawing shewing the exterior, and the
other a section of the press boxes which contain the seed bags.
LL' are the tubes which convey the water injected by the
pumps to the press-cylinder M.

I is the cistern for supplying the pumps with water, and it
supports the pumps and the machinery for working them by
means of the pillars HH'.

The power which works the pumps is applied to the shaft E',
and is regulated by a fly-wheel ; and the motion is communi-
cated to the other shaft E by the toothed wheels F'F. The
two pump-pistons CC' are worked by the cranks DD', on the
ends of the shafts EE7; and the cranks are made to adjust by
set screws, so as to limit the length of the stroke to any requir-
ed quantity within the limits of their action. The cranks act
on the pump-pistons by connecting rods and slings in the usual
manner.

The pump-cylinders AA' are connected by the copper tube
BIT, which is again connected to the junction-piece K by a sin-
gle tube. The junction-piece K contains the stop, forcing, and
discharge valves, and is connected to the tubes LL', which con-
vey the water injected by the pumps to the press-cylinder.

* The discovery of this improved method of working the press, was made by
Mr Spiller, and for which a patent was lately obtained by him in conjunction with
Messrs Bramah.

MYMM-MMCJHAMCAJL MLE-SS

=? Feet:'

in Bramah’s Hydro-mechanical Press . SI

This is the arrangement of the part ; and, in the next place,
we have to explain the principle and manner of producing any
assigned variation in the quantity of water to be injected at one
stroke.

In the machine we are describing, this is effected by making
the two pumps of equal diameter, and equal length of stroke,
and die wheels FF' of unequal diameters, the larger wheel F*
having one tooth more than the smaller one F ; consequently,
the wheel F, which has 80 teeth, will make one revolution and
/gth part, while the wheel F' makes only one revolution, and
the increase of /5th of a revolution at each stroke by the wheel
F will, at the end of twenty strokes, cause the cranks to be at
right angles to one another, supposing them to have been paral-
lel at the commencement ; and* at the end of forty strokes, the
one crank will be commencing its up stroke, when the other is
commencing its down stroke, and as then their motions are in
opposite directions, the one will counteract the effect of the other,
excepting that small portion of effect which is due to the differ-
ence of their velocities. Therefore, if the difference of their ve-
locities be made small enough, a given power may be made ca-
pable of producing any assignable degree of pressure at the
completion of the time when the smaller wheel has gained half
a revolution on the larger wheel. It is obvious, that the number
of revolutions to produce this effect must be greater the smaller
we make the difference between the velocities of the wheels.

Let a denote that arc of a circle which the one wheel gains
on the other at each revolution, or stroke of the pump ; then, if
we make the machine commence when both the pistons are at
the bottom, the water injected at any number n of revolutions
of the large wheel will be proportional to 2 -f cos n a + cos

For the pump acts effectively only during the time both pis-
tons are descending. Therefore, if the machine begin with both
its pistons at the lowest point, and the motion be continued till
both begin to descend, it will be found that the crank of the
small wheel has advanced half the arc a beyond the upper point,
and consequently must begin its stroke from thence, while the
crank of the larger wheel begins at the top. Also, when the
crank of the large wheel has arrived at the distance a from the

82 Mr Tredgold’s Description of an Improvement

lowest point, the crank of the small wheel will begin to ascend ;
and the radius of the cranks being unity, the effective length of
the stroke of the one pump will be 1 + cos § «, and the other,
1 + cos a ; consequently, the sum of the strokes is 2 + cos a
+ cos | a. In the second revolution the effect in length of
stroke of both pumps is 2 + cos 2 a + cos (1 -j- J) a ; in the
third we have 2 -{- cos 3 a -f cos (2 + J) ; and in the ninth
stroke it is 2 -f- cos ?t«| cos ( n — J) a.

When na ~ 180° its cosine is — 1, and the effect is 1 -f- cos
180 — 1 a.

The total quantity of water injected during n strokes will be
as 2 n + sum of the cos n a sum of cos n — \ a ; and by
Gregory’s Trigonometry, art. 21, note.

. n n 4- 1 . n

sm a. cos — - — a 4- sin —

% /w

n -f- g

-a. cos — a

sin \ a.

If we neglect the difference between cos n a and cos, n — \ a,
the area representing the total effect of the two pumps will be a
rectangle, of which the one side is equal to the diameter of the
circle described by the cranks ; and the other, the sum of the
areas of the pumps, multiplied by the number of strokes neces-
sary to cause the small wheel to gain half its circumference on
the other.

The quantity of water injected at any number n of strokes
will be very nearly

. n n -f- 1

sm - a. cos — - — a
A / 2 2 \

2 n A r ( n + — — = — \ V

V sm i a. J

In this formula, A is the sum of the areas of the pumps, r —
the radius of the cranks, n the number of strokes, and a the arc
the small wheel gains in one revolution of the larger one.

To illustrate this subject more clearly, we have annexed the
diagram Fig. 2., where D' is the crank of the larger, and D that
of the small wheel ; and we suppose the crank D, in this case,
to gain half a revolution at the end of 12 strokes. The crank
D will begin its effective stroke successively at the points 1, 2, 8,
Sec., and always terminate its stroke at b. The crank D' will, on
the contrary, always begin its effective stroke at a, and terminate

in Bramah's Hydro-mechanical Press.

it successively at 1,2, 8, &c. The shaded space ABD will be
proportional to the effect of the pump worked by the crank D\
and the parallelograms 1, 2, 8, &c. shew the effect at the 1st, 2d,
&c. strokes. The shaded space ACD is proportional to the effect
of the pump w orked by the crank D ; and the effect of the 1st,
2d, &c. strokes are shewn by the parallelograms J , 2, 8, &c.

The mode of describing the figure is obvious, as the length of
each stroke is equal to the vertical distance between its com-
mencement and termination. The sum of the figures represent-
ing water injected by each pump is very nearly equal to the pa-
rallelogram AB CD ; the small spaces which are not shaded
shew the parts wanting.

If the shaded space ABD were turned so that the point B co-
incided with the point C, and the line AB with the line DC, the
figure would then shew the decrease of the quantity of water in-
jected at each revolution ; or, in other words, the variation pro-
duced in the power of the press by the use of the principle de-
scribed in the patent.

The case to which this improvement is at present applied, is
one in which the advantages of the hydro-mechanical press are
very considerable. It enables those who use it to conduct the
same quantity of business with a less number of workmen ; there
is less wear and tear of bags and wrappers ; the machinery oc-
cupies less space ; and the destructive effect of the concussions
of heavy stampers on buildings and machinery is avoided en-
tirely : indeed so smooth and noiseless is the operation of one of
these presses, that the business of expressing oil may be con-
ducted anywhere, without disturbance to the neighbourhood.

The application of the principle of the patent is not, however,
confined to presses ; for the effect of any power which has pe-
riodical variations of intensity may be made to produce a conti-
nuous effect, proportional to the power by the application of this
principle. One of the most obvious cases is that of tide-pumps ;
and, if we recollect right, a considerable premium was offered
for such a mode of working tide-pumps, by some of the societies
for encouraging the arts, and in the Low Countries.

VOL, XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

( 34 )

Art. IV. — On the Geographical Distribution of Palms (Palm®).
By Prof. Schouw. (Continued from Vol. XII. p. 137.)

We now come to consider the lofty Palms, according to Lin-
naeus, the Chiefs of the vegetable kingdom. The palms belong
partly to the giants among plants. The wax palm (Ceroxylon
nudicola) attains the height of from 160 to 180 feet. Some of
the species of Calamus have stems 500 feet high ; and most of
the palms, in tropical countries, tower like pillars above the other
trees of the forest. The palms display great variety in flowers
and fruit. Kaempfer calculated that a spatha of the date palm
( Phoenix dactylifera ) contains 12,000 male flowers; and, ac-
cording to Humboldt, one specimen of the Alfonsia amygdcdina
had 60,000 flowers. Since, however, neither the greatness nor
the number of parts similarly formed, but the number of diffe-
rent organs, variety of opposite parts, in short the complication
of structure, determines the higher degree of development, the
Palms can by no means be placed at the top of the scale. This
family must yield to many of the Dicotyledones ; and, in certain
respects, even to some of the Monocotyledones. The stem of
the palm is indeed woody, but the internal structure is altogether
different, there being no separation into pith, wood, inner and
outer bark, and no yearly growth to be perceived, since the
transverse section only presents a uniform mass. The outer co-
vering of the stem consists only of the remains of the peduncles
of the leaves which from time to time have fallen off. The stem
itself is almost throughout without any division, and bears, at the
extremity, both leaves and flowers. The leaves are of consider-
able size, generally elongated, with the fibres running parallel to
the edges. They may all be referred to two grand forms, being
either pinnated (folia pinnata ), as in the coco and date palm
( Cocos , Phoenix ), or fan-shaped (f. flabelliformia ), as in the fan
and dwarf palm ( Borassus , Chamarops ). In the last instance,
indeed, the breadth of the leaves appears considerable ; but such
a fan, both on account of the direction of the fibres, and of the
manner in which they are folded, previous to their development
( vernatio plicata ) may be regarded as composed of several

Prof. Schou w on the Geographical 'Distribution of Palms. 35

leaves. The flowers, though of a much more perfect form than in
the grasses, are, however, rather of a simple structure, small in
proportion to the size of the plant, and have many combined to-
gether in one spatha. The covering of the flower is divided in-
to six parts, of which three are generally placed within the others*
In the greatest number of palms the stamina are six ; but others
are met with having an indefinitely larger number. The pis-
til, usually separated from the stamina, is simple, and either un-
divided or trifid. The fruit is sometimes a berry, at others
a stone fruit In the latter case, however, a fibrous mass at
times takes the place of the fleshy part, as in the coco. The
fruit has, farther, either one compartment or three, with a
seed in each. Hence the number three, which predominates
in the monocotyledones, may also be distinctly traced in this
family.

In the time of Linnaeus, only few palms were known. Later
travels, especially those of Ruiz, Pavon, Humboldt, and Bon-
pland, have very much increased the number. Kunth furnishes,
in his Nova Genera, vol. i. p. 312., a catalogue of all the known
species of the palm, to which I have been able to add only a
few. According to it, the number of palms at present described
may be given at 110 ; but there are many besides, which, from
want of the flowers and fruit, have not been placed among the
species already known. Of these Kunth adduces 39 for Ame-
rica alone. The number of species more or less known conse-
quently amounts to above 150. This is indeed very small, com-
pared with the total of phanerogamic plants, being only JL ; but

the family, on account of the largeness of the individuals, per-
forms an important part in the countries of which they are na-
tives.

The palms are of great consequence to man. Many produce
important articles of subsistence, either by their fruits, as the
coco and date palni, or by the mealy substance of the stem, as
the sago. Some supply oil, ( Elais guineensis , Alfonsia oleife -
ra) ; others win§, ( Rcipliia vinifera , Beauv.) The gregarious
compose considerable woods. In respect of their occurrence, I can-
not venture to make any general assertion, since the species seem
to suceed in circumstances very much varying from each other.

c 2

$6 Prof. Schouw on the Geographical Distribution of Palms*

The palms are, in part, gregarious, as, for example, Chame-
rops humilis , which covers considerable districts in the south of
Europe, and in Northern Africa ; Mauritiajlexuosa , and others,
which form the palm woods in South America. They occur,
however, in part, also solitary, such as Oreodoxa Jrigida. The
species do not seem to be much intermixed ; for, according to
Humboldt, most of them are included within narrow bounds,
quite different ones being met with every 200 miles. That the
districts of the palm are small, and distinct from each other,
(distributio speciebus disjunctis), is obvious from various con-
siderations. Thus, no palm of the Old World is found in the
New, with the exception of Cocos nucifera and Elais guineensis,
which have probably been transplanted thither. Asia and the
west of Africa have also no other in common than Borassus fia-
belliformis , which, perhaps, in the latter place is not native. The
palms of New Holland are peculiar to that country ; and those
growing wild in the islands of Bourbon and France do not oc-
cur elsewhere. Phoenix dactylifera appears to be at home only
in the east of Asia, and in the north and interior of Africa.
Cucifera thebaica (Hyphsene crinita), has hitherto been found
only in Upper Egypt and Arabia. Chameerops humilis only in
the south of Europe and north of Africa ; and the palms of
North America are also peculiar species. Those most widely
distributed are Cocos nucifera , which extends over all the con-
tinents and islands of the Torrid Zone. Phoenix dactylifera ,
whose district includes a great part of Africa and Asia, together
with a part of Europe, in a cultivated state ; and Raphia pedun-
culata , which, according to Palisot and Beauvois, occurs on the
west coast of Africa, as well as in Madagascar. The districts of
the species are also, in the rule, small and isolated. Of twenty-
two American genera, only seven are found elsewhere, ( Areca ,
Caryota , Cocos , Corypha , Elate , Elais , Chamcerops ) ; and, on
the other hand, the genera Calamus , Sagus (Raphia), Nipa,
Phoenix , Manicaria , Lodoicia , Licuala , Borassus , Hyphane
(Cucifera), Latania , only appear in the Old World. Of the three
known genera of New Holland, two, Seceforthia and Levistonia,
are peculiar to it.

The true home of the palms is indisputably the Torrid Zone.
Of the 110 species described, only twelve are found beyond it,

Prof. Schouw on the Geographical Distribution of Palms. 37

viz. three of Chamcerops , and two of Raphis , in North Ameri-
ca; Raphis Jlabelliformis , in China and Japan ; Phoenix dacty -
lifera , Cucifera thebaica , and Chamber ops humilis , in the north ;
with Phoenix reclinata in the south of Africa ; Corypha austra-
lis', at Port Jackson ; and Areca sapida , Forster, in New Zea-
land. Most of the European palms are comparatively small.
The extreme limits of the palm are in New Holland, according
to Brown, 34° ; in South Africa, probably 34°-35° ; in New
Zealand, according to Banks, 38° ; in North America, 34°-
36° ( Chamarops palmetto ) ; in Europe 43°-44° near Nice,
where Chamber ops humilis is met with.

With regard to elevation above the level of the sea, Hum-
boldt remarks, that most of the palms belong to the lower re-
gions ; but that some are not only mountain plants, but ascend
to the alpine and subalpine range, such as Kuntliia montana ,
from 250 to 1000 toises ; Oreodoxa frigida , from 1000 to 1400
toises; and Ceroxylon andicola, from 920 to 1500 toises; whence
it follows, that the distribution, according to elevation, is very
different from that of latitude. It must not be overlooked, how-
ever, that, since the expression Alpine Region , does not so much
refer to the absolute height above the sea, but rather to circum-
stances dependent on climate, and the character of the surround-
ing plants, these two palms cannot, in any sense, be termed alpine.
In the Alps of Switzerland, the proper alpine region takes its
commencement at an elevation of 1000, and the subalpine at one
of 660 toises. The under limits of the alpine region, under the
Equator, cannot, therefore, be assumed at lower than 1600 toises;
for it is only at this elevation that the vegetable first acquires an
alpine character : and although, in comparing the climate, un-
der different degrees of latitude, the mean temperature cannot
be taken as a standard, yet it would certainly be improper to
commence the alpine region, under the Equator, at a mean
temperature above 12° of the centigrade scale. It is not to be
denied, however, that the palm tribe, at the Line, ascends pro-
portionally higher than it approaches towards the Pole. The
reason may probably lie in a different distribution of tempera-
ture ; for the winter cold, which is so prejudicial to the woody
Monocotyledones, on account of their internal structure, doe?
not take place in the alps of the Torrid Zone.

38 Prof. Schouw on the Geographical Distribution of Faints ■„

In order to determine the distribution in the different parts of
the Torrid Zone, it would not be accurate to take into account
the relative numbers of individual Floras, because the numbers
of the palm species in these Floras are so small, that the quotient
would be very materially altered by the addition of one or two
species. Of the ninety-eight which remain, after deducting the
twelve European ones, already mentioned, forty-six fall to South
America ; thirty-two to the Torrid Zone in Asia ; fifteen to Afri-
ca ; three to New Holland ; one to New Zealand ; and four to the
South Sea Islands. Although tropical America is better known
than the tropical parts of the Old World, and consequently the
number of palms great in proportion, it may nevertheless be fairly
presumed that the family there attains its maximum ; for, be-
sides the forty-six described species, there are thirty-nine moie, of
which we have an imperfect knowledge ; and it farther appears,
from the reports of travellers, that such palm-woods as those of
South America are less frequent in other parts of the world ;
whence America, in respect of species, displays much greater
peculiarities and variety. Africa and New Holland seem to be
least favourable to this tribe ; for, on the Congo, Smith found
only from three to four palms. In Guinea, we know merely of
the same number : and of the other African palms, six belong
to the Islands of Bourbon and France. New Holland has, in
the Torrid Zone, three species ; while Forster’s Prodromus of
the Flora of the South Sea Islands contains four, Cocos nucfe -
ra, Corypha umbracvlifera , Areca oleracea , and Areca sapida.

Art. V .—Observations on the Temperature of Man and other
Animals . By John Davy, M. D. F. R. S. (Concluded
from Vol. XII. p. 311.)

III. Of the Temperature of different hinds of Animals.

My observations on the temperature of different kinds of
animals have been made at intervals, as leisure and opportuni-
ty permitted, in England, Ceylon, and during a voyage to In-
dia. Though pretty numerous, they are far from complete,
and I can presume to offer them only as a humble contribu-
tion.

Dr Davy on the Temperature of Man and other Animals . 39

1st, Of the Temperature of the Mammalia .

I may premise, that, in my experiments on the mammalia,
with a few exceptions that will be particularly noticed, the tem-
perature of each animal was ascertained by introducing a ther-
mometer into the rectum ; and I may extend the remark to the
experiments on birds : and I may farther premise, that, when the
contrary is not noticed, the subject of the experiments appeared
to be healthy.

Monkey ( Simia Aygula ).—At Colombo, on the 30th of May,
air 86°, the temperature of this animal, full grown, in the
axilla, was 1044° ; and, in recto , only 103^°.

At Amarapoora, in the Kandian country, on the 1st of June,
air 73°, the temperature of another full grown monkey of the
same kind, in the axilla, was 101°.

Pangolin ( Manis pentadactyla ). — At Colombo, on the 4th
of November, air 80°, the temperature of a young pangolin,
apparently sickly, was only 90°.

Bat. — In the neighbourhood of Colombo, on the 27th of
September, air 82°, the temperature of one bat was 100°, and
that of another 101°. The instant the animals were killed, the
thermometer was introduced into the cavity of the abdomen.
The species resembles the Vespertilio peruviana of Linnaeus,
but it is much smaller.

V. Vampirus. — At Colombo, on the 15th of October, air 70°,
the temperature of this animal, ascertained in the same way as
the preceding, was 100°.

Squirrel (Sciurus getulus? ).— At Colombo, on the 19th of
October, air 81°, the temperature of this animal was 102°.

At the same place, on the 29th of September, air 84°, the
temperature of a large black squirrel was 106°, in the thick fur
of the groin.

Common Rat. — At Colombo, on the 8th of February, air 80°,
the temperature of this animal was 102°.

Common Hare. — -At Colombo on 16th of June, air 80°, the
temperature of this animal in the groin was 100°.

Ichneumon. — At Colombo, on the 4th of November, air 81°,
the temperature of this animal was 103°.

Dr Davy on the Temperature of Man

Jungle Cat. — At Colombo, on the 26th of February, air 80°,
the temperature of a young animal of this species of Yiverra was
99°.

Cur Dog. — At Kandy, on the 29th of May, the temperature
of an animal of this kind was 102°.5, and of another 103°.5, —
both nearly full grown.

Jackall. — At Colombo, on the 9th of April, air 84°, the
temperature of two young jackalls was 101°.

Common Cat. — In London, on 5th September, air 60°, the
temperature of a full grown cat was 101° ; and in Kandy, on
the 7th of April, air 79°, the temperature of another was 102°.

Felix Pandus. — At Colombo, on the 10th of February, air
81°, the temperature of a young fierce animal of this kind, about
four months old, was 102°.

Horse. — At Kandy, on the 14th of last June, air 80°, the
temperature of a horse of Arab descent* was 99°.5.

Sheep. — In Scotland, I have observed the temperature of
sheep in summer to vary from 101° to 104° ; at the Cape of
Good Hope, in winter, air 67°, in six different instances I found
the temperature of the African sheep to vary from 103° to 104° ;
and in Ceylon, in the neighbourhood of Colombo, air 78°, the
temperature of one sheep was 104°, and that of another 105°.

Goat. — At Mount Livinia, near Colombo, on the 27th De-
cember, air 78°, the temperature of a full grown castrated goat
was 103°, that of a female about nine months old 104°.

Ox. — At Edinburgh, in the summer of 1813, the blood of an
ox, flowing from the carotids, was 100° ; in Kandy, on the 28th
of May, air 80°, the temperature of an ox, ascertained in the
same way, was 102°.

Elk. — At Mount Livinia, on the 27th of December, air 78°,
the temperature of a female elk was 103°.

Hog. — At Hanville, in Doombera, on the 26th of Novem-
ber, air 75°, the temperature of the blood of a wild hog, flowing
from the carotids, was 105° ; at Mount Livinia, air 80°, the
temperature of two young domestic pigs was the same.

Elephant. — At Colombo, on the 22d of September, air 80°,
the temperature of a full grown healthy elephant was 99°.5.
It was ascertained by placing a thermometer in a deep abscess
in the back.

and other Animals.

Porpoise. — -In Lat.'N. 8° 23', on the 11th of March, air 72°,
sea 74°.?5, the temperature of a porpoise was 100°. The ani-
mal was drawn into the ship alive. The instant it was killed
I tried its temperature, by introducing a thermometer into the
substance of its liver.

2d, Of the Temperature of Birds.

Falcon (Falco milvus f ). — At Colombo, on the 24th of Au-
gust, air 77°.5, the temperature of this bird was 99°. I should
remark it had been shot a few hours, and its legs were broken.

Screech Owl. — In London, in the autumn, air 60°, the tem-
perature of this bird was 104°.

Parrot ( Psittacus pidlanius ). — At Kandy, on the 27th of
May, air 76°, the temperature of this bird was 106°.

Jackdaw. — At Attapittia, in the Kandian country, on the
2d of June, air 85°, the temperature of this bird the instant it
was shot was 107°.75.

Common Thrush. — In London, in the autumn, air 60°, the
temperature of this bird was 109°.

Common Sparrow. — At Gompala, in the Kandian country,
on the 3d of June, air 80°, the temperature of this bird the in-
stant it was shot was 108°.

Common Pigeon. — In London, in the autumn, air 60°, the
temperature of this bird, confined in a cage, was 108°. At
Mount Livinia, on the 27th of December, air 78°, the tempe-
rature of two young pigeons, two weeks old, was 109°. 5 ; and
of two three weeks old 109°.

Jungle Fowl. — In Ceylon, near Tangalle, on the 20th of
July, air 78°, the temperature of one jungle hen, the instant
it was shot, was 107°. 5 ; and in the afternoon of the same
day, air 83°, the temperature of another was 108°.5. The
jungle fowl of Ceylon, I may remark, more resembles the
English pheasant than the barn-door fowl.

Common Fowl. — At Edinburgh, in the winter of 1813, air
40°, the temperature of a full grown hen was 108°.5. At
Mount Livinia, in December, air 78°, the temperature of two
hens was 110°, (one half, the other full grown) ; that of a hen
that had been sitting on her eggs three weeks, 108°; that of an

Dr Davy on the Temperature of Man

old cock 110°; that of a full grown cock and of two chickens
two months old was 1110.

Guinea Fowl. — At Mount Livinia, at the same time, the
temperature of a full grown Guinea hen was 110°.

Turkey. — At the same time, the temperature of a full grown
Turkey cock was 109° ; that of two more, of the same age,
108° 5 ; that of a full grown hen, 108 ; and that of a young
cock, two months old, was 109°. 5.

Procellaria cequinoctialis. — In Lat. N. 2° 3', on the 8th of
August, air 79°, sea 8D.5, the temperature of this bird was
103°. 5, and that of another 105°. 5.

P. capensis. — In Lat. S. 34° 1', on the 11th of May, air 59',
sea 60°, the temperature of two birds of this kind was 105°.5.

Common Goose. — At Mount Livinia, in December, air 78°,
the temperature of two full grown geese was 107°.

Common Duck. — At the same time, the temperature of a
full grown drake, of two full grown ducks, and of four duck-
lings from three to five weeks old, was 110°; and that of a
young drake, full grown, 1110.

3d, Of the Temperature of the Amphibia.

Testudo Mydas. — In Lat. N. 2° 27', on the 19th of March,
air 79°.5, the temperature of a large turtle, caught a week be-
fore at Ascension, was 84° in recto. Again, in Lat. 8. 2° 29',
on the 23d of March, air 80°, the temperature of the blood of
the animal, flowing from the great vessels of the neck, was 88°. 5.
The turtle was sickly, and probably this heat was morbid. At
Colombo, on the 4th of May 1817, air 86°, the temperature of
the blood of a turtle, that had been caught the day before, was
85°.

T. geometrica.— At Cape Town, in May, air 61°, the tem-
perature of this animal was 62°.5. At Colombo, on the 3d of
March, the temperature of a larger specimen was 87°, air 80°.

Rana ventricosa.— At Kandy, on the 31st of May, air 80°,
the temperature of two frogs of this kind, just brought from
a damp shaded place, was 77°.

Iguana. — At Colombo, 4th September, air 82°, the tempe-
rature of this animal was 82°.5.

and other Animals .

Serpents. — At Colombo, on the 27tli of August, air 81°.5,
the temperature of an elegant green snake, a species of Coluber,
was 88°.5, in cesophago. At the same place, on the 24th of
August, air 82°.5, the temperature of a small species of brown
snake, another species of Coluber, was 84°.5 in ahdomine. On
the 23d of September, air 83°, the temperature of different spe-
cies of brown snakes, also belonging to the genus Coluber, was
90° in cesophago .

4 th, Of' the Temperature of ‘ Fishes.

Shark. — In Lat. N. 8° 23', on the 11th of March 1816, air
71°.75, sea 74°.75, the temperature of a large female shark, just
taken, and still alive, was 77° in the deep muscles near the tail

Bonito. — In Lat. S. 1° 14', on the 29th of July 1816, air 78°,
sea 80°.5, the temperature of the heart of this fish, which lies very
near the surface, was 82° ; and of the deep seated muscles, 99°«
These observations were made immediately after the fish was
taken. I may remark, that the heart and gills of this fish
were unusually large, and the latter of a dark red colour ;
farther, that the muscles in general, which were very thick and
powerful, were red like those of a porpoise, and that the boni-
to appears to be almost as fond of raising its head above the
water as the porpoise itself : with these circumstances proba-
bly its extraordinary temperature is connected.

Common Trout.— Near Edinburgh, in the spring, river 56°,
the temperature of this fish was 58°.

Flying Fish. — In Lat. N. 6° 57', on the 12th of March, air
77°, sea 77°. 5, the temperature of this fish, the instant it fell on
the deck, was 78°.

5th , Of the Temperature of Mollusca.

Common Oyster.— On a rock about a quarter of a mile from
the shore, off Mount Livinia, where the water was about a foot
deep, in December, the temperature of the common oyster was
the same as that of the sea, viz. 82°.

Snail.- — At Kandy, on the 11th of June, the temperature of
one of a large species of snail that abounds in the woods of Cey-
lon, was 76°, and that of another 76|°, after having been confined
eight hours in a box, the temperature of which was 764°.

Dr Davy on the Temperature of Man

6th, Of the Temperature of Crustacea.

Crayfish. — At Colombo, on the 16th of September, air 80°,
the temperature of a large crayfish that had been taken out of
the sea two or three hours before, was 79°.

Crab. — In the neighbourhood of Kandy, on the 25th of
March, the temperature of a small crab, of a species which is
common in the mountain torrents of the interior, was the same
as that of the water in which it lived, viz. 72°.

7 thy Of the Temperature of Insects.

Searabceus pilularius. — At Kandy, on the 30th of June, air
76°, the temperature of a beetle of this kind was 77°.

Glow-worm. — At Kandy, on the same day in the morning, air
73°, the temperature of a large species of glow-worm was 74°.

Blatta orientalis. — At Kandy, on the 28th of the same month,
air 83°, the temperature of two cockroaches was 75° ; and on
the 29th, found the temperature of two more the same, where
the air was 74°.

Gryllus hcematopus f — At the Cape of Good Hope, in May,
air 62°, the temperature of two locusts was 72 °.5.

Apis ichneumonia? — At Kandy, on the 26th of June, air
75°, the temperature of a wasp was 76°.

Scorpio cfer. — At Kandy, on the 20th May, at noon, air 79°?
the temperature of a large scorpion was 77 °.5.

Julus. — At Kandy, on the 18th of June, at noon, air 80°,
the temperature of a julus was 7 8°.5. It was of that species
that emits a yellowish fluid, which has the smell of iodine, and,
not unlike iodine, colours the cuticle, but has no effect on po-
lished steel.

8th, Of the Temperature of Worms.

The only worms, the temperature of which I have tried, were
two kinds of leech, the Hirudo sanguisuga, and a species which,
in Ceylon, is called the Jungle Leech, remarkable for living
out of water in damp places. The temperature of both was
the same as that of the water and air in which they were con-
fined.

I may remark generally, that, in the few experiments I have
made to ascertain the temperature of small animals of the lower

and other Animals .

classes, a very small thermometer was used in each instance,
introduced through a small incision into the body.

IV. Conclusions and General Remarks.

That the temperature of man increases in passing from a cold
or even temperate climate into one that is warm, — that the tem-
perature of the inhabitants of warm climates is permanently
higher than the temperature of those of mild, — and that the
temperature of different races of mankind, ccderis paribus , is
very much alike, — are conclusions which the preceding obser-
vations on man seem to warrant.

The first conclusion, I am aware, is not novel ; but I do not
know that it was ever drawn before, excepting from very scan-
ty data.

The second conclusion, though conformable with the first, is,
I believe, new ; indeed it is contrary to a received opinion, that
the temperature of man in warm climates is actually lower than
in cold. The opinion alluded to, I conceive, arose partly from
hypothetical views of the subject ; and if I recollect rightly, it has
been supported only by two or three observations recorded by
Dr Chalmers in his History of South Carolina, which were
made at a time when thermometrical experiments were not verv
common, and when the standard temperature of man was rated
much too low. Farther refutation of this opinion is perhaps
unnecessary. The experiments I have made, with all the care
in my power, are so numerous, and their results are so con-
sistent, that, if I do not deceive myself, they put the question
beyond the shadow of doubt, and fix as a fact, that, if the stand-
ard temperature of man, in a temperate climate, be about 98°,
(which I believe is the nearest approximation to the truth), in
a hot climate it will be higher, varying with atmospheric varia-
tion from 98J° to 101°.

The third conclusion I believe to be perfectly accurate ; I
say believe , because it is difficult, if not impossible, to collect
more than presumptive evidence on the subject. However,
may not the evidence be considered sufficiently satisfactory,
since the variation of the temperature of the different races I
tried did not exceed, in degree, what may be witnessed amongst
different individuals of a ship’s company, all of one nation, or

46 Dr Davy on the Temperature of Man and other Animals .

even amongst different members of the same family ? The si-
milarity of temperature in different races of men is the more
remarkable, since between several of them, whose temperatures
agreed, there was nothing in common but the air they breathed,
— some feeding on animal food almost entirely, as the Vaida,—
others chiefly on vegetable diet, as the priests of Boddho, —
and others, as Europeans and Africans, on neither exclusively,
but on a mixture of both.

Farther, That the temperature of birds, of all animals, is the
highest,— that of the mammalia next, — that of the amphibia,
fishes, and certain insects, next in degree, — and, lowest of all,
that of the mollusca, Crustacea, and worms, — are conclusions,
with few exceptions, that may be deduced from the preceding
experiments on the temperature of animals in general.

Moreover, since in general, as far as experiment and obser-
vation have yet gone, there appears to be a decided connection
between the quantity of oxygen consumed by an animal and
the animal’s heat, is there not good reason to consider the two
in the relation of cause and effect ?

If animal heat be owing to nervous energy, or any way con-
nected with the nervous system, why, it may be asked, are birds
so much hotter than the mammalia ? Why is the temperature
of most quadrupeds higher than that of man ?

Or, if it be owing to digestion, and secretion, and animal ac-
tion, why is the temperature of the amphibia and of fishes so
low, whose powers, in respect to these functions, are so consi-
derable ?

Or, if it be connected with muscular energy, why are the
animals whose muscular powers are most remarkable (the ani-
mals belonging to all the lower classes), equally remarkable for
the lowness of their temperature ?

Or, lastly, if animal heat at all depend on peculiarities of
structure and organization, why, it may be asked, is not the
temperature of the amphibia elevated like that of birds, — the
structure of the respiratory, and digestive, and secreting organs
of the one class being so much alike those of the other ?

( « )

Art. VI. — Chart of the Island of Ascension , with Remarks on
its Geognosy. (Plate III.) By Captain Robert Camp-
bell, R. N: Communicated by the Author.

HC HIS island, situated in the Atlantic Ocean, in South Lat.
7° 55', West Long. 14° 51', is about nine miles in length from
SE. to NW., and ’about five or six miles broad *. During the
time of Buonaparte's confinement in St Helena, it was judged
prudent to keep a small force there. For some time I had the
command of the party, and employed myself in making a chart
of the island, which 1 now communicate to the public. In the
chart, the principal stations which served for its construction,
and the more remarkable points, are marked 0.

The angles of the chain of triangles which connect the sta-
tions, were taken with a sextant ; and, as their sides were there-
fore not on a horizontal plane, their inclinations were measured,
and their horizontal projections found, by reducing the oblique
lines in the proportion of radius to the cosines of their inclina-
tion.

The positions of the intermediate points were determined by
observations made at the principal stations ; but it was not thought
necessary to apply reduction to the sides of these secondary
triangles, on account of their obliquity.

The height of the Green Mountain (one of the stations), was
found, by taking its elevation with the sextant and an artificial
horizon, above a station on the sea-coast ; and the height of this
station above the level of the sea was carefully measured. As
the other mountains were too low to be seen from the sea-coast
in the artificial horizon, their heights were found by taking, with
the sextant, their angles of elevation at the several stations on
the coast, above objects on a level with the eye, and in vertical
planes passing through the eye and their summits. The level
was determined by looking through a tube to which a spirit-level
was fixed.

* The Latitude was settled by a series of observations of the sun’s altitude,
taken in an artificial horizon, when his northerly declination admitted of this be-
ing done. The Longitude was settled by means of numerous lunar observations,
agreeing with a series of observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s moons, some of
which were also observed at Greenwich.

48 Capt. Campbell on the Geognosy of the Island of Ascension.

The whole island has a most forbidding and rugged aspect.
Its highest mountain, named Green Mountain Peak, is 2818
feet above the level of the sea. The largest portion of the moun-
tain is 2000 feet above the sea ; and at this height there is a space
of comparatively level ground, in which the principal garden in
the island is situated. From the top of the Peak down to about
this level, or a little lower, the surface, excepting where it is pre-
cipitous, is covered with a coat of soil, which is nowhere deep,
and having under it masses of pumice and lava. The precipices
around this height, are, in many instances, formed of slaggy lava ;
and, in the lava, are veins filled with opal, containing imbedded
fragments of vesicular and slaggy lava. In other parts, there are
rocks of a felspar or trachyte porphyry. Among the many ridges
shooting from the Green Mountain (M of the chart), one of the
most remarkable is that composed of black and dark-green perfect-
ly formed obsidian, which, in some places, is disposed in balls and
globular concretions, like that found in Kamtschatka ; and, in
others, in large globular concretions, like those of basalt and green-
stone. Associated with it there are grey varieties of pearl-stone *.
This vitreous mineral is there associated with various porphyries,
apparently trachytic ; and, in some places, green pitchstone, with
imbedded sphserulite and common pumice and pumice-conglome-
rate, occur. Not far from the obsidian ridge, there is a remark-
able hill, named by the sailors The Devils Riding-School ,
marked in the chart P. It is about 700 feet above the level of
the sea, and between 400 and 500 feet above the surface of the
surrounding base. It has a circular hollow on the top, which
probably was formerly much deeper than at present, it being
now filled up to within 30 feet of the edge of the crater. This
hill, as far as can be made out from the specimens brought
home, appears to be composed of trachytic rocks. In some va-
rieties, the basis is like claystone, and contains imbedded por-
tions of slaggy lava ; in others, the basis is of felspar, with im-
bedded crystals of glassy felspar, and fragments of slaggy lava ;
and the trachyte porphyry sometimes contains, in its cavities,

* Specimens of vesicular iron-ore were found in a trachyte ridge not far from
the obsidian ; and also crystals of specular iron-ore, like that of the Island of Strom-
boli.

PdijV Phi/ . Tow ■ 1 W.MPp.47

The. crooked black Hies represent the ban- of ' two roads one- from. die
Zirrtto die water -sprouts and die odter to die- hshin-cr station- at S-Wi
The T apper and lower Ports
A qua re of Pauses Store. houses S-t
Crofs 7//ff. 894 feet above die- level of the Seo-
ul remarkable- Pock

jt huf/i peaked JSFdL, /an her dian Crops JhTl
J ifTll nearly die It eight of Craft JfiU-
A JfiTl db oat tie same height
The principle Carden
J /fid ah out die height of Crofs Pi//

Aim not so high as JET
A remarkable Pock

The Green Mountain Peak 28/8 feet above
The fMoiaUam. house
A remarkable Crater of an old Volcano

The water springs S Cares where die Aten in charge of therm five

1 San/d deposited hr arms of water in- tone of rain-.

O -f to tion.pcin.tr connecting the chain- of triangles over de- island-,
and- from- which-- the survey was made- f

Trachyte JcZaya-

Jhsentearated Zewa- in- state- of Sand

■ le vel of the Sea

p2Z?7'«. the principal vegetation vi-die Jsland-

z£ I»1jzAJW

w ^

Capt. Campbell on the Geognosy of the Island of Ascension. 49

crystals of Vesuvian. Many of the rocks are in an earthy state,
owing to the action of the weather ; and occasionally they are
observed decaying in globular and concentric lamellar concretions.
The upper and middle parts of the hill, marked B in the chart,
are composed of vesicular, spumous, and corded lava. Some of
the vesicular varieties much resemble the millstone lava of An-
dernach. The lower part of the hill consists of rocks of a diffe-
rent description, which form, as it were, a foundation on which
the vesicular and corded lavas rest. On the SW. side, the rocks
are trachyte-porphyry, occasionally including fragments of slag-
gy lava. On the NE. side is a bluish clinkstone-lava, with nume-
rous imbedded felspar crystals.

It thus appears, that the Green Mountain, and the hill P, are
composed of trachyte, and its congenerous rocks ; while B con-
sists of vesicular and slaggy lava, resting upon trachyte. All
those parts of the island coloured in the chart reddish-brown , are
of the same description. The rugged parts of the island, all of
which are coloured bluish-black in the chart, are composed of a
greyish-black lava, slightly vesicular, and containing few crystals
of glassy felspar. This lava presents a frightfully rugged sur-
face, which forms irregular eminences, varying in height from
20 to 50, and even 100 feet.

In the bays, and on such parts of the coast as are not precipi-
tous, the beach is formed of a sand of comminuted shells, with
fragments of echini and of corals. In some places near to the
sea, the fragments of shells are conglutinated together by a cal-
careous cement, and form a pretty solid mass. The solidity of
the mass diminishes as the distance from the sea increases. A
turtle’s nest, with eggs, was observed imbedded in this conglo-
merate. The rocks which rise through these calcareous beaches,
and which are so near to the sea as to be washed by its spray,
are incrusted with a calc-sinter and calc-tuff, formed by the ac-
tion of the weather on the calcareous matter of the shells and
corals.

Lastly, it may be mentioned, that runs of a sand, composed of
the materials of the rocks, occur in different parts of the island,
and that these are pointed out in the chart by the pale yellow co-
lour.

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 182G.

50 Dr Brinkley’s Catalogue of 46 principal Stars ,

Baron Von Buch divides volcanic islands into three classes,
which he characterises in the following manner :

1. Basaltic Islands. Composed of strata of basaltic rocks, in
which there is general!}1- a crater of elevation (Erhebungs crater.)

% Volcanoes. Isolated ; very elevated peaks, and domes of
trachyte, and generally with a great crater on the summit.

3. Erupted Islands . These have been formed by single

eruptions, and scarcely ever occur without basaltic islands.

The Island of Ascension is, by Von Buch, referred to the
third division ; but it now appears, from the facts stated above,
that this island belongs not to the third alone, but rather con-
joins in it the characters of the second and third classes *.

* Professor Jameson had the goodness to examine the different rocks enume-
rated above.

Art. VII. — A Catalogue , in Right Ascension , of 46 principal
Stars , deduced from Observations made at the Observatory of
Trinity College , Dublin , in the years 1823 and 1824. By
the Rev. Dr Brinkley. Communicated by the Author.

Stars.

1825.

Ann. Var.
1824.

Sec. Var.

y Pegasi,
a Cassiopeae,

0 4 13,91
0 30 37,85

+ 3,077

+ 0,010

3,333

0,051

Polaris,

0 58 17,10

15,000

a Arietis,

1 57 19,52

3,354

0,020

a Ceti,

2 53 8,26

3,120

0,010

a Persei,
Aldebaran,

3 11 52,30

4,221

3,427

0,049

4 25 53,12

0,011

Capella,

5 3 46,31

4,411

2,877

0,019

Rigel,

5 6 7,75

0,004

/3 Tauri,

5 15 13,97

3,781

0,009

a. Orionis,

5 45 41,83

3,243

-1- 0,003

Sirius,

6 37 25,96

7 23 25,07

2,643

0,000

Castor,

3,847

— 0,012

Procyon,

7 30 8,08

3,146

0,004

Pollux,

7 34 35,56

3,684

0,012

a Hydrae,

9 18 59,15

2,948

0,001

liegulus,

9 59 2,41

3,204

0,010

a Ursae majr.

10 52 50,65

11 40 7,47

3,801

0,086

/2 Leonis,

3,065

0,008

y Ursae major.

11 44 34,79

3,208

2,670

0,046

12 46 17,78

— 0,029

I Spica Yirg.

13 15 58,93

3,143

+ 0,011

| v Ursae major.

13 40 37,95

2,377

— 0,011

in Right Ascension .

Stars.

1824.

Ann. Yar.
1824.

Sec. Var.

Arcturus,

14 7 40,77

2,730

+ 0*001

a1 Librae,

14 41 1,20

3,297

0,016

14 41 12,61

+ 3,300

0,016

Ursae minor.

14 51 18,91

— 0,301

0,111

a Cor. bor.

15 27 16,68

4- 2,534

0,002

a Serpentis,

15 35 39,09

2,947

0,006

An tares.

16 18 41,33

3,658

0,015

« Herculis,

17 6 40,17

2,729

0,004

Ophiuchi,

17 26 48,74

2,775

0,003

y Draconis,

17 52 32,61

1,390

0,004

a Lyrae,

18 31 0,73

2,028

+ 0,002

y Aquilae,

19 37 56,22

2,853

— 0,001

19 42 14,49

2,927

0,001

19 46 42,82

2,948

0,001

a 1 Capricorni,

20 7 56,33

3,331

0,008

20 8 20,14

3,335

— 0,008

« Cygni,

20 35 27,90

2,038

+ 0,002

a Cephei,

21 14 23,68

1,440

— 0,006

21 26 21,92

0,812

0,032

a Aquarii,

21 58 47,45

3,083

0,004

F omalhaut,

22 47 57,63

3,338

— 0,022

« Pegasi,

22 56 2,84

2,979

+ 0,005

« Andromedae,

23 59 21,43

+ 3,076

+ 0,018

The above Right Ascensions are, in their mean quantity, about 0",2 less
than those of M. Bessel ; and about 0",3 less than those of Mr Pond. The an-
nual variation is determined by comparing this catalogue with Bradley’s cata-
logue in the Fundamenta Astronomies.

Mean error of the catalogue in JR, in space , by observations of the Sun in
Spring and Autumn, with the 8-feet astronomical circle :

Days

obs.

Spring 1823, n } + 0,40 + 0,04 d L _ 0,06 0,0? d O

Spring" 35 U } - °’62 - «.l 1 «* L + 0,10 dr + 0,14 d O

Spring" lift W } + °’34 + °’°4 d L + °'10 * ■ -°’16 rf°

Mean error of Catalogue — + 0,04 — - 0,01 + 0,05 dr . — 0,03 d O

where dL — error in latitude, dr == error in constant of refraction. dO =
error in obliquity of ecliptic.

The small coefficient of dr shows that the error arising from the errors of
division must be absolutely insensible.

( 52 )

Art. VIII. — Account of a Bridge of Suspension made of Hide
Ropes in Chili. By Captain Basil Hall, F.It. S. Com-
municated by the Author.

Over the river Maypo, at no great distance from the city of
Santiago, the capital of Chili, there is thrown a bridge of a cu-
rious construction. It consists of a roadway, four feet broad, of
planks laid crosswise, with their ends resting on straight ropes,
made of twisted thongs of undressed bullocks’ hides, which are
suspended by means of short vertical lines, about as thick as
the little finger, to a set of stout ropes drawn across the valley
from bank to bank. These 'strong sustaining cords are six in
number, three at each side of the bridge, and hang in flat
curves, one above another. They are firmly secured to the
rock, at the top of the bank on one side, at the height of twenty
or thirty feet above the bed of the stream ; but on the opposite
side, where the bank is low, they are made to pass over a high
frame- work of strong timbers, the nature of which will be more
readily understood by a reference to Plate IV., than by any
description. The consequence of the different elevation of the
two banks is, that the bridge has a very considerable slope, — a
circumstance which adds to its picturesque effect, while it takes
little from its utility, as it is not intended for wheel-carriages.

The clear space, from the frame-work on one side to the face
of the rock on the other, is 123 feet. The materials are very
elastic, and the bridge waves up and down, and from side to
side, in so alarming a manner, that a stranger is glad to dis-
mount and lead his horse across, or, as we preferred doing, at
the recommendation of our guides, drive it before him.

It will be apparent, at the first glance at the Plate, that there
is a remarkable similarity between this hide-bridge and those of
iron with which we are now so familiar in this country. A
more careful inspection will only show, that the resemblance ex-
tends even to minute particulars, one of which is very striking,
— I mean the manner in which the weight of the road is distri-
buted over the suspending or curved ropes. It will be observed,
that the first of the small vertical fines is attached to the up-
per rope, the next is fastened to the middle one, and the last to
the lowest rope. This series is repeated along the whole length,
exactly as we see in the bridge of suspension across the Tweed,
and in the pier at Newhaven, and in other similar structures.

• jul agHpmMDBBwsagBcaam CTaowpp jp P^i\'!W|rra

P _[_.,_A. T E IV . I'ldiri? JPh/2. Jo»r .Vifl,I[Pr/.5Z

Capt. Hall on a Bridge of Suspension made of Hide-Ropes. 53

I was informed on the spot, that these South American
bridges were found, exactly as they now exist, by the Spaniards,
when they first occupied the country three centuries ago ; and
it is quite as certain, that nothing was known of this principle,
as applied to iron, till within these few years.

I have not heard whether Captain Brown, the well-known
inventor of the Chain-Cable, and who first introduced the iron-
bridge of suspension, claims it as an original invention. His
merit, however, is not, as I conceive, in the smallest degree
lessened, by supposing him to have seen or heard of these hide-
bridges of South America ; for it is quite as praiseworthy an
exercise of genius and talents to observe and turn to account
such analogies as these, as it is to invent what is altogether
new. Indeed, this is one of the broadest distinctions, by which
the mere visionary theorist is separated from the useful, prac-
tical adapter of known and tried principles to the business of life.

It is, however, a curious subject of scientific history, to trace
the progress of such inventions and adaptations, from their
rudest to their most perfect state ; and I shall be very happy
if this notice shall have the effect of inducing the ingenious
and able officer alluded to, to favour the public with such an
account, not only of this invention, but also that of the chain-
cable, which, as a seaman, I may be excused in describing as one
of the most important applications of principles with which every
person was familiar, but no one turned to account, till the saga-
city and perseverance of Captain Brown taught us their use.

Addition by the Editor .

In an interesting Report by Captain Brown, “ on the proposed
plan of erecting a Patent Wrought-Iron Bridge of Suspension
over the Thames, near Iron-Gate and Horslydown,” which we
hope to lay before our readers in the present or next Number
of this Journal, the following remarks occur, which bear on the
subject of Captain Hall’s account of the Native American
Bridge.

<c It will not at all lessen the importance of the present pro-
posal, if it be admitted that bridges of suspension have long ex-
isted in other countries, and it cannot be pretended by any man
that a new principle has been discovered. The properties of
the catenarian curve are obvious in the Indian bridge of suspem

On Bridges of Suspension.

sion, formed of ropes or bamboo canes, and in those constructed
of common chain, as well as in a variety of objects which must
be familiar to every person of common* observation. But those
simple contrivances, which have been noticed by some writers,
have no more resemblance in their construction to the bridges or
piers of suspension which have been erected in Great Britain,
than the rude bridges of remote ages, which consisted of logs
supported on props, are to be compared to the architecture of
modern times.

44 The first bridge of suspension that we hear of in this coun-
try, is the one thrown across the river Tees, in the county of
Durham, the span of w7hich does not, I think, exceed 80 feet
It is formed of two common chains, stretched over the river,
from abrupt banks, with battens laid across, and boarded, the
gangway partaking of the curve of the chains.

44 Such an arrangement is evidently a bad one, inasmuch as
we must ascend to the points of suspension, then descend, and
rise according to the curve of the chain, which, in that which I
have usually adopted, would be a pull of one foot in seven.
This is hardly practicable, and my earliest attention was em-
ployed to remedy the evil. In 1814 I erected a bridge, with
the road or platform perfectly horizontal, on my premisses at
Mill-Wall, where it still remains. This is effected by intro-
ducing perpendicular rods through the joints of the main sus-
pending bars, and adjusting their length to the curve above, so
that they form a series of straps for the reception of a row of
bars on each side, placed edgewise, and extending the whole
length of the bridge, parallel to the entrance. The beams being
laid across these bars, the platform or road becomes quite hori-
zontal ; or an ascent frtay be given from the sides to the middle,
in the same plane as with the roads leading to the bridge. The
span is 105 feet, and the iron-work only weighs 38 cwt. It was
inspected by the late Mr Bennie and Mr Telford, who drove
their carriages over it ; and it has been considered by men emi-
nent for their skill in mechanics, as a remarkable combination
of strength and lightness.

44 The advance to improvement in this new era of bridge-
building, may be traced to the invention of iron-cables, which

* An account of this bridge is given in pages 238 and 239 of Vol. V, of the
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. — Edit.

On Bridges of Suspension.

necessarily introduced the powerful proving machine. A know-
ledge of the strength of bolts and bar iron of large dimensions,
was thereby obtained, which formerly was deduced from trivial
experiments, leading to most erroneous calculation ; and as the
importance of this new branch of naval equipment developed it-
self, the principal iron manufacturers of England vied with each
other in its improvement ; and British iron is now brought to a
state of perfection, that will, for general purposes, entirely su-
persede the use of foreign. There is also a uniformity in the
strength of the improved British iron, beyond that of any other
country ; so that by adopting straight bolts or bars, united end
to end in the direction of their length, by coupling plates and
pins of proportionate strength, instead of chains, we have an in-
crease of strength with less weight ; the risk of bad workman-
ship is almost entirely obviated ; and the subsequent proof to
which every part of the work is subjected, reduces the calcula-
tion of its strength to a certainty.”

These observations state distinctly the extent rvf Captain
Brown’s claims in this great work of improvement. On convers-
ing with this active and ingenious officer, on the subject of the
bridges of suspension observed in South America, and other
countries, he said, that the only one which has the road on the
same plane with the banks, is that here described by Captain Hall;
all the others which he had heard of, having the road erected over
the chains, and partaking of the curve, which, with a flexure neces-
sary for the security of the bridge, rendered the passage very
inconvenient : Further, that his observations were written before
Captain Hall could have seen the bridge over the river Maypo
in Chili, and with which he now, for the first time, became ac-
quainted. He claims whatever merit may be due to the mode
of construction, which is entirely new, and for which he obtained
a patent seven years ago. The model of this original plan is
erected in Captain Brown’s premises at Mill Wall, on the river
Thames, near to London, and is, as above stated, 105 feet span,
and strong enough to carry loaded carriages. In 1819 he erect-
ed a bridge on the same plan over the river Leader, at Carolside
in Berwickshire ; and he is now constructing the iron-work of the
bridge over the Thames at Hammersmith, with scarcely any va-
riation, at least none that he considers as a deviation unconnected
with the necessary arrangements of a bridge on a larger scale.

Art. IX.— •Observations for determining the Magnetic Variation , made in the Neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, by
Capt. ( then Lieut.) Franklin , assisted by Lieut. Beechey, Mr Back , and Mr Fyffe , in His Majesty's Ship Trent ,
in the year 1818. Communicated by Captain Franklin.

( 56 )

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( 57 )

Art. X. — 1. On the Unequal Distribution of Caloric in Vol-
taic. Action. 2. On the Temperature of the Skin of the
Dormouse. 3. On the Temperature of the Egg of the Hen,
in relation to its Physiology. By John Murray, F. S. A.
F.L.S. & M.W.S. Communicated by the Author.

1. On the Unequal Distribution of Caloric in Voltaic Action.

The following experiments may, I hope, be found interest-
ing, and eventually throw light on the more obscure features of
galvanic action, while the thermo-electric phenomena of See-
beck, Dessaignes, Moll, Van Beeck, &c. may be elucidated.
Even the occult meteorology of the thunder-storm may find
facts amid experiments such as these are, that may ultimately
conduct to a happier theory.

Four galvanic troughs were employed. They were construct-
ed in the triad form, on the principles of Dr Wollaston; and
the^ cells containing the acid were of porcelain. Each trough
had 10 triads, and the plates were 4 inches square.

I used 1| oz. of nitrous acid for each compartment, and filled
up with water. About 6 inches of platinum wire, /5th inch
diameter, were ignited, &c.

Air 66c

5 Fahr

. ; water in room 64

°. 2d

September 1823.

First Trough.

Zinc end — positive.

Second

Trough.

Cent.

Temp.

99° F.]

Cell 1.

Temp.

99° F.'

102

£ °

100

S o

104

.5 co

102

’3 •

106

108

1 S

S3 3

102

.3 _

s a

S3 3

110

r 8 9

r g a

111

1 *

£‘9

112

% a

3= a

110

ssn;

10.

108

• rH W

10.

ft ^

Third Trough .

Fourth !

Trough.

Cell 1.

Temp.

101° F0

Cell 1.

Temp.

100° F.'

!-•

104

102

106

It.

103

•3 50

108

S S'

104

a s'

108

S3 3

103 |

L a a

108

r 8 9

101

r 8.1

106

100

105

0) rj

32 3

100

.2 9

103

10.

101 ,

fa *

10.

ft *

Copper or negative termination
or pole .

58 Mr Murray on the unequal Distribution of Caloric

In the preceding experiments, the plates of zinc having been
much corroded, might be expected to affect the results, and
render them somewhat equivocal. The phenomena, however,
seemed to indicate a gradual declension of temperature from the
positive to the negative pole. It is curious, too, that the alter-
nate troughs singularly coincide. It was also evident, that
there obtained a maximum near the central region of the indi-
vidual trough, with a gradual declension in each, pointing in the
direction of the negative pole. These facts prove, that an une-
qual distribution of temperature is associated with the produc-
tion of galvanic phenomena.

The plates were renewed in the experiments which succeed.
On the 18th September 1823, temperature of water 62°, the
same strength of acid was employed. From 14 to 15 inches of
platinum-wire, T i 5 th of an inch diameter, were made white hot .
In the first series, the temperature was taken before the plates
were removed , and when the action had been reduced to the ig-
nition of a few inches of the wire. It commences with the cop-
per or negative cell.

Is2 Trough. 2d Trough.

( Copper end.) — Last cell, 101° F. Last cell, 125° F.

Middle, 106 Middle, 140

First, 112 First, 135

3 d Trough.
Last cell, 138° F.
Middle, 141
First, 138

4th Trough.

Last cell, 136° F.

Middle, 142

First, 142 ( Zinc or positive end. )

It appears from the foregoing, that the minimum of tem-
perature in the aggregate troughs is at the copper or negative
limit, and the maximum at the positive or zinc termination.
In three of these troughs the maximum of the individual one is
still maintained toward the centre.

When the plates were removed, the following was the exhi-

bition of temperature.

Trough.

2d Trough.

3d Trough.

4th Trough.

( Copper plate. ) 1 0 1 ° F.

123° F.

128° F.

106

125

129

109

127

130

131

110

129

131

133

111

131

132

134

* 112

133

134

112

134

133

113

133

131

133

113

131

130

132

110

129

132 ( Zinc plate.)

in Voltaic Action .

In the preceding the grade of increment from the negative to
the positive pole is remarkably uniform. Towards the centre of
the individual trough, the maximum still obtains. The last cell
at the copper pole is decidedly the minimum, being only 101°
Fahr., while that of the zinc pole is 1ST Fahr., a difference of
31° Fahr.

The experiments which succeed were made on the 6th Octo-
ber 1823, air 63°, diluted acid in cells before immersion of the
plate 64°.5 Fahr.

So soon as the plates were plunged into the cells,

Zinc end (positive ). 1st Trough 69°, Centre 66°, End 67°

2d 70 , 08 , 75

3d — 80 , 75 , 75

4th 94 , — — 86 , 84 Copper ( negative.)

Before the action is fairly determined, the above experiments
prove the negative end to sustain the maximum of temperature,
being 84°, while the positive end is 69°.

Before removal of the plates, when the acid had become weak,
Zinc (positive). 1st Trough 126°, Centre 125°, End 124°

126 ,

130 ,

— - 126

124

128

130

4th

XJ3I ,

124 ,

122 ,

- — - 120 Copper ( negative. )

Here, as in former experiments, the maximum is at the zinc,
the uniformity already named being remarkably sustained.

After removal of the plates the indications of temperature
were as follows.

1st Trough.

( Zinc or positive.)

Cell 1, 122° F.

2, 124

3, 126

4, 126

5, 126

6, 125

7, 124

8, 123

9, 120
10, 120

4th Trough.

F. Cell 1, 121° F.

2, 122

3, 122

4, 122

5, 121

6, 119

7, 116
8, 116
9, 116

10, 116
Copper or negative.

Several queries seem naturally to spring from these facts.
Does the excited electricity thus modify the distribution of
heat ? or, Does the chemical action of the acid on metals of dif-
ferent conducting powers produce the unequal balance ; and is
electricity the consequence of this unequal distribution ?

The action of electricity may either give rise to an unequal

2d Trough .

Cell 1, 122° F.

2, 124

3, 125

4, 126

5, 126

6, 128

7, 127

8, 126
9, 124

10, 122

3f/ Trough.

Cell 1, 121°
2, 122

3, 124

4, 125

5, 125

6, 125

7, 125

8, 125

9, 129
10, 126

60 Mr Murray on the Temperature of

distribution of temperature, or an unequalized temperature give
birth to electrical phenomena ; which disturbed balance of tem-
perature it is the province of electricity to restore, and hence
the thunder-storm is commissioned to determine the equaliza-
tion and distribution. This last view of it seems to me most
probable, and affords a satisfactory view of the beneficent ar-
rangements of Providence.

In corroboration of this conclusion, it may be interesting to
state the remarkable change of temperatures which I ascertained
to take place during my journey last summer from Basle on
the Rhine to Paris.

On the 10th September, at a quarter past 6 p. m. near to
Montmiral, the thermometer indicated 79° Fahr. ; and the ho-
rizontally of the clouds announced the distant thunder-storm.
In ten minutes the instrument rose to 84°.5 ; and at half-past
6 stood at 74°. Distant lightning. Thermometer subse-
quently ascended to 90° Fahr. ; and about 7 o’clock had fallen
to 73° Fahr. It then rose to 78° F.

Paisley, 1 1th Nov. 1825.

2. On the Temperature of the Shin of the Dormouse.

The strange repose of toads, frogs, and lizards, in the solid
and almost hermetically sealed rock, is a phenomenon import-
ant to the geologist, and calculated to excite the liveliest inte-
rest in the physiologist. I have paid some attention to the
question of torpidity in animals , and ever delight rather to re-
gister facts (especially where the question is hypothetical),
than to speculate in the regions of theory.

In the beginning of last year, I received two dormice from a
friend in Derbyshire, and commenced a series of experiments
on the temperature developed by the skin. One of these I ac-
cidentally lost, it having escaped from confinement ; and I was
shortly necessitated, from various avocations, to resign the pro-
secution of my researches with the other. The following is a
note of the temperature as recorded :

31st January 1824, Chesterfield, Derbyshire. At 7h and 25' p. m. air of
room 48° Fahr. temperature of the dormice under the breast 103° Fahr — I
soon after lost one of my prisoners.

At Hull, Yorkshire, 14lh February, at 8 and 30' p. m., air 51° Fahr., tem-
perature under breast 62° 5' Fahr. The animal semitorpid.

the Shin of the Dormouse .

Feb. 15. At lh 15' p. m., air 46°, under breast 104°

— At 8 30 --- 47°.5, 69° semitorpid.

__ At 3 30 — 52°, 102°.5

19. At 2 — 56°, — 99°

21. At 10 SO — 54°.5, 102°

22. At 12 30 _ _ 57°, 97°

On the 14th and 15th February, the dormouse was roused from its appa-
rent death by heat cautiously applied.

The box which contained the dormice had a partition. One
compartment contained fresh moss, well dried, in which the ani-
mals reposed during day , having formed for themselves a some-
what elliptical nidus. Two openings conducted into the outer
court , where the dormice had their food prepared for them,
consisting of wheaten bread (sometimes softened with water),
and a basin of milk. Great attention and care were bestowed
on them, and the food daily supplied.

Though their cage was frequently in darkness during the
day, the night season was the exclusive period in which they
took food. One of them had a singular expedient, when the
liquid was too low in the basin. It dipped its brushy tail
(somewhat resembling that of a fox) into the dish , and carried
the milk in this manner to the mouth. When the dormice are
torpid, they may be thrown up like a ball, &c. without any in-
dication of motion, or change of state.

9th Nov . 1825.

3. On the Temperature of the Egg of the Hen , in relation to
its Physiology.

There has long existed a curious and very peculiar test for
discovering the relative freshness of the egg. I particularly
advert to that of the hen, but presume the same discriminating
test would be generally applicable.

The tip of the tongue, when brought in contact with the se-
veral ends of the egg, experiences a peculiar sensation, caused
by a difference in temperature , the great end being sensibly
warmer. The following experiments, made with a very delicate
thermometer, and effected with considerable care, determine
that this peculiarity is not imaginary ; and though the slight
difference may, at first sight, appear to militate against the con-
clusion, let it not be forgotten, that the tongue, thus applied,
is a very sensible and delicate test. I feel persuaded, that, in

62 Mr Murray on the Temperature of' the Egg of the Hen.

this way, I can readily discriminate between the colours , in re-
lation to differently coloured petals in flowers ; and, moreover,
it was thus that Mr John Gough of Kendal, though blind,
determined the temperature evolved in the dilatation and con-
traction of caoutchouc, for which see his paper in the Transac-
tions of the Manchester Philosophical Society.

The cause of this unequal distribution may be clearly traced
to the cicatricula , from which the caloric seems to radiate.
When we puncture the shell, the cicatricula may be discovered
floating in the albumen , on the acclivity of the vitellus , and
near the summit of the globe toward the great end.

In the following experiments, the projecting minute ball of
the thermometer was very cautiously and carefully immersed
into the albumen, when the shell at either end was broken to
allow its introduction. The external atmosphere was at same
time registered.

External air, 52° F.

Small end of egg, 58°.5, fths of an inch deep, 60°

Great end, 59°, 60

Small end, - 56°.5, deep, 58°

Great end, - 58°, 58°.5

Air, 63°5

Vitellus, 64°.5 I T
Albumen, 64°.5 j

In these the thermometer was deeply immersed, and it is evi-
dent that the difference does not arise from the vitellus or al-
bumen, or aiiy specific phenomenon connected with them indi-
vidually.

Small end, 58°5, immersed, 61°.5 +

Great end, 60°, — - 61°.5 +

From side to centre, 65°

In another, - 64°

Air, 52° -{-

Small end, 57°*75, immersed, 58°.5

Great end, 58°.5, — — 58°.75

Air, 54°

Small end, 58°.5, immersed, 59°.5

Great end, 59°.5, 59°.75

Air, 52°

Small end, 58°.5, immersed, 59°.25

Great end, 59° -f — . 60°

Small end, 85° F.

Do. 1 in. 87°5
Great end, 88° F.

Do. 1 in. 93°

In the region of the cicatrice, 91°.5
Air of the room, - 73°

Thermometer sunk to 55°.5 by the evaporation of the albumen.

another.

, f66°.
’ (66°.

Remarks on Mr DanielVs Hypothesis. 63

It will be seen, that, throughout these experiments, the egg
maintained a temperature superior to that of the external me-
dium, even, in the latter instances, though that medium was
considerably exalted.
mil Nov. 1825.

Art. XI.- — Remarks on Mr DanielVs Hypothesis of the Ra-
diation of Heat in the Atmosphere. By Mr Foggo junior.
Communicated by the Author.

The few remarks I am to offer on this hypothesis, were ori-
ginally intended to have been inserted in a note to the Meteoro-
logical Register published in this Journal. It has been thought
proper to give them a separate place, chiefly with the view of
exciting more attention to the subject among those who have op-
portunities of prosecuting such inquiries.

Before the publication of Mr Danielfs essays, solar radiation
had never been treated of to any extent more than conjecture,
or a few unconnected experiments. Besides the interest which
it possesses as a subject of experimental research, there are seve-
ral questions of the highest consequence to physiology, which
depend upon our knowledge of this important agent. Some of
these, which Mr Daniell himself had principally in view, are
here given in his own words : 64 Does its influence increase with
the temperature of the air from the Poles to the Equator ? ” or,
44 Is the rapid vegetation of the Arctic Regions, during the short
summer of these climates, dependent on any compensating ener-
gy of its operation ? Before I attempt to answer these ques-
tions, I shall propose another, which many will be surprised to
find cannot be met with an immediate solution ; which is, the
maximum degree of heat to which a plant, or the parts of a
plant, are subjected, by exposure to a mid-day sun, in mid-
summer, in this climate ? There are, no doubt, in all plants,
parts which are calculated to absorb all the radiant heat which
strikes upon them ; and it is therefore desirable to know, with a
reference to this subject alone, the utmost amount of tempera-
ture which radiant matter is capable of producing. My Mete-
orological Register includes a column for observations upon this
point. They are complete from November 1820 to the end of

64 Remarks on Mr Daniel? s Hypothesis .

December 1821, and from the beginning of May 1822 to the
end of August of the same year. They were made by means
of a register-thermometer of large range, having its bulb covered
with black wool, and placed upon a south border of garden-
mould, with a full exposure to the sun. The thermometer did
not rest on the earth, but was supported about an inch above it.
The maximum-heat of the sun’s rays during the day was thus
measured, and recorded in the journal.”

At the request of Mr Daniell, Captain Sabine made many
observations for the same purpose, in different places within the
Tropics. From a comparison of the results obtained by himself,
with those of Captain Sabine, he infers, that the intensity of the
sun’s direct rays decreases as we approach the Equator. And
extending the comparison to a few facts connected with this sub-
ject, which are recorded in the late voyages to the Arctic Regions,
he considers the conclusion to be incontrovertible, That the in-
tensity increases proportionally as the distance from the Equator.
A theory is given in support of this singular proposition ; but
with respect to this, we have no doubt Mr Daniell himself has
already discovered the oversight by which he has been misled.

A consideration of the experiments themselves will, however,
afford some interest. But it must be here observed, that Mr
Daniell, in his Essay, applies the term, “ force of radiation,” in-
discriminately to phenomena essentially distinct; so that the ac-
tual power of the sun’s rays is confounded with the excess of
temperature indicated by a thermometer exposed to the sun,
above the temperature of the air. As it is only to the former
that my remarks are at present directed, instead of the table
given in the essay itself, we shall extract from his journal the
maximum temperatures registered by the black thermometer.

January,

60°

May,

135°

September,

120°

February,

June,

154

October,

104

March,

July,

128

November,

April,

110

August,

144

December,

Here the

maximum

observed

is 154°.

This took place on the

5th of June; on which day, the little breeze then blowing being
from the north, the thermometer must have been completely
screened from its cooling effects. Of the tropical observations, we
shall quote only those made at Bahia and Jamaica, as they alone

of the Radiation of Heat in the Atmosphere.

can enter into comparison with Mr Daniell's. A mercurial ther-
mometer, having its bulb blackened, and covered with black
wool, wras fully exposed to the sun, on grass. The following
are the results obtained at Bahia :

July 24.

114°

July 28.

95'

25.

123

29.

115

26.

124

30.

12T

27.

123

These results were obtained during a southerly wind, with
frequent rain, surely not the most favourable weather for such
experiments. At Jamaica, with the same thermometer, the
highest temperature observed was 123° ; but no remarks are
given on the state of the weather. M. Gay Lussac objected
to these experiments, as having been influenced by the vegeta-
tion on which the instruments reposed. As Mr Daniell rests
the truth of his opinion chiefly on these experiments, we made a
few trials, to ascertain the probable amount of such effects upon
the results. On the 7th of July last, temp, of the air 59°, with
brisk wind, we exposed a large thermometer, having its ball co-
vered with black wool, to the direct rays of the sun, but not
sheltered from the wind. In 10' it rose to 95°. It was then laid
flat on short grass, when it fell to 60° ; and on replacing it in its
former position, in 4' it again rose to 94°. On the 29th of the
same month, at 10' before 3 p. m., the same thermometer which
had been exposed all day in a sheltered corner, rose to 150°.
At the same instant another instrument, similarly prepared, and
resting in contact with the herbage, indicated only 119°. Again,
on the 29th, at 2 p. m., the first thermometer as before, was at
140°, #nd the second 110°. We have here a difference of 30°,
arising solely from the manner in which the instruments were ex-r
posed. These trials are so few in number, that, were it not for
the remarkable uniformity of the differences, it might appear
unreasonable to apply them to any other observations. But it
cannot be denied, that such a correction would at least render
Captain Sabine's observations more closely comparable with those
made at London. So far, then, the hypothesis appears to have
advanced on trivial grounds.

In support of his idea, that the energy of the solar rays is
diminished as we approach the Equator, the narrative of Hum-
VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

Remarks on Mr Darnell's Hypothesis

boldt is referred to. <( I have often,” says that illustrious traveller,
“ endeavoured to measure the power of the sun, by two thermo-
meters of mercury perfectly equal, one of which remained ex-
posed to the sun, while the other was placed in the shade. The
difference arising from the absorption of the rays never exceed-
ed 6#.6 Fahr ” It is unnecessary to mention, that naked ther-
mometers are quite unfit for such experiments. For of the rays
which impinge upon a naked ball, all except those having a per-
pendicular incidence, will be reflected from the surface. Hence,
the amount of heat developed must be extremely small ; and
during a breeze *, if the instrument be not screened from its
effects, it is nearly neutralized.

We have made numerous observations with naked thermome-
ters, but none of them deserve notice, except those made during
the hot weather about the end of last July 1825. On the 27th,
at 3 p. m., when the black thermometer was at 150°, a naked
thermometer, exposed fully to the sun during a dead calm, rose
to 99° ; the temperature of the slates at this time was 117°, of the
earth 103°. On the 28th, temperature of the air 62°, wind E.,
pleasant breeze.

At noon, black therm. 1250, naked T5°,

— Ip. 139, 92.

— 2 p. m. 139,-i 90,

— 2 30' 135, — 87.

On the 29th, temp, of the air 62°.5, wind as before. At 1 f. m.,
black thermometer 127°, naked 79°.

We covered the latter loosely with a piece of black cloth till
it rose to 97° ; on removing the cloth, it fell in 5' to 83°. At 2
p. m., black thermometer 140°, naked 95°.

Temperature of the earth 101, of the air, three inches above
the slates of a low out-house facing the south, and sheltered from
the wind, 90°.

From these it appears, that, at a certain excess of temperature,
the emission from the shaded part of the ball, owing to the high
radiating power of the glass, more than counterbalances the
calorific effects from the absorption. We see, therefore, that

* These observations were not made at Cumana as Mr Daniell says, but on ship*
board, during the voyage from Teneriffe to Cumana : consequently they cannot be
considered satisfactory.

of the Radiation of Heat in the Atmosphere.

unless due allowance is made for the excess of temperature, the
velocity of the wind, length of time of exposure, &c. we cannot
get even an approximation to the true force of solar radiation.
But in the hot countries, much higher temperatures have
been obtained with naked thermometers, than any yet men-
tioned. In CafFraria, Mr Barrow saw an exposed thermometer
mark 106°. The missionary Campbell, during his interesting
journey in the winter time through the country of the Botchua-
nas, when the air at 8 a. m., saw the thermometer in the sun at
noon rise to 84°. At Gondar in Abyssinia, Mr Bruce mentions,
113°; while at Benares, 110°, 113°, and 118° respectively, are
recorded. There is another class of observations to which Mr
Daniell has not alluded, though entitled to more confidence than
those with naked thermometers. The force of the sun’s rays
may be conveniently ascertained, by taking the temperature of
the surface of the earth, where it has been fully exposed to the
effects of insolation. Observations of this kind are very inte-
resting, but they are unfortunately few in number. We shall
here cite some of those best authenticated.

In Sierra Leone, Dr Winterbottom saw a thermometer, placed
on the ground, rise to 138°. Humboldt gives many instances of
the temperatureof the earth being so high as 118°, 120°, and 129°;
and at one] time he found the temperature of a granitic sand,
loose and coarse-grained, 140°.5 ; another, finer and more
dense, 126°, the thermometer in the sun being at the same time
97M6. “ It is probable,” he .observes, “ that the mean tem-

perature of the dried mud, in which the alligators bury them-
selves during their state of periodical lethargy, is more than 104°
Fahr.”; that is to say, at least equal to the mean of maximum
temperatures registered by Mr DanielPs black thermometer.
Now, the mean of all his observations on solar radiation, including
the summer of 1 822, is only 79°.4. Fahr. We do not recollect any
observations of this kind in our latitudes, except that mentioned
above, where the temperature of the slates was 119°. Mr Cold-
stream informs us, that, on a very hot day in June last year,
he found the temperature of the surface of an oil-painted garden
seat, in a sheltered spot, with the sun beating upon it, to be

68 Remarks on Mr DanieWs Hypothesis

When we bear in mind the distinction made above, all the
arguments which have been adduced for a remarkable inten-
sity of solar radiation in high latitudes, will be found to amount
to very little. There are no direct experiments made with pro-
per instruments, but there is one fact which, it is confessed,
may enter into close comparison with those made with the black-
wooled thermometer. Captain Scoresby states, that, in the
month of April, while, on one side of his ship, water was freezing
rapidly ; on the other side, which was exposed to the direct rays,
the pitch about the bends of the vessel became fluid ; while a
thermometer placed on the black paint- work rose to 80°, or even
100° *. From this, however, must be deducted the influence of
the light reflected from the surface of the snow and ice. We
have no means of ascertaining how far these reflections did in-
fluence the observations; but it is well known, that, at the angle
at which the rays impinged upon the snow at that time of the
year, almost the whole of the incident light is reflected, without
producing any elevation in the temperature of the snow and ice.
In the month of April, in London, the maximum effect recorded
is 110°, which is probably nearly double the actual amount here
indicated. That distinguished traveller Sir Charles Giesecke
made several trials with thermometers at Godhavn, in Lat. 69°.
In calm and clear weather, the maximum he ever obtained was
in

April,

61°

July,

89°.

May,

August,

89.3

June,

90.5

September,

63.5.

The last argument which has been brought forward, is de-
rived from the experiments of Mr Knight, on the culture of the
pine-apple. This able physiologist suggests, that the fruit will
ripen better early in the spring than in the summer months.
For, he says, this species of plant, though extremely patient of
a high temperature, is not by any means so patient of the action
of very continued bright light as many other plants, and much

* Mr Daniell found, by experiment, the melting point of pitch to be about 120° ;
but we have preferred Mr Scoresby’s own account, as there are many compositions
used in paying ships’ sides, all confounded under the general name of Pitch, such
as boiled coal-tar, a mixture of oil and common pitch, pitch and ochre, &c., ali
differing from each other in consistence and fusibility.

of the Radiation of Heat in the Atmosphere. 69

less so than the fig or orange tree ; possibly, having been formed
by nature for intertropical climates, its powers of life may be-
come fatigued and exhausted by the length of a bright English
summer’s day in a high temperature. When we reflect on the
constitution of the natural climate of the pine-apple, we can
easily understand the utility of this suggestion. For whatever
be the intensity of the scorching rays to which the plant is ex-
posed in its native country, the long sleep through a tropical
night is sufficient to restore its energy. On the contrary, in the
fruiting-house, in which the heat is as great as ever experienced
in the Brazils, it is exposed to a blaze of light during a sum-
mer’s day of seventeen hours ; while, on the other hand, the short
and imperfect refreshment which it can receive in a midsum-
mer’s night, is by no means sufficient to restore its active powers.
It is certain, that, if more pains were used to equalize in this, as
in other respects, the situation of the plants with that of their na-
tive soil, botanists would have it more frequently in their power
to examine the fructification of many plants which, at present,
shew no inclination to put forth their flowers.

Within the Tropics, the productions of the vegetable kingdom
are never endangered, by any interruption in the regular alter-
nation of atmospherical variations. The undeviating regularity
in the succession of the agents which influence organized beings,
induces extreme sensitiveness in plants to small changes in the
condition of the circumambient medium. Hence, when the tem-
perature of the air declines towards evening, the irritability of
the plants is excited by the approach of cold ; and, before the sun
is set, flowers have closed their petals, and the delicate pinnated
foliage has collapsed to present a further loss of heat by radia-
tion. Even in the Temperate Zone, in those parts where con-
tinental climates prevail, or climates distinguished by a great
difference between the summer’s heat and the cold of winter, as
in Russia, and in the central lands of Asia and America, plants
are endowed with a similar constitution. Being subject during
the winter to a degree of cold far below that at which their vital
powers are suspended, they acquire a high organic susceptibility
to the stimulus of light and heat, so that no sooner is the frost
relaxed, than vegetation is renewed with a force and celerity un-
known in this country. It is on this account that the mildness

70 Remarks on Mr DanielVs Hypothesis

of our moist and changeable winters, proves so destructive to
mountain plants, and not, as many have said, because the cover-
ing of snow under which they are buried in their native sites,
protects them from excessive cold. We thus see why, in the
Arctic Regions, when plants are awakened into life by the return
of the sun, they resume their organic functions with such
amazing energy, that they spring, flower, and ripen their seeds,
in the short space of six weeks.

Our readers are now in possession of the leading facts, which
are well authenticated, and it is for them to judge how far the
first two questions have been satisfactorily answered. If we find
Mr DanielFs to be without foundation, it is but fair to acknow-
ledge, that the force of radiation from a vertical sun is not so ex-
cessive as might have been supposed. We are still unable to
give any solution to the most important of the questions proposed.
What is the maximum calorific impressions which plants are sub-
jected to in any latitude? Nor have we ascertained the force of
the sun in any place on the surface of the earth.

The experiments for this purpose are too delicate for ordinary
hands, and, in our variable climate, more than one revolution of
the season might take place, before an unexceptionable oppor-
tunity might occur. Agriculturists and florists are well aware of
how much consequence the agency of direct light is in the flower-
ing of the Cerealia, and the brilliancy of ornamental plants. The
absence of this important agent, as Mr Daniell observes, can
never be compensated for by any elevation of temperature under
a clouded sky. It is also well known, that, in many years in
which the harvests are nearly mined, the average temperature
does not fall below the ordinary mean of the year or of the sea-
son. It is therefore highly important, that journals should be
kept, in order to ascertain the effects of this powerful element in
different years. For this purpose, the best arrangement that
can be adopted is that used by Mr Daniell, with the exception
of giving the instrument a free exposure to the wind : For the
object being merely to ascertain the total amount of radiant mat-
ter which plants have received during the day, the thermometer
ought to be as nearly as possible in the same condition with the
foliage and other parts of the plant.

of the Radiation of Heat in the Atmosphere .

The terrestrial radiation of caloric has been treated of at great
length, and in a very interesting manner, in the latter part of the
essay, and a comparison is also taken of the amount of noctur-
nal radiation in different latitudes. It appears that the noctur-
nal terrestrial radiation in the Torrid Zone falls short of what
might have been expected ; from which Mr Daniell concludes,
that the same cause which obstructs the passage of radiant heat
in the atmosphere from the sun, opposes also its transmission
from the earth into space. While we assent to the unexpected
nature of these results, we do not think it necessary to insinuate,
with M. Gay Lussac, that they were obtained at times when the
air was less clear or less calm than at London. There are two
circumstances which ought to have been taken into account,
and which are sufficient of themselves to explain the anomaly.
First, the high temperature of the soil, which, in the Torrid
Zone, frequently retains a heat several centigrade degrees above
that of the air, even when the latter has reached its minimum.
The second and most efficient principle is the law which has been
established by Mr Anderson, That the minimum temperature of
the night is regulated by the constituent temperature of the
aqueous atmosphere. The enormous quantity of moisture in
the atmosphere equally prevents the diminution of its tempera-
ture beyond a certain degree, and checks the cooling of the
ground by evaporation.

Art. XII. — Sketches of the Comparative Anatomy of the Or-
gans of Hearing and Vision. By Thomas Buchanan,
C. M., Author of the Illustrations of Acoustic Surgery, Sec.
&c. Communicated by the Author *.

1 .—Ear of the Squalus .

rp '

JL HE organ of hearing, in the shark tribe, varies considerably
from that of the human subject.

We find neither ossicula auditus, tympanum, eustachian tube,
nor cochlea ; but, as if to compensate for the want of parts so es-

* Read before the Wernerian Society, 19th Nov. 1825.

752 Mr Buchanan on the Comparative Anatomy of the

sentially necessary to the perfect ear, the semicircular canals are
of almost incredible extent.

The cranium being composed of semi-transparent cartilagi-
nous substance, of a beautiful cerulean hue, the whole of the or-
gan can be distinctly seen, by merely removing the cuticle, and
some of the surrounding parts.

When the cranium is divested of the common integuments, a
considerable depression is seen in the coronal and posterior por-
tion, which, in the living subject, is occupied by a kind of spongy
elastic cellular membrane.

This depression is of a heart-like figure, the apex pointing
forwards, with a roundish process in the posterior part, which
causes a partial division of this portion of the cavity.

In the older fish, the intermediate space in the depression be-
tween the cuticle and the cranium, is chiefly filled with a trans-
parent gelatinous substance, which can easily be seen and felt
in the recent subject, by passing the finger backwards over the
depression, when the posterior part will become tumid, like a
bladder.

In the posterior, and rather inferior, and external parts of the
depression, are four foramina, two of which are situated on each
side of the posterior process.

The foramen next to the process, is large, and of a circular
figure, and in the recent subject covered with a membrane, the
plane of which forms an angle of nearly 45°, with a line through
the center of the cranium, and about the same angle from the
perpendicular. This membrane may, with propriety, be termed
the Memhrana Labyrinthi .

The spongy elastic membranous substance is attached to the
external side of the membrane ; but in the skate there is a consi-
derable space between it and the substance.

This large foramen leads into the vestibule and posterior semi-
circular canal ; and may be termed the Foramen rotundum ,
from its circular figure.

Close to, and outside of this foramen, is a very oblong aper-
ture, through which the tube of the ear (in the young subject)
enters the vestibule, and which, from its extreme oblong figure,
may be termed the Foramen oblongatum.

In the young subject of the species S . canus , the meatus au-

Organs of Hearing and Vision.

ditorius externus is situated on the superior and posterior, or co-
ronal, surface of the head, is small and much contracted, and sel-
dom admits of any substance larger than a strong bristle.

The tube is formed of tough, elastic, membranous substance,
and runs outwards or laterad, forwards or antinead, and down-
wards or basilad, a few lines more or less, according to the size
of the animal, until it reaches within a short space of a mem-
brane, stretched across the tube, where it enlarges to nearly twice
the size of the other parts of the tube.

This membrane may with propriety be termed the Merribrana
Vestibuli.

The tube then describes an angle by running downwards,
backwards, and a little outwards, until it reaches the foramen
oblongatum, to the edge of which it is attached in some subjects
more closely than in others.

In young fish of the $. canus , the meatus and auditory tube
are more easily found than in the adult, or in some of the other
species. In old fish, the meatus is generally almost obliterated ; the
tube and membrana vestibuli are seen, but indurated and en-
larged so as to be scarcely recognisable by the above description.

This alteration of the parts may perhaps be the consequence
of disease, or the effect of old age. In the ear of the adult of
the Balcena Mysticetus, I have frequently found the stapes so
firmly attached to the foramen ovale, that the union resembled
ossification, and required considerable efforts to separate the bone
from the foramen. The probable cause of this adhesion will be
pointed out when describing the ear of that animal, so that one
fact may, if possible, throw light on another.

The following are the dimensions of the parts in a preparation
of the S. canus , three feet in length.

Distance between the orifices of the Meatus auditorius externus,
Diameter of the tube at the external orifice,

Do. do. inside of the cuticle,

Do. do. Membrana Vestibuli,

Length of the tube from the orifice to the Membrana Vestibuli,
From that membrane to the Vestibule, -

Depression in the Cranium, in length about

21 lines
25 of a line.
i do.

1 line.

1| do,
lido.

6 do.

In the species S. borealis , or Greenland shark, the magnitude
of the semicircular canals is such as to surpass any idea which

74 Mr Buchanan on the Comparative Anatomy of the

may be formed of the parts, from the dissection of the organ in
the human subject. The superior size of the parts may be esti-
mated from the dimensions of a cast of the left ear of that ani-
mal now before me, which I took a few hours after it was killed *.

The entrance of the meatus internus is about three lines in
diameter, and situated in the inferior part of the organ.

It runs downwards, and a little outwards, about two lines
and a half ; then contracts suddenly, and runs horizontally out-
wards nearly a line, when it enters the vestibule, parallel with
the floor of that cavity.

The vestibule is large, of an irregular triangular figure, the
perpendicular of which may be said to present to the brain,
while the base runs horizontally outwards and backwards.

The circumference of the greatest diameter of the vestibule
is twenty-five lines, and the height of the cavity, from the high-
est to the lowest points, twenty-two lines.

On the inside of the superior part of the external angle of the
vestibule is a longitudinal ridge, which, in the sketch of the
cast, is seen as a depression ; and on the floor, there is a corres-
pondent ridge on the opposite side, that runs upwards on the
parietes, next to the brain, until it arrives at the top of the ca-
vity, where it unites and forms a septum, which separates the
foramen oblongatum from the foramen rotundum.

The floor of the vestibule is more tough and hardened than
any other part of the labyrinth, particularly that which is di-
rectly under the sabulous body, when it has a white, scaly,
opaque appearance, approaching towards ossification.

The whole of the vestibule is lined with a reflection of the
dura mater, which is closely attached to the parietes of that ca-
vity, where it is considerably less dense than in the inside of the
cranium, and still less in the cartilaginous, semicircular canals,
where it is almost pellucid in the adult fish, and beautifully
transparent in the young.

There are three semicircular canals, which arise from, and
communicate with, the vestibule, similar to those of the human
subject, and, from their relative situations to that cavity, may be
termed the Posterior, Anterior, and External or horizontal.

See Plate V, Figs. 1. and 2. where the parts are shewn the natural size.

Organs of Hearing and Vision.

The extremities of these canals, adjoining to the vestibule,
are considerably enlarged, so as to have a similar appearance to
that which in the human subject is termed the Ampullae ; where-
as the proper ampullae of these cartilaginous canals are situated
at a considerable distance from the vestibule, and are of an ob-
long figure.

The Posterior canal is the largest, and measures fifty-three
lines , or nearly five inches and a-half in length, and two lines
by two and three quarters in diameter. It runs in a longitudi-
nal direction from and to the vestibule, and, when viewed inter-
nally, has the appearance of a circle attached to the ampulla of
the external canal.

The circumference of the ampulla is sixteen lines, and the
average circumference of the other parts of the tube eight lines
and three quarters.

The External canal is the next in size, and measures thirty-six
lines in length and seven lines in circumference. The ampulla
of this canal, at its greatest circumference, measures only ten
lines and a-half.

The canal runs in a diagonal direction, the one extremity aris-
ing from the superior and posterior parts of the vestibule ; and
the other from a globular space communicating with the inferior
and anterior parts of that cavity.

The Anterior canal, although the smallest of the three, is yet
of considerable size, measuring thirty- one lines in length, and
from five to seven lines in circumference.

These canals are partially flattened, so that if any of them
were divided at a little distance from the ampullae, the section
would be of an oval figure, with the apex pointing inwards.

In a considerable number of preparations now before me is
one of an elephant (the animal has apparently been of great
age), where the caliber of the canals, one in particular, is ex-
tremely oblong.

When dissecting the organ of hearing in various animals, as
well as in the human subject, I have found the caliber of the
canals in children, young animals, and birds, to be circular, and
in the adult ear, one or more of the semicircular canals slightly
flattened ; and this oblong form of the caliber increased consi-
derably in aged persons, in whom it is seldom wanting. The

76 Mr Buchanan on the Organs of Hearing and Vision.

apex in these cases invariably pointed towards the vestibule ;
indeed this position seems to be general, whenever the form of
the caliber approaches towards an oval.

Seeing, then, that the caliber of these canals is uniformly
circular in the young, of whatever class or species, and that, in
the adult, one or more of the canals are generally more or less
of an oblong figure, according to the age of the subject ; and that
this elongation of the parietes of the canal does not diminish the
original diameter, and also that the caliber of the membranous
semicircular canals in the old, as well as in the young, is cir-
cular, and always continues so when in a healthy state, notwith-
standing any alteration which may take place in the form of the
caliber of the osseous or cartilaginous canals ; may it not be in-
ferred from these circumstances, that the oblong figure of the
caliber is caused by the vibratory action of the membranous tubes
exciting absorption of part of the cartilaginous or osseous parie-
tes of the canals in which they are inclosed, and that, by the con-
tinuance of this excitement, the oval form of the caliber is gra-
dually increased ?

This view of the subject will receive additional confirmation, if
we take into account the myriads of vibrations which the mem-
branous tubes perform in a few years. But how much the more
immense must be the number performed by those of the aged,
whether the person has frequented the busy haunts of the me-
tropolis, or the more peaceful calm of rural solitude !

Such are the dimensions of the cast, taken with the greatest
care, which will be sufficient to demonstrate the superior mag-
nitude of the cavities to those of the human ear ; and the follow-
ing account of the contents of the vestibule and canals, the re-
sult of a series of dissections of the membranous parts and nerves
in various species of the squalus, will, I hope, tend to place Com-
parative Anatomy, as regards these organs, in a more advantage-
ous point of view, than usually esteemed by many of the pro-
fession *.

* The Plate explanatory of the structure above described, will be given in the
next number of Journal.— Ed.

( To he continued. )

( 77 )

Art. XIII. — On the Constancy of the Level of the Sea in ge-
neral, and (f the Baltic Sea in particular.

About the middle of the last century, an animated contro-
versy took place among the natural philosophers of the north
of Europe, regarding the alleged gradual lowering of the level
of the sea in general, and of the Baltic Sea in particular. Cel-
sius was the first who introduced this idea to notice. He gene-
ralized it, by applying it to all the planets, and was supported by
the authority of the celebrated Linnaeus. It was soon perceived,
however, that the point could never be settled by mere discus-
sion, and that facts alone could lead to any certain result. Ob-
servation was therefore had recourse to ; and thus, the dispute
in question had at least one good effect, that of directing to the
subject the attention of men of science, whose situation might
enable them to mark the variations of level that take place
along the coasts of the North Sea. The results of investiga-
tions, undertaken for this purpose, are now beginning to be
collected.

In the course of 1820 and 1821, Mr Bruncrona, assisted
by the officers of the pilotage establishment, and other qualified
persons, undertook the examination of all the authentic mea-
sures that had been established upon the west coast of the Bal-
tic during the last half century. The results of this examina-
tion are given in a short memoir inserted in the Swedish Trans-
actions for 1828. The following Table indicates the degree to
which the level of the sea has fallen during the last forty years,
on the coast of Sweden, at various latitudes. It is proper to re-
mark, that, in some of the places observed, the measures were
much older, and in some others much more recent, than the pe-
riod of forty years. In both these cases, the change of level
that must have been effected during this period, has been esti-
mated by calculating the mean annual depression furnished by
the observations.

78 On the Constancy of the Level of the Sea in General ,

Latitude.
East Coast.

Fall of Surface
in 40 years,
in feet.

Latitude,
East Coast,

Fall of Surface
in 40 years,
in feet.

Latitude.
East Coast.

Fall of Surface
in 40 years,
in feet.

63° 59'

1.50

59° 17'

2.17

56 10

0.00

2.50

58 44

1.00

56 11

0.00

0.50

58 42

3.08

55 53

0.00

61 43

2.50

58 45

1.17

61 37

2.83

58 35

2.00

South-West Coast.

61 32

2.50

58 28

0.07

55 23

0.00

61 45

2.50

58 11

0.83

55 22

0.00

60 11

2.33

58 8

1.00

57 21

0.00

59 46

0.17

57 50

1.00

57 53

1.00

59 46

2.00

56 41

0.41

Of the facts collected in the course of this investigation, the
following may be mentioned as tending to support the opinion
of a fall of level. x

1. It is generally believed among the pilots of the Baltic,
that the sea has become shallower along the course which ves-
sels ordinarily follow ; but it is added, that this alteration is
more sensible in the places where the tide collects sand, detach-
ed pebbles, and sea-weed, than in those where the bottom is com-
posed of rocks. The same observation has been made in the
neighbourhood of some large towns and fisheries ; for example,
a hydrographic chart, made in 1771, gives six fathoms for the
mean depth of the sea opposite the harbour of Landskrona,
whereas, in 1817, the sounding line scarcely gave five fathoms at
the same point.

% According to the oldest and most experienced pilots, the
straits, which separate the numerous islets scattered along the
coast of Sweden, from Haarparanda to the frontiers of Norway,
received vessels that drew ten feet of water ; now they are not
practicable for boats that draw more than two or three feet.

3. The pilots further affirm, that, along the whole coast of
Bothnia, the depth of the water undergoes a diminution, which
becomes sensible every ten years, in certain places where the bot-
tom is composed of rocks. Several other parts of the Baltic may
be cited, in which a similar change has been remarked.

Mr C. P. Hallstrom, in an Appendix to Mr Bruncrona’s
Memoir, gives the following Table of the diminution observed
in the depth of the waters of the Gulf of Bothnia.

and of the Baltic Sea in particular. 79

Places.

Mean

marked

Height of
the water
re-ob-
served in

Fall beneath
the original
mark in feet.

Num-
ber of
years.

Fail of the
water in
100 years
in feet.

Raholem, parish of Lower Kalix,

1770

1750

2.05

4.10

1775

2.49

4.32

St or Rebben, parish of Pitea,

1751

1785

1.70

5.00

1796

1.90

4.22

Ratan, parish of Bygdea,

1749

1785

2.70

4.72

1795

2.50

5.43

1819

2.60

3.47

1774

1785

0.55

5.00

1795

1.16

5.52

1819

1.60

3.57

1795

1819

0.65

2.71

Ronnskat, on the coast of Wasa,

1755

1797

1.70

4.05

1821

2.87

4.35

[jWargbn, on the coast of Wasa,

1755

1785

1.45

4.83

1797

1.69

4.02

1821

2.87

4.35

fLogfrundet, near Sefle,

1731

1785

2.90

5.37

1796

2.17

3.34

j Ulfon, in Angermanland,

1795

1822

1.58

5.85

It is not demonstrated that the numbers of the last column
represent exactly the lowering of the water in a century ; for it
has not yet been sufficiently determined if this lowering be uni-
form, or if it vary at different periods, and if it depend upon
some local circumstance, upon the climate, or upon the state of
the atmosphere. Nor is it properly established that this lower-
ing, which becomes less perceptible from the north of the Baltic,
until it disappears entirely at the southern extremity, follows
precisely the same law of diminution as the latitude. It appears
to be uniform in the whole extent of the Gulf of Bothnia, and it
rises about four feet and a quarter in that region. At Calmar,
(Lat. 57° 50') it is only two feet, but it is not yet known whether
it decreases in a regular manner between these two places.

Some authors consider the facts related by MM. Bruncrona
and Hallstrom, as deciding the question in favour of those who
believe in a lowering of the level of the Baltic. The editor of
the Annalen der Physik goes farther, and seems to consider
it as confirming the opinion of a general lowering of the level of
the sea. In support of this opinion, he adduces the traditions

* 1824, St. 12. p. 443,

80 On the Constancy of the Level of the Sea in general ,

and observations of the natives of Otaheite, and of the Moluccas
and Sunda Islands, regarding the retreat of the sea in several
parts of their coasts. We are disposed to stand neutral in this
matter. The geographers * who have collected the greatest
number of facts relating to the level of the inland seas, and of
the ocean in its various regions, find nearly as many in favour
of a rise as in favour of a fall of level. The very distribution
of contrary indications leads them to believe in a partial dis-
placement of the mass of waters from one region towards another,
and even from the one side of an inland sea towards the oppo-
site side ; a displacement which might be owing to fugitive or
more or less durable causes, such as a variation of temperature
in the Polar Regions, the action of winds and of currents, modi-
fied by the greater or less quantity of water in the rivers that
feed the different basins, upon the sides opposed to their direc-
tion.

Are the facts contained in the memoir in question of a nature
to overthrow this opinion ? They do not appear so to us.
The two series of observations which are adduced, only shew a
fall upon the coasts of Sweden properly so called; that is to say,
upon the west coast of the Baltic, and the east coast of the
Cattegat. Two observations only have been made upon the
coast of Finland, towards the extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia.
These facts would perfectly accord with the opinion of those who
think that the currents determined from the north to the south
of the Baltic by the numerous streams which rush into it, push
the waters toward the south shore, that of Pomerania, Mecklen-
bourg, and Holstein, and that the waters consequently gain upon
the land on this coast, as numerous historical facts attest, while
they retire along the northern shores, — -those of the Gulf of Both-
nia. Be this as it may, the question as to the constancy of the
level of the sea cannot be considered as decided, until a long
series of observations shall have been made upon authentic and
perfectly fixed measures, erected upon all the shores of the dif-
ferent seas, and of the different regions of the ocean. Those
which have been published in the Swedish Transactions, furnish

* Malte Brun, Precis de la Geogr. Univers. tom. ii. p. 459% Catteau Calleville,
Tabl. de la Mer Balt. tom. i. p. 158-188.

and of the Baltic Sea in particular .

important documents for this purpose, and similar ones should
be begun to be collected in other countries *.

Art. XIV. — On certain Circumstances connected with the Con-
densation of Atmospheric Humidity on solid surfaces. By
Henry Home Blackadder, Esq., Surgeon. Communicated
by the Author.

The condensation of aqueous vapour from the atmosphere
on the surfaces of solid bodies, is one of the most common and
familiar of physical phenomena. Common and familiar as it is,
however, there are circumstances connected with it, which render
it not merely curious, but highly interesting, and which have
attracted the attention of many celebrated natural philosophers.
A number of facts have accordingly been well ascertained, and
in explanation thereof, various theories have been proposed,—
built, all of them, more or less ostensibly, on hypothetical bases.
Electricity, radiation of heat, frigorific rays, and aerial pulsa
tions, have each had their full share of attention. It is not the
present object to attempt to decide on the individual merits of
these theories, but rather to draw attention to some facts and
circumstances which seem to merit farther consideration.

1. A number of experiments were made by Dr Wells, and
more recently by others, on the condensation of aqueous vapour,
by exposing pieces of gilt or silvered paper in the open air, after
sunset. ; Now, though paper thinly coated with a metal, may be
well fitted for experimenting on the spontaneous condensation of
moisture, when the object is to ascertain the modifying effects
of certain combinations, surely nothing could be less accurate
than to reason upon such experiments, as if a thin plate of metal,
and paper thinly coated with metal, were one and the same
thing. Paper is one of the worst conductors of heat, and is,
besides, highly susceptible of being influenced by atmospheric
humidity. Hence, when placed in close contact with a sheet of

* Bibliotheque Universelle, July 182-5.

VOL. XIV. NO. 27- JANUARY 1820= E

82 Mr Blackadder on Circumstances connected with the

metal, not perfectly continuous, and much thinner than itself, it
must greatly influence the latter, both in regard to the admis-
sion and discharge of heat, and that more especially in the cir-
cumstances necessarily connected with the experiments in ques-
tion. Experiments made with gilt or silvered paper, therefore,
cannot, with any pretensions to accuracy, be brought forward,
as if they were equivalent to experiments made with thin sheets
of polished metals, — and any reasoning that may have been
built upon them under such an impression, must go for nothing.
I may observe, that when paper, to which a thin layer of
gold, silver, or other metal has been made to adhere, is thorough-
ly embued with varnish, the phenomena presented by the con-
densation of vapour are obviously modified ; but still, as we had
reason to anticipate, they are not the same as when a thin sheet
of metal has alone been employed *.

2. For the purpose of ascertaining the degree of cold sup-
posed to be produced by the radiation of heat, and, on other oc-
casions, the amount of heat produced by direct solar radiation,
it has most commonly been the practice to surround the bulb of

* Hygroscopic substances of an animal or vegetable origin, cannot be entirely
deprived of moisture, by a degree of heat short of that which is sufficient to pro-
duce a change in their chemical condition. When, therefore, a hollow ball of
polished metal or of glass, containing a heated fluid, is observed to cool more
quickly when covered with muslin, and suspended in the air, than when the balls
have been left naked, is it sufficiently evident that vaporization has no influence in
expediting the discharge of heat ? When, again, a heated ball of metal is observed
to part with its heat more quickly, when its surface has been covered with succes-
sive layers of gold-beater’s leaf, than when only one layer has been applied, is it
demonstrable that evaporation is in no degree operative ? Perhaps it is not too
much to take for granted, that no two hygroscopic substances absorb equal quan-
tities of moisture in equal times ; and, admitting this to be the case, we may con-
clude that they also part with moisture with different degrees of facility. May not
the different degrees of velocity, therefore, with which heat is observed to escape
from a polished metallic ball, according as its surface is covered with muslin-paper,
gold-beater’s leaf, glue, with or without pigment, &c., depend on some other cir-
cumstance than merely a difference in the mechanical form or structure of the sur-
faces ? It is certain, that hygroscopic substances, when in that state commonly
considered dry, are still far from being wholly deprived of moisture. If, when the
atmosphere contains a moderate degree of humidity, the temperature of a hy-
groscopic substance be raised considerably above that of the air, the substance will

Condensation of Atmospheric Humidity on Solid Surfaces . 83

a thermometer with wool, Sec. or to ascertain the temperature of
such substances, after they have been exposed, for a certain time,
to the open sky, after sun-set, or to the direct influence of the
sun’s rays.

It must be admitted, however, that all such experiments are
necessarily and in no small degree defective ; and whatever the
results may have been, they can never prove that which they
were intended, and have been supposed to establish. When
it is received as a rule, that u no more causes are to be admitted
than are sufficient to account for the phenomena,” it must also
be admitted, that, when two or more causes are immediately
operative, the effect cannot be attributed to any one or more
of these, to the exclusion of the rest. In the experiments re-
ferred to, all the substances made use of, such as wool, cotton,
silk, lint, down, saw-dust, straw, Sec. are not only bad conductors
of heat, but of that description of substances which, according
to circumstances, absorb, or give out moisture to the atmosphere,
with the greatest facility. Admitting, then, that, in certain cir-
cumstances, bodies, at the surface of the earth, did radiate their
heat, so as to become colder than other bodies in contact with
them, when experiments are brought forward to prove this effect
of radiation, it is indispensably requisite to shew, either that eva-
poration was in no degree operative, or that its effects were in no
degree proportionate to the observed decrement of heat. In this
point of view, by far the greater number of Dr Wells’s experi-
ments seem altogether unsatisfactory, in as far as they were in-
part with a portion of its moisture ; but, sooner or later, a period arrives, when it
ceases to become drier. If, at this period, however, we bring it into a body of
air that is considerably drier, but of the same temperature, and still keep its own
temperature equally above that of the air, we find that it gives out an additional
quantity of moisture. If, lastly, we replace it, other circumstances being the
same, in a body of damp air, we find that it regains a certain quantity of mois-
ture. Is there not here a certain resemblance to what takes place when the tem-
perature of a body is diminished by the process of evaporation ? In the one case,
there is a loss of heat until an equilibrium is established, that is, when as much
heat is supplied by the air, as is carried off by the aqueous vapour. In the other
case, there is a loss of moisture until an equilibrium is effected, that is, when as
much moisture is absorbed as at the same instance escapes with the portion of air
that is rarified ?

F 2

84 Mr Blackadder on Circufnstances connected with the

tended to prove, that that loss of heat which frequently occurs
in the evening, is the effect of radiation. He seems to have pro-
ceeded under the impression, that, in the circumstances of the
case, evaporation could not have place ; or, if occasionally it had,
that its effects were but transitory, and of trifling import : and
this appears the more remarkable, when we attend to some of his
own experiments and observations.

Thus, on the evening of the 25th of August, he informs us,
u 10 grains of wool, to which 3 grains of water had been added,
having been laid on the raised board, near the thermometers ; at
the end of 45 minutes the parcel was found to have lost 2^ grains
of moisture, during the time that dry wool,” that is, wool to
which no water had been added *, “ had become several degrees
colder than the air.” It is to be regretted, that, in recounting
this experiment, more attention was not paid to minute detail,
such as the temperature of the water made use of, the mode in
which it was added to the wool ; the temperature of the moist-
ened as well as of the other parcels of wool, at the end of the
45 minutes, and their relative temperatures, at various intervals,
during that period. For, without paying attention to every cir-
cumstance, even though apparently trifling, and without admit-
ting every circumstance to have its due weight, it may truly be
said of an experiment, that which has, with too much apparent
justice, been said of a certain book, 66 Hie est in quo quaerit sua
dogmata quisque ; atque in quo reperit dogmata quisque sua.”

Again, 66 on the 7th of January,” Dr Wells informs us, 66 10
grains of wool were placed on a sheet of pasteboard, which lay
on the snow. At the end of 35 minutes the wool was 5° colder
than the air, without possessing any additional weight.” But
the evaporation of a very small quantity of moisture, from the
surface of the wool, during the 35 minutes1 exposure to the air,
would be quite equal, in the given circumstances, to produce the
observed decrement of heat. The object of this, and some other
experiments, was to determine the occurrence of a considerable

* Dr W. elsewhere informs us, that the wool he made use of in his experi-
ments “ was white, moderately fine, and already imbued with a little moisture
and he admits, that, even during his experiments, the wool might acquire some
moisture, « from its imbibing it as a hygroscopic substance.’*

Condensation of Atmospheric Humidity on Solid Surfaces . 85

degree of cold, previous to any deposition of moisture, in the
form of dew. When it was ascertained that the wool had not
acquired any additional weight, no farther attention seems to
have been paid to it ; and as the experimenter had a previous
conviction, that evaporation had no influence in producing the
diminished temperature of the wool, the loss of weight must
have been very apparent indeed, that would have arrested his
attention. But it is well known, that the evaporation of a
very minute quantity of moisture is sufficient greatly to re-
duce the temperature of the evaporating surface. And we may
also remark, that the greatest degree of cold always takes place
on those evenings when dew is latest in forming ; that is, when
the air is driest, and, consequently, when evaporation is necessa-
rily most active. It must also be observed, that, in performing
experiments with a nicely adjusted balance, even in a close room,
accurate results are not to be obtained without considerable
trouble. If, then, such an instrument be employed in the open
air, on a damp evening, or in a cold benumbing state of the at-
mosphere, considerable inaccuracies must be almost inevitable.

On another occasion, Dr Wells informs us, that, 66 on the 25th
of January, the ground being covered with snow, during eight
hours that I attended to my thermometers, the whole sky was
constantly overcast with clouds. The atmosphere was, for the
greater part of that time, very still ; and & thermometer on the
snow was generally about 2° lower than another in the air.
That this was not owing to evaporation, was proved by the ther-
mometer on the snow always rising, from a half to a whole de-
gree, whenever the air was a little moved, and falling the same
quantity as soon as a great stillness again took place.” Far from
proving, however, that the reduction of temperature was not the
effect of evaporation, this observation will be found to furnish,
if not a proof, at least a strong argument, in favour of that ex-
planation. When the air was very still, that is, without a per-
ceptible progressive or undulatory motion, the evaporation that
was going forward at the surface of the snow carried off a
greater quantity of heat than was communicated by the conti-
guous air. Hence the snow became colder than the air a short
distance above it ; an equilibrium being on this occasion esta-
blished, when the temperature of the former was reduced about

86 Mr Blackadder on Circumstances connected with the

2° below that of the latter. When, however, from some tem-
porary cause, the surrounding atmosphere became agitated, that
is, when a progressive, undulatory, or convolving motion had
been communicated to it, the air contiguous to the snow was
thereby either mixed with, or altogether displaced by, the adja-
cent air of a higher temperature. By this means the snow ac-
quired an accession of heat, and the thermometer in contact with
it indicated an increase of temperature. As long as the atmo-
sphere continued agitated, fresh portions of air would every in-
stant be brought into contact with the snow ; and in this way
supplies of heat would be furnished equal to that which was car-
ried off from the snow by the evaporating process. When still-
ness again took place, though the air contiguous to the ground
was not absolutely at rest, fresh parcels of the higher adjacent
air were not now, as formerly, brought incessantly into contact
with the snow ; and hence the latter did not receive a quantity
of heat equal to the whole amount of that carried off by the va-
pour, until its temperature was again reduced about £° below
that of the air, a few feet from the ground. I shall here merely
introduce an experiment of Mr Howard. On a night, when the
minimum temperature was 19°, that gentleman exposed 1000
grains of snow, on a dish 6 inches in diameter, and in the course
of the night 60 grains were lost by evaporation. I have repeat-
edly made observations and experiments similar to those above
adverted to, but it seems quite unnecessary on the present occa-
sion to multiply examples. I shall therefore conclude this
part of the subject with noticing an observation to be met with
in the writings of a well known meteorologist. He informs us,
that 4 a ploughed field is more affected by the sun’s rays than
a plot of grass ; because a loose spongy bod}^, by exposing nu-
merous surfaces, dissipates more quickly the heat communicated
to it and, in confirmation and illustration of this opinion, he
adds, that 4 the inferiority of a grassy surface was not owing to
the waste of heat by a more copious evaporation ; for that, on
spreading a layer of hay, or even wool, over a part of the naked
soil, the temperature of it was in a few minutes reduced to the
same degree as that of the grass.’

Hay and wool, as has already been remarked, are hygrosco-
pic bodies, and bad conductors of heat ; and they are rarely met

Condensation of Atmospheric Humidity on Solid Surfaces. 87

with in a state that can, with any attention to accuracy, be
termed dry ; more commonly they are in some degree damp.
Besides, their temperature, when laid on the ploughed field,
would, in all probability, be somewhat lower than that acquired
by the surface of the bare earth, exposed to the direct influence
of the sun’s rays ; and would, consequently, be lower than that
of the aqueous vapour issuing from it. Independently, there-
fore, of their hygroscopic property, and of their mechanical ope-
ration, afterwards to be adverted to, they might thus acquire
an accession to the moisture which they previously contained ;
and portions of this moisture being carried off by the contiguous
air, their temperature would, in a few minutes, be reduced to
that of an adjacent field of grass, and it might be in certain cir-
cumstances even lower.

It is generally admitted, that when the temperature of a body
is considerably higher than that of the contiguous air, it will lose
heat, both by conduction and radiation, or by some process equi-
valent to the latter. But as even a current of air cannot cool a
perfectly dry body, below its own temperature, when any body
is found to be colder than the air, the question to be determined
is, Whether the loss of heat is to be attributed to evaporation, or
to some process equivalent to that which has been termed radia-
tion ?

In the case referred to, the sameness of temperature in the
grass, the hay, and the wool, is to be attributed to their being
equally bad conductors of heat, and equally capacitated for sup-
porting evaporation ; and that not only from one exterior or up-
per surface, but from numerous interior surfaces, to which the
air had access, and from which the sun’s rays were more or less
perfectly excluded. The naked soil, on the other hand, though
comparatively a dense solid, and a good conductor of heat, has
but one evaporating surface ; while its dark or nearly black
colour, enables it to absorb a greater proportion of the sun’s
rays, and convert them into heat of temperature, than bodies of
a white, pale-yellow, or green colour. Hence the temperatures
of the grass, hay, and wool, were somewhat less than that of
the naked soil ; relatively less heat being abstracted from the
latter, by the process of evaporation, than it acquired through
the influence of the sun’s rays.

88 Mr Blackadder on Circumstances connected with the

3. It has been well ascertained, that if, on a clear evening,
for example, when bodies on the surface of the earth have be-
come colder than the air, a cloud should pass over the zenith,
the thermometer will indicate an increase of temperature, and,
after the cloud has passed, it will again indicate a loss of heat.
This increase of temperature has been accounted for in various
ways. Some have supposed the heat to be evolved by the con-
densation of the aqueous vapour constituting the cloud ; but it
has not been satisfactorily explained how this heat is brought
down to the earth, even admitting that such a quantity is evolved,
as to render it appreciable beyond the immediate limits of the
cloud, which, though it may be comparatively low, is still at a
great distance from the earth.

This increase of temperature during the transit of a cloud, has
been accounted for on the pulsatory hypothesis, by supposing,
that 44 clouds, like water, absorb and extinguish all the hot and
cold pulses received by them.'”

But were it even ascertained that 44 cold pulses,' ” or 44 fri-
gorific rays,” were actually, 44 in some way or other, showered
down from the upper regions of the atmosphere upon the
earth,” the phenomenon in question could not, it is presumed,
be satisfactorily accounted for on that principle. For, a com-
paratively small cloud in the zenith, could not be supposed ca-
pable of neutralising the effect of the 44 cold pulses,” showering
in all directions from an extensive clear sky, by which the cloud
is every where surrounded. We are informed, that the 44 cold
pulsations” come with equal force from all quarters of the hea-
vens, and at every angle 20° above the horizon.

Dr Wells was of opinion, that 44 no direct experiments can be
made, to ascertain the manner in which clouds prevent, or occa-
sion to be small, the appearance of a cold at night upon the
earth ;” but he concludes, 44 that they produce this effect, almost
entirely, by radiating heat to the earth, in return for that which
they intercept in its progress from the earth towards the heavens,”
This is the explanation originally given by M. Prevost of Ge-
neva, and which is grounded on his hypothesis regarding radia-*
tion. 44 Dense clouds,” Dr Wells continues, 44 near the earth,
must possess the same heat as the lower atmosphere, and will
therefore send to the earth as much, or nearly as much, h£at as

Condensation of Atmospheric Humidity on Solid Surfaces. 89

they receive from it by radiation. But similarly dense clouds,
if very high, though they equally intercept the communication
of the earth with the sky ; yet being, from their elevated situa-
tion, colder than the earth, will radiate to it less heat than they
receive from it, and may, consequently, admit of bodies on its
surface becoming several degrees colder than the air.” But dense
clouds, though at times they may be comparatively near to the
earth, never (excepting, perhaps, on some very extraordinary oc-
casions) approach within a great distance of the low plains, —
their elevation being commonly such, that, at that height, the tem-
perature of the air must be very considerably below that of the
lower atmosphere ; — otherwise, the fact, now generally under-
stood to be well ascertained, that the temperature of the air dimi-
nishes about 1° for every 800 feet of elevation, would be incorrect.
Where the basis is so purely hypothetical, it is more surprising
that the theory which is built upon it should be made to account,
plausibly at least, for so much, than that it should seem to fail
in some points, confessedly not free of obscurity.

When we observe a cloud passing at some considerable dis-
tance above the earth, and surrounded on all sides by transpa-
rent air, we are apt to imagine that the increase of moisture is
confined to the space within the circumference of the cloud.
This, however, is not necessarily the case. The body of air occu-
pying the interval between the cloud and the surface of the
earth, during the passage of the former, may be more humid
than that body of air which preceded it, and than that which
follows next in succession. And when we consider what the
source is, from which the moisture of the atmosphere is original-
ly derived, we can readily comprehend how this state of increas-
ed humidity may extend from the surface upwards. When the
temperature of solid bodies at the surface of the earth increases
during the passage of a cloud, the cold produced by evapora-
tion is diminished, and this may proceed from the passage of a
more humid body of air ; the upper boundary of which is so
moist, as necessarily to produce a cloud at that elevation. Again,
as every portion of the stratum of air next the earth is not ne-
cessarily, and at all times, of equal temperature, and equally
damp, especially when there is not a steady current of some
force and duration, the increase of temperature indicated by

90 Mr Blackadder on Circumstances connected with the

thermometers suspended in the air, and lying on the grass, may
proceed from the passage of a moister body of air, of a higher
temperature, part of the aqueous vapour being condensed into
a cloud at its upper boundary.

Fully to illustrate this view of the subject, it would be requi-
site to enter upon a wide field, still requiring cultivation. For
there are abundant reasons for believing, that the formation of
clouds is a subject still very imperfectly understood.

At present I shall only remark, 1st, That, on the occasions re-
ferred to, the cloud is always connected with the lower stratum of
air, and the increase of temperature is always most apparent when
the cloud is comparatively low and dense. %d, That, when the
cloud is high, and unconnected with the lower stratum of air,
no change of temperature is observed to take place. 3d, That
the change from a lower to a higher, and from that again to a
lower, temperature, always infers a progressive motion of the air.
The body of air over the place of observation is not stationary,
its place being occupied by other bodies of air which pass in
succession. 4 th, That the increased temperature, if not in-
fluenced by the passage of a more heated body of air, never
exceeds, and but seldom equals, that of the ground. 5th, That,
during the increase in the temperature of the air, there is a de-
crease of the cold caused by evaporation ; and the change in the
latter usually greatly exceeds that in the former. 6ih, That, when
the temperature of bodies at the surface of the earth has been
observed to increase during the passage of a cloud, the moisture
of the air has also been observed to increase, by means of a hy-
groscopic hygrometer *. From these and other considerations,

* An expansion hygrometer of extreme sensibility, may be constructed, by ar-
ranging a number of sentient slips in a form similar to the strings of a harp, but of
equal lengths, and so connected, that the united expansions and contractions of the
whole shall be pointed out by an index. One instrument of this kind, which I
had constructed, and which was left with a friend on the Continent, possessed
great sensibility ; its range comprehending only two ordinary hygrometric degrees,
though its scale was several inches in length ; but by a simple contrivance, its in-
dex could be readily adjusted to any degree of a common hygrometer. Such an
instrument is obviously unfit for the more usual purposes of hygrometers, but it is
admirably fitted for indicating slight or transient changes in the state of atmos-
pheric humidity. An instrument of this kind has been observed to continue for

Condensation of Atmospheric Humidity on Solid Surfaces. 91

it is inferred, that the increase of temperature on the occasions
referred to, though usually attributed to the influence of the
cloud, may have quite a different origin, and that the presence
of a cloud may be merely a contingent circumstance, dependent
on, and indicative of, a greater degree of moisture in that por-
tion of air that is for the time incumbent over the place of ob-
servation.

( To he continued.)

Art. XV .—Account of a Case of Poisoning , caused by the
Honey of the Leclieguana Wasp. By M. Auguste de St
Hilaire * *.

-Aristotle, Pliny, and Dioscorides, inform us, that, at a cer-
tain time of the year, the honey of the countries in the neigh-
bourhood of Mount Caucasus, rendered those who had eaten of
it insensible. Xenophon and Diodorus Siculus relate, that, at
the siege of Trebisond, the soldiers of the army of the Ten
Thousand ate of the honey which they found in the fields, and
that afterwards they experienced a delirium of several days,
some of them resembling drunken people, and others madmen,
or persons in the agonies of death. Some modern writers have
confirmed these statements, and have discovered that it is the
flowers of Azalea pontica , and perhaps also those of Rhododen-
drum ponticum f, that communicate deleterious properties to the
honey of Mengrelia. On the authority of the celebrated Tour-
nefort, Lambert says, that the honey collected upon a certain
tree of Colchia occasions vomitings. Tournefort himself J
asserts, that a constant tradition has established, among the in-
habitants of the coasts of the Black Sea, a belief that the honey
extracted by the bees from the flowers of Azalea pontica is dan-
gerous. Lastly, a later traveller, Guldenstaedt, the companion

a length of time alternately expanding and contracting, at short and irregular in-
tervals, similar to what may have been observed when a manometer, having a
great range, is fixed on the outside of a window.

* Annales die Museum National.

~Y M. Labillardiere supposes, that the cases of poisoning caused by the honey
of Asia Minor, might be owing to Menispermum Cocculus .

X Voyages, ii. p. 228 .

92 M. Auguste de St Hilaire's Account of a Case of Poisoning,

of Pallas, has himself seen the honey collected upon the Azalea ;
he found it of a dark-brown colour, and having a bitter taste ;
and in several places of his works, he says that this honey causes
giddiness, and produces insensibility *.

Asia Minor is not the only country in which honey of a dan-
gerous quality has been found. Roulox Barro, in his Voyage
to Brazil, expresses himself on this subject as follows : “ The
most inebriated of the Tapuies searched for wild honey and
fruits, of which they make a beverage, which is called grappe ,
and of which, whoever drank, immediately vomited.” In the
island of Maragnon, the bee Mumbuca sometimes, according to
Piso *}*, rests upon the flower of the tree Tapuraiba , and then its
honey, which is ordinarily delicious, becomes entirely bitter.
Azzara is still more precise ; for he expresses himself as follows
in his Voyage to Paraguay : 66 The honey of a bee named Ca-
batatu , produces violent headach, and causes a degree of ine-
briation at least as great as that brought on by spirits. That of
another species occasions convulsions, and the most violent pains,
which terminate at the end of thirty hours, without producing
any troublesome consequence. The country people are well ac-
quainted with these two species, and abstain from their honey,
although its taste is as good as that of the others, and its co-
lour is the same.”

The honey of Pennsylvania, of South Carolina, of Georgia,
and of the two Floridas, when it has been gathered upon Kal-
ima angustfolia , latifolia , and hirsuta , and upon Andromeda
Mariana , often occasions, according to Smith Barton J, vertigoes,
to which succeeds a delirium, varying in character according to
the individuals. “ The persons poisoned, adds the same author,

<e experience pain in the stomach, convulsions, vomitings, and
sometimes these accidents are followed by death.”

It is not alone in Asia and America that examples have oc-
curred of poisoning, caused by certain sorts of honey. Seringe
relates, that two Swiss herds who had eaten honey gathered from
Aconitum Napellus and lycoctonum , experienced violent con-
vulsions, and were seized with a horrible delirium ; and that one

* Reis. i. p. 276, 281, 297.

X In Nicholson’s Journal, vol, v. p, 159-165.

Bras. 56.

caused by the Honey of the Lecheguana Wasp. 93

of them, who was not able to vomit, died, emitting foam by the
mouth, tinged with blood *.

So many united authorities were not, doubtless, unknown to
those who, even in our own times, have treated as fabulous the
recitals of the historian of the Ten Thousand ; but if these recitals
needed a fresh confirmation, it would be found in the fact which
I am about to relate, and which occurred to myself. To make
myself better understood, I shall first give an idea of the places
in which the event took place, from the fatal effects of which I
narrowly escaped.

After having traversed the smiling plains of the Rio de la
Plata, I had coasted the less inhabited banks of the Uruguay,
and had come to the Camp of Belem, which occupied the site
of the small town of the same name, destroyed by Artigas.
Here I was informed that I should be obliged to cross a desert,
where I should neither find inhabitants, nor traces of a path ;
but it was added, that, in case of need, I might have recourse
to two detachments of Portuguese soldiers, posted upon the banks
of the river ; and I was willingly furnished with a guide to ac-
company me as far as the first post, placed toward the mouth of
the Guaray. On the side of this river I exchanged my guide
for another, who was to conduct me to the brook of St Anne,
where I was told the second detachment was. When we ar-
rived at this brook, we searched two days for the post of which
we had been informed ; but, finding that our efforts had proved
unsuccessful, I sent back to the river of Guaray the guide who
had conducted me to the brook of St Anne, and who had never
been farther. I gave him one of the soldiers who had escorted
me, to accompany him, and charged the soldier to bring me an-
other guide. I remained waiting until they should arrive upon
the banks of the brook, in a place which is now tenanted only
by a multitude of Jaguars, and by immense herds of wild ani-
mals, deer and ostriches, opposite the right bank of the Uruguay,
which was constantly traversed by bands of insurgent Spaniards
at war with the Portuguese.

I had already been four days in this desert place, baffled by
the rains which fell in torrents; discommoded by swarms of

Monograph upon the genus Aconitum, in the Mus, Helv. vol. i. p. 128.

94? M. Auguste de St Hilaire’s Account of a Case of’

troublesome insects, and having no other shelter than my cart,
when at last the weather cleared up, so as to allow me to under-
take a long botanical excursion. I took two of my people with
me, and having armed ourselves so as to be able to keep off the
Jaguars, should they attack us, we traversed the surrounding
fields, and the banks of the Uruguay. At the end of some
hours, hunger brought us back to the banks of the brook, and
we assuaged it with our ordinary fare, manihot flour and cow’s
flesh, roasted and boiled.

During a short walk which we had made the day before, we
had observed a wasp’s nest suspended about a foot from the
ground, from one of the branches of a small shrub. It was
nearly oval, of the size of one’s head, of a grey colour, and of a
chartaceous substance, like those of our European wasps.

After dinner, the two men who had accompanied me upon
my excursion, went to destroy the nest, and took away the ho-
ney. We all three tasted it. The person who ate most of it
was myself, and the quantity which I took could not have ex-
ceeded two spoonfuls. I found it of an agreeable sweetness,
and absolutely free of that pharmaceutic taste which the honey
of our own bees so frequently has.

Elowever, after eating it, I experienced a pain in the stomach,
more disagreeable than acute. I lay down under my cart and
slept. During my sleep, the objects dearest to me presented
themselves to my imagination, and I awoke deeply penetrated
with tender feelings. I rose up, but experienced such a degree
of weakness as to be utterly unable to walk fifty paces. I
therefore returned to my cart, and threw myself down upon the
grass, when I immediately felt my face bathed in tears, which
I attributed to a melancholy feeling produced by the dream
which I had just had. Blushing at my weakness, I tried to
laugh, but this laugh prolonged itself and became convulsive.
However, I had still the power to issue some orders, and, in the
mean time, my hunter arrived, being one of the Brazilians who
had partaken with me of the honey, the baneful effects of which
I now began to feel.

This man, who was the offspring of a Mulatto and an Indian
woman, combined, with a rare degree of intelligence, the most

whimsical character, and all the levity which is peculiar to the

Poisoning , caused by the Honey of the Lecheguana Wasp. 95

Mulatto. Frequently, after having experienced long accessions
of the most lively and agreeable good humour, he was, without
any apparent reason, seized with a gloomy melancholy, which last-
ed for some weeks, and, on such occasions, he found causes of ir-
ritation in the most innocent words, and even in the most delicate
attentions. Joze Mariano (for this was his name) came up to me,
and told me, with an air of gaiety, and yet with somewhat of an
odd expression, that half an hour ago he wandered in the coun-
try without knowing where he went. He sat down under the
cart, and engaged me to take my place beside him. I had much
difficulty in dragging myself so far, and, as I felt an excessive
degree of weakness, I reclined my head upon his shoulder.

It was then that I began to experience the most cruel agonies.
A thick cloud darkened my eyes, I distinguished nothing more
than the figures of my companions, and the azure of the sky,
traversed by some light vapours. I did not experience any
great degree of pain, but I fell into the lowest state of debility.
The concentrated vinegar which my people made me breathe, and
with which they rubbed my face and temples, revived me with
difficulty, and I experienced all the torments of death. How-
ever, I have perfectly preserved the recollection of all that I
said and apprehended in these painful moments, and the
recital which a young Frenchman, who then accompanied me,
has since made to me, is in perfect accordance with my own re-
collections.— A violent combat took place in my mind, but it
lasted only a few moments ; I triumphed over my weakness, and
became resigned to death. What affected me most, was the
loss of my Botocudo Indian, whom I had taken from the woods,
and who, I believed, would, after my death, be condemned to
slavery. I conjured those who were about me to have pity up-
on his inexperience, and to inform my friends, when they should
see them again, that my last prayers had been for this unfortu-
nate young man. I felt an ardent desire to speak in my native
language to the Frenchman, who lavished his cares upon me ;
but I found it impossible to recollect a single word that was not
Portuguese, and I could not account for the shame and back-
wardness which caused this defect of memory in me.

When I began to fall into this singular state, I attempted to
take water and vinegar ; but having obtained no alleviation from

96 M. Auguste de St Hilaire’s Account of a Case of

it, I asked for tepid water. I perceived, that, as often as I
swallowed it, the mist which covered my eyes was dissipated for
a few moments ; and I fell to drinking it at long draughts, and
almost without interruption. 1 continually called for an emetic
from my young Frenchman ; but as he was confounded by all
that was passing around him, he was utterly unable to find one.
He was searching in the cart ; I was sitting beneath, and conse-
quently could not see him ; however, it seemed to me as if he
were under my eyes, and I reproaching him for his delay. This
is the only error into which I fell, during the continuance of this
cruel agony.

During these transactions the hunter rose up without my per-
ceiving it ; but presently my ears were struck with the frightful
cries which he uttered. At this moment I found myself a little
better ; and none of the motions of this man escaped me. He
tore his clothes with fury, threw them away from him, seized a
gun, and fired it off. The gun was wrenched from his hands,
and he then ran off into the country, calling the Virgin to his
assistance, and crying out loudly, that all was on fire around
him ; that we were both abandoned, and that the trunks and
cart would be suffered to be burnt. A Guarani workman, who
formed part of my suit, having in vain attempted to keep him,
was seized with terror, and took flight.

Until now I had not ceased to be carefully attended to by the
soldier who partook, along with myself and the hunter, of the
honey which had proved so baneful to us ; but he had now be-
gun to be very unwell himself. However, as he vomited very
readily, and was of a robust habit of body, he very soon recruit-
ed his strength, which he did not, however, entirely recover.
I have since found, that, while he was attending to me, he pre-
sented a frightful appearance, and wTas extremely pale. “ I go,”
said he, all of a sudden, cc to give notice of what is passing to
the guard of Guaray.” He mounted his horse, and galloped off
into the country, but presently the young Frenchman saw him
fall off ; he got up again ; galloped off a second time, fell again ;
and, some hours after, my people found him sound asleep in the
place where he had fallen.

I then found myself, still almost in a dying state, left in com-
pany with a Botocudo Indian, who at best could render me no

Poisoning , caused by the Honey of the Lecheguana Wasp . 97

assistance, and by the young Frenchman, whom so many extra-
ordinary events had, in a manner, deprived of reason. All the
morning we had perceived insurgent Spaniards upon the opposite
bank of the river; some of them even, who had crossed at a neigh-
bouring ford, had shewn themselves, at a distance, upon the
same side on which we were ; and if they did not attack us, it
was, without doubt, because they supposed us more numerous
than we were. The dangers of my situation presented them-
selves in a lively manner to my imagination ; and, weakened as
I then was, I felt my malady still augmented.

I had calculated, that the soldier whom I had sent to Guaray
would return this same day with the new guide. I flattered
myself that I might receive some assistance from them ; and my
imagination divided itself entirely between the ardent desire of
seeing them arrive, and the dread of the danger which I ran.
I thought I perceived the dogs which accompanied my first
guide ; and the Frenchman assured me that I was not deceived.
I thought they were returning with my soldier, and I felt my-
self reanimated with a glimmering of hope. But these animals
quickly disappeared, and left me to all my uneasy feelings.
They had been some of the brown dogs which wander in the
deserts of the Uruguay ; and having but little attachment to a
master who fed them ill, they had without doubt been brought
back by hunger to a place where they had been seen a few days
before to worry a cow, of which we had given them a large por-
tion.

During these occurrences, the hunter Joze Mariano came and
sat down beside me. He was calmer, and had passed a cloth
about his waist ; but he had not yet recovered the use of his rea-
son. 44 My master,” said he to me, 44 I have so long accom-
panied you ; I was always a faithful servant ; I am in the fire,
do not refuse me a drop of water.” Filled with terror and com-
passion, I took him by the hand, and, so far as my strength
would permit, spoke some words of consolation and friendship
to him.

However, the warm water, of which I had drunk a prodigious
quantity, ended with producing the effect which I had hoped,
and I vomited, along with a great deal of fluid, a part of the
food and honey which I had taken in the morning. I then be-

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

98 M. Auguste de St Hilaire’s Account of a Case of

gan to feel myself relieved. A rather painful numbness which
I felt in my fingers, was of short duration. I distinguished my
cart and the neighbouring pastures and trees : the mist, which
had formerly concealed these objects from my eyes, only hid the
upper part of them ; and if it sometimes fell, it was only for a
few moments. However this might be, the state of Joze Ma-
riano continued to give me great uneasiness ; and I was equally
tormented by the dread of never being able to recover the en-
tire use of my strength and intellectual faculties. A renewal of
the vomiting began to dissipate these fears, and procured me
fresh relief. I had now still less difficulty in distinguishing
the objects with which I was surrounded. I began to speak
Portuguese and my mother tongue at pleasure ; my ideas be-
came more connected ; and I clearly pointed out to the young
Frenchman where he would find an emetic. When he had
brought it to me, I divided it into three portions ; and I vomit-
ed, along with torrents of water, the rest of the food which I
had taken in the morning. Until the moment when I had dis-
charged the last portion of the emetic, I had found a sort of plea-
sure in swallowing warm water at long draughts, but after this it
began to produce a repugnance in me, and I ceased to drink it.
The mist entirely disappeared; I drank some cups of tea, took
a short walk, and soon found myself in my usual state.

Nearly at the same moment his reason suddenly returned to
Joze Mariano, without his having experienced any vomiting.
He now assumed new habits, mounted on horseback, and rode
off to look for the soldier, whom he presently brought back.

It might be ten in the morning when we all three tasted the
honey which had proved so injurious to us, and the sun was set-
ting before we found ourselves perfectly recovered. The mo-
mentary absence of the Frenchman and Botocudo Indian had
preserved them from eating of the honey along with us. The
soldier had presented it to the Guarani workman ; but the latter
knowing its deleterious quality had refused to take it. The Bra-
zilian laughed at his fear, and did not even think that they
should offer me part of it.

Next day I wras still somewhat weak. The soldier complained
of being deaf of an ear. Joze Mariano asserted, that he had
not yet recovered his strength, and that his whole body seemed

Poisoning , caused by the Honey of the Lecheguana Wasp. 99

to him as if covered with a glutinous matter. However, as our
new guide had arrived the evening before, we set off betimes, in.
order to get away from a place which we could no longer look
upon but with a kind of horror. Through the whole day, I
found it impossible to think of any thing else than the events of
the preceding day; and when we halted, I noted them down
such as I have related them above.

I had said to one of my soldiers, that 1 should like to possess
some wasps of the species which produced the honey, whose
troublesome effects we had experienced. A little before arri-
ving at the place where we put up the day after the accident
had befallen us, I was called by the soldier, who shewed me a
wasp’s nest similar to that of the day before. It had the same
form, the same dimensions, the same consistence; it was equally
suspended from one of the lower branches of a small shrub ; and
my Guarani labourer, as well as the new guide, another labourer,
and several Indians whom the guide had brought with him, re-
cognised this wasp as belonging, like that of the preceding day,
to the species known in the country by the name of Lecheguana .
My soldier took possession of the nest, and brought me some of
the flies, as well as fragments of their abode. The combs which
I have sent, along with the wasp, to the Royal Cabinet, were
similar to those which I had in my hands the day before ; and
the honey which they contained was of the reddish colour of
that of the common bee, and was, like it* very fluid.

One may easily imagine the astonishment and chagrin which
I experienced, when the soldier told me, that my Botocudo In-
dian, who had been a witness of the manner in which we had
been affected, and the labourer of the guide, had eaten of the
honey, and that their example had influenced my Guarani la-
bourer. I could not help loading these men with all the marks
of my indignation and disdain. “ This honey will do me no
harm, replied the Botocudo coolly to me, it is so sweet !” — words
perfectly characteristic of the Indian, who is always full of the
present, and never looks to the future.

Expecting a recurrence of the scenes of yesterday, I prepared
emetics. I sent my people to lie down, and went to work in
my cart. In a minute, all was in the most profound quiet a-

g 2

100

Rev. Mr Adamson on the Extent of our

round me. I awakened the Botocudo ; he assured me he was ex-
ceedingly well, and the night passed without any accident.

As soon as I had got out of the deserts, in which I then was,
and entered the province of the Missions, I asked a great many
people about the honey of the Lecheguanas. All, whether Por-
tuguese, Guaranis, or Spaniards, agreed in saying, that two spe-
cies of Lecheguana were distinguished in the country ; the one
which affords a white honey (Lechegnayio de mel branco ), and
the other which produces a reddish honey, ( Lecheguana de mel
vermelho ). They added, that the honey of the former species
never did harm ; that that of the other, the only kind which I have
seen, did not always do harm, but that when it did prove trouble-
some, it occasioned a sort of drunkenness or delirium, which were
removed only by vomiting, and which sometimes wrent so far as
to occasion death.

I was informed that the plant was perfectly well known from
which the Lecheguana wasp frequently extracts a poisonous
honey ; but it was not shewn to me, and I was unfortunately
left to form conjectures regarding it *

Art. XVI. Sketches of the extent of our information respecting

Rail-roads. By the Rev. James Adamson.

We must look upon the employment of iron surfaces upon
roads, as only the natural consequence of the continual attempts
to improve them, and as a thing likely to have been often talk-
ed of, and predicted, long ^before the advancement of art per-
mitted the adoption of a material so expensive. To derive the
greatest benefit from the methods of conveyance in use at pre-
sent, would require the presence, on our roads, of two kinds of
surface, of which neither can be found in perfection in any in-
termixture of the two ; yet, in the formation of a public road,
there is an attempt to combine the two incompatible qualities of
presenting a hard and smooth surface to the wheels, and a soft
and rough one to the feet of the horse. It is an obvious im-
provement to allot separate spaces to the differing surfaces. The

* In the next number of this Journal, we shall give M. St Hilaire’s account of
the various species of poisonous plants, which grow In the southern parts of Brazil. — •
Ed,

Information respecting Rail-Roads. 101

employment of hard-stone tracks, alternating with spaces cover-
ed by a softer material, appears to have been an early step to-
wards this separation ; but the most advantageous form of it is
found in the modern iron rail-roads. It is generally considered,
that the day’s work of a horse on a rail-road, will be about
times that of the same animal on a turnpike road ; but I do not
know that it has been accurately ascertained, what may be the
proportional intensity of the resistance on the turnpike, in its
best condition, or that we have<at all the means of judging of
the effect of substituting hard-stone tracks under the wheels. I
should fear, that, though they may at first afford a tolerably
appropriate surface, on which the resistance may be very much
inferior to that presented by a turnpike-road, their good condi-
tion could not endure long. Every one must have observed the
rounded form assumed by the upper surfaces of the square
blocks with which streets are paved, and that the abrasion of the
angles leaves ultimately a very irregular surface. The inter-
stices will be found deeper in the direction across which the
wheels generally move ; since, from the elasticity of the paving
material, and the ground which supports it, the angles of the
stones are peculiarly exposed to the action of the wheels. We
may expect that the same effect will be produced on stone-
tracks ; and that they will, to a certain degree, present an irre-
gular knobbed or undulating surface, incomparably less advan-
tageous for traction, than that of the more perfect material of
the iron railways.

The advantage possessed by stone tracks in admitting the em-
ployment upon them of wheels of the ordinary construction, is
shared by the plate or tram rail-road ; and this renders that form
superior to others, for many purposes. These tram-roads seem to
be almost universally in use in the mineral districts of Wales.
This preference is approved of, but without assigning any ade-
quate reason for it, by Mr Overton, an engineer of that country *.
The only shadow of an advantage claimed for the system is,
that it presents a greater resistance on descents where retarda-
tion is required. But this excess of retardation is continual ;
and it is certainly preferable to get rid of it, and to produce,

* Account of the Mineral Basins, &c. of South Wales,

JQ2 llev. Mr Adamson on the extent iff our

from other causes, the required increase of resistance, only in
those situations where it is necessary. Mr Wood * determines,
from experiment, the relative resistance on the plate-rail and the
edge-rail to be as 73 : 63 ; and if, as is probable, the rails in
those experiments were swept clean, this proportion must be
more in favour of the plate-rail than that likely to be afforded
by the average performance upon them ; for the greatest disad-
vantage of the plate-rail is, that it is so much more apt to retain
upon it those substances which -increase the resistance. The
suggestion of Mr Tredgold -j*, that the angle formed by the
plate and its ledge should be rounded off, will, I have no doubt,
be found advantageous in practice, as it must tend to prevent the
rubbing of the wheels upon the ledge.

The conclusion seems well established, that the edge-rail
affords the most advantageous result, from the power em-
ployed upon it ; but we still want, to a certain degree, the
means of deciding on the comparative merits of the substances
of which it is formed. I do not know that experiments on a
great scale have as yet been made on any rail-roads, except
those of cast-iron ; so that the effect of diminishing the num-
ber of joinings, by using the longer bars of the malleable
rails, is not exactly ascertained. But no one who has been
dragged over both of them, or has inspected them together,
can fail to give the malleable rails a decided preference. Of
their comparative durability we must speak with more diffi-
dence, until the facts be ascertained by experience ; but I do not
imagine that there will be found ultimately much difference in
this respect. I had an opportunity of handling part of a bar,
referred to in a discussion on this subject in the Newcastle Cou-
rant about a year ago. It had been in use as part of a rail-road
about sixteen years, and except that the edges of the upper sur-
face were considerably rounded off by the action of the wheels,
it exhibited wonderfully slight appearances of decay. The Bed-
lington patent rails are merely a copy in malleable iron, as close-

* A practical Treatise on Rail-roads, See. by Nicholas Wood,

-*•]• A practical Treatise on Rail-roads and Carriages, by Thomas Tredgold.

When the names of those gentlemen are quoted, the above are the works re.
i'erred to.

Informatim respecting Rail-Roads . 10S

]y as the manufacturing machinery will allow it, of that form
which had been found most advantageous for cast-iron rails.
There are two distinct parts of that form, for which it will be
useful to have distinguishing names. The upper flat part, along
which the wheel rolls, we may, from its analogy to the old
wooden rails, call the tram of the rail ; to the part projecting
downwards from this, we may apply the appropriate designa-
tion of the keel of the rail. The keel is deepest in the middle
between the two points, upon which the rail is supported. The
vertical longitudinal section of the rail is therefore somewhat si-
milar to the segment of a curve cut off by a chord. Now, as in
the malleable rails, many such lengths are formed in one piece,
the lower part has an undulating appearance ; and the produc-
tion of this irregularity in depth, is one of the most ingenious
parts of the beautiful process of their manufacture. As it is
done by an excentric groove in one roller revolving opposite to
a concentric one in another, it is evident that this part of the
process cannot be repeated ; for the second attempt might mere-
ly shift the undulations to other parts of the bar. Besides the
undulations thus produced in the lower part, there are slighter
corresponding ones produced in an opposite direction, in the up-
per part of the rail. To straighten this upper surface, the rail
is put several times through grooves in the rollers, which com-
press that part in all directions, but exert merely a lateral pres-
sure upon the undulated under part. Thus, if there be any dif-
ference of texture in the different portions of the rail, the upper
part will be more dense, and the under part will approach nearer
to the condition of wire-drawn iron ; and each will be of the na-
ture best suited to resist the different kinds of action to which
they are exposed. But as the whole process takes place on a
short mass of iron, which is gradually rolled out to about six
times its original length, and as the operation is finished before
the metal has lost its red heat, it is not likely that there will be
any perceptible difference of texture, or that, in uniformity or
toughness, the rail will be in any way inferior to other malleable
iron. There is thus little probability of the occurrence of that
exfoliation which it is imagined will take place upon them by
the effect of great pressure. Not the least appearance of it is
to be seen on rails of this sort, which have had engines of about

104 Rev. Mr Adamson on the extent of our

7 tons in weight, in constant employment upon them for above
two years.

The duration of the rail ought to be determined by the pe-
riod during which the upper part retains sufficient thickness to
support the pressure of the wheel, without being broken or fold-
ed down ; and if it be found, that, in the malleable rails, the un-
der part decays too rapidly, then, as much iron must be added,
beyond what is necessary for the due strength of the rail at first,
as will enable the keel to retain its requisite strength and stiff-
ness, until the upper part be worn away. Though somewhat of
the strength and stiffness be lost, in a form of uniform depth,
compared with that which is deepest in the middle between the
points of support, when the quantity of iron is the same, it may’
perhaps be found advisable to relinquish the vertical undulations
in the keel ; in order that less surface and fewer angles may be
exposed to the influence of moisture. This would be most ad-
vantageously effected, by having a keel of uniform depth, ex-
panded into a cylindrical form at its under surface. We should
also, then, have a neat and convenient method of attaching the
rails to the blocks on which they rest : for a cast-iron chair or
pedestal, formed so as to embrace this cylindrical part, might be
slid on at the end of the rail, and pushed along to its proper
place, where it would keep hold of the rail without pins or
wedges. This sort of chair could be so formed, as to obviate,
to a great degree, the consequences of the partial displacement of
the blocks. The rail would have also the power of expanding
longitudinally, without producing any derangement, and thus,
on straight lines, very considerable lengths of the rail might be
welded together, without inconvenience.

The breadth of the tram of the edge-rail is never, as far as I
have seen, above inches ; and no such rule is observed, as
that which Mr Tredgold mentions, viz. 46 That the breadth in
inches should be twice the weight upon one wheel in tons.”
The rule is founded on the circumstance, that the loaded coal-
waggons, in the neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gene-
rally weigh four tons, and the rails are almost always about &
inches broad, — but along the same rails roll the engines also,
carrying about twice the weight of a waggon. In fact, the rails
have been gradually increased to their present breadth, with the

Reformation respecting Rail- Roads. 105

view of preventing them from cutting grooves in the wheels, and
that breadth appears to answer well for the heaviest weights
likely to be permitted on rail-roads.

The strange form of a rail-road, consisting of a single line of
rails, supported on upright pillars, proposed by Mr Palmer, and
recommended by Mr Tredgold, will, I suspect, be found appli-
cable to few situations. It differs from others, in requiring not
only room in breadth and height, but also a clear space of some
feet below the rail. Thus, it cannot approach the surface of the
ground without having a trench cut to receive it ; and to se-
cure a level line, must require either very high pillars in the
valleys, or deep excavations through the hills. If it be not des-
titute of curves, the motion on it must be slow and regular, else
the tangential force of the load will derange the structure ; and
if the pillars be inclined towards the centre of curvature, to
counteract the effect of one velocity, that inclination will suit
no other. If a continuous chain were attached to it, as Mr
Tredgold proposes, it would meet with a very serious obstacle
on all roads crossing it ; for, except they should go over it by a
bridge, it must proceed at a very expensive height above them,
as it would then be impossible for a carriage to go through it.

Mr Wood has made the nearest approach to the complete
elucidation of the data necessary to determine the resistance
upon rail-roads, and the power requisite to overcome it. The
experiments made by Mr Tredgold for this purpose, do not ap-
pear to be of much value, and in his book they are narrated
too vaguely, to lead the reader to any decisive conclusion. In
those which he has described, for the purpose of shewing the
proportional resistances with different loads, and different wheels,
the weights which produced the motion seem to have been omit-
ted in determining the mass moved ; and the real resistance, in-
dependent of the accelerative force of the moving weights, is not
calculated at all. In the two experiments, from which he de-
duces the real amount of the friction at the axle of the carriage,
the proportion of the gravitating force, employed in accelerating
the revolution of the wheels, was probably of sufficient amount
to require alteration. Mr Tredgold remarks, that “ He a-
voided the smoothness and accuracy of workmanship,” in pre-
paring his model, “ which could not be adhered to in machines

106

Rev. Mr Adamson on the extent of our

in use.1’ Now, this forms the strongest objection to any reliance
on his experiments ; for no model can have that relative smooth-
ness, and accuracy of workmanship, which is found in larger ma-
chines. In constructing coal-waggons, which carry about three
tons, the minutest attention is generally employed to secure ac-
curacy of form, and smoothness of surface, in the moving parts.
I had an opportunity of observing the importance of attending
to those circumstances, while assisting Mr Wood to make some
experiments at Killingworth, in August last. In applying
some new bearings to new axles, though both had been turned
and polished in lathes with the utmost care, yet the friction at
the axle did not become constant, and reach its minimum, until
the carriages had been dragged about heavily loaded, during a
whole day. It requires attention to those circumstances, to ac-
count for the difference in the ratios of the friction to the weight,
as determined by Mr Tredgold and Mr Wood, the one estima-
ting the friction at double the amount which the other assigns
to it.

In Mr Wood’s table, representing the relative and actual re-
sistances in different experiments, there is somewhat of embarras-
sing obscurity, arising principally from his not having narrated
before, the whole circumstances of one of the series of experi-
ments contained in it *. It is satisfactory to find, that the re-
sult of his two totally dissimilar methods of experimenting agree
so closely. His deduction from them may apparently be de-
pended upon in practice : That with wheels, of which the ratio
of the diameter, to that of the axle, is 12:1, the total resistance
will be part of the weight of the whole carriage and load.
I have had an opportunity of witnessing experiments, in which,
by taking every precaution to obviate the causes of retardation,
it was reduced very considerably beneath the lowest amount in
Mr Wood’s table. We do not yet know exactly what proportion
the resistance arising from the contact of the wheel with the rail
bears to the whole ; yet, as it is evidently very small, and proba-
bly diminishes as the diameter of the wheel increases, we may
decide, that the fraction of the weight expresses with suffi-
cient accuracy the resistance at the axle, and that this quantity,

Essay on Rail-roads,: p. 195.

107

Information respecting Rail-Roads.

divided by the number of times the diameter of the wheel con-
tains that of the axle, will express the whole resistance, when the
machinery is in tolerably good order. This, when the ordinary
wheels, three feet in diameter, are used, amounts to about 11 \ lb.
per ton ; so that, if the constant progressive effort of any power
be known, we can readily tell with how much it ought to be load-
ed on a rail-road.

There is a very great variety of opinion and statement with
respect to the power of horses at different velocities. The ex-
periments do not yet seem to be sufficient in number, and suf-
ficiently varied, to afford unquestionable conclusions. The for-
mula (12 — v)2 seems to give the velocity corresponding to the
maximum effect, a higher value than experience warrants. The
Tables given by Mr Wood, of the performance of horses on
the colliery railways, represent the effect of the horse as so very
irregular, that they lead to no very satisfactory conclusions ;
because rwe do not know what effect such irregularities may
have, in influencing the amount of the work done. His state-
ment, that the power of a horse travelling 20 miles per day, at
the rate of 2 miles per hour, may be represented by 112 lb. is
more probably under the truth than above it. Mr Tredgold
has pointed out, that the general formula ought to include in
it as an element, the length of time during which the labour
is continued ; and that, corresponding to each assumed dura-
tion, there is a velocity which produces a maximum of effect,
and that this velocity must have a certain relation to that rate
of motion which a horse can sustain unloaded, during the num-
ber of hours assumed for the duration of his labour. But the
assumptions from which are deduced the numerical values of
those velocities, are either unintelligible to me, or are totally
inadmissible. There results from them the strange position,
that the muscular force which can be continued for a day, has
to the weight of the animal the ratio of 3.37 : 1, though in fact
the true ratio is more nearly the inverse of this. If, according
to Mr Tredgold’s estimate, a horse could exert a constant force
of 125 lb. during 6 hours, at the rate of 3 miles per hour, his
day’s work on a rail-road would, at the rate of 11 § lb. per ton,
be 10.8 tons conveyed 18 miles : according to Mr Wood’s esti-
mate, it would be 6.6 tons conveyed 20 miles. In these esti-

108 Rev. Mr Adamson on the extent of our

timates, and in those of Mr Wood’s table, p. 239. the weight of
the carriage is considered as part of the load, and this in gene-
ral is rather more than one-fourth of the whole weight.

These theorems express only the relation of the effort to the
effect, on a dead level. On an ascent, not only must the resist-
ance be increased, but wherever the moving power resides in a
moving body, the effect of its effort must be diminished. Thus, a
horse weighing 10 cwt. walking unloaded up an ascent of 1 foot
in 33, would exert an effort nearly equal to that of dragging
1 ton on a level rail-road. The weight of the moving body is
peculiarly worthy of attention, when locomotive engines are em-
ployed. In the theorems on this subject, as they are stated by
Mr Tredgold, the weight of the engine is not admitted as part
of the load ; but it bears too great a proportion to the whole
load, to be safely neglected, and the introduction of it will be
found to modify very greatly the practical conclusions to be
drawn from the formulae.

Let E represent the weight of the engine, and a be that frac-
tional part of its weight representing the available friction
which produces the progressive motion of the engine- wheels up-
on the rails ; then E a will represent the engine’s force of trac-
tion upon a level.

Let i be the angle of inclination ;

W the weight of the waggons and load ;

/the friction at the axle of the waggons when the pres-
sure is 1 ;

n the diameter of the wheel when that of the axle is 1 ;
then we have the general equation to express the relations of
those quantities, ,

E (a qz sin i) = W

The upper signs give the equation for ascending slopes, and the
lower that required for descending slopes. W may be express-
ed by a multiple of E, and in that case we shall be able to find
the inclination at which any required proportion of the work
done on a level may be performed. If sin i = o ; then

-c „ _ w f

109

Information respecting Rail-Roads .
and as, by Mr Wood’s conclusions,

“=i’and{=^o’thenW=8E’

or the proper load for an engine on a level is eight times the
weight of the engine.

If we wish to know at what inclination the engine would re-
tain only half its power, we may make W — 4E ; then sin i =

or the ascent will be 1 foot in 250, or about 21 feet per

mile. In this case, two engines would perform the work of
one on a level. The use of two engines on such slopes, one
acting in front of a train of waggons, and the other behind
them, has been proposed by Mr Stephenson of Newcastle-upon-
Tyne ; and where the inclinations are of considerable length,
would form a most convenient method of surmounting them.

If, in the general formula, we make sin i = and use the

lower signs, we will find that, at that inclination, one engine
will travel down with forty-four times its weight, or eleven
times the load which it could drag up the ascent. By the
same formula, if the effort of a horse, at any velocity, be repre-
sented by i of his weight, he will, on a level, drag twenty

times his weight ; and the inclination at which his load, with
the same velocity, ought to be one-half, or only ten times his

weight, is The effort of a horse in carrying a load, is as-
sumed to have, to his power of traction, the ratio of 3 : 1 ; or
S1^ 1 is substituted for sin i in the first member in the equation.

This is on the supposition, that the friction of the carriages is as
small as that which is created on rail-roads. If the friction
on a common road amount to five times that on a rail-road,
the load, in the same circumstances, will, on a level, be four
times the weight of the horse ;* and the inclination, diminishing

the load to one-half, will be — or 1 foot in 47 nearly. Hence

4o.o j

we see the necessity of diminishing the rate of ascent on public
roads more than is generally done, as well as improving the
surface.

Rev. Mr. Adamson on Rail-Roads.

The same formula will afford us the means of discovering
what ought to be the inclination of a rail-road, when the traffic
in one direction bears a known proportion to that returning in
the opposite one. If we make the ratio of these loads, ex-
pressed as multiples of the weight of the engine, to be q : 1 ;
then, taking the values of sin i from the equations, with the
upper and lower signs separately, we have the resulting equa-
tion,

I X X (a +"0 ±tj \x X a +"0“ ~

q — 1 V n/ v 4 \q — 1 n/ n

if q = 2, and the other symbols express the same quantity, as

before,

666

Sin i — nearly ;

in this case W = 6, and q W =12; or an engine which, on
a level rail-road, drags eight times its own weight of load-
ed carriages, will, on an inclination of 1 foot in 666, drag up
six times its own weight, and will drag down twelve times
its own weight. If q = 4, which is nearly the proportion when
loaded carriages descend and empty ones alone return, the in-
clination required is about ~ ; in this case the weight dragged

up ought to be nearly 4.8 times the weight of the engine, and
that taken down the inclination ought to be rather more than
nineteen times the weight of the engine. If E — 7 tons, the
weight of the empty carriages will be about 33^ tons, and the
weight of the goods conveyed on them will be about 100 tons.

From the great effect which the weight of the engine and
load, independent of their friction, has in diminishing the pro-
gressive effect on inclinations so small, we may perceive how
little can be gained by enabling the engine to ascend greater
inclinations ; since we must make a great disproportion be-
tween either the loads, on a level and on air inclination, or their
velocities.

(To be continued.)

( 111 )

Art. XVII. — Table of Magnetic Variations »

T HE following Table, which contains a pretty complete enu-
meration of the late observations on the Variation of the Mag-
netic Needle, will be useful to those who may not have oppor-
tunity or leisure to consult the different works through which
they are dispersed.

No.

Obs.

Longitude,

Latitude,

Magnetic

Variation.

Year.

Observer.

80° 51

o /

63 27

West.

O /

37 30

1824

Lyon.

48 9

59 49

48 38

1819

Parry.

61 59

63 44

60 20

• ••

...

62 8

63 29

60 56

• ••

...

61 50

63 58

61 11

• ••

...

62 8

63 26

61 23

• ••

...

62 9

63 29

61 50

• ••

...

59 12

70 29

74 39

• ••

...

57 36

73 23

80 1

1818

Ross.

57 56

74 1

80 30

• ••

...

59 56

72 0

80 55

1819

Parry.

68 37

70 22

80 59

1820

...

60 9

73 0

81 34

1819

...

60 11

73 5

82 3

• ••

...

60 12

73 3

82 37

...

63 0

75 51

87 50

1818

Ross.

61 5

75 32

88 13

«•*

64 45

75 50

90 18

...

64 41

75 59

91 17

1818

Ross.

71 18

71 16

91 29

1820

Parry.

64 43

75 50

91 33

1818

Ross.

65 40

75 55

92 44

...

72 54

76 30

103 41

...

80 8

74 25

106 58

1819

Parry.

77 1

76 33

107 56

1818

Ross.

77 22

73 31

108 47

1819

Parry.

78 48

76 8

109 1

1818

Ross.

89 22

73 11

114 17

1819

Parry.

88 18

73 33

115 37

...

89 41

72 45

118 16

...

91 47

74 40

128 58

...

103 44

75 9

East.
165 50

1819

Parry.

105 54

75 3

158 4

...

107 3

74 58

151 30

...

110 36

75 35

135 4

1820

...

110 27

75 7

128 30

...

110 49

74 47

127 48

...

110 34

74 47

126 17

1819

111 37

75 3

126 2

1820

111 55

75 13

125 15

111 57

75 5

123 48

...

• ••

111 12

74 9

123 6

...

ill 42

74 28

117 52

1819

• ••

112 11

74 27

114 35

1820

...

Table of Magnetic Variations.

11 2

No.

Obs.

Longitude,

Latitude,
N. *

Magnetic

Variation.

Year.

Observer.

o /

112 41

O 1

74 25

Ill 19 E

1820

Parry.

112 53

74 24

110 54

...

113 48

74 26

106 7

...

115 50

67 43

50 20

1821

Franklin.

116 7

67 23

49 46

115 26

66 40

48 1

...

112 30

67 42

47 38

115 42

66 45

47 8

...

115 37

67 48

46 26

...

110 5

68 19

44 16

...

116 27

67 1

44 12

...

114 25

66 5

43 29

113 8

65 13

43 4

...

114 25

66 5

42 59

...

114 27

65 43

42 17

109 44

67 19

41 43

108 40

67 40

41 10

110 41

67 54

40 49

...

109 48

67 7

40 38

...

113 34

64 2

37 19

1820

...

113 3

64 15

36 51

113 47

63 47

36 45

1821

113 6

64 28

36 27

1820-1

114 9

62 17

33 36

1820

114 13

62 26

33 8

114 27

63 14

33 4

114 2

63 34

32 31

113 22

60 50

31 2

...

113 26

60 46

27 25

111 11

57 48

27 20

• ••

113 30

60 55

26 45

...

113 52

61 11

25 41

110 49

56 40

25 40

...

109 52

56 43

25 2

...

111 9

56 40

24 18

109 23

56 24

22 50

...

11] 18

58 43

22 50

108 51

55 55

22 33

...

107 53

55 27

22 16

...

107 30

54 16

22 7

...

106 13

52 51

20 45

...

107 17

53 28

20 21

...

102 17

53 57

17 17

1819

100 44

53 27

15 20

...

97 41

54 12

15 0

...

98 1

53 42

14 26

96 17

54 29

13 20

96 16

54 31

12 47

...

96 1

54 39

12 45

. • .

95 22

54 51

12 40

...

95 0

54 59

11 50

...

94 21

55 14

11 10

...

94 26

55 12

10 28

...

93 30

56 4

9 28

...

93 2

56 22

9 5

...

100

94 21

55 14

8 40

...

101

93 57

55 17

8 30

...

102

93 52

55 29

7 48

...

103

92 26

57 0

6 0

...

( 113 )

Art. XVIII. — Observations and Experiments on the Structure
and Functions of the Sponge . By Robert Edmond Grant,
M. B., E. R. S. E., F. L. S., M. W. S., &c. Continued
from Vol. XIII. p. 346.

SpONGES grow so abundantly on our rocky coasts, and attain
so considerable a size, that few animals can be said to present equal
facilities of observing their natural habits, or of discovering their
properties by experiment. Montagu, many years ago, described
thirty-nine species inhabiting the British shores ; and nearly half
that number occur in the Frith of Forth, which will be men-
tioned individually in describing the skeleton of this animal, and
the characteristic differences in the forms and arrangement of the
spicula in different species. Almost every rock along our
coast, placed near low-water-mark, supports some species of
sponge ; and, as far as my experience gees, the same is the case
with every other shore visited by the waves of the ocean. I
have found them growing alike on the sheltered transition boul-
ders of the western shores of Italy, as on those which break the
force of the tempests in the Bay of Biscay ; and I have found
the most delicate of our British species, spreading alike on the
stupendous primitive cliffs of the Western Islands, exposed to
the rapid currents (and constant swell of the ocean extending to
the American shores, as on the secondary rocks in the more shel-
tered bays of our eastern coast. The Spongia papillaris and
S. urens , line the sea-worn cavities and fissures of quartz, gneiss,
and granite rocks, on the western promontories of the island of
Islay ; and the same species spread .over the sheltered hollows of
the decayed greenstone columns on the coast of Dunbar. In
the deeper parts of the Frith of Forth, the sponge so much a-
bounds, as to encumber the dredges employed by our fishermen
in collecting oysters, mussels and clams ; and when thus tom
from its native seat, by the long continued and daily opera-
tion of some hundred dredges, it is washed ashore alive on diffe-
rent parts of the coast in such quantities, that it is collected with
other zoophytes and fuci, to manure the adjacent lands. So nu-
merous are these animals in more southern latitudes, that the
yon. xiv, NO. 27. JANUARY 1826, H

114 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

collecting of them for the demands of commerce, forms a lucra-
tive profession, with many on the coasts of Calabria, Sicily, and
the Grecian islands ; and in a single voyage to the South Seas,
nearly 100 distinct species were collected, which are preserved in
the museums of Paris.

If the irritability of the living sponge, therefore, has hitherto
escaped observation, that cannot be attributed to the rarity of
the animal, although this circumstance has been complained of
by Mr Ellis and some other naturalists ; nor can it be ascribed
to the smallness of the object, or the difficulty of examining it in
its native retreats ; for several species of sponge attain, even in
our cold latitudes, a magnitude of some feet ; and many of them
grow so near the shore, that they are left exposed for two or
three hours during the recess of every ordinary tide. At Leith
and Prestonpans Bay, the Spongia urens or tomentosa is ob-
served, in places accessible at low- water, spreading over the sides
of rocks, and insinuating itself into all the interstices of the roots
of fuci, without venturing to climb up along their stems ; but, in
deep and tranquil situations, where the fuci are less agitated by
the waves, and attain a greater size, the tomentosa attaches itself
directly to the stems of the large Fucus palmatus, along which it
mounts to an extent of more than three feet, with a thickness
often exceeding an inch from the surface of the plant to the ex-
ternal surface of the animal. It thus chokes up the superficial
pores of these sturdy plants,— diminishes their supply of nourish-
ment,— adds to their weight, — causes them to present a greater
surface to the motions of the sea, and, in this exhausted condi-
tion, the plants are less able to retain their attachment to the
rocks, or combat with the storms, which generally wash them
ashore in great quantity, loaded with these large sponges in the
highest degree of vitality. Sometimes the fishermen’s dredges
are brought up from deep water nearly half filled with bushes
of the Spongia coalita ; and specimens of the Spongia dichoto-
ma are sometimes dredged near Inchkeith, measuring a foot in
length, and nearly as much in breadth.

When two sponges of the same species come into contact with
each other in the progress of their growth, they unite so com-
pletely, as not only to obliterate the line of junction, but even
communicate freely by their internal canals. Thus I have seen
4

115

and Functions of the Sponge.

a fecal orifice formed exactly at the place of the junction between
two branches of the Spongia oculata and communicating with
both, although these branches were hanging by different stems
and separate roots, from the roof of a small cave. When branches
of the Spongia xerampelina or ventilabrum , or of the Spongia
prolifera , are kept in contact with each other, by the washing up
of stones against them by the tide, or by tying them together,
they anastomose in the freest manner, and produce combinations
of form, which render the distinction of branched species by
that character extremely perplexing. This power of uniting is
much more strikingly exemplified in the sessile species ; for we
frequently observe the side of a rock studded over with separate
young Spongia papillares, not larger than a pea, which, in the
course of a few weeks, unite into a continuous surface of sponge
of more than a foot square ; and it is amusing to observe the
spreading and uniting of the young Spongia parasitica ?, on the
back and legs of the living Cancer araneus, Pent., where they
frequently collect to the number of forty or fifty, interrupt the
joints of this lazy crab, spread like a mantle over its back, and,
from want of space to creep upon, rise in fantastic ornaments
upon its head, which the crab is unable to remove, from the
small extent of motion admitted of by its hinge-like joints.

Different species of sponge do not unite together when they
come into contact ; they form a slight adhesion, but the line of
separation is easily traced, and they can be disunited without la-
ceration. When the Spongia tomentosa meets the Spongia pa-
pillaris the margins of both adhere together, rise a little from
the rock, and proceed directly outward, as if endeavouring to sur-
mount each other, till their contest is arrested by the action of
the waves, which would soon tear off the unsupported margins,
if they proceeded outward to any considerable extent. This
power of uniting, possessed by the individuals of the same spe-
cies, is common to the sponge with plants ; and, as is proved by
uterine monsters, with all the higher orders of animals, and is
the reason why we frequently find even the small sponges of the
Frith of Forth covering a continuous surface of several square
feet As I have found sponges of such magnitude on various
parts of our coast, accessible at ordinary tides, and very nume-

"h 2

116 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

rous during the recess of stream-tides, I am forced to differ from
Mr Ellis, who states, in apology for his deficient account of this
animal, that it is very rare to find sponges on our coasts, which
have not been long removed from the places where they grew, and
whose structure has not been very much injured. In so far as size,
and number of individuals, and variety of species, are necessary
to an inquiry into the structure and functions of this animal, the
anatomist, who confines his investigations merely to the species
of the Frith of Forth, will find no reason to envy the opportu-
nities of Marsigli, Donati, and Olivi, who examined them on the
shores of the Adriatic; of Jussieu, who examined them with the
microscope on the coast of Normandy ; Spallanzani, on the
shores of the two Sicilies ; Cavolini in the Bay of Naples ; La-
mouroux on the coast of Spain ; Schweigger in the Gulf of Ge-
noa ; Bose, Peron, and Lesueur, who examined them in Equa-
torial seas ; nor of Peyssonel, who investigated the nature of the
sponge on the shores of Europe, Africa and America.

Most sponges, like Thalassiophytes and the lower classes of
marine animals, suffer, without inconvenience, the occasional pri-
vation of their natural element ; and the species seem to possess
this accommodating power in different degrees. The Spongia
dichotoma inhabits very deep water near Inchkeith, and I have
never seen it deserted by the tide ; the Spongia coalita covers
our oyster beds under twenty or thirty feet of water, and por-
tions of it growing in their natural situation, are seldom deserted
by the lowest tides ; the Spongia panacea, and the Spongia se-
riata , (a species which, I believe, undescribed, and which I
have so named, from the regular close ranges of fecal orifices
which traverse its flat, smooth surface, and which are never raised
to the extremities of projecting ridges, as in the S. cristata , but lie
on a level with the general surface of the animal, as in the S. pa-
nacea, along with which it is found on the under surface of rocks ;
see collection in College Museum, Spongia seriate, Gr.), are found
abundantly on rocks which are only left uncovered during the
ebb of stream-tides, and are not accessible at ordinary tides ; the
same is the case with the S . oculata, palmata, prolifera , ecer-
ampelina, and cristata ; the S. urens and S. papillaris on Leith
rocks, remain for more than three hours uncovered during mo*
clerate tides ; the Spongia compressa , which at Leith is com-

and Functions of the Sponge.

paratively rare, and remains only about an hour exposed to the
atmosphere, is, at Prestonpans Bay, one of the most abundant
and hardy species, hanging in thousands from the roofs of the
most exposed caves, and remaining uncovered for three hours,
during moderate tides. Although most of the species are thus
periodically exposed to the air, this is no way necessary to
their existence ; for the same species which grow nearest to the
shore, are likewise inhabitants of the deepest water, as is seen by
their being cast ashore attached to stones, shells and fuci, after
storms, and by their frequent appearance in dredges employed
in deep-water ; and we frequently find specimens of the Spongia
papillaris , and Spongia tomentosa or urens , lining the sides of
limpid pools during the retreat of the tide, where one-half of the
animal above the surface of the water is subjected to long and
regular visitations of the atmosphere, while the other half be-
neath the surface of the pool is never exposed to its influence
from birth till death.

In all these sponges, we can not only perceive distinctly the
currents rushing from the fecal orifices ; but, with a little atten-
tion, we can likewise perceive, with the naked eye, the pores on
their surface, by which the water enters into the internal canals ;
and, in some of the species where the pores are large, we can see,
without the assistance of a glass, particles of matter drawn into
the pores. I have not met with any kind of living sponge, in
which the pores and fecal orifices were not visible, although one
might be led to suppose, from the statements of Schweigger, and
other naturalists, that some species of this animal want these
openings, and are entirely covered with a gelatinous crust,
through which water soaks by a kind of infiltration. When we
place a branch of the Spongia coalita , in a watch-glass, with sea-
water under the microscope, and look attentively along the side
of the branch, at a distance from any fecal orifice, we see the
small particles suspended in the water, beneath the surface, rush
with an increasing velocity towards every part of the smooth sur-
face of the branch ; the smaller particles pass in and disappear,
while the larger are arrested, and cling to the side of the sponge,
where, in the natural abode of the animal, they would remain,
till washed away by the ceaseless motions of the sea. A thin
portion cut from the surface of the coalita , and viewed through
the reflecting microscope, is seen to be every where pierced with

118 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

polygonal pores, whose parietes are formed by fasciculi of
straight, cylindrical, pointed spicula of considerable strength ;
and we can perceive particles of matter driven with some force
through the pores of this detached portion of sponge. Were
the branch of the coalita not completely under the surface of the
water, the rush of particles to its porous surface might be mis-
taken for the result of cohesive attraction, as we see particles
floating on the surface of water rush towards any dry, solid body
in their immediate vicinity. If we raise the extremity of the
branch of the coalita above the water of the watch-glass, and al-
low the fecal orifice to continue its current under the surface,
we see that all the particles of dust that light on the surface of
the water are quickly conveyed along to the exposed part of the
branch, where they are either arrested from their size, or are
seen to rush into the pores lying on a level with the surface of
the water. From the pores, they pass down through the in-
ternal canals to the fecal orifice, which propels them to the sur-
face of the water, to recommence their mysterious circulation.
The pores of the living Spongia coalita are not very obvious to
the naked eye ; but are seen large and distinct over the whole
surface of bleached portions found on the shore.

The pores of the living Spongia panicea are quite visible, with-
out the assistance of a glass ; and the canals and fecal orifices of
this animal are uncommonly wide. In a portion of this sponge,
placed perpendicularly in a glass of clear sea-water, I could per-
ceive, through the sides of the vessel, with the assistance of a sin-
gle lens, particles of matter distinctly drawn into the pores. On
rubbing some powdered chalk lightly on the surface of the
sponge, and replacing it in the water, I could see, with the na-
ked eye, at the distance of six inches, some particles of the chalk,
which still clogged the margins of the pores, successively driven
into the interior, and disappear. One of the ova of this animal,
swimming about by its own spontaneous motions, like the ova of
several other zoophytes observed by Ellis and Cavolini, happen-
ing to come very near the surface of the sponge, I observed sud-
denly drawn towards the opening of a pore ; and, from being
"too large to pass in, it was held in that situation for a time, by
the entering current, till it disengaged itself, by accelerating the
motions of the ciliae which cover its surface : for the ova of this
animal contain many distinctly formed spicula, and are not ca-

and Functions of the S pong e. 119

pable of moving by changing the shape of their bodies, as the
ova of the madrepore, gorgonia, and sertularia are said to do,
but are seen to swim about, by the rapid vibration of the ciliae on
their surface, while the shape of their body remains perfectly
unchanged. The pores of the Spongia panicea are frequently
obliterated in dried specimens, by the hardening of the gelati-
nous matter into an opaque membrane over the surface ; and I
have frequently produced the same appearance in other flat spe-
cies, by drying them before their gelatinous matter had been
sufficiently extracted by boiling water. This artificial covering
resembles the gelatinous mantle of medusae drying and harden-
ing in the summer’s sun, which we have seen strewed over many
of the shores of Europe, and is probably the same with the com-
pact crust spoken of by many naturalists as covering different
species of sponge.

In most sponges, the currents through the pores, canals, and
fecal orifices intermit, as we have seen above, without inconve-
nience, during every recess of the tide ; for no fecal orifice that
is above water is ever observed to pour forth a stream, even
though the rest of the animal be entirely under the surface ; and
it is curious to observe, on the sides of pools, one-half of the ani-
mal under the surface, carrying on a circulation of water con-
stant through life, while the other half above the water of the
pool is subject to frequent and long intermissions.

A fecal orifice, raised only half above the surface of the water,
produces a current which has a powerful effect on the particles
floating near it. When a portion of sponge is confined in the
same basin of water for about two days, the currents appear to
have entirely ceased ; but, on plunging it again into water newly
taken from the sea, they are renewed in about two minutes, and
continue nearly with their original force ; but I have seldom
kept sponges alive, in their adult state, for more than a week.
I have frequently caused the ova to fix themselves on watch-
glasses, and have reared them for a month. As far as I have
been able to observe, the animal never intermits spontaneously
the currents, and renews them again in the same water. In
ceasing, they are observed to die away gradually ; and no burn-
ing, or tearing of any part of the animal, causes them to intermit,
though it hastens the period of their total cessation. A ther-
mometer placed in the water, and another plunged to an equaj

120 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

depth in the substance of the animal, when the currents are in
full activity, indicate no difference of temperature.

Having observed that the structure and disposition of the
pores, canals, and fecal orifices of the sponge had an obvious re-
lation to this circulation of water through its body, I could no
longer doubt that the currents formed one of the living func-
tions of this animal ; and, as the existence of this living function
was instantly ascertained, by placing the sponge in sea-water,
and was so conspicuous as to be visible at the distance of ten
feet from the animal, I employed it in all my succeeding experi-
ments, whenever it was of the slightest importance to ascertain
that my specimens were still alive. As I had already satisfied
myself that the fecal orifices had no concern with the production
of the currents, by observing that they continued the same, when
all the papillae were cut off, and finding it impossible to deter-
mine, from the discordant statements of naturalists, how far this
function might depend on the contractile power of the animal, I
performed several experiments to ascertain the extent of this
power, in order to compare it with the force of the currents, and
to observe how far the properties ascribed by the ancients to the
sponges of the Mediterranean, agreed with those of the species
now inhabiting the Frith of Forth.

I first selected a young branch of the Spongia coalita , which
I judged, from the velocity of its currents, to be in perfect
health ; and, in order to observe it minutely, and at the same time
to preserve it, as nearly as possible, in its natural state, I placed
it in a shallow vessel, with some clear sea-water, in the light of
the sun. On touching its body smartly with the finger, and ob^
serving it for five minutes afterwards, I could not perceive any
trembling motion of the animal, or any gradual contraction of
its body ; it did not bend itself to either side, nor could I per-
ceive any hollow formed at the place touched. When the sur-
face of the Lobularia digitata is touched with the finger, there
follows not only a retraction of the polypi, but, the zoophyte
continuing to contract its fleshy axis* there is a slight hollow at
length formed on the surface, at the place where the finger
touched. I now thrust a needle through the body of the ani-
mal ; and, on withdrawing it, I could not detect, with the assist-
ance of a lens, the most languid motion of the part, or of the

and Functions of the Sponge.

branch, although the currents continued unaltered. On pour-
ing off the water, I let fall a drop of nitric acid on the middle of
this single branch ; the corrosive poison sunk like water into the
body of the animal, and, though again watched for five minutes,
there was no perceptible shaking, or bending, or shortening of
the sponge ; nor could I observe any shrinking or depression on
the place where the acid fell ; that place of the branch quickly
assumed a milky-white colour, while the rest retained its natural
bright straw-yellow colour. When the coalita is young, its
branches are long and slender ; they shoot in all directions to
seek for points of attachment, and adhere to, or envelope, every
thing they meet with, living or dead, animal, vegetable, or mi-
neral; wherever the branches cross or touch each other they
form a perfect union ; sometimes the animal spreads as a layer
over an oyster-shell, or covers a rock like a convoluted bush, or
like the root of a fucus, or forms a cement, connecting into a mass
all manner of shells, stones, or broken glass ; sometimes it forms
an irregular mass, with a perfectly smooth surface, without any
point of attachment, rolling to and fro, at the mercy of the waves.
As it advances in life, its colour assumes a darker shade, with a
tinge of brown ; it becomes less smooth on the surface ; loses its
translucency ; and its fibrous part predominates, as the hard parts
of other animals predominate progressively from birth to decay.
After storms, or during the dredging season, irregular branched
masses of it are left at low water, along with the spatangus, and
many other interesting animals, on the extensive sands of Mus-
selburgh. I have frequently repeated the above experiments on
the coarse, rough branches of the adult coalita , but with the same
result ; the acid seems partially to dissolve the part, and renders
it at length more transparent.

I next took a portion of the Spongia urens , which formed a
covering of nearly an inch and a half in thickness around a
large stem of the Fucus palmatus or digvtatus. It had been torn
from the rocks in deep water, and was left on the sands by the
retiring tide. Being perfectly entire, and uninjured, and some
feet in length, I plunged its thickest extremity into a basin of
water, to observe its currents, and touched the immersed surface
with the finger, but no kind of contraction or trembling motion
were perceptible ; no dimple formed at the part touched. Ha-
ving raised the immersed part a little from the water, after two

122 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

pins had been thrust into its surface, parallel and near each
other, I struck, with a red hot wire, the exposed part of the
surface between the pins ; but, what I little expected at that
period of my inquiry, the parallelism of the pins was not dis-
turbed, nor did they seem to approach each other in the slight-
est degree. Lest the pins might have approached each other, in
a small degree, without disturbing their parallelism, I placed
them on a part of the animal newly raised from the water, and
measured their distances with a pair of compasses ; but, after
receiving some smart strokes with a red hot iron, on the surface,
between the pins, half an inch distant, the points of the com-
passes still coincided with the heads of the pins ; there seemed to
be no more effect produced on the living animal than would be
produced on a piece of common moistened sponge. The sur-
face of the urens , when young, is somewhat transparent, and of
a yellowish-grey colour ; but, as it advances, it acquires a bright-
er yellow colour, and more opacity ; when looked closely into, it
appears covered with a net-work of the finest gauze, the pores
being visible to the naked eye. I had hopes of inducing mo-
tion in these pores ; but, on observing them through a glass,
while I irritated them with a needle, I could perceive no change
in their dimensions. When this sponge spreads on the sides of
rocks, its fecal orifices are observed to be more raised from the
surface than in portions of it surrounding fuci, corallines, or
other moveable bodies ; and they are likewise more thin and
transparent on their margins ; so that, when the urens , taken
from such situations, is kept for a time out of water, the first
parts which begin to collapse or contract, by drying, are gene-
rally these transparent lips of the orifices. This takes place equally
in dead and living specimens, and might be mistaken for an ef-
fect of irritability ; it is the only kind of motion I have ever been
able to produce in these parts.

In Prestonpans Bay, the tide has excavated, in many places,
the beds of soft slate-clay from beneath the outgoings of the sand-
stone strata, and has thus formed innumerable small caves which
are sheltered from the direct force of the waves, by lofty ridges
of trap-rocks extending to a great distance from the shore. In
these sheltered recesses, far from the main current of the Frith,
numerous species of Alcyonium , Lobularia , Sertularit , Coralli-
nes > Tubularity Flustrty branched sponges, and other zoophytes.

and Functions of the Sponge. 123

dispute with different species of the Doris, Ascidia, Actinia
and myriads of the testaceous mollusca, the possession of a calm
and secure retreat. At low water I have often punctured and
irritated the ends of the branches of the oculata , xerampelina ,
prolifer a, and palmata, while hanging, uninjured, from the
roofs of these caves ; but have never observed the slightest re-
action or shrinking of any kind produced by the animal. I
have tried the same on many sessile species covering the rocks,
and with as little success. I have plunged portions of the
branched and sessile sponges alive into acids, alcohol, and am-
jnonia, in order to excite their bodies to some kind of visible
contractile motions, but have not produced, by these powerful
agents, any more effect upon the living specimens, than upon
those which had been long dead.

Strange as these results may at first appear, in an animal of
such magnitude and softness, I am happy to find that they per-
fectly agree with those obtained by the most eminent observers
on the sponges of warmer latitudes. Bose and Peron could not
observe the slightest motion in any of the numerous species
which they collected in their voyages. Spallanzani and Olivi,
by puncturing and tearing the living animal, could not produce
the smallest contraction. Cavolini could not produce the
slightest shrinking of the animals, by piercing and handling
many of them adhering to the rocks, under water, in the Bay
of Naples, during a perfectly calm sea. Schweigger performed
many experiments to discover the contractile power of the living
sponge, but could not produce the slightest motion in those in-
habiting the shores of the Mediterranean, although he was mis-
led by Marsigli and Ellis to believe that the animal had the
power of sucking in and squirting out water by the feeal orifices.
I cannot therefore help thinking, that the naturalists of Torona,
more than twenty centuries ago, and Aristotle, who seems to
agree with them, came nearer to the truth in denying that the
living sponge contracts itself, when touched, than Cuvier and
Lamarck, who maintain at present a contrary opinion. In op-
position to the observations of so many naturalists, Lamarck ap-
peals to the testimony of the Greeks, in proof of a contractile
power existing in the mass of the sponge. The testimony alluded
to, is contained in the passage of Aristotle, inserted near the
beginning of this memoir, where the contractions of the living

124 Dr Turner on the Detection of

sponge are mentioned by that author, merely as a matter of
vulgar report (&/? without adducing the authority of any

observer ; whereas he expressly states, that those who inhabited
Torona did not believe in the existence of any such property in
this animal. The naturalists to whom Aristotle refers, and with
whose evidence he appears satisfied, from not mentioning those
who were of an opposite opinion, had certainly the best means
among the Greeks of observing the phenomena of this animal, in
its living state* from their southern exposure and warm latitude,
on the shores of Macedonia, only 17° from the Torrid Zone, and
from their sheltered situation at the head of the present Bay of
Cassandria, where the delicate zoophytes, which covered their
rocky coasts, were protected from the tempests of the ACgean
Sea, by the long and mountainous promontories of Pallene, Si-
thonia, and Athos.

From this extraordinary inertness of the sponge, under every
circumstance, to the strongest artificial excitement ; and from
the circumstance shewn above, of its not contracting its body
spontaneously, during the flow of the currents, we feel compelled
to ascribe that function, for which the whole body of the animal
seems so admirably constructed, to some powers which are in-
cessantly in action, while the general mass of the zoophyte is at
rest. We shall now try, if possible, to discover those moving
powers which seem to contain the secret of this mysterious be-
ing ; but, before entering on this new kind of investigatipn, it is
necessary to give an outline of the internal structure of the ani-
mal, that we may enter, with more minuteness of detail and pre-
cision of language, into what relates to the functions of its indi-
vidual parts,

( To be continued.)

Art. XIX. — On the Detection of Boracic Acid in Minerals
by the Blowpipe * By Edavard Turner, M. D. F. R. S. E.
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians, Edinburgh.

In the paper which I had the honour of reading before the
Society at its last meeting, on the detection of lithia in minerals,

* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 19th December 1825.

Boracic Acid in Minerals .

125

I described three different fluxes, by means of which the pre-
sence of that alkali might be readily detected in spodumene and
petalite. I had at first supposed, that any substance which en-
abled those minerals to fuse readily before the blowpipe would
answer the same purpose; and though this notion proved to be
erroneous, it was not altogether , without its use. For among
other re-agents that had been employed without success, I had
used solid boracic acid, and mixtures of boracic acid with fluate
of lime, and I observed that they uniformly tinged the point of
the blowpipe-flame of a pure green colour, similar to what is
seen during the combustion of alcohol in which that acid is dis-
solved. Hence arose the question, whether the same colour
might not be made to appear, when boracic acid exists in small
quantity in minerals, so as to afford a sure indication of its pre-
sence. That such a method is as yet a desideratum, will be ob-
vious from the following observation, made by one of our first
authorities on this subject. Berzelius observes, while speaking
of boracic acid, “ I have not hitherto succeeded in my attempts
to discover a test for this acid by the blowpipe, — a thing much
wanted, since, as well as the fluoric, it often occurs in minerals
in very small proportion, and frequently escapes detection in
analyses made in the moist way

When powdered boracite is moistened, and a particle of it is
exposed on platinum-wire to the flame of the blowpipe, the cha-
racteristic green colour appears. Datolite, as well as the Hum-
bold tite of Salisbury-Craig, gives no green tint to the flame
when treated alone before the blowpipe; but if previously moist-
ened by sulphuric acid, the green becomes very distinct, — a fact
noticed in general terms by M. Pfaff in his Analytical Chemistry.
Bqracic acid has been detected in several varieties of tourmaline.
Thus Arfwedson found about one per cent, of it in the blue
tourmaline of IJton; M. Gruner discovered nine per cent, in a
variety from Greenland; and, still more recently, Prof. Gmelin
has detected the same acid in several other varieties of this mi-
neral. When tourmaline is heated before the blowpipe, either
alone or moistened with sulphuric acid, no trace of green ap-
pears ; so that, if boracic acid is present, it cannot be detected

f Berzelius on the Use of the Blowpipe, Children’s translation, p. 130.

126

Dr Turner on the Detection of

by such means. To try if its presence could be discovered by
other methods, I had recourse to the fluxes that have been re-
commended for lithia. The bifluate of potash, and the mixture
of sulphate of ammonia and fluate of lime, gave no indication of
boracic acid; but I succeeded completely with the flux which is
composed of one part of fluate of lime and four and a half of the
bisulphate of potash. About equal parts of this flux and pow-
dered tourmaline are mixed together on the palm of the hand,
being at the same time formed into a paste by a little moisture.
A small particle of the mixture is then taken up on platinum-
wire, and exposed to the blowpipe-flame, not at its apex, but
somewhat nearer the wick than the point of the blue flame.
Fusion takes place, and at the moment it does so, the portion of
the flame beyond the assay is tinged of a pure green colour.

This effect is most distinct and unequivocal, but the opera-
tion requires some care. The green colour appears only for an
instant, at the very commencement of fusion ; and having once
ceased, it cannot be made to appear again, however long the
blast may be continued.

Through the kindness of my friends, Mr Allan and Mr Gre-
gory, I have been supplied with a considerable variety of speci-
mens of tourmaline and schorl, and all of them, without excep-
tion, give indications of boracic acid. The following is a list of
those that have been examined :

Dark-blue Tourmaline,
Green T.

Black T.

Brownish-black T.

Black T,

Black T.

Liver-brown T.
Liver-brown, fibrous and
Black T.

Black T.

Black T. » «

Black T.

diverging,

from Massachusetts.

Do.

Brazils.

Abo, in Finland.

Finbo ?

Arendal, in Norway.
Karingsbrycka, Sweden.
St Gotthard.

Cornwall.

Do.

Ross-shire.

Banffshire.

Aberdeenshire.

Germany.

Penig, in Saxony.

From the occurrence of boracic acid in all these varieties,

Boracic Acid in Minerals.

127

though found in such different parts of the world, it would seem
to be an essential ingredient of tourmaline, as was rendered pro-
bable by the analyses of the chemists already referred to. The
varieties from Aberdeenshire and Penig are specimens of com-
mon schorl, which occur in granite. The feldspar, in contact
with the schorl, was carefully examined, but did not give the least
indication of boracic acid.

As the process just described is of easy and rapid execution,
and requires but a minute fragment of each specimen, I have
not failed to examine a considerable number of minerals by this
mode ; and Mr Allan, with his usual liberality, has kindly sup-
plied me from his cabinet with whatever was necessary for the
purpose. The following list contains a few of the minerals so
examined, in which no boracic acid could be discovered :

Pumice and Obsidian, from Lipari.
Pitchstone, from Arran and Meissen.
Greenstone, of Salisbury-Craig.

Basalt, of Arthur’s Seat.

Common Hornblende, from Arendal.
Crystallised Hornblende, from Bohemia.
Augite, from Bohemia,

Common Garnet, from Greenland.

Bohemian Pyrope.
Pistacite, from Norway.
Feldspar.

Leucite.

Idocrase.

Zoizite.

Lava, origin unknown.

Axinite, on the contrary, though no boracic acid has hitherto
been discovered in it, does certainly contain that substance ; for,
when treated by the flux, it yields precisely the same appearance
as tourmaline. I first observed it in a specimen of my own, the
locality of which is uncertain, but have since found it in crystal-
lised axinite from Dauphiny and Cornwall, so that it is probably
an essential ingredient of that mineral. The kind of rock from
Cornwall, called Massive Axinite, does not contain boracic acid.

I possess a specimen of colophonite from Norway, supposed
to be from Arendal, which likewise contains boracic acid. It
appears, however, to be only an accidental ingredient ; at least,
two other varieties from Arendal, and a third from America, do
not contain it.

It has of course been proved, that the green flame produced
by the flux in tourmaline, axinite, and one variety of colophonite,
was really occasioned by boracic acid. A specimen of Brazilian
tourmaline, for example, was ignited with three times its weight
of carbonate of soda ; water was added, and the alkaline solution,
after being neutralised by a slight excess of sulphuric acid, was

128 On the Detection of Bor acic Acid in Minerals.

evaporated to dryness. The dry mass was boiled in alcohol, and
the solution, so formed, burned with a green flame. The same
process was repeated with the colophonite and axinite with a
similar result. I have not yet had leisure to determine how
much boracic acid is contained in axinite, but, judging from the
quantity of colour communicated to alcohol, it must be consider-
ably less than in the Brazilian tourmaline.

Future observation must decide upon the value of the test
here recommended. I know of no other substance but boracic
acid that gives a green colour to the blowpipe-flame under the
circumstances which have been described. A salt of copper
tinges the flame green, but it does so without any flux at all.
The mixture of fluate of lime and bisulphate of potash is appli-
cable to saline as well as earthy minerals, since it causes the
characteristic green colour, when fused with datolite and Hum-
boldtite, equally well as with tourmaline and axinite. From the
facility with which it acts on the latter, we may fairly presume
that it would be equally efficacious in detecting the presence of
boracic acid in any earthy mineral, if used in sufficient quantity.
The proportion which seems best adapted for general use is two
of the flux to one of the mineral, though in most cases much less
of the former will suffice.

I cannot speak precisely as to the smallest quantity of the acid
which may be detected by the blowpipe. According to the ana-
lyses of Arfwedson and Gmelin, some tourmalines contain only
1 per cent, of it; and hence we may infer that some of the varie-
ties included in the foregoing list are similarly constituted. If
this is the case, then the test must be a very delicate one ; for I
am satisfied, from the effect on the blowpipe-flame, that a less
quantity of boracic acid could be detected, than exists in any of
the tourmalines which have fallen under my notice.

With respect to the mode by which the flux acts, it is remark-
able that the bifluate of potash alone does not cause the green
colour to appear, not even with datolite. The pure fluate of
lime, and even the bifluate of potash, is also ineffectual. It is
hence probable that pure fluoric acid is useful, not only in assist-
ing to separate the boracic acid from the substances with which
it was combined in the mineral, but perhaps by forming the fluo«
tic acid gas.

( 129 )

Art. XX.— On Euclase . By A. Levy, Esq. A. M., &e.

Communicated by the Author.

M r Heuland having lately added to his private collection
some crystals of Euclase, uncommonly well defined, I have
thought that their description might find room in your Journal,
especially as the crystallographical characters of this substance
have not hitherto been given with sufficient accuracy.

In preference to a right oblique-angled prism, the primitive
form given by Haliy and Mr Phillips, I have adopted an
oblique rhomboid prism, represented Plate VI. Fig. 1. *

All the secondary crystals derivable from the first of these two
forms, are equally derivable from the second ; and there is, un-
doubtedly, an advantage in point of simplicity, in not assuming
more species of primitive forms than is really necessary. Not
only Euclase, but all the substances for which a right oblique-
angled prism has been chosen, as the primitive, may, for the
same reasons, be made to derive from an oblique rhombic prism ;
and it is what Professor Mohs has already done, in referring
them all to his Hemi-prismatic system. Cleavage, where it ex-
ists parallel to the faces of a right oblique-angled prism, cannot
be made an objection against assuming an oblique rhombic
prism as the primitive, when the numerous cases in which clea-
vages are found in directions different from those of the primitive
planes are remembered, and when it is considered, that the fa-
ces of the right oblique-angled prism, which would have been
used as the primitive, may always be made to correspond to
some very simple modifications of the oblique rhombic prism.

In the present case, the only cleavages I have been able to
observe, are parallel to the modifications h1 and g1 of the primi-
tive form I have chosen, corresponding to the faces P and T of
Mr Phillips. The cleavage parallel to his face m, which he has
also observed, I have not been able to obtain ; and, in conse-
quence, the determination of the base of P, Fig. 1., has not
been influenced by the direction of this cleavage.

The faces m, I have naturally chosen for the lateral planes of

* This Plate will be given in next Number of the Journal.

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826. I

ISO

Mr Levy on Euclase.

the primitive form, because they are always brilliant, and free
from striae, whilst it is just the reverse with all the other planes
in the same direction ; and I have determined the base by as-
suming, that the faces b , marked V, are the result of a decre-
ment by one row upon the edges b of the primitive. This sup-
position gives simpler signs for the rest of the modifications,
than several others I have tried. I have found the incidence
of m on m 114°.50', that of b' on m 91°.35', and that of the two
faces b' 143°.50'. By means of these data, and the supposition
mentioned above, I have calculated the dimensions of the primi-
tive ; and from the parallelism of edges, where it was sufficient,
or from observed incidences where it was not, I have calculated
the other modifications.

Fig. 2. represents a crystal of a pale green, in which the faces
i"" = (b3 dj g1) are very dull, and, consequently, this sign is
only given as an approximation.

Fig. 3. represents a very well defined crystal, of a still paler
green, and especially remarkable, by shewing both summits.

Fig. 4. represents a remarkably well defined crystal, nearly
white.

Fig. 5. is the crystal which belonged to the Marquis de Dree’s
collection, and which has been mentioned in almost every trea-
tise on mineralogy. The small triangular faces i' are dull, and
I could not determine them either by parallelism of edges, or
by measurements.

Dimensions of the Primitive Form and Table of the Modifi-
cations.

m,m- 11 4°. 50'. P, m = 118°. 46'. b:h::l: .5233.

Plane angle of the base, ~ 104°. 12'.

Plane angle of the later faces, — 110°.32'.

Modification g1

* n,gl =

122°. 35'

?>,<?'= 90°

Mod.

m, h1 =

147°. 25'

g\h1 = 90°

Mod.

m , ¥ —

165°. 8'

g\ hs : 107°.43'

Mod.

m, h 5 —

170°.30'

gi,h5 = 113°.20'

Mod.

m, b1 =

91°.35'

b\ b1 = 143°.. 50'

Mod.

m,b\~

139°.44'

bl, bl = 105358'

Mod.

712, d1 =

1 38°.23'

d\ d1 = 156M0'

Mod.

a %

m,aQ —

131°. 38'

aQ,ae = 151°.47'

Mod.

m> a,x =

154°.32'

ai,ai= 130°.15'

Mr Levy on Enchase

Mod.

= (cPb h gl)

'm,

= 143°. 58'

Mod.

i‘

= 147°. 24'

Mod.

= («* digl)

= 99°.53'

Mod.

i!"

- (V H

■= 153°

Mod.

= (b3dig')

£////

= 116°

132

i, i . = 134°.18'
i', V = 99°. 44"
27/, i" = 11 3°. 42'
£% = 122°
i////l, ^ = 105°.20'

Art. XXI. — 0?i the modes of Notation of Weiss, Mohs, and
Hauy. By A. Levy, Esq. M. A. &c. Communicated by
the Author.

Xn the number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for
January 1825, I have given general formulae to determine the
law of decrement by which a Rhomboid, the incidence of the fa-
ces of which is known, may be supposed to be derived from an-
other rhomboid, whose angle is also known, and which is consi-
dered as the primitive form with respect to the first. I have
also begun to explain other formulae relative to a particular case
of the dodecaedrons, which are derivable from a rhomboid. In-
stead of proceeding now with the successive examination of the
different decrements which may produce dodecaedrons, I shall
consider at once the most general case, and deduce, afterwards,
from it the particular ones.

Let dd', Plate VI. Fig. 6., be a dodecaedron, derived by an in-
termediary decrement from the rhomboid rr'. Fig. 7. Let the
axis of the rhomboid and dodecaedron be parallel, and the prin-
cipal section r o r' of the first be parallel to the section dbd' of the
second ; then the plane add'. Fig. 6., will be parallel to the plane
mrr'. Fig. 7. Let the plane fgh , Fig. 7., be parallel to one of
the faces adb of the dodecaedron ; if we suppose the edge of the
rhomboid to be one, and the linesjfr, h r , g r, to be respectively
b y, b the crystallographical sign of the dodecaedron would be

by b *) ; and the problem to be resolved, is to determine the
indices b y> b or at least the ratios of the two last to the first,
when the incidences of the faces of the dodecaedron are known.
Not to repeat too often the crystallographical sign of the dode-
caedron, I shall represent the faces by the letter i ; the angle of

i 2

332 Mr Levy on the Modes of Notation

two faces, such as abd , b dc, meeting in an edge, in the same di-
rection as one of the oblique diagonals of the rhomboid, will be
represented by (i:i) ; that of two faces, such as hdcy dee , meet-
ing in an edge situated in the same direction as one of the supe-
rior edges of the rhomboid, will be represented by (i . i) ; and,
finally, (i , i) will designate the incidence of one of the faces,,
such as abd , upon the corresponding face abd' of the inferior
pyramid. It is easy to demonstrate, that, in every dodecaedron
derived from a rhomboid, there exists between these three angles
the very simple relation expressed by the equation,

sin \ (i , i) = cos \ (i : i) + cos | (i . i)

By means of which, two of these incidences being known, the
third will be immediately found, especially as the value of any
one of these three, deduced from the above equation, may, with-
out difficulty, be transformed into another, to which logarithmic
calculation may be applied.

Now, to resolve the proposed problem. The values of the
angles ( i : i ), ( i . £), (i , i), should be expressed in terms of x,
y , #, or rather the values of these last quantities in terms of the
first. But the calculations necessary to be gone through to obtain
them are very long ; and the formulas themselves are, besides,
so complicated, as to be of very little use. Their comparison
leads, however, to a simple result, which is sufficient to re-
solve most of the questions referring to dodecaedrons derived
from a rhomboid, and which I shall demonstrate in a direct
manner, without using the above mentioned formulae.

Draw the oblique diagonals r o, r p, Fig. 7. and let them
meet fh , gh in l and i. Join fi , gl meeting in &, and draw
the axis rkiJ of the rhomboid. It is obvious that the angle
of the two planes fglhfk r' is equal to ( i . i), and the angle
of the two planes f g h , Ik r' is equal to J ( i : i)'; moreover
the angle of the two planes fk Ikr' is equal to 60°. We
shall have, therefore, by spherical trigonometry, in the triangu-
lar solid angle whose summit is at k , and formed by the three
planes f k l or fg h,fk r', Ik r\ the two following equations :

cos i (i . i) . sin fk l = cos Ik / . sin f k / — J sin l k r\ cos fkr r
cos | (i : i) . sin fk l = cos fk r' . sin Ik r' — | sin fk r'. cos lkr\

13$

of Weiss , Mohs, and Haiiy.

&nd dividing the first by the second,

cos \ (i . i) __ £ tang fk r' — tang Ikr

cos i (i :i) 2 tang l k r' — tan gfk r'

We shall obtain, consequently, the value of the ratio of these
two cosines, if we can get those of the tangents of the angles fkr’
and Ikr'. It is even sufficient to determine the value of
tan gfk r', for, in changing in it oc into 2, and 2 Into sc, we shall
get the tangent of gkr and by changing the sign of this, the
tangent of Ik r'.

From /and m, let fq, m s, be drawn perpendicular upon rrf,
let rs — a, and ms — p , then rq = - , fq — 2 ,

SC * X

rk =z

S a

x +y 4-

consequently k q =

a{y±z- 2x)
(x+y + z)x’ and

tangfk y =

P oc+y + z
a ‘ y 4- z — %x’

and tang7 k rf —

a? + y + z
y +x — 2z'

These values being substituted in the expression gives,

cos j (i . i) y — z

cos ^ (i : i) ~~ x — y°

This formula will give at once a simple relation between the
three unknown quantities x, y, z, when the two angles (i . i)9
(i : i) are known. It is also a test of the simplicity of the in-
dices of the secondary planes, which we are’ considering ; for if
these indices, that is x, y, z, are always simple numbers, it ne-
cessarily follows that or its equal, the ratio of the co~

x z

sines of half the two pyramidal angles of any dodecahedron de-
rived from any rhomboid, is always a simple integral, or frac-
tional number ; a result the correctness of which I have had fre-
quent opportunities to verify.

It is now easy to apply the preceding formula to the dode-
caedrons which result from simple decrements, by assuming pro-
per values for x, y, and z. Thus, by taking x — o, y = 1 and
z — n, the formula will correspond to the case of a dodecaedron
produced by n rows in breadth on the superior edges of the

134 Mr Levy on the Modes of Notation

rhomboid, the sign of which is bn, and will become

cos J ( [bn . bn) __ 1

cos J ( bn : bn) ~ U

By making in the same formula x = 1, y — o and z — — n, it
will correspond to the case of a dodecaedron produced by n
rows in breadth on the inferior edges of the rhomboid, the sign
of which is dn , and will become

cos \ (dn . dn)
cos | ( dn : dn)

Lastly, By supposing x — — 1,^ = 1, and z = n , it will
correspond to the case of a dodecaedron produced by n rows in
breadth on the lateral angles of the primitive, the sign of which
is en , and will become

cos \ (en . en) __ n — 1
eos ^ ( en * en) ^

These three formulae will immediately give the law of decre-
ment by the simple subtraction of two logarithms, when two of
the incidences of the faces of the dodecaedron will be known.

The first shews than when n — 2, the angle ( bn . b n) =
{bn : bn), that is to say, that a decrement by two rows on the
superior edges will produce dodecaedrons with isosceles tiiangu-
lar planes.

The second ormula makes the two angles {dn . dn ), ( dn : dn)
equal, only when n = 1, in which case the result of the decre-
ment is the lateral planes of a six-sided prism.

The third formula shews that when n — 3 the angle {en . en) —
(en : en), that is to say that a decrement by three rows on the
lateral angles of a rhomboid will produce dodecaedrons with isos-
celes triangular planes.

Returning now to the general case, the origin of hypothetical
primitive forms, and the reasons for which a dodecaedron re-
sulting from an intermediary decrement upon the angles of the
primitive rhomboid, is, and has always been found to result of a
very simple decrement on the edges or angles of the hypotheti-
cal primitive form, may readily be discovered. For, it is ob-
vious from the four preceding formulas, that if the dodecaedron,

135

of Weiss , Mohs , and Haiiy.

Fig. 6. be considered as deriving from a rhomboid, the superior
edges of which should correspond to the lines da,dc , &c., by a de-
crement on its superior edges, the law of that decrement would be

y - .. gr /JQ -

expressed by^ 4- 1 =• . It is equally evident that

r J x — y x — y j

the same dodecaedron may be considered as the result of a de-

crement by

rows

in breadth on the superior edges of the

y — *

rhomboid, whose superior edges should correspond to the lines
a 6, a d> &c. ; or again, by ^ rows in breadth on the

y — z

lateral angles of the rhomboid, the oblique diagonals of which

cTimilrl rl linoci /I n /I n Xr/-» • rw ^ I .

* " X — y

rows in breadth on the lateral angles of the rhomboid, the ob-
lique diagonals of which should correspond to the lines a b, adi

'll — * ££

nr, lastly, by rows in breadth on the inferior edges of

x — y

the rhomboid, the inferior edges of which should correspond to
the lines a b, b c, c d of the dodecaedron. And since x, «/, z are
found to be generally simple numbers, it is clear from the expres-
sion we have j ust found for the laws of decrements on the hypo-
thetical primitive forms, that they will also generally be very
simple.

( To be continued .)

Art. XXII.' — On the Preservation of Zoological Specimens
from the Depredations of Insects. By Thomas S. Trail,
M. D. F. B. S. E., &c. * Communicated by the Author.

The difficulty of preserving zoological specimens from the
depredations of insects, is a subject of regret and anxiety to

* The method of preserving zoological specimens recommended by Dr Traill,
we have been in the practice of employing to great extent, and most successfully, in
the Museum of the University, for a considerable time past.— Ed.

136 Dr Traill on the Preservation of Zoological

every collector; and various methods have been proposed of
accomplishing this desirable object. The compositions into
which arsenic and corrosive sublimate cf mercury enter, are well
known to be very effectual, when properly applied ; but, unless
used with caution, they are apt to injure the natural pliancy of
the skins, and they can scarcely be effectually employed to pro-
tect collections of insects. I have known these substances, even
in the hands of the most expert, produce such tenderness of the
skins impregnated with them, as to form a considerable ob-
stacle to the setting up of the specimens. To render them ef-
fectual, too, they must be carefully applied to each specimen ;
by which the labour of collecting and preserving is materially
increased.

Of the method proposed, by M. Temminck, viz. the introduc-
tion of tallow into the cases containing zoological specimens, I
am yet unable to speak from experience. It has been lately in-
troduced into the Museum of our Royal Institution, where
it will have a fair trial, although I confess that its modus ope-
randi does not seem very obvious *.

Camphor has been long known as a preservative against the
attacks of insects ; yet I have known specimens of birds to suf-
fer from moths, though inclosed in boxes in which camphor was
present ; and, to be efficacious, it ought to be used in consider-
able quantity.

Every substance which I have yet tried, seems to be inferior
in efficacy and ease of application to the following, — the method
of Mr William Gibson, preparer of objects of Natural History,
residing in No. 16, London Road, Liverpool,— -which I shall
transcribe from his own communication to me.

“ I have found,” says he, 66 that nothing destroys insects so
effectually as red fed oil of turpentine, and my method of using
it is as follows : I put the turpentine in a bladder, the mouth of
which is firmly tied with a waxed string ; and nothing more is
necessary than to place the bladder, thus prepared, in the box
with the birds, or to tie it to the pedestal on which the birds
are perched, in a case. If there be any maggots on the birds,

* I did not find, after many trials, that tallow placed in cases containing zoologi-
cal specimens does any good Ed.

Specimens from the Depredations of Insects. 157

I have invariably found, that they will soon be dislodged from
the feathers, fall to the bottom of the case, and die in the course
of two days. I have also made the experiment of introducing
the common house-fly, the large blue-bottle-fly, and moths, into
a case of birds so defended, through a small hole in the bottom
of the case. The moment the flies enter the box, they begin to
vomit a whitish, glutinous matter, they are much agitated, and
the largest of them died in seven minutes. I have, in like man-
ner, repeatedly introduced active American cockroaches, and
these strong insects soon became uneasy, often rubbed their
sides with their hind feet, and died in about an hour and a half.
I next got a bird-skin full of living maggots, and placed it in
my defended case ; in about three hours they were seen coming
out in all directions, and fell to the bottom of the case, where
they died. For large cases of birds, a pig’s or a sheep’s blad-
der is sufficient ; for middle sized cases, a lamb’s or a rabbit’s
bladder will do ; and for small ones, we may use a rat’s bladder.
The turpentine evidently penetrates through the bladder, as it
fills the case with its strong smell.”

The powerful anthelmintic effect of oil of turpentine, corro-
borates Mr Gibson’s account of its poisonous quality to the larvae
of insects ; and its instantaneously killing perfect insects, must be
familiar to the entomologist. I may here remark, that I have
found the common receipt of dipping the pin, with which the
insect is to be transfixed, in aquafortis, is by no means so speedy
a method of putting an end to its sufferings, as applying a single
drop of turpentine to the corselet. Though disappointed in the
use of the pin dipt in acid, I never found the largest insects,
Libellulce , Scar abaci , Blattce , or Scolopendrce, that could,
for a moment, resist the application of oil of ’turpentine*. I
ought to add, however, that my entomological pursuits have
been few ; for the difficulty of speedily killing insects, without
injuring the specimen, early gave me a distaste to that branch of
Natural History.

The difficulty of destroying the minute white acafr that in-
fest the hairs of specimens in collections, is well known. On the

* I have seen several coleopterous insects swimming about for some time in
strong spirits ; but immersion in oil of turpentine, uniformly, was speedily fatal.

138 Mr NicoFs Notice of Zircon found in the

neck of a large specimen of Phoca leonina (Linn.), in our Mu-
seum, I lately observed innumerable acari. 1 directed the skin
to be carefully and repeatedly washed with a strong solution of
corrosive sublimate in spirit, seemingly without much effect.
Some of them even crawled among the hairs while still wet with
this solution; but on brushing the part infested by these ver-
min with oil of turpentine they speedily disappeared.

Though similar facts are not unknown to naturalists, it is
singular that this liquid has not been hitherto applied to pre-
serve dried zoological specimens from insects ; and Natural His-
tory will thereafter derive much benefit from this simple and
effectual process. As far as I can judge, this method promises,
from its cheapness, and easy application, “to be very useful, not
only in collections of Natural History exposed to public view,
but will materially abridge the labour, and save the precious
time, of the scientific traveller in preserving his collections. It
will also, I doubt not, prove an acceptable boon to furriers and
other dealers in peltry *.

Art. XXIII. — Notice of Zircon found in the 'primitive Island
of Scalpay , on the East Coast of Harris. By William
Nicol, Esq. Lecturer on Natural Philosophy. Communica-
ted by the Author -f.

The distribution of simple minerals in the various rock-for-
mations of Scotland, has hitherto engaged comparatively little
of the attention of mineralogists, geognosy being still, with the
majority of naturalists, the favourite pursuit. However much
we may feel disposed to exult in the striking discoveries and
grand views of the mineral kingdom, opened up to us by the
sagacity, skill, and enterprise of geologists ; still we cannot help
expressing our regret that the minuter, although equally beau-
tiful, displays of the subterranean world, as exhibited to the at-
tention of the mineralogist in the various forms, structures, and
arrangements of simple minerals, should have hitherto been so

* Oil of turpentine is used in Ceylon in India for destroying bugs, a prac-
tice also to be recommended for adoption in this country — Ed.

f Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society 17th Dec. 1825.

Island of Scalpay. 139

little regarded by the mineralogists of this country. It cannot,
with any justice, be said, that the mountains, and hills, and cliffs
of Scotland, are barren of simple minerals ; for the small portion
of attention bestowed on their investigation, has proved, not on-
ly that this is not the case, but, on the contrary, that our mineral
formations promise, to the skilful and active explorer, as abun-
dant a return as these of any other country in Europe. Let,
then, some of our mineralogists devote themselves to that de-
lightful occupation, the tracing out of simple minerals in our
strata, beds, and veins, and ere long the mountains of Scotland
will become as distinguished in mineralogy for the beauty and
variety of their simple minerals, as they now are for the num-
berless important geognostical relations which they exhibit.

Already Professor Jameson has enumerated, in his mineral o-
gical writings, the following gems as natives of Scotland, viz.
Precious Beryl, Schorlite, Cinnamon- Stone, Zircon, Topaz,
Garnet, and Amethyst *. Of these gems the schorlite and zir-
con are the rarest.

During a tour through the Hebrides last summer, I visited
the lone and rugged regions of Harris, whose geognosy, like
that of the whole of the dreary island range, named Long
Island, we may say is almost unknown; for the vague and
rambling notices published, contain little information, and that
little not deserving of commendation, on the score either of ac-
curacy or consistency.

In a small island named Scalpay, situated on the east coast
of Harris, I met with crystals of one of the rarer of the gems, —
the Zircon.

These were imbedded in a mass of chlorite, subordinate to
gneiss, and in some parts of the rock were very numerous. The
crystals are brown, inclining more or less to red. The follow-
ing crystallizations were met with.

1. Rectangular four-sided prism, sometimes slightly trunca-
ted on the lateral edges, and generally acutely acuminated on
each extremity by eight planes, of which two and two meet un-
der very obtuse angles, and are set on the lateral planes of the
— — ; —

* Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles , 2 vols. 4to. ; System of Mineralogy , 3 vols.
8 vo. ; Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society , vol. i. p.445 ; Manual
of Mineralogy ; Annals of Philosophy ; and Edinburgh Philosophical Journal \

140 Mr Christie on the Effects of Temperature

prism; and these again obtusely acuminated by four planes,
which are set on the obtuse edges of the first acumination. This
second acumination appears sometimes to terminate in a line,
when two opposite planes are much larger than the others.

2. Rectangular four-sided prism, acuminated by four planes,
which are set on the lateral planes, and the angles formed by
the meeting of the acuminating and lateral planes bevelled.

3. In some crystals the acumination on one extremity is sim-
ply the acute eight-sided pyramid, while, on the opposite, it is
the double acumination already mentioned.

In some specimens, the length of the crystals is three or four
times greater than the breadth, and in others the crystal is so
short, that the acuminating planes of the opposite ends meet in
the lateral edges. The surface of the crystals is smooth and
shining, and they range from transparent to feebly translucent.
They are generally small, many of them not exceeding in size
the head of the smallest pin. The largest I detached is about
j^ths of an inch in length.

Specific gravity 4.409, Dr Turner.

It is right to add, that the chlorite containing the zircon is
associated with magnetic iron-ore, talc-slate, and serpentine.

Art. XXIV. — On the Effects of Temperature on the Intensity
of Magnetic Forces ; and on the Diurnal Variation of the
Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity. By S. H. Christie, Esq.
M. A. of the Royal Military Academy.

In the last Number of this Journal, we laid before our readers
an interesting extract from the memoir of Mr Christie on Mag-
netism, &c. not then published. This important memoir ha-
ving just appeared in the Philosophical Transactions , Part I.
for 1825, we shall now state some of the facts and views which
it contains. It commences as follows.

ct In the paper on the diurnal deviations of the horizontal
needle when under the influence of magnets, which the Presi-
dent did me the honour to present, I stated that these deviations
were partly the effects of changes that took place in the tempe-
rature of the magnets ; and that although the conclusions which

on the Intensity of Magnetic Forces , tyc. 141

I drew from the observations respecting the increase and de-
crease of the terrestrial magnetic forces during the day would
not be materially affected, it was my intention to undertake a
series of experiments for the purpose of determining the pre-
cise effects of changes of temperature in the magnets, so as to be
able to free the observations entirely from such effects.

“ These experiments were immediately made ; but I was in-
duced, from some effects which I observed, to carry them to a
greater extent, in the scale of temperature, than was necessary
for the object which I had at first in view. In consequence of
this, and the length of the calculations into which I have been
obliged to enter, the accomplishment of my purpose was delayed
for a considerable time, and continued indisposition has since
prevented me, until now, completing the arrangement of the
tables of results.

44 In the present paper, I propose to detail the experiments
which I made, in order to determine the effect of changes of
temperature on the forces of the magnets, to the extent to
which I observed their temperature to vary, during my obser-
vations on the diurnal changes in the direction of the needle,
when under their influence ; to apply the results which I ob-
tained to the correction of the observations themselves, thereby
accounting, for the apparent anomalies noticed by Mr Barlow
and myself, in the observations made in-doors and in the open
air; and, by means of these corrected observations, to point
out the diurnal variations in the terrestrial magnetic intensity.*”

Having found it impracticable to determine purely from ob-
servation the portion of the arc of deviation due to the changes
which he noticed in the temperature of the magnets, Mr Chris-
tie was, therefore, under the necessity of having recourse to
theory ; and he adopted the simplest, and that which is most
generally received, viz. that the forces which two magnets ex-
ert upon one another may be referred to two centres or poles
in each, near their respective ends ; and that for either pole in
one of the magnets, one pole of the other magnet is urged to-
wards it, and the other from it, by forces varying inversely as
the squares of their respective distances from that pole.

After this statement, he proceeds to explain and exemplify
the application of the theory to the investigation detailed in the

142 Mr Christie on the Effects of Temperature

paper ; and then, describing the compass and magnets made
use of (the verbal description being illustrated by an engra-
ving), he gives the subjoined account of the mode of experi-
menting adopted.

<c A meridian line being drawn on a firm tabic, standing on a
stone floor, the compass was accurately adjusted on it, so that
the needle pointed to zero on the graduated circle. The mag-
nets were fixed at the bottoms of earthen pans, secured in such
a way to rectangular pieces of board that their positions could
not be accidentally changed, and projecting from these boards
were small pieces of brass, on each of which a line was drawn, to
indicate the position of the axis of the magnet ; the horizontal
distance of the edge of each of the projections nearest to the
needle from the corresponding end of the magnet within the
pan, was exactly three inches ; I could, therefore, in any in-
stance, determine very accurately the distance of the centre
of the magnet from that of the needle. The pans were placed
on the table, so that the indexes on the pieces of brass coin-
cided with the meridian line. Water was now poured into
the pans, and the temperature of the magnets was varied by va-
rying the temperature of the water. The temperature of each
magnet was ascertained by a thermometer placed in the water,
with its bulb resting on that pole of the magnet which was near-
est to the centre of the needle. In my first observations I,
however, made use of only one thermometer, which was moved
during them from one magnet to the other.”

“ The observations contained in the tables were made thus :
I first noted the time, and then the temperature of the north
magnet ; after which I placed the thermometer on the pole of
the south magnet. I next observed the westerly point, at
which the needle was held in cequilibrio by the terrestrial
forces and those of the magnets, slightly agitating the needle,
that it might the more readily assume the true position ; from
this it was led, by means of a very small and weak magnet,
held on the outside of the compass-box, towards the easterly
point of equilibrium, which was observed in the same manner ;
and from this it was led in the same way towards the souther-
ly point. After these observations of the points of equilibri-
um, the temperature of the south magnet being observed, the

on the Intensity of Magnetic Forces , 148

time at which the observations concluded was noted. The tempe-
rature of the water in the pans was now increased or diminished,
according to circumstances, by the addition of other water, and
the pans covered over, to prevent any rapid changes of tempe-
rature during the observations. After allowing a short time
for the magnets to acquire the temperature of the water, the
observations were repeated. The scale made use of for the
temperature was in all cases that of Fahrenheit.”

From the results of the observations given in the tables de-
scribed in the paragraph last quoted, we extract the following :

“ Table of the Magnetic Intensities corresponding to different
Temperatures of the Magnets. 6th June 1823.

Mean Temp,
of the Mag-
nets.

Diff. of Temp,
in successive
observations.

Magnetic In-
tensity orVa-
F

lues of — •

Variation of
jjjfor l°Fahr.
F

°rA‘M

62.05

212.5620

59.05

— 3.00

212.9423

0.1268

77-65

+ 18.60

210.6228

0.1247

74.00

_ 3.65

210.9892

0.1004

70.65

— 3.35

211.4178

0.1279

67.15

— 3.50

211.8353

0.1193

63.80

— 3.35

212.2167

0.1138

62.05

— 1.75

212.4640

0.1413

Some anomalies observed by Mr Barlow between the daily
changes in the direction of a needle, when placed in the house
and when in the open air *, which Mr Christie also noticed, and
stated, in a former paper, his opinion that they had arisen from
the difference in the changes of temperature in the magnets in
the two situations, are next investigated in the memoir before
us ; observations on the temperature of the magnets having
been made in the open air, corresponding to those made in-
doors.

We select the subjoined table from among the results of this
branch of Mr Christie’s inquiry.

* These anomalies are described by Mr Barlow in his paper on the daily
variation of the horizontal and dipping needles under a reduced directive
power.

144 Mr Christie on the Diurnal Variation

Mean Temp,
of the Mag-
nets.

Diff. of Temp,
in successive
observations.

Magnetic In-
tensity or Va-
lue of

Variation of

^forl°Fahr.

A F

or A . —

49°30

224.0981

60.25

4- 10.95

222.8171

0.1179

68.25

4- 8.00

221.7046

0.1391

74.60

+ 6.35

220.7198

0.1551

61.75

— 12.85

222.3967

0.1305

73.80

+ 12.05

220.8778

0.1260

55.58

222.6462

66.00

4- 10.42

221.2655

0.1315

73.60

+ 7-60

220.1532

0.1461

56.90

— 16.70

222.5145

0.1314

A double series of observations on the diurnal changes in the
positions of the points of equilibrium at which a magnetic needle
was retained by the joint action of terrestrial magnetism and of
two bar magnets, having their axes horizontal and in the mag-
netic meridian, and their centres at the distance 21*21 inches
from the centre of the needle, afford by correction and calcula-
tion the following

Tables of the Mean Terrestrial Magnetic Intensities at diffe-
rent Hours during the Day.

1. From observations made within doors.

Time

Obser-

vation.

Mean of the Observations of
May 22, 23, 24, 25, 26.

Mean of the Observations of
May 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

Mean of the
two Sets.

Azimuth of
the points of
Equilibrium.

Terrestrial

Magnetic

Intensity.

Azimuth of
the points of
Equilibrium.

Terrestrial

Magnetic

Intensity.

Terrestrial

Magnetic

Intensity.

6h00m
7 30
9 00

10 30
Noon.
1 30

3 00

4 30
6 00
7 30
9 30

11 20

81° 27.3'

82 19.9

83 13.9
83 40.5
82 22.8
81 43.5
81 29.1
81 11.5
81 17*7
81 00.9
80 52.6

1.00175

1.00100

1.00031

1.00000

1.00096

1.00151

1.00173

1.00199

1.00190

1.00216

1.00229

81° 56.9'

82 27.4

83 33.6

84 16.2
83 40.3
82 39.5

81 57.2

82 10.8
81 41.7
81 20.5
81 14.5
81 19-7

1.00170

1.00128

1.00046

1.00000

1.00038

1.00112

1.00170

1.00151

1.00192

1.00224
1.00233

1.00225

1.00173

1.00114

1.00039

1.00000

1.00067

1.00132

1.00172

1.00175

1.00191

1.00220

1.00231

1.00225

“ From the mean obtained here, it appears that the terrestrial
magnetic intensity was the least between 10 and 11 o’clock in

145

of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity.

the morning, the time, nearly, when the sun was on the mag-
netic meridian ; that it increased from this time until between
9 and 10 o'clock in the evening ; after which it decreased, and
continued decreasing during the morning until the time of the
minimum.”

c2. From observations made in the open air.

Time of Ob-
servation.

Mean of the Observations of
June 20, 21, 22.

Azimuth of the
point of Equili-
brium.

Terrestrial Mag-
netic Intensi-
ty.

6h 00m

79° 30.0

1.00112

7 30

79 51.7

1.00061

9 00

80 24.7

1.00028

10 30

80 42.2

1.00000

Noon.

80 32.7

1.00015

1 30

79 23.0

1.00134

3 00

78 53.2

1.00188

4 30

78 34.8

1.00223

6 00

78 20.3

1.00251

7 30

78 26.5

1.00239

9 00

78 42.3

1.00209

“ F rom these it appears, that the minimum intensity happened
nearly at the time the sun passed the magnetic meridian, and
rather later than in May, which was also the case with the time
of the sun’s passage over the meridian. The intensity increased
until about 6 o’clock in the afternoon, after which time it ap-
pears to have decreased during the evening, and to have been
decreasing from an early hour in the morning.

' “ The general agreement of these intensities with those de-
duced from the observations made in-doors, is as near as could
be expected, considering that an interval of twenty days had
elapsed between the two sets of observations. From this, and
the agreement in the manner in which the westerly and easterly
points of equilibrium approach and recede from the north in
the two cases, which I have before pointed out, we may con-
clude, that there is nothing anomalous in the action which takes
place on the needle under the different circumstances of its be-
ing placed in-doors or in the open air ; and that the apparent
anomaly in the directions of the needle in the two cases, which
VOL. XIV. NO. £7. JANUARY 18^6. K

146 Mr Christie on the Diurnal Variation

was observed by Mr Barlow and myself, arose from the cause
which I have assigned for it in my former paper ; namely, the
difference in the changes of temperature in the magnets when
in-doors and when in the open air.

66 The diurnal changes in the terrestrial magnetic intensity
have been determined by Professor Hansteen, by means of the
vibrations of a needle delicately suspended. From these obser-
vations it appears, that, in general, the time of minimum inten-
sity was between 10 and 11 o’clock in the morning ; that the
maximum happened between 4 and 7 for the month of May
1820, and about 7 o’clock in the evening for the month of June.
The intensity which, in these observations, is taken as unity, is
that deduced from an observation made during an aurora bo-
realis; but, for the purpose of comparison, I have, for the
months of May and June, taken the intensity deduced from his
observations at 10h 30™ in the morning as unity, reduced the
intensities, which he gives for other times in the day, to this
standard, and placed them in the following table, with the cor-
responding intensities deduced from my own observations.

Intensity deduced from Hansteen' s
Observations in 1820.

Intensity deduced from the preceding
Observations in 1823.

Time.

May.

J une.

Time.

May.

June.

8h 00m A. M.

1.00034

1.00010

7h 30m A. M.

1.00114

1.00061

10 30

1.00000

10 30

1.00000

4 00 p. m.

1.00299

1.00251

4 30 p. m.

1.00175

1.00223

7 00

1.00294

1.00302

7 30

1.00220

1.00239

10 30

1.00191

1.00267

9 30

1.00231

1.00209

“ The principal difference to be observed in the nature of the
changes of intensity during the day, in the two cases, is, that,
from my observations, the intensity appears to decrease more
rapidly in the morning, and increase more slowly in the after-
noon, than it does from those of Professor Hansteen ; but the
general character of these changes is as nearly the same as we
can expect from methods so different, at different times, and at
places where both the variation and dip of the needle are dif-
ferent. My object, however, was to point out what might be
deduced from a series of such observations as I have detailed,
rather than to compare the results deduced from them with

of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity. 1 47

those obtained by others, for which purpose it would have been
necessary to have continued them for a greater length of time.

“ We have seen, that with the magnets X made use of, their
intensity being nearly 218 M, at the temperature 60°, a change
in their temperature of 1° would cause a change of intensity of
0.128 M ; or taking the intensity of the magnets 1, for each
degree of increase in temperature wre should have a decrease of
intensity of 0.000564. Now, if the same, or nearly the same,
take place with all magnets, it is evidently necessary, in all
cases where the terrestrial magnetic intensity is to be deduced
from the vibrations of a needle, that great care should be taken
to make the observations at the same temperature ; or, the pre-
cise effect of change of temperature having been previously as-
certained, to correct the observations according to the diffe-
rence of the temperatures at which they were made. X am not
aware that any one has yet attempted to make such a correction ;
but it is manifest from the experiments I have described, that it
is indispensable, in order to deduce correct results from the times
of vibration of a needle in different parts of the earth, where the
temperatures at which the observations are made are almost
necessarily different, that these temperatures should be regis-
tered, and the times of vibration reduced to a standard of tem-
perature. It appears to me, that the effects will be the most
sensible in large and powerful needles ; and consequently, in
making use of such, the reduction for a variation of temperature
will be most necessary. There would be no difficulty in this
reduction, if we could give, in terms of the intensity of any mag-
net, the increment or decrement of intensity corresponding to a
certain decrement or increment of temperature at all tempera-
tures. To determine this accurately would, however, require a
great variety of experiments to be made with magnets of very
different intensities ; but, as I have not made these, X must con-
tent myself for the present with pointing out some of the facts
which I have ascertained from more extended experiments than
those X have already given, reserving the detail of these experi-
ments for another opportunity, should they be deemed of suffi-
cient interest.

64 These experiments were made with a balance of torsion,

K %

148 Mr Christie on the Diurnal Variation

the needle being suspended by a brass- wire ^i^tli inch *n dia~
meter. By them I ascertained the following facts.

u 1. Commencing with a temperature — 3° Fahrenheit, up
to a temperature of 127°, as the temperature of the magnets
increased, their intensity decreased. Owing to the almost total
absence of snow during the winter, I was unable to reduce
lower the temperature of the large magnets which I made use of ;
but, from an experiment I made at the Royal Institution, in
conjunction with Mr Faraday, in which a small fnagnet, enve-
loped in lint well moistened with sulphuret of carbon, was placed
on the edges of a basin containing sulphuric acid, under the
receiver of an air-pump, I found that the intensity of the mag-
net increased to the lowest point to which the temperature was
reduced, and that the intensity decreased on the admission of
air into the receiver, and consequent increase of temperature in
the magnet. This is in direct contradiction to the notion which
has been entertained of destroying the magnetism of the needle
by the application of intense cold.

“ 2. With a certain increment of temperature, the decrement
of intensity is not constant at all temperatures, but increases as
the temperature increases.

u 3. From a temperature of about 80°, the intensity decreases
very rapidly as the temperature increases : so that, if up to this
temperature, the differences of the decrements are nearly con-
stant, to ascertain which requires a precision in the experiments
that perhaps their nature does not admit of, beyond this tempe-
rature the differences of the decrements also increase.

“ 4. Beyond the temperature of 100°, a portion of the power
of the magnet is permanently destroyed.

46 5. On a change of temperature, the most considerable por-
tion of the effect on the intensity of the magnet, is produced
instantaneously ; shewing that the magnetic power resides on
or very near the surface. This is more particularly observable
when the temperature of the magnet is increased, little change
of intensity taking place after the first effect is produced ; on
the contrary, when the temperature of the magnet is diminished,
although nearly the whole effect is produced instantly, yet the
magnet appears to continue to gain a small power for some
time.

of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity . 149

u 6. The effects produced on unpolarised iron by changes of
temperature, are directly the reverse of those produced on a
magnet ; an increase of temperature causing an increase in the
magnetic power of the iron, the limits between which I observed
being 50° and 100°. That the effect on iron of an increase of
temperature should be the reverse of that produced on a mag-
net, is, I think, a strong argument against the hypothesis, that
the action of iron upon the needle arises from the polarity which
is communicated to it from the earth.

“ It may be objected to the method which I have adopted
for determining the diurnal changes in the terrestrial magnetic
intensity, that, after the observations have been made, they
require a correction for temperature, which can only be deter-
mined by experiments previously made on the magnets and
needle employed. The same objection may, however, be made
against the method of determining the intensity by the vibra-
tions of a needle. As such a correction has not, in the latter
case, been hitherto applied, the results which have been obtained
relative either to the diurnal changes of intensity, or the intensi-
ties in different parts of the earth, by means of observations on
the vibrations of a needle, will be so far incorrect as the needle
may happen to have been affected by differences in the tempe-
rature. The method I have described, however, possesses ad-
vantages over the other : a very considerable one is, that, what-
ever effects are produced, may easily be observed with consider-
able precision, the time required for each observation being not
more than five minutes ; another is, that, the magnets being im-
mersed in water, as far as regards them, we may command the
temperature at which the observations are to be made, and thus
limit the correction for temperature to a very small quantity ;
and it possesses another decided advantage, that whatever are
the effects produced on the needle by atmospheric changes, they
are, by means of it, rendered immediately visible, and can be
observed as they occur

* A series of experiments on the Effects of Temperature on Magnetism,
by Dr Kupfer, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry at Kasan, has
appeared in the 6th volume of Karsten’s Archiv fur Naturliche— Edit.

( 150 )

Art. XXV. — List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden , Edinburgh , during the last three
months. Communicated by Professor Guaham.

Acacia Lopliantha.

Amaryllis aurea.

Banksia ericifolia.

Bignonia grandifolia.

Camellia oleifera.

Columnea hirsuta.

Cunonia capensis.

Cyathodes abietina.

Epidendrum umbellatum.

Eranthemum variabile.

Fuchsia arborescens.

We have plants raised from seeds
under this name, which can be
readily distinguished, by their
remarkable glaucous appearance,
from those which have flower-
ed ; but as this seems the only
distinction, it is not unlikely
they may lose it when they grow
older. In Bot. Mag. fol. 2620. a
hope is expressed that this spe-
cies may be found hardy enough
to bear our winters without pro-
tection ; but it and the F. ex-
corticata were among the first
which were cut up by the cold
this winter, in a plot of the dif-
ferent species of the genus in
the Botanic Garden. It forms,
however, a very handsome green-
house shrub.

Gonolobus diadematus.

Hemimeris peduncularis.

Ixora arborescens.

Jasminum paniculatum.

Leclienaultia formosa.

Liparia vestita.

Lobelia gracilis.

Ornithidium reflexum.

Rhus vernix.

Dec. 6. 1825.
Thunbergia capensis.

coccinea.

This fine stove plant was received
from the Calcutta Garden under
this name in 1 823 ; but we have
no history of the species.

1 would suggest the following as
its essential character and de-
scription :

T. coccinea. — Corolla subringenti,
limbo arete reflexo ; racemis in-
terrupts, terminalibus, secun-
dis ; foliis angulatis, hastatis ;
caule volubili.

Description — Root throwing up
many stems. Stems branching
from the bottom ; branches axil-
lary, opposite, slightly swollen
at the joints, and climbing to a
great height, twining from left
to right, green, smooth. Leaves
opposite, petioled, pale green,
lighter on the back, smooth, an-
gular, especially towards the
base, hastate, acuminate, 5 larger
2 or 4 smaller nerves ; nerves
prominent, especially on the back,
and there reticulated. Petiole
half the length of the leaf, chan-
nelled above. Flowering branches
long (1-2 feet), axillary, leafy ;
the leaves opposite, and resemb-
ling those on the stem, but smal-
ler, and gradually diminishing
in size, and becoming cordate to-
wards the flowers. Racemes long,
terminal, interrupted, secund.
Pedicels two-thirds of the length
of the flowers, two, three, or
more, arising from the axilla of
each leaf or bractea, stout, and
swelling slightly upwards ; brac-
teas often awanting towards the
extremity of the raceme. Outer
calyx as long as the tube of the
corolla, almond-shaped, reddish-
brown, bursting along one edge,
and falling after the corolla in
one piece ; veins inconspicuous,
numerous, parallel. Inner calyx
cup-shaped, nearly entire. Co-

Dr Graham's List of Rare Plants. 1 51

rolla subringent ; tube pale red,
secreting a large quantity of ho-
ney, dilated at the base, mouth
compressed, oblique ; limb bright
red, 5-cleft, segments obtuse,
closely reflexed upon the tube
and outer calyx. Stamens in-
cluded, 4 fertile, didynamous, 1
abortive, varying in length, and
adnate towards its base with
the tube of the corolla behind
the style ; filaments inserted in-
to the corolla where it begins to
dilate at the base, stout, red,
compressed ; anthers large, yel-
low, ciliated, mucronate at the
base, mucros red, smooth. Ger-
men yellow, urceolate, beaked,
beak green. Style rather slen-
der, longer than the filaments,
white, compressed, bent to a

right angle near the top ; stigma
white, cleft, sub-exserted.

This species, as well as some of
those lately published, shews
that the form of the corolla va-
ries greatly, and seems to indi-
cate the propriety of striking it
cut of the essential generic cha-
racter. This species also shews
that in the genus there is a want
of uniformity of calyx.

Tulbagia alliacea.

Valisneria spiralis (foem.)

This most desirable plant was in-
troduced into the garden from
the St Lawrence, in the neigh-
bourhood of Sorell, 160 miles
above Quebec, by the kindness
of the Countess of Dalhousie.

Art. XXVI . — Meteorological Observations made at Leith .

By Messrs Coldstream and Foggo.

rip

JL HE journal, from which the following monthly results are
extracted, is kept about SO feet above the level of the sea,
and a few hundred yards distant from it. The Thermometer
is registered at 9 a. m. and 9 p. m. ; the Barometer at 9 a. m.
Noon, 4 p. m. and 9 p. m. ; the Bain-Gauge and Wind-Vane at
Noon. The Hygrometrical observations are made by means of
two Thermometers, one of which has its bulb covered with silk,
and moistened with water ; their indications are registered at
noon.

SEPTEMBER 18 f 5.

Results.

1. Temperature. Fahr. Tfier.

Mean of the month,

Maximum by Register Thermometer, ..../OO.OOO

Minimum by ditto, 40.000

Range, „ 29.000

Mean of the extremes, 54.500

2. Pressure. Inches.

Mean of the month,

Maximum observed, 30.300

Minimum observed, 29.300

Range, 1.000

152 Messrs Coldstream and Foggo’s Meteorological

3. Humidity. Fahr. Tlier.

Mean difference between the two Thermometers, 4°. 700

Maximum ditto, 13.000

Minimum ditto, 0.000

4. Fain, 1.32 inchesin 14 days.

5. Winds,... NE. 3, E. 4, SE. 1, SW. 4, W. 8, NW. 1, Yar. 9 days.

Remarks.

3d. — This day was particularly fine : the brightest sunshine prevailed.

The following thermometrical observations were made about 2 p. m.

Temperature of air in the shade, - - 66°.0

of dew-point, - - 47-0

of garden mould exposed all day to
the sun’s rays at the surface, 121.0

of the same, at the depth of 2| inches, 81.5

1 foot, 76.0

18 inches, 67.0

2 feet, 63.0

of garden mould always in the shade,
at the surface, - - 62.0

of the same, at the depth of 2 inches, 61.0

1 foot, 60.0

18 inches, 59.5

2 feet, 58.0

In page 67. line 9. of this Number, in the paper on Solar Fadiation,
the temperature of the air in Mr Campbell’s observation should be stated 28°.

4 th. — This evening, at sunset, there was a gorgeous display of colour in
the west. Amongst the numerous tints that appeared, the green was particu-
larly distinct, and remained so for a considerable time. The sky was filled
with rather dense cirro-strati.

10 th. — Since the 4th, the weather has been unpleasant ; the pressure gra-
dually decreasing, and the temperature of the dew-point rising. To-day, at
noon, the latter was 53°; on the 4th it was 41° *. Barometer at 4 p.m. 29.30.

* During the summer months, our observations on the dew-point were
made by means of a contrivance similar in all respects to that which Mr Tho-
mas J ones has proposed in a paper read lately before the Foyal Society of
^London, as a new Hygrometer. We used a common thermometer, with a
bulb blown of black glass, the upper half of which was covered with muslin,
and surrounded with a rim of silver, fitting closely the largest circumference,
and so hollowed out, as to be capable of holding a small quantity of a liquid.
Sulphuric ether being dropped upon this surface, the whole bulb was quickly
cooled, and the deposition was visible on the lower and exposed surface. This
instrument is most easily used. Even in the driest weather in July, when
we had the dew-point sometimes 27° and 30° below the temperature of the
air, we could obtain a deposition with eight or ten drops of ether in the course
of two minutes. In general, we employed only five or six drops of ether,
and completed each observation in little more than one minute. We had used
this instrument for four months before we heard of Mr Jones’s invention; but
that gentleman’s paper was read to the Foyal Society before we had com-
pleted our design.

Observations made at Leith,

153

11 /A— -Between 4 and 6 p. m. we had a thunder-storm. The nimbi came
from the SSE. and were of a deep bluish-grey colour : the lightning was pale,
but vivid. The discharges were accompanied by very violent gusts of wind,
and heavy rain. Barometer 29.44, rising; temp. 57°.5. The rain ceased
about 7 o’clock : the night was calm and serene. About 10 p. m. an aurora
was observed playing with considerable brilliancy. The storm extended over
the greatest part of Scotland, but was felt most severely in Perthshire.

12th. — At 9 a. m. temp. 59°.0 ; dew-point 56°.5. At noon, temp. 64°.0 ;
dew-point 56°. 5. Very unpleasant weather ; much rain ; distant thunder heard
in the afternoon.

20th. — For several evenings past, there have been distinct convergences of
the solar beams at sunset. When this beautiful phenomenon is watched for,
we find that it is by no means so uncommon as was formerly supposed.

27th. — After a day of the brightest sunshine, the sky was overcast towards
the evening by small cirro-cumuli , arranged in parallel bars, whose direction
was nearly north and south. These caused a general dulness, till the sun got
very near the horizon, when, suddenly, the rays shooting through a small open-
ing in the clouds, and illuminating their lower surfaces, produced over the
whole western sky, quite up to the zenith, the richest golden and crimson
tints it is possible to imagine : these, varying in intensity and depth every
second, gradually faded, as the sun sunk below the horizon, but had not
wholly vanished 15 minutes after he had set. It is worthy of remark, that,
whenever the sun’s disk disappeared, the mountains, and indeed the whole
surface of the earth, assumed a deep purple, approaching to violet colour, which
remained till the moon’s rays had usurped the dominion of the night. This
splendid sunset was observed throughout all Scotland : indeed, it is probable
that it was seen in most parts of the island, as we have learned from different
accounts, that it bore the same characters in Caithness that it did in Cumber-
land.

30th. — During the last four days, the weather has been very fine. Winds
E. and NE. Bar. 29.90 to 30.36.

OCTOBER.

Results.

1. Temperature. Fahr. Ther.

Mean of the Month, 51°. 241

Maximum by Register Thermometer, 68.000

Minimum by ditto, 33.500

Range, 34.500

Mean of the extremes, 50.750

2. Pressure. Inches.

Mean of the Month, 29.738

Maximum observed, 30.250

Minimum, 29.000

Range, 1.250

3. Humidity. Fahr. Ther.

Mean difference between the two Thermometers, 3°.500

Maximum ditto,' 8.500

Minimum ditto, 0.000

154 Messrs Coldstream and Foggos Meteorological

4. Rain, 2.6 inches in 20 days.

5. Winds, N. 2, E. 1, S. 4, SW. 7, W. 11, NW. 6 days.

Remarks.

This month has been characterised by the prevalence of strong westerly
gales, accompanied during the first two weeks by heavy rains, and, towards
the latter end, by frosts.

7 th — Much rain fell to-day. Mean pressure 29,605. Mean temp. 54°.5.
Dew-point 54°.0. An aurora was seen in the evening : observed synchronous-
ly in the north of Scotland.

17$ — Solar Radiation at 9 a. m. 95°. Mean temperature 49°.5. Dew-
point 36°.5. Weather variable, showery.

1 8th — Temperature of the preceding night 37°.

21s£. — The hygrometrical observations of the last four days have illus-
trated very well the beautiful law, first developed by Mr Anderson of Perth,
of the coincidence between the dew-point and the minimum temperature of
the night. The following is an abstract of these * :

1825.

Temperature.

Weather.

Min.

Max.

Ther.

Dew-p.

DifF.

October 17-

46°. 0

55°.0

49°.0

36°.5

12°. 5

Variable; showery.

18.

37.0

55.0

47.0

44.0

3.0

Dull; fine.

19.

43.4

49.0

44.0

37.0

7-0

Clear : then rain.

20.

21.

36.0

35.0

42.5

40.0

35*0

5.0

Clear; very fine.
Ditto, ditto.

28th A lunar halo, with a diameter of 90°, was seen to-night formed in

cumulated cirro-strati. Pressure diminishing.

30$.— Boisterous gale from NW. Maximum temperature 60°.

NOVEMBER.

1. Temperature.

Mean of the Month,

Maximum by Register Thermometer,

Minimum by ditto,

Range,

Mean of the extremes,

2. Pressure.

Mean of the month, ,
Maximum observed,,
Minimum observed v
Range,

Eahr. Then

56.500
25.000

31.500

40.500
Inches.

30.120

28.670

1.450

a Since we commenced our observations with Mr Jones’s hygrometer, it
has often occurred to us, that horticulturists might use such an instrument
with great advantage in this variable climate. It is now well established, that
the temperature of the dew-point, as observed in the afternoon in any season,
is very nearly the same with the minimum temperature of the succeeding
night ; and hence, by making use of Mr Jones’s instrument, a frost might be
announced in sufficient time to admit of the necessary precautions being taken
to secure the safety of tender plants, &c. We are well assured that no gar-
dener would find any difficulty in using the instrument.

155

Observations made at Leith .

3, Humidity. * Fahr. Ther.

Mean difference between the two thermometers, ..« 2°-700

Maximum observed, 4.500

Minimum observed, 0.000

4. Rain, 1.97 inches in 17 days.

5. Winds.......... N. 2, E. 2, SW, 4, W. 14, NW. 5, Var. 3 days.

Remarks .

3d. — The morning was very stormy. Wind N. very strong. Heavy rain.
Barometer 28.670. Temp. 43°. Mean pressure of the day 28.942. In the
evening it cleared, and the stars shone brightly. An aurora was seen at
11 o’clock.

4 th — Pressure increasing rapidly. Mean temp, of preceding night 38°.
Wind NW. ; pleasant day. Another aurora of great beauty appeared in the
evening : the rays were very numerous and vivid, but they remained visible
only for a few minutes. The phenomenon was neither preceded nor followed
by the diffuse illumination of the northern sky which is generally seen along
with this meteor.

6th. — Very stormy. Pressure 28.80, increasing. Wind W. boisterous.

7^."— Wind moderate. Mean temp. 36°. Mean pressure 29.04. An au-
rora at 9 p. m. ; very bright.

Mi. — Between 10 and 1 1 a. m. there appeared a solar halo, formed in fleecy
cirro-strati. It was simple, without colour, and had a diameter of 44°, The
pressure again diminished towards night, and much rain fell.

1 2th. — Very pleasant day. Wind SW. gentle. Mean temp. 34°. At
noon, the thermometer, covered with black wool, rose in the sun’s rays to 65°.

14th At 8 p. m. when the sky was perfectly serene, a large meteor was

seen to pass from E. to W. through a space in the heavens equal to 25°, ex-
ploding like a rocket nearly in our zenith : it left a very bright luminous tail
in its course, which remained visible for nearly two minutes after the meteor
itself had disappeared. Wind W. strong. Barometer 30.07, rising.

1 8th. — This evening, the wind blew from SW. with the violence of a hur-
ricane, for about two hours. Barometer 29.00.

22 d. — Last night, a meteor, similar to that observed on the 14th, was
seen far to the south, moving from E. to W. with great velocity, and leaving
a luminous tail behind ; and this evening, about 9 o’clock, another was obser-
ved, moving towards the north. The apparent magnitude of these was double
that of stars of the first magnitude. To-night, also, for about three hours,
there was a very magnificent display of the aurora : its lustre was much im-
paired by the light of the moon, but still it appeared more extensive, and
played with more celerity than any that have been observed this year. The
beams rose to the zenith, and seemed to influence very much some polarised
cirri in the south. Temp. 37°. Bar. 30.07.

%hth. — A lunar halo was seen to-night ; and a faint appearance of a lunar
rainbow. Wind W. Bar. 30.02.

26th. — Very stormy. Bar. 29.17* Wind SW. boisterous ; very heavy rains.

28th — Ground thickly covered with snow ; during the day much rain fell.
Wind E. boisterous. Bar. 28.83.

( 156 )

Art. XXVII. — Celestial Phenomena from Jan. 1. to April 1.
1826, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time.
By Mr George Innes, Aberdeen.

The times are inserted according to the Civil reckoning, the day begin-
ning at midnight. — The Conjunctions of the Moon with the Stars are
given in Right Ascension.

JANUARY.

( Last Quarter.

20.

d D h

6 1)

20.

0 enters css

6 D <J

20.

6 D ? 8

Im. I. sat. 11

20,

Im. I. sat. 'll

Im. 1. sat. 11

21.

6 }> » n

21.

d D n

d D 1 * t

21.

d I) « n

d D 2/* £

22.

Im. IV. sat. 11

6 D 9

22.

Em. IV. sat. 11

d D 9

22.

d n n

Im. II. sat. 7 1

22.

§ greatest elong.

d9?

22.

d s* *

$ New Moon.

24.

O Full Moon.

cSDU

24.

d 1)1 a So

6 7>p n

24.

6 D 2 « 23

10.

Im. I. sat. 1 1

25.

d D 0 ft

10.

d0¥

25.

d D * &

12.

Im. I. sat. 11

26.

d D 1 v -T

15.

Im. II. sat. \

26.

Im. I. sat. 1J

16.

D First Quarter.

26.

6 D V

18.

d D * T

26.

Im. III. sat. y

19.

Im. I. sat. 1/

27-

Em. III. sat. V

19.

d D A 8

27.

Im. I. sat. 11

19.

d D 2x d

29.

61)iW

19.

Em. III. sat. 11

30.

d Dd

20.

6 1) 1 6

30.

( Last Quarter.

FEBRUARY.

D. H. t „

1. 2 32 54

1. 5 28 38

1. 22 50 27
3. 3 9 36

3. 5 0 0

S. 11 25 26

3. 12 2 0

4. 1 7 26

d D 2x^

6 HR

Im. II. sat. 'll
Im. III. sat. 11
$ very near Ijl

d D.i* t
6 D2* t

Im. I. sat. 2/

D. H. f „

4. 14 17 55

5. 0 21 30

5. 5 7 40

5. 18 26 26

6. 9 2 0

7. 0 24 16

7. 19 53 28

8. 0 12 49

d M f
dD¥

6 D 9
d D/3 n
d D ?

@ New Moon.
Im. IV. sat. 11
Em, IV. sat. V

Celestial Phenomena from Jan. 1. to April 1. 1826. 157

FEBRUARY.

H. , //

H. , „

1 25 55

Im. II. sat. If

19.

23 23 6

Im. I. sat. If.

11.

3 1 0

Im. I. sat. 7/

20.

21 45 3

6 1) 1 « 25

12.

21 29 24

Im. I. sat. If

20.

22 52 12

d ]> 2 a as

14.

10 59 15

21.

17 46 6

6 1) 0 SI

15.

2 12 42

]) First Quarter.

22.

2 14 5

6 D * SI

15.

12 11 17

c5 D AH

22.

12 25 54

O Full Moon.

15.

21 48 2

6 D 2* 8

22.

23 39 18

6 D If

16.

4 1 36

Im. II. sat. If

24.

18 24 7

Em. III. sat. If

16.

15 0 24

6 D« 8

25.

20 20 17

6DiW

16.

16 4 0

6 D h

26.

19 55 12

Im. II. sat. If

17-

6 30 4

27.

1 16 53

Im. I. sat. If

17.

22 55 0

6 D * n

27.

12 49 0

6 D 6

18.

4 54 41

Im. I. sat. 'll

28.

ZOV

18.

5 10 40

cS 5 > n

28.

3 33 24

6 } *~

18.

20 32 34

rfKn

28.

8 6 26

6D * —

19.

2 57 7

0 enters X

28.

21 59 16

Em. I. sat. If

MARCH.

H. / „

H. , „

4 30 42

( Last Quarter.

16.

20 15 32

Em. I. sat. If

19 15 20

6 D P Oph.

16.

21 16 30

}) First Quarter.

16 54 48

6 ) 1 V 7

17.

14 1 12

d D v n

17 31 47

61) 2^7

18.

2 58 44

Im. III. sat. If

19 1 41

Im. III. sat. ^

18.

5 47 6

6DK n

20 10 22

d )>d t

20.

8 6 26

6 D 1 * 25

22 21 35

Em. III. sat. 11

20.

9 4 40

6 D 2 « SO

8 50 0

6 Db

21.

3 5 36

0 enters T

0 58 43

6 D0 ft

21.

4 23 10

6 )) o SI

1 22 49

Em. II. sat. 11

21.

12 54 40

6 D* <ai

23 53 6

Em. I. sat. 11

22.

3 41 6

Em. I. sat. If

10 28 30

6D$

22.

5 57 0

6 D if

12 21 30

6 D $

23.

19 54 55

Em. II. sat. If

16 27 57

0 New Moon.

23.

22 9 36

Em. I. sat. If

18 21 34

Em. I. sat. 7/

23.

22 35 55

O Full Moon.

10.

12 10 0

Sup.

25.

5 41 0

6DiW

10.

15 14 0

Sup. 6 0 9

27-

4 50 0

6D6

10.

16 12 0

^ near $

27.

11 1 26

6 1) * —

10.

23 0 9

Im. III. sat. 7/

27.

15 25 4

6D * —

11.

2 19 30

Em. III. sat. 11

29.

1 33 15

6 D p °Ph-

13.

3 59 18

Em. II. sat. 7/

29.

22 47 40

6 D i* t

13.

18 16 56

6 1) * T

29.

23 24 3

6 D 2^ t

14.

19 43 10

30.

1 52 37

Im. IY. sat. If

15.

1 47 3

Em. I. sat. 7/

30.

13 54 38

( Last Quarter.

15.

5 27 45

8 D 2* 8

30.

22 31 52

Em. II. sat. If

15.

22 58 10

rf D < a

31.

0 3 47

Em. I. sat. If

16.

1 50 30

6 h V

31.

1 44 50

d D d t

16.

14 47 30

d K 8

31.

16 0 44

<5D^

158 Celestial Phenomena from Jan . 1. to April 1. 1826.

Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.

January.

Mercury.

Venus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian,

H. ,

H. /

H. ,

12 8

10 53

6 44

4 24

22 19

12 46

11 21

10 59

6 34

A 8

22 6

12 30

10 50

11 6

6 25

3 48

21 41

12 10

10 33

11 14

6 16

3 28

21 20

11 50

10 27

11 21

6 2

3 6

20 59

11 32

10 29

11 28

5 53

2 45

20 38

11 13

February.

Mercury.

Venus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian.

H. ,

10 38

11 37

5 38

2 15

20 10

10 48

10 45

11 43

5 29

1 58

19 54

10 33

10 56

11 49

5 17

1 37

19 35

10 15

11 8

11 54

5 5

1 16

19 16

9 56

11 21

11 59

4 52

0 53

18 55

9 37

11 34

12 2

4 38

0 31

18 35

9 18

March.

Mercury.

Venus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian.

H. ,

ii. ,

H. ,

11 46

12 7

4 28

0 9

18 21

9 5

11 58

12 10

4 16

23 51

18 9

8 49

12 8

12 13

4 1

23 29

17 48

8 26

12 28

12 15

3 44

23 7

17 27

8 8

12 44

12 18

3 28

22 44

17 9

7 49

12 58

12 22

3 10

22 24

17 51

7 30

SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1826. (PI. VII.)

On the 29th of November, there will be an eclipse of the Sun, which will be
visible. The following are the elements, as obtained by using the Solar Tables
of M. Delambre , and the Lunar Tables of M. Dammseau.

D. H. . „

True time of Eclip. Conjunct, at Edin. M. Time,
Equation of Mean to Apparent time , at conjunction,
True time of Ecliptic conjunction, Apparent time.
Longitude of the Sun and Moon, from true Equinox,
Obliquity of the Ecliptic,

Sun’s Declination south, -

Right Ascension, -

horary motion in Longitude,

in Right Ascension,

semidiameter, -

horizontal parallax,

Nov. 29.

Horary decrease of the Equation of time,

Moon’s Latitude North, increasing, - -

Equatorial horizontal parallax,

Horizontal semidiameter, - - -

— . horary motion in Longitude at the instant of conjunction,

for the hour which precedes,

for the hour which follows,

horary motion in Latitude at the instant of conjunction,

for the hour which precedes,

* for the hour which follows,

11 12 41,99
11 31,76
11 24 13,75
246° 46 19,84
23 27 36,86
21 27 34,17
244 65 38,92
2 32,19
2 41,05
16 15,15
8,93
0,875

1 12 29,55
1 1 23,84

16 43,85
38 5,447
38 5,511

Angle of the Relative Orbit with the Ecliptic,

Horary motion of the Moon from the Sun in the Relative Orbit,

5,383
25,904
26,181
25,627
30 36,4
35 43,62

Table of General Data ,

Calculation of the Solar Eclipse of 9.9th Nov. 1820. 150

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160 Calculation of the Solar Eclipse of%Qlh Nov. 1826,

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Calculation of the Lunar Elements for the 29 th November 1826, at llh 34' 49"51
time at Paris.— From the Lunar Tables ofDamoiseau ; Paris, 1824.

Calculation of the Solar Eclipse of%9fk Nov . 1826. 161

”50

!>• kO 03

kO 05t^

124

150

208

^ .

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a .

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14 9207
6225,7

15 5432,7

Sun’s Mean
Anomaly.

0° 1854 7

332 9138
30 6631
0 5019
259
6

364 2907

Mean Long. })

- — Mean Long. (•).
t

294 6485 |

117 7642
379 2678
6 2083
3198
77

1 398 2165

6225,7

!>•

05
CO .
co |-ss>

Mean Anomaly
of the Moon.
00

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CM

7 0932,1 j

Mean Longitude
of the Moon.

1826, 205° 8748,3

Sec. Equat.... 2,23

November,... 50 6938,9
29 days, ...... 9 9323,3

11 hours....... 6 7102,0

34 minutes,... 3456,8

49,51 sec 83,87

Mean Long. 273 5655,40
Sum Equat. 4- 6225,66

274 1881,06
V

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

162

Calculation of the Solar Eclipse ofSQth Nov. 1826.

Arguments of the Longi-
tude, Parallax, and ho-
rary motion in Long.

Equations
of Longi-
tude.

Equations of
Parallax.

Equations of hor. mot. in Long.

First Order. Second Order,

t 4- x

t — x

2 t—x

it — x

2*— .3x

2 t+x

X + z

X — z

2x + z

2 x—z

t + z

t — z

2 1 + z .........

2t— z

2t + z — x ...
2 1 — z + x ...
2 t~z—x ...
2 t — z — 2x
2 1 — 2 z — x

2y + x

2 y—oc

2t + 2 y — x
2t — 2 y +-x

t + y

V- $

x and t

x and z

x and y

x and t + z
x and #— z
x and 2t + z
x and 2 1 — z
x and t + y
a? and t — y
z and 2 1 — x
z and 4 1 — x
z and t — y
2 1 — z and t ...
t — y and t ...

6 4706,4
398 2165
364 2907
14 9207
4 6871,4
391 7458,6
389 9623,6
386 3953,6
377 0210,8
2 9036,4
370 7613,4
42 1799,4
377 2319,8
48 6505,8
362 5072
33 9258
360 7237
32 1423
354 2530,6
38 6129,4
25 6716,6
19 2010,2
61 3809,6
36 3120,4
23 3707,6
19 8037,6
373 0622,4
13 1372
383 2958
258 6448,4

383

124

7527,12

7177,96

3206,16

697,64

69,39

530.30
1912,53

93.82
25,51

620,39

486,85

736.30
32,11
50,59
25,10

46.07

120,78

758.30
146,92

71,27

890,05

36.08

42.08
64,02
78,13
20,50
28,78
10,74
84,36

4,27

4,24

0,00

21,98

25,15

10,91

17,65

3.40
16,00

6.40
3,32
4,87

14,21

16,20

16.82
3,53
0,86

10 5759,66

Constant quantities, — 9 9534

1151,24

172,72

0,16

0,00

210,89

3.60
0,03

19,14

0,29

6.61

0,19

10,99

0,16

1,10

8,23

0,16

0,07

1585,58
+ 9784,3

Sum of Equations, 4- 0 6225,66
Nutation, /{

u — y +44,39) , 4207

tandu —2,32/ +

Mean Long. 273 5655,40

Eq. par. 1° 1369,88
i diarn. 3098,29

True Longitude, 274 1923,13

1329,721

255,853

0,246

2,633

2,837

0,093

231,808

6,104

0,029

32,322

0,361

7,163

0,028

0,124

0,952

0,587

0,262

16,316

0,196

2,184

9,240

0,000

0,23?

0,633

0,074

0,039

0,007

0,039

0,040

0,357

0,178

0,130

0,159

0,390

0,026

0,475

0,175

2,8034

1,2310

0,3400

0,0288

0,5599

0,0484

0,2091

9,0112

0,0076

0,0051

0,0379

0,0063

0,0119

0,0904

0,0160

0,0169

1902,018

5151,83

5,4530
— 5,650

7053,848
+ 0,197

0,1970

iry)70M,«45{“r

ionjwi {&££

horary

motion

Calculation of the Solar Eclipse of ‘9.9th Nov. 1896. 1GS

Arguments of the Latitude and
horary motion in Latitude.

Equations
of Latitude.

Horary motion in Latitude.

First Order.

Second Ord.

o //

.. 15 5432*7

7 1041,20

1084,509

1,9820

2 t — y .........

... 382 1348,7

1177,62

25,905

0,0663

x + y

.... 22 64

2,64

0,003

x — y

... 391 55

50,32

2x . 7i

... 398 64

77,63

1,479

2 1 ~—y -f. x

... 389 23

4,64

j 0,180

2? — y—7 ...

07,47

0,115

*■*■1

... 367 95

24,72

0,346

y + z

50,61

1,499

J — z

21,67

0,210

2t — V+ z

55,47

0,094

2 1 — y — z ...

86,64

0,97 6

2t — V— 2z ...

3,77

47,42

0,347

y and t ......

9,66

0,231

z and x — y ...

3,04

x and 2t — y ■

— z

3,12

7 2727,64

1115,894

2,0483

Constant quantities, . . .

— 5 9302,2

— 566,310

— 2,6850

Latitude, North,... j

1 3425,44

+ 549,584

— 0,6367

549,584 X 1,15634

= 635*506

—0,6367 X 1,3426

— —0,855

Horary motion for the hour preceding,

636,361

— —

- for the hour following,

. 634,651

Art. XXVIII. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.

Nov . 98.*— At a general meeting of the Society the follow-
ing Office-bearers were elected for the ensuing year :

Sir Walter Scott, Bart. President.

Vice-Presidents.

Right Hon. Lord Chief-Baron. Lord Glenlee.

Dr T. C. Hope. Professor Russell.

Dr Brewster, General Secretary.

Thomas Allan, Esq. Treasurer.

James Skene, Esq. Curator of the Museum.

L %

164

Proceedings of the Wernerian Society*.

PHYSICAL CLASS.

Alexander Irving, Esq. President. John Robison, Esq. Secretary .
Counsellors.

Sir William Arbuthnot, Bart. Dr Home.

James Jardine, Esq. Professor Wallace.

Sir William Forbes, Bart. Dr Edward Turner.

LITERARY CLASS.

Henry Mackenzie, Esq. President. P. F. Tytler, Esq. Secretary.
Counsellors.

Sir William Hamilton, Bart. Sir Henry Jardine.

Rev. Dr Lee. Sir John Hay, Bart.

Right Hon, Lord Advocate. Dr Hibbert. "

Art. XXIX. — Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History

Society met for the winter 1825-6 (its eighteenth ses-
sion), on Saturday, 19th November last.

Mr Henry Witham of Lartington, read a notice of the oc-
currence of the common Cockle, Cardium edule , in a living
state, in fresh-water ditches, at Cocklesbery in Yorkshire, at the
distance of forty miles from the sea, and greatly above its pre-
sent level. He exhibited specimens of the shells, from which
he had, on the spot, extracted the living animal : these shells
did not differ in the slightest degree from those of the cockle
which inhabits our sandy sea-shores. The animal, however, Mr
Witham mentioned, had somewhat less of the salt taste or fishy
flavour than the cockles sold in our markets.

A memoir by Mr David Don, Librarian of the Linnean So-
ciety, “ On the Classification of the Genera Gnaphalium and
Xeranthemum of Linnaeus was next laid before the meeting.

There was then read the first part of Mr Thomas Buchan-
an’s sketch of the comparative anatomy of the Organ of Hearing,
containing remarks on the structure of the ear in the Shark tribe,
illustrated by preserved specimens.

There was likewise read a communication by Mr Blackadder,
regarding the existence of a hard rock of Conglomerate in the
midst of the large gravel-beds near Edinburgh ; and Professor

This

165

Proceedings of the Northern Institution .

Jameson gave an account of a Table of Colours, arranged for na-
turalists by the Reverend Lansdown Guilding of St Vincent’s,
intended as supplementary to Mr Syme’s treatise on colours.

3d Dec. 1825 The Secretary read Dr T. S. Traill’s account

of the Anatomy of the Trumpeter-bird, Psophia crepitans.

Dr R. E, Grant then communicated some notices of the ha-
bits of Tritonia arborescens, particularly the power possessed
by that molluscous animal of producing a peculiar and very
audible sound ; and the Doctor at the same time exhibited spe-
cimens, which had been kept alive and active for more than
three weeks, in a jar filled with sea-water, the water having been
occasionally renewed.

Professor Jameson communicated some remarks on the exist-
ence of many mineral substances, in very minute portions, in
the ocean and in the atmosphere.

At the same meeting, the following gentlemen were elected
office-bearers of the Society for the following year :

Robert Jameson, Esq. President .

Vice-Presidents :

Robert Bald, Esq. Dr Robert Graham.

Sir William Jardine, Bart. Rev. Dr A. Brunton.

Treasurer , A. G. Ellis, Esq. Painter , P, Syme, Esq.

Secretary , P. Neill, Esq. Librarian , James Wilson, Esq.

Council :

Wm. Drysdale, Esq.
Gilbert Innes, Esq.

Dr Robert Knox.

G. A. W. Arnott, Esq.

Dr Andrew Coventry.
John Stark, Esq.

Dr R. E. Grant.

Dr John Boggle.

Art. XXX. — Proceedings of the Northern Institution , In-
verness.

Sept 16. 1825. — =.A T this meeting the following gentlemen
were elected

Honorary Members.

Sir James Macgrigor, Knight, F. 11. S. See.

Dr Traill of Liverpool.

Dr Thomas Thomson, Professor of Chemistry , University of Glasgow.

166

Scientific Intelligence . — Astronomy .

Dr Ure of the Andefsonian Institute of Glasgow.

Robert Jameson, Esq. Professor of Nat. Hist. University of Edin.

David Brewster, Esq. LL. D. &c.

And several corresponding and ordinary members.

The papers read were,

1. Original letter of Simon, Lord Fraser of Lovat. Commu-
nicated by John Anderson, Esq. W. S.

2. Evidence respecting a sudden commotion of Loch Ness
about the time of the Lisbon Earthquake in 1755. From Mrs
Grant of Duthil.

3. Notice of a subterranean passage lately discovered in Glen
Shiel. By Mr Mactavish, solicitor.

4. Remarks by the Secretary on an ancient custom-house
seal of the conjoined burghs of Inverness and Cromarty, sup-
posed to be of the age between Alexander II. and Robert III.

5. A paper from Mr Fraser, Croyard, on the sections lately
made, by order of Mr Fraser of Lovat, of a vitrified fort on
his property, laid on the table, but the reading of it postponed
till next meeting.

Art. XXXI.— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

ASTRONOMY.

1. Comets . — At a meeting of the Astronomical Society of
London, held on the 11th November, the President took the
opportunity of calling the attention of the members to the re-
markable circumstance of the appearance of no fewer than Jour
comets during the recess, an occurrence unparalleled in the his-
tory of astronomy. The first of these (he observed) was disco-
vered by M. Gambart, at Marseilles, on May 19. in the head of
Cassiopea. The second by M. Valz, at Nismes, on July 13,
near % Tauri. The third by M. Pons, at Florence, on August
9, in Auriga . The fourth (which was the most interesting and
important of the whole, since it had been the object of solicitude
at every observatory, and was anxiously expected and looked af-
ter by every astronomer) was discovered about July or August
last. The President remarked, that this last comet (which is
better known by the name of the comet of Encke) has now made
thirteen revolutions within the last forty years; six of which

167

Scientific Intelligence . — Optics .

have been regularly observed by astronomers. It was first seen
in 1786 ; afterwards in 1795, 1805, 1819, and 1822, and in the
present year. It makes a complete revolution in about 1207
days, or 3J- years.

acoustics.

2. A Table shewing the Results of Experiments on the Ve~
locity of Sound, as observed by different Philosophers *.

Time

Country

Length of

Velocity of Sound

Names of Observers.

when

where

Basis in

per Second in

made.

Feet.

Mersenne, 1

France,

1469.88

Florentine Philosophers, 2

1660

Italy,

5905.8

1184.44

Walker,3

1698

England,

2624.8

1305.83

Cassini, Huygens, &c.4

France,

6906.50

1151.63

Flamstead and Halley,5

England,

16405.0

1141.78

Derham, 6

1704 1

1705 /

England, |

5249.6
to 6562.

¥— ‘
CO

French Academicians, 7

1738

France, j

75177.55
& 93593.8

1092.57 at 32°
F.

Blaneoni,8

1740

Italy,

7874.0

1043.35

La Condamine,9

1740

Quito,

67401.58

1112.25

La Condamine, 1 0 «

1744

Cayenne,

129366.54

1174.59

T. F. Mayer,1 1

1778

Germany,

3702.40

1105.69

G. E. Muller, 1 2

1791

Germany,

8530.6

1108.97

Epinoza and Banza,1 3

1794

Chili,

53627-94

1168.50

Benzenberg,1 4

1809

Germany,

29765.23

1092.57 at 32°

Arago, Mathien Prony, 1 5

1822

France,

61065.97

1086.0

Moll, Van Beek, and >
Kuy tenbrower, 1 6 j

1823

Netherlands,

5797290.7 6

J 1089-7445 at
{ 32° F. dry air.

1 Mersenne de Arte Ballistica, prop. 39.

2 Tentamina Experim. Acad. del. Cimento, L. B. 1738, part ii. p. 116.

3 Phil. Trans. 1698, No. 247*

4 Duhamel, Hist. Acad. Reg. 1. ii. sect. 3. cap. ii.

5 Phil. Trans, 1708 and 1709.
fi Id, ibid.

7 Mem. de I’Academie des Sciences, 1738 and 1739.

8 Comment. Bononienses, vol. ii. p. 365.

3 La Condamine, Introduction Historique, &c. 1751, p. 98.

10 Mem. de 1’Acad. Royale des Sciences, 1745, p. 488.

11 J. T. Mayer, Praktische Geometrie, Gottingen, 1792, b. i. p. 166.

1 2 Muller, Gotting. Gelehrt. Anzeige, 1791, st. 159, et Voigts Magazin,
&c. b. 8. st. i. p. 170.

1 3 Annales de Chimie et de Phys. t. vii. p. 93.

1 4 Gilbert’s Annalen, neue Folge, b. v. p. 383.

1 5 Connoissance des Terns, 1825, p. 361.

* From Von Moll’s Memoir on the Velocity of Sound in Phil. Trans . for
1824, part ii.

168

Scientific Intelligence . — Geography «

GEOGRAPHY.

3. Expedition to Explore the Shores of the Frozen Sea , and
the Noi'th-East Coast of the Continent of Siberia. — Baron Wr an-
gel ? and Lieutenant Arjon, who were sent in 1821 upon an ex-
pedition to Siberia, the object of which was to determine geo-
graphically the shores of the Frozen Sea, and the north-east of
the vast continent of Siberia, as far as the country of the Tschut-
sches, returned to Petersburg some weeks ago. M. Kyber,
who accompanied the expedition as physician and naturalist, has
arrived at Moscow, where he has been detained by sickness.
The publication of the results of this important expedition is
looked for with the greatest anxiety. — Leips. Lit. Zeit. No. 93.
1825.

4- Captain Parry's last Voyage. — Our readers may pro-
bably expect from us some details in regard to Captain Parry’s
last voyage ; but as the journals are still in the possession of the
Admiralty, we have it not in our power to gratify them by any
official and consequently accurate information. The various ac-
counts published in the daily journals we know are incorrect ;
and, therefore, cannot be recorded in this work.

5. East Coast of West Greenland, formerly inhabited by
Europeans. — Early history informs us that a part of the east
coast of West Greenland was colonized by Norwegians from
Iceland. The colony appears to have been considerable, and
to have extended northward to Lat. 65° or 66°. Some au-
thors, and particularly a writer in the Edinburgh Review,
maintains that no such colony ever existed ; on the contrary,
that the Norwegians landed and colonized the West, not the
East, coast of Old Greenland. The late observations of Scores-
by, and the details given by Giesecke, in a memoir pub-
lished in the memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy, demon-
strate the futility of the opinion just mentioned. Giesecke,
who spent eight years in Greenland, tells us, he met with up-
wards of fifty Norwegian houses, in the fiords or firths of South
and East Greenland, fragments of church-bells, and skulls of
the Caucasian or European race of man. In the language of
the Greenlanders, he detected many Scandinavian or Icelandic
words, used in domestic life, a proof that there existed a friendly

169

Scientific Intelligence . — Geography .

intercourse between both nations. Several plants foreign to
this part of the Arctic Flora were met with, probably imported
by the Norwegian settlers, such as the Sorbus aucuparia . In
reference to the destruction of the colonists, our author remarks ;
“ All the ruins of Norwegian houses were surrounded by im-
mense masses of rocks, probably precipitated from the summits
of the adjacent mountains, and heaped together iri the most
fantastic groups. Places of desolation of this kind are fre-
quently met with among the mountains, connected with the sea
by waterfalls, which are precipitated with tremendous velocity
from the rocks, covered with glaciers. I have no doubt that
such changes, caused by the bursting of glaciers, and the subse-
quent inundations, have produced these scenes of desolation ;
and that perhaps the Norwegian settlers perished, and were
buried in the ruins occasioned by such destroying powers.1’

6. Edinburgh Geographical and Historical Atlas. — It is
intended in this work to exhibit, by means of numerous maps,
and four octavo volumes of letter-press, a view of the present
state of our knowledge, in regard to the physical, political, and
statistical geography of this globe. To ensure its wide circula-
tion the publisher announces that it is to appear in monthly
parts, and to be sold at a comparatively low rate.

CHEMISTRY.

7. Evolution of Light during Crystallisation. — It is known,
through the experiments of M. Buchner of Mayence, that ben-
zoic acid and acetate of potash emit light during their crystal-
lisation. Berzelius, in his lately published Annual Report of
the Progress of Science, tells us, that Herman observed sulphat
of cobalt to give out light during crystallisation, and that a
similar phenomenon was observed during the crystallisation of
fluat of soda. Wohler mentions a striking display of this pro-
perty he noticed in the laboratory of Berzelius, where, during
the crystallisation of sulphat of soda, light was given out for
two hours. Even masses of the salt taken in the hand continued
to shine in the dark, and when pieces were rubbed together the
light became stronger. When the solution was stirred with a
glass-rod, or a glass-rod was drawn across the crust of crystals
under the solution, the whole streak was luminous.

170 Scientific Intelligence. -^Chemistry.

8. Light emitted during the Friction of Crystals. — It is well
known that many crystallised substances, when rubbed together,
or broken across, give out a light more or less intense. It is
said by Olof Wasserstrom, in the Transactions of the Swedish
Academy for 1798, that the phosphorescence of the sea, in
northern countries, may sometimes be owing to the small and
very thin needles of ice, which almost cover the surface of the
sea, being broken in pieces by the agitation of the waves, and
thus emitting a light, which may assist in giving the lumi-
nous character to the water. He also affirms, that masses of sea-
ice, when violently struck, give out light. The following pas-
sage from Becquerel, on the development of electricity by pres-
sure, in the Ann. de Chim. 22. p. 5., is of the same general na-
ture Considering the increased development of electricity in
foodies, by the augmentation of pressure, ought we not to refer
to this cause certain luminous phenomena, of which the origin is
as yet unknown ? For instance, it is said, that, in the Polar
seas, it frequently happens that the blocks of ice which strike
together evolve light. These enormous blocks arriving one
against the other, with considerable motion, will be submitted to
great pressure, and thus the two blocks be placed in two differ-
ent electric states. At the moment the compression ceases, the
two fluids will recombine, in consequence of the conducting
power of the ice ; and may not the light disengaged be the re-
sult of the combination of the electric fluids ? Iron, submitted
to successive blows, also becomes luminous : Are not the same
phenomena of pressure produced here, as when two masses of
ice strike together ?

9. Benzoic Acid in Grasses.— It is known that Scheele de-
tected benzoic acid in the urine of newly born children ; and
that, more lately, chemists have found the same acid in the
urine of some graminivorous animals, as the cow, the horse, and
in that of the rhinoceros. These facts naturally lead us to in-
quire the source of this acid in the animal kingdom. Some
conjecture that it is formed by the organic powers of the ani-
mals ; while others maintain that it has been derived from with-
out. This latter opinion has been in part confirmed by some
late experiments of Vogel. Pie found this acid in an uncom-

Scientific Intelligence, — Chemistry. 171

bined state in those grasses which have the delightful smell of
fresh hay, as the Anthoxanthum odoratum and Holcus odoratus ,
two species favourite articles of food with the horse and cow.
The benzoic acid in the urine of the newly born child, may pos-
sibly be derived from the milk of the mother. If the grasses
above mentioned should be found to afford so much acid as to
allow of its being economically extracted, they may furnish the
arts with an expensive article heretofore imported from abroad.

10. Formation of Metallic Copper by Water and Fire . — In
making cement-copper in Germany, plates of solid copper are
obtained, and also reguline copper in the fibrous, capillary,
dentiform, reniform, and botryoid external shapes ; and in the
smelting of some sulphurets of copper, fibrous, lamellar, and
crystallised pure copper are formed.

11. Effect of Position on Crystallisation.-— Machman, Profes-
sor of Chemistry at Christiania, in Norway, in a memoir 64 on the
Effect of the Earth’s Magnetism on the separation of Silver,”
states, that, in the year 1817, when exhibiting, in a syphon-
shaped glass-tube, the formation of an arbor Diana, the tube
having accidentally been placed in the direction of the magnetic
meridian, he remarked that finer and longer crystals were formed
towards the north than towards the south, and yet every thing
was the same in both legs of the tube. The solution of ni-
trate of silver in both legs of the tube, was in communica-
tion, while the mercury covered only the bottom of the tube.
The experiment was again repeated, in presence of Hansteen,
with two syphon- tubes, one parallel, and the other at right angles
to the magnetic meridian. The silver began to separate in the
tube which was placed in the north and south direction, and
shot out into larger, more numerous, and more brilliant radia-
tions in the leg towards the north, than in that towards the
south. In the syphon in the east and west direction no change
was observed until the expiry of twelve hours. Hansteen after-
wards repeated the experiment several times, and always with
the same result, and deduced from his experiments the following
inferences. 1 . The arbor Dianas is more strikingly developed
when the tube is placed in the magnetic meridian, than when in

172 Scientific Intelligence . — Chemistry .

the east and west direction. $. When it remains in the mag-

netic meridian, the silver-tree rises higher in the northern than
in the southern leg. 3. The crystals are more acicular, and
have a higher metallic lustre, in the northern than in the south-
ern leg of the syphon. The same experiment has been success-
fully repeated by Dobereiner and Schweigger, from whose
Journal the above details are extracted.

12. Sulphur in Vegetables. — Sulphur, in combination with dif-
ferent bases, occurs in wheat, barley, rye, oats, peas, beans,
maize, millet, rice, and salop. Gum-arabic also contains traces
of ammonia and sulphur.

13. On supposed Hydrates of Sulphur It would appear,

from some experiments of Professor Bischof of Bonn, in oppo-
sition to the statements of other chemists, that sulphur does not
occur in the state of hydrate, when poured in a melted state
into water, when precipitated from sulphuret of soda, or in
crystals of sulphur. Here Bischof makes a distinction between
water of crystallisation and water in true hydrates ; the former
parts readily from the body containing it under the common
pressure of the atmosphere, and therefore more readily under
the [air-pump ; whereas the water of true hydrates does not
escape under the air-pump, and often requires the assistance of
considerable heat to separate it.

14- View of the Atomic System, for the Use of ‘ Students ; by
E. Turner, M. D. — This interesting little work contains a po-
pular and luminous view of the Atomic System, and cannot fail
to prove acceptable, not only to the student, but also, to the
general reader,

15. Lithia in Spring Water. — Berzelius has detected, in the
Eranzbad and Marienbad waters of Bohemia, and in the hot
springs of Carlsbad, carbonate of lithia. It is probable that
the same substance will be found in the waters of the ocean.
The ocean, and the atmosphere, it may be conjectured, will be
found to contain minute portions of all the principal materials
that enter into the composition of the solid mass of the globe,
an inference founded on obvious geological and meteorological
data.

Scientific Intelligence. —Meteorology, ITS

METEOROLOGY.

16. Meteoric Stone. — A meteoric stone, weighing 16 pounds
7 ounces, fell from the air at Nanjemoy, Maryland, 10th Fe-
bruary 1825. It was taken from the ground about half an hour
after its fall, was sensibly warm, and had a sulphureous smell.
It had a hard vitreous surface ; its interior was earthy, and of a
light slate-colour ; and contained numerous hard, brown glo-
bules of various sizes, together with small portions of iron-py-
rites.

17. Falling Stars.- — Dr Brandes of Breslau, and several other
meteorologists, have for some time past been actively employed
in making corresponding observations on falling stars. Although
these remarkable meteors, apparently situate beyond the atmo-
sphere of the Earth, at first sight appear to move in every pos-
sible direction, yet, according to the observations of Dr Brandes
and his friends, it would seem that the most frequent direction
is the opposite of that of the Earth in its orbit.

HYDROGRAPHY.

18. Remarkable Appearance in a Lake.— On the 19th July
1824, after a storm, the waters of a lake in the district of Lucda
became as if soap had been dissolved in them, or lime slacked
in them. They continued in this state the whole of the 20th of
July ; but, on the 21st, an incredible number of fishes, of va-
rious sizes, appeared on the surface, which were buried, in order
to prevent the occurrence of any contagious disease. — Ann. de
Chim. et Fhys. xxvii. p. 886.

MINERALOGY.

19. Discovery of Iodine in combination with Silver. — ■
Iodine was first discovered in marine plants, afterwards in mi-
neral waters, and even in the waters of the ocean. It occurs
also, in the various marine molluscous animals, as the Doris, Ve-
nus, Ostrea,&c., and even in Sponges and Gorgonia. Very lately,
this curious substance has been detected by Vauquelin in com-
bination with silver, in some specimens brought from America.

20. Platina found in Russia. — This mineral has been disco-
vered in the Uralian Mountains, and, like the platina of Choco
in South America, associated with fragments of greenstone.

174

Scientifi c Intelligence. — Mineralogy .

The grains are rich in osmium and iridium. At Choco the
grains contain osmium, iridium, and palladium ; in the Brazils,
alone, grains of palladium are found mixed with grains of plati-
na, gold, and diamonds.

21. Graphite. — From some late experiments, it remains
doubtful whether natural graphite be a pure carbon-metal, or
really a combination of carbon and iron. — Vide Karsten in Phil .
Magazin , vol. lxvi. p. 290.

22. Discovery of two new Minerals. — In the number for
November of the Annals of Philosophy, there are descriptions
of two new minerals by Mr Levy, to which he proposes giving
the names of Herschelite and Phillip site, the former in honour
of the Secretary of the Royal Society, the latter of Mr W.
Phillips, whose contributions to mineralogy are so extensive and
valuable.-— Herschelite occurs in white, translucent, and opaque
crystals, sometimes isolated, but generally very closely aggrega-
ted, in a manner analogous to that in which the crystals of preh-
nite are so generally met with. The matrix consisted entirely of
small grains and crystals of olivine. A small quantity of the
mineral was examined by Dr Wollaston, and found to contain
silex, alumina, and potash. These being also the constituents
of felspar and amphigene, it might be hence inferred, that the
Herschelite is only a variety of one of these minerals, but its
crystallographic and other characters shew it to be different from
both. The form of the crystals indicates, that they are derived
either from a rhomboid or a six-sided prism. No cleavage could
be obtained. The specific gravity is 2.11. The fracture is
conchoidal, and the substance is easily scratched by the knife.
It was brought by Mr Herschel from Aci Reale in Sicily. — .
Phillipsite. This substance accompanies the former, and occurs
in minute, white, translucent, and opaque crystals. In specimens
from Aci Reale, these crystals are elongated, adhere closely to-
gether, radiating from a common centre, and forming globular
concretions ; in specimens from Vesuvius, they are separated, and
accompanied with Comptonite and other minerals. The form
of these crystals is the same as that of harmotome, and the inci-
dence of the faces is also nearly the same. The hardness, how-
ever, is much less ; the cleavage is not in the direction of the dia-

Scientific Intelligence Mineralogy . 175

gonal planes, as in Harmotome, and the chemical composition
differs, Dr Wollaston having found it to consist of silex, alumina,
potash, and lime, without the slightest trace of barytes. The
primitive form is a right rectangular prism, or a right rhombic
prism.

83. Remarkable Crystals of Pleonaste. — Dr Fowler has dis-
covered in Orange County, New York, crystals of Pleonaste ,
remarkable on account of their size, their bases measuring from
4 to 16 inches in circumference ; they are of a blackish colour,
and in this locality, the Doctor adds, they are never less in size
than a bullet. In the same situation, crystals of Serpentine , in
form of a rhomboidal prism, were met with ; also large prismatic
crystals of Chromate of Iron, some of them being one inch broad,
and two inches long ; green, red, and brown crystals of Spinel,
in size from a line in diameter to three quarters of an inch
on each side of the bases. All these interesting minerals oc-
cur imbedded in primitive limestone. In the same district,
crystals of Scapolite of extraordinary size are met with ; Dr
Fowler mentions crystals upwards of 84 inches in circumference.

GEOLOGY.

84. Notice regarding a Phenomenon observed in the Island
ofMeleda, in the province of Ragasa. — The Island of Meleda,
where the occurrence that we are about to relate took place, is
situated in the Adriatic Sea, opposite the territory of Ragusa,
of which it forms a part. Its length is seven leagues, and its
greatest breadth one. About the middle of the island is situa-
ted the valley of Babinopoglie, half a league in breadth, and
surrounded with pretty high mountains. A village of the same
name occupies the centre of the valley. On the 80th March, at
day break, a noise was heard for the first time at Babinopoglie,
similar to ^the report of a cannon ; which, although it appeared to
be the result of distant explosions, caused a sort of shaking in
the doors and windows of the houses of the village. This noise
was heard daily after. During the three first months, the inha-
bitants were undecided regarding the place from whence these
noises proceeded ; some thinking that a vessel was exercising in
the open sea, or in one of the ports of Dalmatia ; others that the
Turkish Artillery were training in one of the towns of the Ot»

1 76 Scientific I ntellig ence. — Geology.

toman frontier. These conjectures serve to shew, that the re-
ports were not accompanied with any local symptoms of earth7
quake, or any motion of the atmosphere. The Governor of the
island posted people on the heights around Babinopoglie to dis-
cover, if possible, the direction from which the sound came ; but
they were unable to observe any constant direction, as the sounds
were heard sometimes on one side, sometimes on another, and
sometimes over head. The Governor himself went down into
some deep and spacious caverns, that existed in the island, but
here there reigned a perfect silence. The effect was most sensi-
ble at Barbinopoglie, and diminished from this point, so as to
be scarcely perceptible at the extremities of the island. There
were four, ten, or even a hundred detonations in the day ; their
loudness increased to such a degree, that they might be likened
to the reports of a gun of large caliber. They took place in all
seasons, at every hour of the day, whether the weather was fine
or stormy, whether the tide was flowing or ebbing, and whether
the sea was calm or agitated. It was in the month of August
1823 that they became most violent. No rain had fallen for
four months ; the brooks were dried up, and the rivers of the
mainland were very low. Things went on thus until the . month
of February 1824. A silence of seven months then ensued; but
the reports commenced again in September, and continued un-
til the middle of March 1825, although they were much weaker,
and at greater intervals. They then ceased, but it cannot be
known whether this silence is to be permanent. There have
been intermissions of several months during the phenomenon,
but the cessation of the noise was preceded by very loud reports,
and before this last cessation they became weaker and weaker.
The reports were never accompanied with any luminous appear-
ance ; no local modification of the atmosphere was observed du-
ring their continuance ; the barometer and electrometer mani-
fested no extraordinary movement. Nor was there any true
earthquake, although the doors and windows were shaken. The
nature of the sound indicated nothing subterraneous, but rather
an explosion in the surrounding atmosphere. Dr Stulli of Ra-
gusa, who narrates the above details, supposes these reports to
have been occasioned by the emission of quantities of gas elabo-
rated by some volcanic fire, situated beneath the island, or com-

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology. 177

municating with it, which, on escaping, struck the air with vio-
lence, and so produced the reports.— Bibliotheque Universeller
August 1825.

25. Considerations on Volcanoes , by G. P. Scrope , Esq. Sec.'
Geol. tfoc.— This is the most complete treatise on volcanoes hi-
therto published in Britain ; and, although we differ from the
intelligent author in some of his views, we have much pleasure
in recommending his work to the particular attention of the
geologist.

26. Comparative durability of Marble and Granite. — -A frag-
ment of a column in the ruins of Capernaum, mentioned by
Professor Hall, is of an extremely beautiful granular marble,
which has all the freshness and brilliancy of a specimen re-
cently taken from a natural quarry. It has been full proof
against the attacks of the elements during the lapse of per-
haps 2000 years. Although limestone is softer than granite,
it is frequently less liable to decomposition. This remark ac-
cords with the observations of several travellers in Egypt, Greece,
and Palestine. The feldspar of the granite is affected by the
action of air and moisture sooner than either of its other in-
gredients. 44 Of all natural substances used by the ancient art-
ists,'” says Dr Clarke, 44 Parian marble, when without veins, and
therefore free from extraneous bodies, seems to have best resist-
ed the various attacks made upon Grecian sculpture. It is
found unaltered, when granite, and even porphyry, coeval as to
their artificial state, have suffered decomposition.’”

27. Geognosy of Palestine. — From the observations of Pro-
fessor Hall, Dr Clarke, and other naturalists, it appears, that
Palestine is principally composed of secondary limestone, inter-
mingled with trap-rocks ; and the following, among other facts,
are illustrations of the truth of this position. The country be-
tween Jerusalem and Jaffa is of compact limestone ; the hill on
which Nazareth is built is of a grey coloured compact limestone ;
the Field of Blood, mentioned by St Mathew, is of friable lime-
stone ; David’s Cave, mentioned in I. Samuel xxiv. appears to
be situated in limestone ; the Mount of Olives is of limestone, in
part granular; limestone occurs in the Valley of Jehosaphat ;

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

ITS Scientific Intelligence . — Botany,

the rocks around the Pool of Siloah are of limestone ; a beauti-
ful granular, foliated limestone or marble occurs at the Grave of
Lazarus ; on Mount Zion, the rocks are of a conchoidal greyish
siliceous limestone ; Mount Lebanon appears principally com-
posed of limestone ; Mount Carmel is interesting, on account of
the large balls of quartz contained in the limestone, — these balls
have been described as petrified melons, but are merely of
quartz in the state of hornstone, and including layers of calce-
dony, and crystals of quartz ; all the rocks around Jerusalem are
of compact limestone, and the numerous tombs in the neighbour-
hood of that city are hewn in hard, compact limestone ; Mount
Tabor, Bethel, Capernaum, also afforded specimens of limestone
to the American missionary, the Reverend Pliny Fisk, to whom
Professor Hall was indebted for the collection from the Holy
Land, which lie has described in the N umber of Siiliman’s Ame-
rican Journal of Sciences and Arts for June 1825.

BOTANY.

28. Rhimmorphoiis plants in Mines, — It appears from ob-
servations lately made in Germany, that rhizomorphous plants
grow in the most delicate fissures in coal and rocks of the coal-
formation, at a considerable distance from the walls of the sub-
terranean galleries, some hundred feet below the surface, and
in places where both water and air can occur only in the mi-
nutest quantities. In these fissures the plants lose the round-
ish form they have when encrusting the walls and pillars of the
mine, becoming flat, and like the finest paper. The growing of
these plants in situations almost without air, and without water,
recalls to our attention the chronicled relations of toads, lizards,
and other animals found in solid rocks. More of this on an-
other occasion.

29* Luminous appearance in Mines. — In a former Number
of this Journal, we gave a short account of luminous plants, par-
ticularly of the Rhizomorpha. The following notice on the
luminosity of the Rhizomorpha, is recorded by the councillor of
mines, Erdmann, in the 1st number of the 14th vol. of Schweig-
ger’s Journal. The appearances mentioned were seen on visit-
ing one of the coal-mines near Dresden. w I saw the luminous
plants here in wonderful beauty; the impression produced by

179

Scientific Intelligence . —Botany.

this spectacle I shall never forget. It appeared on descending
into the mine, as if we were entering an enchanted castle ; the
abundance of these plants was so great, that the roofs, walls, and
pillars, were entirely covered with them, and the beautiful light
they cast around almost dazzled the eye. The light they give
out is like faint moonshine, so that two persons near to each
other could readily distinguish the outline of their bodies. The
light appears to be most considerable when the temperature of
the mines is comparatively high.”

SO. Rare Scottish Plants.— In a walk through the island of
Skye, the west of Ross-shire, and Sutherland, to Caithness, in
August last, Dr Graham and Mr John Home ascertained the fol-
lowing new stations for some rare Scotch plants. Apargia Ta -
raxici , Arabis hispida glabrous variety, Luzula arcuata , Air a lae-
vigata vivipara , Cerastium latifolium , on disjointed quartz rock,
near the summit of Fonniven, a mountain about 3000 feet high,
top of Loch Inchard in Sutherland ; the last also on Ben-Hope,
on micaceous rock. Salix stuartiana , Carex capillar is, Serratu-
la alpina , Arabis hispida hairy variety , on micaceous rocks of
Ben-Hope. The Arabis hispida is abundant on Fonniven as
well as Ben-na-Callich, in Skye ; growing, not on damp spots
near the sides of rivulets, as has been stated, but always among
dry loose stones, at or near the summits. The species is by far
most frequently smooth, no hairy specimen but one, picked on
Ben- Hope, having been seen. It is said to be frequently hairy in
Mull. Carex limosa , Batcall Moss, between Loch Inchard and
Old Shore. Carex pulla , shore south of eastern extremity of
Crinan Canal, and Coruisk, top of Loch Scavaig, Skye. Ma -
laxis paludosa, side of a stream leading from Ben-na-Callich to
Loch Slappen in Skye, about one-fourth of the way up the
mountain ; in considerable quantity in one small spot. Stachys
ambigiia , abundant near Aird, and at Uig, in Skye. Betula
nana , low moor between Ben-Hope and Tongue, and at the
foot of Ben-Loyal. Aspidium dilatation, a remarkable va-
riety, with long straggling alternate pinnae, Ben-Loyal, to-
wards Tongue. Subularia aquatica, in Sword Loch, near the
confines of Sutherland and Ross-shire, and in the river Kerry, at
Kerrysdale, Gareloch ; in this last situation, it had been previous-
ly seen by Dr Woodforde. Orohanche rubra, near the Spar

i80 Scientific Intelligence .* — Botany .

Cave, Loch Slappen, and on the shore at Stenchall, Skye. This
plant was, this autumn (1825), for the first time in England,
found by Dr Woodforde at the Devil's Frying-pan, Cornwall.
Circcea lutetiana , Tobermorry, island of Mull. This is the
plant of the Flora Britannica, and quite different from the com-
mon luxuriant varieties of Circcea alpina , whether it be specifi-
cally distinct or not. Primula Scotica , in great abundance
around Westfield, near Thurso. Scutellaria galericulata grows
in abundance on many parts of the West Coast, on heaps of dry
gravel above the high-water mark, and even on a dry stone
wall south of the eastern entrance to the Crinan Canal. Vero-
nica officinalis var. rigida , cliffs by the shore, near Portree,
Skye. Till specimens in flower can be obtained, this may be
considered a variety of V. officinalis , though there is much rea-
son to believe it distinct. Leaves lanceolate, sharply, rather
deeply, and sometimes twice toothed, shining, and very thick
and rigid. Stems many, prostrate, rooting, nearly devoid of
hairs common flower-stalks covered with yellow pubescence ;
spike crowded ; capsules more wedge-shaped, and less notched
than in F. officinalis ; slightly hairy. These plants are distin-
guished from V. Allionii by the shape of their leaves, and the
depth of the’ serratures ; and they are more rigid than any fo-
reign specimens which Dr Graham has seen. — R. G.

31. Rare Native Plants found in Perthshire. — Mr David
Bishop, a meritorious practical gardener, and keen botanist, has,
during the past summer, detected four rare plants in Perthshire.

. — 1. Pyrola uniflora. — This was formerly known only as a na-
tive of a fir-wood near Brodie in Nairnshire ; and having
disappeared there, owing to the cutting down of the tim-
ber, was regarded as extinct in Britain. At the Perthshire ha-
bitat now observed by Mr Bishop, we understand it occurs in
considerable abundance. — 2. Lotus minor . This he has found
in two stations ; one near Perth, and the other 30 miles to the
westward. L. minor (like L. major), has by some been regard-
ed as only a marked variety of L„ corniculatus ; but Mr Bishop
considers both major and minor to be specifically different from
corniculatus. He remarks, 64 L. corniculatus is never found in
flower after the first week of September ; while L. minor conti-
nues in flower until the end of the month, and has at the time

Scientific Intelligence . — Botany. 181

& great number of newly formed flowers, which do not come
forward, but fall off. The seeds of L . corniculatus are brown
and spotted with dark spots ; those of L. minor brown without
spots’; those of L. major greenish white, and without spots. The
long straggling hairs upon the teeth of the calyx in L. major
and corniculatus are wanting in L . minor. In the barest moors,
the stems of L. corniculatus creep immediately below the sur-
face for half their length or more, sometimes taking root ; these
stems can always be traced to the parent root, which descends
perpendicularly into the earth : the stems of L. minor rest upon
the surface of the earth. The strong stems of L. major grow rather
erect, and its root is creeping, white, and tinged with red at the
joints. The standard or vexillum of the flower in L. minor is
rounder than in either of the others ; that of L. major is most
elliptical ; the calyx of L. minor is more acuminate towards its
base, than in major or corniculatus. There are marked diffe-
rences in the taste of these different plants, especially in the
roots : the roots of L . corniculatus are sweet and pleasant :
those of L. major feel astringent, like so much oak-bark in the
mouth : those of L. minor , are rather viscous and astringent,
and not at all pleasant.'” This] last plant seems nearly allied to
L. tenuissimus of Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora. — 3. Potamo-
geton compressum. — This rare species of pond-weed grows in a
small loch, in perfectly still water, quite erect, and generally
about two feet high. — 4. Asplenium alternifolium . This was ori-
ginally observed by the late distinguished Mr Dickson of Covent
Garden, growing on “ sunny rocks two miles from Kelso,” and
no other botanist had ever gathered it : from an observation in
Dr Hooker’s Flora Scotica, that “ in Switzerland it is quite an
alpine species,” it appears that Mr Dickson’s accuracy was rather
questioned ; but it is now placed beyond a doubt.

32. Ledum palustre and Papaver nudicaule. — Our botanical
readers will be not a little surprised to learn, that these plants,
hitherto considered as peculiar almost to the Arctic Regions,
now fall to be added to the British Flora. The credit of their
discovery is due to Sir Charles Giesecke, who, in examining the
mineralogy of the numerous small islands on the West Coast of
Ireland, was delighted to meet with two old vegetable friends
whose acquaintance he had made in Greenland, growing on the

182

Scientific Intelligence. — Botany.

high hills of the remote island of Achlin ; the Ledum palustre
in quantities together, in elevated marshy grounds ; the Papaver
nudicaule scattered in single plants, among rocky glens in the
hills.

33. Chara aspera. — Mr Charles Clouston of Stromness Manse,
Orkney, an assiduous cultivator of botanical science, has lately
added Chara aspera , Willd. to the Flora of Great Britain. We
have compared Mr Clouston’s plant with authentic specimens
received from Professor Agardh, and consider it as a well esta-
blished species. The genus, it may be observed, is deserving of
peculiar attention, on account of the very opposite opinions en-
tertained of its affinities. Sir James Edward Smith continues to
place it among the Phaenogamous plants, in the first class of the
Linnean system. Dr Hooker places it in Cryptogamia, between
the Algce and Hepaticce . Agardh, in his recently published
Systema Algarum , considers it as belonging to the true Algae,
and places it between the genera Bulbochcete and Ceramium .
The latter author has divided the species into two genera, Ni-
tella and Chara. In conclusion, we may notice, that Dr Hooker
mentions, in his Flora Scotica, that M. Leman is of opinion the
Charae are allied to the 44 Onagrariae and Salicariae , and pro-
poses, that the genus Chara should constitute a new family of
Dicotyledons, under the name of Eleodeae.','> M. Leman draws
his conclusions from his examinations of the nucule , in the fos-
sil state. — R. K. G.

ZOOLOGY.

34. Sphinoc Atropos.— Mr Donovan, in his 44 British Insects,”
remarks, that this is nowhere common, and is rare in England ;
and adds, that he once met with the larva of full size, but it
died. We may mention, as evincing the peculiar warmth and
dryness of the past summer season in this part of Scotland, that
the larvae of this large sphinx appeared pretty common in the
country around Edinburgh, during the month of August. They
were generally found in potato fields, and feeding on the leaves
of the potato plants. The great size of the caterpillars, which
were from three to five inches in length, and of proportional
thickness, frequently attracted the notice of the country people,

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology. 188

and in some cases excited no little alarm. It may be added,
that few specimens of the perfect moth have since been seen : it
is therefore probable, that, owing to the occurrence of a good
deal of wet weather in September, most of the larvae had pe-
rished.

35. An appearance seen on the Surface of the living Coral-
lina officinalis . — When a small living branch of the corallina
officinalis is placed under the microscope with sea-water, we ob-
serve the rounded extremity of each of the last digitations tipt
with a thin layer of a soft transparent colourless matter ; this
transparent covering is spread completely over the free ends of
all the branches, is thickest in the centre, and tapers gradually
to the sides, where no trace of it is seen ; on the surface of this
matter we can distinguish very minute tubercles or papillse, like-
wise transparent, but which do not appear to have any motion.
I have not observed this on any other part of the coralline ; and
as it appears to have escaped notice, and may possibly have some
connection with the mode of growth of a substance whose na-
ture is still perfectly unknown, I have thought it worthy of being
suggested to the attention of zoologists.. — Dr Grant .

36. On the Spicula of the Spongilla friabilis , Lamarck. — In
the forms and combinations of the ultimate spicula, in their ar-
rangement into groups, and in the disposition of these groups
around the pores, canals, and fecal orifices of the sponge, we ob-
serve the same inexplicable uniformity of design in each of the
different species, which is displayed in their outward forms, and
in the disposition of their individual parts. This unity of plan
is equally discernible in the structure of the Spongilla friabilis ,
which we have shewn in a separate memoir to bear the closest
resemblance to that of the true sponge. There occurs but one
form of spiculum in this species of spongilla ; it is simple, curved,
cylindrical, and acutely pointed at both ends ; like most of the
marine spicula, and the axes of many supposed keratophytes, it
abounds with silica, and scratches glass, both in its natural and
calcined state. Viewed through the microscope in its natural
state it appears transparent, solid, and homogeneous throughout^
but on being kept for a minute or two at a red heat, it loses its
transparency and symmetrical form : it becomes distended like a

184 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

bottle in some part of its course, generally in the middle, some-
times near one end, and bursts without any audible decrepita-
tion. In their white, opaque, calcined state, nitric acid, vinegar,
or muriatic acid, produce no more effect on them than pure wa-
ter. It is stated by Lamouroux that the burnt ashes of the
spongilla abound so much with lime, that sometimes more than
half of their weight is composed of that earth * ; he has not men-
tioned, however, the species in which he met with this appear-
ance, and may possibly have been deceived by portions of shells
in its substance, or by small fragments of the calcareous rocks
on which the animal grew. When the spicula are examined
through the microscope after this exposure to heat, we distinctly
perceive a shut cavity within them, extending from the one point
to the other ; and on the inflated part of each spiculum we ob-
serve a ragged opening, as if a portion had been driven out by
the expansion of some contained fluid. In those spicula which
had suffered little change of form by their incandescence, I have
never failed to observe the same cavity within, extending from
one end to the other, and a distinct open rent on their side, by
which the contained matter has escaped before the usual globu-
lar distension had taken place. From the constancy of the form
of this spiculum, in every variety of Spongilla friabilis I have
met with in Lochend, whether lobed, branched, flat, or globu-
lar, grey coloured, or green, young, or old, I am convinced that
it will afford an equally useful and scientific character for the
discrimination of this animal, as that afforded by the spicula of
the marine sponge, and ought, in like manner, to have a place
in the definition of the species. This interesting character in the
marine sponges has been neglected by Lamarck, and only par-
tially adopted by Donati, Ellis, Gmelin, Montagu and Lamou-
roux. Although the spiculum above described occurs uncom-
bined with any other form in this fresh-water species, and pos-
sesses nearly the simplest possible form, we almost always ob-
serve in the marine sponges a combination of more than one pri-
mitive form in the same individual ; and these forms often very
complicated, as in the tri-radiate and quadri-radiate spicula. The
form of a single spiculum may be sufficient to distinguish the

Hist, des Polyp. 1816, a-Ephydatia.

Scientific Intelligence . — Zoology. 185

few known species of fresh-water sponge ; but the form of one
spiculum only, in the marine species, is of no value in character-
ising them, from the important circumstance of the same form
not unfrequently occurring in different species. Thus the tri-ra-
diate spiculum of the Spongia compressor will not suffice alone
to distinguish that species from the Spongia botryoides , since
Ellis, Gmelin, Montagu, and Lamouroux, have described and
delineated the same form of spiculum as occurring in the latter
species ; but when we combine the compound tri-radiate spicu-
lum of the Spongia compressa along with its only other simple,
clavate, bent spiculum, we establish a scientific and permanent
character, which will distinguish it from every existing species.
These views, regarding the marine spicula, I had occasion, last
winter, to illustrate in the Wernerian Society, and have since
had an opportunity of extending them only to one species of the
fresh-water sponge. Should the anomalous circumstance occur,
of the same curved simple spiculum appearing in different spe-
cies of spongilla, uncombined with any other form of spiculum,
a specific difference must be sought for in the next character,
pointed out by Mr Ellis in the Spongia urens , in the mode of
arrangement of the spicula in the groups ; and this character in
the Spongilla friabilis consists in a remarkable parallelism of
the spicula composing all the longitudinal fasciculi. The spi-
cula of this animal are about half a line in length, and so slen-
der as to be almost invisible to the naked eye ; they have a shin-
ing vitreous lustre, and appear like the finest filaments of grey
flexible asbestus ; they do not appear to grow after they are once
formed ; for, when the ovum has newly fixed itself, and begun
to spread on a watch-glass, I have constantly observed, that the
spicula make their appearance in the transparent film of their
full size, and with their symmetry complete ; their lustre is not
tarnished by remaining in nitric or muriatic acids ; although the
ovum is nourished only with rain-water, it continues to secrete
these shut, flexible, siliceous tubes. — Dr Grant.

37. Sounds produced under water by the Tritonia arbor es-
cens. — About a month ago I happened to place together, in a
crystal jar filled with sea- water, some small species of Doris ,
specimens of the minute Tritonia corona ta, Eolis peregrina , and
two of the Tritonia arbor escens, and my attention was soon af»

186

Scientific Intelligence . — Zoology.

ter excited by a clinking sound proceeding from the vessel. On
separating these naked gasteropods into different vessels, I ob-
served that the sounds were produced by %the Tritonia arbor es-
centes , and by them only. The sounds they produce, when in
a glass vessel, resemble very much the clink of a steel-wire on
the side of the jar, one stroke only being given at a time, and
repeated at intervals of a minute or two ; when placed in a large
basin of water the sound is much obscured, and is like that of
a watch, one stroke being repeated as before at intervals. The
sound is longest and oftenest repeated when the Tritonia are
lively and moving about, and is not heard when they are cold and
without any motion ; in the dark I have not observed any light
emitted at the time of the stroke ; no globule of air escapes to the
surface of the water, nor is any ripple produced on the surface
at the instant of the stroke ; the sound, when in a glass-vessel, is
mellow and distinct. I have kept these Tritonia alive on my
writing table for a month, by renewing their water every other
day, and giving them occasionally fresh branches of the Sertalaria
dichotoma, which they are very fond of creeping upon, and from
which they seem to derive nourishment, by constantly squeezing
its tender ramifications between their two teeth ; and during the
whole period of their confinement, they have continued to pro-
duce the sounds, with very little diminution of their original in-
tensity. In a still apartment they are audible at the distance of
twelve feet ; they have been heard by several friends, and by the
President and a few of the members of the Wernerian Society.
The sounds obviously proceed from the mouth of the animal ;
and at the instant of the stroke we observe the lips suddenly se-
parate, as if to allow the water to rush into a small vacuum form-
ed within. As these animals are hermaphrodites, requiring mu-
tual impregnation, the sounds may possibly be a means of com-
munication between them ; or if they be of an electric nature,
they may be a means of defending from foreign enemies, one of
the most delicate, defenceless, and beautiful gasterophods that
inhabit the deep. — Dr Grant.

88. Pecten niveus, a new species.— -It having been suggest-
ed, in hasty terms, in the number of the Annals of Philosophy
for November last, that the Pecten niveus , described in vol. xiii.
p. 166. of the Philosophical Journal, is perhaps a mere variety

Scientific Intelligence*— Zoology* 187

of P. islandicus , I judge it expedient to institute a comparison
between the two species, after the manner in which I have com-
pared P. niveus with P. rearms , the only species to which it ap-
proaches in its characters. P . islandicus has from 70 to 100 or
more * ribs ; P. niveus has invariably 46 *f* ; in the former , the
ribs are very irregularly grouped, from 2 to 6 being crowded
together, with smaller ones intervening, but without any regu-
larity ; in the latter , they are beautifully regular ; in P. islandi-
cus, they are marked with very numerous, delicate, erect laminae,
or scales, without anv appearance of echinations; in P. niveus ,
they are compact and smooth, with scattered echinations toward
the margin of the shells ; IJ. islandicus is a tolerably thick shell,
of a pale reddish colour, with concentric circles of a deeper tint ;
P. niveus is a very thin shell, of a pure white colour : P. islan-
dicus has a margin singularly irregular in its teeth, recalling the
idea of that sort of leaf which is term ed folium crispatum ; P.
niveus has its marginal teeth as regular as those of a cockle.
If, after this, P. islandicus and P. niveus should be considered
identical, then assuredly, P. maximus and P. jacoboeus are so
also ; and scarcely any two species of a genus can be named, that
must not, on the same grounds, be mere varieties. I now sub-
join the distinctive characters of the three species. — P. islandi-
cus, testa suborbiculari rubente, fasciis concentricis saturatiori-
bus, radiis circiter 100 varie aggregatis rotundatis lamellulis den-
sissimis scabriusculis. P. niveus , testa orbiculari, fragili Can-
dida, radiis 46 subcompressis rotundatis sparsim breviter tenui-
terque echinatis. P. varius , testa orbiculato-oblonga, colore va-
ria, radiis 32, obsolete, squamosis, subcompressis, rotundato-pla-
natis, sparsim crasse echinatis. — W. MCG.

39- Balls in the Stomach of Fishes. — A globular substance is
found on the shores of the Mediterranean, which has much re-
semblance to the balls of hair formed in the stomach of oxen,
goats, and some wild animals, but which appears to be produced
by an agglomeration of the leaves of zostera marina in the sto-

* In a specimen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, the number is
104 ; in a very perfect specimen belonging to W. Nicol, Esq. Edinburgh, the num-
ber is 106.

+ That is to say in 32 specimens.

188 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology .

mach of certain fishes. The people use them in many places on
the coasts of Spain for keeping fire alive in the house. Before
putting out the fire, which they may have been using for domes-
tic purposes, they kindle one of these balls by applying it to a
piece of burning coal, and then deposit it in a corner of the chim-
ney. The fire spreads very slowly, so as not to consume the
ball within less than twenty-four hours, by which means a light
may be obtained at any time. — Bullet. Univers. August 1825.

40. East Indian Unicorn.— -It having been asserted by the
Bhoteas , that an animal, called by them the Chirsee , was the
Unicorn , and the horns which they produced proving that they
spoke of no imaginary creature, exertions were made, we are
told in the Calcutta Oriental Magazine, to procure a specimen
of the animal in question. Accordingly, the skin of one was sent
to the resident at Atamandra, with the horns attached, shewing
the animal to be no unicorn, but an antelope, of a species ap-
parently new. There was no possibility of procuring it alive, as
it frequents the most inaccessible part of the snowy mountains,
among the haunts of the musk deer, and is exceedingly vigilant
and easily alarmed. It is alleged, that although the animal pro-
duced has two horns, yet, that some individuals of the species
have only one horn. The dimensions, so far as they could be
taken from a shrivelled skin, were as follows : Total length 5
feet 8 inches ; length of body 4 feet 2 inches ; length of head 10
inches ; length of horns 2 feet 1 \ inches ; tail 8 inches ; ears 4J
inches. The colour is bluish grey, inclining to red, especially
on the back ; the hair, about an inch long, and resembling in
structure that of the musk, with a mixture of very soft wool
lying close to the skin. The forehead is nearly black, as well
as the legs ; the belly white ; the snout whitish ; the horns are
placed very near each other, on the back of the head, and mark-
ed with annular prominences, which are most conspicuous on the
upper side of the horn. The animal here imperfectly described,
if a distinct species, will furnish an interesting addition to the
very extensive family of antelopes ; but, as Cuvier remarks, it is
surprising to find men still persisting to search for what the esta-
blished laws of organic nature demonstrate to be a physical im-
possibility, namely, a ruminating animal, with a single horn
placed upon the frontal suture. That the Chirsee should occa~

189

Scientific Intelligence . — Zoology .

tonally have only one born, we can very readily believe, be-
cause such an occurrence is not uncommon among antelopes, but
it is not natural, being merely the effect of accident ; and as the
horns of this species are described as being very close upon each
other, the loss of one of them might easily induce an ignorant
person, who had seen or procured an animal so mutilated, to
imagine it a true unicorn.

41. Cause of the Red Colour of Lake Morat. — Professor
De Candolle of Geneva lately read to the Helvetic Society of
Natural Science, a memoir upon the botanical nature of a red-
dish substance which was observed upon the surface of the lake
of Morat last spring, and which has attracted the attention of
the botanists and chemists of Geneva. This substance made its
appearance in calm weather, and was disposed in large zones
upon the edges of the lake, especially about the reeds. In the
different parcels sent from Morat, there wTere found two distinct
substances ; !«?£, A greenish fetid substance, leaving when it depo-
sited the upper part of the water tinged with a red colour ; Qdly,
A lamellar substance in irregular shreds, of a soft and spongy con-
sistence. The first of these substances, viewed through a power-
ful microscope, and minutely observed by MM. Vaucher, De
Candolle and Prevost, had all the appearance of an oscillatoria.
The observers even distinctly perceived the motion of this zoo-
phyte, and the species to which it appeared to come nearest is
the Oscillatoria subfusca of Vaucher. Compared with this lat-
ter, however, which M. Vaucher had himself taken at the edge
of the Rhone, it presented sufficiently distinctive characters to
constitute a new species. M. De Candolle has named it 0. pur-
purea. The other substance submitted in the same manner to
the microscope, presented no traces of organization, and no dis-
tinct idea could be formed of its nature. Whether it be a zoo-
phyte of the same family as the last, or merely the remains of
aquatic plants, it is impossible to decide, without a careful exa-
mination of it in the spot in which it occurs. The phenomenon
which has given rise to these inquiries does not seem peculiar to
the lake of Morat, but is equally observed in other lakes in Swit-
zerland ; and, it is said, that the fishermen have sometimes ob-
served it at the upper part of the lake of Geneva. A warm and
dry season, together with a low state of the water, are the eir-

190 Scientific Intelligence.— Fossil Zoology.

cumstances most favourable to the development of the myriads
of oscillatorise which redden the waters. Haller, and a preced-
ing author, have already mentioned a conferva, which they dis-
tinguish by the same character, and which is perhaps identical
with the oscillatoria of which we are speaking. M. Colladon of
Geneva read a memoir, containing the results obtained from the
chemical analysis of this substance. It was conducted by MM.
Colladon, Peschier and Macaire, and agrees with the microsco-
pical observations of MM. De Candolle, Vaucher and Prevost,
in shewing that the substance in question is an oscillatoria.
This analysis has discovered the following materials in its com-
position. A red colouring matter, partly soluble in alcohol.

2d, Chlorophylle. 3d, Gelatine in considerable quantity. 4 th9
Albumen. 5th , Some earthy and alkaline salts, and a little ox-
ide of iron. These results confirm the opinion of some natura-
lists respecting the products of animal nature which are met with
in a great number of mineral waters, and give support to the ob-
servations made by Vauquelin, upon the green substance of the
waters of Vichy, in which he found a substance that had much
resemblance to albumen. — Bibliotheque Univers. August 1825.

FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.

42. Discovery of the Anaplotherium commune in the Isle of
Wight. — The identity of the fresh- water formations of the Isle of
Wight, with those in the vicinity of Paris, has been clearly esta-
blished, since the publication of Mr Webster’s excellent memoirs
on the former ; and this conclusion has rested upon the simi-
larity of the remains of fresh water mollusca and vegetables which
these respective formations contain, and on the correspondence
in their substance, and their relative position to other strata of
marine origin, quite sufficient to place the contemporaneous de-
position of these remarkable strata out of doubt. There still re-
mained a point, however, on which evidence seemed desirable,
inasmuch as the remains of the large quadrupeds which occur
in the basin of Paris, had not been ascertained to exist in Eng-
land. This desideratum has been in some measure supplied, by
Professor Buckland * having lately discovered in the collection

Annals of Philosophy for November 18 25.

Scientific Intelligence.— Anthropology. 191

of Mr Thomas Allan of Edinburgh, a tooth, which the latter
gentleman had himself found several years ago in the quarries of
Binstead, in the Isle of Wight, and which, with the assistance of
Mr Pentland, has been ascertained to be a molar tooth of the
lower jaw of the Anaplotherium commune.

43. Petrified Fishes . — Mr Sinclair of Ulbster, M. P. lately
transmitted to Professor Jameson, for the College Museum, a
collection of petrified fishes, found by him in the old red sand-
stone formation in the neighbourhood of Thurso; and the minis-
ter of South Ronaldshay, one of the Orkneys, lately deposited
in the College Museum specimens of the same description,
collected by himself in the old red sandstone of that island.
These fishes are found in the variety of sandstone flag now so
extensively imported into Edinburgh from Caithness, and which
we first pointed out to the attention of builders and others many
years ago.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

44. On the causes of Bronchocele.— The enlargement of the
thyroid gland, called by medical men Bronchocele, and common-
ly known in England by the name of Derbyshire Neck, and in
France by that of Goitre, is an endemical disease, or one that
takes place only in certain districts. It is a complaint that oc-
curs very frequently in Nottingham, and the surrounding coun-
try. The disease is to be met with, I believe, throughout Der-
byshire, but in some places more commonly than in others. I
was lately told, that there are not fewer than a hundred women
in the village of Cromford, near Matlock, who labour under
bronchocele of a large size. As to the cause of this disease,
there are various opinions : the vulgar one here ascribes the dis-
ease to the hardness of the water, and, as far as I have had an
opportunity of inquiring, the same opinion obtains in Derby-
shire. This popular notion certainly receives confirmation from
the circumstance, that Bronchocele is more frequently to be met
with, and of a larger size, where the water in common use is very
hard, than when it is of a softer quality. The water with which
the inhabitants of Nottingham are chiefly supplied, is from the
river Leen, that runs close to the town, and well-water. The
Leen is chiefly surface water, and is forced by an engine into a

19$ Scientific Intelligen ce- —Anth ropoiogy.

reservoir, from which it is conveyed in leaden pipes to the greater
part of the town, and is certainly a soft water, and answers very
well for washing, and all other domestic purposes. The well-
w^ater is more or less hard ; the softest is brought from Sion Hill
and New Radford water-works, in carts, to supply the inhabi-
tants of those parts of the town that are not furnished with water
by pipes from the reservoir. The well-water in the town is very
hard, and unfit for domestic purposes, although many persons,
I know, use it for drinking, brewing, and making tea, in prefer-
ence to the river- water. Well-water is also very much employed
by the inhabitants of the country round Nottingham, and some of
the wells are very deep, particularly in the coal district, where
they are often drained of their water by sinking deep shafts to
get the coal. A respectable surgeon, who practises in the coal
district, informs me, that bronchocele is more common now than
it was in his younger days, and he ascribes it to the wells being
sunk deeper than formerly, from the circumstance mentioned
above. In certain districts of the Alps, bronchocele occurs so
frequently and so generally, that it appears to be both hereditary
and endemial ; by some, the disease has been ascribed to elevated
situation and low temperature ; by others, to the use of snow or
ice-water. If elevated situation and low temperature had any
share in the production of the disease, we ought to meet with it
every day in Sweden, Norway, and the Highlands of Scot-
land ; but, so far from this being the case, the fact is, that the
disease is unknown in those countries except by name. The
late Dr Reeve of Norwich, who had travelled in Switzer-
land, and was familiar with bronchocele, observes, u with re-
gard to the alleged causes of goitre, the general opinion of its
beino; endemial in mountainous countries is of no value, because
the disease is rare in Scotland, and very common in the county
of Norfolk.'” That bronchocele is occasioned by something in
the river or well water, used by persons residing in the district
where the disease is endemic, and not by snow or ice- water, is,
I think, proved beyond a doubt, by the following facts, record-
ed by Dr Richardson, who accompanied the late arduous expe-
dition to the American Polar Regions, under the command of
Captain Franklin, of the Royal Navy. He says, u broncho-
cele or goitre, is a common disorder at Edmonstone. I examin-

Scientific Intelligence Anthropology , 193

ed several of the individuals afflicted with it, and endeavoured
to obtain every information on the subject from the most authen-
tic sources. The following facts may be depended upon : The
disorder attacks those only who drink from the water of the river.
It is indeed in its worst state, confined almost entirely to the half-
breed of women and children who reside constantly at the fort,
and make use of river-water, drawn in winter, through a hole
made in the ice. The men, from being often from home, on
journeys through the plain, where their drink is melted snow, are
less affected : and if any of them exhibit, during the winter,
some incipient symptoms of the complaint, the annual summer
voyage to the sea-coast generally effects a cure. The natives,
who confine themselves to snow-water in the winter, and drink of
the small rivulets which flowthrough the plains in the summer, are
exempt from the attacks of this disease.” A residence of a single
year at Edmonstone, is sufficient to render a family bronchocelous.
Many of the goitres acquire great size. Burnt sponge has been
tried, and found to remove the disease ; but an exposure to the
same cause immediately produces it. A great proportion of the
children of women who have goitres, are born idiots, with large
heads, and the other distinguishing marks of cretins. I could not
learn whether it was necessary that both parents should have
goitres to produce cretin children.” I may here remark, that in
no instance have I observed mental imbecility, or the disease
called Cretinism, in the least connected with bronchocele, as it
occurs in this part of the country. From what has been stated
above, it is sufficiently clear, that elevation of situation, and tem-
perature of the water, ha^e nothing to do with the production
of bronchocele. That it is occasioned by something in the wa-
ter commonly used, in the place where the disease is endemic,
is, I think, sufficiently proved by the extracts from Captain
Franklin’s Journal, given above. As to the particular sub-
stance in solution in the water, that occasions bronchocele, I
freely confess my complete ignorance ; but let us hope that this
noxious matter will sooner or later be detected by some one
gifted with superior talents for chemical research

* The above notice is extracted from a valuable and important medical work,
lately published, under the title, u Medical Researches on the effects of Iodine in
Bronchocele by Alexander Manson, M. D.

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

19^ Scientific Intelligence . — Physiology*

PHYSIOLOGY.

45. Canals in the Filaments of the Nerves. — Messrs Cu~
tier, Dumeril, Geoffroy St Hilaire, and Dupuytren, have been
charged by the Academy of Sciences to examine the prepara-
tions made by M. Bogros, in reference to his discovery of ca-
nals in the filaments of which the nerves are composed, and to
ascertain the existence of these canals, and of their true situa-
tion in the nervous tissue. M. Bogros will, without doubt, be
impressed with the propriety of varying his injections and prepa-
rations in presence of the commissioners, so as to leave no doubt
upon their mind. This point of anatomy is too important, and
the commissioners are too well acquainted with anatomical re-
searches, for their opinion regarding this discovery not to be de-
finitive, and for their not determining with accuracy what may
be perfectly ascertained, and what may still be doubtful in the
matter. We shall make known the result of this investigation,
so anxiously looked for by all anatomists. — Bulletin Univers.y
Aug. 1825.

46. On the Iron in the Cruor , or red part of the Blood. —
Englehart of Gottingen, from a series of experiments, concludes,
that the red colour of the cruor of the blood is owing to iron,
although this opinion has been controverted by Brande, Vauque-
Jin and others. He found, when the cruor is deprived of its
iron, that it becomes colourless. The iron is separated from the
cruor by means of chlorine, a method much superior to those
at present in use. -

STATISTICS.

47. Prussian Universities. — According to the Jahrbuch der
Konigl Preussisch Universitaten, the number of students in
1821, at the Prussian Universities, was as follows :

Berlin,

1,172

Bonn,

621

Halle-Wittemberg,

825

Breslau,

557

Greifswald,

Konigsberg,

218

346a

, 'Scientific Intelligence. — . Art ®.

195

ARTS.

48. Manufacture of Paper from Marine Plants. — It is said,
that it has been tried with success in Holland to manufacture
paper of marine algae. We have not seen this paper, and are
unable to sav any thing with certainty upon the subject ; but
we entertain no doubts regarding the success of such an under-
taking, provided it were conducted by proper hands. The te-
nacious texture, and the nature of these plants, seem to render
them well adapted for this purpose.

49. Sptritous Solution of Copal . — From numerous experi-
ments, the Sieurs Bravi and Wilhelm, distillers of spirits at As-
ehaffenbourg, have found out a spirit which possesses the facul-
ty of dissolving copal without the aid of heat, and, in general,
without any solvent vehicle. This spiritous solution of copal has
a twofold advantage, inasmuch as it not only gives a shining lus-
tre to articles of wood, horn, metal, pasteboard, &c. but also pre-
serves this property in them, and insures them a permanent beau-
ty, without even forming cracks, which is an inconvenience inci-
dent to every sort of varnish. It is employed like other varnish,
being applied lightly to objects, by means of a pencil. It dries
quickly ; and very little is requisite to cover a pretty considera-
ble surface. It is to be observed that this copal varnish does
not admit of any mixture. It having been for a long time in
use among artists, sufficiently attests its good qualities, and ren-
ders it unnecessary for us to recommend it. It is sold by the
manufacturers themselves, in bottles and half bottles, at a very
moderate price.

50. Very strong Leather for Harness and other Saddlery
work. — In Poland and Russia, the twisted leather which they
make themselves is preferred to every other kind for harness.
For making this leather, dried cow-hide is taken ; the hair is re-
moved by means of boiling water, and a sort of scraper ; it is
then cut into long straps, which are sewed end to end ; the two
extremities of the long strap thus formed are then stitched to-
gether, and the strap thus becomes double. In this state it is
impregnated with fatty substances made warm ; it is then sus-
pended by a hook to the roof, and weights attached to its lower

n 2

196 Scientific Intelligence.— Arts,

part. In this manner the strap forms two parallel bands, placed
in a vertical position, and united above and below. Two sticks
are passed between them, crossed horizontally ; and they are
turned round several times. By this means the two bands are
twisted and pressed against each other as strongly as possible ;
and when the moving power ceases, they turn of themselves in
the opposite direction. During this operation the leather is very
sensibly heated ; fatty substances are then applied to it anew,
with which it is fully impregnated, and at length acquires an
extraordinary degree of pliancy. The leather thus prepared
lasts for a very long time, and preserves its good qualities in all
sorts of weather. — Bullet. Univers. Aug. 1825.

51. Composition for the Covering of Buildings , hy M. Pew .
— The composition proposed by the author is destined to form
a sort of unalterable and incombustible mastich. For this pur-
pose, he takes the hardest and purest limestone that he can find,
free from sand, clay, or other heterogeneous matter. White
marble is to be preferred, if it can be procured. This limestone
is calcined in a reverberatory furnace ; it is then pulverised, and
passed through a sieve. One part is taken by weight, and mix-
ed with two parts of clay well baked, and similarly pulverised.
This mixture must be made with great care. On the other hand,
one part of calcined and pulverised sulphate of lime (gypsum) is
taken, and two parts of clay, baked and pulverised, added to it.
These two sorts of powder are then combined and incorporated,
so as to produce a perfect mixture. The composition is pre-
served for use in a dry place, sheltered from the air, where it
keeps for a long time, without losing its properties. When it is
to be used it is mixed with about a fourth part of its weight of
water, which is gradually added, stirring it continually, until it
forms a thick paste. This paste is spread upon the laths and
joists of buildings, which it renders entirely incombustible. It
becomes in time as hard as stone ; allows no moisture to pene-
trate, and is not cracked by heat. When well prepared it will
last for any length of time. The composition when still in a
plastic state, will receive whatever colour it may be thought pro-
per to give it.

52. Mr TurreWs method of rendering Gravers capable of
Engraving Steel-Plates. — Having been informed by his writing

Scientific Intelligence. — Arts. 197

engraver, that he should be obliged to give up the task of en-
graving upon steel-plates, owing to the impossibility of finding
any gravers capable of cutting them, without perpetually break-
ing in the points, Mr T urrell hit upon the following method of
accomplishing his object. He had formerly been much in the
habit of seeing the singular manner in which the 'watch-spring
makers in Clerkenwell treat the steel of which their springs are
made. Pieces of steel- wire, of a proper quality and size, are
spread by the hammer, when cold, into thin plates. After being
brought to a certain thinness and width, they are hardened, and
then tempered, over the flame of a spirit-lamp, to the spring-tem-
per, or, as it is termed, the raven’s grey colour ; they are then sub-
jected to the planishing and condensing action of the hammer,
and being then brightened, are lastly blued over the flame of a
spirit-lamp. Previous to their being blued , they had by the
planishing, condensing, and polishing, apparently lost all their
elasticity and hardness, and could be readily bent in any man-
ner, and would afterwards remain so bent, as though they had
never been hardened and tempered at all ; and yet, upon being
blued , they regained all that elasticity for which they are so high-
ly esteemed Mr Turrell, considering the above circumstance,
thought, that, upon tempering a graver, though not to the de-
gree used by the watch-spring makers, it might possibly be ren-
dered capable of being acted upon by the blows of a hammer,
so as to condense the pores of the steel, opened, as they must
be, by the heat necessary in even the most careful hardening,
but still more in the usual manner of making gravers in great
numbers. He therefore tempered a graver to the straw-colour
only, and had the satisfaction to find, that, on laying the back
of it upon a rounded anvil, he could, by a repetition of gentle
blows, with the flat cross pane of a small and very hard cast-steel
watchmaker’s hammer, succeed in rounding or blunting the acute
edge of the belly of it considerably, thus proving that it had un-
dergone a great degree of condensation ; and upon again tem-
pering it to a straw-colour, and grinding and whetting the edge
to a proper shape, the graver readily cut the steel-plate, and con-
tinued to do so, it being evidently also much toughened by this
additional labour. He has since repeatedly succeeded in thus
improving the quality of those Lancashire or Sheffield gravers

198

S den tific Intelligence . — A rts .

which are to be met with in the tool-shops ; and with such his
writing engraver has now much less difficulty in performing his
work than before. This process of Mr Turrell’s, of hammer-
hardening his gravers on the angular edges cold , may still ad-
mit of improvement. If the gravers were to be heated to the
tempering degree, at the time of hammering them, the condens-
ing effect of the hammer would be much greater. Mr Turrell
finds, that, after hammering his gravers a certain time, they
yield a sharp ringing sound to the blows, very different to that
which they afforded on his beginning to hammer them ; and that,
after perceiving that sound, he does not find that the hammer
exercises any further action upon them, in condensing them.
Possibly a renewal of the heat may promote their further con-
densation.— Gills Technical Repository , Noth 1825.

53. Excellent Building Stone near to Elgin. — At a late meet-
ing of the Directors of the Scottish National Mining Company,
there were submitted to their attention, besides many interesting
specimens of ores, &c., specimens of a sandstone from the Earl
of Eyfe’s quarries, near to Elgin. The colour is a yellowish-
white, and the substance and texture of the stone good. It was
considered, and with justice, as one of the most beautiful and
excellent stones in the country, and well deserving the attention
of those architects who wish to conjoin in their material richness
and beauty of colour with durability of substance.

54. Remarks on the Cultivation of the Silk - Worm , by John
Murray , F. R. S. fyc. — This little work contains a condensed
view of the facts communicated to the public in the Treatise of
Count Dandolo. Mr Murray, in making known these import-
ant details, has it chiefly in view to invite our countrymen to in-
troduce and cultivate silk in Great Britain. Those who are in-
terested in this subject will find Mr Murray’s Essay worthy of
their attention.

55. Manufacture of a Paper which has the property of re-
moving Rust from articles of Iron and Steel. — After having
dried a certain quantity of pumice among live coals, and reduced
it to powder, grind it with linseed oil varnish, and then dilute
it with the same varnish, until it be thin enough to be laid upon
paper with a pencil. To give this layer a yellow, black, or

Scientific Intelligence. —Arts. 199

brownish-red colour, the mass is mixed, before applying it to
the paper, with a little ochre, English red, or lamp black. Care
must be taken to lay the substance on as equally as possible, and
to dry it in the air. When the first coat thus applied to the pa-
per is dry, another is to be laid on in like manner. Those who
manufacture it for sale pass the paper thus prepared under a
cylinder, to render it smooth. It is further to be observed, that
the mass must be liquid, and that it must be stirred about before
applying it to the paper.

56. On the Chinese manner of forming Artificial Pearls , by
E. Gray, Esq.- — “ In a late visit to the College of Surgeons, I
observed some pearls in the same species of shell (Barhala pli-
cata), which had the external appearance of being formed arti-
ficially, which Mr Clift, the excellent conservator of this esta-
blishment, very kindly allowed me to examine and describe.
These pearls are of a very fine water, and nearly orbicular ;
their base is supported by a small process, which separates at the
end into short diverging processes, which stand off at right an-
gles to the central rib. On more minute examination, it ap-
peared that these pearls were produced by there being intro-
duced between the mantle of the animal (while yet alive) and
the shell, a small piece of silver wire, bent into a peculiar form,
that is to say, so as to form a right angle, with one arm ending
in two diverging processes, so as to make the simple end al-
ways to keep its erect position. These wires must be intro-
duced in the same manner as the semi-orbicular pieces of mo-
ther-of-pearl in the other method of forming artificial pearls, as
there is no appearance of any external injury. The pearls are
solid, and nearly orbicular, with a small pedicel, which is con-
tinued so as to entirely cover the wire. They may be perforat-
ed and used so as to show their whole surface, which I did not
expect could ever be the case with any artificial pearls ; but they
must doubtless, unlike the artificial pearls formed by the other
means, be a considerable time in coming to any useful and
valuable size.” — Annals of Philosophy , November 1825.

5*7. Diving Bell. ■ — A patent has been obtained by Thomas
Steel, Esq. A. M. of Magdalene College, Cambridge, for some
very important improvements in the construction and appa~

<200

Scientific Intelligence. — A rts.

ratus of the diving-bell. The improved bell will enable a
directing engineer to descend, and remain at any depth at
which diving-bells can be worked, without being subjected to
endure the pressure of condensed air ; and the working itself is
rendered much more safe and effective, by means which Mr
Steele has invented for communicating, by conversation, with
those above, which will supersede the present imperfect and in-
secure system of signals by strokes of the hammer. He has fur-
ther invented, by the application of optical principles, an in-
strument for the stronger illumination of objects under water ;
and improved the means of detaching men from the bell.

58. Platina Strings for Musical Instruments It was pro-

posed some time ago, in the Musical Gazette of Leipsig, to em-
ploy platina strings instead of copper, steel, or brass ones. This
metal being more elastic and more extensible than any other
hitherto employed in the manufacture of strings, it is obvious
that strings made of it would not only give a fuller sound, but
would also have the advantage of keeping free of rust, and the
inconvenience of breaking, as this metal is not influenced by hu-
midity.— Neues Kunst und Gewerbblatt , April 1825.

59. Imitation of Mahogany. — When any white wood is fre-
quently done over with a concentrated solution from shavings of
mahogany, and then polished, it acquires a lustre and colour
much resembling that of mahogany wood.

60. Mode of securing Wooden Buildings from the effects of
Fire.-— Two years ago the great theatre in Munich was burnt
to the ground. This unfortunate accident roused the attention
of the chemists of Bavaria to endeavour to discover some means
of destroying the inflammability of wood ; and of all the methods,
the best, and that which has been employed in the new theatre
just finished, was invented and proposed by Dr Fuchs, Professor
of Mineralogy in Munich. The following is the process : 10
parts of potash or soda, 15 parts of quartz (sand), and 1 part
charcoal, are melted together- This mass dissolved in water,
and, either alone or mixed with earthy matters, applied to wood,
completely preserves it from the action of fire. The detailed ac-
count of this process will be given afterwards. As the mate-

Scientific Intelligence. — Arts . SOI

rials, viz. the alkali, quartz, and charcoal, are in plenty in most
districts where houses are built of wood, the compound can al-
ways be had in abundance and at a cheap rate. In America,
where dreadful fires are of too frequent occurrence, the preser-
vative materials are abundant; and there we may expect to
hear of the compound being extensively used.

61. Table shewing the Quantity of Metallic Copper produced
in England , Scotland , and Ireland, t from 1818 to 1822.

1818.

1819.

1820.

1821.

1822.

Cornwall, - [ Tons Fr.

6714

7214

7364

8163

9331

Devonshire, -

438

433

417

483

537

Staffordshire (Ecton),

200

180

236

110

Anglesea, -

633

564

561

604

738

Other parts of Wales,

Somersetshire,

...

Cumberland and Westmoreland,

1 ...

...

Ireland, -

120

116

174

257

738

Scotland, -

...

8195

8567

8820

9714

114,69

Art. XXXII. — List of Patents sealed in England from Octo-
ber 6. to November 17. 1825.

Oct. 6. To J. Martineau junior and H. W. Smith, London, for ‘^Improve-
ments in the manufacture of Steel.” — Six months to enrol speci-
fication.

To Sir G. Cayley, Bart, for 44 a new Locomotive apparatus.”

To J. S. Broadwood, London, for 44 Improvements in Square
Piano-fortes.”

13. To T. Howard, London, for 44 a Vapour Engine.”

To N. Kimball, London, for 44 a process for converting Cast-Iron
into Steel.”

To B. Sanders, Worcester, for 44 Improvements in making Buttons.’’
To J. Dwyer, Dublin, for 44 Improvements in making Buttons.”

13. To J. Clesild Daniel of Stoke, Wilts, for 44 Improvements in
machinery applicable to the weaving of Woollen Cloth.”

To J. Easton of Heal Cottage, Bradford, Somerset, for 44 Improve-
ments in Locomotive or Steam-Carriages, and in the construction
of Roads for them.”

21. To William Hirst, L. Wood and J. Rogerson, Leeds, for 44 Im-
provements in machinery for raising and dressing Cloth.”

VOL. XIV. NO. 27. JANUARY 1826.

List of English Patents .

Oct. 21. To R. S. Perumberton and J. Morgan of Llanelly, Carmarthen,
for 44 a consolidated or combined Drawing and Forcing Pump.”

To G. Gurney, London, for 44 Improvements in the apparatus for
raising or generating Steam.”

To L. W. Wright, Lambeth, for 44 an Improvement in the con-
struction of Steam-Engines.”

22. To H. C. Jennings, London, for 44 Improvements in the process of
refining Sugar.”

28. To Thomas Steel, Esq. of Magdalene College, Cambridge, for
44 Improvements in the construction of Diving-Bells, or apparatus
for diving under water.”

Nov. 1. To J. and S. Seaward, London, engineers, for 44 a new or improved
method or methods of propelling Boats, Craft, and all kinds of Ves-
sels, on canals, rivers, and other shallow waters.”

To W. Raynard, Surrey, for *4 a circumvolution Brush and Handle.”
To Vernon Royle, Manchester, for 44 Improvements in the ma=
chir.ery for cleaning and spinning of Silk.”

To J. Isaac Hawkins, Middlesex, engineer, for 44 Improvements
on certain implements, machines or apparatus, used in the ma-
nufacturing or preserving of Books, whether bound or unbound.”
To J. and W. Ridgway, for 44 an improved Cock -tap or Valve for
drawing off liquors.”

7- To T. Seaton, Bermondsey, Surrey, for 44 Improvements on Wheel-
ed Carriages.”

To G. Hunter, Esq. late clothier in Edinburgh, for 44 an improve-
ment in the construction, use, and application of Wheels.”

8. To T. Shaw Brandreth of Liverpool, Esq. for 44 an improved mode
of constructing Wheel-Carriages.”

To Samuel Brown, gentleman, Middlesex, for 44 Improvements in
machinery for making or manufacturing Casks and other vessels.”
To W. E. Cochrane, London, for 44 an improvement in Cooking
Apparatus.”

To J. W. Hiort, Office of Works, Whitehall, London, for 44 an im-
proved Chimney or Flue, for domestic and other purposes.”

To C. Louis Girond of Lyons, in France, for 44 a chemical substi-
tute for Gall-Nuts, in all the different branches of the arts or ma-
nufactures in which Gall-Nuts have been accustomed or may here-
after be used.”

To James Winks and J. Erroyd of Rochdale, Lancashire, for 44 an
Engine for cutting Nails, Sprigs and Sparables, on an improved
system.”

Nov. 10. To J. and A. Maccarthy, London, for 44 new and improved Pave-
ment, Pitching, or Covering for streets, roads, ways, and places.”
To B. Cook of Birmingham, for 44 a new method of rendering Ships’
Cables and Anchors more secure, and less liable to strain and in-
jury while the vessel lies at anchor,”

To B. Cook of Birmingham, for 44 Improvements in the Binding of
Books and Portfolios, of various descriptions.”

List of Scottish Patents . 30$

Nov. 10. To J. G. Deyerlein, Middlesex, for 44 Improvements on Weigh-
ing-Machines, which machines he denominates German Weigh -
Bridges.”

12. To W. Francis Hamilton, Surrey, engineer, for 44 certain Alloys,
or a certain Alloy of Metals.”

17. To E. Bowring, London, and It. Stamp, Sussex, for 44 Improve-
ments in the working, weaving, or preparing Silk, and other fi-
brous materials, used in making hats, bonnets, shawls,” &c.

To J. Guestier, London, for 44 a mode or modes of making Paper
from certain substances, which are thereby applicable to that pur-
pose.”

To A. Lamb, gentleman, London, and William Suttill, Middle-
sex, for 44 Improvements in machinery for preparing, drawing,
roving, and spinning Flax, Hemp, and W aste Silk.”

To G. Borradaile, London, merchant, for 44 an improved method
of making or setting up Hats, or Hat Bodies.”

Art. XXXIII. — List of Patents granted in Scotland from
5th September to 17 th November 1835.

Sept. 5. To Joseph Alexander Taylor of London, gentleman, for 44 a
new Polishing Apparatus for household purposes.”

16. To Thomas Worthington junior and John Mulliner, both of

Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, small-ware manufacturers,
for 44 an Improvement in the Loom or machine used for the pur-
pose of weaving or manufacturing of Tape, and such other articles
to which the said loom or machine may be applicable.”

17. To Charles Powell of Rockfield, county of Monmouth, gentle-

man, for 44 an Improved Blowing-machine.”

21. To William Henry James of Cobourg Place, Winson Green,
near Birmingham, county of Warwick, engineer, for 44 certain Im-
provements in the construction of Rail -Roads and Carriages.”

30. To Benjamin Sanders of Broomsgrove, county of Worcester, but-
ton manufacturer, for 44 certain Improvements in the construction
or making of Buttons.”

Oct. 1. To Adam Eve of Louth, county of Lincoln, carpet-manufacturer,
for 44 certain Improvements in manufacturing Carpets, which he
intends to denominate Prince’s Patent Union Carpet.”

To Hugh Martin and Thomas Lee, manufacturers at Barrhead,
parish of Neilstoun, county of Renfrew, for 44 an Addition and Im-
provement upon a Machine which was some time ago invented by
themselves, for working by the hand a description of cloth made
of cotton, and commonly called Fancy Net, in imitation of the
French Net, or to be made of silk, woollen, and linen, or a combi-
nation of these, or part of these ; and which machine, by means of
this addition or improvement, can be wrought in a similar manner

£04 List of Scottish Patents.

to the ordinary power-loom, by the application of steam, or other
mechanical powers.”

Oct. 4. To James Wilks of Rochdale, county palatine of Lancaster, tin-
plate worker, and John Ecroyd of the same place, grocer and
tallow chandler, for “ an Engine for cutting Nails, Sprigs, and
Sparables, on an improved system.”

10. To George Thompson of Wolverhampton, county of Stafford, gent,
for “ an Improvement in the construction of Riding Saddles.”

To George Hunter of the city of Edinburgh, late clothier to his
Majesty, for “ an Improvement in the construction, use, and ap-
plication of Wheels.”

To Samuel Bagshaav of Newcastle-under-Lyne, gentleman, for “ a
new Method of manufacturing Pipes for the conveyance of water.”
13. To Nathaniel Kimball of New York, now residing in London,
merchant, for “ a process of converting Iron into Steel.”

13. To John Martineau the younger, City Road, and Henry Wil-
liam Smith of Lawrence Pountney Place, London, Esq. for “ cer-
tain Improvements in the manufacture of Steel.”

To Thomas Dwyer of Lower Bridge Street, parish Dublin, for
“ certain Improvements in the manufacture of Buttons.”

16. To John Reedhead of Heworth, county of Devon, gentleman, for
“ certain Improvements in Machinery for propelling Vessels of
all descriptions, both in marine and inland navigation.”

28. To Henry Constantine Jennings, London, practical chemist,
for “ certain Improvements in the process of Refining Sugar.”
Nov. 5. To Thomas Steele, Master of Arts of Magdalene College, Cam-
bridge, Esq. for 66 certain Improvements in the construction of
Diving Bells or apparatus for diving under water.”

To John Bowler of Nelson Square, Blackfriars Road, county of
Surrey, and Thomas Galon of the Strand, London, hat-manufac-
turers, for “ certain Improvements in the construction of Hats.”
15. To William Jefferies of No. 46. London Street, Radcliffe Cross,
parish of Radcliffe, county of Middlesex, brass-manufacturers, for
“ a Machine for Impelling Power without the aid of fire, water,
air, steam, gas, or weight.”

17- To John Phillips Beavan of Clifford Street, county of Middle-
sex, gentleman, for “ a Cement for Building and other purposes,
communicated to him by a stranger residing abroad.”

Omitted at p. 151 ..Mean Temp, of September,

Mean Pressure,

at p. 154 Mean Temp, of November,

Mean Pressure,

57°.260
29.472 inches.
39°.850
29. 482 inches.

P. Neill , Printer .

THE

EDINBURGH

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Art. I. — The Geological Deluge , as interpreted by Baron Cu-
vier and Professor Buckland , inconsistent with the testimony
of Moses and the Phenomena of Nature. By the Rev. John
Fleming, D. D., F. R. S. E. (Communicated by the Au-
thor.)

T* HE science of Geology was first introduced to public notice,
in this country, by philosophers who, while they cherished a re-
verential regard for the authority of the Scriptures, overlooked
those methods of investigation which lead to a discovery of the
laws of nature. Assuming that the first principles of geology
were revealed to Moses, and communicated in the Book of Ge-
nesis, they were satisfied with a comparison of the scanty no-
tices there given of the history of the Earth with the phenome-
na presented by its surface, even when the character and relation
of these phenomena remained in a state of comparative obscuri-
ty. The original condition of the materials with which the
Creator formed this Globe, long occupied the attention of those
early cosmogonists ; and, as the history of Moses was too meagre
in its details to serve their purpose, and the Earth failed to ex-
hibit the suitable documents, the imagination was called upon
to supply that which neither the words nor the works of the
Deity furnished. These reveries, however, usually termed
Theories of the Earth, do not call for any comment at present.

The cause by which the deluge was produced, and the changes
which it effected on the appearance of the globe, occupied the
VOL, XIV. NO. S8. APRIL 18£6.

%0 6

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

second place in the estimation of these geologists. Here, again,
the details of Revelation were so deficient as to lead some to sup-
pose that our copy of the Book of Genesis was more abridged
than the one possessed by the ancient Jews. — (Kirwan’s Geol
Es. 48.). The surface of the Earth was hastily looked at for
proofs of the effects of this catastrophe ; and again the imagina-
tion supplied that which observation could not yield. Burnet
brought the waters from below, through the broken crust with
which he fancied they had been covered during the antediluvian
period, and with the fragments of this crust he formed the moun-
tains. Woodward suspended, for a time, all cohesion among the
particles of earth, and reduced the globe to a soft paste ; while
Whiston, not inferior in fancy to any of his predecessors, called
a comet to his auk

While philosophers were thus claiming the attention of the
public in favour of their efforts to reconcile geology with revela-
tion, they were powerfully assisted by individuals of another de-
scription. The 44 Place of Descent” where the 44 Ark” rested,
had long been regarded as determined ; remains of the timber
had been preserved ; and many pieces of the bitumen, with
which it was calked, had been carried off to be employed as
amulets for averting mischief. The skeletons of the antediluvian
inhabitants were eagerly sought after; and the Continent of Eu-
rope seemed to furnish the expected, documents even the
grinders and thigh-bones of the antediluvian giants were disin-
terred from those graves which for so many ages they had oc-
cupied.

As science advanced, these theories of the deluge appeared in
their true light ; as unsupported by the statements in Scripture,
and as inconsistent with the phenomena of nature. The skele-
ton of the antediluvian man became that of an acknowledged
reptile ; while the grinders and thigh-bones of the giants were
admitted to belong to elephants. The geologist beheld his
theories vanish like a dream, and the admirer of revelation felt
(though very unnecessarily) as if a pillar of his faith had be-
come a broken reed. Geology, by these premature attempts at
generalization, fell into discredit as a science among philoso-
phers, and by the Christian it was viewed with suspicion.
The former had witnessed opinions and assertions substituted
for facts ; and the latter had reaped the fruits of misplaced con-

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. SOT

fidence. The friend of revelation had begun to consider the
history of the deluge as the least perfect of those records which
Moses has transmitted, since no proofs could be found in nature
to attest the occurrence of the catastrophe. Need we be sur-
prised, therefore, that a considerable degree of anxiety should
prevail on this subject, with the religious public, and that any
fresh attempt to revive their hopes would meet with a cordial, I
had almost said a credulous, welcome ? The truth of this view
has been put to the test.

Baron Cuvier, so deservedly celebrated as a comparative ana-
tomist, having devoted much labour to the investigation of
fossil bones, naturally directed some portion of his attention to
those collateral subjects which might serve to illustrate their his-
tory. In the preliminary discourse to his great work on u Fos-
sil Bones,” he announced the important results to which his la-
bours, reading, and reflection had conducted him. This dis-
course was published in Edinburgh, in 1813, under the title of
“ Cuvier’s Theory of the Earth.” It has gone through several
editions, and still continues to be a favourite with the public. It
has contributed, in a very great degree, to render the study of
geology popular in this country. How far the explanations
which it offers of the phenomena of nature are true, and how
far they are consistent with the sacred writings, will afterwards
be considered.

The Reverend William Buckland, while Professor of Mine-
ralogy in Oxford, appears to have embraced Baron Cuvier’s
views respecting the deluge ; and, under their influence, distri-
buted the modern strata (exclusive of the volcanic) into Post-
diluvian detritus and Diiuvian detritus.-— {Phil. Geol. England
and Wales , 1818.) In his “ Inaugural Lecture,” which was
delivered May 15. 1819, before the University of Oxford, on
the endowment of a readership in geology, he selected for the
title, “ Vindicias Geologicae ; or the Connection of Geology with
Revelation explained and stated in the dedication, “ that the
facts developed by it (geology) are consistent with the accounts
of the creation and deluge recorded in the Mosaic writings.” In
his subsequent inquiries, this learned and indefatigable Professor,
who has contributed so much to exalt the geological character of
England, has not only investigated the history of thos6 beds of

a 2

SO 8 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge .

gravel and clay which contain fossil bones, but has success-
fully explored many caves which he considers as having been
the dens of antediluvian animals. The results of these inquiries
he has published in his 44 Reliquiae Diluvianae,” in which he
considers geology as 44 attesting the action of an universal de-
luge.” This work, like the 44 Theory” of Cuvier, has greatly
contributed to render the science of geology popular, by bring-
ing it into favour with the Church, and even securing the coun-
tenance of the drawing-room. The general reader has been
charmed with the novel scenes which it discloses, while the
Christian has hailed it with joy, as offering a valuable testimo-
nial to the authority of revelation.

To my 44 Remarks illustrative of the influence of Society on
the Distribution of British Animals,” inserted in No. XXII. of
this Journal, Professor Buckland has conceived it necessary to
make a 44 Reply,” which has a place in No. XXIV. In this
communication, he continues to advocate the opinions which he
had advanced in the 44 Reliquiae Diluvianae,” and attempts to
obviate some of the objections which had been, incidentally*
stated against them.

In an inquiry of this kind, regarded as highly interesting to
the philosopher and the Christian, it seems requisite to exercise
extreme caution. The fate of former theories in geology, which
professed to explain the phenomena of nature, and to strengthen
the authority of revelation, but which inquiry demonstrated to
be visionary, intimates the risk of error, and calls for a minute
examination of the value of the proofs adduced. I enter up-
on this inquiry as one deeply interested in the authority of re-
velation, and not indifferent to the progress of geological science.
My remarks may not appear convincing, but they may excite
that inquiry and discussion which lead to truth. It is impossi-
ble, however, in a paper of this kind, to enter into all the details
which the general reader would probably desire. The outlines
only of the subject can be noticed.

In reference to this important subject, two questions natural-
ly occur to the mind : — 1. Does the character of any of the mem-
bers of the modern strata demonstrate the occurrence of a uni-
versal flood, as exclusively the agent in their formation ? —
Does the character of the geological deluge, as supposed to be

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. 209

indicated by the phenomena of nature, agree with the character
of the deluge of Noah, given by Moses ?

In the following observations, I shall reverse this order of in-
quiry, for if the second question can be satisfactorily disposed of
in the negative, it will leave the first to be examined entirely by
the laws of physics, and in the absence of those 'prejudices
which have been excited in the public mind on the subject. As
a proof that such prejudices do exist, I may state that I have
heard a gentleman of rank and piety, characterize the opposers
of the diluvian hypothesis as embracing “ the infidel side of the
question ;” and this, too, in the presence of the president and se-
cretaries of the Geological Society of London. It is my object,
in the present communication, to point out the infidel side of
he question, viz. the one where error prevails. Nature, misin-
erpreted, may amuse the cosmogonist, but never can befriend
the Christian. That which is true in science can alone give use-
ful support to revelation ; and that which is true in science never
can be found opposed to its interests.

Docs the character of the Geological Deluge, as supposed
to he indicated hy the phenomena of nature , agree with the
character given of the Deluge of Noah, hy Moses?

Before proceeding to state some of those points of difference
between the two deluges, which appear to exist, I feel it to be
necessary to notice one opinion which Baron Cuvier expresses
without reserve. After intimating that 66 Moses and his people
came out of Egypt,” (Cuvier’s Theory, p. 147.), he adds, “ The
legislator of the Jews could have no motive for shortening the
duration of the nations, and would even have disgraced himself
in the estimation of his own, if he had promulgated a history of
the human race contradictory to that which they must have
learned hy tradition in Egypt. We may therefore conclude,
that the Egyptians had, at this time, no other notions respecting
the antiquity of the human race than are contained in the Book
of Genesis.” It is true, that Moses and his people came out of
Egypt ; but it is equally true that their fathers went into Egypt.
Where, then, is the proof, that the history of the creation and
the deluge, as given by Moses, was derived from the traditions
of the Egyptians ? Will the friend of revelation consider him-
self as under obligations to Baron Cuvier for this discovery P Or

210 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

will the student of moral science admit its truth ? Those indi-
viduals, in Britain, who cherish the highest respect for the au-
thority of revelation, consider the information which Moses com-
municates as having been derived from a higher source than
Egyptian tradition ; and even the author of the strange remark
acknowledges (p. 149-)? that the Egyptians themselves had for-
gotten, for a long period, the tradition, u as we do not find any
traces of it in the most ancient remaining fragments from that
country. All of these, indeed, are posterior to the devastations
committed by Cambyses.” But where is the proof that the
Egyptians possessed those traditions which the Jewish legislator
has recorded, a thousand years before any traces of them occur
in the monuments of their country, except the very inadequate
one, 66 that Moses and his people came out of Egypt !” The
cultivator of moral science, whose attention has long been arrest-
ed by the purity of the theism of the Jews, will naturally in-
quire, If Moses obtained all his knowledge of the creation and
the deluge from the opinions or traditions of the Egyptians,
may he not have derived his knowledge of the moral law from
the same source ? And may not the inquirer infer, that the
prohibitory statutes against idolatry were forgotten by the
Egyptians (and continue to be so), as had happened to them
with respect to their traditions of the deluge, immediately after
they had succeeded in impressing on the mind of the Jewish le-
gislator a correct idea of their importance !

To such results, in my opinion, would Baron Cuvier’s views
legitimately lead. Nor, in the last edition of his great work,
does he treat the authority of Moses with higher respect, since
he considers the book of Genesis, as consisting of the shreds of
former works, or, to use his own words, “ II suffit de la lire
pour s’apercevoir qu’elle a ete compose en par tie avec des mor-
ceaux d’ouvrages anterieurs.”— -1. lxxxi.

Having made these preliminary remarks, I now proceed to
point out those differences of character which appear to exist be-
tween the geological and Noachian deluges, and which prevent
us from inferring their identity.

1. The geological deluge, as interpreted by Baron Cuvier,
was of such a nature as to permit the escape of different races of
men by different routes. The Mongolian and Caucasian races

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge , $11

are so different in appearance from each other, 44 that one is al-
most tempted to suspect, that their ancestors and ours had es-
caped from the last grand catastrophe at two different sides.” In
reference to the Negroes, he states a similar opinion with less
hesitation : 44 The circumstances of their character clearly evince,
that they also have escaped from the last grand catastrophe,
perhaps by another route than the races of the Caucasian and
Altaic chains, from whom, perhaps, they may have been long
separated before the epoch of that catastrophe.” On the suppo-
sition that the different races of men were derived from a com-
mon stock, an idea sanctioned by revelation, supported by the
truths of zoology, and tacitly admitted by our author, it seems
difficult to discover any proof of their separation having been an-
tediluvian. According to Moses, all that escaped of the hu-
man race, wrere eight individuals of the family of Noah. Here,
then, we have the character of the geological deluge, in reference
to the human race, as interpreted by Baron Cuvier, standing op-
posed to the history of the deluge as given by Moses, and that,
too, in its most important feature.

2. The geological deluge, as interpreted by Baron Cuvier and
Professor Buckland, occasioned the destruction of all the indivi-
duals of many species of quadrupeds. As examples of those
which have thus suffered extinction, may be quoted, the fossil ele-
phant, fossil hippopotamus, fossil rhinoceros, fossil bear, and fos-
sil hyaena, besides many others. These have been, somewhat pre-
sumptuously, termed antediluvian animals * In the history

* In my first paper, in No. xxii. of this Journal, I have stated that the
relics of these ancient animals occur in postdiluvian strata. The learned Pro-
fessor, in his “ Reply,” first declares, “ That, could the above cases be esta-
blished, they would be decisive in favour of the theory maintained by Dr Fle-
ming and shortly after adds, that, “ Even admitting all these facts, still
every atom of the evidence contained in my Reliquiae Diluvianae would re-
main unaffected by the discovery.” I attempt not to reconcile such apparent
contradictions. Perhaps it may be judged reasonable to allow an adversary,
when hard pushed, to shift his position, even though it put the pursuer to
more trouble. With reference to the Rhinoceros horn from Forfar, about
which Professor Buckland is unnecessarily prolix, I may state, that I relied
on the authority of Professor Jameson, in the Wern. Mem. iv. p. 582. ; and
having seen the horn labelled, as from Forfar, in the Edinburgh Museum,
of which he is Regius Keeper, I still consider the statement of Professor
Jameson to be substantially true, and the one given by my opponent as quite

212 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

of the Noachian deluge, as given by Moses, it is expressly stated,
that clean and unclean beasts, fowls after their kind, cattle after
their kind, and every creeping thing of the earth, two of every
sort, male and female, were taken into the ark, preserved in the
ark, and brought forth in safety from the ark, and dismissed with
the mandate of their Creator to breed abundantly on the earth,
and to be fruitful and multiply upon the earth. Here, then, we
have revelation, declaring that, of all species of quadrupeds a male
and female were spared and preserved during the deluge ; while
we have the phenomena of nature, as interpreted by the geologists
we have quoted, intimating, that all the individuals , of many
species , were not spared, not preserved, but annihilated , by the
catastrophe. An error must exist in one of these statements.
The declaration of Moses is positive. The phenomena of na-
ture may not have been suitably investigated. Shall we reject,
then, the conclusions of the geologist, and respect the authority
of Moses, or give the preference to Cuvier and Buckland ?

3. According to Baron Cuvier, 66 this revolution had buried
all the countries which were before inhabited by men, and by
the other animals that are now best known ; and the same re-
volution had laid dry the bed of the last ocean, which now forms
all the countries at present inhabited.'” (Theory, p. 171.) Moses
expressly tells us, that the flood of waters was upon the earth,
prevailing exceedingly upon the earth, and covering the highest
hills ; that the waters returned from oif the earth. Here, again,
we have the opinion of Cuvier, in direct opposition to the whole
tenor of the history of the Noachian deluge. Nor need we be
surprised at this, since he seems to be in opposition to himself.
At one time he supposes, that the inundation did not reach to

the reverse. The bottom of the horn attests its origin, — the numerous rents
and their marly contents. The Blair-Drummond example I quoted from the
same authority. It is singular, that, in the same number of the Journal in
which this case is likewise treated as spurious, and in the Proceedings of the
Wernerian Society, I found “ Notices regarding the Rhinoceros Horns of Blair-
Drummond, tending to shew that they may probably be regarded as having
occurred in the blue clay of that district ; by Mr A. B. Blackadder, Allan
Park,” p. 401. As Professor Buckland has admitted, in his “ Reply,” my first
example of extinct animals being postdiluvian , I have got quite enough to esta-
blish my views. The acknowledged postdiluvian character of the gigantic elk
is as decisive as any horn of a rhinoceros in a marl bed, or carcase of a mam-
moth in a postdiluvian iceberg.

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. 213

the summits of the higher mountain chains ; and that Mongols,
Caucasians, and Negroes may have escaped by different sides,
or by different routes ; at another, that the bed of the antedilu-
vian ocean is now the abode of the post-diluvian quadru-
peds.

4. The geological deluge, as interpreted by Professor Buck-
land, was sudden, transient, universal, simultaneous, rushing
with an overwhelming impetuosity, infinitely more powerful than
the most violent waterspouts. In the history of the Noachian
deluge by Moses, there is not a term employed which indicates
any one of the characters, except universality, attributed to the
geological deluge. On the contrary, the flood neither approach-
ed nor retired suddenly. The waters rose upon the earth, du-
ring the continuance of the rain, for forty days ; and they retired
slowly, upon the rain being restrained. There is no notice taken
of the furious movements of the waters, which must have driven
the ark violently to and fro. On the contrary, there is reason
to believe, from the writings of Moses, that the ark had not
drifted far from the spot where it was at first lifted up, and that
it grounded at no great distance from the same spot.

5. The geological deluge, as interpreted by Professor Buck-
land, excavated, in its fury, deep valleys, tearing up portions of
the solid rock, and transporting to a distance the wreck which
it had produced. On this supposition, the aspect of the antedi-
luvian world must have been widely different from the present;
lakes, and valleys, and seas, now existing in places formerly oc-
cupied by rocks, and the courses of rivers greatly altered. In
the Book of Genesis there is no such change hinted at. On the
contrary, the countries and rivers which existed before the flood,
do not appear, from any thing said in the Scriptures, to have
experienced any change in consequence of that event. But if
the supposed impetuous torrent excavated valleys, and trans-
ported masses of rocks to a distance from their original reposi-
tories, then must the soil have been swept from off the earth, to
the destruction of the vegetable tribes. Moses does not re-
cord such an occurrence. On the contrary, in his history of the
dove and the olive-leaf plucked off, he furnishes a proof that the
flood was not so violent in its motions as to disturb the soil,
nor to overturn the trees which it supported; nor was the

£14 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

ground rendered, by the catastrophe, unfit for the cultivation of
the vine.

Viewing, in connection, these differences between the Mosaic
history and these interpreters of the phenomena of nature, it
seems impossible to admit, that, “ as far as it goes, the Mosaic
account is in perfect harmony with the discoveries of modern
science.” The reverse appears rather to be the case. It is well
known, that Linnaeus declared that he saw no examples in na-
ture of the ravages of a universal flood : “ Cataclysmi universa-
lis certa rudera ego nondum attigi, quousque penetravi ; minus
etiam veram terrain Adamiticam ; sed ubique vidi factas ex se-
quore terras, et in his mera rudera longinque sensim prseter-
lapsi aevi,” (Syst. Nat. iii. 5.) ; and this opinion has given of-
fence to several well disposed friends of revelation, who have,
nevertheless, formed their notions of the deluge from the specu-
lations of geologists, instead of the records of Scripture. I con-
fess that I entertain the same opinion as Linnaeus on this sub-
ject ; nor do I feel, though a clergyman, the slightest reason to
conceal my sentiments, though they are opposed to the prejudices
which a false philosophy has generated in the public mind. I
have formed my notions of the Noachian deluge, not from Ovid,
but from the Bible. There the simple narrative of Moses permits
me to believe, that the waters rose upon the earth by degrees,
and returned by degrees ; that means were employed by the Au-
thor of the calamity to preserve pairs of the land animals; that
the flood exhibited no violent impetuosity, neither displacing the
soil, nor the vegetable tribes which it supported, nor rendering
the ground unfit for the cultivation of the vine. With this con-
viction in my mind, I am not prepared to witness in nature any
remaining marks of the catastrophe, and I feel my respect for the
authority of revelation heightened, when I see on the present sur-
face no memorials of the event. On the other hand, had I witnes-
sed every valley and gravel-bed, nay, every fossil bone, attesting
the ravages of the dreadful scene, I would have been puzzled to
account for the unexpected difficulties ; and might have been in-
duced to question the accuracy of Moses as an historian, or the
claims of the Book of Genesis to occupy its present place in the
sacred record. Instead of finding the Deity setting his bow in
the cloud, as a pledge that he would not again visit the earth

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge . 215

with a flood, and as the only natural token of what had happened;
I had expected to And a reference made to every diluvian heap
of gravel, and every valley of denudation, as a memorial of that
wrath which was displayed, while visiting rebellion with death.
In other words, if the geological creeds of Baron Cuvier and
Professor Buckland be established, as true in science, then must
the Book of Genesis be blotted out of the records of inspiration.
But as I believe in the authority of the Mosaic history, and
see, in the opinion of Linnagus, a strict conformity therewith, in
letter and spirit, I may perhaps be asked, How can I reconcile
the phenomena of nature, as interpreted by these geologists, with
the view which I have embraced? I have already, in my first
paper, declared, that “ the works and the words of God must
give consistent indications of his government, provided they be
interpreted truly.'” It has been announced, that the Mosaic ac-
count is in perfect harmony with the discoveries of modern science,
though we have pointed out & palpable disagreement Perhaps
a similar difference may exist between these supposed discoveries
of modern science and the phenomena of nature. Our attention
will now be directed to the determination of this important point,
involved in the second question we proposed to discuss. As now
to be examined, it is one exclusively of a scientific character, in
which all our appeals must be made to the facts established by
observation or experiment.

II. Does the character of any of the members of the “ Modern
Strata ,” demonstrate the occurrence of a Universal Flood as ,
exclusively , the agent in their formation ?

The progress of truth, in this branch of the inquiry, must neces-
sarily be correlative with our knowledge of the “ modern strata,”
and the causes which have operated in their production. Whe-
ther a sufficient degree of knowledge has been acquired, or suf-
ficient attention been bestowed on the subject by British geo-
logists, I leave to the determination of the unprejudiced.
Enough, in my opinion, seems to have been secured to enable
us to solve the question under consideration.

Various conjectures have been offered by different geologists,
respecting the origin of the waters of the deluge. Some are dis-
posed to consider the waters of the earth as sufficient, if once set

216 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

in furious motion. A few look to a sudden change in the Earth’s
axis as the origin of the catastrophe, in the absence of all proof
from the science of Astronomy. Some consider the waters as
having been set in motion by the attractive force of a comet, with-
out previously gaining an affirmative answer to the question,
Has a comet this attractive force ? There is abundant proof
that the planets disturb the comets, but the converse is not known.
The comet of 1454 eclipsed the Moon ; while that of 1770 not
only came near the Earth, but passed through the midst of the
satellites of Jupiter, without producing any sensible effects.
Others, translating the phrase of Moses, 44 the windows of Hea-
ven,” as literally meaning 44 a comet’s tail,” have considered the
water as added to the Earth. I would be disposed, before ad-
mitting this view of the matter, to ask, Is the vapour of a co-
met’s tail aqueous ? — The following phenomena, however, bear
more directly upon the question under discussion.

1. Excavation of Valleys. — Valleys, in the opinion of the sup-
porters of the diluvian hypothesis, may have been produced by
different causes, such as irregularity of deposition, or subse-
quent dislocations of the strata. But those which exist in rocks
nearly horizontal, 44 must be referred exclusively to the removal
of the substance that once filled them ; and the cause of that re-
moval appears to have been a violent and transient inundation.”
Valleys of this kind have been designated by the very inap-
propriate term, 44 Valleys of Denudation,” as if they had been
only exposed , not formed , by the catastrophe. Many circum-
stances seem to oppose the diluvian hypothesis, in reference to
the origin of valleys ; among which, the following may be no-
ticed.

a. Shape of Valleys. — The valleys of denudation are not al-
ways straight in their course ; they have their salient and re-en-
tering angles, their lateral branches, and their increase in width
as they descend. When we look at a valley, at present forming,
by the action of running water, in beds of clay or gravel, we
witness the sinuosities of its banks produced by the oscillations
of the stream at the bottom , now transporting the materials from
one side, then from another, and thus aiding the force of gravity

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. £17

in causing the loose matter of the bank to descend. The lateral
branches are produced by a similar process ; and the valley wi-
dens as it advances, by the increase of its waters from the lateral
streams, and the consequent increased transporting power. I
am in the habit of employing an old-fashioned logic, and com-
paring small things with great, referring analogous phenomena to
the same cause, and proceeding from the distinct to the obscure.
Under the influence of these principles, I feel myself compelled
to conclude, that the old valleys, with the characters described,
have been produced, like those forming under my eye, by the
long-continued action of running water at the bottom. How a
sudden, transient and universal flood, covering the highest hills,
could have produced these effects, I cannot conceive. The main
branch must have been first scooped out ; then the subordinate
lateral branches, in succession ; and a current in the main branch
following each, to clear away the rubbish. Had the lateral cur-
rents been flowing simultaneously with the principal one, a bar
would have been formed at the mouth of each branch ; and if
there had been no succession of currents in the main trunk, it
would have been filled with the materials of the lateral branches.
To those who have studied the natural history of rivers, espe-
cially their junctions with other rivers or with friths, the force
of the objection will be obvious.

It has been objected to the theory of the excavation of valleys
by running water, that now no water flows through them. But
water may have flowed through them, though now absent. The
bursting of a lake, at a higher level, may have cut off the sources
of several springs, and directed water through a distinct and
very different channel from that in which it formerly flowed.

b. The Impotence of Water as an Abrading Power . — The
advocates of the diluvian hypothesis, have, in their zeal, com-
mitted that mistake intimated by the schoolmen, “ Causam assig-
nare quae causa non est.” It is impossible to form an ade-
quate conception of all the effects which might result from a
violent and transient inundation, covering the highest hills, and
sweeping whole continents with destructive fury. The mind is
lost in the vastness of the operation, and the imagination is left,
unfettered, to pursue its reveries,— a most bewitching predica-

£18 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge .

ment for a geologist. But we may make an approach to the
subject. When a river is in a violently flooded state, we wit-
ness it remove the soil which opposes its current, transport to a
lower level the loose blocks of rock, and sweep away the animal
and vegetable productions occurring in its course. But it is
subject to certain limitations. Throughout its course, its velo-
city is greatest at the surface and the middle of the stream, from
which it diminishes toward the bottom and the sides, where it is
least. When it enters a hollow, lake or mill-pond, the water
below the outlet has its motion checked, and, in its state of com-
parative stillness, permits the heavier materials it had transported
to subside. When a water-spout descends almost in a solid co-
lumn of great height, and exerting, consequently, a pressure
well calculated to remove obstructions, it penetrates the soil, and
disperses it, along with the vegetable covering, removes the loose
blocks of stone, and the surrounding detritus, while it makes
but a feeble impression on the solid rock. When an alpine lake
bursts its barriers, it acts precisely as a river in a flooded state ;
carries along with it soil, loose rocks, trees and animals, deposit-
ing at a lower level the wrecks of its course, — as happened in
the Val de Bagnes, by the bursting of the lake of Mauvoisin,
(Edin. Pliil. Journ. No. 1. p. 190.)

Let us now suppose a body of water (no matter at present
whether fresh or salt), of sufficient height to cover the highest
mountains, and possessing a progressive motion of great velocity,
suddenly to arive at the north of Zetland, traverse the kingdom,
and pass off towards the south, at the Land's End, What would
be the accompanying phenomena ? The soil would be every
where annihilated in its progress, and, as mud, transported to a
distance. The animal and vegetable inhabitants would be floated
off. All detritus, boulders, and loose blocks of rocks, would, at
the onset, yield to its pressure and velocity. But every lake,
every valley, every lee side of a hill, every frith and bay of the
sea, would speedily be in a state of comparative stillness, and
receive the largest and the heaviest of the transported blocks.
In the bottom of valleys and lakes we should now find the wreck
of the catastrophe. But, have we the shadow of evidence to
warrant the conclusion, that this inundation could tear up solid
rocks, and make excavations in undisintegrated strata? No.

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. 219

The force of cohesion, or rather crystallization, is more than a
match for water falling from any conceivable height, or moving
with any known velocity. The numerous islands which occur
around our coasts, even where most exposed, and the cascades
so common in the hilly districts, attest the absence of this abra-
ding or excavating power. Did it possess this power, the Straits
of Dover and the Pentland Frith must by this time have become
unfathomable ; Niagara should have ceased as one of the won-
ders of the world, and wooded valleys should have occupied the
place of the Canadian lakes.

While I deny to water this abrading power, because the whole
history of rivers is in opposition, I willingly admit its transport-
ing power after disintegration has taken place,— a distinction to
which the student in geology would do well to take heed.

c. The Terraces in Valleys. — In many valleys, on the Conti-
nent of Europe, in this country, and in America, terraces occur
in the banks, which, from their horizontality, indicate their pro-
duction by water at the period these valleys were lakes. Several
terraces may be traced in some valleys, and these, according to
Professor Buckland, <fi shew the number of successive stages by
which the bursting of the gorge took place.1’— (Rel. DU. 217.)
In Lochaber four ’such terracesoccur, shewing four successive erup-
tions. These terraces, however, are declared to be “ all of post-
diluvian origin.” — (lb.) Whatever be the era of these terraces,
they demonstrate a few truths, which cannot be very agreeable to
the supporters of the diluvian hypothesis. Many lakes formerly
existed, where valleys now occur ; and there are agents in Nature
capable, at different intervals, of opening the barriers of these
lakes, and permitting the water to escape suddenly. Such lakes
and such agents may have existed before the flood. Each burst-
ing must have resembled a deluge in its effect upon the district
through which the waters passed, and the wrecks which it would
accumulate at the lower level. When, therefore, we witness a
valley, the present waters of which empty themselves by a nar-
row gorge, how are we to determine whether that gorge has
been opened before the deluge, at the deluge, or after the de-
luge? The Vale of Pickering, in Yorkshire, may be taken as
an example. According to Professor Buckland, it was an ante-

$20 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

diluvian lake (it would have been, from its characters, a valley
of denudation, had it not been necessary to have a sheet of fresh
water for the antediluvian hippopotami to swim in) ; the deluge
opened the gorge at Malton, and converted it into a postdiluvian
valley. But it is just as probable that it was a postdiluvian lake,
and that the gorge of Malton was removed by an agent, similar
to that which opened its northern neighbours in Lochaber.
When we see a valley, the waters of which flow out at a gorge,
we may infer that it was formerly a lake. We may also infer
that a sudden deluge could not tear away the barrier rocks, un-
less previously disintegrated ; and we may watch the transport-
ing power of the present stream : but if we have any geological
caution, we will hesitate about fixing the era of the change.

These terraces are found in greater numbers in alpine districts,
as might have been anticipated. They occur, however, even at
low levels. I have already noticed three examples in this Jour-
nal, and I have more to produce. They are much more nume-
rous than is commonly imagined. Even in the valley of the
Thames there is reason to believe they exist, though this hollow
is pronounced, by Professor Buck land, a valley of denudation *»

* In the 44 Reply ” I am accused of supporting one of my conclusions 44 by
stating, on the misinterpreted authority of Mr Trimmer’s paper,” that several
of the reputed antediluvian animals occur in the postdiluvian, regularly strati-
fied clay, &c. But how is this grave change of misinterpretation supported ?
44 I venture (he says) to assert, that no remains of this kind have ever been
found in the peat bogs of any part of the valley of the Thames, still less in
the regular stratified clay, that is , the London clay” Had I really said that Mr
Trimmer found these remains in the 44 London Clay,” the charge would have
been well founded, as he says that they occur above the London day. But I
say no such thing, Is the London clay (in the geological sense of the term)
the only regular stratified clay with which my opponent is acquainted ? This
cannot be the case. Or can he deny, that the 44 Brentford clay ” is less regu-
larly stratified than the 44 London clay ?” I use the phrase, obviously consistent
with the authority which I quote ; and I was the more inclined to do so, for the
purpose of exhibiting the distinction between this regularly stratified clay and the
ordinary diluvium, which is irregular in its stucture. So far, therefore, I have
been misinterpreted, not Mr Trimmer. But there is still a difference between
us. Professor Buckland says, that he has visited the clay in question, and
pronounces it diluvium. Last spring, when in London, I was anxious to see
a genuine example of diluvium , and the more so, as Mr Trimmer’s remarks in-
dicated a very different deposition: and because I had suspected that the ad-
vocates of the diluvian hypothesis were in the habit of confounding together, at

221

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

Mr Greenough, a strenuous supporter of the diluvian hypothe-
sis, has stated in his Geology (p. 121.), that 44 the valley of the
Thames, in London, is contained in that of which Clapham Rise
forms part of the boundary on one side, and the Green Park on
the other ; and this,, again, is contained in the larger valley,
which occupies the interval between Highgate and Sydenham.
Arrived at these points, we find our horizon bounded by a chalk
ridge still loftier.” These included valleys throw great light on
the history of the globe. They are like the circular valleys in
river courses : they mark some of the features of a former state
of things ; they assist us in tracing the changes which have taken
place, and even the agents concerned in their production : but
they give us no dates.

11. Formation of Gravel Beds.— The materials of which these
beds consist, appear, in general, to be rounded blocks of rocks,
confusedly mixed together, or presenting but indistinct marks of
stratification. The blocks are seldom angular, and never exhibit
the surfaces or edges of a mass recently detached from an un-
disintegrated rock. As these masses are supposed to have been
derived from the rocks which the geological deluge tore from
their beds during the excavation of the valleys, we might expect
to find them exhibiting numerous instances of tolerably fresh-

least, two of the 44 modern strata.” Nor was I disappointed ; for that which
my opponent has pronounced diluvium, I found to be Lacustrine Silt ; and
my conclusion rested on the following facts : 1. The beds, and their stra-
ta of fine clay and sand, are nearly horizontal. 2. They contain, here and
there, thin horizontal patches of small rounded flinty pebbles, (precisely simi-
lar to small layers of gravel which I had seen in genuine examples of similar
origin), indicating the influence of occasional floods. 3. Scattered through the
clay, I observed several pieces of shells, the present inhabitants of our lakes
or slow running streams, viz. Helix peregra and complanata , Turbo fontinalis ,
and Cardium corneum of Montagu. It is evident, therefore, that a lake existed
here which has been filled up by slow degrees, and the character of the mate-
rials, and organic remains of the different beds, mark certain epochs in the
process. It is fortunate that this example occurs so near London as to be of
easy access to the members of the Geological Society. Perhaps a good deal
of the] reputed English diluvium may, upon investigation, be found to be la-
custrine silt, as in the present instance.

. VOL. XIV. NO. 28. APRIL 1826.

22^ Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

fractured surface, and the edges and corners still nearly .entire.
But when we find the reverse of all this generally to be the case,
we must draw the conclusion, that the fury of the agent, which
collected the contents of these beds, was chiefly expended on the
loose and weathered blocks on the surface. This is a fact of
some value, especially when viewed in connection with other cha-
racters exhibited by the gravel.

The clay or loam associated with the gravel, according to Pro-
fessor Buckland, 44 possesses no character by which it is easy to
ascertain the source from which it has been derived, but usually
varies with the nature of the hills composing the adjacent dis-
tricts.^ — ( Rel . DU. 191.) On the supposition that this loam was
derived from the finer portions of the soil and detritus removed
by the waters of the deluge, we might expect that it would pos-
sess something like a common character, not in England only,
but over the globe. But when we see it vary with the nature of
the neighbouring hills, and consequently with the soil and detri-
tus which they produce, we are irresistibly led to infer the ope-
ration, not of a universal, but of a local agent.

According to Professor Buckland, the 44 diluvial gravel is al-
most always of a compound character, containing amongst the
detritus of each immediate neighbourhood , which usually forms
its greatest bulk, rolled fragments of rocks, whose native bed
occurs only at great distances, and which must have been drifted
thence at the time of the formation of the gravel, in which they
are at present lodged." — (lb.) The rolled character of the gra-
vel is fatal to the supposition of a sudden and transient inunda-
tion, acting upon fresh portions of dislocated strata. The cir-
cumstance of some of the blocks having travelled from a distance,
is equally satisfactorily explained, on the supposition of a partial
flood, occasioned by the bursting of an alpine lake, as by a sud-
den and universal flood. We can scarcely, however, avoid ask-
ing the question, Would not a general flood, raging violently,
have produced gravel, of so confused and mixed a character, as
to render it difficult to trace the origin of its materials ? This
local character, though apparently hostile to the diluvian hypo^
thesis, is of importance to society in an economical point of view.
Norway has suffered much from this transient flood, for, accord-
ing to Professor Buckland, pebbles of her rocks have been car-

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge . 223

Tied to England. But our country has been more highly fa-
voured. Had it been otherwise, instead of gold reposing at the
base of the Leadhills, or stream-tin in Cornwall, they had been
resting far from their birth-place; probably, if the deluge was
from the north, in the bottom of the Bay of Biscay.

There is one character exhibited by the boulders in the gra-
vel, of a truly interesting kind, in a theoretical point of view,— —
the intervention of valleys between the rocks from whence they
came and the station they now occupy. It seems to be admitted
on all hands, that these valleys did not exist at the period of the
transportation of the gravel. Mr Greenough declares, that
the blocks of granite on the Jura attest the non-existence of
the Lake of Geneva at the time of their transportation, ”-~(GrcJ.
177.) ; and, according to Professor Buckland, 66 the quartzose
pebbles found on the tops of the hills round Oxford and Henly,
were drifted thither from the central parts of England, before
the excavation of the present valley of the Thames.” — {Rel. DU.
£48.) If, then, we consider the gravel as diluvian, the valleys
must be regarded as postdiluvian ; or, if we consider the valleys
as having been formed at the deluge, then the beds of gravel
must be regarded as antediluvian. Professor Buckland has en-
deavoured to avoid the admission of these conclusions. It
seems probable that the first rush of these waters drifted in the
pebbles within the great escarpment of the oolite, and strewed
them over the then nearly continuous plains ; and that the val-
leys were subsequently scooped and furrowed out by the retiring
action of these same waters.” — {Rel. DU. 253.) Is it conceiv-
able that this sudden, transient and impetuous deluge, should
have transported, in its first rush, various kinds of boulders, ten,
twenty, or hundreds of miles, strewed them over nearly continu-
ous plains, and then proceeded to scoop and furrow out numerous,
deep and extensive valleys in these plains, whilst it permitted the
deposits of its first rush to retain undisturbed possession of the
station to which they were first brought ? Could I bring my
mind to assent to such statements, I should claim to rank with
Judaeus Apella. But the difficulty does not end here. In these
valleys, supposed to have been excavated by the retiring waters,
extensive depositions of gravel occur. (Rel. DU. p. 251-2.) This

£24 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge ,

last circumstance, which is far from uncommon, marks a third
epoch in the history of valleys and gravel. In the first period, the
gravel was transported across continuous plains. In the second,
valleys were scooped out. In the third, the bottom of these val-
leys received deposits of gravels. These facts intimate successive
operations, executed under different circumstances, and seem fit-
ted for leading to the inference, that some time intervened between
the several changes. They certainly do not support the conclu-
sion, that the three phenomena had their origin in the same sudden
and transient inundation. Under all the circumstances of the
case, the young geologist will feel himself without a guide, and
without a test, in determining the sera of the formation of a bed
of gravel. 1. It may be antediluvian, produced by the bursting
of a, lake (for lakes must have been numerous, indeed, and ex-
tensive, before the excavation of so many gorges and valleys by
diluvial action), spreading its wreck on nearly continuous plains.
£. It may be the result of the first rush of the diluvian waters,
previous to the formation of the valleys of denudation. 8. It
may be the wreck of these valleys, produced during the tumult
of the retiring waters. 4. It may be the result of the very last
effort of the flood, to fill up the frightful excavations it had pro-
duced in the fury of its retreat. 5, It may be postdiluvian, and
the result of the bursting of an alpine lake : and this gravel may
have been deposited at very distant intervals. On the banks of
Glenmornaalbin, diluvium may occur, referable to four different
burstings of the Lochaber lakes, and all of them prior to human
record. The diluvium of Martigny, from the bursting of a lake,
was formed in 1818. When all these probabilities are taken
into consideration, few, who generalize with ordinary caution,
will feel inclined to refer to one sera the formation of all our ir-
regular beds of clay and gravel.

Independent of the depositions of confused portions of gravel
and loam, there are likewise extensive depositions of sand, and
gravel, and clay, of the same materials as the so-called dilu-
vium ; but which, by being divided into beds and strata, indi-
cate a subsidence from water in a state of comparative stillness.
The characters of these beds seem to have been in a great mea-
sure overlooked by the advocates of the diluvian hypothesis*
It is not probable that such beds could have been produced by

9.25

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

a sudden and transient flood, which, in its first rush, transported
44 Norwegian pebbles” to the plains of England ; and, by the im-
petuosity of its retiring waters, scooped out the Solway Frith, the
English Channel, and the Lake of Geneva. On the other hand,
a lake at a high level, bursting its barrier, and carrying the wreck
into a lake at a lower level, would give origin to stratified gravel,
sand and clay, such, for example, as may be seen in the neighbour-
hood of Edinburgh, and on the south bank of the estuary of
the Tay ; and which lower lakes have in their turn been drained.

The last character which I shall notice belonging to those beds
of loam and gravel supposed to have been formed by the deluge,
is the presence, exclusively, of the remains of land animals .
This fact is supported by the testimony of Professor Buckland,
in his 44 Inaugural Lecture/'’ and 44 Reliquiae Diluvianae ;” by
Mr Greenough in his 44 Geology ;” and by Mr Conybeare in the
44 Geology of England and Wales.” This character yields a
demonstration, that the water, which in its fury produced or
transported this gravel, passed over apportion of the Earth’s sur-
face, on which dwelt land animals, and that a flood from the sea
had not been concerned in the phenomena in question. To the
matter confusedly brought together by this flood or floods of
fresh water , I have, in my second paper on the 44 Modern
Strata,” given the name of Lacustrine Diluvium. Had a sud-
den, universal and transient deluge been the agent concerned in
its formation, then should we have looked for the remains of the
animals of the sea , mingled in sad disorder with those of the
land and the lakes; or rather fishes, shells and zoophytes, where
we now find the wreck of land animals *. Even the peculiarities

* In my first paper I had enumerated five characters of lacustrine diluvium,
indicating, that a universal flood had no share in its formation. Four of these
characters are admitted, directly or indirectly, in the “ Reply.” But the fifth
(“ the absence of marine exuviae,”) is brought forward against me as an exam-
ple of 44 misstated facts :” and it is added, that if I had ever seen or heard of
three examples, which are quoted, of the presence of marine remains, I never
would have advanced such an argument. One of these examples is unfortu-
nate, as the learned Professor seems to confound three different formations, —
the crag, or upper, marine formation ; distinguished from those of the modern
epoch , by the species of shells, but especially the zoophytes, which it contains :

■ — the Lacustrine Diluvium , containing the remains of land animals : — and Ma-
rine Diluvium , containing the relics of existing marine shells of the neighbour-

£26

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

of the remains of the land animals stand opposed to the geolo-
gical deluge as it has been interpreted ; for these belonged to in-
dividuals, which, according to Professor Buckland, <c lived and
died in the regions where their remains are now found, and were

ing sea. In my second paper, I intimated my acquaintance with his two first
examples, and I added six others, with which he might have been acquainted.
Yet my opinion remains unchanged ; and I misstate no facts, while I preserve
a distinction in geology (which my opponent will soon find it necessary to
adopt) between Lacustrine and Marine diluvium. In the appendix to his pa-
per he recurs to the same subject, and considers, that the facts I advance in
my second, are in u direct contradiction ” to the opinions advanced in the first.
Here he labours under ignoratio elenchi, which a reperusal of my two.papers
would readily remove. If I allow him to use my terms with his different signi-
fication, I have too much respect for his logical ' powers to anticipate a failure
in his object. But if the terms I use be taken in the sense In which I have
defined them, the charge of u contradiction” will be found without proof.

Professor Buckland, rising, as it were, in his demands, having fancied that
I had contradicted myself, announces the cause of my misfortune and the ex-
tent of my guilt — “ Not being aware of facts which so materially affect his ar-
gument, at the time of his writing the paper in question ; at any rate, it
would have more candid to acknowledge Ms error , than to leave to me the task
of pointing it out, and applying it to my advantage in the matter at issue be-
tween us.” Is it probable that I could have been ignorant of eight facts at the
time of writing my first paper, which I give in detail in the continuation , or
second paper ; or that I would record these eight facts in the second paper,
which contradicted my statements in the first, without offering any explana-
tion ? Low, indeed, must be my^rank in the intellectual scale,' in the opinion
of my opponent, if* he be disposed to reply in the affirmative. But I can pro-
duce evidence that it was not possible 1 could be ignorant of some of the facts
at least, stated in my second at the time .1 wrote the first paper, nor for eigh-
teen years previous. The first of the eight examples of marine diluvium
in Scotland which I quote, is from a j published paper of my own , and to which
there is a particular reference, on a bed of sea-shells, on the south banks of-
the estuary of the Forth.- This bed, as stated in my second paper, I examined
in 1808, read an account of it to the Wernerian Society in 1811, and publish-
ed this account in the Annals of Philosophy for August 1814. I may even go
farther, and say, that it is not probable that Professor Buckland was ignorant
of this demonstration of my previous acquaintance with these reputed contra-
dictory facts. He quotes Captain Laskey’s paper on the marine shells of the
Paisley Canal, from the Annals of Philosophy for February 1814, and my pa-
per refen’ed to appeared in the some work, in the number for August of the
same year; The Wernerian Memoirs, which he also quotes, contain a similar
reference. But the most convincing proof of all (oh the supposition that he:
read the paper he attempted to criticise) is the fact of this example of marine
diluvium being the first of the facts I adduce in illustration of the history of

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. .227

not drifted thither by the diluvian waters from other latitudes.
(Rel. Dil. 44.) It is impossible for me to form a conception of
a sudden, violent, transient, and universal flood, which trans-
ported Norwegian pebbles to England, yet did not bring along
with these a few carcases of the truly arctic animals, such as the
white bear ; neither floated off to Africa the land animals which
were browsing on the continuous antediluvian plains of Eng-
land. To me it is equally inconceivable, that the inhabitants
of southern and tropical countries, were not drifted northwards,
and a few of them left in England by the agency of the retiring
waters. Yet our diluvium contains not the productions of the
polar or equatorial regions, but exclusively the remains of the
early inhabitants of the British soil. This character furnishes
another demonstration, that the'agent or agents concerned in pro-
ducing the diluvium, must be regarded as having possessed only
a limited or local authority. We must be careful here, not to
confound with “ Lacustrine Diluvium,’1 deposits on which ! have
bestowed the title of u Marine Diluvium.” Portions of this
diluvium have been formed within the period of authentic his-
tory ; other portions are of earlier origin. The bones of land
animals may occasionally be expected to occur in this formation,
as the inundations of the sea, by which it has been produced,
might have mixed with the spoils of the deep the relics of the
dead, or living terrestrial inhabitants which it met with in its pro-
gress.

3. Mud in Caves.— In the celebrated cave at Ivirkdale, there
is a layer of mud in the bottom, inclosing the fossil bones, and
over this bed there is a covering of calcareous stalagmite. Pro-
fessor Buckland considers the bones to have been carried in by
hyeenas as their food, when they dwelt in this den anterior to
the deluge ; that the mud was introduced by the waters of the
deh\ge ; and that the stalagmite is decidedly postdiluvian.

( Rel . Dil. 48.). Another explanation is offered by the same
author, of the mud and bones which occur, nearly filling several

the formation. B y quoting in the “ Reply ” only the last of my eight exam-
ples, the reader may be misled into the belief that the reproach is merited.
Whereas, had the first of them been quoted, as justice required, it would hare
carried on its front the refutation of the t charge of ignorance and want of can-
dour it has been somewhat hastily brought forward to support.

SS8 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge .

caves in limestone rocks at Plymouth. Instead of having re-
course to hyaenas as carriers of the bones, he says, 66 that the
animals had fallen during the antediluvian period into the open
fissures, and there perishing, had remained undisturbed in the
spot on which they died, till drifted forwards by the diluvian
waters to their present place, in the lowest vaultings with which
these fissures had communication.” Rel. DU. 78.

The safest way of proceeding, in such circumstances, is to en-
deavour to discover some analogous phenomena, the history of
which is not involved in obscurity, and apply the explanation
which offers itself in the last cases to the illustration of those
which are more ancient and obscure. Fortunately such cases
are accessible. In Wokey Hole, in the Mendip Hills, a cave
occurs with lateral chambers ; mud likewise occurs ; and in this
mud are found human bones, and a piece of a sepulchral urn.
These hones are said to be “ very old, but not antediluvian.”
Where is the proof ? or how are we to distinguish between ante-
diluvian and postdiluvian bones ? The mud, too, is u evi-
dently fluviatile, and not diluvian. How are we to distinguish
between fluviatile and diluvian mud ? Not by their contents, for
bones are present in both. Not by a difference in juxtaposition,
for both occur in caves with the floor as their bed, and stalag-
mite as a covering. The evidence, however, of the mud being
fluviatile, may be considered as complete, as the spot on which it
rests is within reach of the highest floods of the adjacent river.
It may thus be assumed as a fact, that local inundations or floods
are capable of conveying mud into caverns, and depositing it on
their floors, under circumstances perfectly analogous to the so-call-
ed 66 diluvian mud,” and of surrounding 66 postdiluvian bones”
as the diluvian mud is supposed to have surrounded antedi-
luvian bones.” In another cave in the same neighbourhood,
numerous bones and skulls of foxes were found. It is likewise
stated by Professor Buckland, that, at a little distance from the
Cliff of Paveland, u is an open cavern, to which it is possible to
descend only by a ladder, and which, like the open fissure at
Duncombe Park, contains at its bottom, and in the course of its
descent, the uncovered skeletons of sheep, dogs, foxes, and other
modern animals, that occasionally fall into it and perish.” In re-
ference to these natural pitfalls and accumulations of bones, the

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. &9D

learned professor offers the following sensible observations:
44 Animals at this day do fall continually into the few fissures
that are still open ; and carnivorous, as well as graminivo-
rous animals, lie in nearly entire skeletons in the open fissure at
Duncombe Park, each in the spot on which it actually perished,
upon the different ledges and landing places that occur in the
course of its descent ; and from which, if a second deluge wrere
admitted to this fissure, it could only drift them downwards, and
with them the loose angular fragments amidst which they now
lie, to the lowest chambers in which the bottom of this fissure
terminates.-” (. Ih . 78.) The bones in caves may have been drift®
ed in from open fissures at a high level by water, whether in the
character of a local or extended inundation ; and the mud may
be referred to a similar origin. But, in all this, there seems no
ground to infer the exclusive agency of one sudden and transient
deluge, when causes still exist, though of a more humble kind,
adequate to produce the phenomena.

The cave of Kirkdale does not present any appearances, war-
ranting an explanation different from that which applies to ac-
knowledged postdiluvian fissures and caves. The rounded ca-
vities in the bottom of the cave, resembling, according to Mr
Young, 44 such water- worn hollows as we see in rocks, in the beds
of rivers, or on the shores of the ocean,-” prove, that, at a period
antecedent to the introduction of the bones, this was a fissure in
the limestone traversed by a subterraneous river. This is ren-
dered more than probable, by the numerous other fissures exist-
ing in the same bed, into one of which, in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, the Rieal Beck enters, and for a certain space becomes
a subterranean river f . We have here, therefore, an agent ca-

* The proof which is brought forward by Professor Bucldand, that the
Kirkdale Cave was not formed or modified by the agency df water is singular-
ly defective. The sides “ are constantly rough." Were they never smooth ?
The limestone in which fossil shells are imbedded decays more rapidly than
the relics it encloses, when exposed to the weather or to damp air; as the sur-
face of every secondary limestone testifies: (Take the columns of St Paul’s as

an example.) Nor is the proof, that the bones in the same cave could not be
introduced by running water, more satisfactory ; “ because it is impossible
that now, or at any past period of time, any river should ever have flowed
there.” A river flows, at this moment, not a hundred feet distant, and its
channel is only 38 feet lower than the cave. There are many other rivers in

230 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

pable of bringing in the mud and bones from higher fissures, if
such existed, and depositing both in their present situation.
The existence of such fissures cannot be doubted, since Profes-
sor Buckland has made the concession. 44 The fact already
mentioned of the ingulfment of the Rical Beck, and other adja-
cent rivers, as they cross the limestone, showing it to abound
with many similar cavities to those at Kirkdale, renders it likely
that other deposits of bones may hereafter be discovered in the
same neighbourhood.'” But are there no open fissures in this
bed of limestone still existing, as natural pitfalls for modern ani-
mals, and furnishing intimations of the former state of the dis-
trict ? 64 In Duncombe Park, in the immediate neighbourhood,,
and in the same limestone rock, there is at present an irregular
crack or fissure twenty feet long, and three or four feet broad,
which is almost concealed and overgrown with bushes, and which
being nearly at right angles to the edge of the cliff, lies like a pit-
fall across the path of animals that pass that way. It descends
obliquely downwards, and presents several ledges or landing
places, and irregular lateral chambers, the floors of which are
strewed over with angular fragments of limestone, fallen from
the sides and roof, and with dislocated skeletons of animals that
have, from time to time, fallen in from above and perished."”
(Del. Dil. 55.) The fissure was found to fc4 contain the skeletons
of dogs, sheep, deer, goats and hogs.” 44 The bones lay loose and
naked.” A local inundation flowing into the fissure would trans-
port the bones to the lowest chambers, and leave them in the same
circumstances as the so-called antediluvian bones. The evidence
thus appears to be in favour of that opinion, which supposes
that the bones in the Kirkdale cave tvere brought to their pre-
sent situation from caverns at a high level, by the agency of wa~.
ter, which deposited at the same time the mud in which they are
imbedded. I say imbedded, because the mud does not appear
simply to have filled up the interstices or layers of bones, but to
have suspended and enveloped many of them. 44 Most of them
are broken into small angular fragments and chips, the greater

the neighbourhood, which flow over the same bed of limestone, in which the
cave is situate, and this rock is full of fissures. The reader, from these facts,
will be able to estimate the value of a geological impossibility .

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. 281

part of which lay separately in the mud.”— (Rcl. Dll. 12.)
The present existence of pitfalls, and subterranean rivers in
the same limestone, likewise gives strong probability to the infer-
ence which -we have drawn, or rather would amount to a proof,
provided there be nothing in the condition of the bones them-
selves, justifying the propriety of another explanation.

The bones in the cave are chiefly fragments, and besides the
small splinters, numerous portions of the ends, or the most solid
portions of the larger bones, the jaw and teeth, occur. Some
of these splinters are angular, 44 but many others were decided-
ly rounded and smoothed at the projecting parts, bearing obvious
marks of having been long agitated by water.” — Young, Wern.
Mem. iv. 266.) These circumstances confirm the supposition,
that the bones were drifted into their present position by water,
especially when we keep in view, that the bones of the different spe-
cies were found co-extensively distributed 44 even in the inmost
and smallest recesses.” — ( Rel . DU. 16.) Professor Buckland, in
endeavouring to establish his hypothesis, that hyaenas dragged in
the bones in question, considers the rounding of the fragments as
having been produced by the treading of the animals in the bot-
tom of their den. His chief argument, however, is derived
from indentations which are observable on some of the bones,
and which he refers to the nibbling of the hyaenas while crack-
ing the bones, in order to extract the marrow. Even admitting
that these indentations have been produced by the teeth of hyae-
nas (an opinion not rendered even probable), still we would ad-
here to the explanation already given, since these markings may
have been produced by hyaenas on the bones as they lay in the
original pitfall, to which these depredators may have had ac-
cess. In reference to the marks or pits on the ulna of a wolf
and the tibia of a horse, occasioned, in the opinion of the Pro-
fessor, by the canine teeth of an animal of the size of a weasel,
he adds, 44 These pits must have been formed before the.bone
was imbedded in mud in the lowest recesses of the cave, and
probably whilst it lay exposed in some upper cavity of the rock.”
Why refuse to adopt a similar explanation of the larger mark-
ings on the Kirkdale bones P But, if the hyaenas carried in all
the bones, it may be asked, why did they transport those of such
small animals, as water-rats, weasels, rabbits, pigeons,' snipes.

232 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

and even larks, — -animals, which to a hungry hysena, would not
be a mouthful. But the difficulty increases when we consider,
that, if the evidence is conclusive to prove that the hysena carried
in the bones of the elephant and rhinoceros, and reduced them
to fragments, it equally proves that the small bones of these ani-
mals were carried in by the same agent ; nay, more, that the
hysena which gnawed the bones of an elephant, condescended
to pick the flesh from a mouse, and separately break its jaws and
legs. This would prove too much.

The circumstance of Professor Buckland discovering some
rounded pieces or balls, which he considers as the album grsecum
or fecal matter of the former inmates of the den, at first sight
strengthens his conjecture. Mr Young says, that, “ having ob-
served some pieces of bones nearly in the same state, I am not
without suspicion that the whole may be portions of bone, de-
composed in the cavern, and reduced to their present form by a
mixture of water and other ingredients.” Without venturing
to give an opinion respecting this disputed matter, I may add,
that, even viewing it as the fecal matter of hyaenas, it too could be
carried in by a flood as easily as the os calcis of a water-rat, the
jaw of a mouse, the ulna of a lark, or the shoulder-blade of a
small duck. The evidence proving the Kirkdale cave to have
been an antediluvian den, thus seems, in all its parts, so defi-
cient in precision, as to warrant the rejection of that hypothesis
it has been produced to support.

In several caves (some in such circumstances occur in the
neighbourhood of Kirkdale) the mud does not contain any or-
ganic remains. In such cases, the flood must haveffieen truly
local, or passed through caverns destitute of the skeletons of wild
beasts.

Though the mud in some caves is continuous, in other cases
it is distinctly stratified, intimating its introduction to the cave
at different intervals. tc In one large vault at Oreston, where
the quantity of diluvium is very great, it is stratified, or rather
sorted and divided into laminae of sand, earth, and clay, varying
in fineness, but all referable to the diluvial washings of the ad-
jacent country. It is also partially interspersed with small frag-
ments of clay-slate and quartz.” — (Eel. DU. 70.)

The last circumstance which I shall notice connected with the

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge. 233

mud in caves, is the absence of similarity of colour and compo-
sition in different districts. In the mud of the geological deluge,
produced from the wreck of Norway and England, or rather of
the whole surface of the earth, we might expect the exhibition
of a common character in all caves. But when different caves
have mud of a particular local character, the inference is obvious,
that the causes concerned in its production have likewise been
local .

IV. Extinct Animals.— If ever a sudden, universal, and im-
petuous flood, sweeped our island in its fury, land animals must
have been drowned and carried off, or, as Professor Buckland
expresses himself, 44 every thing that lay without, on the ante-
diluvian surface, must have been swept far away, and scattered
by the violence of the diluvian waters ”—(Rel. DU. 39.) If we
admit the truth of this statement, we should not expect in our
country a single skeleton of a native animal, in our gravel, or
loam, or in caves. Y et it is admitted that numerous relics of land
animals, which lived and died in the country, are generally dis-
tributed in gravel, loam and caves. I am inclined at once to
conclude, from these premises, that no such geological deluge
ever occurred. Nor is other evidence wanting to justify the
same conclusion. If these remains 44 were drifted from other
countries to those in which we find them,” we may ask, from what
countries ? Not from tropical regions, for the species of hyaena,
elephant, and rhinoceros, the remains of which occur in our su-
perficial strata, never were tropical animals, although from name
the general reader may be betrayed to such an opinion. If these
remains 44 floated backwards and forwards by the flux and re-
flux of the mighty currents then in motion, before the carcases
became putrid, and the bones fell piecemeal into the gravel, as
the agitation subsided,” then should we expect to find the relics
of the animals of arctic, temperate, and tropical regions, mingled
in the same gravel ; in other words, all the laws which regulate
the physical distribution of animals would have been violated,
and our gravel-beds would have been full of the monuments of
the rebellion. Yet there is no such confusion ; consequently
there have been no such mighty currents.

Perhaps the most interesting fact in the history of the relics

234 Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge

in our modern strata, is the occurrence in the same gravel of the
bones of animals which have become extinct, with such as have
been extirpated by the chase, and with such as still inhabit the
country. This fact, while it throws great light on the early
state of the animal kingdom, may be regarded as the death-
blow of the diluvian hypothesis. The extinct animals were, ac-
cording to Baron Cuvier and Professor Buck-land, antediluvian,
and perished from off the earth, by the destructive agency of
the diluvian waters. The objection to this explanation is un-
answerable. The diluvian waters must have drowned all land
animals ; yet many which lived in the reputed antediluvian
world, still live and flourish, in the same countries where the re-
mains of their progenitors lie interred. I can find no attempt
to explain these facts, except that, in the Reliquiae Diluviance ,
(p. 41.), there is mention made of certain species having “ re-
established themselves in the northern portions of the world
since the deluge and by the same author ( Edin . Phil. Journ.
No. xxiv. 308.), of others “ that have repeopled this country
since the formation of the diluvium.” The history of this re-
establishment or repeopling not being given, we cannot examine
the value of the evidence adduced in its support. But we may
ask, if the geological deluge ever took place, from whence
did the modern animals proceed which repeopled the country ?
If there was any place within the limit of the geographical dis-
tribution of our present animals which the diluvian waters did
not reach, then it may be supposed, that, independent of the
sudden and transient nature of the inundation, a place of refuge
might have been found, to which these animals retired during
the fury of the agitated waters, and from whence they might
issue forth to repeople the desolated regions. But, the history
of the geological deluge does not warrant such a supposition ;
nor, even if it did, would the difficulty be removed. We could
not avoid drawing the inference, that the place of refuge for the
deer and the ox during the catastrophe, might have yielded pro-
tection to the gigantic elk and the mammoth. If any great in-
undation occasioned the extinction of these reputed antediluvian
quadrupeds, its ravages must have extended to the other species
having the same distribution, feeding in the same meadow, or
browsing in the same forest.

235

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

Perhaps the abettors of the diluvian hypothesis may have
recourse to the Ark as the place where the modern species found
a temporary asylum. Still we have to ask the proof of the
establishment of that law of exclusion , under the operation of
which the mammoth and his unfortunate companions suffered
extinction ? If these were not excluded, we have still to ask,
what has become of the postdiluvian pairs and their families ,
of these now extinct species, since they outlived the deluge,
but have since disappeared ?

Under the conviction that the diluvian hypothesis did not ex-
plain the extinction of our early quadrupeds, and that the sub-
ject, even in the hands of Baron Cuvier, had not received the
elucidation of which it was susceptible, I endeavoured, in my
64 Philosophy of Zoology ,” to establish the laws which regulate
the Physical Distribution of Animals, as a preparation for study-
ing the Revolutions” which had taken place in the animal
kingdom.

I there intimated, in general terms (for 1 could not spare
room for more), the effects which the persecutions of man must
have produced on the distribution of many species. At the re-
quest of any valued friend Professor Jameson, I extended these
observations, in the paper on the 44 Distribution of British Ani-
mals,” which appeared in the 22d number of this Journal.
Subsequent reflection on the subject has only served to confirm
the views I have brought forward, and to convince me that we
must refer the extinction of these early quadrupeds to the des-
tructive influence of the chace.

It is admitted on all hands, that the relics of the extinct qua-
drupeds, of those which we know to have been extirpated by
man, and of those which still dwell in the country, are co-
extensively distributed, and must all have lived at the same
time in this and analogous countries. From these premises, I may
safely draw the following conclusions : — 1. That the cause of ex-
tinction was not a general physical one, as it did not extend suc-
cessfully to the subsequently extirpated and recent species. 2.
That the cause of extirpation has not extended successfully as yet
to the existing species. From the evidence of our observation, and
the testimony of history, confirmed by geological documents, I am
warranted likewise in the following conclusions : — 1. Man is at

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge .

present carrying on extirpating operations against many species ;
nor is there room to doubt, that in any age he ever was
otherwise occupied. 2. Different species vary in the extent of
their resources to resist these extirpating efforts. 3. The im-
dividuals of many species have been greatly reduced in num-
bers by these efforts. 4. All the individuals of several species
have been destroyed by these efforts, in this country, even with-
in the last six or eight centuries. 5. If extirpation has taken
place to such an extent, within the period of a few centuries,
how manifold must have been its effects during the six thousand
years that man has lorded over the creation. To such efforts do
I ascribe the extinction of our ancient quadrupeds ; and the in-
ductive reasoning which led me to the opinion, carries along
with it all the authority of demonstration.

To the explanation which has thus been proposed to account
for the extinction of certain quadrupeds, several objections have
been offered by Professor Buckland in his “ Reply (No xxiv.
612.) They seem, however, to have originated in imperfect no-
tions respecting the “ Distribution of Animals and, therefore,
readily admit of an answer.

1. Is it not incumbent on him first to show at what period
such animals as these, much too formidable to be overlooked,
were ever known to have existed ?” I do not think the proof
called for with propriety. The events referred to were not suf-
ficiently striking to arrest the attention of the public ; and there
were no cc Journals” in those days.

“ 2. Can he give any reason why hyaenas should have been
extirpated at a more early period than wolves, had they ever
existed in postdiluvian Britain ?” Yes. Their resources against
the efforts of the sportsman must have been fewer and less effica-
cious. The proof rests on analogy. The wolf has been extir-
pated, but the fox remains. The bear has been extirpated,
while the badger remains. If we pass from Britain to the Con-
tinent, similar proofs occur. The gigantic elk has been annihi-
lated, while the Scandinavian elk remains. If we pass from
Europe to America, still there are proofs : the musk ox has pe-
rished in Europe, yet it exists in America.

“ 3, Is it probable that the savage hordes which inhabited Ger-
many before its occupation by the Romans, should have utterly

237

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

destroyed such powerful animals as the elephants and rhinoceros,
as well as the hysena, from the impenetrable fastnesses of the
great Hercynian forest, when animals of the same kind have
not yet ceased to abound in the woods of India, and the wilds
of Africa, in spite of a farther persecution of nearly two thou-
sand years ?” Quite probable. The objection is specious, not
solid. Savages are good huntsmen ; and those which inhabited
the west of Europe were not destitute of energy, as the Romans
found to their cost. Those of temperate and cold climates, must
follow the chase eagerly, Ceres to them being niggardly. They,
too, can commit their depredations with greater effect, aided by
the seasons, and the migrations consequent on the changes there-
of. But independent of these explanations, I too may ask,
How have the wolf, and the bear, and the beaver been extirpated
from Britain, while, in the neighbouring continent, “ after a far-
ther persecution,’1 they still maintain their ground. The same
explanation must apply to both cases, — the different facilities of
the sportsman to gain his object.

“ 4. Surely the theory of their extinction by the savage na-
tives, preceding the Roman invasion of these countries, is a mat-
ter of the highest improbability ; their existence at that time,
and subsequent extirpation, is, in the utter silence of Caesar and
Tacitus, and all later historians, and even of tradition, a moral
impossibility.” I deny that the natives were savages at the pe-
riod of the Roman invasion ; and let the appeal be made to
the writings of Caesar and Tacitus. The silence of the Roman
historians as to the destruction of native animals is of little mo-
ment. The process of extirpation is gradual, and had commenc-
ed long before Romulus and Remus had a being, or the wolf
that suckled them. The historians were otherwise occupied ;
Caesar, in recording his own achievements, and Tacitus in laud-
ing the deeds of Agricola, and fabricating speeches for Galga-
cus. As for tradition, the learned professor rejects the testimony
of the Niebelungen, a poem of the 13th century, which seems
to refer to these extinct animals, because it records, at the same
time, some superstitious notions of the sera in which it was writ-
ten. What will become of poor Samuel Johnson’s Tour a few
centuries hence, with its second sight 9

There is not in the whole range of this question, a single fact,
vol. xiv. isTo. 28. aphil 1826. o.

238

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge.

iji the history of animals, yet produced, which justifies, or ren-
ders probable the diluvian hypothesis. The whole science of
zoology is opposed to it. Nor is phytology friendly to the
cause.

If ever a mighty torrent of fresh or salt water committed those
ravages on rocks and valleys, which it is represented to have
done, the soil and land-plants must have been the first victims
of its fury ; and in our gravel, lakes and peat-bogs, we should
now find the woods of tropical forests commingled with those
which temperate regions produced, as they 44 floated backwards
and forwards by the flux and reflux of the mighty currents then
in motion,” until they rested in the hollows of the surface, upon
the retiring of the waters. The existence of land-plants, at pre-
sent, on the surface, and the absence of the wreck referred to,
attest the non-existence of this supposed catastrophe. Perhaps the
plants have 44 re-established” themselves, and 44 repeopled” the
desolated region ? Where was the spot in which they enjoyed
exemption from the fury of the diluvian waters ? It must have
been within the limits of their geographical distribution ; and as
each district must have had a separate sanctuary corresponding
to the distribution of the species, the mighty torrent must have
met with many checks in its progress. It may be added, that
the animals when they returned to repeople the valleys of de-
nudation, must have been scantily supplied with herbage ; and
centuries must have elapsed before the washed, waterworn rocks
could furnish a support to the vegetable tribes.

Perhaps the advocates of the diluvian hypothesis, in the ab-
sence of all support from physical science, may give it as their
opinion, that the Deity, immediately after the catastrophe,
created new soil, re-created the plants, and re-created a part of
the species of animals which had been destroyed. Is not the
silence of Moses fatal to the conjecture ? Would he have failed
to record in the sacred volume this second magnificent display
of creative power ? Perhaps, in this case, there is much need to
be reminded of the caution of the poet : — 44 Nec Deus intersit
nisi dignus vindice nodus.”

From the preceding statements, I feel myself warranted to con-
clude, That the occurrence of the geological deluge , in its effects,
such as the advocates of the diluvian hypothesis describe, is, like

PJLATE VDI.

JidbJ' TlriZ. Jour . YoLXlVrp. 233 .

239

Dr Fleming on the Geological Deluge .

similar well meant inventions of their predecessors, Burnet,
Woodward, and Whiston, disproved by the truths of Geology,
the truths of Zoology, the truths of Phytology ; and contradict-
ed by the authority of Revelation.

Flisk, 24 th December 1825.

Art. II.— Notice of the Rocks composing the Mountains which
occur in the Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. With
a Sketch. (Plate VIII.)

The sketch of the Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea
(Plate VIII.), is from the pencil of a gentleman on whose accu-
racy we place the utmost dependence. We give it in the hopes
of its proving a useful guide to any future geologist who may
happen to travel the same route. The journey across the De-
sert, from the Nile to Kosseir, was performed in three days,
halting only for two or three hours at noon and at midnight.
The mountains in the centre are granite, porphyry, &c. One
part of the road lay along the junction of the sandstone and pri-
mitive mountains ; which line it was easy to trace by the eye
for many miles, as observation was nowhere impeded by vege-
tation or soil.

The sketch was taken between the Nile and the Red Sea,
about 100 miles from Ghinneh. The distant mountains at A
(PL VIII.), are composed of limestone, alternating with dark
beds of trap, impregnated with a large proportion of sand, flints,
agates, &c. disposed at an angle of 10° to 15°. The hills at B are
composed of a blue schistose rock, of about 45° NE. with occa-
sional masses of greenstone, and a red porphyry or sienite, and
sometimes asbestus. The beds at C, are composed of coarse brown
sandstone, and lie under the limestone, in a parallel position,
at an angle of about 15° N. They are separated by the beds
D, composed of disintegrated greenstone, with white calcareous
veins, forming a reticulated net-work around the nodules. These
beds, C and D appear always to intervene between the schist
and limestone. At E, there is a very singular appearance : a
mass of perfectly white quartz is seen protruding itself into the

q 2

240 Mr Blackadder on circumstances connected with the

schist, with veins branching from it in all directions. At F, the
limestones are separated by beds, G, of amygdaloid, and filled
with nodules of Hint, agates, &c.

The valleys are filled up with detritus, and are nearly level.
In a climate so dry and so conservative, where it never rains,
the rocks present a novel aspect to the eye of a European. In
the Desert, however, there are evident traces of torrents, per-
haps the effect of water-spouts. It is wonderful that mountains
of their height should not attract a regular supply of humidity
from the atmosphere. The wells in the centre of the tract may
be about 100 feet deep, excavated in the schist, and are gene-
rally brackish and sulphureous.

Art. III. — On certain Circumstances connected with the Con-
densation of Atmospheric Humidity on solid surfaces. By
Henry Home Blackadder, Esq., F. R. S. E. &c. Surgeon.
With a Plate. Communicated by the Author. (Concluded
from p. 91.)

4'* Solid bodies, which are at the same time the worst con-
ductors of heat, and are possessed of a strong hygroscopic pro-
perty, or an organization corresponding in effect thereto, are
those which have their temperatures reduced most speedily, and
to the greatest amount, when exposed on a clear evening after
sunset. Solid bodies which have no hygroscopic property,
and are the best conductors of heat, are those which have their
temperatures the last, and the least reduced of all others.

Of the class of substances which have no. hygroscopic proper-
ty, those which have the least capacity for heat, and have the
least conducting power, have their temperatures the soonest, and
most considerably reduced.

These positions might be shewn to be correct, by compara-
tively recent experiments and observations, but this has been
judged unnecessary, as they are fairly deducible from facts al-
ready well known to every one, at all conversant with the subject.
If then, with these positions in view, it can be shewn, that, on an
evening productive of dew, polished metals may have moisture
condensed on their surfaces, without radiation, or any thing,
equivalent thereto being requisite to bring about that effect it

Condensation of' Humidity on Solid Surfaces. 241

may at least go some length in inducing the advocates of that
theory to reconsider the grounds upon which its exclusive influ-
ence is supposed to be established. In aiming to do so, at least
an attempt at brevity is, on the present occasion, indispensably
requisite.

Though, in general, polished metals, when exposed after sunset,
are, cateris paribus, the last and the least dewed of all other bodies,
they may acquire moisture in three several ways : 1$£, Acting

mechanically i?n preventing aqueous vapour from being dispersed
in the air, at a time when the latter is not saturated with mois-
ture, and when both the air and the metal are of the same tem-
perature. 2 d, Acting mechanically, in merely receiving or in-
tercepting particles of condensed vapour in their descent, after
the air has become super-saturated with moisture, and at a time
when the temperatures of the metal, and of the contiguous air,
are equal. 3d, Not acting as a simply mechanical agent, but as
& cold body attracting moisture from damp air, of a somewhat
higher temperature.

Of the first, we have various familiar examples, — thus, if,
when the weather is both warm and dry, we approach the fin-
ger to a highly polished metal of the same temperature with the
air, aqueous vapour is instantly observed to be condensed on the
metallic surface, — or, if we breathe opposite to, and at some in-
terval from a metallic or glass mirror, the polished surface is in-
stantly more or less obscured, though the mirror be of the
same temperature with the air, and the latter far from a state
of saturation. The breath is completely saturated with mois-
ture, and warmer than the air ; but, though we expire with
the utmost force of the respiratory organs, against the ambient
air, which has the same temperature as the mirror, we shall
not be able to discover the slightest obscuration, in the form of
a haze or fog ; for this only takes place when the temperature
of the air has been reduced from 50° to 60° below that of the
human body. Hence, the mirror acts mechanically in prevent-
ing the diffusion of the aqueous vapour. Pieces of unpolished
metals, and other rough, solid, and non-absorbent substances,
produce the same effect ; though, from the optical property
of their surfaces, the effect is less, if at all discernible. The
same effect is also produced, by bodies possessed of a hygro-

£43 Mr Blackadder on Circumstances connected with the

scopic property ; but as, at least, part of the moisture is
quickly taken into their substance, its presence on their surface
is still less to be detected, than on the rough surfaces of the non-
absorbents. Lastly, When a polished metal, of the same tem-
perature with the air, is placed over a vessel containing water, of
a somewhat higher temperature, vapour is condensed on its un-
der surface ; and the same thing happens when it is placed on,
or a little above, the surface of an open field after sunset. The
vapour issuing from the ground is condensed on the side of
the metal, which is directed to the earth, provided its superfi-
cies be of a certain extent,— -for if very small, the mechanical ef-
fect becomes neutralized.

In this country, examples of the second mode in which me-
tals become dewed, are less familiar than in such countries as
Holland and the Netherlands generally. There, during the
warm season, the cold produced by evaporation (as it is conceiv-
ed), is seldom or never great, the air being usually so very
damp that but a small reduction of temperature is requisite to
bring it to a state of supersaturation.

Musschenbroek had remarked, that a low haze or fog was a
concomitant of dew in Holland ; and Dr Wells seems unneces-
sarily to have objected to this observation of the Dutch philoso-
pher. I never saw dew forming on the grass in the Low’ Coun-
tries, without a haze being at the same time more or less appa-
rent ; and, in our own country, if the eye be directed, on such
occasions^ to the distant surface, it will be found that there is
commonly a certain haziness of the lower air, though not
so dense as to be perceptible within a considerable distance.
44 Respecting this point,” Dr Wells observes, fc4 I can aver,
after much experience, that I never knew dew to be abun-
dant except in serene weather and again, 44 I can assert, after
much attention to this point, that the formation of the most
abundant dew is consistent with a pellucid state of the atmo-
sphere. Hasselquist makes a similar observation with regard
to Egypt ; where, during the season remarkable for the most
profuse dews, the 4 nights,’ he says, 4 are as resplendent with
stars in the midst of summer, as the lightest and clearest win-
ter nights in the North.’” From this it is pretty obvious, that

243

Condensation of Humidity on Solid Surfaces .

his attention had been chiefly directed to the appearance of the
heavens ; and, it is not improbable, that the place where his ob-
servations were chiefly made, was not favourably situated for
observing the state of the lower air, by directing the eye to the
distant surface. But, even when there are no clouds, and when
the stars may be considered both distinct and bright, we some*
times observe the moon to be surrounded by a hazy whiteness
or circle ; a sufficient though not the only proof, that the at-
mosphere may have no inconsiderable quantity of condensed
vapour dispersed through it, at a time when it might be consi-
dered both serene and pellucid. Even in this country, however,
opportunities are not wanting for observing all solid bodies in-
discriminately dewed, even to the woolly and hairy coverings of
animals. This occurs when the air contains much aqueous va-
pour,—-when, during the night, there has been a copious deposi-
tion of dew, and towards morning the formation of a dense fog.
An increase of this state of the atmosphere would give rise to
what is termed a drizzling rain, or raw mist, called in the French
language bruine *. On such occasions, the upper surface

* According to Toland, who had no small acquaintance with the Northern
languages and dialects, “ Linguarum plus decern sciens dour in Armoric, and
dur in Irish, are terms for water ; and daigr in Armoric, and dear in Irish, im-
port drops and also tears. Hence probably the origin of our terra dew ; and evi-
dently that of daig or daigy , sometimes pronounced daghy , a word still in use in
some parts of Scotland, and importing a 44 raw mist,” or that deposition of
moisture which is intermediate between rain and fog. Etymology, however, is
a field for the imagination to sport in. How many words may be found to cor-
respond in sound and signification even in the Hebrew and Scottish languages !
But, as words were evidently sometimes intended to imitate the sounds of which
they were made the signs, and at other times the sounds occasionally made by
the objects they were intended to designate, coincidences are not unlikely to oc-
cur, even in languages as remotely connected as these. Thus, in the former,
peek, (on the faith of lexicographers ), sig. expirare ; and in the latter it has exact-
ly the same signification : 44 Peching and groaning like a broken- winded horse.”
Again, in the Celtic, the name for a sow’s trunk or snout is groin , which, when
well pronouneed, exactly resembles the sound produced by means of that organ.
The attempt to form words whose sounds resemble, in some respects, and more
or less perfectly, the thing or action they are intended to designate, is discovera-
ble in many, if not in all languages ; and, (by the aid of a little imagination), we
may possibly be able sometimes to discover, how, with this object equally in
view, an action shall be expressed, in two different languages, by words whose
sounds bear little or no resemblance to each other. Thus, ptuo in Greek, spit in

£44 Mr Black adder on Circu mstances connected with the

alone of a horizontal piece of metal is coated with condensed
vapour; but, if it has been lying on the grass, both its' sides may
be moist.

Instances of the third variety of ways in which polished metals
may acquire moisture after sunset, are much less familiar than
either of the former ; — and, indeed, can seldom be observed
without some trouble, self-denial, and even risk. Few things of
the kind being more injurious to the health of persons accus-
tomed to the usual refinements of life, than lengthened exposure
in the open air on such nights as are most fitted for making ex-
periments and observations on the spontaneous condensation of
moisture. There can be little doubt, that the persevering and
ingenious Dr Wells injured his health not a little by the unwea-
ried ardour with which he prosecuted his favourite pursuit ; and
that too, according to his own account, under very disadvanta-
geous circumstances.

When a piece of polished metal is placed on grass, whose
temperature is already considerably reduced below that of the
air at a short distance above the ground, if its size is not consi-
derable, or if the cold of the grass is great, relative to the tem-
perature of the subjacent soil, the piece of metal will also be-
come somewhat colder than the air a short distance above it, and
the more speedily, if repeatedly moved to different parts of the
grass. Again, if a piece of polished metal be suspended in the
air, a short distance above the grass, after, or until the latter
has had its temperature considerably reduced, the metal will ac-
quire the temperature of the air in contact with it, and this being
colder than the air a few feet from the ground, so also must the
piece of metal be colder than the air at that height. Here,
then, we have two instances of polished metals becoming colder

English. Now, there are two ways of ejecting the saliva, the one practised by
those who have but little, the other by those who have rather a superfluity of that
fluid. If, then, we attend to climate, in as far as that has a tendency to pro-
mote the cutaneous more than the mucomembranous discharges, and vice versa ,
and if we apply this to the case of Greece and Britain, we may be led to infer,
that one mode of ejecting the saliva would be most common in the one country,
and the other {at the time the word was first used,') in the other. Hence the ori-
gin, perhaps, of two words which, though very different in sound, nevertheless
exactly imitate the same action. Such is Etymology !

Condensation of Humidity on Solid Surfaces. S45

than the adjacent air, when exposed after sunset ; and that, with-
out the operation of any thing equivalent to radiation, at least
in as far as the metal itself is concerned. If now, we suppose
the adjacent warmer air to contain, or to acquire, such a quan-
tity of moisture, that a deposition must necessarily take place, if
reduced in its temperature to that of the piece of metal, and if
we suppose this damp air to be brought, by some mechanical
impulse, into contact with the metal, we would expect moisture
to appear, obscuring the polished surface. This is exactly what
occurs in nature. Even when the air is in its most tranquil
state, it is never altogether free of motion, convolving, undula-
tory or progressive. On the evenings more particularly refer-
red to in these remarks, uncertain local and temporarily pro-
gressive motions are not unusual at the lower, and also at the
upper, boundary of the stratum of air next the earth. Dr Wells
found occasion more than once to refer to this agitation of the
lower air, “ even in its stillest states ;” and, he remarks, that
<c the quantity of dew seemed to be increased by a very gentle
motion of the air.” This he accounts for, on the principle, that
a slight agitation of the air, when the atmosphere is pregnant
with moisture, will bring fresh parcels of air more frequently
into contact with the cold surface of the earth.”

A writer in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia * observes, that if
the reduction of temperature was produced by evaporation,
“ the difference between the temperature of the ground ai?d that
of the atmosphere near it, would diminish as the air became
moist,” &c., and that evaporation could have nothing to do with
theTeduction of temperature “ observed on substances exposed in
a state of dryness, and not in contact with the earth.” If, in the
first case, the lower air is understood to remain perfectly at rest
on such occasions, and, in the second, that its temperature is the
same at various distances from the ground, the conclusion of this
writer might be just. But, as neither the one nor the other is
the case in nature, his argument seems to have no weight against
the paramount influence of evaporation. A very small abstrac-
tion of heat will, in certain cases, produce a copious precipita-
tion of moisture ; and, on such occasions, if the solid body which

* Article ‘ Meteorology.’

24 G Mr Blackadder on circumstances connected with the

has caused the precipitation, afterwards becomes surrounded by
a body of air that is not saturated, its temperature may be re-
duced by evaporation below that of the contiguous air. In the
course of nature, however, this can be but a rare occurrence.

As it is impossible to acquire any accurate geological know-
ledge, by examining the appearances exhibited by a single quar-
ry, mine or cliff, or by several such places, more especially when
the locality, &c. is not greatly different, so is it with meteoro-
logy, as it regards the phenomena exhibited by the vaporisation
and condensation of water ; mountain, hill, and valley, — dry
plain and marshy meadow, — the sea and fresh-water lakes,
rivers and stagnant ditches, must all be familiar, and the ap-
pearances there exhibited carefully attended to, before any ac-
curate estimate can be formed of the causes which operate in
modifying the spontaneous formation and reduction of aqueous
vapour. In this point of view, Dr Wells was unfavourably si-
tuated ; but he has given us an excellent example of what zeal
and perseverance, aided by a masculine intellect, may effect,
even in very unpromising circumstances.

On one occasion, in the month of July, during a tract of
fine weather, and immediately on sunset, I had an oppor-
tunity of witnessing a very interesting exhibition of that mo-
tion which takes place in the lower air, at a time when the
atmosphere might, by persons not conversant with meteoro-
logical pursuits, be considered perfectly tranquil. It was an
evening, as described by the poet, when “ a solemn stillness
reigns.” The scene was a perfectly level meadow, destitute
of trees, hut in which were a few straggling sheep and cows ;
and it was surrounded on all sides by rising grounds, vary-
ing, of small elevation, but rising gently as they receded.
The place from which it was viewed was about 50 feet above
the level, and within less than a gunshot of the side of the
meadow, commanding a complete view of the whole. Sudden-
ly the eye was arrested by a very low white mist, steaming
from the whole surface of the meadow. At first it did not ex-
tend higher than the legs of the sheep, and had throughout a
peculiar indefinite agitated motion, resembling small broken
waves, not advancing in any horizontal direction. In the course

247

Condensations of Humidify on Solid Surfaces.

of a few minutes, when in depth it reached to the backs of the
sheep, and bodies of the cows, its density and whiteness had con-
siderably increased, and its agitated motion had begun to sub-
side. Several large waves now made their appearance, rolling in
various directions, and with a velocity that may be described as
being neither slow nor quick. By the time its depth had ex-
tended to the backs of the cows, only one extensive wave was to
be seen, which traversed the whole width of the meadow, mov-
ing sometimes in one direction, and at other times in another.
When the large wave rolled over the meadow, and had got
nearly to the opposite side, considerably accumulated, though
its depth diminished backwards to the place from whence it set
out, the grass was never perfectly uncovered, and the alternate
concealment and exposure, or half exposure, of the sheep and
cows thus produced, gave a curious variety to the scene. At
last the mist disappeared as it were by enchantment, after ha-
ving been visible from 15 to 20 minutes. At the instant of its
disappearance, a distinctly perceptible motion took place in the
lower atmosphere towards the west ; but this breeze communi-
cated no apparent motion to the mist, which simply vanished,
and in less than five minutes the atmosphere was again nearly as
calm as at first. There was, however, no re-formation of the
mist, the after-part of the evening was clear, the distant surface,
as usual, slightly hazy, and there occurred a considerable depo-
sition of dew. During the rolling of the mist, no such motion
of the air would have been suspected by a person walking over
the meadow, if the mist had been invisible, or if his attention
had not been directed to its movements *;

* A similar deception in regard to the absence of motion in the lower air oc-
curs during calm hot weather, and on places that are exposed to the full influence
of the sun’s rays. In walking over a level meadow, on such an occasion, a person
might be led to suppose that the air was perfectly at rest ; but if he recline on the
grass, and look in a horizontal direction over its surface, he will readily perceive not
only motion, but a rapid agitation, and that, on some occasions, a considerable
distance above the ground. On dry sandy plains, motion near the surface is
less apparent, after the ground has become very hot. On some such occasions,
may not the plain where the agitation is most considerable, be higher than the per-
son’s head, when in the erect position ? And is it not probable that the vibratory-
motion which some have supposed they had discovered in clouds having a fibrous

248 Mr Elackadder on circumstances connected with the

It is rare to have this motion of the air rendered thus visible
on low plains, and so near the surface ; but something very
much the same may more frequently be seen from mountains
high enough to command a downward view of the clouds which
form in the evening at the upper boundary of a lower stratum
of air, that is incumbent over extensive low plains, in which ve-
getation is luxuriant.

In a former part of these remarks, similar temporary and lo-
cal agitations of the air, when otherwise in a calm state, were
found perfectly to account, as it is believed, for the increase of
temperature indicated by a thermometer lying on snow ; and, on
the present occasion, it enables us equally satisfactorily to ex-
plain the condensation of vapour on polished metals, after sun-
set, and at a time when hygroscopic and similar substances have
suffered a considerable depression of temperature below that of
the air a small distance above them.

Two circumstances may here be adverted to, though, after
what has been already said, their explanation presents no diffi-
culty : ItStf, On the occasions referred to, polished metals never
have their temperatures much reduced; and the quantity of
moisture condensed on their surface from that cause is never very
considerable. 2d, The surface of a polished metal is sometimes
observed to become obscured by the condensation of vapour,
and shortly afterwards again brilliant from the re-evaporation of
t,he^ moisture, at a time when hygroscopic and other similar sub-
stances seem to suffer no change in regard to moisture. The
least quantity of moisture condensed on a polished surface,

appearance (if it did not proceed from the unusual irritation which the light re-
flected from such clouds always communicates to the eye), and that twinkling of
the stars so much more apparent at one time than at another, are produced by si-
milar agitations of the air, at no great distance from the earth ? Two strata of air,
in different conditions, in regard to heat and moisture, often come into contact. On
some such occasions a cloud is produced, and on others rain or snow ; depending,
it is presumed, on the relative conditions of the two bodies of air, and the degree
of mechanical force with which they are brought into contact, or blended. But
there are doubtless occasions when the conditions of two or more contiguous strata
are such that the warmer communicates heat to the colder, without any deposition
of moisture ; and, on these occasions, such an agitation may take place at the
plains of intermixture, as to produce the appearance of a vibratory motion, or
twinkling of bodies situated at a distance.

249 v

Condensations of Humidity on Solid Surfaces.

particular!}' if metallic, and a very slight though momentary in-
crease of its quantity, is readily discernible ; but it is far other-
wise in the case of rough and unpolished surfaces, whether ve-
getable or mineral. On these moisture is often deposited, and
on other occasions evaporated, without our being able to detect
the change by ocular inspection *.

5. Glass and lead, bulk for bulk, have nearly the same capacity
for heat, and which is about one-half that of water. Glass also
is a bad conductor of heat ; and, among metals, lead is the worst
conductor, platinum alone, perhaps, excepted. When exposed
on a clear evening after sunset, glass is sooner dewed than me-
tals ; and lead is the soonest dewed of metals, at least of all
those that can be readily procured for experiment.

This greater facility of being dewed possessed by glass, has
been attributed to its greater radiating power, and, by others*
apparently to a greater attraction which glass has for water ; air
at the same time being understood to be admitted into closer
physical contact with glass than with polished metals. A know-
ledge, however, of the small capacity and low conducting power
of glass, seems to be quite sufficient to enable us to account for
the difference found to subsist between it and metals, in regard
to the disposition to acquire moisture, when similarly exposed in
circumstances favourable to that operation.

The principle of radiation has also been introduced to explain
the occasional condensation of moisture on the glass of a cham-
ber window, as modified by the operation of an inside and an
outside shutter. But to account satisfactorily on this prin-
ciple for the peculiar forms which the moisture is sometimes
found to assume would seem to be rather a difficult task.
If, on the other hand, we take into consideration the well
known physical properties and mechanical operation of the wood
and the glass, in connection with those of the two bodies of air,

• In the course of these remarks on the relations of polished metals to aqueous
vapour, experiments made by myself have been little adverted to, in order to pre-
vent objections as much as possible. I may mention, however, that, in 1812, I
had several thermometers constructed, the sentient parts of which were polished
metals, and these plates could be covered with gold and silver leaf, copper-foil, tin-
foil, and mercury ; and it is by means of such instruments alone, perhaps, that ac»
curate experiments of this kind can be made,

250 Mr Blackadder on circumstances connected with the

so different in their condition, yet not altogether disconnectea
and which impinge on the opposite sides of the window, the con-
densation of the moisture, and the forms which it is sometimes
found to exhibit, will not be found inexplicable, without having
recourse to any thing of the nature of radiation. If the cause
of the absence of moisture on certain spots of the glass, (such as
are to be seen, PI. IX. Fig. IV., on the middle and lower pane of
the upper sash of the window), be not always very apparent, still
the difficulty cannot be removed by supposing the influence of
radiation. Unless, indeed, we are satisfied with saying, that
some spots of the glass radiated their heat less copiously, or re-
tained more of that which was radiated to them, than the other
parts. This would be a very convenient mode of accounting for
physical phenomena ; for, in adopting it, we would but rarely
meet with any very imposing difficulties.

Mr Murray has recorded * an observation made by him when
travelling in a coach in Italy, and which he considered inexpli-
cable, excepting on the principle laid down by Dr Wells. The
facts, I believe, were shortly as follows : The heat of the exter-
nal air was 27°, that inside the coach, the windows being shut,
54°. The inner surface of the windows, incrusted with ice, had
a temperature of 32°. The outer surface of the glass was dry,
and the front windows, shaded by the cabriolet, were free of
ice. On lowering the window about half an inch, the crust of
ice disappeared very shortly, and the temperature of the air in-
side the coach was considerably diminished. These facts, how-
ever, admit of explanation on a principle different from that laid
down by Dr Wells. Before the window was let down the air
inside the coach, having a temperature of 54°, would necessarily
acquire much moisture from the perspiration and breath of the
inmates ; while the glass of the window was reduced to 32°, by
the constant action of a current of air 5° colder, on its outer sur-
face. The external air being 27° colder than the internal, and
having, consequently, a much greater specific gravity, would,
on letting down the window, rush in, and, displacing the warm
moist air, would become heated in its turn, and thereby have
its capacity for moisture greatly increased. It would thus be

* Annals of Philosophy.

Pu&lisliuL by -A. Constable- & C? lEdznT 1826 .

KKIixars Sg.

Condensation of Humidity on Solid Surfaces. 251

enabled quickly to dissolve the thin crust of ice, even though
its temperature did not nearly equal that of the originally in-
closed air. For, air having a temperature of 27°, when sud-
denly raised 9° or 10° (and it might in this case have risen con-
siderably higher) would be in a state well fitted to dissolve a
thin crust of ice. The front windows were warmer, and there-
fore free of ice, from being shaded by the cabriolet, which
would itself be somewhat heated by its inmates, and would pre-
vent the external cold air from directly impinging on the glass.
It might also have happened, that the stream of heated air pro-
ceeding from the bodies of the drivers and horses, had some in-
fluence, and which would necessarily be most effective on the
front parts of the coach.

There are a variety of interesting facts and appearances in
nature connected with the subject of this paper, which remain
to be considered. In accounting for these, the principle of ra-
diation has also been supposed to be applicable, if not essential.
It would seem, however, that they admit of explanation, by ta-
king a more simple, and therefore, possibly, more just view of
the subject. The operations of nature often appear complex, but,
when best understood, are found to be extremely simple. How
effectually does this acknowledged simplicity and apparent intri-
cacy often conceal from us the truth ? Leading us into some by-
path, where a mental phantasmagoria'springing up, first pleases,
then interests, and ultimately so deceives and blinds, that no-
thing is believed to possess so much of reality as that which a
few passing years, at most, discloses as the veriest £< fabric of a
vision.”

Explanation of the Figures , Plate IX.

The aspects of the windows are marked above the Figures, and
under them the existing temperatures of the internal and external
air, that of the latter being the lowest.

Fig. 1. Observed at Paris. The house was situated on what is con-
sidered the highest ground within the gates ; the beiveder
commanding a panoramic view of the whole city. Nothing
interrupted the view from the window to the most distant ho-
rizon.

£5$ Mr Black adder on the condensation of Humidity.

Fig. 2. Observed at the sea shore. The house was within thirty
paces of high water-mark, and nothing interrupted the view
to the most distant horizon. The sky was very clear ; the
wind gentle and northerly.

Fig. 3. Observed at the same place as fig. 2 ., the window having an
opposite direction, and being about 15 feet from the ground.
The latter gradually rose as it receded, so that at the distance
of a gunshot, it was higher than the house, which was of three
stories.

Fig. 3. Observed in a house situated on the northern verge of Edin-
burgh, the window being about 20 feet from the ground, and
the view in front and to the left uninterrupted. At some dis-
tance to the right there was a row of houses, which partially
interrupted the view in that direction. The sky very clear, — -
no clouds, — the wind N. E., — a gentle breeze. On the out-
side, and to the under and middle part of the upper sash of
the window, was suspended a bent instrument, one-half of
which was of metal, the other of glass ; and the spheroidal me-
tallic ballon the longer stem, which had a diameter of about two
and a-half inches, was two inches distant from the glass of the
window. Opposite to this metallic ball, in the line of direc-
tion of the wind, there was a somewhat oval shaped spot on
the pane of glass, perfectly free of moisture, and this spot had
a dfameter equal to about one-half that of the ball. On the
same level with the instrument referred to, and close to the
side of the window, was attached a screen of polished tin-
plate, having the form of a half cylinder, and in which were
suspended a thermometer and hygrometer. On the pane of
glass, immediately above the tin-plate screen, the otherwise
regular form assumed by the moisture is obviously modified.

Art. IV. — Account of the principal Coal Mines in France^ and
the quantity of Coal which they yield.

JEngland and Scotland contain the most extensive coal-works
that exist in the world. They are there very numerous, being
in the direct ratio both of the enormous consumption of Great
Britain, and of the great annual exportation. Several of these
immense mines present the union of the greatest moving powers
that can be imagined, and of the most simple and most econo-

Account of the principal Coal-Mines in France , 253

mical means of transport. It is by means of subterranean navi-
gation, by means of canals and sluices lined with iron, and con-
structed in the very interior of these mines ; by means of in-
clined planes, artfully managed, in which the friction of the
carriages is almost annihilated, by plates of cast-iron on which
they roll, and which allow them to be left to their own motion
for several miles, that the coals are transported even to the place
of embarkation ; and it is by these economical proceedings,
which are a thousand times repeated every day, that the fuel in
question comes to be delivered in England to the consumers at
a trifling expence.

The Newcastle mines alone, which are in reality the most
productive works known, employ more than sixty thousand in-
dividuals, and annually produce thirty-six millions of quintals.

France contains no coal-works of so gigantic a nature as those
which exist in England ; but one would have a false idea of its
richness in this respect, were he to judge from the small num-
ber of coal-mines that are wrought on a large scale. This ap-
parent smallness depends upon the circumstance that the con-
sumption of coal is very limited, as a deplorable prejudice, and
an adherence to ancient custom, have hitherto prevented the use
of this combustible in such of our manufactories as consume the
greatest quantity of charcoal, the great furnaces.

About forty departments are known in France which contain
beds of combustible substances belonging to coal, namely, the
x\llier, the High and Low Alps, the Ardeche, the Aude, the
Aveyron, the Low Rhine, the Mouth of the Rhone, the Calva-
dos, the Cantal, the Correze, the Creuze, the two Sevres, the
Dordogne, the Finistere, the Gard, the Upper Rhine, the Up-
per Loire, the Upper Marne, the Upper P^oiie, the Herault,
the Isere, the Lower Loire, the Lot, the Maine and Loire, the
Maude, the Moselle, the Nicore, the Nord, the Pas de Calais,
the Puy-de-Bome, the Eastern Pyrenees, the Rhone, the Tarn,
the Var, and the Vaucluse.

In reality, several of these deposits are nothing more than
merely known, and others of them are only wrought to a small
extent. However, there are already reckoned in France 236
mines, from which 9 or 10 millions of quintals are annual! y

VOL, XIV. NO 28. APRIL 1826. R,

254 Account of the principal Coal-Mines in France .
taken, having a value of from 10 to 11 millions of francs on the
spot, a value which rises to 40 millions, at least with regard to
the mass of consumers, as the carriage to the place of consump-
tion amounts to three times, four times* and even in some cases
to ten times, the price of the coal.

These 9 millions of quintals, which are nothing in comparison
of the comsumption of England, which rises to 75 millions of
quintals annually *, are furnished by the following mines :

1. Three millions are furnished by the mines of St Etienne,
Rive-de-Gier, and the neighbourhood, in which 14Q0 workmen
are immediately occupied, and where there exist 11 steam-en-
gines, 6 hydraulic engines, and 70 machines a molettes ou &
ehevaux, (analogous to our jack-rolls with spur wheels, and our
whim-gins worked by horses.). The formation in which these
mines exist, consists of sandstone and slate. The excellent coal
which they produce is transported to all parts of France, and even
to Genes.

2. Three millions by the works in the Department du Nord^
which employ 4500 miners, and in which there are erected 7
horse machines, 9 steam-engines for drawing off the water, and
16 rotation ones, in constant employment for the extraction of
the coal.

This country contains the mines of Anzin and Raiane,. which
are the most considerable in France, and which produce from
200 to 400 metres. These mines are situated in the forma-
tion of coal — sandstones, and slates ; but they are covered by
a great thickness of limestone deposit, the overlying and uncon-
formable strata of which are horizontal.

3. Lastly , The remaining third of the mass of coal which is
annually extracted in France, comes especially from the mines of
Eitry, in the Department du Calvados, which employ more than
400 workmen, and produce upwards of 200,000 quintals of coal y
of Carmeaux, in the Department du Tarn, which produce more
than 100,000 quintals, and employ upwards of 300 workmen ;
of Creuzot and others, in the Department of the Saone and the
Loire, producing more than 400,000 quintals of coal; of Cham-
pagney and Ronchamps, in the Department of the Haute Saone,

* The Carron- works in Scotland alone are said to consume 8000 quintals weekly.

Account of the principal Coal-Mines in France. £55

the products of which have been considerably increased of late.
These mines may be mentioned as examples of works well con-
ducted, and of great importance for the prosperity of the coun-
tries in which they are situated.

Then comes the coal deposit of the Lower Loire, which fur-
nishes 6 mines, two of which are situated in the department of
that name, and three in the Department of the Maine and the
Loire. The whole quantity produced by them yearly is £50,000
quintals of coal, and they employ upwards of 600 workmen.

Then the Departments of the Nievre and Allier, which have
also 5 coalworks. Here the want of channels of conveyance
(especially in the Department of the Allier) has hitherto pre-
vented the works from being carried on to a greater extent.
This effect is still more sensible, with reference to the coal de-
posits situated in the midst of the mountains of the centre and
south of France. Those of the neighbourhood of Aubin, in
the Department of the Aveyron, for example, might, from their
extreme richness, furnish the whole of France with fuel, and yet
the quantity annually extracted from them is not so much as
10,000 quintals of coal ; and even this small quantity is taken
from thirty different mills, by superficial works conducted with-
out any rule, and which are continually deteriorating the pre-
cious subterranean domain which the soil contains. The want
of market also obliges a considerable quantity of small coal to be
left at the bottom of the mines, in the Departments of the Avey-
ron, the Gard, the Loire, and others ; and this quantity, which
is thus lost for consumption, may be estimated at a twentieth
part at least of the total product of the coal-mines of France.
— ( See Bonnard , Ingenieur en chef des Mines.)

Lastly , The Department of the Mouths of the Rhone is the
only one that remains to be noticed with reference to the subject
in question. Eighteen mines in this Department employ £00
workmen, and produce annually 180,000 quintals of coal.

The selling priee of coal varies exceedingly, according to the
quality, the facility of working, and especially the abundance of
the products, and the extent of the conveyance. Thus, in the
Department of the Aveyron, the mean price is only from 35 to
40 centimes the quintal; in the Department of the Loire, the
price varies from 30 centimes to 1 franc ; in the Department of

r £

256 Accoun t of the pr incipal Coal-Mines in France ,

the Nord, the mean price is 1 franc 27 centimes ; in the Depart-
ment of the Haute Saone, the price rises from 80 centimes to 2
francs 50 centimes the quintal. The reason of so considerable
an augmentation is not difficult to imagine ; the conveyances are
long, and there is no general market.

In general, the small fat coal, and the meagre coal in large
pieces, have nearly the same value, and sell at 25 or 30 per cent,
less than the fat coal in large pieces.

According to correct accounts, it is estimated that, at present,
10 millions of quintals of coal may be annually extracted in
France, which are sold on the spot for 12 millions of francs ;
which make the average value of the quintal 1 franc 20 centimes,
and proves that coal is wrought in an economical manner in
France. These works employ immediately 10,000 miners, and
a much greater number of individuals for the carriage of the
fuel — ( Annales des Mines , MM. IT Hellancourt and Cor dier.)

The price of coal in France in some of the principal places of
consumption is as follows :

At Bordeaux,

large coal of Rive-de-Gr.
Carmeaux coal,

5 francs
4

20 centimes the quinta!.
20

Aubin coal,

At Paris,

St Etienne and Anzin,

00 to 4 70

At Nantes,

St Etienne,

At Brest,

St Etienne,

At Cherbourg, Litry,

At Rouen,

St Etienne,

Belgium is rich in coal-mines ; those of the neighbourhood
of Mons, Charleroi, Liege, are very important ; they amount to
350, which employ 20,000 workmen, and produce annually
about 12,000,000 quintals of excellent coal.

Germany, taken altogether, is not rich in coal-mines; the
colleries of the country of Sauebriick, Roer, the county of La
Marck, those of the country of Tecklenburg, and the 100 mines
of Silesia, scattered in the neighbourhood of Schweidnitz, may,
however, be regarded as very important. Lastly, Saxony, Bo-
hemia, Austria, Tyrol, Bavaria, Hanover, the Hartz, and Hun-
gary, have also coal-mines, but of very inferior importance.

In Sweden there are no coal-mines, excepting in the province
of Scania; they are beginning, to be wrought with great vigour.

257

Account of the principal Coal- Alines in France .

Norway appears entirely destitute of coal, as well as Russia.
It is, however, probable that the great quantity of wood which
these countries contain, has hitherto prevented their inhabitants
from seeking to become acquainted with the combustible sub-
stances which the under-ground strata may contain ; and yet
some coal- deposits are mentioned as wrought in Siberia.

In Italy, the Appenines contain some trifling coal-mines. In
Spain, coal-deposits are known in Andalusia, Rstremadura, Ca-
talonia, Arragon, Castile, and the Asturias ; but the beds are
thin, and the workings are all of little importance. In Portugal
there is only one coal-mine mentioned, which is wrought at Cape
de Buargos, in the province of Beira. Beds were discovered
some years ago near Via-longa, to the north-east of Oporto.

We have few accounts regarding the coal-mines of the other
parts of the globe. We know, however, that much coal is
wrought in China and Japan; that it exists in the island of Ma-
dagascar ; that Africa is not destitute of it ; that coal has been
discovered in New Holland ; and, lastly, that it is found in
America also. There is little known in the Cordilleras ; a de-
posit is mentioned at Santa Be de Bogota, which is situated
4400 metres above the level of the sea * *. Beds of coal are no-
ticed as occurring at Lticayes, in St Domingo, in the Isle of
Cape Breton, in Canada, in Louisiana, and especially in the
United States. In this latter country, the whole western part
of Pennsylvania and Virginia contains* extremely abundant de-
posits of coal, but which have not hitherto been wrought -f\
Coal is also mentioned as being found on the coast of Greenland.
( Annales des Mines.)

* Probably lignite.

*j* America has not yet, like the Old Continent, arrived at the point of being
obliged to have recourse to its colleries.

258

Mr Levy on the Modes of Notation

Art. V. — On the Modes of Notation erf Weiss , Mohs , and
Mail y. By M. Levy, M. A. &c. Communicated by the
Author. (Continued from page 185.)

The next question to solve, is to determine the laws of decre-
ments, by which the hypothetical forms which have just been con-
sidered may be derived from the adopted primitive rhomboid.
This may be effected without difficulty, by means of the formu-
lae I have demonstrated in one of the preceding numbers of the
Philosophical Journal of Edinburgh, to discover from certain
parallelisms of edges, the indices of a secondary plane. To find
the law, for instance, from which may be derived the rhomboid,
the superior edges of which correspond to the lines da , dc of
the dodecaedron, it will be sufficient to find the indices of a
plane parallel to the diagonal mn of the primitive Fig. 2, and
also to the intersection da of two faces of the dodecaedron.
Now, the formula above mentioned, in the case where the se-
condary plane, whose indices are required, is parallel to one of
the diagonals of the primitive, is

m5 n4

n5 ( 1

1 ^

( 1 - 1

PsnJ

\m5 P4 P 5 m4/

In the present case we

have —
m5

111

— 2, — = y. Substituting these values, the formula gives,

n, P />

yx — xz

— ^ = 7-5 — -f~ r = — T-11 ; and therefore the

n5 (yZ — z'2) — (xy — xz) y + z — x

rhomboid assumed as a hypothetical primitive form, may be de-
rived from the primitive rhomboid by a decrement of z — x

rows in breadth on the superior angle. If the quantity

y+*'

was negative, it would result of a decrement by

-(y + z — x)

rows

in breadth on the inferior angle. In the same manner, it

of Weiss , Molts , and Haiti/. 259

may be proved, that the rhomboid, the superior edges of which

correspond to the lines db, d$, results of a decrement by 00 i

rows in breadth, on the superior angle of the primitive, and al-
so that the two rhomboids, the oblique diagonals of which corres-
pond respectively to db , d$, and da , dc9 result of decrements
52 oc •

bv — — , and rows in breadth on the superior angle of the

J x + ij z+.y us

primitive ; and, lastly, that the rhomboid, the inferior edges of

which correspond to the lines a b, bc9 cd , results of a decrement

oc + z — -y

rows in breadth on the same superior angle. To

complete the subject of hypothetical primitive forms, let it be
proposed to find the indices of the dodecaedron (jf bVj 5*), with

respect to a rhomboid the sign of which is an9 that is resulting
of a decrement by n rows in breadth on the superior angles of
111

the primitive. Let — , — , — , be the required indices. It is
•tl y i

obvious that — — will equal £os £ (l |), . ancl as ^he same

oc1 — z1 ■* cos f : 1)

quantity is also equal to ^ the following equation will ob-

tain

*i—y 1 x—y

Moreover, the preceding formulas being all independent of
the angle of the primitive, the sign of the rhomboid, the oblique
diagonals of which are parallel to db9 dS9 with respect to the

rhomboid whose sign is an9 will be

%z1

, whilst the sign of

the same rhomboid, with respect to the primitive form, will be
£ z

—7—. But I have shewn in the Number of this Journal for

January 1824, that if n' and n " are the indices of two rhom-
boids with respect to the primitive, and n!n the index of the se-
cond with respect to the first considered as the primitive,

260

Mr Levy on the Modes of ‘ Notation

'n1 n/f -f- vJ

U‘

l ,, n' n!U 4-

■ , or n" —

n'" -f nJ 4- I

Therefore, in the present case,

> .4.2

±jh

* J 3 p n -f 1

fa H-yi

By means of this equation, and the one before mentioned,

Zl. — g it will be easy to find the values of — and — ,
x-i—yx x—y *1 *1

in terms of the other quantities, or inversely the values of

^ and in terms of w and x19 z1 . They will be found re-
spectively,

|/j _ (y — ((» + l)z — — g)

*1 _ ((« + l)« — x — y) (2z — x — y)

xx _ (x — y)((n + l)z — x— y)j— (x — z) (nx+ny — 2z)
%i~ ((ra + 1) x— y) \%z — x — y)

x (()»-}- 1) + ( n + 1 )_y_i + ) (zi — Xi) |

z ~ (nzl + xx +yi) (xx —yx)

y _ ((n + 1)3?! + (»+ l);y, + 2z,) {yx — zt) j
-* — <»«i + ^1 +%) (4 — ^1)

These formulae apply only to the case when the faces of the
.rhomboid an , forming the superior solid angle, are situated above
or below the faces forming the superior solid angle of the pri-
mitive, which is the case when n is positive and greater than 1, or
negative and greater than z. But, in every other case, it will be
necessary to use other formulae, because then the angle (i • i) of
the dodecaedron with respect to the primitive, corresponds to
the angle { i : i) of the same dodecaedron with respect to the
111.

rhomboid a . If — , — , — , still represent the indices of the
*1 Vi *1

dodecaedron relative to the rhomboid a* V it is easy to perceive
that the equations which express their relations to x9 and z ,
making due attention to the above remark, will be

261

of Weiss, Mohs , and Haiiy.

ff — g_ »! — ffi „nd ^ _ . wa-) + z, + .V,

*—*/ yi — Z\ c ^ + 3/ +

from which the following values are readily obtained :

y __ (gi— ^i)(wa?x+.yi+gi) — fa— ^i)<^a,iH-TOyI+.wgi+.y1+gt)

* (sx + yL — *fi) 4- «/x 4- *i)

£ _ (ffi — *i) (wa>I+,yI 4- gx) — (ay— sf) (ga?i + 4- m*i4-#i 4- *x)

* " rf fe + yr-%0i) (n^i +yi+

yt __ (z — J/) .(w,4? 4- ny — - %z) — (a? — 3/) (Vi£ 4 - z — x — y)

zL ~~ (z — x) (nx 4- ny — $2#) 4- (x — ■ ?/) (^3 4- £ — ;;a? - — ?/)

^x_ _ ; 4 ; : 1 ; (pc 4-2/ ~ %*) (x +y — nz — z)-

zL ~ (z — x) (nx 4- ny— 2z) 4- (x —y) (nz 4- z — x — y)

Which formulas ought to be used instead of the four preceding, *
when n is positive and less than 1 , or negative and less than 52.

If, in the two last formulae, n is supposed to be equal to

■ — they become

y± — (2/ — z) (^4-2/4- 4s) — (x —y)(z — %x — %/)

*1 (c V — z) (x + y 4- 4sz) 4- (v—y) (z — 2x — 2y)

xL _ (x 4- y — 2z) (2x 4- 2y — z)

zl ~ (x — z) (x + y 4- 4#) + (x — y) (z — 2x — 2y)

These formulae, therefore, determine the decrement which
should take place upon the rhomboid a % or to produce the
same dodecaedron as that whose sign with respect to the primi-
tive is ( b * hi> fc). But the rhomboid e ^ measures the same an-
gle as the primitive, and differs only from it as to its position,
its oblique diagonals corresponding to the superior edges of the
primitive, and its superior edges to the oblique diagonals. Con-
sequently, if a dodecaedron was derived from the primitive by

an intermediary decrement, the indices of which were — , — —

ocL yL zL]

the ratios between xL yL zt being determined by the two prece-
ding formulae, it would be equal to the dodecaedron, whose
sign is (b* b v ¥), but its position with respect to the primitive
would be different, since it would be situated relatively to the

rhomboid f4, precisely as the dodecaedron (b* by Ip) is relative-

262

Mr Levy on the Modes of Notation

]y to the primitive. It is obvious a priori, from the symmetry
of a rhomboid, that two equal dodecaedrons, differing in posi-
tion, and the principal sections of which are inclined at an angle
of 60°, may be derived from the same primitive form, and the
two last formulas determine the indices of one of them, when
those of the other are known. If it were required, for instance,
to determine the indices of the dodecaedron, similar to the me-
tastatic of carbonate of lime, but differing as to its position with
respect to the primitive, it would be sufficient to substitute in
the two last formulae for x, y, z, the indices of the metastatic,

which are x .== 1, y = o, z

2, and then the values of and

x . . 2 4

— will be found respectively equal to — and — , and consequent-
'll ^

ly the sign of the required dodecaedron will be (61 b 2 b 5), or,
according to Haiiy’s notation, (E^ B1 D2). This modification
is one of those he has described, and he mentions other instances
of more equal dodecaedrons produced by two different laws of de-
crements, and I have had occasion to observe several others.

There is, however, one case in which the values and are

found to be respectively ^ and — ; and consequently, in that

case, the two laws of decrements are the same, and the two dode-
caedrons are not only equal, but their positions are the same,

with respect to the primitive. This takes place when z.= 1,

x y

or y — Z — X- — yy that is to say, when the dodecaedron is com-
posed of isosceles triangular planes. This last remark proves,
that there is an infinite number of dodecaedrons with isosceles
triangular planes, produced by intermediary decrements, and
that for all these there exists between their indices the following
relation, 2t / = z + x.

The last point to be considered, is the determination of the
indices of a dodecaedron, when two of its incidences are known.
Those which generally are most readily measured, are desig-
nated by ( i ' i) and (i : i). Three of the preceding formulae de-
termine immediately the indices of the dodecaedron, when they

1 63

of' Weiss , Mohs , and Haiiy.

result from simple decrements on the edges or angles. The re-
maining case to be examined, is therefore the determination of
the indices of a dodecaedron resulting from an intermediary de-
crement. It has already been proved, that

cos | (i • i) y z

cos f {i : i) x-—y

And if another simple relation may be obtained between a, y ,
and z, the problem will be resolved. It has been proved, that
the dodecaedron under consideration may be conceived to be de-
rived from a decrement on the lateral angles of a rhomboid, the
oblique diagonals of which correspond to the lines db9 Fig. 1,

by &+£ — 2A rows in breadth, and that this rhomboid is derived
x—y

2z •

by a decrement of — rows in breadth on the superior angle
J x q- y r &

of the primitive. Now, the angle of this rhomboid may be easi-
ly determined by means of the measured angles ( i * i), ( i : i), and

the number , which is known since it is equal to

—y

y — z

-f- 1, that is to say to

2 cos 4 ( i * i)

+ 1.

x — y * cos \ (i : i)

For, in the Number of this Journal before alluded to, it is
proved that if (P, P) represents the incidence of the faces of
the rhomboid, the following equation obtains

n — 2 tang 4 ( en : en ) cos \ (P, P).

From which it will be easy to find, in the present case, the angle
of the rhomboid, the oblique diagonals of which correspond to
the lines db , d$. This angle being determined, the law of de-
crement by which it is derived from the primitive may be cal-
culated by means of formulas previously explained ; and the in-

dex of this decrement being made equal to — - — , furnishes a

& x + ij

second equation, which, together with the equation

cos \ (i . i) _ y - — z
cos \ (i : i) ~~ x — if

is sufficient to determine the ratio between two of the three
quantities x, y> z, and the third, that is the indices of the dode-

2 6*

Account of' the Poison Plants of

caedron. When the angles (i . ), (z : z) of the dodecaedron will
be known, without knowing, at the same time, its position with
respect to the primitive, there will be two answers, for then the
rhomboid the oblique diagonals of which correspond to db , %dr,
may be derived in two different ways from the primitive, each
will give a different equation, and each of these combined with
Id. i) _ y— z

cos

-, a set of values of the indices. The me-

Cos § \i : z) x—y
thod I have just explained to determine the indices of a dode-
caedron resulting from an intermediary decrement, will be
found very simple in practice, because logarithmic calculation
may be used.

The formulae contained in this and the preceding paper, are
sufficient to find the indices of rhomboids and dodecaedrons,
when some of their incidences are known. It remains now to
explain in what manner their angles may be calculated when
their indices are given, and which may, at a future time, be the
subject of another communication.

Art. VI.— Account of the Poison Plants of the Southern Parts
f Brazil. Continued from p. 100.

HI HE first historians of Brazil have spoken much of the art
with which the Indians prepared their poisons. Piso says* they
can at their pleasure infect the air and waters, —poison their ar-
rows,— the clothes of their enemies, and even the fruits upon
which they may have to feed. But, as Southey *j- sagaciously
insinuates, it is very probable that such tales have been imagined;,
to gratify the hatred of the oppressors against the oppressed ;
and the latter, perhaps to make themselves be feared in their
turn, may have sought to believe themselves the fables which
were originally invented for the purpose of rendering them odi-
ous. Piso sufficiently justifies this assumption, when he asserts
that the Indians, while they made a mystery of their poisons,
readily disclosed their antidotes. It is evident, that, if these men
were interested in not divulging the fatal secrets which are attri-

* Bras. 46.

•f History of Brazil; vpk i, p. 237.

of the Southern parts of Brazil.

buted to them, they would have an equal interest in concealing
the remedies which might destroy the effect of their poisons.
Piso, however, has revealed one of their recipes to us ; and we
find it composed of a strange mixture of seeds of a leguminous
plaint,, which he names Mucunaguagu , of those of Berber a Aho-
vai and Thevetia , ( Ahovai guagu and miri ) ; the gall of a
toad ; the worms which are produced in the juice of manihoc ;
the leaves of certain sensitive plants, (Herba casta), and those of
the species of Rubiacese, which he names Taugaraca , or Erf a
de rato. If I add to the plants which I have just mentioned the
Annonaa, named Araticu pan a, and the Sapindaceoe , which Pi-
so calls Curuniape * and Timbo , we shall have with the manihoc
all the poisonous plants mentioned by Piso. Now, we see, that,
if some of these plants may, in certain cases, prove detrimental
to health, they are very different from those terrible poisons of
India, the very idea of which is enough to excite terror. Such
vegetables as the Araticu pana, which, according to the avowal
of the author himself, only causes accidents, when eaten to ex-
cess ; and the Herb# castte, of which Marcgraff, although he
has figured them, has not even indicated the poisonous quali-
ties, are certainly not of a very formidable nature.

Aruda and Coster, who have lived in the same country as Pi-
so, since his time, do not take notice of any such plants as those
which I have quoted ; and in general, they do not make mention
of any poisonous vegetable.

I do not doubt, that, in the warmest parts of the south of Bra-
zil, there are found plants whose properties are highly deleteri-
ous, of which a proof is afforded by the Oassacu , with an inebri-
ating smell, cited by Martius -|\ But, although the Flora of
Fernambucca has a great resemblance to that of the provinces of
Santo Spirito, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Geraes, I am, per-
haps, already too far from my subject, in speaking of the vege-
tation of a country in which I have not travelled ; and I shall
therefore confine myself to that of the countries which I have
actually traversed.

No person was more capable of instructing us with regard to
the antient traditions of the Indians, than the famous Father

* Paullinia pinnata. L.

f Fhys. Braz. 11.

S66 Account of the Poison Plants

Anchieta, who lived so long among them, and who possessed so
perfect a knowledge of their language. Yet, besides the mani-
hoc, he does not mention in his letter, upon the province of St
Paul, any other poison than that of the Timboes , the Sapin-
dacece, of which Piso, as I have observed, had already cited se-
veral species ; and which, like the Coque de Levant , have the
singular property of rendering fishes torpid,— a property equally
pointed out by Barrere, La Condamine and Adanson, both in
the Paullinia cururu , and in the P. pinnata.

The Abbe Vellozo de Villa-Rica, who had long travelled in
the province of the Mines, with the view of examining its vege-
tation, has carefully pointed out in his manuscripts the proper-
ties of the plants which he had gathered ; and the only ones
which he mentions as poisonous, are still a Paullinia or Timbo ,
which, he says, is fatal to mammifera, and one of his Salviniae,
or Erva de rato , a rubiaceous plant, which is the same as one
of MarcgrafTs Ervas de rato> and which is represented as being
very injurious to cattle *.

In a general list of the most remarkable Brazilian plants, the
Abbe Casal names only one whose properties are deleterious, the
tree called Tinguy *f*, the leaves of which, like those of the Tim-
bo, kill fishes, and which I have determined to be an anomalous
Sapindacea. When, afterwards, the same author treats parti-
cularly of the vegetation of the provinces which extend between
the Bio de la Plata, the Carynhenha, and the Bio-Doce, he still
signalizes no other poisonous plants than the Timboes J, which
he then confounds with the Tinguy , and a Guaratimbo , to
which he says the insalubrity of the wraters of the Muryalie are
attributed. He says, indeed, when speaking of the vegetation
of the Mines, that poisonous plants are found in that province ;
but, as he adds that they cause fishes to die, it is plain that it is
the Timboe which he still has in view.

My respectable friend, the P. Leandro do Sacramento, has
pointed out a noxious plant, which he calls the Martiusea physalo-
des ; but it appears that he only considers it hurtful to cattleg.

Mawe, Lukok, and Eschwegge are not botanists ; yet the lat-

* Palicourea Marcgravii, N,
t Cong. t. ii. p. 48.

-f- There are two species.
§ See Schultes, Mant, p. 226,

of the Southern parts of Brazil.

ter staid for a long time in the province of the Mines ; Lukok
lived for ten years at Rio de Janeiro, St Catherine, Rio-Grande
and S. Joao-del-Rey ; and it is to be supposed, that, if these au-
thors had meant to speak of some dangerous poisons, they would
have made mention of them in their writings.

In reality, MM. Spix and Martins say, in their interesting
travels, that in the neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro, the Cancer
Uca retires among the roots of the mangliers, to feed upon poi-
sonous plants ; but the learned Bavarians do not name these
plants ; and as the remark which I have cited occurs only in a
note, it is to be believed that it is only the result of a supposition
which the authors have conceived, because they considered the
crab in question as a suspected animal.

With regard to myself, I have met with many plants in my
travels, which, in certain circumstances, and taken in certain
doses, might prove very hurtful ; some very active stimulants,
acrid plants, Euphorbiacece , which often cause dangerous pur-
gings, &c. I have received confirmations of the properties of the
Timbo and Tinguy {Magonia pubescens and glabrata , N.) ;
and I have even been assured, that one of the Timboes was not
only hurtful to fishes ; but that it might be dangerous for qua-
drupeds, as well as for man, {Serjania lethalis , N.), Several
JRubiacece (Rubia noocia , Psycotria noxia , Palicourea Marc -
gravii , N.) have been pointed out to me by the planters ; and
always under the name of Erva de rata , as causing death in
beasts that eat of them. The leguminous plant, which is call-
ed Jacatupe, and whose roots are edible, is said to produce
poisonous flowers. A Convolvulus , which I have found abun-
dantly upon the shores of the sea, in the provinces of Rio de
Janeiro, and of the Holy Spirit, is also asserted to be dangerous
for cattle. A sort of inebriation is produced, when one has
eaten to excess of the fruits of the Myrtea , which is commonly
named Cagaiteira. The Miomio of the Rio de la Plata de-
stroys horned cattle. It appears certain, that the Schinus
arroeira causes swellings in those who sleep under its shade.
Lastly, I have been assured, that the root of the Mimosa , called
Spongia , was a true poison, &c.

These are undoubtedly dangerous plants ; yet, after what has
been said above, it is clear that hitherto no poisonous species

268 Account of the Poison Plants of

has been discovered in the southern parts of Brazil, that could be
compared, for example, with the Tieute or the Anthiaus upar ;
and I would even be led to believe, that there is not proportion-
ally a greater number of noxious plants in this country, than in
the Flora of our own.

The plant which renders the honey of the Euxine Sea
poisonous, is very far from being a poison of the first order, as
is sufficiently proved by the effect, which, according to Gulden-
stcedfs relation, it produces upon goats ; and, consequently, the
species, whose juices frequently poison the honey of the Leche-
guana wasp may very well be no more dangerous than the
Azalea pontica.

It is by no means probable, that it is an Andromeda ; for I
have seen no species of the family of Ericaceae in the province
of the Rio Grande, the Cisplatine province, and that of the
Missions. It would still less be an Azalea , since not only does
no plant of this genus grow in the different parts of America
which I have travelled ; but also of the hundred families that
have been indicated by M. de Jussieu in his Genera , that of
the Ehodoracece is the only one of which I have never found a
species in the course of my travels.

Farther, my suspicions must fall upon a very small number of
plants ; for the one which had rendered the honey of the wasps of
the Rio de Santa Anna poisonous, grew in that district probably
only in a very inconsiderable space of land, since, at the distance
of some leagues from Rio de Santa Anna, the honey of another
nest of the Lecheguana wasp was no longer narcotic. It is even
pretty probable, that the plant which often renders the honey of
the Lecheguana wasp dangerous, does not grow in any part of
Old Paraguay ; for Azzara, who speaks of the inebriating honey
of the bee Catabaiu , and who has very well described the nest
of the Lecheguanas , does not say that the honey of these wasps is
frequently dangerous. Resides, the same author furnishes us
with no data regarding the noxious plants of Paraguay, since,
am on ^ the pretty considerable number of vegetables belonging
to that country, which he observed on a journey, he does not
designate any as possessed of hurtful qualities.

If I now consult the excellent work of M. De Candolle, upon
the medicinal properties of plants, and the best authors who

269

the Southern parts of Brazil.

have written upon the same subject, and join to their observa-
tions the fruit of my own researches, I shall find, that the num-
ber of the families of phanerogamous plants, that produce nar-
cotic species, the only ones which should naturally engage my
attention, reduces itself to twenty, namely, the Menispermaeae,
Sapindacese, Papaveraceoe, Terehinthaceae, Leguminosae, Rosa-
cea?, Umbelliferae, Cichoraceas, Rhodoraceae, Apocineae, Sola-
nacese, Scrophularineae, Euphorbiacese, Conifers, Aristolochiae,
Iridese, he. Casting a glance upon the species which I have
collected in a space of about 45 Portuguese leagues, from Be-
lem to the Ibicuy, a space in which the Rio-de-Santa-Anna
flows, I only find plants belonging to six of the above families,
namely, the Euphorh i acece, ( Euphorbia papillosa , Microstaehys
ramosissima , Caperonia linearrfolia , N.) ; Apocineae , (among
others the Asclepias mellodora , and Echites petrcea , N.) ; one
Sapindaceous plant, Solanacece , Leguminosoe , and two Scro -
pliularhiete. It is, therefore, to these plants, twenty-one in
number, that my conjectures must refer ; but, as the Legumi -
nosae , EuphorbiaceoBj and Apocineae , do not belong to the ge-
nera among which narcotic plants have been peculiarly desig-
nated, I shall confine my search principally to the four Solanece
( Nicotiana acutiflora , Solanum guaraniticum , Fabiana tliymi-
folia , Nier ember gia graveolens , F.) ; the single Sapindacea
(PauUinia australis , N. the two Scrophularinea (Stemodia
palustris and gratiol&folia, N. ) ; and of these it will be upon the
Sapindacea that I shall make my suspicion chiefly fall, because
I already know the narcotic effects which several vegetables of
the same family produce in these countries ; and because the
species which I have signalized was of all those which I have
mentioned, that which flourished nearest the wasp-nest the honey
of which was so nearly fatal to me.

I cannot close this account, without adding some obser-
vations which are mot without importance. Dr Benjamin
Smith Barton thinks that the poisoned honey injures the bees
themselves ; but this is by no means probable, or at least it
could not do so to them in the same degree as to man. This
honey, in fact, has been sucked by the bees ; it has resided in
their intestines ; they have only collected it, by returning a
thousand and a thousand times to the same flowers ; and if it
VOL. xiv. -no. 28. A Pit i l 1826.

270

Dr Grant on the Structure and

could prove hurtful to them as to man, it is impossible to con-
ceive that they would have stored it up in their ceils.

The American author, whom I have just cited, regrets his
not knowing what remedies should be employed in cases of poi-
soning by honey. Of the three persons poisoned near the brook
of St Anna, the least affected vomited after eating ; and, it was
not until I had vomited myself, that I felt sensibly better. If
one of the two herds mentioned by Seringe died, after having
eaten honey sucked from Aconitum Napellus and Lycoctonum,
he was the one who had not been able to vomit. It is there-
fore very evident, that an emetic which should quickly rid the
stomach of the cause of the evil would be the best remedy to
which recourse could be had.

Art. VIII. — On the Structure and Nature of the Spongilla
friahilis . By Robert E. Grant, M. D., F. R. S. E., F. L. S.,
M. W. S., &c *. Communicated by the Author.

I HE Spongilla friahilis of Lamarck, belongs to a genus of
organized bodies, whose internal structure and economy are still
unknown, and which naturalists are at present undecided whether
to place in the animal or in the vegetable kingdom. It is a
fresh water production, of a green or grey colour, soft, fibrous,
reticulate, friable texture, irregular flat spreading form, and
strong fetid odour ; it contains a turbid green-coloured gelati-
nous-like matter in its interstices, and erect branched fibres pass
through its interior, arising from its base, and projecting from
its surface. Lamarck has distinguished this from the only other
known species, Sp . pulvinata and Sp . ramosa , chiefly by the
marked appearance of these erect or longitudinal fibres, which
are seen in dried specimens, rising, branching, and radiating to-
wards the surface, and beyond it.

This animal or vegetable production is found spreading on
rocks or other solid bodies, at the bottom of lakes, or on the
sides of stagnant pools, and has been observed in various parts
of Europe,— in Russia by Pallas, ? — in Denmark by Muller,—
in Sweden by Linnoeus, — in Germany by Gmelin, Blumenbach,

Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society.

271

Nature of the Spongilla fi mbU’is.

and Schweigger,— in different parts of Great Britian and Ire-
land,—in France by Lamouroux ; and probably it has not
been looked for on other continents. It grows abundantly in
Lochend near Edinburgh, where I have procured all the speci-
mens for the experiments and observations detailed in this me-
moir ; it is seen covering the surface of many of the rocks and
stones on the east side of the lake, and enveloping the wooden
posts at the north end of it, when the water is low in autumn ;
it spreads indiscriminately over every solid body it encounters,
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, and adheres so closely to
them, that it cannot be separated without laceration. We ob-
serve it more frequently, and better developed, on the over-
hanging or perpendicular sides of solid bodies than on their
acclivities or their summits ; this has relation to the position of
certain large orifices on its surface, to be noticed hereafter.
Though of a very delicate and brittle nature, it thrives on the
most exposed ridges and prominent angles of rocks, which is
probably owing to its usual depth from the agitated surface,
and to the sheltered condition of small lakes, compared with the
open sea, where the marine sponges thrive best on the sheltered
sides of rocks. When young, it appears in small, round, convex
spots, of a light grey coloured, soft, downy, substance, adhering
to the surface of stones under water, or spreading irregularly as
a flat woolly covering of a light greenish-grey colour, having a
line or two of thickness, and an extension of one or two inches.
But as it advances in growth, it becomes more compact in tex-
ture, and of a darker sea-green colour, acquires a thickness of
more than two inches, covers a continuous surface of several feet
in length, sends up from every part of its surface irregular, short,
compressed lobes, sharp ridges, thin laminae, or cylindrical, small
branches, rounded at their extremities, and it presents numerous
very distinct apertures, of different sizes, leading into its inte-
rior. From the looseness of its porous surface and internal tex-
ture, and from its mode of enveloping substances in the pro-
gress of its growth, we generally find in its interior portions of
sand, mud, or gravel, shells of fresh water testacea, fragments
of roots or branches of trees, tubularise, larvae, particularly of
phryganeae, innumerable animalcules, and different kinds of ova.

s 2

Dr Grant on the Structure and

In its living state, the Sp. friabilis is so soft and brittle that'
it can scarcely be handled or lifted without tearing, feels slightly
unctuous between the fingers, has a strong disagreeable smell,
like that of stagnant ditches in the heat of summer, tastes cool-
ing without any marked flavour, and quickly diffuses among
the saliva, leaving only some earthy particle between the teeth ;
it sinks slowly in water, appearing lighter than most marine
sponges. When pressed, a thin slimy turbid greenish-coloured
matter escapes, mixed with a considerable portion of water, and
the remaining fibrous portion has a light grey colour, and stiff
gritty feel. When allowed to putrefy in water, a thick, fatty
layer covers the surface of the fluid, the water acquires a tur-
bid yellowish colour, the spongilla becomes of a blackish-green
hue, and emits a most offensive putrid animal odour, like that
of the most putrid offals. A portion of it, whether fresh or
putrid, placed on a red hot iron, smells like burning skin or
membrane, the soft parts are dissipated, and the fibrous residue
becomes red hot, but does not consume nor change much its
form. The burnt remains of this substance do not effervesce in
vinegar, nor in nitric,, sulphuric,, or muriatic acids, nor is their
appearance in the least altered by these acids, although they
are alleged by Lamouroux to contain more than half their bulk
of lime. When the calcined remains, or even a portion of the
fresh spongilla, are rubbed with a smooth, wooden, instrument on
the polished surface of glass, they leave innumerable very mi-
nute permanent traces, which we observe, with the assistance
of a lens, to be distinct streaks cut in the substance of the glass,
thus indicating the presence of silica in the axis of this organized
body. The soft green coloured matter contained so abundantly
in this substance, in its living state, when mixed with water, and
examined under the microscope, is found to consist almost en-
tirely of minute, granular, transparent bodies, like the gelatinous
matter of the marine sponge. The dried fibrous axis becomes
of a pure white colour, and somewhat opaque, by a few minutes*’
exposure to the intense heat of the blowpipe, but does not melt
nor lose its fibrous appearance ; when a portion of the dried
axis is rubbed on the back of the hand, it excites an itching
pain, and inflamed spots with diffused redness, from its sharp
spicula piercing the skin, and remaining in its substance. Nu-

273

Nature of the Spongilla friabilis.

merous, small, yellow, globular bodies have been frequently ob-
served in autumn, spread every where through the substance of
the spongilla, and have greatly perplexed naturalists, — some con-
sidering them as the grains of this supposed plant, while others
regard them as ova deposited there by some aquatic insects.

Linnaeus, in his Flora Suecka (1190-1191), speaks of grains
found in this fresh water plant in autumn, though in his later
works he seems to consider these grains as foreign bodies, and
the spongilla as a species of sponge. Lamarck and the Danish
naturalist Vahl, considered the spongilla to be merely a habita-
tion constructed by the cristatella. Montagu, in the Wernerian
Transactions , considered it as a nidus formed by some aquatic
insects, for the reception of their ova. Lichtenstein, in the
Trans, of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Copenhagen, describes it as
an agglutinated mass of the tubes of fresh-water tubulariae, re-
maining empty after the death of the polypi. Pallas speaks of
it as a shapeless mass, possessing no trace of life. Gmelin, like
most of Lamarck’s predecessors, places it in the genus Spongia,
and he makes the singular remark respecting the friabilis , that
it serves as food for fishes. Lamouroux, in 1816, was satis-
fied, from personal examination, that it is an animal resembling
the group of true sponges ; but in his Expos. Method. 1821,
he expresses himself convinced, from more recent observations,
and particularly from the effects of light, heat, moisture, and
air upon it, that it differs entirely from the marine sponge, and
is merely a fresh- water plant. Lamarck still considers its ani-
mal nature as far from being established, and has removed it to
a great distance from the marine sponge. In this country, some
naturalists, as Dr Fleming, regard it as an animal distinct from
the sponge, while others spend their ingenuity in endeavouring
to prove it a vegetable. Schweigger has examined two species
of spongilla alive, Sp. pulvinata and Sp. ramosa , and states
that they possess a gelatinous crust, as distinct as that of many
marine sponges, and truly belong to that genus of animals ;
while Blumenbach, who has performed many experiments on
these substances in their living state at Gottingen, has not been
able to discover a trace of animal nature in them, and believes
them to be aquatic plants. But none of these writers have de-
scribed to us its internal organization, nor afforded sufficient

274 Dr Grant on the Structure and

data to enable us to decide either as to its animal or vegetable
nature.

The small, yellow, globular bodies observed by many natura-
lists in the Spongilla Jriabilis in autumn, are distinctly visible
to the naked eye, regularly spherical, about the size of grains
of sand. Linnaeus compares them in size to the seeds of thyme,
of a bright straw-yellow colour, rough on their external surface,
yielding a little to pressure, and quite elastic. I have found
them present, and almost equally abundant in the spongilla in
September, October, November, December, January, and Feb-
ruary, but have not yet examined this substance in other months,
to discover at what season, if ever, they are deficient. They
are distributed very irregularly, but abound most in the deeper
parts, where they frequently lie loosely collected in groups of
about twenty or thirty ; they have no perceptible organic con-
nection with each other, or with the substance in which they
are imbedded. I have frequently found a portion of spongilla
crowded with them, while another growing beside it contained
none ; and even the same portion sometimes presents them crowd-
ed in one place, while they are entirely wanting in another.
They seem to have no proper cell or particular disposition of
the spieula for their lodgement, but fall out readily when the
broken substance is moved gently in water ; and there appears
to be no open passage leading to them from the 'surface, diffe-
rent from the canals natural to this organized body. When one
of these round balls is pressed between the forceps, it yields
with some resistance, bursts suddenly, and a white, semi-opaque,
viscid matter is forced out. They produce no effervescence
when thrown into nitric acid, no lime being contained in their
tough cartilaginous capsules ; the capsules frequently burst af-
ter remaining a minute or two in this acid, being contracted by
it, like other horny or cartilaginous substances, before they dis-
solve. The yellow, elastic capsules, viewed separately through
the microscope, have a coarse, granular structure, and appear
studded with transparent points, as if porous, but nothing is
perceived to escape through them by pressure, till they burst.
In bursting, I have several times observed the fluid contents
force out a regular circular portion of the capsule. When
these yellow globules are exposed for a minute or two to the

275

Nature of the Spongilla Friabilis.

flame of a candle, they diminish to a third of their usual size,
become quite black, shining, and smooth on the surface, empty
within, and very brittle ; this was observed before the time of
Linnaeus. In this calcined state they produce no effervescence,
and undergo no change in the strongest acids.

The soft matter contained within these yellow spheres, con-
sists of two or three hundred soft transparent gelatinous globules,
adhering slightly together, and, when magnified by the micro-
scope, very much resembling the spawn of a frog; there is like-
wise a small quantity of a thin colourless fluid., and some lively
monades, as we And within the ova of most animals, but not, as
far as I know, within the seeds of plants. When shaken gently
in water, or allowed to remain a few minutes in it, the transpa-
rent globules fall separate, and begin to dissolve ; on examining
them with the microscope when thus separated, we observe that
each globule contains about a hundred very small white opaque
particles, which lie close together on one side of the globule,
and occupy about a third of its capacity. The transparent part
of the globules quickly and entirely dissolves, and the white
opaque bodies they contained are observed strewed over the
bottom of the water, partly adhering in groups, and partly iso-
lated. I have not observed any change in these white particles,
after preserving them some time in water, though they seem to
possess the power of slowly changing their positions, when at-
tentively watched through the microscope.

The yellow spheres whose contents have been described, did
not undergo the slightest perceptible change in external appear-
ance, or in the nature of their contained matter, during six
weeks rest in rain water, frequently renewed, from the middle
of October to the end of November, although the true ova of
the spongilla were growing and spreading on watch-glasses im-
mersed in the same vessel of water. And what appears a re-
markable circumstance, whether these bodies be ova or grains,
their colour, size, structure, and contents, were precisely alike,
during all the six months I have yet been able to examine the
spongilla alive those taken from the spongilla in February
presented the same appearances, externally and internally, as
those of September. They differ from the ova of every marine
sponge I have yet observed, in their strong cartilaginous cap-

276 .

Dr Grant on the Structure and

sule, and soluble, gelatinous globules ; they differ entirely in
colour from the substance in which they are found, the spon-
gilla being of a deep sea-green or grass-green colour, while they
are of a lively straw-yellow ; and they do not develope themselves
into young spongillm, as some would lead us to suppose, in the
same circumstances which evolve the true ova of that animal.
Different kinds of these bodies appear to occur in the fresh-
water sponge Linnaeus describes them as shining, bluish glo-
bules, about the size of a grain of thyme, in the Spongia lacus-
tris ( Spongilla ramosa , Lamarck), and as green gelatinous
grains in the Spongia fluviatilis {Spongilla pulvinata, Lamarck).
Lamarck states, that small, yellow, gelatinous grains are found
in all the species. Those found in the Spongilla Jriabilis of
Lochend gre tough, hard, yellow spheres, filled with transparent,
soluble, gelatinous globules. Lichtenstein considered them as
the ova of the Tubularia sultana , Blumenbach, as appears from
Schweigger’s account of his MS., although he is represented by
the French writers as having mistaken them for the germs of
the cristatella. From the doubtful nature of these bodies, and
their appearing in the same state of development for at least six
successive months, their existence in the spongilla cannot with
propriety be adduced in proof of this substance being a plant,
as is done by Lamouroux and others, nor to prove it an animal,
as was formerly done by Lamouroux, and is at present by La-
marck.

The external surface of the spongilla, like that of the marine
sponge, is covered with numerous, open pores leading into its in-
terior. The pores are mentioned by Linnaeus and Gmelin in
two of the species, Sp. lacustris and Sp. fluviatilis. They are
so conspicuous on the surface of the Spongilla pulvinata , that
Lamarck has introduced them into the definition of that species.
On the surface of the recent Spongilla friabilis they are visible
at the distance of twenty inches, and are quite distinct from the
large apertures seen between the lobes and branches, which have
probably alone been observed. They are distributed irregular-
ly over the whole surface, and are surrounded by projecting,
naked fibres, very distinct in this species. They appear open,
round, and smooth on their margins, though they are easily ob-
literated by handling this delicate substance, or by the natural

Nature of the Spongilla friabilis. 27?

collapse of their very soft margins. By placing a thin layer, cut
from the surface under the microscope, we perceive that each
pore, besides its projecting defending fasciculi, has its margin
supported by loose spicula lying parallel with the surface, and
placed round the opening. The bounding fasciculi of the pores
consist of so few spicula, and these are so loosely connected to-
gether, that the whole surface wants the compactness which they
produce in the marine sponges. These openings are not the
cells of polypi, nor can we discover by the microscope any trace
of cilise on their margins ; but their whole internal parietes are
closely covered by the same minute, granular bodies which line
the pores and canals of the marine sponge ; and on viewing these
bodies sideways, we observe that they project from the margins
towards the centre of the openings, more distinctly than in most
of the latter zoophytes. By examining their horizontal sections
taken successively from the same part of the spongilla we discover
that its pores are only the open entrances to canals which mean-
der through the body, enlarging in their diameter as they pro-
ceed, till they again reach the surface. The wide extremities of
the canals are the fecal orifices, which are seen of uncommon
magnitude, opening on the depressed parts of the surface between
the lobes. The granular bodies which line the whole of these
canals from the pores to the fecal orifices, are connected with
each other, and with the parietes, by means of a very soft, trans^
parent, green-coloured, glistening matter. There are obviously
fewer granular bodies on the surface of this gelatinous matter at
the fecal orifices than elsewhere ; and when we examine it with
highly magnifying powers in that situation, it appears quite ho-
mogeneous, without fibre or grain in its texture. The internal
canals are every where bounded and supported by the longitu-
dinal fibres, and by single transverse spicula, which pass across
from one fasciculus to another ; at the extremities of the canals
the projecting, erect, longitudinal fibres have a slight convergence,
both around the pores and fecal orifices. The single transverse
spicula which bind together the longitudinal fibres, are almost in-
visible to the naked eye ; hence in dried specimens of the Spon-
gilla friabilis, the whole skeleton appears to be composed solely
of longitudinal fasciculi, rising from the base, and branching to-
wards the surface. These two kinds of fibres are connected

278

Dr Grant on the Structure and

with, and almost imbedded in, the glistening matter lining the ca-
nals, and they assist, by their natural curvatures, in giving a
roundness to these passages. The fecal orifices, in this species,
are never raised to the extremities of projecting papillae, and
have no regularity ot form, size, or distribution. They may be
compared with those of the Spongia panicea, preferring to open
on the deeper parts of the surface ; and, like that sponge, this
substance thrives best where its free surface hangs down in a
vertical position, as when it spreads on the overhanging sides of
rocks, or on the under surface of wooden planks.

From this striking resemblance in structure and general ap-
pearance between the spongilla and the marine sponges, a re-
semblance which probably I would never have detected in this
soft substance, without adopting every precaution which expe-
rience had shewn to be necessary in the examination of the lat-
ter zoophytes, I was naturally led to expect the same currents
through its internal canals which are so obvious and well known
in the true sponge. The shaking of this brittle zoophyte in
carrying portions of it from the lake to be examined under the
microscope in my apartment, injured so much the organization
of its soft parts, as to baffle my first attempts to discover its cur-
rents. At length, however, I succeeded by examining portions of
it on the side of the lake, the instant they were cut from the
rocks. On placing an entire portion of it perpendicularly in a
glass of clear water, and in perfect rest, I observed, with a lens,
through the sides of the vessel, not only particles of matter
driven with rapidity from the large openings between the lobes
and ridges, but likewise floating particles distinctly drawn in
through the lesser openings, distributed on the elevated parts of
the surface. I afterwards succeeded several times in preserving
such portions of it as had lobes or branches projecting from their
surface, so entire as to exhibit their currents in my apartment for
nine hours, after their removal from the rocks. On cutting ofl*
these uninjured lobes, and placing them successively under the
microscope in a watch-glass with rain-water, I observed the same
regular and constant streams from the small fecal orifices placed
at different distances along their surface, the same feculent mat-
ter accompanying the streams, and the same motionless state of
the mass during their flow, which are observed in the marine

Nature of the Spongilla friabilis.

sponges. The pores of the lobes are nearly as large as their fecal
orifices, and currents are as distinctl}/ seen flowing into them as
from the latter openings. I have not been able to excite this sub-
stance to any kind of spontaneous motion, and Blumenbach
seems to have been as unsuccessful with those he experimented
on at Gdttengen ; nor have I found any difference of tempera-
ture between it and the medium in which it lives.

The fibres forming the axis of the 8p. friabilis consist of mi-
nute siliceous spicula, which are as regular and constant in their
forms as the ultimate crystals of a mineral, or the spicula of
other zoophytes, and might, like these, be employed to distin-
guish known species, or to discover new. When we examine a
thin layer of the recent spongilla under the microscope, we ob-
serve the spicula placed like a frame- work round all the open-
ings, in the order best calculated to prevent these passages from
changing their dimensions. By agitating a portion of dt in wa-
ter they fall asunder, and may be procured separate from the
soft parts, but not in so pure a state as when they are obtained
through the medium of acids. On allowing a portion of spon-
gilla to remain for a short time in a watch-glass with nitric, sul-
phuric, or muriatic acid, the animal matter dissolves, and the si-
liceous spicula cover the bottom of the glass like minute shining
crystals. They may now be washed, and their symmetrical forms
examined under the microscope ; or they may be dried between
plates of glass, or thin scales of mica, and thus preserved for ex-
amination or comparison at any future period. In this species,
the spicula have all the same form, and are mostly of one size.
From this circumstance, and from the well-marked characters of
the Sp. friabilis, and its abundance in most inland countries, its
spicula may be adopted as a convenient and fixed standard of
comparison for the description and measurement of the spicula
of every other zoophyte.

They are transparent, colourless, cylindrical, very slightly and
regularly curved, pointed at both ends, tubular, hard, and brit-
tle. They scratch glass, suffer no change in nitric acid, become
inflated like a bottle, and burst by the sudden action of the blow-
pipe ; do not alter their forms in the least by drying, and do not
consume by heat. In their moist state they have a shining, vi-
treous lustre, and appear through the microscope as if solid and

280

Dr Grant on the Structure and

homogeneous throughout; but, on being heated or dried, they lose
their lustre, become less transparent, and of a greyish-white co-
lour, and a distinct cavity is observed within them, extending
from one point to the other, and occupying about half of their
diameter. From the appearance of the sharp points at the ex-
tremities of their axis, and from their bodies inflating and burst-
ing by sudden heat, their internal cavity seems to be completely
closed at both ends ; and from the homogeneous and solid ap-
pearance of the spicula in their natural state, they seem to be
then filled with a soft matter, decreasing in density from the cir-
cumference to the axis, which may contribute to their strength
and flexibility. When we place any object, measuring half a line
in length, among these spicula under the microscope, we perceive
that it requires four of them to extend the same length as that
object ; thus shewing each spieulum to be the eighth of a line, or
eightieth of an inch in length, and their diameter measured in
the same way, is about the fourth of that of a human hair. As
the spicula of this zoophyte are of a middle size, between the
large and the minute, their dimensions might be assumed as
unity in the measurement of other spicula ; and from the con-
stancy of the forms, and dimensions of these elementary parts of
the skeleton, their description would form an important charac-
ter in the definition of every zoophyte possessed of spicula.

Each longitudinal fasciculus, which appears to the naked eye
as a single fibre, is composed of about ten spicula adhering close-
ly together in a body, a like number being added to their extre-
mities to an indefinite length. These spicula adhere to each other
throughout their whole length, and are not easily separated by
agitation, or by repeated maceration in hot-water ; but their con-
necting matter is quickly dissolved in strong acids, which might
lead us to believe, that it differs from the common gelatinous
matter of the spongilla. The waving direction of these fasciculi
is produced by the curves of one set of spicula being turned op-
posite to the curves of the next adjoining, and so on in a conti-
nued series. The single transverse spicula, which connect the
longitudinal fibres together, generally pierce completely through
these strong groups, to secure a firmer adhesion. The forms
and nature of the ultimate spicula, and the general construction
of the skeleton I have always found to be the same, whatever

281

Nature of the Spong’dla friabiiis.

might be the external appearance or age of the spongilla, or
the part of the lake from which it was procured. The curves
of the spicula have a relation to the rotundity of the canals and
openings* and their sharp points relate to their function of de-
fending these passages. The whole arrangement of the spicula,
around the canals, shows that these are not accidental passages,
formed by worms or aquatic insects in a vegetable substance,
and helps to prove, that its currents are not produced by any
foreign intruders, though this substance is infested with myriads
of ciliated animalcules, which are constantly producing currents
to attract their prey. In place of the phosphate of lime of the
higher orders of animals, or the carbonate of lime of the lower
orders, we have seen that silica is the earthy matter of the ske-
leton of this zoophyte. The same is the case with most of the
British marine sponges, and with some zoophytes which possess
polypi. This earth is secreted by many plants, but I am not aware
that it has been observed in the form of symmetrical, tubular spi-
cula, composing the axis of any substance in the vegetable king-
dom.

By a little agitation in water, the gelatinous matter of the spon-
gilla resolves itself almost entirely into minute, pellucid, green-
coloured granules, which have a singular tendency to reunite.
When allowed to remain for a few hours at rest, they unite into
a compact, dark green, velvety membrane, perfectly resembling
the Oscillatoria viridis , Vauch. and attach themselves to the bot-
tom of the vessel. When a few of them are placed in a watch-
glass with water, they form themselves into minute spheres, be-
ing constantly rolled to and fro by the animalcules, from which
it is nearly impossible to free this substance. The minutest of
the granular bodies, when viewed through the microscope, are
seen to have a distinct power of locomotion. Their slow motions,
in this separate state, are probably produced by the same organs
which they employ to produce the currents, when attached to
the sides of the canals. The soft matter of the spongilla does
not seem to possess a distinct membranous coat, but is a little
more consistent, and has a glistening surface, wherever it is in
contact with the element in which it lives, as within the canals,
and on the outer surface of the body. We observe minute por-
tions of the gelatinous matter assuming naturally a spherical

£82 Dr Grant on the Structure and

form, within the living spongilla, in the parenchymatous soft
substance, between the internal canals. They appear to be the
ova or germs of this substance, — they contain no spicula,-— and
the microscope detects nothing in their structure but transparent
granular bodies, like those lining the canals, connected together
by gelatinous, homogeneous matter. During October and No-
vember, several of these spherical, translucent, greyish-green co-
loured globules, attached themselves to the bottom of watch-
glasses, in which I had placed broken portions of spongilla, and
when fixed, they spread, and exhibited the same phenomena of
growth, presented under similar circumstances by the ova of the
marine sponge. They are not quite so large as the yellow car-
tilaginous balls of the spongilla, above described ; and, when
they first lose their spherical form, and begin to spread on the
glass as a thin, transparent film, we distinctly perceive, even with
a single lens, that they contain no spiculum. With the micro-
scope we can observe the position, size, and form of each spicu-
lum, as they successively make their appearance in the spread-
ing circular film. The spicula first formed were generally two
or three, lying close and parallel to each other, and extending
from the centre towards the margin of the ovum. Afterwards, I
observed single spicula make their appearance, quite isolated, in
different parts of the ovum, and often at right angles to the ra-
dius of the place where they lay. The radiating double spicula
are probably the beginnings of the longitudinal, erect fascicula ;
and the others the single transverse spicula. The spicula first
formed in the ovum have the same form as the adult spicula,
and appear greatly disproportioned to the small size of the
ovum. I have never observed a spiculum enlarge by growth,
after being once formed. The ovum, in spreading, changes its
circular form for an oblong or irregular outline, but its spread-
ing margins are always surrounded with a very thin homoge-
neous film, while its granular bodies and spicula occupy chiefly
the convex middle part. I have observed, however, spicula
quite isolated make their appearance in the spreading marginal
film. None of the spicula are ever observed to shoot their
points naturally through the surface, or beyond the margin of
the ovum ; although the slight agitation of changing its water
from time to time, soon causes many of them, already formed

283

Nature of the SpongiilaJHahilis.

within the ovum, to project beyond its surface. This renders it
probable that all the spicula, even the naked groups, projecting
round the pores and orifices, were originally formed within the
surface of the soft matter. Analogy leaves no doubt, that these
ova or spherical portions of gelatinous matter, when ready to
separate from the parietes of the canals, are delivered by the
currents through the large fecal orifices as in the marine
sponges ; but I have not detected any cilise on their surface,
nor seen them swim about by their own spontaneous motions,
like many marine ova, before fixing themselves. The ova were
nourished only with rain water, while the spicula were succes-
sively forming in their interior ; which show7s that these simple
gelatinous globules, in which neither vessel nor fibre are discer-
nible, have the power of secreting siliceous tubes from that pure
element.

The Spongilla friahilis has thus a close resemblance to the
marine sponge in its siliceous spicula, gelatinous matter, granu-
lar bodies, pores, internal canals, fecal orifices, currents, fecu-
lent matter, and general mode of growth, whether in the state
of an ovum, or in the adult state ; and, as the transition from the
sponge to the Aicyonium by a new genus has been shown else-
where, we have thus a regular and beautiful gradation from
this simple substance, to the most complex polypifemus zoo-
phytes. Although in every respect a sponge, it has a more im-
perfect structure than any of the marine species, which is obser-
vable in the sameness and feeble attachment of the spicula, in
the great size and defenceless state of the pores and fecal ori-
fices, in the general looseness of its surface and internal texture,
— in the softness of its gelatinous matter, — in the want of cilise
and spicula in its ova, indeed in every individual character.
From this greater simplicity of structure, we are forced to con-
sider it as more ancient than the marine sponges, and most pro-
bably their original parent ; and, as its descendants have greatly
improved their organization, during the many changes that have
taken place in the composition of the ocean, while^he spongilla^
living constantly in the same unaltered medium, has retained
its primitive simplicity, it is highly probable that the vast
abyss, in which the spongilla originated and left its progeny, was
fresh, and has gradually become saline, by the materials brought

284

Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

to it by rivers, like the salt lakes of Persia and Siberia. The
want of contractile power in this zoophyte, and the absence of
all organs for seizing prey, show that it is nourished only by the
particles of organic matter suspended in water, or by the ele-
ments of that fluid, which is further indicated by the constant
streams through its body, and by the development of its ova,
when supported only with rain water. The great looseness and
softness of its texture, and the width and defenceless condition
of its openings, which now render the spongilla a safe retreat,
and a convenient magazine of food for myriads of animalcules
and aquatic insects, and a fit receptacle for their ova, obscurely
indicate the unpeopled state of the waters of the globe, and
consequent absence of these numerous assailants, at the period
of the first formation of this zoophyte ; and its aptness for secre-
ting silica, and the abundance of that earth in its skeleton, show
the period of its creation to have been nearly synchronous with
that of the siliceous or primitive rocks.

Art. IX. — General Reflections on various important subjects
in Mineralogy. By Frederick Mohs, Esq., Knight of
the Order of Civil Merit, Professor of Mineralogy at Frey-
berg, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the
Wernerian Natural Society, &c. (Concluded from p. 28.)

HI HE natural-historical resemblance of several species consists
in their greater or less agreement in regard to their natural-
historical properties. In order to find out this agreement, we
must consider the species as wholes (which they are, according
to the general idea developed above), and not in single varieties,
but as complete as possible ; in the same manner in which the
botanist and zoologist have to compare the complete species of
plants and animals, before they can judge rightly of the genus.
Thus, a representation is produced, in which all the single con-
nexions of certain natural-historical properties to be met with in
individuals in some respect disappear, and are melted together
into a kind of mean ratios. This original representation of the
species, as it may be called, is different from the idea of the spe-
cies, which only shews what the species are, and also different

various important subjects in Mineralogy. 285

from the character and the general description. It is not capable^
of being analysed, or reduced to single characteristic terms or
marks ; and hence it should be considered only as a whole, tak-
ing it in its general compass. An example, taken from the
species of Man, which is necessarily familiar to every body, may
serve to illustrate this. If we speak of man in general, we do
not reflect upon any individual, or a single relation of size, co-
lour, countenance, &c. ; nor upon the European, the African,
&c. ; still less upon the Englishman, the German, the French-
man, the Spaniard, & c. ; but, as it were, upon a mean term of
them all, which can never be represented by any individual, but
necessarily requires the whole species. In like manner, the re-
presentation of the species of Augite (paratomous augite-spar),
does not apply solely to diopside, or to augite, or sahlite, or
omphazite, or to any other particular variety, but to the whole
species, which can never be observed as a single body in nature.
We may easily conceive that these representations are not ex-
actly the same in every individual ; nay, that there are not per-
haps two people that possess them precisely similar ;-—-for who
could determine this point ? They must therefore be different
from the idea of a circle or a square, which are not different in any
two individuals. But nothing depends upon this perfect equa-
lity, because there are resources in Natural History that are in-
dependent upon this difference of conception in different persons,
not only for deciding in what species a particular individual
should be included, but also for producing the general concep-
tion of the species, and of which we shall have occasion to speak
more at large. One thing only remains to be observed in this
place, which is, that these representations of the species cannot
be obtained by way of abstraction, — for, by that process, every
thing would either be lost, or, at least, so little would be left,
that it could be of no further service in Natural History.

The comparison, in regard to the natural-historical similarity,
must now be referred to these original representations or con-
ceptions of the species. If these are found to coincide to a cer-
tain extent, and in the highest degree distinguishable, in two or
more species, then these species form a Genus, or belong to a
genus, of which there is now formed another representation of
VOL. XIV. NO. 28. APRIL 1826.

286 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

the same kind, having only a greater extent. The mineral king-
dom contains many well-known examples of genera. Those
who may compare the original representations of the augite
(paratomous augite-spar) with the hornblende (hemiprismatic
augite-spar), will find them to agree so very nearly, as to render
it often necessary to examine certain particular characters, before
it can be discovered to which of the two species the varieties be-
long ; although this is a subject which it is not our purpose to
examine in the present place.

The circumstance of the degrees of natural-historical simila-
rity not being equal, is not merely unprejudicial to its employ-
ment, but has rather the effect of rendering it more general. In
this manner the natural-historical resemblance becomes the ge-
neral principle of classification ; that is to say, it furnishes the
means, according to its more distant degrees, of forming repre-
sentations still more general than those of the genus, should this
be of any use in Natural History. Geometrical similarity is ab-
solute, and does not admit of higher or lower degrees. Two
triangles are either similar to each other, or they are not similar :
we cannot say that two among a number of isosceles triangles,
if they have not equal angles, are more similar to each other
than to an equilateral or a scalene triangle ; or that a four-sided
figure is more like a triangle than a pentagon, or a circle. For
wherever there do not exist equality of angles, and equal pro-
portions between the sides that are similarly situate, neither
can any general similarity exist. The exactness of this idea de-
pends upon the circumstance that geometry takes account, and
compares the differences, of only one property, extension. Na-
tural History, on the contrary, must reflect upon all the physi-
cal properties of the objects considered ; and this is the reason
why the same determinate meaning cannot be attached to it here,
which it would have, were we permitted to confine ourselves to
single properties. In Geometry no classification could be pro-
duced (and it would be superfluous, however) by means of the
idea of similarity, because this idea does not include within it-
self a variety of different degrees ; whereas, in Natural History,
where a classification is indispensable, the possibility of arriving
at one, which may be consistent in all its parts, entirely depends
upon the different degrees of natural-historical^ similarity.

287

various important subjects in Mineralogy.

It might be objected to the application of the natural-historical
resemblance as a principle of classification, at least in the mineral
kingdom, that it does not contain any thing from which we
might learn whether a particular individual belongs to one or
another species or genus ; and certain characteristic terms are
then selected or fixed upon, in the representation of the genus or
species, by which this purpose could be accomplished. This
mode of proceeding, however, becomes the means of introducing
inconsistencies and difficulties of various kinds, traces of which
we also find in the other departments of Natural History. The
reason of this is, that two most essentially different subjects have
been confounded with each other, the original representation ,
and the character of the species or genera. The first of these
consists of the essential unities of the system, and is produced
by the application of the idea of species, genus, &c. to nature ;
the second yields the means of distinguishing these unities, and
serves to collect the single individuals found in nature within
the compass of these ideas. If both are improperly joined, and
employed at the same time, neither of them will be found per-
fectly to answer the purpose, and we shall be reduced to the
necessity of considering bodies in unnatural connections. The
natural-historical resemblance, upon which the original repre-
sentations of the genera, and the higher unities of classification,
are grounded, must therefore be confined, as a principle of clas-
sification, to these higher ideas, and, as such, is perfectly suffi-
cient ; whereas the determination of individuals requires another
process, dependent upon different considerations.

This principle of classification is confined to Natural History,
but is the same in its three departments. If we intend to clas-
sify natural productions in another science than this, we must
first have a peculiar principle belonging to the science in ques-
tion, although the species remains the same ; for this, determined
according to natural histor}^ principles, or corresponding to the
natural-historical determination, is the general object of every
classification. In a chemical classification of minerals, therefore,
we must not expect or require that the chemical genera, orders,
&c. should correspond to the natural-historical ones ; still less
should we, in order to avoid or remedy the discrepancies which
may arise, employ both principles, the natural-historical and the

t 2

288 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

chemical, at once, or unite them, as has almost universally beers
the custom in what are generally termed Mineral Systems ; for
such a practice is in every respect reprehensible, nor has any
thing similar to it ever been tolerated in Zoology or Botany.

Having obtained the idea of the genus in Natural History, we
may immediately proceed to that of the mineral kingdom, without
the intermediate steps of the orders and classes. These, however,
are very useful in collecting the individuals within their respective
classes, and are produced in the same way as the genera. The
Orders, in particular, are very easily recognised in the produc-
tions of inorganic nature, and they correspond to the Natural
Families of the organic kingdoms. It is to be expected, that
greater advantages will yet be obtained from them, for the study
of Natural History, when they are more completely known.

The Mineral Kingdom is a series of natural-historical generay
and the Mineral System is its exposition, by means of the syste*
matic unities of classes and orders, which are produced by em-
ploying the more distant degrees of natural-historical resem-
blance. The mineral system is therefore the systematic exhibi-
tion of the natural-historical resemblance, as observable in the
mineral kingdom, or of the connection established by nature a-
mong its products, by means of this resemblance. In this re-
spect it is called the Natural system, because in fact it expresses
nature in this very remarkable relation. From reasons stated
above, this cannot be called the system of Nature, although it
seems to approach very near the idea which is connected with
that expression by several writers. But it is the only one which
deserves the name of a system ; for those divisions of the natural-
historical productions, which are commonly called artificial sys-
tems, ought not to be designated by that name. Though they
may be useful in various respects, and applicable also in the
mineral system, provided we have already formed a correct idea
of the natural-historical species ; yet, they do not conduct the
exhibition of nature according to the natural-historical similari-
ty explained above, and do not therefore possess any truly na-
tural-historical importance. They would not in this place have
been at all attended to, were it not for explaining the above men-
tioned confusion ; for in these artificial systems, the idea and the
character are in reality the same thing, and there is nothing left

various important subjects in Mineralogy. 289

of those original representations of genera, & c. nor of the natu-
ral-historical resemblance, upon which they depend. By the
distribution itself, we determine the single characteristic marks
which contain those ideas. The reason of the prevailing confu-
sion is, that the classification, or the production of the general
idea referring to the natural system, and the division, or the
characters of the artificial system, were not sufficiently distin-
guished, or because it was expected that both of them should be
found subservient to the same purposes. In every attempt,
therefore, to construct systems, that may answer the purpose for
which they are intended in Natural History, we must choose
either the one or the other, and carry it through the whole range
of our information with perfect consistency, as we should other-
wise obtain a mixture of both, which, though it is less objection-
able than the union of the natural-historical and chemical prin-
ciples, in the so-called Systems of Mineralogy, and may even in
some respects be useful, yet cannot be regarded as satisfactory
in the present scientific state of Natural History.

In regard to the Natural System, we must finally observe, that
there can be only one of that kind, and that it is impossible
different natural systems should exist, because there cannot be
different lands of natural-historical resemblance. All the at-
tempts toward constructing it, must, however, be acknowledged
to be mere approximations to it, the difference of which is
grounded in their own imperfection.

The natural system, the only one of which we intend to speak
at present, having once been completed, we have next to endea-
vour to connect its unities with certain words, by which the ideas
and representations may be so expressed as to be conveniently
applied in writing and speaking, that is to say to construct a
nomenclature . Nothingis so well calculated to furnish us with an
idea of the situation in which Mineralogy has hitherto been
placed, as the consideration of what is usually called its Nomen-
clature, and of the method daily employed in forming new
names. Mineralogists seem to be agreed in considering those
names the best which have no signification ; and if we reckon
among these the names derived from colours, persons, localities,
and other accidental circumstances, the truth of this opinion can-
not be denied. This does not throw a favourable light on the

$90 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

names which have a signification, and which are of two different
kinds. Some of them refer to the connection of the different
natural productions, in regard to their resemblance, some to
their chemical composition. The employment of the lat-
ter, which belong to a science entirely different from Na-
tural History, clearly demonstrates, that the science in which
they are employed is yet far from being an independent one ;
and this is perfectly confirmed on farther examination. The
connection expressed by the former, is either entirely incor-
rect, or at least does not refer to the system, in which the
names and denominations are applied. They produce errone-
ous conceptions, and hence are still more objectionable than
those that have no signification at all, particularly for begin-
ners, who are not yet accustomed to the examination of mi-
nerals themselves. To be convinced of the truth of these obser-
vations, we have only to reflect upon the names of blende and
hornblende, of cross-stone, and iron-stone, of heavy-spar, schil-
lerspar, adamantine- spar ; of white, green, yellow, red, blue,
black lead^ore, fahl-ore, cube-ore, red manganese-ore, grey anti-
mony-ore, and many others.

In every science, but particularly in Natural History, it is ne-
cessary to give a signification to words, and, therefore, really to
express something by them ; the question therefore is now, What
are the things that should be expressed by the nomenclature in
Natural History in general, and more particularly in Minera-
logy P There are two objects to be attained in respect to this.
The first is to denominate the species, or to determine the ob-
ject of which something is to be said ; the second is to indicate
the connection which exists between them, in regard to their na-
tural-historical similarity in the natural system, for this is the
ultimate end of all the endeavours of naturalists. Any nomen-
clature confined to the former of these purposes is a trivial no-
menclature ; it does not presuppose a system, nor any scientific
disposition of the species ; whereas that in which both are
united, and which, therefore, refers to a system, will represent
that system, and be called on that account, being the only
scientific one, the systematic nomenclature.

In those sciences which give scope to hypothesis we ge-
nerally prefer such expressions (names and denominations), as

various important subjects in Mineralogy . 291

are free from every thing hypothetical, that they may not be
subjected to changes, which are inseparable from such sciences,
and hence might become prejudicial or form impediments in
their farther development. This does not apply to Natural
History ; for when pure, that science does not contain any thing
hypothetical, hypotheses being only introduced by the intermix-
ture of other sciences. The natural-historical resemblance it-
self, the only thing which might be objected to, in reference to
this subject, is as far from being a hypothesis, as the laws of
combination or the connection among the regular forms of a spe-
cies. The hypothetical denominations of other sciences do not
therefore allow any comparison with the systematic denominations
of Natural History.

In Mineralogy the systematic Nomenclature has been treated
with indifference, or altogether slighted ; nor have minera-
logists even given themselves the trouble of attempting to com-
pose such a nomenclature. The reason of this is, that minera-
logy itself was treated not as a science, but as an aggregate of
various kinds of information, — a sort of mixture which would ad-
mit every kind of knowledge to be introduced, and in which no-
thing could be placed wrong, because in such a disposition there
could be no order. If we endeavour to give a scientific form to
this aggregate, which has been but too generally considered as
a science deserving the name of Mineralogy, it becomes neces-
sary to effect a complete transformation of the whole, and also
to construct a systematic nomenclature, which becomes indis-
pensable, whenever we leave the path of empiricism, as has been
amply demonstrated by experience in Zoology and Botany. The
application of a systematic nomenclature, however, is impossible,
unless Mineralogy possess a scientific form, and it is for the use
of the science as such alone, that it is intended ; nay, it would
be pedantic to make use of systematic names where science is not
the object, and where the names most easily understood are
those used in the daily intercourse of life, or by the common
miner.

But to the student systematic nomenclature is indispensable,
and of the highest utility ; because it not only keeps in his mind
a vivid picture of the connection existing between the objects
named, and thus employs his intellect, but also because it assists

£92 Professor Metis’s General Reflections on

his memory to a great extent. Whatever is intended to be re-
gularly taught must be a science ; for empiricism does not al-
low of scientific instruction, but must be acquired like an art,
or a handicraft trade, by being shewn its particular processes,
or the practical advantages which it admits ; and it is a matter
of regret that mineralogy should have been so long treated with-
out a scientific form. This is not to be recommended to begin-
ners, for the only method from which they can reap advantage
is the scientific one ; and as, in the development of every science,
we must endeavour, in mineralogy, to consider the facility with
which the beginner may be instructed, as one of its principal
purposes ; and this must be done in a scientific manner, to pre-
pare the way for the more general diffusion of the science. For
this purpose, the correctness of the general ideas, and that of
the expressions, are equally important. With the above men-
tioned empirical information, we may, in fact, display a great
deal of erudition ; but this should not dazzle the beginner, for
empiricism only appears the more truly naked, the more it is
invested with this ragged covering of learning.

The systematic nomenclature is the most efficient, and we
may really say the only means, of confining the arbitrary mode
of proceeding in giving names to minerals, and in multiplying
them without use or convenience. Those who, by a process to
be afterwards explained, have brought an individual unknown
to them, within the compass of its Species, will be under no em-
barrassment for a name to it, but will join it to the name con-
nected with that idea, because this is the more particular object
of their proceeding. Though it be admitted that this is suffi-
cient, if the system contains the species to which the individual
belongs, it may be asked, Of what advantage will it be, if this
be not the case? Still the system may contain the Genus, or
the Order, and even then part of the difficulty is already over-
come. As examples of this, we shall only mention the hemi-
prismatic hal-baryte, and the axotomous lead-baryte, two new
species, which have found themselves naturally included in those
genera, the names of which they now bear. In extreme cases,
when an individual discovered does not even belong to one of
the orders known at present, it becomes expedient to furnish
the mineral with a simple name; its remaining properties being

various important subjects in Mineralogy. $98

quite indifferent, since it has not yet become an object of the
science ; and this name may be afterwards replaced by a sys-
tematic denomination, which is the only change of names in
which we should ever indulge ourselves. To abolish one trivial
name, and to introduce another in its stead, does not forward
the interest of the science, but merely gratifies personal vanity.
As mineralogists are now daily employed in enlarging and per-
fecting our actual knowledge in the science, such cases must be
diminishing in frequency ; whereas the difficulties and confusion
arising from them would increase, by the endeavours to suppress
science and continue empiricism.

The Terminology, the Theory of the system, and the Nomen-
clature, the three departments of Natural History treated of
above, form the constituents of theoretical Mineralogy ; prac-
tice, or the application of it to nature, requires something more.
What must we do, if we have an individual before us, in order
to connect the single body in question, the properties of which
we have ascertained, with the above-mentioned general ideas,
since, though it be contained within them, it presents only a
single particular case of the generality considered; and also to
provide it with the right name P Or what can we do, to arrive
at the knowledge of a mineral, the name of which we know,
without having the object itself before our eyes ? The solution
of both problems depends upon some contrivance of connecting
the general idea with the name , or of connecting the name with
the general idea , as produced by the actual examination of the
natural productions. And this is more properly the object of
Natural History, for which all that has preceded forms but the
preparation, or, as it were, the apparatus. This idea of. Natural
History exactly agrees with the definition of it given by Lin-
nrnus, and even with the following passage by Werner. “ When
I open a work on oryctognosy, it is with the intention either of
obtaining a general knowledge of that science ; or of acquiring,
in particular, the complete conception of a fossil, which I know
only by name ; or of learning, in respect to a fossil which I have
found, and whose external characters I have discovered, what is
its name, and what place it occupies in the system of fossils

Werner on the External Characters of Minerals, p. 3.

294 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

If, according to the same idea, we endeavour to construct the
science, we shall obtain only Natural History , most completely
established , which is the best demonstration of its correctness.
The endeavours of naturalists, in all the three natural kingdoms,
are directed toward the same point, in so far, at least, as their
object is really Natural History, though it should not always be
so clearly expressed. For, if we take away from their labours
some extraneous additions, which do not regard the essence, but
which yet may very often contain information of the highest
importance, nothing but pure Natural History remains, and ex-
actly corresponds with the general ideas developed above.

In order to find the denomination, when the properties of the
mineral are given, we employ the characteristic , which consists
of an assemblage of general ideas , corresponding to the system,
and expressed by single distinctive marks. With these ideas
are connected the names and denominations, as far as the no-
menclature extends and requires, not above the order, nor be-
low the species ; and they are by degrees transferred to the in-
dividual, in proportion as it is found to enter by degrees within
the compass of those general ideas. The single assemblages of
distinctive marks, are the characters of the classes, orders, gene-
ra, and species.

Those who have proceeded consistently throughout the whole
science, will not be disposed to introduce properties among those
characters which are not natural-historical ones, even though
certain advantages might be derived from them for the charac-
teristic, particularly in regard to brevity. These advantages,
however, may depend, in a great measure, upon the state of our
mineralogical information at the time, as to extent and detail ;
and may therefore be liable to disappear, whenever our infor-
mation becomes enlarged. The first law in every science is,
that it remain consistent in all its departments ; and Natural
History being so very simple in its development and application,
is, in particular, calculated to derive the greatest benefits from a
strict adherence to this principle. The characteristic refers in
every instance only to the individuals ; it yields the means of
recognising or determining them, as it is commonly called, by
the distinctions introduced in the characters of the different
classes, orders, genera, and species; it presupposes our having

295

various important subjects in Mineralogy .

the individuals themselves before our eyes , if we wish to arrive
at the representation of them. The characteristic is only useful
when we have the mineral in our hands ; it would, therefore, be
an erroneous idea, conducive to nothing but loss of time, were
we to study it, in order to obtain some knowledge of the mine-
rals themselves.

The characters are not calculated to produce representations or
images of the objects to which they refer ; neither those of the
individuals which are perfectly determined by single character-
istics, nor those of the species, the genus, &c. which do not ad-
mit of a similar determination. For this end, we therefore re-
quire another contrivance, which forms the fifth and last depart-
ment of Natural History. It is perfectly correct, that, for an
individual, a description, which consists of the indication of all
its properties, is quite sufficient ; but even this would be of no
considerable utility, partly because it would be indispensable to
describe every one of the number as individuals of the species,
partly also, because, in this case, immediate inspection may be
placed instead of the description, to which it is always prefer-
able. The description, properly so called, will, therefore, be ap-
plicable only if we intend to convey the idea of some particular
individual.

The actual or original representation of the species cannot
evidently be produced by the indication of single properties : it
cannot be described. For it does not contain any determined
characteristic properties, but series of ail, which, in these repre-
sentations, take the place of the single marks, but do not belong
more particularly to any of the single objects described. The
employment of these series is perfectly illustrated, and rendered
evident, by the series of crystallization, which, on that account,
obtain a yet higher degree of importance. The species should,
therefore, be exhibited in a kind of tabular view, by a general
description, in which we consider the species itself as the object,
whose characteristic marks are the series in the natural-historical
properties. The original representation of the species must ne-
cessarily be derived from nature. The object of the general
description, is to produce it, without immediately referring to na-
ture ; because every person has not the command of so much
time, opportunity, and other necessary circumstances, as are re-
quired for it. The general description must be arranged in such

296 Professor Mohs’s General Reflections on

a manner, as that it may become possible to discover in it the
description of every individual contained in the species ; so that,
in fact, it may be said to include the descriptions of every indi-
vidual, both known and unknown, without being itself a descrip-
tion, properly so called, at all. The study of the general de-
scriptions is, therefore, to be recommended to all those who wish
to acquire a more detailed knowledge of the productions of the
mineral kingdom ; and we should bestow the greatest possible
attention upon the construction and completion of them, in treat-
ing the subject of scientific mineralogy.

The general descriptions are independent of systems, and pre-
suppose nothing but the correct idea of the species : we must
know what a species is. They are not subservient to the recogni-
tion or determination of individuals, because these require single
characteristic marks, which must at the same time be well defined,
if they are meant to be distinctive ; and of such the general de-
scription does not contain any thing. This determination is the
sole object of the characteristic. Hence we may infer what
must be the consequence, if we give the characters such an ar-
rangement, that they may at the same time represent the general
descriptions of the species ; and the latter such an arrangement,
that they may, in like manner, serve the purpose of characters,
as is but too generally the custom in mineralogical works. Nei-
ther of them will entirely answer their purpose ; and those wTho
wish to become acquainted with minerals, or to acquire some na-
tural-historical knowledge of them, find themselves under the
necessity of proceeding upon the old empirical plan, notwith-
standing the number of works on mineralogy, which may in
other respects contain the most valuable information. They
must content themselves with a superficial and broken sort of
knowledge, to which they themselves do not attach any security,
for they have recourse to chemical analysis for confirmation ;
whereas the methodical way of proceeding leads to information
that is solid, connected, and as complete as possible, and which
is not only in itself firm, but also forms the scale of measuring
and judging of the results of other sciences, in so far as they re-
fer to the same objects.

The assemblage of all the general descriptions is termed the
Physiography. From the explanations given above, it will

various important subjects in Mineralogy. 297

plainly appear, that this word does not mean mere description ,
any more than Crystallography means the mere description of
crystalline forms. However important it may be to rectify the
general ideas, it seems by no means worth while to manifest any
very particular nicety about the etymological signification of
words. This much, however, is evident, that Physiography
should not be used for Natural History in general, nor Anorga-
nography for the Natural History of the mineral kingdom ; be-
cause both of them form only an important department of the
whole of Natural History, and, therefore, the part should not be
confounded with the whole. There is no great danger in this
respect with regard to crystallography, because here, though the
name signifies only one of the departments of the science, yet the
connection with the whole is much more easily seen, and no-
body can be led into erroneous or incorrect suppositions ; where-
as, if we do not, in the general idea of Natural History, distin-
guish rightly between its various branches, we may very easily
confound them together, or bestow too much attention upon
some one of them, at the expence of the rest, which, indeed?
would render Mineralogy liable to the charge of presenting only
a partial view, which has been urged in another signification
against the method of Natural History.

No science can have more than one character. The cha-
racter of Mineralogy consists in its forming part of Natural
History. It cannot at the same time form also a part of an-
other science, for instance Chemistry, if that science itself be
not a part of Natural History, which, in this case^ nobody
ever maintained. The only fault of this kind that could be
introduced in mineralogy, might consist in the too great im-
portance attached to one of its departments to the prejudice of
the rest. But they are all equally important, and none must be
wanting, if the science itself be meant to form a whole. The
case is different with regard to its application. Those who wish
to determine an individual occurring in nature, will find the
characteristic the most important department, for none of the
rest can be of the least use to them ; while those who intend to
arrive at a general conception of the species, from knowing its
name, or one of the individuals belonging to it, will find their
views forwarded only by the physiography ; for neither the cha-

298 Professor Mohses Genet al Reflections on

racteristic, nor any other department of mineralogy, contain any
information answering the purpose in view.

If we consider, in general, the demands that may be expected
to be fulfilled by any part of Natural History, we find, that, un-
der the circumstances detailed above, mineralogy answers them
all perfectly ; nay, more, that within its peculiar province none
can be imagined, to which it does not correspond. But if the
object in question lies beyond the limits of Natural History, then
this mode of treatment renders mineralogy utterly unfit to an-
swer the questions proposed. Nobody will ever be able to infer
from the mere natural-historical consideration of an individual,
any thing in regard to its chemical, geological, or other proper-
ties. We may dispense with examining the opinions that have
been expressed on the subject ; because it will be obvious to all
whence they have been derived. Natural History, therefore,
has its province exactly determined, and its limits distinctly
marked out, within which it serves every purpose, but admits of
no application without.

These commendable properties are conferred upon minera-
logy, as the natural history of the mineral kingdom, solely by
making it entirely correspond to the philosophical idea of a
science. It contains merely natural-historical information ; that
is, such as proceeds from a comparison of natural-historical pro-
perties, and all the rest is foreign to it. The development of the
whole, in its single departments, is in itself systematical ; and
what it contains of real systems, the systems of crystallization,
and the mineral system itself, really deserve that name ; because
they are the result of the application of one single idea to the
whole compass of a certain kind of information. The science
itself forms a whole, being intimately connected in all its depart-
ments, and strictly separated from all other sciences, which is a
necessary consequence of a systematic mode of treatment. The
method employed is so simple, that, on that very account, it is
immutable ; nay, we are entitled to maintain, that other methods,
compounded of different principles, from the want of consistency
prevailing in their different departments, will finally, also, be re-
duced to this method.

Casting now a glance on the beginning of this paper, we may
resume, that, so far as the natural-historical properties extend,

various important subjects in Mineralogy. 299

so far also goes Natural History, and no farther. It has no histo-
rical department, properly so called, because, from the examina-
tion of the natural-historical properties alone, we cannot deduce
any thing like a history of one or of a number of natural pro-
ductions, which history must evidently consist of something very
distant from what is necessary in the explanation of terminology ;
that, for instance, the seed of a plant germinates, that the young
plant itself grows, that it produces flowers and seeds, grows old,
and finally dies. Hence every thing allied to history r every
thing that happens to natural productions, their uses, and the
injuries they occasion, is foreign to our science, and should be
mentioned merely in the shape of historical notices, in order to
bring other sciences in connection with it, although the science
itself has taken its rise from this foreign ground. This is not,
however, its scientific rise, for,. as a science, it could only prosper
when planted upon the ground of the natural-historical proper-
ties ; it means only the first cause of its coming at all within the
researches of man.

It is now easy to determine, in what relation natural history
in general, and mineralogy in particular, should be to the other
sciences, in so far as they are occupied with the same natural
bodies. These sciences form the beginning, in a scientific in-
quiry into the nature of the production; they determine the
object, and without teaching any thing that does not enter with-
in the province of Natural History, and thus give it over to other
sciences, each of which, according to its peculiar character, pro-
duces a mass of information of a particular kind. Although, in
themselves, this information be of the highest importance for
'science, and for the benefit of mankind, yet they lose much or
the whole of their value, if we do not know the objects to which
they refer, and which to determine, is neither their object, nor
does it enter within the reach of their powers. All this is evi-
dent of itself, yet we often hear that chemistry and mineralogy
mutually presuppose each other. If we say that chemistry pre-
supposes mineralogy, we do not mean to intimate that this is
with a view of grounding its own scientific development upon it,
but only to have the object of its inquiry determined, and in so
far it is perfectly true. But nothing at all can be meant, by
saying that mineralogy presupposes chemistry. For, in order

300 M. Delpon on the Bones of various Animals

to arrive at the rank of a science, chemistry cannot be of any as-
sistance to it, and the objects are determined by mineralogical
inquiry for the science of chemistry, and not inversely, which is
likewise the case with all other sciences. The proposition, that
two sciences mutually presuppose each other, in its perfect ge-
nerality, has no meaning whatever ; for it is true only if the two
sciences coalesce into a single one. It is even true of propositions
within the same science. We not unfrequently meet with such
opinions on the relation of natural history to other sciences the
only thing that can be said to their advantage is, that they ren-
der all refutation superfluous.

Art. X. — Account of the Bones of various Animals discovered
at Breingues , in the Department Du Lot. By M. Delpon.

This discovery has been mentioned by M. Cuvier in the
Analysis of the labours of the Royal Academy of Science during
the year 1818. Some of the bones in question have been depo-
sited in the Museum at the Jardin du Roi, and M. Cuvier has
taken notice of them in his great work ; but we have judged it
useful to present an extract of the inedited notice of M. Delpon,
because it exhibits several very curious facts, especially the very
singular order in which these bones have been found.

In various points of the calcareous portion of Quercy, there
are seen remains of a sort of entrenchment, formed of blocks of
stone, of more or less considerable dimensions, and which de-
scribe straight lines or circular inclosures. The most remark-
able of these inclosures occupy the summit of two mountains
of the Commun de Breingues, in the Circle ( arrondissement )
of Figeac, of which the one is situate on the right bank
of the Sele, and the other on the left. There are observed in
the rocks of the right bank several cavities or grottoes, before
which some vestiges of buildings are seen, — a circumstance
which presents itself in the greater number of the grottoes with
which the rocks along the Lot, the Sele, &c. are perforated.
Popular traditions have occasioned several diggings to be made
in these grottoes, with the view of discovering treasures supposed

to be concealed in them. In 1816, the whole population of

discovered at Breingues , in the Department Du Lot. SOI

Breingues was occupied with those of which the present article
is intended to furnish some account. In one, among others, of
which the opening was almost concealed by the rocks, the en-
trance was found choked up with earth. The labourers hastened
to clear it out, and on coming to the depth of three feet, they
found the bones of a human body, beside which was an iron
instrument resembling a fork with two prongs. This circum-
stance tended to redouble their exertions, and the digging was
continued in a perpendicular direction, with the aid of a capstan,
to the depth of eighteen metres; but the natural cavity, which
had uniformly, until now, shewn a straight direction, here pre-
sented three cavities, equally filled up with earth and stones.
The workmen first followed that which brought them nearest
the first grotto, and were presently arrested by three large stones,
placed above one another by the hand of man. After having
removed them, they remarked that each of them was of a red-
dish and earthy colour upon one of its faces, like all those which
are at the present day raised from the surface of the ground, and
that the opposite face was covered with mosses and byssi ; — a
circumstance which evidently shewed that these stones had for a
long time remained in the open air before they had been removed
thus far under ground. It was not doubted that they closed the
cavity in which the treasure must have been deposited ; but in
place of this treasure, they found nothing but a prodigious quan-
tity of bones, some of them mingled with the earth or stones, and
others very carefully placed in narrow fissures of the rode. Se-
veral heads of a species of deer, at the present day unknown,
and many other bones, were discovered, without any mixture of
earth, in a small cavity, covered over with a rude slab, placed
with great care. It ought to be remarked also, that here and
there the mass of stones and common soil was interrupted by
small quantities of an alluvial earth, composed of clay and sand,
similar to that which the river Sele deposits at the present day.

It was not only found that no current of water could have
brought it there, but it could not be doubted that those small
heaps of alluvial earth had been formed by men, since they were
pressed, regularly arranged, and entirely surrounded with small
calcareous stones of a very white colour, and which must have
yoL. xiv. xo. 28. April 1826.

302 M. Delpon on the Bones of various Animals

been soiled by the water, had it deposited these alluvial mat-
ters so regularly. Besides the elevation of this grotto being more
than 300 metres above the river, precluded the idea that the
waters of the Sele could have reached it.

Hoping that they would be more fortunate in the other
branches of the gallery, they gave up working in this ; but the
others presented nothing but bones placed in the same man-
ner. So great a quantity was taken out, that the whole together
would have formed a mass of more than twenty cubic metres.
The greater number of such as possessed any extraordinary ap-
pearance, were broken by the persons who first got hold of them.
Some of the bones were incrusted, and others inclosed in a cal-
careous breccia, with a crystalline paste. The greater number
were so well preserved, that they looked as if the flesh had been
recently detached from them ; but as soon as they were exposed
to the external air, they became scaly and whitish.

Among these bones there were recognised the skull of a rhi-
noceros, three teeth of the same animal ; the head of a species of
deer now unknown upon the globe, and of which the horns have
some resemblance to those of a young reindeer (see the lie-
cherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles , t. iv. p. 89) ; the fragments
of the horn of a large species of deer equally unknown, but allied
to the common stag; and, lastly, the humerus of a large ox,
and a horse’s femur.

M. Delpon concludes his notice with some judicious re-
fections. He infers, from the existence of these bones of ani-
mals foreign to our climate, and which have formerly lived on
our soil, that the temperature has diminished since the time when
it was sufficiently high to allow these animals to live. In a histo-
rical point of view, he inquires for what reason their bones had
been deposited with so much care in the cavities where they have
been found. He thinks that these grottoes were used by the
Druids for performing their ceremonies in them, and supposes the
bones in question to be the remains of the sacrifices which they
had offered to the gods. We are of opinion, that, whatever uses
these caverns may have been applied to, according to the times,
the bones which are found in them are of a date much anterior
to the Druids, and even to the establishment of the human spe-
cies in these countries ; and that their regular arrangement is a

discovered at Breingues , in the Department Du Lot. SOS

result, either of the superstition of the first inhabitants of the
country who discovered them, or of the amusement of herdsmen,
or some other cause of this description.— Bullet. Univers. Nov.
1 825.

Art. XI. — Observations regarding the Position of the Fossil
Megalosaurus and Didelphis or Opossum at Stonesfield.

TPhE bones of the Megalosaurus occur at Stonesfield, in
strata of an oolitic limestone-slate, which is wrought for roofing
houses ; and in the same quarries, which abound in organic re-
mains, there have been found several portions of a jaw, which
undoubtedly belong to a small insectivorous animal of the or-
der Carnivora, which has been by some referred to the ge-
nus Didelphis. There occur in the same strata, bones of
birds and reptiles, teeth of fishes, elytra of insects, and vestiges of
marine and terrestrial plants. Notwithstanding this association
of fossils, hitherto regarded as foreign to the deposits beneath
the Chalk Formation, English geologists have been led to
think that the Stonesfield slate forms part of the middle oolite
system ; and it is very remarkable, that at Cuckfield, in Sus-
sex (the only place in which there has hitherto been disco-
vered a great number of fossils similar to those of Stonesfield),
the strata which contain them form part of the formation of the
iron-sand, inferior to the chalk, which is much newer than the
middle oolite deposits. The following, according to Mr Buck-
land, is a list of the fossils, which are found equally in the
limestone-slate of Stonesfield and the iron-sand of Tilgate Fo-
rest : Bones of birds ; of the Megalosaurus ; of the Plesio-
saurus ; scales, teeth and bones of a crocodile ; humerus and
ribs of cetacea ; scales of tortoises ; the same variety of shark’s
teeth (Glossopetra) ; spines of balistae ; palates, teeth and scales
of various fishes ; fossil wood, impressions of ferns and reeds;
some fragments converted into charcoal, and some rolled pebbles
of quartz.

The almost perfect resemblance which the organic remains of
the two localities present, has induced Professor Buckland to
say, that the earth was undoubtedly placed under nearly the

u 2

304 M. Prevost on the Position of the Fossil Megalosaurus.

same circumstances at the different epochs during which the
two deposits were formed ; for, as he adds, the number and
thickness of the oolitic strata interposed between the great oolite
formation and that of the iron sand, prevent us from supposing,
even for a moment, that the two deposits are identical. M. C.
Prevost, who has visited Stonesfield, thinks, that the interposi-
tion of numerous and thick beds of oolite, not being directly
evident in any place between the strata which contain the same
fossils, doubts may be raised regarding the relative position
assigned to the limestone schists of Stonesfield, as well as regard-
ing the place which should be occupied in the general series of
the strata of the Earth, by those which, in the Forest of Tilgate,
contain the same fossils. In both places, the strata, which con-
tain the organic bodies, do not appear clearly covered by those
of the formations which are said to be more recent ; and there
are numerous considerations that might lead us to consider the
two deposits as having been formed at a period which would be
much newer than that of the oolitic formations ; in short, that
they are tertiary and not secondary deposits.

Art. XII. — Observations on the Comet of July 1825. By
Professor Gautier*;

The year 1825 will be memorable in the annals of astronomy
for the number of Comets observed in it. During an interval
of less than three months, it has presented to view four of these
bodies, still so mysterious in their appearances and in their na-
ture, but whose motions, as well as those of the other bodies of
our system, appear entirely regulated by the great law of univer-
sal gravitation. The most interesting of these appearances, in a
theoretical point of view, was that of M. Encke’s small comet of
short period, whose return was calculated and predicted by that
able astronomer for the second time, and which was found again
precisely in the place and with the motion which he had assigned
to it. But the most remarkable of these comets with respect to
the duration of its appearance and lustre, the only one which has
been visible to the naked eye, and which has presented a percep-

Bibliotheque Universelle, November 1825?

305

Professor Gautier on the Cornet of July 1825.

tible tail, is that which wns discovered toward the middle of
July in the constellation of Taurus. It appeared without being
expected, as a mere nebulosity, and had at first a motion ex-
tremely slow. Its motion was afterwards gradually accelerated ;
it became visible to the naked eye ; became invested with a tail,
which gradually enlarged ; and, after having shone for some
time in our horizon in the constellation of the Whale, disappear-
ed from our view about the middle of October towards the south,
in the constellation of the Apparatus Sculptoris. The first ele-
ments of this comet with which I was acquainted, indicating that
it would only pass to its perihelion in the month of December next,
and thus leaving the hope of still seeing it again, I was curious
to assure myself of these circumstances, by calculating myself
the elements of its orbit, and deducing from them the different
positions in which it ought to be found, with relation to the sun
and the earth. It is the results of this calculation that I present
here for the use of those who may be interested in the subject.

As I did not possess the means of making sufficiently regular
and precise observations of this comet myself, I have taken for
the basis of my calculation three observations made by M. Plana,
at the Royal Observatory of Turin, and inserted in the third
number of the thirteenth volume of the Correspondance Astro -
nomique of Baron Zach, namely, those of the 25th August, of
the 5th, and of the 25th September. For the determination of
the elements of the parabolic orbit of the comet according to
these observations, I have made use of the method of M. de
Laplace, in the application of which I have profited by the ex-
cellent. instructions which I have previously had the advantage
of receiving from MM. Biot and Bouvard. The elements which
I have obtained are intermediate between those of MM. Ca-
pocci and Hansen, the only ones with which I was acquainted,
and approach nearest the latter.

For the purpose of presenting the subject in a clearer manner,
I have traced, on a small scale, in Plate IX. Fig. 5. the orbit
of the earth, and the portion of the parabolic orbit of the comet
near its passage to the perihelion, 'designating by the same letters
in both the positions of these two stars corresponding to the same
instants, those of the comet being indicated in large, and those of
the earth in small letters. The plane of the figure is that of the

806 Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 1825.

orbit of the comet, which has an inclination of 33° 22' to the plane
of the earth’s orbit, or to that of the ecliptic, of which the figure
presents the elliptic projection. The sun S occupies the focus
of each of these orbits. The point E is that in which the earth
is at the vernal equinox. It is that from which the arcs of
longitude are counted on the ecliptic, from 0 to 360°, in the di-
rection from E to o, or in the order of the signs of the Zodiac.
The right line NN7 is the line of the nodes of the orbit of the
comet, or the line of intersection of the plane of its orbit with
the plane of the ecliptic. The point N is what is named the
descending node , because it is that through which the comet has
passed, when it has descended into the portion of its orbit situ-
ated beneath the ecliptic. The point N' is the ascending node ,
or the point through which the comet passes when it ascends
above the ecliptic. The position of the line of the nodes is de-
termined by the angle which it makes on the ecliptic with the
line SE. I have found the angle ESN', or the longitude of the
ascending node, to be 215° 36', which gives 35° 36' for the acute
angle ESN.

The point P of the orbit of the comet, or the vertex of the
parabola which it describes, is the point at which it is nearest
the sun. This is what is called its perihelion ; and the instant
of its passage through this point, as well as its distance from the
sun at this instant, are among the number of the most important
elements of its motion.

According to my calculation, the comet ought to attain this
point on the 10th December of the present year, about 11 in
the morning, or more exactly at 10.456 mean time at Paris,
reckoned from midnight. The perihelion distance SP ought to be
once and a quarter the mean distance of the earth from the sun,
or more accurately 1.23273, this latter distance being taken for
unity. The mean distance of the earth from the sun, or the
half of the greater axis of its elliptical orbit, being, as is well
known, about thirty-four millions and ar-half leagues of twenty-
five to the degree ; the perihelion distance of the comet from the
sun should consequently be about forty-two millions and a-half
of these same leagues.

There still remains to be determined the direction of the line
SP, and it has usually been done by finding its longitude upon

Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 18 25. 307

the orbit of the comet itself. For this purpose, a line SE7 is
supposed to be drawn upon the orbit, making with the line of
the nodes NN' an angle equal to that comprehended upon the
ecliptic between this latter line and the line SE ,* and the angle
E'SP reckoned in the order of the signs, from 0 to 360° pro-
ceeding fromE', is what is called the longitude of the perihelion.
I have found this angle thus reckoned 318° 34?', which gives
41° 26' for the acute angle PSE', which is its complement to
360°.

The direction of the comet’s motion being from N toward O,
we find that this direction projected upon the ecliptic, and, seen
from the sun, is contrary to that of the earth’s motion upon its
orbit, or to the order of the signs, which is from E towards o.
This is what is expressed by saying that the heliocentric motion
of the comet is retrograde *.

After having presented the approximative elements of the or-
bit of the comet, there remains for me to develope the conse-
quences deducible from them, following it in its progress from
the first moment of its appearance, and pointing out its succes-
sive distances from the sun and the earth, as well as the geo-
centric positions which it must have assumed since its disap-
pearance.

At the moment of its discovery, which was made on the 15th
July at Lucques by M. Pons -f-, and, on the 19th at Prague,
by M. de Biela, the comet was at D, at a distance from the sun
S of about twice and two-fifth times that of the earth, and at a

* It is known that this alternative of direction is peculiar to this kind of stars,
while all the planets and satellites whose motion is well ascertained move in the
right direction. Of the 129 comets whose orbits are now determined, there are
68 in which the motion is direct, and 61 in which it is retrograde.

*|- M. Carlini seems disposed to think (Corr. Astr. t. 13. p. 291.) that it is the
comet of Encke, and not the great comet which M. Pons discovered on the 15th
July. My elements, however, give me for that day the same declination as that
resulting from M. Pons’s estimate, and a right ascension, which differs only a
few minutes of a degree from his. However this may be, the two comets must
have been, at this period, in very near geocentric positions, and it would be singu-
lar if no person had observed both of them at once at this moment. The comet of
Encke could only have been then at a distance from the earth, nearly equal to
three-fifths of that of the other comet.

308 Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 1825.

distance from the earth d, of nearly three times that quantity,
or of more than a hundred millions of leagues. It was then at
an elevation of about 26° above the equator ; and was in the
part of its orbit situated above the ecliptic. But it advanced
rapidly toward this plane^ approaching the descending node N,
which it attained on the 23d August, about 11 o'clock in the
evening. Its motion in longitude being in the contrary direc-
tion to that of the earth, the two stars then tended by this cir-
cumstance to approach each other rapidly, although the comet
must have appeared to remain nearly in the same position with
relation to the earth as is shewn by the figure. After the two
bodies had been much approximated, the geocentric motion
of the comet must have become more rapid, and its brightness
less apparent. Towards the 9th October at noon, the comet was
in O, and the earth in o; the first being in opposition to the
sun in longitude, or situated on the side opposite the sun with
relation to the earth, and having already descended, relatively to
this latter, about 33° 10' beneath the ecliptic. It was then that the
comet and the earth were nearest one another ; and, I find that
their distance at this period was not more than 0.615 of that of
the earth from the sun, or about twenty-one millions and a quar-
ter of leagues. The tail, at this period, had an apparent length
of about 12°, although it was then visible to us only as shorten-
ed in a very high degree ; at least it would be so, were we to
suppose it having a direction contrary to the earth, and directly
opposite to the sun, as they ordinarily have. On this supposition
we should find, that its real length must have been more than
eight millions of leagues. M. Pons remarked at that time in it
(Corr. Astr. t. xiii. p. 394.) three very distinct rays at equal
distances from one another, and of unequal length, present-
ing some resemblance to the rays of the comet of 1144, such as
they have been described by the astronomer de Loys de Che-
seaux of Lausanne, in his treatise on that comet.

After this the comet began to remove from the earth, in con-
sequence of the contrary motion of the two bodies, and it was,
in fact, remarked, on the latter days of its appearance, that the
tail already appeared less brilliant. The comet continuing to
descend beneath the ecliptic, quickly disappeared from our
view in consequence ; and, on the 18th October, there could

Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 1825. 809

only be seen from Geneva a portion of its tail above the moun-
tain of Saleve, the head and nucleus remaining concealed behind
the mountain. It is to the inhabitants of the southern countries
that the advantage will probably be reserved of seeing this co-
met at the period in which, from its being then nearest the sun,
its tail must be longest. On the 10th December, at the moment
of its passing the perihelion, its heliocentric latitude will be
about 82° 25', its distance from the earth Pp 1.85, or nearly six-
ty-four millions of leagues; its southern declination about 42° 8P;
and its right ascension 290° 25' ; so that it will be then situated
in the southern part of the constellation of Sagittarius. Its
elongation, or its angular distance from the sun, seen from the
earth, which, at this moment, will be 67° 20', will afterwards
tend to diminish rapidly ; and, towards the 8th January 1826,
the comet will be found at C, in conjunction with the sun, or on
the same side with that star, with relation to the earth C, and
having the same longitude. The distance from the sun will be
then 1.811, and its distance from the earth 2.207, or seventy-
six millions of leagues. It south heliocentric latitude will be
32° 2', and the brightness of the sun will for some time conceal
it even from the observers above whose horizon it will pass.

After this period, the figure shews that the comet, although
continuing to remove from the sun, must tend anew to approach
the earth, from the very circumstance of the opposite direction
of their heliocentric motion. But the motion in longitude of the
comet beginning to become slower, on account of the diminution
in curvature of the portion of its trajectory which it then de-
scribes, it will be the earth that must traverse the greater part of
the arc of longitude necessary in order to its being again found on
the same direction as the comet seen from the sun, and between
these two stars. This will be a second opposition on the part
of the comet, which will correspond to a point of the ecliptic al-
most opposite to that of the first, and will take place, according
to my calculation, towards the 8th May 1826, the comet being
then to be found at O7, and the earth at o'. The distance of
the comet from the sun will be then 2.449, and that from the
earth only 1.453, or about fifty millions of leagues. The south
heliocentric latitude of the comet will not be more than 7° 17',
its southern declination will be 28° 407, and its right ascension

310 Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 1825.

220° 217 ; so that it will then be situated at the extremity of the
tail of Hydra.

It is in the interval between the conjunction and the second
opposition, that the comet must reappear to us. But it is con-
ceived, that its distance will then render it less than it has
hitherto been, and it is probable that it will not be at all visi-
ble to the naked eye at the period of its reappearance. Its de-
pression beneath the ecliptic, which will be greater seen from
the earth than from the sun, on account of the great proximity
of the latter, will also for some time form an obstacle to its view
in the north of Europe, as may be judged by the following geo-
centric positions of the comet, resulting from my calculation.

1826 1st February,

Right As-
cension.

289 .. 25

South De-
clination.

39.52

Distance from
the Sun.

1.474

Distance from
the Earth.

2.222

1st March,

283 .. 21

40.18

1.730

1.971

1st April,

264.. 4

41.1

2.052

1.549

20th April,

241 .. 28

37.24

2.258

1,392

After the second opposition, the comet will recede at once from
the earth and the sun, approaching still nearer the ecliptic, and
I find that it will attain this latter plane, or will pass its as-
cending node N7, towards the 14th July 1826 ; its right ascen-
sion being 195° 407, and its south declination 6° 417, which
place it not far from the sword of the Virgin. Its distance
from the sun will then be 3.178, and its distance from the earth
N7 n' 3.085, or about 106 millions of leagues. This great dis-
tance from the sun and the earth renders, as is easily seen, the
visibility of the comet at this period doubtful. It is a matter of
regret that this is the case, on account of the rigorous determi-
nation of the orbit that might be obtained in a case when the
comet has been observed in its two nodes * *.

I must not omit to remark, in concluding this memoir, that
the elements on which it rests, result only from a first approxi-
mation *f*. They are also subject to the conditions of the parabo-
lic hypothesis, which is always followed, for the sake of greater
facility, in first calculations of this kind; and it is probable that

* Mecanique Celeste, t. i. p. 230.

*j* They represent, however, to about one minute of a degree, M, Biela’s ob«
servation of the 19th July, and P.lnghirami’s of the 29th.

311

Professor Gautier on the Comet of July 1825 s

the whole of the observations of this comet taken together, will
permit our assigning it a very elongated elliptical orbit. Lastly,
it is possible that its proximity to the earth may have produced
some influence upon its elements, from the perturbations that may
have resulted from it. M.Plana has had the goodness to promise
to send me the observations which he made on the 6th and 17th
of October, which may serve to rectify my elements. I have
judged it proper, however, not to delay the communication of
my first results, hoping that they may serve at least to give an
idea to those who are not familiar with the theory of comets, of
what may be deduced in an approximative manner by means of
three observations only.

P. There is to be found in the 5th Number of the 13th
Volume of the Correspondance Astronomique, an ephemeris of
the comet by M. Capocci, and of M. Hansen’s elliptical elements,
according to which this comet would make its revolution about
the sun in 382 years.

Art. XIII. — On the Practical Construction of Achromatic Ob-
ject-Glasses. By Peter Barlow, Esq. F. B. S. Professor in
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Communicated
by the Author. (Continued from Vol. XIV. p. 18).

We may now proceed to the calculation of the radii for a com-
pound achromatic object-glass, the indices of refraction, and the
dispersive power of the glasses being given.

15. Detail of the computation for a compound Achromatic Ob-
ject-Glass.

It is best to make the calculation, in this case, always for a
given compound focal length, and afterwards to alter the curva-
tures in the direct ratio of the proposed focal length to that
assumed. Our assumed compound focal length is always 10
inches.

The example we shall propose is to compute the curvatures
of a compound object-glass, made from the two specimens of
plate and flint experimented upon, as in the leading part of this
paper. The index of the plate being 1.528, of the flint 1.601 ;

312 Mr Barlow on the Practical Construction

and the ratio of dispersion of the two .683 : also the required
focal length 46 inches.

To Jind the 'proper focal length of the two lenses forming the ob-
ject-glass, so that they may have to each oilier the ratio of the
dispersive powers, and a compound focal length of 10 inches.

Rule. — Subtract the number, expressing the dispersive ratio
from unity, and the remainder multiplied by 10 will be the fo-
cal length of the plate-lens.

2. Divide the focal length of the plate-lens so found by the
dispersive ratio, and the quotient will be the focal length of the
flint lens.

Example. — In the case we have proposed the dispersive ratio
is .683 : therefore.

From 3.0000

Take .683

Remainder .317

Multiply by 10 10

3.17 inches focal length of plate.

.683)3.170(4.64 inches ditto of flint.

To find the first or exterior surface of the plate-lens, and the fourth
or anterior surface of the flint-lens, for a compound focal
length of 10 inches .

We must here have recourse to the table given in the subse-
quent pages, proceeding as follows : In the first column, con-
taining all dispersive ratios, which ever fall within practical li-
mits, find the particular one in question, as, for example, in our
case .683 ; and in the same line in the second and fifth columns,
will be found the proper radii of curvature for the first and
fourth surfaces, provided the index of the plate be 1.524, and
of the flint 1.585 : to which numbers the table is computed. In
our case these numbers are 6.7956 and 12.7423. But when
the tabular indices, as in this example, are not precisely those of
the glass in hand, then the above tabular radii must be corrected
as follows :

For the Plate Lens.— Find the difference between the tabular
index for the plate and that of the glass in question, and multi-

313

of Achromatic Object-Glasses .

ply by that difference the number standing in the third column.
If the given index exceed the tabular index, put the sign ( ; plus
or minus ), as found in the table, before the product ; but if the
tabular index be the greater, then prefix to the product the con-
trary sign to that given in the table.

Next, take the difference between the given index of the flint
and that in the table, and proceed exactly in the same manner,
viz. multiply this difference by the number in the fourth column,
observing, also, the same rule with regard to the sign of the pro-
duct.

Then, if the two products have the same sign, add them to-
gether ; but if different signs, subtract them, and prefix the pro-
per sign ; that is, the sign of the products themselves when alike ;
or that of the greater when they are different.

Lastly, if the resulting sign is plus (+), add the number to
which it is prefixed to the tabular radius above found ; or if
minus ( — ) subtract it ; and the sum or remainder will be the
corrected radius for the 1st surface of the plate.

Proceed exactly in the same way with the flint lens, using
the 5th, 6th, and 7th columns, and we shall then have the cor-
rected radius for the fourth surface.

These rules are illustrated in the following continuation of
the example proposed.

The dispersive ratio of our flint and plate, being, by experi-
ment, *683, the radii for the refractive indices of the table would
be for the first surface = 6*7356 inches, and for the fourth sur-
face = 12*7423 inches.

These have now, therefore, to be corrected for the given in-
dices, viz. plate = 1*528, and flint = 1*601.

The difference between the tabular index of the plate, and
that given, is *004 : Hence,

No. in 3d column = -f *414
Multiplied by *004

Gives -{- *01656

Next the difference between the tabular index of the flint, and
that given, is *016 : Hence,

314

Mr Barlow on the Practical Construction

No. in 4th column — 4- 2*45
Multiplied by *016

Gives

Add

Sum

Add tab. rad.

4- -03920 cor. pi. index.
4- *01656 cor. fl. index.

4- *05576 wh. correction.
6.7956

Corrected radius 6-8514 for the first surface.

Again, No. in 6th column = + 116-14
Multiplied by -004

Gives

And, No. in 7th column =
Multiplied by

Gives

4- ‘46456 cor. pi. index.

71-69

•016

— 1*14704 cor. fl. index.
+ *46456

Difference
Tab. rad.

— *68248 wh. correction.
12-7422

12-0597 corrected radius for
the 4th surface.

It now only remains to find the 2d and 3d, or the contact
surfaces. For this determination we have given for each lens
the focal length, the radius of one surface, and the index of re-
fraction, which, therefore, for the double convex or plate lens,
fall under rule 6 of article 14, and for the flint lens, which is
concavo-convex, under rule 8 of the same article.

For 2d surface plate lens, (See rule 6 page 16.)

Focal length = 3-17, Decimal part of index — *528 ;

3-17 X ‘528 — 1.67376 First product
rad. First surface = 685*

First prod x rad. 1st surface =: 11.4627 = dividend.

6-85 — 1-67376 = 5-17 = divisor,

5*17) 11-4627) 2-22 = 2d surface.

315

of ‘ Achromatic Object-Glasses .

For the 3d surface concave flint lens, (See Rule 8. art. 14.)
Focal length = 4*64, dec. part of index = *601 ;

4*64 x 601 =r 2*788 . . = 1st product,

12*06 = given rad.

2*788 x 12*06 = 33*62328 = dividend,

12*06 + 2*788 = 14*848 = divisor,

14*848) 33*62328 (2*26 = rad. 3d surface.

We have thus the four following radii, for the successive sur-
faces to a compound focal length of 10 inches, viz.

Plate -f ^St Slir^ace rac^us 6*85 inches convex,
l 2d surface radius 2*22 inches convex,

Flint I ^ surface radius 2*26 inches concave,
l 3d surface radius 12.060 inches convex.

These, it will be observed, are for a compound focus of 10
inches, whereas our example required a 46 inch focus. We must
therefore increase these several radii in the proportion of 10 to

which gives the following
As 10 : 46 : : 0*85

results :

: 31 '510 1st surface

convex,

10 : 46 :

: 2-22

: 10-212 2d

convex,

10 : 46 :

: 2-26

: 10 396 3d

concave,

10 : 46 :

: 12060

: 55-476 4th

convex.

If the circumstance of the second contact surface, that is the
convex one, being the deeper of the two, should be thought a
practical inconvenience, or if it should be thought desirable to
work these surfaces on pair tools, it will be very easy to reduce
the third surface, so as to make it equal to the second, by mak-
ing such a corresponding change in the fourth surface, as shall
still preserve the same focal length, both for the flint lens singly,
and for the compound focus. We have only to consider 2*22
inches as the given radius, 4*64 as the focal length, the index be-
ing 1*601, and to find the corresponding fourth surface, by the
rule given for that purpose, viz. (Rule 9 art. 14.)

Focal length = 4*64 ; Dec. of index = *601 ;

4*64 x *601 = 2*78864 = 1st product,

2*22 = given radius,

2*78864 x 222 = 6*19047 = dividend,

2*788 — 2*22 - *568 = divisor,

568) 6*19047 (10*896 = rad. 4th surface.

316

Mr Barlow on the Practical Construction

And then,

10 : : 46 : 10-898 : 5013 inches.

This arrangement would therefore give, for the four surfaces,
1st surface = 31.510

4th

= 10-212
= 10-212 *
= 5013

compound focus 46 inches.

It should be observed, however, that these changes ought to
be made as little as possible, because the tendency of them is to
produce inaccuracy or defect of compensation ; although they
may be introduced without a very sensible error in common
cases. It is obvious that we might have taken a mean between
the two contact radii, and have adjusted both the first and fourth
surface accordingly.

There is also another practical convenience which may some-
times be consulted, and which, within certain limits, leads to no
error, — this is, when the workman may have a pair of contact
tools, which are nearly such as the calculations require. In
this case, instead of altering his tools, he may change all the
radii in the proportion which the radii required bears to the
tools in question. This will make an inch or two difference in
the focal length of the object-glass, which will be of no material
consequence.

Suppose, for example, that, in the last case, the workman has
a pair of contact tools, which measure exactly ten inches, he has
only to say, 10.212 : 10 : : 31.51 : 30.85 — 1st sur.

10.212 : 10 : : 50.13 : 49.09 = 4th sur.

10.212 : 10 : : 46.00 : 45.09 = foe. len.

We have thus the following results:

1st surface 30.85 inches.
2d 10.00

3d 10.00

4th 49.09

focal length 45.09 inch.

Such is the nature of the calculation required for determining
the radii of curvature in the construction of achromatic object
glasses, and of which we may give one other example.

of Achromatic Object- Glasses .

817

Example 2.

It is required to determine the radii of curvature for an ob-
ject glas^ of 6 feet focus, to be formed of Newcastle plate, whose
index is 1.515, and of Swiss flint, whose index is 1.671, the dis-
persive ratio being .61 S.

1.000

.618

.887

8.87 = focal length of plate.
.618)8.870(6.31 = focal length of flint.
Tabular radii for disper- ) 1st surface = 6.7131
sive ratio .613 j 4th surface — 14.1052

Tabular index plate 1.524 flint 1.585

Given index plate 1.515 • flint — 1.671

— .009 + -686

Correction (f 1st surface .

Tab. cor. pi. index =: -f 6.46 for flint index = -f .600
— .009 -f- .086

— .05814 -f .0516

+ .05160

— .00654 — correction.
6.7181

1 st surface 6.70666 = corrected radius.

Correction of 4>th surface.

Tab. cor. pi. index — + 111.90 flint index — — 58.32
— .009 -f .086

— 1.00764 84992

— 5.01552 46656

— 6.02316 = correction. — - 5.01552
14.1052

4th surface 8.08204 — corrected radius.
VOL. XIV. NO. 28. APRIL 1826.

318

Mr Barlow on the Practical Construction

To find the contact surfaces.

Focal length pL lens. = 3.87. Dec. part of pi. index = .'515,
3.87 X .515 = 1.993 . . — first product,
rad. first surface — 6.706,

1.993 x 6.706 - 13. 365058 = dividend,

6.706 — 1.993 = 4.713 = divisor,
4.713)13.365058(2.836 = rad. 2d surf.

Focal length flint lens = 6.31. Dec. part flint index = .671
6.31 x .671 = 4.234 . . = 1st product,

8.082 = rad. fourth surface,

4.234 x 8.082 = 34.219188 = dividend,

8.082 -f 4.234 — 12.316 - divisor.
12.316)34.219188(2.778 = rad. 3d surface.

Hence for a compound focal length of 10 inches we have the
following results :

| 1st surf. rad. 6.706 convex,

Plate

Flint

2d do. 2.836 convex,
f 3d surf. rad. 2.778 concave,
1 4th do. 8.082 convex.

Therefore, lastly, for our 72 inch compound focus we have :

10 : 72
10 : 72
10 : 72
10 : 72

6.706 : 48.28 = 1st surf.
2.836 : 20.42 - 2d
2.778 : 20.00 = 3d

8.082 : 58.19 = 4th

focal length
72 inches.

The above examples will, it is presumed, be found amply suf-
ficient to enable any practical optician to follow out the opera-
tions given in the preceding pages, not only as it relates to the
computation of his radii, but also for determining the index of
refraction, and the dispersive ratio of his two glasses. They
are in general suited to those who are but little acquainted
with algebraical formulas, and we therefore offer no apology to
those who are aigebraists for the length to which some of the
calculations and illustrations have been carried, because they
can shorten them at pleasure. It may also be proper to observe,
that the following table is not extended from that given by Mr
Herschel on any principle which required more than simple

of Achromatic Object-Glasses . 819

proportion ; but it is sufficiently accurate for any practical pur-
pose.

TABLE — Shewing the Radii of * the 1st and 4th Surfaces of
Object-Glasses to various dispersive ratios , and to Indices of
Refraction 1.524 Plate , and 1.585 Flinty with Columns of
Correction for other Indices .

1st Surface.

4th Surface.

Dispersive

Radius to

Ratios.

Indices

Correction,

Indices

Correction,

Correction,
Flint Index.

1*524

1*585

Plate Index.

Flint Index.

1*524

1*585

Plate Index.

•550

6*7185

+ 7-40

_ -110

14*5353

4* 100-00

— 50*33

•551

6*7182

+ 7-39

— -100

14*5303

4- 100-99

— 50*45

•552

6-7179

+ 7-37

_ -090

14-5253

4- 101-18

_ 50-58

•553

6*7176

+ 7-36

— *080

14*5203

4* 101-37

— 50-70

•554

6-7173

4- 7*34

_ -071

14*5153

+ 101-57

— 50.83

•555

6*7170

+ 7-33

_ *062

14*5103

+ 101-77

— 50-95

•55 6

6*7167

+ 7*31

_ -052

14*5053

+ 101-96

— 51-08

♦557

6*7164

+ 7-30

_ *042

14*5003

+ 102-15

— 51-21

•558

6*7161

+ 7*28

— -032

14*4953

4- 102-34

— 51-33

*559

6*7158

+ 7*27

— -023

14-4905

4- 102-54

— 51-45

•560

6*7155

+ 7-25

_ -014

14*4857

4- 102-74

-51-58

•561

6*7152

+ 7-24

— -004

14-4809

4* 102-93

— 51-70

•562

6*7149

+ 7-22

4- -006

14*4761

4* 103-12

— 51-83

•563

6-7146

+ 7-21

4* '016

14-4713

4- 103-31

— 51-95

•564

6-7143

+ 7'19

+ -025

14-4665

4- 103-51

— 52-08

•565

6*7140

+ 7-18

4- *034

14-4617

+ 103-71

— 52-20

•566

6*7137

+ 7-16

4* -044

14-4569

+ 103-90

— 52-33

•567

6-7135

4- 7*15

+ *054

14-4521

+ 104-09

— 52-45

•568

6*7133

+ 7-13

4- -064

14*4473

+ 104-28

— 52-58

•569

6-7131

+ 7-12

4- -073

14-4425

4* 104-48

— 52-70

•570

6-7129

+ 7-10

4- -082

14-4377

4- 104-68

— 52-83

•571

6-7127

+ 7-09

4- *092

14-4329

4* 104-87

— 52-95

•572

6*7125

+ 7-07

4- *102

14-4281

4- 105-06

— 53-08

'573

6-7123

-4- 7-06

4- -112

14-4233

4- 105-25

— 53-20

•574

6*7121

+ 7-04

+ -121

14-4185

4- 105-44

— 53.33

•575

6-7119

+ 7-03

4- -130

14*4137

4- 105-64

— 53-45

•576

6-7117

+ 7-01

4- *140

14-4089

+ 105-84

— 53-58

•577

6.7115

+ 7*00

4* -150

14*4041

4- 106-03

— 53-70

•578

6.7113

+ 6*98

4* *160

14*3993

+ 106-22

— 53-83

•579

6-7111

+ 6-97

4- *169

1-4*3945

+ 106-41

— 53-95

•580

6-7109

+ 6-96

4- -178

14-3897

4- 106-61

— 54-08

•581

6‘7107

+ 6-95

+ *188

14-3849

4- 106-81

— 54-20

•582

6-7105

4- 6-94

4- -198

14-3701

+ 107-00

— 54-33

•583

6-7103

4- 6-93

-208

14*3753

+ 107.19

— 54-45

•584

6-7101

+ 6-92

4- -217

14*3705

+ 107*38

— 54-58

•585

6*7099

+ 6-91

4- *226

14*3657

4- 107-58

— 54-70

•586

6-7097

4- 6-90

4- -236

14-3609

4- 107*78

— 54-83

•587

6-7095

4- 6.89

4- -246

14*3561

4- 107-97

— 54-95

•588

6-7093

+ 6-88

+ -256

14-3513

4- 108-16

— 55-08

•589

6*7091

4- 6-87

4- -265

14-3465

4- 108-35

— 55-20

3£0 Mr Barlow cm the Practical Construction

TABLE — Continued.

1st Surface.

4th Surface.

Dipersive

Radius to

Ratios.

Indices

Correction,

Indices

Correction,

1-524

1-585

Plate Index.

Flint Index.

1-585

Plate Index.

Flint Index.

«590

6-7089

+ 6-86

+ *274

14-3417

4- 108-54

— 55-33

•591

6-7087

+ 6-85

4- *284

14-3369

4- 108-74

—.55-45

•592

6-7085

4- 6-84

4- *294

14-3321

+ 108-94

— 55-53

•593

6-7083

+ 6- 83

4- -304

14-3273

+ 109-13

— 55-70

•594

6-7081

4- 6-82

4- -313

14-3225

4- 109-32

— 55-83

•595

6-7089

4- 6-81

4- -322

14-3177

+ 109-51

— 55-95

•596

6-7079

+ 6-80

4- -332

14-3129

+ 109-71

— 56-08

•597

6-7076

4- 6-79

4- *342

14-3081

4- 109-90

— 56-20

•598

6-7075

+ 6-78

4- *352

14-3033

4- 110-09

— 56-33

•599

6-7073

+ 6-77

4- *361

14-2985

+ 110-29

— 56-46

! -600

6-7071

4- 6-7 6

4- *370

14-2937

4- 110-49

— 56-59

•601

6-7069

+ 6-73

4- -388

14-2792

4- 110-60

— 56-72

•602

6-7073

4- 6-71

4- *406

14-2647

4- 110-71

— 56-85

•603

6-7077

4- 6-69

4- -424

14-2502

+ 110-83

— 56-99

•604

6-7086

4- 6*6 7

4- *442

14-2357

+ 110-94

— 57*12

•605

6-7091

4- 6-64

4- *460

14-2212

+ 111-05

— 57-25

•60 6

6-7096

4- 6-62

4- *478

14-2067

4- 11M7

— 57-39

•607

6-7101

4- 6-60

4- *495

14-1922

+ 111*28

— 57-52

•608

6-7106

-1- 6-58

4- *512

14-1777

4 111-39

— 57-65

•609

6-7111

4- 6-55

4- -529

14-1632

+ 111-51

— 57-79

•610

6-7116

4- 6-53

4- *546

14-1487

+ 111-62

— 57-92

•611

6-7121

4- 6.51

4- -564

14-1342

+ HI-73

— 5805

•612

6-7126

4- 6-49

4- -582

14-1197

4- 111-85

— 58-19

•613

6-7131

4- 6-46

4- *600

14-1052

4- 111-96

— 58-32

•614

6-7136

4- 6-44

4- *618

14-0907

+ 112-07

— 58-45

•615

6-7141

4- 6-42

4- • 636

14-0762

4- 112-19

— 58-59

•616

6-7146

4- 6-40

4- *654

14-0617

+ 112-30

— 58-72

•617

6-7151

4- 6- 37

4- *671

14-0472

4- 112-41

— 58-85

•618

6-7156

4- 6-35

4- *688

14-0327

+ 112-53

— 58.99

•619

6-7161

4- 6-33

4- *705

14-0182

4- 112-64

— 59-12

•620

6-7166

4- 6-31

4- *722

14-0037

4- 112-75

— 59-25

•621

6-7171

4- 6-28

4- *740

13-9892

4- 112-87

— 59-39

•822

6-7176

4- 6-26

4- -758

13-9747

4- 112-98

— 59-52

•623

6*7181

4- 6- 24

4- -77 6

13-9602

4- 11309

— 59-65

•624

6-7186

4- 6-22

4- *794

13-9457

+ 113-21

— 59-79

’625

6-7191

4- 6-19

4- -812

13-9312

4- 113-22

— 59-92

•626

6-7196

4- 6-17

4- -830

13-9167

+ 113-43

— 60-05

•627

6-7201

4- 6-15

4- -847

13-9022

4* 113-55

— 60-19

•628

6-7206

4- 6 -13

4- -864

19-8877

4- 113-66

-r- 60-32

•629

6-7211

4- 6-10

4- *881

13-8733

4- 113-77

— 60-45

•630

6-7216

4- 6- 08

4- -898

13-8589

4- 113-89

— 60-59

•631

6-7221

4- 6-06

4- *916

13-8445

4- 114-00

— 60-72

•632

6-7226

4- 6-04

4- *934

13-8301

4- 114-11

— 60-85

•633

6-7231

4- 6-01

4- *952

13-8157

4- 114-23

— 60-99

•634

6-7236

4- 5-99

4- -970

13-8013

4- 114-34

— 61-12

•635

6-7241

4- 5-97

4- -988

13-7869

4- 114-45

— 61-25

•636

6-7246

4- 5-95

4- 1-006

13-7725

+ 114-57

-61-39

•637

6-7251

4- 5.92

4- 1-023

13-7581

4- 114-68

— 61-52

•638

6*7256

4- 5-89

4- 1-040

13-7437

4- 114-79

-61-65

•639

6-7261

4- 5-87

4- 1-057

13-7393

4- 114-91

— 61-79

•640

6-7266

4- 5-85

4- 1-074

13-7249

4- 115-02

— 61-92

.641

6-7271

4- 5-83

4- 1*092

13-7105

4- 115-13

— 62-05

•642

6-7276

-h 5-80

4- 1*110

13-6961

+ 115-25

— 62-19

•643

6-7281

+ 5-78

4- M28

13-6817

4- 115-36

— 62-32

•644

6-7286

4- 5-7 6

4 1-146

13-6673

4- 115*47

_ 62-45

of Achromatic Object-Glasses. 221

TABLE — Continued.

Dispersive

Ratios.

1st Surface.

4th Surface.

Radius to
indices
1-524
1-585

Correction,
Plate Index.

Correction,
Flint Index.

Radius to
Indices
1-524
1-585

Correction,
Plate Index.

Correction,
Flint Index.

•645

6-7291

+ 5-74

-f- 1-164

13-6429

-f- 115-58

— - 62-58

•646

6-7296

+ 5-71

4 M82

13-6285

-f- 115-69

— 62-71

•647

6*7301

4- 5-69

4- i'199

13-6141

-j- 115-70

— 62-84

•648

6-7306

-f 5-67

4- 1-216

13-5997

-f- 115.81

— 62-97

•649

6-7311

4- 5-65

4- 1-223

13-5853

-j- 11602

— 63-10

•650

6-7316

4- 6-63

4“ 1-25

13-5709

-f 11614

— 63-23

•651

6-7336

4- 5-58

4- 1-29

13-5457

-f 116-14

— 63-47

•652

6-7356

4- 5-53

4- 1-32

13-5205

116-14

— 63-71

•653

6-737 6

4- 5-48

4- 1-36

13-4953

116*14

— 63-95

I -654

6-7396

4- 5-44

4- 1-39

13-4701

4- 116-14

— 64-19

•655

6-7416

4- 5-39

4- 1-43

13-4449

4- 116-14

— '64-44

•656

6-7436

4- 5-35

4- 1-46

13-4197

4- 116-14

— 64-69

•657

6-7456

4- 5-30

4“ 1-50

13-3945

4- 116-14

— 64-94

•658

6-7476

4* 5-26

4- 1-53

13-3693

+ 116-14

— 6519

•659

6-7496

4- 5-21

4- 1-57

13-3441

4- 116-14

— 65-44

•660

6-7516

4- 5-17

4- 1-60

13-3189

4- U6-14

— 65-69

•661

6-7536

4- 5-12

4 1-64

13-2937

4- 116*14

— 65-94

•662

6-7556

4- 5-08

4~ 1"68

13-2685

4- 116-14

— 66-19

•663

6-7576

-f 5-03

+ 1-71

13-2433

-I- 116-14

— 66-44

•664

6-7595

4- 4-99

4-1-74

13-2185

4- 116*14

— 06-69

•665

6-7614

4- 4-95

4-1-78

13.1912

4- 116-14

— 66-94

•666

6-7633

4- 4-90

4- 1-81

13-1683

-f 116-14

— 67-19

•667

6-7652

+ 4-86

4- 1-85

13-1433

4- 116-14

— 67-44

.668

6-7671

4. 4-81

4- 1-89

13-1183

4- 116-14

— 67*69

.669

6-7690

4- 4-77

4-1*92

13-0933

4- 116-14

— 67-94

•670

6-7709

4-4-72

4- 1-96

13-0683

4- 116-14

— 68-19

•671

6-7728

4- 4-68

4- 1-99

13 0433

4- 116-14

— 68-44

•6 72

6-7747

4. 4-63

4 2-03

13-0183

4- 116-14

— 68-69

•673

6-7766

4- 4-59

4 2-06

12-9933

4-116-14

— 68-94

•674

6-7785

4- 4-54

4 2-09

12-9683

4- 116-14

— 69-19

•675

6-7804

4. 4-50

4- 2 -13

12-9431

4- 116-14

— 69-44

•676

6-7823

4. 4*45

42-17

12-9179

-j- 116-14

— 69-69

•677

6-7842

4 4.41

4- 2-21

12-8928

4- 116-14

— 69-94

•678

6-7861

4 4-36

4 2-25

12-8677

-1- 116*14

— 70-19

•679

6-7880

4 4-32

4- 2-29

12-8426

4- 116-14

— 70-44

•680

6-7899

4 4-27

4 2-33

12*8175

4- 116-14

— 70-69

•681

6-7918

4 4-23

4-2-37

12-7924

4- 116-14

— 70-94

•682

6-7937

4 4-18

42-41

12-7673

4_ 116-14

— 7M9

•683

6-7956

4 4-14

4 2-45

12-7423

4_ 116-14

— 71*44

•684

6-7975

4 4-09

4 2-49

12-7171

4- 116-14

— 71-69

•685

6-7994

4 4-05

4- 2-53-

12*6920

4_ 116*14

— 71-94

•686

6-8013

4 4-00

4 2-57

12-6669

_j_ 116-14

— 72-19

•687

6-8032

4 3-96

4 2-61

12-6418

4- 116-14

— 72-44

•688

6-8051

4 3-91

4- 2-65

12-6167

4- 116-14

— 72-69

•689

6-8070

4 3 87

42-70

12-5916

4- 116-14

— 72-94.

•690

6-8089

4 3-82

4 2-74

12 5665

4- 116-14

— 73-19

•691

6-8108

4 3-78

4 2-78

12-5414

116-14

— 73-44

•692

6-8127

4 3-73

4 2 82

12-5163

4- 116-14

— 73-69

•693

6-8146

4 3-69

+ 2-86

12-4912

4. 116-14

— 73-94

•694

6-8165

4 3-64

4-2-90

12-4661

4- 116-14

— 74-19

•695

6-8184

4 3-60

4 2-94

12-4410

+ 116-14

— 74*44

•696

6-8203

4- 3-55

4 2-98

12-4159

4- 116*14

— 74-69

•697

6-8222

+ 3-51

4 3-02

12-3908

116-14

— 74-94

•698

6-8241

4- 3-46

4 3-06

12-3657

4- 116*14

— 75-19

•699

6*8260

4- 3-41

43-09

12-3406

4. 116-14

— 75-44

•700

6-8279

4- 3-35

4-3-12

12-3154

4- 116*14

— 75-70

( 322 )

Art. XIV.— Notices regarding the Vineyards of Egypt.

.A. newly published edition of Horace, has given rise to a re-
cent discussion regarding the wines of Egypt. An anonymous
writer in one of the journals, does not admit that the Virium
mareoticum , mentioned in the 37th ode of the 1st book, came
from the neighbourhood of the lake Mareotis in Egypt, but ra-
ther from a district of Epirus, which was named Mareotis. M.
Malte Brun contradicts this opinion ; and gives a critical exa-
mination of the two passages in which Herodotus says, !<$£,
That there are no vines in Egypt ; and, 2dly, That the people
drank beer; but that the priests received an allowance of wine
daily. He adds, that M. Champollion the younger has recog-
nised upon Egyptian monuments, offerings made to the gods,
of two white flagons, which are painted red up to the lower part
of the neck, indicating a liquor of that colour ; and the Egyp-
tian word erp , which signifies wine , written beside the flagons,
removes all uncertainty with regard to the materials of the of-
fering. Strabo saw wines in Egypt in the neighbourhood of
Alexandria, which he mentions as the soil in which the mareo-
tic wine was produced. He also saw vines in other districts in
Egypt, and he correctly distinguishes their various qualities.
Pliny and Athenseus speak not less pertinently of them. Ho-
race must therefore have meant, by Vinum mareoticum , the
wine of the territory of Mareotis, near Alexandria in Egypt.
Lucan even goes so far as to make an important critical distinc-
tion, for he warns against confounding the Mareotic wine with
the exquisite wine which came from Meroe. There can remain
no doubt regarding the consequences of this letter of M. Malte
Brun, namely, that, under the Greek and Roman kings, Egypt
had vines, and made wines of various qualities ; but, before the
Greek kings, was it equally so ; and does Herodotus, who at
that period travelled in Egypt, speak truly, when he says, that
there were none ? The following note from one of the editors
of the Bulletin des Sciences, goes to solve this interesting diffi-
culty •

cc The readers of the Journal des Dehats have seen with in-
terest the animated discussion which has arisen upon the subject

Notices regardi ng the Vineyards of Egypt. 323

of the Mareotic wine of Egypt. M. Malte Brun has clearly prov-
ed the existence of wine in Ancient Egypt, and the weakness of
the arguments which have been adduced in opposition to this
fact. He might have added a decisive argument, the paintings
of the ancient hypogees of the Thebais, among which there have
been discovered, twenty years ago, representations of the vin-
tage, and of the manufacture of wine in all its stages, as well
as transparent vessels, through which the wine contained in them
is seen, so as to leave no doubt remaining with regard to the use
of that substance among the Egyptians * *. There have beeif
found also among the ruins of the cities, broken amphora?, and
at their bottom the very residue of the wine, in which the tartar
was preserved. These facts, taken in connection with the pas-
sage in Herodotus, where four arysteres of wines are allotted to
each of the two thousand guards of the king daily, effectually
remove all uncertainty with regard to the vineyards of Egypt.
Nor is Mv Costay, in his interesting memoir upon the grottoes
of Elethyia, difficulted by the other passage of Herodotus re-
garding the use of beer in Egypt *f* ; he does not even think it
necessary to combat the consequences which have been drawn
from it j.

It is thus that the attentive traveller may dispel, by a single
observation, the mists which the most profound erudition cam
not always dissipate, especially when authors contradict each
other, and when the same writer plainly contradicts himself, as
is the case with Herodotus in the matter referred to above.
However, independently of the discovery of the French travel-
lers, it might perhaps have been observed, that the historian
who denies the use of wine to the Egyptians, in the 77th chap-
ter of his second book, accords a portion of grape wine to the
Egyptain priests in the 37th chapter, and four measures of wine
to the warriors in the 168th chapter, which shews that he had
at first interpreted, in a certain sense, what he had been inform-

• The same fact has been observed In the paintings of Thebes. — Description
des Hypogees , chap. ix. p. 335. 1st Edition ; and vol. iii. p. 63. 2d edition, as well
as plate xlv- of vol. 2. of the Atlas.

*j* 44 As they have no vines in their country, they drink beer.”

X Descript, de 1’Egypte, aut. mem. t. i. p. 61. 1st edition ; and t, vi. p. 112
2d edition ; as well as Plate 68 of vol. 1, of •the Atlas.

324 Notices regarding the Vineyards of Egypt

ed with regard to the use of beer, — that, in fact, he had con-
cluded from it, that there were neither vines nor wine in Egypt,

■ — and that, at a later period, when better informed, he had
given up this opinion, but had neglected to efface it.

With regard to the nature of the soil and climate of Egypt,
there certainly is nothing in them that could induce us to think
the vine should not thrive there, or that wine could not be
made. The chemists of the French expedition (it will suffice
to name Berthollet), occupied themselves with means for intro-
ducing a good method of making wine.' They knew the vine-
yards, and the bad wine of Fidimine, a Christian village of the
province of Fayoum in Upper Egypt ; they knew that the
grape was of a much better quality, and far superior to the
grape of Alexandria ; the same, without doubt, as that from
* which the famous Mareotic wine was made, and which is well
known at our tables ; it was ultimately proposed to make wine
of it for the use of the nrmy, which could not have been very
difficult. I have remarked, that the soil was somewhat sandy
in the vicinity of Fidimine, and that of the ancient Marea, is of
the same nature.

This consideration completes the removal of all uncertainties.
Vines wrere not planted in the muddy soil, in Egypt properly so
called, as has already been remarked by learned men ; but upon
the border of the desert, a little above the level of the inunda-
tion. This cultivation was not limited to the Mareotic district,
nor to that of Arsinoe, since the same quality of soil occurs
every where upon the confines of the valley of the Nile ; since
at Elethyia, in a very insignificant catacomb, they have amused
themselves with painting the gathering of the grapes, and the
making of wine, in imitation, no doubt, of what was taking place
in the neighbourhood. Thus, without speaking of the wines of
Anthylla and Coptos, we have vineyards in Egypt under the 31st
parallel, under the 29th and 25th, and from which wine might
be provided for the annual consumption of Pharaoh’s guards,
(about 730,000 pints), besides the wine consumed by the
priests. Could we still doubt the existence of vines in Ancient
Egypt, it would suffice to read the following passage in the
Book of Numbers, chap. xx. ver. 5. : And wherefore have ye

made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil

Notices regarding the Vineyards of Egypt. 825

place ? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pome-
granates.” Egypt was so far from being destitute of the vine,
that a very ancient author goes so far as to say, that the vine
was discovered near Plinthine ; and, even according to Diodo-
rus Siculus, it was Osiris, the Egyptian Bacchus, that discover-
ed the vine at Nysa, and instructed men in the art of extracting
wine from it. If Nysa be placed in Arabia, it is, without doubt,
because there is meant the country which separates the Nile
from the Arabian Gulf, a vast tract, often called Arabia by
authors, and full of valleys adapted for the cultivation of the
vine.

With regard to the wine of Merbe , which appears attested by
grave authorities, its existence is, without doubt, more authen-
tic than that of the wonderful wine of Ethiopia, which astonish-
ed Semiramis, and not without reason, for it filled as is said, a
lake of 160 feet in circumference ; and whoever drank of it was
immediately brought to the recollection of his faults, even those
which had long been forgotten. Whatever, further, may be the
quality of the wines of Egypt, or of those of Ethiopia, we are
strongly disposed to conclude, with M. Make Brun, that those
of France are in no way inferior to them.

Art. XV. — Account of a newly invented and rotatory Gas-
Burner. By Mr James Nimmo, Edinburgh.

As you have occupied many of the pages of your useful
J ournal lately with discussions respecting the illuminating powers
of coal and oil gas, and the best contrivances which have been
made for burners of it, allow me to lay before your readers a
description of one which I invented some months ago, and which
I think is capable of many useful applications.

This burner is no less remarkable for the unexpected effect
which it exhibits, than for the real simplicity of its construction.
Its peculiarity is, that it has an incessant rotatory motion, which,
when combined with a tasteful variation of the burning jets, pro-
duces an agreeable and beautiful effect. The following is a de-
scription of it : The revolving burner consists of an outside case
or tube A (PL IX. Fig. 6.), which is filled with water three parts

326

Account of a rotatory Gas-Burner .

full ; and B is a tube which rises from the bottom, and through
the centre of the water-case, and which is perforated with holes
above the top of the water-case. In the top of the tube B is a steel
centre, terminating with a fine point, upon which the inverted
tube C revolves. This inverted tube C seals itself in the water,
and does not allow the gas emitted from the holes of the tube B
to escape ; and it has four arms of equal length, and finely bored
with small holes at the extremity of each arm for the gas to
burn at. All these holes are and must be at the same side of
each arm, to give the burner motion ; some of the holes are put
in a vertical direction, and some inclined at angles to those holes
in the sides. This part of the burner is susceptible of great
variety of contrivances, and may be carried into multiform
shapes and figures, which, added to the perpetual revolving mo-
tion of the ^hole, gives a beautiful brilliancy, very pleasing to
the eye.

The theory of it is extremely simple, and is only, that the
rotatory motion is produced by the pressure of the gas from the
gasometer being so diminished on one side of the arms of the
burner, by the small emission gas-holes, as to cause an increase
of pressure on the other side of the tube, and thus to make the
whole revolve by the smallest pressure the gas can burn at.
The water-joint is necessary to prevent the escape of the gas,
and to allow the burner to have an easy motion on the steel
point. The revolving burner is very plain and simple in its
action ; but I am convinced, from the many attempts that have
been unsuccessfully made by others to discover such a contri-
vance, that, were it publicly known, it would be of great use
and convenience for many of the purposes of life.

Art. XVI.- — Notice regarding the Phosphate of Lime of the
Coal Formation. By M. P. Berthier.

Toward the end of the last year, Messrs Manby and
Wilson sent to the laboratory of the School of Mines, for exami-
nation, specimens of the different ores of iron which the Riant
Company propose to work. Among those specimens there was
one which contained but very little iron, and which I presently

M. P, Berthier on the Phosphate of Lime. 327

perceived to be chiefly composed of phosphate of lime. This
specimen had absolutely the same appearance as the argillaceous
carbonate of iron, and the ticket attached to it indicated that it
was found under the same circumstances, that is to say, in kid-
neys, in the bituminous shales that accompany the coal. It was
lenticular, of the size of the fist, homogeneous, very fine granu-
lar, having some lustre in a very strong light, and of a deep grey
colour. The argillaceous carbonate of iron, of the coal deposit,
often contains phosphoric acid, and even in considerable propor-
tion; but until now, the phosphate of lime, in a nearly pure
state, has not been observed in this formation. The fact, inte-
resting as it is in a geological point of view, deserves also the
notice of metallurgists, and should induce them to institute a
strict examination of the ores with which the coal deposits fur-
nish them.

The specimen of the Fins phosphate of lime, on
lysed, yielded the following results :

being

ana-

Lime, - 0.363

Phosphoric Acid, - - 0.310

Phosphate of Lime (apatite),

0.670

Protoxide of Iron, - - 0.096

Carbonate of Iron,

0.157

Alumina, - 0.090

Alumina,

0.190

Water, Bitumen, & Carbonic Acid, 0.120

0.979

Water and Bitumen,

0.060

0.977

Heated, without addition, in a covered crucible, it melts into
a compact, opaque, stony mass, covered at the surface with small,
shining metallic grains. Assayed with half its weight of borax,
it produces a glass}T and enamelled scoria, and very fragile gra-
nules, which have scarcely any action upon the magnetic needle.

M. Jules Guillemin, a pupil of St Etienne, attached to the
mines of Fins, has addressed to me a note, dated the 31st July,
which contains some interesting information relative to the geo-
logical position of this ore, and to its ordinary mixtures. I here
subjoin an extract from this note.

“ This mineral is in nodules of a globular form, sometimes
flattened, always of a rather small size. These nodules occur in
great quantity in the black argillaceous schists, which separate
the second bed of coal from the sandstones that support it ; they
are not homogeneous ; their crust is almost entirely composed
of carbonate of iron. Sometimes they contain a great quantity

328

M. Humboldt’s Observations on the Horary

of transparent, laminar, carbonate of lime, which divides the mass
into small prisms ; sometimes it is coaly matter, and at other
times they are enveloped with a crust of compact sulphuret of
iron. In the centre is a nucleus of a pale-yellow or grey colour,
compact, fine granular, having the appearance of brown flint,
and traversed by impressions of gramineae : it is this nucleus
which contains the phosphate of lime. I have found in a spe-
cimen, the specific gravity of which was 2.65,

Lime, -

0.469

Phosphoric Acid,

0.39 1

Protoxide of Iron,

0.072

Carbonic Acid,

0.045

Alumina,

0.006

Coal, Water, and loss,

0.014

Phosphate of Lime, -

0.863

Carbonate of Iron,

0.117

Alumina, -

0.006

Coal, Water, and loss,

0.014

“ But the relative proportion of phosphate of lime and car-
bonate of iron varies much. The crust of a nodule assayed in
a covered crucible, without addition, gave 0.20 of hard cast-iron
( de fonte dure), equivalent to 0.43 of carbonate of iron, and a
slag weighing 0.56, which was opaque, of an apple-green colour,
and entirely similar to melted phosphate of lime.1’ — Annates des
Mines 1825.

Art. XVII. — Observations made for Determining the Progress
of the Horary Variations of the Barometer under the Tropics ,
from the Level of the Sea to the Ridge of the Cordillera of the
Andes. By M. de Humboldt.

M © de Humboldt, in the volume of his Travels lately pub-
lished in Paris, states the following interesting conclusions re-
garding the horary variations of the barometer under the Tropics.

1st, The horary variations of the barometer are perceptible
in all parts of the earth, and to the height of 2000 toises. They
are periodical, and consist of two ascending motions and two de-
scending motions, which are performed in the interval of a day.
The periods of the maxima and minima are not equidistant ;
they present separations of two hours. The maximum of the
morning falls between 8J hours and 10§ ; the minimum of the
afternoon, between 3 hours and 5 ; the maximum of the evening,
between 9 hours and 11 ; and the minimum of the night, be-
tween 3 hours and 5.

Variations of the Barometer under the Tropics. * 829

In the equatorial zone, there may be admitted, for these four
periods, 21 J, 16, 10 J, 16; and, in the temperate zone, 20 J, 3J,
9J, IT ; these numbers expressing the hours counted from
noon.

2. In the temperate zone, the periods of the maximum of the
morning, and of the minimum of the evening are nearer, by 1
or 2 hours, to the passage of the sun through the meridian in
winter than in summer. Observations are wanting regarding
the minimum of the night. M. de Humboldt recommends them
to be made.

8. In the torrid zone, the hours of the maxima and minima
are the same at the level of the sea, and on plains of from 1800
to 1400 toises in height. This is asserted not to.be the case
in some parts of the temperate zone. On Mount St Bernard,
for example, the barometer falls at the same hours at which it
is rising at Geneva.

4. Near the maxima and minima , the barometer is almost
stationary during a more or less considerable period ; this period
varies from 157 to 2 hours.

5. Between the equator and the parallels of 15° N. and S.,
the strongest winds, tempests, earthquakes, and the quickest
variations of temperature and humidity, do not interrupt or mo-
dify the periodicity of the variations. In India, on the contra-
ry, the rainy season entirely disguises the type of the horary
variations in the interior of the Continent, on the coasts, and in
the straits, although in the open sea they remain unaltered.

6. Between the tropics, a day and a night suffice for know-
ing the extreme points, and the duration of the variations. In
the latitudes of 44° and 48°, they are very distinctly manifested
in means of from 15 to 20 days.

7. The extent of the diurnal variations, at the same hours,
and in different months, is not the same. This extent also de-
creases in proportion as the latitude augments. — (See the an-
nexed Table). Lastly, The maximum of the morning is a little
higher than the maximum of the evening. The height of the
place does not influence these results.

8. The barometrical means of the months differ among' them-

mm mm

selves from 1.2 to 1.5, between the tropics ; and from 7 to
8 millim. near the tropics, nearly as in the temperate zone. The

330 M. Humboldt’s Observations on the Horary

extreme annual variations are at the same hours, near the equa-
tor, from 4 to 4^ millim. ; near the tropic of Capricorn, 21
millim. ; near the tropic of Cancer, from 25 to 30 millim.

9- Under the tropics, as in the temperate zone, on comparing
the extreme variations of the barometer month by month, the
limits of the ascending oscillations are found two or three times
nearer than the limits of the descending oscillations.

10. The observations which have been hitherto collected have
not indicated a sensible influence of the moon upon the oscilla-
tions of the atmosphere ; these oscillations appear owing to the
sun, which acts, not by the attraction of its mass, but as a calo-
rifying planet. If the solar rays produce periodical changes in
the atmosphere, there remains to be explained, why the two
barometrical minima nearly coincide with the warmest and cold-
est periods of the day and night.

Table of Observations of Horary Variation made between the
parallels of Lat. 25° ♦S'., and Lat. 55° N. from the level of the
Ocean to 1400 toises of elevation.

TORRID ZONE,

•g

® £

PLACES OF OBSERVATION.

inima of
Night.

a £

.§|

aa>

O .

-xima of 1
Evening.

III

Hiss

fasl

OBSERVERS.

|O.SS

Equatorial Atlantic Ocean,
Equatorial America, be- 1

I0h

10h

...

Lamanon & Monges.

tween Eat. 23° N. and j
12° S. to 1500 toises of)

4£

2.55

Humbolt & Bonpland.

height, - - j-

Payta (Peru), Lat. 5° 6' S.

114

3.40

Duperrev.

Guayra, Lat. 1 0° 36' N.
Bogota, Lat. 4° 35' N. )

...

2.44

Boussingault & Rivero.

Height 1366 toises. j

2.29

Indian and African Seas, \

Horsburgh.

Lat. 10° N. 25° S. j

...

Equatorial Pacific Ocean,

101

LangsdorfF & Horner.

Sierra Leone, Lat. 8° 30' N.

Sabine.

Mysore, Lat. 14° 11' N. }

height 400 toises. — V

104

101

Kater.

(Rainy Season), - j

Pacific Ocean, between l
Lat. 24° 30' N. and 25° S. y

...

Simon off.

Macao, Lat. 22° 12' N.
Calcutta, Lat. 22° 34' N.

9 .

Richelet.

...

Balfour.

Equinoctial Brazil, at Rio )

Janeiro, (Lat. 22° 54/ j

0 1

2.31

f Dorta, Freycinet,
4 Eschwege.

S.) and at the missions j
of the Coroatos Indians, j

Variations of the Barometer under the Tropics. 831

TEMPERATE ZONE.

•B

■H C O

PLACES OF OBSERVATION.

inima of
Night.

inima of
Morning

o .■

03 J?

axima of
Evening

ean exten
Osciilatio:
n lOOths
i millim.

OBSERVERS.

Las Palmas (Great Canary), Lat }

10h

llh

1.10h

De Buch.

28° 8' N. - J

Coutelle.

Cairo, Lat. 30° 3'.

10*

1.75

Toulouse, Lat. 43° 34' (mean of 5 )

1.20

f Marque

years), f

2i )

\ Yicttor.

Chambery, Lat. 45° 34V Height 1

».i

1.00

Billiet.

13 toises, - )

2 s

Clermont-Ferrand, Lat. 45° 46'. [

10)

0.94

Ramond.

Height 210 toises, - )

Strasburg, Lat. 48° 34', (mean of)
6 years,) j

i 0.80

j Herren.

( Schneider.

Paris, Lat. 48° 50', (mean of 9 years),

0.72

Arago.

La Chapelle, near Dieppe, Lat. 49° 8
55', - - - j

0.36

j Nell de
( Breautte

Konigsberg, Lat. 54° 42', (mean of)
8 years, j

0.20

j Sommer &
( Bessel.

Art. XVIII . — Experiments on the Action of ' Water upon Glass ,
with some Observations on its slow Decomposition . By Mr
T. Griffiths, Chemical Assistant in the Laboratory of the
Royal Institution *.

It is a commonly received notion that glass is capable of re-
sisting, to a very great extent, the attacks of active chemical
solvents, and that its alkali can neither be readily separated nor
exhibited in an insulated form, without regularly submitting it
to powerful decomposing agents. Speaking of glass, in common
language, without any reference to the many soluble compounds
so designated, it may be a new fact in chemistry to prove that
this singular substance possesses highly alkaline properties,
which may easily be shewn by the usual tests.

Upon reducing some thick flint-glass to a moderately fine
powder in an earthenware mortar, for the purpose of analysis, a
portion of it was placed on turmeric paper, with the view of de-
termining if it possessed any sensible alkaline property ; and,
upon being moistened with water, the yellow colour of the test-

* Journal of the Royal Institution,

332 Mr Griffiths’s Experiments

paper was instantly reddened, nearly as powerfully as if lime had
been employed.

This effect was considered as accidental, and as probably
arising from some adventitious alkaline matter, or soap, adher-
ing to the vessels employed. Another experiment was made,
with greater care, in an agate-mortar, but with the same, or even
a more decided result, in consequence of the more minute divi-
sion of the material. When pulverized on perfectly clean and
polished surfaces of iron, steel, zinc, copper, silver, and platinum,
the effect took place, and apparently with equal facility ; but it
was found that the presence of small quantities of oxide of iron
greatly diminished it, in consequence, as was afterwards proved,
of the particles of glass being by them defended from the con-
tact of water.

Since there are some saline bodies and metallic combinations
which give indications of alkali to turmeric paper, although
perfectly neutral compounds, and as pure magnesia reddens this
paper when moistened with water, although no solution can be
shewn to take place, possibly this might be an effect of the kind,
it scarcely appearing probable that any soluble matter should be
abstracted from the powdered glass by the mere affusion of pure
water. Litmus paper, therefore, reddened by an acid, and paper
stained with tfie blue infusion of ^abbage, were also employed
as tests ; the former had its blue colour restored, and the latter
was rendered green.

A portion of flint-glass, in fine powder, was boiled in water
for some hours ; upon being allowed to cool and subside, the
clear portion was decanted and evaporated, and became strongly
alkaline to the taste, and to other usual tests ; a drop of its con-
centrated solution, gradually evaporated on a glass-plate, on ex-
posure to the atmosphere, in a short time became deliquescent.
Tartaric acid produced an effervescence, and afterwards a preci-
pitate in this solution ; as likewise did muriate of platinum.
From these experiments, therefore, it may be fairly inferred,
that the alkali removed from the glass was potash in an uncom-
bined state, and that the alkaline effect, combined in the first
instance, did not depend upon the presence of any alkaline
salts, or combination, adhering to or diffused throughout the
glass.

333

on the Action of Water upon Glass .

The remaining sediment from the above solution, after having
been repeatedly washed in successive portions of water, became
inert as to its action on test papers, not affecting their colours in
the slightest degree ; but, upon trituration , its alkaline power
was again developed ; this property being evidently dependent
upon the exposure of a new or undecomposed surface. A slight
application of heat to the water was found greatly to facilitate
this evolution of alkali.

In order to determine the quantity of alkaline matter ab-
stracted from a given weight of glass, by long and continued
boiling, 100 grains of flint-glass, in fine powder, were boiled
nearly every day for some weeks, in two or three successive por-
tions of water; after this process, the insoluble residue was
found deficient in weight by nearly seven grains. This result,
however, must not be considered as accurate, but as a mere ap-
proximation : for, on the one hand, small portions of glass might
have been carried away in the supernatant liquor ; and, on the
other, more alkali might have been abstracted by repeatedly tri-
turating during the process, which, under these circumstances,
would be almost unlimited.

To some pure, dilute, muriatic acid was added very fine flint-
glass, in powder, till it was completely neutralised by its alkaline
effect. Upon being allowed to subside (which, however, was not
very readily effected, minute particles remaining suspended for
weeks together), the clear portion afforded a crystalline salt on
evaporation, having the characters of muriate of potash.

It may be remarked, that this solution, when perfectly clear,
contained no lead, on testing for it by sulphuretted hydrogen;
but upon agitating or diffusing the fine powder of glass through
water, holding the gas in solution, it was immediately discoloured
or blackened.

Flint-glass, although chosen for the above experiments, is not
the only variety possessing this remarkable property ; crown and
plate glass, white enamel, and what is more remarkable, New-
castle green-bottle glass, and tube of the same material (in the
composition of which there is, comparatively, little alkali), also
Reaumur’s porcelain, made from the green-bottle glass, possess
the power of acting upon vegetable colours as alkalies.

These experiments, tending to prove that glass is a body of
VOL. XIV. m 82. APRIL 1826. Y

334

Mr Griffiths’s Experiments

irregular composition, parting readily with its alkali by the ac-
tion of water, it became a matter of some interest to determine
how far certain natural combinations of potash with siliceous
matter were equally active to the same tests, especially as in
green-bottle glass, which contains little alkali, it is thus rendered
evident. No analogous effect could, however, be produced by
powders of felspar, basalt, greenstone, granite, obsidian, pumice,
and some others, even when boiled with water, a method which
never failed to produce it rapidly with glass, although cold water
is perfectly sufficient.

Some interesting conclusions may be drawn from the above
experiments, which may tend to explain several well-known
phenomena.

In the first place, with regard to the glasses employed, in the
laboratory, or for domestic uses, it must be evident that water
has the power of acting upon and dissolving the alkali at the
surface, and leaving an insoluble portion spread as a coating-
over the interior of the vessel, defending it from further imme-
diate action.

Where, however, time can be allowed, the effect does not ap-
pear to be confined to mere surface. In collections of ancient
glass, specimens may be selected, exhibiting how extensively an
analogous action has been going on during the period they have
remained buried in the earth. These vitreous relics of antiquity
are often covered, to a considerable thickness, with opal pearly
scales of beautiful appearance, consisting almost wholly of silica,
whose alkali had been removed probably by the action of the
water *.

A fragment of transparent ancient glass was examined with
regard to its alkaline property, which it was found to enjoy in a
high degree, being sensibly alkaline (when in powder) to the
tongue, and its hot solution acting upon the cuticle. It appeared
to consist almost entirely of potash and silica ; not the smallest
trace of lead being discoverable in it; several other coloured
specimens of ancient glass, upon examination, were, in every

* The opal is a hydrate of silica : May not its formation have taken place by
a similar agency acting upon natural combinations ? The removal of alkali from
siliceous compounds may have left opal thus constituted.

on the Action of Water upon Glass. S3 5

case, more highly alkaline than any modern glass containing
lead, that has hitherto been examined.

The specific gravity of common flint-glass was taken by way
•of comparison with the ancient fragments above mentioned, the
result of which is here given. Flint-glass, S. G., 3.208. Ancient
glass, 2.875. It may here be remarked, that the latter acted
powerfully upon the test paper, by merely moistening it, with-
out reduction to powder. It cannot be surprising, therefore,
that ancient glass, which may almost be called pure silicate of
potash, should be occasionally found in states of such rapid de-
cay, as the specimens in collections often exhibit.

Another proof of the action of water, aided by other concomi-
tant circumstances, in producing decomposition upon glass, is
an account given in vol. i. p. 135, of the Quarterly Journal of
Science, of some bottles of wine, found in a quantity of black
mud at the bottom of an old well, full of burned wood, supposed,
upon good authority, to be of anterior date to the fire of Lon-
don (1666). The siliceous earth, in this instance, separated in
films on the surface of the bottle, in consequence of the abstrac-
tion of alkaline matter, probably by the action of water, aided
perhaps originally by a certain degree of heat, and afterwards
by the long period of their continuance in a situation favourable
to the decomposing agency.

In contact with ammoniacal, or decomposing animal matter,
the disintegration of glass takes place more rapidly. Stable-
windows, and bottles kept in such situations, often present a
very beautiful iridescent appearance, in consequence of the sili-
ceous matter being developed in thin plates on its surface, often
amounting to a pearly, and sometimes almost metallic, appear-
ance ; an effect which, it is believed, has not been hitherto in-
vestigated.

Solution of potash acts very rapidly upon glass, as the chemist,
often inconveniently, learns by the effect produced upon the bulb
of a thermometer, employed to determine its boiling point, and
which is always found corroded to a considerable extent after the
experiment.

It may also here be remarked (although not perhaps imme-
diately connected with the subject), that from frequent observa-
tions by a person in the habit of using solid carbonate of am-

y 2

336 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

monia, the flint-glass bottles in which it has been for some time
kept are invariably rendered much more brittle, and pieces
of glass fall out upon very slight motion of its contents. This
fact is merely men tioned as curious* and may probably be here-
after more fully examined.

Art. XIX. — Observations and Experiments on the Structure
and Functions of the Sponge. By Robert E. Grant,
M. D., F. It. S. E., F. L. S., M. W. S., &c. (Continued from
VoL XIII. p. 124.)

though a minute examination of the internal structure of
the living sponge is obviously the most natural and necessary
step towards discovering its mode of growth and generation, and
consequently the place this substance occupies in the scale of
beings, and is certainly that most likely to lead to the discovery
of some more fixed and scientific principles for discriminating
the species, than the vague characters hitherto employed ; yet
we can scarcely discover, in the writings of zoologists, since the
time of Aristotle, any attempt to investigate its structure in a
scientific manner. Although Pallas, Lamouroux, Lamarck,
Schweigger, and almost every modern zoologist, have considered
the examination of this animal, in its recent state, as still an im-
portant desideratum in comparative anatomy ; yet the deficiency
is generally supplied only by ingenious conjectures from the ap-
pearance of dried specimens, or by supposed analogies with other
vegetable or animal productions, rather than by patient dissec-
tion of the animal in its natural state. Cuvier states in his
Regne Animal (t. iv. p. 87.), that the sponge is a fleshy sub-
stance, possessing no axis, either calcareous or horny ; although
we shall find, that, in one great tribe of these zoophytes, with
spicula of complex forms, the axis is entirely calcareous and so-
luble, with effervescence, in acids ; and it is well known, that
the horny axis, of several sponges, have been constantly em-
ployed in the arts since the time of Alexander the Great, if not
since the period of the Trojan war. Professor Schweigger of
Konigsberg, who examined these animals alive, principally at
Nice, believes that their axis consists of fibres which possess a

and Functions of the Sponge . 337

small degree of irritability, by which they gradually contract
the dimensions of the animal when it is irritated, and thus force
out the water from its canalsf{2?eo&. auf N. II. 1819, p. 33.) ;
although, in his experiments, he could not excite them to the
slightest perceptible motion ; and in most of the known species
these fibres are composed of minute siliceous tubes, which scratch
glass and resist the action of the blowpipe. Lamarck, reason-
ing from mere analogy, maintains, that every species of sponge
possesses distinct polypi, closely resembling those of alcyonia,
projecting from its surface ; and that these two genera of zoo-
phytes differ only in the greater or less density of their gelati-
nous matter ( An. sans Vert. t. ii. p. 348-9.) ; although his coun-
tryman Jussieu, nearly a century ago, by desire of the French
Academy, examined with the microscope the Spongia ramosa ,
fresh from the rocks on the coast of France, and reported, that
he could discover no kind of polypi in that animal ( Mem. de
V Ac , 1742) ; and the accuracy of Jussieu’s observations has been
confirmed on a great variety of sponges, by every succeeding
observer, as by Cavolini, Lamouroux, Schweigger, & c. It was
scarcely consistent in Cavolini to consider the gelatinous matter
as the muscular system of this animal ( Abhand. uber Pfianz-tlu
SprengeVs edit p. 124-6.), after he had repeatedly tried in vain
to excite it to contract. One naturalist, well acquainted with the
characters and habits of these animals, infers from analogy, that
they possess nerves ( Phil, of Zool. vol. i. p. 45.) ; while another,
who has likewise studied them in the living and dried state, main-
tains, that they are animals which possess no organ whatever, either
for growth or generation ( Lamouroux Hist des Polyp, p. 14).
From observing the canals of the sponge constantly empty, or
filled only with water, Lichtenstein was led to believe this sub-
stance to be merely a dead mass of the empty tubes of alcyonia,
remaining after the decayed polypi had been washed out ( Shriv.
af Nat Set Kiob. 1794). Blumenbach, and some other natu-
ralists, apparently not aware of the close similarity of the fib-
rous axis of the sponge to that of some zoophytes, already known
to possess polypi, and its dissimilarity to that of any known
plant, and obviously not acquainted with the rapid currents and
feculent discharges from its orifices, described by Ellis, Schweig-
ger, Bell, &c. still regard the sponge as a plant, and consequent-

SSS Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

Ij destitute of nerves, and muscular system, and polypi, and
every kind of spontaneous motion, (Blum. Nat. Hist. 1825).
This singular discordance of opinion among eminent naturalists
of the present day, shows how little is yet known of the living
organization and functions of this zoophyte, and the interesting
field of discovery which lies open to those who love nature, and
frequent the shores of the ocean.

In all the sponges I have met with alive, a distinct, soft,
transparent matter, can he observed between the fibres ; in some
species, as the S. panicea , this matter is abundant and ropy ; in
others, as the S. papillaris and coalita , it is much thinner ; and
in others, as the compressa and oculata , it is found in smaller
quantity. Probably no organized body can exist without simi-
lar soft parts. The fibrous part being always insoluble in wa-
ter, can easily be procured separate from the soft matter, by im-
mersing it repeatedly in hot water ; it forms a net- work through
every part of the body, and constitutes the aocis or skeleton of
this zoophyte, serving, as in other animals, to give form to the
body, and support and protection to the softer organs. The
axis is the part employed in the arts, or preserved in the cabi-
nets of naturalists ; it is the part of the animal which remains in
a fossil state in the earth, as in the numerous fossil species found
near Caen in France, ( Lamx. Exp. Meth.) ; and it is that from
which Aristotle and his successors have constantly taken the
characters of the species. The structure of this part, or indeed
of any other part of the sponge, cannot be observed without the
assistance of the microscope ; and it is well known that most
zoophytes were regarded as plants, till the microscope reformed
this part of science. But the minutest microscopical examina-
tion of the dried skeleton will not suffice alone to explain the
living functions, or establish the nature of this animal. La-
marck, however, appears to have been misled by dried speci-
mens or plates, or by preconceived hypothesis, in placing among
the species of alcyonium the Spongia cristate, S. tomentosa or
urens , S. panicea , and S. palmate of Ellis, which are common
and well marked sponges, inhabiting our own coasts ; and the
Spongia clavata of Esper, which he has ranked as a variety of
the Alcyonium distortum , has been lately shown by Schweigger

and Functions of the Sponge. 389

to be a species of sponge resembling in texture the S. oculata
{ Beob . p. 29).

The axis differs so entirely in its nature in different sponges,
that the living properties observed in one species, ought with
very great caution to be extended to any other, and naturalists
may probably take advantage of this difference, in classifying or
subdividing this numerous and obscure tribe. In some species
as the S. communis , usitatissima , lacinulosa , fulva , jistulosa ,
the axis consists only of cylindrical tubular horny fibres, which
dissolve without effervescence in acids, leave no trace when rub-
bed on glass, and consume like hair when burnt, emitting the
same horny odour. In others, as the S. compressa , nivea , (a
small sessile species with triradiate, quadriradiate, and simple
spicula, to be noticed hereafter, which I have so named from
its beautiful white colour), botryoides, coronata , pulverulenta ,
the skeleton consists entirely of calcareous spicula, which dis-
appear before the blowpipe, do not scratch glass, and dis-
solve with effervescence in nitric, sulphuric, and muriatic acids.
And in others as the S. cristaia , papillaris , tomentosa , panicea ,
coalita , oculata , dichotoma , stuposa , alcicornis , compacta , jruti-
cosa , parasitica , hirsuta , palmata , infundibidiformis , ventila-
brum , hispida , suberica , nodosa , we observe neither the horny
tubular fibres of the first variety, nor the calcareous spicula of
the second, but their whole axis is composed of minute siliceous
tubular spicula, which, in dried specimens, appear drawn toge-
ther into a longitudinal direction by the hardening of their con-
necting matter*; these spicula scratch glass, do not dissolve in the
above acids, nor ^consume by the blowpipe. The siliceous spe-
cies abound on our shores, the calcareous are more rare, and I
am not aware that any of the horny sponges has ever been ob-
served so far north as the British shores.

Every one is familiar with the softness and remarkable elasti-
city of the common sponge, S. communis , which is the best ex-
ample of the horny kind of axis. When a piece of it is brought
near the flame of a candle, its fibres coil up, melt, and consume
to a very small, light ash, with a horny smell, like hair ; when
a portion of it, well washed from sandy particles, is rubbed with
a wooden instrument on glass, it leaves no perceptible streaks ;
when thrown into sulphuric or nitric acid, it diminishes in size,
softens, and dissolves, without effervescence, into a brown pulpy

540 Dr Grant’s Observations on the Structure

matter, like other horny substances, and no spiculum is obser-
ved in the dissolved matter or precipitated to the bottom. Its
fibres, and every thing, of this nature, are best examined through
the microscope, when they are suspended in water, and viewed
by transmitted light. In this manner we observe them to be re-
gularly cylindrical, translucent, of a brownish yellow colour,
smooth on their external surface, all nearly of the same diame-
ter, and distinctly tubular ; they are tough, flexible, very elastic,
generally quite straight, and they anastomose freely and com-
pletely with each other, through the whole body of the animal.
Their diameter is about a third of that of a human hair, their
length between their points of union^varies from a tenth of a line
to a line, and their internal tubular cavity occupies about half of
their diameter, so that these horny fibres have a close resem-
blance to the spicula of many other sponges. From the clear-
ness of the light transmitted through their central part;, their
internal cavity appears to be empty, which is not the case in the
S.Jitlva and jistulosa. They unite at all angles, and they are a
little dilated at their points of union ; their internal cavities open
freely into each other, and a small angular reservoir is formed
at the place where they meet ; they have no intervening connect-
ing matter, no line of separation can be discovered at the angles
where they pass into each other, and no opening is perceptible
leading from their surface into their internal cavities ; so that
there is a continuous shut cavity in the interior of the fibres
throughout the body of the largest common sponge, and these
horny tubes winding round the pores and canals, cannot, there-
fore, be the cells of any kind of polypi, destined to create cur-
rents or other motions within the canals of this animal. The
fibres unite so as to form polygons, whose sides lie almost al-
ways in different planes. The great elasticity of the: axis shews
that the orifices and canals, so obvious in this species, could
not have been formed and left permanent, by any marine worms
or insects merely traversing its texture ; but must have formed a
part of its original structure. The internal cavity of the strong
horny fibres of the S. jistulosa and S. fulva , is completely filled
with a dark granular opaque matter, which is continued from
one fibre into another. This opaque matter renders the limits of
the tubular cavity very distinct, and probably is the cause of
these fibres being so remarkably hard and brittle, compared with

341

and F unctions of the Sponge.

the empty tubular fibers of the S. communis. The fibres of this
last species, when highly magnified, resemble the empty stems
of dead sertularise, from whose central axis the granular matter
has been washed out, or consumed by animalcules, while the fibres
of the two former species resemble the stems of living sertularise,
whose central cavity is always filled with soft, moving, granular
bodies.

Art. XX. — A concise Statement of the Magnetical and other
Philosophical Experiments and Observations made during
the recent Northern Expedition under Captains Parry and
Hopner 1824-5. By a Correspondent.

It was stated in our last Number, that the papers containing
the detail of the above experiments were in the hands of the
Admiralty. They have since been laid before the Royal Society,
by whom they are expected to be published, forming an addi-
tional part, as was done last year in the case of Messrs Herschel
and South’s paper, containing their observations on the Double
Stars. The expence of both being defrayed by the Board of
Longitude.

The first and most extended paper is by Lieutenant Foster, con-
taining a detail of his observations on the length of the seconds’
pendulum, with the instrument which Captain Sabine employed in
the numerous observations he made in various parts of the nor-
thern hemisphere. The nature of these observations is too well
known to require any description of them in this place ; but with
respect to the observer, it may he proper to state, that he is the
gentleman who accompanied and assisted Captain Basil Hall in
his interesting voyage to the western coast of America, and who
afterwards assisted Captain Clavering in his voyage to Spitzber-
gen and the eastern coast of Greenland, and whose accuracy
as an observer, and indefatigable exertions, in every scientific
pursuit, cannot fail henceforward to place his name amongst
the most distinguished scientific navigators of England *.

* We are glad to learn that Lieutenant Foster is at present engaged in pre-
paring for another scientific voyage to the southward. He will accompany Cap-
tain King in the Endeavour.

342 Magnetical Experiments and Observations

The paper to which we now refer, contains the detail of four
distinct series of pendulum observations ; the first at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, in May 1824, prior to the voyage;
the second and third at Port Bowen in Prince Regent’s Inlet
where the Hecla and Fury wintered; and the fourth, which is
indeed composed of two distinct sets, at the Royal Observatory
on the return of the expedition.

The result of these experiments is in the highest degree satis-
factory. The difference in the two Greenwich sets of observations,
after an interval of eighteen months, under a different pressure,
and after the pendulum had been exposed to a temperature of
47° below zero, is only that of two- tenths of a vibration in twen-
ty-four hours; and the two series at Port Bowen give a still
nearer approximation. In the former place, the observations
were made in a room selected for the purpose by the astronomer
royal ; in the latter, in a snow-house, ingeniously constructed.
By comparing the mean from the two series at each station, the
author finds, for the ellipticity of the earth, which agrees
well with a number of other independent observations, and is not
very wide of the general deduction by Laplace, which is
although it differs widely from the means deduced by Captain
Sabine, which is It must, however, be carefully remem-

bered, that this ellipticity of Captain Sabine is obtained by an
accommodation of results, and is by no means directly deduci-
ble from his observations. It is merely that ellipticity which gives
the least errors ; and if we had any reason to believe that the
earth was a spheroid of uniform ellipticity, the result obtained by
Captain Sabine might be admissible ; but is it not probable that
different arcs have really different ellipticities ? and if so, the
mean obtained by encreasing the number of vibrations by Jive
in one place, and decreasing them by the same number in ano-
ther, in the space of twenty-four hours, must be considered un-
satisfactory, if not erroneous. It is, in fact, assuming a uni-
formity of figure, which is at variance with all the best recorded
experiments, amongst which those by Captain Sabine himself
are justly included. We admire the accuracy of his experi-
ments, but object altogether to his deductions ; and we sincere-
ly recommend to Lieutenant Foster, in all his future experi-
ments, to observe the same rigid adherence to his experimental

84$

made during the recent Northern Expedition.

results as he has hitherto adopted, and not allow himself to spe-
culate on accordances which may have no existence in nature.

Another extensive table of experiments, is a joint communi-
cation by Captain Parry and Lieutenant Foster, on the daily
variation of the horizontal needle, in which they were assisted
by most of the officers in the expedition. These experiments
were commenced the 1st of January 18&5, and continued, by
hourly observations, to June; the results are highly curious
and interesting. The daily variation of the needle in England
ranges from about 6 or 7 minutes of a degree to 15 minutes ; the
former being the quantity due to the winter months, and the
latter to the summer. It is, however, in either case but an
inconsiderable quantity, and without great care, and very deli-
cate suspensions, is not easily observed. Mr Barlow, some time
back, proposed to increase this daily motion, by diminishing the
directive powers of the needle by the application of other mag-
nets, and having succeeded by this means in rendering it a very
observable quantity, it became desirable to trace this motion in
other and higher latitudes ; and, accordingly, it furnished a
very favourite pursuit to Captain Parry, lieutenant Foster, and
the other officers of the expedition. The apparatus was erected
in December, and it was soon found, that instead of a variation
of 6 or 7 minutes, as we have stated, to be the quantity at that
season in England, they had a daily motion of nearly as many
degrees, without using the means which were obliged to be had
recourse to in England to increase the amount. In short, the
needle was in a perpetual state of vibration, but still following a
certain order in its motion, and which increased as the sun ad-
vanced to the summer solstice. The dip of the needle at Port
Bowen was 88°, consequently the directive power of the needle
was very small, and being in almost constant motion, it was im-
possible to ascertain the true mean magnetic meridian ; but it was
observed by Mr Hooper (who had made a graphical represen-
tation of the motion, according to a plan which Mr Christie had
employed on a former occasion), that there was only one meri-
dian, out of the many which the needle had traversed, which
had been passed every day during the needle’s motion ; and for
this reason the preference was given to this, and it was accord-
ingly assumed as the true magnetic meridian. The mean time

344 Magnetical Experiments and Observations

at which the needle traversed this meridian, going to the west-
ward, was about five o’clock in the afternoon, and going east-
ward about six o’clock in the morning. The greatest easterly
deviation happened at about ten o’clock in the morning, and the
greatest westerly about the same time in the evening, observing
that we here speak of the true easterly and westerly points, and
not of the magnetic east and west ; we ought, perhaps, rather
to have said, that the greatest westerly magnetic bearing was
at ten o’clock in the morning, and the greatest easterly at ten
o’clock in the evening, for the mean variations being at Port
Bowen about 124° westerly, the true and magnetic points were
nearly reversed. The daily motion of the sun was obviously a
primary cause of this daily variation, because it increased as the
power of the sun increased ; but it was very considerable even
while the latter made its whole daily revolution below the hori-
zon ; and when it afterwards never sunk below the horizon, the
character of the daily variations was preserved, the only change
having been in the amount which was considerably greater in
the latter case than in the former. It is the opinion, also, both of
Captain Parry and of Lieutenant Foster, that some part of the
observed changes was owing to the influence of the moon ; the
mean daily motion having been found uniformly greater at the
time of conjunction than in quadrature or opposition.

In the experiments before alluded to by Mr Barlow, the
needle was, by means of his neutralizing magnets, held at vari-
ous points of the compass, in order, if possible, to trace out the
direction of the force which produced the daily change in the di-
rection of the needle ; and he found a line about 16° to the
west of the magnetic north, in which, when the needle was
placed, there was no daily motion ; or, at least, the motion was
then at its minimum. Similar experiments were made at Port
Bowen by Lieutenant Foster ; and having carefully neutralized
the needle, instead of a daily motion of 5° and 6°, he now ob-
tained, in some positions, a variation of 50° and 60°, decreas-
ing, as in Mr Barlow’s, towards a minimum. In the present
case, the line of no daily motion was about 84° from the meridian,
and the order of the motion on each side of this line, as in those
above referred to, was reversed, the needle on one side of this

line passing to the right, and on the other side to the left, at the

made during the recent Northern Expedition. 345

same hour of the day ; and it is remarkable that the position
of this line, as referred to the true meridian, has precisely the
same bearing as in England ; viz. that is about N. 40° west.
Besides these daily changes in the direction of the horizontal
needle, it was found that its intensity also experienced a very
considerable change ; and observations were accordingly insti-
tuted relative to that inquiry, and continued hourly for several
months. These were performed by registering the time which
the needle required to perform a certain number of vibrations ;
and which time varied from 17 to 18 minutes, increasing and
decreasing regularly twice in the day with the variation. A
similar change is known to obtain in Europe ; but it is very in-
considerable. It appears, therefore, that both the daily varia-
tion in direction and in intensity, are dependent on the same
cause ; and that this cause, whatever it may be, operates much
more powerfully in places where the dip is great, than in others
where it is less considerable, as in England, France, &c.

We understand that Lieutenant Foster has still another
communication to lay before the Royal Society, which is intend-
ed to point towards the cause of these various changes; and
which is founded on a comparison of simultaneous observations
on the intensity of the dipping and horizontal needle ; but we
are unacquainted with the results and deductions of this ingeni-
ous and accurate observer on this particular subject. The in-
quiry is one of great interest ; and we are glad it has fallen into
such able hands. If the cause in this case can be satisfactorily
traced, we feel assured that terrestrial magnetism will soon be
placed upon a level with most of the other physico-mathemati-
cal sciences. Should this be the case, although no other result
had been obtained by the recent expedition, we should consider
that a full reward had been secured for all the labours and ex-
pences attending this otherwise unfortunate voyage.

In concluding this brief notice, it is but justice to state, that
the communications referred to above, although delivered only
in the names of Captain Parry and Lieutenant Foster, may be
almost considered as the joint labours of all the officers of the-
expedition. When we consider that the operations were carried
on at a considerable distance from the ship, in a temperature
frequently 40° and 47° below zero, with the sun for a considera-

3 46 Messrs Coldstream and Foggo’s Meteorological

ble part of the time constantly below the horizon ; and that not-
withstanding these impediments, we have hourly observations,
day and night, for nearly six months, it must be obvious, that
the views of the two leading observers must have been cheer-
fully seconded by every officer ; and we are pleased to observe,
on this point, the most cordial and liberal acknowledgment on
the part of the authors, of their obligation to Captain Hopner,
to Mr Hooper, and to the officers in general, for their valuable
assistance.

Besides the above communications to the Royal Society, se-
veral other experiments and observations were made ; viz. on
the application of Barlow’s correcting plate ; on the refraction
of the atmosphere ; on Daniel’s hygrometers on the radiation of
heat and the velocity of sound, which will be published in the
appendix to the Account of the .Voyage, at present in the press,
by Captain Parry.

Aut. XXI. — Meteorological Observations made at Leith. By
Messrs Coldstream and Fqggo.

J[ HE journal, from which the following monthly results are
extracted, is kept about 20 feet above the level of the sea, and
a few hundred yards distant from it. The Thermometer is re-
gistered at 9 a. m. and 9 p. m. ; the Barometer at 9 a. m. Noon,
4 p. m. and 9 p.m.; the Rain-Gauge and Wind-Vane at Noon.
The Hygrometrical observations are made by means of two
Thermometers, one of which has its bulb covered with silk, and
moistened with water ; their indications are registered at noon.

DECEMBER 1825.

Results.

1. Temperature.

Mean of the month,

Maximum by Register Thermometer,

Minimum by ditto,

Range,

Mean of the extremes, .....

2. Pressure.

Mean of the month,

Maximum observed,

Minimum observed,

Range,

Fahr. Ther.
. 39°.295
. 51.500
. 26.000
. 25.500
. 38.750
Inches.

. 29.447
. 29.850
, 28.750
. 1.100

Observations made at Leith . 347

3.' Humidity. Fahr. Then

Mean difference during the month between the two Ther-
mometers, 1°.37

Maximum ditto, 2.30

Minimum ditto, 0.20

4. Rain, 2.34 inches in 15 days.

5. Winds, . N. 4, NE. 1, E. 7, SE. 5, S. 1. SW.5, W. 5,

NW. 2, Var. 1, days.

Remarks.

No phenomena of particular interest have occurred during December.
The pressure has been upon the whole low ; and the temperature, winds, and
rain, have been moderate.

At 5 p. m. of the 14th, a thunder storm was experienced in many districts
in Scotland, especially in Fifeshire ; where the lightning killed several cattle,
and set fire to some stacks of hay. In England, the same storm seems to have
extended its ravages very widely : it was perhaps most severely felt about
Northampton, Leicester, and Doncaster. Here, the pressure on that day was
very low. At 9 a. m. the barometrical column stood at 29.05, whence it de-
scended to 28.75 in the afternoon, and rose again a few tenths in the evening.
The winds were variable, but chiefly E. and SW. very strong. Mean tem-
perature of the day 41°, 0 ; minimum 36°, 5 ; maximum 45°, 5.

The last ten days of the month were very pleasant ; pressure moderate.
Temperature about 33°, 5. Winds N. and W. On the 27th, at noon, the
force of solar radiation was 31°, the temperature of the air being 34° ; that in-
dicated by the black thermometer exposed to the sun’s rays 65°. A little snow
fell on the low grounds on the 29th and 30th ; the" neighbouring hills having
been covered for some days previous.

ANNUAL KESULTS.

We have thrown the principal results afforded by our journal for 1825, in-
to the annexed Table ; to illustrate which, we think it may be proper to take a
general survey of the meteorological history of the year ; such a survey or
running commentary (if we may be allowed the expression), being better cal-
culated than mere numerical detail to interest practical men, and to induce
them to pay that attention to meteorology, which its importance to the best
interests of our race seems to claim for it, not as a matter of a few mi-
nutes notice only, day after day, but as a science, evidently capable of the
greatest improvements, from the lights of modern philosophy. It is in-
deed gratifying to observe, in the pages of some contemporary Journals^
strong evidence of a spirit for careful meteorological research diffusing itself
over the country, and that those who have already imbibed this spirit, are the
very men, who, of all others, are the best qualified, from the advantages of si-
tuation and occupation, to advance the science ; and undoubtedly they will do
so, if they pay that attention to it which it requires. We allude to the agri-
culturists of Scotland ; and we hope that they will continue to improve their
means of research, and not rest satisfied with trusting in the popular and er-
roneous opinions still abroad concerning the phenomena and laws of atmosphe-

348 Messrs Coldstream and Foggo’s Meteorological

ric variations, and which, except they who have by far the best opportunities
for observation correct them, will never be investigated by philosophers.

During the last three months of the year 1824, the weather was particu-
larly stormy ; a very large quantity of rain fell, and the winds were unusually
boisterous ; but the commencement of 1825 ushered in a new state of things;
the violence of the winds gradually abated ; the pressure, which, during the
preceding months, had been very low, increased rapidly, and rose unprecedent-
edly high ; and the temperature was much elevated for the season : it rained
during January on 11 days. February was a very pleasant month, mild and
dry ; pressure remarkably steady for the season, and gradual in its variations.
No storms of wind occurred. Only 0.8 of an inch of rain fell ; and the frosts,
even in upland districts, were so slight, as scarcely to prevent the plough con-
tinuing its progress, except for a day or two. On the 26th, in the south of
Scotland, there was a slight fall of snow, and another on the 28th. March was
remarkable on account of the long period of dry weather which occurred.
During the whole month, only 0.2 of an inch of rain fell : the pressure was
very steady, and high. Temperature about the usual mean. The sun’s rays
were sometimes very powerful: their maximum effect observed was 58°, 5,
which is very high for the season. Mr Daniell, in the course of three years’
observations, never saw the force of solar radiation exceed 49° in March. About
the beginning of the month, there was a little snow, which lay fo~ a few days
on the hills, but quickly vanished from the low grounds.

In April, there were only 6 wet days, and only 0.2 of an inch of rain, so
that the ground got quite dry, the effect of the excessive rains in 1824 being
completely annihilated. West winds prevailed during the first 20 days, and
east during the remainder of the month. “ Owing to this very favourable
weather, there was more than the usual proportion of spring wheat sown. All
the grain crops were in the ground before May, and they never got a drier
bed. A more favourable lambing season could not have been wished for.”

In the beginning of May, vegetation was far advanced : in many parts of
Scotland it was said to be 15 or 20 days earlier than usual. The distinguish-
ing character of the month was the prevalence of easterly winds, these having
blown rather strongly for 22 days. A little rain fell during the first week,
but none again till the 25th. On the 28th, all the neighbouring hills were co-
vered with snow : about 0.40 of an inch of rain had fallen the day before on the
low lands.

The weather during June was variable : the sky was frequently obscured
by dense clouds. Temperature and pressure moderate ; winds variable. The
seasonable intervals of bright sunshine, and the genial moisture, raised a most
luxuriant growth of every kind of farm crop, and gave to the horticulturist
the brightest prospects of a well stocked orchard.

July was particularly characterised by the prevalence of unusually high
temperatures, and a long continuance of dry weather. On the 1st, 10th and
15th, heavy rain fell, but none during the rest of the month. The winds were
variable, both in direction and strength. It was after the 15th that the tem-
perature began to be oppressive. Here, the thermometer was not observed
above 81° in the shade ; but in many inland situations it was seen above 85®.
It is certain, at least, that, throughout the whole of Scotland, the mean tem-
perature of the atmosphere was for several days above 70°, a degree of heat

349

Observations made at Leith .

rarely experienced in this country. The force of solar radiation during this
period was also very great. We observed it several times to exceed 65° ; and
on the 27th it was 7 5°, the covered thermometer having risen in the sun-beams
to 150°. The consequence of this excessive heat was, that the country was
“ burnt up and in many districts the crops were brought to a premature
harvest. “Up till the middle of June, the season was the finest ever recol-
lected ; at that period, if there ever was as great, there certainly never was a
greater promise of crop in the country ; but the want, not only of rain, but al-
so of dew, since that time, has greatly curtailed our prospects.” The follow-
ing relates to Perthshire : “ At the end of April, the soil was, for the most
part, tolerably well saturated with moisture. A regular and moderate supply
of rain in May, afforded sufficient moisture to the growing crops ; but about
the 8th of June, the heat began to be oppressive, and the rains less frequent.
July passed with scarce any rain, while the temperature was unusually high.
On the 27th, the thermometer stood at 87° in the shade, an elevation which
it has not reached in Perthshire for twelve years before ; nor during the same
period have the rains been so limited. In the northern parts of the county,
indeed, thunder showers were frequent, and the soil was liberally supplied with
moisture ; but in all the southern districts, the drought was most severe. On
light gravelly soils, the crop will be very short, and the extreme heat, with
clear sunshine, is bringing on a premature ripeness. In the early districts,
the pastures are completely burnt up.”

The crops derived the greatest advantage from heavy rains which fell du-
ring the first two weeks of August, while the remainder of the month was as
favourable to the operations of harvest as could be wished : the weather was
steady, no rain fell ; and the radiation from the sun was direct and powerful.
The mean temperature of the month was 58°, 2, and more than 2 inches of rain
were measured. The autumnal diseases prevailed towards the latter end of
the month, to a very great extent in many districts ; and on the whole, the
season may be said to have been a sickly one.

September was a pleasant month, and was favourable for the most part to
field operations. The pressure was rather low, and the humidity considerable,
although less rain fell than during the preceding month.

In October, there was a great prevalence of strong westerly gales, accompa-
nied during the first two weeks by heavy rains, and towards the end of the
month by frosts. The temperature was above the mean ; the pressure mode-
rate. Rain fell on 20 days to the depth of 2.6 inches. The harvest was com-
pleted beautifully, and most orchard fruits were abundant.

November — The temperature about the mean ; pressure low ; west winds
prevalent. A considerable number of aurorae were seen during this month.
The minimum temperature was 25°. The year closed with moderately plea-
sant weather. The winds during December were variable, but not particu-
larly strong. The humidity was not great ; 2.3 inches of rain fell.

The whole year may be characterized as having been warm and dry. The
annual mean temperature is not, indeed, much above the average ; but the
quantity of rain is particularly small, being only 17.8 inches.

February 1826.

VOL, XIV, NO. 28. APKIL 1826.

ANNUAL RESULTS of the Meteorological Journal kept at Leith by Messrs Coldstream and Foggo.

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( 351 )

Art. XXII. — Celestial Phenomena from April 1. to July 1.
1826, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time .
By Mr George Innes, Aberdeen.

The times are inserted according to the Civil reckoning, the day begin-
ning at midnight — The Conjunctions of the Moon with the Stars are
given in Right Ascension.

APRIL.

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16 39 48

22.

7 12 11

Q Full Moon.

22.

22 53 0

Im. III. sat. y

23.

0 15 28

Em. I. sat. y

23.

2 8 48

Em. III. sat. y

23.

9 9 40

61)6

23.

10 57 10

6 >x=a=

24.

1 23 20

6 3)* —

24.

5 45 40

d D i/s ni

24.

5 47 0

d 3) 2 /3 irt

24.

14 0 0

Inf. d O $

25.

10 15 42

d 3) p °Ph-

26.

6 46 34

<m m

26.

7 21 49

d'D 2m

26.

11 35 22

d D¥

27-

8 54 40

d'3>d f.

28.

12 58 21

d D0 n

29.

O 47 53

( Last Quarter.

MAY.

Em.

I. sat. y

Em.

II. sat. y

<?Od

d 3>

% New Moon.

6 3)

d D

A 8

Em.

i. sat. y

d D

2 K 8

Em.

II. sat. y

<f 3>

* 8

d D

10.

6 D

11.

6 D

v n

14.

6 D

1 «

14.

6 D

2 a SZ5

14.

1) First Quarter.

15.

d 3)

16.

Em.

i. sat. y

19.

d D

19.

6 D

21.

6 D

y. ^2=

21.

12 9

61)

K zOz

21.

d 3)

i/s m.

21.

d D

2/3 m.

22.

Q greatest elong.

22.

d D

p Oph.

23.

6 3)

1* t

23.

d 3)

2 & t

24.

d 3)

d t

24.

d D

24.

Em.

1. sat. ^

24.

6 ¥

25.

0 VS

28.

( Last Quarter.

28.

Em.

III. sat. y

31.

Em.

I. sat. y

Z 2

852 Celestial Phenomena, from April 1. to July 1. 1826,

JUNE.

H. , „

9 45 0

d D $

17-

17 57 6

6 D * —

12 56 40

d P T

17-

22 16 20

d »•*=£=

14 17 27

d D A 8

18.

2 50 42

d D . . 1 p> ttl

0 0 47

8 D 2 * 8

18.

2 52 0

d D 2/3 TTL

17 39 38

0 New Moon.

19.

7 13 48

d ]) p Oph.

9 24 40

dHd

19.

22 41 50

O Full Moon,

12 50 57

d Db

20.

3 15 0

d V W

8 57 50

dl»D

20.

3 49 5

d D 2 ^ 'f

18 24 50

d D ?

21.

4 23 0

d2b

10.

5 44 40

8 )) 1 « 25

21.

16 0 0

d'M f

id.

6 57 16

8 D 2 a 2S

21.

16 15 8

d D¥

12.

5.47 0

d D %

22.

0 32 16

0 enters So

i3.

7 41 16

]) First Quarter.

22.

6 55 16

d 5 0

15.

11 45 10

d Din

24.

16 30 0

Sup. d o <?

16.

8 54 48

d d d

27-

4 45 51

( Last Quarter.

17-

2 49 0

d Ob

30.

19 49 14

dpT

Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.

April.

Mercury.

Venus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian.

H. ,

H. 7

H. ,

13 10

12 26

2 43

21 54

16 25

7 7

13 11

12 29

2 27

21 37

16 11

6 49

13 3

12 32

2 4

21 16

15 53

6 30

12 44

12 36

1 41

20 55

15 34

6 11

12 41

12 40

1 17

20 34

15 18

5 52

11 53

12 45

0 52

20 14

15 1

5 33

May.

Mercury.

Venus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian.

H. ,

H. t

H. ,

11 16

12 50

0 19

19 51

14 40

5 10

10 57

12 55

23 54

19 36

14 27

4 55

10 39

13 1

23 26

19 16

14 8

4 34

10 27

13 7

22 59

18 56

13 51

4 14

10 21

13 13

23 23

18 39

13 34

3 54

10 20

13 21

22 11

18 20

13 18

3 33

June.

Mercury.

V enus.

Mars.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Georgian.

H. ,

71. ,

H. ,

10 27

13 30

21 34

17 53

12 54

3 6

10 39

13 36

21 16

17 39

12 40

2 50

10 54

13 41

20 55

17 22

12 23

2 29

11 13

13 49

20 35

17 5

12 6

2 9

11 38

13 56

20 16

16 47

11 50

1 49

12 6

14 2

19 59

16 30

11 34

1 27

( 353 )

Art* XXII. — List of* Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden , Edinburgh , during the last three
months. Communicated by Prof. Graham. — Mar. 9. 18£6.

Amaryllis psittacina.
Antennaria triplinervis.
Astrapaea Wallichii.

Atragene capensis.
Epidendrum elongatum.
Euonymus japonicus.

Goodia pubescens.

Jasminum hirsutum.

Limonia trifoliata.

Orontium aquaticum.

Pothos coriacea.

Roots strong, fleshy, round, and
branched. Without stem. Leaves
petioled, lanceolate, undulate,
coriaceous, dull green, about
feet long, suberect, set obliquely
on the petiole, veined, having an
obscure lateral rib near the edge
of the leaf ; middle rib very
strong, prominent, and round
both behind and before. Pe-
tioles rising from the centre of
the crown of the root, where
very turgid, 6-8 inches long,
semicylindrical, about as thick as
the fore-finger, with a thicken-
ed joint at the base of the leaf,
and here the cuticle generally
becomes wrinkled transversely,
cracked, and brown. Stipules
broad at the base, clasping the
bases of several petioles, poin ted,
green, persistent, and becoming-
torn, withered, white. Pedun-
cles erect. Spatha suberect, ova-
to-lanceolate, acuminate, pale
green, rather shorter than the
spadix. Spadix round, tapering,
about 5 inches long, with the
peduncle about half the length
* of the leaves and petiole, green-
ish-white, shortly after its evo-
lution covered with globules of
a transparent, colourless fluid,
giving it in most lights a very
beautiful silvery appearance.
Anthers yellow ; filaments white.
Pistil white, spotted with rose-
colour.

This species I have seen at Kew ;
but I am not aware that it has
any where been described. The

specific name here given refers
to the firm, dry, thick foliage.

Pothos Harrisii.

Caulescent. Roots creeping, and,
as they descend perpendicularly
from many parts of the stem,
cylindrical, fleshy, red, slightly
scarred. Stems flexuose, joint-
ed, green.

Leaves petioled, scattered, about
18 inches long, cordato-lanceo-
late, acute, bright green, shin-
ing, veined, somewhat folded in
the middle, flat when beginning
to decays middle rib very strong,,
projecting both, behind and be-
fore, in its upper half sharp be-
fore, round in its whole length
behind ; veins united at their
extremities towards each edge
of the leaf by a waved nerve,
scarcely stronger than the veins.
Petiole about 3 inches long, some-
times much longer, swollen at
its insertion into the stem, and
jointed close to the leaf, green,
furrowed above, slightly wing-
ed, wing waved ; stipules long,
pointed, reddish-yellow, persist-
ing, and with their remains form-
ing a brown ragged sheath to
the upper part ofthe stem.

Peduncle axillary, equal in length
to the leaf and petiol, slender,
erect. Spadix slightly tapered,
about 5 inches long, greenish-
brown. Spatha nearly as long
as the spadix, narrow, pointed,
reflected, pale green, reddish at
the tip ; anthers yellow ; fila-
ment white ; pistil pale green,
spotted with red.

Brought with the P. coriacea by
Captain Graham of H. M. Pac-
ket Service from Rio Janeiro,
along with several other new
and rare plants, in 1824. They
were given to him by M. Joa-
quim Harris of Rio, in testi-
mony of whose exertions in be-
half of practical botany I have
named the present species. Both
are kept in the stove, and grow
freely. Excellent figures by Dr
Greville will soon be given in
Hooker’s Exotic Flora.

Xylopia muricata,

( 3 54 )

Art. XXIV, — Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History
Society, Continued from p. 165.

With Dec. 1825.— T* HE Secretary read, 1. A paper by Mr
John Murray, Lecturer on Chemistry, detailing some curious
experiments and observations made by him on the varying tem-
perature of the Chameleon, as connected with the changes of
colour exhibited by the animal ; — 2. A notice by P. J. Selby,
Esq. of Twizell House, regarding a specimen of the rare La-
rus minutus shot in Galloway ; and, 3. A communication from
Dr T. S. Traill of Liverpool, regarding the use of oil of tur-
pentine for preserving zoological specimens in cabinets. (See
p. 135. of this volume.)

At the same meeting, Professor Jameson read, 1. A notice
of Zircon having been in primitive rocks in the island of Scal-
pay, by Mr William Nicol, Lecturer on Natural Philosophy ;
(printed in this volume, p. 138. et seq .) ; 2. Mr William Mac-
gillivray’s account of the animals of the classes Cirripeda , Con-
chfera , and Mollusca, , observed in the Island of Harris ; and,
3. A letter from Mr Meynell of Yarm, Yorkshire, on chang-
ing the habits of Fishes, and mentioning that he had, for four
years past, kept the smelt or spirling (Saimo Eperlanus, Lin.)
m a fresh-water pond, having no communication with the sea,
by means of the Tees or otherwise, and that the smelts had
continued to thrive and breed as freely as when they enjoy in-
tercourse with the sea.

14 th Jan. 1826.— Professor Jameson read Mr Cormack’s
History of the Geographical Distribution and economical uses
of some Fishes on the Banks of Newfoundland, with an ac-
count of the Great Seal Fishery of that station. Part of Mr
Thomas Buchanan’s essay on the Comparative Anatomy of the
Organ of Hearing, was then read. (See p. 71. of this volume.)

Dr Knox, Lecturer on Anatomy, then read his account of
the anatomy of the Wombat of Flinders.

At the same meeting, specimens of the Japan Peacock and
Peahen, and of the galeated and undulated Hornbills, were
exhibited and described by Professor Jameson ; and Dr Fie-

355

Proceedings of the Wernerian Society .

ming of Flisk, exhibited a specimen of the Migratory Pigeon
of North America, shot in Fife on 31st December last ; and
shewed, from the perfect state of the plumage, that the ani-
mal had not been in a state of confinement, but had probably
been wafted across the Atlantic by strong and continued west-
erly gales,

28th Jan . — At this meeting, there was read an account of
Highland Alluvium, being the concluding part of an essay on
Sandfields, in which the author extended his observations to the
summits of primitive mountains.

Professor Jameson then read a communication, received
from a foreign correspondent, on the probability that meteoric
stones are formed in the atmosphere, and not derived from the
moon, or any other extra-mundane source. — The Professor al-
so shewed to the meeting several large specimens of Beryl from
the Mountains of Morne in Iceland, and mentioned that they
occur along with rock-crystal, in drusy cavities, in the granite
composing these mountains.

Art. XXV.— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

ASTRONOMY.

1. The Double Star , 61 Cygni . — It appears by the proceed-
ings of the Royal Institute of France, that M. Arago lately made a
report of his observations for investigating whether this remark-
able double star had a visible parallax. He failed in discovering
a sensible parallax. Dr Brinkley long observed this star for the
same purpose, and found no parallax in declination ; and Mr
Bessell also compared it with the neighbouring stars in right
ascension, and his result was, that its parallax appeared even ne-
gative, seeming to shew that it was more distant than those
stars. Dr Brinkley states, in his Elementary Treatise of As-
tronomy, “ I have made observations of the zenith distances, at
the opposite seasons, to endeavour to discover any sensible pa-
rallax in these stars, but there appears to be no sensible paral-
lax.” The rapid motion of this pair of stars certainly would
induce us to believe them nearer than other stars, but this

356 Scientific Intelligence. — Astronomy. ,

notion, when examined, appears to be no better supported than
the commonly received one, that the brightest stars are nearest
to us. — Dublin Philosophical Journal.

2. Opposite Effects of a Change of Density of the Air , as
effecting the going of a Clock. — Davies Gilbert, Esq. M. P. a
short time ago published some ingenious investigations on the
vibration of pendulums, and shewed, that on a change of an
inch in the height of the barometer, an astronomical clock ought
to change its rate, in consequence of the alteration in the buoyan-
cy of the air, by two-tenths of a second a-day. Having applied
to Mr Pond and Dr Brinkley to examine this point, he was
surprised to find that they had discovered no such change. On
reconsidering the subject, he finds a cause which before he had
supposed too small to have any effect, almost exactly counter-
acting the effect of the change of buoyancy. This cause is the
alteration of the arc by the altered resistance of the air. He
remarks : “ It is an extremely curious circumstance, that, with-
out any reference to the attainment of this balance between op-
posite disturbing causes, our best clocks should have been for-
tuitously made to vibrate very nearly in the arc which reduces
them to equality.” For the mathematical investigations and
tables illustrative of this singular coincidence, we must refer to
the Quarterly Journal of Science for October. — Dublin Philoso-
phical Journal.

3. Local Attractions. — The Connaissance des Temps 1827,
contains an account of geodetical operations in Italy by the
French geographical engineers, remarkable for the discordance
it exhibits between results deduced from these operations, and
from astronomical observations. Of the exactness of the Survey
no doubt can be entertained from the recital given, and the as-
tronomical results are founded on the observations of several
most able astronomers. The discordances, which in one case
amount to nearly 27", and in another to 17", are attributed to
local deviations of the plumb-line, caused by irregular attrac-
tion. The matter near the surface at Milan appears to attract
the plumb-line considerably to the north of the vertical, and
that near Bernini considerably to the south. — Dublin Philosophi-
cal Journal.

Scientific Intelligence. — Natural Philosophy. 357

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

4. Experiments on the Compression of Air and of Gases.—
These experiments were made by M. Oersted, with the assist-
ance of M. Suenson. The most powerful compressions were
made in the breech of an air-gun, in which they succeeded in
compressing air to the 110th part of its original volume. It was
found that Mariotte’s law was preserved in these high pressures.
In their next experiments, which were made on gases, they suc-
ceeded in establishing the existence of the same law, even when
these gases were about to be converted into liquids. M. Oer-
sted remarks, that, in liquids, the compressions equally follow
the proportion of the compressing force, and that it is extreme-
ly probable that solids are subject to the same law. He there-
fore concludes, that this simple law, That the diminution of vo-
lume is proportional to the compressing force, holds in each of
the three classes of bodies. He adds, that this law can only be
admitted on the supposition that the caloric developed by com-
pression has been permitted to escape before the measurement
is made. — Dublin Philosophical Journal.

METEOROLOGY.

5. Magnetizing Power of Light. — Mrs Mary Somerville,
one of the most highly gifted and accomplished females of our
time, has lately communicated to the Royal Society of London
a memoir on the magnetizing power of the more refrangible rays
of light. From the beautiful experiments detailed in* the com-
munication, Mrs Somerville infers, that the more r frangible rays
of light have the property of imparting magnetism.

6. Daniel on the Barometer.— rFrom a memoir of this distin-
guished observer, lately read before the Royal Society of Lon-
don, it appears that he has established the following facts : 1.
That air gradually insinuates itself into the best made barome-
ters of the common construction. 2. That this does not take
place from any solution of the air by mercury. 3. That the
passage of the air is between the mercury and the glass. 4. That
the gradual deterioration of barometers may be prevented by a
ring of platinum cemented to the open end of the tube.

358 Scientific Intelligence— Meteorology,

7. Meteorological Table , extracted from the Register Icept at
Kinfauns Castle , North Britain, Lat. 56° S37 307/. Above the
Level of the Sea 140 Feet.

1824.

Morn. 10 o’clock.

Even. 10 o’clock.

Mean
Temp,
by Six’s
Therm.

Depth of
Rain in
Inches.

No. of Days.

Mean

Barom.

leight of

Therm.

Mean B

Barom.

l eight of

Therm.

Rain or
Snow.

Fair.

January,

29.961

39.387

29.936

39.935

40.355

1.45

February,

29.912

39.928

29.893

39.250

40.071

0.95

March,

29.992

41.742

29.978

40.161

41.709

1.20

April,

29.854

47.300

29.835

43,600

46-700

2.40

May,

29.873

51.322

29.897

47.097

50.096

2.60

June,

29.785

57.566

29.764

53.000

56.500

2.50

July,

30.010

63.097

30.020

58.129

62.032

0.30

August,

29.733

61.322

29.725

57.485

60.838

2.00

September,

29.715

58.600

29.701

54.866

57.600

2.35

October,

29.678

51.322

29.671

48.903

55.161

2.15

November,

29.451

41.400

29.417

39.833

41.066

2.80

December,

29.412

40.677

29.437

40.484

40.451

3.20

Average,

29.781

49.742

29.773

46.895

49.048

23.90

129

236

ANNUAL RESULTS.

MORNING.

Barometer. Thermometer.

Highest, 9th Jan. 30.80 Wind SW. I Highest, 16th June, 71° Wind SW.

Lowest, 18th Jan. 28.66 E. {Lowest. 31st Dec. 25 W.

EVENING.

Highest, 9th Jan. 30.75 Wind SW. I Highest, 30th July, 66° Wind SE.

Lowest, 5th Nov. 28.64 SE. { Lowest, 31st Dec. 26 W.

Weather.

Fair,

Rain or Snow,

Days.

Wind.

236

N. & NE.

129

E. & SE.

......

S. & SW.

365

W. & NW.

Time.

119

142

365

Extreme Cold and Heat by Six's Thermometer.

Coldest, 31st December, Wind W. 21°

Hottest, 18th July, W. 80°

Mean Temperature for 1825, - 49° 048'

Result of Two Rain Gauges.

1. Centre of Kinfauns Garden, about 20 feet above the level of the inches.

Sea, ------- 23.90

2. Square Tower, Kinfauns Castle, about 140 feet, - - 23.45

Scientific Intelligence. — Geography . 359

8. Luminous Meteor. — On the 2d of January 1825, about
5 a. m., M. Antonio Brucalassi, on his return to Arezzo, ob-
served, between S. Giovanni and Montevarchi, a singular elec-
tric phenomenon. About a hundred paces off, and at the height
of ten fathoms, or less, from the ground, appeared, on a sudden,
a luminous meteor, of the form of a truncated cone. This
meteor appeared to be formed by a globe of fire situated in its
fore part, which was the narrower, and which, by its rapid mo-
tion, left behind a track of light, which gave it the appearance
of a cone. This light became gradually less intense towards
the base, and seemed to be split into rays issuing from the oppo-
site extremity. The whole surface of the cone was illuminated,
and cast out sparks of the greatest brilliancy, in brightness like
the electric sparks, but in the effect resembling those exhibited
by filings of iron, when thrown upon the flame of a candle.
The whole length of the meteor appeared to be about two fa-
thoms, and the diameter of the base half a fathom. At the
centre of this base, there was a total absence of light, which
formed in that part a dark spot. The direction of its motion
was from west to east, and nearly horizontal, inclining, however,
a little towards the earth. Its motion was very rapid ; for in
less than five seconds it traversed a space of about 350 paces.
During this passage it shed a most brilliant light, so that a cer-
tain extent of land was illuminated, as in full day-light. The
emanations of this luminous body were lost in the air, instead of
being extinguished in the ground ; it left behind no smell ; pro-
duced no explosion or noise of any kind, not even that hissing
made by artificial fire-works. The night in which this pheno-
menon occurred was calm, but very cold, and the sky clear. A
great number of shooting stars were seen before and after the
appearance of the meteor.- — Antologia , Feb. 1825.

GEOGRAPHY.

9. Edinburgh Geographical and Historical Atlas. — In our
notice of this work in a former Number, we stated, incorrectly,
that the letter-press was in octavo, whereas it is in folio. Two
numbers have appeared, in which the learning and good sense
displayed by the author in his history of Geography, augur

well for the success of the work. We hope the author will,

06Q Scientific Intelligence. — Geography .

in future maps, give more detailed representations of the
discoveries of Franklin and Richardson, Parry and Scoresby,
than those in the map in the second number. The important addi-
tions made to our knowledge of the antarctic lands, by a very in-
telligent and meritorious officer, Captain Weddel, ought also to
be fully and carefully recorded.

10. Distribution of Land and Water . — From the unequal dis-
tribution of the continents and seas, the southern hemisphere
has long been represented as eminently aquatic ; but the same
inequality makes its appearance, when we consider the globe di-
vided, not in the direction of the Equator, but in that of the
Meridians. The great masses of land are collected between the
meridians of 10° to the west, and 150° to the east of Paris;
while the peculiarly aquatic hemisphere commences to the west-
ward, with the meridian of the coasts of Greenland, and termi-
nates to the east with the meridian of the eastern shores of New
Holland, and the Kurile Isles. This unequal distribution of the
land and water, exercises the greatest influence upon the distri-
bution of heat at the surface of the globe, upon the inflexions of
the isothermal lines, and upon the phenomena of climate in ge-
neral. With reference to the inhabitants of the centre of Europe,
the aquatic hemisphere may be called western, and the terrestrial
hemisphere eastern, because in proceeding westward, we come
sooner to the former than to the latter. Until the end of the
15th century, the western hemisphere was as little known to the
inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, as a half of the lunar
globe is at present, and probably will always remain to us. —
Humboldt.

11. Iceland.— According to the map in Gieman’s description
of Iceland, this island lies between 63° 28', and 66° 33' N. Lat.
The surface of the country occupies 1.800 square miles. In
1824, the population was 50,092 souls. The whole of this po-
pulation, extended over a considerable space, has but one phy-
sician and four surgeons ; but 154 Christian pastors.

MINERALOGY.

12. Vesuvian (Idocrase) of Egg near Christiansand. — The
crystals of Vesuvian which are found at Egg, near Christiansand

SOI

Scientific Intelligence . — -Mineralogy.

in Norway, are distinguished from the crystals of the same spe-
cies hitherto known, by their great size, being several inches in
thickness, and half a foot, or perhaps more, in length. The
terminal faces of moderate extent are so perfect that they leave
nothing to be desired in this respect. But the most remarkable
circumstance relating to these crystals, is their having a very
distinct appearance of growth in their structure, the whole mass
being divided into a succession of scales or envelopes covering
one another. M. Weiss gives some illustrations regarding this
structure, and then passes to the description of the new form
which he has observed; it is derived from the fundamental prism
by modifications on the longitudinal edges, on the edges and
angles of the base, and appears to approach closely to that which
Haiiy has represented, by fig. 71. of his Treatise.

13. New Analysis of the Steinheilite or Dichroite of Orijarvi ,
by P. A. Bonsdorjf. — The analysis of this substance has already
been made by Professor Gadolin, whose investigation of it ap-
peared in the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of
Petersburg, accompanied by a very accurate description of the
mineral by Count Steinheil. At the request of the same che-
mist, M. Bonsdorif has repeated the analysis, and has obtained

the following result :

Silica,

49,95

containing 25.11 of oxygen.

Alumina,

32,88

15.35

Magnesia,

10,45

4.04

Oxide of Iron,

5.00

1.53

Oxide of Manganese,

0.03

Volatile parts,

1.65

99.96

This composition is represented by the formula M Ss-f 4 j ^ | S,

according to which the following proportions have been calcu-
lated; silica, 49.93; alumina, 32.60; magnesia, 10.32; oxide of
iron, 5.00.

14. Phillip site.— It appears, from a late analysis of Gmelin,
that the Harmotome of Marbourg contains potash in place of
barytes, and therefore belongs to the species Phillipsite, describ-
ed by Mr Levy. It is named by some German mineralogists
Kali-harmotome.— Bucklandite. This mineral, so nearly allied to
pistacite, has been met with in the rocks of the Lake of Laach.

15. Tabular Spar of Pargas, — Among the numerous and

362 Scientific Intelligence Mineralogy.

remarkable minerals which are found in the limestone mourn,
tains of the parish of Pargas, in the neighbourhood of Abo,
there is one of a radiated structure and white colour, which has
been taken for a tremolite, but which should be referred to the
Tafelspath of the Germans. According to the examination which
M. BonsdorfF has made of it, in 100 parts it contains,

Silica, 52.58

Lime, 44.45

Magnesia, 0.68

Oxide of Iron, 1.13
Volatile parts, 0.99

99.93

This mineral is therefore a bisilicate of lime, and has for its
representative formula CS2. — Bonsdorff, Mem. Acad. Petersb.
1825.

16. Notice regarding Steatite or Soap-Stone , and its princi-
pal uses . — Steatite is, as is well known, a variety of the talc
genus. Its colour is white, green, or grey ; it is also sometimes,
though rarely, red and yellow. Its specific gravity varies from
2.60 to 2.66. It is a compound of silica, alumina, magnesia,
oxide of iron and water, which vary according to the locality.
It is very common in Cornwall and Germany. As it is fusible
only at an exceedingly high temperature, and is easily wrought,
excellent crucibles may be made of it, which are further harden-
ed by fire, and which are only with great difficulty penetrated
by litharge. It is also employed in making moulds for melting
metals. In England it is used in the manufacture of porcelain.
M. Vilcot, an artist of Liege, made several trials of it with the
view of finding out whether it might not be susceptible of being
employed by the lapidaries. He prepared cameos of this sub-
stance, the colour of which he brightened in the fire, and which
he rendered so hard by the elevation of the temperature, as to
give sparks with steel. They were then coloured, yellow, grey,
or milk-white, by different solutions. He polished them upon
the stone, and ended with making them assume all the lustre of
agate. Some pieces even resembled onyx in colour ; but a se-
rious inconvenience was, that the markings were easily altered
by the fire, and could no longer be restored. Steatite has a great
affinity for glass ; it is also employed, in the manner of paste, re-
duced to a fine powder, and mixed with colouring matters,
for painting upon this substance* It also serves as a sympathetic

S63

Scientific Intelligence. — Mineralogy.

crayon for writing upon glass ; the traces seem effaced^ when a:
piece of woollen cloth is passed over them, but they re^-appear im-
mediately when moistened by the breath, and again disappear
when the glass becomes dry. Steatite is not so easily effaced as
chalk, and does not, like that substance, change its colours. Tai-
lors and embroiderers also prefer it to chalk, for marking silk.
It possesses the property of uniting with oils and fat bodies, and
enters into the composition of the greater number of the balls
which are employed for cleaning silks and woollen cloths ; it also
forms the basis of some preparations of paint. It is employed
also for giving lustre to marble, serpentine and gypseous stones.
Mixed with oil, it is used to polish mirrors of metal and crystal.
When leather, recently prepared, is sprinkled with steatite, to
give it colour, and afterwards, when the whole is dry, it is rub-
bed several times with a piece of horn, the leather assumes a
very beautiful polish. Steatite is also used in the preparation
of glazed paper ; it is reduced to very fine powder, and spread
out upon the paper ; or it is better to mix it previously with the
colouring matter. The glaze is then given to the paper with a
hard brush. It facilitates the action of screws, and from its
unctuosity, may be employed with much advantage, for dimi-
nishing the friction of the parts of machines which are made of
metal.

GEOLOGY.

17. Professor Bucklands Notice of the Hy (Enas' Den near
Torquay. — Professor Buckland has lately sent to Professor Ja-
meson, for the College Museum, several specimens of bone
from the hyenas’ den at Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, all of
which he considers as bearing most decided marks of teeth and
gnawing upon them. Three of these bones (Nos. 4, 5, 6.) are
splinters, which appear to have been gnawed and nibbled over
and over again, after they were split off from the cylindrical
bones, of which they formed a part. Other splinters have not
been gnawed after such fracture ; but of these none have been
sent at present, — Professor Buckland’s sole object being to pro-
duce conviction in those who deny the fact of the marks of teeth
and gnawing being visible on the bones found in our English
hyenas’ dens. Numbers 1, 2, 3, are portions of cylindrical
bones, from which both extremities or condyles have been gnaw-

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

ed off at a period antecedent to that when they, as well as the
splinters and teeth that accompany them, were imbedded in the
mud and gravel that now surround them. Of more than a
thousand bones, or rather fragments of bones, that have been
collected recently in Kent’s Hole, not fifty have been found en-
tire. The condyles, and softer portions, are almost uniformly
removed, and marks of gnawing and fracture, such as appear in
Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are generally visible at the extremities of the
remaining central and harder portions. The condition of the
teeth, — the number and variety of animals, — and the circum-
stances that accompany their mangled remains, are precisely the
same as at Kirkdale ; the only difference is, that at Torquay,
the cave is more than twenty times as extensive as that in York-
shire ; and the remains of all kinds, nearly in the same propor-
tion more numerous. The superficial crust of stalagmite, and
the bed of mud which forms the matrix of the broken bones
and teeth beneath it, are also in the same proportion thicker.
There are also album grcecum , as at Kirkdale, and stumps of
gnawed horns of deer ; and the bony bases of horns of rhinoce-
roses, but no horns of this animal , although more than a hundred
of its teeth have been already found ; also the teeth of many in-
fant elephants, — numberless bones of horses, elks, deer, and oxen,
— and gnawed bones and jaws of hyenas, with their single teeth
and tusks ; also the teeth and tusks of bears, tigers, wolves and
foxes, — and of an unknown carnivorous animal, at least as large
as a tiger ; the genus of which has not yet been determined. All
these will be described in Professor Buckland’s second volume
of Reliquiae Diluvianae. The history of the Torquay cave be-
ing, according to Professor Buckland, identical with that of
Kirkdale, is totally different from that of the cavernous fissures
at Plymouth and Banwell ; both the latter containing bones that
are usually entire, and never gnawed ; and which appear to
have been supplied by animals that fell into the open fissures,
before they were filled with the mud and gravel that now en-
velope their bones *

* These bones were exhibited at a late meeting of the Wernerian Society, when
several of the members agreed in considering the furrows on the bones, as very pro-
bably produced by the teeth of some quadruped. — Edit.

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

365

ZOOLOGY.

18. On the Serpents of Southern Africa . — “ I have made a
great many experiments upon such serpents as I have been able
to procure alive, and have thereby ascertained which of them
are, or are not, poisonous. I always feel a great degree of sur-
prise, when I consider how little this branch of Natural History
has been attended to ; and how very vague and unsatisfactory
our knowledge is, relative to the whole Linnsean class Amphi-
bia. One would almost fancy, that next to the animals particu-
larly useful to man, they would have been studied, in considera-
tion of the consequence attached to them, from the peculiar
powers which some of them possess. That, however, is far from
being the case ; and the neglect with which these animals have
been treated, is probably to be attributed to the dread and dis*
gust with which the whole tribe are viewed ; feelings, however,
which are both increased and diminished by experiments, inas-
much as by them we discover beyond doubt the mortiferous
power of some, and to an equal certainty the innocence of the
majority. So little is yet known of the snakes of this colony,
that, at the present moment, nearly all are considered as poison-
ous ; while, by actual experiments, I have found, that not a
greater proportion than one to six of the species found here are
noxious. We have three species of the viper, the bites of all of
which are bad, though not invariably fatal ; also three species of
Naia, the bites of all of which produce almost certain death ;
and two species of Elaps, which, from my observations, are also
very dangerous.” — Letter to Professor Jameson from Mr Tho-
mas Smith , Museum , Cape-Town.

19. Mode followed by the Serpent-eater (Falco Serpen tarius)
for destroying Serpents. — Before concluding (Mr Smith re-
marks), I may mention a curious circumstance, of which I was in-
formed a few days ago, by a gentleman, upon whose veracity I can
place the utmost dependence, and which is a fact, in as far as I
know, not generally known. It relates to the mode which the Fal-
co Serpentarius of Linnaeus follows in destroying snakes. Some
time ago, when the said gentleman was out riding, he observed a
bird of the above mentioned species, while on the wing, make two
or three circles, at a little distance from the spot on which he then

VOL. XIV. NO. 28. 4pril 1826.

a a

S66 Scientific Intelligence . — Zoology,

was, and after that suddenly descend to the ground. On observ-
ing the bird, he found it engaged in examining and watching some
object near the spot where it stood, which it continued to do for
some minutes. After that, it moved with considerable apparent
caution, to a little distance from the spot where it had alighted,
and then extended one of its wings, which it kept in continual
motion. Soon after this artifice, the gentleman remarked a large
snake raise its head to a considerable distance from the ground,
which seemed to be what the bird was longing for, as the mo-
ment that took place, he instantly struck a blow with the ex-
tremity of the wing, by which he laid his prey flat on the
ground. The bird, however, did not yet appear confident of
victory, but kept eyeing his enemy for a few seconds, when he
found him again in action, a circumstance that led exactly to a
repetition of the means already detailed. The result of the se-
cond blow appeared, however, to inspire more confidence ; for
almost the moment it was inflicted, the bird marched up to the
snake, and commenced kicking it with his feet ; after which, he
seized it with his bill, and rose almost perpendicularly to a very
considerable height, when he let go the reptile, which fell with
such violence upon the ground, as seemingly to satisfy him, that
he might now indulge himself with the well-earned meal in per-
fect safety.1”

20. Remarks on some Marine Fishes , and on their Geogra-
phical Distribution . By MM. Quoy and Gaimard. — This
memoir is a general account of the observations which these two
naturalists have made, during the voyage of the corvette Ura-
nia round the World. It will contribute to throw some light
upon the hitherto little investigated manners of the fishes which
inhabit the vast solitudes of the ocean, and will serve as a point
of departure, for connecting one day the observations which long
voyages cannot fail to furnish to the attentive observer. Fishes,
in fact, from the nature of the element which they inhabit, are
more imperfectly known than the other classes of organized be-
ings which are more easily subjected to investigation. But a real
obstacle, which will long prove detrimental to the advancement
of Ichthyology, is the little time which naturalists can devote on
voyages to this study, in the richest and least known seas.
Some general data are ably developed by our authors ; who,

Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. 861

besides, trace the limits or the parallels which certain fishes af-
fect. At the head of the species which roam at large through
the solitudes of the ocean, they place the shark, giving new ac-
counts of it, foreign to the popular histories, to which certain
navigators have given their assent. They think, contrary to
the opinion of M. Noel de la Moriniere, that the Squalus Car -
charias inhabits every sea that they have visited. Speaking of
the Coryphenes and Scombri, they exhibit to us the swarms of
these voracious fishes plowing the seas in all directions, without
fixed limits. Then, passing to the equatorial zones, they paint
the brilliancy and richness of colouring which nature has im-
parted to the species which live in the midst of the coral-reefs,
where they rival, in the vivacity and the delicate blending of their
tints, the purest and most brilliant productions of the vegetable
kingdom. Of this kind are the Ch&todons , Glyphisodons , Po-
macentri , Acanthuri , &c. On the other hand, in the places
where the waves dash with fury upon the rocky shores, there
live by preference, the tribe of the Batistes , the Labroides , the
Somphoses , Diacopi , Scari , and Caranges. But in all, accord-
ing to our authors, gold and silver mingle their hues with the
prismatic tints ; everywhere in the torrid zone, the same pheno-
menon manifests itself. They also affirm, that the descriptions
of Renard, which were so long supposed to be the products
of imagination rather than the result of actual existence, are
perfectly correct with regard to the marvellous reflections of co-
lour ; and that if there be errors in the case, they exist in the
representation of the forms. But, in proportion as we recede
from the zone, which is constantly warmed by torrents of heat,
the rich livery of certain beings disappears, and gives place to
duller tints. It is chiefly the fishes of New Holland, Port- Jack-
son, the Cape of Good Hope, the Rio-de-la-Plata, that are ad-
duced as examples, although this modification of life experien-
ces numerous exceptions even in our own countries. Rio Janeiro,
placed under the tropic, forms an exception to this rule however,
and the most common fishes have dull colours, and are in gene-
ral Rays, and several species of the family of Sabnones , such as
the Cur r mates, Hydrocynes , &c. The Volcanic Sandwich
Islands are chiefly peopled with Labroids , which again appear
not to have adopted the coasts of the Moluccas and Marian

a a 2

368 Scientific Intelligence. — Botany.

Islands, although abounding in corals and plants. Lastly, They
indicate, in concluding, both the fishes, which, wandering from
their native haunts, follow ships, sheltering themselves under their
keel ; and those which various navigators have fallen in with in
thick shoals in a dead state, and destroyed by causes still little
known. This memoir, the result of observations full of sagacity,
will be most highly appreciated by those who have had an oppor-
tunity of judging on the spot of the facts which they have de-
scribed with accuracy. — Ann. des. Sc. Nat.

BOTANY.

21. Original Habitats of the Rose. — In Trattinick’s Synodus
Botanica, it is mentioned, that the species of the genus Rosa
found in Europe, have reached us from the East Indies, China,
and Japan. The middle part of the Russian empire, the dis-
tricts around Caucasus and Persia, are full of roses, of which the
more western are mere varieties, and which have propagated
themselves as such. Roses are rare in Africa ; there they are
met with only in the northern districts ; while Europe, on the
contrary, from the Uralian Mountains to the coast of Portugal,
abounds with them. The roses of America have reached that
continent through the Polar lands, and appear to be sprung
from the Rosa Alpina, and R. Majalis. There are no roses in
Australasia, nor have any species been met with in South
America ; indeed, they scarcely occur any where to the south
of the Equator.

22. Number of Species of the Genus Rosa. — Willdenow, in his
Species Plantarum, published in 1800, enumerates 39 species of
Rose; Persoon, in his' Enchiridium Botanicum, increased the
number to 45; Trattinick, in his Synodus Botanica, published
in 1824, enumerates 206 species ; and since the appearance of
that work, late discoveries make the total number of known spe-
cies 240. These are divided into 24 series, each of which bears
the name of some botanist, who has distinguished himself by his
knowledge of this beautiful genus. Thus we have as names,
the following : — 1. Jacquinia; 2. Smithiana; 3. Candolleana;
4. Willdenowiana ; 5. Woodsiana; 6. Sprengeliana ; 7. Lin-
kiana ; 8. Andrewsiana ; 9. Purshiana ; 10. Lindleyana ; II.
Aitoniana ; 12. Pallasiana, &c.

369

Scientific Intelligence. — Botany.

123* Notice regarding the Boletus igniarius. — An individual
plant of Boletus igniarius was remarkable for its enormous size,
and the fleshy nature of its substance. After a large circular in-
cision had been made in it, the two edges were united by the
first intention, and were readily consolidated. Still farther, a
portion of the fungus cut off and left on the ground for two
days, was applied to a newly cut portion of the Boletus. The
union took place as well as in the former case ; and the sepa-
rated part could only be known by the cicatrix. — Amer> Journ .
of Sciences and Arts .

24. Naturalization and cultivation of the Larger -fruited Vac -
cinium. — Various species of the genus Vaccinium are common
in the woods and moist places of the north of Europe. The
species known in France by the name of Lucet , in England
Bilberry or Whortie-berry, and among botanists by that of
Vaccinium myrtillus , occurs in the neighbourhood of Paris,
in the wood of Montmorency. It is very common in Lor-
raine, where it is eaten in large quantities, especially by the
poorer classes. Its fruit is much smaller than that of the
large-fruited vaccinium. It is gathered in the woods, and
eaten fresh, or it is preserved through the whole year, after
having been dried in the sun, or in an oven, or even in the
shade. The best manner of preparing it is in pastry. It is
used in tarts, instead of cherries, gooseberries or prunes. It re-
quires to have a little sugar added, to conceal the styptic or acrid
taste peculiar to it. Some people season it with honey, others
eat it in milk. It is also employed for making preserves, pud-
dings, he. It is of great use on voyages. It is used in Ger-
many for colouring wines, and forms, in this respect, a consider-
able article of commerce. It is also steeped in eau-de-vie. The
Laplanders esteem this berry highly ; it is, however, much in-
ferior to the Ruhus Chamcemorus , which travellers mention their
having eaten with much relish, during their stay among the Nor-
wegian Laplanders. There are seven or eight species of vacci-
nia which furnish an article of food to man, besides being ap-
plied to other economical purposes ; but the species whose cul-
tivation has been introduced into England, is in every respect
preferable to the others. It is designated by botanists under
the name of Vaccinium macrocarjmm : its fruit was long known
to the English, who annually brought a considerable quantity of

376 Scientific Intelligence. — Botany .

It from North America, for internal consumption, as well as for
the use of the navy. The large-fruited American vaccinium
has been successfully cultivated at Spring-Grove, the country
house of the late Sir Joseph Banks, near London, for several
years. This shrub produced flowers and fruit the first year,
and the quantity obtained the following harvest was still more
abundant. It gradually threw out spreading roots like those
of the gooseberry, but longer, and which took with more diffi-
culty; they succeeded, however, and afforded at the proper
time in spring, branches from ten to twelve inches long, with
flowers. The berries were gathered, and were found excellent,
and much superior to those commonly imported. The ground
employed for this purpose was 326 square feet, while the quan-
tity used for the cultivation of gooseberries in Spring-Grove gar-
den, is 5,646 square feet, deduction made of the spaces left be-
tween each row. It is to be remarked, that the harvest of these
berries has been constantly abundant for seven successive years,
without having been damaged by the vicissitudes of the weather,
by mildew, or by any other accident. The flowers, which have
expanded abundantly in the season, have been blasted in much
smaller number than in the other species of plants. The fruit
has been developed, and has acquired its full maturity, without
being attacked by Insects, and without suffering from excess of
cold or heat, rain or dryness *.

ARTS.

25. Steam Navigation.- While a great steam- vessel is crossing
the Atlantic Ocean from the mouth of the Thames to the mouth
of the Ganges ; while other English vessels of the same descrip-
tion are intended to establish communications between Alexan-
dria and the Island of Malta, several undertakings of a like na-
ture, although not so extensive, are daily tending to give a greater
activity to the navigation between the trading ports, upon the
lakes and in the internal seas of Europe. A steam-boat goes
from Hamburg to London in sixty hours : Another navigates
between Kiel and Copenhagen, across the Baltic : A company
is forming at Copenhagen, at this moment, for establishing a

* The fruit of the Vaccinium oxycoccos (Cranberry) is, in the opinion of many,
superior as an article of domestic use to that of the V. macrocarjnm , and Mr
Mylne of the Fulham Nurseries, has found that it is easily susceptible of garden
cultivation.

Scientific Intelligence • — Arts. $71

steam-boat upon the Kategatt : A steam-boat navigates the Gulf
of Finland, between the capitals of Russia and Sweden : A boat
of a new construction has arrived at Stockholm, in order to be
employed upon the great lakes which open to Sweden a naviga-
tion, independent of the passage of the Sound. The trial of a
steam-boat upon the Danube, between Vienna and Semlin, has
not entirely answered ; but it is believed that an improvement
in the construction of the vessel will remedy the inconveniences
which have been experienced. This communication will facili-
tate the commerce between Constantinople and all the northern
parts of Turkey. The beautiful lakes of the Alps are begin-
ning to be filled with steam-boats; those of the Lake of Constance
are in full activity ; that of the Lac Majeur is building. These
vessels, and the new roads, will render twice as quick the com-
munications between Augsbourg, on the one hand, and Milan
and Genoa, on the other. An enterprise in which France is more
directly interested, is that of the navigation from Mayence to
Kehl. For the whole voyage from Rotterdam to Kehl, the
following are the calculations of the times and distances :

From Rotterdam to Cologne,

37h.

30m.

59 leagues *.

Cologne to Coblentz,

Coblentz to Mayence,

Mayence to Manheim,

Manheim to Schroeck,

Schrock to Fort-Louis,

Fort-Louis to Kehl,

111

148

26. Method of' using pure Muriate and Sulphate of Soda ,
in the Manufacture of Glass , by M. Leguay. — Muriate of soda
and sulphate of soda, may be employed, and at times with ad-
vantage, in glass-making. A casting is readily obtained of very
fine glass, having, when about three or four lines in thickness, a
very slight green tinge. Its composition is as follows: decrepitated
muriate of soda, 100 parts ; slaked lime, 100 ; sand, 140 ; clip-
pings of glass, of the same quality, from 50 parts to 200. Sul-
phate of soda likewise offers a great economy %i its employment.
The results are very satisfactory. The glasses made with this
salt were of a very fine quality. The following is the composi

* Leagues of 25 to a degree.

372

Scientific Intelligence.— Arts.

tion : dry sulphate of soda, 100 parts; slaked lime, 12 ; powder-
ed charcoal, 19 ; sand, 225 ; broken glass, from 50 to 200.
These proportions give a rich coloured glass, which may be em-
ployed with advantage in glass-houses, where a fine quality is
sought after. The following is the second way of operating with
sulphate of soda ; the proportions may be as follows : dry sul-
phate of soda, 100 parts ; slaked lime, 266 ; sand, 500 ; broken
glass, from 50 to 200. According to this process, it is obviously
easy to operate in a regular manner, and to avoid expensive
trials in the manufacture. — Annales de V Industrie Nationale.

27. On the advantages of' improving the qualities of Cutting
Instruments , hy Burnishing , and thereby condensing their edges.
By Thomas Gill, Esq.— -The condensing process of hammer-
hardening the edges of cutting-instruments, such as the graver
and the scythe, has naturally led us to consider the action of the
burnisher upon the edges of other cutting-instruments in a simi-
lar light ; and to infer that a great part of the benefit derived
therefrom must be owing to its condensing effect , as well, also,
to its giving the edges a more favourable position for effecting
the different purposes they are applied to. The currier's shav-
ing hnffe is the first instance we shall quote, where, after renew-
ing its edge, by whetting it upon the proper whet-stone, as well
as continually during its use, the edge is always burnished.
The next, and a familiar example, is in the steel-scraper used
by the cabinet-makers to smoothen the surface of hard wood
after the toothed plane, previous to varnishing or polishing
it. When the edge of this hardened and tempered flat piece of
sheet-steel becomes dull, it is renovated by placing it upright,
and whetting it upon the oil-stone ; it is then whetted upon each
side, to remove the burs ; and, lastly, burnished upon the face
of it, towards each side, so as to throw the edges outwards. It
is held in a sloping direction in use, exactly as a piece of bro-
ken window- glass is held when used as a shave, for which, how-
ever, it is an admirable substitute, as it performs its work in a
similar, though much more perfect, manner. The next example
is furnished from the practice of a late ingenious mathematical
instrument-maker, Mr R. Fidler, who was continually employ-
ed by the late Mr W. Lowry, the celebrated engraver, when he
had any instruments to be made, for his business of mechanical

Scientific Intelligence. — Arts. 373

engraving, which required particular accuracy in their construc-
tion. He was in the habit of finishing his turning-tools for brass,
after forming them into shape, and whetting them, by burnishing
their edges from their sides toward their flat faces, and thus gi-
ving them a hardness and smoothness not to be acquired in any
other way ; and, in fact, they polished the brass- work turned by
them. The last instance is borrowed from the practice of a late
eminent mechanic in this country. He was employed to make
some hardened and tempered steel-cutters for an engine, and
which were to be driven with great velocity by a steam-engine
at Manchester, for a cotton-mill there, to cut brass-toothed
wheels and pinions, they requiring to be cut, rounded off, and
polished at once. After properly shaping them, and skive-grind-
ing the faces of their teeth, he finished them by burnishing their
edges from their sides to their flat faces ; and their effects in
cutting and polishing the teeth at once were truly wonderful. —
The currier's shaving-knife is a two-edged instrument, about
S\ or 4 inches broad, 14 inches long in the blade, and half an
inch thick in its middle part, gradually tapering away from
thence to its edges. It has two handles, one in the direction of
the blade, and the other at right angles to it. It requires to be
made of excellent^ steel, and to be well tempered; and, indeed,
there are but very few makers of repute in this country. When
the edge requires grinding and whetting, the former of these
operations is performed upon a flat rub-stone, similar to what
carpenters sharpen their plane-irons on, with the application of
water. This stone is about 6 inches broad and 18 inches long ;
and, so very careful are they to keep its surface flat, that it is a
regulation in the work-shops, for every workman, after using
the stone, to write his name upon it with a piece of coal ; when,
if his successor finds it left so uneven that a halfpenny can be
passed underneath the edge of an iron laid upon it, the former
workman is subjected to a fine for his carelessness. After being
carefully ground upon this stone, it is whetted upon a flat circu-
lar piece of Welsh or Scotch blue-stone, about 8 inches in dia-
meter ; likewise with the application of water, carefully preserv-
ing the edges straight. The edges are then ready to receive the
effect of the burnisher upon them, to turn them to the two op-
posite sides, and fit them for use. The burnisher consists of a

374

Scientific Intelligence.-— Arts,

hardened and polished steel- wire, having its end made hemis-
pherical, mounted into a handle of hard wood. This delicate
instrument is ordinarily held by the small part of its handle,
which is terminal, between the third and little fingers of the
workman’s right hand, ready for use at each cutting-stroke, or
shave made upon the wet leather by the knife, to renew its edge,
first by raising it, then by passing the hemispherical end of the
burnisher along it, and then to turn over and give it its proper
direction for use, with the cylindrical part of it likewise passed
lightly along it.— -The application of the burnisher to the edge
of that useful and necessary ^instrument, the pen-knife, is equally
advantageous as in the former case. If the blade be first whetted,
with care, in the ordinary manner, and the edge then finished by
a gentle and delicate stroke of the burnisher, carried along it so as
to throw it forward a little from the back or convex side of the
blade toward the concave side, a great improvement is effected ;
and the edge, thus perfected, will endure for a considerable
time. — Tech. Repos. Nov. <$• Dec. 1825.

28. On the French mode of Treating Scythes by hammering
them cold. — On Mr Gill’s mentioning Mr Turrell’s great im-
provement in gravers (recorded in pages 196, 197, and 198.
of this volume), to the person who furnished the notice re-
specting the French method of treating scythes, inserted in the
3d volume of the Technical Repository, namely, by placing the
scythe flatways upon a portable anvil, fixed in the head of a
stake driven into the earth, and hammering its edge dexterous-
ly all along it with gentle strokes, he immediately noticed the
very great analogy in the two methods, though applied in a dif-
ferent manner, and to very different purposes. Mr Turrell’s
great success in the improvement of that highly important im-
plement the graver, fully warrants the conclusion, that the
scythe may likewise be greatly improved by the condensing ef-
fect of the blows of the hammer upon the flat sides of its edge.
Thus the one improvement throws an additional light upon the
other ; and we shall gladly learn the success of the application
of this valuable practice of hammer-hardening in the cold , after
the usual hardening and tempering processes, to such objects as
it may, and no doubt will, -now be very shortly employed upon.
— Gills Technical Repository, Nov. 1825.

375

Scientific Intelligence. — A ris.

29* On improving Bricklayers ’ Trowels , hammer -harden-

ing them ; by Mr Wdlby. — There is not, perhaps, an implement
that undergoes more severe treatment than this, in its constant
employment of hacking bricks into shape, and thus encounter-
ing the pieces of flint, pebbles, &c. ordinarily mixed with the
clay ; and which, besides having a tendency to injure its
edges, also render it liable to break continually. Mr George
Walby, therefore, by his excellent processes, accomplished a
most difficult task, and rendered his trowels highly prized, by
those who were the most competent j udges of their merit, from
their constant experience in their use. They were made of the
best shear-steel, carefully worked throughout, and especially to
avoid over heating the steel ; and towards their finishing in the
plating or forging, and when nearly reduced to their proper
thickness, besides heating them in a clean hollow fire, to avoid
contact with cinders, &c. ; he also removed all scales upon their
surface, previous to giving them their last polishing, under
the rapid blows of a hammer driven by a steam-engine, by means
of a very ingenious revolving elastic steel-brush of his invention.
He carefully attended to the proper hardening heat, and
quenched them in a composition or hardening liquor, similar to
those used by saw-makers ; he next blazed them off to the
spring temper, and, lastly, hammer-hardened them as much as
possible. They were then ready for grinding ; after which ope-
ration, their elasticity being again restored by blueing them,
they were glazed or brightened, ready to be mounted into their
handles. — GUIs Technical Repository.

30. On improving Brills by hammer-hardening them cold.— Mr
Andrew Pritchard, the inventor of the hard shell-lac cement, find-
ing that steel, when hardened and tempered, is susceptible of
receiving the condensing effect of the hammer, has applied it,
with considerable advantage, to the points of small drills, by
hammering them upon their flat surfaces.

31. On the improvement of Square Broaches or Boring-bits.—™
Mr Joseph Clement, an excellent workman and mechanical
draughtsman, informed Mr Gill, that a friend of his in Scotland,
many years since, improved the quality of his square broaches,
by hammer-hardening them cold, after being hardened and tem-
pered upon their flat sides. Mr Gill thinks it would have been

376

Scientific Intelligence.— Arts.

much better to have hammered them upon their angles, which
would have had a much greater condensing effect.— Technical
Repository , December.

32. Blue and Green Colours derived from Althaea rosea. —
M. Bauhart, apothecary at Weimar, has discovered an easy pro-
cess for obtaining a beautiful blue from the leaves of Althaea
rosea of Willdenow. The flower furnishes a very beautiful
green, which may be used for dyeing wool, wood, horn, he.
The blue colour obtained from the leaves is averred not to be
inferior to indigo. Nothing is said of the modes used by the
discoverer for extracting the colours.

33. Melaina. — Signior Bizio considers the black matter of
the ink of the cuttlefish, as a substance sui generis , which he
calls Melaina , from (Axas and ui). It is obtained by digesting
the ink with very dilute nitric acid, until it become yellowish,
washing it well, and separating it by the filter ; it is then to be
frequently boiled in water, one of the washings to be a little al-
kalized, and, finally, with distilled water. The Melaina is a
tasteless, black powder, insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water,
while cold, but soluble in hot water ; the solution is black.
Caustic alkalies form with it a solution even in the cold, from
which the mineral acids precipitate it unchanged. It contains
much azote. It dissolves in and decomposes sulphuric acid.
It easily kindles at the flame of a candle. It has been found
to succeed as a pigment, in some respects better than china ink.
— Dub. Phil. Journ., Nov. 1825.

34. New method of preparing Quills. — The following is the
manner in which M. Schloz of Vienna proceeds in the prepa-
ration of quills for writing, by means of which he renders them
more durable, and even superior to the best Hamburgh quills.
For this purpose he makes use of a kettle, into which he pours
common water, so as to occupy the fourth part of its capacity ;
he then suspends a certain quantity of feathers perpendicularly,
the barrel lowermost, and so placed, as that its extremity only
may touch the surface of the water ; he then covers the kettle
with a lid properly adjusted, boils the water, and keeps the fea-
thers four hours in this vapour bath. By means of this pro-
cess he frees them of their fatty parts, and renders them soft
and transparent. On the following day, after having scraped

Scientific Intelligence. — Commerce. 377

them with the blade, and then rubbed them with a bit of cloth,
he exposes them to a moderate heat. By the day after, they are
perfectly hard and transparent, without, however, having the in-
convenience of splitting too easily. — Neues Kunst und Gewerb-Bl.
April 1825.

35. Panto-chronometer. — This interesting little instrument
is a combination of the compass, the sun-dial, and the universal
time-dial ; and therefore unites, to a certain extent, the uses of
the three. It is a beautiful, at the same time a useful toy, and
cannot fail to engage the attention, and excite the curiosity, of
young persons, for whose use it is intended.

COMMERCE.

36. The following Table gives an interesting view of the
present flourishing state of the maritime capital of the Pacha of
Egypt;

Number of Vessels arrived at the Port of Alexandria in the
years 1822, 1823, and 1824.

1822.

1823.

1824.

Austrian and Tuscan vessels, -

292

351

600

Danish,

French,

111

English, American,

Ionian,

223

230

251

Roman,

Russian,

100

Sardinian,

143

Dutch,

Spanish,

Swedish

Sicilian,

Total, 901

933

1,290

There sailed from it in 1824

For Amsterdam,

For Genoa,

Antwerp,

Hull,

Dublin,

Liverpool,

Gibraltar,

London,

Leghorn,

102

Petersburg,

Marseilles,

Rotterdam,

Malta,

Trieste

Port Mahon,

Venice and Fiume, 9

378

Scientific Intelligence. —Statistics*

STATISTICS.

37. Population.— In Great Britain, the number of individuals
in a state to bear arms, from the age of 15 to 60, is 2,744,847.
The number of marriages is about 98,030 yearly ; and it has1
been remarked, that in 63 of these unions there were only 3
which had no issue. The number of deaths is about 332,708
yearly, which makes nearly 25,592 monthly, 6398 weekly, 914
daily, and 40 hourly. The deaths among the women are in
proportion to those of the men as 50 to 54. The married wo-
men live longer than those who continue in celibacy. In the
country, the mean term of the number of children produced by
each marriage is 4 ; in towns the proportion is 7 for every two
marriages. The number of married women is to the general
number of individuals of the sex as 1 to 3; and the number of
married men, to that of all the individuals of the male sex, as
3 to 5. The number of widows is to that of widowers as 3 to
1 ; but the number of widows who marry again, is to that of wi-
dowers in the same case, as 7 to 4, The individuals who inha-
bit elevated situations live longer than those who reside in less
elevated places. The half of. the individuals die before attain-
ing the age of 17 years. The number of twins is to that of or-
dinary births" as 1 to 65. According to calculations founded
upon the bills of mortality, one individual only in 3126 attains
the age of 100 years. The number of births of the male sex is
to that of the female sex as 96 to 95.

Art. XXV L — List of Patents sealed in England from VI th
November 1825 to 23 d January 1826.

1825.

Nov. 24. To Augustus Count de la Garde, of St James’s Square, London;

who, in consequence of a communication made to him by a cer-
tain foreigner, residing abroad, is in possession of certain improv-
ed Machinery for Breaking or Preparing Hemp, Flax, and other
Fibrous Materials.

To Joseph Eve, of Augusta, Geoi’gia, in the United States of
America, but now residing at Liverpool, engineer ; for “ an im-
proved Steam-Engine.”

2G. To Henry King, of Norfolk Street, Commercial-Boad, London,
master-mariner; and William Kingston, of the Dock-yard,
Portsmouth, master-millwright ; for “ certain improved Fids for

List of English Patents . SY9

Topmasts, Gallantmasts, Bowsprits, and all other Masts and
1825. Spars, to which the use of the Fid is applied.”

Nov. 28. To Mark Lariviere, of Prince’s Square, Kennington, in the
county of Surrey, mechanist ; for “ certain Apparatus or Machi-
nery, to be applied to the well-known Stamps, Fly Presses, or
other Presses, for the purposes of Perforating Metal Plates, and
for the application of such perforated metal plates to various use-
ful purposes.”

Bee. 3. To William Pope, of Ball-ally, Lombard Street, London, mathe-
matician ; for u certain improvements on Wheeled Carriages.”

To William Pope, of Ball-ally, Lombard Street, London, mer-
chant ; for “ an improved method, in different shapes or forms, of
securing volatile and other fluids, and concrete or other sub-
stances, in various descriptions of Bottles and Vessels.”

To Ezekiel Edmonds, of Bradford, in the county of Wilts, clo-
thier ; for “ certain improvements on machines for Scribbling and
Carding Sheep’s Wool, Cotton, or any other fibrous articles re-
quiring such process.”

To John Beever, of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, gen-
tleman ; for “ an improved Gun-barrel.”

6. To Edmond Luscombe, of East Stonehouse, in the county of De-

von, Merchant ; who, in consequence of communications made
to him by a certain foreigner, residing abroad, and discoveries
made by himself, is in possession of a method of manufacturing
or preparing an Oil, or Oils, extracted from certain vegetable
substances, and of the application thereof to Gas-light, and other
purposes.

7. To John Phillips Beavan, of Clifford Street, London, gentle-

man ; who, in consequence of communications made to him by a
certain foreigner, resident abroad, is in possession of an invention
of a Cement, for building and other purposes.

8. To Francis Halliday, of Ham, in the county of Surrey, Esq. ;

for u certain improvements in Machinery, to be operated upon
by Steam.”

Dec. 9. To Joseph Chesseborough Dyer, of Manchester, in the county
of Lancaster, patent card manufacturer ; for M certain improve-
ments in machinery for making Wire Cards, for carding Wool,
Cotton, Tow, and other fibrous substances of the like nature ; and
also, certain improvements on a machine for shaving and prepare
ing leather, used in making such Cards.”

14. To Robert eAddams, of Theresa-Terrace, Hammersmith, in the
county of Middlesex, gentleman ; for “ a method of propelling or
moving Carriages, of various sizes, on turnpike, rail, or other
roads.”

To Matthew Ferris, of Longford, in the county of Middlesex,
calico-printer ; for “ improvements on presses, or machinery, for
printing Cotton and other Fabrics.”

To James Ashwell Tabor, of Jewin Street, Cripplegate, London,

380

List of English Patents.

gentleman ; for “ means for indicating the Depth of Water in

1825. Ships and Vessels.”

Dec. 27. To John Maccurdy, Esq. London; for “ certain improvements

1826. in generating Steam.”

Jan. 6. To James Oyston and James Thomas Bell, of London, watch-
makers ; who, in consequence of a communication made to them
by a certain foreigner, residing abroad, are in possession of certain
improvements in the construction or manufacture of Watches of
different descriptions.

7. To Richard Evans, of London ; for “ certain improvements in the
Apparatus for, and process of, Distillation.”

16. To Henry Houldsworth of Manchester, cotton-spinner; for
“ certain improvements in machinery for giving the taking up, or
winding on, motion to spools, or bobbins, and tubes, or other in-
struments, on which the roving, or thread, is wound, in roving,
spinning, and twisting-machines.”

To Benjamin Newmarch, of Cheltenham, Esq. ; for “ an improved
method of Exploding Fire-arms.”

To John Rothwell, of Manchester, tape manufacturer; for “ an
improved Heald, or harness, for Weaving.”

To Henry Anthony Koymans, of London, merchant ; who, in
consequence of certain communications made to him by a certain
foreigner, residing abroad, is in possession of certain improvements
in the construction and use of apparatus and works for Inland
Navigation.

17* To William Whitfield, of Birmingham ; for “ certain improve-
ments in making or manufacturing of handles for saucepans, ket-
tles, and other culinary vessels ; and also, Tea Kettle Handle
Straps, and other articles.”

19. To John Frederick Smith, of Dunstan Hall, Chesterfield, in the
county of Derby, Esq.; for “ an1 improvement in the process of
drawing, roving, spinning, and doubling Wool, Cotton, and other
fibrous substances.”

19. To Benjamin Cook, of Birmingham, brass-founder; for “ certain
improvements in making or constructing Hinges, of various de-
scriptions.”

To Abraham Robert Corent, of Gottenburgh, merchant; at pre-
sent residing in London ; for “ a method of applying steam, with-
out pressure, to pans, boilers, coppers, stills, pipes, and machinery,
in order to produce, transmit, and regulate various Temperatures
in the several processes of boiling, distilling, evaporating, inspis-
sating, drying, and warming, and also to produce power.”

To Sir Robert Seppings, London ; for tc an improved construc-
tion of such masts and bowsprits, as are generally known by the
names of Made Masts, and Made Bowsprits.”

23. To Robert Stephenson, of Bridge Town, Warwickshire, engi-
neer ; for “ his Axletrees, to remedy the extra friction on curves
to waggons, carts, cars, and carriages, used, or to be used, on rail-
roads, railways, and other public roads.”

( 381 )

Art. XXVII. — List of Patents granted in Scotland from
YUh November 1825 to 1 6th February 1826.

1825.

Nov. 23. To Alexander Lamb of Prince’s Street Bank, London, gentle-
man, and William Suttill of Old Brompton, county of Mid-
dlesex, flax-spinner, for “ Improvements in Machinery for pre-
paring, drawing, roving, and spinning Flax, Hemp and Waste
Silk.”

Dec. 14. To John Gotlieb Ulrick of Upper Rosamond Street, Clerken-
well, county of Middlesex, chronometer maker, for “ certain Im-
provements in Chronometers.”

15. To John Mac curdy of Cecil Street, Strand, county of Middlesex,

1826. for certain “ Improvements in generating Steam.”

Jan. 4. To Edmund Luscombe of East Stonehouse, county of Devon,
merchant, for “ a New Method of manufacturing or preparing an
Oil or Oils, extracted from certain vegetable substances, and the
application thereof to Gas Light and other purposes.”

4. To Ezekiel Edmunds of Bradford, county of Wilts, clothier, for
“ certain Improvements on Machines for scribbling and carding
Sheep’s Wool, Cotton, or any fibrous articles requiring such pro-
cess.”

4. To Joseph Chesseborough Dyer of Manchester, county of Lan-
caster, patent card manufacturer, for “ a Method of conducting to
and winding upon Spools or Bobbins, rovings of Cotton, Flax,
Wool, or other fibrous substances, communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad.”

18. To Moses Poole of the Patent Office, Lincoln’s Inn, county of
Middlesex, gentleman, for u the Preparation of certain sub-
stances for making Candles, including a Wick peculiarly con-
structed for that purpose, communicated by a foreigner residing

1826. abroad.”

Jan. 18. To John Harvey Saddler, late of Hoston, county of Middlesex,
now of Broadwall, county of Surrey, mechanist, for “ an Im-
proved Power-Loom for the weaving of Silk, Cotton, Linen,
Wool, Flax and Hemp, and all mixtures thereof.”

18. To John Stephen Langton ofLangton, near Partney, county of
Lincoln, Esq. for “ Methods of seasoning Timber.”

30. To James Blyth Waynman of Brunswick Place, City Road,
county of Middlesex, gentleman, for “ Improvements in the
manufacture of Hat-bodies, communicated by a foreigner re-
siding abroad.”

Feb. 1. To Thomas Cook of Upper Sussex Place, Kent Road, county of
Surrey, Lieutenant in the Navy, for “ Improvements in the con-
struction of Carriages, and other Harness to be used therewith,
whereby greater safety to the persons riding in such carriages,
and other advantages, will be obtained.”

VOL. XIV. NO. 28. APRIL 1826. B h

382 List of Scottish Patents.

Feb. 1. To Thomas Woolrich Stansfeld, merchant, and William
Prichard, civil-engineer, both of Leeds, county of York, for
“ Improvements in Looms, and in the implements connected
therewith,”

1. To Goldsworthy Gurney of Argyll Street, Hanover Square,

county of Middlesex, surgeon, for 44 an Apparatus for propelling
Carriages on common roads or on railways.”

2. To James Brown, paper-maker at Eskmills, parish of Penycuik,

county of Edinburgh, for 44 a new Method of bleaching the pulp
for making Paper.”

10. To Charles Freund of Bell Lane, Spittalfields, county of Mid-

dlesex, sugar-refiner, for 44 an Improvement or Improvements in
the process of refining Sugar.”

11. To Joel Lean of Fish-pond House, near Bristol, gentleman, for

44 a Machine for effecting an alternating motion between bodies
revolving about a common centre or axis of motion ; also certain
additional machinery or apparatus for applying the same to me-
chanical purposes.”

11. To Josias Christopher Gamble of Liffybank, county of Dublin,
chemist, for 44 certain Apparatus for the concentrating and cry-
stallization of aluminous and other saline and crystallizable solu-
tions, part of which apparatus may be applied to the general pur-
poses of evaporation, distillation, inspissation and desiccation, and
especially to the generation of Steam.”

16. To Nicolas Hegesippe Manicler, of No. 102. Great Guildford
Street, Southwark, county of Surrey, chemist, for 44 a new Pre-
paration of fatty substances, and the application thereof to the
purposes of affording light.”

LIST OF PLATES IN VOL. XIV.

Plate I. Illustrative of Professor Barlow’s paper on Achromatic Ob-
ject-glasses.

II. Mr Tredgold’s improvement of the Hydro-mechanical Press.

III. Captain Campbell’s Chart of the Island of Ascension.

IV. Captain Hall’s Sketch of a Suspension Bridge in Chili.

V. Structure of the Ear in the Shark tribe *.

VI. Crystallizations of Euclase, &c.

VII. Geometrical projection of the Solar Eclipse of November 1826
for Edinburgh.

VIII. Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea.

IX. Illustrative of condensation of Humidity, &c. and Mr Nim-
mo’s Rotatory Gas-burner.

* Plate V. not having come from the hands of the engraver in time, will be
given afterwards.

( 383 )

INDEX.

Achromatic object-glasses. Professor Barlow’s remarks on the practi-
cal construction of, 1, 311.

Acoustics, notices in, 167*

Adamson, Rev. James, his sketch of the extent of our information re-
specting rail-roads, 100.

Alexandria, notice respecting its commerce, 377-

Althcea rosea, blue and green colours derived from, 376.

Anaplotherium commune discovered in the Isle of Wight, 190.

Anthropology, notices in, 191.

Arts, notices in the, 195, 370.

Ascension, Island of. Captain Campbell’s remarks on its geognosy, 47*

Astronomy, notices in, 166, 355.

Atlas, Edinburgh, Geographical and Historical, notices regarding it,
169, 359.

Atomic system, notice respecting Dr Turner’s view of the, 172.

Attraction , local, effects of, 356.

Baltic Sea, remarks on the constancy of its level, 77-

Barlow, Professor, his remarks on the practical construction of achro-
matic object-glasses, 1, 311.

Barometer, M. de Humboldt’s observations for determining the pro-
gress of its horary variations under the tropics, 328.

* results of Mr Daniel’s observations regarding it, 357-

Benzoic acid in grasses, 170.

Berthier, M. P., his account of the phosphate of lime of the coal for-
mation, 326.

Blackadder, Henry Home, Esq. his remarks on circumstances con-
nected with the condensation of atmospheric humidity on solid
substances, 81, 240.

Boletus igniarius, capable of uniting after having been cut, 369.

Bones, Mr Delpon’s account of those of various animals discovered at
Breingues in the Department du Lot, 300.

— exhibiting marks of gnawing, found in a cave near Torquay,

363.

Boracic acid. Dr Turner on its detection in mineralogy by the blow-
pipe, 124.

Boring-hits, improved by hammering, 37 5.

Botany, notices in, 178.

Bramah’s hydro-mechanical press, Mr Tredgold’s description of an
improvement upon it, 29.

Brazil, account of poisonous plants growing in the southern parts of,
264.

Bricklayer s trowel, improved by hammering, 375.

384 INDEX,

Bridge of Suspension, Captain Hall’s account of one made of hide
ropes in Chili,, 52.

Brinkley, Rev. Dr, his catalogue of forty-six stars in right ascension,
deduced from observations made at Dublin, 50.

Bronchocele, remarks on its causes, 191.

Buchanan, Thomas, Esq. his sketches of the comparative anatomy of
the organs of hearing and vision, 71- — of the ear of the shark, 71*

Buildings, composition for covering, 196.

Caloric, Mr Murray’s remarks on its unequal distribution in voltaic
action, 57*

Campbell, Captain, his chart of the Island of Ascension, and remarks
on its geology, 47-

Celestial Phenomena, calculated for the meridian of Edinburgh, from
January 1. to April 1. 1826, 156. — from April 1. to July 1. 1826,
351.

Chara aspera discovered in Orkney, 182.

Chemistry , notices in, 169.

Christie, S. H., Esq., his remarks on the effects of temperature on
the intensity of magnetic forces, 140.

Coal-mines, account of the principal ones in France, 252.

Coldstream, Mr, his meteorological observations made at Leith during
September, October, and November, 151. — during December,
January, and February, 346.

Comet of July 1825, Professor Gautier’s observations on it, 304.

Comets, notice regarding four, 166.

Commerce, notices in, 377-

Comparative anatomy of the organs of hearing and vision, Mr
Buchanan’s sketches of the, 71*

Compression of air and gases, experiments on the, 357-

Condensation of atmospheric humidity, Mr H. H. Blackadder’s re-
marks on the, 81, 240.

Copal, spiritous solution of, 195.

Copper, metallic, formed by the action of water and fire, 171*

■ quantity of it produced in Great Britain and Ireland, 201.

Corallina officinalis, appearance seen on its surface, 183.

Crystallization, effect of position on, 171*

Cutting instruments, their qualities improved by burnishing their
edges, 372.

Davy, Dr John, his observations on the temperature of man and other
animals, 38.

Deluge, Geological, Rev. Dr. Fleming’s observations on the, 206.

Delpon, M. his account of bones discovered at Breingues, 300.

Density of the air, effects of a change of it upon the going of a clock,
356.

Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea, notice of the rocks com-
posing its mountains, 239.

Didelphis, fossil, of Stonesfield, remarks upon its position, 303.

Diving-bell , improvements on the, 199.

Double star 61 Cygni, notice regarding it, 355.

Drills improved by hammering in the cold, 375-

INDEX,

385

Eclipse of November 1826, calculation of, 158.

Egypt, notice regarding its vineyards, 322.

Euclase , Mr Levy’s description of, 129.

Falling stars, notice regarding, 173.

Fire, mode of securing wooden buildings from the effects of, 200.

Fishes, marine, remarks on their distribution, 366.

Fleming, Rev. Dr John, his remarks on the Deluge, 206.

Foggo, Mr, his meteorological observations made at Leith, 151, 346.

— — Mr, jun., his remarks on Mr Daniell’s hypothesis of the ra-

diation of heat in the atmosphere, 63.

Fossil didelphis of Stonesfield, 303.

megalosaurus of Stonesfield, 303.

zoology, notices in, 190.

France, account of its principal coal mines, 252.

Franklin, Captain, his observations for determining the magnetic va-
riation, made at Spitzbergen, 56.

Frozen sea, notice of an expedition to its shores, 168.

Gas burner, Mr J. Nimmo’s account of one, 325.

Gautier, Professor, his observations on the comet of July 1825, 304.

Geography, notices in, 168, 359.

Geology, notices in, 175, 363.

Glass, method of using pure muriate and sulphate of soda in its ma-
nufacture, 371.

Mr Griffiths’s experiments on the action of water upon, 331 .

Graham, Professor, his list of rare plants flowering in the Edinburgh
Botanic garden, in September, October and November, 150 ; in
December, January and February, 353.

Granite and marble, their comparative durability, 177-

Grant, Dr R. E., his observations and experiments on the structure
and functions of the sponge, 113, 336. — his account of Spongilla
friabilis, 270.

Graphite, notice respecting, 174.

Gravers, Mr Turrel’s method of rendering them capable of cutting
steel plates, 196.

Greenland, West, notice regarding the European colony formerly set-
tled on the east coast of, 168.

Hall, Captain Basil, his account of a bridge of hide ropes in Chili, 52,

Herschelite, notice regarding, 174.

Humboldt, his observations for determining the progress of the horary
variations of the barometer under the tropics, 328.

Hydrates of sulphur, remarks on supposed, 172.

Hydrography, notices in, 173.

Iceland, notice respecting its extent and population, 360.

Innes, Mr George, his calculations of celestial phenomena for the me-
ridian of Edinburgh, from January 1. to April 1. 1826, 156. — -
from April 1. to July 1. 1826, 352.

Insects, Dr Traill’s remarks on the preservation of zoological speci-
mens from the depredations of, 135.

Iodine found in combination with silver, 173.

336 INDEX.

Iron , the cause of the red colour of the blood, 194.

Lake , remarkable appearance of one after a storm, 173.

Morat, account of a reddish substance observed on its surface,

189.

Land and water, notice respecting their distribution on the globe, 360.
Leather, account of a strong kind of it for harness, 195.

Lecheguana wasp, M. de St Hilaire’s account of a case of poisoning
caused by its honey, 91.

Ledum palustre and Papaver nudicaule discovered in Ireland, 181.
Level of the sea, remarks on its constancy, with particular reference
to the Baltic, 77*

Levy, A. Esq. his description of Euclase, 129.

M. Esq. his account of the modes of notation of Weiss, Mohs

and Haiiy, 132, 258.

Light evolved during crystallization, 169.

emitted during the friction of crystals, 170.

— notice regarding its magnetizing power, 357-

Lithia in spring water, 172.

Luminous appearance in mines, 178.

Magnetic variation. Captain Franklin’s observations at Spitzbergen
for determining it, 56.

variations, table of. 111.

Mahogany, mode of imitating, 200.

Marble and granite, their comparative durability, 177*

Megalosaurus of Stonesfield, 303.

Melaina, account of it, 376.

Meleda, notice regarding explosions heard at, 175.

Meteor, account of a luminous, 359.

Meteoric stone, notice of one which fell in Maryland, 173.
Meteorological observations made at Leith, for September, October,
November, 151. — for December, January and February, 346.

journal kept at Leith, annual results of one, 350.

from one, 358.

Meteorology, notices in, 173, 357*

Mineralogy , notices in, 1 73, 360.

- — Professor Mohs’s general reflections on various important

subjects in, 18, 284.

Mines, rhizomorphous plants growing in, 178.

Mohs, Professor, his reflections on various important subjects in mi-
neralogy, 18, 284.

Murray, John, Esq. his remarks on the unequal distribution of calo-
ric in voltaic action, 57* — on the temperature of the skin in the
dormouse, 57* — on the temperature of the egg of the hen, 57- —
on the cultivation of the silk Worm, 198.

Natural philosophy, notices in, 357-

Nerves, canals said to exist in their filaments, 194.

Nicol, William, Esq. his account of the occurrence of zircon in the
island of Scalpay, 138.

INDEX.

387

Nimmo, Mr James, his account of a new rotatory gas-burner, 325.
Northern expedition, statement of magnetical and other experiments
made during the recent, 341.

institution of Inverness, notice of its proceedings, 165.

Notation, Mr Levy’s account of Weiss, Mohs, and Hauy’s modes of,
132, 258.

Palestine, notice respecting its geognosy, 177*

Palms, Professor Schouw’s account of their geographical distribu-
tion, 34.

Paper made from marine plants, 195.

— for removing rust from iron and steel, 198.

Parry, Captain, notice regarding his last voyage, 168.

statement of magnetical, and other experiments,

made during his last expedition, 341.

Patents sealed in England, from 6th October to 17th November 1825,
201. — from 17th November 1825, to 23d January 1826, 378.

granted in Scotland, from 5th September to 17th November

1825, 203. — from 17th November 1825, to 16th February 1826,
381.

Panto-chronometer, notice respecting it, 377-
Pecten niveus, distinguished from P. islandicus, 186.

Pearls, Mr Grey’s remarks on the Chinese method of forming artifi-
cial, 199.

Petrified fishes found near Thurso, and in South Ronaldshay, 191.
Phillipsite, notices respecting it, 174.

Phosphate of lime discovered in the coal formation, 326.

Physiology , notices in, 194.

Plants, rhizomorphous ones found in mines, 178.

flowering in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, 150, 353.

— — — — rare ones observed in Scotland by Dr Graham and Mr Home,

!79.

— four rare species of, observed in Perthshire, by Mr Bishop,

180.

Platina found in Russia, 173.

— — strings for musical instruments, 200.

Pleonaste, remarkably large crystals of it discovered in America, 175.
Poisoning, account of a case of it produced by the honey of a Brazi-
lian species of wasp, 91.

Poisonous plants of the southern parts of Brazil, 264.

Population of Great Britain, 378.

Prussian universities, number of students in them, 194.

Quills, new method of preparing, 376.

Radiation of heat in the atmosphere, Mr Foggo junior’s remarks on
Mr Daniell’s hypothesis of the, 63.

Rail-roads, Rev. James Adamson’s remarks regarding them, 100.
Rocks, account of those which compose the mountains of the desert
between the Nile and the Red Sea, 239.

Rosa, number of species of, 368.

Rose, original habitats of the, 368.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, notice of its proceedings, 163.

388

INDEX,

Schouw, Professor, his account of the geographical distribution of
palms, 34.

Scottish plants, account of rare ones observed in 1825, 179.

Scythes improved by hammering in the cold, 374.

Serpents of Southern Africa, 365.

Serpent-eater, account of its habits, 365.

Silk-worm, Mr Murray on its cultivation, 198.

Sound, table of results of experiments on its velocity, 167.

Sphinx atropos, its larvae found in several places in Scotland, 182.

Sponge, Dr Grant’s observations and experiments on its structure and
functions, 113, 336.

Spongilla friabilis, Dr Grant’s account of its structure and nature,
113. — his remarks on its spicula, 183.

Statistics, notices in, 378.

Stars, Dr Brinkley’s catalogue of 46 principal ones in right ascen-
sion, 50.

Steam navigation, its extent, 370.

Steinheilite, new analysis of, 362.

Steatite, its distribution and uses, 362.

Stone for building, excellent, near Elgin, 198.

Sulphiir in vegetables, 172.

Tabular spar of Pargas, analysis of the, 361.

Temperature of the egg of the hen, 57-

• of man and other animals. Dr Davy’s observations on the

38.

— of the dormouse, 57-

Mr Christie’s remarks on its effects upon the intensity

of magnetic forces, 140.

Traill, Dr T. S., his remarks on the preservation of zoological speci-
mens from insects, 135.

Tredgold, John, Esq. his description of an improvement in Bramah’s
hydro-mechanical press, 29.

Tritonia arborescens, sounds produced by it under water, 185.

Torquay, Mr Buckland’s account of bones found in a cave near, 363.

Turner, Dr Edwards, on the detection of boracic acid in minerals,
by the blowpipe, 124.

Unicorn, account of an alleged one found in India, 188.

Vaccinium macrocarpum, notice regarding its cultivation, 369.

Vesuvian of Egg, notice regarding it, 360.

Vineyards of Egypt, 322.

Volcanoes, notice regarding Scrope on, 177*

Wernerian Natural History Society, notice of its proceedings, 164,
354.

Zircon discovered in the Island of Scalpay, 138. ^
Zoology, notices in, 182, 365. tf f ||| J ^

4 w

P. Neill, Printer.

End of Vol XIV.

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